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POPULAR HISTORY 
 
 United States of America, 
 
 THE ABORIGINAL TIMES 
 
 THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF THE ABORIGINES; THE NORSEMEN IN THE NEW WORLD; THE 
 DISCOVERIES BY THE SPANIARDS, ENGLISH, AND FRENCH ; THE PLANT- 
 ING OF SETTLEMENTS; THE GROWTH OF THE COLONIES; THE 
 STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN THE REVOLUTION; THE ESTAB- 
 LISHMENT OF THE UNION ; THE DEVELOPMENT 
 OF THE NATION ; THE CIVIL WAR ; AND 
 THE CENTENNIAL OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN CLARK I?IDPATH, A. M., LL. D., 
 
 Professor of History in IndiaKa Asbury University; Avthor of Ridpath's School Histories 
 of the United States; Ridpath's Inductive Grammar; etc., etc. 
 
 'gWuBimizis biih Paps, Charts, fDrtraits, anb giagrams. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 PHILLIPS & HUNT. 
 
 1882. 
 
Ens 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Dear People of the United States: — 
 
 By this, my Preface, I oifer to you a New History of your coun- 
 try — aud mine. The work is presented in the form of an abridged 
 narrative. My reasons for such a venture are brief, but, I trust, sat- 
 isfactory : 
 
 First, to every American citizen some knowledge of the history of 
 his country is indispensable. The attainment of that knowledge ought 
 to be made easy and delightful. 
 
 Second, the Centennial of the Republic furnishes an auspicious oc- 
 casion for the study of those great events which compose the warp 
 and woof of the new civilization in the West. 
 
 This book is intended for the average American ; for the man 
 of business who has neither time nor disposition to plod through ten 
 or twenty volumes of elaborate historical dissertation; for the prac- 
 tical man of the shop, the counter, and the plow. The work is 
 dedicated to the household and the library of the poor. It is in- 
 scribed to the father, the mother, the son, and the daughter of the 
 American family. If father, mother, son, and daughter shall love 
 their country better — if they shall understand more clearly and ap- 
 preciate more fully the founding, progress, and growth of liberty in 
 
 the New World — the author will be abundantly repaid. 
 
 (iii) 
 
vi CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 A. ». 986—1607. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ICKLAia)ERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. 
 
 Herjiilfson is driven by a storm to the American coast. — Lief Erickson discovers 
 America. — Thorwald and Thorstein Erickson make voyages. — Thorfinn Karlsefne ex- 
 plores the shores of Maine and Massachusetts. — Other voyages are made by tlie Norse- 
 men. — The name of Vinland. — Character of the sea-kings. — Voyages in the following 
 centuries. — No practical results from the Icelandic discoveries. — Their authenticity. — 
 Note 51-54. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SPANISH DISCOVERIES. 
 
 Spain makes the New World known to Europe. — Old ideas about the figure of the 
 earth. — Columbus. — Sketch of his life. — The favor of Isabella. — Columbus departs on 
 his first voyage. — Discovers San Salvador, Cuba, and Hayti. — Second voyage of Co- 
 lumbus. — Third. — He discovers South America. — Fourth voyage. — Columbus's misfort- 
 , unes and death. — Wrong done to his memory. — Vespucci makes two voyages to South 
 America. — Excitement in Europe on account of discoveries. — Colony planted on the 
 Lsthmus. — Balboa discovers the Pacific. — Ponce de Leon makes explorations in Flor- 
 ida. — Is killed in a fight with the Indians .54-58. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SPANISH DISCOVERIES — CONTINUED. 
 
 Cordova discovers Yucatan. — Grijalvaexplores Mexico. — Cortez lands at Tabasco. — 
 Terror pervades the country. — The natives are beaten back. — Cortez proceeds to Vera 
 Cruz. — Montezuma sends embassies and presents. — The Spaniards march towards the 
 capital. — And are forbidden to approach. — The Mexican tribes revolt. — Cortez reabhes 
 the city. — And enters. — His critical situation. — He seizes Montezuma. — Who acknowl- 
 edges the king of Spain. — The governor of Cuba sends forces against Cortez. — He over- 
 powers them. — Returns to the capital. — The struggle for possession of the city. — -Mon- 
 tezuma is wounded. — And dies. — The Spaniards are victorious. — Mexico becomes a 
 Spanish province. — Magellan sails around South America. — Crosses the Pacific. — Is 
 killed at the Philippines. — His crew reach the East Indies. — Double the Cape of 
 Good Hope. — Return to Europe. — De Narvaez is appointed governor of Florida. — Ex- 
 plores the country around the Gulf. — The company embark in boats, and are wrecked. — 
 Four men reach San Miguel. — De Soto .sets out on an expedition to explore and con- 
 quer Florida. — Arrives at Tampa Bay. — Marches into the interior. — Spends the winter 
 on Flint River. — The company march into South Carolina. — Cross into Georgia. — Capt- 
 ure Manville. — Spend the next winter on the Yazoo. — Discover the Mississippi. — Ex- 
 plore Arkansas and return to the Mississippi. — De Soto dies. — His men again march 
 westward to the mountains. — Return to the mouth of Red River. — Build boats and 
 descend the Mississippi. — Reach the Spanish settlements in Mexico. — Melendez comea 
 
CONTENTS. vii 
 
 to Florida, and founds St. Augustine.— Murders the Huguenots on the St. John's.— 
 Massacres the crews of the French vessels. — Extent of the Spanish explorations. — The 
 Portuguese voyage of Gaspar Cortereal. — He sells a cargo of Indian slaves in Portu- 
 gal. . . " 61-69. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. 
 
 First acquaintance of the French with America. — Verrazzani is sent out to make ex- 
 plorations. — Arrives on the coast of North Carolina. — Explores the shores of the country 
 as far north as Newfoundland.— Cartier is sent on a voyage to America.— Beaches 
 Newfoundland and enters the Gulf and Eiver of St. Lawrence. — Returns to Europe. — 
 Sails on a .second expedition. — Ascends the St. Lawrence to Montreal. — His crew are 
 attacked with scurvy. — He passes the winter near the site of Quebec. — And returns to 
 France.— Roberval undertakes to colonize the country. — Cartier joined to the under- 
 taking. — Prisons of France are opened to furnish emigrants. — Expedition reaches the 
 St. Lawrence. — The leaders quarrel, and Cartier goes back to France. — The whole 
 colony returns. — Roberval sails with another fleet. — And is lost at sea. — Ribault con- 
 ducts a b.and of Huguenots to Port Royal. — Builds Fort Carolina. — The settlement is 
 abandoned. — The enterprise renewed by Laudonniere. — A Huguenot colony estab- 
 lished on the St. John's River. — But destroyed by Melendez. — De Gourges takes venge- 
 ance on the Spaniards. — La Roche is commissioned to plant colonies in America. — 
 French prisons again opened. — A settlement is made on Sable Lsland. — The company 
 rescued and carried to France. — De Monts made viceroy of New France. — Departs with 
 a colony. — Reaches the Bay of Fundy. — Port Royal founded by Poutrincourt, and the 
 St. Croix settlement by De Monts. — The country named Acadia. — Champlain receives 
 a commission. — Sails with a colony to the St. Lawrence. — Goes against the Iroquois. — • 
 Returns and founds Quebec • 70-76. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 Henry VII. commissions John Cabot. — Who discovers North America. — Is re- 
 commissioned. — Sebastian takes charge of the expedition. — E.xplores the American 
 coast from Labrador to Cape Hatteras. — Leaves England to become pilot of vSpain. — 
 The notable year 149S. — Causes which impeded English discovery. — Maritime enter- 
 prise revives under Elizabeth. — Frobi.sher sails to America and discovers Meta Incog- 
 nita. — Takes spurious ore to London. — A new voyage is planned. — Frobisher conducts 
 a fleet to Meta Incognita. — The expedition proves a failure. — Sir Francis Drake cap- 
 tures Spanish merchantmen. — Goes to the Pacific coast. — Attempts the discovery of a 
 north-west passage. — Gilbert forms a plan of colonization. — Is assisted by Raleigh. — 
 Conducts a fleet to Newfoundland.- -The crews find spurious miner.als. — The voyage is 
 continued to Massachusetts. — (jilbert loses his best ship and a hundred men. — Starts 
 home, and is lost at sea — Raleigh .sends Amidas and Barlow with a colony. — They 
 reach Roanoke Island and begin a settlement. — The place is abandoned. — Raleigh 
 sends a second colony under Lane. — Tiie colonists reach Roanoke and begin to build. — 
 Difficulties arise with the Indians. — The settlement is broken up. — The colony taken 
 home by Drake. — A new charter granted by Raleigh, and White chosen governor. — 
 The new emigrants arrive at Roanoke. — The foundations of a town laid on the Island. — 
 Troubles with the Indians. — Manteo is made a peer. — White returns to England. — Birth 
 of Virginia Dare. — The fate of the colony never a.scertained. — Condition of affiiirs in 
 England. — White returns, and finds Roanoke deserted. — Raleigh assigns his patent to 
 
^jii CONTENTS. 
 
 Lonilon merchants.— Gosnold makes a voyage directly across the Atlantic. — Attempts 
 to form a settlement on Elizabeth Island. — The place is abandoned. — Gosnold trades 
 with the natives. — The crew demand to return. — Flattering accounts are given of the 
 countrv. — An expedition is sent out under Pring. — He explores a part of the New 
 England coast, and returns to Bristol. — Waymouth sails on a voyage. — Trades with 
 the Indians of Maine.— Returns lo England 76-85. 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. — CONTINTJED. 
 
 King James issues patents to the London and Plymouth Companies. — The London 
 Company to plant colonies between the 34th and the 38th parallels. — The Plymouth Com- 
 pany to make settlements from the 41st to the 45th degree. — Gosnold, Smith, Hakluyt 
 and Wingfield lead the aflairs of the Southern Company. — No democratic principles 
 are recognized in the charter. — A ship is sent out by the Plymouth Company. — A 
 second ves.sel is dispatched to America. — A settlement is attempted at the mouth of the 
 Kennebec. — Is abandoned in the summer of 1(308. — A fleet with a colony is sent out by 
 the London Company. — Newport commands. — They arrive in the Chesapeake. — Enter 
 James Kiver. — Make a landing and lay the foundations of Jamestown. — Tlie affairs of 
 the Plymouth Company are revived by Smith. — He explores and maps tlie coast of 
 Maine and Massachusetts. — Several attempts are made to form a colony in New Eng- 
 land. — The Plymouth Company is superseded by the Council of Plymouth. — A new 
 plan of colonization is made, and Sniitli appointed admiral. — The Puritans arise in the 
 North of England. — They remove to Amsterdam and Leyden. — Determine to remove to 
 America. — Ask permission of the king and the Council of Plymouth. — Meet with dis- 
 couragements. — Procure two vessels at their own expense. — Sail from Leyden, and after- 
 ward from Southampton. — The Speedwell is found unfit for the voyage, and the Pilgrims 
 depart in the Mayflower. — The Pilgrims have a stormy voyage. — Come in sight of Cape 
 Cod. — They make a frame of government. — Carver is elected governor. — The landing 
 is delayed by bad weather. — The ship is driven by storms. — Enters Plymoutli harbor.— 
 The Puritans go ashore on the 11th of December. — Begin to build. — Are attacked with 
 diseases. — Many of the colony die. — An early spring brings them relief. . 85-91. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. 
 
 Dutch settlements in America result from the voyages of Hudson. — He is employed 
 by London merchants to reach the Indies. — Sails into the North Atlantic. — Fails in his 
 effort. — Is sent on a second voyage. — And fails. — Goes into the service of the Dutch East 
 India Company. — Sails on a third voyage. — Is driven back by the icebergs. — Turns to 
 America. — Reaches Newfoundland. — Sails southward to the Chesapeake. — Tlien north- 
 ward to New York harbor. — Discovers the Hudson River. — Explores that stream as far 
 as Alliany. — Returns to Dartmouth. — Is detained liy tlie English government. — Is sent on 
 a fourth expedition. — Discovers Hudson Strait and Bay. — Is overtaken by winter. — The 
 crew mutiny. — Hudson is cast off among the icebergs. — Dutch vessels begin to trade at 
 the mouth of the Hudson. — The states-general grant a right to trade. — .-V settlement is 
 made on Manhattan Island. — Block explores Long Island Sound. — Christianson builds 
 Fort Nassau. — May explores the coast of New Jersey. — Holland claims the country 
 from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod • . 92-94 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 PART III. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY. 
 
 A. ». 1607—1775. 
 
 PARENT COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 VIRGINIA. — THE FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 The progress of Virginia is hindered. — First settlers are of bad character. — Necessity 
 drives them to labor. — The king gives sealed instructions. — Smith is arrested. — And ex- 
 cluded from the council. — He and Newport explore the James. — Keturn to Jamestown. 
 —Newport goes to England. — Tlie colonists are discouraged. — Disease rav.ages the settle- 
 ment. — Gosnold dies. — Wingfield embezzles the funds. — And is removed from office.— 
 Katcliffe succeeds. — And is also impeached. — Smith talces control of the colony. — Sketch 
 of his life. — The settlement flourislies under his care. — He exidores the country, and jiro- 
 cures supplies. — The Indians furnish provisions. — Smith explores the Chickaliominy.— 
 Is captured by the Indians. — Saves his life by stratagem. — Is carried to Orapax. — Thence 
 to Pamunkey. — Is condemned to death. — And saved by Pocahontas. — He remains in 
 Powhatan's houseliold. — Is liberated. — Returns to Jamestown. — Terrifies the savages.— 
 Deplorable condition of the settlement. — Plot to abandon the place. — Newport arrives 
 with new immigrants. — Who are as bad as the others. — The gold-hunters go abroad. — 
 And find mica in the sand of James River. — A ship is loaded with dirt and sent to Eng- 
 land. — The planting season goes by. — Smith makes bis great exploration of the Chesa- 
 peake. — And maps the country. — Returns. — Is elected president. — Newport arrives with 
 more immigrants and supplies. — Progress of the colony 95-104. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 VIRGINIA. — THE SECOND CHARTER. 
 
 King James grants a new charter. — Changes are made in the form of government. — A 
 new council is organized. — Delaware is chosen governor. — The other officers. — A fleet 
 with five liundred emigrants sails for America. — Encounters a storm. — Two vessels are 
 wrecked. — Seven ships reach Jamestown. — The commissioners are left on the Bermuda 
 Islands. — Smith retains the presidency. — New settlements are projected. — Smith is 
 wounded. — Delegates his authority to Percy. — Returns to England. — Colony suffers after 
 his departure. — The starving time. — Gates and his companions reach Virginia. — The 
 settlement is abandoned. — Delaware meets the colony. — And persuades them to return. — 
 Prosperity begins. — But Delaware falls sick. — .\nd returns to England. — Percy is deputy. 
 — Dale arrives as governor. — Brings immigrants. — Writes for supplies and new colo- 
 nists. — Who arrive. — The colony improves. — Gates is made governor. — The right of 
 private property is recognized. — And the settlements enlarged. . . . 104-107 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 VIRGINIA. — THE THIRD CHARTER. 
 
 The London Company receive a third patent. — The colony had proved unprofitable. 
 — Ar^ali kidnaps Pocahontas. — Who is married to Kolfe. — Tiiey visit England. — And 
 leave descendants in Virginia. — Argall destroys the French settlements in Acadia.^ 
 And reduces the Dutch colony of Manhattan. — Dale becomes governor of Virginia. — 
 Tobacco is the staple of Jamestown. — And is used for money. — Argall is chosen gov- 
 ernor. — Delaware sails for America. — And dies. — Yeardley supersedes Argall. — Abolishes 
 martial law. — Establishes the House of Burge.^ses. — Slavery is introduced. — Society is 
 low. — Women are sent over. — And married to the colonists. — A constitution is granted. 
 — Wyatt becomes governor. — Settlements spread abroad. — The Indians become jealous. 
 — And ma-ssacre the people. — But are defeated. — The company is opposed by the king. — 
 A commission is appointed. — AVho report against the company. — And its charter is re- 
 voked. — But liberty is planted in Virginia 108-113 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ^^RGINIA. — THE ROYAL, GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Koyal government is established. — But the administration is unchanged. — Charles I. 
 becomes king. — Recognizes the Virginia Assembly. — Yeardley is re-elected governor.— 
 Dies. — West is chosen by the council. — Harvey arrives from England. — Land-grants xex 
 the people. — Harvey is impeached. — But is sustained by the king. — Wyatt succeeds. — 
 English Revolution breaks out. — King Charles is beheaded. — Monarchy is abolished. — 
 Cromwell becomes Protector. — Virginia inclines to royalty. — Berkeley becomes gov- 
 ernor. — The Puritans are persecuted. — An Indian war arises. — The savages are beaten. 
 — Virginia refuses to acknowledge Parliament. — Cromwell restricts her commerce. — 
 Sends a fleet to-America. — And the Virginians submit.— Favorable terms are granted 
 — Peace continues during the commonwealth. — The Burgesses elect three governors.— 
 Berkeley is thus chosen. — Accepts. — But at the Restoration renounces his acceptance. 
 — And issues writs in the king's name. — Tyranny follows. — Commerce is restricted. — 
 The Virginians complain. — In vain. — Ch.nrles II. gives away Virginia lands. — And 
 finally the whole State to Arlington and Culpepper.— The Qu.ikers and the Baptists are 
 persecuted. — Taxes are odious.— The people rebel.— An Indian war is the excuse. — 
 And Berkeley's tyranny the cause. — Bacon heads the insurrection. — The Indians are 
 punished. — Berkeley abdicates. — Returns. — Captures Jamestown. — Bacon takes the 
 place, and burns it. — Dies. — The patriots are dispersed. — And the leaders hanged. — 
 A worse despotism is established.— Culpepper becomes governor. — Treats Virginia as 
 an estate. — Arlington surrenders his claim. — The king recalls the grant. — And Vir- 
 ginia becomes a royal province. — Howard and Nicholson administer the government. — 
 William and Mary College founded. — Andros becomes governor.— Future history of Vir- 
 ginia. .... 114-123 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. — SETTLEMENT. 
 
 The Pilgrims are saved by the coming of spring. — Health is restored. — Miles Stan- 
 dish is sent out to reconnoitre. — Samoset and-Squanto come to Plymouth. — A treaty is 
 made with Massasoit. — Other tribes acknowledge the sovereignty of England. — Canon- 
 icus is overawed. — An unfruitful summer. — Immigrants arive. — Are quartered on the 
 colonv. — The Pilgrims are destitute. — The new-comers found Weymouth. — The Indi- 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 aiis plan a massacre. — And are punished by Standish. — Weymoutli is abandoned. — A 
 plentiful harvest. — Kobinson remains at Leyden. — The colonial enterprise proves un- 
 profitable. — The managers sell out to the colonists. — The Established Church is fa- 
 vored. — Salem is founded. — The Company of Massachusetts Bay is chartered by the 
 king and the council. — Boston is founded. — The government is transferred to America. 
 — A large immigration in 1630. — Winthrop is governor. — Cambridge is founded. — 
 ■Watertown. — Roxbury. — Dorchester. — The colony suffers greatly. — Suffrage is restricted. 
 — Williams protests. — .\nd is banished. — Goes among the Indians. — Is kindly received. 
 — Tarries at Seekonk. — Removes. — And founds Providence. — A representative govern- 
 ment is established. — The ballot-box is introduced. — Three thousand immigrants ar- 
 rive. — Vane and Peters are the leaders. — Concord is founded. — Colonies remove to the 
 Connecticut. — Religious controversies. — Mrs. Hutchinson is banished. — She and her 
 friends establish a republic on Rhode Island. — Harvard College is founded at Cam- 
 bridge. — A printing-press is set up. — Eliot, Welde, and Mather translate the Psalms. — 
 Liberty flourishes in Massachusetts. — Emigration is hindered by England. 123-133. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MASSACHDSETTS. — THE UNION. 
 
 Progress of New England. — Circumstances favor a union of the colonies. — Massa- 
 chusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven are ccmfederated. — No other colonies 
 are admitted. — A Body of Liberties is formed. — The two legislative branches are sepa- 
 rated. — The English Revolution is favorable to New England. — Vane and others de- 
 fend the rights of the colonies. — The Parliament demands the charter of Massachusetts. 
 — Which is refused. — Cromwell the friend of Massachusetts. — Maine is annexed. — 
 Early settlements in Maine. — The Quakers arrive at Boston. — Are persecuted and ban- 
 ished. — The death-penalty is passed against them. — Four persons are executed. — Reac- 
 tion against the law. — .\nd the law is abolished. — News of the Restoration reaches 
 Boston. — Whalley and Gofle arrive. — And escape to Connecticut. — Vane and Peters are 
 executed. — The Navigation kci is passed. — Its bearing on the commerce of New Eng- 
 land. — War between England and Holland. — Charles II. attempts to subvert the colo- 
 nial charters. — Commissioners are sent to Massachusetts. — Are met with resistance. — 
 And defeated in tlieir objects. — The colony prospers. .... 133-139. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. — KING PHIMP's WAK. 
 
 Philip becomes king of the Wampanoags. — Causes of jealousy and war. — Alexan- 
 der's imprisonment. — Outrages are committed. — The war begins. — Swanzey is attacked. 
 — Philip is pursued to Mount Hope. — Escapes to Tiverton. — Is driven from the Narra- 
 gansett country. — Goes to the Nipmucks. — A general war ensues. — The Narragansetts 
 are obliged to remain neutral. — English ambassadors are massacred at Brookfield. — The 
 town is attacked. — Rescued. — Abandoned. — Burned. — Deerfield is partly destroyed. — 
 Lathrop attempts to bring off the harvests. — Is ambushed at Bloody Brook. — The battle. 
 — Hadley is attacked. — Rescued by Goffe. — Springfield is assaulted. — And destroyed. 
 — Hadley is burned. — The savages are defeated at Hatfield. — Philip repairs to the Nar- 
 ragansetts. — The English declare war. — And invade the country. — Philip and his forces 
 take refuge in a swamp, — Are surrounded. — Attacked. — And utterly routed. — Ruin of 
 the Narragansett nation. — The war continues on the frontiers. — Towns and villages are 
 destroyed. — The savages grow feeble. — Canonchet is taken. — And put to dealh.^ — Philip's 
 family are captured. — And sold as slaves. — Himself hunted down. — And shot. — Sub- 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 mission of the tribes. — Losses of New England. — The English government refuses help. 
 — Randolph comes to abridge the liberties of Massachusetts. — And is defeated. — Mas- 
 sachusetts purchases Maine of the heirs of Gorges. — Difficulties concerning New Hamp- 
 shire. — A royal government is established in the province. — Cranfield's administration. 
 — The king's hostility. — The charter of Massachusetts is annulled. — King Charles dies. 
 — James II. appoints Dudley governor. — And then Andros.— The liberties of the peo- 
 ple are destroyed. — The government of Andros is extended over New England. — But 
 the charter of Connecticut is saved. — The Revolution of 1688. — Andros is seized, and 
 imprisoned. — And the colonies restore their liberties. .... 139-147. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. — WAR ADD WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 King William's War begins. — The causes. — Dover is attacked and burned. — Pema- 
 quid is destroyed. — And then Schenectady. — And Salmon Falls. — An expedition is' 
 planned against Canada. — Phipps takes Port Royal. — But fails at Quebec. — And re- 
 turns. — Paper money is issued. — Failure of the expedition against Montreal. — Phipps 
 goes to England. — And returns as royal governor. — Oyster River is destroyed. — Haver- 
 hill is attacked and burned. — Mrs. Dustin's captivity. — The treaty of Ryswick. — Tlie 
 witchcraft excitement begins at Salem. — The causes. — Parris and Mather. — The trials. 
 — Convictions. — Executions. — The reaction. — Mather's book. — Reflections. 147-153. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. — WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 
 
 Causes of Queen Anne's War. — Field of operations in America. — A treaty is made 
 with the Five Nations. — The conflict begins. — Deerfield is burned. — And the inhab- 
 itants carried captive to Canada. — Barbarities of the Indians. — An expedition is sent 
 against Port RRyal. — The attempt fails. — Is renewed in 1710. — Port Royal is taken. — 
 .Vnd named Annapolis. — Preparations are made for invading Canada. — Nicholson com- 
 mands the land forces. — And Walker the fleet. — The squadron is deLiyed. — Stops at 
 (Jasp^ Bay. — Is shattered by a storm in the St. Lawrence. — Returns in disgrace. — The 
 e-tpedition by land is abandoned. — A treaty is made at LTtrecht. — K separate peace is 
 concluded with the Indians. — The people of Massachusetts resist the royal governor. 
 — Causes of King George's War. — The conflict begins. — Importance of Louisburg. — Its 
 conquest is planned by Shirley. — The colonies contribute men and means. — The expe- 
 dition leaves Boston. — Is detained at Canseau. — Joined by Warren's fleet. — Reaches 
 Gabarus Bay. — Invests Louisburg. — The siege. — The surrender. — Cape Breton submits. 
 — France .attempts to reconquer Louisburg. — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. — Character of 
 the Puritans 153-lGO. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 NEW YORK. — SETTLEMENT. 
 
 Character of Sir Henry Hudson. — The East India Company govern Manhattan, — A 
 colony is sent from Holland. — A charter is granted to the West India Company. — Tlie 
 Walloons arrive at New Amsterdam. — May builds Fort Nassau. — And Joris, Fort 
 Orange. — Civil government begins in New Netherland. — May is governor. — And then 
 Verhulst. — And Minuit. — Manhattan is purchased. — And fortified. — Friendly relations 
 are established between the Walloons and the Puritans.^ — The Dutch devote tliemselves 
 to the fur-trade. — Growth of the colony. — A charter is granted. — The patroons. — Five 
 manors are laid out. — Delaware is colonized. — And then abandoned. — Van Twiller sue- 
 
CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 ceeds Minuit. — A fort is built at Hartford. — The English claim the Connecticut. — Swe- 
 den purposes to plant an American colony. — The project is delayed. — But renewed by 
 Minuit. — A Swedish colony reaches the Delaware. — Settles at Christiana. — Is prosper- 
 ous. — And New Netherland is jealous. — Fort Nassau is rebuilt. — Printz removes to Tin- 
 icum. — The Indians are provoked by the Dutch. — ^Var breaks out. — A desultory contest. 
 — The Mohawks come. — Kieft massacres the Algonquins. — The war continues. — Fate of 
 Mrs. Hutchinson. — Underbill conquers the Indians. — Kieft tlie author of the war. — 
 De Vries succeeds him. 160-167. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 NEW YORK. — ADMINISTRATION OP STUYVESANT. 
 
 Stay vesant is appointed governor. — Peace established with the Indians. — Free trade 
 succeeds monopoly. — Growth of the colony. — A boundary is established between New 
 England and New Netherland. — The Dutch again claim New Sweden. — Build Fort 
 Casimir. — The place is captured by the Swedes. — Stuyvesant conquers and annexes New 
 Sweden.— The Algonquins rebel. — And are subdued. — The Indians of Ulster rise. — 
 Burn Esopus. — Are punished. — Stuyvesant is troubled about his boundaries. — Domes- 
 tic difficulties. — New Netherland lags. — The Dutch prefer English laws. — The province 
 is granted to the Duke of York. — Tlie duke makes good his claim. — Sends out Nicolls. 
 -^And conquei's New Netherland. 167-171. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 Nicolls settles the boundaries of New York. — New Jersey is granted to Berkeley 
 and Carteret. — Is claimed by Nicolls. — But the claim is set aside. — The Territories. — 
 The Dutch claim liberty. — Are disappointed. — New land-titles are issued. — Lovelace 
 succeeds Nicolls. — And is resisted by the people. — His tj'ranny. — Friendship of the 
 English and the Dutch. — War with Holland. — Evertsen reconquers New York. — But 
 the province is restored to England. — Andros begins his government. — Proves himself 
 a despot. — Claims the country from the Connecticut to Maryland. — Goes to Saybrook. 
 — Is baffled by Captain Bull. — Attempts to overawe New Jer.sey. — And fails. — Delaware 
 is separated from New York. — And joined to Pennsylvania. — Dongan becomes gov- 
 ernor. — The right of representation is conceded. — Character of the Constitution. — A 
 treaty is made with the Iroquois. — The Duke of York becomes king. — And overthrows 
 colonial liberties. — Andros is sent out as governor of New England. — Usurps the gov- 
 ernments of all the colonies north of the Delaware. — Leisler's insurrection. — The prov- 
 ince yields to his authority. — Schenectady is burned. — Ingoldsby arrives as governor. 
 — Leisler and Milborne are arrested. — Tried. — And hanged. — The Iroquois treaty is 
 renewed. — The Indians make war on the French. — The assembly declares against ar- 
 bitrary authority. — Fletcher becomes governor. — Attempts to usurp the government 
 of Connecticut and New Jersey. — Is defeated. — EfTort to establish the Episcopal 
 Church. — The project fails. — The French invade New York. — Are repelled. — Bello- 
 mont becomes governor. — The career of Captain Kidd. — Cornbury succeeds Bellomont. 
 — New Jersey is annexed to New Y'ork. — Cornbury's fraudulent administration. — He 
 is overthrown. — And succeeded by Lovelace. — An unsuccessful expedition is made 
 against Montreal. — The fleet also fails. — New Y'ork is in debt. — The treaty of Utrecht. 
 — The Tuscarora migration. — A fort is built at Oswego. — The French fortify Niagara 
 and Crown Point. — Crosby is sent out as governor. — Assails the freedom of the press. 
 — The trial of Zenger. — The negro plot. — French invasions of New Y''ork. — Treaty of 
 Aii-la-Chapelle. — Slow growtli of the province. — Prospects. — Reflections. . 172-1S3. 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 MINOR EASTERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Connecticut is granted to Warwick. — And transferred to Say-and-Seal. — The Dutch 
 fortify Hartford. — The Puritans claim the country. — Send an expedition up the Con- 
 necticut. — Found Windsor. — .\ colony leaves Boston. — Settles on the Connecticut. — 
 Winthrop founds Saybrook. — The English control the river. — The Pequod War. — The 
 Narragansetts make a treaty with the English. — The Pequods do likewise. — Violate the 
 compact. — Attempt an alliance with the Narragansetts. — "Williams defeats the project. 
 — The Slohegans join the English. — A massacre at Wethersfield. — Mason is chosen to 
 command. — A force is organized. — Proceeds against the Pequods. — And destroys the 
 nation. — The coast of Long Island Sound is explored. — New Haven is founded. — The 
 Bible for a constitution. — Civil government begins in Connecticut. — Character of the 
 laws. — Connecticut joins the Union. — Saybrook is annexed. — A treaty is made with 
 Stuyvesant. — War with New Netherland is threatened. — King Charles is recognized. 
 — Winthrop is sent to England. — Obtains a charter. — Returns. — Is chosen governor. — 
 Growth of the colony. — -•Vndros attempts to assume the government. — Is thwarted at Say- 
 brook. — Returns after twelve years. — Invades the assembly at Hartford. — Subverts the 
 government. — The charter is saved. — Fletcher enters the colony. — Is baffled by Wads- 
 worth. — Yale College is founded. — Development of the province. — Reflections. 184-192. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Williams founds Rhode Island.— Sketch of his life.— The Baptist Church is or- 
 ganized. — Civil government begins. — Character of the institutions. — Massachusetts re- 
 fuses to recall Williams from exile.— A colony at Portsmouth. — The Jewish common- 
 wealth.— Newport is founded.— The Norse tower.— A democracy is established. — Rhode 
 Island is rejected by the Union.— Williams procures a charter.- The i.sland of Rhode 
 Island secedes.— Is reannexed.— Patriotism of Williams.— Charles II. reissues the 
 charter.— Pro.sperity of Rhode Island.— .\ndros overturns the government.— Is over- 
 thrown. — Henry Bull is governor. — Reflections. 193-198. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 NEW HAJEPSHIRE. 
 
 New Hampshire is granted to Gorges and Mason. — .\nd colonized. — Settlements 
 on the Pisciitaqua. — The province is divided. — Wheelwright purchases the Indian 
 title.— Mason's patent is confirmed.— He dies.— Difficulties ensue.— Exeter is founded. 
 — New Hampshire is united with Massachusetts.— The Masonian claim is revived. — 
 The question is decided.— The two provinces are separated. — CranSeld is appointed 
 governor. — A general assembly is convened.— Character of the laws.— The royal officers 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 are resisted. — Andros assumes the government. — New Hampshire and Maasachiisetts 
 are united. — Governed by Bellomont. — Finally separated. — The Masonian claim again. 
 
 How decided. — Suffering of the colony in the Indian wars. — Character of the people. 
 
 — Keflections on the New England colonists 198-202. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 MINOR MIDDLE COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Early settlements in New Jersey. — At Bergen. — And Fort Nassau. — Grants and 
 purchases. — The province is given to Berkeley and Carteret. — Nicolls makes a grant to 
 Puritans. — Elizabethtowu is founded. — Nicolls contends with the Carterets. — The pro- 
 prietors frame a constitution. — Character of the laws.— The quit-rents. — The colonists 
 resist payment.— Philip Carteret is dbposed. — And James Carteret becomes governor. — 
 New Jersey is retaken by Holland. — And .again ceded to England. — The Duke of York 
 has his charter renewed. — Andros comes as governor. — Carteret resists. — Berkeley sells 
 West Jersey to Fenwick. — Philip Carteret and Andros dispute .about the Eastern prov- 
 ince. — Laurie, Lucas, and Penn buy West Jersey. — Object of tlie jnirchase. — New Jersey 
 is divided. — Line of division. The proprietors of West Jersey issue the Concessions. — 
 The Quakers colonize West Jersey. — The Duke of York claims the country. — Sir Wil- 
 liam Jones decides again.st him. — Andros's claim to East Jersey is annulled. — The Qua- 
 kers convene an assembly. — And frame a constitution. — East Jersey is purchased by the 
 Friends. — Barclay is governor. — The two Jerseys submit to Andros. — And afterward 
 regain their liberties. — Conflicting claims to the country. — Discord. — The proprietors 
 surrender their rights of government to the Crown. — New Jersey becomes a royal 
 province. — Is attached to New York under Cornbury. — The people petition for a .sepa- 
 ration. — Which is granted. — Morris becomes governor. — New Jersey not injured by 
 Indian wars.— Euflections 203-208. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The Friends are persecuted in Europe. — Penn designs to plant a Quaker State in 
 America. — Cha-les II. grants the charter of Pennsylvania. — Penn relinquishes his 
 claims on tlie Eriti.^h government. — Declares his purposes. — Writes a letter to the 
 Swedes. — Invites emigration. — A colony departs under Markham. — The Indians are 
 ■assured of friendship. — Penn frames a constitution. — The Duke of Yoi'k surrenders 
 Delaware. — Extent of Penn's dominion. — He leaves England with a second colony. — 
 Sketch of his life. — He addresses the people at New Castle. — Passes through the 
 Jerseys to New York.— Returns. — Makes the great treaty with the Indians. — Which is 
 kept inviolate. — A convention is held at Chester. — .\ provisional constitution is 
 adopted. — Penn visits Lord Baltimore. — Philadelphia ia founded. — Growth of the 
 
xvi CONTEND. 
 
 city. — Penn sails for England. — Lloyd remains as governor. — Delaware secedes. — Penn 
 adheres lo tbe Stuarts. — Is imprisoned. — His province is taken away. — But afterward 
 restored. — Penn revisits America. — The constitution is modified. — Delaware is finally 
 separated. — Penn returns to England. — Condition of his province. — Hamilton and Evans 
 deputy governors. — Conduct of the latter. — He is removed from office. — Succeeded by 
 Gookin. — Penn's trials in England. — He dies. — His sons become proprietor-s of Penn- 
 sylvania, — The province is purchased by the colonial assembly. — Eeflections. 209-215. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY— Continued. 
 
 MINOR SO UTHERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 MAKYLAND. 
 
 Clayborne is commissioned by the London Company. — Explores the Chesapeake. — 
 Establishes trading-posts. — Sketch of Sir George Calvert's life. — He plana a Catholic 
 colony. — Sends a company to Newfoundland. — Gees to Virginia. — Refuses the oath. — 
 Returns to England. — Obtains a charter. — Character and extent of the patent. — Calvert 
 dies. — Sir Cecil succeeds him. — The name of Maryland. — A colony is sent out under 
 Leonard Calvert. — Reaches the Chesapeake. — Ascends the Potomac. — Returns. — And 
 founds St. Mary's. — Friendly relations are established with the Indians. — Growth of 
 the colony. — An assembly is convened. — Clayborne incites an insurrection. — Is beaten. 
 — Escapes into Virginia. — Is sent to England. — Representative government is estab- 
 lished. — An Indian war breaks out. — Clayborne returns to America. — Leads a second 
 insurrection.— Overthrows the government. — The rebellion is suppressed. — Tolerant 
 character of the laws. — Division of the legislature. — Commissioners are appointed by 
 Parliament. — Dissensions of Stone and Cl.\vborne. — The civil war between the Catholics 
 and Protestants. — Fendall's rebellion. — Maryland declares independence. — Fendall is 
 condemned. — Charles Calvert is governor. — The Protestants gain control of the State. 
 — Maryland becomes a royal province. — The heir of i^ord Baltimore is restored to his 
 rights. — The Calverts rule the colony until the Revolution. — Reflections. . 216-224. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 The name of Carolina.— Early explorations.— The country is granted to Clarendon 
 and others. — Albemarle and Clarendon colonies are founded. — Cooper and Locke 
 frame the grand model. ^Its establishment impos-sible. — Clarendon county is aban- 
 doned. — The proprietors oppress the colonists. — A rebellion ensues. — Governor Cul- 
 pepper goes to England. — And defends tbe people. — Clarendon sells his rights. — Sothel 
 is sent out as governor. — His tyranny. — He is overthrown. — Ludwell succeeds. — And 
 then Walker. — The colony prospers. — Decline of the Indian tribes. — A war breaks out. 
 — Barnwell's expedition. — Peace. — And war again. — Moore invades the country of the 
 Tuscaroras. — The savages are beaten. — Tbe nation is divided. — The Tuscarora migra- 
 tion. — Division of the Carolinas. — Character of the people. . . . 224-229. 
 
CONTENTS. ^^;{ 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 A colony is sent out under West and Sayle. — Reaches Beaufort.— But settles on 
 Ashley River. — Locke's constitution is rejected. — And a simple government adopted. — 
 West becomes governor. — And then Yeamans. — Slavery is introduced. — Rapid immi- 
 gration. — Charleston is founded. — -Vn Indian war arises. — Immigrants arrive from 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. — The Edict of Nantes is revoked. — The Huguenots 
 flock to South Carolina. — Colleton becomes governor. — Declares martial law. — Is over- 
 thrown. — Sothel takes tlie office. — Is banished. — Ludwell next. — Who retires to Vir- 
 ginia. — The proprietors abrogate the grand model. — The Quaker Archdale. — His wise 
 administration. — Moore succeeds. — The war with Florida. — Moore and Daniel attempt 
 to take St. Augustine. — And fail. — Moore makes a successful campaign ag.ainst the In- 
 dians. — The Church of England is established. — The dissenters are disfr.anchised. — But 
 the act is revoked by Parliament. — The Spaniaids besiege Charleston. — .\nd are re- 
 pelled. — War with the Yamassees. — The savages are conquered. — Popular revolution 
 in South Carolina. — Nicholson is governor. — Tlie proprietors sell Carolina to the 
 king. — A royal government is established. — Character of the people. . 230-237. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Georgia founded in benevolence. — Oglethorpe the founder. — Sketch of his life. — 
 He leads forth a colony. — And founds Savannah. — The friendly natives. — A treaty is 
 made with the Muskhogees. — Immigrants arrive from various parts of Europe. — Ogle- 
 thorpe goes to England. — Returns. — The Moravians. — The Wesleys. — And Whitefield. — 
 Conflicting claims of Georgia and Florida. — Oglethorpe builds forts. — Is commissioned 
 as general. — War breaks out. — The governor besieges St. Augustine.— And fails. — The 
 Spaniards invade Georgia. — Oglethorpe's stratagem. — The battle of Bloody Marsh. — 
 The Spaniards are defeated. — And retreat to Florida. — The governor returns to Eng- 
 land. — Slavery is introduced. — The proliibitory law is repealed. — Growth of Georgia. — 
 Reflections on the thirteen colonies 238-244. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 The colonies begin to act together. — A sense of common danger unites them. — The 
 French and Indian War arises. — Causes considered. — Conflicting territorial claims. — 
 English colonies on the sea-board. — French colonies in the interior. — France purposes 
 to confine the English to the Atlantic slope. — French settlements result from the eSbrts 
 
xviii CONTENTS. 
 
 of the Jesuits. — Missions are established on tlie lakes. — Joliet and Marquette discover the 
 Mississippi. — Descend the river. — Return to Michigan. — La Salle passes through the 
 lakes. — Descends the Illinois. — Goes to Canada. — Returns. — And explores the Missis- 
 sippi to the gulf. — Sails for France. — Returns with a colony. — Reaches Texas. — Seta 
 out for Canada. — Is murdered. — French posts are established. — The Ohio valley to be 
 occupied. — The animosity of France and England leads to war. — The frontiersmen of 
 the two nations come in conflict. — The Ohio Company is organized. — Obtains a grant 
 of land. — Bienville explores and claims the Ohio valley. — Gist traverses the country to 
 the falls of the Ohio. — The French fortify Le Boeuf and Venango. — Attack a British 
 post. — Gist makes a second exploration. — An English colony on the Youghiogheny. — 
 The Indians favor the English. — The Half-King goes to Erie. — The chiefs confer with 
 Franklin. — Dinwiddle sends a despatch to St. Pierre. — Washington is chosen for the 
 mission. — Sets out by way of Will's Creek to the site of Pittsburg. — And thence to Le 
 Bo^f. — Washington confers with St. Pierre. — And returns to Virginia. — Hardships 
 of the journey. — Trent begins a fort at the fork of the Ohio. — The French capture the 
 place. — And build Du Quesne. — Washington is sent to retake the fort. . 245-255. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 
 
 Washington marches to Great Meadows. — Builds Fort Necessity. — Attacks and 
 defeats Jumonville. — Extends the road toward Du Quesne. — De Villiei's approaches. — 
 Attacks Fort Necessity. — And compels a surrender. — An American congress assembles 
 at Albany. — Franklin plans a union. — The colonies reject the constitution. — France 
 sends soldiers to America. — Braddock is sent by England. — He confers with the gov- 
 ernors. — Plans four compaigns. — Marches his army to Fort Cumberland. — Proceeds 
 against Du Quesne. — Approaches the fort. — Meets the French and Indians. — And is 
 terribly defeated. — Washington saves the remnant of the army. — Death of Braddock. 
 — Dunbar retreats. — Destroys the stores. — Evacuates Fort Cumberland. — Retires to 
 Philadelphia 255-261. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 RUIN OF ACADIA. 
 
 Nova Scotia under English rule. — Lawrence fears an insurrection. — Is authorized 
 to subdue the French inhivbitants. — The English fleet leaves Boston. — The Freneh 
 forts on the Bay of Fundy. — The fleet arrives at Beau-Sejoiir. — The place is besieged. 
 — And obliged to surrender. — The other forts capitulate. — The British officers deter- 
 mine to exile the inhabitants. — The country is laid waste. — And the people carried into 
 banishment ' 261-264. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 
 
 A campaign is planned against Niagara. — Shirley commands. — Proceeds to Os- 
 wego. — Wastes the time. — Marches homeward. — Oswego is rebuilt. — John.son and Ly- 
 man go against the French on Lake Champlain. — Build Fort Edward. — Form a camp 
 on Lake George.- — Dieskau approaches. — Proceeds by way of Wood Creek against Fort 
 Edward. — Meets the English. — And drives them to the camp. — The battle. — The 
 French are defeated. — Dieskau is killed. — The English lose heavily. — Johnson builds 
 Fort William Henry. — The French reinforce their fort.s 264^266. 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 
 
 Shirley becomes commander-in-chief. — ^Washington repels the Indians. — Fi-acklin 
 defends Pennsylvania. — The campaigns of 1756 are planned. — The military forces of 
 America are consolidated. — Loudoun is commander-in-ehief. — He and Abercrombie 
 arrive in New York with soldiers and supplies. — England declares war. — Abercrombie 
 goes to Albany. — And stays there. — Montcalm besieges and captures Oswego. — The 
 Belawares revolt. — And are punished. — Loudoun burrows at Albany. — The French 
 strengthen their forts. — The conquest of Louisburg is planned. — Loudoun proceeds to 
 Halifax. — Ilolbourn joins him. — They muster and do nothing. — Loudoun returns to 
 New York. — Montcalm and the Iroquois besiege and capture Fort William Henry. — 
 The Indians massacre the itrisoners. — Review of the situation. 267-270. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 TWO YEARS OF StTCCESSES. 
 
 Pitt becomes prime minister. — Loudoun is depo.sed. — Abercrombie succeeds. — An 
 able corps of generals sent to America. — Three campaigns are planned. — Amherst and 
 Wolfe proceed against Louisburg. — Besiege and take the fortress. — Abercrombie attacks 
 Ticonderoga. — And is repulsed with great loss. — Bradstreet takes Fort Frontenac. — 
 Montcalm advises peace.^Forbes marches against Du Quesne. — Grant is defeated. — 
 Washington leads the advance. — The French abandon and burn Du Quesne. — The 
 place named Pittsburg. — Amherst commander-in-chief — Relative strength of the Eng- 
 li.sh and the French. — Pitt plans the conquest of Canada. — Prideaux defeats the French 
 before Niagara. — And captures the fortress. — Amher.st takes Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point. — Wolfe proceeds against Quebec. — Reaches the Island of Orleans. — Besieges the 
 city. — The Lower Town is destroyed. — Montcalm's position. — The battle of Montmor- 
 enci. — Wolfe's fever. — He ascends the river. — Plans an a.ssault. — Discover's Wolfe's 
 Cove. — Gains the Plains of Abraham. — Fights a decisive battle. — Defeats the French. — 
 Is slain. — Quebec capitulates. — And then Montreal. — The Cherokee revolt is quelled. — 
 Tlie effect of the conquest of Canada. The French outposts are included in the sur- 
 render of Montreal. — Rogers is sent to take possession of the forts. — He reaches De- 
 troit. — Receives the surrender of Forts Miami and Ouatanow. — Mackinaw, Green Bay 
 and St. Marie afterward capitulate. — The English treat the Red men badly. — The lat- 
 ter become revengeful. — They make an attempt against Detroit. — And are baffled. — 
 Conspiracies grow rife. — Pontiac organizes a confederacy. — Makes a plot for the cap- 
 ture of Detroit. — And fails. — An unsuccessful siege ensues. — The savages are victorious 
 in other quarters. — They capture most of the westei-n forts. — The confederacy breaks 
 up. — Pontiac is abandoned. — And killed. — The war continues on the ocean. — England 
 is victorious. — A treaty of peace. — The terms 270-279. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 The thirteen colonies. — Institutions. — Population. — Distribution of the same. — 
 Growth of a national character and sentiment. — Education. — Character of the same in 
 New England. — In the South. — Colleges. — Newspapers. — Books and men. — Absence of 
 roads. — Agriculture the predominating pursuit. — Ship-building and manufactures. — 
 What the British Board of Trade was good for. — Reflections on the character of the 
 -^nijlo-American colonists 280-284. 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION. 
 
 A. ». 1775-1789. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. ' 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 Importance of the revolution. — The question decided by it. — Character of the con- 
 test. — The causes. — Great Britain claims the right of arbitrary government. — France 
 incites the rebellion. — The disposition of the Americans encourages independence. — 
 Public opinion leads to the same result. — The king provokes a conflict. — Parliament 
 passes oppressive acts. — The question of taxation. — Nature of the dispute. — The Im- 
 portation Act. — Its provisions. — Writs of Assistance are issued. — .^nd resisted. — The 
 sugar and wine duties. — The colonists refuse to pay them. — A Stamp .\ct is proposed. — 
 Indignation in the colonies. — The question of the Indian war-debt arises. — The Stamp 
 Act is passed. — Its provisions. — The news is received in America. — The wrath of the 
 people- — Scene in the House of Burgesses. — Patrick Henry's speec^h. — Passage of the 
 resolutions. — Other assemblies pursue a similar course. — The first Colonial Congress. — 
 A declaration of Riglits is adopted. — Memorials to the king and Parliament. — The 
 Stamp .A.ct is resisted. — .\nd the stamps destroyed. — Suspension of business. — The Sons 
 of Liberty. — .\ non-importation agi-eement is made. — The wrath of England. — Camden 
 and Pitt defend the colonists. — Repeal of the Stamp Act. — Joy follows. — Townshend re- 
 news the scheme.^Secures the passage of a glass and tea-tax. — The Americans resist 
 the act. — Circular of Massachusetts. — Seizure of a sloop at Boston. — Insurrection of the 
 people. — Gage takes possession of Boston. — Is ordered to arrest the patriots. — Rebellion 
 of Virginia and North Carolina. — Conflict at New York. — The Boston massacre. — Re- 
 peal of the duties. — Passage of the Salary Act. — Burning of the Gaspee. — Stratagem 
 of the ministry. — Tea is shipped to .America. — Is spoiled at Charleston. — Refu-sed at 
 New York and Philadelphia. — And poured overboard at Boston. — Passage of the Port 
 Bill. — O|iposition of the Burgesses. — The charter of Massachusetts is annulled. — The 
 people declared rebels. — The second Congress assembles. — Resolutions and addresses. 
 — A British army is ordered to America. — Boston Neck fortified. — Military stores re- 
 moved. — The assembly refuses to disband. — War becomes inevitable. . 285-296. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 THE BEGINNTNO. 
 
 The patriots remove their stores. — Gage plans to destroy them. — Piteairn is sent for 
 that purpo.se. — Dawes and Revere arouse the people. — The British reach Lexington. — 
 Fire on the patriots. — Proceed to Concord. — Ransack the village. — Are attacked. — And 
 driven back to Boston. — The country is fired. — The patriots gather at Cambridge. — 
 Allen and Arijold march against Ticonderoga. — And capture the fortress. — The British 
 are reinforced. — Proclamation of Gage. — His plans. — The Americans fortify Breed's 
 Hill. — Amazement of the British. — The battle. — Excitement of the people. — The North 
 Carolinians declare independence. — The Colonial Congress assembles. — An appeal to 
 the king. — Washington commander-in-chief. — Sketch of his life. — His duties and em- 
 
CONTENTS. xxi 
 
 barrassments. — Organization of the army. — Koyal rule is overthrown. — Struggle with 
 Dunmore. — Expedition against Quebec. — Led by Schuyler, Montgomery and Arnold. — 
 Schuyler falls sick. — Montgomery takes Montreal. — Hardships of Arnold's march. — He 
 and Montgomery unite against Quebec. — The town is invested. — The assault and defeat. — 
 Fall of Montgomery. — The expedition is abandoned. — Sketch of Montgomery. 297-305. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 THE WORK OF '76. 
 
 The king answers the colonies. — Howe succeeds Gage. — Siege of Boston. — The Brit- 
 ish evacuate the city. — The Americans enter. — Public rejoicings. — Washington goes to 
 New York. — Clinton threatens the city. — Cornwallis and Parker proceed against 
 Charleston. — Rising of the Carolinians. — The attack on Moultrie. — Repulse of the Brit- 
 ish. — Distresses of the army. — Great Britain hires the Hessians. — And makes new lev- 
 ies. — Exasperation of the patriots. — The question of independence. — Lee's resolutions. 
 — Debates. — A committee is appointed. — The Declaration of Independence adopted. — 
 And received with enthusiasm. — Its leading principles. — Howe returns. — Lands an 
 army. — Attempts to open negotiations. — And fails. — The British advance on Long Is- 
 land. — Fight a battle. — And defeat the patriots. — Washington saves the army. — Dis- 
 couragement of the people. — The British take New York. — Negotiations are again at- 
 tempted. — But fail. — Movements of the two armies. — Battle of White Plain.s. — Dispo- 
 sition of the American forces. — Notice of Hamilton. — The captui-e of Fort Washington , 
 — Fort Lee is taken. — The Americans retreat across New .Jersey. — The pursuit ends. — 
 Enlargement of Washington's powers. — British successes in Rhode Island. — Lee's cap- 
 ture. — Wiishington recruits his army. — Recrosses the Delaware. — Defeats the British at 
 Trenton. — Effect of the battle. — Alarm of the British. — Robert Morris to the rescue. — 
 Washington threatens the British posts 305-317. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 OPERATIONS OF '77. 
 
 Tlie British advance against Trenton. — Washington withdraws his forces. — Attacks 
 Princeton. — .^nd wins a victory. — Takes post at Morristown. — The British at New 
 Brunswick. — Cornwallis on the defensive. — Destruction of stores at Peekskill. — Lincoln 
 attacked at Boundbrook. — Tryon burns Danbury. — Is attacked and driven away. — ■ 
 Meigs takes Sag Harbor. — Washington advances into New Jersey. — The British 
 threaten Philadelphia. — Retire to Amboy. — Leave the State. — Barton captures Prescott. 
 — Congress returns to Phila<lelphia. — Help from France. — Coming of La Fayette and 
 De Kalb. — Plan of Biirgoyne's campaign. — The invasion begins. — Fall of Crown Point 
 and Ticonderoga. — The battle of Hubbardton. — Capture of Whitehall. — Fort Edward 
 is taken. — Schuyler retreats to the Mohawk. — The British advance is impeded. — The 
 battle of Bennington. — St. Leger besieges Schuyler. — Herkimer brings relief. — And is 
 defeated. — Arnold advances. — The Indians desert the British. — St. Leger retreats. — Dis- 
 couragement of Burgoyne. — Gathering of tlie Americans. — Burgoyne at Saratoga. — The 
 first battle. — Critical condition of the British. — A diversion is attempted by Clinton. — 
 But fails. — The second battle. — Tlie Americans victorious. — Burgoyne is surrounded. — 
 And driven to surrender. — Tlie army of the North relieves Washington. — The move- 
 ment of Howe against Philadelphia. — He enters the Chesapeake. — The battle of Brandy- 
 wine. — Retreat of the Americans. — Washington advances to Warren's Tavern. — A 
 storm prevents the battle. — Countermarching of the armies. — The British capture Phil- 
 adelphia. — Congress adjourns to Lancaster. — Washington on Skippack Creek. — The 
 
jjxii CONTENTS. 
 
 battle of Germantown.— Capture of Forts Mercer and Mifflin.— The Americans at 
 Whitemarsh.— Adventure of Lydia Darrah.— The British winter at Philadelphia.— The 
 Americans at Valley Forge. — Sorrows of Washington 317-328. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 FRANCE TO THE KESCtJE. 
 
 Silas Deane is sent to France. — His mission. — France favors the Americans. — Sup- 
 plies are sent to the patriots.— Steuben arrives.— Lee and Franklin are appointed to 
 negotiate a treaty.- Franklin's influence at the French court.— A treaty is concluded.— 
 Sketch of Franklin. — Arrival of D'Estaing's fleet — War threatened between France and 
 England.— Effort of Great Britain for peace.— The British fleet at PhUadelphia.— With- 
 drawal of the squadron.— The city evacuated.— Washington pursues.— The battle of 
 Monmouth.— Lee disobeys orders.— Is court-martialed and dismissed. — British concen- 
 trate at New York.— The city threatened by D'Estaing.— He sails against Rhode Island. 
 — Sullivan co-operates against Newport. — Howe follows D'Estaing. — Both squadrons 
 shattered by a storm. — The siege of Newport. — Abandonment of the enterprise.— De- 
 struction of American shipping. — Byron succeeds Howe. — Marauding of the British. — 
 The Wyoming massacre. — Ruin of Cherry Valley. — The expedition of Major Clarke. — 
 The French and British fleets sail away. — A force is sent against Savannah. — Capture of 
 the city. — The situation 328-333. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF 79. 
 
 Hardships of the soldiers. — T-yon's expedition. — Is attacked by the militia. — Put- 
 nam's exploit. — Fall of Stony Point and Verplank's. — Insurrection in Virginia. — Tryon 
 invades Connecticut. — Destruction of East Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk.— Stony 
 Point is retaken by Wayne. — Lee captures Jersey City. — An American flotilla sails to 
 the Penob.scot. — Is ruined. — Sullivan ravages the Indian country. — The British evacuate 
 Rhode Island. — War in the South. — Fort Sunbury is taken. — Fall of Augusta. — Ander- 
 son defeats the torie-s. — Pickens gains a victory. — Augusta is evacuated. — Defeat of 
 Lincoln's army. — The militia rally. — Lincoln takes the field. — Threatens Augusta. — 
 Returns to Charleston. — Is beaten at Stono Ferry. — Suspension of activity. — D'Estaing 
 arrives. — Siege of Savannah. — The unsuccessful assault. — Paul Jones's victory. — Re- 
 flections 334-339. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 BEVEBSES AND TREASON. 
 
 Operations in the North suspended. — Ternay's fleet arrives. — Campaigns are planned. 
 — Arbuthnot and Clinton besiege Charleston. — The city is taken. — Ravages of Tarleton. 
 — Plan of the British to conquer South Carolina. — Capture of Ninety-Six. — Cornwallis's 
 success. — Tarleton's mas.sacre. — South Carolina is subjugated. — Clinton returns to New 
 York. — Marion and Sumter's bands. — They scour the country. — Their victories. — Gates 
 takes command. — The British at Camden. — Gates advances against them. — Is met and 
 defeated. — Is superseded by Greene. — Sumter's corps is broken up. — Cruelty of the 
 British. — Rawdon advances into North Carolina. — Ferguson's tories are defeated. — 
 Financial distres.ses. — S.acrifices of Morris. — The trea,son of Arnold. — Sketch of his 
 career. — Andre is sent to a conference. — The interview. — Andre attempts to return to 
 New York. — Is captured, condemned, and executed. — Treaty with Holland. 339-345. 
 
CONTENTS. xxiii 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 Desperate condition of tlie army. — Tlie Pennsylvania line revolt. — Mutiny of the 
 Jersey brigade. — Eobert Morris secretary of finance. — Champe attempts to capture 
 Arnold. — Fails. — Arnold's expedition to Virginia. — Second plan to capture him. — 
 He becomes commander-in-chief in Virginia. — Is superseded. — And ordered out of tlie 
 State. — Leads a band into Connecticut. — Captures Fort Griswold. — Greene in the 
 South. — Advances into South Carolina. — Morgan at the Cowpens. — Is attacked by 
 Tarleton. — But defeats him. — Cornwallis attempts to cut off Morgan's retreat. — Greene 
 takes command. — Crosses the Catawba. — Race for the Yadkin. — Greene wins it. — 
 Race for the Dan. — Greene wins it. — Chagrin of the British. — Greene turns upon 
 the enemy. — Lee disperses the tories. — Greene moves forward to Guilford. — Cornwallis 
 attacks him. — An indecisive battle. — The British retreat to Wilmington. — Cornwallis 
 goes to Virginia. — The Americans advance into South Carolina. — The battle of Hob- 
 kirk's Hill. — The British retire to Eutaw Springs. — The siege of Ninety-Six. — The 
 place is abandoned by the enemy. — Greene in the Highlands. — Sumter, Lee, and 
 Marion overrun tlie country. — Execution of Hayne. — Greene advances against Eutaw 
 Springs. — The battle. — The British retreat to Charleston. — The situation. — The cam- 
 paign in Virginia. — Cornwallis ravages the State. — Marches down the James. — Is 
 attacked by Wayne. — Proceeds to Portsmouth. — And thence to Yorktown. — The Army 
 of the Nortli comes down upon him. — The French fleet co-operates. — Yorktown is 
 besieged. — And Curnwallis's army taken. — Rejoicings. — Fall of the king's party in Par- 
 liament. — Negotiations for peace. — A treaty is concluded. — Its terras. — Carleton super- 
 sedes Clinton. — Evacuation of New York. — AVashington bids farewell to his officers. — 
 Retires to private life. .... 345-356. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 CONFEDERATION AND UNION. 
 
 Bad condition of the government. — Its defects. — Franklin pleads for union. — 
 A committee apjiointcd to prepare a Constitution. — The Articles of Confederation 
 are adopted. — The colonies are slow to ratify. — The Confederation. — Defects of the 
 same. — Chaotic condition of affairs. — A firmer Constitution is projected. — The con- 
 vention at Annapolis. — Adjournment to Philadelphia. — The Constitution is re- 
 ported to the convention. — .Vnd adopted. — The last colonial Congress. — Its final work. 
 — The North-western Territory is organized. — The several States cede their rights 
 away. — St. Clair appointed governor. — Plan of organization. — Slavery is restricted. — 
 — The people divide on the question of adopting the Constitution. — Sketch of Ham- 
 ilton. — Character of the Constitution. — Amendments thereto. — The struggle in the 
 colonial conventions. — Ratification by eleven States. — Washington is cho.sen Pres- 
 ident. — John Adams for the vice-presidency. — Washington's journey to New York. — 
 Conclusion . 356-362. 
 
xxiv CONTENTS. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 NATIONAL PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 Washington's administbation. 
 
 Washington is inaugurated President. — And the new government organized. — The 
 country is beset with difficulties. — A cabinet is formed. — The Supreme Court is organ- 
 ized. — Rhode Island and North Carolina ratify the Constitution. — Washington makes a 
 tour through New England. — Presidential etiquette. — Hamilton's financial measures. 
 — The seat of government is fixed. — An Indian war breaks out. — Harmar marches 
 against tlie Miamis. — Is defeated on the Maumee. — The Bank of the United States is 
 established. — Vermont is admitted into the Union. — The first census. — St. Clair is sent 
 against the Indians. — His army is defeated. — The wrath of Washington. — St. Clair is 
 superseded by Wayne. — Kentucky is admitted. — Washington re-elected. — The foreign 
 relations of the government are troubled. — Genet's conduct. — Fouchet supersedes 
 him. — Troubles in tlie President's cabinet. — Antagonism of Jeflerson and Hamilton. — 
 The whisky insurrection breaks out. — Is suppiessed by Lee. — Wayne invades the 
 Indian country. — Defeats the Red men at Waynesfield. — Compels a cession of ter- 
 ritory. — Bies. — Great Britain orders the seizure of American vessels. — Jay procures 
 reparation and a treaty. — Popular opposition thereto. — The compact with Spain. — 
 Peace is purchased of Algiers. — Tennessee is admitted. — Washington issues his Fare- 
 well address. — The candidates for the Presidency. — Adams is elected. — Jefferson for 
 Vice-President 363-371. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Sketch of .John Adams. — Opposition to the new administration. — France demands 
 an alliance. — Orders the destruction of American commerce. — Pinckney is dismissed. — 
 The extra session of Congress. — Gerry, Mai-shall, and Pinckney are sent to France. — 
 The Directory want money. — Pinckney's answer. — An American army is organized. — 
 Washington comander-in-cliief. — The work of the navy. — Truxtun's victories.— Doings 
 of Talleyrand. — Napoleon seeks peace. — The successful embas.sy of Murray, Ellsworth, 
 and Davie. — Death of Washington. — Close of the administration. — Growth of the 
 country. — The Alien and Sedition laws. — Overthrow of the Federal party. — Jefferson 
 is elected President. — And Burr Vice-President. 372-376. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 Jefferson's administration. 
 
 Sketch of Jefferson. — He puts Democrats in office. — Ohio is admitted. — Indiana 
 and Mississippi organized. — Louisiana is purchased from France. — Boundarie.s. — The 
 territory of Orleans is set oiT. — Jolin Marshall in the chief-justiceship. — The Mediter- 
 
CONTENTS. XXV 
 
 ranean pirates. — Preble is sent against them. — The Philadelphia ic captured. — Eetaket 
 and burned. — The siege of Tripoli. — Expedition of Eaton. — Yusef sign.s a treaty. — The 
 duel of Burr and Hamilton. — JeflTerson Ls re-elected. — Michigan is organized. — Lewis 
 and Clarke explore Oregon. — Burr makes a conspiracy. — Is tried for treason. — Brit- 
 ish aggressions on American commerce. — England blockades the coast of France. — 
 Napoleon retaliates. — Great Britain forbids the coasting trade. — An old abuse revived. 
 ^The rule of 1756 again asserted. — ^The effect on American commerce. — The English 
 theory of citizenship. — The object of that theory. — The attack of the Leopard on the 
 Chesapeake. — Passage of the Embargo Act. — The Orders in Council and Milan Decree.— 
 Eulton and his steamboat. — Inventic n of the torpedo. — Summary of events. 376-388. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION AND THE WAM OF '12. 
 
 Sketch of the life and previous services of Madi.son. — His politics. — The Non- 
 intercourse Act takes the place of the Embargo. — Erskine promises the repeal of the 
 Orders in Council. — The promise not fulfilled. — Bonaparte makes a decree. — ."^nd then 
 revokes it. — Obstinacy of Great Britain. — A crisis is reached. — Third census. — Tecumtha 
 and the Prophet. — Harrison purchases land.^.— Tecumtha refuses to ratify. — Harrison 
 marches up the Wabash Valley. — Approaches the Prophet's town. — Is attacked by 
 night. — And routs the savages. — Fight of the President and Little Belt. — The twelfth 
 Congress. — War inevitable. — The President's timid disjjosition. — Henry's conspiracy is 
 discovered. — Nature of the plot. — Effect of the disclosure. — British vessels are embar- 
 goed. — Louisiana is admitted. — War declared against England. — Preparations. — Relative 
 strength of the belligerents. — Hull's campaign. — He marches to the head of Lake Erie. 
 — Reaches Detroit. — Invades Canada. — Retreats. — Van Home's defeat. — Miller's vic- 
 tory. — Siege of Detroit. — Hull's disgraceful .surrender. — He is convicted of cowardice. 
 • — Capture and burning of Fort Dearborn. — Character a.ssumed by the war. — Sketch of 
 the American defences. — The Constitulion captures the Guerriere. — The Wasp the Frolic. 
 — The Poictiei-s the Wasp. — The United States the Macedonian. — The Essex the Noclon. — 
 And the C'onMitutimi the Java. — Effect of these victories. — Comment of the English 
 newspapers. — Van Rensselaer moves against Queenstown. — Carries the batteries. — 
 Death of Brock. — The Americans entrench. — But are forced to surrender. — Smyth suc- 
 ceeds Van Rensselaer. — And makes a fool of him.self. — The Americans at Black Rock 
 cro.;s and recross the river. — Madison re-elected. 388-399. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 WAR OP '12. — CONTINUED. 
 
 Plan of the campaigns of '13. — The Americans capture Frenchtown. — Are a.s- 
 sailed by Proctor. — Surrender. — And are butchered. — Harrison at Fort Meigs. — He 
 is besieged. — Clay raises the siege. — Proctor and Tecumtha return. — Attack Fort 
 Stephenson. — And are defeated by Croghan. — Affairs on Lake Erie. — Perry builds 
 a fleet. — Attacks the British squadron. — And gains a signal victory. — Harrison em- 
 barks his forces to Maiden. — Follows the British and Indians to the Thames. — And 
 routs them in battle. — The Creeks massacre the garrison at Fort Mims. — Jackson 
 and Coffee with the Tennesseeans. — They burn Tallushatchie. — Battles of Talladega 
 and Autosse. — Winter and starvation. — Battle of Emucfau. — And Horse Shoe Bend.^ 
 Dearborn proceeds against Toronto. — Battle at the water's edge. — The Americans 
 capture the town. — The British attack Sackett's Harbor. — The Americans on the 
 Niagara. — They storm Fort George. — Suspension of operations. — Wilkinson is made 
 
xxvi CONTENTS. 
 
 coimuander-in-cliief. — Expedition against Montreal. — The battle of Chrysler's Field. 
 —The expedition is abandoned. — Winter quarters at Fort Covington. — McClure 
 evacuates Fort George. — Burns Ivewark. — The British retaliate. — The Hornet captures 
 the Peacock. — The Chesapeake is taken by the Shannon. — Death of Lawrence. — C\ip- 
 tnre of the Argv^. — The Enterprise takes the Boxer. — The Essex is captured by the 
 Phcebe and Cherub. — A British tieet bombards Lewiston. — Marauding in the Chesa- 
 peake 400-407. 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF '14. 
 
 Scott and Ripley capture Erie. — Battles of Chippewa and Niagara. — The Amer- 
 icans retreat to Erie. — Siege of that place by the British. — They are driven oft'. — AVinter 
 quarters at Black Rock. — Wilkinson again invades Canada. — Ls defeated at La Colle. — 
 And retreats to Plattsburg. — McDonough's squadron on the lake. — The British ad- 
 vance. — Attack by land and water. — And are defeated. — -Cochrane and Ross in the 
 Chesapeake. — Barney destroys his vessels. — Battle of Bladensburg. — Washington is 
 captured by the Briti.sh. — Public buildings burned. — Alexandria pays a ransom. — 
 Siege of Baltimore. — Ravages in New England. — The Federal peace party. — The Hart- 
 ford Convention. — .Jackson captures Pensacola. — Takes command at New Orlean.s. — 
 Approach of the British. — Skirmishing and fighting. — The decisive b.ittle. — Ruin of 
 Packenham's army. — The news of peace. — Sea-fights afterward. — The treaty of Ghent. 
 — Great rejoicings. — Terms of the treaty. — Condition of the country. — Rechartering of 
 the United States Bank. — The Mediterranean pirates again. — Decatur sent out against 
 them. — He captures a Moorish ship. — And then another. — Enters the Bay of Algiers. — 
 And dictates the terms of peace. — Indiana is admitted. — Liberia founded. — Monroe is 
 elected President. . 407-416. 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 Monroe's administration. 
 
 The new President and his policy. — The cabinet. — Revival of the country. — De- 
 mand for the recognition of Hayti. — Treaty with the Northwestern Indians. — Missis- 
 sippi is admitted. — The pirates of Amelia Island dispersed. — The question of internal 
 improvements arises. — The canal from Bufl'alo to Albany. — The Seminole war breaks 
 out. — Jackson invades the hostile country. — Captures St. Marks. — Hangs Arbuthnot and 
 Ambrister. — Takes Pensacola. — An excitement follows. — Whicli leads to the cession of 
 Florida. — Great financial crisis of 1819. — Illinois is admitted. — And Alabama. — Ar- 
 kansas is organized. — And Maine admitted. — And Missouri. — The slavery agitation. — 
 And Missouri Compromise. — Its terms. — Monroe and Tompkins are re-elected. — Com- 
 modore Porter suppresses piracy in the West Indies. — Sympathy of the United States 
 for the South American republics. — The Monroe Doctrine. — The visit of La Fayette. — 
 Excitement attending the presidential election. — John Quincy Adams chosen. 416-423. 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 JOHN QUINCY Adams's administration. 
 
 Sketch of the President. — Partisan opposition in Congress. — Internal improve- 
 
 "uents favored by the executive. — Trouble with Georgia about tlie lands of the Creeks. 
 
 Settled by a treaty. — Death of Adams and Jefl'erson. — The Masonic excitement in 
 
CONTENTS. xxvii 
 
 New York. — Discussion of the tariff in Congress. — A protective duty laid on fabrics. — 
 A new departure in American hi.story. — Adams renominated for the Presidency. — Gen- 
 eral Jackson jiut forward by the Democrats. — And elected. . . . 423-426. 
 
 CHAPTER LIV. 
 
 Jackson's administration. 
 
 Sketch of Jackson's life and character. — He fills the offices with his political 
 friends — Opposes the rechartering of the United States Bank. — And vetoes the bill. — 
 The new political organization. — Sketch of parties. — The tariff question again. — South 
 Carolina attempts nullification. — Debate of Webster and Hayne. — The President'.s proc- 
 lamation. — South Carolina recedes from her position. — Mr. Clay's tariff compromise. — 
 The Black Hawk war breaks out. — Generals Scott and Atkinson are sent against the 
 Eed men. — Who are driven to .submission. — The difficulty with the Cherokees. — Char- 
 acter of that race.— The wrongs done to them. — Scott compels their removal to the 
 West. — A second Seminole war. — The arrest of Osceola. — His release and conspiracy. — 
 Dade's massacre. — Murder of General Thompson. — Clincli fights the savages and re- 
 treats. — Gaines defeats the Indians on the Withlacoochie. — Battle of the Wahoo Swamp. 
 — A second fight. — The President order.s the distribution of the fund.s. — A panic follows. 
 — The President is vituperated. — Is censured by Congress. — But re-elected. — He brings 
 France and Portugal to terms. — Death-list of eminent men. — Fires in New York and 
 M'ashington. — Arkansas and Michigan admitted into the Union. — Jackson's farewell 
 address. — Van Buren elected President 426-436. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 VAN buken's administration. 
 
 Sketch of the new executive. — Another monetary disturbance. — Continuance of the 
 Seminole war. — Colonel Taylor hunts the savages to Lake Okeechobee. — Defeats them. 
 — And compels submission. — The financial panic of '37. — Causes which led thereto. — 
 Especially the Specie Circular. — The banks suspend. — Tremendous failures. — Treasury 
 notes are issued. — The Independent Treasury Bill is diseussed. — And finally passed. — 
 Partial revival of bnsine.s.s. — The Canada insurrection. — Affair of the Caroline. — Wool is 
 .sent to the Niagara. — Order is restored. — An early presidential canvass. — Uneventful 
 character of Van Buren's administration. — The sixth census. — General Harrison is 
 elected President 436-440 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 ADOTNISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 Sketch of the President's life. — He enters upon his duties. — Falls sick. — And dies. 
 — Tyler succeeds to the Presidency. — Sketch. — Repeal of the Independent Treasury 
 Bill. — A bill is passed to recharter the United States Bank. — And vetoed by the Presi- 
 dent. — The bankrupt law. — Rupture between the executive and Congress. — Resignation 
 of the cabinet. — The north-eastern boundary is settled by the Webster-Ashburton treaty. 
 — The Rhode Island insurrection. — The suffrage party elects Dorr. — And the law-and- 
 order party, King. — The latter is supported by the government. — Dorr's followers are 
 scattered. — And himself convicted of treason. — But afterward pardoned. — Building and 
 dedication of Bunker Hill monument. — The Van Ren.sselaer land troubles in New 
 York. — The IMormons. — They are driven from Missouri. — Found Nauvoo. — Popular 
 feeling against them. — Smitli and his brother are murdered. — And the Mormons driven 
 
xxviii CONTENTS. 
 
 into exile. — Tiiey journey to Salt Lake. — The Texas excitement begins. — Outline of 
 Texas history. — The people rebel against Mexico. — Battle of Gonzales. — Capture of the 
 Alamo. — And massacre of the garrison.— The battle of San Jacinto decides the contest. 
 — Texas independent. — Seeks admission into the Union. — Is refused at first. — The peo- 
 ple of the United States divide on the question of annexation. — On that issue Polk 
 is elected President. — Professor Morse and the telegraph. — Texas admitted into the 
 Union 440-447. 
 
 CHAPTER LVII. 
 
 POIK's administration and the MEXICAN WAR. 
 
 Sketch of President Polk. — Texas ratifies the annexation. — General Taylor sent to 
 defend the country. — The boundary question. — Proposition to negotiate. — Mexico 
 refuses. — Taylor ordered to the Keuces. — And thence to the Kio Grande. — He estab- 
 lishes a post at Point Isabel. — And builds Fort Brown. — Beginning of hostilities by the 
 Mexicans. — Taylor retires to Point Isabel. — Mexican boasting. — Returns toward Mata- 
 moras. — Meets the Mexicans. — Fights and gains the battles of Palo Alto and Re.saca de 
 la Palma. — Siege of Fort Brown. — News of the battles in the United States. — Declaration 
 of War. — Plan of the campaigns. — General Wool musters the forces. — Taylor captures 
 Matamoras. — Advances against Monterey. — Besieges and storms the town. — An armis- 
 tice. — Santa Anna made President of Mexico and general of the army. — Saltillo is taken 
 by Worth. — Victoria by Patterson. — And Tampico by Conner. — Wool advances. — And 
 Scott assumes command. — Kearney captures Santa F^. — Moves westward. — Is joined by 
 Carson. — And marches to the Pacific coast. — The deeds of Colonel Fremont. — Rebellion 
 of the Californians. — They defeat the Mexicans. — Monterey, San Diego, and Los Angelos 
 taken. — Battle of San Gabriel. — The march and battles of Colonel Doniphan. — Taylor's 
 and Wool's forces ordered to the coast. — Critical condition of Taylor's army. — Ap- 
 proach of Santa Anna. — Battle of Buena Vista. — Retirement of Taylor from the 
 service. — Scott besieges and captures Vera Cruz. — Marches against the capital. — Battle 
 of Cerro Gordo. — Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla are taken. — Negotiations. — The march 
 renewed. — Tlie army passes the Cordilleras. — Reaches Ayotla. — Turns to the left. — The 
 approaches and fortifi cations of the city. — Storming of Contreras and San .\ntonio. — 
 Churubusco is carried. — The Mexicans driven back to Chapultepec. — More foolish nego- 
 tiations. — Scott rests his army. — And then advances. — Molino del Rey and Casa de 
 Mata are stormed. — Chapultepec is taken.— Flight of the Mexican government. — The 
 American army enters the city. — Santa Anna attacks the hospitals at Puebla. — Is driven 
 off by General Lane. — Downfall of the Mexican authority. — The treaty of Gaudalupe 
 Hidalgo. — Its terms, — Settlement of the Oregon boundary. — The international line es- 
 tablished on the forty-ninth iwrallel. — The discovery of gold in California. — The excite- 
 ment which ensued.— Importance of the mines. — Founding of the Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion. — Death of .Jackson and John Quincy Adams. — Wisconsin is admitted. — Establish- 
 ment of the Department of the Interior. — The canvass for President. — Rise of the Free 
 Soil party. — The Wilmot proviso. — Election of Taylor to the presidency. 447-462. 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 Sketch of the chief magistrate. — The question of slavery in California. — A terri- 
 torial government is organized. — A petition for admission. — The controversy in Con- 
 gress. — Other political vexations. — Clay as a peace-maker. — Passage of the Omnibus 
 Bill. — And its provisions. — Deatli of the President. — The slaverv excitement subsides. 
 
CONTENTS. XXIX 
 
 — The question not permanently settled. — Eetirement of Mr. Clay. — Effects of the Om- 
 nibus Bill on the administration. — The Cuban expedition is organized. — Lopez and his 
 associates are executed. — Important measures recommended by the President. — A diffi- 
 culty arises about the coast-fisheries. — And is settled by a treaty. — The tour of Kossuth. 
 — Arctic expeditions of Franklin, De Haven, and Kane. — Death of Calhoun, Clay, and 
 Webster. — The Cuban excitement in Europe. — The Tripartite Treaty is proposed. — 
 And rejected. — Everett's reply to France and Great Britain. — The candidates for the 
 presidency. — Pierce is elected 463-469. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 Pierce's administkation. 
 
 Sketch of Franklin Pierce. — A route for a Pacific railroad is explored. — Settle- 
 ment of the boundary of New Mexico. — The Japanese ports are opened to the United 
 States. — The World's Fair. — Walker organizes a filibustering expedition against Central 
 America. — Is captured. — Makes a second de.scent on Nicaraugua. — And then a third. — 
 Is defeated, captured, and executed. — The Martin Koszta afKiir. — Cuban difficulties. — 
 The Ostend manifesto. — A bill to organize Kansas and Nebraska is passed. — Repeal 
 of the Missouri Compromise. — Renewal of the slavery agitation. — The troubles in Kan- 
 sas. — Two territorial governments are organized. — Geary sent thither as military gov- 
 ernor. — Marshaling of parties on the .slavery question. — Buchanan is elected to the pres- 
 idency. . . 469-4"4. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 bitchanan's administration. 
 
 Sketch of the President. — The Dred Scott decision.^ — The Mormon rebellion in 
 Utah. — Is suppressed by the army. — A difficulty arises witli Paraguay. — But is settled 
 by treaty. — The first Atlantic cable is laid. — Minnesota is admitted. — Retirement and 
 sketch of Houston. — Death of Wa.shington Irving. — His work in American literature. 
 — The Personal Liberty bills. — John Brown's insurrection. — Continuance of the troubles 
 in Kansas — The political parties again divide on the slavery question. — The National 
 conventions. — The candidates and the canvass. — Lincoln is elected President. — Condi- 
 tion of affairs in the government. — Position of Buchanan. — The drama of secession. — 
 Seven Stales withdraw from the Union. — The secession conventions. — Position of Steph- 
 ens. — Organization of the Provisional Confederate government. — Davis for President. — 
 The peace movements end in failure. — Paralysis of the administration. — Seizure 
 of forts and arsenals by the Confederates. — The strife in Kansas continues. — The 
 Star of the Wesl is driven off from Fort Sumter. — The President elect reaches Wash- 
 ington 474-482. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 Lincoln's administration and the civil war. 
 
 Sketch of Abraham Lincoln. — Organization of his cabinet. — His purpose to repos- 
 sess the forts of Die United States. — Preparations to reinforce Fort Sumter. — Confed- 
 erate movements in Charleston. — Bombardment and fall of Fort Sumter. — The event 
 fires the nation. — The call for troops. — Secession of Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, 
 and Tennes.see. — The soldiers attacked in Baltimore. — Capture of Harper's Ferrv and 
 the Norfolk navy yard. — Prodigious activity and preparations. — Davis and his cabinet 
 at Richmond 482-485. 
 
XXX CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEK LXII. 
 
 THE CAUSES. 
 
 The causes. — First, the diflerent construction of the Constitution in the North and 
 the South. — Fatal character of this dispute. — Second, the system of slavery.- — The 
 cotton gin. — The Missouri agitation. — The annexation of Texas, and the Mexican 
 War. — The nullification measures of South Carolina. — The Omnibus Bill. — The Kan- 
 sas-Nebraska imbroglio. — Third, the want of intercourse between the North and 
 the South. — Fourth, the publication of sectional books. — Fifth, the influence of dema- 
 gogues. ......... . . . . 485-488. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 FIKST YEAR OF THE WAK. 
 
 Advance of the Union army. — Fight at Big Bethel. — Morris and McClellan move 
 forward in West Virginia. — Engagements at Philippi, Rich Mountain, Carrick's Ford, 
 Carnifex Ferry, Cheat Mountain, and Romney. — Tlie Confederates concentrate at 
 Manassas. — The national forces advance. — The skirmish, the battle, and the rout. — 
 Efiect on the country. — The Confederate government at Richmond. — Sketch of Davi.s. 
 — Affairs in Missouri. — Confederates capture Liberty. — Form Camj) Jackson. — Lyon 
 defends St. Louis. — Battles of Carthage and Springfield. — Price cajitures Lexington. — 
 Fremont pursues hira. — And is superseded. — Grant captures Belmont. — McClellan is 
 made commander-in-chief. — The disaster at Ball's Blulf. — Hatteras inlet. Port Royal, 
 and Hilton Head secured by the Federals. — Capture of Mason and Slidell. — Tliey are 
 released by Mr. Seward 490-495. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF 'G2. 
 
 Extent and position of the Union forces. — The Confederates defeated on the Big 
 Sandy and at Mill Spring. — Fort Henry is taken. — Siege and capture of Fort Donelson. 
 
 Battle of Shiloh. — Island Number Ten is taken. — The battle of Pea Ridge. — Fight 
 
 of the Monitor and the Merrimuc. — Burnside captures Roanoke Island, Newbern, and 
 Beaufort. — Savannah is blockaded. — Farragut aud Butler ascend the Mississippi. — Pass 
 Forts Jackson and St. Philip. — Capture of New Orleans. — Fall of Jackson and St. 
 Philip. — Kirby Smith invades Kentucky. — Battle of Richmond. — Bragg marches on 
 Louisville.— The city held by Buell. — Bragg retreats. — Battle of Pcrryville. — Battles of 
 luka and Corinth. — Grant moves against Vicksburg. — Retreats. — Battle of Chickasaw 
 Bayou.— Battle of Murfreesborough.— Banks and Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley.— 
 Fight at Front Royal.— The Federals retreat across the Potomac— Tlie Confederates 
 fall back in turn.— Battles of Cross Keys and Port Republic.— McClellan advances.— 
 Beginning of the Peninsular campaign.— Yorktown is taken.— Then William.^burg and 
 West Point.— Wool captures Norfolk.— The Virginia destroyed.— Battle of Fair Oaks.— 
 Lee made general-in-chief of the Confederates.— McClellan changes base.— The .seven 
 days' battles —The Union army at Harrison's Landing.— Lee strikes for Washington.— 
 Is opposed by Pope.— Flank movement of Jackson.— Battles of Manassas, Centreville, 
 and Chantilly.— Lee invades Maryland.— Harper's Ferry is taken.— Engagement at 
 South Mountain.— Battle of Antietam.— Confederates retreat.— Burnside in command.— 
 Plans a campaign against Richmond.— Advances against Fredericksburg.— And is de- 
 feated 49^510. 
 
CONTENTS. xxxi 
 
 CHAPTER LXV. 
 
 THE WOKK OF '63. 
 
 Proportions of the conflict.— New calls for troops. — The Emancipation Proclama- 
 tion. — Capture of Arkansas Post. — Movements against Vicksburg. — The fleet passes the 
 batteries. — Grant at Bruinsburg. — Battles of Port Gibson, Kaymond, Jackson, and 
 Champion Hills. — The siege and capture of Vick.sburg. — Fall of Port Hudson. — Cav- 
 alry raids of Jackson, Stuart, and Grierson. — Kosecrans drives Bragg across the Ten- 
 nessee. — Battle of Chattanooga. — And the .siege. — Storming of Lookout and Missionary 
 Ridge. — Longstreet in Tennessee. — Siege of Knoxville. — Engagements at Springfield, 
 Cape Girardeau, and Helena. — The sacking of Lawrence. — Capture of Little Rock. — 
 Morgan invades Indiana. — Passes into Ohio. — Is hemmed in and captured. — The Con- 
 federates take Galveston. — The siege of Charleston. — Hooker commands the Army of 
 the Potomac. — Battle of Chancellorsville. — Death of Stonewall Jackson. — Stoneman's 
 raid. — Siege of Suflblk. — Lee invades Pennsylvania. — The battle of Gettysburg. — Re- 
 treat of the Confederates. — The conscription. — Riot in New York. — The draft.^New 
 calls for soldiers. — West Virginia a State. ...... 510-523. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 
 THE CLOSmO CONFLICTS. 
 
 Sherman's campaign to Meridian. — Smith fails to form a junction. — Sherman 
 retires to Vicksburg. — Forrest's raid. — The Red River expedition. — Plan of the cam- 
 paign. — Capture of Fort de Russy, Alexandria, and Natchitoches. — Union disaster and 
 retreat. — Steele falls back to Little Rock. — Grant lieutenant-general. — Plan of the cam- 
 paigns of '64. — Sherman advances. — Battles of Dalton, Resaca, and Dallas. — Attacks 
 and repulses at Kenesaw. — The Confederates fall back to Atlanta. — Siege and capture of 
 the stronghold. — Hood invades Tennessee. — Thomas sent to confront him. — Battle of 
 Franklin. — Siege of Nashville. — Rout and ruin of Hood's army. — Sherman's march to 
 the sea. — Capture of Macon, Milledgeville, Gibson, and Waynesborough. — Storming 
 of Fort McAllister. — Escape of Hardee. — And capture of the city. — The Union army in 
 Savannah. — Renewal of the march. — Columbia, Charleston, and Fayetteville are taken. 
 — Battle of Kilpatrick's and Hampton's Cav.alry. — Johnston restored to command. — 
 Battles of Averasborough and Bentonsville. — Capture of Goldsborough and Raleigh. — ■ 
 Great raid of Stoneman. — Surrender of Johnston. — Farragut enters Mobile Bay. — 
 Defeats the Confederate squadron. — Captures Forts Gaines and Morgan. — Fort Fisher 
 is besieged by Porter and Butler. — The first effort fails. — Tlie siege is renewed. — 
 And the fort taken by storm. — Cushing's exploit. — The Confederate cruisers. — Injury 
 done to the commerce of the L^nited States. — The Savannah. — Career of the Sumter. — 
 Cruise of tlie NajihviUe. — The Confedei-ates use the British ship-yards. — Building of the 
 Florida. — Her fate. — The Georifia, the Olustee, the Shenandoah, and the Chickamauga built 
 at Gla.sgow. — End of the Chickamauga and the Tallahassee. — Career of the Georgia and 
 the Shenandoah. — The Alabama. — Her character. — She scours the ocean. — Runs into 
 Cherbourg. — Is caught by the Kearsarge. — And destroyed. — The .\rmy of the Potomac 
 moves from Culpepper. — Reaches the Wilderness. — The battles. — Grant advances to 
 Spottsylvania. — Terrible fighting there. — The Union army moves to Cold Harbor. — 
 Is repulsed in two battles. — Losses. — Grant changes base. — Butler captures Bermuda 
 and City Point. — Is driven back by Beauregard. — Junction of the armies. — Advance on 
 Petersburg. — The assaults. — The siege begins. — Sigel on the Shenandoah. — Battle of 
 New Market. — Hunter in command. — Engagement at Piedmont. — Retreat of Hunter. — 
 
 Early enters the valley. — Crosses the Potomac. — Defeats Wallace. — Threatens Wash- 
 3 
 
xxxii CONTENTS. 
 
 ington and Baltimore. — Retreats into Virginia. — Fight at Winchester. — The Confed- 
 erates burn Chambersburg. — Sheridan is sent into the valley. — Battles of Winchester 
 and Fisher's Hill. — Sheridan ravages the country. — Early comes. — Routs the Federals 
 at Cedar Creek. — Sheridan returns, and destroys Early's army. — The siege of Peters- 
 burg continues. — Battles of Boydtown and Five Forks. — Flight of the Confederate 
 government.— Fall of Petersburg and Richmond. — Surrender of Lee. — Collapse of the 
 Confederacy. — The Federal authority is reestablished. — Capture, imprisonment, and 
 trial of Davis. — Lincoln re-elected. — Financial condition of the country. — Treasury 
 notes. — Internal Revenue. — Legal Tenders. — Bonds. — Banks. — The debt. — Lincoln is 
 reinaugurated. — Visits Richmond. — Is assassinated. — Punishment of his murderers. — 
 Character of Lincoln. ........... 523-543. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 Johnson's administration. 
 
 Johnson in the presidency. — Sketch of his life and character. — Slavery is formally 
 abolished. — The Amnesty Proclamation. — A struggle with the war-debt. — Napoleon's 
 empire in Mexico. — Maximilian is captured and shot. — Final success of the Atlantic 
 telegraph. — The Postal Money-Order system is established. — The Territories assume 
 their final form. — Alaska is purchased from Russia. — The difficulty between the Presi- 
 dent and Congress.^ — The reconstruction imbroglio. — Second amnesty. — The Civil Rights 
 Bill is passed. — The Southern States are re-admitted. — A national convention at Phila- 
 delphia. — The President makes a tonr of the country. — Congressional measures of 
 reconstruction. — The breach is widened between the executive and Congress. — The ve- 
 toing business. — The President removes Stanton. — Is impeached. — And acquitted. — Gen- 
 eral Grant is elected President. ........ 544-551. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIII. 
 
 gbant's administration. 
 
 Sketch of President Grant. — The Pacific Railroad is completed. — The Fourteenth 
 and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution are adopted. — The story of Black 
 Friday. — The Southern States are restored to their place in the Union. — The ninth 
 census and its lesson. — The Santo Domingo business. — The Alabama claims are ad- 
 justed by the treaty of Washington and the Geneva court. — Railroad development 
 of the United States.— -The burning of Chicago. — The North-western boundary is 
 settled by arbitration. — The presidential election. — The candidates. — Grant is re- 
 elected. — Character of Greeley. — His death. — Great fire in Boston. — The Modoc war. — 
 Murder of the peace commissioners. — The savages are subdued. — The Louisiana im- 
 broglio. — The Credit Mobilier investigation. — The financial crisis of 1873-'74. — The 
 Northern Pacific Railroad enterprise. — Admission of Colorado. — Death-roll of emi- 
 nent men, — Sketches of Sumner and Wilson. — The great C^entennial. — Origination of 
 the enterprise. — Opposition. — General plan of the Exposition. — Organization. — The 
 monetary management. — Lukewarmness of the Government. — The Centennial Grounds. 
 — Dedication. — The General Regulations. — Nations participating. — Classification of 
 products. — The Centennial Buildings. — Descriptions of the same. — Main Building. — 
 Memorial Hall. — Machinery Hall. — Agricultural Hall. — Horticultural Hall. — United 
 States Government Building. — Woman's Pavilion. — Foreign and State Buildings. — Re- 
 ception of materials. — Scheme of Awards. — Opening ceremonies. — The Exposition 
 itself. — Description of exhibits in Main Building. — In Machinery Hall. — In the Gov- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXXIU 
 
 ernment Building. — In Agricultural Hall. — In Horticultural Hall. — In the Woman'tii 
 Pavilion. — In Memorial Hall. — The celebration of the Fourth of July in Philadel- 
 pliia. — Attendance at the E.Kposition. — The closing ceremonies. — The Sioux War. — The 
 great election of 1876. — A disputed presidency. — The result. . 552-632. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 Hayes's administkatiok. 
 
 Sketch of President Hayes. — His inaugural address. — The policy indicated. — Effect 
 of the same upon the country. — The new cabinet is organized. — The great Railroad 
 Strike breaks out. — And is suppressed. — Beginning of the Nez Perce War. — The tribe is 
 subdued by General Howard. — Silver is remonetized. — Tlie Yellow Fever epidemic in 
 the South. — The Halifax Fishery Commission. — How constituted. — Tlie award — A 
 Chinese Embassy established in the United States. — A Life Saving Service is instituted 
 by Congress. — Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government. — Issues of 1880. — 
 Garfield elected President. — Refunding legislation. — Tour of Ex-President Grant. — Re- 
 sults of the Census of 1880. — Death of Senator Morton, William Cullen Bryant, Bay- 
 ard Taylor, and Senators Chandler and Carpenter. . . 633-646. 
 
 Sketch 
 reflections. 
 
 CHAPTER LXX. 
 
 of President Garfield. — His inaugural. — The new cabinet.- 
 
 -Concluding 
 647-650. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The outlook for the Republic. — Byron's view of nations. — The hopeful side. — 
 Present achievements of the United States. — Natural advantages. — How the Saxon has 
 improved them. — Things necessary to the perpetuity of American institutions: First, 
 National Unity. — Second, Universal Education. — Third, Toleration. — Fourth, The No- 
 bility of Labor. — Reflections 651-654. 
 
 APPENDIXES. 
 
 Appendix A.- 
 
 — Mandeville's Argument .... 
 
 655-658 
 
 Appendix B.- 
 
 —Franklin's Constitution .... 
 
 659-660. 
 
 Appendix C- 
 
 -Declaration of Independence 
 
 661-663 
 
 Appendix D.- 
 
 —Articles of Confederation .... 
 
 664-669 
 
 Appendix E.- 
 
 —Constitution of the United States 
 
 670-680 
 
 Appendix F.- 
 
 —Washington's Farewell Address . 
 
 681-690 
 
 Appendix G.- 
 
 —The Emancipation Proclamation 
 
 691-692 
 
 VOCABUXAKY 
 
 
 693-695 
 
 Index . 
 
 
 696-705 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Front view of the Capitol FrorUispkce. 
 
 Map of Aboriginal America 44 
 
 Diagram of European Kinship 45 
 
 Diagram of Indian Kinship 46 
 
 Specimen of Indian Writing 48 
 
 A North American Indian 49 
 
 Norse Explorations 52 
 
 A Norse Sea King of the 11th Century 53 
 
 Christopher Columbus 55 
 
 Chart of Voyage and Discovery 56 
 
 Fernando Cortez 59 
 
 Map of Voyage and Discovery 76 
 
 Map of English Grants 86 
 
 Captain John Smith 96 
 
 Jamestown and Vicinity 103 
 
 Chart of the Colonial Period 122 
 
 The Treaty between Governor Carver and Massasoit 124 
 
 John Winthrop 127 
 
 Koger Williams' reception by the Indians 129 
 
 Early Settlements in New England 131 
 
 First Scene of King Philip's War 140 
 
 Second Scene of King Philip's War 141 
 
 Third Scene of King Philip's War 143 
 
 Siege of Louisburg, 1745 158 
 
 Sir Henry Hudson 161 
 
 French, English, Dutch, Swedish and Spanish Provinces, 1655 .... 168 
 
 Peter Stuyvesant 171 
 
 Scene of the Pequod War 187 
 
 The Younger Winthrop 190 
 
 The Old Stone Tower at Newport 195 
 
 East and West Jersey, 1677 205 
 
 William Penn 211 
 
 Philadelphia and Vicinity 213 
 
 Lord Baltimore 217 
 
 James Oglethorpe 239 
 
 Country of the Savannah, 1740 242 
 
 First Scene of the French and Indian War, 1750 253 
 
 Scene of Braddock's Defeat, 1755 260 
 
 The Acadian Isthmus, 1755 262 
 
 The E-xile of the Acadians 263 
 
 (x.xxiv) 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. xxxv 
 
 Page 
 
 Vicinity of Lake George, 1755 265 
 
 Vicinity of Quebec, 1759 274 
 
 General James Wolfe 275 
 
 The Kevelation of Pontiac's Conspiracy 278 
 
 The Old Thirteen Colonies 281 
 
 Patrick lienry 290 
 
 Samuel Adams 295 
 
 Scene of the Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775 300 
 
 Siege of Boston, 1776 ............ 306 
 
 Chart of the Kevolution and Confederation 306 
 
 Battle of Long Island, 1776 311 
 
 Scene of Operations about New York, 1776 314 
 
 Battles of Trenton and Princeton, 1776-7 316 
 
 Scene of Burgoyne's Invasion, 1777 .......... 323 
 
 Encampment at Valley Forge, 1777-8 327 
 
 Benjamin Franklin 330 
 
 Siege of Charleston, 1780 340 
 
 Scene of Operations in the South, 1780-1 342 
 
 Scene of Arnold's Treason, 1780 344 
 
 General Greene ............. 351 
 
 Siege of Yorktown, October, 1781 353 
 
 Map of the United States at the Close of the Kevolution 364 
 
 Alexander Hamilton 359 
 
 George Washington 363 
 
 Chart of the National Period — First Section 364 
 
 John Adams 372 
 
 Thomas Jefferson ............. 377 
 
 Chief-Justice Marshall 380 
 
 Robert Fulton 386 
 
 James Madison 389 
 
 Sceneof Hull's Campaign, 1812 394 
 
 The Niagara Frontier, 1812 399 
 
 Sceneof the Creek War, 1813-14 403 
 
 La Fayette 423 
 
 Chart of the National Period — Second Section 424 
 
 Andrew Jackson ............. 427 
 
 Daniel Webster 4i29 
 
 The New Patent-Office at Washington 433 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument 443 
 
 Professor Morse 446 
 
 Texas and Coahuila, 1845 448 
 
 Scene of Scott's Campaign, 1847 454 
 
 General Winfield Scott 457 
 
 The Smithsonian Institution 460 
 
 President Taylor 463 
 
 Henry Clay 465 
 
 John C.Calhoun 468 
 
 General Sam Houston ............ 477 
 
 Washington Irving ............. 478 
 
 Alexander H. Stephens 481 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 483 
 
xxxvi ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Chart of the National Period— Third Section 489 
 
 Scene of Operations in West Virginia, 1861 490 
 
 Vicinity of Manassas Junction, 1861 491 
 
 Jefferson Davis 492 
 
 Scene of Operations in the South-west, 1861 493 
 
 William H. Seward 495 
 
 Battle of Murfreesborough, December 31st, 1862 500 
 
 Battle of Murfreesborough, January 2d, 1863 501 
 
 Scene of Campaign in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, 1862 . . . 503 
 
 General Eobert E. Lee 504 
 
 Vicinity of Richmond, 1862 505 
 
 The Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862 507 
 
 The Proposed Eoutes from Washington to Richmond, 1862 508 
 
 Vicksburg and Vicinity, 1863 512 
 
 Battle of Chickamauga, September 19, 20, 1863 514 
 
 Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, November 23-25, 1863 .... 515 
 
 Stonewall Jackson 519 
 
 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 2, 3, 1863 520 
 
 Sherman's Campaign, 1864 525 
 
 General Thomas 527 
 
 General Sherman 528 
 
 Admiral Farragut 531 
 
 Operations in Virginia, 1864 and 1865 535 
 
 Petersburg, Richmond, Appomattox, 1865 539 
 
 Map of the United States, 1876 546 
 
 Chief-Justice Chase 551 
 
 President Grant 552 
 
 Map of the Territorial Growth of the United States 554 
 
 Horace Greeley ............. 558 
 
 Charles Sumner 562 
 
 Independence Hall, 1876 563 
 
 General Joseph R. Hawley 566 
 
 Centennial Medal — Obverse 567 
 
 Centennial Medal — Reverse 567 
 
 The Centennial Grounds and Buildings 569 
 
 Main Exposition Building, Centennial Exhibition 576 
 
 Memorial Hall, " " 579 
 
 Machinery Hall, " " 581 
 
 Agricultural Hall, " " 583 
 
 Horticultural Hall, " " 585 
 
 U. S. Government Building, " " 587 
 
 Woman's Pavilion, " " 589 
 
 Inaugural Ceremonies of the Centennial Exhibition 593 
 
 Alfred T. Goshorn 595 
 
 View in the Main Exhibition Building 597 
 
 Interior View of Machinery Hall 607 
 
 Interior View of the United States Government Building 613 
 
 Interior View of Agricultural Hall 616 
 
 Interior View of Horticultural Hall 621 
 
 Rotunda of Memorial Hall 623 
 
 Scene of the Sioux War, 1876 629 
 
 Riillierford B. Hayes 633 
 
 James A. Garfield 647 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. The history of every nation is divided into periods. For 
 a while the genius of a people will be turned to some particular pur- 
 suit. Men will devote themselves to certain things and labor to ac- 
 complish certain results. Then the spirit of the age will change, and 
 historical facts will assume a diflerent character. Thus arises what is 
 called A Period in History. In studying the history of the United 
 States it is of the first importance to understand the periods into which 
 it is divided. 
 
 2. First of all, there was a time when the New World was under 
 the dominion of the aborigines. From ocean to ocean the copper-coU 
 ored children of the woods ruled with undisputed sway. By bow and 
 arrow, by flint and hatchet, the Red man supported his rude civiliza- 
 tion and waited for the coming of the pale-faced races. 
 
 3. After the discovery of America, the people of Europe were 
 hundreds of years in making themselves acquainted with the shape and 
 character of the New World. During that time explorers and adven- 
 turers went everywhere and settled nowhere. To make new discov- 
 eries was the universal passion ; but nobody cared to plant a colony. 
 As long as this spirit prevailed, historical events bore a common char- 
 acter, being produced by common causes. Hence arose the second pe- 
 riod in our history — the Period of Voyage and Discovery. 
 
 4. As soon as the adventurers had satisfied themselves with trac- 
 ing sea-coasts, ascending rivers and scaling mountains, they began to 
 form permanent settlements. And each settlement was a new State in 
 the wilderness. Every voyager now became ambitious to plant a col- 
 ony. Kings and queens grew anxious to confer their names on the 
 towns and commonwealths of the New World. Thus arose a third pe- 
 riod — the Period of Colonial History. 
 
 (xxivii) 
 
xxxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 5. Then the colonies grew strong and multiplied. There were 
 thirteen little sea-shore republics. The people began to consult about 
 their privileges and to talk of the rights of freemen. Ojjpression on 
 the part of the mother-country was met with resistance, and tyranny 
 with defiance. There was a revolt against the king ; and the patriots 
 of the different colonies fought side by side, and won their freedom. 
 Then they built them a Union, strong and great. This is the Period 
 of Revolution and Confederation. 
 
 6. Then the United States of America entered upon their career 
 as a nation. Three times tried by war and many times vexed with 
 civil dissensions, the Union of our fathers still remains for us and for 
 posterity. Such is the Period of Nationality. 
 
 7. Collecting these results, we find five distinctly marked peri- 
 ods in the history of our country : 
 
 First. The Aboriginal, Period ; from remote antiquity to the 
 coming of the White men. 
 
 Second. The Period of Voyage and Discovery; A. D. 
 986-1607. 
 
 Third. The Colonial Period; A. D. 1607-1775. 
 
 Fourth. The Period of Revolution and Confederation; 
 A. D. 1775-1789. 
 
 Fifth. The National Period; A. D. 1789-1881. 
 
 In this order the History of the United States will be presented 
 in the following pages. 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PAKT I. 
 
 ABORIGINAL AMEEICA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE RED MEN— ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, CHARACTER. 
 
 THE primitive inhabitants of the New World were the Red men 
 called Indians. The name Indian was conferred upon them from 
 their real or fancied resemblance to the people of India. But without 
 any such similarity the name would have been the same; for Colum- 
 bus and his followers, believing that they had only rediscovered the 
 Indies, would of course call the inhabitants Indians. The supposed 
 similarity between the two races, if limited to mere personal appearance, 
 had some foundation in fact; but in manners, customs, institutions, 
 and character, no two peoples could be more dissimilar than the Amer- 
 ican aborigines and the sleepy inhabitants of China and Japan. 
 
 The origin of the North American Indians is involved in com- 
 plete obscurity. That they are one of the older races of mankind can 
 not be doubted. But at what date or by what route they came to the 
 Western continent is an unsolved problem. Many theories have been 
 proposed to account for the Red man's presence in the New World, 
 but most of them have been vague and unsatisfactory. The notion that 
 the Indians are the descendants of the Israelites is absurd. That half 
 civilized tribes, wandering from beyond the Euphrates, should reach 
 North America, surpasses human credulity. That Europeans or Afri- 
 cans, at some remote period, crossed the Atlantic by voyaging from is- 
 land to island, seems altogether improbable. That the Kamtchatkans, 
 coming by way of Behring's Strait, reached the frozen North-west and 
 
 (41) 
 
42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 became the progenitors of the Red men, has no evidence other than 
 conjecture to support it. Until further research shall throw additional 
 light on the history and migrations of the primitive races of mankind, 
 the origin of the Indians will remain shrouded in mystery. It is not 
 unlikely that a more thorough knowledge of the North American lan- 
 guages may furnish a clue to the early history of the tribes that spoke 
 them. 
 
 The Indians belong to the Ganoicanian, or Bow-and-Arrow 
 family of men. Some races cultivate the soil ; others have herds and 
 flocks ; others build cities and ships. To the Red man of the Western 
 continent the chase was every thing. AVithout the chase he pined and 
 languished and died. To smite with swift arrow the deer and the bear 
 was the chief delight and profit of the primitive Americans. Such a 
 race could live only in a country of woods and wild animals. The il- 
 limitable hunting-grounds — forest, and hill, and river — were the In- 
 dian's earthly paradise, and the type of his home hereafter. 
 
 The American aborigines belonged to several distinct families or 
 nations. Above the sixtieth parallel of latitude the whole continent ^ 
 from Labrador to Alaska was inhabited by the Esquimaux. The name 
 means the eaters of raw meat. They lived in snow huts, or in hovels, 
 partly or wholly underground. Sometimes their houses were more ar- 
 tistically constructed out of the bones of whales and walruses. Their 
 manner of life was that of fishermen and hunters. They clad them- 
 selves in winter with the skins of seals, and in summer with those of 
 reindeers. Inured to cold and exposure, they made long journeys in 
 sledges drawn by dogs, or risked their lives in open boats fighting 
 with whales and polar bears among the terrors of the icebergs. By 
 eating abundantly of oils and fat meats they kept the fires of life 
 a-burning, even amid the rigors and desolations of the Arctic winter. 
 
 Lying south of the Esquimaux, embracing the greater part of 
 Canada and nearly all that portion of the United States east of the 
 Mississippi and north of the thirty-seventh parallel of latitude, 
 spread the great family of the Algonquixs. It appears that their 
 original seat was on the Ottawa River. At the beginning of the sev- 
 enteenth century the Algonquins numbered fully a quarter of a million. 
 The tribes of this great family were nomadic in their habits, roaming 
 from one hunting-ground and river to another, according to the exi- 
 gencies of fishing and the chase. Agriculture was but little esteemed. 
 They were divided into many subordinate tribes, each having its local 
 name, dialect, and traditions. When the first European settlements 
 were planted the Algonquin race was already declining in numbers 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA, 43 
 
 and influence. "Wasting diseases destroyed whole tribes. Of all the 
 Indian nations the Algonquins sulfered most from contact with the 
 White man. Before his aggressive spirit, his fiery rum, and his de- 
 structive weapons, the warriors were unable to stand. The race has 
 withered to a shadow; only a few thousands remain to rehearse the 
 story of their ancestors. 
 
 Within the wide territory occupied by the Algonquins lived the 
 powerful nation of the Hueon-Iroquois. Their domain extended 
 over the country reaching from Georgian Bay and Lake Huron to 
 Lakes Erie and Ontario, south of those lakes to the valley of the Up- 
 per Ohio, and eastward to the River Sorel. Within this extensive dis- 
 trict was a confederacy of vigorous tribes, having a common ancestry, 
 and generally — though not always — acting together in war. At the 
 time of their greatest power and influence the Huron-Iroquois em- 
 braced no less than nine allied nations. These were the Hurons 
 proper, living north of Lake Erie; the Eries and Andastes, south of 
 the same water; the Tuscaroras, of Carolina, who ultimately joined 
 their kinsmen in the North; the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Onei- 
 das, and Mohawks, constituting the famous Five Nations of New York. 
 The warriors of this great confederation presented the Indian character 
 in its most favorable aspect. They were brave, patriotic, and eloquent; 
 not wholly averse to useful industry; living in respectable villages; 
 tilling the soil with considerable success; faithful as friends but terri- 
 ble as enemies. 
 
 South of the country of the Algonquins were the Cherokees 
 and THE MoBiLiAN Nations; the former occupying Tennessee, and 
 the latter covering the domain between the Lower Mississippi and the 
 Atlantic. The Cherokees were highly civilized for a primitive peo- 
 ple, and contact with the whites seemed to improve rather than 
 degrade them. The principal tribes of the Mobilians were the Ya- 
 massees and Creeks of Georgia, the Seminoles of Florida, and the 
 Choctaws and Chickasaws of Mississippi. These displayed the usual 
 «haracteristics of the Red men, with this additional circumstance, that 
 below the thirty-second parallel of latitude evidences of temple-build- 
 ing, not practiced among the Northern tribes, began to appear. 
 
 West of the Father of Waters was the great and widely-spread 
 race of the Dakotas, whose territory extended from the Arkansas 
 River to the country of the Esquimaux and westward to the Rocky 
 Mountains. Their languages and institutions, diifering much among 
 the various tribes, are not so well understood as those of some other 
 nations. South of the land of the Dakotas, in a district nearly cor- 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 
 
 45 
 
 warfare. Fighting was limited to the surprise, the ambuscade, the 
 massacre ; and military strategy consisted of cunning and treachery. 
 Quarter was rarely asked, and never granted ; those who were spared 
 from the fight were only reserved for a barbarous captivity, ransom, 
 or the stake. In the torture of his victims all the diabolical ferocity 
 of the savage warrior's nature burst forth without restraint. 
 
 In times of peace the Indian character shone to a better advan- 
 tage. But the Red man was, at his best estate, an unsocial, solitary, 
 and gloomy spirit. 
 He was a man of 
 the woods. He 
 communed only 
 with himself and 
 the genius of sol- 
 itude. He sat 
 apart. The forest 
 was better than 
 his wigwam, and 
 his wigwam bet- 
 ter than the vil- 
 lage. The Indian 
 woman was a de- 
 graded creature, a 
 drudge, a beast 
 of burden ; and 
 the social prin- 
 ciple was c o r - 
 respondingly low. 
 The organization 
 of the Indian fam- 
 ily was so peculiar 
 as to require a special consideration. Among civilized nations the 
 family is so constructed that the lines of kinshijj diverge constantly 
 from the line of descent, so that collateral kinsmen with each gen- 
 eration stand at a still greater remove from each other. The above 
 diagram will serve to show how in a European family the lines of 
 consanguinity diverge until the kinship becomes so feeble as to be no 
 longer recognized. It will be observed that this fact of constant di- 
 vergence is traceable to the establishment of a male line of descent. 
 
 In the Indian family all this is reversed. The descent is es- 
 tablished in the female line; and as a consequence the ties of kinship 
 
 DIAGRAM OF EUROPEAN KINSHIP. 
 
46 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 converge upon each other until they all meet in the granddaughtep. 
 That is, in the aboriginal nations of North America, every grandson 
 and granddaughter was the grandson and granddaughter of the whole 
 tribe. This arose from the fact that all the uncles of a given person 
 were reckoned as his fathers also; all the mother's sisters were mothers; 
 all the cousins were sisters and brothers; all the nieces were daugh- 
 ters ; all the nephews, sons, etc. This peculiarity of the Indian family 
 organization is illustrated in the annexed diagram. 
 
 Civil government 
 among the Indian na- 
 tions was in its primi- 
 tive stages of develop- 
 ment. Each tribe had 
 its own sachem, or 
 chieftain, to whom in 
 matters of peace and 
 war a tolerable degree 
 of obedience was ren- 
 dered. At times con- 
 federations were form- 
 ed, based either on ties 
 of kinship or the exi- 
 gencies of war. But 
 these confederations 
 were seldom enduring, 
 and were likely at any 
 time to be brokeu up 
 by the barbarous pas- 
 sion and insubordina- 
 tion of the tribes who 
 composed them. Sometimes a sachem would arise with such marked 
 abilities, warlike prowess, and strength of will, as to gain an influence, 
 if not a positive leadership over many nations. But with the death of 
 the chieftain, or sooner, each tribe, resuming its independence, would 
 return to its own ways. No general Indian Congress was known ; but 
 national and tribal councils were frequently called to debate questions 
 of policy and right. 
 
 In matters of religion the Indians were a superstitious race, but 
 seldom idolaters. They believed in a great spirit, everywhere present, 
 ruling the elements, showing favor to the obedient, and punishing the 
 sinful. Him they worshiped; to him they sacrificed. But not in tem- 
 
 DIAGRAM OF INDIAN KINSHIP. 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 47 
 
 pies, for the Indians built none. They also believed in many subordi- 
 nate spirits — some good, some bad. Both classes frequented the earth. 
 The bad spirits brought evil dreams to the Indian ; diseases also, bad 
 passions, cruel winters, and starvation. The good spirits brought sun- 
 shine, peace, plentiful harvests, all the creatures of the chase. The 
 Medicine Man, or Prophet, obtained a knowledge of these things by 
 fasting and prayer, and then made revelations of the will and purposes 
 of the spirit world. The religious ceremonies of the Indians were per- 
 formed with great earnestness and solemn formality. 
 
 In the matter of the arts the Indian was a barbarian. His house 
 was a wigwam or hovel. Some poles set up in a circle, converging at 
 the top, covered with skins and the branches of trees, lined and some- 
 times floored with mats, a fire in the center, a low opening opposite 
 the point from which the wind blew — such was the aboriginal abode 
 of North America. Indian utensils were few, rude, and primitive. 
 Poorly-fashioned earthen pots, bags and pouches for carrying provis- 
 ions, and stone hammei's for pounding parched corn, were the stock 
 and store. A copper kettle was a priceless treasure. The warrior's 
 chief implement was his hatchet of stone or copper. This he always 
 carried with him, and it was rarely free from the stain of blood. His 
 weapon of offence and defence was the bow and arrow, by no means 
 an insignificant or feeble instrument. The arrow pointed with stone 
 or iron was frequently driven entirely through the ponderous buffalo. 
 The range of the winged missile was two hundred yards or more, and 
 the aim was one of fatal accuracy when the White man was the tar- 
 get. The Indian's clotliing was a blanket, thrown over his shoulders, 
 bound around him perhaps with a thong of leather. The material for 
 his moccasins * and leggins was stripped from the red buck, elk, or 
 buffalo. He was fond of hanging about his person an infinity of non- 
 sensical trappings ; fangs of rattlesnakes, claws of hawks, feathers of 
 eagles, bones of animals, scalps of enemies. He painted his face and 
 body, specially when the passion of war was on him, with all manner 
 of glaring and fantastic colors. So the Prophet of his nation taught 
 him; so he would be terrible to his enemies; so he would exemplify 
 the peculiarities of his nation and be unlike the Pale face. All the 
 higher arts were wanting. Indian writing consisted only of quaint 
 and half-intelligible hieroglyphics rudely scratched on the face of 
 rocks or cut in the bark of trees. The artistic sense of the savage 
 could rise no higher than a coarse necessity compelled the flight. 
 
 The language spoken by a people is always a matter of special 
 * The Algonquin word is makisin. 
 
48 
 
 HISTORY OF THE VNITED STATES. 
 
 interest and importance. The dialects of the Korth American races 
 bear many and evident marks of resemblance among themselves; but 
 little or no analogy to the languages of other nations. If there is any 
 similarity at all, it is found between the Indian tongues and those 
 
 spoken by the 
 nomadic races 
 of Asia. The 
 vocabulary of 
 the Red men 
 was a very 
 limited one. 
 The principal 
 objects of na- 
 ture had spec- 
 ial names, and 
 actions were 
 likewise spe- 
 cifically ex- 
 2)ressed. Ab- 
 stract ideas but 
 rarely f o u n d 
 expression in 
 
 any of the Indian languages ; such ideas could only be expressed by 
 a long and labored circumlocution. Words had a narrow but very 
 intense meaning. There was, for instance, no general word signify- 
 ing fo hunt or to fish ; but one woi'd signified " to-kill-a-deer-with-an- 
 arrow;" another, " to-take-fish-by-striking-the-ice." In most of the 
 dialects there was no word for brother; but "elder-brother" and 
 " younger-brother " could be expressed. Among many of the tribes 
 the meanings of words and phrases were so restricted that the M'ar- 
 rior would use one set of terms and the squaw another to express 
 the same ideas. The languages were monosyllabic ; but many of the 
 monosyllables might be combined to form compounds resembling the 
 polysyllables of European tongues. These compounds, expressing ab- 
 stract and difficult ideas, were sometimes inordinately long,* the whole 
 forming an explanation or description of the thing rather than a sin- 
 gle word. Scholars have applied the term agglutinative to those lan- 
 guages in which such labored and tedious forms of expression occur. 
 Of this sort are the tongues spoken by the nomadic races of Asia. 
 
 * For instance, in the Massachusetts dialect, the form of speech meaning " our ques- 
 tion" was this: Kum-mog-ko-don-at-toot-tum-moo-et-it-e-a-ong-an-nun-non-ash. 
 
 SPECIMEN OF INDIAN WRITING. 
 
 Translaiitm : Eight soldiers (9), with muskets (10), commanded by a cap- 
 tain (1), and accompanied by a secretary (2), a geologist (3), three attend- 
 ants (4, 5, 6), and two Indian guides, encamped here. They had three 
 camp fires (13, U, 15), and ate a turtle and a prairie hen (11, 12), for supper. 
 
ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 
 
 49 
 
 In personal appearance the Indians were strongfy marked. In 
 stature they were nearly all below the average of Europeans. The 
 Esquimaux are rarely five feet high, but are generally thick-set and 
 heavy. The Algonquins are taller and lighter in build ; a straight and 
 agile race, lean and 
 swift of foot. Eyes 
 jet-black and sunk- 
 en ; hair black and 
 straight; beard black 
 and scant; ski n 
 copper-colored, a red- 
 dish-black, cin- 
 namon-hued, brown ; 
 high cheek bones ; 
 forehead and skull 
 variable in shape and 
 proportion; hands 
 and feet small; body 
 lithe but not strong; 
 expression sinister, or 
 rarely dignified and 
 noble : — these are the 
 well-known features 
 and person of the 
 Indian. 
 
 Though gener- 
 all)' sedate in man- 
 ners and serious in 
 behavior, the Red men at times gave themselves up to merry-making 
 and hilarity. The dance was universal — not the social dance of civ- 
 ilized nations, but the dance of ceremony, of religion, and of war. 
 Sometimes the warriors danced alone, but frequently the women joined 
 in the wild exercise, circling around and around, chanting the weii'd, 
 monotonous songs of the tribes. Many other amusements were com- 
 mon, such as running, leaping, wrestling, shooting at a mark, racing 
 in canoes along swift rivers or placid lakes, playing at ball, or en- 
 gaging in intricate and exciting games, performed with small stones 
 resembling checkers cr dice. To this latter sport was not unfre- 
 quently added the intoxication of gambling, in which the warriors, 
 under the influence of their fierce passion, would often hazard and 
 
 * An authentic porti-ait of the celebrated Black Hawk, chief of the Sacs and Foxes. 
 4 
 
 A NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN.' 
 
50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lose their entire possessions. In soberer moments, the Red men, 
 never inclined to conversation, would sit in silence, communing each 
 with his own thoughts or lost in a dream under the fascination of 
 his pipe. The use of tobacco was universal and excessive ; and after 
 the introduction of intoxicating liquors by the Europeans the Indi- 
 ans fell into terrible drunkenness, only limited in its extent by the 
 amount of spirits which they could procure. It is doubtful whether 
 any other race has been so awfully degraded by drink. 
 
 Such is a brief sketch of the Red man — who wcis rather than is. 
 The only hope of the perpetuity of his race seems now to center in 
 the Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks and Chickasaws of the Indian Ter- 
 ritory. These nations, numbering in the aggregate about forty-eight 
 thousand souls, have attained a considerable degree of civilization ; 
 and with just and liberal dealing on the part of the Government the 
 outlook for the future is not discouraging. Most of the other Indian 
 tribes seem to be rapidly approaching extinction. Right or wrong, 
 such is the logic of events. Whether the Red man has been justly 
 deprived of the ownership of the New World will remain a subject 
 of debate ; that he has been deprived, can be none. The Saxon has 
 come. His conquering foot has trodden the vast domain from shore to 
 shore. The weaker race has withered from his presence and sword. 
 By the majestic rivers and in the depths of the solitary woods the 
 feeble sons of the Bow and Arrow will be seen no more. Only their 
 names remain on hill and stream and mountain. The Red man sinks 
 and fails. His eyes are to the West. To the prairies and forests, the 
 hunting-grounds of his ancestors, he says farewell. He is gone ! The 
 cypress and the hemlock sing his requiem. 
 
PART II. 
 
 TOY AGE A:ND DISCOYEET. 
 
 A. D. 986-1607. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ICELANDERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. 
 
 THE western continent was first seen by white men in A. D. 986. 
 A Norse navigator by the name of Herjulfson, sailing from 
 Iceland to Greenland, was caught in a storm and driven westward to 
 Newfoundland or Labrador. Two or three times the shores were 
 seen, but no landing was made or attempted. The coast was low, 
 abounding in forests, and so different from the well-known cliffs of 
 Greenland as to make it certain that another shore hitherto unknown 
 was in sight. On reaching Greenland, Herjulfson and his companions 
 told wondei-ful stories of the new lands seen in the west. 
 
 Fourteen years later, the actual discovery of America was made 
 by Lief Erickson. This noted Icelandic cap)tain, resolving to know 
 the truth about th.e country which Herjulfson had seen, sailed west- 
 ward from Greenland, and in the spring of the year 1001 reached 
 Labrador. Impelled by a spirit of adventure, he landed with his 
 companions, and made explorations for a considerable distance along 
 the coast. The country was milder and more attractive than his own, 
 and he was in no haste to return. Southward he went as far as 
 Massachusetts, where the daring company of Norsemen remained for 
 more than a vear. Rhode Island was also visited ; and it is alleged 
 that the hardv adventurers found their way into New York harbor. 
 
 What has once been done, whether by accident or design, may 
 easily be done again. In the years that followed Lief Erickson's dis- 
 covery, other companies of Norsemen came to the shores of America. 
 Thorwald, Lief 's brother, made a voyage to Maine and Massachu- 
 setts in 1002, and is said to have died at Fall River in the latter state. 
 
 (51) 
 
52 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Then another brother, Thorstein by name, arrived with a baud of 
 followers in 1005 ; and in the year 1007, Thorfinn Karlsefne, the 
 most distinguished mariner of his day, came with a crew of a hundred 
 and fifty men, and made explorations along the coast of Massachusetts, 
 
 Rhode Island, and per- 
 haps as far south as the 
 capes of Virginia. Other 
 companies of Icelanders 
 and Norwegians visited 
 the countries farther 
 north, and planted col- 
 onies in Newfoundland 
 and Nova Scotia. Little, 
 however, was known or 
 imagined by these rude 
 sailors of the extent of 
 the country which they 
 had discovered. They 
 sujiposed that it was only 
 a portion of Western 
 Greenland, which, bend- 
 ing to the north around 
 an arm of the ocean, had 
 reappeared in the M'est. 
 The settlements which 
 were made, M'ere feeble and soon broken up. Commerce was an im- 
 possibility in a country where there were only a few wretched savages 
 with no disposition to buy and nothing at all to sell. The spirit of 
 adventure was soon appeased, and the restless Northmen returned to 
 their own country. To this undefined line of coast, now vaguely 
 known to them, the Norse sailoi's gave the name of Vinlandj and 
 the old Icelandic chroniclers insi.st that it was a pleasant and beauti- 
 ful country. As compared with their own mountainous and frozen 
 island of the North, the coasts of New England may well have seemed 
 delightful. 
 
 The men who thus first visited the shores of the New World 
 were a race of hardy adventurers, as lawless and restless as any that 
 ever sailed the deej). Their mariners and soldiers penetrated every 
 clime. The better parts of France and England fell under their do- 
 minion. All the monarchs of the latter country after AVilliam the 
 Conqueror — himself the grandson of a sea-king — are descendants of 
 
 NORSE EXPLORATIONS. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 5S 
 
 the Norsemen. They were rovers of the sea; freebooters and pi- 
 rates; warriors auclacious and headstrong, wearing hoods surmounted 
 with eagles' wings and walruses' tusks, mailed armor, and for robes the 
 skins of polar bears. Woe to the people on whose defenceless coasts 
 the sea-kings landed with sword and torch ! Their wayward life and 
 ferocious disposition are well jJortrayed in one of their own old bal- 
 
 He scorns to rest 'neath the smoky rafter, 
 
 He plows with liis boat the roaring deep ; 
 The billows boil and the storm howls after — 
 But the tempest is only a thing of laughter, — 
 
 The sea-king loves it better than sleep ! 
 
 During the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries occa- 
 sional voyages continued to be made; and it is said that as late as 
 A. D. 1347 a Norwegian ship visited Labrador and the north-eastern 
 , parts of the United States. The Norse remains which have been 
 found at Newport, at Garnet 
 Point, and several other 
 places seem to point clearly 
 to some such' events as are 
 here described; and the Ice- 
 landic historians give a uni- 
 form and tolerably consistent 
 account of these early ex- 
 ploits of their countrymen. 
 When the word America is 
 mentioned in the hearing of 
 the Icelandic schoolboys, they 
 will at once answer, M'ith en- 
 thusiasm, " Oh, yes ; Lief Er- 
 ickson discovered that country 
 in the year 1001." 
 
 An event is to be 
 weighed by its consequences. 
 From the discovery of Amer- 
 ica by the Norsemen, nothing 
 whatever resulted. The 
 world Avas neither wiser nor better. Among the Icelanders themselves 
 the place and the very name of Vinland were forgotten. Europe 
 never heard of such a country or such a discovery. Historians have 
 until late years been incredulous on the subject, and the fact is as 
 though it had never been. The curtain which had been lifted for a 
 
 A NORSE SEA-KING OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 
 
54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 moment was stretched again from sky to sea, and the New World 
 still lay hidden in the shadows. * 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SPANISH DISCO VERIES IN AMERICA. 
 
 IT was reserved for the people of a sunnier clime than Iceland first to 
 make known to the European nations the existence of a Western con- 
 tinent. Spain was the happy country under whose auspicious patronage 
 a new world was to be added to the old ; but the man who was destined 
 to make the revelation was not himself a Spaniard : he was to come from 
 genial Italy, the land of olden valor and the home of so much greatness. 
 Christopher Columbus was the name of that man whom after ages 
 have justly rewarded with imperishable fame. 
 
 The idea that the world is round was not original with Columbus. 
 Others before him had held a similar belief; but the opinion had been so 
 feebly and uncertainly entertained as to lead to no practical results. 
 Copernicus, the Prussian astronomer, had not yet taught, nor had Galileo, 
 the great Italian, yet demonstrated, the true system of the universe. The 
 English traveler. Sir John Mandeville, had declared in the very first 
 English book that ever was written (A. D. 1356) that the world is a 
 sphere ; that he himself, when traveling northward, had seen the polar 
 star approach the zenith, and that on going southward the antarctic con- 
 stellations had risen overhead ; and that it was both possible and practicable 
 for a man to sail around the world and return to the place of starting : 
 but neither Sir John himself nor any other seaman of his times was bold 
 enough to undertake so hazardous an enterprise. f Columbus was, 
 no doubt, the first practical believer in the theory of circumnaviga- 
 tion ; and although he never sailed around the world himself, he 
 demonstrated the possibility of doing so. 
 
 •» As to the reality of the Norse discoveries in America, the following from Hum- 
 boldt's Cosmos, Vol.11., pp. 269-272, may be cited as conclusive: "We are here on 
 historical ground. By the critical and highly praiseworthy eflbrts of Professor Kafn 
 and the Koyal Society of Antiquaries in Copenhagen, the Sagas and documents in 
 regard to the expeditions of the Norsemen to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and 
 Vinland have been published and satisfactorily commented upon. ® "•* ■* '" The dis- 
 covery of the northern part of Amei-ira by the Norsemen can not be dispiUed. The length 
 of tlie voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the sun's rising and 
 setting, are accurately given. While the Caliphate of Bagdad was still flourish- 
 jng_ « B s « America was discovered about the year A. D. 1000, by Lief, the son 
 of Eric the Red, at the latitude of forty-one and a-half degrees north." 
 
 t See Appendix A. 
 
VOYAG£ AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 55 
 
 The great mistake with C'ohinibiis and others who shared his opinions 
 was not concerning tlie figure of the earth, but in regard to its size. He 
 believed the world to be no more than ten thoasand or twelve thousand 
 miles in circumference. He therefore confidently expected that after sail- 
 ing about three thousand miles to the westward he should arrive at the 
 East Indies ; and to do that was the one great purpose of his life. 
 
 Christojiher Columbus was born at Genoa, a seacoast town of North- 
 western Itiily, in A. D. 1435. He was carefully educated, and then devoted 
 
 himself to the sea. His 
 ance.stors had been sea- 
 men before him. His 
 own inclination as well 
 as his early training 
 made him a sailor. 
 For twenty years he 
 traversed the Mediter- 
 ranean and the parts 
 of the Atlantic adjacent 
 to Europe; he visited 
 Iceland ; then went to 
 Portugal, and finally 
 to Spain. The idea 
 of reaching the Indies 
 by crossing the Atlan- 
 tic had already pos- 
 sessed him. For more 
 than ten years the poor 
 enthusiaiBt was a beg- 
 gar, going from court 
 to court, explaining to dull monarchs and bigoted monks tiie figure of 
 the earth and the ease with which the rich islands of the East might be 
 reached by sailing westward. He found one appreciative listener, after- 
 ward his constant and faithful friend — the noble and sympathetic Isa- 
 bella, queen of Castile. Be it never forgotten that to the lliith, and 
 insight, and decision of a woman the final success of Columbus must be 
 attributed. 
 
 On the morning of tlie 3d day of August, 1492, Columbus, with 
 his three ships, left the harbor of Palos. After seventy-one days of 
 sailing, in the early dawn of October 12, Rodrigo Triana, who chanced 
 to be on the lookout from the Pinta, set up a shout of '^ Land!'' A gun 
 was fired as the signal. The ships lay to. There was music and jubilee ; 
 
 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 
 
56 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA'TES. 
 
 and just at sunrise Columbus himself first stepped ashore, shook out the 
 royal banner of Castile in the presence of the wondering natives, and 
 named the island San Salvador. During the thi-ee remaining months 
 of this first voyage the islands of Concepcion, Cuba and Hayti were 
 added to the list of discoveries ; and on the bay of Caracola, in the last- 
 named island, was erected out of the timbers of the Santa Maria a fort, 
 the first structure built by Europeans in the New World. In the early 
 part of January, 1493, Columbus sailed for Spain, where he arrived in 
 March, and was everywhere greeted with rejoicings and applause. 
 
 In September of the following autumn Columbus sailed on his second 
 voyage. He still believed that by this route westward he should reach, 
 if indeed he had not already reached, the Indies. The result of the 
 second voyage was the discovery of the Windward group and the islands 
 of Jamaica and Porto Rico. It was at this time that the first colony was 
 established in Hayti and Columbus's brother appointed governor. After 
 an absence of nearly three years, Columbus returned to Spain in the sum- 
 mer of 1496 — returned to find himself the victim of a thousand bitter 
 jealousies and suspicions. All the rest of his life was clouded with perse- 
 cutions and misfortunes. He made a third voyage, discovered the island 
 of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the 
 Orinoco. Thence he sailed back to Hayti, M-here he found his colony 
 disorganized ; and here, while attempting to restore order, he was seized 
 by Bobadilla, an agent of tlMi Spanish government, put in chains and car- 
 ried to Spain. After a dffgraceful imprisonment, he was libei'ated and 
 sent on a fourth and last voyage in search of the Indies ; but besides 
 making some explorations along the south side of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 the expedition accomplished nothing, and Columbus, overwhelmed M'ith 
 discouragements, returned once more to his inigratefiil country. The 
 good Isaljella was dead, and the great discoverer found himself at last a 
 friendless and despised old man tottering into the grave. Death came, 
 and fame afterward. 
 
 Of all the MTongs done to the memory of Columbus, perhaps 
 the greatest was that which robbed him of the name of the new conti- 
 nent. This was bestowed upon one of the least worthy of the many 
 adventurers whom the genius and success of Columbus had drawn to the 
 West. In the year 1499, Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator 
 of some daring but no great celebrity, reached the eastern coast of South 
 America. It does not appear that his explorations there were of any 
 great importance. Two years later he made a second voyage, and then 
 hastened home to give to Europe the first published account of the 
 Western World. Vespucci's only merit consisted in his recognition of 
 
lOOO 
 
 Central Period of 
 tlie Mitldle Ages. 
 
 'U. Conrad II. 
 
 Th 
 
 99. 
 
 35. Union of C 
 
 3'J. Henry the 
 Blark. 
 
 IIOO 
 
 52. Frederi 
 
 e CRUSADES. 
 
 The Kingdom of Jcr 
 astile and liCon. 
 
 1300 
 
 1300 
 
 80. T he Kiugdo 
 
 ek Barbarossa. 
 
 8. l,oiiis VI. 
 06. Henry IV. 
 
 HOUSE OP CAPET IN 
 FEANCE. 
 
 17 Canute. 
 
 40. Ilardicau 
 
 The different Or 
 
 iisaleni established. 
 
 2t;. Louis IX. 
 
 So. Philip IV. 
 
 IG. Philip 
 
 «lers of Hnighthoofl 
 
 ST. Louis VII. 
 
 71. C'onq uest of Ireland. 
 SO. Ph ilip II. 
 
 establishes 
 
 28. HO( 
 
 lite. 
 42. Edward jthe Confessor. 
 
 66. Harlold. s'' snuggle of 
 66. Will iam I. 
 
 87. 
 
 DANISH KINGS IN 
 ENQL.AND. 
 
 The NOHMANS, 
 
 . Stephen. 
 William ItiifiiN. 
 
 Henry I. 
 
 51. Henry 
 
 so. 
 
 99. 
 The PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 the Gnelphs and Ohibel lines 
 
 Wars of the Karons. 
 15. Magna Charta 
 
 II. 
 
 Ricliard I. 
 John. 
 
 Heroic .4ge. 
 
 72. Ed 
 
 granted, 
 ward I. 
 
 7. Eflnard I 
 
 Wicklfe. 
 
 27. Ed 
 
 iin 
 
 1. lElF ERICKSO.f, an Icelandic 
 
 navigiitor, sailing westward 
 from Greenland, di.soovers 
 the const of Labrador, and 
 makes explorations as far 
 south as Rhode Island. 
 
 BJarne Herjnlfson driven 
 by a storm within sij^lil of 
 the Amerieau coast A. n. 
 9!S6. 
 
 1. I'hom'ald Eriekson re- | 
 
 turns to America and re- 
 mains three years. 
 
 5. Tliorsteiii Erickson co 
 
 THE WESTERN CO 
 
 21. Erik Ilpsi sent as 
 
 NTINENT UNKNOWN 
 
 bishop to Vinland. 
 
 iSNDj 
 
 TO THE E 
 
 mes to America. 
 
 7. Thorlinn Karlsefne exploresthecoastof Masiachusetts. 
 
 11. Expedition of Freydls 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 to Vinland. 
 
 70. Allege 
 
 v5t^^ 
 
 UNDER 
 
 discovery of America hy Itladoe the Welshi 
 
 THE ABOIRIGINll 
 
 CliA.ltLjL Xm 
 
 IcHLAiTDic discoveriea !d green. 
 
 PERIOD OF VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 A. D. 986-1607. 
 
 Spanish • 
 
 " yellow. 
 
 English ' 
 
 " red. 
 
 French • 
 
 " ?,lue. 
 
 Dutch • 
 
 ' ' brown. 
 
 rOBTUQUESB ' 
 
 " purplA 
 
1400 
 
 1500 
 
 1600 
 
 Jeru .saleiii uvcrtln'OM n. 
 
 :.:,. Columbus bui-ii. 
 ij. Johu IIU88. 
 
 irNt bo 
 jMh, ill 
 
 Janduvil 
 
 igure of 
 
 >ility of 
 
 80. Ch 
 
 3F 
 
 ok »rilfeii in l^iig:- %. 
 
 whii'h tlicauthor, Sir Johu 
 Ic, lii'i'Iiires the spherical 
 the eartli and the praetica- 
 eircumnavigatiou. 
 
 aries VI. ^nutins 
 u-31. Joau of Arc. 
 
 '22. Ctaarles VII. 
 
 61. Louis 
 
 77. Richard II. 
 
 M'ai*8 ol" the Roses. 
 
 he LANCASTEKS. 
 
 74. Fer 
 The 
 
 99. 
 
 1 III. 
 
 I>e Ciaiiia doubles the Cape 
 of Good Hope and reaches 
 the East luJies. 
 
 liUllier. 
 
 Jnbnurt. 
 
 Tbe Reforiuat ion. 
 
 XI. 
 
 9. Johu Calvin. 
 
 4S. TroaJy or' 
 
 IVeslphalia. 
 
 2. St. B iirtholoinew. 
 
 &5. H 
 
 The YORKS. 
 Henry IV. 
 
 13. Hriir.r V. 
 
 22. Henry VI. 
 
 61. Edward 
 
 S3. K 
 
 83. R 
 
 EAN NATIONS. 
 
 93. 
 
 '.I.'). 
 
 98. 
 
 great plague depopulates Iceland, 
 ■enland, j and Vinland; communi- 
 ton with the New World is cut oil 
 
 ipany of Norsemen in America. 
 
 97. 
 
 93. 
 
 Col 
 
 1.. Francis I. 
 
 89. 
 
 19. Charles V. 
 
 yiinaiiil and Isabella. 
 
 TUDOKS. 
 
 The PURITANS. 
 eiiry VII. 
 
 9. Henry I'll I. 
 
 47. Kdnard VI. 
 ii'i. Mary. 
 IV. 
 
 tltvard V. gs. £lizab 
 
 icbard HI. 
 
 C'ollIUlbus discovers the 
 Second voyage. 
 Third voyage. 
 
 I>iscover.s America. 
 
 Anierigro Vespucci nialies 
 
 12. ne I.eon explores Flori 
 
 20. C<»rlez conquers RIcx 
 
 25. I>eAyllon in Caro 
 
 28. l>e \arvaez mak 
 
 39. I>e Solo in Am 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 10. Louis XIII. 
 
 43.IiOuisXIV 
 3. James I. 
 
 25. C'harles I. 
 
 The STUARTS. 
 
 elh. 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 a voyage to South America. 
 
 da. 
 
 ico. 
 
 lina. 
 
 es explorations in Florida. 
 
 erica. 
 
 TRIBES. 
 
 lUeleii'dez founds St. Augustine. 
 
 John C<ll>ot discovers No rtb America. 
 Sebastian Cabot explores tlie Ameriran const. 
 
 Ik Majrtiii Kr<»bislier's voyages. 
 79. I>r|aUe on tlie Pacific coast. 
 8:'.. tJiilberl's voyage. [tion. 
 
 KaleJg;h'N attempts at coloniza- 
 \ Oosiiold's direct voyage. 
 >. I*rii»jj'!* voy;ige. 
 7. SettlumeiitatJaiiiestown. 
 i>. Wayiiioiitli in Maine. 
 20. Tlif I'liriiaiiNat 
 
 I*l>UIOIltll. 
 
 UnnbllS \'isits Iceland and 
 learns of the Now World. 
 
 24. Verrazzaiii explor 
 
 34. I'arlior's exped 
 
 42. Koborval in 
 
 0'.^. Kibault 
 
 64. Laiidii 
 
 9S. 
 
 OS the American coast, 
 ition. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 with the Huguenots. 
 III! jere's enterprise. 
 La Roclie in Nova Scotia. 
 
 4. De i>loiit»» and Cliani- 
 
 plain. 
 
 5. Portltoyal founded. 
 
 8. Founding of ituebec, 
 
 9. Hudson in America. 
 
 14. Explorations of I&l4»(*l< 
 and May. 
 
 14. Founding of Xew Ain- 
 Mterilaiii. 
 
 1. Voyages of the <'orlereaIs. 
 
 19. MasTi'llan (*ircuninaV|igates the globe. 
 
rOYAGi: AND DISCOVERY. 57 
 
 tlie fact that the recent discoveries were not a portion of that India already 
 known, but M-ere in reality another continent. In his published narrative 
 all reference to Columbus was carefully omitted ; and thus through his 
 own craft, assisted by the unappreciative dullness of the times, the name 
 of this Vespucci rather than that of the true discoverer was gi\-en to tlie 
 New World. 
 
 The discovery of America produced great excitement tliroughont 
 the states of Western Europe. In Spain especially there was wonderful 
 zeal and enthusiasm. Within ten years after the death of Columbus, the 
 principal islands of the West Indies were explored and colonized. In the 
 year 1510 the Spaniards planted on the Isthmus of Darien their first con- 
 tinental colony. 'Three years later, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, the 
 governor of the colony, learning from the natives that another ocean lay 
 only a short distance to the westward, crossed the isthmus and from an 
 eminence looked down upon the Pacific. Not satisfied with merely seeing 
 the great water, he waded in a short distance, and drawing his sword 
 after the pompous Spanish fashion, took possession of the ocean in the 
 name of the king of Spain. 
 
 Meanwhile, Juan Ponce de Leon, avIio had been a companion 
 of Columbus on his second voyage, fitted out a private expedition of dis- 
 covery and adventure. De Leon had grown rich as governor of Porto 
 Rico, and while growing rich had also grown old. But there was a foun- 
 tain of perpetual youth somewhere in the Bahamas — so said all the learn- 
 ing and intelligence of Spain — and in that fountain the wTinkled old 
 cavalier would bathe and be young again. So in the year 1512 he set 
 sail from Porto Rico ; and stopping first at San Salvador and the neighbor- 
 ing islands, he came, on Easter Sunday, the 27th of March, in sight of an 
 unknown shore. He supposed that another island more beautiful than 
 the rest was discovered. There were waving forests, green leaves, birds 
 of song and the fragrance of blossoms. Partly in honor of the day, called 
 in the ritual of the Church Pascua Florida, and partly to describe the 
 delightful landscape that opened on his sight, he named the new shore 
 Florida — the Land of Flowers. 
 
 After a few days a landing was effected a short distance north of 
 where, a half century later, were laid the foundations of St. Augustine. 
 The country was claimed for the king of Spain, and the search for the 
 youth-restoring fountain was eagerly prosecuted. The romantic adven- 
 turer turned soutliM'ard, explored the coast for many leagues, discovered 
 and named the Tortugas, doubled Cape Florida, and then sailed back to 
 Porto Rico, not perceptibly younger than when he started. 
 
 The king of Spain rewarded Ponce with the governorship of his 
 
58 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Land of Flowers, and sent him thither again to establish a colony. The 
 aged veteran did not, however, reach his province until the year 1521, 
 and then it was only to find the Indians m a state of bitter hostility. 
 Scarcely had he landed when they fell upon him in a furious battle; 
 many of the Spaniards were killed outright, and the rest had to betake 
 themselves to the ships for safety. Ponce de Leon himself received a 
 mortal wound from an arrow, and was carried back to Cuba to die. 
 
 CHAPTER ly. 
 
 SPANISH DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA.— CONTINUED. 
 
 THE year 1517 was marked by the discovery of Yucatan and the Bay 
 of Campeachy by Fernandez de Cordova. "While exploring the 
 northern coast of the country, his company was attacked by the natives, 
 and he hiuLself mortally wounded. During the next year the coast of 
 Mexico was explored for a great distance by Grijalva, assisted by Cor- 
 dova's ])ilot; and in the year 1519, Fernando Cortez landed with his 
 fleet at Tabasco and began his famous conquest of Mexico. 
 
 As soon as the news of the invasion spread abroad, the subjects 
 of the Mexican emjjire were thrown into consternation. Armies of 
 native warriors gathered to resist the progress of the Spaniards, but 
 were dispersed by the invaders. After freeing the coast of his oppo- 
 nents, Cortez proceeded M'estward to Vera Cruz, a seaport one hun- 
 di-ed and eighty miles south-east of the Mexican capital. Here he 
 was met by ambassadors from the celebrated Montezuma, emperor 
 of the country. From him they delivered messages and exhibited 
 great anxiety lest Cortez should march into the interior. He as- 
 sured them that such was indeed his purpose; that his business in 
 the country was urgent; and that he must confer with Montezuma 
 in person. 
 
 The ambassadors tried in vain to dissuade the terrible Spaniard. 
 They made him costly presents, and then hastened back to their 
 alarmed sovereign. Montezuma immediately despatched them a sec- 
 ond time with presents still more valuable, and with m-geiit appeals 
 to Cortez to proceed no farther. But the cupidity of tlie Spaniards 
 was now inflamed to the highest pitch, and burning their ships behind 
 them, they began their march towards the capital. The Mexican era- 
 
rOVAGE AXD DISCOVERY. 
 
 59 
 
 peror by his messengers forbade their approach to his city. Still they 
 pressed on. The nations tribntary to Montezuma threw off their al- 
 legiance, made peace with the conqueror, and even joined his stand- 
 ard. The irresolute and vacillating Indian monarch knew not what 
 to do. The Span- 
 iards came in sight 
 of the city — a glit- 
 tering and splen- 
 did vision of spires 
 and temples ; and 
 the poor Montezu- 
 ma came forth to 
 i-eceive his remorse- 
 less enemies. On 
 the morning of the 
 8th of November, 
 1519, the SiJanish 
 army marched over 
 the causeway lead- 
 ing into the Mexi- 
 can capital and M'as 
 quartered in the 
 great central square 
 near the temjile of 
 the Aztec god of 
 war. 
 
 It was now winter time. For a month Cortez remained quietly 
 in the city. He was permitted to go about freely with his soldiers, 
 and was even allowed to examine the sacred altars and shrines where 
 human sacrifices were daily offered up to the deities of Mexico. He 
 made himself familiar with the defences of the capital and the Mex- 
 ican mode of warfare. On every side he found inexhaustible stores 
 of provisions, treasures of gold and silver, and what greatly excited 
 his solicitude, arsenals filled with bows and javelins. But although 
 surrounded with splendor and abundance, his own situation became 
 extremely critical. The millions of natives who swarmed around him 
 were becoming familiar with his troops and no longer believed them 
 immortal. There were mntterino-s of an outbreak which threatened to 
 overwhelm him in an hour. In this emei"geney the Spanish general 
 adopted the bold and unscrupulous expedient of seizing Montezuma 
 and holding him as a hostage. A plausible pretext for this outrage 
 was found in the fact that the Mexican governor of the province 
 
 ^Sf^^ 
 
 feknaNdo cortez. 
 
60 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 adjacent to Vera Cruz had attacked the Spanish garrison at that place, 
 and that Montezuma himself had acted with hostility and treachery 
 towards the Spaniards while they were marching on the city. As soon 
 as the emperor was in his power, Cortez compelled him to acknowledge 
 himself a vassal of the king of Spain and to agree to the payment of 
 a sum amounting to six million three hundred thousand dollars, with 
 an annual tribute afterwards. 
 
 In the mean time, Velasquez, the Spanish governor of Cuba, 
 jealous of the fame of Cortez, had despatched a force to Mexico to 
 arrest his progress and to supersede him in the command. The ex- 
 pedition was led by Pamphilo de Narvaez, the same who was 
 afterwards governor of Florida. His forces consisted of more than 
 twelve hundred well armed and well disciplined soldiers, besides a 
 thousand Indian servants and guides. But the vigilant Cortez had 
 meanwhile been informed by messengers from Vera Cruz of the 
 movement which his enemies at home had set on foot against him, 
 and he determined to sell his command only at the price of his own 
 life and the lives of all his followers. He therefore instructed Al- 
 varado, one of his subordinate officers, to remain in the capital with 
 a small force of a hundred and forty men ; and with the remainder, 
 numbering less than two hundred, he himself hastily withdrew from 
 the city and proceeded by a forced march to encounter De Narvaez 
 on the sea-coast. On the night of the 26th of May, 1520, while the 
 soldiers of the latter were quietly asleep in their camp near A^era 
 Cruz, Cortez burst upon them with the fury of despair, and before 
 they could rally or well understand the terrible onset, compelled the 
 whole force to surrender. Then, adding the general's skill to the 
 warrior's prowess, he succeeded in inducing the conquered army to 
 join his own standard ; and with his forces thus augmented to six 
 times their original numbers he began a second time his march to- 
 wards the capital. 
 
 While Cortez was absent on this expedition, the Mexicans of 
 the capital rose in arms, and the possession of the country was staked 
 on the issue of war. Alvarado, either fearing a revolt or from a 
 spirit of atrocious cruelty, had attacked the Mexicans while they 
 were celebrating one of their festivals, and slain five hundred of the 
 leaders and priests. The people in a frenzy of astonishment and rage 
 flew to their arras and laid siege to the palace where Alvarado and 
 his men were fortified. The Spaniards were already hard pressed 
 when Cortez at the head of his new army reached the city. He en- 
 tered without opposition and joined Alvarado's command ; but the 
 passions of the Mexicans were now thoroughly aroused, and not all 
 
VOYAGE Ayn DISCOVERY. 61 
 
 tlie diplomacy of the Spanish general could again bring them into 
 subjection. In a i'ew dayt^ the contiict began in earnest. The streets 
 were deluged with tiie bhjod of tens of thousands; and wot a few of 
 the Spaniards fell before the vengeance of the native warriors. For 
 months there w^as almost incessant fighting in and around the city ; and 
 it became evident that the Spaniards must ultimately be overwhelmed 
 and destroyed. 
 
 To save himself from his peril, Cortez adopted a second shame- 
 less expedient, more wicked than the first. Montezuma was compelled 
 to go upon the top of the palace in front of the great square where the 
 besiegers were gathered and to counsel them to make peace with tlie 
 Spaniards. For a moment there was universal silence, then a murmur 
 of vexation and rage, and then Montezuma was struck down by the 
 javelins of his own subjects. In a few days he died of wretchedness 
 and despair, and for a while the warriors, overwhelmed with remorse, 
 abandoned the conflict. But with the renewal of the strife Cortez was 
 ol)iiged to leave the city. Finally a great battle was fought, and the 
 Spanish arms and valor triumphed. In the crisis of the struggle the 
 sacred Mexican banner was struck down and captured. Dismay seized 
 the hosts of puny warriors, and they fled in all directions. In De- 
 cember of 1520, Cortez again marched on the capital. A siege, last- 
 ing until August of the following year, ensued ; and then the famous 
 city yielded. The emi)ire of the Montezumas was overthrown, and 
 Mexico became a Spanish province. 
 
 Among the many daring enterprises which marked the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, that of Ferdinand Magellan is worthy 
 of special mention. A Portuguese by birth, a navigator by profession, 
 this man, so noted for extraordinary boldness and ability, determined 
 to discover a south-west rather than a north-west passage to Asia. 
 "With this object in view, he appealed to the king of Portugal for 
 ships and men. The monarch listened coldly, and did nothing to 
 give encouragement. Incensed at this treatment, Magellan threw off 
 his allegiance, went to Spain — the usual resort of disappointed sea- 
 men — and laid his plans before Charles V. The emperor caught 
 eagerly at the opportunity, and ordered a fleet of five ships to be im- 
 mediately fitted at the public expense and properly manned with 
 crews. 
 
 The voyage was begun from Seville in August of 1519. Sailing 
 •southward across the equinoctial line, Magellan soon reached the coast 
 of South America, and s])ent the autumn in explorations, hoping to find 
 some strait that sliould lead him westward into that ocean which Balboa 
 had discovered six vcars previously. Not at first successful in this effort, 
 
62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 he passed the Avinter — which was summer on that side of the equator — • 
 somewhere on the coast of Brazil. Renewing his voj'age southward, he 
 came at last to the eastern mouth of that strait which still bears the name 
 of its discoverer, and passing through it found himself in the open and 
 boundless ocean. The weather was beautiful, and the peaceful deep was 
 called the Pacific. 
 
 Setting his prows to the north of west, Magellan now held steadily 
 on his course for nearly four months, suffering much meanwhile from 
 want of water and scarcity of provisions. In March of 1520 he came to 
 the group of islands called the Lad rones, situated about midway between 
 Australia and Japan. Sailing still westward, he reached the Philippine 
 group, where he was killed in a battle with the natives. But the fleet was 
 now less than four hundred miles from China, and the rest of the route 
 was easy. A new captain was chosen, and the voyage continued b}- way 
 of the Aloluccas, where a cargo of spices was taken on board for the market 
 of Western Europe. Only a single ship was deemed in a fit condition to 
 venture on the homeward voyage ; but in this vessel the crews embarked, 
 and returning by way of the Cape of Good Hope arrived in Spain on the 
 17th day of September, 1522. The circumnavigation of the globe, long 
 believed in as a possibility, had now become a thing of reality. The 
 theory of the old astronomers, of jNIandeville and of Columbus had 
 been proved by actual demonstration. 
 
 The next important voyage undertaken to the shores of America was 
 in the year 1520. Lucas Yasquez de Ayllox, Mho had been a judge 
 in St. Domingo and had acquired great riches, conducted the expedition. 
 He and six other wealthy men, eager to stock their plantations with slaves, 
 determined to do so by kidnapping natives from the neighboring Bahamas. 
 Two vessels were fitted out for the purpose, and De Ayllon commanded 
 in person. When the vessels were nearing their destination, they encoun- 
 tered a storm which drove them northward about a hundred and fifty 
 leagues, and brought them against the coast of South Carolina. The shijis 
 entered St. Helena Sound and anchored in the mouth of the Cambahee 
 River. The name of Chicora was given to the country, and the river was 
 called the Jordan. The timid but friendly natives, as soon as their feai-s 
 had subsided, began to make presents to the strangers and to treat them 
 with great cordiality. They flocked on board the ships ; and when the 
 decks were crowded, De Ayllon, watching his opportunity, weighed 
 anchor and sailed away. A few days afterward an avenging storm sent 
 one of the ships to the bottom of the sea, and death came mercifully to 
 most of the poor wretches who were huddled under the hatches of the 
 other. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 63 
 
 Going at once to Spain, De Ayllou repeated tlie story of his exploit 
 to Cliai-les v., wlio rewarcled liim with the governorship of Cliicora and 
 the privilege of conquest. Returning to his province in 1525, he found 
 the natives inteiLsely hostile. His best ship ran aground in the mouth 
 of the Jordan, and the outraged Indians fell upon him with fury, killing 
 many of the treacherous crew, and making the rest glad enough to get 
 awav v.'ith their lives. Do Ayllon himself returned to St. Domingo 
 humiliated and ruined. Thus ended the first disgraceful effort to enslave 
 the Indians. 
 
 In the year 1526, Charles Y. appointed the unprincipled Pamphilo 
 DE Narvaez governor of Florida, and tij the appointment wa.s added 
 the usual privilege of conquest. The territory thus placed at his disposal 
 extended from Cape Sable fully three-fifths of the way around the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and was limited on the south-west by the mouth of the Eiver 
 of Palms. With this extensive commission De Narvaez arrived at Tampa 
 Bay in the month of April, 1528. His force consisted of two Iiundred 
 and sixty soldiers and forty horsemen. The natives treated them with 
 suspicion, and, anxious to be rid of the intruders, began to hold up their 
 gold triidvets and to point to the north. The hint was eagerly caught at 
 by the avaricious Spaniards, whose imaginations were set on fire with the 
 sight of the precious metal. They struck boldly into the forests, expect- 
 ing to find cities and empires, and found instead swamps and savages. 
 They reached the Withlacoochie and crossed it by swimming, they pa.ssed 
 over the Suwanee in a canoe which they made for the occasion, and finally 
 came to Apalachee, a squalid village of forty cabins. This, then, was tlie 
 mighty city to which their guides had directed them. 
 
 Oppressed with fatigue and goaded l;>y hunger, they plimged again 
 into the woods, wading through lagoons and assailed by lurking savages, 
 until at last they reached the sea at the harbor of St. Mark's. Here they 
 expected to find their ships, but not a ship was there, or had been. With 
 great labor they constructed some brigantines, and put to sea in the vain 
 hope of reaching the Spanish settlements in Mexico. They were tossed 
 by storms, driven out of sight of land and then thrown upon the shore 
 again, drowned, slain by the savages, left in the solitary woods dead of 
 starvation and despair, until finally four miserable men of all the adven- 
 turous company, under the leadership of the heroic De Vaca, first lieu- 
 tenant of the expedition, were rescued at the village of San Miguel, on 
 the Pacific coa^^t, and conducted to the city of jMexico. The stoiy can 
 hardly be paralleled in the annals of suffering and peril. 
 
 But the Spaniards were not yet satisfied. In the year 1537 a new 
 expedition was planned which surpassed all the others in the brii- 
 
64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 liancy of its beginning and the disasters of its end. The most cavaliei 
 of the cavaliers was Ferdinand de Soto, of Xeres. Besides the dis- 
 tinction of a uoble birth, he had been the lieutenant and bosom friend of 
 Pizarro, and had now returned from Peru loaded \vith wealth. So great 
 was his popularity in Spain that he had only to demand what he would 
 liave of the emperor that his request might be granted. At his own dic- 
 tation he was accordingly appointed governor of Cuba and Florida, with 
 the privilege of exploring and conquering the latter country at his plca;<ure. 
 A great company of young Spaniards, nearly all of them wealtliy and 
 high-born, flocked to his standard. Of these lie selected six hundred of 
 the most gallant and daring. They were clad in costly suits of armor 
 of the knightly pattern, with airy scarfs and silken embroidery and all 
 the trappings of chivalry. Elaborate preparations were made for the 
 grand conquest ; arms and stores were proA'ided ; shackles were M-rought 
 for the slaves ; tools for the forge and workshop were abundantly sup- 
 plied; bloodhounds were bought and trained for the work of hunting 
 fugitives ; cards to keeji the young knights excited with gaming ; twelve 
 priests to conduct religious ceremonies ; and, last of all, a drove of swine 
 to fatten on the maize and mast of the country. 
 
 When, after a year of impatience and delay, everything was at last 
 in readiness, the gay Castilian squadron, ten vessels in all, left the harbor 
 of San Lucar to conquer imaginary empu'es in the New World. The fleet 
 touched at Havana, and the enthusiasm was kuidled even to a higlier 
 pitch than it had reached in Spain. De Soto left his wife to govern Cuba 
 during his absence ; and after a prosperous and exulting voyage of two 
 weeks, the ships cast anchor in Tampa Bay. This was in the early part 
 of June, 1539. When some of the Cubans who had joined the expedition 
 first saw the silent forests and gloomy morasses that stretched before them, 
 they were terrified at the prospect, and sailed back to the security of home ; 
 but De Soto and his cavaliers despised such cowardice, and began their 
 march into the interior. During the months of July, August and Sc})- 
 tember they marched to the northward, wading through swamps, swim- 
 ming rivers and fighting the Indians. In October they arrived at the 
 country of the Apalaehiaus, on the left bank of Flint River, where 
 they determined to spend the winter. For four months they remained in 
 this locality, sending out exploring parties in various directions. One of 
 these companies reached the gulf at Pensacola, and made arrangements 
 that supplies should be sent out from Cuba to that place during the fol- 
 lowing sunamer. 
 
 In the early spring the Spaniards left tiieir winter quarters and con- 
 tinued their march to the north aad east. An Indian guide told them of 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 65 
 
 a, powerful and populous empire in that direction ; a woman was empress, 
 and the laud was full of gold. A Spanish soldier, one of the men of 
 Narvaez, who had been kept a captive among the Indians, denied the 
 truth of the extravagant stor}- ; but De Soto only said that he would find 
 gold or see poverty with his own eyes, and the freebooters pressed on 
 through the swamps and woods. It was April, 1540, when they came 
 upon the Ogechee River. Here they were delayed. The Indian guide 
 went mad; and when the priests had conjured the evil spirit out of him, 
 he repaid their benevolence by losing the whole company in the forest. 
 By the 1st of May they had reached South Carolina, and were ^vithin a 
 two davs' march of where De Ayllon had lost hk ships and men at the 
 mouth of the Jordan. Thence tlie wanderers turned westward ; but that 
 De Soto and his men crossed the mountaias into North Carolina and Ten- 
 nessee is hardly to be believed. They seem rather to have passed across 
 Northern Georgia from the Chattahouche to the upper tributaries of the 
 Coosa, and thence down that river to the valleys of Lower Alabama. 
 Here, just above the confluence of the Alabama and the Tombecbee, they 
 came upon the fortified Indian town called Mauville, or Mobile, where a 
 terrible battle was fought with the natives. The town was set on fire, 
 and two thousand five hundred of the Indians were killed or burned to 
 death. Eighteen of De Soto's men were killed, and a hundred and fifty 
 wounded. The Spaniards also lost about eighty horses and all of their 
 baggage. 
 
 The ships of supply had meanwhile arrived at Pensacola, but De 
 Soto and his men, although in desperate circiuustances, were too stubborn 
 and proud to avail themselves of help or even to send news of their where- 
 abouts. They turned resolutely to the north ; but the country was poor, 
 and their condition grew constantly worse and worse. By the middle of 
 December they had reached the country of the Chickasas, in Northern 
 Mis.sissippi. They crossed the Yazoo; the weather was severe; snow 
 fell ; and the Spaniards were on the point of starvation. They succeeded, 
 however, in finding some fields of ungathered maize, and then came upon 
 a deserted Indian village which promised them shelter for the -svinter. 
 After remaining here till February, 1541, they were suddenly attacked in 
 the dead of night by the Indians, who, at a preconcerted signal, set the 
 town on fire, determined then and there to make an end of the desolating 
 fo]-eigners ; but the SpanLsh weapons and dLscipline again saved De Soto 
 and his men from destruction. 
 
 After gathering provisions and reclothing themselves as well as pos- 
 sible, the Spaniards set out again in early spring to journey still farther 
 
 \vest\vard. The guides now brought them to the Mississippi. The point 
 5 
 
66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 where the majestic Father of Waters ■vras first seen by white mcu was at 
 the lower Chickasaw Biuff, a little north of the thirty- -fourth parallel of 
 latitude ; the clay of the discovery cannot certainly be known. The In- 
 dians came down the river in a fleet of canoes, and offered to carry tlie 
 Spaniards over ; but the horses could not be transported until barges were 
 built for that purpose. The crossing was not effected until the latter part 
 of May. 
 
 De Soto's men now found themselves in the land of the Dakotas. 
 Journeying to the north-west, they passed through a country where wild 
 fruits were plentiful and subsistence easy. The natives were inoffensive 
 and superstitious. At one place they were going to worship the woe- 
 begone cavaliers as the children of the gods, but De Soto was too good a 
 Catholic to permit such idolatiy. The Spaniards continued their march 
 until they reached the St. Frauds River, which they crossed, and gamed 
 the southern limits of Missouri, in the vicinity of New Madrid. Thence 
 westward the march was renewed for about two hundred miles; thence 
 southward to the Hot Springs and the tributaries of the Washita River. 
 On the banks of this river, at the town of Atiamque, they passed the ymi- 
 ter of 1541-42. The Indians were found to be much more civilized than 
 those east of the Mississippi ; but their civilization did not protect them 
 in the least from the horrid cruelties which the Spaniards practicetl. No 
 consideration of justice, humanity or mercy moved the stony hearts of 
 these polite and Christian warriore. Indian towns were set on fire for 
 sport ; Indian hands were chopped off for a whim ; and Indian captives 
 burned alive because, under fear of death, they had told a falsehood. 
 
 But De Soto's men were themselves growing desperate in their mis- 
 fortunes. They turned again toward the sea, and passing flown the 
 tributaries of the Washita to the junction of that stream with the Red 
 River, came upon the Mississippi in the neighborliood of Natchez. The 
 spirit of De Soto was at last completely broken. The haughty' cavalier 
 bowed his head and became a prey to melancholy. No more dazzlmg 
 visions of Peru and Mexico flitted before his imagination. A malignant 
 fever seized upon his emaciated frame, and then death. The priests 
 chanted a requiem, and in the middle of the solemn night his sorrowful 
 companions put the dead hero's body into a rustic coffin, and rowing out 
 a distance from shore sunk it in the ISIississippi. Ferdinand de Soto had 
 found a grave under the rolling waters of tlie great river with which his 
 name will be associated for ever. 
 
 Before his death, De Soto had named Moscoso as his successor ; and 
 now, under the leadership of the new governor, the ragged, half-starved 
 adventurers, in the vain hope of reaching Mexico, turned once more to the 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 67 
 
 west. They crossed the country to the upper waters of the Red River, on 
 the confines of Texas. Thence they turned northward into the territory 
 of the Pawnees and the Comanches, ranging the hunting-grounds of 
 those fierce savages until stopped by the mountains. In December of 
 1542, after ahnost endless wanderings and hardships, they came again 
 to the Mississippi, reaching the now familiar stream a short distance above 
 the mouth of Red River. They now formed the desperate resolution of 
 building boats, and thus descending the river to the gulf They erected 
 a forge, broke off the fetters of the captives in order to procure iron, sawed 
 timber in the forest, and at last completed seven brigantincs and launched 
 them. The time tiius occupied extended from Januaiy to July of 1543. 
 The Indians of the neighborhood were now for the last time plmidered 
 in order to furnish suppHcs for the voyage ; and on the 2d day of July 
 the Spaniards went on board their boats and started for the sea. The dis- 
 tance was almost five hundred miles, and seventeen days were required to 
 make the descent. On reaching the Gulf of Mexico, they steered to the 
 south-west ; and keeping as close to the shore as possible, after fifty-five 
 days of buffetings and perils along the dangerous coast, they came — three 
 hundred and eleven famished and heart-broken fugitives — to the settle- 
 ment at the mouth of the River of Palms; and thas ended the most 
 marvelous expedition in the early histoiy of our countiy. 
 
 The next attempt by the Spaniards to colonize Florida was in the 
 year 1565. The enterprise was entrusted to Pedro Melendez, a Span- 
 ish soldier of ferocious disposition and criminal practices. He was under 
 sentence to pay a hea\y fine at the veiy time when he received his com- 
 mission from the bigoted Philij^ II. The contract between that monarch 
 and Melendez was to the effect that the latter should within three years 
 explore the coast of Florida, conquer tlie country', and plant in some 
 favorable district a colony of not less than five hundred persons, of whom 
 one hmidred should be married men. Melendez was to receive two hun- 
 dred and twentj'-five scpiare miles of land adjacent to the settlement, and 
 an annual salary of two thousand dollars. Twenty-five hundred persons 
 collected around Melendez to join in the expedition. The fleet left Sj)ain 
 in July, reached Porto Rico early in August, and on the 28th of the same 
 month came in sight of Florida. 
 
 It must now be understood that the real object had in view by 
 Melendez was to attack and destroy a colony of French Protestants called 
 Huguenots, who, in the previoas year, had made a settlement about thirty- 
 five miles above the mouth of the St. John's River. This was, of course, 
 within the limits of the territory claimed by Spain ; and Melendez at once 
 perceived, that to extirpate these French heretics in the name of patriotism 
 
68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and religion would be likely to restore his shattered character and bring 
 him into favor again. His former crimes were to be washed out in the 
 blood of the innocents. Moreover, the Catholic party at the French 
 court had communicated with the Spanish court as to the whereabouts and 
 intentions of the Huguenots, so that Melendez knew precisely where to 
 find them and how to compass their destruction. 
 
 It was St. Augustine's day when the dastardly Spaniard came in 
 sight of the shore, but the lauding was not effected until the 2d of Sep- 
 tember. The spacious harbor and the small river which enters it from 
 the south were named in honor of the saint. On the 8th day of the 
 same month, Philij} II. was proclaimed monarch of all North America ; 
 a solemn mass was said by the priests ; and there, in the sight of forest, and 
 sky, and sea, the foundation-stones of the oldest town in the United States 
 were put into their place. This was seventeen years before the founding 
 of Santa Fe by Antonio de Espego, and forty-two years before the 
 settlement at Jamestown. 
 
 As soon as the new town was sufficiently advanced to be secure 
 against accident, Melendez turned his attention to the Huguenots. The 
 latter were expecting to be attacked, but had supposed tliat the Spanish 
 fleet would sail up the St. John's, and make the onset from that direction. 
 Accordingly, knowing that they must fight or die, all the French vessels 
 except two left tlieir covert in the river and put to sea, intending to' an- 
 ticipate the movements of the Spaniards ; but a furious storm arose and 
 dashed to pieces everj' ship in the fleet. Most of the crews, however, 
 reached the shore just above the mouth of the river. Melendez now 
 collected his forcas at St. Augustine, stole through the woods and swamps, 
 and falling unexpectedly on the defenceless colony, utterly destroyed 
 it. Men, women and children were alike given up to butchery. Two 
 hundred were killed outright. A few escaped into the forest, Laudonniere, 
 the Huguenot leader, among the number, and making their way to the 
 coast, were picked up by the tvro French ships wliich had been saved 
 from the storm. 
 
 The crews of the wrecked vessels were the next object of Spanish 
 vengeance. Melendez discovered theu' whereabouts, and deceiving them 
 with treacherous promises of clemency, induced tliem to surrender. They 
 were ferried across the river in boats ; but no sooner were they completely 
 in the power of their enemy than their hands were bound behind them, 
 and they were driven off, tied two and two, toward St. Augustine. As 
 they apjjroached the Spanish fort the signal was given by sounding a 
 trumpet, and the work of slaughter began anew. Seven hundred defence- 
 less victims were added to the previous atrocious massacre. Only a few 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 69 
 
 mechanics and Catholic servants were left alive. Under these bloody 
 auspices the first permanent European colony was planted in our country. 
 In what way the Huguenots were revenged upon their enemies will be 
 told in another place. 
 
 The Spaniards had now explored the entire coast from the Isthmus 
 of Darien to Port Eoyal in South Carolina. They were acquainted with 
 the countr}' west of the Mississippi as far north as New Mexico and 
 Missouri, and east of that river they had traversed the Gulf States as far 
 as the mountain ranges of Tennessee and North Carolina. With the es- 
 tablishment of their firet permanent colony on the coast of Florida the 
 period of Spanish voyage and discovery may be said to end. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, a brief account of the only important 
 voyage made by the Portuguese to America will be given : At the time 
 of the first discovery by Columbus, the unambitious John II. was king 
 of Portugal. He paid but little attention to the New World, prefer- 
 ring the security and dullness of his own capital to the splendid allure- 
 ments of the Atlantic. In 1495 he was succeeded on the throne by his 
 cousin Manuel, a man of very different character. This monarch could 
 hardly forgive his predecessor for having allowed Spain to snatch from the 
 flag of Portugal the glory of Columbus's achievements. In order to secure 
 some of the benefits which yet remained. King Manuel fitted out two ves- 
 sels, and in the summer of 1501 commissioned Gaspae Coeteeeal to 
 sail on a voyage of discovery. The Portuguese vessels reached America in 
 the month of July, and beginning at some point on the shores of Maine, 
 sailed northward, exploring the coast for nearly seven hundred miles. Just 
 below the fiftieth parallel of latitude Cortereal met the icebergs, and could 
 go no farther. Little attention ^\'as paid by him to the great forests of 
 pine and hemlock which stood tall and silent along the shore, promising 
 ship-yards and cities in after times. He satisfied his rapacity by kid- 
 napping fifty Indians, whom, on his return to Portugal, he sold as slaves. 
 A new voyage was then undertaken, with the avowed purpose of capturing 
 another cargo of naitives for the slave-mart of Europe ; but when a year 
 went by, and no tidings arrived from the fleet, the brother of the Portuguese 
 captain sailed in hope of finding the missing vessels. He also was lost, 
 but in what manner has never been ascertained. The fate of the Corte- 
 reals and their slave-ships has remained one of the unsolved mysteries 
 of the sea. 
 
70 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. 
 
 FRANCE wa-s not slow to profit by the discoveries of Columbus. As 
 early as 1504 the fishermen of Normandy and Brittany began to ply 
 their vocation on the banks of Ne^^'foundland. A map of the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence was drawn by a Frenchman in the year 1506. Two years 
 later some Indians were taken to France; and in 1518 the attention of 
 Francis I. was turned to tlie colonization of the New World. Five years 
 afterward a voyage of discovery and exploration was planned, and John 
 Yeeeazzaxi, a native of Florence, was commissioned to conduct the 
 expedition. The special object had in view was to discover a north-west 
 passage to Asia. 
 
 In the month of January, 1524, Verrazzani left the shores of Europe. 
 HLs fleet consisted at first of four vessels ; but three of them were damaged 
 in a storm, and the voyage was undertaken with a single ship, called the 
 Dolphin. For fifty days, through the bufFetings of tempestuous weather, 
 the courageous mariner held on liis course, and on the 7th day of March 
 discovered the main land in the latitude of Wilmington. He first sailed 
 southward a hundred and fiftj- miles in the hope of finding a harbor, 
 but found none. Eeturning northward, he finally anchored somewhere 
 along the Iom' sandy beach which stretches between the mouth of Cape 
 Fear River and Pamlico Sound. Here he began a traffic with the natives. 
 The Indians of this neighborhood M-ere found to be a gentle and timid 
 sort of creatures, unsuspicious and confiding. A half-drowned sailor who 
 was washed ashore by the surf was treated with great kindness, and as soon 
 as opportunity offered, permitted to return to the ship. 
 
 After a few days the voyage was continued toward the north. The 
 whole coast of New Jersey was explored, and the hills marked as con- 
 taining mmerals. The harbor of New York was entered, and its safe 
 and spacious waters were noted with admiration. At Ne'nijort, Rhode 
 Island, Verrazzani anchored for fifteen days, and a trade was again ojjened 
 with the Indians. Before leaving the place the French sailors repaid the 
 confidence of the natives by kidnapping a child and attempting to steal 
 a defenceless Indian girl. 
 
 Sailing from Ne^vport, Verrazzani continued his explorations north- 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 71 
 
 •ward. The long and broken line of the New England coast was traced 
 ■with considerable care. The Intlians of the north were wary and sus- 
 picious. They would buy neither ornaments nor toys, but were eager to 
 purchase knives and weapons of iron. Passing to the east of Nova 
 Scotia, the bold navigator reached Newfoundland in the latter part of 
 May. In July he returned to France and published an account, still ex- 
 tant, of his great discoveries. The name of New France was now given 
 to the whole country whose sea-coast had been traced by the adventurous 
 crew of the Dolphin. 
 
 Such was the distracted condition of France at this time, that 
 another expedition was not planned for a period of ten years. In 1534, 
 however, C'habot, admiral of the kingdom, selected James Caetier, a 
 seaman of St. Malo, in Brittany, to make a new voyage to America. 
 Two ships were fitted out for the enterprise, and after no more than 
 twenty days of sailing under cloudless skies anchored on the 10th day of 
 May off the coast of Newfoundland. Before the middle of July, Cartier 
 had circumnavigated the island to the northward, crossed the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence to the south of Anticosti, and entered the Bay of Chaleurs. 
 Not finding, as he had hoped, a passage out of this bay westward, he 
 changed his course to the north again, and a.scended the coast as far as 
 Gaspe Bay. Here, upon a point of land, he set up a cross bearing a 
 shield mth the lily of France, and proclaimed the French king monarch 
 of the country. Pressing his "way still farther northward, and then west^ 
 ward, he entered the St. Lawrence, and ascended the broad estuary until 
 the narrowing banks made him aware that he M'as in the mouth of a river. 
 Cartier, thinking it impracticable to pass the winter in the New World, 
 now turned his prows toward France, and in thirty days anchored hk ships 
 in the harbor of St. Malo. 
 
 So great was the fame of Cartier's first voyage that another was 
 planned immediately. Three good ships were provided, and quite a num- 
 ber of young noblemen joined the expedition. Colonization rather than 
 discover}^ was now the inspiring motive. The sails were set by zealous 
 and excited crews, and on the 19th of May the new voyage was begun. 
 This time there \\as stormy weather, yet the passage to Newfoundland 
 was made by the 10th of August. It was the day of St. Lawrence, and 
 the name of that martyr was accordingly given to the gulf, and after- 
 ward to the noble stream which enters it from the west. Sailino; north- 
 ward around Anticosti, the expedition proceeded up the river to the island 
 of Orleans, where the ships were moored in a place of safety. Two In- 
 dians vhom Cartier had taken with him to France in the previous year 
 now gave information that higher up the river there was an important 
 
72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to^\'n on the island of Hochelaga. Proceeding thither in his boats, the 
 French captain found it as the Indians had said. A beautiful village lay 
 there at the foot of a high hill in the middle of the island. Climbing to 
 the top of the hill, Cartier, as suggested by the scene around him, named 
 the island and town Mont^Real. The country was declared to belong by 
 right of discovery to the king of France ; and then the boats dropped 
 down the river to the ships. During this winter twenty-five of Cartier's 
 men were swept off by the scurvy, a malady hitherto unknown in Europe. 
 
 With the opening of spring, preparations were made to return to 
 France. The terrible winter had proved too much for French enthusiasm. 
 The emblem of Catholicism, bearing the arms of France, was again planted 
 in the soil of the New World, and the homeward voyage began ; but be- 
 fore the ships had left their anchorage, the kindly king of the Hurons, 
 who had treated Cartier with so much generosity, w^as decoyed on board 
 and carried off to die. On the 6th day of July the fleet reached St. 
 Malo in safety ; but by the accounts which Cartier published on his return 
 the French were greatly discouraged. Keither silver nor gold had been 
 found on the banks of the St. Lawrence ; and what was a new world good 
 for that had not silver and gold ? 
 
 Fi'ancis of La Roque, lord of Roberval, in Picardy, was the next 
 to undertake the colonization of the countries discovered by the French. 
 This nobleman, four years after Cartier's return from his second voyage, 
 was commissioned by the court of France to plant a colony on the St. 
 Lawrence. The titles of viceroy and lieutenant-general of New France 
 were conferred upon him, and much other vainglorious ceremony attended 
 his preparations for departure. The man, however, who was chiefly 
 relied on to give character and direction to the proposed colony was no 
 other than James Cartier. He only seemed competent to conduct the 
 enterprise with any promise of success. His name was accordingly added 
 to the list, and he was honored with the office of chief pilot and cajitaiu- 
 general of the expedition. 
 
 The next thing to be done was to find material for the colony. This 
 was a difficult task. The French peasants and mechanics were not eager 
 to embark for a country which promised nothing better than savages and 
 snow. Cartier's honest narrative about the resources of New France had 
 left no room for further dreaming. So the work of enlisting voluntecre 
 went on slowly, until the government adopted the plan of opening the 
 prisons of the kingdom and giving freedom to whoever would join the 
 expedition. There was a rush of robbers, swindlers and murderers, and 
 the lists were immediately filled. Only counterfeiters and traitois were 
 denied the privilege of gaining their liberty in the New World. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 73 
 
 In the latter part of May, 1541, five ships, under the immediate 
 command of Cartier, left France, and soon reached the St. Lawrence. 
 The expedition proceeded up the river to the present site of Quebec, 
 where a fort was erected and named Charlesbourg. Here the colonists 
 passed the winter. Cartier, offended because of the subordinate position 
 which he held, was sullen and gloomy, and made no effort to prosecute 
 discoveries which could benefit no one but the ambitious Roberval. The 
 two leaders never acted in concert ; and when La Roque, in June of the 
 following year, arrived with immigrants and supplies, Cartier secretly 
 sailed away with his part of the squadron, and returned to Europe. 
 Roberval was left in New France with three shiploads of criminals who 
 could only be restrained by whipping and hanging. During the autumn 
 some feeble efforts were made to discover a northern passage ; the winter 
 was long and severe, and spring was welcomed by the colonists chiefly 
 for the ojDportuuity which it gave them of returning to France. The 
 enterprise undertaken with so much pomp had resulted in nothing. In 
 the year 1549 Roberval, with a large company of emigrants, sailed on a 
 second voyage, but the fleet was never heard of afterward. 
 
 A period of fifty years now elapsed before the French authorities 
 again attempted to colonize America. Meanwhile, private enterprise 
 and religious persecution had co-operated in an effort to accomplish in 
 Florida and Carolina Avhat the government had failed to accomplish on 
 the St. Lawrence. About the middle of the sixteenth century Coligni, 
 the Protestant admiral of France, formed the design of establishing in 
 America a refuge for the pei'secuted Huguenots of his own country. In 
 1562 this liberal and influential minister obtained from the sovereign, 
 Charles IX., the coveted jjrivilege of jjlanting a colony of Protestants 
 in the New World. John Ribault of Dieppe, a brave and ex^ierienced 
 sailor, was selected to lead the Huguenots to the land of promise. Sail- 
 ing in February, the company reached the coast of Florida at a point 
 where three years later St. Augustine was founded. The River St. John's, 
 called by the Spaniards the St. Matthew, was entered by the French and 
 named the River of INIay. The vessels then continued northward along 
 the coast until they came to the entrance of Port Royal ; here it was 
 determined to make the settlement. The colonists were landed on an 
 island, and a stone engraved with the arms of their native land was set 
 up to mark the place. A fort was erected, and in honor of Charles IX. 
 named Carolina — a name which a century afterward was retained by the 
 English and applied to the whole country ii-om the Savannah River to 
 the southern boundary of Virginia. In this fort Ribault left twenty-six 
 men to keep possession, and then sailed back to France for additional 
 
74 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 emigrants and stores. But civil war was now raging in the kingdom, 
 and it was quite impossible to procure either supplies or colonists. Ko 
 reinforcements were sent to Carolina, and in the following spring the men 
 in the fort, discouraged with long waiting, grew mutinous, and killed 
 their leader for attempting to control them. Then they constructed a 
 rude brig and put to sea. After tliey had been driven about by the 
 winds for a long time, they were picked up half stan-ed by an English 
 ship and carried to the coast of France. 
 
 Coligni did not yet despair of success in what he had undertaken. 
 Two years after the first attempt another colony was planned, and Lau- 
 DONNIEEE chosen leader. The character, however, of this second Prot- 
 estant company was very bad. Many of them were abandoned men, of 
 little industry and no prudence. The harbor of Port Rpyal was now 
 shunned by the Huguenots, and a point on the River St. John's about 
 fifteen miles west of where St. Augustine now stands was selected for the 
 settlement. A fort was built here, and things were going well until a part 
 of the colonists, under the pretext of escaping from famine, contrived to get 
 away with two of the ships. Instead of returning to France, as they had 
 promised, they began to practice piracy in the adjacent seas, until they were 
 caught, brought back and justly hanged. The rest of the settlers, im- 
 provident and dissatisfied, were on the eve of breaking up the colony, 
 when Ribault arrived with supplies of every sort, and restored order and 
 content. It was at this time that the Spaniard Melendez, as already 
 narrated, discovered the whereabouts of the Huguenots, and murdered the 
 entire company. 
 
 It remained for DoMixic de Goueges, a soldier of Gascony, to 
 visit the Spaniards of St. Augustine with signal vengeance. This man 
 fitted out three ships, mostly with his own means, and with only fifty 
 daring seamen on board arrived in mid-winter on the coast of Florida. 
 With this handful of soldiers he surprised successively three Spanish 
 forts on the St. John's, and made prisoners of the inmates. Then, Mhon 
 he was unable to hold his position any longer, he hanged his leading 
 captives to the branches of the trees, and put up this inscription to explain 
 what he had done : " Not Spaniards, but murderers." 
 
 In the year 1598 the attention of the government of France was 
 once more directed to the claims which French discovery- had estal^lished 
 in America. The Marquis of La Roche, a nobleman of influence and 
 distinction, now obtained a commission authorizing him to found an emj)ire 
 in the New World. The prisons of France were again opened to fiirnLsh 
 the emigrants, and the colony was soon made up. Crossing the Atlantic 
 by the asual route, the vessels reached the coast of Nova Scotia, and 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 75 
 
 anchored at Sable Island. A more dismal place could not have been 
 found between Labrador and Mexico ; yet here, on this desolate island, La 
 Koche left forty men to form a settlement, while he himself, under the pre- 
 text of procuring more men and supplies, returned to France. Shortly 
 after his arrival in that country he died ; and for seven dreary years the 
 new French empire, composed of forty criminals, languished on Sable 
 Island. Then they were mercifully picked up by some passing ships and 
 carried back to France. Their punishment had been enough, and they 
 were never remanded to prison. 
 
 But the time had now come when a colony of Frenchmen should 
 actually be established in America. In the year 1603 the sovereignty of 
 the country from the latitude of Philadelphia to one degree north of 
 Montreal was grantetl to De Monts. The items of chief importance in 
 the patent which he received from the king were a monopoly of the fur- 
 trade of the new country and religious freedom for Huguenot immigrants. 
 De Monts, with two shiploads of colonists, left France early in March of 
 1 604, and after a pleasant voyage reached the Bay of Fundy. The sum- 
 mer was spent in making explorations and in trafficking with the natives. 
 De Monts seems to have been uncertain as to where he should plant liLs 
 colony ; but while in this frame of mind, Poutrincourt, the captain of one of 
 the ships, being greiitly pleased with a harbor which he had discovered on 
 the north-west coast of Nova Scotia, asked and obtained a grant of the same, 
 together with some beautiful lands adjacent, and he and a part of the crew 
 went on shore. De Monts, with the rest of the colony, crossed to the west 
 side of the bay, and began to build a fort on an island at the mouth of 
 the St. Croix River. But in the following spring they abandoned this 
 place, and returned to the harbor which had been granted to Poutrin- 
 court. Here, on the 14th day of November, 1605, the foundations of the 
 first permanent French settlement in America were laid. The name of 
 Port Royal was given to the harbor and the fort, and the whole country, 
 including Nova Scotia, the surrounding islands and the main laud as far 
 south as the St. Croix River, was called Acadia. 
 
 Two years before the settlement was made at Port Royal, Samxtel 
 Chajiplain, one of the most eminent and soldierly men of his times, n-as 
 commissioned by a company of Rouen merchants to explore the country of 
 the St. Lawrence and establish a trading-post. The traders saw that a traffic 
 in the furs which those regions so abundantly supplied was a surer road 
 to riches than rambling about in search of gold and diamonds. Under 
 this commission, Champlain crossed the ocean, entered the gulf, sailed up 
 the river, and with remarkable prudence and good judgment selected 
 the spot on which Quebec now stands as the site for a fort. In the 
 
76 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 autumn of 1603, he returned to France, and published an interesting and 
 faithful account of his expedition. 
 
 In the year 1608, Chamjilain again visited America, and on the 
 3d of July in that year the foundations of Quebec were laid. In the 
 following year he and two other Frenchmen joined a company of Huron 
 and Algonquin Indians who were at war with the Iroquois of New York. 
 While marching with this paiiy of warriors, he ascended the Sorel River 
 until he came to the long, narrow lake which he was the first white man 
 to look upon, and which has ever since borne the name of its discoverer. 
 
 Champlain was a religious enthusiast, and on that account the 
 development of his colony was for some time hindei-ed. In 1612 the 
 Protestant party came into power in France, and the great Cond6, the 
 protector of the Protestants, became viceroy of the French empire in 
 America. Now, for the third time, Chamjjlain came to New France, 
 and the success of the colony at Quebec was fully assured. Franciscan 
 monks came over and began to preach among the Indians. These 
 friars and the Protestants quarreled a good deal, and the settlement 
 was much disturbed. A second time Champlain \vent with a war- 
 party against the Iroquois. His company was defeated, he himself 
 wounded and obliged to remain all winter among the Hurons; but 
 in the summer of 1617 he returned to the colony, in 1620 began to 
 build, and four years afterward completed, the strong fortress of St. 
 Louis. When the heavy bastions of this castle appeared on the high 
 cliflP above the town and river, the permanence of the French settle- 
 ments in the valley of the St. Lawrence was no longer doubtful. To 
 Samuel Champlain, more than to any other man — more than to the 
 French government itself — the success of the North American colo- 
 nies of France must be attributed- 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ENGLISH DISCO VERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 IVrO day in the early history of the New World was more important 
 -iM than the 5th of May, 1496. On that day Henry VII., king of 
 England, signed the commission of John Cabot of Venice to make dis- 
 coveries and explorations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, to carry the 
 English flag, and to take possession of all islands and continents which he 
 might discover. Cabot was a brave, adventurous man who had been a 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 77 
 
 sailor from his boyhood, and was now a wealthy merchant of Bristol. 
 The autumn and winter were spent in preparations for the voyage; 
 five substantial ships were fitted, crews were enlisted, and everything 
 made ready for the opening of the spring. In April the fleet left Bris- 
 tol ; and on the morning of the 24th of June, at a point about the 
 middle of the ea.stern coast of Labrador, the gloomy shore was seen. 
 This was the real discovery of the American continent. Fourteen 
 months elapsed before Columbus reached tlie coast of Guiana, and more 
 than two years before Ojeda and Vespucci came in sight of the main 
 land of South America. 
 
 Cabot explored the shore-line of the country which he had dis- 
 covered for several hundred miles. He supposed that the land was a 
 part of the dominions of the Cham of Tartary ; but finding no inhabitants, 
 he went on shore, according to the terms of liLs commission, planted the 
 flag of England, and took possession in the name of the English king. 
 No man forgets his native land ; by the side of the flag of his adopted 
 country Cabot set up the banner of the republio of Venice — auspicious 
 emblem of another flag which should one day float from sea to sea. 
 
 As soon as he had satisfied himself of the extent and character of 
 the country which he had discovered, Cabot sailed for England. On the 
 homeward voyage he twice saw on the right hand the coast of Newfound- 
 land, but did not stop for further discovery. After an absence of but 
 little more than three months, he reached Bristol, and was greeted with 
 great enthusiasm. The town had holiday, the people were wild about 
 the discoveries of their favorite admiral, and the whole kingdom took uji 
 the note of rejoicing. The Crown gave him money and encouragement, 
 new crews were enlisted, new ships fitted out, and a new commission 
 more liberal in its provisions than the first was signed in February of 1498. 
 Strange as it may seem, after the date of this second patent the very 
 name of John Cabot disappears from the annals of the times. Where 
 the remainder of his life was passed and the circumstances of his death 
 are involved in complete mystery. 
 
 But Sebastian, second son of John Cabot, inherited his father's 
 plans and reputation, and to his father's genius added a greater genius 
 of his own. He had already been to the New World on that first famous 
 voyage, and now, when the opportunity offered to conduct a voyage of 
 his own, he threw himself into the enterprise with all the fervor of youth. 
 It is probable that the very fleet which had been equipped for his father 
 was entrusted to Sebastian. At any rate, the latter found himself, in the 
 spring of 1498, in command of a squadron of well-manned vessels and 
 on his way to the new continent. The particular object had in view was 
 
78 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that common folly of the times, the discoveiy of a north-west passage to 
 the Indies. 
 
 The voyage continued prosperously until, in the ocean west of Green- 
 land, the icebergs compelled Sebastian to change his course. It was July, 
 and the sun scarcely set at midnight. Seals were seen and the ships 
 ])loughed through such shoals of codfish as had never before been heard of. 
 The shore Mas reached not far from the scene of the elder Cabot's discov- 
 eries, and then the fleet turned southward, but whether across the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence or to the east of Newfoinidland is uncei-tain. Kew 
 Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Maine were next explored. The whole 
 coast-line of New England and of the Middle States was now for the 
 first time since the days of the Norsemen traced by Europeans. Nor did 
 Cabot desist from this work, which was bestowing the title of discovery 
 on the crown of England, until he had passed beyond the Chesapeake. 
 After all the disputes about the matter, it is most probable that Cape 
 Hatteras is the point from which Sebastian began his homeward voyage. 
 
 The future career of Cabot was as strange as the voyages of his 
 boyhood had been wonderful. The scheming, illiberal Henry VII., 
 although quick *to ajjpreciatc the value of Sebastian's discoveries, was 
 slow to reward the discoverer. The Tudore M'cre all dark-minded and 
 selfish princes. When King Henry died, Ferdinand the Catholic enticed 
 Cabot away from England and made him pilot-major of Spain. While 
 holding this high office he had almost entire control of the maritime 
 afiairs of the kingdom, and sent out many successful voyages. He lived 
 to be very old, but the circumstances of his death have not been ascer- 
 tained, and his place of burial is unknown. 
 
 Tlie year 1498 is the most marked in the whole history of discovery. 
 In the month of May, Vasco de Gama of Portugal doubled the Cape 
 of Good Hope and succeeded in reaching Hindostan. During the sum- 
 mer the younger Cabot traced the eastern coast of North America through 
 more than twenty degi-ees of latitude, thus establishing for ever the claim 
 of England to the most valuable portion of the New World. In August, 
 Columbus himself, now sailing on his third voyage, reached the mouth of 
 the Orinoco. Of the three great discoveries, that of Cabot has proved to 
 be by far the most important. 
 
 But several causes impeded the career of English discovery during 
 the greater part of the sixteenth century. The next year after the New 
 World was found, the pope, Alexander the Sixth, drew an imaginary line 
 north and south three hundred miles west of the Azores, and issued a 
 papal bull giving all islands and countries west of that line to Spain. 
 Henry YII. of England was himself a Catholic, and he did not care to 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 79 
 
 begin a conflict ■with liis Church by pressing his own claims to the newiy- 
 fouud regions of the west. His son and successor, Heury VIII., at first 
 adopted the same policy, and it was not until after the Reformation had 
 been accomplished in England that the decision of the pope came to be 
 disregarded, and finally despised and laughed at. 
 
 Dm'ing the short reign of Edward VI. the spirit of maritime adven- 
 ture was again aroused. In 1548 the king's council voted a hundred 
 pounds sterling to induce the now aged Sebastian Cabot to return from 
 Spain and become grand-pilot of England. The old admiral quitted 
 Seville and once more sailed under the Euirlish flag;. In the reign of 
 Queen Mary the power of England on the sea was not materially extended, 
 but with the accession of Elizabeth a wonderful impulse was given to all 
 enterprises which promised the aggrandizement of her kingdom. 
 
 The spirit of discovery now reapj)eared in that bold and skillful 
 sailor, Martin Frobisher. Himself poor, Dudley, earl of Warwick, 
 came to his aid, and fitted out three small vessels to sail in search of a 
 north-west passage to Asia. Three-quarters of a century had not sufficed 
 to destroy the fanatical notion of reaching the Indies by sailing around 
 America to the north. One of Frobisher's ships was lost on the voyage, 
 another, terrified at the prospect, returned to England, but in the third the 
 dauntless captain proceeded to the north and west until he attained a 
 higher latitude than had ever before been reached on the American coast. 
 Above the sixtieth parallel he discovered the group of islands which 
 lies in the mouth of Hudson's Strait. Still farther to the north he came 
 upon a large island which he supposed to be the mainland of Asia ; to 
 this he gave the name of Meta Incognita. North of this island, in lati- 
 tude sixty-three degrees and eight minutes, he entered the strait which 
 has ever since borne the name of its discoverer, then sailed for England, 
 carrying home wth him one of the Esquimaux and a stone which was 
 declared by the English refiners to contain gold. 
 
 London was greatly excited. Queen Elizabeth herself added a 
 vessel to the new fleet which in the month of May, 1577, departed for 
 Meta Incognita to gather the precious metal by the shipload. Coming 
 among the icebergs, the ships were for M'eeks together in constant danger 
 of being crushed to atoms between the floating mountains. The summel 
 was unfavorable. No ships reached as high a point as Frobisher had 
 attained by himself on the previous voyage. The mariners were in con- 
 sternation at the gloomy perils around them, and availed themselves of 
 the fii'st opportunity to get out of these dangerous seas and return to 
 England. 
 
 Were the English gold-hunters satisfied ? Not at all. Fifteen new 
 
80 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vessels were immediately fitted out, tlie queen again bearing jiart of the 
 expense, and as soon as the spring of 1578 opened the third voyage was 
 begun. This time a colony was to be planted in tlie gold-regions of the 
 north. Three of the ships, loaded with emigrants, were to remain in the 
 promised land. The other twelve were to be freighted with gold-ore and 
 return to London. When they reached the entrance to Hudson's Strait, 
 they encountered icebergs more terrible than ever. Through a thousand 
 perils the vessels finally reached Meta Incognita and took on cargoes of 
 dirt. The provision-ship now slipped away from the fleet and returned 
 to England. Affairs grew desperate. The north-west passage was for- 
 gotten. The colony which was to be planted was no longer thought of. 
 Faith in the shining earth which they had stored in the holds gave way, 
 and so, with disappointed crews on board and several tons of the spurious 
 ore under the hatches, the ships sot sail for home. The El Dorado of tlie 
 Esquimaux had proved an utter failure. 
 
 The English admiral. Sir Francis Drake, sought fortune in a 
 different manner. Without much regard for the law of nations, he began, 
 in the year 1572, to prey upon the merchant-ships of Spain, and gained 
 thereby enormous wealth. Five years later he sailed around to the Pacific 
 coast by the route which Magellan had discovered, and became a terror to 
 the Spanish vessels in those waters. When he had thus sufficiently en- 
 riched himself by a process not very different from piracy, he formed the 
 daring project of tracing up the western coast of North America until he 
 should enter the north-west passage from the Pacific, and thence sail east- 
 ward around the continent. With this object in view, he sailed northward 
 along the coast as far as Oregon, when his sailors, who had been for seve- 
 ral years within the tropics, began to shiver with the cold, and the enter- 
 prise, which could have resulted in nothing but disaster, was given up. 
 Eeturning to the south, Drake passed tlie winter of 1579-80 in a harbor 
 on the coast of Mexico. To all that portion of the western shores of 
 America which he had thus explored he gave the name of New Albion ; 
 but the earlier discover}' of the same coast by the Spaniards rendered the 
 English claim of but little value. No colony of Englishmen had yet 
 been established in the New World. 
 
 Sir Hujiphrey Gilbert was perhaps the first to conceive a rational 
 plan of colonization in America. His idea was to form somewhere on tlie 
 shores of the New Continent an agricultural and commercial state. With 
 this purpose he sought aid from the queen, and received a liberal patent 
 authorizing him to talce possession of any six hundred square miles of 
 unoccupied territory in America, and to plant thereon a colony of which 
 he himself should be proprietor and governor. With tliis conunission. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 81 
 
 Gilbert, assisted by hLs illustrious step-brother, Walter Raleigh, pre- 
 pared a fleet of five vessels, and iu June of 1583 sailed for the west. 
 Only two days after their departure the best vessel in the fleet treacher- 
 ously abandoned the rest and returiwd to Plymouth. Early iu August, 
 Gilbert reached Newfoundland, and going ashore, took formal possession 
 of the coimtry iu the name of his queen. Unfortunately, some of the 
 sailors discovered in the side of a hill scales of mica, and a judge of 
 metals, whom Gilbert had been foolish enough to bring with him, de- 
 clared that the glittering mineral was silver ore. The crews became in- 
 subordinate. Some went to digging the supposed silver and carrying it 
 on board the vessels, while others gratified their piratical propensities by 
 attacking the Spanish and Portuguese ships that were fishing iu the 
 neighboring harbors. 
 
 Meanwhile, one of Gilbert's vessels became worthless, and had to be 
 abandoned. With the other three he left Newfoundland, and steered 
 toward the south. When oiF the coast of Massachusetts, the largest of 
 the remaining ships was wrecked, and a hundred men, with all the spuri- 
 ous silver ore, went to the bottom. The disaster was so great that Gilbert 
 (U'termined to return at once to England. The weather was stormy, and 
 the two ships that were now left were utterly unfit for the sea ; but the 
 voyage was begun in hope. The brave captain remained in the weaker 
 vessel, a little frigate called the Squirrel, already shattered and ready to 
 sink. At midnight, as the ships, within hailing distance of each other, 
 were struggling through a raging sea, the Squirrel was suddenly en- 
 gulfed ; not a man of the courageous crew was saved. The other ship 
 finally reached Falmouth in safety. 
 
 But the project of colonization was immediately renewed by Raleigh. 
 In the following spring that remarkable man obtained from the queen a 
 new patent fully as liberal as the one granted to Gilbert. Raleigh was to 
 become lord-proprietor of an extensive tract of country in America ex- 
 tending from the thirty-third to the fortieth parallel of north latitude. 
 This territory was to be peopled and organized into a state. The frozen 
 regions of the north were now to be avoided, and the sunny country of 
 the Huguenots was to be chosen as the seat of the rising empire. Two 
 ships wei-e fitted out, and the command given to Philip Amidas and 
 Arthur Barlow. 
 
 In the month of July the vessels reached the coast of Carolina. 
 The sea that laved the long, low beach was smooth and glas.sy. The 
 woods were full of beauty and song. The natives were generous and 
 hospitable. Explorations were made along the shores of Albemarle and 
 Pamlico Somids, and a landing finally effected ou Roanoke Island, where 
 
82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the English were entertained by the Indian queen. But neither Amidas 
 cor Barlow had the courage or genius necessary to such an enterprise. 
 After a stay of less than two months they I'eturned to England to exhaust 
 the rhetoric of description in praising the beauties of the new land. In 
 allusion to her own life and reign, Elizabeth gave to her delightful 
 country in the New World the name of Virginia. 
 
 In December of 1584, Sir Walter brought forwai-d a bill in Par- 
 liament by which his previous patent was confirmed and enlarged. The 
 mind of the whole nation was inflamed at the prospects which Raleigh's 
 province now offered to emigrants and adventurcre. The plan of coloni- 
 zation, so far from being abandoned, was undertaken with renewed zeal and 
 earnestness. The proprietor fitted out a second expedition, and appointed 
 the soldierly Ralph Lane governor of the colony. Sir Richard Gren- 
 ville commanded the fleet, and a company, not unmixed with the gallant 
 young nobility of the kingdom, made up the crew. Sailing from Ply- 
 mouth, the fleet of seven vessels reached the American coast on the 20th 
 of June. At Cape Fear they were in imminent danger of being ^\Tecked ; 
 but having escaped the peril, they six days afterward reached Roanoke in 
 safety-. Here Lane was left with a hundred and ten of the emigrants to 
 form a settlement. Grenville, after making a few unsatisfactoiy explora- 
 tions, returned to England, taking with him a Spanish treasure-ship which 
 he had captured. Privateering and colonization went hand in hand. 
 
 Meanwhile, some Inchans of a village adjacent to Roanoke had 
 committed a petty theft, and the English wantonly burned the whole 
 town as a measure of revenge. Jealousy and suspicion took the place of 
 former friendships. Lane and some of his companions were enticed with 
 false stories to go on a gold-hunting exjjodition into the interior ; their 
 destruction was planned, and only avoided by a hasty retreat to Roanoke. 
 Wingina, the Indian king, and several of his chiefs were now in turn 
 allured into the power of the English and inhumanly murdered. Hatred 
 and gloom followed this atrocity, then despondency and a sense of danger, 
 until the discouragement became so great that when Sir Francis Drake, 
 returning with a fleet from his exploits on the Pacific coast, came in sight, 
 the colonists prevailed on him to carry them back to England. 
 
 It was a needless and hasty abandonment, for within a few daA's a 
 shipload of stores arrived from the prudent Raleigh ; but finding no colony, 
 the vessel could do nothing but return. Two weeks later Sir Richard 
 Grenville himself came back to Roanoke with three well-laden ships, and 
 made a fruitless search for the colonists. Xot to lose possession of the 
 countiy altogether, he left fifteen men upon the island, and set sail for 
 home. 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 83 
 
 The ardor of the English people was now somewhat cooled. Yet 
 thev had before them truthful descriptions of the beauty and mag- 
 nificence of the new country, and another colony, -consisting largely of 
 flimilies, was easily made up. A charter of municipal government was 
 "•ranted by the proprietor, John White was chosen governor, and every 
 precaution taken to seciu-e the permanent success of the City of Raleigh, 
 soon to be founded in the west. In July the emigrants arrived in Caro- 
 lina. Avoiding the dangerous capes of Hatteras and Fear, they came 
 safely to Roanoke ; but a search for the fifteen men who had been left 
 there a year before only revealed the fact that the natives, now grown 
 savage, had murdered them. Nevertheless, the northern extremity of 
 the ill-omened island was chosen as the site for the city, and on the 23d 
 of the month the foundations were laid. 
 
 But disaster attended the enterprise. Jealousy between the settlers 
 and the Indians grew into hostility, and hostility into war. Then a peace 
 was concluded, and Sir Walter gave countenance to an absurd perform- 
 ance by which Manteo, one of the Indian chiefs, was made a peer of 
 England, with the title of Lord of Roanoke. It was a silly and stupid 
 piece of business. Notwithstanding the presence of this copper-colored 
 nobleman, the colonists were apprehensive and gloomy. They pretended 
 to fear starvation, and in the latter part of August almost compelled 
 Governor White to retm-n to England for an additional cargo of supplies. 
 It was a great mistake. If White had remained, and the settlers had 
 given themselves to tilling the soil and building houses, no further help 
 would have been needed. The 18th of August was marked as the birth- 
 day of Virginia Dare, the first-born of English children in the New 
 World. W^hen White set sail for England, he left behind him a colony 
 of a hundred and eight persons. What their fate was has never been 
 ascertained. The story of their going ashore and joining the Indians is 
 unlikely in itself, and has no historical evidence to support it. 
 
 The Invincible Armada was now bearing down upon the coasts of 
 England. All the resources and energies of the kingdom were demanded 
 for defence; and although Raleigh managed to send out two supply- 
 ships to succor his starving colony, his efforts to reach them were unavail- 
 ing. The vessels which he sent with stores went cruising after Spanish 
 merchantmen, and were themselves run down and captured by a man-of- 
 war. Not until the spring of 1590 did the governor finally return to 
 search for the unfortunate colonists. The island was a desert, tenautless 
 and silent. No soul remained to tell the story of the lost. 
 
 In the mean time, Sir Walter, after spending two hundred thou- 
 sand dollars of his own means in the attempt to found and foster a colony, 
 
84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 had given up the enterprise. He assigned his exclusive proprietarj' rights 
 to an association of London merchants, and it was under theu* ausjiices 
 tliat White had made the final search for the settlei-s of Roanoke. From 
 the date of this event very little in the way of voyage and discovery wa.s 
 accomplished by the English until the year 1602, when maritime enter- 
 prise again brought the flag of England to the shores of America. Bar 
 THOLOMEW GoSNOLD was the man to whom belongs the honor of mak- 
 ing the next explorations of our coast. 
 
 The old route from the shores of Europe to America was very cir- 
 cuitous. Ships from the ports of England, France and Spain sailed first 
 southward to the Canary Islands, thence to the West Indies, and thence 
 uortln\ard to the coast-line of the continent. Abandoning this jiath as 
 unnecessarily long and out of the way, Gosnold, in a single small vessel 
 called the Concord, sailed directly across the Atlantic, and in seven weeks 
 reac'hed the coast of Maine. The distance thus gained was fnlly two 
 thousand miles. It wa.s Gosnold's object to found a cdlony, and for 
 that purpose a company of emigrants came with him. Beginning at 
 Cape Elizabeth, explorations were made to the southward ; Cape Cod 
 was reached, and here the captain, with four of his men, went on shore. 
 It was the first landing of Englishmen within the limits of New Eng- 
 land. Cape Malabar was doubled, and then the vessel, leaving Nantucket 
 on the right, turned into Buzzard's Bay. Selecting the most westerly 
 island of the Elizabeth group, the colonists went on shore, and there be- 
 gan the first New England settlement. 
 
 It was a short-lived enterprise. A traffic was opened with the 
 natives which resulted in loadmg the Concord with sassafras root, so much 
 esteemed for its fragrance and healing virtues. Everything went well for 
 a season ; but when the ship was about to depart for England, the settlers 
 became alarmed at the prospect before them, and pleaded for permission to 
 return with their friends. Gosnold acceded to their demands, and the 
 island was abandoned. After a pleasant voyage of five weeks, and in 
 less than four months from the time of starting, the Concord reached 
 home in safety. 
 
 Gosnold and his companions gave glowing accounts of the country 
 ■which they had visited, and it was not long until another English expe- 
 dition to America was planned. Two vessels, the Speedwell and the 
 Discoverer, composed the fleet, with Maktin Fring for commander. A 
 cargo of merchandise suited to the tastes of the Indians was put into 
 the holds ; and in April of 1603, a few days after the death of Queen 
 Elizabeth, the vessels satled for America. They came safely to Penobscot 
 Bay, and afterward spent some time in exploring the harbors and shores 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 85 
 
 of Maine. Then, turning to tlie south and coasting Massachusetts, Pring 
 reached the sassafras region, and loaded hLs vessels at JNIartha's Vineyard. 
 Thence he returned to England, reaching Bristol in October, after an 
 absence of six months. 
 
 Two years later, George Waymouth, under the patronage of the 
 earl of Southampton, made a voyage to America, and passing Cape Cod 
 on the left, came to anchorage among the islands of St. George, on the 
 coast of Maine. He explored the harbor, and sailed up the river for a 
 considerable distance, takmg note of the fine forests of fir and of the 
 beautiful scenery along the banks. A profitable trade was opened with 
 the Indians, some of whom learned to speak English and returned with 
 Waymouth to England. The voyage liomeward was safely made, the 
 vessels reaching Plymouth about the middle of June. This was the last 
 of the voyages made by the English preparatory to the actual establish- 
 ment of a colony in America. The time had at last arrived when, in the 
 beautiful country of the Chesapeake, a permanent settlement should be 
 eifected. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS.— CONTINUED. 
 
 THE 10th of April, 1606, was full of fate in the destinies of the west- 
 ern continent. On that day King James I. issued two great patents 
 directed to men of his kingdom, authorizing them to possess and colo- 
 nize all that portion of North America lying between the thirty-fourth 
 and fort}'-fifth 2)arallels of latitude. The immense tract thus embraced 
 extended from the mouth of Cape Fear River to Passamaquoddy Bay, 
 and westward to the Pacific Ocean. The first patent was granted to an 
 association of nobles, gentlemen and merchants residing at London, and 
 called the London Company, while the second instrument A\-as issued 
 to a similar body which had been organized at Plymouth, in South-west- 
 ern England, and which bore the name of the Plymouth Company. 
 To the former corporation was assigned all the region between the thirty- 
 fourth and the thirty-eighth degrees of latitude, and to the latter the tract 
 extending fi-om the forty-first to the fortj'-fifth degree. The narrow belt 
 of three degrees lying between the thirty-eighth and forty-first parallels 
 M'as to be equally open to the colonies of either company, but no settle- 
 
86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ment of one party was to be made within less than one hundred miles 
 of the nearest settlement of tlie other. The nature and extent of these 
 grants will be fully understood from an- examination of the accompany- 
 ing map. Only the London Company was successful under its charter 
 in planting an American colony. 
 
 The man who was chiefly instrumental in organizing the London 
 Company was Bartholomew Gosnold. His leading associates were Edward 
 "Wingfield, a rich merchant, Robert Hunt, a clergyman, and John Smith, 
 a man of genius. Others who aided the enterprise M'ere Sir John Pop- 
 ham, chief-justice of England, Richard Hakluyt, a historian, and Sir 
 Ferdinand Gorges, a distinguished nobleman. By the terms of the char- 
 ter, the affairs of the company were to be administered by a Superior 
 Council, residing in England, and an Inferior Council, residing in the 
 colony. The members of the former body were to be chosen by the king, 
 and to hold office at his pleasure ; the members of the lower council were 
 also selected by the royal direction, and M-ere subject to removal by the 
 same power. All legislative authority was likewise vested in the mon- 
 arch. In the first organization of the companies not a single principle 
 of self-government was admitted. The most foolish clause in the patent 
 was that which required the proposed colony or colonies to hold all prop- 
 erty in common f jr a period of five years. The wisest provision in the 
 instrument was that whicii allowed the emigrants to retain in the New 
 World all the rights and privileges of Englishmen. 
 
 In the month of August, 1606, the Plymouth Company sent their 
 first ship to America. The voyage, which was one of exploration, 
 was but half completed, Mhen the company's vessel was captured by a 
 Spanish man-of-war. In the autunm another ship was sent out, which 
 remained on the American coast until the following spring, and then 
 .•eturned -with glowing accounts of the country. Encouraged by these 
 reports, the company, in the summer of 1607, despatched a colony of a 
 hundred persons. Arriving at the mouth of the River Kennebec, the 
 colonists began a settlement under favorable circumstances. Some forti- 
 fications were thrown up, a storehouse and several cabins built, and the 
 place named St. George. Then the ships returned to England, leaving 
 a promising colony of forty-five members; but the winter of 1607-8 
 was very severe ; some of the settlers M'ere starved and some frozen, the 
 storehouse biu-ned, and when smumer came the remnant escaped to 
 England. 
 
 The London Company had better fortune. A fleet of three vessels 
 was fitted out, and the command given to Christopher Ne-n-jiort. On the 
 9th of December the" ships, having on board a hundred and five colonists, 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 87 
 
 among whom were Wingfield aud Smith, left England. Newport, to 
 begin with, committed the astonishing foil}- of taking the old route by 
 way of the Canaries and the West Indies, and did not reach the American 
 coast until the month of April. It was the design that a landing should 
 be made in the neighborhood of Roanoke Island, but a storm prevailed 
 and carried the ships northward into the Chesapeake. Entering the 
 magnificent bay and coasting along the southern shore, the vessels came 
 to the mouth of a broad and beautiful ri\-er, which was named in honor 
 of King James. Proceeding up this stream about fifty miles, Newport 
 noticed on the northern bank a peninsula more attractive than the rest 
 for its verdure and beauty ; the ships were moored, and the emigrants 
 went on shore. Here, on the 13th day of May (Old Style), in the year 
 1607, were laid the foundations of Jamestown, the oldest English settle- 
 ment in America. It M'as within a month of a hundred and ten years 
 after the discovery of the continent by the elder Cabot, and nearly forty- 
 two years after the founding of St. Augustine. So long a time had been 
 required to plant the fii-st feeble germ of English civilization in the New 
 World. 
 
 After the unsuccessful attempt to, form a settlement at the mouth 
 of the Kennebec, very little was done by the Plymouth Company for 
 several years ; yet the purpose of planting colonies was not relinquished. 
 Meanwhile, a new impetus was given to the affairs of North Virginia liy 
 the ceaseless activity and exhaustless energies of John Smith. Wounded 
 by an accident, and discouraged, as for as it was possible for such a man 
 to be discouraged, by the distractions and tui'bulence of the Jamestown 
 colony. Smith left that settlement in 1609, and returned to England. On 
 recovering his health he formed a partnership with four wealthy mer- 
 chants of London, with a view to the fur-trade and probable establish- 
 ment of colonies within the limits of the Plymouth grant. Two ships 
 were accordingly freighted with goods and put under Smith's command. 
 The summer of 1614 was spent on the coast of lower Maine, where a 
 profitable traffic was carried on witli the Indians. The crews of the ves- 
 sels were well satisfied through the long days of July with the plea- 
 sures and profits of the teeming fisheries, but Smith himself found nobler 
 work. Beginning as far north as practicable, he patiently explored the 
 country, and drew a map of the whole coast-line from the Penobscot 
 River to Cape Cod. In this map, which is still extant, and a marvel of 
 accuracy considering the circumstances under which it was made, the 
 country was called New England — a name which Prince Charles con- 
 firmed, and which has ever since remained as the designation of the North- 
 eastern States of the republic. In the month of November the ships re- 
 
88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 turned to Plymouth, taking -with them many substantial proofs of a suc- 
 cessful voyage. 
 
 Smith now pleaded more strongly than ever in behalf of coloniza- 
 tion. Some of his friends in the Plymouth Company gave him aid, and 
 in 1615 a small colony of sixteen persons was sent out in a single ship. 
 When nearing the American coast, they encountered a terrible storm, and 
 after being driven about for two or three weeks were obliged to return to 
 England. In spite of these reverses, the undaunted leader renewed the 
 enterprise, and again raised a company of emigrants. Part of his crew 
 became mutinous, betrayed him, and left him in mid-ocean. His own 
 ship was run down and captured by a band of French pirates, and him- 
 self imprisoned in the harbor of Rochelle. Later in the same year he 
 escaped in an open boat and made his way back to London. With as- 
 tonishing industry, he now published a description of New England, 
 and was more zealous than ever in inciting the company of Plymouth to 
 energetic action. In these efforts he was much impeded. The London 
 Company was jealous of its rival, and put obstacles in the way of every 
 enterprise. The whole of the years 1(j17-18 was spent in making and 
 unmaking plans of colonization, until iinally, on the petition of some of 
 its own leading members, the Plymouth Company was formally super- 
 seded by a new corporation called the Council of Plymouth, consisting 
 of forty of the most wealthy and influential men of the kingdom. On 
 this body were conferred, by the terms of the new charter, almost un- 
 limited poM-ers and privileges. All that part of America lying between 
 the fortieth and the forty-eighth parallels of north latitude, and extending 
 from ocean to ocean, was given to the council in fee simple. INIore than a 
 million of square miles were embraced in the grant, and absolute jm'isdic- 
 tion over this immense tract was committed to forty men. How King 
 James was ever induced to sign such a charter has remained an unsolved 
 mystery. 
 
 A plan of colonizing was now projected on a grand scale. John 
 Smith was apj^ointed admiral of New England for life. The king, not- 
 withstanding the opposition of the House of Commons, issued a procla- 
 mation enforcing the jjrovisions of the charter, and everything gave 
 j)roniise of the early settlement of America. Such were the schemes of 
 men to possess and people the Western Continent. Meanwhile, a Power 
 higher than the will of man was working in the same direction. The 
 time had come when, M'ithout the knowledge or consent of James I., 
 without the knowledge or consent of the Council of Plymouth, a per- 
 manent settlement should be made on the bleak shores of New England. 
 The Puritans ! Name of all names in the early history of the 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 89 
 
 West ! About the close of the sixteenth century a number of poor dis- 
 senters scattered through the North of England, especially in the counties 
 of Nottingham, Lincoln and York, began to join themselves together for 
 the purposes of free religious worship. Politically, they were patriotic 
 subjects of the English king; religiously, they were relsels against the 
 authority of the English Church. Their rebellion, however, only ex- 
 tended to the declaration that every man has a right to discover and ap- 
 ply the truth as revealed in the Scriptures without the interposition of 
 any power other than his own reason and conscience. Such a doctrine was 
 very repugnant to the Church of England. Queen Elizabeth herself 
 declared such teaching to be subversive of the principles on which her 
 monarchy was founded. King James was not more tolerant ; and from 
 time to time violent persecutions broke out against the feeble and dis- 
 persed Christians of the north. 
 
 Despairing of rest in their own country, the Puritans finally deter- 
 mined to go into exile, and to seek in another land the freedom of wor- 
 ship which their own had denied them. They turned their faces toward 
 Holland, made one unsuccessful attempt to get away, were brought back 
 and throM'n into prisons. Again they gathered together on a bleak heath 
 in Lincolnshire, and in the spring of 1608 embarked from the mouth of 
 the Humber. Their ship brought them in safety to Amsterdam, where, 
 under the care of their heroic pastor, John Robinson, the}- passed one 
 ■winter, and then removed to Leydeu. Such was the beginning of their 
 wandering. They took the name of Pilgrims, and grew content to have 
 no home or resting-place. Privation and exile could be endured when 
 sweetened with liberty. 
 
 But the love of native land is a universal passion. The Puritans 
 in Holland did not forget — could not forget — that they were Englishmen. 
 During their ten years of residence at Leyden they did not cease to long 
 for a return to the country which had cast them out. Though ruled by 
 a heartless monarch and a bigoted priesthood, England was their country 
 still. The unflimiliar language of the Dutch gi'ated harshly on their ears. 
 They pined with unrest, conscious of their ability and willingness to do 
 something which should convince even King James of their patriotism 
 and worth. 
 
 It was in this condition of mind that about the year 1617 the 
 Pm'itans began to meditate a removal to the wilds of the New "World. 
 There, with honest purpose and prudent zeal, they would extend the 
 dominions of the English king. They would forget the pa.st, and be at 
 l^eace with their country. Accordingly, John Carver and Robert Cash- 
 man Avere despatched to England to ask permission for the church of 
 
90 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Leyden to settle in America. The agents of the London Company 
 and the Council of Plymouth gave some encouragement to the request, 
 but the king and his ministers, especially Lord Bacon, set their faces 
 against any project M'hich might seem to favor heretics. The most that 
 King James would do was to make an informal promise to let the Pil- 
 grims alone m America. Such has always been the despicable attitude 
 of bigotry toward every liberal enterprise. 
 
 The Puritans were not discouraged. With or without permission, 
 protected or not protected by the terms of a charter which might at best 
 be violated, they would seek asylum and rest in the Western wilderness. 
 Out of their own resources, and with the help of a few faithful friends, 
 they provided .the scanty means of dejMrture and set tiieir faces toward 
 the sea. The Speedwell, a small vessel of sixty tons, M'as purchased at 
 Amsterdam, and the jNIayflower, a larger and more substantial ship, was 
 hired for the voyage. The former was to carry the emigrants from Ley- 
 den to Southampton, where they were to be joined by the Mayflower, with 
 another company from London. Assembling at the harl)or of Delft, on 
 the River Meuse, fifteen miles south of Leyden, as many of the Pilgrims 
 as could be accommodated w-ent on board the Speedwell. The whole con- 
 gregation accompanied them to the shore. There Robiuson gave them a 
 consoling farewell address, and the blessings and prayers of those who 
 were left behind followed the vessel out of sight. 
 
 Both ships came safely to Southampton, and within two Aveeks the 
 emigrants were ready for the voyage. On the 5th of August, 1620, the 
 vessels left the harbor ; but after a few days' sailing the Speedwell was 
 found to be shattered, old and leaky. On this account both ships an- 
 chored in the port of Dartmouth, and eiglit days were spent in making 
 the needed repairs. Again the sails were set ; but scarcely had the land 
 receded from sight before the captain of the Speedwell declared his vessel 
 unfit to breast the ocean, and then, to the great grief and discouragement 
 of the emigrants, put back to Plymouth. Here the bad ship was aban- 
 doned ; but the Pilgrims were encouraged and feasted by the citizens, and 
 the more zealous went on board the Ma^-flower, ready and anxious for a 
 final effort. On the 6th day of September the first colouy of New Eng- 
 land, numbering one hundred and two souls, saw the shores of Old 
 England grow dim and sink behind the sea. 
 
 The voyage was long and perilous. For sixty-three days the ship 
 was buifeted by storms and driven. It had been the intention of the 
 Pilgrims to found their colony in the beautiful country of the Hudson ; 
 but the tempest carried them out of their coui-se, and tlie first land seen 
 was the desolate Cape Cod. On the 9th of November the vessel was 
 
VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY 91 
 
 anchored in the bay ; then a meeting was held on board and the coiouy 
 organized under a solemn compact. In the charter which they thei-e 
 made for themselves the emigrants declared their loyalty to the English 
 Crown, and covenanted together to live in jjeace and harmony, with equal 
 rights to all, obedient to just laws made for the common good. Such was 
 the simple but sublime constitution of the oldest New England State. A 
 nobler document is not to be found among the records of the world.* To 
 this instrument all the heads of families, fort)'-one in number, solemnly 
 set their names. An election was held in which all had an equal voice, 
 and John Carver was unanimously chosen governor of the colony. 
 
 After two days the boat was lowered, but was found to be half 
 rotten and useless. More than a fortnight of jDrecious time was required 
 to make the needed repairs. Standish, Bradford and a few other hardy 
 spirits got to shore and explored the country ; nothing was found but a 
 heap of Indian corn under the snow. By the 6th of December the boat 
 was ready for service, and the governor, with fifteen comjjanions, went 
 ashore. The weather was dreadful. Alternate rains and snow-storms 
 converted the clothes of the Pilgrims into coats-of-mail. All day they 
 wandered about, and then returned to the sea-shore. In the morning 
 they were attacked by the Indians, but escaped to the ship with their 
 lives, cheerful and giving thanks. Then the vessel was steered to the 
 south and west for forty-five miles around the coast of what is now the 
 county of Barnstable. At nightfall of Saturday a storm came on ; the 
 rudder was wrenched away, and the poor ship driven, half by accident 
 and half by the skill of the pilot, into a safe haven on the west side 
 of the bay. The next day, being the Sabbath, was spent in religious 
 devotions, and on Monday, the lltli of December, Old Style, 1620, the 
 Pilgrim Fathers landed on the Rock of Plvmouth. 
 
 It was now the dead of winter. There was an incessant storm of 
 sleet and snow, and the houseless immigrants, already enfeebled by their 
 sufferings, fell a-dying of hunger, cold and exposure. After a few days 
 spent in explorations about the coast, a site was selected near the first 
 landing, some trees were felled, the snow-drifts cleared away, and on the 
 9th of January the heroic toilers began to build New Plymouth. Every 
 man took on himself the work of making his o^vn house ; but the rav- 
 ages of disease grew daily worse, strong arms fell powerless, lung-fevers 
 and consumptions wasted every family. At one time only seven men 
 were able to work on the sheds which were building for shelter from the 
 storms ; and if an early spring had not brought relief, the colony must 
 have perished to a man. Such were the privations and griefs of that 
 terrible winter when New England began to be. 
 
 * See Appendix, note B. 
 
92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. 
 
 THE first Dutch settlement in America was made on Manhattan or 
 New York Island. The colony resulted from the voyages and 
 explorations of the illustrious SiR Henry Hudson. In the year 1607 
 this great British seaman was employed by a company of London mei- 
 chants to sail into the North Atlantic and discover a route eastward or 
 westward to the Indies. He made the voyage in a single ship, passed up 
 the eastern coast of Greenland to a higher point of latitude than ever 
 before attained, tm'ned eastward to Spitzbergen, circumnavigated that 
 island, and then M-as compelled by the icebergs to return to England. In 
 the next year he renewed his eftbrts, hoping to find between Sijitzbergen 
 and Nova Zembla an open way to the East. By this course he confi- 
 dently expected to shorten the route to China by at least eight thousand 
 miles. Again the voyage resulted in failure; his employers gave uj) the 
 enterprise in despair, but his own spirits only rose to a higher determi- 
 nation. When the cautious merchants would furnish no more means, he 
 cpiitted England and went to Amsterdam. Holland was at this time the 
 foremost maritime nation of the world, and the eminent navigator did not 
 long go begging for patronage in the busy marts of that country. The 
 Dutch East India Company at once furnished him with a ship, a small 
 yacht called the Half ^loon, and in April of 1609 he set out on his 
 tliird voyage to reach the Indies. About the seventy-second parallel of 
 latitude, above the capes of Norway, he turned eastward, but Ijetween 
 Lapland and Nova Zembla the ocean was filled with icebergs, and further 
 sailing was impossible. Baffled but not discouraged, he immediately 
 turned his prow toward the shores of America ; somewhere between the 
 Chesapeake and the North Pole he would find a passage into the Pacific 
 ocean. 
 
 In the month of July Hudson reached Ne^^•foundland, and passing 
 to the coast of Maine, spent some time in repairing his ship, which had 
 been shattered in a storm. Sailing thence southward, lie touched at Cape 
 Cod, and by the middle of August found himself as far south as the 
 Chesapeake. Again he turned to the north, determined to examine the 
 coast more closely, and on the 28th of the month anchored in Delaware 
 
VOYAGE AXD DISCOVERY. 93 
 
 Bay. After one day's explorations the voyage was continued along the 
 coast of New Jersey, until, on the 3d of Sejitember, the Half jNIooucame 
 to a safe anchorage in the bay of Sandy Hook. Two days later a land- 
 ing was effected, the natives flocking in great numbers to the scene, and 
 bringing gifts of corn, wild fruits and oysters. The time until the 9th 
 of the month was sjjeut in sounding the great harbor ; on the next day 
 the vessel passed the Narrows, and then entered the noble ri\er ^^•hich 
 bears the name of Hudson. 
 
 To exjjlore the beautiful stream was now the pleasing task. For 
 eight days the Half Moon sailed northward up the river. Such mag- 
 nificent forests, such beautiful hills, such mountains rising in the distance, 
 such fertile valleys, planted Jicre and there with ripening corn, tlie Xeth- 
 erlanders had never seen before. On the 19th of September the vessel 
 was moored at what is now the landing of Kiuderhook ; but an exploring 
 party, still unsatisfied, took to the boats and rowed up the river beyond 
 the site of Albany. After some days they returned to the ship, the moor- 
 ings were loosed, the vessel dropped down the stream, and on the 4th of 
 October the sails were spread for Holland. On the homeward voyage 
 Hudson, not perhaps without a touch of national pride, put into the har- 
 bor of Dartmouth. Thereupon the government of King James, with 
 characteristic illiberality, detained the Half jNIoou, and claimed the crew 
 as Englishmen. All that Hudson could do was to forward to his employ- 
 ers of the East India Company an account of his successful voyage and 
 of the delightful country which he had visited under the flag of Holland. 
 
 Now were the English merchants ready to spend more money to 
 And the north-west passage. In the summer of 1610, a ship, called the 
 Discovery, was given to Hudson ; and with a vision of the Indies flitting 
 before his imagination he left England, never to return. He had learned 
 by this time that nowhere between Florida and Maine was there an open- 
 ing through the continent to the Pacific. The famous pass must now be 
 sought between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the southern point of 
 Greenland. Steering between Cape Farewell and Labrador, in the track 
 which Frobisher had taken, the vessel came, on the 2d day of August, 
 into the mouth of the strait which bears the name of its discoverer. No 
 ship had ever before entered these waters. For a while the way west- 
 ward was barred with islands ; but passing between them, the bay seemed 
 to open, the ocean widened to the right and left, and the route to China 
 was at last revealed. So believed the great captain and his crew ; but 
 sailing farther to the west, the inhospitable shores narrowed on the more 
 inhospitable sea, and Hudson found himself environed with the terrors 
 of winter in the frozen gulf of the North. With unfaltering courage he 
 
94 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bore up until his provisions -were almost exhausted; spring v,-as at hand, 
 and the day of escape had already arrived, when the treacherous crew 
 broke out in mutiny. They seized Hudson and his only son, with seven 
 other faithful sailon?, threw them into an open shallop, aud cast them oif 
 among the icebergs. The fate of the illustrious mariner has never been 
 ascertained. 
 
 lu the summer of 1610 the Half Moon was liberated at Dartmouth, 
 and returned to Amsterdam. In the same year several ships owued by 
 Dutch merchants sailed to the banks of the Hudson River and engaged 
 in the fiu'-trade. The traffic was very lucrative, and in the two following 
 years other vessels made frequent and profitable voyages. Early in 1614 
 an act was passed by the States-General of Holland giving to certain 
 merchants of Amsterdam the exclusive right to trade and establish settle- 
 ments within the limits of the country explored by Hudson. Under this 
 commission a fleet of five small trading-vessels arrived in the summer of 
 the same year at Manhattan Island. Here some rude huts had already 
 been built by former traders, but now a fort for the defence of the place 
 was erected, and the settlement named New Amsterdam. In the course 
 of the autumn Adrian Block, who commanded one of the ships, sailed 
 thi'ough East River into Long Island Sound, made explorations along the 
 coast as far as the mouth of the Connecticut, thence to Xarraganset Bay, 
 and even to Cape Cod. Almost at the same time Christiansen, another 
 Dutch commander, in the same fleet, sailed up the river from Manhattan 
 to Castle Island, a short distance below the site of Albany, and erected a 
 block-house, which was named Fort Nassau, for a long time the northern 
 out|30St of the settlers on the Hudson. Meanwhile, Cornelius May, the 
 captain of a small vessel called the Fortune, sailed from New Amsterdam 
 and explored the Jersey coast as far south as the Bay of Delaware. Upon 
 these two voyages, one north and the other south from Manhattan Island 
 where the actual settlement Avas made, Holland set up a feeble claim to 
 the countiT which was now named New Netherlands, extending from 
 Cape Henlopen to Cape Cod — a claim which Great Britain and France 
 treated with derision and contempt. Such were the feeble and inaus- 
 picious beginnings of the Dutch colonies in New York and Jersey. 
 
PART III. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTORY. 
 
 A. ». 1607-1775. 
 
 PARENT COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 VIRGINIA.— THE FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 MANY circumstances impeded the progress of the oldest Virginia 
 colony. The first settlers at Jamestown were idle, improvident, 
 dissolute. Of the one hundred and five men who came with Newport 
 in the spring of 1607, only twelve were common laborers. There were 
 four carpenters in the company, and six or eight masons and blacksmiths, 
 but the lack of mechanics was compensated by a long list of forty-eiglit 
 gentlemen. If necessity had not soon driven these to the honorable 
 vocations of toil, the colony must have perished. The few married men 
 who joined the expedition had left their families in England. The pros- 
 pect of planting an American State on the banks of James Eiver was 
 not at all encouraging. 
 
 From the first the affairs of the colony were badly managed. King 
 James made out instructions for the organization of the new State, and 
 then, with his usual stupidity, sealed up the parchment in a box which 
 was not to be opened until the arrival of the emigrants in America. The 
 names of the governor and members of the council were thus unknown 
 during the voyage; there was no legitimate authority on shipboard; 
 insubordination and anarchy prevailed among the riotous company. In 
 this state of turbulence and misrule, an absurd suspicion was blown out 
 against Captain John Smith, the best and truest man in the colony. He 
 was accused of making a plot to murder the council, of which he was 
 supposed to be a member, and to make himself monarch of Virginia. 
 An arrest followed, and confinement until the end of the voyage. When 
 at last the colonists reached the site of their future settlement, the king's 
 instructions were unsealed and the names of the seven members of the 
 
 95 
 
96 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Inferioi" Council made knovsii. Then a meeting of that body was held 
 and Edward AVingfield duly elected first governor of Virginia. Smith, 
 who had been set at liberty, was now charged with sedition and excluded 
 from his seat in the coimcil. He demanded to be tried ; and when it was 
 found that his jealous enemies could bring nothing Ijut their own susjii- 
 cions against him, he was acc|uitted, and finally, through the good offices 
 of Robert Hunt, restored to his place as a member of the corporation. 
 As, soon as the settlement was well begun and the aflaii's of the colony 
 
 came into a better 
 condition, the rest- 
 less Smith, accom- 
 panied by New- 
 port and twenty 
 others, ascended 
 and explored 
 James River for 
 forty-five miles. 
 This was the first 
 of those marvelous 
 expeditions which 
 were undertaken 
 and carried out by 
 Smith's enterpi'ise 
 and daring. Just 
 below the falls of 
 the river, at the 
 present site of 
 Richmond, the 
 English explorers 
 came upon the 
 capital of Pow- 
 hatan, the Indian king. Smith was not greatly impressed with the mag- 
 nificence of an empire whose chief c\ty was a squalid village of twelve 
 wig^vams. The native monarch received the foreigner's with foi'mal 
 courtesy and used his authority to moderate the dislike which his sub- 
 jects manifested at the intrusion. About the last of May the company 
 returned to Jamestown, and fifteen days later Newport embai'ked for 
 England. 
 
 The colonists now for the first time began to realize their situation. 
 They were alone amid the solitudes of the New World. The beauties 
 of the Virginia wilderness were aroimd them, but the terrors of the 
 
 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 
 
VIRGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 97 
 
 ap)>roaehing winter were already present to their imagination. In the 
 latter part of August dreadful diseases broke out in the settlement, and 
 the colony was brought to the verge of ruin. The fort which had been 
 built for the defence of the plantation was filled with the sick and dying. 
 At one time no more than five men were able to go on dutj' as sentinels. 
 Bartholomew Gosnold, the projector of the colony and one of the best 
 men in the council, died, and before the middle of September one-half 
 of the whole number had been swept otf by the terrible malady. If the 
 frosts of autmnn had not come to check the ravages of disease, no soul 
 would have been left to tell the story. 
 
 Civil dissension was added to the other calamities of the settlement. 
 President Wingfield, an unprincipled man, and his confederate, George 
 Kendall, a member of the council, were detected in embezzling the stores 
 of the colony. Attempting to escape in the company's vessel, they were 
 arrested, impeached and removed from office. Only tliree councilmen 
 now remained, Ratcliife, Martin and Smith ; the first was chosen presi- 
 dent. He M'as a man who possessed neither ability nor courage, and the 
 aifairs of the settlers grew worse and worse. After a few weeks of vacil- 
 lation and incompetency, he, like his predecessor, was caught in an attemjit 
 to abandon the colony, and willingly gave up an office which he could not 
 fill. Only Martin and Smith now remained ; the former elected the lat- 
 ter president of Virginia ! It was a forlorn piece of business, but very 
 necessary for the public good. In their distress and bitterness there had 
 come to pass among the colonists a remarkable unanimits- as to Smith's 
 merits and abilities. The new administration entered ujjon the discharge 
 of its duties without a particle of opposition. 
 
 The new president, though not yet thirt^^ years of age, was a veteran 
 in ever)' kind of valuable human experience. Born an Englishman; 
 trained as a soldier in the wars of Holland ; a traveler in France, Italy 
 and Egypt ; again a soldier in Hungary ; captured by the Turks and 
 sold as a slave; sent from Constantinople to a prison in the Crimea; 
 killing a taskmaster who beat him, and then escaping through the woods 
 of Russia to Western Europe ; going with an army of adventurers against 
 jMorocco ; finally returning to England and joining the London Com- 
 jjany, — he was now called upon by the very enemies who had persecuted 
 and ill-treated him to rescue them and their colony from destruction. A 
 strange and wonderful career ! John Smith was altogether the most noted 
 man in the early history of America. 
 
 Under the new administration the Jamesto\vn settlement soon began 
 to show signs of vitality and progress. Smith's first care, after the set- 
 tlers were in a measui'e restored to health, was to improve the buildings 
 
 7 
 
98 HISTORY OF THE UJ^ITED STATES. 
 
 of the plantation. The fortifications of the yAace were strengthened, 
 dwellings were repaired, a storehouse erected, and everything made ready 
 for the coming winter. The next measure was to secure a supply of pro- 
 visions from the surrounding country. A plentiful harvest among the 
 Indians had compensated in some degree for the mismanagement and 
 rascality of the former ofdcers of the colon}^, but to procure corn from the 
 natives was not an easy task. Although ignorant of the Indian language, 
 Smith undertook the hazardous enterj)rise. Descending James River as 
 far as Hampton Roads, he landed with his five companions, went boldly 
 among the natives, and began to offer them hatchets and copper coins in 
 exchange for corn. The Indians only laughed at the proposal, and then 
 mocked the half-starved foreigners by offering to barter a piece of bread 
 for Smith's sword and musket. Finding that good treatment was only 
 thrown away, the English captain formed the desperate resolution of fight- 
 ing. He and his men fired a volley among the affrighted savages, M'ho 
 ran yelling into the woods. Going straight to their wigwams, he found 
 an abundant store of corn, but forbade his men to take a grain until the 
 Indians should retiu-n to attack them. Sixty or seventy painted warriors, 
 headed by a finest who carried an idol in his arms, soon came out of the 
 forest and made a violent onset. The English not only stood their gromid, 
 but made a rush, wounded several of tlie natives and captured their idol. 
 A parley now ensued ; the terrified priest came and humbly begged for his 
 fallen deity, but Smith stood grimly with his musket across the pros- 
 trate idol, and would grant no terms until six unarmed Indians had loaded 
 his boat with corn. Then the image was given up, beads and hatchets 
 were liberally distributed among the warriors who ratified the peace by 
 performing a dance of friendship, while Smith and his men rowed up the 
 river with a boat-load of supplies. 
 
 There were other causes of rejoicing at Jamestown. The neighbor- 
 ing Indians, made liberal by their own abundance, began to come into 
 the fort M'ith voluntary contributions. The fear of famine passed away. 
 The woods were full of wild turkeys and other game, inviting to the chase 
 as many as delighted in such excitement. Good discipline was maintained 
 in the settlement and friendly relations established with several of the 
 native tribes. Seeing the end of their distresses, the colonists revived in 
 spirit; cheerfiilness and hope took the place of melancholy and despair. 
 
 As soon as the setting in of winter had made an abandonment of 
 the colony impossible, the president, to whose ardor winter and summer 
 were alike, gave himself freely to the work of exploring the country. 
 With a company of six Englishmen and two Indian guides he began the 
 ascent of the Chickahominy River. It was generally believed by the 
 
VIRGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 99 
 
 people of Jamestown that by going up this stream they could reach the 
 Pacilic Ocean. Smith loiew well enough the absiu'dity of such an ojjin- 
 ion, but humored it because of the opportunity' which it gave him to 
 explore new territory. The rest might dig imaginary gold-dust and hunt 
 for the Pacific; he would see the country and map the course of the 
 river. 
 
 The company proceeded up the Chickahoniiny until their barge ran 
 aground in shallow water. Mooring the boat in a place of safety, Smith left 
 four of the Englishmen to guard it, and with the other two and the Indian 
 guides ascended the stream in a canoe. When this smaller craft could go 
 no farther, it was put in charge of the white men, while the captain, with 
 only the savages, proceeded on foot. For twenty miles he continued along 
 the banks of the river, now dwindled to a mere creek winding about the 
 woods and meadows. Meanwhile, the men who were left to protect the 
 barge disobeyed their orders, and wandering into the forest, were attacked 
 by three hundred Indians under the command of their king, Opechan- 
 canough, the brother of Powhatan. Tlu-ee of the Englishmen escaped 
 to the boat, but the fourth, George Cassen by name, was taken prisoner. 
 Him the savages compelled by torture to reveal the whereabouts of Smith. 
 The two men who guarded the canoe were next overtaken and killed. 
 The captain himself was at last discovered, attacked, wounded with an 
 arrow and chased through the woods. The missiles of the barbarians 
 flew around him in a shower, but he compelled the Indian guides to stand 
 between him and his enemies, and every discharge of his musket brought 
 down a savage. He fought like a lion at bay, tied one of the guides to 
 his left arm for a buckler, ran and fired by turns, stumbled into a morass, 
 and was finally overtaken. The savages were still wary of their dangci-- 
 ous antagonist until he laid down his gun, made signs of surrender and 
 was pulled out of the mire. 
 
 Without exhibiting the least signs of fear. Smith demanded to see 
 the Indian chief, and on being taken into the presence of that dignitary 
 began to excite his interest and curiosity by showing him a pocket com- 
 pass and a watch. These mysterious instruments struck the Indians 
 with awo ; and profiting by his momentary advantage, the prisoner began 
 to draw figures on the ground, and to give his captors some rude lessons 
 in geography and astronomy. The savages were amazed and listened for 
 an hour, but then grew tired, bound their captive to a tree and prepared 
 to shoot him. At the critical moment he flourished his compass in the 
 air as though performing a ceremony, and the Indians forbore to shoot. 
 His sagacity and courage had gained the day, but the more appalling 
 danger of torture was yet to be avoided. The savages, however, were 
 
100 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 thoroughly superstitious, and became afraid to proceed against liim except 
 in the most formal manner. He was regarded by them as an inliabitant 
 of another M^orld whom it was dangerous to touch. 
 
 Smith was first taken to the town of Orapax, a few miles north- 
 east of the site of Richmond. Here he fomid the Indians making 
 great preparations to attack and destroy Jamestown. They invited him 
 to join them and become their leader, but he refused, and then terrified 
 them by describing the cannon and other destructive weapons of the 
 English. He also managed to wx'ite a letter to his countrymen at the 
 settlement, telling them of his captivity and their own peril, asking for 
 certain articles, and requesting especially that those bearing the note should 
 be thoroughly frightened before their return. This letter, which seemed 
 to them to have such mysterious power of carrying intelligence to a dis- 
 tance, was not lost on the Indians, who dreaded the writer more than ever. 
 When the warriors bearing the epistle arrived at Jamestown and found 
 everything precisely as Smith had said, their terror and amazement knew 
 no bounds, and as soon as they returned to Orapax all thought of attack- 
 ing the settlement was at once given up. 
 
 The Indians now marched their captive about from village to vil- 
 lage, the interest and excitement constantly increasing, until, near the 
 fork of York River, they came to Pamunkey, the capital of Opcchan- 
 canough. Here Smith was turned over to the priests, \\ho assembled in 
 their Long House, or judgment-hall, and for three days together danced 
 around him, sang and yelled after the manner of their superstition. The 
 object was to determine by this wild ceremony what their jjrisoner's fate 
 should be. The decision was against him, and he was condemned to death. 
 
 It was necessary that the sanction of the Indian emperor should 
 be given to the sentence, and Smith was now taken twenty-five miles 
 down the river to a town where Powhatan lived in Avinter. The savage 
 monarch was now sixty years of age, and, to use Smith's own language, 
 looked every mch a king. He received the prisoner M'ith all the rude 
 formalities peculiar to his race. Going to the Long House of the village, 
 the emperor, clad in a robe of raccoon skins, took his seat on a kind of 
 throne prepared for the occasion. His two daughters sat right and left, 
 while files of warriors and women of rank were ranged around the hall. 
 The king solemnly reviewed the cause and confirmed the sentence of 
 death. Two large stones were brought into the hall, Smith was dragged 
 forth bound, and his head put into position to be crushed with a war- 
 club. A stalwart painted savage was ordered out of the rank and stood 
 ready for the bloody tragedy. The signal was given, the grim execu- 
 tioner raised his bludgeon, and another moment had decided the fate of 
 
VIRGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 101 
 
 both the illustrious capti\-c and his colony. But the peril went by harm- 
 less. Matoaka,* the eldest daughter of Powhatan, sprang from her seal 
 and rushed between the warrior's uplifted club and the prostrate prisoner. 
 She clasped his head iu her arms aud held on with the resolution of despair 
 until her father, yieldiug to her frantic appeals, ordered Smith to be 
 unbound sad lifted up. Again he was rescued from a terrible death. 
 There is no reason in the world for doubting the truth of this affecting 
 aud romantic story, one of the most marvelous and touching iu the his- 
 tory of any nation. 
 
 Powhatan, having determined to spare his captive's life, I'eceived 
 him into flivor. The prisoner should remain in the household of the mon- 
 arch, making hatchets for the warrioi-s aud t(jys for the king's daughters. 
 By degrees his liberties were enlarged, and it was even agreed soon 
 afterward that he should return to his own people at Jamestown. The 
 conditions of his liberation were that he should send back to Orapax two 
 caunons and a grindstone. Certain warriors were to accompany Smith to 
 the settlement and carry the articles to Powhatan. There should then 
 be peace ajd friendship between the English and the E,ed men. The 
 journey was accordingly begun, the company camping at night in the 
 woods, and Smith being in constant peril of his life from the uncertain 
 disposition of the savages. But the colony was reached in safety, the lost 
 captain and his twelve Indian guides being received with great gladness. 
 
 Smith's first and chief care was to make a proper impression on 
 the minds of the savages. He had improved the opportunities of liis 
 captivity by learning the language of Powhatan's people, and by making 
 himself familiar with their peculiarities and weaknesses — an experience of 
 vast importance to himself and the colony. He now ordered the two 
 cannons which he had promised to give Powhatan to be brought out and 
 loaded to the muzzle with stones. Then, under pretence of teaching the 
 Indians gunnery, he had the pieces discharged among the tree-tops, which 
 were bristling with icicles. There was a terrible crash, and the savages, 
 cowering with fear and amazement, could not be induced to touch the 
 dreadful engines. The barbarous delegation retiurned to their king with 
 neither guns nor grindstones. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the settlers were very little to be dreaded by 
 anybody. Only thirty-eight of them were left alive, and these were frost- 
 bitten and half starved. Their only competent leader had been absent 
 for seven weeks in the middle of one of the severest winters known in 
 
 * Powhatan's tribe had a superstition that no one xchose real name was unknown could 
 be injured. They therefore told the English falsely that Matoaka's name was Poca- 
 hontas. 
 
102 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 modern times. The old fears and discontents of the colonists had revived ; 
 and when Smith returned to the settlement, he found all hands preparing 
 to escape in the pinnace as soon as the ice should break in the river. 
 With much persuasion and a few wholesome threats he induced the 
 majority to abandon this project, but the factious spirits of the colony, 
 burning with resentment against him and his influence, made a conspu"- 
 acy to Idll him, and he knew not what hour might be his last. 
 
 In the midst of these dark days Captain Newport arrived from 
 England. He brought a full store of supplies and one hundred and 
 frsventy emigrants. Great was the joy throughout the little plantation ; 
 only the president was at heart as much grieved as gladdened, for he saw 
 in the character of the new comers no jiromise of anything but vexation 
 and disaster. Here were thirty-four gentlemen at the head of the list 
 to begin with ; then came gold-hunters, jewelers, engravers, adventurers, 
 strollers and vagabonds, many of whom had more business in jail than 
 at Jamestown. To add to Smith's chagrin, this company of worthless 
 creatures had been sent out contrary to his previous protest and injunc- 
 tion. He had urged Newport to bring over only a few uidustrious 
 mechanics and laborers; but the love of gold among the members of the 
 London Company had prevailed over common sense to send to Virginia 
 another crowd of profligates. 
 
 The kind of industry which Smith had encouraged in the colony 
 was now laughed at. As soon as the weather would permit, the new- 
 comers and as many of the old settlers as had learned nothing from the 
 past year's experience began to stroll about the country digging for gold. 
 In a bank of sand at the mouth of a small tributary of the James some 
 glittering particles were found, and the whole settlement was ablaze with 
 excitement. Martin and Ne\^-port, both members of the council, were 
 carried away with the common flmaticism. The former already in imagi- 
 nation saw himself loaded with wealth and honored ^\^th a peerage. The 
 latter, having filled one of his ships with the supposed gold-dust, sent it 
 to England, and then sailed up James River to find the Pacific Ocean ! 
 Fourteen weeks of the precious springtime, that ought to have been given 
 to ploughing and planting, were consumed in this stupid nonsense. Even 
 the Indians ridiculed the madness of men who for imaginary grains of 
 gold were wasting their chances for a crop of corn. 
 
 In this general folly Smith was quite forgotten ; but foreseeing that 
 the evil must soon work its own cure, he kept his patience, and in the 
 mean time busied himself with one of his most brilliant and successful 
 enterprises ; this was no less than the exploration of Chesapeake Bay and 
 its tributaries. Accompanied by Dr. Russell and thirteen other comrades 
 
VIRGINIA.— FIRST CHARTER. 
 
 103 
 
 Tvho had remained faithful to him, he left Jamestown on the 2d day of 
 June. He had nothing but an open barge of three tons' burden, but in 
 this he steered boldly out by way of Hampton Roads and Cape Henry 
 as far as Smith's Island. Returning thence around the peninsula which 
 ends with Cape Charles, the survey of the eastern shore of the bay was 
 begun, and continued northward as far as the river Wicomico, in Mary- 
 land. From this point the 
 expedition crossed over to the 
 mouth of the Patuxent, and 
 thence coasted northward along 
 the western side to the Pataps- 
 co. Here some members of 
 the company became discon- 
 tented, and insisted on return- 
 ing to the colony. Smith gave 
 a reluctant consent, but in steer- 
 ing southward had the good 
 fortune to enter the mouth of 
 the Potomac. The crew were 
 so much pleased with the pros- 
 pect that they agreed to explore 
 the great river before returning 
 homeward. Accordingly, the 
 barge was steered up stream as 
 far as the falls above George- 
 town. The country was much 
 admired ; and when the explor- 
 ers were tired of adventure, 
 they dropped down the river 
 to the bay, and turning south- 
 ward, reached Jamestown on 
 the 21st of July. 
 
 After a rest of three days a second voyage was begun. This time 
 the expedition reached the head of the bay, and sailed up the Susquehanna 
 River until the volume of water would float the barge no farther. Here 
 an accfuaintance was made with a race of Indians of gigantic stature and 
 fiercer disposition than was known among the natives of Virginia. On 
 the return voyage Smith passed down the bay, exploring every sound and 
 inlet of any note, as far as the mouth of the Rappahannoc ; this stream 
 he ascended to the head of navigation, and then, returning by way of the 
 York and Chesapeake Rivers, reached. Jamestown on the 7th of Septem- 
 
 Jamestown and Vicinity. 
 
 Smith's First Voyage in the Chesapeake — 
 Smith's Second Voyage in the Chesapeake - 
 
,104 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ber. He had been absent a little more than three months, had explored 
 the winding coast of the great bay for fully three thousand miles, had 
 encountered hostile savages by hundreds and thousands, had been driven 
 hither and thither by storms, once wrecked, once stung by a poisonous 
 fish and brought so near to death that his comrades digged his grave ; 
 now he was come back to the colony with a Map of the Chesapeake, 
 which he sent by Newport to England, and which is still preserved. Only 
 one man had been lost on the expedition. Richard Fetherstone had died, 
 and was buried on the Rappahannoc. 
 
 Within three days after Smith's return to Jamestown he was form- 
 ally elected j^resident. He entered at once upon the duties of his office, 
 correcting abuses, enforcing the law's and restoring order to the distracted 
 colony. There was a marked change for the better ; gold-hunting be- 
 came unpopular, and the rest of the year was noted as a season of great 
 prosperity. Late in the autumn Newport arrived with seventy additional 
 immigrants, increasing the number to more than two hundred. The 
 health was so good that only seven deatlis occurred between September 
 and May of the following year. Excellent discipline was maintained. 
 Ever}' well man was obliged to work six hours a day. New houses were 
 built, new fields fenced in ; and all through the winter the sound of axe 
 and saw and hammer gave token of a prosperous and growing \'illage. 
 Such was the condition of affairs in the spring of 1609. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 VIRGIXIA.—THE SECOND CHARTER. 
 
 ON the 23d of May, 1609, King James, without consulting the wishes 
 of his American colonists, revoked their constitution, and granted to 
 the London Company a new charter, by the terms of which the govern- 
 ment of Virginia was completely changed. The territory included under 
 the new patent extended from Cape Fear to Sandy Hook, and westward 
 to the Pacific Ocean. The members of the Superior Council were now 
 to be chosen by the stockholders of the company, vacancies were to be 
 filkd by the councilors, who were also empowered to elect a governor 
 from their own number. 
 
 The council was at once organized in accordance with this charter. 
 
VIRGINIA.— SECOND CHARTER. 105 
 
 and the excellent Lord De La Ware chosen governor for life. With hina 
 were joined in authority Sir Thomas Gates, Keutenant-general ; Sir George 
 Somers, admiral ; Christopher Newport, vice-admiral ; Sir Thomas Dale, 
 high marshal ; Sir Ferdinand Wainman, master of horse ; and other dig- 
 nitaries of similar sort. Attracted by the influence of these noblemen, a 
 large company of more than five hundred emigrants was speedily col- 
 lected, and early in .June a fleet of nine vessels sailed for America. Lord 
 Delaware did not himself accompany the expedition, but delegated his 
 authority to three commissioners, Somei-s, Gates and Newport. About 
 the middle of July the shijis, then passing the West Indies, were over- 
 taken and scattered by a storm. One small vessel was wrecked, and 
 another, having on board the commissioners of Lord Delaware, was driven 
 ashore on one of the Bermuda Islands, whei-e the crew remained until 
 April of the following year ; the other seven ships came safely to James- 
 town. 
 
 But who should now be governor ? Captain Smith was at first dis- 
 jjosed to give up his office, but in a few days the affiiirs of the colony 
 were plainly going to ruin, and he was urged by the old settlers and the 
 better class of new-comers to continue in authority. Accordingly, declar- 
 ing that his powers as president under the old constitution did not cease 
 until some one should arrive from England properly commissioned to 
 supersede him, he kept resolutely to the discharge of his duties, although 
 in daily peril of his life. He arrested Ratcliffe* and Archer, put some 
 of the most rebellious brawlers in prison, and then, in order to distract 
 the attention of the rest, planned two new settlements, one, of a hun- 
 dred and twenty men, under the command of Martin, to be established 
 at Nansemond ; the other, of the same number, under Captain West, to 
 form a colony at the falls of the James. Both companies behaved badly. 
 In a few days after their departure troubles arose between West's men 
 and the Indians. The president was sent for in order to settle the diffi- 
 culty ; but finding his efforts unavailing, he returned to Jamestown. On 
 his way down the river, while asleep in the boat, a bag of gunpowder 
 lying near by exploded, burning and tearing his flesh so terribly that in 
 his agony he leaped overboard. Being rescued fi-om the river, he was 
 carried to the fort, where he lay for some time racked with fever and tor- 
 tured with his wounds. Finally, despairing of relief under the imperfect 
 medical treatment which the colony afforded, he decided to return to 
 England. He accordingl}' delegated his authority to Sir George Percy, 
 a brother of the earl of Northumberland, and about the middle of Sep- 
 
 * This man's real name was not Katcliffe, but Sicklemore. He had been president of 
 the colony in 1607, and was an accomplished thief as well as an impostor. 
 
106 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tember, 1609, left the scene of his heroic toils aud sufferings, never to 
 return. 
 
 There remained at Jamestown a colony of four hundred and ninety 
 persons, ^yell armed, well sheltered and well supplied. But such was the 
 viciousness and profligacy of the greater number, and such the insubor- 
 dination and want of proper leadership, after Smith's departure, that by 
 the beginning of winter the settlement was face to face with starvation. 
 The Indians became hostile and hovered around the plantations, strag- 
 glers were intercepted aud murdered, houses were fired at every opportu- 
 nity, disease returned to add to the desolation, and cold aud hunger 
 completed the terrors of a winter w"hich was long remembered with a 
 shudder and called The Starving Time. By the last of March there 
 were only sixty persons alive, and these, if help had not come speedily, 
 could hardly have lived a fortnight. 
 
 Meanwhile, Sir Thomas Gates and his companions, who had been 
 shipwrecked in the Bermudas, had constructed out of the materials of 
 their old ship, with such additional timber as they could cut from the for- 
 est, two small vessels, and set sail for Virginia. They came in full expec- 
 tation of a joyful greeting from a happy colony. W hat, therefore, was 
 their disappointment and grief when a few v.'an, half-starved \'\Tetches 
 crawled out of their cabins to beg for bread ! Whatever stores the com- 
 missioners had brought with them were distributed to the famishing 
 settlers, and Gates assumed control of the government. 
 
 But the colonists had now fully determined to abandon fo^ ever a 
 place which promised them nothing but disaster and death. In vain did 
 the commissioners remonstrate ; they were almost driven by the clamors 
 around them to yield to the common will. An agreement M'as made to 
 sail for Newfoundland ; there the remnant of the Virginia colony should 
 be distributed among the fishermen until such time as some friendly ship 
 might carry them back to England. 
 
 On the 8th of June Jamesto\vn was abandoned. The disheartened 
 settlers, now grown resentflil, were anxious before leaving to burn the 
 town, but Gates defeated this design, and was himself the last man to go 
 on board. Four pmnaces lay at their moorings in the river ; embark- 
 ing in these, the colonists dropped down with the tide, and it seemed as 
 though the enterprise of Raleigh and Gosnold had ended in failure and 
 humiliation. 
 
 But Lord Delaware was already on his way to America. Before 
 the escaping settlers had passed out of the mouth of the river, the ships 
 of the noble governor came in sight. Here were additional immigrants, 
 plentiful supplies and promise of better things to come. Would the 
 
VIRGINIA.— SECOND CHARTER. 107 
 
 colonists return ? The majority gave a reluctant consent, and before night- 
 fall the fires Avere again kindled on the hearthstones of the deserted village. 
 The next day was given to religious services ; the governor caused his com- 
 mission to be read, and entered upon the discharge of his dut^. The 
 amiability and virtue of his life, no less than the mildness and decision of 
 his administration, endeared him to all and inspired the colony with hope. 
 Autumn came, and Lord Delaware fell sick. Against his own will, 
 and to the great regret of the colony, he was compelled to return to Eng- 
 land. Having reluctantly delegated his authority to Percy — the same 
 who had been the deputy of Captain Smith — the good Delaware set sail 
 for his own country. It was an event of great discouragement ; but for- 
 tunately, before a knowledge of the governor's departure reached England, 
 the Superior Council had despatched a new shipload of stores and another 
 company of emigrants, under command of Sir Thomas Dale. The vessel 
 arrived at Jamestown on the 10th of May, and Percy was superseded by 
 the captain, who bore a commission from the council. Dale had been a 
 military officer in the wars of the Netherlands, and he now adopted a 
 system of martial law as the basis of his administration. He was, how- 
 ever, a man so tolerant and just that very little complaint was made on 
 account of his arbitrary method of governing. 
 
 One of Dale's first acts was to write to the council in England, 
 requesting that body to send out immediately as large a number of colon- 
 ists as possible, with an abundance of supplies. For once the council acted 
 promptly ; and in the latter part of August, Sir Thomas Gates arrived with 
 a fleet of six ships, having on board three hundred immigrants and a large 
 quantity of stores. There was great thanksgiving in the colony, a fresh 
 enthusiasm was enkindled, and contentment came with a sense of securitj-. 
 
 Thus fixr the property of the settlers at Jamestown had been held 
 in common. The colonists had worked together, and in time of harvest 
 deposited their j^roducts in storehouses which were under the control of 
 the governor and council. Now the right of holding private property 
 was recognized. Governor Gates had the lands divided so that eacli set- 
 tler should have three acres of his own; every family might cultivate a 
 garden and plant an orchard, the fruits of which no one but the owner 
 was allo\\'ed to gather. The benefits of this system of labor were at once 
 apparent. The laborers, as soon as each was permitted to claim the 
 rewards of his own toil, became cheerful and industrious. There were 
 now seven hundred persons in the colony ; new plantations were laid out 
 on every side, and new settlements were formed on both banks of the 
 river and at considerable distances from Jamestown. The promise of an 
 American State, so long deferred, seemed at last to be realized. 
 
108 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 VIRGINIA.— THE THIRD CHARTER. 
 
 EARLY in the year 1612 the London Company obtained from the 
 king a third patent, l)y the terms of which the character of the gov- 
 ernment was entirely changed. The Superior Council was abolished and 
 the powers of that body transferred to the stockholders, who were author- 
 ized to hold public meetings, to elect their own officers, to discuss and 
 decide all questions of law and right, and to govern the colony on' their 
 own responsibility. The cause of this change was the unprofitableness 
 of the colony as a financial enterprise, and the consequent dissatisfaction 
 of the company with the management of the council. The new patent, 
 although not so intended by the king, was a great step toward a demo- 
 cratic form of government in Virginia. 
 
 2. The year 1613 was marked by two important events, both of them 
 resulting from the lawless behavior of Captain Samuel xVrgall. While 
 absent on an expedition up the Potomac River he learned that Pocahon- 
 tas, who had had some difficulty with her father's tribe, was residing in 
 that neighborhood. Procuring the help of a treacherous Indian family, 
 the English captain enticed the unsuspecting girl on board his vessel and 
 carried her captive to Jamestown. The authorities of the colony, instead 
 of ]>unishing Argall for this atrocity, aggravated the outrage by demand- 
 ing that Powhatan should pay a heavy ransom for his daughter's libera- 
 tion. The old king indignantly refused, and ordered his tribes to prepare 
 for war. Sleanwhile, Pocahontas, who seems not to have been greatly 
 grieved on account of her captivity, was converted to the Christian faith 
 and became by baptism a member of the Episcopal Church. She was 
 led to this course of action chiefly by the instruction and persuasion of 
 John Rolfe, a worthy young man of the colony, who after the baptism 
 of the princess sought her in marriage. Powhatan and his chief men 
 gave their consent, and the nuptials were duly celebrated in the spring 
 of the following year. By this means war was averted, and a bond of 
 union established between the Indians and the whites. 
 
 3. Two years later Rolfe and his wife went to England, where they 
 were received in the highest circles of society. Captain Smith gave them 
 a letter of introduction to Queen Anne, and many other flattering atten- 
 
VIRGINIA.— THIRD CHARTER. 109 
 
 tions were bestowed on the modest daughter of the Western wilderness. 
 In the following year, Rolfe made preparations to return to America ; but 
 before embarking, Pocahontas fell sick and died. There was left of this 
 niarriasie a son, who afterward came to Jamestown and was a man of some 
 importance iu the affiiirs of the colony. To him several influential families 
 of Virginians still trace their origin. John Randolph of lloauokc was a 
 grandson of the sixth generation from Pocahontas. 
 
 When Captain Argall returned from his expedition up the Potomac, 
 he was sent witli an armed vessel to the coast of Maine. The avowed 
 object of the voyage was to protect the English fishermen who fi-equented 
 the waters between tlie Bay of Fundy and Cape Cod, but the real pur- 
 pose was to destroy the colonies of France, if any should be found within 
 the limits of the territory claimed by England. Arriving at his destina- 
 tion, Argall soon found opportunity for the display of his violence and 
 rajiacity. The French authorities of Acadia were at this time building 
 a village on Mount Desert Island, near the mouth of the Penobscot. This 
 settlement was the first object of Argall's vengeance. The place was cap- 
 tured, pillaged and burned ; jjart of the inhabitants were put on board a 
 vessel bound for France, and the rest were carried to the Chesaj^eake. The 
 French colony at the moutli of the St. Croix River next attracted the 
 attention of the English captain, who cannonaded the fort and destroyed 
 every building in the settlement. Passing thence across the bay to 
 Port Royal, Argall burned the deserted hamlet which Poutrincourt and 
 his companions had built there eight years before. On his way back to 
 Virginia he made a descent on the Dutch traders of Manhattan Island, 
 destroyed many of tlieir huts, and compelled the settlers to acknowledge 
 the sovereignty of England. The result of these outrageous proceedings 
 was to confine the French settlements in America to the banks of the St. 
 Lawrence, and to leave a clear coast for the English flag from Nova Scotia 
 to Florida. 
 
 In the month of March, 1614, Sir Thomas Gates returned to Eng- 
 land, leaving the government in the hands of Dale, whose administration 
 lasted for two years. During this time the laws of the colony were 
 nmch improved, and, more important still, the colonial industry took 
 an entirely different form. Hitherto the labor of the settlers had been 
 directed to the planting of vineyards and to the manufacture of potash, 
 soap, glass and tar. The managers of the London Company had at last 
 learned that these articles could be produced more cheaply in Europe 
 than in America. They had also discovered that there were certain 
 products peculiar to the New World which might be raised and exported 
 with great profit. Ciiief among such native products was the plant called 
 
110 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tobacco, the use of which had ah-eadv become fashionable in Spain, Eng- 
 land and France. This, then, became the leading staple of the colony, 
 and was even used for money. So entirely did the settlers give them- 
 selves to the culti\-ation of the famous weed that the very streets of 
 Jamesto\\Ti were ploughed up and planted with it. 
 
 It was a great disaster to the jjeople of the colony when Argall was 
 chosen deputy-governor. He was a man who had one virtue, courage ; 
 and in all other respects was thoroughly bad. The election occurred in 
 1617, and through the influence of an unscrupulous faction composed of 
 Argall's friends he was not only selected as Lord Delaware's deputy in 
 America, but was also made an admiral of the English navy. His 
 administration was characterized by fraud, opjjression and violence.- 
 Neither property nor life was secure against his tyranny and greed. By 
 and by, the news of his proceedings reached England ; emigration ceased 
 at once, and the colony became a reproach, until Lord Delaware restored 
 confidence by embarking in person for Virginia. But the worthy noble- 
 man died on the voyage, and Argall continued his exactions and cruelty. 
 In the spring of 1619, he was at last displaced through the influence 
 of Sir Ed\vyn Sandys, and the excellent Sir George Yeardley appointed 
 to succeed him. 
 
 ^Martial law was now abolished. The act which required each 
 settler to give a part of his labor for the common benefit was also 
 repealed, and thus the people were freed from a kind of colonial servi- 
 tude. Another action was taken of still greater importance. Governor 
 Yeardley, in accordance with instructions received from the company, 
 divided the plantations along James River into eleven districts, called 
 boroughs, and issued a proclamatiou to the citizens of each borough to 
 elect two of their own number to take part in the government of the 
 colony. The elections were duly held, and on the 30th of July, 1619, 
 the delegates came together at Jamestown. Here was organized the 
 Virginia House of Burgesses, a colonial legislature, the first popular 
 assembly held in the New World. 
 
 The Burgesses had many privileges, but very little power. They 
 might discuss the affairs of the colony, but could not control them ; pass 
 laws, but could not enforce them ; declare their rights, but could not 
 secure them. Though the governor and council should both concur in 
 the resolutions of the a.ssembly, no law was binding until ratified by the 
 company in England. Only one great benefit was gained — the freedom 
 of debate. Wherever that is recognized, liberty must soon follow. 
 
 The year 1619 was also marked by the introduction of negro slavery 
 into Virginia. The servants of the people of Jamestown had hitherto 
 
VIRGINIA.— THIRD CHARTER. HI 
 
 been persons of English or German descent, and their term of service 
 had varied from a few months to many years. No perpetual servitude 
 had thus far been recognized, nor is it likely that the English colonists 
 would of themselves have instituted the system of slave labor. In the 
 mouth of August a Dutch man-of-war sailed up the river to the planta- 
 tions, and offered by auction twenty Africans. They were purchased by 
 the wealthier class of planters, and made slaves for life. It was, however, 
 nearly a half ceutuiy from this time before the system of negro slavery 
 became wel]«established in the English colonies. 
 
 TM'elve years had now passed since the founding of Jamestown. 
 Eighty thousand pounds sterling had been spent by the company in the 
 attempted development of the new State. As a result there were only 
 six hundred men in the colony, and these for the most part were rovers 
 who intended to return to England. Sir Thomas Smith, the treasurer, 
 had managed matters badly. Very few families had emigrated, and 
 society in Virginia was coarse and vicious. In this condition of affairs 
 Smith was superseded by Sir Edwyn Sandys, a man of great prudence and 
 integrity. A reformation of abuses was at once begun and carried out. 
 By his wisdom and liberality the new treasurer succeeded before the end 
 of the summer of 1620 in collecting and sending to America a company 
 of twelve hundred and sLxty-one persons. Another measure of still 
 greater importance was equally successful. By the influence of Sandys 
 and his friends, ninety young women of good breeding and modest man- 
 ners were induced to emigrate to Jamestown. In the following spring sixty 
 others of similar good character came over, and received a heart)' welcome. 
 
 The statement that the early Virginians bought their wives is 
 absurd. All that M'as done was this : when Sandys sent the first company 
 of. women to America, he charged the colonists with the expense of the 
 voyage — a measure made necessary by the fact that the company was 
 almost bankrupt. An assessment was made accoi'ding to the number 
 who were brought over, and the rate fixed at a hundred and twenty 
 pounds of tobacco for each passenger — a sum which the settlers cheerfully 
 paid. The many marriages that followed were celebrated in the usual 
 way, and nothing further was thought of the transaction. When the sec- 
 ond shipload came, the cost of transportation was reported at a hundred and 
 fifty pounds for each passenger, which was also paid without complaint. 
 
 In July of 1621 the London Company, which had now almost 
 run its course, gave to Virginia a code of ^\Titten laws and frame of 
 government modeled after the English constitution. The terms of the 
 instrument were few and easily understood. The governor of the colony 
 was as hitherto to be appointed by the company, a council to be chosen 
 
112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 by the same body, and a house of burgesses, two members from each 
 district, to be elected by the people. In making laws the councilors and 
 burgesses sat together. AA'lieu a new law was proposed, it was debated, 
 and if passed received the governor's signature, then was transmitted to 
 England and ratified or rejected by the company. The constitution also 
 acknowledged the right of petition and of trial by jury, but the most 
 remarkable and liberal concession was that which gave the burgesses the 
 power of vetoing any objectionable acts of the company. 
 
 Governor Yeardley's administration ended in October of 1621. 
 At that time Sir Francis Wyatt arrived, commissioned as governor and 
 bearing the new constitution of Virginia. The colony was found in a 
 very flom-ishing condition. The settlements extended for a hundred and 
 forty miles along both banks of James River and far into the interior, 
 esiiecially northward toward the Potomac. There remained but one 
 cause of foreboding and alarm. The Indians had seen in all this growth 
 and prosperity the doom of their own race, and had determined to make 
 one desperate effort to destroy their foes before it should be too late. To 
 do this in open war was impossible ; necessity and the savage impulse work- 
 ing together suggested treachery as the only means likely to accomplish 
 the result. Circumstances favored the villainous undertaking. Pocahon- 
 tas was dead. The peaceable and faith-keeping Powhatan had likewise 
 passed away. The ambitious and crafty Opechancanough, who succeeded 
 to his brother's authority in 1618, had ever since been plotting the destruc- 
 tion of the English colony, and the time had come for the bloody tragedy. 
 
 The savages carefully concealed their murderous purjjose. Until 
 the very day of the massacre they continued on terms of friendship with 
 the English. They came unmolested into the settlements, ate with their 
 victims, borrowed boats and guns, made purchases, and gave not the 
 slightest token of hostility. The attack was planned for the 22d of 
 March, at mid-day. At the fatal hour the work of butchery began. 
 Every hamlet in Virginia was attacked by a band of yelling barbarians. 
 No age, sex or condition awakened an emotion of ]iity. Men, M'omen 
 and children were indiscriminately slaughtered, until three hundred and 
 forty -seven had jierished under the knives and hatchets of the savages. 
 
 But Indian treachery was thwarted by Indian faithfulness. What 
 was the chagrin and rage of the warriors to find that Jamestown and the 
 other leading settlements had been warned at the last moment, and were 
 prepared for the onset ? A converted Red man, wishing to save an Eng- 
 lishman who had been his friend, went to him on the night before the 
 massacre and revealed the plot. The alarm was spread among the settle- 
 ments, and thus the greater part of the colony escaped destruction. But 
 
VIRGINIA.— THIRD CHARTER. 113 
 
 the outer plantations were cntii-ely destroyed. The people crowded to- 
 gether on the larger farms about Jamestown, until of the eighty settlements 
 tlicre were only eiglit remaining. Still, there were sixteen hundred reso- 
 lute men in the colony ; and although gloom and despondency prevailed 
 for a while, the courage of the settlers soon revived, and sorrow gave 
 place to a desire for vengeance. 
 
 It was now the turn of the Indians to suffer. Parties of English 
 soldiers scoured the country in every direction, destroying wigwams, 
 burning villages and killing every savage t lat fell in their way, until the 
 tribes of Opechancanough were driven into the wilderness. The colon- 
 ists, reo-ainino- their confidence and zeal, returned to their deserted farms, 
 and the next year brought such additions that the census showed a popu- 
 lation of two thousand five hundred. 
 
 Meanwhile, difficulties arose between the corporation and the king. 
 Most of the members of the London Company belonged to the patriot 
 party in England, and the freedom with which they were in the habit of 
 discussing i)olitical and governmental matters wa.s very distasteful to the 
 monarch. A meeting of the stockholders, now a numerous body, was 
 held once every three months, and the debates took a wider and still 
 wider range. The liberal character of the Virginia constitution was 
 offensive to King James, who determined by some means to obtain con- 
 trol of the London Company, or else to suppress it altogether. A com- 
 mittee was accordingly appointed to look into the affairs of the cor- 
 poration and to make a report on its management. The commissioners 
 performed their duty, and reported that the company, in addition to being 
 a hot-bed of political agitiition, was unsound in every part, that the treas- 
 ury was bankrupt, and especially that the government of Virginia was 
 bad and would continue so until a radical change should be made in the 
 constitution of the new State. 
 
 Legal proceedings were now instituted by the ministers to ascer- 
 tain whether the company's charter had not been forfeited. The question 
 came before the judges, who had no difficulty in deciding that the violated 
 patent was null and void. In accordance with this decision, the charter 
 of the corporation was canceled by the king, and in June of 1624 the 
 London Company ceased to exist. But its work had been well done ; a 
 torch of liljcrty had been lighted on the banks of the James which all 
 the gloomy tyranny of after times could not extinguish. The Virgin- 
 ians were not slow to remember and to claim ever afterward the precious 
 rights which were guaranteed in the constitution of 1621. And the 
 other colonies would be satisfied with nothing less than the chartered 
 privileges which were recognized in the laws of the Old Dominion. 
 
114 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 A ROYAL government was now established in Virginia. To the 
 colonists themselves the change of authorities was scarcely percepti- 
 ble. The new administration consisted of a governor and twelve coun- 
 cilors apjjointed by the crown. The General Assembly of the colony 
 was left undisturbed, and all the rights and privileges of the colonists 
 remained as before. The king's hostility had been directed against the 
 London Company, and not against the State of Virginia ; now that the 
 former was destroyed the latter was left unmolested. Governor Wyatt 
 was continued in office; and in making uj) the new council the king 
 wisely took pains to select the known friends of the colony rather than 
 certain untried partisans of his own court. The Virginians found in the 
 change of government as much cause of gratitude as of grief. 
 
 King James of England dial in 1625. His son, Charles I., a young, 
 inexperienced and stubborn j^rince, succeeded to the throne. The new 
 king paid but little attention to the affairs of his American colony, until 
 the commerce in tobacco attracted his notice. Seeing in this jDroduct a 
 source of revenue for the crown, he attempted to gain a monopoly of the 
 trade, but the colonial authorities outwitted liim and defeated the project. 
 It is worthy of special note that while conferring with the colony on this 
 subject the king recognized the Virginia assembly as a rightfully consti- 
 tuted power. The reply which was finally returned to the king's proposal 
 was signed not only by the governor and council, but by thirty-one of the 
 burgesses. 
 
 In 1626 Governor Wyatt retired from office, and Yeardley, the old 
 friend and benefactor of the colonists, was reajjpointed. The young 
 State was never more prosperous than under this administration, which 
 was terminated by the governor's death, in November of 1627. During 
 the preceding summer a thousand new immigrants had come to swell the 
 population of the growing province. 
 
 The council of Virginia had a right, in case of an emergency, to 
 elect a governor. Such an emergency was now present, and Francis 
 West was chosen by the councilors ; but as soon as the death of Yeardley 
 
VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 115 
 
 was kno%\Ti in England, King Charles commissioned John Harvey to 
 assume the government. He arrived in the autumn of 1629, and from 
 this time until 1635, the colony was distracted with the presence of a 
 most unpopular chief magistrate. He seems to have been disliked on 
 general principles, but the greatest source of dissatisfaction was his par- 
 tiality to certain speculators and land monopolists who at this time in- 
 fested Virginia, to the annoyance and injury of the poorer people. There 
 were many old land grants covering districts of territory which were now 
 occupied by actual settlers, and between the holders of the lands and the 
 holders of the titles violent altercations arose. In these disputes the 
 governor became a partisan of the speculators against tlie people, until 
 the outraged assembly of 1635 passed a resolution that Sir John Harvey 
 be thrust out of office, and Captain West be appointed in his place " until 
 the king's pleasure may be known in this matter." A majority of the 
 counciloi-s sided with the burgesses, and Harvey was obliged to go to 
 England to stand his trial. 
 
 King Charles treated the whole affair with contempt. The com- 
 missioners appointed by the council of Virginia to conduct Harvey's im- 
 peachment were refused a hearing, and he was restored to the governor- 
 ship of the unwilling colony. He continued in power until the year 
 1639, when he was superseded by AVyatt, who ruled until the spring of 
 1642. 
 
 And now came the English Revolution. The exactions and tvranny 
 of Charles at last drove his subjects into open rebellion. In January of 
 1642, the king and his friends left London, and repairing to Nottingham, 
 collected an army of royalists. The capital and southern part of the 
 country remained in the power of Parliament. The High Church party 
 and the adherents of monarchy took sides with the king, while the re- 
 publicans and dissenters made up the opposing forces. The country was 
 plunged into the horrors of civil war. After a few years of conflict the 
 royal army was routed and dispersed ; the king escaped to Scotland, and 
 the leading royalists fled to foreign lands. On the demand of Parliament 
 Charles was given up and brought to trial. The cause was heard, a sen- 
 tence of death was passed, and on the 30th of January, 1649, the unhappy 
 monarch was beheaded. 
 
 Monarchy was now abolished. Oliver Cromwell, the general of 
 the Parliamentary army, was made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth 
 of England. By him the destinies of the nation were controlled until 
 his death, in 1658, when he was succeeded by his son Richard. But the 
 latter, lacking his flither's abilities and courage, became alarmed at the 
 dangers that gathered around him, and resigned. For a few months the 
 
116 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 couutiy was in anarcliy, until General Monk, who commanded the Eno-- 
 lisli army of the North, came down from Scotland and declared a restora- 
 tion of the monarchy. The exiled son of Charles I. was called home 
 and proclaimed king, the people acquiesced, Parliament sanctioned the 
 measure, and on the 18th of May, 1660, Charles II. was placed on the 
 throne of England. 
 
 These were times full of trouble. Virginia shared in some degree 
 the distractions of the mother-country, yet the evil done to the new State 
 by the conflict in England was less than might have been expected. In 
 the first year of the civil war Sir William Berkeley became governor of 
 the colony, and, with the exception of a brief visit to England in 1645, 
 remained in office for ten years. His administration, notwithstanding the 
 commotions abroad, was noted as a time of rapid growth and develop- 
 ment. The laws were greatly improved and made conformable to the 
 English statutes. The old controversies about the lands were satisfacto- 
 rily settled. Cruel punishments were abolished and the taxes equalized. 
 The general assembly was regularly convened to bear its part in the gov- 
 ernment, and Virginia was in all essential particulars a free as well as a 
 prosperous State. So rapid was the progress that in 1616 there were 
 twenty thousand people in the colony. 
 
 But there were also clraM'backs to the prosperity of Virginia. Re- 
 ligious intolerance came with its baleful shadow to disturb the State. The 
 faith of the Episcoj^al Church was established by law, and dissenting was 
 declared a crime. The Puritans were held in co;itempt by the peojile, 
 who charged them with being the destroyers of the peace of England. 
 In March of 1643 a statute was enacted by the assembly declaring that 
 no person who disbelieved the doctrines of the English Church should be 
 allowed to teach publicly or privately, or to j^reach the gospel, Mithin the 
 limits of Virginia. The few Puritans in the colony were excluded from 
 their places of trust, and some were even driven from their homes. Gov- 
 ernor Berkeley, himself a zealous churchman, was a leader in these per- 
 secutions, by which all friendly relations with Kew England were broken 
 off for many years. 
 
 A worse calamitj' befell in a second war with the Indians. Early 
 in 1644, the natives, having forgotten their former j^nuishment, and 
 believing that in the confusion of the civil war there still remained a hope 
 of destroying the English, planned a general massacre. On the IStli of 
 April, at a time when the authorities were somewhat off their guard, the 
 savages fell upon the frontier settlements, and before assistance could be 
 brought murdered three hundred people. Alarmed at their own atrocity-, 
 the warriors then fled, but were followed by the English forces and 
 
VIRGimA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 117 
 
 di'iven into the woods and swamps. The aged Opechancanough was cap- 
 tured, and died a prisoner. Tlie tribes were chastised without mercy, and 
 were soon glad to jjurchase peace by the cession of large tracts of land. 
 
 The Virginians adhered with great firmness to the cause of Charles 
 I. in his war with Parliament, and after his death proclaimed the exiled 
 Charles II. as rightful sovereign of the country. Cromwell and the 
 Parliament were much exasperated at this course of conduct, and mea- 
 sures were at once devised to bring the colony to submission. An ordi- 
 nance was passed laying heavy restrictions on the commerce of such 
 English colonies as refused to acknowledge the supremacy of Parliament. 
 All foreign ships, especially those of Holland, were forbidden to enter 
 the colonial harbors. In 1651 the noted statute called the Navigation 
 Act was passed, and the trade of the colonies was still more seriously 
 distressed. In this new law it was enacted that the foreign commerce 
 of Virginia, now grown into importance, should be carried on wholly in 
 English vessels, and directed exclasively to English ports. 
 
 The Virginians held out, and Cromwell determined to employ 
 force. A war-vessel called the Guinea was sent into the Chesapeake to 
 compel submission, but in the last extreme the Protector showed him- 
 self to be just as well as wrathful. There were commissioners on board 
 the frigate authorized to make an offer of peace, and this was gladly 
 accepted. It was seen that the cause of the Stuarts was hopeless. The 
 people of Virginia, although refusing to yield to threats and violence, 
 cheerfully entered into negotiations with Cromwell's delegates, and ended 
 by acknowledging the supreme authority of Parliament. The terms of 
 the settlement were very favorable to popular libert)'; the commercial 
 restrictions of the t^vo previous years were removed, and the trade of the 
 colony was made as free as that of England. No taxes might be levied 
 or duties collected except such as were imposed by the general assembly 
 of the State. The freedom of an Englishman was guaranteed to every 
 citizen, and under the control of her own laws Virginia again grew pros- 
 perous. 
 
 No ftirther difficulty arose during the continuance of the Common- 
 wealth. The Protector was busied with the affairs of Europe, and had 
 neither time nor disposition to interfere in the affairs of a remote colony. 
 The Virginians were thus left free to conduct their government as they 
 would. Even the important matter of choosing a governor was sub- 
 mitted to an election in the House of Burgesses ; when so great a power 
 had been once exercised, it was not likely to be relinquished without a 
 struggle. Three governors were chosen in this way, and what was at 
 first only a privilege soon became a right. Special acts of the assembly 
 
118 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 declared that such a right existcfd, and that it should be transmitted to 
 posterity. 
 
 In 1660, just at the time of the resignation of Richard Cromwell, 
 Samuel Matthews, the last of the three elected governors, died. The 
 burgesses were immediately convened, and an ordinance was passed de- 
 claring that the supreme authority of Virginia was resident in the colony, 
 and would continue there until a delegate with proper credentials should 
 arrive from the British government. Having made this declaration, the 
 hoase elected as governor Sir William Berkeley, who by accepting the 
 office acknowledged the right of the burgesses to choose. The question 
 of recognizing Charles 11. as king was debated at the same session, but 
 prudence suggested that the colonial authorities would better await the 
 natural course of events. For the present it was decided to remain faith- 
 ful to Parliament. Most of the people, no doubt, desired the restoration, 
 but policy forbade any open expressions of such a preference. It would 
 be time enough when monarchy was actually restored. 
 
 In May of 1660 Charles II. became king of England. As soon 
 •as this event was known in Virginia, Governor Berkeley, forgetting the 
 source of his own authority', and in defiance of all consistency, issued vrc'iXa 
 in the name of the king for the election of a new assembly. The friends 
 of royalty were delighted with the prospect. The adherents of the Com- 
 monwealth Avere thrust out of office, and the favorites of the king estab- 
 lished in their places. Great benefits were expected from the change, and 
 the whole colony was alive with excitement and zeal. But the disap- 
 pointment of the people was more bitter than their hopes had been extrav- 
 agant. The Virginians soon found that they had exchanged a republican 
 tyrant with good principles for a monarchial tyrant with bad ones. King 
 Charles II. was the worst monarch of modern times, and the people of 
 Virginia had in him and his government a special cause of grief The 
 commercial system of the Commonwealth, so far from being abolished, 
 was re-enacted in a more hateful form than ever. The new statute pro- 
 vided that all the colonial commerce, whether exports or imports, should 
 be carried on in English ships, the trade between the colonies was bur- 
 dened with a heav}' tax for the benefit of the government, and tobacco, 
 the staple of Virginia, could be sold nowhere but in England. This 
 odious measure gave to English merchantmen a monopoly of the carr\'- 
 ing trade of the colonies, and by destroying competition among the buy- 
 ers of tobacco robbed the Virginians to that extent of their leading 
 product. Remonstrance was tried in vain. The cold and selfish monarch 
 only sneered at the complaints of his American subjects, and the commer- 
 cial ordinances were rigorously enforced. • 
 
VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 119 
 
 Charles II. seemed to regard the British empire as personal property 
 to be used for the benefit of himself and his courtiers. In order to reward 
 the worthless profligates who thronged his court, he began to grant to them 
 large tracts of land in Virginia. What did it matter that these lands had 
 been redeemed from the wilderness and were covered witii orchards and 
 gardens ? It was no uncommon thing for an American planter to find that 
 his farm, whicli had been cultivated for a quarter of a century, was given 
 away to some dissolute flatterer of the royal household. Great distress 
 was occasioned by these iniquitous grants, until finally, in 1673, the king 
 set a limit to his own recklessness by giving away tiie whole State. Lord 
 Culpepper and the earl of Arlington, two ignoble noblemen, received 
 under the great seal a deed by which was granted to them for thirty- 
 one years all the dominion of land and water called Virginia. 
 
 Unfortunately, the colonial legislation of these times became as 
 selfish and narrow-minded as the policy of the king was mean. An 
 aristocratic party which had arisen in the colony obtained control of the 
 House of Burgesses, and the new laws rivaled those of England in illiber- 
 ality. Episcopalianism was again established as the State religion. A 
 proscriptive ordinance was passed against the Baptists, and the peace-lov- 
 ing Quakers were fined, persecuted and imprisoned. Burdensome taxes 
 were laid on personal property and polls ; the holders of large estates were 
 exempt and the poorer people afflicted. The salaries of the officers were 
 secured by a permanent duty on tobacco, and, worst of all, the biennial 
 election of burgesses was abolished, so that the members of the existing 
 assembly continued indefinitely in power. For a while Berkeley and his 
 council outdid the tyranny of England. 
 
 And then came open resistance. The people were worn out with 
 the governor's exactions, and availed themselves of the first pretext to 
 assert their rights by force of arms. A war with the Sasquehanna In- 
 dians furnished the occasion for an insurrection. The tribes about the 
 head of Chesapeake Bay and along the Susquehanna had been attacked by 
 the Senecas dud driven from their homes. They, in turn, fell upon the 
 English settlers of INIaryland, and the banks of the Potomac became the 
 scene of a border war. Virginia and Maryland made common cause 
 against the savages. John Washington, great-grandfather of the first 
 president of the United States, led a company of militia into the enemy's 
 country, and compelled the Susquehannas to sue fi^r peace. Six of their 
 chieftains went into Virginia as ambassadors, and, to the lasting dishonor 
 of the colony, were foully murdered. This atrocity maddened the savages, 
 and a devastating warfare raged along tiie whole frontier. 
 
 Governor Berkeley, not without some show of justice, sided witli 
 
120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Indians. But the colonists remembered only the many acts of 
 treacheiy and bloodshed of which the red men had before been guilty, 
 and were determined to have revenge. In this division of sentiment 
 among the jieople, the assembly and the aristocratic party took sides with 
 the governor and favored a peace; while the popular part)', disliking 
 Berkeley and hating the Indians, resolved to overthrow him and destroy 
 them at one blow. A leader wa.s found iu that remarkable man, Nathaniel 
 Bacon. Young, brave, eloquent, patriotic, full of enthusiasm and energy, 
 he became the soul and life of the popular party. His own farm in the 
 county of Henrico had been pillaged and his tenants murdered by the 
 savages. Exasperated by these injuries, he was the more easily urged by 
 the public voice to accept the dangerous office of leading an insurrection. 
 
 Five hundred men rushed to arms and demanded to be led against 
 the Indians. Alarm, excitement and passion prevailed throughout the 
 colony. The patriot forces were organized ; and without permission of a 
 government which they had ceased to regard, the march was begun into 
 the enemy's country. Berkeley and the aristocratic faction were enraged 
 at this proceeding, and proclaimed Bacon a traitor. A levy of troops was 
 made for the purpose of dispersing the rebellious militia ; but scarcely had 
 Berkeley and his forces left Jamestown when another popular uprising in 
 the lower counties compelled him to return. Affairs were iu an uproar. 
 Bacon came home victorious. The old assembly was unceremoniously 
 broken up, and a new one elected on the basis of universal suffrage. 
 Bacon was chosen a member for Henrico, and soon after elected com- 
 mander-in-chiei of the Virginia army. The governor refused to sign his 
 commission, and Bacon appealed to the people ; the militia again flew to 
 arms, and Berkeley was compelled to yield. Not only was the com- 
 mission signed, but a paper drawn up by the burgesses in commendation 
 of Bacon's loyalty, zeal and patriotism received the executive signature 
 and was transmitted to Parliament. 
 
 Peace returned to the colony. The power of the savages was com- 
 pletely broken. A military force was stationed on the frontier, and a 
 sense of security returned to all the settlements. But Berkeley \vas petu- 
 lant, proud and vengeful ; and it was only a question of time when the 
 struggle would be renewed. Seizing the first opportunity', the governor 
 left Jamestown and repaired to the county of Gloucester, on the north 
 side of York River. Here he summoned a convention of loyalists, who, 
 contrary to his expectations and wishes, advised moderation and com- 
 promise ; but the hot-headed old cavalier would yield no jot of his pre- 
 rogative to what he was pleased to call a rabble, and Bacon was again 
 proclaimed a traitor. 
 
VIRGINIA.— THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 121 
 
 It was evident that there must be fighting. Berl<eley and his 
 forces left Gloucester, crossed the Chesapeake Bay, and took station on 
 the eastern shore, in the county of Accomac. Here his troops were 
 oro-anized ; the crews of some English ships M-ere joined to his command, 
 and the fleet set sail for Jamestown. The place was taken -without much 
 resistance ; but when Bacon with a few companies of patriots drew near, 
 the loval forces deserted and went over to his standard. The governor 
 with his adherents was again obliged to fl}', and the capital remained in 
 possession of the people's party. The a.ssembly was about to assume con- 
 trol of the government witiiout the govefnor, whose flight to Accomac 
 had been declared an abdication, mIkmi a rumor arose that an English fleet 
 was approaching for the subjugation of the colonies. The patriot leaders 
 held a council, and it was determined that Jamestown should be burned. 
 Accordingly, in the dusk of the evening the torch was applied, and the 
 only town in Virginia laid in aslias. The leading men set the example 
 by throwing firebrands into their own houses ; others caught the spirit of 
 sacrifice ; the flames shot up through the shadows of night ; and Governor 
 Berkeley and his followers, on board a fleet twenty miles down the river, 
 had tolerably fair warning that the capital of Virginia could not be used 
 for the purposes of despotism. 
 
 In this juncture of aflliirs Bacon fell sick and died. It was an 
 event full of grief and disaster. The patriot party, discouraged by the 
 loss of the heroic chieftain, was easily dispersed. A few feeble efforts 
 were made to revive the cause of the people, but the animating spirit 
 which had controlled and directed until now was gone. The royalists 
 found an able leader in Robert Beverly, and the authority of the governor 
 was rapidly restored tiu-oughout the province. The cause of the people 
 and the leader of the people had died together. 
 
 Berkeley's vindictive passions were now let loose upon the defeated 
 insurgents. Fines and confiscations became the order of the day. The 
 governor seemed determined to drown the memory of his own MTongs in 
 the woes of his subjects. Twenty-two of the leading patriots were seized 
 and hanged with scarcely time to bid their friends farewell. Thus died 
 Thomas Hansford, the first American M'ho gave his life for freedom. 
 Thus perished Edmund Cheesman, Thomas Wilford and the noble Wil- 
 liam Drummond, raartvrs to liberty. Nor is it certain when the vengeful 
 tyrant would have stayed his hand, had not the assembly met and passed 
 an edict that no more blood should be spilt for past offences. One of the 
 burgesses from the county of Xorthamjjton said in the debate that if the 
 governor were let alone he would hang half the country. When Charles 
 II. heard of Berkeley's ferocity, he exclaimed, " The old fool has taken 
 
122 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 away more lives in that naked country than I for the murder ol my 
 father" ; and the saying was true. 
 
 The history of this insurrection was for a long time reciifed by 
 Bacon's enemies. Until the present century no one appeared to rescue 
 the leader's name from obloquy. In tiie light of after times his character 
 will shine with a peculiar lustre. His motives were as exalted as his life 
 was pure, and his virtues as noted as his abilities were great. His ambi- 
 tion was for the public welfare, and his passions were only excited against 
 the enemies of his country. 
 
 The consequences of the rebellion were very disastrous. Berkeley 
 and the aristocratic party had now a good excuse for suppressing all liberal 
 sentiments and tendencies. The printing-press was interdicted. Educa- 
 tion was discouraged or forbidden. To speak or to wxiiB anything against 
 the administration or in defence of the late insurrection was made a crime 
 to be punished by fine or whipping. If the offence should be three times 
 repeated, it was declared to be treason punishable with death. The former 
 tyrannical methods of taxation were revived, and Virginia wa.s left at the 
 mercy of arbitrary rulere. 
 
 In 1675, Lord Culpepper, to whom with Arlington the province 
 had been granted two years previously, obtained the appointment of 
 governor for life. The right of the king was thus by his own act relin- 
 quished, and Virginia became a proprietary government. The new execu- 
 tive arrived in 1680 and assumed the duties of his office. His whole 
 administration was characterized by avarice and dishonesty. Regarding 
 Virginia as his pereonal estate, he treated the Virginians as his tenants 
 and slaves. Every species of* extortion was resorted to, until the mutter- 
 ings of rebellion were again heard throughout the impoverished colony. 
 In 1683, Arlington surrendered his claim to Culpepper, who thus became 
 sole proprietor as well as governor ; but before he could proceed to further 
 mischief, his official career was cut short by the act of the king. Charles 
 II., repenting of his own rashness, found in Culpepper's vices and frauds 
 a sufficient excuse to remove him from office and to revoke his patent. 
 In 1684, Virginia again became a royal province, under the government 
 of Lord Howard, of Effingham, who was succeeded by Francis Nich- 
 olson, formerly governor of New York. His administration was sig- 
 nalized by the founding of William and Mary College, so named 
 in honor of the new sovereigns of England. This, next to Harvard, 
 was the first institution of liberal learning planted in America. Here 
 the boy Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, shall be 
 educated ! From these halls, in the famous summer of 1776, shall be 
 sent forth young James Monroe, future President of the United States! 
 
1600 
 
 11. Giistavus Adolplius the Great. 
 
 Grotius. 
 Galileo. 18. The Thirty Years' War begins. 
 
 Kepler. 48. Peace of Westphalia. 
 
 24-42. Richelieu. 43 Louis XIV. 
 
 89. Petf 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 Bacon. 
 
 .3. James VI. ) 
 James I. J 
 
 Milton. 
 
 49. CromAvell. 
 
 85. Revocation 'il 
 87. Habeas ciip 
 
 Locke. 
 
 88. Seconl 
 88. Williai 
 of Mary, 94. « ; 
 
 25. Charles I. 42. The Revolution. 
 
 60. The Restoration. 
 60. Charles II. 
 
 85. James I 
 
 7. 
 
 9. Second Charter granted. 42. Berkeley's administration. 
 
 12. The Third Charter. 44. Indian massacre. 76. Bacon's Rebellion. 
 
 19. House of Burgesses established. 77. Virginia beconn 
 
 VIEGINIA colonized by the London 51. First Navigation Act . 84. Royal g'l x 
 Company at Jamestown. 
 
 24. Dissolution of the 
 London Company. 
 
 19. Introduction of Slavery. 
 John Smith, governor. 
 
 83. Seth Sothci 
 
 50.:N0ETH OAEOLINA settled by the English 
 
 : 63. Grant made to Lord Clarendon. 
 
 So. Sir John 
 
 65. Sir John Yeamans, governoi' 
 77. Culpepper's rebel 
 
 34. 
 
 MAEYLAND settled by the Catho- 91. Marj 
 
 lies under Lord Baltimore. 75. Charles Calvert. 
 
 39. Representative government established. 92. 1A\\ 
 
 : 38. Governor Kief. 64. Taken by the English. 91. Slot 
 
 14, : NEW YOEK settled by the Dutch. Berkeley and Carteret. 92.11 
 
 : 47. Stuyvesant. 70. Lovelace. 98, 
 
 56. Kew York City founded. 74. Edmnn « 
 
 : 25. Minuits, governor. : J 
 
 38. Wilmington settled by the Swedes. 82.:DELAWAEI 
 
 23.: NEW JEESET settled by the Dutch. 
 
 81. First General A 
 
 29. NEW HAMPSHIRE settled. 
 30. Boston founded. 
 
 79, : New Hampshire 98 
 
 : as a distinct colony. 
 
 20, 
 
 30. : MAINE settled. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS settled by the Puritans at Plymouth. 
 30. VVinthrop, governor. 
 
 38. Harvard College founded. 
 39. First printing-press set up at Cambridge. 
 
 76. King Philip's defeat 
 
 84. Massachxi 
 90. First i 
 90. King 
 
 92. Witcl 
 excit' 
 
 36. : EHODE ISLAND settled by Roger Williams. 
 
 : 39. ^'ewp ort founded. 87. Rhode I s 
 
 : 37. Pequod WaT. " 89. The hii 
 30. : OONNEOTIOUT granted to the earl of Warwick. 
 : 35. Savbrook founded. 
 :33. Hartford found ad. 62. New charter granted. 
 
 70. 
 
 SOUTH OAEOLINA 
 
 Locke's Constitution adop 
 86. Arrival of 
 
 82, 
 
 PENNSYI 
 the Qual 
 92. Penn 
 
roo 
 
 e Great. 
 
 rles XII. 
 
 r of the Spauish Succession. 
 
 buitz. 
 
 13. Peace of Utrecht. 
 
 t of Nantes. 
 
 15. Louis XV. 
 
 ointior. 
 
 Mary, and after the death 
 1 III. 
 
 ^nne. 14. George I. 27. George II, 
 
 62. Catharine II. 
 
 40. Frederick tlie Great. 
 
 40. War of the Austrian Succession terminated 
 
 by 48. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 89. French 
 
 Rerolntioa. 
 93. Reign 
 
 Voltaire. 74. Louis XVI. "f ter- 
 
 ror. 
 Dr. Johnson. Burke. 
 
 65. The Rockingham Ministry. 
 
 Newton. Chatliam. y"- 
 
 55. War between France and England. ■'' **^' 
 65. The Stamp Act. 
 60. George III. 
 
 prietary government. 
 t re-established. 
 
 32. Birth of Washington. 65. The Virginia: Resolutions. 
 
 ernor. 
 
 9. Arrival of the German immigrants. 
 
 hdale^ governor. 
 
 11. The Coree War. 
 
 29. Final separation of the Carolinas. 
 
 becomes a royal government. 
 
 Copley. 
 
 ;r, governor. 
 
 ler. 1. Cornbury. 
 
 lamont. 
 
 dros. 
 
 44. Negro plot. 58. Fall of Louisburg. 
 32. Cosby> governor. 65. Declaration: of Rights. 
 
 54. French and Indian: War. 
 
 65. First Colonial Congress assembles at New York, 
 
 irated from New York. 
 
 on of East and West Jersey. 
 )lv. 
 
 Dr. Benjamin : Franklin. 
 
 38. Royal government established. : 
 
 ted with Massachusetts. 41. : New Hampshire finally sepa- : 
 
 20. Introduction of tea. : rated from Mass. 67. The tea tax. 
 
 death. 
 
 :. First newspaper. 
 loses her charter. 
 )f paper money 
 liam's War. 
 Queen Anne's War. 
 10. First post-ofBce. 
 t. 
 
 61. Writs of Assistance. 
 
 73. The Boston " Tea Party." 
 
 44. King George's War. 75. ImM Lexington. 
 
 45. |^!M -Louisburg taken. 74. Boston Port Bill. 
 
 r 68. General GaLci- arrives in Boston. 
 
 59. ^^Quebec 75. hm Bunker Hill. 
 "^ — ^taken. 70. f^** Tumult in Boaton. 
 
 joined to New York. 
 
 )f the charter. 
 
 fale College founded. 
 
 ed by the English. 
 
 2. Expedition against St. Augustine. 
 Huguenots. 29. Royal government established. 
 
 HIA settled by 
 under Penn. 
 1 his commission. 
 
 55, 
 
 ff^ 76. Independence. 
 
 . PlEj Braddock's defeat. 
 ' 74. Second Congress assem- 
 
 bles at Philadelphia. 
 
 33. 
 
 GEORGIA settled by the English : 
 
 under Oglethorpe. : 
 
 52. Royal government established. 
 
MASSA CHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. 123 
 
 After Nicholson's administration, Sir Edmund Andros, recently ex- 
 pelled by the people of Massachusetts, assumed for a while the gov- 
 ernment of Virginia. The affairs of the colony during the next forty 
 or fifty years are not of sufficient interest and importance to require 
 extended notice in an abridgment of American history. At the out- 
 break of the French and Indian War, Virginia will show to the world 
 that the labors of Smith, and Gosnold, and Bacon have not been in 
 vain. 
 
 CHAPTEE XIII. 
 
 MASSA CHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. 
 
 THE spring of 1621 brought a ray of hope to the distressed Pilgrims 
 of New Plymouth. Never was the returning sun more welcome. 
 The flxtal winter had swept oif one-half of the number. The son of the 
 benevolent Carver was among the first victims of the terrible climate. 
 The governor himself sickened and died, and the broken-hearted wife 
 found rest in the same grave with her husband. But now, with the ap- 
 proacli of warm weather, the destroying pestilence was stayed, and the 
 spirits of the survivors revived with the sea.son. Out of the snows of 
 winter, the desolations of disease, and the terrors of death the faith of the 
 Puritan had come forth triumphant. 
 
 For a while the colonists were apprehensive of the Indians. In 
 February, Miles Standish was sent out with his soldiers to gather in- 
 formation of the numbers and disposition of the natives. The army of 
 New England consisted of six men besides the general. Deserted wig- 
 wams were found here and there ; the smoke of camjj-fires arose in the 
 distance ; savages were occasionally seen in the forest. These fled, how- 
 ever, at the approach of the English, and Standish returned to Plymouth. 
 
 A month later the colonists were astonished by the sudden appear- 
 ance in their midst of a Wampanoag Indian named Samoset. He ran 
 into the village, offered his hand in token of friendship, and bade the 
 strangers welcome. He gave an account of the numbers and strength of 
 the neighboring tribes, and recited the story of a great plague by whioh^ 
 a few years before, the country had been swept of its inhabitants. The 
 present feebleness and desolate condition of the natives had resulted from 
 the fatal malady. Another Indian, by the name of Squanto, who had 
 been carried away by Hunt in 1614, and had learned to speak English, 
 came also to Plymouth, and confirmed what Samoset had said. 
 
124 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 By the influence of these two natives friendly relations were at once 
 established with the Wanipanoags. Massasoit, the great sachem of the 
 nation, was invited to visit the settlement, and came attended bv a few 
 of his warriors. The Pilgrims received him with as much parade and 
 ceremony as the colony could provide ; Captain Standish ordered out his 
 soldiers, and Squanto acted as interpreter. Then and there was ratified 
 the first treaty made in New England. The terms were few and simple. 
 There should be peace and friendship between the whites and the red 
 men. No injury should be done by cither party to the other. All 
 oifeuders should be given up to be punished. If the English engaged in 
 
 ll'f. ^^* 
 
 ^ 1' ^\i\ 'ill' 1/ //' ;/J -.,y^ 
 
 THE TREATY BETWEEN GOVERNOR CARVER AND MASSASOIT. 
 
 war, Massasoit should help them ; if the Wampanoags were attacked un- 
 justly, the English should give aid against the common enemy. Mark 
 that word unjustli/ : it contains the essence of Puritanism. 
 
 The treaty thus made and ratified remained inviolate for fifty years. 
 Other chiefs followed the example of the great sachem and entered into 
 friendly relations with the colony. Nine of the leading tribes acknow- 
 ledged the sovereignty of the English king. One chiefitain threatened 
 hostilities, but Standish's army obliged him to beg for mercy. Canonicus, 
 king of the Narragansetts, sent to William Bradford, who had been chosen 
 governor after the death of Carver, a bundle of arrows wrapped in the 
 skin of a rattlesnake ; but the undaunted governor stufied the skin with 
 
MASSA CHUSETTS.—SETTLEMENT. 125 
 
 powder and balls and sent it back to the chief, who did not dare to accept 
 tiie dangerous challenge. The hostile emblem was borne about ironi tribe 
 to tribe, until finally it was returned to Plymouth. 
 
 The summer of 1621 was unfruitful, and the Pilgrims were brought 
 to the point of starvation. To make tlieii- condition still more grievous, 
 a new company of immigrants, without provisions or stores, arrived, and 
 were quartered on the colonists during the fall aud winter. For six 
 months together the settlere were obliged to subsist on half allowance. 
 At one time only a few grains of parched corn remained to be distributed, 
 and at another there was absolute destitution. In this state of affaire some 
 English fishing-vessels came to Plymouth and charged the starving colo- 
 nists two prices for food enough to keep them alive. 
 
 The intruding immigrants just mentioned had been sent to America 
 by Thomas Weston, of London, one of the projectors of the colony. They 
 remained with the people of Plymouth until the summer of 1622, then 
 removed to the south side of Boston Harbor and began a new settlement 
 called Weymouth. Instead of working with their might to provide 
 against starvation, they wasted the fall in idleness, and attempted to keep 
 up their stock of provisions by defrauding the Indians. Thus provoked 
 to hostility, the natives formed a plan to destroy the colony ; but ]\Iassa- 
 soit, faithful to his pledges, went to Plymouth and revealed the plot. 
 Standish marched to Weymouth at the head of his regiment, now in- 
 creased to eight men, attacked the hostile tribe, killed several warriors 
 and carried home the chief's head on a pole. The tender-hearted John 
 Robinson ^vrote from Leyden : " I would that you had converted some 
 of them before you killed any." 
 
 In the following spring most of the Weymouth settlers abandoned 
 the place and returned to England. The summer of 1623 brought a 
 plentiful harvest to the people of the older colony, and there was no 
 longer any danger of starvation. Tlie natives, preferring the chase, be- 
 came dependent on the settlement for corn, and furnished in exchange an 
 abundance of game. The main body of Pilgrims still tarried at Leyden. 
 Robinson made unwearied efforts to bring his people to America, but the 
 adventurers of London who had manage<l the enterprise would provide 
 no further means either of money or transportation ; and now, at the end 
 of the fourth year, there were only a hundred and eighty persons in New 
 England. The managers had expected profitable returns, and were dis- 
 appointed. They had expended thirty-four thousand dollars; there 
 M'as neither jjrofit nor the hope of any. Under this discouragement the 
 proprietoi-s made a proposition to sell out their claims to the colonists. 
 The offer was accepted; and in November of 1627 eight of the leading 
 
126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 men of Plymouth purchased from the Londoners their entire interest for 
 the sum of nine thousand doUars. 
 
 Before this transfer of right was made the colony had been much 
 vexed by the efforts of the managers to thrust on them a minister of the 
 Established Church. Was it not to avoid this very thing that they had 
 come to the wilds of the New World ? Should the tyranny of the prelates 
 follow them even across the sea and into the wilderness ? There was dis- 
 sension and strife for a while ; the English managers withheld support ; 
 oppression was resorted to; the stores intended for the colonists Mere 
 sold to them at three prices ; and they Avere obliged to borrow money at 
 sixty per cent. But no exactions could break the spirit of the Pilgrims ; 
 and the conflict ended M'ith the purchase of whatever rights the London 
 proprietors had in the colony. 
 
 The year 1624 was marked by the founding of a settlement at 
 Cape Ann. John AVhite, a Puritan minister of Dorchester, England, 
 collected a small company of emigrants and sent them to America. The 
 colony was established, but after t\\o years of discouragement the cape 
 was abandoned as a jilace unsuitable, and the company moved farther 
 south to Naumkeag, afterward called Salem. Here a settlement was 
 begun, and in 1628 was made permanent by the arrival of a second colony, 
 in charge of John Endicott, who mus chosen governor. In March of the 
 same year the colonists obtained a patent from the Council of Plymouth ; 
 and in 1629 Charles I. issued a charter by M'hich the proprietors were 
 incorporated under the name of The Governor and Company of 
 Massachusetts Bay in New England. In July two hundred ad- 
 ditional immigrants arrived, half of whom settled at Plymouth, ^hile the 
 other half removed to a peninsula on the noi'th side of Boston Harbor 
 and laid the foundation of Charlestown. 
 
 At the first it had been decided that the charter of the colony 
 should be left in England, and that the governor should reside there also. 
 After further discussion, this decision was reversed, and in September it 
 was decreed that the whole government should be transferred to America, 
 and that the charter, as a pledge of liberty, should be entrusted to the 
 colonists themselves. As soon as this liberal action M'as made known 
 emigration began on an extensive scale. In the year 1630 about three 
 hundred of the best Puritan families in the kingdom came to New Eng- 
 land. Not adventurers, not vagabonds, were these brave people, but vir- 
 tuous, well-educated, courageous men and women who for conscience' 
 sake left comfortable homes with no expectation of returning. It was not 
 the least of their good fortune to choose a noble leader. 
 
 If ever a man was worthy to be held in perpetual remembrance. 
 
MASS A CHUSETTS.— SETTLEMENT. 
 
 127 
 
 that man was John Winthrop, governor of Massachusetts. Born a royalist, 
 he cherished the principles of republicanism. Himself an Episcopalian, 
 he chose affliction 
 with the Puritans. 
 Surrounded with 
 affluence and com- 
 Ibrt, he left all to 
 share the destiny 
 of the persecuted 
 Pilgrims. Calm, 
 prudent and peace- 
 able, he joined the 
 zeal of an enthusi- 
 ast with the sub- 
 lime faith of a 
 martjT. 
 
 A part of 
 the new i m m i- 
 grants settled at 
 Salem ; others at 
 Cambridge and 
 Watertown, on 
 Charles River; 
 while others, going 
 farther south, 
 founded Roxliury and Dorchester. The governor, with a few of the 
 leading families, resided for a while at Ciiarlestown, but soon crossed 
 the harbor to the peninsula of Shawmut and laid the foundation of Bos- 
 ton, which became henceforth the capital of the colony and the metropolis 
 of New England. With the approach of wintei? sickness came, and the 
 distress was \erj great. Many of the new-comers were refined and ten- 
 der people who could not endure the bitter blasts of Massachusetts Bay. 
 Coaree fare and scanty provisions added to the griefs of disease. Sleet 
 and snow drifted through the cracks of the thin board huts where en- 
 feebled men and delicate women moaned out their lives. Before mid- 
 winter two hundred had perished. A few othei-s, heartsick and despair- 
 ing, returned to England ; but there was lieard neither murmur nor 
 repining. Governor Wintiirop wrote to his wife : " I like so well to be 
 here that I do not repent my coming." 
 
 At a session of the general court of the colony, held in 1631, a law 
 was passed restricting the right of .suffrage. It was enacted that none but 
 
 JOHN WINTHROP. 
 
128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 members of the church should be permitted to vote at the colonial elec- 
 tions. The choice of governor, deputy-governor and assistant councilors 
 was thiLS placed in the hands of a small minority. Nearly three-fourths 
 of the people were excluded from exercising the rights of freemen. Taxes 
 were levied for the support of the gospel ; oaths of obedience to the magis- 
 trates were required ; attendance on public worship was enforced by law ; 
 none but church-members were eligible to offices of trust. It is strange 
 indeed that the very men who had so recently, through perils by sea and 
 land, escaped with only their lives to find religious freedom in another 
 continent, should have begun their career with intolerance and proscrip- 
 tion. The only excuse that can be found for the gross inconsistency and 
 injustice of such legislation is that bigotry was the vice of the age rather 
 than of the Puritans. 
 
 One manly voice was lifted up against this odious statute. It was 
 the voice of young Roger Williams, minister of Salem. To this man 
 belongs the shining honor of being first in America or in Europe to pro- 
 claim the full gospel of religious toleration. He declared to his people 
 that the conscience of man may in no wise be bound by the authority of 
 the magistrate ; that civil government has only to do with civil matters, 
 such as the collection of taxes, the restraint and punishment of crime, 
 and the protection of all men in the enjoyment of equal rights. For 
 these noble utterances he was obliged to quit the ministry of the church 
 at Salem and retire to Plymouth. Finally, in 1634, he wrote a paper in 
 which the declaration ^\as made that grants of land, though given by the 
 king of England, were invalid until the natives were justly recompensed. 
 This was equivalent to saying that the colonial charter itself -was void, and 
 that the people were really living upon the lands of the Indians. Gi'eat 
 excitement was occasioned by the publication, and Williams consented 
 that for the sake of jiublic peace the paper should be burned. But he 
 continued to teach his doctrines, saying that comjjulsory attendance at re- 
 ligious worship, as well as taxation for the support of the ministry, was 
 contrary to the teachings of the gospel. When arraigned for these bad 
 doctrines, he crowned his offences by telling the court that a test of 
 church-membership in a voter or a public officer was as ridiculous as the 
 selection of a doctor of physic or the pilot of a ship on account of his skill 
 in theology. 
 
 These assertions raised such a storm in court that Williams was 
 condemned for heresy and banished from the colony. In the dead of 
 winter he left home and became an exile in the desolate forest. For four- 
 teen weeks he wandered on through the snow, sleeping at night on the 
 ground. or in a hollow tree, living on parched corn, acorns and roots. He 
 
MASSACHUSETTS. — HF.TTLFMENT. 
 
 129 
 
 carried with liini one jireeious treasurc-^a private letter from Governor 
 Wintlirop, giving him words of cheer and encouragement. Nor did the 
 Indians fail to show their gratitude to the man who had so nobly de- 
 fended their rights. In the country of the Wampanoags he was kindly 
 entertained. INIassasoit invited him to his cabin at Pokanoket, and 
 
 ROGER WILLIAMS' RECEPTION BY THE II.'DIANS. 
 
 Canonicus, king of the Narragansetts, received him as a friend and 
 brother. On the left bank of Blackstone River, near the head of Narra- 
 gansett Bay, a resting-place was at last found ; the exile pitched his tent, 
 and with the opening of spring planted a field and built the first house in 
 the village of Scekonk. Soon the information came tiiat he was still 
 within the territory of Plymouth colony, and another removal became 
 necesr^ary. With five companions mIio had joined him in banishment, 
 lie embarked in a canoe, passed down the river and crossed to the west 
 side of the l^ay. Here he was safe ; his enemies could hunt him no 
 f u'ther. X ti'act of land \v:is honorably purchased from Canonicus ; and 
 in June of 1G36, the illustrious founder of Rhode Island laid out the city 
 of Providence. 
 
 Meanwhile, his teachings were bearing fruit in IMassachusetts. In 
 1G34 a repi'esentative form of government was established against the 
 opposition of the clergy. On election-day the voters, now numbering 
 between three and four hundred, were called together, and the learned 
 
130 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cotton preached powerfully and long against the proposed change. The 
 assembly listened attentively, and then went on with the election. To 
 make the reform complete, a ballot-box was substituted for the old 
 method of public voting. The restriction on the right of suffrage was 
 the only remaining bar to a perfect system of self-government in New 
 England. 
 
 During the next year three thousand new immigrants arrived. It 
 ■was worth while — so thought the people of England — to come to a country 
 where the principles of freedom were spreading with such rajiidity. The 
 new-comers were under the leadei-ship of Hugh Peters and Su* Henry 
 Vane ; the former the Puritan pastor of some English exiles at Rotter- 
 dam, in Holland, and the latter a young nobleman who afterward played 
 an important part in the history of England. Such was his j^opularity 
 with the people of Massachusetts, and such his zeal and piety, that in less 
 than a year after his arrival he was chosen governor of the colony. 
 
 By this time the settlements around Massachusetts Bay were 
 thickly clustered. Until new homes should be found there was no room 
 for the immigrants who were constantly coming. To enlarge the frontier, 
 to plunge into the wilderness and find new places of abode, became a 
 :iecessity. One little company of twelve families, led by Simon Willard 
 :ind Peter Bulkeley, marched through the woods until they came to some 
 open meadows sixteen miles from Boston, and there laid the foundations 
 of Concord. A little later in the same year, another colony of sixty per- 
 sons left the older settlements and pressed their way westward as far as 
 the Connecticut River. The march itself was a grievous hardship, but 
 greater toils and sufferings were in store for the adventurous company. 
 A dreadful \\'inter overtook them in their new homes but half provided. 
 Some died ; others, disheartened, waded back through the dreary untrod- 
 den snows and came half famished to Plymouth and Boston; but the 
 rest, with true Puritan heroism, outbraved the winter and triumphed over 
 the pangs of starvation. Spring brought a recompense for hardship : the 
 heroic pioneers crept out of their miserable huts to become the founders 
 of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield, the oldest towns in the Con- 
 necticut valley. 
 
 The banishment of Roger "Williams, instead of bringing peace, 
 brought strife and dissension to the people of Massachusetts. The minis- 
 ters were stern and exacting. Every shade of popular belief was closely 
 scrutinized ; the slightest departure from orthodox doctrines was met 
 with a charge of heresy, and to be a heretic was to become an outcast. 
 Still, the advocates of free opinion multi]ilied. The clergy, notwithstand- 
 ing their great influence among the people, felt insecure. Religious de 
 
MASSACnUSETTS.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 131 
 
 MAP OP EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 bates became the order of the day. Every sermon had to pass the ordeal 
 of review and criticism. 
 
 Most prominent among those who were said to be "as bad as 
 Roger Williams, or worse," was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a woman of 
 genius who had come over in the ship with Sir Henry Vane. She de- 
 sired the privilege of speaking at the weekly debates, and was refused. 
 Women had no business at these assemblies, said the elders. Indignant 
 at this, she became the champion of her sex, and declared that the minis- 
 ters who were defrauding women of the gospel were no better than Phari- 
 sees. She called meetings of her friends, spoke much in public, and 
 pleaded with great fervor for the full freedom of conscience. The liberal 
 doctrines of tlie exiled Williams were reaffirmed with more power and 
 eloquence than ever. Many of the magistrates were converted to the new 
 beliefs ; the governor himself espoused the cause of Mi-s. Hutchinson ; 
 and a majority of the people of Boston inclined to her opinions. 
 
 For a while there was a reign of discord ; but as soon as Sir 
 Henry's term of office expired a call was issued for a meeting of the 
 synod of New England. The body convened in August of 1637 ; a 
 
132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 decree was proposed ; Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends were declared 
 unfit for the society of ChrLstians, and banished from the territory of 
 Massachusetts. With a large number of friends the exiles wended their 
 way toward the home of Roger Williams. Miantonomoh, a Xarragansett 
 chieftain, made them a gift of the beautiful island of Rhode Island; 
 there, in the month of March, 1641, a little republic was established, in 
 whose constitution freedom of conscience was guaranteed and jiersecution 
 for opinion's sake forbidden. 
 
 The year 1636 wa.s an important epoch in the history of Massa- 
 chusetts. The general court of the colony passed an act appropriating 
 between one and two thousand dollars to found and endow a college. 
 The measure met with popular favor; the Puritans were an educated 
 people, and were quick to appreciate the advantages of learning. New- 
 town was selected as the site of the proposed school. Plymouth and 
 Salem gave gifts to help the enterprise ; and from villages in the Con- 
 necticut valley came contributions of corn and wampum. In 1638, John 
 Harvard, a young minister of Charlestown, died, bequeathing his library 
 and nearly five thousand dollars to the school. To perpetuate the memory 
 of the noble benefactor the new institution was named Harvard Col- 
 lege ; and in honor of the place where the leading men of IMassachusetts 
 had been educated, the name of Newtown was changed to Cambridge. 
 Thus early did the people of New England stamp their approval on the 
 cause of education. In spite of sterile soil and desolate landscapes — 
 in spite of destroying climate and wasting diseases — in spite even of 
 superstition and bigotry — the people who educate will ever be great 
 and free. 
 
 The PRiNTiXG-PRESS Came also. In 1638, Stephen Dave, an 
 English printer, arrived at Boston, bringing a font of types, and in the 
 following year set up a press at Cambridge. The first American publica- 
 tion was an almanac calculated for New England, and bearing date of 
 1639. During the next year, Thomas Welde and John Eliot, two minis- 
 ters of Roxbury, and Richard Mather, of Dorchester, translated the 
 Hebrew Psalms into English verse, and pnblislied their rude work in 
 a volume of three hundred pages — the first book printed on this side 
 of the Atlantic. 
 
 The rapid growth of Massachusetts now became a source of alarm 
 to the English government. Those liberal principles of religion and 
 politics which were openly avowed and gloried in by the citizens of the 
 new commonwealth were hateful to Charles I. and his ministers. The 
 archbishop of Canterbuiy was much offended. Something must be 
 done to check the fuither growth of the Puritan colonies. The first 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. 133 
 
 measure whieh suggested itself was to stoj) emigration. For this purpose 
 an edict was issued as early as 1634, but was of no effect. The officers 
 of the government neglected to enforce the law. Four years later, more 
 vigorous measures were adopted. A squadron of eight vessels, ready to 
 .>iail from London, was detained by the royal authority. Many of the 
 most prominent Puritan families in England were on board of these 
 ships. Historians of high rank have a.sserted — but without sufficient 
 proof — that John Hampden and Oliver Cromwell were of the number 
 who were turned back by the detention. At all events, it would have 
 been the part of wisdom in King Charles to allow all Puritans to leave 
 his realm as fast as possible. By detaining them in England he only 
 made sure the Revolution, and by so nuich ha.steued his own downfall. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. 
 
 "VTEW ENGLAND was fast becoming a nation. Wellnigh fifty towns 
 -^^ and villages dotted the face of the country. Nearly a million of 
 dollars had been spent in settling and developing the new State. Enter- 
 prises of all kinds were rife. Manufactures, commerce and the arts were 
 rapidly introduced. William Stephens, a shipbuilder who came with 
 Go\ernor Winthrop to Boston, had already built and launched an Ameri- 
 can vessel of four hundred tons burden. Before 1640, two hundred and 
 ninety-eight emigrant ships had anchored in Massachusetts Bay. Twenty- 
 one thousand two hundred people, escaping from English intolerance of 
 Church or State, had found home and rest between Plymouth Rock and 
 the Connecticut valley. It is not wonderful that the colonists began to 
 ca.st about them for better political organization and more ample forms 
 of government. 
 
 Many circumstances impelled the colonies to union. First of all, 
 there was the natural desire of men to have a regular and permanent 
 government. England, torn and distracted with civil war, could do 
 nothing for or against her colonies; they must take care of themselves. 
 Here was the western frontier exposed to the hostilities of the Dutch 
 towns on the Hudson ; Connecticut alone could not defend herself. 
 Similar trouble was apprehended from the French on the north ; the 
 
134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 English settlements on the Piscataqua were weak and defenceless. In- 
 dian tribes capable of mastering a thousand warriors were likely at any 
 hour to fall upon remote and helpless villages ; the prevalence of common 
 interests and the necessities of common defence made a union of some sort 
 indispensable. 
 
 The first eifort to consolidate the colonies was ineffectual. Two 
 years later, in 1639, the project was renewed, but without succeas. 
 Again, iu 1G43, a measure of union was brought forward and finally 
 adopted. By the terms of this compact, Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con- 
 necticut and New Haven were joined iu a loose confederacy, called The 
 United Colonies of New England. The chief authority was con- 
 ferred upon a general assembly, or congress, composed of two representa- 
 tives from each colony. These delegates were chosen annually at an 
 election where all the freemen voted by ballot. There was no president 
 other than the speaker of tlie assembly, and he had no executive powei-s. 
 Each community retained, as before, its separate local existence ; and all 
 subordinate questions of legislation were reserved to the respective colo- 
 nies. Only matters of general interest^ — such as Indian affaii'S, the levy- 
 ing of troops, the raising of revenues, declarations of war and treaties of 
 peace — were submitted to the assembly. 
 
 Provision was made for the admission of other colonies into the 
 union, but none were ever admitted. The English settlement on the 
 Piscataqua was rejected because of heterodoxy in religion. The Provi- 
 dence Plantations were refused for similar reasons. Should Roger Wil- 
 liams return to plague an assembly where an approved church-member- 
 ship was the sole qualification for office? The little island of Rhode 
 Island, with its Jewish republic, also knocked for admission ; Anne 
 Hutchinson's commonwealth was informed that Plymouth colony had 
 rightful jurisdiction there, and tliat heresy was a bar to all petitions. 
 
 Until the year 1641 the people of Massachusetts had had no regular 
 code of laws. At a meeting of the assembly in December of this year, 
 Nathaniel Ward brought forward a written instrument which, after ma- 
 ture deliberation, was adopted as the constitution of the State. This 
 fundamental statute was called the Body of Liberties, and was ever 
 afterward esteemed as the great charter of colonial freedom. It may be 
 doubted whether any other primitive constitution, either ancient or 
 modern, contains more wisdom than this early code of Massachusetts. 
 
 A further modification in the government was effected in 1644. 
 Until this time the representatives of the people had sat and voted in the 
 same hall with the governor and his assistant magistrates. It was now 
 decreed that the two bodies should sit apart, each with its own officers 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. 135 
 
 and under its own management. By tliis measure the people's branch (if 
 the legislature was matle independent and of equal authority with the 
 governor's council. Thus stej) by step were the safeguards of liberty 
 establislicd and reirular forms of government secured. 
 
 The people of Massachusetts were little grieved on account of the 
 English Revolution. It was for them a vindication and a victory. The 
 triumj)]! of Parliament over King Charles was the triumph of Puritanism 
 both in England and America. Massachusetts had no cause to fear so 
 long as the House of Commons was crowded with her friends and patrons. 
 But in the hour of victory the American Puritans xshowed themselves 
 more magnanimous than those of the mother-country ; when Charles I., 
 the enemy of all colonial liberties, was brought to the block, the people 
 of New England, whose fathers had been exiled by his father, lamented 
 his tragic fate and preserved the memory of his virtues. 
 
 During the supremacy of the Long Parliament several acts were 
 passed which put in peril the interests of Massachusetts, but by a prudent 
 and far-sighted policy all evil results ^^■ere avoided. Powerful friends, 
 especially Sir Henry Vane, stood up in Parliament and defended the 
 colony against the intrigues of her enemies. Ambassadors, men of age 
 and experience, went often to London to plead for colonial rights. Soon 
 after the abolition of monarchy a statute was made whicli threatened for 
 a while the complete subversion of the new State. Massachusetts was in- 
 vited to surrender her charter, to receive a new instrument instead, and 
 to hold courts and issue writs in the name of Parliament. The measure 
 seemed fair enough, but the people of New England were too cautious to 
 stake their all on the fate of a Parliament whose power was already- 
 waning. The requisition -was never complied with. CroraM'ell did not 
 insist on the surrender ; no one else had power to enforce the act ; and 
 Massachusetts retained her charter. 
 
 Tlie Protector was the constant friend of the American colonies. 
 Even Virginia, though sligliting iiis authority, found him just as well as 
 severe. The people of New England were his special favorites. To them 
 he was bound by every tie of political and religious sympathy. For more 
 than ten years, when he might have been an oppressor, he continued the 
 benefactor, of the English in America. During his administration the 
 northern colonies were left in the full enjoyment of their coveted rights. 
 In connnerce, in the industry of private life, and especially in religion, 
 the people of Massachusetts were as free as the people of England. 
 
 In the year 1652, it was decreed by the general court at Boston 
 that the jurisdiction of tiie province extended as far north as three miles 
 above the most northerly waters of the river Merrimac. This declaration, 
 
136 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 which was in strirt accordance with the charter of the colony, was made 
 for the purpose of annexing ^Slaine to Massacliusetts. By this measure 
 the territory of the latter State was extended to Casco Bay. Settlements 
 had been made on the Piscataqua as early as 1626, but had not flourished. 
 Thirteen years later a royal charter Mas issued to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, 
 a member of the Council of Plymouth, who became propi-ietor of the 
 province. His cousin, Thomas Gorges, was made deputy-governor. A 
 high-sounding constitution, big enough for an emijire, was dra\\Ti up, and 
 the little village of Gorgeana, afterward York, became the capital of the 
 kingdom. Meanwhile, in 1630, the Plymouth Council had granted to 
 another corporation sixteen hundred square miles of the territory around 
 Casco Bay, and this claim had been purchased by Rigby, a republican 
 member of Parliament. Between his deputies and those of Gorges violent 
 disputes arose. The villagers of Maine, sympathizing with neither party, 
 and emulous of the growth and prosperity of the southern colonies, laid 
 their grievances before the court at Boston, and the annexation of the 
 province followed. 
 
 In July of 1656, the Quakers began to arrive at Boston. The 
 first who came were Ann Austin and Mary Fisher. The introduction of 
 the jilague would have occasioned less alarm. The two women were caught 
 and searched for marks of \vitchcraft, their trunks were broken ojjen, 
 their books were burned by the hangman, and they themselves thrown 
 into prison. After several weeks' confinement they were lirought forth 
 and banished from the colony. Before the end of the year eight others 
 had been arrested and sent back to England. The delegates of the union 
 were immediately convened, and a rigorous law was passed, excluding all 
 Quakers from the country. Whipping, the loss of one ear and banish- 
 ment were the penalties for the first offence ; after a second conviction the 
 other ear should be cut off; and should the criminal again return, his 
 tongue should be bored through with a red-hot iron. 
 
 In 1657, Ann Burden, who Imd come from London to preach 
 against persecution, was seized and beaten with twenty stripes. Others 
 came, were whipped and exiled. As the law became more cruel and 
 proscriptive, fresh \-ictims rushed forward to brave its terrors. The 
 assembly of the four colonies again convened, and advised the authorities 
 of Massachusetts to pronounce the penalty of death against the fanatical 
 disturbers of the public peace. When the resolutions embodying this ad- 
 vice was put before the assembly, to his everlasting honor, the younger 
 Winthrop, delegate from Connecticut, voted No ! Massachusetts ac- 
 cepted the views of the greater number, and the death-penalty was passed 
 by a majority of one vote. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— THE UNION. 137 
 
 In September of 1659, four persons were arrested and brought to 
 trial under this law. The prisoners were given the option of going into 
 exile or of being hanged. Two of them (Mary Dyar and Nicholas Davis) 
 chose banishment ; but the other two (Marmaduke Stephenson and Wil- 
 liam Robinson) stood firm, denounced the wickedness of the court, and 
 M-ere sentenced to death. Mary Dyar, in whom the love of martyrdom 
 had triumphed over fear, now returned, and was also condemned. On 
 the 27th of Octol>er the three were led forth to execution. The men 
 were hanged without mercy ; and the woman, after the rope had been 
 adjusted to her neck, Mas reprieved onl)- to be banished. She was con- 
 veyed beyond the limits of the colony, but immediately returned and was 
 executed. "William Leddra was next seized, tried and sentenced. As in 
 the ciise of the others, he was offered perpetual exile instead of death. 
 He refused, and was hanged. 
 
 Before the trial of Leddra was concluded, Wenlock Christison, 
 who had already been baiiislied, rushed into the court-room and began to 
 upbraid tlie judges for shedding the blood of the innocent. When put on 
 his second trial, he spoke boldly in his own defence; but the jury brought 
 in a verdict of guilty, and he was condemned to die. Others, eager for 
 the honor of martyrdom, came forward in crowds, and the jails were filled 
 with voluntary prisoners. But before the day arrived for Christison's exe- 
 cution, the public conscience was aroused; the law was repealed, the prison- 
 doors were opened, and Christison, with twenty-seven companions, came 
 forth free. The bloody reign of proscription had ended, but not until four 
 innocent enthusiasts had given their lives for liberty of conscience. 
 
 But let a veil be drawn over this sorrowful event. The history of 
 all times is full of scenes of violence and wrong. It could not be ex- 
 pected that an American colony, founded by exiles, pursued with malice 
 and beset with dangers, should be wholly exempt from the sliame of evil 
 deeds. The Puritans, established a religious rather than a civil common- 
 wealth ; whatever put the faith of the people in peril seemed to them 
 more to be dreaded than pestilence or death. To ward oif heresy, even 
 by destroying the heretic, seemed only a natural self-defence. A nobler 
 lesson has been learned in the light of better times. • 
 
 The English Eevolution had now run its course. Cromwell was 
 dead. The Commonwealth tottered and fell. Charles II. was restored to 
 the throne of his ancestors. Tidings of the Restoration reached Boston 
 on the 27th of July, 1660. In the same vessel that bore the news came 
 Edward Whalley and William Goife, two of the judges who had passed 
 sentence of death on Charles I. It was now their turn to save their lives 
 by flight. Governor Endicott received them with courtesy ; the agents- 
 
138 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the British government came in hot pursuit with orders to arrest 
 them. For a while the fugitives, aided by the people of Boston, baffled 
 the officers, aud then escaped to New Haven. Here for many weeks 
 they lay in concealment ; not even the Indians would accept the reward 
 which was offered for their apprehension. At last the exiles reached the 
 valley of the Counecticut aud found refuge at the village of Hadley, 
 where they passed the remainder of their lives. It was in October of this 
 same fatal year that Hugh Peters, the old friend of the colony, the father- 
 in-law of the younger Winthrop, was hanged at London. The noble Sir 
 Henry Vane was hunted down in Holland, surrendered to the English 
 government, condemned and beheaded. 
 
 Owing to the partiality of Cromwell, the restrictions on colonial 
 commerce which bore so heavily on Virginia were scarcely felt by Massa- 
 chusetts. On the restoration of monarchy a severer policy was at once 
 adopted. All vessels not bearing the English flag were forbidden to 
 enter the harbors of New England. A law of exportation was enacted 
 by which all articles produced in tlie colonies and demanded in England 
 should be shipped to England only. Such articles of American produc- 
 tion as the English merchants did not desire might be sold in any of the 
 ports of Europe. The law of importation Avas equally odious ; such 
 articles as were produced in England should not be manufactured in 
 America, and should be bought from England only. Free trade between 
 the colonies was forbidden ; and a duty of five per cent., levied for the 
 benefit of the English king, was put on both exports and imports. 
 Human ingenuity could hai-dly have invented a set of measures better 
 calculated to jjroduce an American Revolution. 
 
 In 1G64, war brcjke out between England and Holland. It became 
 a part of the English military plans to reduce the Dutch settlements on 
 the Hudson ; and for this purpose a fleet was sent to America. But there 
 was another jjurpose also. Charles II. was anxious to obtain control of 
 the Xew England colonies, that he might govern them according to the 
 principles of arbitrary power. The chief obstacle to this undertaking 
 was tlie charter of INIassachasetts — an instrument gpiven under the g;rcat 
 seal of England, and not easily revoked. To accomplish the same end by 
 other means was now the object of the king ; and with this end in view 
 four commissioners were appointed with instructions to go to America, to 
 sit in judgment up9n all matters of complaint that might arise in New 
 England, to settle colonial disputes, and to take such other measures as 
 might seem most likely to establish peace and good order in the country. 
 The royal commissioners embarked in the British fleet, and in July ar- 
 rived at Boston. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— KING PHILIP'S WAR. 139 
 
 They were not wanted at Boston. Tlie people of Massachusetts 
 knew very well that the establishment of this supreme judgeship in their 
 midst was a flagrant violation of their chartered right of self-government. 
 Before the commissioners landed the patent was put into the hands of a 
 conmiittee for safe keeping. A decree of the general court forbade the 
 citizens to answer any summons issued by the royal judges. A powerful 
 letter, full of loyalty and manly protests, was sent directly to the king. 
 The commissioners became disgusted with the treatment which they re- 
 ceived at the hands of the refractory colony, and repaired to Maine and 
 New Hampshire. Here they were met with some marks of fa\or ; Init 
 their official acts were disregarded and soon forgotten. In Hhode Island 
 the judges were received with great respect, and their decisions accepted 
 as the decisions of the king. The towns of Connecticut were next 
 visited ; but the people were cold and indifferent, and the conmiissioners 
 retired. Meanwhile, the English monarch, learning how his grand judges 
 had been treated, sent a message of recall, and before the end of the year 
 they gladly left the country. After a gallant fight, INIassachasetts had 
 preserved her liberties. Left in the peaceable enjoyment of her civil 
 rights, she entered upon a new career of prosperity which, for a period 
 of ten years, was marked with no calamity. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.— KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 MASSASOIT, the old sachem of the Wampanoags, died in 1662. For 
 forty-one years he had faithfully kept the treaty made by himself 
 Avith the first settlers at Plymouth. His elder son, Alexander, now be- 
 came chief of the nation, but died within the year; and the chieftainship 
 descended to the younger brother, Philip of Mount Hope. It was 
 the fate of this brave and able man to lead his people in a final and hope- 
 less struggle against the supremacy of the whites. Causes of war had 
 existed for many years, and the time had come for the conflict. 
 
 The unwary natives of New England had sold their lands. The 
 English were the purchasers ; the chiefs had signed the deeds ; the price 
 had been fairly paid. Year Iw year the territory of the tribes had nar- 
 rowed ; the old men died, but the deeds i-emained and the lands could 
 not be recovered. There were at this time in the country east of the 
 
140 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hudson not more than twenfy-five thousand Indians; the English had 
 increased to fully twice that number. A new generation had arisen who 
 cuuld not understand the validity of the old titles. The young warriors 
 sighed for the freedom of their fathers' hunting-grounds. They looked 
 with ever-increasing jealousy on the growth of English villages and the 
 sjoread of English farm;^. The ring of the foreigner's axe had scared the 
 game out of the forest, and the foreigner's net had scooped the fishes from 
 the red man's river. Of all their ancient domain, the Wampanoags had 
 nothing left but the two narrow peninsulas of Bristol and Tiverton, on 
 the eastern coast of Narragansett Bay. 
 
 There were personal grievances also. Wiiile Alexander lived he 
 Iiad been arrested, tried by an English jury and imprisoned. He had 
 caught his death-fever in a Boston jail. Another chieftain Mas appre- 
 hended in a similar way ; and then tlie Indian witness who ap})eared at 
 the trial was murdered for giving testimony. The perpetrators of this 
 crime were seized by tiie English, convicted and hanged. Perhaps King 
 Philip, if left to himself, would have still sought peace. He was not a 
 rash man, and clearly foresaw the inevitable issue of the struggle. He 
 hesitated, and was affected with great grief when the news came tiiat an 
 Englishman had been killed. But the young men of the tribe were 
 thirsting for bloody revenge, and could no longer be restrained. The 
 women and children were hastily sent across the bay and put under the 
 
 _ protection of Canonehet, king of tlie 
 Narragansetts. On the 24th of June, 
 
 
 ,\ 
 
 
 .^>S\W^«S-^c.| 
 
 1675, the village of Swanzey was 
 attacked ; eight Englishmen were 
 killed; and the alarm of war sound- 
 ed through the colonies. 
 
 Within a week the militia of 
 Plymouth, joined by volunteer com- 
 panies from Boston, entered the 
 enemy's country. A few Indians 
 were overtaken and killed. The 
 troops marched into the ])eninsula 
 of Bristol, reached IMount Hope, 
 and compelled Pliilip to fly for his 
 life. With a band of fugitives 
 numbering five or six hundred, he 
 escaped to Tiverton, on the eastern side of the bay. Here, a few days 
 afterward, they were attacked ; but lying concealed in a swamp, they beat 
 back their assailants with considerable loss. The place was tlien sur- 
 
 FIRST SCENE OF KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— KIAG PHILIP S WAR. 
 
 141 
 
 rciunded and be.sieged for two weeks ; but Philip aud his men, wlieu 
 brought to the point of starvation, managed to escape ia the night, crossed 
 the bay and fled to the country of the Nipmucks, in Central Massa- 
 chusetts. Here the king and his warriors became the hei-alds of a areneral 
 war. The slumbering hatred of the savages \vas easily kindled into open 
 hostility. For a whole year the scattered settlements of the frontier be- 
 came a scene of Ijurning, massacre and desolation. 
 
 After Philip'.s flight from Tiverton, the English forces marched 
 into the country of the Narragan.setts. Here the Avomen and children of 
 the Wampauoags had been received and sheltered. The wavering Canou- 
 chet was given his choice of peace or war. He cowered before the Eng- 
 lish muskets and signed a treaty, agreeing that his nation should observe 
 neutrality and deliver up all fugitives from the hostile tribe. Still, it 
 was only a Cjuestion of time when the Xarragansetts would break their 
 covenant and espouse the cause of Philip. 
 
 The war was now transferred to the Connecticut valley. It had 
 been hoped that the Nipmucks would remain loyal to the English ; but 
 the influence of the exiled chieftain prevailed with them to take up arms. 
 As usual with savages, treachery was added to hos- 
 tility. Captains Wheeler and Hutchinson, with a 
 company of twenty men, were sent to l^rookfield to 
 hold a conference with ambassadors from the Nip- 
 muck nation. Instead of preparing for the council, 
 the Indians laid an ambush near tlie village, and 
 when the English were well surrounded, fired upon 
 them, killing nearly the whole company. A few 
 survivors, escaping to the settlement, gave the alarm, 
 and the people fled to their block-house just in 
 time to save their lives. 
 
 For two days the place was assailed with every 
 missile that savage ingenuity could invent. Finally, 
 the house was fired with burning arrows, and the 
 destruction of all seemed certain ; but just as the roof 
 began to blaze, the friendly clouds poured down a shower of rain, and 
 the flames were extinguished. Then came reinforcements from Spring- 
 field, and the Indians fled. The peo])le of Brookfield now aliandoned 
 their homes and sought refuge in the towns along the river. On the 
 26th of August, a battle was fou2;ht in the outskirts of Deerfield. The 
 whites were successful ; but a few days afterward the savages succeeded 
 in firing the village, and the greater part of it was burned to the ground. 
 A storehouse containing the recently-gathered harvests was saved, and 
 
 SECOND SCENE OF 
 KING PHILIP'S WAK. 
 
142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Captain Latiirop, with a company of eighty picked men, undertook the 
 dangerous task of removing the stores to Hadley. A train of wagons, 
 loaded with wheat and corn and guarded by the soldiers, left Deerfield on 
 the 18th of Septembei', and had proceeded five miles, when they we're 
 suddenly surrounded by eight hundred Indians who lay in ambush at 
 the ford of a small creek. The whites fought desperatelj^, and were 
 killed almost to a man. Meanwhile, Captain Mosely, at the head of 
 seventy militia, arrived, and the battle continued, the English retreating 
 until they were reinforced by a band of a hundred and sixty English and 
 Mohegans. The savages were then beaten back with heav}' losses. The 
 little stream where this fatal engagement occurred, was henceforth called 
 Bloody Brook. 
 
 On the same day of the burning of Deerfield, Hadley was attacked 
 while the people were at church. Everything was in confusion, and tiie 
 barbarians had already begun their work of butchery, when the gi'ay- 
 haii-ed General Goife, who was concealed in the village, rushed forth from 
 his covert, and by rallying and directing the flying peojile saved them 
 from destruction. After the Indians had been driven into the woods, the 
 aged veteran went back to his hiding-place, and was seen no more. Late 
 in the autumn, a battle was fought at Springfield ; the town was assaulted 
 and most of the dwellings burned. Another attack was made on Hadley, 
 and a large part of the village was left in ashes. Hatfield was the next 
 object of savage vengeance ; but here the English were found prepared, 
 and tiie Indians were repulsed with hea\'y losses. The farms and the 
 weaker settlements ^^■ere now abandoned, and the people sought shelter in 
 the stronger towns near the river. 
 
 Philip, finding that he could do no further harm on the northern 
 frontier, gathered his warriors together and repaired to the Narragansetts. 
 By receiving them, Canonchet openly violated his treaty with the Eng- 
 lish, but to refuse them was contrary to the savage virtues of his race. 
 To share the dubious fate of Philip was preferred to the longer con- 
 tinuance of a hateful alliance with foreisruers. The authorities of ]\Lissa- 
 chusetts immediately declared war against the Narragansett nation, and 
 Rhode Island was invaded by a thousand men under command of Colonel 
 Josiah Winslow. It was the determination to crush the Wanijianoags 
 and the Narragansetts at one blow ; the manner of defence adopted by 
 the savages favored such an undertaking. In the middle of an immense 
 cedar swamp, a short distance south-west of Kingston, in the county of 
 Washington, the Indians collected to the number of three thousand, 
 [nto this place was gathered the whole wealth of tlie Narragansett nation. 
 A village of wigwams extended over several acres of land that rose out 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— KI^^G PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 143 
 
 of the surrounding morasses. A fort was built on the island, and fortified 
 with a palisade and a breastwork of felled timber. Here the savages be- 
 lieved themselves secure from assault. The English regiment arrived at 
 the s^vamp at daybreak on the 19th of December, and struggling through 
 the bogs, reached the f(n't at noonday. Tlie attack was made imme- 
 diately. The only entrance to the camp was by means of a fallen tree 
 that lay from an opening in the palisade to the opposite bank of a pond. 
 Over this hazardous passage a brave 
 few sprang forward, but were in- 
 stantly swept off by the fire of the 
 Indians. Another company, made 
 cautious by the fate of their com- 
 rades, crept around the defences, un- 
 til, finding a point unguarded, they 
 
 charo-ed straight into the enclosure. 
 
 
 THIRD SCENE OF KINU PHILIP .S WAR. 
 
 The work of death and destruction 
 now began in earnest. The wigwams 
 were set on fire, and the kindling 
 
 flames swept around the village. The yells of the combatants mingled 
 -with the roar of the conflagration. But the superior discipline and 
 valor of the whites soon decided the battle. The Indians, attempting 
 to escape from the burning fort, ran everywhere upon the loaded muskets 
 of the English. A thousand wan-iors were killed and himdreds more 
 were captured. Xearly all the wounded perished in the flames. There, 
 too, the old men, the women and babes of the nation met the horrore 
 of death by fire. The j^ride of the Narragausetts had perished in a day. 
 But the victory was dearly purchased ; eighty English soldiers, including 
 six captains of the regiment, were killed, and a hundred and fifty others 
 were wounded. 
 
 A few of the savages, breaking through the English lines, escaped. 
 Led by Philip, they again repaired to the Nipmuclcs, and with the open- 
 ing of spring the war was renewed with more violence than ever. As 
 their fortunes declined the Indians grew desperate ; they had nothing 
 more to lose. Around three hundred miles of frontier, extending from 
 Maine to the mouth of the Connecticut, there was massacre and devasta- 
 tion. Lancaster, Medfield, Groton and Marlborough were laid in ashes. 
 Weymouth, within twenty miles of Boston, met the same fate. Every- 
 where were seen the traces of rapine and murder. 
 
 But the end was near at hand. The resources of the savages were 
 "wasted, and their numbers grew daily less. In April, Canonchet was 
 overtaken and captured on the banks of the Blackstone. He was offered 
 
144 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his life if lie would procure a treaty of peace ; but the haughty ehieftaiu 
 rejected the proposal with disdain, aud was put to death. Philip was still 
 at large, but his company had dwindled to a handful. In the early sum- 
 mer, his wife and son were made prisoners ; the latter was sold as a slave, 
 and ended his life under the lash of a taskmaster in the Bermudas. The 
 savage monarch was heartbroken now, and cared no longer for hLs life. 
 Repairing secretly to his old home at Mount Hope, his jilace of conceal- 
 ment was revealed to the whites. A company of soldiers was sent to sur- 
 round him. A treacherous Indian guided the party to the sj^ot, and then 
 himself, stealing nearer, took a deadly aim at the breast of his chieftain. 
 The report of a musket rang through the forest, and the painted king 
 of the Wampanoags sprang forward and fell dead. 
 
 New England suffered terribly in this war. The expenses and 
 losses of the war amounted to fully five hundred thousand dollars. 
 Thirteen towns and six hundred dwellings lay smouldering in ashes. 
 Almost every family had heard the war-whooj) of the savages. Six 
 hundred men, the flower and pride of the country, had fallen in the field. 
 Hundreds of families had been butchered in cold blood. Gray-haired 
 sire, mother and babe had sunk together under the vengeful blow of the 
 red man's gory tomahawk. Now there was peace again. The Indian 
 race was swept out of New England. The tribes beyond the Connecticut 
 came humbly submissive, and pleaded for their lives. The colonists re- 
 turned to their desolated farms and villages to build new homes in the 
 ashes of old ruins. 
 
 The echo of King Philip's war had hardly died away before the 
 country was involved in troubles of a different sort. It had been ex- 
 pected that the English government would do something to repair the 
 heavy losses which the colonists had sustained ; but not so. Instead of 
 help came Edward Randolph, a royal emissary, with authority to collect 
 duties and abridge colonial liberties. Governor Leverett received him 
 coldly, and told him in plain words that not even the king could right- 
 fiilly restrict the freedom of his American subjects; that the people of the 
 colonies had finished the Indian war without a cent of ex2)ense to the 
 English treasury, and that they were now fairly entitled to the enjoyment 
 of tlieir chartered rights. After a six weeks' sojourn at Boston, Randolj)h 
 sailed back to London, bearing to the ministry an exaggerated account 
 of colonial arrogance. The king was already scheming to revoke all the 
 New England charters ; Randolph's reception furnished a further pretext 
 for such a course of action. 
 
 The next trouble was concerning the jurisdiction of Maine. Sir 
 Ferdinand Gorges, the old proprietor of that province, was now dead; 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— KING PHILIP'S WAR. 145 
 
 but his heirs had never relinquished tlieir claims to the territory. The 
 people of Maine had meanwhile put themselves under the authority of 
 Massachusetts ; but the representatives of Gorges carried the matter before 
 the privy council, and in 1677 a decision wius rendered in their favor. 
 Thereupon the Boston government made a proposition to the Gorges 
 family to purchase their claims ; the proposition was accepted, and on the 
 6th t)f jMay the heirs signed a deed by which, in consideration of twelve 
 hundred and litty pounds sterling, the soil and jurisdiction of the province 
 were transferred to Massachusetts. 
 
 A similar difficulty arose in regard to New Hampshire. As far 
 back as 1622 the Plymouth council had granted this territory to two of 
 their own number — Gorges, just mentioned, and Captain John Mason. 
 Seven years after the grant was made. Gorges surrendered his claim to 
 Mason, who thus became sole proprietor. But this territory was also 
 covered by the charter of Massachusetts. Mason died ; and now, in 1679, 
 his son Robert came forward and claimed the province. This cause was 
 also taken before the ministers, who decided that the title of the younger 
 Mason was valid. To the great disappointment of the people of both 
 provinces, the two governments were arbitrarily separated. The king's 
 policy was now made manifest. A royal government, the first in New 
 England, was immediately established over New Hampshire; Mason 
 nominated Edward Cranfield as governor, the king confirmed the ap- 
 pointment, and received in return one-fifth of all the rents. 
 
 But the people took care that the rents should not amount to much. 
 They refused to recognize Craufield's commission, and thwarted his plans 
 in every way possible. Being in despair, he wrote to the English govern- 
 ment that he would esteem it the greatest ha2)piness to return home and 
 leave the unreasonable people of New Hampshire to themselves. The 
 king attriliutcd all this trouble to the influence of Massachusetts. He 
 could not forget how that commonwealth had treated his custom-house 
 officer Randolph. The hostility of the English government to the exist- 
 ing order of things in New England became more bitter than ever. To 
 carry out his plan of subverting the colonial governments, the king 
 directed his judges to make an inquiry as to whether JMassachusetts had 
 not forfeited her charter. The proceedings were protracted until tlie 
 summer of 1684, when the royal court gave a decision in accordance with 
 the monarch's wishes. The patent was forfeited, said the judges ; and 
 the English crown might justly assume entire control of the colony. The 
 plan of the king was thus on the point of realization, but the shadow of 
 death was already at his, door. On the 6th of February, 1685, his evil 
 reign of twenty-five years ended with his life. 
 
146 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The new sovereign, James II., immediately adopted his brother's 
 colonial policy. In the next year after his accession, the scheme so long 
 entertained was successfully carried out. The charter of Massachusetts 
 was formally revoked ; all the colonies between Nova Scotia and Narra- 
 gansett Bay were consolidated, and Joseph Dudley appointed president. 
 New England was not prepared for open resistance ; the colonial assembly 
 was dissolved by its own act, and the members returned sullenly to their 
 homes. In the winter following, Dudley wa.s superseded by Sir Edmund 
 Andros, who had been appointed royal governor of all New England. 
 His commission ought to have been entitled An Article for the 
 Destruction op Colonial Liberty. If James II. had searched his 
 kingdom, he could hardly have found a tool better fitted to do his will. 
 The scarlet-coated despot landed at Boston on the 20th of December, and 
 at once began the work of demolishing the cherished institutions of the 
 people. Randolph was made chief secretary and censor of the press; 
 nothing might be printed without his sanction. Popular representation 
 was abolished. Voting by ballot was prohibited. Town meetings were 
 forbidden. The Church of England was openly encouraged. The public 
 schools were allowed to go to ruin. Men were arrested without warrant 
 of law ; and when as prisoners they arose in court to plead the privileges 
 of the great English charter which had stood unquestioned for four hun- 
 dred and fifty years, they were told that the Great Charter was not made 
 for the perverse people of America. Dudley, who had been continued in 
 office as chief-justice, was in the habit of saying to his packed juries, at 
 the close of each trial : " Now, worthy gentlemen, we expect a good ver- 
 dict from you to-day ;" and the verdicts were rendered accordingly. 
 
 Thus did Massachusetts lose her liberty ; and Plymouth fared no 
 better. If the stronger colony fell prostrate, what could the weaker do ? 
 The despotism of Andros was quickly extended from Cape Cod Bay to 
 the Piscataqua. New Hampshire was next invaded and her civil rights 
 completely overthrown. Rhode Island suffered the same calamity. In 
 May of 1686 her charter was taken away with a writ, and her constitu- 
 tional rights subverted. Some of the colonists brought forwoi'd Indian 
 deeds for their lands; the royal judges replied, with a sneer, that the sig- 
 nature of Massasoit was not worth as much as the scratch of a bear's paw. 
 The seal of Rhode Island was broken, and an irresponsible council ap- 
 pointed to conduct the government. Attended by an armed guard, A ndros 
 proceeded to Connecticut. Arriving at Hartford in October of 1687, he 
 found the assembly of the province in session, and demanded the surren- 
 der of the colonial charter. The instrument Avas brought in and laid upon 
 the table. A spirited debate ensued, and continued until evening. When 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 147 
 
 it "was about to be decided that the charter should be given up, the lamps 
 were suddenly dashed out. Other lights were brought in ; but the char- 
 ter had disappeared. Joseph Wadsworth, snatching up the precious 
 parchment, bore it olf through the darkness and concealed it in a hollow 
 tree, ever afterward remembered with afleetion as The Charter Oak. 
 But the assembly was overawed and the free government of Connecticut 
 subverted. Thus was the authority of Andros established throughout 
 the countr}'. The people gave vent to their feelings by calling him The 
 Tyrant of New England. 
 
 But his dominion ended suddenly. The English Revolution of 
 1688 was at hand. James II. was driven fi'om his throne and kingdom. 
 The entire system of arbitrary rule which that monarch had established 
 fell with a crash, and Andros with the rest. The news of the revolution 
 and of the accession of William and ]\Iary reached Boston on the 4th of 
 April, 1689. A few days afterward, the governor had occasion to M'rite 
 a note to his colonel of militia, telling him to keep the soldiers under 
 arms, as there was "a general buzzing among the people." On the 18th 
 of the month, the citizens of Charlestown and Boston rose in open rebel- 
 lion. Andros and his minions, attempting to escape, were seized and 
 marched to prison. The insurrection spread through the country; and 
 before the 10th of May every colony in New England had restored its 
 former liberties. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.— WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 
 
 IN 1689, ^^•ar was declared between France and England. This con- 
 flict, known in American history as King William's War, grew 
 out of the English Revolution of the preceding year. When James II. 
 escaped Irom his kingdom, he found refuge at the court of Louis XIV. 
 of France. The two monarchs were both Catholics, and both held the 
 same despotic theory of government. On this account, and from other 
 considerations, an alliance was made between them, by the terms of \\hich 
 Louis agreed to support James in his eiFort to recover the English throne. 
 Parliament, meanwhile, had settled the crown on William of Orange. 
 By these means the new sovereign was brought into conflict not only 
 with the exiled James, but also with his confederate, the king of France, 
 
148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The war which thus originated in Europe soon extended to the American 
 colonies of the two nations ; New England and Xew France entered the 
 conflict under the flags of their respective countries. 
 
 The struggle began on the north-eastern frontier of New Hamp- 
 shire. On the 27th of June, a party of Indians in alliance with the 
 French made an attack on Dover. The venerable magistrate of the 
 town, Richard Waldron, now eighty years of age, was inhumanly mur- 
 dered. Twenty-three others were killed, and twenty-nine dragged off 
 captive into the wilderness. 
 
 In August a war-party of a hundred Abenakis embarked in a fleet 
 of canoes, floated out of the mouth of the Penobscot, and steered down 
 the coast to Peraaquid, now Bremen. The inhabitants were taken by 
 surprise ; a company of farmers were surrounded in the harvest-field and 
 murdered. The fort was besieged for two days and compelled to sur- 
 render. A few of the people escaped into the woods, but the greater 
 number were killed or carried away captive. A month later an alliance 
 was effected between the English and the powerful Mohawks west of the 
 Hudson ; but the Indians refused to make war upon their countrymen of 
 Maine. The Dutch settlements of New Netherland, having now passed 
 under the dominion of England, made common cause against the French. 
 
 In January of 1(590 a regiment of French and Indians left Montreal 
 and directed their march to the south. Crossing the Mohawk River, they 
 arrived on the 8th of February at the village of Schenectady. Lying 
 concealed in the forest until midnight, they stole through the unguarded 
 gates, raised the war-whoop and began the work of death. The town was 
 soon in flames. Sixty people were killed and scalped ; the rest, escaping 
 half clad into the darkness, ran sixteen miles through the snow to Albany. 
 The settlement of Salmon Falls, on the Piscataqua, was next attacked and 
 destroyed by a war-party led by the Frenchman Hertel. Joining another 
 company from Quebec, under command of Portneuf, the savages pro- 
 ceeded against the colony at Casco Bay. The English fort at that place 
 was taken and the settlements broken up. Thus far the fortunes of the 
 war had been wholly on the side of the French and their allies. 
 
 But New England was now thoroughly aroused. In order to pro- 
 vide the ways and means of war, a colonial congress was convened at New 
 York. Here it was resolved to attempt the conquest of Canada by march- 
 ing an army by way of Lake Chaniplain against Montreal. At the same 
 time, Massachusetts was to co-operate with the land forces by sending a 
 fleet by way of the St. Lawrence for the reduction of Quebec. Thirty- 
 four vessels, carrying two thoasand troops, were accordingly fitted out, and 
 the command given to Sir William Phipps. Proceeding first against Port 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 149 
 
 Royal, lie compelled a surrender; the whole of Xova Scotia submitted 
 without a struggle. If" tlie commander had sailed at ouce against Quebec, 
 that place too would have been forced to capitulate ; but vexatious delays 
 retarded the expedition until the middle of October. Meanwhile, an 
 Abenaki Indian had carried the ncM's of the coming armament to Froute- 
 nac, governor of Canada ; and \\hcn the fleet came in sight of the town, 
 the castle of St. Louis wa.s so well garrisoned and provisioned as to bid 
 defiance to the English forces. Tiie opportunity was lost, and it only 
 remained for Phipps to sail back to Boston. To meet the expenses of 
 this unfortunate expedition, jNIassaehusetts was obliged to issue bills of 
 credit which were made a legal tender in the payment of debt. Such 
 wtis the origin of paper money in America. 
 
 Meanwhile, the land forces had proceeded from Albany as far as 
 Lake Chamj)laiu. Here dissensions arose among the commanders. 
 Colonel LeLsler of New York charged Winthrop of Connecticut with 
 treachery ; and the charge was retui-ned that Leisler's commissary had 
 furnished no supplies for the Connecticut soldiers. The quarrel became 
 so violent that the expedition had to be abandoned, and the troops 
 marched gloomily homeward. The great campaigu had I'csulted in com- 
 plete humiliation. 
 
 Sir ^^'illianl Phipps had as little success in civil matters as in the 
 command of a fleet. Shortly after his return from Quebec he was sent as 
 anibai^sador to England. The objects of his mission were, in the first 
 place, to procure aid from the English government in the further prose- 
 cution of the war ; and secondly, to secure, if possible, a reissue of the old 
 colonial charter. To the first of these requests the ministers replied that 
 the armies and navies of England could not be spared to take part in 
 a petty Indian war ; and the second was met with coldness and refusal. 
 King William was secretly opposed to the liberal provisions of the former 
 charter, and looked with disfavor on the project of renewing it. It is 
 even doubtful whether Phipps himself desired the restoration of the old 
 patent; for when he returned to Boston in the spring of 1692, he bore a 
 new instrument from the king, and a commission as roj-al governor of the 
 IH-osincc. By the terms of this new constitution, Plymouth, Maine and 
 Nova Scotia were consolidated with Massachusetts; while New Hamp- 
 shire, against the protests and petitions of her people, was forcibly sepa- 
 rated from the mother colony. 
 
 The war still continued, but M-ithout decisive results. In 169-4, the 
 village of Oyster River, now Durham, was destroyed bj^ a band of savages 
 led by the French captain Villieu. The inhabitants, to the number of 
 ninety-four, M'ere either killed or carried into captivitJ^ Two years later 
 
150 HISTORY OF TEE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the English fortress at Pemaquid was a second time surrendered to the 
 French and Indians, under command of Baron Castin. The captives 
 were sent to Boston and exchanged for prisoners in the hands of the 
 English. In the following Mai'ch, the town of Haverhill, on the Merri- 
 mac, was captured under circumstances of special atrocity. Nearly forty 
 persons were butchered in cold blood ; only a few were spared for cap- 
 tivity. Among the latter was Mrs. Hannah Dustin. Her child, only 
 a week old, was snatched out of her arms and dashed against a tree. The 
 heartbroken mother, with her nurse and a lad named Leonardson, from 
 Worcester, was taken by the savages to an island in the Merrimac, a short 
 distance above Concord. Here, while their captors, twelve in number, 
 were asleep at night, the three prisoners arose, silently armed themselves 
 with tomahawks, and with one deadly blow after another crushed in the 
 temjiles of the sleeping savages, until ten of them lay still in death; 
 then, embarking in a canoe, the captives dropped doAvn the river and 
 reached the English settlement in safety. Mrs. Dustin carried home with 
 her the gun and tomahawk of the savage who had destroyed her family, 
 and a bag containing the scalps of her neighbors. It is not often that the 
 mother of a murdered babe has found such ample vengeance. 
 
 But the war was already at an end. Early in 1697, commissioners 
 of France and England assembled at the town of Ryswick, in Holland ; 
 and on the 10th of the following September, a treaty of peace was con- 
 cluded. King William was acknowledged as the rightful sovereign of 
 England, and the colonial boundary-lines of the two nations in America 
 were established as before. 
 
 Massachusetts had in the mean time been visited with a worse 
 calamity than war. The darkest page in the history of New England is 
 that which bears the record of the Salem Witchcraft. The same 
 town which fifty-seven years previously had cast out Roger Williams was 
 now to become the scene of the most fatal delusion of modern times. In 
 February of 1692, in that part of Salem afterward called Danvers, a 
 daughter and a niece of Samuel Parris, the minister, were attacked with 
 a nervous disorder which rendered them partially insane. Parris be- 
 lieved, or affected to believe, that the two girls were bewitched, and that 
 Tituba, an Indian maid-servant of the household, wa.s the author of the 
 affliction. He had seen her performing some of the rude ceremonies of 
 her own religion, and this gave color to his suspicions. He tied Tituba, 
 and whipped the ignorant creature until, at his own dictation, she con- 
 fessed hei'self a witch. Here, no doubt, the matter would have ended 
 had not other causes existed for the continuance and spread of the miser- 
 able delusion. 
 
3IASSACHUSETTS.~WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. 151 
 
 But Parris liad had a quarrel in his church. A part of tlie congre- 
 gation desired that George Burrouglis, a former minister, should be rein- 
 stated, to the exclusion of Parris. Burroughs still lived at Salem ; and 
 there was great animosity between the partisans of the former and the 
 present pastor. Burroughs disbelieved in witchcraft, and openly ex- 
 pressed his contempt of the system. Here, then, Parris found an oppor- 
 tunity to turn the confessions of the foolish Indian servant against his 
 enemies, to overwhelm his rival with the superstitions of the community, 
 and perhaps to have him put to death. There is no doubt whatever that 
 the whole raurderoas scheme originated in the personal malice of Parris. 
 
 But there were others ready to aid him. First among these was 
 the celebrated Cotton Mather, minister of Boston. He, being in high re- 
 pute for wisdom, had recently preached much on the subject of witchcraft, 
 teaching the people that witches were dangerous and ought to be put to 
 death. He tlius became the natural confederate of Parris, and the chief 
 author of the terrible scenes that ensued. Sir William Phipps, the royal 
 governor, who had just arrived from England, was a member of Mather's 
 church. Increase Mather, the father of Cotton, had nominated Phipps to 
 his present office. Stoughton, the deputy-governor, who was appointed 
 judge and presided at the trials of the M'itches, Mas the tool of Parris and 
 the two Mathers. To these men, more especially to Parris and Mather, 
 must be charged the full infamy of what followed. 
 
 By the laws of England witchcraft was punishable with deatli. 
 The code of Massachusetts was the same as that of the mother-country. 
 In the early history of the colony, one person charged with being a 
 wizard had been arrested at Charlestown, convicted and executed. But 
 with the progress and enlightenment of the people, many had grown bold 
 enough to denounce and despise the baleful superstition. Something, 
 therefore, had to be done to save the tottering fabric of witchcraft from 
 falling into contempt. A sjiecial court M'as accordingly appointed by 
 Governor Phipps to go to Salem and to sit in judgment on the persons 
 accused by Parris. Stoughton was the presiding judge, Parris himself 
 the prosecutor, and Cotton IMather a kind of bishop to decide when the 
 testimony was sufficient to condemn. 
 
 On the 21st of March, the horrible proceedings began. ]\Iary Cory 
 was arrested, not indeed for being a witch, but for denying the reality of 
 witchcraft. When brought before the church and court, she denied all 
 guilt, but was convicted and hurried to prison. Sarah Cloyee and 
 Rebecca Nurse, two sisters of the most exemplary lives, were next appre- 
 hended as witches. The only M'itnesses against them were Tituba, her half- 
 witted Indian husband and the simple girl Abigail Williams, the niece 
 
152 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of Parris. The victims were sent to prison, protesting their innocence. 
 Giles Cory, a patriarch of eighty years, was next seized ; he also was one 
 of those who had opposed Parris. The Indian accuser fell down before 
 Edward Bisliop, pretending to be in a fit under satanic influence; the 
 sturdy farmer cured him instantly with a sound flogging, and said that 
 he could restore the rest of the afflicted in the same manner. He and his 
 wife were immediately arrested and condcnnied. George Burroughs, the 
 rival of Parris, was accused and hurried to prison. And so the work 
 went on, until seventy-five innocent people were locked up in dungeons. 
 Jfot a solitary partisan of Parris or Mather had been arrested. 
 
 In the hope of saving their lives, some of the terrified prisoners 
 now began to confess themselves witches, or bewitched. It was soon 
 found that a confession was almost certain to procure liberation. It be- 
 came evident that the accused were to be put to death, not for being 
 witches or wizards, but for denying the reality of witchcraft. The special 
 court was already in session ; convictions followed fast ; the gallows stood 
 waiting for its victims. The truth of Mather's preaching was to be estali- 
 lished by hanging whoever denied it ; and Parris was to save his pastorate 
 by murdering his rival. When the noble Burroughs mounted the scaffold, 
 he stood composedly and repeated correctly the test-prayer which it was 
 said no wizard could utter. The people broke into sobs and moans, and 
 would have rescued their friend from death ; but the tyrant ]\Iather dashed 
 amf)ng them on horseback, muttering imjirecations, and drove the hang- 
 man to his horrid work. Old Giles Cory, seeing that conviction \vas cer- 
 tain, refused to plead, and was pressed to death. Five women were hanged 
 in one day. Between the 10th of June and the 22d of September, twenty 
 victims were hurried to their doom. Fifty-five others had been tortured 
 into the confession of abominable falsehoods. A hundred and fifty lay in 
 prison awaiting their fate. Two hundred were accused or suspected, and 
 ruin seemed to impend over New England. But a reaction at last set in 
 among the people. Notwithstanding the vociferous clamor and denuncia- 
 tions of Mather, the witch tribunals were overthrown. The rej)rcsentative 
 assembly convened early in October, and the hated court which Phipps 
 had appointed to sit at Salem was at once dismissed. The spell was dis- 
 solved. The thralldom of the popular mind was broken. Reason shook 
 ofi" the terror that had oppressed it. The prison doors were opened, and 
 the victims of malice and superstition went forth free. In the beginning 
 of the next year a few persons charged with witchcraft were again 
 arraigned and brought before the courts. Some were even convicted, but 
 the conviction went for nothing ; not another life was sacrificed to passion 
 and fanaticism. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 153 
 
 Most of those who had participated in tlie terrible deeds of the 
 preceding summer confessed the great wrong which they had done ; but 
 confessions could not restore the dead. The bigoted Mather, in a vain 
 attempt to justify himself before the world, MTote a treatise in which he 
 expressed his great thankfulness that so many witches had met their just 
 doom. It is not the least humiliating circumstance of this sad business 
 that Mather's hypocritical and impudent book received the approbation 
 of the president of Harvard College. In all this there is to the American 
 student one consoling reflection — the pages of his country's history will 
 never again be blotted with so dark a stain. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 
 
 THE peace which Ibllowed the treaty of Ryswick was of short dura- 
 tion. Within less than four j'oars France and England were again 
 involved in a conflict which, beginning in Europe, soon extended to the 
 American colonies. In the year 1700, Charles II., king of Spain, died, 
 having named as his successor Philiji of Anjou, a grandson of Louis 
 XIV. This measure pointed clearly to a union of the crowns of France 
 and Spain. The jealousy of all Europe was aroused ; a league was 
 formed between England, Holland and Austria; the archduke Charles 
 of the latter country was put forward by the allied powers as a candidate 
 for the Spanish throne; and war was declared against Louis XIV. for 
 supporting the claims of Philip. 
 
 England had against France another cause of offence. In Septem- 
 ber of 1701, James II., the exiled king of Great Britain, died at the court 
 of Louis, who now, in violation of the treaty of Ryswick, recognized the 
 son of James as the rightful sovereign of England. This action was re- 
 garded as an open insult to English nationality. King William led his 
 armies to the field not less to thwart the ambition of France than to save 
 his own crown and kingdom. But the English monarch did not live to 
 carry out his plans. While yet the war was hardly begun, the king fell 
 from his horse, was attacked with fever, and died in May of 1702. 
 Parliament had already settled the crown on Anne, the sister-in-law 
 of William and daughter of James II. The new sovereign adopted the 
 
154 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 policy of her predecessor. From the circumstance of her reign, the con- 
 flict with France, which lasted for nearly thirteen years, is known in his- 
 tory as Queen Anne's War; but a better name is The War of the 
 Spanish Succession. 
 
 In America the field of operations was limited to New England 
 and South Carolina. The central colonies were scarcely aware that war 
 existed. The military operations of both parties were conducted in a 
 feeble and desultorj' manner. The more influential Indian tribes held 
 aloof from the struggle. In August, 1701, the powerful Five Nations, 
 whose dominions south of Lake Ontario and the river St. Lawrence formed 
 a barrier between Canada and New York, made a treaty of neutrality 
 with both the French and the English. The Abenakis of Maine did the 
 same ; but the French Jesuits prevailed with the latter to break their 
 compact. The first notice of treachery which the Ehglish had, was a 
 fearful massacre. In one day the whole country between the town of 
 Wells and the Bay of Casco was given up to burning and butchery. 
 
 In midwinter of 1703-4 the town of Deerfield was destroyed. A 
 ■war-party of three hundred French and Indians, setting out from Canada, 
 marched on the snow-crust into the Connecticut valley. On the last 
 night of February, the savages lay in the pine forest that surrounded the 
 ill-fated village. Just before daybreak they rushed from their covert and 
 fired the houses. Forty-seven of the inhabitants were tomahawked. A 
 hundred and twelve were dragged into captivity. The prisoners, many 
 of them women and children, were obliged to march to Canada. The 
 snow lay four feet deep. The poor wretches, haggard with fear and 
 starvation, sank down and died. The deadly hatchet hung over above 
 the heads of the feeble and the sick. Eunice Williams, the minister's 
 wife, fainted by the Avayside ; in the presence of her husband and five 
 captive children, her brains were dashed out with a tomahawk. Those 
 who survived to the end of the joui-ney were afterward ransomed and 
 permitted to return to their desolated homes. A daughter of Mr. Wil- 
 liams remained with the savages, grew up among tlie ^Mohawks, married 
 a chieftain, and in after years returned in Indian garb to Deerfield. No 
 entreaties could induce her to remain with her friends. The solitude of 
 the woods and the society of her tawny husband had prevailed over the 
 charms of civilization. 
 
 In Maine and New Hampshire the war was marked with similar 
 barbarities. Farms were devastated ; towns were burned ; the inhabitants 
 M'f're murdered or carried to Canada. Prowling bands of savages, led on 
 by French officers, penetrated at times into the heart of Massachusetts. 
 Against the treacherous barbarians and their bloodthirsty leaders there 
 
STASSACHUSETTS.—WABS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 155 
 
 •was no security either at home or abroad. Along the desolated Ironticr 
 ruin prevailed, as in the days of" King Philip. 
 
 lu 1707, the reduction of Port Royal was undertaken by Massa- 
 chusetts. A fleet, bearing a thousand soldiers, was equipped and sent 
 against the town. But Baron Castin, who commanded the French garri- 
 son, conducted the defence with so much skill that the English were 
 obliged to abandon the undertaking. From this costly and disastrous 
 'exjjedition Massachusetts gained nothing but discouragement and debt. 
 Nevertheless, after two years of preparation, the enterprise was renewed ; 
 and in 1710 an English and American fleet of thirtj'-six vessels, having 
 on board four regiments of troops, anchored before Port Royal. The 
 garrison was weak ; Subercase, the French commander, had neither 
 talents nor courage; famine came; and after a feeble defence of eleven 
 days, the place surrendered at discretion. By this conquest all of Nova 
 Scotia passed under the dominion of the English. The flag of Great 
 Britain was hoisted over the conquered fortress, and the name of Port 
 Royal gave place to Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne. 
 
 Vast pi-eparations wei-e now made for the invasion of Canada. A 
 land force under command of General Nicholson was to march against 
 Montreal, M'hile Quebec, the key to the French dominions in America, 
 was to be reduced by an English fleet. For this purpose fifteen men-of- 
 war and forty transports were placed under command of Sir Hovenden 
 Walker. Seven regiments of veterans, selected from the armies of Europe, 
 were added to the colonial forces and sent with the expedition. Before 
 such an armament the defences of Quebec could hardly hold out an hour. 
 But for the utter incompetency of the admiral, success would have been 
 assured. 
 
 For six weeks in midsummer the great fleet lay idly in Boston Har- 
 bor. Sir Hovenden was getting ready to sail. The Abenaki Indians 
 carried the news leisurely to Quebec ; and every day added to the strength 
 of the ramparts. At last, on the 30th of July, when no further excuse 
 could be invented, the ships set sail for the St. Lawrence. At the Bay 
 of Gaspe the admiral thought it necessary to loiter a while; then he 
 busied himself with devising a i)lan to save his ships from the ice during 
 the next winter. Proceeding slowly up the St. Lawrence, the fleet, on 
 the 22d of August, was enveloped in a thick fog. The wind blew hard 
 from the east. The commander was cautioned to remain on deck, but 
 went quietly to bed. A messenger aroused him just in time to see eight 
 of his best vessels dashed to ]iieces on the rocks. Eight hundred and 
 eight)'-four men went down in the foaming whirlpools. A council of war 
 ''"as held, and all voted that it was impossible to proceed. In a letter to 
 
156 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Englisli government, Walker expressed great gratitude that by the 
 loss of a thoasand men the rest had been saved from freezing to death at 
 Quebec. The fleet sailed back to England, and the colonial troops were 
 disbanded at Boston. 
 
 Meanwhile, the army of General Nicholson had marched against 
 Montreal. But when news arrived of the failure of the fleet, the land 
 px})edition was also abandoned. The dallying cowardice of W^alker had 
 brought the campaign of 1711 to a shameful end. France had already 
 made overtures for peace. Negotiations were formally begun in the early 
 part of 1712; and on the 11th of April in the following year a treaty 
 was concluded at Utrecht, a town of Holland. By the terms of the settle- 
 ment, England obtained control of the fisheries of Newfoundland. Labra- 
 dor, the Bay of Hudson and the whole of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, were 
 ceded to Great Britain. On the 13th of July the chiefs of the hostile 
 Indian tribes met the ambassadors of New England at Portsmouth, and a 
 second treaty was concluded, by which peace Ava.s secured throughout the 
 American colonies. 
 
 For thirty-one years after the close of Queen Anne's Avar, Massa- 
 chusetts was free from hostile invasion. This was not, however, a period 
 of public tranquillity. The peojjle were dissatisfied with the royal govern- 
 ment which King William had established, and were at constant variance 
 with their governors. Phipps and his administration had been heartily 
 disliked. Governor Slnite was equall}^ unpopular. Burnett, who suc- 
 ceeded him, and Belcher afterward, were only tolerated because they 
 could not be shaken oif. The opposition ia the royal officers took the 
 form of a controversy about their salaries. The general assembly in- 
 sisted that the governor and his councilors should be paid in proportion 
 to the importance of their several offices, and for actual service only. 
 But the royal commissions gave to each officer a fixed salary, which was 
 frequently out of all proportion to the services required. After many 
 years of antagonism, the difficulty was finally adjusted with a compromise 
 in M'hicli the advantage was wholly on the side of the people. It was 
 agreed that the salaries of the governor and his assistants should be an- 
 nually allowed, and the amount fixed by vote of the assembly. The 
 representatives of popular liberty had once more triumphed over the 
 principles of arbitrary rule. 
 
 On the death of Charles VI. of Austria, in 1740, there were 
 two principal claimants to the crown of the empire — Maria Theresa, 
 daughter of the late emperor, and Charles Albert of Bavaria. Each 
 claimant had his party and his army ; war followed ; and nearly all the 
 nations of Europe were swept into the conflict. As usually happened in 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.— ]\'AJIS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. lo7 
 
 such struggles, England and Franco were arrayed against each other. 
 The contest that ensued is generally known as the War of the Austrian 
 Succession, hut in American history is called King George's Wak; 
 for George II. was now king of England. 
 
 In America the only imjiortant event of the war was the capture 
 of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. This place had been fortiiied at 
 va.st expense by the French. Standing at the principal entrance to the 
 gulf and river of St. Lawrence, the fortress was regarded as a key to the 
 Canadian provinces. New England was quick to note that both New- 
 fjundland and Nova Scotia were threatened so long as tlie French flag 
 floated over Louisburg. Governor Shirley brought the matter befoi'c the 
 legislature of IMassachusetts, and it was resolved to attempt the cajDture 
 of the enemy's stronghold. 
 
 The other colonies were invited to aid the enterprise. Connecticut 
 responded by sending more than five hundred troops ; New Hampshire 
 and Rhode Island each furnished three hundred ; a park of artillery 
 was sent from New York ; and Pennsylvania contributed a supply of 
 pro\'isions. The forces of Massachusetts alone numbei'cd more than three 
 thousand. It only remained to secure the co-operation of the English 
 fleet then cruising in the West Indies. An earnest invitation was sent to 
 Commodore Warren to join his armament with the colonial forces ; but 
 having no orders, he declined the request. Everj-thing devolved on the 
 army and navy of New England, but there was no quailing under the 
 responsibility. William Pepperell, of Maine, was appointed commander- 
 in-chief; and on the 4th of April, 1745, the fleet sailed for Cape Breton. 
 
 At Canseau, the eastern cape of Nova Scotia, the expedition mos 
 detained for sixteen days. The sea was thick with ice-drifts floating 
 from the north. But the delay was fortunate, for in the mean time Com- 
 modore Warren had received instructions from England to proceed to 
 Massachusetts and aid Governor Shirley in the contemplated reduction 
 of Cape Breton. Sailing to the north, Warren brought his fleet safely to 
 Canseau on the 23d of April. On the last day of the month the arma- 
 ment, now numbering a hundred vessels, entered the Bay of Gabarus in 
 .sight of Louisburg. A landing was effected four miles below the city. 
 On the next day a company of four hundred volunteers, led by William 
 Vaughan, marched across the peninsula and attacked a French battery 
 which had been planted on the shore two miles beyond the town. The 
 French, struck with terror at the impetuosity of the unexpected charge, 
 spiked their guns and fled. Before morning the cannons were re-drilled 
 and turned uj)on the fortress. An English battery was established on 
 the east side of the harbor, but the sea-walls of Louisburg were so strong 
 
158 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 that little damage -was done by the guns across the bay. An attack in 
 the rear of the town seemed impossible on account of a large swamp 
 whicli lay in that direction ; but the resolute soldiers of New England 
 lashed their heavy guns upon sledges, and dragged them through the 
 marsh to a tract of solid ground within two hundred yards of the enemy's 
 bastions. Notwithstanding the advantage of this position, the walls of 
 the fort stood firm, and the siege progressed slowly. 
 
 On the 18th of May a French ship of sixty-fiur guns, laden with 
 stores for the garrison, was captured by Warren's fleet. The French 
 were greatly discouraged by this event, and the defence grew feeble. 
 The English were correspondingly elated with the prospect of success. 
 On the 26th of the month an effort was made to capture the French bat- 
 tery in the harbor. A company of daring volunteers undertook the 
 hazardous enterprise by night. Embarking in boats, they drew near the 
 island where the battery was planted, but were discovered and repulsed 
 with the loss of a hundred and seventy-six men. It was now determined 
 to carry the town by storm. The assault was set for the 18th of June ; 
 but on the da}' previous the desponding garrison sent out a flag of truce ; 
 terms of capitulation were proposed and accepted, and the English flag 
 rose above the conquered fortress. 
 
 By the terms of this surrender not only Louisburg, but the whole 
 of Cape Breton, was given up to England. The rejoicing at Boston and 
 
 throughout the colonies was only 
 
 ^ li £ X 
 
 
 equaled by the indignation and alarm 
 of the French government. Louis- 
 burg must be retaken at all hazards, 
 said the ministers of France. For 
 this purpose a powerful fleet, under 
 command of Duke d'Anville, was sent 
 out in the following year. Before 
 reaching America the duke died of a 
 jiestilcnce. His successor went mad 
 and killed himself Storms and ship- 
 M'recks and disasters drove the ill- 
 fated expedition to utter ruin. The renewal of the enterprise, in 1717, 
 was attended with like misfortune. Commodores Warren and Anson 
 overtook the French squadron and compelled a humiliating sur-ender. 
 
 In 1748, a treaty of peace M'as concluded at Aix-la-Cha])elle, a 
 to^'•n of Western Germany. After eight years of devastating warfare, 
 nothing was gained but a mutual restoration of conquests. By the terms 
 of settlement, Cape .'Breton was surrendered to France. With grief and 
 
 SIEGE OF LOUISBURG, 1745. 
 
MASSACHUSETTS.—WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 159 
 
 eliame tlie fjshermeii and farmers of New England saw the island which 
 had been subdued by their valor restored to their enemies. Of all tlie 
 disputed boundary-lines between the French and Englisii colonies in 
 America, not a single one was settled by this treaty. The European 
 nations had exhausted themselves with fighting ; what cared they for the 
 welfare of distant and feeble 2>rovinces? The real war between France 
 and England for colonial supremacy iu the West Avas yet to be fought. 
 Within six years after the treaty of Aix-la-Ghapelle, the two great powers 
 were involved in the final and decisive conflict. 
 
 The history of Massachusetts has now been traced through a period 
 of a hundred and thirty years. A few words on the Character of 
 THE Puritans may be appropriately added. They were in the begin- 
 ning a vigorous and hardy people, firm-set in the principles of honesty 
 and the practices of virtue. They were sober, industrious, frugal ; reso- 
 lute, zealous and steadfast. They esteemed honor above preferment, and 
 truth more than riches. Loving home and native land, they left both 
 for the sake of freedom ; and finding freedom, they cherished it with the 
 zeal and devotion of martyrs. Without influence, they became influential ; 
 without encouragement, great. Despised and mocked and hated, they 
 rose above their revilers. In the school of evil fortune they gained the 
 discipline of patience. Suffering without cause brought resignation with- 
 out despair. Themselves the victims of persecution, they became the 
 founders of a colony — a commonwealth — a nation. They were the chil- 
 dren of adversity and the fathere of renown. 
 
 The gaze of the Puritan was turned ever to posterity. He believed 
 in the future. His affections and hopes were with the coming ages. For 
 his children he toiled and sacrificed ; for them the energies of his life were 
 clieerfully exhausted. The system of free schools is the enduring monu- 
 ment of his love and devotion. The ])rinting-press is his memorial. 
 Almshouses and asylums are the tokens of his care for the unfortunate. 
 With him the outcast found sympathy, and the wanderer a home. He 
 was the earliest champion of civil rights, and the builder of the Uxion. 
 
 The fathers of New England have been accused of bigotry. The 
 charge is true : it is the background of the picture. In matters of re- 
 ligion they were intolerant and superstitious. Their religious faith was 
 gloomy and foreboding. Human life was deemed a sad and miserable 
 journey. To be mistaken was to sin. To fail in trifling ceremonies was 
 reckoned a grievous crime. In the shadow of such belief the people be- 
 came anstere and melancholy. Escaping fi-om the splendid formality of 
 the Episcopal Church, they set up a colder and severer form of worsl Jp; 
 and the form was made like iron. Dissenters themselves, they could not 
 
1(30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tolerate the dissent of others. To restrain and punisli error seemed 
 right and necessary. Williams and Hutchinson were banished ; the 
 Quakers were persecuted and the witches hanged. But Puritanism 
 contained within itself the power to correct its own abuses. Within 
 the austere and gloomy fabric dwelt the very soul and genius of Free 
 Thought. Under the ice-bound rigors of the faith flowed a current 
 which no fatalism could congeal, no superstition poison. The heart 
 of a mighty, tumultuous, liberty-loving life throbbed within the cold, 
 stiff body of formalism. A jjowerful vitality, which no disaster could 
 subdue, no persecution quench, warmed and energized and quickened. 
 Tlie tyranny of Phipps, the malice of Parris, and the bigotry of Mather 
 are far outweighed by the sacrifices of Winthrop, the beneficence of 
 Harvard, and the virtues of Sir Henry Vane. The evils of the sys- 
 tem may well be forgotten in the glory of its acliievements. AVithout 
 the Puritans, America would have been a delusion and liberty only a 
 name. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 NE W YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 ILLUSTRIOUS Sir Henry Hudson ! Indomitable explorer, daunt- 
 less cavalier of the ocean ! Who so worthy to give a name to the 
 great inland sea of the frozen North as he who gave his life in heroic 
 combat with its terrors ? Who so fit to become the father of a colony 
 in the New World as he who braved its perils and revealed its mys- 
 teries ? And where should the new State be planted unless by the 
 broad haven — broadest and best on the American coast — and among 
 the beautiful hills and landscapes 
 
 Where The Hudson came rolling through valleys a-smoke 
 Frnin the lands of the Iroquois? 
 
 It was the good fortune of the American colonies to be founded by 
 men whose lives, like the setting suns of summer, cast behind them 
 a long and glorious twilight. But for the name and genius of Hud- 
 son the province of New Netherland had never been. 
 
 For ten years after the founding of New Amsterdam the colony 
 was governed by directors. These officers were appointed and sent 
 
KEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 
 
 161 
 
 out liy tlie Dutch East India Company, in accordance with the chuiv- 
 ter of that corporation. The settlement un Manhattan Island was as 
 yet only a villajie of traders. Not until 1G23 was an actual colony 
 sent from Holland 
 to New Netherlaud. 
 Two years previous- 
 ly, the Dutch West 
 India Company had 
 been organized, with 
 the exclusive privi- 
 lege of planting set- 
 tlements in America. 
 The charter of this 
 company was grant- 
 ed for a period of 
 twenty-fdur years, 
 with the privilege 
 of renewal ; and the 
 territory to be colo- 
 nized extended from 
 the Strait of Magel- 
 lan to Hudson's Bay. 
 Manhattan Island, 
 with its cluster of 
 huts, passed at once under the control of the new corporatiou. 
 
 In April of 1623, the ship New Netherland, having on board a 
 colony of thirty families, arrived at New Amsterdam. The colonists, 
 called Walloons, were Dutch Protestant refugees from Flandei-s, in 
 Belgium. They were of the same religious faith with the Huguenots of 
 France, and came to America to find repose from the persecutions of their 
 own country. Cornelius May was the leader of the company. The 
 greater number of the new inunigraiits settled with their friends on Man- 
 hattan Island ; but the ca})tain, with a party of fifty, passing down the 
 coast of New Jersey, entered and explored the Bay of Delaware. Sailing 
 up the bay and river, the company landed on the eastern shore ; here, at 
 a point a few miles below Camden, where Timber Creek falls into the 
 Delaware, a site was selected and a block-house built named Fort Nassau. 
 The natives were won over by kindness ; and when shortly after the fort 
 was abandoned and the settlers returned to New Amsterdam, the Indians 
 witnessed their departure with affectionate regret. In the same year 
 Joris, another Dutch captain, ascended the Hudson to Castle Island, 
 
 SIK HENRY HUDSON. 
 
162 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 where, nine years previously, Christianson had built the older Fort 
 Nassau. A flood in the ri\'er had swept the island bare. Not deeming 
 it prudent to restore the works in a place likely to be deluded, Joris 
 sailed up stream a short distance and rebuilt the fortress on the present 
 site of Albany. The name of this northern outpost \vas changed to Fort 
 Orange ; and here the eighteen families of Joris's company were j'cr- 
 maneutly settled. 
 
 In 1624 civil government began in New Netherland. Cornelius 
 May was first governor of the colony. HLs official duties, however, were 
 only such as belonged to the superintendent of a trading-post. In the 
 next year William Verhulst became director of the settlement. Herds 
 of cattle, swine and sheep were brought over from Holland and distributed 
 among the settlers. In January of 1626, Peter Minuit, of Wesel, was 
 regularly appointed by the Dutch West India Company as governor of 
 New Netherland. Until this time the natives had retained the owner- 
 ship of Manhattan Island ; but on Minuit's arrival, in May, an offer of 
 purchase was made and accepted. The ^^•hole island, containing more 
 than twenty thousand acres, was sold to the Dutch for twenty-four dol- 
 lars. The southern point of land was selected as a site for fortifications ; 
 there a block-house was built and surrounded with a palisade. New 
 Amsterdam was alreadj^ a town of thirty houses. In the first year of 
 ISIinuit's administration Avere begun the settlements of Wallabout and 
 Brooklyn, on Long Island. 
 
 The Dutch of New Amsterdam and the Pilgrims of New Pl}Tnouth 
 were early and fast friends. The Puritans themselves had but recently 
 arrived from Holland, and could not forget the kind treatment which 
 they had had in that country. Tlicy and the Walloons were alike exiles 
 fleeing from persecution and tyranny. On two occasions, in 1627, a 
 Dutch embassy was sent to Plymouth with an expression of good ^^■ill. 
 The English were cordially invited to remove without molestation to tlie 
 more fertile valley of the Connecticut. Governor Bradford replied with 
 Avords of cheer and sympathy. The Dutch were honestly advised of the 
 claims of England to the country of the Hudson ; and the pcojile of New 
 Netherland Avere cautioned to make good their titles by accepting new 
 deeds from the council of Plymouth. A touch of jealousy Avas manifested 
 Avhen the Dutch Avere Avarned not to send their trading-boats into the 
 Bay of Narragansett. 
 
 In 1628 the pojnilation of Manhattan numbered two hundred and 
 seventy. The settlers devoted their Avhole energies to the fur-trade. 
 Every bay, inlet and riA'er between Rhode Island and the DelaAvare AA'as 
 visited by their vessels. The colony gave promise of rapid development 
 
XEW YORK.—SETTLEMENT. 163 
 
 and of great profit to the proprietors. If the houses •were rude and 
 thatched with straw, tliere were energy and thrill within. If only wooden 
 chimneys carried up the smoke, the fires of the hearthstones Avere kindled 
 with laughter and song. If creaking windmills flung abroad their un- 
 gainly arms in the winds of Long Island Sound, it was proof that the 
 people had families to feed and meant to feed them. 
 
 The West India Company now cixme forward with a new and pecu- 
 liar scheme of colonization. In 1629, the corporation created a Charter 
 OP Privileges, under which a class of proprietors called patroons were 
 authorized to possess and colonize the country. Each patroon might 
 select any^vhere in New Netherland a tract of land not more than sixteen 
 miles in length, and of a breadth to be determined bv the location. On 
 the banks of a navigable river not more than eight miles might be ap- 
 propriated by one proprietor. Each district was to be held in fee simple 
 by the patroon, who was empowered to exercise over his estate and its 
 inhabitants the same authority as did the hereditary lords of Europe. 
 The conditions were that the estates should be held as dependencies of 
 Holland; that each patroon should purchase his domain of the Indians; 
 and that he should, within four years from the date of his title, establish 
 on his manor a colony of not less than fifty persons. Education and re- 
 Hgion were commended in the charter, but no provision was made for 
 the support of either. 
 
 Under the provisions of this instrument five estates were imme- 
 diately established. Three of them, lying contiguous, embraced a district 
 of twenty-four miles in the valley of the Hudson above and below Fort 
 Orange. The fourth manor was laid out by Michael Pauw on Staten 
 Island ; and the ^fth, and most important, included the southern half of 
 the present State of Delaware. To this estate a colony was sent out from 
 Holland in the spring of 1631. Samuel Godyn was patroon of the do- 
 main, but the immediate management was entrusted to David Peterson de 
 Vries. With a company of thirty immigrants, he reached the entrance 
 to Delaware Bay, and anchored within Cape Henlopen. Landing five 
 miles up the bay, at the mouth of Lewis Creek, the colony selected a site 
 and laid the foundations of Lewistown, the oldest settlement in Delaware. 
 
 After a year of successful management, De Vries returned to Hol- 
 land, leaving the settlement in charge of Gillis Hosset. The latter, a 
 man of no sagacity, soon brought the colony to ruin. An Indian chief 
 who offended him was seized and put to death. The natives, who thus 
 far had treated the strangers with deference and good faith, were aroused 
 to vengeance. Eising suddenly out of an ambuscade upon the terrified 
 colonists, they left not a man alive. The houses and jialisades were 
 
164 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 burned to the ground ; nothing but bones and ashes remained to testify 
 of savage passion. When De Vries returned, in December of 1632, he 
 found only tiie blackened ruins of his flourishing hamlet. He sailed first 
 to Virginia for a cargo of supplies, and thence to New Amsterdam ; but 
 before the colony could be re-established. Lord Baltimore had received 
 from the English government a patent whicli embraced the whole of 
 Delaware ; the weaker, thougli older, claim of the Dutch patroon gave 
 way before the charter of his more powerful rival. 
 
 In Ajjril of 1633, Minuit was superseded in the government of New 
 Netherland by Wouter van Twiller. Three months previously the Dutch 
 had purchased of the natives the soil around Hartford, and had erected a 
 block-house within the present limits of the city. This was the first 
 fortress built on the Connecticut River ; but the Puritans, though pro- 
 fessing friendshiji, were not going to give up the valley without a struggle. 
 In October of the same year an armed vessel, sent out from Plymouth, 
 sailed up the river and openly defied the Dutcli commander at Hartford. 
 Parsing the fortress, the English proceeded uj) stream to the mouth of 
 the river Farmington, where they landed and built Fort Windsor. Two 
 years later, by tlie building of Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut, 
 the English obtained conunand of the river both above and below the 
 Dutch fort. The block-house at Hartford, being thus cut off, was com- 
 paratively useless to the authorities of New Netherland ; English to^\^ls 
 multiplied in the neighborhood ; and the Dutch finally surrendered their 
 eastern outpost to their more powerful rivals. 
 
 Four of the leading Eui'opean nations had now established perma- 
 nent colonies in America. The fifth to plant an American State was 
 Sweden. As early as 1626, Gustavus Adolphus, the Protestant king 
 of that country and the hero of his age, had formed the design of estab- 
 lishing settlements in the West. For this purpose a company of mer- 
 chants had been organized, to whose capital the king himself contributed 
 four hundred thousand dollars. The objects had in view were to form a 
 refuge for persecuted Protestants and to extend Swedish commerce. But 
 before his plans of colonization could be carried into effect, Gustavus be- 
 came involved in the Thirty Years' War, then raging in Germany. The 
 company -was disorganized, and the capital wasted in the purchase of mili- 
 tary stores. In November of 1632 the Swedish king was killed at the 
 battle of Liitzen. For a while it seemed that the plan of colonizing 
 America had ended in failure, but Oxenstiern, the great Swedish minis- 
 ter, took up the work which his master had left unfinished. The charter 
 of the company was renewed, and after four years of preparation the 
 enterprise was brought to a successful issue. 
 
yi:]V YORK.— SETTLEMENT. 165 
 
 In the mean time, Peter Minuit, the recent governor of New 
 Nctherland, had left the service of Holluud and entered that of Sweden. 
 To him was entrusted the mauagument of the iirst Swedish colony which 
 Avas sent to America. Late in the year 1637, a company of Swedes and 
 Finns left the harbor of Stockholm, and in the following February 
 arrived in Delaware Bay. Xevcr before had the Northerners beheld so 
 beautiful a land. They called Cape Henlopen the Point of Paradise. 
 The whole country, sweeping around the west side of the bay and up the 
 river to the falls at Trenton, wa.s honorably purchased of the Indians. 
 In memory of native land, the name of New Sweden was given to this 
 fine territory. The colony landed just below the mouth of the Brandy- 
 wine, in the northern jJart of the present State of Delaware. On the left 
 bank of a small tributary, at a point about six miles from the bay, a S2)ot 
 Avas chosen for the settlement. Here the foundations of a fort were laid, 
 and the immigrants soon provided themselves with houses. The creek 
 and the fort were both named in honor of Christiana, the maiden queen 
 of Sweden. 
 
 The colony prospered greatly. By each returning ship letters were 
 borne to Stockholm, describing the loveliness of the country. Immigra- 
 tion became rapid and constiint. At one time, in 1640, more than a hun- 
 dred families, unable to find room on the crowded vessels which were 
 leaving the Swedish cajjital, were turned back to then- homes. The 
 banks of Delaware Bay and River were dotted with pleasant hamlets. 
 On every hand appeared the proofs of well-directed industry. Of all 
 the early settlers in America, none were more cheerful, intelligent and 
 virtuous than the Swedes. 
 
 From the first, the authorities of New Amsterdani were jealous 
 of the colony on the Delaware. Sir William Kieft, who had succeeded 
 the incompetent Van Twiller in the governorship, sent an earnest remon- 
 strance to Christiana, warning the settlers of their intrusion on Dutch 
 territory. But the Swedes, giving little heed to tlic complaints of their 
 neighbors, went on enlarging their borders and strengthening their out- 
 posts. Governor Kieft was alarmed and indignant at those aggressions, 
 and as a precautionary measure sent a party to rebuild Fort Nassau, on 
 the old site below Camden. The Swedes, regarding this fortress as a 
 menace to their colony, adojited active measures of defence. Ascending 
 the river to within six miles of the mouth of the Schuylkill, they landed 
 on the island of Tinicum, and built an impregnable fort of hemlock 
 logs. Here, in 1643, Governor Printz established his residence. To 
 Pennsylvania, as well as to Delaware, Sweden contributed the earliest 
 colony. 
 
166 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In 1640, Xew Netherlaiid became involved in a war with the 
 [ndians of Long Island and New Jersey. The natives of the lower 
 Hudson M'ere a weak and unwarlike people; xnidur just treatment they 
 would have faithfully kept the peace. But dishonest traders had mad- 
 dened them with rum and then defrauded and abused them. Burning 
 with resentment and hate, the savages of the Jersey shore crossed over to 
 Staten Island, laid waste the farms and butchered the inhabitants. New 
 Amsterdam was for a while endangered, but was soon put in a state 
 of defence. A company of militia was organized and sent against the 
 Dclawares of New Jersey, but nothing resulted from the expedition. A 
 lai'ge bounty was oiiered for every member of the tribe of the Raritans, 
 and many were hunted to death. On both sides the war degenerated 
 into treachery and mm-der. Through the mediation of Roger Williams, 
 the great peacemaker of Rhode Island, a truce was obtained, and imme- 
 diately broken. A chieftain's son, who had been made drunk and robbed, 
 went to the nearest settlement and killed the first Hollander whom he 
 met. Governor Kieft demanded the criminal, but the sachems refused 
 to give him up. They offered to pay a hcaxy fine for the wrong done, 
 but Kieft would accept nothing less than the life of the murderer. 
 
 While the dispute was still unsettled, a party of the terrible Mo- 
 hawks came down the river to claim and enforce their supremacy over 
 the natives of the coast. The timid Algonquins in the neighborhood of 
 New Amsterdam cowered before the mighty M'arriors of the North, 
 huddled together on the bank of the Hudson, and begged assistance of 
 the Dutch. Here the vindictive Kieft saw an opportunity of Avholesale 
 destruction. A company of soldiers set out secretly from ^Manhattan, 
 crossed the river and discovered the lair of the Indians. The place was 
 surrounded by night, and the first notice of danger given to the savages 
 was the roar of muskets. Nearly a hundred of the poor wretches were 
 killed before daydawn. Women who slu'ieked for pity were mangled to 
 death, and children were thrown into the river. 
 
 When it was known among the tribes that the Dutch, and not the 
 Mohawks, Mere the authors of this outrage, the war was renewed M'ith 
 fury. The Indians were in a fronz}'. Dividing into small war-parties, 
 they concealed themselves in the woods and swamps ; then rose, without a 
 moment's warning, upon defenceless formhouses, burning and butchering 
 without mercy. At this time that noted woman Mrs. Anne Hutchinson 
 was living with her son-in-law in the valley of the Housatonic. Her 
 liouse was surrounded and set on fire by the savages ; every member of 
 the family except one child \va.s cruelly murdered. Mrs. Hutchinson 
 *ie.rself was burned alive. 
 
NEW YORK.— ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVEHANT. 167 
 
 In 1643, Captain John Underhill, a fugitive from Massachusetts, 
 was appointed to tlie command of the Dutch forces. At the head of a 
 regiment raised by Governor Kieft he invaded New Jersey, and brought 
 the Delawares into subjection. A decisive battle was fought on Long 
 Island ; and at Greenwich, in A\'estern Connecticut, the power of the In- 
 dians was finally broken. Again the ambassadors of the Iroquois came 
 forward with proposals for peace. Both parties were anxious to rest from 
 the ruin and devastation of war. On the 30th of AugiLst, 1645, a treaty 
 was concluded at Fort Amsterdam. 
 
 Nearly all of the bloodshed and sorrow of these five years of war 
 may be charged to Governor Kieft. He was a revengeful and cruel man, 
 whose idea of government was to destroy whatever opposed him. The 
 people had many times desired to make peace with the Indians, but the 
 project had always been defeated by the headstrong passions of the 
 governor. A popular party, headed by the able De Vries, at last grew 
 powerful enough to defy his authority. As soon as the war was ended, 
 petitions for his removal were circulated and signed by the people. Two 
 years after the treaty, the Dutch West India Company revoked his com- 
 mission and appointed Peter Stuyvesant to succeed him. In 1647, Kieft 
 embarked for Europe; but the heavy-laden merchantman in M'hich ho 
 sailed was dashed to pieces by a storm on the coast of Wales, and the 
 guilty governor of New Netherland found a grave in the sea. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 NEW YORK.— ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 
 
 rpHE honest and soldierly Peter Stuyvesant was the last and 
 -L greatest of the governors of New Netherland. He entered upon his 
 duties on the 11th of May, 1647, and continued in office for more than 
 seventeen years. His first care was to conciliate the Indians. By the 
 wisdom and liberality of his government the way^vard red men were re- 
 claimed from hostility and hatred. So intimate and cordial became the 
 relations between the natives and the Dutch that they were suspected of 
 making common caiLse against the English; even Massachusetts was 
 alarmed lest such an alliance should be formed. But the policy of 
 Governor Stu}'vesant was based on nobler principles. 
 
 Until now the West India Company had had exclusive control of 
 
168 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the commerce of New Netherlaiul. In the first year of the new adminis- 
 tration this monopoly was abolished, and regular export duties were sub- 
 stituted. The benefit of the change was at once apparent in the improve- 
 ment of the Dutch province. In one of the letters written to Stuy^^esant 
 by the secretary of the company, the remarkable prediction is made that 
 the commerce of New Amsterdam should cover every ocean and the ships 
 of all nations crowd into her harbor. But for many years the growth of 
 the city was slow. As late as the middle of the century-, the better parts 
 of Manhattan Island were still divided among the farmers. Central Park 
 was a forest of oaks and chestnuts. 
 
 In 1650, a boundary-line was fixed between New England and New 
 Netherland. The Dutch were fearful lest the English should reach the 
 Hudson and cut off the fur-trade between Fort Orange and New Amster- 
 dam. Governor Stuyvesant met the ambassadors of the Eastern colonies 
 at Hartford, and after much discussion an eastern limit was set to the 
 Dutch possessions. The line there established extended across Long 
 Island north and south, passing through Oyster Bay, and thence to Green- 
 wich, on the other side of the sound. From this point northward the 
 dividing-line was nearly identical with the present boundary of Connec- 
 ticut on the west. This treaty was ratified by the colonies, by the West 
 India Company and by the states-general of Holland ; but the English 
 government treated the matter with indifference and contempt. 
 
 Stuyvesant had less to fear from the colony of New Sweden. The 
 people of New Netherland outnumbered the Swedes as ten to one, and 
 the Dutch claim to the country of the Delaware had never been re- 
 nounced. In 1651, an armament left New Amsterdam, entered the bay 
 and came to anchor at a point on the western shore five miles below the 
 mouth of the Brandy wine. On the present site of New Castle, Fort Cas- 
 imir A\-as built and garrisoned with Dutch soldiers. This act was 
 equivalent to a declaration of war. The Swedish settlement of Christiana 
 was almost in sight of the hostile fortress, and a conflict could hardly be 
 avoided. Rising, the governor of the Swedes, looked on quietly until 
 Fort Casimir was completed, then captured the place by stratagem, over- 
 powered the garrison and hoisted the flag of Sweden. 
 
 It was a short-lived triumph. The "West India Company were 
 secretly pleased that the Swedes had committed an act of open violence. 
 Orders were at once issued to Stuyvesant to visit the Swedish colonists 
 with vengeance, and to compel their submission or drive them from the 
 Delaware. In September of 1655 the orders of the company were car- 
 ried out to the letter. The old governor put himself at the head of more 
 than six hundred troojis — a number almost equal to the entire population 
 
NEW YORK.— ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. 169 
 
 of New Sweden — and sailed to Delaware Bay. Resistance was hopeless. 
 The Dutch forces were landed at New Castle, and the Swedes gave way. 
 Before the 25th of the month every fort belonging to the colony had been 
 forced to capitulate. Governor Rising was captured, but was treated with 
 oreat respect. Honorable terms were granted to all, and in a few daj's 
 the authority of New Netherland was established throughout the country. 
 Except a few turbulent spirits who removed to Maryland and Virginia, 
 the submission was univereal. After an existence of less than eighteen 
 years, the little State of New Sweden had ceased to be. The American 
 possessions and territorial claims of France, England, Holland, Sweden 
 and Spain will bo best understood from an examination of the accom- 
 panying map, drawn for the year 1655. 
 
 How hardly can the nature of savages be restrained ! While Gov- 
 ernor Stuyvesant was absent on his expedition against the Swedes, the 
 Algonquin tribes rose in rebellion. The poor creatures were going to 
 take New Amsterdam. In a fleet of sixty-four canoes they appeared be- 
 fore the town, yelling and discharging arrows. What could their puny 
 missiles do against the walls of a European fortress? After paddling 
 about un^l their rage, but not their hate, was spent, the savages went on 
 shore and began their old work of burning and murder. The return of 
 the Dutch forces from the Delaware induced the sachems to sue for peace, 
 which Stuyvesant granted on better terms than the Indians had deserved. 
 The cajitives were ransomed, and the treacherous tribes were allowed to 
 go with trifling punishments. 
 
 For eight years after the conquest of New Sweden the peace of New 
 Netherland was unbroken. In 1663 the natives of the county of Ulster, 
 on the Hudson, broke out in war. The town of Esopus, now Kingston, 
 was attacked and destroyed. Sixty-five of the inhabitants were either 
 tomahawked or carried into captivity. To punish this outrage a strong 
 force was sent from New Amsterdam. The Indians fled, hoping to find 
 refuge in the woods ; but the Dutch soldiers pursued them to their vil- 
 lages, burned their wigwams and killed every warrior who could be over- 
 taken. As winter came on, the humbled tribe began to beg for mercy. 
 In December a truce was granted; and in May of the following yeai 
 a treaty of peace was concluded. 
 
 Governor Stuyvesant had great difficulty in defending his province 
 beyond the Delaware. The queen of Sweden and her ministers at Stock- 
 holm still looked fondly to their little American colony, and cherished 
 the hope of recovering the conquered territory. A more dangerous com- 
 petitor was found in Lord Baltimore, of Maryland, whose patent, given 
 under the great seal of England, covered all the territory between the 
 
I'^O HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Chesapeake and Delaware Bay, as far north as the latitude of Pliila- 
 delphia. Berkeley, of Virginia, also claimed New Sweden as a part of 
 his dominions. Connecticut pushed her settlements westward on Long 
 Island, and purchased all the remaining Indian claims between her 
 western frontier and the Hudson. Massachusetts boldly declared her in- 
 tention to extend her boundaries to Fort Orange. The indignant Stuy- 
 vesant asked the agents of Connecticut -where the province of New 
 Ketherland could shortly be found ; and the agents coolly answered that 
 they did not hmio. 
 
 Discord at home added to the governor's embarrassments. For 
 many years the Dutch had witnessed the growth and prosperity of the 
 English colonies. Boston had outgrown New Amsterdam. The schools 
 of Massachusetts and Connecticut flourished; the academy on Man- 
 hattan, after a sickly career of two years, was discontinued. In New 
 Netherland heavy taxes were levied for the support of the poor ; New 
 England had no poor. Liberty and right were the subjects of debate in 
 every English village ; to the Dutch farmers and traders such words had 
 little meaning. The people of New Netherland grew emuloas of the 
 progress of their powerful neighbors, and attributed their own abasement 
 to the mismanagement and selfish greed of the West India Company. 
 Without actual disloyalty to Holland, the Dutch came to prefer the laws 
 and customs of England. Under these accumulating troubles the faithful 
 Stuyvesant was wellnigh overwhelmed. 
 
 Such was the condition of affairs at the beginning of 1664. Eng- 
 land and Holland were at peace. Neither nation had reason to appre- 
 hend an act of violence from the other. In all that followed, the arbi- 
 trary jirincijjles and unscrupulous disposition of the English king were 
 fully manifested. On the 12tli of ISIarch in this year the duke of York 
 received at the hands of his brother, Charles II., two extensive patents 
 for American territory. The first grant included the district reaching 
 from the Kennebec to the St. Croix River, and the second embraced the 
 whole country between the Connecticut and the Delaware. Without re- 
 gard to the rights of Holland, in utter contempt of the West India Com- 
 pany, through whose exertions the valley of the Hudson had been peopled, 
 with no respect for the wishes of the Dutch, or even for the voice of his 
 own Parliament, the English monarch in one rash hour desjjoiled a sister 
 kingdom of a well-earned province. 
 
 The duke of York made haste to secure his territory. No time 
 nui.>t be left for the states-general to protest against the outrage. An 
 English squadron was immediately equipped, put under command of 
 Richard Nicolls and sent to America. In July the armament reached 
 
XEW YORK.—ADBriyTSTRATIOK OF STUYVESANT. 
 
 171 
 
 Boston, and thence proceeded against New Amsterdam. On the 28th of 
 August, the fleet j^assed the Narrows, and anchored at Gravesend Bay. 
 The EnglLsh camp was pitched at Brooklyn Ferry ; and before the Dutch 
 had recovered from their surprise, tlie wliole of Loug Island was sub- 
 dued. Au embassy came over from New Amsterdam. Governor Stuy- 
 vesant, ever true to his employers, demanded to know the meaning of all 
 this hostile array. To 
 receive the surrender 
 of New Netherland 
 \\as the quiet answer 
 of Nicolls. There 
 must be an immediate 
 acknowledgment of the 
 sovereignty of Eng- 
 land. Those who sub- 
 mitted should have the 
 rights of Englishmen ; 
 those who refused 
 should hear the crash 
 of cannon-balls. The 
 Dutch council of New 
 Amsterdam was im- 
 mediately convened. 
 It was clear that the 
 burgomasters meant to 
 surrender. The stormy 
 old governor exhorted 
 them to rouse to action and fight; some one replied that the Dutch 
 West India Company was not worth fighting for. Burning with indig- 
 nation, Stuyvesant snatched up the written proposal of Nicolls and tore 
 it to tatters in the presence of his council. It was all in vain. The 
 brave old man was forced to sign the capitulation ; and on the 8th of 
 September, 1664, New Netherland ceased to exist. The English flag 
 was hoisted over the fort and town, and the name of New York was 
 substituted for New Amsterdam. The surrender of Fort Orange, now 
 named Albany, followed on the 24th ; and on the 1st of October the 
 Swedish and Dutch settlements on the Delaware capitulated. The con- 
 quest was complete. The supremacy of Great Britain in America was 
 finally established. From the north-east corner of Maine to the southern 
 limits of Georgia, every mile of the American coast was under the flag 
 of England. 
 
 I'b-ltK SlUYVESANT. 
 
172 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 iV^TT YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 
 
 piCHARD XICOLLS, the fii-st English governor of New York, 
 -LL began his duties by settling the boundai'ies of his province. It was 
 a work full of trouble and vexation. As early as 1623 the whole of Long 
 Island had been granted to the earl of Stirling. Conneeticut also claimed 
 and occupied all that jiart of the island included in the present county of 
 Suffolk. Against, both of these claimants the jiatent of the duke of York 
 was now to be enforced by his deputy Xicolls. The claim of Stirling was 
 fairly purchased by the governor, but the pretensions of Connecticut were 
 arbitrarily set aside. This action was the source of so much discontent 
 that the duke was constrained to compensate Conneeticut by making a 
 favorable cliange in her south-west boundary-line. 
 
 Two months before the conc[uest of New Netherland by tlie Eng- 
 lish, the irregular territory between the Hudson and the Delaware, as tar 
 north as a point on the latter river in tiie latitude of forty-one degrees 
 and forty minutes, was granted to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. 
 This district, corresponding, except on the northern boundary, with the 
 present State of New Jersey, was now wrested from the jurisdiction of 
 New York, and a separate government established by the proprietors. 
 The country below the Delaware, until recently called New Sweden, but 
 now named The Territoeies, was consolidated with New York and 
 ruled by deputies appointed by tlie governoi-s of that province. Finally, 
 the new name conferred by Nicolls on his capital was extended to all 
 the country formerly called New Netherland. 
 
 At the first the people were deluded with many promises of civil 
 libert}-. To secure this, the Dutch, against the passionate appeals of the 
 i)atriotic Stuyvesant, had voluntarily surrendered themselves to the Eng- 
 lish government. But it was a poor sort of civil liberty that any province 
 was likely to obtain from one of the Stuart kings of England. The 
 promised right of representation in a general assembly of the people was 
 evaded and withheld. To tiiis was added a greater grief in the annulling 
 of the old titles by which, for half a century, the Dutch farmers had held 
 their lands. The people were obliged to accept new deeds at the hands 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 173 
 
 of the English governor, and to pay him tiierefor such sums as yielded an 
 immense revenue. The evil done to the 2)rovinee, however, was less than 
 might have been expected from so arbitrary and despotic a government. 
 
 In 1667, Nicolls was supei-seded by Lovelace. With less ability 
 and generosity than his predecessor, he proved a greater tyrant. The bad- 
 principles of the system established by the duke of York were now fully 
 develojK'd. The people became dissatisfied and gloomy. Protests against 
 the government and petitions for redress were constantly presented, and 
 constantly rejected with contempt. The discontent was universal. The 
 towns of Southold, Southampton and Easthann)ton resisted the tax- 
 gatherers. The people of Huntington voted that they were robbed of the 
 privileges of Englishmen. The villagers pf Jamaica, Flushing and Hemp- 
 .stead passed a resolution that the governor's decree of taxation ^vas contrary 
 to the laws of the English nation. The only attention which Lovelace 
 and his council paid to these resolutions was to declare them scandalous, 
 illegal and seditious, and to order them to be publicly burnt before the 
 town-house of New York. When the Swedes, naturally a quiet and 
 submissive people, resisted the exactions of the government, they were 
 visited with additional severity. " If there is any more murmuring against 
 the taxes, make them so heavy that the jieople can do nothing but think 
 how to pay them," said Lovelace in his instructions to his deputy. 
 
 The Dutch and the English colonists were always friends. Not 
 once in the whole history of the country did they lift the sword against 
 each other. Even while England and Holland were at war, as they ^^•ere 
 in 1652-54, the American subjects of the two nations remained at peace. 
 Another war followed that act of violence by which, in 1664, the duke 
 of York possessed himself of New Netherland ; but the conflict did not 
 extend to America. A third time, in 1672, Charles II. was induced by 
 the king of France to begin a contest with the Dutch government. This 
 time, indeed, the struggle extended to the colonies, and New York was 
 revolutionized, but not by the action of her own people. In 1673 a small 
 squadron was fitted out by Holland and placed under command of the 
 gallant Captain Evertsen. The fleet sailed for America, and arrived be- 
 fore Manhattan on the 30th of July. The governor of New York wa;; 
 absent, and Planning, the deputy-governor, was a coward. The defences 
 of the city were dilapidated, and the people refused to strengthen them. 
 Within four hours after the arrival of the squadron the fort was sur- 
 rendered. The city capitulated, and the whole j^-ovince yielded wthout 
 a stru^le. New Jersey and Delaware sent in their submission ; the 
 name of New Netherland was revived ; and the authority of Hodand was 
 restored from Connecticut to Maryland. 
 
174 . HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tlic reconquest of New York by the Dutch was only fi brief mili- 
 tar)' occupation of the country. The civil authority of Holland was never 
 reestablished. In 1674, Charles II. was obliged by his Parliament to 
 conclude a treaty of peace. There was the usual clause requiring the 
 restoration of all conquests made during the war. New York reverted 
 to the English government, and the rights of the duke were again recog- 
 nized in the province. To make his authority doubly secure for the 
 future, he obtained from his brother, the king, a new patent confirming 
 the provisions of the former charter. The man who now received the 
 appointment of deputy-governor of New York Avas none other than Sir 
 Edmund Andros. On the last day of October the Dutch forces were 
 finally withdrawn, and Andros assumed the government. 
 
 It was a sad sort of government for the people. The worst prac- 
 tices of Lovelace's administration were revived. The principles of arbi- 
 trary rule were openly avowed. Taxes were levied without authority of 
 laAv, and the appeals and protests of the people were treated with derision. 
 The clamor for a popular legislative assembly had become so great that 
 Andros was on the point of yielding. He even WTote a letter to the duke 
 of York advising that thick-headed prince to grant the jicople the right 
 of electing a colonial legislature. The duke replied that jiopular assem- 
 blies were seditious and dangerous ; that they only fostered discontent and 
 disturbed the peace of the government; and finally, that he did not see 
 any use for them. To the people of New York the civil liberty of the 
 NeAV England colonies seemed farther off than ever. 
 
 By the terms of his grant the duke of York claimed jurisdiction 
 over all the territory between the Connecticut River and Maryland. To 
 assert and maintain this claim of his master was a part of the deputy- 
 governor's business in America. The first effort to extend the duke's 
 territorial rights to the limits of his charter was made in July of 1675. 
 With some armed sloops and a (Xjmpany of soldiers, Andros proceeded to 
 the mouth of the Connecticut in the hope of establishing his jurisdiction. 
 The general assembly of the colony had heard of his coming, and had 
 sent word to Captain Bull, who commanded the fort at Saybrook, to re- 
 sist Antlros in the name of the king. When the latter came in sight and 
 hoisted the flag of England, the same colors were raised within the fortress. 
 The royal governor was permitted to land ; but when he began to read 
 his commission, he was ordered in the king's name to desist. Overawed 
 by the threatening looks of the Saybrook militia, Andros retired to his 
 boats and set sail for Long Island. 
 
 Notwithstanding the grant of New Jersey to Carteret and Berkeley, 
 the attempt was now made to extend the jurisdiction of New York over 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 175 
 
 the lower province. Audros issued a decree that ships sailing to and 
 from the ports of New Jersey should pay a duty at the custom-house 
 of New York. This tyrannical action was openly resisted. Andres 
 attempted to frighten the assembly of New Jersey into submission, and 
 proceeded so far as to arrest I'hilip Carteret, tiie deputy-governor. But 
 it was all of no use. The representatives of the peojjle declared theiU' 
 selves to be under the jirotection of the Great Charter, which not even the 
 duke of York, or his brother the king, could alter or annul. In August 
 of 1682 the territories beyond the Delaware were granted by the duke to 
 "William Penn. This little district, first settled by the Swedes, afterward 
 conquered by the Dutch, then transferred to England on the conquest of 
 New Netherland, was now finally separated from the jurisdiction of New 
 York and joined to Pennsylvania. The governors of the latter province 
 continued to exercise authority over the three counties on the Delaware 
 until the American Revolution. 
 
 At the close of Andres's administration, in 1683, Thomas Dongan, 
 a Catholic, became governor of New York. For thirty years the people 
 had been clamoring for a general assembly. Just before Andros left the 
 province, the demand became more vehement than ever. The retiring 
 governor, himself of a despotic disposition, counseled the duke to concede 
 the right of representation to the people. At last .James yielded, not so 
 much with the view of extending popular rights, as with the hope of m- 
 creasing his revenues from the improved condition of his province. 
 Dongan, the new governor, came with full instructions to call an assem- 
 bly of all the freeholders of New York, by whom certain persons of their 
 own number should be elected to take part in the g(i\ernment. Seventy 
 years had passed since the settlement of IVIanhattan Island ; and now for 
 the first time the people were permitted to choose their own rulers and to 
 frame their own laws. 
 
 The first act of the new assembly was to declare that the supreme 
 legislative power of the province resided in the governor, the council and 
 THE PEOPLE. All freeholders were granted the right of suffrage ; trial 
 by jury was established ; taxes should no more be levied except by con- 
 sent of the assembly; soldiers should not be quartered on the people; 
 martial law should not exist ; no person accepting the general doctrines 
 of religion should be in any wise distressed or persecuted. All the rights 
 and privileges of Massachusetts and Virginia were carefully written by 
 the zealous law-makei-s of New York in their first charter of liberties. 
 
 In July of 1684 an important treaty was concluded at Albany. 
 The governors of New York and Virginia were met in convention by the 
 sachems of the Iroquois, and the terms of a lasting peace were settled. 
 
176 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 A long war ensued between tlie Five Nations and the French. The 
 Jesuits of Canada employed e\-ery artifice and intrigue to induce tlie 
 Indians to break their treaty with the Englisli, but all to no purjjosc ; 
 the alliance was faithfully observed. In 1684, and again in 1687, the 
 French invaded tlie territory of the Iroquois ; but the mighty Mohawks 
 and Oneidas drove back their foes with loss and disaster. Bv the barrier 
 of the friendly Five Nations on the north, the English and Dutch colo- 
 nies were screened from danger. 
 
 In 1685 the duke of York became king of England. It was soon 
 found that even the monarch of a great nation could violate his pledges. 
 King James became the open antagonist of the government whicli had 
 been established under his own directions. The popular legislature of 
 New York was abrogated. Au odious tax was levied by an arbitrary 
 decree. Printing-presses were forbidden in the province. All the old 
 abuses were revived and made a public boast. 
 
 In December of 1686, Edmund Andros became governor of all 
 New England. It w^as a part of his 2>Ia'i to extend his dominion over 
 New York and New Jersey. To the former province, Francis Nicliolson, 
 the lieutenant-general of Andros, was sent as dej)uty. Dongan was super- 
 seded, and until the Englisli Revolution of 1688, New York was ruled 
 as a dependency of New England. Wlien the news of that event and of 
 the accession of William of Orange readied the province, tliere was a 
 general tunmlt of rejoicing. The people rose in rebellion against the 
 government of Nicliolson, who was glad enough to escape from New 
 York and return to England. 
 
 The leader of the insurrection was Jacob Leisler, a captain of the 
 militia. A committee of ten took upon themselves the task of reorganizing 
 the government. Leisler was conmiissioned to take possession of the fort 
 of New York. Most of the troops in the city, together with five iiundrcd 
 volunteers, proceeded against the fort, which was surrendered ^\•ithout a 
 struggle. Tiie insurgents published a declaration in which tliey avowed 
 their loyalty to the prince of Orange, their countryman, and expressed 
 their determination to yield inuuediate obedience to his authority. A 
 provisional government was organized, witli Leisler at the head. The 
 provincial counciloi-s, who were friends and adherents of the deposed 
 Nicholson, left the city and repaired to Albany. Here tlie party who 
 were ojiposed to the usurpation of Leisler proceeded to organize a second 
 provisional government. Both factions were careful to exercise autliority 
 in the name of William and Mary, the new sovereigns of England. 
 
 In September of 1689, Milborne, the son-in-law of Leisler, was 
 sent to Albany to demand the surrender of the town and fort. Court- 
 
NEW YORK: UNDER THE ENGLISH. 177 
 
 land and Bayard, A'ho were the leadei-s of the northern faction, opposed 
 tlie demand with so much vigor tiiat Milborne v/as obliged to retire with- 
 out accomplishing his object. Such was the condition of affairs at the 
 beginning of King William's War. How the village of Schenectady was 
 destroyed by the French and Indians, and how an unsuccessful expedition 
 by land and water was planned against Quebec and Montreal, has been 
 narrated in the history of Massachusetts. Such was the dispiriting effect 
 of these disasters upon the people of Albany and the north that a second 
 effort made by Milborne against the government of the opposing faction 
 was successful ; and in the spring of 1690 the authority of Leisler as tem- 
 porary governor of New York was recognized throughout the province. 
 The summer was spent in fruitless preparations to invade and conquer 
 Canada. The general assembly was convened at the capital ; but little 
 was accomplished except a formal recognition of the insurrectionary 
 government of Leisler. ' 
 
 In January of 1691, Richard Ingoldsby arrived at New York. 
 He bore a commission as captain, and brought the intelligence that Colo- 
 nel Sloughter had been appointed royal governor of the province. Leisler 
 received Ingoldsby with courtesy, and offered him quarters in the city ; 
 but the latter, without authority from either the king or the governor, 
 haughtily demanded the surrender of HLs Majesty's fort. Leisler reflised 
 to yield, but expressed his willingness to submit to any one who bore 
 a commission from King William or Colonel Sloughter. On the 19th 
 of March the governor himself arrived; and Leisler on the same day 
 despatched messengers, tendering his service and submission. The mes- 
 sengers were arrested, and Ingoldsby, the enemy and rival of Leisler, was 
 sent with verbal orders for the surrender of the fort. Leisler foresaw his 
 doom, and hesitated. He wrote a letter to Sloughter, expressing a desire 
 to make a personal surrender of the post to the governor. The letter was 
 unanswered ; Ingoldsby pressed his demand ; Leisler wavered, capitu- 
 lated, and with Milborne was seized and hurried to prison. 
 
 As soon as the royal government was organized the two prisoners 
 were brought to trial. The charge was rebellion and treason. Dudley, 
 the chief-justice of New England, rendered a decision that Leisler had 
 been a usurper. The prisoners refused to plead, were convicted and sen- 
 tenced to death. Sloughter, however, determined to know the pleasure 
 of the king before putting the sentence into execution. But the royalist 
 assembly of New York had already come together, and the members were 
 resolved that the prisoners should be hurried to their death. The governor 
 was invited to a banquet ; and when heated with strong drink, the death- 
 Tarrant was thrust before him for his signature. He succeeded in aflBx- 
 
 12 
 
178 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ing his name to the fatal parchment ; and almost before the fumes of his 
 drunken revel had passed away, his victims had met their fate. On the 
 16th of May, Leisler and Milbornc were brought from prison, led through 
 a drenching rain to the scaftbld and hanged. Within less than a year 
 afterward, their estates, which had been confiscated, were restored to their 
 heirs; and in 1695 the attainder of the families was removed. 
 
 The same summer that witnessed the execution of Leisler and 
 Milborne was noted for the renewal of the treaty with the Iroquois. At 
 Albany, Governor Sloughter met the sachems of the Five Nations, and 
 the former terms of fidelity and friendship were reaffirmed. In the fol- 
 lowing year the valiant JNIajor Schuyler, at the head of the New York 
 militia, joined a war-party of the Iroquois in a successful expedition 
 against the French settlements beyond Lake Champlain. Meanwhile, 
 the assembly of the province had been in session at the capital. Although 
 the representatives were royalists, a resolution was passed against arbitrary 
 taxation, and another which declared tlie people to be a part of the govern- 
 ing power of the colony. It was not long until one of the governors had 
 occasion to say that the people of New York were growing altogether too 
 big with the privileges of Englishmen. 
 
 Soon after his return from Albany, Sloughter's career was cut 
 short by death. He was succeeded in the office of governor by Benjamin 
 Fletcher, a man of bad passions and poor abilities. The new executive 
 arrived in September of 1692. One of the first mea.sures of his adminis- 
 tration was to renew the recent treaty with the Iroquois. It was at this 
 time the avowed jiurpose of the English monarch to place under a com- 
 mon government all the territory between the Connecticut River and 
 Delaware Bay. To further this project, Fletcher was armed with an 
 ample and comprehensive commission. He was made governor of New 
 Y'ork, and commander-in-chief not only of the troops of his own jirovincc, 
 but also of the militia of Connecticut and New Jersey. In the latter 
 province he met with little opposition ; but the Puritans of Hartford re- 
 sisted so stubbornly that the alarmed and disgusted governor was glad to 
 return to his own capital. 
 
 The next effort of the administration was to establish the Episcopal 
 Church in New York. The Dutch and the English colonists of tlie 
 province were still distinct in nationality ; the former, though Calvinists, 
 were not unfriendly to the Episcopal service which the Puritans so 
 heartily despised. In a religious controversy between Fletcher's council 
 and the English, the Dutch, not being partisans of either, looked on with 
 comparative indifference. But when the governor was on the point of 
 succeeding witli his measures, the general assembly interposed, passed a 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 179 
 
 decree of toleration, and brought tlu; pretentious Cliurch to a level with 
 the rest. Fletcher gave vent to his indignation by calling his legislators 
 a set of unmannerly and insubordinate boors. 
 
 In 1696 the territory of New York was invaded by the French 
 under Frontenac, governor of Canada. The faithful Iroquois made com- 
 mon cause with the colonial forces, and the formidable expedition of the 
 French was turned into confusion. Betbre the loss could be repaired 
 and a second invasion undertaken. King William's War was ended by the 
 treaty of Ryswick. In the following year, the earl of Bellomont, an 
 Irish nobleman of excellent character and popular sympathies, succeeded 
 Fletcher in the government of New York. His administration of less 
 than four yeai-s was the happiest era in the history of the colony. His 
 authority, like that of his predecessor, extended over a part of New Eng- 
 land. Massachusetts and New Hampshire were under his jurisdiction, 
 but Connecticut and Rhode Island remained independent. To this period 
 belong the exploits of the famous pirate, Captain William Kidd. 
 
 For centuries piracy had been the common vice of the high seas. 
 The nations were just now beginning to take active measures for the sup- 
 pression of the atrocious crime. The honest and humane Bellomont was 
 one who was anxioiLS to see the end of piratical violence. His commission 
 contained a clause which authorized the arming of a vessel to range the 
 ocean in pursuit of pirates. The ship was to bear the English flag, and 
 was also commissioned as a privateer to prey upon the commerce of the 
 enemies of England. The vessel was owned by a company of distin- 
 guished and honorable persons ; Governor Bellomont himself was one of 
 the proprietors ; and William Kidd received from the English admii-alty 
 a commission as captain. The ship sailed from England before Bello- 
 mont's departui-e for New York. Hardly had the earl reached his 
 province when the news came that Kidd himself had turned pirate and 
 become the terror of the seas. For two years he continued his infamous 
 career, then appeai-ed publicly in the streets of Boston, was seized, sent 
 to England, tried, convicted and hanged. What disposition was made 
 of the enormous treasures which the pirate-ship had gathered on the ocean 
 has never been ascertained. It has been thought that the vast hoard of 
 ill-gotten wealth was buried in the sands of Long Island. Governor 
 Bellomont was charged with having shared the booty, but an in- 
 vestigation before the House of Commons showed the accusation to be 
 groundless. 
 
 In striking contrast with the virtues and wisdom of Bellomont 
 were the vices and folly of Lord Cornbury, who succeeded him. He 
 arrived at New York in the begifluing of May, 1702. A mouth 
 
180 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 previously the proprietors of New Jersey had surrendered their rights 
 in the province to tlie English Crown. All obstacles being thus removed, 
 the two colonies were formally united in one government under the 
 authority of Cornbury. For a period of thirty-six years the tcrritorias, 
 though with separate assemblies, continued under the jurisdiction of a 
 single executive. 
 
 One of Cornbury's first acts was to forge a clause in his own com- 
 mission. Desiring to foster the Established Church, and finding nothing 
 to that effect in his instructions, he made instructions for himself. At 
 first the jjeople received him with great favor. The assembly voted two 
 thousand pounds sterling to comjjensate him for the expenses of his 
 voyage. In order to improve and fortify the Narrows, an additional sum 
 of fifteen hundred pounds was granted. The money was taken out of the 
 treasury, but no improvement Mas visible at the Narrov/s. The repre- 
 sentatives modcstl}' inquired M'hat had become of their revenues. Lord 
 Cornbury replied that the assembly of New York had no right to ask 
 questions until the queen should give them permission. The old and 
 oft-rejieated conflict between personal despotism and popular liberty broke 
 out anew. The people of the province were still divided on the subject 
 of Leisler's insurrection. Cornbury became a violent partisan, favoring 
 the enemies and persecuting the friends of that unfortunate leader ; and so 
 from year to year matters grew constantly worse, until between the gov- 
 ernor and his people there existed no relation but that of mutual hatred. 
 
 In 1708 the civil dissensions of the province reached a climax. 
 Each succeeding assembly resisted more stubbornly the measures of the 
 governor. Time and again the people petitioned for his removal. The 
 councilors selected their own treasurer, refused to vote appro]3riations, 
 and curtailed Cornbury's revenues until he was impoverished and ruined. 
 Then came Lord Lovelace with a commission from Queen Anne, and the 
 passionate, wretched governor was unceremoniously turned out of office. 
 Left to the mercy of his injured subjects, they arrested him for debt and 
 threw him into prison, where he lay until, by his father's death, he be- 
 came a peer of England and could be no longer held in confinement. 
 
 During the progress of Queen Anne's War the troops of New York 
 cooperated with the army and navy of New England. Eigliteen hun- 
 dred volunteers from the Hudson and the Delaware composed the land 
 forces in the unsuccessful expedition against IMontreal in the winter of 
 1709-10. The jjrovincial army proceeded as far as South River, east 
 of Lake George. Here information was received that the English fleet 
 which was expected to cooperate in the reduction of Quebec had been 
 sent to Portugal ; the armament of New England was insufficient of 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 181 
 
 itself to attempt the conquest of the Canadian stronghold ; and the troops 
 of New York and New Jersey were obliged to retreat. Again, in 1711, 
 when the incompetent Sir Hovenden Walker was pretending to conduct 
 his fleet up the St. Lawrence, and was in reality only anxious to get 
 away, the army which was to invade Canada by land was furnished by 
 New York. A second time the provincial forces reached Lake George ; 
 but the dispiriting news of the disaster to Walker's fleet destroyed all 
 hope of success, and the discouraged soldiers returned to their homes. 
 
 Failure and disgrace were not the only distressing circumstances 
 of tiiese campaigns ; a heavy debt remained to overshadow the prosperity 
 of New York and to consume her revenues. For many years the re- 
 sources of the province were exhausted in meeting the extraordinary 
 expenses of Queen Anne's war. In 1713 the treaty of Utrecht put an 
 end to the conflict, and peace returned to the American colonies. In this 
 year the Tuscaroras of Carolina — a nation of the same race with the Iro- 
 quois and Hurons of the North — were defeated and driven from their 
 homes by the Southern colonists. The haughty tribe marched north- 
 ward, crossed the middle colonies and joined their warlike kinsmen on 
 the St. Lawrence, making the sixth nation in the Iroquois confederacy. 
 Nine years later a great council was held at Albany. There the grand 
 sachems of the Six Nations were met by the governors of New York, 
 Pennsylvania and Virginia. An important commercial treaty was 
 formed, by which the extensive and profitable fur-trade of the Indians, 
 which, until now, had been engrossed by the French, was diverted to the 
 English. In order to secure the fiiU benefits of this arrangement, Governor 
 Burnett of New York hastened to establish a trading-post at Oswego, on 
 the southern shore of Lake Ontario. Five years later a substantial fort 
 was built at the same place and fiirnished -svith an English garrison. As 
 late as the middle of the century, Oswego continued to be the only forti- 
 fied outpost of the English in the entire country drained by the St. Law- 
 rence and its tributaries. The French, meanwhile, had built a strong fort 
 at Niagara, and another at Crown Point, on the western shore of Lake 
 Champ] lin. The struggle for colonial supremacy between the two nations 
 was already beginning. 
 
 The administration of Governor Cosby, who succeeded Burnett in 
 1732, was a stormy epoch in the history of the colony. The people were 
 in a constant struggle with the royal governors. At this time the contest 
 took the form of a dispute about the freedom of the press. The liberal 
 or democratic party of the province held that a public journal might criti- 
 v\se the acts of the administration and publish views distasteful to the 
 p'overnment. The aristocratic party opposed such liberty as a dangerous 
 
182 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 license, which, if permitted, \vould soon sap the foundations of all au- 
 thority. Zenger, an editor of one of the liberal newspapers, published 
 hostile criticisms on the policy of the governor, was seized and put in 
 prison. Great excitement ensued. The peojjle were clamorous for their 
 champion. Andrew Hamilton, a noted lawyer of Philadelphia, went to 
 New York to defend Zenger, who was brought to trial in July of 1735. 
 The charge was libel against the government ; the cause was ably argued, 
 and the jury made haste to bring in a verdict of acquittal. The aldermen 
 of the city of New York, in order to testify their appreciation of Hamil- 
 ton's services in the cause of liberty, made him a present of an elegant 
 gold box, and the people were wild with enthusiasm over their victory. 
 
 New York, like Massachusetts, was once visited with a fatal delu- 
 sion. In the year 1 741 occurred what is known as the Negro Plot. 
 Slavery wa.s permitted in the province, and negroes constituted a large 
 fraction of the population. Several destructive fires had occurred, and it 
 was believed that they had been kindled by incendiaries. The slaves 
 were naturally distrusted ; now they became feared and hated. Some 
 degraded women came forward and gave information that the negroes 
 had made a plot to burn the city, kill all who opposed them, and set up 
 one of their own number as governor. The whole story was the essence 
 of absurdity ; but the people were alarmed, and were ready to believe 
 anything. The re^vard of freedom was offered to any slave who would 
 reveal the plot. Many witnesses rushed forward with foolish and contra- 
 dictoiy stories ; the jails were filled with the accused ; and more than 
 thirty of the miserable creatures, with hardly the form of a trial, were 
 convicted and then hanged or burned to death. Others were transported 
 and sold as slaves in foreign lands. As soon as the supposed peril had 
 passed and the excited people regained their senses, it came to be doubted 
 whether the whole shocking affair had not been the result of terror and 
 fanaticism. The verdict of after times has been that there was no plot 
 at all. 
 
 During the progress of King George's "War the territory of New 
 York was several times invaded by the French and Indians. But the 
 invasions were feeble and easily repelled. Except the abandonment of a 
 few villages in the northern part of the State and the destruction of a 
 small amount of exposed property^, little harm Mas done to the j)rovince. 
 The alliance of the fierce Mohawks with the English always made the in- 
 vasion of New York by the French an exploit of more danger than profit. 
 The treaty of Aix-la-Chaj)elle, concluded in 1748, again brought peace 
 and prosperity to the people. 
 
 Notwithstanding the central position of New York, her growth 
 
 iJ 
 
NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 183 
 
 was slow, her development, unsteady, and her prospects darkened with 
 much adversity. In population she stood, at tlie outbreak of the 
 French and Indian war, but sixtli in a list of the colonies. Massa- 
 chusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia had all 
 outstripped her in the race. But the elements of future renown were 
 nowhere else more abundantly bestowed. Here at the foot of her 
 princi])al city lay the most convenient and commodious harbor on the 
 Atlantic. A magnificent river — draining the country as far as where, 
 at Onondaga, burned the great council-fire of the Six Nations — rolled 
 down through fruitful valleys to join the waters of the bay. Best of 
 all, the people who inhabited the noble province were ever ready to 
 resist oppression, bold to defend their rights, and zealous in the cause 
 of freedom. 
 
 Such is the history of the little colony planted on Manhattan 
 Island. A hundred and thirty years have passed since the first feeble 
 settlements were made ; now the great valley of the Hudson is filled with 
 beautiful farms and teeming villages. The Walloons of Flanders and 
 the Puritans of New England have blended into a common people. Dis- 
 cord and contention, though bitter while they lasted, have borne only the 
 peaceful fruit of colonial liberty. There are other and greater struggles 
 through which New York must pass, other burdens to be borne, other 
 calamities to be endured, other fires in which her sons must be tried and 
 purified, before they gain their freedom. But the oldest and greatest of 
 the middle colonies has entered upon a glorious career, and the ample 
 foundations of an Empire State are securely laid. 
 
COLONIAL HLSTORY.— Continued. 
 
 MINOR EASTERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 THE history of Connecticut begins with the year 1630. The first 
 grant of the territory was made by the council of Plj^mouth to tlie 
 earl of Warwick; and in March of 1631 the claim was transferred by 
 him to Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, John Hampden and others. 
 Before a colony could be planted by the proprietors, the Dutch of New 
 Netherland reached the Connecticut River and built at Hartford their 
 fort, called the House of Good Hope. The people of New Plymouth 
 immediately organized and sent out a force to counteract this movement 
 of their rivals. The territorial claim of the Puritans extended not only 
 over Connecticut, but over New Netherland itself and onward to the 
 west. Should the intruding Dutch colonists of Manhattan be allowed 
 to move eastward and take possession of the finest valley in New Eng- 
 land ? Certainly not. 
 
 The English expedition reached the mouth of the Connecticut and 
 sailed up the river. When the little squadron came opposite the House 
 of Good Hope, the commander of the garrison ordered Captain Holmes, 
 the English officer, to strike his colors; but the order was treated 
 with derision. The Dutch threatened to fire in case the fleet should attempt 
 to pass ; but the English defiantly hoisted sails and proceeded up the river. 
 The puny cannons of tlie House of Good Hope remained cold and silent. 
 At a point just below the mouth of the Farmington, seven miles above 
 Hartford, the Puritans landed and built the block-house of Windsor. 
 
 In October of 1635 a colony of sixty persons left Boston, traversed 
 
 the forests of Central Massachusetts, and settled at Hartford, Windsor 
 
 and Wethersfield. Earlier in the same year the younger Wiuthrop, a 
 
 man who in all the virtues of a noble life was a worthy rival of liis 
 (184) 
 
CONNECTICUT. 185 
 
 father, the govei'nor of Massacliusetts, arrived in New England. Ho 
 bore a commission from the proprietors of the Western colony to build a 
 fort at the mouth of the Connecticut River, and to prevent the further 
 encroachmeuts of the Dutch. The fortress was hastily completed and 
 the guns mounted just in time to prevent the entrance of a Dutch 
 trading-vessel which appeared at the mouth of the river. Such was the 
 founding of Saybrook, so named in honor of the proprietors, Lords Say- 
 and-Seal and Brocjke. Thus was the most important river of New Eng- 
 land brought under the dominion of the Puritans; the solitaiy Dutch 
 settlement at Hartford was cut off from succor and left to dwindle into 
 insignificance. 
 
 To the early annals of Connecticut belongs the sad story of the 
 Pequod "War. The country west of the Thames was more thickly 
 peopled with savages than any other portion of New England. The 
 haughty and warlike Pequods were alone able to muster seven hundred 
 warriors. The whole effective force of the English colonists did not 
 amount to two hundred men. But the superior numbers of the cunning 
 and revengeful savages were more than balanced by the unflinching 
 courage and destructive weapons of the English. 
 
 The first act of violence was committed in the year 1633. The 
 crew of a small trading-vessel were ambushed and murdered on the banks 
 of the Connecticut. An Indian embassy went to Boston to apologize for 
 the crime ; the nation was forgiven and received in friendship. A treaty 
 was patched up, the Pequods acknowledging the supremacy of the Eng- 
 lish and promising to become civilized. The Narragansetts, the heredi- 
 taiy enemies of the Pequods, had already yielded to the authority of 
 ISIassachusetts and promised obedience to her laws. A reconciliation was 
 thus effected between the two hostile races of savages. But as soon as the 
 Pequods were freed from their old fear of the Narragansetts, they began 
 to violate their recent treaty with the English. Oldham, the worthy 
 captain of a trading-vessel, was murdered near Block Island. A com- 
 pany of militia pursued the perpetrators of the outrage and gave them 
 a bloody punishment. All the slumbering hatred and suppressed rage 
 of the nation burst forth, and the war began in earnest. 
 
 In this juncture of affairs the Pequods attempted a piece of danger- 
 ous dijilomacy. A persistent effort was made to induce the Narragansetts 
 and the Mohegans to join in a war of extermination against the English ; 
 and the plot was welhiigh successful. But the heroic Roger Williams, 
 faithful in his misfortunes, sent a letter to Sir Henry Vane, governor of 
 Massachusetts, warned him of the impending danger, and volunteered his 
 pervices to defeat the conspiracy. The governor replied, urging Williams 
 
186 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 to use his utmost endeavors to thwart the threatened alHance. Erabark- 
 inf alone in a frail canoe, the exile left Providence, which he had founded 
 only a month before, and drifted out into Narragausett Bay. Every mo- 
 ment it seemed that the jioor little boat with its lonely passenger would be 
 swallowed up ; but his courage and skill as an oarsman at last brought 
 him to the shore in safety. Proceeding at once to the house of Canonicus, 
 king of the Narragansetts, he found the painted and bloody ambassadors 
 of the Pequods already there. For three days and nights, at the deadly 
 peril of his life, he pleaded with Canonicus and Miantonomoh to reject 
 the proposals of the hostile tribe, and to stand fast in their allegiance to 
 the English. His noble efforts were successful; the wavering Narra- 
 gansetts voted to remain at peace, and the disappointed Pequod chieis 
 were sent away. 
 
 The Mohegans also rejected the proposed alliance. Uncas, the 
 sachem of that nation, not only remained faithful to the whites, but fur- 
 nished a party of warriors to aid them against the Pequods. In the 
 meantime, repeated acts of violence had roased the colony to vengeance. 
 During the winter of 1636-37 many murders were committed in the 
 neighborhood of Saybrook. In the following April a massacre occurred 
 at Wethersfield, in which nine persons were butchered. On the 1st day 
 of May the three towns of Connecticut declared war. Sixty gallant volun- 
 teers — one-third of the whole effective force of the colony — were put under 
 command of Captain John INIason of Hartford. Seventy Mohegans joined 
 the expedition ; and the thoughtful Sir Henry Vane sent Captain Under- 
 bill with twenty soldiers from Boston. 
 
 The descent from Hartford to Saybrook occupied one day. On the 
 20th of the month the expedition, sailing eastward, passed the mouth of 
 the Thames ; here was the principal seat of the Pequod nation. When 
 the savages saw the squadron go by without attempting to land, they set 
 up shouts of exultation, and persuaded themselves that the English were 
 afraid to hazard battle. But the poor natives had sadly mistaken the 
 men with whom they had to deal. The fleet proceeded quietly into 
 Narragausett Bay and anchored in the harbor of Wickford. Here the 
 troops landed and began their march into the country of the Pequods. 
 After one day's advance, Mason reached the cabin of Canonicus and 
 Miantonomoh, sachems of the Narragansetts. Them he attempted to 
 persuade to join him against the common enemy ; but the wary chieftains, 
 knowing the prowess of the Pequods, and fearing that the English might 
 be deieated, decided to remain neutral. 
 
 . On the evening of the 25th of May the troops of Connecticut came 
 within hearing of the Pequod fort. The unsuspecting Avarriors spent 
 
CONNECTICUT. 
 
 187 
 
 .UUdllH' 
 
 SCENE OF THE PEQUOD WAR. 
 
 their last night on earth in ui)roar and jubilee. At two o'clock in the 
 morning the Englisli soldiers rose suddenly from their places of conceal- 
 ment and rushed forward to the fort. A dog ran howling among the 
 wigwams, and the warriors sprang to 
 arras, only to receive a deadly volley 
 from the English muskets. The fear- 
 less assailants leaped over the puny 
 palisades and began the work of 
 deatii ; but the savages rose on every 
 side in such numbers that Mason's 
 men were about to be overwhelmed. 
 " Burn them ! burn them !" shouted 
 the dauntless captain, seizing a flaming 
 mat and running to the windward of 
 the cabins. "Burn thera !" resounded on every side; and in a few 
 minutes the drj' wigwams M'ere one sheet of crackling flame. The Eng- 
 lish and Mohegans hastily withdrew to the ramparts. The yelling savages 
 found themselves begirt with fire. They ran round and round like wild 
 beasts in a burning circus. If one of the wretched creatures burst through 
 the flames, it was only to meet certain death from a broadsword or a 
 musket-ball. The destruction was complete and awful. Only seven 
 warriors csca])ed ; seven others were made prisoners. Six hundred men, 
 women and children perished, nearly all of them being roasted to deatii 
 in a hideous heap. Before the rising of the sun the pride and glory of 
 the Pequods had passed away for ever. Sassacus, the grand sachem of 
 the tribe, escaped into the forest, fled for protection to the Mohawks, and 
 was murdered. Two of the English soldiers were killed and twenty 
 others wounded in the battle. 
 
 In the early morning tiiree hundred Pequods, the remnant of the 
 nation, approached from a second fort in the neighborhood. They had 
 heard the tumult of battle, and sujjposed their friends victorious. To their 
 utter horror, they found their fortified town in ashes and nearly all their 
 proud tribe lying in one blackened pile of half-burnt flesh and bones. 
 The savage warriors stamped the earth, yelled and tore their liair in 
 desperate rage, and ran liowling through the woods. Mason's men re- 
 turned by way of New London to Saybrook, and thence to Hartford. 
 New troops arrived from Massachusetts. The remnants of the hostile 
 nation were pursued into the swamps and thickets west of Saybrook. 
 Every wigwam of the Pequods was burned, and every field laid waste. 
 The remaining two hundred panting fugitives were hunted to deatii oi 
 captivity. The prisoners were distributed as servants among the Narra- 
 
188 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 gansetts and Mohegans ; a few were sold as slaves. The first war between 
 the English colonists and the natives had ended in the overthrow and 
 destruction of one of the most powerful tribes of New England. For 
 many years the other nations, when tempted to hostility, remembered the 
 fate of the Pequods. 
 
 The final capture of the Pequod fugitives was made at Fairfield, 
 on Long Island Sound, fifty miles south-west fl-om Saybrook. The Eng- 
 lish thus became better acquainted with the coast west of the mouth of 
 the Connecticut. Some men of Boston were delighted with the beautiful 
 plain between the "Wallingford and West Kivers. Here they tarried over 
 winter, building some cabins and exploring the country ; such was the 
 founding of New Haven. Shortly afterward, a Puritan colony from 
 England, under the leadei"ship of Theophilus Eaton and John Davenport, 
 an-ived at Boston. Hearing of the beauty of the country on the sound, 
 the new immigrants again set sail, and about the middle of April reached 
 Xew Haven. On the niorning of the first Sabbath after their arrival the 
 colonists assembled for worehip under a spreading oak ; and Davenport, 
 their minister, preached a touching and appropriate sermon on The 
 Temptation in the Wilderness. The nest care was to make an 
 honorable purchase of land from the Indians — a policy which was ever 
 afterward faithfully adhered to by the colony. For the first year there 
 was no government except a simple covenant, into which the settlers 
 entered, that all would be obedient to the rules of Scripture. 
 
 In June of 1639 the- leading men of New Haven held a convention 
 in a bar)}, and formally adopted the Bible as the constitution of the State. 
 Everything was strictly conformed to the religious standard. The govern- 
 ment was called the House of Wisdom, of which Eaton, Davenport and 
 five others were the seven Pillars. None but church members were ad- 
 mitted to the rights of citizenship. All offices M'ere to be filled by the 
 votes of the fi-eemen at an annual election. For twenty years consecu- 
 tively, Mr. Eaton — first and greatest of the pillai-s — was chosen governor 
 of the colony. Other settlers came, and pleasant villages sprang up on 
 both shores of Long Island Sound. 
 
 Civil government began in Connecticut in the year 1639. Until 
 that time the Western colonies had been subject to jNIassachusetts, and 
 had scarcely thought of independence. But when the soldiers of Hartford 
 returned victorious from the Pequod war, the exulting people began to 
 think of a separate commonwealth. If they could fight their own battles, 
 could they not make their own laws? Delegates from the three towns 
 came together at Hartford, and on the 14th of January a constitution was 
 framed for the colony. The new instrument was one of the most simple 
 
CONNECTICUT. 189 
 
 and liberal ever adopted. An oath of allegiance to the State was the 
 only qualification of citizenship. No recognition of the English king or 
 of any foreign authority was required. Different religious opinions were 
 alike tolerated and respected. All the officers of the colony were to be 
 chosen by ballot at an annual election. The law-making power Avas 
 vested in a general assembly, and the representatives were apportioned 
 among the towns according to poj^ulation. Neither Saybrook nor New 
 Haven ado])ted this constitution, by which the other colonics in the valley 
 of the Connecticut were united in a common government. 
 
 In 1 643, Connecticut became a member of the Union of New Eng- 
 land. Into this confederacy New Haven was also admitted ; and in the 
 next year Saybrook was purchased of George Fenwick, one of the pro- 
 prietors, and permanently annexed to Connecticut. The anticij^ated diffi- 
 culties with the Dutch of New Netherland had made the colonies of the 
 West anxious for a closer union with Massachusetts. The fears of the 
 people were not entirely quieted until 1650, when Governor Stuyvesant 
 met the commissioners of Connecticut at Hartford, and established the 
 western boundary of the province. This measure promised peace ; but in 
 1651 war broke out between England and Holland, and notwithstanding 
 the recent pledges of friendship, New England and New Netherland M'ere 
 wellnigh drawn into the conflict. Stuyvesant was suspected of inciting 
 the Indians against the English ; a declaration of war was proposed be- 
 fore the delegates of the united colonies, and was only prevented from 
 passing by the veto of Massachusetts. Left without suj)port, Connecticut 
 and New Haven next sought aid from CromM-ell, who entered heai'tily 
 into the project and sent but a fleet to co-operate with the colonists in the 
 reduction of New Netherland. But while the western towns were busily 
 preparing for war, the news of peace arrived, and hostilities were happily 
 averted. 
 
 On the restoration of monarchy in England, Connecticut made 
 haste to recognize King Charles as rightful sovereign. It was as much 
 an act of sound policy as of loyal zeal. The people of the Connecticut 
 valley were eager for a royal charter. They had conquered the Pequods ; 
 they had bought the lands of the Moliegans ; they had purchased the 
 claims of the earl of Warwick ; it only remained to secure all these 
 acquisitions with a patent from the king. The infant rejiublic selected 
 its best and truest man, the scholarly younger Winthrop, and sent him 
 as ambassador to London. He bore with him a charter which had been 
 carefully prepared by the authorities of Hartford ; the problem was to 
 induce the king to sign it. 
 
 The aged Lord Say-and-Seal, for many years the friend and bene- 
 
190 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 factor of the colony, was now an important officer of the Crown. To him 
 Winthrop delivered a letter, nnfolded his plans and appealed for help ; 
 and the appeal was not in vain. The earl of Manchester, lord chamber- 
 lain to the king, was induced to lend his aid. Winthrop easily obtained 
 an audience with the sovereign, and did not fail to show him a ring 
 which Charles I. had given as a pledge of friendship to Winthrop's 
 grandfather. The little token so moved the wayward monarch's feelings 
 
 that in a moment 
 of careless mag- 
 nanimity he signed 
 the colonial charter 
 without the alter- 
 ation of a letter. 
 Winthrop returned 
 to the rejoicing col- 
 ony, bearing a pat- 
 ent the most liberal 
 and ample ever 
 granted by an Eng- 
 lish monarch. The 
 of 
 
 powc 
 
 o;overn- 
 
 ing themselves was 
 
 THE YOUNGER WINTHROP. 
 
 'Vv 
 
 conferred on the 
 people without 
 qualification or re- 
 striction. Every 
 right of sovereign- 
 ty and of inde- 
 pendence, except 
 the name, was con- 
 ceded to the new State. The territory included under the charter ex- 
 tended from the bay and river of the Narragansetts westward to the 
 Pacific. The people who had built the House of Wisdom at New 
 ilaven now found themselves the unwilling subjects of the new com- 
 monwealth of Connecticut. 
 
 For fourteen years the excellent Winthrop M^as annually chosen 
 governor of the colony. Every year added largely to the pojjulation and 
 wealth of the province. The civil and religious institutions were the 
 freest and best in New England. Peace reigned ; the husbandman was 
 undisturbed in the field, the workman in his shop. Even during King 
 Philip's War, Connecticut was saved from invasion. Not a war-whoop 
 
CONNECTICUT. lOI 
 
 was heard, not a lianilot burned, not a life lost, within her borders. Her 
 soldiers made common cause with their brethren of Massachusetts and 
 Rhode Island; but their own homes were saved from the desolations 
 of war. 
 
 In July of 1675, Sir Edmund Andros, the governor of New York, 
 arrived with an armed sloop at the mouth of the Connecticut. Orders 
 were sent to Captain Bull, who commanded the fort at Saybrook, to sur- 
 render his post; but the brave captain replied by hoisting the flag of 
 England and assuring the bearer of the message that his master would 
 better retire. Andros, however, landed and came to a parley with the 
 officers of the fort. He began to read his commission, but was ordered 
 to stop. In vain did the arrogant magistrate insist that tlie dominions 
 of the duke of York extended from the Connecticut to the Delaware. 
 " Connecticut has her own charter, signed by His Gracious Majesty King 
 Charles II.," said Captain Bull. " Leave off your reading, or take the 
 consequences!" The argument prevailed, and the red-coated governor, 
 trembling with rage, was escorted to his boat by a company of Saybrook 
 militia. 
 
 In 1686, when Andros was made royal governor of New England, 
 Connecticut was again included in his jurisdiction. The first year of his 
 administration was spent in establishing his authority in Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island and New Hampshire. In the following October he made 
 his famous visit to Hartford. On the day of his arrival he invaded the 
 provincial assembly while in session, seized the book of minutes, and with 
 his own hand wrote Finis at the bottom of the page. He demanded the 
 immediate surrender of the colonial charter. Governor Treat pleaded 
 long and earnestly for the preservation of the precious document. Andros 
 was inexorable. The shades of evening fell. Joseph Wads^^•orth found 
 in the gathering darkness an opportunity to conceal the cherished parch- 
 ment — a deed which has made his own name and the name of a tree 
 immortal. Two years later, when the government of Andros was over- 
 thrown, Connecticut made haste to restore her liberties. 
 
 In the autumn of 169.^, another attempt was made to subvert the 
 freedom of the colony. Fletcher, the governor of New York, went to 
 Hartford to assume command of the militia of the province. He bore 
 a commission from King William ; but by the terms of the charter the 
 right of commanding the troops was vested in the colony itself. The 
 general assembly refused to recognize the authority of Fletcher, \\'ho, 
 neverthele.ss, ordered the soldiers under arms and proceeded to read his 
 commission as colonel. " Beat the dnuiis !" shouted Ca])tain Wadsworth, 
 who stood at the head of the company. " Silence I" said Fletcher ; the 
 
192 HISTORY OF TEE UNITED STATES. 
 
 drums ceased, and the reading began again. "Drum! drum!" cried 
 Wadsworth ; and a second time the voice of the reader was di'owned 
 in the uj)roar. " Silence ! silence !" shouted the enraged governor. The 
 dauntless Wadsworth stepped before the ranks and said, "Colonel 
 Fletcher, if I am interrupted again, I will let the sunshine through your 
 body in an instant." That ended the controversy. Benjamin Fletcher 
 thought it better to be a living governor of New York than a dead 
 colonel of the Connecticut militia. 
 
 " I give these books for the founding of a college in this colony." 
 Such were the words often ministers who, in the year 1700, assembled at 
 the village of Branford, a few miles east of New Haven. Each of the 
 worthy fathers, as he uttered the words, deposited a few volumes on the 
 table around which they were sitting ; such was the founding of Yale 
 College. In 1702 the school was formally opened at Saybrook, where 
 it continued for fifteen years, and was then removed to New Haven. 
 One of the most liberal patrons of the college was Elihu Yale, from whom 
 the famous institution of learning deiived its name. Common schools 
 had existed in almost every village of Connecticut since the planting 
 of the colony. The children of tJie Pilgrims have never forgotten the 
 cause of education. 
 
 The half century preceding the French and Indian war was a 
 period of prosperity to aU the western districts of New England. Con- 
 necticut was especially favored. Almost unbroken peace reigned through- 
 out her borders. The blessings of a free commonwealth were realized in 
 full measure. The farmer reaped his fields in cheerfulness and hope. 
 The mechanic made glad his dusty shop with anecdote and song. The 
 merchant feared no duty, the villager no taxes. Want was unknown and 
 pauperism unheard of Wealth was little cared for and crime of rare 
 occurrence among a people with whom intelligence and virtue Avere the 
 only foundations of nobility. With fewer dark pages in her history, less 
 austerity of manners and greater liberality of sentiment, Connecticut had 
 all the lofty purposes and shining virtues of Massachusetts. The visions 
 of Hooker and Haynes, and the dreams of the quiet Winthrop, were more 
 than realized in the hapjiy homes of the Connecticut valley. 
 
RHODE ISLAND. 193 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 IT was in June of 1636 that the exiled Roger Williams left the country 
 of the Wampanoags and passed down the Seekonk to Narragansett 
 River. His object was to secure a safe retreat beyond the limits of Ply- 
 mouth colony. He, with his five companions^ landed on the western 
 bank, at a place called Moshassuck, purchased the soil of the Narragansett 
 sachenxs, and laid the foundations of Providence. Other exiles joined the 
 company. New farms were laid out, new fields were jjloughed and ?iew 
 houses built; here, at last, was found at Providence Plantation a 
 refuge for all the distressed and persecuted. 
 
 The leader of the new colony was a native of Wales ; born in 1606 ; 
 liberally educated at Cambridge ; the pupil of Sir Edward Coke ; in after 
 years the friend of Milton ; a dissenter ; a hater of ceremonies ; a disciple 
 of truth in its purest forms ; an uncompromising advocate of freedom ; 
 exiled to Massachusetts, and now exiled by Massachusetts, he brought 
 to the banks of the Narragansett the great doctrines of pei'feot religious 
 liberty and the equal rights of men. If the area of Rhode Island had 
 corresponded with the grandeur of the principles on which she was 
 founded, who could have foretold her destiny ? 
 
 Roger Williams belonged to that most radical body of dissenters 
 called Anabaptists. By them the validity of infant baptism was denied. 
 Williams himself had been baptized in infancy ; but his vie^vs in regard 
 to the value of the ceremony had undergone a change during his ministry 
 at Salem. Now that he had freed himself from all foreign authority both 
 of Church and State, he conceived it to be his du(y to receive a second 
 baptism. But who should perform the ceremony? Ezekiel Holliman, 
 a layman, was selected for the sacred duty. Williams meekly received 
 the rite at the hands of his friend, and then in turn baptized him and ten 
 other exiles of the colony. Such was the organization of the first 
 Baptist Church in America. 
 
 The beginning of civil government in Rhode Island was equally 
 simple and democratic. Mr. Williams was the natural ruler of the little 
 province, but he reserved for himself neither wealth nor pri^^]ege. The 
 
194 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lands which he purchased from Canonicus and Miantonomoh were freely 
 distributed among the colonists. Only two small fields, to be j)lanted 
 and tilled with his own hands, were kept by the benevolent founder for 
 himself. How diiferent from the grasping avarice of Wingtleld and Lord 
 Cornbury ! All tiie powers of the colonial government were entrusted to 
 the people. A simple agreement was made and signed by the settlers that 
 in all matters not affecting the conscience they would yield a cheerful 
 obedience to such rules as the majority might make for the public welfare. 
 In questions of religion the individual conscience should be to every man 
 a guide. When Massachusetts objected that such a democracy would leave 
 nothing for the magistrates to do, Rhode Island answered that magistrates 
 were wellnigii useless. 
 
 The new government stood the test of experience. The evil prophe- 
 cies of its enemies were unfulfilled ; instead of predicted turmoil and dis- 
 sension. Providence Plantation had nothing but peace and quiet. It was 
 found that all religious sects could live together in harmony, and that 
 difference of opinion was not a bar to friendship. All beliefs were wel- 
 come at Narragansett Bay. A Buddhist from Japan or a pagan from 
 Madagascar would have been received at Providence and cordially enter- 
 tained. Miantonomoh, the young sachem of the Narragausetts, loved 
 Roger Williams as a brother. It was the confidence of this chieftain that 
 enabled Williams to notify Massachusetts of the Pequod conspiracy, and 
 then at the hazard of his life to defeat the plans of the hostile nation. 
 This magnanimous act awakened the old affections of his friends at Salem 
 and Plymouth, and an effort was made to recall him and his fellow-exiles 
 from banishment. It was urged tliat a man of such gracious abilities, so 
 full of patience and charity, could never be dangerous in a State ; but his 
 enemies answered that the principles and teachings of AVilliams would 
 subvert the commonwealth and bring Massachusetts to ruin. The pro- 
 posal was rejected. The ancient Greeks sometimes recalled tiieir exiled 
 heroes from banishment ; the colony of Massachusetts, never. 
 
 During the Pequod war of 1637, Rhode Island was protected by the 
 friendly Narragausetts. The territory of this powerful tribe lay between 
 Providence and the country of the Pequods, and there was little fear of 
 an invasion. The next year was noted for the arrival of Mrs. Hutchinson 
 and her friends at the island of Rhode Island. The leaders of the com- 
 pany were John Clarke and William Coddington. It had been their 
 intention to conduct tiie colony to Long Island, or perhaps to the country 
 of the Delaware. But Roger Williams made haste to welcome them 
 to his province, where no man's conscience might be distressed. Gov- 
 ernor Vane of Massachusetts, sympathizing with the refugees, prevailed 
 
RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 195 
 
 with Miantonoiiidh to make tliem a gift of Rhode Island. Here, iu the 
 early spring of 1(3.38, the; colony was ])lauted. The first settlement was 
 made at Portsmouth, in the 
 northern part of the island. 
 Other exiles came to join their 
 friends, and civil government 
 was thought desirable. The 
 Jewish nation furnished the 
 model. William Coddington 
 was chosen judge in the new 
 Israel of Narragansett Bay, 
 and three elders were ap- 
 pointed to assist him in the 
 government. In the follow- 
 ing year the title of judge 
 gave way to that of governor, 
 and tlie administration be- 
 came more modern in its 
 methods. At the same time 
 a party of colonists removed 
 from Portsmouth, already 
 crowded with exiles, to the 
 
 south-western part of the island, and laid the foundations of Newport. 
 Hither had come, more than six hundred years before, the hardy adven- 
 turers of Iceland. Here had been a favorite haunt of the wa\-ward sea- 
 kings of the eleventh century. Here, in sight of the new settlement, 
 stood the old stone tower, the most celebrated monument left by the 
 Norsemen in America. 
 
 The island was soon peopled. The want of civil government began 
 to be felt as a serious inconvenience. Mr. Coddington's new Israel hud 
 proved an utter failure. In March of 1641 a public meeting was con- 
 vened ; the citizens came together on terms of perfect equality, and the 
 task of framing a constitution was undertaken. In three days the instru- 
 ment was completed. The government was declared to be a " Demo- 
 CRACIE," or government by the people. The supreme authority was 
 lodged with the whole body of freemen in the island ; and freemen, in 
 this instance, meant eveiybody. The vote of the majority should always 
 rule. No soul should be distressed on accoun. of religions doctrine. 
 Liberty of conscience, even in the smallest particular, should be uni- 
 versally respected. A seal of State was ordered, having for its design 
 a sheaf of arrows and a motto of Amor vincet omnia. The little 
 
 THE OLD STONE TOWER AT NEWPORT. 
 
196 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 republic of Narragansett Bay was named the Plantation of Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 In 1643 was formed the Union of New England. Providence and 
 Rhode Island both pleaded for adiuksion, and both were rejected. The 
 meaning of this illiberal action on the part of the older and more power- 
 ful colonies was tiiat the settlements on the Narragansett belonged to the 
 jurisdiction of Plymouth. Alarmed at the prospect of being again put 
 under the dominion of their persecutors, the exiled republicans of Rhode 
 Island determined to appeal to the English government for a charter. 
 Roger Williams was accordingly appointed agent of the two plantations 
 and sent to London. He was cordially received by his old and steadfast 
 friend Sir Henry Vane, now an influential member of Parliament. The 
 plea of Rhode Island was heard with favor; and on the 14tli of March 
 in the following year the coveted charter was granted. Great was the 
 rejoicing when the successful ambassador returned to his people. The 
 grateful colonists met their benefactor at Seekonk, and conducted him to 
 Providence with shouts and exultation. Rhode Island had secured lier 
 independence. 
 
 The first general assembly of the province was convened at Ports- 
 mouth, in 1647. The new government was organized in strict aceordance 
 with the provisions of the charter. A code of laws was framed; the 
 prlnci])les of democracy were reaffirmed, and full religious toleration and 
 freedom of conscience guaranteed to all. A president and subordinate 
 officers were chosen, and Rhode Island began her career as an independent 
 colony. 
 
 Once the integrity of the province was endangered. In 1651. 
 William Coddiugton, who had never been satisfied with the failure of his 
 Jewish commonwealth, succeeded in obtaining from the English council 
 of state a decree by which the island of Rhode Island was separated from 
 the common government. But the zealous protests of John Clarke and 
 Roger Williams, who went a second time to London, prevented the dis- 
 union, and the decree of separation was revoked. The grateful people 
 now desired that their magnanimous l)enefactor should be commissioned 
 by the English council as governor of the province ; but the blind grat- 
 itude of his friends c(iuld not prevail over the wisdom of the j)rudent 
 leader. He foresaw the danger, and refused the tempting commission. 
 Roger Williams wps proof against all the seductions of ambition. 
 
 The faithful Clarke remained in England to guard the interests of 
 the colony. It was not long until his services were greatly needed. The 
 restoration of monarchy occurred in 1660. Charles II. came home in 
 triumph from his long exile. Rhode Island had accepted a charter from 
 
RHODE ISLAND. 197 
 
 the Long Parliament ; that Pai-liament had driven Charles I. from his 
 throne, had made war upon him, beaten him in battle, imprisoned him, 
 beheaded him. Wa-s it likely that the son of that monarch would allow a 
 colonial charter issued Ijy the Long Parliament to stand ? Would he not 
 with vindictive scorn dash the patent of the little republic out of exLst- 
 ence ? The people of Rhode Island had hardly the courage to plead for the 
 preservation of their liberty ; but taking heart, they wrote a loyal petition 
 to the new sovereign, praying for the renewal of their charter. To their in- 
 finite delight, and to the \\onder of after times, the king listened with favor ; 
 Clarendon, the minister, assented; and on the 8th of July, 1663, the 
 charter was reissued. The freedom of the colony was in no wise restricted. 
 All the liberal provisions of the parliamentary patent were revived. Not 
 even an oath of allegiance was required of the people. 
 
 On the 24:th of November the island of Rliode Island was thronged 
 with people. George Baxter had come with the charter. Opening the 
 box that contained it, he held aloft the precious parchment. There, sure 
 enough, was the signature of King Charles II. There was His Majesty's 
 royal stamp; there was the broad seal of England. The charter was read 
 aloud to the joyful people. The little "democracie" of Rhode Island 
 was safe. The happy colonists were not to blame when they began their 
 letter of thanks as follows: "To King Charles of England, for his high 
 and inestimable — yea, incomparable — favor." 
 
 For nearly a quarter of a century Rhode Island prospered. The 
 distresses of King Philip's War were forgotten. Roger Williams grew 
 old and died. At last came Sir Edmund Andros, the enemy of New 
 England. After overthrowing the liberties of Massachusetts, he next 
 demanded the surrender of the charter of Rhode Island. The demand 
 was for a while evaded by Governor Walter Clarke and the colonial as- 
 sembly. But Andros, not to be thwarted, repaired to Newport, dissolved 
 the government and broke the seal of the colony. Five irresponsible 
 councilors were appointed to control the affairs of the 23rovince, and the 
 commonwealth was in ruins. 
 
 But the usurpation was as brief as it was shameful. In the spring 
 of 1689 the news was borne to Rhode Island that James II. had abdi- 
 cated the throne of England, and that Andros and his officers were pris- 
 oners at Boston. On May-day the jieople rushed to Newport and made 
 a proclamation of their gratitude for the great deliverance. Walter Clarke 
 was reelected governor, but was fearful of accepting. Alray was elected, 
 and also declined. Then an old Quaker, named Henry Bull, more than 
 eighty years of age, was chosen. He was one of the f^mnders of the colony. 
 He had known Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams. Should he, in 
 
198 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his gray hairs, through fear and timidity, refuse the post of danger? The 
 old veteran accepted the trust, and spent his last days in restoring the 
 liberties of Ehode Island. 
 
 Again the little State around the Bay of Narragansett was pros- 
 perous. For more than fifty years the peace of the colony was undis- 
 turbed. The principles of the illastrious founder became the principles 
 of the commonwealth. The renown of Rhode Island has not been in 
 vastness of territory, in mighty cities or victorious armies, but in a stead- 
 fast devotion to truth, justice and freedom. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII, 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 IN the year 1622 the territory lying between the rivers Merrimae and 
 Kennebec, reaching from the sea to the St. Lawrence, was granted 
 by the council of Plymouth to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason. 
 The historj' of New Hampshire begins with the following year. For the 
 proprietors made haste to secure their new domain by actual settlements. 
 In the early spring of 1623 two small companies of colonists were sent 
 out by Mason and Gorges to people their province. The coast of New 
 Hampshire had first been visited by Martin Pring in 1603. Eleven 
 years later the restless Captain Smith explored the spacious harbor at 
 the mouth of the Piscataqua, and spoke with delight of the deep and 
 tranquil waters. 
 
 One party of the new immigrants landed at Little Harbor, two 
 miles south of the present site of Portsmouth, and began ia build a village. 
 The other party proceeded up stream, entered the Cocheco, and, four miles 
 above the mouth of that tributary, laid the foundations of Dover. With 
 the exception of Plymouth and Weymouth, Portsmouth and Dover are 
 the oldest towns in New England. But the progress of the settlements 
 was slow ; for many years the two villages were only fishing-stations. 
 In 1629 the proprietors divided their dominions. Gorges retaining the 
 part north of the Piscataqua, and Mason taking exclusive control of the 
 district between the Piscataqua and the Merrimae. In May of this year. 
 Rev. John Wheelwright, who soon afterward became a leader in the party 
 of Anne Hutchinson, visited the Abenaki chieftains, and purchased their 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 199 
 
 claims to the soil of the whole territory held by Mason ; but in the fol- 
 lowing November, Mason's title was confirmed by a second patent from 
 the council, and the name of the province was changed from Laconia to 
 New ELA.MPSHIRE. Very soon Massachusetts began to urge her chartered 
 rights to the district north of the Merrimac ; already the claims to the 
 jui'isdiction of the new colony were numerous and conflicting. 
 
 In November of 1635, Mason died, and his widow undertook the 
 government of the province. But the expenses of the colony were greater 
 than the revenues ; the chief tenants could not be paid for their services ; 
 and after a few years of mismanagement the territory was given up to the 
 servants and dependents of the late proprietor. Such was the condition 
 of affairs when Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends were banished from 
 Boston. Wheelwright, who was of the number, now found use for the 
 lands which he" had purchased in New Hampshire. When Clarke and 
 Coddington, leading the greater number of the exiles, set out for Rhode 
 Island, Wheel wriglit, with a small party of friends, repaired to the banks 
 of the Piscataqua. At the head of tide-water on that stream they halted, 
 and founded the village of Exeter. The little colony was declared a 
 republic, established on the principle of equal right and universal toler- 
 ation. 
 
 The proposition to unite New Hampshire with Massachusetts was 
 received with favor by the people of both colonies. The liberal provisions 
 of the Body of Liberties, adopted by the older province in 1641, excited 
 tlie villagers of the Piscataqua, and made them anxious to join the desti- 
 nies of the free commonwealth of Massachusetts. A union was immedi- 
 ately proposed; on the 14th of the following April terms of consolidation 
 were agreed on, and New Hampshire, by the act of her own people, was 
 united with the older colony. It is worthy of special notice that the law 
 of Massachusetts restricting the rights of citizenship to church members 
 was not extended over the new province. The people of Portsmouth and 
 Dover belonged to the Church of England, and it was deemed unjust to 
 discriminate against them on account of their religion. New Hampshire 
 was the only colony east of the Hudson not originally founded by the 
 Puritans. 
 
 The union continued in force until 1679. In the mean time the 
 heirs of Mason had revived the claim of the old proprietor of the province. 
 The cause had been duly investigated in the courts of England, and in 
 1677 a decision was reached that the Masonian claims were invalid as to 
 the civil jurisdiction of New Hampshire, but valid as to the soil — that is, the 
 heirs were the lawful owners, but not the lawful governors, of the territory. 
 It was evident from the character of this decision that King Charles in- 
 
200 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tended to assert liLs own right of government over New Hampshire, and 
 at the same time to confer the ownership of the soil upon the represent- 
 atives of Mason. Nor was the province long left in doubt as to the king's 
 intentions. On the 24th of July, 1679, a decree was published by wliich 
 New Hampshire was separated from the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and 
 organized as a distinct royal province. The excuse was that the claims 
 of the Masons against the farmers of New Hampshire would have to be 
 determined in colonial courts, and that colonial courts could not be estab- 
 lished without the organization of a separate colony. It was clearly fore- 
 seen that in such trials the courts of Massachusetts would always decide 
 against the Masons. The purpose of the king became still more apparent 
 when Robert Mason, himself the largest claimant of all, was allowed to 
 nominate a governor for the province: Edward Cranfield was selected for 
 that office. 
 
 The people of New Hampsliire were greatly excited by the threatened 
 destruction of their liberties. Before Cranfield's arrival the nigged saw- 
 yere and lumbermen of the Piscataqua had convened a general assembly 
 at Portsmouth. The first resolution which was passed by the represent- 
 atives showed the spirit of colonial resistance in full force. " No act, im- 
 position, law or ordinance," said the sturdy legislators, " shall be valid 
 ^ unless made by the assembly and approved by the people." When the 
 indignant king heard of this resolution, he declared it to be both M-icked 
 and absurd. It was not the first time that a monarch and his people had 
 disagreed. 
 
 In November of 1682, Cranfield dismissed the popular assembly. 
 Such a despotic act had never before been attempted in New England. 
 The excitement ran high ; the governor was openly denounced, and his 
 claims for rents and forfeitures were stubbornly resisted. At Exeter the 
 sheriff was beaten with clubs. The farmers' wives met the tax-gatherers 
 with pailfulls of hot water. At the village of Hampton, Cranfield's 
 deputy was led out of town with a rope round his neck. When the 
 governor ordered out tlie militia, not a man obeyed the summons. It was 
 in the midst of these broils that Cranfield, unable to collect his rents and 
 vexed out of his wits, wrote to England begging for the privilege of going 
 home. The "unreasonable" people who were all the time caviling at his 
 commission and denying his authority were at length freed from his 
 presence. 
 
 An effort was now made to restore New Hampshire to the jurisdiction 
 of Massachusetts ; but before this could be done the charter of the latter 
 province had been taken away and Edmund Andros appointed governor 
 of all New England. The colonies north of the Merrimac, seeing that 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 201 
 
 even Massachusetts had been brought to submission, offered no resistance 
 to Andros, but quietly yielded to his authority. Until the English revo- 
 lution of 1G88, and the consequent downfall of Andros, New Hampshire 
 remained under the dominion of the royal governor. But when he was 
 seized and imprisoned by the citizens of Boston, the people of the northern 
 towns also rose in rebellion and reasserted their freedom. A general as- 
 sembly was convened at Portsmouth in the spring of 1690, and an ordi- 
 nance was at once passed reanuexiug New Hampshire to Massachusetts. 
 But in August of 1692 this action was annulled by the English govern- 
 ment, and the two jjrovinces were a second time separated against the 
 protests of the people. In 1698, when the earl of Bellomout came out as 
 royal governor of New York, his commission was made to include both 
 Massachusetts and New Hampshire. For a period of forty-two years the 
 two provinces, though retaining their separate legislative assemblies, con- 
 tinued under the authority of a common executive. Not until 1741 was 
 a final separation effected between the colonies north and south of the 
 Merrimac. 
 
 Meauwliile, the heirs of Mason, embarrassed with delays and vexed 
 by opposing claimants, had sold to Samuel Allen, of London, their title 
 to New Hampshire. To him, in 1691, the old Masonian patent was 
 transferred. His son-in-law, named Usher, a land speculator of Boston, 
 was appointed deput}' governor. The new projjrietor made a long and 
 fiitile effort to enforce his claim to the lands of the province, but was every- 
 where resisted. Lawsuits were begun in the colonial courts, but no 
 judgments could be obtained against the occupants of lands ; all efforts to 
 drive the farmers into the payment of rents or the surrender of their 
 homes were unavailing. For many years the history of New Hampshire 
 contains little else than a record of strife and contention. Finally, Allen 
 died ; and in 1715, after a struggle of a quarter of a century, his heirs 
 abandoned their claim in despair. A few years afterward one of the de- 
 scendants of Mason discovered that the deed wliich his kinsmen had made 
 to Allen was defective. The original Masonian patent was accordingly 
 revived, and a last effort was made to secure possession of the province, 
 but was all in vain. The colonial government had now gi-own strong 
 enough to defend the rights of its people, and the younger Masons were 
 obliged to abandon their pretensions. In the final adjustment of this 
 long-standing difficulty the colonial authorities allowed the validity of 
 the Masonian patent as to the unoccupied jiortions of the territory, and 
 the heirs made a formal surrender of their claims to all the rest. 
 
 Of all the New England colonies. New Hampshire suffered most 
 fi"om the French and Indian Wars. Her settlements were feeble, and her 
 
202 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 territory most exposed to savage invasion. In the last year of King 
 Philip's War the suffering along the frontier of the province was very- 
 great. Again, in the wars of William, Anne and George, the villages of 
 the northern colony were visited with devastation and ruin. But in the 
 intervals of peace the spirits of the people revived, and the hardy settlers 
 returned to their wasted farms to begin anew the struggle of life. Out 
 of these conflicts and trials came that sturdy and resolute race of pioneers 
 who bore such a heroic part in the greater contests of after years. 
 
 Such is the story of the planting, progress, and development of 
 New England. Hither had come, in the beginning, a people of sober 
 habits, frugal lives, and lofty purposes. Before their imagination was 
 one vision — the vision of freedom. And freedom to the men who laid 
 the foundations of civilization in New England meant the breaking off 
 of every species of thralklom. These people came to the New AVorld 
 to stay. They voluntarily chose the wilderness with its forests, and 
 snows, and savages. For forests, and snows, and savages were better 
 than luxury with despotism. In Virginia as late as the middle of the 
 eighteenth century many of the planters still looked fondly across the 
 ocean and spoke of England as their "home." Not so with the peo- 
 ple whose hamlets were scattered from the Penobscot to the Housa- 
 tonic. With them the humble cabin in the frozen woods under the 
 desolate sky of winter was a cheerful and sunny " home " — if only 
 Freedom was written on the threshold. 
 
COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 MINOR MIDDLE COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 THE colonial history of New .Jersey properly begins with the found- 
 ing of Elizabethtown, in 1664. As early as 1618 a feeble trading 
 station had been established at Bergen, west of the Hudson ; but forty 
 years elapsed before permanent dwellings were built in that neigh- 
 borhood. In 1623 the block-house, called Fort Nassau, was erected 
 at the mouth of Timber Creek, on the Delaware ; after a few months' 
 occupancy. May and his companions abandoned the place and returned 
 to New Amsterdam. Six years later the southern part of the present 
 State of New Jersey was granted to Godyn and Blomaert, two of the 
 Dutch patroons; but no settlement was made. In 1634 there was 
 not a single European living between Delaware Bay and the fortieth 
 degree of latitude. In 1651 a considerable district, includiusc the site 
 of Elizabethtown, was purchased by Augustine Herman ; but still no 
 colony was planted. Seven years afterwards a larger grant, embracing 
 the old trading house at Bergen, was made; and in 1663 a company 
 of Puritans, living on Long Island, obtained permission of Governor 
 Stuy vesant to settle on the banks of the Raritan ; but no settlement 
 was effected until after the conquest. 
 
 All the territory of New Jersey was included in the grant made by 
 King Charles to his brother the duke of York. Two months before the 
 conquest of New Netherland by the English, that portion of the duke's 
 province lying between the Hudson and the Delaware, extending as far 
 north as forty-one degrees and forty minutes, was assigned by the proprietor 
 to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. These noblemen were already 
 proprietors of Carolina ; but they had adhered to the king's cause during 
 the civil war in England, and were now rewarded with a second Amer- 
 ican province. Almost immediately after the conquest another company 
 of Puritans made application to Governor Nicolls, and received an exten- 
 sive grant of land on Newark Bay. The Indian titles were honorably 
 
 (20.'il 
 
204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 purchased ; in the following October a village was begun and niamed 
 Elizabethtown, in honor of Lady Carteret. 
 
 In ^Vugust of 1665, Philii) Carteret, son of Sir George, arrived as 
 governor of the province. At first lie was violently opposed by NicoUs 
 of New York, who refused to believe that the duke had divided his terri- 
 tory. But Carteret was armed with a commission, and could not be pre- 
 vented from taking possession of the new settlements below the Hudson. 
 Elizabethtown was made the capital of the colony ; other immigrants 
 arrived from Long Island and settled on the banks of the Passaic ; New- 
 ark was founded ; flourishing hamlets appeared on the shores of the bay 
 as far south as Sandy Hook. In honor of Sir George Carteret, who had 
 been govei-nor of the Isle of Jersey, in the English Channel, his American 
 domain Mas named New Jersey. 
 
 Experience had taught the proprietors wisdom ; they had learned 
 that fi-eedoni is essential to the prosperity of a colony, and that liberal 
 concessions to the jjeople are better than great outlays of money. Berke- 
 ley and Cartei-et, though royalists themselves, jirovided for their new State 
 an excellent constitution. Person and property were put under the protec- 
 tion of law. The government was made to consist of a governor, a council 
 and a popular legislative assembly. There should be no taxation unless 
 levied by the representatives of the people. Difference of opinion should 
 be respected, and freedom of conscience guaranteed to every citizen. The 
 proprietors raserved to themselves only the right of annulling objection- 
 able acts of the assembly and of appointing the governor and colonial 
 judges. The lands of the jirovince were distributed to the settlers for a 
 quit-rent of a half ]3enny per acre, not to be paid until 1670. 
 
 In 1668 the first general assembly convened at Elizabethtown. 
 Nearly all the representatives were Puritans, and the laws and customs 
 of New England were thus early im]iresscd on the legislation of the 
 colony. Affairs went well until 1670, when the half-penny quit-rents were 
 due to the proprietors. The colonists, in the moan time, had purchased 
 their lands of the Indians, and also of Governor Nicolls of New York, 
 who still claimed New Jersey a.s a part of his province. To the settlers, 
 therefore, it seemed that their titles to their farms were good without 
 further payment to Philip Carteret or anybody else. The collection ot 
 the rents M-as accordingly resisted ; and the colony became a scene first of 
 strife and then of revolution. In ]\Iay of 1672 the colonial assembly 
 convened and deposed the governor from office. James Carteret, another 
 son of Sir George, wa.s chosen governor, and Philip returned to England. 
 
 In 1673 the Dutch succeeded in retaking New York from the Eng- 
 lish. For a few months the old province of New Netherland, including 
 
NEW JERSEY. 
 
 205 
 
 the country as fiir south as the Delaware, was restored to Holland. But 
 in the next year the whole territory was re-ceded by the states-general to 
 England. The duke of York now received from his brother, the Idng, 
 a second patent for the country between the Connecticut and the Delaware, 
 and at the same time confirmed his former grant of New Jersey to Berke- 
 ley and Carteret. Then, in utter disregard of the rights of the two pro- 
 prietors, the duke appointed Sir Edmund Andros as royal governor of 
 the whole province. Carteret determined to defend his claim against the 
 authority of Andros ; but Lord Berkeley, disgusted with the duke's vacil- 
 lation and dishonesty, sold his interest in New Jersey to John Fenwick, 
 to be held in trust for Edward Byllinge. 
 
 In 1675, Philip Carteret returned to America and resumed the 
 government of the province from which he had been expelletl. Andros 
 opposed him in every act ; claimed 
 New Jersey as a part of his own 
 dominions ; kept the colony in an 
 uproar ; compelled the ships which 
 came a-trading with the new settle- 
 ments to pay tribute at New York ; 
 and finally arrested Carteret and 
 brought him to his own capital for 
 trial. Meanwhile, Byllinge became 
 embarrassed with debt, and was forced 
 to make an assignment of his pro[)erty. 
 Gawen Laurie, Nicholas Lucas and 
 William Penn were appointed trus- 
 tees, and to them Byllinge's interest 
 in New Jersey was assigned for the 
 benefit of his creditors. 
 
 The assignees were Quakers. 
 Here, then, was an opportunity to 
 establish another asjdum for the 
 persecuted, and to found a common- 
 Avealth of Frienils. Penn and his 
 associates at once applied to Sir 
 George Carteret for a division of the 
 province. That nobleman was both 
 ■willing and anxious to enter into an 
 arrangement by which his own half 
 of the territory could be freed from all encumbrance. It was accordingly 
 agreed to divide New Jersey so that Carteret's district should be separated 
 
 EAST AND WEST JERSEY, 1677. 
 
206 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the domain of the Quakers. After much diseussion an agreement 
 was reached in the summer of 1676, and a line of division was drawn 
 througli the province as follows : Beginning at the southern point of 
 land on the east side of Little Egg Harbor, and running noi'th of north- 
 west to a point on the river Delaware in the latitude of forty-one degrees 
 and forty minutes. The territory lying east of this line remained to 
 Sir George as sole projirictor, and was named East Jersey ; while that 
 portion lying between the line and the Delaware was called West 
 Jersey, and passed under the exclusive control of Penn and his asso- 
 ciates as assignees of By Hinge. 
 
 Early in the following March the Quaker proprietors completed and 
 published a body of .laws under the singular title of Concessions. But 
 the name was significant, for everything was conceded to the people. 
 This first simple code enacted by the Friends in America rivaled the 
 charter of Connecticut in the liberality and purity of its princii^les. The 
 authors of the instrument accompanied its publication with a general 
 letter addressed to the Quakers of England, recommending the province 
 and inviting immigration. 
 
 The invitation was not in vain. Before the end of the year a 
 colony of more than four hundred Friends arrived in the Delaware, and 
 found homes in West Jersey. Only one circumstance clouded the pros- 
 pects of the new commonwealth of peace. The agent of Andres, governor 
 of New York, was stationed at New Castle, on tlie western bank of the 
 Delaware, to command the entrance to the ri\'er. The Quaker ships 
 were obliged to pay customs before proceeding to their destination. A 
 powerful remonstrance was drawn up by the Friends and sent to Eng- 
 land. For once the duke of York listened to reason and agreed to sub- 
 mit his cause to the courts ; and for once a decision was rendered in 
 accordance with right and justice. The eminent jurist Sir William 
 Jones decided that the duke had no legal right to collect duties and taxes 
 in the country of the Delaware. All claims to the territory and govern- 
 ment of West Jersey were accordingly witiidrawn ; and the Quaker col- 
 onists were left in the enjoyment of independence. The heirs of Sir 
 George Carteret were quick to see that the same decision would free their 
 half of the province from the jurisdiction of Andros. An effort \\"as 
 accordingly made by the proprietors of East Jersey to secure a deed of 
 release from the duke of York. The petition was favorably entertained, 
 the deed issued and the whole territoiy between the Hudson and tlie 
 Delaware freed from foreign authority. 
 
 In November of 1681, Jennings, the deputy-governor of West 
 Jersey, convened the first general assembly of the province. The men 
 
NEW JERSEY. 207 
 
 who had so worried the aristocracy of England by wearing their hats in 
 the presence of great men, and by saying Thee and Thou, no^v met together 
 to make their own laws. The code was brief and simple. The doctrines 
 of the Concessions were reaffirmed. Men of all races and of all religions 
 were declared to be equal before the law. No superiority was conceded 
 to rank or title, to wealth or royal birth. Imprisonment for debt was 
 forbidden. The sale of ardent spirits to the Red men was prohibited. 
 Taxes should be voted by the representatives of the people. The lands 
 of the Indians should be acquired by honorable purchase. Finally, a 
 criminal — unless a murderer, a traitor or a thief — might be pardoned by 
 the person against whom the offence was committed. 
 
 In 1682, William Penn and eleven other Friends purchased of the 
 heirs of Carteret the province of East Jersey. Robert Barclay, an em- 
 inent Quaker of Aberdeen, in Scotland, and author of the book called 
 Barclay's Apology, was appointed governor for life. The whole of New 
 Jersey was now under the authority of the Friends. The administration 
 of Barclay, •which continued until his death, in 1690, \\'as chiefly noted 
 for a large immigration of Scotch Quakei's who left the governor's native 
 country to find freedom in East Jersey. The persecuted Presbyterians of 
 Scotland came to the province In still greater numbers. 
 
 On the accession of James II., in 1685, the American colonies from 
 Maine to Delaware were consolidated, and Edmund Andros appointed 
 royal governor. His first year in America was spent in establishing hLs 
 authority at Boston, Providence and Hartford. Not until 1688 were 
 New York and the two Jerseys brought under his jurisdiction. The 
 short reign of King James was already at an end before Andros could 
 succeed in setting up a despotism on the ruin of colonial liberty. When 
 the news came of the abdication and flight of the English monarch, the 
 governor of New England could do nothing but surrender to the indig- 
 nant people whom he had wronged and insulted. His arrest and im- 
 prisonment was the signal for the restoration of popular government in all 
 the colonies over which he had ruled. 
 
 But the condition of New Jersey was deplorable. It was almost 
 impossible to tell to whom the jurisdiction of the territory rightfully be- 
 longed. So far as the eastern province was concerned, the representatives 
 of Carteret claimed it ; the governor of New York claimed it ; Penn and 
 his associates claimed it. As to the western province, the heirs of Byliinge 
 claimed it ; Lucas, Laurie and Penn claimed it ; the governor of New 
 York claimed it. Over all these pretensions stood the paramount claim 
 of the English king. From 1689 to 1692 there was no settled form ot" 
 government in the territory ; and for ten years thereafter the colony wa.s 
 
208 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vexed and distracted with the presence of more rulers than any one 
 ])rovinee could accommodate. 
 
 At last self-interest solved the problem. The proprietors came to 
 see that a peaceable i)ossession of the soil of the Jerseys was worth more 
 than the uncertain honors of government. A proposition was accordingly 
 made that all the claimants should surrender their rights of civil jurisdic- 
 tion to the English Crown, retaining only the ownership of the soil. The 
 measure was successfully carried out; and in April of 1702, all propri- 
 etary claims being waived in favor of the sovereign, the territory between 
 the Hudson and the Delaware became a royal province. 
 
 New Jersey was now attached to the government of Lord Corn- 
 bury of Xew York. The union of the two colonies, however, extended 
 only to the office of chief magistrate ; each province retained its own legis- 
 lative assembly and a distinct territorial organization. This method of 
 government continued for thirty-six years, and was then terminated by 
 the action of the people. In 1728 the representatives of New Jersey sent 
 a petition to George II., praying for a separation of the two colonies ; but 
 the application was at first refused. Ten years later the petition was 
 renewed, and through the influence of Lewis Morris brought to a success- 
 ful issue. New Jersey was made independent, and ftlorris himself received 
 a commission as first royal governor of the separated province. 
 
 The people of New Jersey were but little disturbed by the succes- 
 sive Indian wars. The native tribes on this part of the American coast 
 were weak and timid. Had it not been for the cruelties of Kieft and the 
 wrongs of other governors of New York, the peace of the middle colonies 
 would never have been broken. The province of New Jersey is specially 
 interesting as being the point where the civilization of New England met 
 and blended with the civilization of the South. Here the institutions, 
 manners and laws of the Pilgrims were first modified by contact with the 
 less rigid habits and opinions of the people who came with Gosnold and 
 Smith. The dividing line between East and West Jersey is also the 
 dividing line between the austere Puritans of Massachusetts and the 
 chivalrous cavaliers of Virginia. Happily, along this dividing line the 
 men of peace, the followers of Penn and Barclay, came and dwelt as if 
 to subdue ill-will and make a Union possible. 
 
FENNSYL VANIA. 209 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 THE Quakers were greatly encouraged with the success of their col- 
 onies in West New Jersey. The prospect of establishing on the 
 banks of the Delaware a free State, founded on the principle of luaiversal 
 brotherhood, kindled a new enthusiasm in the mind of William Penn. 
 For more than a quarter of a century the Friends had been buffeted with 
 shameful persecutions. Imprisonment, exile and proscription had been 
 their constant portion, but had not sufficed to abate their zeal or to 
 quench their hopes of the future. The lofty purpose and jjhilanthropic 
 spirit of Penn urged him to find for his afflicted people an asylum of rest. 
 In June of 1680 he went boldly to King Charles, and petitioned for a 
 grant of territory and the privilege of founding a Quaker commonwealth 
 in the New ^VorId. 
 
 The petition was seconded by powerful friends in Parliament. 
 Lords North and Halifax and the earl of Sunderland favored the propo- 
 sition, and the duke of York remembered a pledge of assistance which he 
 had given to Penn's father. On the 5th of March, 1681, a charter was 
 granted ; the great seal of England, with the signature of Charles II., was 
 affixed ; and William Penn became the proprietor of Pennsylvania. 
 The vast domain embraced under the new patent was bounded on the 
 east by the river Delaware, extended north and south over three degrees 
 of latitude, and westward through five degrees of longitude. Only the 
 three counties comprising the present State of Delaware were reserved for 
 the duke of York. 
 
 In consideration of this grant, Penn relinquished a claim of sixteen 
 thousand pounds sterling which the British government owed to his 
 father's estate. He declared that his objects were to found a free com- 
 monwealth without respect to the color, race or religion of the inhabitants; 
 to subdue the natives with no other weapons than love and justice ; to 
 establish a refuge for the people of his own faith ; and to enlarge the 
 borders of the British empire. One of the first acts of the great propri- 
 etor was to address a letter to the Swedes who might be included within 
 
210 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the limits of his province, telling tliem to be of good cheer, to keep their 
 liomes, make their own laws and fear no oppression. 
 
 Within a month from the date of his charter, Penn published to the 
 English nation a glowing account of his new country beyond the Del- 
 aware, praising the beauty of the scenery and salubrity of the climate, 
 promising freedom of conscience and equal rights, and mviting emigra- 
 tion. There was an immediate and hearty response. In the couree of 
 the summer three shiploads of Quaker emigrants left England for the 
 land of promise. William Markham, agent of the proprietor, came as 
 leader of the company and deputy-governor of the province. He was 
 instructed by Penn to rule in accordance with law, to deal justly with all 
 men, and esjiecially to make a league of friendship with the Indians. In 
 October of the same year the anxious proprietor sent a letter directly to 
 the natives of the territory, assuring them of his honest purposes and 
 brotherly affection. 
 
 The next care of Penn was to draw up a frame of government for 
 his province. Herein was his great temptation. He had almost ex- 
 hausted his father's estate in aiding the ])ersecuted Quakers. A stated 
 revenue would be very necessary in conducting his administration. His 
 proprietaiy rights under the charter were so ample that he might easily 
 reserve for himself large prerogatives and great emoluments in the govern- 
 ment. He had before him the option of being a consistent, honest 
 Quaker or a politic, wealthy governor. He chose like a man ; right 
 triumphed over riches. The constitution which he framed was liberal 
 almost to a fault ; and the people were allowed to adopt or reject it as 
 they might deem proper. 
 
 In the mean time, the duke of York had been induced to surrender 
 his claim to the three reserved counties on the Delawai-e. The whole 
 countiy on the western bank of the bay and river, from the open ocean 
 below Cape Henlopen to the forty-third degree of north latitude, M'as now 
 under the dominion of Penn. The summer of 1682 was spent in 
 further preparation. The proprietor wi'ote a touching letter of farewell 
 to the Friends in England ; gathered a large company of emigrants ; em- 
 barked for America ; and on the 27th of October landed at New Castle, 
 where the people were Avaiting to receive him. 
 
 William Penn, the founder of Philadelphia, was born on the 14th 
 of October, 1644. He was the oldest son of Vice- Admiral Sir William 
 Penn of the British na^y. At the age of twelve he was sent to the 
 University of Oxford, where he distinguished himself as a student imtil 
 he was expelled on account of his religious opinions. Afterward ho 
 traveled on the Continent ; was again a student at Saumur ; returned to 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 211 
 
 study law at London; went to Ireland; became a soldier; heard the 
 preacliing of Loe aud was converted to the Quaker faith. His disap- 
 pointed and angry 
 father drove him 
 out of doors, but 
 he was not to be 
 turned from his 
 course. He pub- 
 licly proclaimed 
 the doctrines of the 
 Friends ; was ar- 
 rested and impris- 
 oned f o r nine 
 months in the Tow- 
 er of London. Be- 
 ing released, he re- 
 peated the ofience, 
 and lay for half a 
 year in a dungeon 
 at Newgate. A 
 second time liber- 
 ated, but despair- 
 ing of toleration for 
 hLs people in Eng- 
 land, he cast his 
 
 gaze across the Atlantic. West Jersey was purcha.sed ; but the boundaiy 
 M^as narrow, and the great-souled proprietor sought a grander and more 
 beautiful domain. His petition was heard mth favor and the charter of 
 Pennsylvania granted by King Charles. Colonists came teeming ; and 
 now the Quaker king himself, without pomp or parade, witiiout the dis- 
 charge of cannon or vainglorious ceremony, was conie to New Castle to 
 found a government on the basis of fraternity and peace. It was fitting 
 that he should call the new republic a holy experiment. 
 
 As soon as the landing- was effected, Penn delivered an aifectionate 
 and cheerful address to the crowd of Swedes, Dutch and English who 
 came to greet him. His former pledges of a liberal and just government 
 were publicly renewed, and the people were exhorted to sobriety and 
 honesty. From New Ca.'^tle the governor ascended the Delaware to Ches- 
 ter ; passed the site of Philadelphia ; visited the settlements of West New 
 Jersey ; and thence traversed East Jersey to Long Island and New York. 
 After spending some time at the capital of his friend, the duke of York, 
 
 WILI^IAM PENN. 
 
■212 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and speaking words of cheer to the Quakers about Brooklyn, he returned 
 to his own province and began his duties as chief magistrate. 
 
 Markham, the deputy-governor, had been instructed to establish 
 fraternal relations with the Indians. Before Penn's arrival treaties had 
 been made, lands purchased, and pledges of friendship given between the 
 Friends and the Red men. Now a great conference was appointed with the 
 native chiefs. All the sachems of the Lenni Lenapes and other neighbor- 
 ing tribes were invited to assemble. The council was held on the banks 
 of the Delaware under the open sky. Penn, accompanied by a few un- 
 armed fi'iends, clad in the simple garb of the Quakers, came to the ap- 
 pointed spot and took his station under a venerable elm, now leafless ; for 
 it was winter. The chieftains, also unarmed, sat, after the manner of 
 their race, in a semicircle on the ground. It was not Penn's object to 
 purchase lands, to provide for the interests of trade or to make a formal 
 treaty, but rather to assure the untutored children of the woods of his 
 honest purposes and brotherly affection. Standing before them- with 
 grave demeanor and speaking by an interpreter, he said : " My Friends: 
 We have met on the broad pathway of good faith. We are all one flesh 
 and blood. Being brethren, no advantage shall be taken on either side. 
 When disputes arise, we will settle them in council. Between us there 
 shall be nothing but openness and love." The chiefs replied : " While 
 the rivers run and the sun shines we will live in peace with the children 
 of William Penn." 
 
 No record was made of the treaty, for none was needed. Its terms 
 were written, not on decaying parchment, but on the living hearts of 
 men. No deed of violence or injustice ever marred the sacred covenant. 
 The Indians vied with the Quakers in keeping uubroken the pledge of 
 perpetual peace. For mo' than seventy years during which the province 
 remained under the control of the Friends, not a single war-whoop was 
 heard within the borders of Pennsylvania. The Quaker hat and coat 
 proved to be a better defence for the wearer than coat-of-mail and 
 musket. 
 
 On the 4th of December, 1682, a general convention was held at 
 Chester. The object was to complete the territorial legislation — a work 
 which occupied three days. At the conclusion of the session, Penn de- 
 livered an address to the assembly, and then hastened to the Chesapeake 
 to confer with Lord Baltimore about the boundaries of their respective 
 provinces. After a month's absence he returned to Chester and busied 
 hiiaself with drawing a map of his proposed capital. The beautiful neck 
 of land between the Schuylkill and the Delaware was selected and pur- 
 chased of the Swedes. In February of 1683 the native chestnuts, wal- 
 
 \ 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 213 
 
 nuts and ashes were blazed to indicate tlie lines of the streets, and Phil- 
 adelphia — City of Bkothekly Love — was founded. Within a 
 month a general assembly was in session at the new capital. The people 
 were eager that their Charter of Liberties, now to be framed, should be 
 dated at Pliiladclphia. The work of 
 legislation was begun and a form of 
 government adopted which was e:=scn- 
 tially a representative democracy. The 
 leading officers were the governor, a 
 
 AND 
 
 V/CINlTV 
 
 40 5U tfl 
 
 PHILADELPHIA AND VICINITT. 
 
 council consisting of a limited number 
 of members chosen for three years, 
 and a larger pojjular assembly, to be 
 annually elected. Penn conceded 
 everything to the people ; but the 
 power of vetoing objectionable acts of 
 the council was left in his hands. 
 
 The growth of Pliiladelphia 
 was astonishing. In the sunuuer of 
 1683 there were only three or four 
 
 houses. The ground-squirrels still lived in their burrows, and the wild 
 deer rd,n through the town M'ithout alarm. In 1685 the city contained 
 six hundred houses ; the schoolmaster had come and the printing-press 
 had begun its work. In another year Philadelphia had outgrown New 
 York. Penn's work of establishing a free State in America had been 
 well and nobly done. In August of 1684 he took an affectionate fare- 
 well of his flourishing colony, and sailed for England. Thomas Lloyd 
 was appointed as president during the absence of the proprietor, and five 
 commissioners, members of the provincial council, were chosen to assist 
 in the government. 
 
 Nothing occurred to disturb the peace of Pennsylvania until the 
 secession of Delaware in 1691. The three lower counties, which, ever 
 since the arrival of Penn, had been united on terms of equality with the 
 six counties of Pennsylvania, became dissatisfied with some acts of the 
 general assembly and insisted on a separation. The proprietor gave a 
 reluctant consent; Delaware withdrew from the union and received a 
 separate deputy-governor. Such was the condition of affaii-s after the 
 abdication of King James II. 
 
 William Penn was a friend and favorite of the Stuart kings. It 
 was from Charles II. that he had received the charter of Pennsylvania. 
 Now that the royal house was overthrown, he sympathized with the fallen 
 monarch and looked with coldness on the new sovereigns, William and 
 
214 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mary. For some real or supposed adherence to the cause of the exiled 
 James II., Penn was several times arrested and imprisoned. In 1692 
 his proprietary rights were taken away, and by a royal commission the 
 government of Pennsylvania was transferred to Fletcher of New York. 
 In the following year Delaware shared the same fate ; all the provinces 
 between Connecticut and Maiyland were consolidated under Fletcher's 
 authority. In the mean time, the suspicions against Penn's loyalty were 
 found to be groundless, and he was restored to his rights as governor of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 In December of 1699, Penn again visited his American common- 
 wealth, now grown into a State. The pi'osperity of the province was all 
 that could be desired; but the people were somewhat dissatisfied M'ith tlie 
 forms of government. The lower counties were again embittered against 
 the acts of the assembly. In order to restore peace and harmony, the 
 benevolent proprietor di'cw up another constitution, more liberal tlian the 
 first, extending the powers of the people and omitting the objectionable 
 features of the former charter. But Delaware had fallen into chronic 
 discontent, and would not accept the new frame of government. In 1702 
 the general assemblies of the two provinces were convened apart; and in 
 the following year Delawai'e and Pennsylvania were finally separated. 
 But the rights of Penn as proprietor of the whole territory remained as 
 before, and a common governor continued to jjrcside over both colonies. 
 
 In the winter of 1701, "\^"ilIiam Penn bade a final adieu to his 
 friends in America and returned to England. He left Pennsylvania 
 in a state of peace and jn-osperity. Thougli there was not a single fort 
 witliin her borders, the province had been secure against invasion. 
 With neither police nor militia, the j^eople went abroad in safety. 
 With no difference in rank, no preference in matters of opinion, and 
 no proscription for religion's sake, the colony flourished and waxed 
 strong. But the English ministers had now formed the design of 
 abolishing all the proprietary governments, with a vieAV to the estab- 
 lishment of royal governments instead. The presence and influence 
 of Penn were especially required in England in order to prevent the 
 success of the ministerial scheme. After much controversy his rights 
 were recognized and secured against encroachment. In the mean 
 time, the affairs of Pennsylvania were administered by the deputy- 
 governors, Andrew Hamilton and John Evans. The latter, a worldly 
 sort of man, not very faithful to the principles of the Friends, greatly 
 troubled the province by purchasing warlike stores, building forts, 
 and attempting to organize a regiment of militia. The assembly en- 
 tered a strong protest against these proceedings, so irreconcilable witli 
 
PENNS YL VA NIA. 215 
 
 the policy of the Quakers, and in 1708 Evaus was removed from 
 office. After him Charles Gookia received a commission as dep- 
 uty-governor and entered upon his administration in 1709. Soon 
 afterwards Penn was well-uigh overwhelmed by the rascality of his 
 English agent, Ford, who first involved him in debt and then had 
 him imprisoned. From a shameful confinement of many months ho 
 was finally released, and his old age was brightened by a gleam of 
 prosperity. But the end of his labors was at hand. In July of 1718 
 the magnanimous founder of Pennsylvania sank to his final rest. His 
 estates, vast and valuable, but much encumbered with debt, were be- 
 queathed to his three sons, John, Thomas and Richard, who thus be- 
 came j)voprietors of Pennsylvania. By them, or their deputies, the 
 province was governed until the American Revolution. In the year 
 1779 the entire claims of the Penn family to the soil and jurisdiction 
 of the State were purchased by the legislature of Pennsylvania for a 
 hundred and thirty thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 The colonial history of the State founded by William Penn and 
 the Quakers is one of special interest and pleasure. It is a narrative 
 that recounts the victories of peace and the triumph of the nobler 
 virtues over violence and wrong. It is doubtful whether the history 
 of any other colony in the world is touched with so many traits of 
 innocence and truth. When the nations grow mercenary and the 
 times seem full of fraud, the early annals of Pennsylvania may well 
 be recited as a perpetual jirotest against the seeming success of evil. 
 " I will found a free colony for all mankind," were the words of 
 William Penn. How well his work was done shall be fitly told 
 when the bells of his capital city shall ring out the first glad notes 
 of American Independence. 
 
COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. 
 
 MINOR SOUTHERN COLONIES. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXVI. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH was the first white man to explore the 
 Chesapeake and its tributaries. After him, in 1621, William Clay- 
 borne, a resolute and daring English surveyor, was sent out by the 
 London Company to make a map of the country about the head-waters 
 of the bay. By the second charter of Virginia the territory of that 
 province had been extended on the north to the forty-first parallel of 
 latitude. All of the present State of Maryland was included in this 
 enlargement, which also embraced the whole of Delaware and the greater 
 part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The ambition of Virginia was 
 greatly excited by the possession of this vast domain; to explore and 
 occupy it was an enterprise of the highest importance. 
 
 Clayborne was a member of the council of Virginia, and secretary 
 of state in that colony. In May of 1631 he received a royal commission 
 authorizing him to discover the sources of the Chesapeake Bay, to survey 
 the country as far as the forty-first degree of latitude, to establish a trade 
 with the Indians, and to exercise the right of government over the com- 
 panions of his voyage. This commission was confirmed by Governor 
 Harvey of Virginia, and in the spring of the following year Clayborne 
 began his important and arduous work. The members of the London 
 Company were already gathering imaginary riches from the immense fur- 
 trade of the Potomac and the Susquehanna. 
 
 The enterprise of Clayborne was attended with success. A trading- 
 post was established on Kent Island, and another at the head of the bay, 
 in the vicinity of Havre de Grace. The many rivers that fall into the 
 Chesapeake were again explored and a trade opened with the natives. 
 The limits of Virginia were about to be extended to the borders of New 
 
 Netherland. But in the mean time, a train of circumstances had been 
 (216) 
 
MAR YLAND. 
 
 217 
 
 ^MW//P^'' 
 
 v4 
 
 prepared in England by which the destiny of several American provinces 
 was completely changed. As in many otlier instances, religious perse- 
 cution again contributed to lay the foundation of a new State in the 
 wilderness. And Sir George Calvert, of Yorkshire, was the man who 
 was destined to become the founder. Born in 1580 ; educated at Oxford; 
 a man of much travel and vast experience ; an ardent and devoted Cath- 
 olic ; a friend of hu- 
 manity ; honored with 
 knighthood, and after- 
 ward with an Irish 
 peerage and the title 
 of Lord Baltimore, 
 — he now in middle 
 life turned aside from 
 the dignities of rank 
 and affluence to devote 
 the energies of his life 
 to the ^velfare of the 
 o]3pressed. For the 
 Catholics of England, 
 as well as the dissent- 
 ing Protestants, were 
 afflicted with many 
 and bitter persecu- 
 tions. 
 
 Lord Baltimore's 
 first American enter- 
 prise was the planting 
 of a Catholic colony 
 in Newfoundland. King James, who was not unfriendly to the Roman 
 Church, had granted him a patent for the southern promontory of the 
 island; and here, in 1623, a refuge was established for distressed Cath- 
 olics. But in such a place no colony could be successful. The district 
 was narrow, cheerless, desolate. Profitable industry was impossible. 
 French ships hovered around the coast and captured the English fishing- 
 boats. It became evident that the settlement must be removed, and Lord 
 Baltimore wisely turned his attention to the sunny country of the Ches- 
 apeake. 
 
 In 1629 he made a visit to Virginia. The general assembly offered 
 him citizenship on condition that he would take an oath of allegiance ; 
 but the oath was of such a sort as no honest Catholic could subscribe to. 
 
 
 LORD BALTIMORE. 
 
218 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lu vain did Sir George plead for toleration • the assembly was inexorable. 
 It was ou the part of the Virginians a short-sighted and ruinous policy. 
 For the London Company had already been dissolved ; the king might 
 therefore rightfully regrant that vast- territory north of the Potomac 
 which by the terms of the second charter had been giveh to Virginia. 
 Lord Baltimore left the narrow-minded legislator, returned to London, 
 himself drew up a charter for a new State on the Chesapeake, and easily 
 induced his friend. King Charles I., to sign it. The Virginians had 
 saved their religion and lost a province. 
 
 The territory embraced by the new patent was bounded by the 
 ocean, by the fortieth parallel of latitude, by a line dra^vn due south from 
 that parallel to the most western fountain > of the Potomac, by the river 
 itself from its source to the bay, and by a line running due cast from the 
 mouth of the river to the Atlantic. The domain included the whole of 
 the present States of Maryland and Delaware and a large pai-t of Penn- 
 sylvania and New Jersey. Here it was the purpose of the magnanimous 
 proprietor to establish an asylum for all the afflicted of his own faith, and 
 to plant a State on the broad basis of religious toleration and popular lib- 
 erty. The provisions of the charter were the most liberal and ample which 
 had ever received the sanction of the English government. Christianity 
 was declared to be the religion of the State, but no preference was given 
 to any sect or creed. The lives and property of the colonists were care- 
 fully guarded. Free trade was declared to be the law of the province, 
 and arbitrary taxation was forbidden. The rights of the proprietor ex- 
 tended only to the free appointment of the officers of his government. The 
 power of making and amending the laws was conceded to the freemen of 
 the colony or their representatives. 
 
 One calamity darkened the prospect. Before the liberal patent could 
 receive the seal of State Sir George Calvert died. His title and estates 
 descended to his son Cecil; and to him, on the 20th' of June, 1632, the 
 charter which had been intended for his noble father was finally issued. 
 In honor of Henrietta Maria, daughter of Hcurj^ IV. of France and 
 wife of Charles I., the name of Maryland was conferred on the new 
 province. Independence of Virginia was guaranteed in the constitution 
 of the colony, and no danger was to be anticipated from the feeble forces 
 of New Netherlaud. It only remained for the younger Lord Baltimore 
 to raise a company of emigrants and carry out his father's benevolent 
 designs. The work went forward slowly, and it was not until November 
 of 1633 that a colony numbering two hundred persons could be collected. 
 Meanwhile, Cecil Calvert had abandoned the idea of coming in person to 
 America, and had appointed his brother Leonard to accompany the col- 
 
MARYLAND. 219 
 
 onists to their destination, and to act as deputy-governor of tiie new 
 province. 
 
 In March of the following year the immigrants arrived at Old 
 Point Comfort. Leonard Calvert bore a letter from King Charles to 
 Governor Harvey of Virginia, commanding him to receive the new- 
 comers with courtesy and favor. The order was complied with ; but the 
 Virginians could look only M'ith intense jealoasy on a movement which 
 must soon deprive them of the rich fur-trade of the Chesapeake. The 
 colonists proceeded up the bay and entered the Potomac. At the mouth 
 of Piscataway Creek, nearly ojiposite Mount Vernon, the pinnace was 
 moored, and a cross was set up on an island. On the present site of Fort 
 "Washington there was an Indian village whose inhabitants came out to 
 meet the English. A conference was held, and the sachem of the nation 
 told Leonard Calvert in words of dubious meaning that he and his colony 
 miffht stay or go just as they pleased. Considering this answer as a 
 menace, and deeming it imprudent to j^lant his first settlement so far up 
 the river, Calvert again embarked with his companions, and dropped down 
 stream to the mouth of the St. Mary's, within fifteen miles of the bay. 
 Ascending the estuaiy for about ten miles, he came to an Indian town. 
 The natives had been beaten in battle by the Susquehannas, and were on 
 the eve of migrating into the interior. The village was already half 
 deserted. With the consent of the Eed men, the English moved into the 
 vacant huts. The rest of the town was jjm-chased, with the adjacent ter- 
 ritory, the Indians promising to give possession at the opening of the 
 spring. The name of St. Mary's was given to this the oldest colony of 
 Maryland, and the name of the river was changed to St. George's. 
 
 Calvert treated the natives with great liberality. The consequence 
 was that the settlers had peace and plenty. The Indian women taught 
 the wives of the English liow to make corn-bread, and the friendly war- 
 riors instructed tlie colonists in the mysteries of hunting. Game was 
 abundant. The lands adjacent to the village were already under cultiva- 
 tion. The settlers had little to do but to plant their gardens and fields 
 and wait for the coming harvest. There was neither anxiety nor want. 
 The dream of Sir George Calvert was realized. Within six months the 
 colony of St. Mary's had grown into greater prosperity than the settle- 
 ment at Jamestown had reached in as many years. Best of all, the pledge 
 of ci\'il liberty and religious toleration was redeemed to the letter. Two 
 years before the founding of Rhode Island the Catholics of the Ches- 
 apeake had emancipated the human conscience, built an asylum for the 
 distressed, and laid the foundations of a free State. 
 
 Within less than a year after the founding of St. Mary's the free- 
 
220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 men were convened in a general assembly. In February of 1635 the 
 work of colonial legislation was first begun. The records of this and 
 several succeeding sessions were destroyed in the rebellion of 1645, 
 and not much is Ivuown concerning the character of the earliest laws. 
 But it is certain that the province was involved in difficulty For Clay- 
 l^orne still stood his ground on Kent Island, and openly resisted Lord 
 Baltimore's authority. His settlement on the island was almost as strong 
 as the colony at St. Mary's; and Clayborne, unscrupulous as to the 
 right, and confident in his power, resolved to appeal to arms. In 1637 
 a bloody skirmish occurred on the banks of the river Wicomico, on the 
 eastern shore of the bay. Several lives were lost, but the insurgents were 
 defeated. Calvert's forces proceeded to Kent Island, overpowered tha 
 settlement, and executed one or two persons who had participated in the 
 rebellion. 
 
 Clayborne, in the mean time, had escaped into Virginia. The 
 assembly of Maryland demanded the fugitive ; but the governor refused, 
 and sent the prisoner to England for trial. The legislators of St. Mary's 
 charged the absent criminal with murder and piracy, tried him, con- 
 demned him and confiscated his estates. Clayborne, -who was safe in 
 England, appealed to the king. The cause was heard by a committee of 
 Parliament, and it was decided that the commission of Clayborne, which 
 was only a license to trade in the Chesapeake, had been annulled by the 
 dissolution of the London Company, and that the charter of Lord Balti- 
 more was valid against all opposing claimants. Clayborne, however, was 
 allowed to go at large. 
 
 In 1639 a regular representative government was established in 
 Maryland. Hitherto a system of popular democracy had jjrevailed in the 
 province ; each freeman had been allowed a vote in determining the laws. 
 With the growth of the colony it was deemed expedient to substitute the 
 more convenient method of representation. When the delegates came 
 together, a declaration of rights was adopted, and the prerogative of the 
 proprietor more clearly defined. All the broad and liberal jjrinciples of 
 the colonial patent were reaffirmed. The powers of the assembly' were 
 made coextensive mth those of the House of Commons in England. 
 The rights of citizenship were declared to be identical with those of Eng- 
 lish subjects in the mother country. 
 
 The Indians of Maryland and Virginia had now grown jealous of 
 foreign encroachments. Vague rumors of the English Eevolution had 
 been borne to the Red men, and they believed themselves able to expel 
 the intruders from the country. In 1642 hostilities were begun on the 
 Potomac, and for two years the province was involved in war. But the 
 
MARYLAND. 221 
 
 settlements of Maryland were few and compact, and no great suflering 
 was occasioned by the onsets of the barbarians. In 1644 the savages 
 agreed to bury the hatchet and to renew the broken pledges of friendship. 
 Hardly, however, had the echo of Indian warfare died away, when the 
 colony was visited with a worse calamity by the return of its old enemy, 
 William Clayborne. 
 
 He came to find revenge, and found it. The king was now at 
 war with his subjects, and could give no aid to the proprietor of an 
 American province. Clayborne saw his opportunitj', hurried to Mary- 
 land, and raised the standard of rebellion. Arriving in the province in 
 1644, he began to sow the seeds of sedition by telling the restless and 
 lawless spirits of the colony that they were wronged and oppressed by a 
 usurping government. Early in 1645 an insurrection broke out. Com- 
 panies of desj)erate men came together, and found in Clayborne a natural 
 leader. The government of Leonard Calvert was overthrown, and the 
 governor obliged to fly for his life. Esca]>ing from the province, he found 
 refuge and jDrotection with Sir William Berkeley of Virginia. Clayborne 
 seized the colonial records of Maryland, and destroyed them. One act of 
 vioknce followed another. The government was usurped, and for more 
 than a year the colony was under the dominion of the insurgents. Mean- 
 while, however. Governor Calvert collected his forces, returned to the 
 province, defeated the rebels, and in August of 1646 succeeded in restor- 
 ing his authority'. It marks the mild and humane spirit of the Calverts 
 that those engaged in this unjustifiable insurrection were pardoned by a 
 general amnesty. 
 
 The acts of the provincial legislature in 1649 were of special im- 
 portance. It was enacted in broad terms that no person believing in the 
 fundamental doctrines of Christianity should, on account of his religious 
 opinions or practices, be in any wise distressed within the borders of 
 iSIaryland. It was declared a finable oifence for citizens to ajiply to each 
 other the opprobrious names used in religious controversy. Freedom of 
 conscience was reiterated with a distinctness that could not be misunder- 
 stood. While Massachusetts was attempting by proscription to establish 
 Puritanism as the faith of New England, and while the Episcopalians of 
 Jamestown were endeavoring by exclusive legislation to make the Churcli 
 of England the Church of Virginia, Maryland was joining with Rhode 
 Island and Connecticut in proclaiming religious freedom. It sometimes 
 happened in those days that Protestants escaping from Protestants found 
 an asylum with the Catholic colonists of the Chesapeake. 
 
 In 1650 the legislative body of Maryland was divided into two 
 branches. The uj)per house consisted of the governor and members of 
 
222 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his council appointed by the proprietor. The lower house, or general 
 assembly, was composed of burgesses elected by the people of the province. 
 Again the rights of Lord Baltimore were carefully defined by provincial 
 law. An act was also jiassed declaring that no taxes should be levied 
 without the consent of the assembly. Such was the condition of aifairs 
 in the colony when the commonwealth was established in England. Par- 
 liiuaent was now the supreme power in the mother country, and it could 
 hardly be expected that Lord Baltimore's charter would be allowed to 
 stand. 
 
 In 1651 pai-liamentary commissioners were appointed to come to 
 America and assume control of the colonies bordering on the Chesapeake. 
 Clayborne was a member of the body thus appointed. When the com- 
 missioners arrived in Maryland, Stone, the deputy of Lord Baltimore, 
 was deposed from office. A compromise was presently efiected between 
 the adherents of the proprietor and the opposing faction ; and in June of 
 the following year, Stone, with three members of his council, was per- 
 mitted to resume the government. In April of 1653 the Long Par- 
 liament, by whose authority the commissioners had been appointed, was 
 dissolved. Stone thereupon published a proclamation declaring that the 
 recent interference of Clayborne and his associates had been a rebellious 
 usurpation. Clayborne, enraged at this proclamation, collected a force in 
 Virginia, returned into Maryland, again drove Stone out of office, and 
 entrusted the government to ten commissioners appointed by himself. 
 
 The Puritan and republican party in Maryland had now grown 
 sufficiently strong to defy the proprietor and the Catholics. A Protestant 
 assembly was convened at Patuxent in October of 1654. The first act 
 was to acknowledge the supremacy of Cromwell ; the next to disfranchise 
 the Catholics and to deprive them of the protection of the laws. The un- 
 grateful representatives seemed to forget that if Lord Baltimore had been 
 equally intolerant not one of them would have had even a residence 
 within the limits of Maryland. It would be difficult to find a more 
 odious piece of legislation than that of the assembly at Patuxent. Of 
 course the Catholic party would not sulimit to a code by which they were 
 virtually banished from their own province. 
 
 Civil war ensued. Governor Stone organized and armed the 
 militia, seized the records of the colony, and marched against the oppos- 
 ing forces. A decisive battle was fought just across the estuary from the 
 present site of Annapolis. The Catholics were defeated, with a loss of 
 fifty men in killed and wounded. Stone himself was taken prisoner, and 
 was only saved from death by the personal friendship of some of the in- 
 surgents. Tliree of the Catholic leaders were tried by a court-martial 
 
MARYLAND. 223 
 
 and executed. Cromwell paid but little attention to these atrocities, and 
 made no effort to sustain the government of Lord Baltimore. 
 
 In 1656 Josias Fendall, a weak and impetuous man, was sent out 
 by the proprietor as governor of the province. There was now a Cath- 
 olic insurrection with Fendall at the head. For two years the govern- 
 ment was divided, the Catholics exercising authority at St. Mary's, and 
 the Protestants at Leonardstown. At length, in March of 1658, a com- 
 promise was effected; Fendall was acknowledged as governor, and the 
 acts of the recent Protestant assemblies were recognized as valid. A gen- 
 eral amnesty was published, and the colony was again at peace. 
 
 When the death of Cromwell was announced in Maryland, the 
 provincial authorities were much perplexed. One of four courses might 
 be pursued : Richard Cromwell might be recognized as protector ; Charles 
 II. might be proclaimed as king ; Lord Baltimore might be acknowledged 
 as hereditary proprietor ; colonial independence might be declared. The 
 latter policy was adopted by the assembly. On the 12th of March, 1660, 
 the rights of Lord Baltimore were formally set aside; the provincial 
 council was dissolved, and the whole power of government was assumed 
 by the House of Burgesses. The act of independence was adopted just 
 one day before a similar resolution was jiassed by the general assembly of 
 Virginia. The poj)ulation of Maryland had now reached ten thousand. 
 
 On the restoration of monarchy the rights of the Baltimores were 
 again recognized, and Philip Calvert was sent out as deputy-governor. In 
 the mean time, Fendall had resigned his trnst as agent of the proprietor, 
 and had accepted an election by the people. He was now repaid for iiis 
 double-dealing with an arrest, a trial and a condemnation on a charge 
 of treason. Nothing saved his life but the clemency of Lord Baltimore, 
 who, with his customary magnanimity, proclaimed a general pardon. 
 
 Sir Cecil Calvert died in 1675, and his son Charles, a young man 
 who had inherited the virtues of the illustrious family, succeeded to the 
 estates and title of Baltimore. For sixteen years he exercised the rights 
 of proprietary governor of Maryland. The laws of the province were 
 carefully revised, and the liberal principles of the original charter re- 
 affirmed as the basis of the State. Only once during this period was the 
 iiappiness of the colony disturbed. When the news arrived of the abdi- 
 I'ation of King James II., the deputy of Lord Baltimore hesitated to 
 acknowledge the new sovereigns, William and Mary. An absurd rumor 
 was spread abroad that the Catholics had leagued with the Indians for 
 the purpose of destroying the Protestants of Maryland in a general mas- 
 sacre. ^\.n opposing force was organized ; and in 1689 the Catholic party 
 was compelled to surrender the government. For two years the Pro*^est- 
 
•224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ants held the province, and civil authority was exercised by a body called 
 the Convention of Associates. 
 
 On the 1st day of June, 1691, the government of Maryland was 
 revolutionized by the act of King William. The charter of Lord Balti- 
 more was arbitrarily taken away, and a royal governor appointed over the 
 province. Sir Lionel Copley received a commission, and assumed the 
 government in 1692. Every vestige of the old patent was swept away. 
 The Episcopal Church was established by law and supported by taxation. 
 Religious toleration was abolished and the government administered on 
 despotic principles. This condition of affairs continued until 1715, when 
 Queen Anne was induced to restore the heir of Lord Baltimore to the 
 rights of his ancestor. Maryland again became a proprietary government 
 under the authority of the Calverts, and so remained until the Eevolu- 
 tionary war. 
 
 The early historj- of the colony planted by the first Lord Balti- 
 more on the shores of the Chesapeake is full of profitable instruction. In 
 no other American province were the essential vices of intolerance more 
 clearly manifested ; in no other did the principle of religious freedom 
 shine with a brighter lustre. Nor will the thoughtful student fail to 
 observe how the severe dogmas of Catholicism were softened down when 
 brought into contact with the ennobling virtues of the Calverts, until over 
 river and ba}' and shore a mellow light was diffused like a halo shining 
 from the altars of the ancient Church. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 THE first effort to colonize North Carolina was made by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. In 1630 an immense tract lying between the thirtieth and 
 the thirty-sixth parallels of latitude was granted by King Charles to Sir 
 Robert Heath. But neither the proprietor nor his successor. Lord Mal- 
 travers, succeeded in planting a colony. Afler a useless existence of 
 thirty-three years, the patent was revoked by the English sovereign. The 
 onlv effect of Sir Robert's charter was to perpetuate the name of Carolina, 
 which had been given to the country by John Ribault in 1562. 
 
 In the year 1622 the country as far south as the river Chowan was 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 225 
 
 explored by Pory, the secretary of Virginia. Twenty years later a com- 
 pany of Virginians obtained leave of the assembly to prosecute discovery 
 on the lower Roanoke and establish a trade with the natives. The first 
 actual settlement was made near the mouth of the Chowan about the year 
 1651. The country was visited just afterward by Clayborue of jNIaryland, 
 and in 1661 a company of Puritans from New England passed down the 
 coast, entered the mouth of Cape Fear River, purchased lands of the 
 Indians and established a colony on Oldtown Creek, nearly two hundred 
 miles farther south than any other English settlement. In 1663 Lord 
 Clarendon, General Monk, who was now honored with the title of duke 
 of Albemarle, and six other noblemen, received at the hands of Charles 
 II. a patent for all the country between the thirty-sixth parallel and the 
 river St. John's, in Florida. With this grant the colonial history of 
 North Carolina properly begins. 
 
 In the same year a civil government was organized by the settlers 
 on the Chowan. William Drummond was chosen governor, and the 
 name of Albejiarle County Colony was given to the district border- 
 ing on the sound. In 1665 it was found that the settlement M'as north 
 of the thirty-sixth parallel, and consequently beyond the limits of the 
 province. To remedy this defect the grant was extended on the north to 
 thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes, the present boundary of A^irginia, 
 and westward to the Pacific. During the same year tlie little Puritan 
 ■ colony on Cape Fear River was broken up by the Indians ; but scarcely 
 had this been done when the site of the settlement, with thirty-two miles 
 square of the surrounding territory, was purchased by a company of 
 planters from Barbadoes. A new county named Clarendon was laid 
 out, and Sir John Yeamans elected governor of the colony. The pro- 
 prietors favored the settlement; immigration was rapid; and within a year 
 eight hundred people had settled along the river. 
 
 The work of preparing a frame of government for the new province 
 was assigned to Sir Ashley Cooper, earl of Shaftesbury. The proprietors, 
 not without reason, looked forward to the time when a powerful nation 
 should arise within the borders of their vast domain. To draft a suitable 
 constitution was deemed a work of the greatest importance. Shaftesbury 
 was a brilliant and versatile statesman who had entire confidence in his 
 abilities ; but in order to give complete assurance of perfection in the 
 proposed statutes, the philosopher John Locke was employed by Sir 
 Ashley and his associates to prepare the constitution. The legislation of 
 the world furnishes no parallel for the pompous absurdity of Locke's 
 performance. 
 
 From March until July of 1669 the philosopher worked away in 
 
226 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the preparation of his Grand Model ; then the mighty instrument was 
 done, and signed. It contained a hundred and twenty articles, called the 
 " Fundamental Constitutions ;" and this was but the beginning of the im- 
 perial scheme which wa-; to stand like a colossus over the huts and pas- 
 tures along the Cape Fear and Chowan Rivers. The empire of Carolina 
 was divided into vast districts of four hundred and eighty thousand acres 
 each. Political rights were made dependent upon hereditary wealth. 
 The offices were put beyond the reach of the people. There were two 
 grand orders of nobility. There were dukes, earls and marcpiises; 
 knights, lords and esquires ; baronial courts, heraldic ceremony, and 
 every sort of feudal nonsense tliat the human imagination could conceive 
 of. And this was the magnificent constitution which a great statesman 
 and a wise philosopher had planned for the government of a few colonists 
 who lived on venison and potatoes and paid their debts with tobacco ! 
 
 It was one thing to make the grand model, and another thing to get 
 it across the Atlantic. In this the proprietors never succeeded. All at^ 
 tempts to establish the pompous scheme of government ended in necessary 
 failure. The settlers of Albemarle and Clarendon had meanwhile learned 
 to govern themselves after the simple manner of pioneers, and they could 
 but regard the model and its authors with disdainful contempt. After 
 twenty yeare of fruitless effort, Shaftesbury and his associates folded up 
 their grand constitution and concluded that an empire in the pine forests 
 of North Carolina was impossible. 
 
 The soil of Clarendon county was little better than a desert. For a 
 while a trade in staves and furs supplied a profitable industry ; but when 
 this traffic was exhausted, the colonists began to remove to other settle- 
 ments. In 1671, Governor Yeamans was transferred to the colony which 
 had been founded in the previous year at the mouth of Ashley River, and 
 before the year 1690 the whole county of Clarendon was a second time 
 surrendered to the native tribes. The settlement north of Albemarle 
 Sound was more prosperous, but civil dissension greatly retarded the 
 development of the country. 
 
 For the proprietore were already busy trying to establish their big in- 
 stitutions in the feeble province. The humble commerce of the colony was 
 burdened with an odious duty. Every pound of the eight hundred hogs- 
 heads of tobacco annually produced was taxed a penny for the benefit of 
 the government. There were^at this time less than four thousand people 
 in North Carolina, and yet the traffic of these poor settlers with New 
 England alone was so weighed down with duties as to yield an annual 
 revenue of twelve thousand dollars. Miller, the governor, was a harsh 
 and violent man. A gloomy opposition to the proprietary government 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 227 
 
 pervaded the colony; and M'heii, in 1676, large numbers of refugees from 
 Virginia — patriots who had fought in Bacon's rebellion — arrived in the 
 Chowan, the spirit of discontent was kindled into open resistance. 
 
 The arrival of a merchant-ship from Boston and an attempt to en- 
 force the revenue laws furnished the occasion and jjretcxt of an insurrec- 
 tion. The vessel evaded the payment of duty, and wa.' declared a smug- 
 gler. But tlie people flew to arms, seized the governor and six members 
 of his council, overturned the existing order of things and established a 
 new government of their own. John Qjilpepper, the leader of the insur- 
 gents, was chosen governor; other officers were elected by the people; and 
 in a few weeks the colony was as tranquil as if Locke's grand model had 
 never been heard of. But in the next year, 1679, the imprisoned ]\IiI- 
 ler and his associates escaped from confinement, and going to London 
 told a dolorous story about their wrongs and sufferings. The English 
 lords of trade took the matter in hand, and it seemed that North Carolina 
 was doomed to punishment. 
 
 But the colonists were awake to their interests. Governor Cul- 
 pepper went boldly to England to defend himself and to justify the rebel- 
 lion. He was seized, indicted for high trea.son, tried and acquitted by a 
 jury of Englishmen. It marks a peculiar feature of this cause that the 
 sagacious earl of Shaftesbur)' came forward at the trial and spoke in de- 
 fence of the prisoner. But Lord Clarendon was so much vexed at the 
 acquittal of the rebellious governor that he sold his rights as proprietor to 
 theinfamous Seth Sothel. This man in 1680 was sent out by his associ- 
 ates as governor of the province. In crossing the ocean he was captured 
 by a band of pirates, and for three years the colony was saved from his 
 evil presence. At last, in 1683, he arrived in Carolina and began his 
 work, which consisted in oppressing the people and defrauding the pro- 
 ])rietors. Cranfield of New Hampshire, Cornbury of New York and 
 Wingfield of Virginia were all respectable men in comparison \Y\i\i Sothel, 
 whose sordid passions have made him notorious as the worst colonial gov- 
 ernor that ever plundered an American province. After five years of 
 avaricious tyranny, the base, gold-gathering, justice-despising despot was 
 overthrown in an insurrection. Finding himself a prisoner, and fearing 
 the wrath of the defrauded proprietors more than he feared the indigna- 
 tion of the outraged colonists, he begged to be tried l>v the assembly f)f 
 the province. The request was granted, and the culprit escaped with a 
 sentence of disfranchisement and a twelve months' exile from North 
 Carolina. 
 
 Sothel was succeeded in the governorship b)' Ludwell, who arrived 
 in 1689. His administration of six years' duration was a period of peace 
 
228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and contentment. The wrongs of his predecessor were corrected as far as 
 possible by a just and humane chief magistrate. In 1695 came Sir John 
 Arclidale, another of tlie jiroprietors, the rival of Ludwell in prudence 
 and integrity. Then followed the tranquil administration of Governor 
 Henderson Walker; then, in 1704, the foolish attempt of Robert Daniel 
 to establish the Church of England. In the mean time, the colony had 
 grown strong in population and resources. The country soutii of the 
 Eoanoke began to be dotted with farms and hamlets. Other settlers 
 came from Virginia and Maryland. Quakers came from New England 
 and the Delaware. A band of French Huguenots came in 1707. A 
 hundred families of German refugees, buffeted with war and persecution, 
 left the banks of the Rhine to find a home on the banks of the Neuse. 
 Peasants from Switzerland came and founded New Berne at the mouth 
 of the River Trent. 
 
 The Indians of North Carolina had gradually wasted away. Pes- 
 tilence and strong drink had reduced jiowerful tribes to a shadow. Some 
 nations were already extinct; others, out of thousands of strong-limbed 
 warriors, had only a dozen men remaining. The lands of the savages had 
 passed to the whites, sometimes by purchase, sometimes by fraud, often 
 by forcible occupation. The natives were jealous and revengeful, but 
 weak. Of all the mighty tribes that had inhabited the, Carolinas in the 
 days of Sir Walter Raleigh, only the Corees and the Tuscaroras were 
 still formidable. The time had come when these unhappy nations, like 
 the rest of their race, were doomed to destruction. The conflict which 
 ended, and could only end, in the ruin of the Red men, began in the year 
 1711. 
 
 In September of this year, Lawson, the surveyor-general of North 
 Carolina, ascended the Neuse to explore and map the country. The In- 
 dians were alarmed at the threatened encroachment iipon their lerritory. 
 A band of warriors took Lawson prisoner, led him before their council, 
 condemned him and burned him to deatii. On the night of the 22d, com- 
 panies of savages rose out of the woods, fell upon the scattered settlements 
 between the Roanoke and Pamlico Sound, and murdered a hundred and 
 thirty persons. Civil dissension prevented the colonial authorities from 
 adopting vigorous measures of defence. The protection of the people 
 and tlie punishment of the barbarians were left to the neighboring prov 
 inces. Spottswood, governor of Virginia, made some unsuccessful efforts 
 to render tissistance, and Colonel Barnwell came from South Carolina with 
 a company of militia and a body of friendly Cherokees, Creeks and Cataw- 
 bas. The savages were driven into their fort in the northern part of 
 Craven county, but coidd not be dislodged. Wliile affairs were in this 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 229 
 
 condition a treaty of peace was made ; but Barnwell's men, on their way 
 homeward, violated the compact, sacked an Indian village and made 
 slaves of the inhabitants. The wax was at once renewed. 
 
 In September of the next year, while the conflict was yet unde- 
 cided, the yellow fever broke out in the country south of Pamlico Sound. 
 So dreadful were the ravages of the pestilence that the peninsula was 
 wellnigh swept of its inhabitants. Meanwliile, Colonel James Moore of 
 South Carolina had arrived, in command of a regiment of whites and In- 
 dians, and the Tuscaronis were pursued to their principal fort on Cotentnea 
 Creek, in Greene county. This place was besieged until the latter part of 
 March, 1713, and was then carried by assault. Eight hundred warriors 
 were taken jjrisoners. The power of the hostile nation was broken, but 
 the Tascarora chieftains were divided in council ; some were desirous of 
 peace, and some voted to continue the war. This difference of opinion 
 led to a division of the tribe. Those who wished for peace were permit- 
 ted to settle in a single community in the county of Hyde. Their hostile 
 brethren, seeing that further resistance Mould be hopeless, determined to 
 k'a\-e the country. In the month of June they abandoned their hunting- 
 grounds made sacred by the traditions of their fathers, marched across 
 Virginia, ilaryland and Pennsylvania, reached Northern New York, 
 joined their kinsmen, the Oneidas, and became the sixth nation of the 
 Iroquois confederacy. 
 
 Thus far the two Carolinas had continued under a common gov- 
 ernment. In 1729 a final separation was eflected between the provinces 
 north and south of Cape Fear River, and a royal governor appointed over 
 each. In spite of Locke's grand model and the Tuscarora war, in spite 
 of the threatened Spanish invasion of 1744, the northern colony had greatly 
 prospered. The intellectual development of the people had not been as 
 rapid as the growth in numbers and in wealth. Little attention had been 
 given to questions of religion. There was no minister in the province 
 until 170.". Two years later the first church ^vas built. The first court- 
 house was erected in 1722, and the printing-press did not begin its work 
 until 1754. But the people were brave and patriotic. They loved their 
 country, and called it the Land of Summer. In the farmhouse and the 
 village, along the banks of the rivers and the borders of the primeval for- 
 ests, the spirit of liberty pervaded every breast. The love of freedom was 
 intense, and hostility to tyranny a universal jwssiou. In the times of 
 Sothel it was said of the North Carolinans that they would not pay trib- 
 ute even to Ooesar. 
 
230 HISTORY OF TEE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 IN January of 1670 the proprietors of Carolina sent out a colony under 
 command of Joseph West and William Saylc. There wa.s at this time 
 not a single European settlement between the mouth of Cape Fear River 
 and the St. John's, in Florida. Here was a beautiful coast of nearly four 
 hundred miles ready to receive the beginnings of civilization. The new 
 emigrants, sailing by way of Barbadoes, steered far to the south, and 
 readied the mainland in the country of the Sav-annah. The vessels first 
 entered the harbor of Port Royal. It was now a hundred and eight years 
 since John Ribault, on an island in this same harbor, had set up a stone 
 engraved with the lilies of France; now the Englishman had come. 
 
 The ships were anchored near the site of Beaufort. But the colo- 
 nists were dissatisfied with the appearance of the country, and did not go 
 ashore. Sailing northward along the coast for forty miles, they next en- 
 tered the mouth of Ashley River, and landed where the firet high land 
 appeared upon the southern bank. Here were laid the foundations of 
 Old Charleston, so named in honor of King Charles II. Of this, the 
 oldest town in South Carolina, no trace remains except the line of a ditch 
 which was digged around the fort ; a cotton-field occupies the site of the 
 ancient settlement. 
 
 Sayle had been commissioned as governor and West as commercial 
 agent of the colony. The settlers had been furnished with a copy of 
 Locke's big constitution, but they had no more use for it than for a dead 
 elephant. Instead of the grand model, a little government was organized 
 on the jjrinciples of common sense. Five councilors were elected by the 
 people, and five others appointed by the proprietors. Over this council 
 of ten the governor presided. Twenty delegates, composing a house of 
 representatives, were chosen by the colonists. Within two years the sys- 
 tem of popular government was firmly established in the province. Ex- 
 cept the prevalence of diseases peculiar to the southern cHmate, no calam- 
 ity darkened the prospects of the rising State. 
 
 In the beginning of 1671 Governor Sayle died, and West, by com- 
 mon consent, assumed the duties of the vacant ofiice. After the lapse of 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 231 
 
 a few montlis, Sir Jolin Yeamans, who liad been governor of the northern 
 province and was now in Barbadoes, was commissioned by tiie proprie- 
 tors as ciuof magistrate of tiie southern colony. He brought with him to 
 Asliiey River a large cargo of African slaves. From the beginning the 
 colonists had devoted themselves to planting; but the English laborers, 
 unused as yet to the climate, could hardly endure the excessive heats of the 
 sultry fields. To the Caribbee negroes, already accustomed to the burn- 
 ing sun of the tropics, tiie Carolina summer seemed temperate and pleasant. 
 Thus the labor of the black man was substituted for the labor of the white 
 man, and in less than two years from the founding of the colony the system 
 of slavery was firmly established. In this respect the history of South 
 Carolina is peculiar. Slavery had been introduced into all the American 
 colonies, but everywhere else the introduction had been effected by those 
 •who were engaged in the slave-trade. In South Carolina alone M'as the 
 system adopted as a political and social experiment and with a view to the 
 regular establishment of a laboring class in the State. Governor Yeamans 
 was the first to accept this policy, which soon became the general policy 
 of the province. The importation of negroes went on so rapidly that in 
 a short time they outnumbered the whites as two to one. 
 
 Immigration from England did not lag. During the year 1671 a 
 system of cheap rents and liberal bounties was adopted by the proprietors, 
 and the country was rapidly filled with people. A tract of a hundred and 
 fifty acres was granted to eveiy one who would cither immigrate or im- 
 port a negro. Fertile lands were abundant. Wars and pestilence had 
 almost annihilated the native tribes; whole counties were almost without an 
 occupant. The disasters of one race had prepared the way for the coming 
 of another. Only a few years before tliis time New Netherland had been 
 conquered by the English. The Dutch were greatly dissatisfied with the 
 government which the duke of York had established over them, and 
 began to leave the country. The proprietors of Carolina sent several 
 ships to New York, loaded them with the industrious but discontented 
 people, and brought them without expense to Charleston. The unoccupied 
 lands west of Ashley River were divided among the Dutch, who formed 
 there a thriving settlement called Jamestown. The fame of the new 
 country reached Holland, and other emigrants left fatherland to join their 
 kinsmen in Carolina. Charles II., who rarely aided a colony, collected a 
 company of Protestant refugees from the South of Europe, and sent them 
 to Carolina to introduce the silk-worm and to begin the cultivation of the 
 grape. 
 
 In 1680 the present metropolis of South Carolina was founded. The 
 isite of Old Charleston had been hastily and injudiciously selected. The 
 
232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 delightful peninsula called Oyster Point, between Ashley and Cooper 
 Rivers, was now chosen as the spot on which to build a city. The erec- 
 tion of thirty dwellings during the first summer gave proof of enterprise ; 
 the name of Charleston was a second time bestowed, and tlie villay;e 
 immediately became the capital of the colony. The unhealthy climate 
 for a while retarded the progress of the new town, but the people were 
 lull of life and enterprise ; storehouses and wharves were built, and mer- 
 chant-ships soon began to throng the commodious harbor. 
 
 Injustice provoked an Indian war. Some vagabond Nestoes, whose 
 only offence consisted in strolling through the plantations, were shot. 
 The tribe appealed to the government, and the proprietors showed a wil- 
 lingness to punish the wrongdoers ; but the pioneers were determined to 
 fight and the savages were naturally revengeful. Scenes of violence con- 
 tinued along the border, and hostilities began in earnest. In the prosecu- 
 tion of the war the colonists were actuated by a shameful spirit of avarice. 
 The object was not so much to punish or destroy the savages as to take 
 them prisoners. A bounty was offered for every captured Indian, and as 
 fast as the warriors were taken they were sold as slaves for the West In- 
 dies. The petty strife continued for a year, and was then concluded with 
 a treaty of jjeace. Commissioners were appointed, to whom all complaints 
 and disputes between the natives and the colonists should henceforth be 
 submitted. 
 
 South Carolina was favored with rapid immigration, and the immi- 
 grants were worthy to become the founders of a great State. The best 
 nations of Europe contributed to people the country between Cape Fear 
 and the Savannah. England continued to send her colonies. In 1G83 
 Joseph Blake, a brother of the great English admiral, devoted his fortune 
 and the last years of his life to bringing a large company of dissenters 
 from Somersetshire to Charleston. In the same year an Irish colony 
 under Ferguson arrived at Ashley River, and met a hearty welcome. A 
 company of Scotch Presbyterians, ten families in all, led by the excellent 
 Lord Cardross, settled at Port Roj'al in 1684. The authorities of Charles- 
 ton claimed jurisdiction thei-e, and the new immigrants reluctantly yielded 
 to the claim. Two years afterward a band of Spanish soldiers arrived 
 from St. Augustine, and the unhappy Scotch exiles were driven from their 
 homes. But intolerant France gave up more of her subjects than did all 
 the other nations. 
 
 As early as 1598 Henry IV., king of the French, had published a • 
 celebrated proclamation, called the Edict of Nantes, by the terms of wiiich 
 the Huguenots were protected in their rights of religious worship. Now, 
 after eighty-seven years of toleration, Louis XIV., blinded with bigotry 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 233 
 
 and passion and liopiug to make Catholicism universal, revoked the kindly 
 edict, and exposed the Protestants ot" his kingdom to the long-suppressed 
 rage of their enemies. In order to enforce the decree of revocation the 
 rrcnch army was quartered in the towns of the Huguenots, the ports were 
 closed against emigration, and the bordci's were watched to prevent escape. 
 How foolish are the ways of despotism ! In spite of every precaution, 
 five hundred thousand of the best people of France, jireferring banishment 
 to religious thraldom, escaped from their country and fled, self-exiled, into 
 foreign lauds. The Hu<rucnots were scattered from the Baltic Sea to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and on the Western continent from Maine to Flor- 
 ida. But of all the American colonics. South Carolina received the great- 
 est number of French refugees within her borders. They were met by 
 the proprietors with a pledge of protection and a promise of citizenship ; 
 but neither promise nor pledge was immediately fulfilled, for the colony 
 had not yet determined what should be its laws of naturalization. Both 
 the general assembly and the proprietors claimed the right of fixing the 
 conditions. Until that question could be decided the Huguenots were 
 kept in suspense, and were sometimes unkindly treated by the jealous 
 English settlers. Not until 1697 were all discriminations against the 
 French immigrants removed. 
 
 In 1686 came James Colleton as colonial governor. He began his 
 administration with a foolish attempt to establish the mammoth constitu- 
 tion of Locke and Shaftesbury. No wonder that the assembly resisted 
 his authority, and that the people were embittered against him. The rents 
 came due ; payment was refused, and the colony was in a state of rebellion. 
 In order to divert attention from himself, Colleton published a proclama- 
 tion setting forth the danger of a pretended invasion by the Indians and 
 Spaniards. The militia was called out and the province declared under 
 martial law. It was all in vain. The people Avere only exasperated by 
 the arbitrary proceedings of the governor. Tidings came that James II. 
 had been driven from the throne of England. The popular assembly was 
 convened, and William and Mary were proclaimed as sovereigns. In 
 1690 a decree of impeachment was passed against Colleton, and he was 
 banished from the j)rovince. 
 
 The people of North Carolina had just performed a similar service 
 for Seth Sothel. Not satisfied with his previous success, he at once re- 
 paired to Charleston and assumed the government of the southern colony. 
 To Sothel's other merits were added the qualifications of a first-rate dem- 
 agogue ; he induced the people to ac(piiesee in his usurpation and to sus- 
 tain his authority. But his avaricious disposition could not long be held 
 in check. The proprietors disclaimed his acts and after a turbulent rule 
 
234 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of two years, he and his government were overthrown. One bright pag* 
 redeems the record of his administration. In May of 1691 the first gen- 
 eral act of enfranchisement was passed in favor of the Huguenots. 
 
 Philip Ludwell, who had been collector of customs in Virginia, 
 and since 1689 governor of North Carolina, was now sent to establish 
 order in the southern pi-ovince. He spent a year in a well-meant eifort 
 to administer the government of the proprietors; but the people were 
 fixed in their antagonism to the constitution, and nothing could be accom- 
 plished. Ludwell gave up the hopeless task, withdrew from the prov- 
 ince, and returned to Virginia. South Carolina had fallen into a condi- 
 tion borilering on anarchy. 
 
 Nearly a quarter of a century had elapsed since Locke drafted the 
 grand model. At last the proprietors came to see that the establishment 
 of such a monstrous frame of government over an American colony was 
 impossible. Pride said that the constitution should stand, for the nobility 
 of England had declared it immortal. But self-iuterest and common 
 sense demanded its abrogation, and the demand prevailed. In April of 
 1693 the proprietors assembled and voted the boasted model out of exist- 
 ence. It was enacted at the same meeting that since the people of Caro- 
 lina preferred a simple charter government, their request be granted. 
 The magnificent paper empire of Shaftesbury was swept into oblivion. 
 
 Thomas Smith was now appointed governor, but was soon super- 
 seded by John Archdale, a distinguished and talented Quaker. Arriving 
 in 1695, he began an administration so just and wise that dissension ceased 
 and the colony entered upon a new career of prosperity. The quit^rents 
 on lands were remitted for four years. The people were given the option 
 of paying their taxes in money or in produce. The Indians were concili- 
 ated with kindness and protected against kidnappers. Some native Cath- 
 olics were ransomed from slavery and sent to their homes in Florida, and 
 the Spanish governor reciprocated the deed with a friendly message. 
 When the old jealousy against the Huguenots asserted itself in the gen- 
 eral assembly, the benevolent influence of Archdale procured the passage 
 of a law by whicii all Christians, except the Catholics, were fully enfran- 
 chised ; the ungenerous exception was made against the governor's will. 
 It was a real misfortune to the colony when, in 1698, the good governor 
 was recalled to England. 
 
 James Moore was next commissioned as chief magistrate. The 
 first important act of his administration was a declaration of hostilities 
 against the Spanish settlement of St. Augustine. Queen Anne's War had 
 bi-okcn out. The Spaniards were in alliance with the French against the 
 English. By the antagonism of England and Spain, South Carolina and 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 235 
 
 Florida were brought into conflict. Yot a declaration of war was strong- 
 ly opjjosed in the assembly at Charleston, and was only passed by a 
 small majority. It was voted to raise and equip a force of twelve hun- 
 dred men, and to invade Florida by land and water. The summer of 
 1702 was spent in preparation, and in September the expeditions departed, 
 the land-forces led by Colonel Daniel and the fleet commanded by the 
 governor. 
 
 The English vessels sailed down the coast, entered the St. John's 
 and blocked up the river. Daniel marched overland, reached St. Augus- 
 tine and captured the town. But the Spaniards withdi-ew without serious 
 loss into the castle, and bade defiance to the besiegers. Without artillery 
 it was evident that the place could not be taken. Colonel Daniel was 
 despatched with a sloop to Jamaica to procure cannons for the siege ; but 
 before his I'eturn two Spanish men-of-war appeared at the mouth of the 
 St. John's, and Governor ]\Ioore found himself blockaded. His coui'age 
 was not equal to the occasion. Abandoning his ships, he took to the 
 shore, and collecting his forces hastily retreated into Carolina. Daniel 
 returned and entered the St. John's, but discovered the danger in time to 
 make his escape. The governor's retreat occasioned great dissatisfaction. 
 There were insinuations of cowardice and threats of impeachment, but 
 no formal action was taken against him. The only results of the unfor- 
 tunate expedition were debt and paper money. In order to meet the 
 heavy exjienses of the war, the assembly was obliged to issue bills of 
 credit to the amount of six thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 Governor Moore retrieved his reputation by invading the Indian 
 nations south-M'cst of the Savannah. In December of 1705 he left the 
 province at the head of fifty volunteers and a thousand friendly natives. 
 White men had not been seen marching in these woods since the days of 
 De Soto. On the 14th of the month the invaders reached the fortified 
 town of Ayavalla, in the neighborhood of St. Mark's. An attack was 
 made and the church set on fire. A Franciscan monk came out and 
 begged for mercy ; but the place was carried by assault, and more than 
 two hundred prisoners were taken, only to be enslaved. On the next day 
 Moore's forces met and defeated a large body of Indians and Sjjaniards. 
 Five important towns were carried in succession, and the English flag 
 was borne in triumph to the Gulf of Mexico. Communication between 
 the Spanish settlements of Florida and the French posts in Louisiana 
 was entirely cut oif. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Church of England had been established by law 
 in South Carolina. In the first year of Johnston's administration the 
 High Church party succeeded in getting a majority of one in the colonial 
 
236 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 assembly, and immediately passed an act disfranchising all the dissenters 
 in the province. An appeal was carried to the proprietors, only to be re- 
 jected with contempt. The dissenting party next laid their cause before 
 Parliament, and that body promptly voted that the act of disfranchisement 
 was contrary to the laws of England, and that the proprietors had for- 
 feited their charter. The queen's ministers wei'e authorized to declare the 
 intolerant law null and void. In November of the same year .the colo- 
 nial legislature revoked its own act so far as the disfranchising clause was 
 concerned ; but Episcopalianism continued to be the established faith of 
 the province. 
 
 The year 1706 was a stirring epoch in the history of South Caro- 
 lina. A French and Spanish fleet was sent from Havana to capture 
 Charleston and subdue the country. The orders were more easily given 
 than executed. The brave people of the cajiital flew to arms. Governor 
 Johnson and Colonel William Ehett inspired the volunteers with courage; 
 and when tlie hostile squadron anchored in the harbor, the city was ready 
 for a stubborn defence. Several times a landing was attempted, but the 
 invaders were everywhere repulsed. At last a French vessel succeeded in 
 getting to shore with eight hundred troops, but they were attacked with 
 fuiy and driven off with a loss of three hundred in killed and prisoners. 
 The siege was at once abandoned ; unaided by the proprietors, South Car- 
 olina had made a glorious defence. 
 
 In the spring of 1715 war broke out with the Yamassees. As 
 usual with their race, the Indians began hostilities with treacher}^ At 
 the very time when Captain Xairne was among them as a friendly ambas- 
 sador, the wily savages rose upon the frontier settlements and committed 
 an atrocious massacre. The people of Fort Royal were alarmed just in 
 time to escape in a ship to Charleston. The desperate savages rushed on 
 to within a short distance of the capital. It seemed that the city would 
 be taken and the whole colony driven to destruction. But the bravo 
 Charles Craven, governor of the province, rallied the militia of Colleton 
 district, and the blood-stained barbarians were driven back. A vigorous 
 pursuit began, and the savages were pressed to the banks of the Salke- 
 hatehie. Here a decisive battle was fought, and the Indians were com- 
 pletely routed. The Yamassees collected their shattered tribe and retired 
 into Florida, where they were received by the Spaniards as friends and 
 confederates. 
 
 In 1719 the government of South Carolina was revolutionized. 
 At the close of the war with the Yamassees the assembly petitioned the 
 proprietors to bear a portion of the expense. But the avaricious noble- 
 men refused, and would take no measures for the future protection of the 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 237 
 
 colony. The people were greatly burdened with rents and taxes. The 
 lands were monopolized ; every act of the assembly whieh seemed for the 
 public good was vetoed by the proprietors. In the new election everj' 
 delegate was chosen by the popular party. The 21st of December was 
 training-day in Charleston. On that day James Moore, the new chief 
 magistrate elected by the people, was to be inaugurated. Governor John- 
 son forbade the military display and tried to prevent the inauguration ; 
 but the militia collected in the public square, drums were beaten, flags 
 were flung out on the forts and shipping, and before nightfall the propri- 
 etary government of Carolina was overthrown. Governor Moore was 
 duly inaugurated in the name of King Geoi'ge I. A colonial agent was 
 at once sent to England ; the cause of the colonists was heard, and the 
 forfeited charter of the j)roprictoi's abrogated by act of Parliament. 
 
 Francis Nicholson was now commissioned as governor. He had 
 already held the office of chief magistrate in New York, in Virginia, in 
 Maryland and in Nova Scotia. He began a successful administration in 
 South Carolina by concluding treaties of peace and commerce with the 
 Cherokees and the Creeks. But another and final change in colonial 
 affairs was now at hand. In 1729 seven of the eight proprietors of the 
 Carolinas sold their entire claims in the provinces to the king. Lord 
 Carteret, the eighth proprietor, \vould surrender nothing but his right of 
 jurisdiction, reserving his share in the soil. The sum paid by King 
 George for the two colonies was twenty-two thousand five hundi-ed pounds 
 sterling. Royal governors were appointed, and the affairs of the province 
 were settled on a permanent basis, not to be disturbed for more than forty 
 years. 
 
 The people who colonized South Carolina were bi-ave and chival- 
 rous. On the banks of the Santee, the Edisto and the Combahee were 
 gathered some of the best elements of the European nations. The Hu- 
 guenot, the Scotch Presbyterian, the English dissenter, the loyalist and 
 High Clnu'chman, the Irish adventurer and the Dutch mechanic, com- 
 posed the powerful material out of whieh soon grew the beauty and re~ 
 nown of the Palmetto State. Equally with the rugged Puritans of 
 the North, the South Carolinians were lovers of liberty. Without the 
 severe morality and formal manners of tlie Pilgrims, the people who were 
 once governed by the peaceful Archdale and once led to war by the gallant 
 Craven became the leaders in courtly politeness and high-toned honor be- 
 tween man and man. In the coming struggle for freedom South Caro- 
 lina will bear a noble and distinguished part ; the fame of the patriotic 
 Rhett will be perpetuated by Marion and Sumter. 
 
238 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 f^ EOEGIA, the thirteenth American colony, was founded in a spirit 
 ^J^ of pure benevolence. The laws of England permitted imprisonment 
 for debt. Thousands of English laborers, who through misfortune and 
 thoughtless contracts had become indebted to the rich, were annually ar- 
 rested and thrown into jail. There were desolate and starving families. 
 The miserable condition of the debtor class at last attracted the attention 
 of Parliament. In 1728 a commissioner was appointed, at his own request, 
 to look into the state of the poor, to visit the prisons of the kingdom, and 
 to report measures of relief. The work was accomplished, the jails were 
 opened, and the poor victims of debt returned to their homes. 
 
 The noble commissioner was not yet satisfied. For the liberated 
 prisoners and their friends were disheartened and disgraced in the country 
 of their birth. Was there no land beyond the sea where debt was not a 
 crime, and where poverty was no disgrace ? To provide a refuge for the 
 down-trodden poor of England and the distressed Protestants of other 
 countries, the commissioner now appealed to George II. for the privilege 
 of planting a colony in America. The petition was favorably heard, and 
 on the 9th of .June, 1732, a royal charter was issued by which tlie terri- 
 toiy between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, and westward from the 
 upper fountains of those rivers to the Pacific, was organized and granted 
 to a corporation for twenty-one years, to be held in tni^t for the poor. In 
 honor of the king, the new province received the name of Georgia. 
 But what was the name of that high-souled, unselfish commissioner of 
 Parliament? 
 
 James Oglethorpe, the philanthropist. Born a loyalist, educated at 
 Oxford, a High Churchman, a cavalier, a soldier, a member of Parliament, 
 benevolent, generous, full of sympatliy, far-sighted, brave as John Smith, 
 chivalrous as De Soto, Oglethorpe gave in middle life the full energies of 
 a vigorous body and a lofty mind to the work of building in the sunny 
 South an asylum for the oppressed of his own and other lands. The 
 magnanimity of the enterprise was heightened by the fact that he did not 
 believe in the equality of men, but only in the right and duty of the strong 
 to protect the weak and s^-mpathize with the lowly. To Oglethorpe, as 
 
GEORGIA. 
 
 239 
 
 principal member of the corporation, the leadership of the first colony to 
 be planted oo the banks of the Savannah, was naturally entrusted. 
 
 By the mid- 
 dle of November a 
 hundred and twen- 
 ty emigrants were 
 ready to sail for 
 the New World. 
 Ogletliorpe, like 
 the elder Win- 
 throp, determined 
 to share the dan- 
 gers and hardshijjs 
 of his colony. In 
 January of 1733 
 the company was 
 welcomed at 
 Charleston. Pass- 
 ing down the coast, 
 tlie vessels were 
 anchored f o r a 
 short time at Beau- 
 fort, while the gov- 
 ernor with a few 
 com])anions as- 
 cended the bound- 
 ary river of Georgia, and selected as the -site of his settlement the high 
 bluff on which now stands the city of Savannah. Here, on the 1st da}- of 
 February, were laid the foundations of the oldest English town soutli of 
 the Savannah River. Broad streets were laid out ; a public square ^\•a.'^ 
 reserved in each quarter; a beautiful village of tents and board houses, 
 built among the pine trees, appeared a.s the capital of a new common- 
 wealth where men were not imprisoned for debt. 
 
 Tomo-chichi, chief of the Yamacraws, came from his cabin, half a 
 mile distant, to see his brother Oglethorpe. There was a pleasant con- 
 ference. " Here is a present for you," said the red man to the white man. 
 The present was a buffalo robe painted on the inside with the head and 
 feathers of an eagle. " The feathers are soft, and signify love ; the buf- 
 falo skin is the emblem of protection. Therefore love us and protect us," 
 said the old chieftain. Such a plea could not be lost on a man like Ogle- 
 thorpe. Seeing the advantages of peace, he sent an invitation to the chiefs 
 
 JAMES OOLETHORPE. 
 
240 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the Muskhogees to meet him in a general council at his capital. The 
 conference was held on the 29th of May. Long King, the sachem of 
 Oconas, spoke for all the tribes of his nation. The English were wel- 
 comed to the country. Bundles of buckskins, and such other good gifts 
 as savage civilization could oifer, were laid down plentifully at the feet 
 of the whites. The governor and his poor but generous colony responded 
 with valuable presents and words of faithl'ul friendship. The fame of 
 Oglethorpe spread far and wide among the Red men. From the distant 
 mountains of Tennessee came the noted chief of the Cherokees to confer 
 with the humane and sweet-tempered governor of Georgia. 
 
 The councilors in England who mauaged the affairs of the new 
 State encouraged emigration Avith every liberal offer. Swiss peasants left 
 their mountains to find a home on the Savannah. The plaid cloak of the 
 Scotch Highlander was seen among the wigwams of the JNIuskhogees. 
 From distant Salzburg, afar on the borders of Austria, came a noble col- 
 ony of German Protestants, singing their way down the Rhine and across 
 the ocean. Oglethorpe met them at Charleston, bade them welcome, led 
 them to Savannah and thence through the woods to a point twenty miles 
 up the river, told them of English rights and the freedom of conscience, 
 and left them to found the village of Ebenezer. 
 
 In April of 1734, Governor Oglethorpe made a visit to England. 
 His friend Tomo-chichi went with him, and made the acquaintance of 
 King George. It was said in London that no colony was ever before 
 fouuded so wisely and well as Georgia. The councilors prohibited the 
 importation of rum. Traffic with the Indians — alw.ays a dangerous mat- 
 ter — was either interdicted or regulated by special license. When it came 
 to the question of labor, slavery was positively forbidden. It was said 
 that the introduction of slaves would be fatal to the interests of the Eng- 
 lish and German laborers for whom the colony had been founded. While 
 the governor was still abroad, the first company of ^Moravians, number- 
 ing nine, and led by the evangelist Spangenberg, arrived at Savannah. 
 
 In February of 1736, Oglethorpe himself came back with a new 
 colony of three hundred. Part of these were Moravians, and nearly all 
 were people of deep piety and fervent spirit. First among them — first 
 in zeal and first in the influence which he was destined to exert in after 
 times — was the celebrated John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. 
 Overflowing with religious enthusiasm, he came to Georgia, not as a poli- 
 tician, not as a minister merely, but as an apostle. To lead the people to 
 righteousness, to s]iread'the gospel, to convert the Indians, and to intro- 
 duce a new type of religion characterized by few forms and much emo- 
 tion, these were the purposes that thronged his lofty fancy. He was 
 
GEORGIA. 241 
 
 doomed to much disappointment. The mixed people of the new province 
 could not be moulded to his will ; and after a residence of less than two 
 years he left the colony with a troubled spirit. His brother, Charles 
 Wesley, came also as a secretary to Governor Oglethorpe; but Charles 
 was a poet, a timid and tender-hearted man who pined with homesickness 
 and gave way under discouragement. But when, in 17.38, the famous 
 George Whitefield came, his robust and daring nature proved a match for 
 all the troubles of the wilderness. He preached with fiery eloquence. 
 To build an orphan-house at Savannah he went through all the colonies ; 
 and those who heard his voice could hardly refuse him money. Think- 
 ing no longer of native land, he found a peaceful grave in New England. 
 Meanwhile, Oglethorpe was busy with the affairs of his growing 
 province. Anticipating war with Spain, he began to fortify. For the 
 Spaniards were in possession of Florida, and claimed the country as far 
 north as St. Helena Sound. All of Georgia was thus embraced in the 
 Spanish claim. But Oglethorpe had a charter for Georgia as far south 
 as the Altamaha, and he had secured by treaty with the Indians all the 
 territory between that river and the St. Mary's. In 1736 he ascended 
 the Savannah and built a fort at Augusta. On the north bank of the 
 Altamaha, twelve miles from its mouth. Fort Darien was built. On 
 Cumberland Island, at the mouth of the St. Mary's, a fortress -vyas erected 
 and named Fort William. Proceeding down the coast with a comj)any 
 of Highlanders, the daring governor reached the mouth of the St. John's, 
 and on Amelia Island built still another fort, which he named St. George. 
 The river St. John's was claimed from this time forth as the southern 
 boundary of Georgia. To make his preparations complete, the governor 
 again visited England, and was commissioned as brigadier-general, with a 
 command extending over his own province and South Carolina. In Octo- 
 ber of 1737 he returned to Savannah, bringing with him a regiment of 
 six hundred men. Such were the vigorous measures adopted by Ogle- 
 thorpe in anticipation of a Spanish wav. 
 
 The war came. It was that conflict known in American history as 
 King George's War. England published her declaration of hostility 
 against Spain in the latter part of October, 1739. In the first week of 
 the following January the impetuous Oglethorpe, at the head of the 
 Georgia militia, made a dash into Florida, and captured two fortified towns 
 of the Spaniards. His plans embraced the conquest of St. Augustine and 
 the entire extinction of Spanish authority north of the Gulf of Mexico. 
 Repairing to Charleston, he induced the assembly to support his measures. 
 By the first of May he found himself in command of six hundred regular 
 troops, four hundred volunteers and a body of Indian auxiliaries. With 
 
242 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 this force he proceeded at once against St. Augustine. The place was 
 strongly fortified, and the Spanish commandant, Monteano, was a man of 
 ability and coui-age. The siege continued for five weeks, but ended in 
 disaster to the English. For a while the town was successfully block- 
 aded ; but some Spanish galleys, eluding the vigilance of Oglethorpe's 
 
 squadron, brought a cargo of supplies 
 to the garrison. The Spaniards made 
 a sally, attacked a company of High- 
 landers, and dispersed them. Sickness 
 prevailed in the English camp. The 
 general himself was enfeebled -with fever 
 and excitement, but he held on like a 
 hero. The troops of Carolina, disheart- 
 ened and despairing of success, left their 
 camp and marched homewai'd. The 
 English vessels gathered up their crews, 
 abandoned the siege and returned to 
 Fi-ederica. Oglethorpe, yielding only 
 to necessity, collected his men from the 
 trenches and withdrew into Georgia. 
 
 The Spaniards now determined 
 to carry the war northward and drive 
 the English beyond the Savannah. The 
 Combahee River should be made the 
 .northern boundary of Florida. Prep- 
 arations began on a vast scale. A pow- 
 erful fleet of thirty-six vessels, carrying more than three thousand troops, 
 was brought from Cuba, and anchored at St. Augustine. In June of 
 1742 the squadron passed up the coast to Cumberland Island, and at- 
 tempted the reduction of Fort WiUiam. But Oglethorpe by a daring 
 exploit reinforced the garrison, and then fell back to Frederica. The 
 Spanish vessels follo^yed and came to anchor in the harbor of St. Simon's. 
 From the southern point of the island to Frederica, Oglethorpe had cut a 
 road which at one place lay between a morass and a dense forest. Along 
 this path the Sj)aniards must pass to attack the to^vn. The English gen- 
 eral had only eight hundred men and a few Indian allies. In order to 
 coije with superior numbers, Oglethorpe resorted to stratagem. 
 
 A Frenchman had deserted to the Spaniards. To him the English 
 general now wrote a letter as if to a spy. A Spanish prisoner in Ogle- 
 thorpe's hands was liberated and bribed to deliver the letter to the de- 
 serter. The Frenchman was ad\'ised that two British fleets were coming 
 
 COTTKTKY or THE SAVANNAH, 1740. 
 
GEORGIA. 243 
 
 to America, one to aid Oglethorpe and the other to attack St. Augustine. 
 Let the Spaniards remain on the island but three days longer, and they 
 would be ruined. If the enemy did not make an immediate attack on 
 Frederica, his forces would be captured to a man. Oglethorpe knew very 
 well that the prisoner, instead of delivering this letter to the deserter, 
 would give it to the Si^anish commander, and that the Spanish commander 
 could not possibly know whether the communication was the truth or a 
 fiction. This letter was delivered, and the astonished Frenchman was 
 arrested as a spy, but the Spaniai'ds could not tell whether his denial was 
 true or false. There was a council of war in the Spanish camp. Ogle- 
 thorpe's stratagem was suspected, but could not be proved. Three ships 
 had been seen at sea that day ; perhaps these were the first vessels of the 
 approaching British fleets. The Spaniards were utterly perplexed j but 
 it was finally decided to take Oglethorpe's advice, and make the attack 
 on Frederica. 
 
 The English general had foreseen that this course would be adopted. 
 He had accordingly advanced his small force from the town to the place 
 where the road passed between the swamp and the forest. Here an am- 
 buscade was formed, and the soldiers lay in wait for the approaching Span- 
 iards. On the 7tli of July the enemy's vanguard reached the narj-ow pass, 
 were fired on from the thicket and driven back in confusion. The maia 
 body of the Spanish forces pressed on into the dangerous position where 
 superior numbers were of no advantage. The Highlanders of Oglethorpe's 
 regiment fired with terrible etfect from the oak woods by the roadside. 
 The Spaniards stood firm for a while, but were presently driven back with 
 a loss of two hundred men. Not without reason the name of Bloody 
 Marsh was given to this battle-field. Within less than a week the whole 
 Spanish force had re-enibarked and sailed for Florida. On the way south- 
 ward the fleet made a second attack on Fort William. But Captain Stuart, 
 with a garrison of only fifty men, made a vigorous and successful defence. 
 The English watched the retreating ships beyond the mouth of the St. 
 John's ; before the last of July the great invasion was at an end. The 
 Spanish authorities of Cuba -were greatly chagrined at the failure of the 
 expedition. The commander of the squadron was arrested, tried by a 
 court-martial and dismissed from the service. 
 
 The commonwealth of Georgia was now firmly established, and the 
 settlements had peace. In 1743, Oglethorpe bade a final adieu to the col- 
 ony to whose welfare he had given more than ten years of liis life. He 
 had ne%'er owned a house nor possessed an acre of ground within the lim- 
 its of his own province. He now departed for England crowned with 
 blessings, and leaving behind him an untarnished fame. James Ogle- 
 
244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tliorpe lived to be nearly a hundred years old; benevolence, integrity and 
 honor were the virtues of his declining years. But the new State which 
 he had founded in the West was not always free from evils. 
 
 For the regulations which the councilors for Georgia had adopted 
 were but poorly suited to the wants of the colony. The settlers had not 
 been permitted to hold their lands in fee simple. Agriculture had not 
 ilourlshed. Commerce had not sprung up. The laws of property had 
 been so arranged that estates could descend only to the oldest sons of fam- 
 ilies. The colonists Avere poor, and charged their poverty to the fact that 
 slave-labor Avas forbidden in tlic piovince. This became the chief ques- 
 tion which agitated the people. The proprietary laws grew more and 
 more unpopular. The statute excluding slavery was not rigidly enforced, 
 and, indeed, could not be enforced, when the peojjle had determined to 
 evade it. Whitefield himself jileaded for the abrogation of the law. 
 Slaves began to be hired, first for short terms of sei-vice, then for longer 
 periods, then for a hundred years, which M'as equivalent to an actual pur- 
 chase for life. Finally, cargoes of slaves were brought directly from 
 Africa, and the primitive free-labor system of Georgia was revolutionized. 
 Plantations were laid out below the Savannah, and cultivated, as those of 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Another and more important change was at hand. It became 
 evident that there could be no progress so long as the original char- 
 ter remained in force. However benevolent the impulse Avhich had 
 called Georgia into being, the scheme of government had proved a 
 .sham. The people Avere improvident, idle, inexperienced. More than 
 six hundred thousand dollars in parliamentary grants, besides private 
 contributions amounting to nearly ninety thousand dollars, had been 
 fruitlessly expended on the lagging province. In 1752 there were 
 only a few scattered plantations and three inconsiderable villages be- 
 low the Savannah. The Avhite population amounted, at this time, to 
 seventeen hundred souls ; and the blacks numbered about four hun- 
 dred. The industry of Georgia was at a stand-still. The extravagant 
 hopes which the colonial managers had entertained of Avine, and silk, 
 and indigo, found no realization in the facts. The annual exports of 
 the colony iimounted to less than four thousand dollars; and the pros- 
 pect for the future was as discouraging as the present condition Avas 
 gloomy. 
 
 At last, however, the ncAv order of things was acknowledged by 
 the councilors of the province. They yielded to necessity. In June 
 of 1752, just twenty years from the granting of the charter, the trust- 
 ees made a formal surrender of their patent to the king. A royal 
 
GEORGIA. 245 
 
 goverumeut was estublLslicd over the country south of the Savannah, 
 and the people were granted the privileges and freedom of English- 
 men. A constitution was drawn up by the British Board of Trade, 
 and Captain John Reynolds was commissioned as royal governor. In 
 October of 1754 he arrived at Savannah and began the work of reor- 
 ganization. For two years and a half he labored assiduously to ex- 
 tricate the aifairs of Georgia from the confusion into whicih they had 
 fallen; and so successful was his work that at the end of this time 
 the population had reached six thousand. Tlie southern boundary of 
 tlic province remained to be de<'ided by the issue of the French and 
 Indian War. During the progress of that conflict Georgia was saved 
 from calamity by the prudent administration of Governor Ellis, who 
 secured from the powerful Creek confederacy a new treaty of peace. 
 A barrier was thus interposed between the colony and the hostile 
 nations of the West and N^orth. In the year 1758 the province was 
 divided into eight parishes, and at the same time the Cliurch of Eng- 
 land was established by law. Still, for a while, the progress of the 
 colony was not equal to the expectations of its founder. But before 
 the beginning of the Revolution, Georgia, though the feeblest of all 
 the Anglo-American provinces, had become a prosperous and growing 
 State. 
 
 Such is the story of the planting by our fathers of the Old Thir- 
 teen republics — such the record of their growth and prospects. From 
 the gloomy coast of Labrador, where, two hundred and fifty years be- 
 fore, John Cabot had set up the flag of England and arms of Henry 
 VII., to the sunny waters where Ponce de Leon, looking shoreward, 
 called his cavaliers to gaze on the Land of Flowers, — the dominion 
 of Great Britain had been established. Would that dominion last 
 forever? Would the other nations of Europe ever rally and regain 
 their lost ascendency on the Western continent? Would the ties of 
 kinship, the ailiuity of language, the bond of a common ancestry, 
 .stretching from these sea-shore commonwealths across the Atlantic, 
 bind them in perpetual union with the mother Islands ? Would these 
 isolated provinces in America — now .so quick to take offence at each 
 other's beliefs and actions, and so easily jealous of (;ach other's power 
 and fame — ever unite in a common cause ? ever join to do battle for 
 life and liberty ? ever become a Nation ? Such were the momentous 
 questions, the problems of destiny, which hung above the colonies at 
 
246 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the middle uf the eighteenth century — problems which the future 
 could not be long in solving. 
 
 The history of these American colonies from their first feeble be- 
 ginnings is full of interest and instruction. The people who laid the 
 foundations of civilization in the New World were nearly all refugees, 
 exiles, wanderers, pilgrims. They were urged across the ocean by a 
 common impulse, and that impulse was the desire to escape from soim 
 form of oppression in the Old World. Sometimes it was the oppres- 
 sion of the Church, sometimes of the State, sometimes of society. In 
 the wake of the emigrant ship there was always tyranny. Men loved 
 freedom ; to find it they braved the perils of the deep, traversed the 
 solitary forests of Maine, built huts on the bleak shores of Nov. Eng- 
 land, entered the Hudson, explored the Jerseys, found shelter in the 
 Chesapeake, met starvation and death on the banks of the James, were 
 l)ufPeted by storms around the capes of Carolina, built towns by the 
 estuaries of the great rivers, made roads through the pine-woods, and 
 carried the dwellings of men to the very margin of the fever-haunted 
 swamps of the South. It is all one story — the story of the human race 
 seeking for liberty. 
 
COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continue/). 
 
 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 CAVSES. 
 
 rpHE time came when the American colonies began to act together. 
 -L From the beginning they had been kept apart by prejudice, suspi- 
 cion and mutual jealousy. But the fathers were now dead, old antago- 
 nisms had passed away, a new generation had arisen with kindlier feel- 
 ings and more charitable sentiments. But it was not so much the growth 
 of a more liberal public opinion as it was the sense of a common danger 
 that at last led the colonists to make a united effort. The final struggle 
 between France and England for colonial supremacy in America was 
 at hand. Necessity compelled the English colonies to join in a com- 
 mon cause against a common foe. This is the conflict known as the 
 French and Indian War ; with this great event the separate histories 
 of the colonies are lost in the more general history of the nation. The 
 contest began in 1754, but the causes of the war had existed for many 
 years. 
 
 The first and greatest of these causes was the conflicting territorial 
 claims of the two nations. England had colonized the sea-coast ; France 
 had colonized the interior of the continent. From Maine to Florida the 
 Atlantic shore was spread with English colonies; but there were no inland 
 settlements. The great towns were on the ocean's edge. But the claims 
 of England reached far beyond her colonies. Based on the discoveries 
 of the Cabots, and not limited by actual occupation, those claims extended 
 westward to the Pacific. In making grants of territory the English 
 kings had always proceeded upon the theory that the voyage of Sebastian 
 Cabot had given to England a lawful right to the country from one ocean 
 to the other. Far different, however, were the claims of France; the 
 
 French had first colonized the valley of the St. Lawrence. Montreal, one 
 
 (247) 
 
248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the earliest settlements, is more than five hundred miles from the sea. 
 If the French colonies had been limited to the St. Lawrence and its trib- 
 utaries, there would have been little danger of a conflict about territorial 
 dominion. But in the latter half of the seventeenth centuiy the French 
 began to push their way westward and southward ; first, along the shores 
 of the great lakes, then to the head-waters of the Wabash, the Illinois, 
 the Wisconsin and the St. Croix, then down these streams to the IMissis- 
 sippi, and then to the Gulf of Mexico. The pui-pose of the French, as 
 manifested in these movements, was no less than to divide the American 
 continent and to take the larger portion, to possess the land for France 
 and for Catholicism. For it was the work of the Jesuit missionaries. 
 So important and marvelous are those early movements of the French in 
 the valley of the IMississippi that a brief account of the leading explora- 
 tions may here be given. 
 
 The zealous Jesuits, purposing to extend the Catholic faith to aU 
 lands and nations, set out fearlessly from the older settlements of the St. 
 Lawrence to explore the unknown West, and to convert the barbarous 
 races. In 1641, Charles Raymbault, the first of the French missionary 
 explorers, passed through the northern straits of Lake Huron and entered 
 Lake Superior. In the thirty' years that followed, the Jesuits continued 
 their explorations with prodigious activity. Missions were established at 
 various points north of the lakes, and in Michigan, Wisconsin and Illi- 
 nois. In 1673, Joliet and Marquette passed from the head-waters of 
 Fox River over the watershed to the U2)per tributaries of the Wisconsin, 
 and thence down that river in a seven days' voyage to the Mississippi. 
 For a full month the canoe of the daring adventurers carried them on 
 toward the sea. They passed the mouth of Arkansas River, and reached 
 the limit of tlieir voyage at the thirty-third parallel of latitude. Turn- 
 ing their boat up stream, they entered the mouth of the Illinois and 
 retui'ned by the site of Chicago into Lake Michigan, and tiience to De- 
 troit. But it was not yet known whether the great river discharged its 
 flood of waters into the southern gulf or into the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 It remained for Robert de la Salle, most illustrious of the French 
 explorers, to solve the problem. This courageous and daring man was 
 living at the outlet of Lake Ontario when the news of Marquette's 
 voyage reached Canada. Fired with the passion of discovery, La Salle 
 built and launched the first ship above Niagara Falls. He sailed west- 
 ward through Lake Erie and Lake Huron, anchored in Green Bay, 
 crossed Lake Michigan to the mouth of the St. Joseph, ascended that 
 stream with a few companions, traversed the country to the upper Kanka- 
 kee, and dropped down with the current into the Illinois. Here disss- 
 
CAUSES. 249 
 
 ters overtook the expedition, and La Salle was obliged to return on foot 
 to Fort Frontenac, a distance of nearly a thousand miles. During his 
 absence, Father Hennepin, a member of the company, traversed Illinois, 
 and explored the Mississipju as high as the Falls of St. Anthony. 
 
 In 1681, La Salle i-eturned to his station on the Illinois, bringing 
 men and supplies. A boat was built and launched, and early in the 
 following year the heroic adventurer, with a few companions, descended 
 the river to its junction with the Mississippi, and was borne by the 
 Father of Waters to the Gulf of Mexico. It was one of the greatest 
 exploits of modern times. The return voyage was successfully accom- 
 plished. La Salle reached Quebec, and immediately set sail for France. 
 The kingdom wa-^ greatly excited, and vast plans were made for coloniz- 
 ing the valley of the Mississippi. In July of 1684 four ships, bearing 
 two hundred and eighty emigrants, left France. Bcaujeu commanded 
 the fleet, and La Salle was leader of the colony. The plan Mas to enter 
 the gulf, ascend the river, and plant settlements on its banks and tributa- 
 ries. But Beaujeu was a bad and headstrong captain, and against La 
 Salle's entreaties the squadron was carried out of its course, beyond the 
 mouths of the Mississippi, and into the Bay of Matagorda. Here a 
 landing was effected, but the store-ship, with all its precious freightage, 
 was dashed to pieces in a storm. Nevertheless, a colony was established, 
 and Texas became a part of Louisiana. 
 
 La Salle made many unsuccessful efforts to rediscover the Missis- 
 sippi. One misfortune after another followed fast, but the leader's reso- 
 lute spirit remained tranquil through all calamities. At last, with sixteen 
 companions, he set out to cross the continent to Canada. The march 
 began in January of 1687, and continued for sixty days. The wanderers 
 were already in the basin of the Colorado. Here, on the 20th of March, 
 while La Salle was at some distance from the camji, two conspirators of 
 the company, hiding in the prairie grass, took a deadly aim at the 
 famous explorer, and shot him dead in his tracks. Only seven of the 
 adventurers succeeded in reaching a French settlement on the Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 France was not slow to occupy the vast countrj- revealed to her 
 by the activity of the Jesuits. As early as 1688 military posts had 
 been established at Frontenac, at Niagara, at the Straits of Mackinaw, 
 and on the Illinois River. Before the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 permanent settlements had been made by the French on the Maumee, at 
 Detroit, at the mouth of the river St. Joseph, at Green Bay, at Vincennes 
 on the Lower Wabash, on the Mississijjpi at the mouth of the Kaskas- 
 kia, at Fort Rosalie, the present site of Natchez, and on the Gulf of 
 
250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mexico at the head of the Bay of Biloxi. At this time the only outposts 
 of the English colonies were a small fort at Oswego, on Lake Ontario, 
 and a few scattered cabins in West Virginia. It o"!' remained for 
 France to occupy the valley of Ohio, in order to rfith ,7'^ the provinces of 
 Great Britain to the country east of the Alleghanies. To do this became 
 tlie sole ambition of the French, and to prevent it the stubborn purpose 
 of the English. 
 
 A second cause of war existed in the long-standing national animos- 
 ity of France and England. The two nations could hardly remain at 
 peace. The French and the English were of different races, languages 
 and laws. For more than two centuries France had been the leader of 
 the Catholic, and England of the Protestant, powers of Europe. Religious 
 prejudice intensified the natural jealousy of the two nations. Rivalry 
 prevailed on land and sea. When, at the close of the seventeenth century, 
 it was seen that the people of the English colonies outnumbered those of 
 Canada by nearly twenty to one, France was filled with en-s'y. When, 
 by the enterprise of the Jesuit missionaries, the French began to dot the 
 basin of the Mississippi with fortresses, and to monopolize the fur-trade 
 of the Indians, England could not conceal lier wrath. It was only a 
 question of time when this unreasonable jealousy would bring on a colo- 
 nial war. 
 
 The third and immediate cause of hostilities M'as a covflict between, 
 the frontiermicn of the two nations in attempting to colonize the Ohio 
 valley. The year 1749 witnessed the beginning of dilficulties. For 
 some time the strolling traders of Virginia and Pennsylvania had fre- 
 quented the Indian towns on the upper tributaries of the Ohio. Now the 
 traders of Canada began to visit the same villages, and to compete with 
 the English in the purchase of furs. Virginia, under her ancient char- 
 ters, claimed the whole country lying between her western borders and 
 the southern shores of Lake Erie. The French fur-gatherers in this dis- 
 trict v/ere regarded as intruders not to be tolerated. In order to prevent 
 further encroachment, a number of prominent Virginians joined them- 
 selves together in a body called the Ohio Company, with a view to 
 the immediate occu])ation of the disputed territoiy. Robert Dinwiddie, 
 governor of the State, La^vrenee and Augustus Washington, and Thomas 
 Lee, president of the Virginia council, were the leading members of the 
 corjwration. In INIarch of 1749 the company received from George IL 
 an extensive land-grant covering a tract of five hundred thousand acres, 
 to be located between the Kanawha and the Monongahela, or on the 
 northern bank of the Ohio. The conditions of the grant were that the 
 lands should be held free of rent for ten years, that within seven years a 
 
CAUSES. 251 
 
 colony of one hundred families sliould be established in the district, and 
 that the territory sliould be immediately selected. 
 
 But the T^'rench were equally active. Before the Ohio Company 
 could send out aVJr-ijly, the governor of Canada despatched Bienville 
 with three hundred men to explore and oceujiy the valley of the Ohio. 
 The expedition was successful. Plates of lead bearing French inscrip- 
 tions were buried here and there on both banks of the river, the region was 
 explored as far west as the towns of the Miamis, the English traders were 
 expelled from the country, and a letter was written to Governor Hamil- 
 ton of Pennsylvania admonishing him to encroach no farther on the 
 territory of the king of France. This work occupied the summer and 
 fall of 1749. In the mean time, the Ohio Company had equipped an 
 exploring party, and placed it under command of Christopher Gist. In 
 November of 1750 he and his company reached the Ohio opposite the 
 mouth of Beaver Creek. Here the expedition crossed to the northern 
 •side, tarried at Logstown, passed down the river through the several 
 Indian confederaci(>s to the Great Miami, and thence to within fifteen 
 miles of the falls at Louisville. Returning on foot tlirough Kentucky, 
 the explorers reached Virginia in the spring of 1751. 
 
 This expedition was followed by still more vigorous movements on 
 the part of the French. Descending from their headquarters at Presque 
 Isle, now Erie, on the southern shore of the lake, they built a fortress 
 called Le Boeuf, on French Creek, a tributary of the Alleghany. ' Pro- 
 ceeding down the stream to its junction with the river, they erected a 
 second fort, named Venango. From this point they advanced against a 
 British post on the Miami, broke up the settlement, made prisoners of 
 the garrison and carried them to Canada. The king of the Miami con- 
 il.'deracy, who had assisted the English in defending their outpost, was 
 inhumanly murdered by the Indian allies of the French. About the 
 same time the country south of the Ohio, between the Great Kanawha 
 and the Monongahela, was explored by Gist and a party of armed sur- 
 veyors, actmg under orders of the company. In the summer of 1753 the 
 English opened a road from Will's Creek through the mountains into the 
 Ohio valley, and a colony of eleven families was planted on the Youghi- 
 ogheny, just west of Laurel Hill. It was impossible that a conflict be- 
 tween the advancing settlements of the two nations could be much longer 
 averted. 
 
 The Indian nations were greatly alarmed at the threatening pros- 
 pect. Solemn councils were held among all the tribes, and the affairs of 
 the race were gravely discussed by the copper-colored orators. From the 
 iirst the Red men rather favored the English cause, but their allegiance 
 
252 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was wavering and uncertain. After the murder of the Miami chieftain 
 their hostility to the French became more decided. When, in the spring 
 of 1753, tlie news wa.s borne to the council-fires on the Ohio that Du 
 Quesne, the governor of Canada, liad despatched a company of twelve 
 hundred men to descend the Alleghany and colonize the country, the 
 jealousy of the natives was kindled into open resistance. The tribes 
 most concerned were the Delawares, the Shawnees, the Miamis and the 
 Miugoes. The chiefbain of this confederacy, named Tanacharisson,- was 
 called the Half-King from the fact that his subjects, except the Mianiis, 
 owed a kind of indefinite allegiance to the Iroquois or Six Nations. By 
 the authority of a great council held at Logstown the Half-King was now 
 sent to Erie to remonstrate with the French commandant against a further 
 invasion of the Indian country. " The land is mine, and I will have it," 
 replied tlie Frenchman, with derision and contempt. The insulted 
 sachem returned to his nation to lift the hatchet against the enemies of 
 his people. It was at this time that the chiefs of many tribes met Benja- 
 jnin Franklin at the town of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and formed a treaty 
 of alliance with the English. 
 
 Virginia was now thoroughly aroused. But before proceeding to 
 actual hostilities, Governor Dinwiddle determined to try the effect of a 
 iinal remonstrance with the French. A paper was accordingly drawn up 
 setting t()rth the nature and extent of the English claim to the valley of 
 the Ol'iiu, and solennily warning the authorities of France against further 
 intrusion into that region. It was necessary that this paper should be 
 <"arried to General St. Pierre, now stationed at Erie as commander of the 
 French forces in the West. Who should be chosen to bear the important 
 parchment to its far-off destination? It was the most serious mission 
 ever yet undertaken in America. A young surveyor, named George 
 Washington, was called to perform the perilous duty. Him the 
 governor summoned from his home on the Potomac and commissioned :is 
 ambassador, and to him was connnitted the message which was to be 
 borne from Williamsburg, on York River, through the untrodden ^\■ilder- 
 ness to Presque Isle, on the shore of I^ake Erie. 
 
 On the last day of October, 1753, Washington set out on his long 
 journey. He was attended by four comrades besides an interpreter and 
 Christopher Gist, tlie guide. The party arrived without accident at the 
 mouth of Will's Creek, the last important tributary of the Potomac on 
 the north. From this place Washington proceeded through the moun- 
 tains to the head-watere of the Youghiogheny, and thence down that 
 stream to the site of Pittsburg. The immense importance of this place, 
 lying at the confluence of the two great tributaries of the Ohio, and com- 
 
CAUSES. 
 
 253 
 
 FIRSr SCENE OF THE FRENCH AND 
 
 INDIAN WAR, 1750. 
 
 manding them both, was at once perceived by the young ambassador, who 
 noted tlie spot as the site of a fortress. Wasliiugtou was now conducted 
 across the Alleghany by the chief of 
 the Delawares, and thence twenty 
 miles down the river to Log'stown. 
 Here a council was held with the 
 Indians, who renewed their j)ledges 
 of friendship and fidelity to the Eng- 
 lish. The emissaries of the French 
 were already in the country trying 
 in every conceivable way to entice 
 the Red men into an alliance ; but 
 every proposal was rejected. In the 
 beginning of December, Washington 
 and his party moved northward to 
 the French post at Venango. The 
 officers of the fort took no pains to 
 conceal their purpose ; the project of 
 uniting Canada and Louisiana by 
 way of the Ohio valley was openly avowed. 
 
 From A''enango, Washington set out through the forest to Fort le 
 Bopuf on French Creek, fifty miles above its junction with the Alleghany. 
 This was the last stage in the journey. It was still fourteen miles to 
 Presque Isle; but St. Pierre, the French commander, had come down 
 from that place to superintend the fortifications at Le Bceuf. Here the 
 <;onference was held. Washington was received with great courtesy, 
 but the general of the French refused to enter into any discussion on the 
 rights of nations. He was acting, he said, under military instructions 
 given by the governor of New France. He had been commanded by his 
 superior officer to eject every Englishman from the valley of the Ohio, 
 and he meant to carry out his orders to the letter. A firm but courteous 
 reply was returned to Governor Dinwiddle's message. France claimed 
 the country of the Ohio in virtue of discovery, exploi-ation and occupa- 
 tion, and her claim should be made good by force of arms. 
 
 Washington was kindly dismissed, but not until he had noted with 
 keen anxiety the immense pre])arations which were making at Le Bceuf 
 There lay a fleet of fifty birch-bark canoes and a hundred and seventy 
 boats of pine ready to descend the river to the site of Pittsburg. For the 
 French, as well as the English, had noted the importance of that spot, 
 and had determined to fortify it as soon as the ice should break in the 
 rivers. It was now the dead of winter. Washington returned to Ve- 
 
254 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 naiigo, and then, with Gist as his sole companion, left the river and 
 struck into the woods. It was one of the most solitary marches ever 
 made by man. There in the desolate wilderness was the future President 
 of the United States. Clad in the robe of an Indian, with gun in hand 
 and knapsatk strapped to his shoulders; struggling through interminable 
 snows ; sleeping with frozen clothes on a bed of pine-brush ; breaking 
 through the treacherous ice of rapid streams ; guided by day by a pocket 
 compass, and at night by the Korth Star, seen at intervals through the 
 leafless trees; fired at by a prowling savage from his covert not fifteen 
 steps away ; thrown from a raft into the rushing Alleghany ; escaping tti 
 an island and lodging there until the river was frozen over ; plunging 
 again into the forest ; reaching Gist's settlement and then the Potomac, — 
 the strong-limbed young ambassador came back without wound or scar to 
 the capital of Virginia. For his tlesh was not made to be torn with 
 bullets or to be eaten by the wolves. The defiant despatch of St. Pierre 
 was laid before Governor Dinwiddle, and the first public service of Wash- 
 ington was accomplished. 
 
 In the mean time, the Ohio Company had not been idle. About 
 mid-winter a party of thirty-three men had beeii organized and placed 
 under command of Trent, Avith orders to proceed at once to the source of 
 the Ohio and erect a fort. The company must have been marching to its 
 destination when Washington returned to Virginia. It was not far from 
 the middle of March, 1754, when Trent's party reached the confluence 
 of the Alleghany and the Monongahcla, and b.iilt the first rude stockade 
 on the site of Pittsburg.* After all the threats and boasting of the 
 French, the English had beaten them and seized the key to the Ohio 
 valley. 
 
 But it was a short-lived triumph. As soon as the approaching 
 spring broke the ice-gorges in the Alleghany, the French fleet of boats, 
 already prepared at Venango, came sweeping down the river. It Mas in 
 vain for Trent with his handful of men to offer resistance. Washington 
 liad now been commissioned as lieutenant-colonel, and was stationed at 
 Alexandria to enlist recruits for the Ohio. A regiment of a hundred and 
 fifty men had been enrolled ; but it was impossible to bring succor to 
 Trent in time to save the post. On the 17th of April the little band of 
 Englishmen at the head of the Ohio surrendered to the enemy and with- 
 drew from the country'. The French immediately occupied the place, 
 felled the forest-trees, built barracks and laid the foundations of Fort 
 DU QuESNE. To ropa]iture this place by force of arms Colonel Wash- 
 ington set out from Will's Creek in the early part of iNIay, 1754. Nego- 
 
 * The accounts of tliis iinportant event are very ohsriire and unsatisfactory. 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 255 
 
 tiations had failed ; remonstrance had been tried in vain ; the possession 
 of the disputed ten-itory was now to be determined by the harsher methods 
 of war. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 
 
 WASHINGTON now found liimself in command of a little army of 
 Virginians. His commission was brief and easily understood : To 
 construct a fort at the source of the Ohio ; to destroy whoever opposed 
 him in the work ; to capture, kill or repel all who interrupted the progress 
 of the English settlements in that country. In the month of April the 
 young commander left Will's Creek, but the march westward wa.s slow 
 and toilsome. The men were obliged to drag their cannons. The roads 
 were miserable ; rain fell in torrents on the tentless soldiers ; rivers were 
 bridgeless ; pro\'isions insufficient. All the while the faithful Half-King 
 was urging Washington by repeated despatches to hasten to the rescue of 
 the Red men. 
 
 On the 26th of May the English regiment reached the Great 
 Meadows. Here Washington was informed that a company of French 
 was on the march to attack him. The enemy had been seen on the 
 Youghiogheny only a few miles distant. A stockade was immediately 
 erected, to which the commander gave the appropriate name of Fort 
 Necessity. Ascertaining from the scouts of the Half-King that the French 
 company in the neighborhood was only a scoutiug-party, Washington, 
 after conference with the Mingo chiefs, determined to strike the first blow. 
 Two Indians followed the trail of the French, and discovered their hiding- 
 place in a rocky ravine. The English advanced cautiously, intending to 
 surprise and capture the whole force ; hut the French were on the air rr, 
 saw the approaching soldiers and flew to arms. Wsishington with 
 musket in hand was at the head of his company. " Fire !" was the clear 
 command that rang through the forest, and the first volley of a great wnr 
 went flying on its mission of death. The engagement was brief and 
 decisive. Jumonville, the leader of the French, and ten of his party were 
 killed, and twenty-one were made prisoners. 
 
 A month of precious time was now lost in delays. While Washing- 
 ton at Fort Necessity waited in vain for reinforcements, the French at 
 
256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Fort du Quesne were collecting in great numbers. One small company 
 of volunteers from South Carolina arrived at the English camp ; but the 
 captain was an arrogant blockhead who, having a commission from the 
 king, undertook to supersede Washington. The latter, Muth the Vir- 
 ginians, spent the time of waiting in cutting a road for twenty miles 
 across the rough country in the direction of Fort du Quesne. The In- 
 dians were greatly discouraged at the dilatory conduct of the colonics, 
 and the strong war-parties which had been expected to join Washington 
 from the Muskingum and the Miami did not arrive. His whole effect- 
 ive force scarcely numbered four hundred. Learning that the French 
 general De Villiers was approaching with a large body of troops, besides 
 Indian auxiliaries, Washington deemed it prudent to fall back to Fort 
 Necessity. The Carolina captain, who had remained M'ithin the fortifica- 
 tions, had done nothing to strengthen the works, although there was the 
 greatest need. 
 
 The little fort stood in an open space, midway between two emi- 
 nences covered with trees. Scarcely were Washington's forces safe within 
 the enclosure, when on the 3d of July the regiment of De Villiers, num- 
 bering six hundred, besides the savage allies, came in sight, and surrounded 
 the fort. The French stationed themselves on the eminence, about sixty 
 yards distant from the stockade. From this j)Osition they could fire down 
 upon the English with fatal effect. Many of the Indians climbed into 
 the tree-tops, whore they were concealed by the thick foliage. For nine 
 hours, during a rain-storm, the assailants poured an incessant shower of 
 balls upon the heroic band in the fort. Thirty of Washington's men 
 were killed, but his tranquil jiresence encouraged the rest, and the fire of 
 the French \\as returned with unabated vigor. At length De Villiers, fear- 
 ing that his ammunition would be exhausted, proposed a parley. Wash- 
 ington, seeing that it would be impossible to hold out much longer, ac- 
 cepted the honorable terms of capitulation which were offered by the 
 French general. On the 4th of July the English garrison, retaining all 
 its accoutrements, marched out of the little fort, so bravely defended, and 
 withdrew from the country. The whole valley of the Ohio remained in 
 undisturbed possession of the French. 
 
 Meanwhile, a congress of the American colonies had assembled at 
 Albany. The objects had in view were twofold : first, to renew the 
 treaty with the Iroquois confederacy ; and secondly, to stir up the colonial 
 authorities to some sort of concerted action against the French. The 
 Iroquois had wavered from the beginning of the war; the recent reverses 
 of the English had not strengthened the loyalty of the Red men. As to 
 the French aggressions, something nuist be done speedily, or the flag of 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 267 
 
 England could never be borne into the vast country west of the Alle- 
 ghanies. The congress was not wanting in abilities of the highest order. 
 No such venerable and dignified body of men had ever before assembled 
 on the American continent. There Mere Hutchinson of Massachusetts, 
 Hopkins of Rhode Island, Franklin of Pennsylvania, and others scarcely 
 less distinguished. After a few days' consultation, the Iroquois, but half 
 satisfied, renewed their treaty and departed. The chieftains were anxious 
 and uneasy lest, through inactivity and want of union on the part of the 
 colonies, the Six Nations should be left to contend alone with the power 
 of France. 
 
 The convention next took up the important question of uniting the 
 colonies in a common government. On the 10th day of July, Benjamin 
 Franklin laid before the commissioners the draft of a federal constitu- 
 tion. His vast and comprehensive mind had realized the true condition 
 and wants of the country ; the critical situation of the colonies demanded 
 a central government. How else could revenues be raised, an army be 
 organized and the common welfare be provided for? According to the 
 proposed plan of union, Philadelphia, a central cit}', was to be the cap- 
 ital. It was urged in behalf of this clause that the delegates of New 
 Hampshire and Georgia, the colonies most remote, could reach the seat 
 of government in fifteen or twenty days! Slow-going old patriots! The 
 chief executive of the new confederation was to be a governor-general 
 appointed and supported by the king. The legislative authorit)^ -v^r^s 
 vested in a congress composed of delegates to be chosen triennially by the 
 general assemblies of the respective provinces. Each colony should be 
 represented in proportion to its contributions to the general government, 
 but no colony should have less than two or nibre than seven represent- 
 atives in congress. With the governor was lodged the power of appoint- 
 ing all military officers and of vetoing objectionable laws. The appoints 
 ment of civil officers, the raising of troops, the levying of taxes, the super- 
 intendence of Indian affairs, the regulation of commerce, and all the 
 general duties of government, belonged to congress. This body was to 
 convene once a year, to choose its own officers, and to remain in session 
 .not longer than six weeks.* 
 
 Such was the constitution drafted by Franklin and adopted, not 
 without serious opposition, by the commissioners at Albany. It remained 
 for the colonies to ratify or reject the new scheme of government. Copies 
 of the proposed constitution were at once transmitted to the several colon- 
 ial capitals, and were everywhere received with disfavor ; in Connecticut, 
 rejected ; in Massachusetts, opposed ; in New York, adopted with indiffer- 
 ence. The chief objection urged against the instrument was the power of 
 
 * See Apiendix C. 
 
258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 veto given to the governor-general. Nor did the new constitution fare 
 better in the mother country. The English board of trade rejected it 
 with disdain, saying that the froward Americans were trying to make a 
 government of their own. Meanwhile, the French Avere strengthening 
 their works at Crown Point and Fort Niagara, and rejoicing over their 
 success in Western Pennsylvania. 
 
 But the honor of England, no less than the welfare of her colonies, 
 was at stake, and Parliament came to the rescue. It was determined to 
 send a British army to America, to accept the service of such provincial 
 troops as the colonies might furnish, and to protect the frontier against 
 the aggressions of France. As yet there had been no declaration of war. 
 The ministers of the two nations kept assuring each other of peaceable 
 intentions ; but Louis XV. took care to send three thousand soldiers to 
 Canada, and the British government ordered General Edward Braddock 
 to proceed to America with two regiments of regulars. Early in 1755 
 the English armament arrived in the Chesapeake. On the 14th of April 
 Braddock met the governors of all the colonies in a convention at Alex- 
 andria. The condition of colonial affairs was fully discussed. It was 
 resolved, since peace existed, not to invade Canada, but to repel the 
 French on the western and northern frontier. The plans of four cam- 
 paigns were accordingly submitted and ratified. Lawrence, the governor 
 of Nova Scotia, was to complete the conquest of that province according to 
 the English notion of boundaries. Johnson of New York was to enroll 
 a force of volunteers and Mohavi^ks in British pay, and to capture the 
 French post at Crown Point. Shirley of Massachusetts was to equip a 
 regiment and drive the enemy from their fortress at Niagara. Last and 
 most important of all, Braddock himself as commander-in-chief was to 
 lead the main body of regulars against Fort du Quesne, retake that post 
 aud expel the French from the Ohio valley. 
 
 In the latter part of Ajiril the British general set out on his march 
 from Alexandria to Will's Creek. The name of the military post at the 
 mouth of this stream was now changed to Fort Cumberland. Braddock's 
 army numbered fully two thousand men. They were nearly all veterans 
 who had seen service in the wars of Europe. A few provincial troops 
 had joined the expedition ; two comjjanies of volunteers, led by Colonel 
 Horatio Grates of New York, were among the number. Washington met 
 the army at Fort Cumberland, and became an aid-de-camp of Braddock. 
 The colonies -would have assisted with large levies of recruits, had it not 
 been for the nature of the general's authorit}'. It was prescribed in Jiis 
 commission that the provincial captains and colonels should have no rank 
 when serving in connection with the British army. So odious was this 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 259 
 
 regulation that Washington had set the example of withdrawing from the 
 service; patriotic motives and the wish of" Virginia now induced him to 
 return and to accept a post of responsibility. 
 
 On the last day of May the march began from Fort Cumberland. 
 A select force of five hundred men was thrown forward to open the roads 
 in the direction of Fort du Quesne. Sir Peter Halket led the advance 
 and Braddock followed with the main body. The army, marching in a 
 slender column, was extended for four miles along the narrow and broken 
 road It was in vain that Washington pointed out the danger of am- 
 buscades and suggested the employment of scoutiug-parties. Braddock 
 was self-willed, arrogant, proud ; thoroughly skilled in the tactics of 
 European warfare, he could not bear to be advised by an inferior. The 
 sagacious Franklin had admonished him to move with caution ; but he 
 only replied that it was impossible for savages to make any impression on 
 His Majesty's regulars. Now, when Washington ventured to repeat the 
 advice, Braddock flew into a passion, strode up and down in his tent, and 
 said that it was high times when Colonel Buckskin could teach a British 
 general how to fight. 
 
 On the 19th of June, Braddock put himself at the head of twelve 
 hundred chosen troops and pressed forward more rapidly. Colonel Dun- 
 bar was left behind with the remainder of the army. On the 8tli of July 
 the van reached the junction of the Youghiogheny and the Monongahela. 
 It was only twelve miles farther to Fort du Quesne, and the French gave 
 up the place as' lost. On the next morning the English army advanced 
 along the Monongahela, and at noon crossed to the northern bank just 
 beyond the confluence of Turtle Creek. Still there was no sign of an 
 enemy. Colonel Thomas Gage was leading forward a detachment of three 
 hundred and fifty men. The road was but twelve feet wide; the comitrv 
 uneven and woody There was a dense undergrowth on cither hand; 
 rocks and ravines ; a hill on the right and a dry hollow on the left. A 
 few guides were in the advance, and some feeble flanking-parties ; in the 
 rear came the general with the main division of the army, the artillery 
 and the baggage. All at once a quick and heavy fire was heard in the 
 front. 
 
 France was not going to give up Fort du Quesne without a strug- 
 gle. For two months the place had been receiving reinforcements ; still 
 the garrison was by no means able to cope with Braddock's army. Even 
 the Indians realized the disparity of the contest. It was with great difH- 
 culty that, on the night before the battle, the commandant of ihe fort 
 induced the savages to join in the enterprise of ambuscading the British. 
 At last a force of two hundred and thirty French, led by Beaujeu and 
 
260 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Dumas, and a body of six hundred aud thirty-seven Indians set out from 
 Du Quesne with a view to harass and annoy the English rather than to 
 face them in a serious battle. It was the purpose of the French, ^^■ho 
 were entirely familiar with the ground, to lay an ambuscade at a favor- 
 able point seven miles distant from the fort. They were just reaching 
 the selected spot aud settling into ambush when the flanking-parties of 
 the English «ime in sight. The French fired ; the Indians yelled and 
 slunk into their hiding-places, and the battle began. 
 
 If Gage had at once thrown forward hLs forces to the support of 
 
 the guards, the day could have been 
 saved ; • but he was confused and un- 
 decided. The flanking parties were 
 driven in, leaving their six-pounders 
 in the hands of the enemy. Gage's 
 men wavered, and were mixed in the 
 thickset underwood with a regiment 
 
 SCENE OF BRADDOCK'S DEp-EAT, 1755. 
 
 which Braddock had pushed forward 
 to the rescue. The confusion became 
 greater, and there were symptoms of 
 a panic. The men fired constantly, 
 but could see no enemy. Every 
 volley from the hidden foe flew %yith 
 deadly certainty into the crowded 
 ranks of the English. The rash but 
 brave general rushed to the front and 
 rallied his men with the energy of desj>air ; but it was all in vain. The 
 men stood huddled together like sheep, or fled in terror to the rear. The 
 forest was strewn with the dead ; the savages, emlioklened by their unex- 
 pected success, crept farther and farther along tlio flanks; and the battle 
 became a rout. Braddock had five liorees shot under him ; his secretary' 
 was killed ; both his English aids were disabled ; only ^Yashington re- 
 mained to distribute orders. Out of eighty-two ofiicers twenty-six were 
 killed and thirty-seven wounded. Of the privates seven hundred and 
 fourteen were dead or bleeding with wounds. At last the general re- 
 ceived a ball in his right side and sank fainting to the ground. "What 
 shall we do now, colonel ?" said he to Wasliington, who came to his assist- 
 ance. " Retreat, sir — retreat by all means," replied the young hero, upon 
 whom everything now depended. His owoi bosom had been for more 
 than two lioin-s a special target for the savages. Two horses had fallen 
 under him, and fo;ir times his coat had been torn with balls. A Shawnee 
 chief singled him out and bade his warriors do the same ; but their volleys 
 
RUIN OF ACADIA. 261 
 
 went by harmless. The retreat began at once, and the thirty Virginians, 
 •who, with Washington, wei-e all that remained alive, covered the flight of 
 the ruined army. The artillery, provisions, baggage and private papers 
 of the general were left on the field. 
 
 The losses of the French and Indians were slight, amounting to 
 three oiBcers and thirty men killed, and as many others wounded. There 
 was no attempt made at pursuit. The savages fairly reveled in the spoils 
 of the battle-field. They had never known so rich a harvest of scalps 
 and booty. The tawny chiefs returned to Fort du Quesne clad in the 
 laced coats, military boots and cockades of the British officers. The 
 dying Uraddock was borne in the train of the fugitives. Once he roused 
 himself to say, " Who would have thought it ?" and again, " We shall 
 better know how to deal with them another time." On the evening of 
 the fourth day he died, and was buried by the roadside a mile west of Fort 
 Necessity. When the fugitives reached Dunbar's camp, the confusion was 
 greater than ever. Dunbar was a man of feeble capacity and no courage ; 
 pretending to have the orders of the dying general, he proceeded to de- 
 stroy the remaining artillery, the heavy baggage, and all the public stores, 
 to the value of a hundred thousand pounds. Then followed a precipitate 
 retreat to Fort Cumberland, and then an abandonment of that place for 
 the safer precincts of Philadelphia. It was only the beginning of August, 
 yet Dunbar pleaded the necessity of finding winter quarters for his forces. 
 The great expedition of Braddoek had ended in such a disaster as spread 
 ifionsternation and gloom over all the colonies. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXXII. 
 
 RUIN OF ACADIA. 
 
 BY the treaty of Utrecht, made in 1713, the province of Acadia, or Nova 
 Scotia, was ceded by France to England. During the following fifty 
 years the <;olony remained under the dominion of Great Britain, and was 
 ruled by English officers. But the great majority of the people were 
 French, and the English government amounted only to a military occu- 
 pation of the peninsula. The British colors, floating over Louisburg and 
 Annapolis, and the presence of British garrisons here and there, were the 
 only tokens that this, the oldest French colony in America, had passed 
 under the control of foreigners. • 
 
262 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 At the time of the cessiou the population amounted to about three 
 thousand ; by the outbreak of the French and Indian War the number 
 had increased to more than sixteen thousand. I^awrence, the deputy- 
 oovernor of tlie province, pretended to fear an insurrection. When Brad- 
 dock and the colonial governors convened at Alexandria, it was urged 
 that something must be done to overawe the French and strengthen the 
 English authority in Acadia. The enterprise of reducing the French 
 peasants to complete humiliation was entrusted to Lawrence, who was 
 to be assisted by a British fleet under Colonel IMonckton. On the 20th of 
 May, 1755, the squadron, with three thousand troops, sailed from Boston 
 for the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 The French had but two fortified posts in the province ; both of 
 these were on the LsthmiLS which divides Nova Scotia from New Bruns- 
 wick. The first and most Important fortress, named Beau-Sejour, was sit- 
 uated near the mouth of Messagouche 
 Creek, at the head of Chignecto Bay. 
 The other fort, a mere stockade called 
 Gaspereau, was on the north side of 
 the isthmus, at Bay Verte. De Ver- 
 gor, the French commandant, had 
 no intimation of approaching danger 
 till the English fleet sailed fearlessly 
 into the bay and anchored before the 
 walls of Beau-Sejour. There was no 
 preparation for defence. On the 3d 
 44 of June the English forces landed, 
 and on the next day forced their way 
 across the Messagouche. A vigorous 
 siege of four days followed. Fear and confusion reigned among the gar- 
 rison ; no successful resistance could be offered. On the 16th of the month 
 Beau-Sejour capitulated, received an English garrison and took the name 
 of Fort Cumberland. The feeble post at Gaspereau was taken a few days 
 afterward, and named Fort Monckton. Cajitain Rous was despatched with 
 four vessels to capture the fort at the mouth of the St. John's ; but before 
 (he fleet could reach its destination, the French reduced the town to ashes 
 and escaped into the interior. In a campaign of less than a month, and 
 with a loss of only twenty men, the English had made themselves masters 
 of the whole country east of the St. Croix. 
 
 Tlie war in Acadia was at an end ; but what should be done with 
 the i^eople? The French inhabitants still outnumbered the English 
 nearly three to one. Governor Lawrence and Admiral Boscawen, in con- 
 
 THE ACADIAN ISTHMTTS, 1755. 
 
RUIN OF ACADIA. 
 
 263 
 
 ference with the cliief justice of" the province, settled upon tlie atrocious 
 measure of driving tlie people into banishment. The first movement was 
 to demand an oath of allegiance which was so framed that the French, as 
 honest Catholics, could not take it. The priests advised the peasants to 
 declare their loyalty^ but refuse the oath, which was meant to ensnare their 
 souls. The next step on the part of the English was to accuse the French 
 of treason, and to demand the surrender of all their firearms and boats. 
 To this measure the broken-hearted people also submitted. They even 
 offered to take the oath, but Lawrence declared that, having once refused, 
 they must now take the consequences. The British vessels were made 
 ready, and the work of forcible embarkation began. 
 
 The country about the isthmus was covered with peaceful hamlets. 
 
 THE EXILE OF THE ACADIANS.* 
 
 These were now laid waste, and the people driven into the larger to\vns on 
 the coast. Others were induced by artifice and treachery to put them- 
 selves into the power of the English. Wherever a sufficient number of 
 the French could be gotten together they were driven on shipboard. 
 They were allowed to take their Avives and children and as much jjroperty 
 as would not be inconvenient on the vessels. The estates of the province 
 were confiscated, and what could not be appropriated was given to the 
 
 * Longfellow's Evangeline is founded on this incident. 
 
264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 flames. The wails of thousands of bleeding hearts were wafted to heaven 
 with the smoke of burning homes. At the village of Grand Pre four 
 hundred and eighteen unarmed men were called together and shut up in 
 a church. Then came the wives and children, the old men and the 
 mothei-s, the sick and the infirm, to share the common fate. The whole 
 company numbered more than nineteen hundred souls. The poor crea- 
 tures were driven down to the shore, forced into the boats at the point 
 of the bayonet, and carried to the vessels in the bay. As the moaning 
 tugJtives cast a last look at their pleasant town, a column of black smoke 
 floating seaward told the story of desolation. More than three thousand 
 of the hapless Acadians were carried away by the British squadron and 
 scattered, helpless, half starved and dying, among the English colonies. 
 The history of civilized nations furnishes no parallel to this wanton and 
 wicked destruction of an inoffensive colony. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 
 
 THE third campaign planned by Braddock at Alexancbia was to be 
 conducted by Governor Shirley of Massachusetts. The expedition 
 was to proceed from Albany to Oswego, and thence by water to the 
 mouth of the Niagara. It was known that Fort Niagara was an insig- 
 nificant post, depending for its defence upon a small ditch, a rotten 
 jmlisade and a feeble garrison. To capture this place, to obtain command 
 of the river, and to cut off the communications of the French by way of 
 the lakes, were the objects of the campaign. " Fort du Quesne can hardly 
 detain me more than three or four days," said Braddock to Shirley, " and 
 then I will meet you at Niagara." 
 
 In the early part of August, Shirley set out at the head of nearly 
 two thousand men. It was the last of the month before he reached 
 Oswego. Here the provincial forces had been ordered to assemble. Four 
 weeks were spent in preparing boats for embarkation. When everything 
 was in readiness, a storm arose ; and when the storm abated, the winds blew 
 in the wrong direction. Then came another tempest and another delay ; 
 then sickness prevailed in the camp. With the beginning of October 
 
EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 
 
 265 
 
 Shirley declared the lake to be dangerous for navigation. The Indians 
 deserted the standard of a leader whose skill in war consisted in iraming 
 excuses. The fact was that the general, while on the march to Oswego, 
 had learned of the destruction of Braddock's army, and feared that a sim- 
 ilar fate might overtake his own. On the 24th of October the greater 
 part of the provincial forces, led by Shirley, marched homeward. Only 
 one result of any importance followed from the eamj)aign — the fort at 
 
 Oswego was well 
 
 rebuilt and garrisoned with seven hundred men under 
 
 Mercer. 
 
 Far more important was the expedition entrusted to General Wil- 
 liam Johnson. The olycct had in view was to capture the enemy's fort- 
 ress at Crown Point, and to drive the French from the shores of Lake 
 Champlain. Johnson's army numbered three thousand four hundred 
 men, including a body of friendly Mohawks. The active work of the 
 campaign began early in August, when General Phineas Lyman, at the 
 head of the New England troops, proceeded to the Hudson above Albany, 
 and at a point just below M^here the river bends ab- 
 ruptly to the west built Fort Edward. Thither in 
 the last days of summer came the commanding general 
 with the main division. The watershed between the 
 Hudson and Lake George is only twelve miles wide. 
 Johnson's army marched across to the head of the lake 
 and laid out a commodious camp. A week was spent 
 in bringing forward tlie artillery and stores. The 
 soldiers were busy preparing boats for embarkation, 
 and the important matter of fortifying the camp was 
 wholly neglected. 
 
 In the mean time, Dieskau, the daring command- 
 
 t'FortEawartl '' 
 
 VICINITY OF LAKE 
 GEORGE, 1755, 
 
 ant at Crown Point, determined to anticipate the 
 movements of the English. With a force of fourteen 
 hundred French, Canadians and Indians he sailed up 
 Lake Champlain to South Bay. From this point he marched to the 
 U])per springs of Wood Creek, intending to strike to the south, pass the 
 English army and capture Fort Edward before the alarm could be given. 
 But the news was carried to General Johnson ; and a force of a thousand 
 men under command of Colonel Williams, accompanied by Hendrick, the 
 gray-haired chieftain of the Mohawks, with two hundred warriors, was 
 sent to the relief of the endangered fort. On the previous night Dieskau's 
 guides had led him out of his course. On the morning of the 8th of 
 September the French general found himself and his army about four 
 miles north of Fort Edward, on the main road from the Hudson to Lake 
 
266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 George. Just at this time Colonel Williams's regiment and the Mohawks 
 came in sight, marching toward the fort. Dieskau quickly formed an 
 ambush, and the English were entrapped ; but the Indian allies of the 
 French showed themselves to their countrymen, and would not fire. The 
 Canadians and the French poured in a deadly volley ; both Williams and 
 Hendrick fell dead, and the English were thrown into confusion. But 
 Colonel Whiting rallied tiie troops, returned the enemy's fire, and re- 
 treated toward the lake. St. Pierre, one of the French generals, was 
 killed. 
 
 The noise of battle was lieard in Johnson's camp, and preparations 
 were made for a general engagement. Tiiere were no entrenchments, but 
 trees were hastily felled for breastworks, and the cannons were brought 
 into position. It was Dieskau's plan to rush into the English camp 
 along with the fugitives whom he was driving before him ; but the In- 
 dians, afraid of Johnson's guns, would not join in the assault; the Red 
 men retired to a hill at a safe distance. The Canadians were disheartened ; 
 and the handful of French regulars made the onset almost unsupported. 
 It was the fiercest battle which had yet been fought on American soil. 
 For five hours the conflict was incessant. In the beginning of the engage- 
 ment Jolinson received a slight wound and left the field ; but the troops 
 of New England fought on without a commander. Nearly all of Dieskau's 
 regulars were killed. At last the English troops leaped over the fallen 
 trees, charged across the field, and completed the rout. Three times 
 Dieskau M'as wounded, but he would not retire. His aids came to bear 
 him off; one was shot dead, and he forbade the others. He ordered his 
 sei"vants to bring him his military dress, and then seated himself on the 
 stump of a tree. A renegade Frenchman belonging to the English army 
 rushed up to make him a jjrisoner. The Mounded general felt for his 
 watch to tender it in token of surrender. Tiie Frenchman, thinking that 
 Dieskau was searching for a pistol, fired, and the brave commander fell, 
 mortally wounded. 
 
 The victory, though complete, was dearly purchased. Two hun- 
 dred and sixteen of the English were killed, and many others wounded. 
 General Johnson, who had done but little, was greatly praised ; Parliament 
 made him a baronet for gaining a victory which the provincials gained 
 tor him. Made M'iser by the battle, he now constructed on the site of his 
 camp a substantial fort, and named it William Henry. The defences of 
 Fort Edward were strengthened with an additional garrison, and the 
 remainder of the troops returned to their homes. Meanwhile, the French 
 had reinforced Crown Point, and had seized and fortified Ticonderoga. 
 Such was the condition of aiFairs at the close of 1755. 
 
TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 267 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 
 
 AFTER the death of Braddock the chief command of the English 
 forces in America was given to Governor Shirley. But no regular 
 military organization had been eflected ; and the war was carried on in a 
 desultory manner. Braddock had ruined one army ; Shirley had scat- 
 tered another. On Lake George, Johnson had achieved a marked suc- 
 cess. In the beginning of 1756, Washington at the head of the Vir- 
 ginian provincials repelled the French and Indians in the valley of the 
 Shenandoah. At the same time the Pennsylvania volunteers, choosing 
 Franklin for their colonel, marched to the banks of the Lehigh, built a 
 fort, and made a successful campaign. In the preceding December, 
 Shirley met the colonial governors at New York and planned the move- 
 ments for the following year. One expedition, proceeding by way of the 
 Kennebec, was to threaten Quebec. Forts Frontenac, Toronto and Niagara 
 were to be taken. Du Quesne, Detroit and Mackinaw, deprived of their 
 communications, nnist of course surrender. 
 
 In the mean time, after much debate in Parliament, it was decided 
 to consolidate and put under one authority all the military forces in 
 America. The earl of Loudoun received the appointment of commander- 
 in-chief. General Abercrombie was second in rank ; and forty British 
 and German officers were commissioned to organize and discipline the 
 colonial army. In the last of April, 1756, Abercrombie, with two bat- 
 talions of regulars, sailed for New York. Lord Loudoun was to follow 
 with a fleet of transports, bearing the artillery, tents, ammunition and 
 equi})age of the exjiedition. The commander waited a month for his 
 vessels, and then sailed without them. On the 15th of June a man-of- 
 war was despatched to America with a hundred thousand pounds to reim- 
 burse the colonies for the expenses of the previous campaigns. At the 
 same time the corps of British officers arrived at New York. Meanwhile, 
 on the 17th of May, Great Britain, after nearly two years of actual hos- 
 tilities, made an open declaration of war, which was followed by a simdar 
 declaration on the part of France. 
 
 On the 25th of June, Abercrombie reached Albany. He began his 
 great campaign by surveying the town, digging a ditch and quartering 
 
268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 his soldiers with the citizens. In July, Lord Loudoun arrived and 
 assumed the command of the colonial army. The French, meanwhile, 
 profiting by these delays, organized a force of more than five thousand 
 men, crossed Lake Ontario and laid siege to Oswego. The marquis of 
 Montcalm, who had succeeded Dieskau as commander-in-chief, led the 
 expedition. At the mouth of Oswego River thei'e were two forts ; the 
 old block-house on the west and the new Fort Ontario on the east. The 
 latter was first attacked. Thirty pieces of cannon were brought to bear 
 on the fortress. After a brave defence of one day, the little garrison 
 abandoned the works and escaped to the old fort across the river. This 
 place was also invested by the French. For t^vo days the English, num- 
 bering only fourteen hundred, held out against the besiegers, and then sur- 
 rendered. A vast amount of ammunition, small arms, accoutrements 
 and provisions fell to the captors. Six vessels of war, three hundred 
 boats, a hundred and twenty cannon and three chests of money were the 
 ftirther fruits of a victory by which France gained the only important 
 outpost of England on the lakes. To please his Indian allies, Montcalm 
 ordered Oswego to be razed to the ground. 
 
 During this summer the Delawares, false to their treaty, rose in 
 Western Pennsylvania and almost ruined the country. ]\Iore than a 
 thousand people were killed or carried into captivity. In August, Colonel 
 John Armstrong, at the head of three hundred volunteers, crossed the 
 AUeghanies, and after a twenty days' march reached the Indian town of Kit- 
 taning, forty-five miles north-east from Pittsburg. Lying in concealment 
 until daydawn on the morning of September 8th, the English rose against 
 the savages, and after a desperate battle destroyed them almost to a man. 
 The village was burned and the spirit of the barbarians completely broken. 
 The Americans lost sixteen men. Colonel Armstrong and Captain Hugh 
 Mercer, afterward distinguished in the Revolution, were both severely 
 wounded. 
 
 Lord Loudoun continued at Albany. His forces were amply suffi- 
 cient to capture every stronghold of Canada in the space of six weeks. 
 Instead of marching boldly to the north, he whiled away the summer and 
 fall, talked about an attack from the French, digged ditches, slandered 
 the provincial officers and waited for winter. Wlien the frosts came, he 
 made haste to distribute the colonial troops and to quarter the regulars on 
 the principal towns. The vigilant French, learning what sort of a general 
 tbey had to cope with, crowded Lake Champlain M-ith boats, strengthened 
 Crown Point and completed a fort at Ticondcroga. With the exception 
 of Armstrong's expedition against the Indians, the year 1756 closed with- 
 out a single substantial success on the part of the English. 
 
TWO YEAJiS OF DISASTEE. 269 
 
 And the year 1757 was equally disastrous. The campaign which 
 was planned by Loudoun was limited to the conquest of Louisburg. ICver 
 siuce the treaty of Utiecht the French had retained Cape Breton ; and 
 the fortress at Louisburg had been made one of the strongest on the con- 
 tinent. On the 20th of June, Lord Loudoun sailed from New York with 
 an army of six thousand regulars. By the first of July he was at Hal- 
 ifax, where he was joined by Admiral Holbourn with a jjowerful fleet of 
 sixteen men-of-war. There were on board five thousand additional 
 troops fresh from the armies of England. Never was such a use made of 
 a splendid armament. Loudoun landed before Halifax, cleared off a mus- 
 tering plain, and set his officers to drilling regiments already skilled in 
 every manoeuvre of war. To heighten the absurdity, the fields about the 
 city were planted with onions. For it was said that the men might take 
 the scurvy ! By and by the news came that the French vessels in the 
 harbor of Louisburg outnumbered by one the ships of the English squad- 
 ron. To attack a force that seemed superior to his own was not a part of 
 Loudoun's tactics. Ordering the fleet to go cruising around Cape Breton, 
 he immediately embarked with his army, and sailed for New York. 
 Arriving at this place, he proposed to his officers to fortify Long Island 
 in order to defend the continent against an enemy whom he outnumbered 
 four to one. 
 
 Meanwhile, the daring Montcalm had made a brilliant campaign in 
 the country of Lake George. With a force of six thousand French and 
 Canadians and seventeen hundred Indians he proceeded up the Sorel, 
 entered Lake Champlain, and reached Ticonderoga. The object of the 
 expedition was to capture and destroy Fort William Henry. The French 
 and the Iroquois, who had now abandoned the cause of the colonies, were 
 fired with enthusiasm. Dragging their artillery and boats across the 
 j)ortage to Lake George, they re-embarked, and on the 3d of August laid 
 siege to the English fort. The place was defended by only five hundred 
 men under the brave Colonel Monro ; but there were seventeen hundred 
 additional troops within supporting distance in the adjacent trenches. All 
 this while General Webb was at Fort Edward, but fourteen miles distant, 
 with an army of more than four thousand British regulars. Instead of 
 advancing to the relief of Fort William Henry, Webb held a council to 
 <letermine if it were not better to retire to Albany, and sent a message to 
 Colonel Monro advising capitulation. 
 
 For six days the French pressed the siege with vigor. The ammu- 
 nition of the garrison was nearly exhausted ; half of the guns were burst; 
 nothing remained but to surrender. Honorable terms were granted. The 
 English, retaining their private effects, were released on a pledge not to 
 
270 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 re-enter the service for eighteen months. A safe escort was promised to 
 Fort Edward. On the 9th of August the French took possession of the 
 fortress. Unfortunately, tlie Indians jn'ocured a quantity of spirits from 
 the English camp. Maddened with intoxication, and in sjiite of the 
 utmost exertions of Montcalm and his officers, the savages fell upon the 
 prisoners and began a massacre. Thirty of the English were tomahawked 
 uud many others dragged away into captivity. The retirement of the 
 garrison to Fort Edward became a panic and a rout. 
 
 Such had been the successes of France during the year that the 
 English had not a single hamlet or foi'tress remaining in the whole basin 
 of the St. Lawrence. Every cabin where English was spoken had been 
 swept out of the Ohio valley. At the close of the year 1757, France pos- 
 sessed twenty times as much American territory as England ; and five 
 times as much as England and Spain together. Such had been the im- 
 becility of the English management in America that the flag of Great 
 Britain was brought into disgrace. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 /^ REAT was the discouragement in England. The duke of Newcastle 
 ^Ji and his associates in the government were obliged to resign. A new 
 ministry was formed, at the head of which was placed that remarkable 
 man William Pitt, called the Great Commoner. The imbecile Lord 
 Loudoun was deposed from the American army. General Abercrombie 
 was appointed to succeed him ; but the main reliance for success was 
 placed, not so much on the commander-in-chief, as on an ctlicient corps 
 of subordinate officers whom the wisdom of Pitt now directed to America. 
 Admiral Boscawcn was put in command of the fleet, consisting of twenty- 
 two ships of the line and fifteen frigates. The able general Amheret was 
 to lead a division. Young Lord Howe, brave and amiable, was next in 
 rank to Abercrombie. The gallant James Wolfe led a brigade. General 
 Forbes held an important command ; and Colonel Richard Montgomery 
 was at the head of a regiment. 
 
 Three campaigns were planned for 1758. Amherst, acting in con- 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 271 
 
 junction with the fleet, was to capture Louisburg. Lord Howe, under 
 the direction of the commander-in-chief, was to reduce Crown Point 
 and Ticonderoga. The recovery of the Ohio valley was enti-usted to 
 General Forbes. On the 28th of May, Amherst, at the head of ten 
 thousand effective men, reached Halifax. In six days more the fleet was 
 anchored in Gabarus Bay. Wolfe put his division into boats, rowed 
 through the surf under fire of the French batteries, and gained the shore 
 without serious locis. The French dismantled tlieir battery and retreated. 
 Wolfe next gained possession of the north-east harbor and planted heavy 
 guns on the cape near the liglitliouse. From this j)osition the island 
 battery of the French was soon silenced. Louisburg was fairly invested, 
 and the siege was pressed with great vigor. On the 21st of July three 
 French vessels were burned in the harbor. Two days later, the Prudent, 
 a seventy-four gun ship, was fired and destroyed by the English boats. 
 The town was already a heap of ruins, and the walls of the fortress began 
 to crumble. For a whole week the French soldiers had no place where 
 they could rest in safety ; of their fifty-two cannon only twelve remained 
 in position. Further resistance was hopeless. On the 28th of July 
 Louisburg capitulated. Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Island were sur- 
 rendered to Great Britain. The gamson, together with the marines, in 
 all nearly six thousand men, became prisoners of war and were sent to 
 England. Amherst after his great success abandoned Louisburg, and the 
 fleet took station at Halifax. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Abercrombie had not been idle. On the 5th of 
 July an army of fifteen thousand men, led by Lord Howe, reached Lake 
 George and embarked for Ticonderoga. With heavy guns and abundant 
 stores the expedition proceeded to the northern extremity of the lake and 
 landed on the western shore. The country about the French fortress was 
 very unfavorable f jr military operations. The English proceeded with 
 great difficulty, leaving their artillery behind. Lord Howe led the ad- 
 vance in person. On the morning of the 6th, when the English were 
 nearing the fort, they fell in with the picket line of the French, number- 
 ing no more than three hundred. A severe skirmish ensued ; the French 
 were overwhelmed, but not until they had inflicted on the English a 
 terrible lo&s in the death of Lord Howe. The soldiers were stricken with 
 grief, and began a retreat to the landing. Abercrombie was in the rear, 
 but the soul of the expedition had depai-ted. 
 
 On tlie morning of the 8th the English engineer reported falsely 
 that the fortifications of Ticonderoga were flimsy and trifling. Again tlie 
 army was put in motion ; and when just beyond the reach of the French 
 guns, the divisions were arranged to carry the place by assault. For more 
 
272 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 than four hours column after column dashed with great bravery against 
 the breastworks of the enemy, which were found to be strong and M-ell 
 constructed. The defence was made by nearly four thousand French 
 under Montcalm, who, with coat off in the hot July afternoon, M-as every- 
 where present encouraging his men. At six o'clock in the evening the 
 English M'ere finally re])ulsed. The carnage was dreadful, the loss on the 
 side of the assailants amounting in killed and wounded to nineteen hun- 
 dred and sixteen. In no battle of the Revolution did the British have so 
 large a force engaged or meet so terrible a loss. 
 
 The English still outnumbered the French three to one ; and they 
 might have easily returned with their artillery and captured the fort. But 
 Abercrombie was not the man to do it. He returned to Fort George, at 
 the head of the lake, and contented himself with sending a force of three 
 thousand men under Colonel Bradstreet against Fort Frontenac. This 
 fortress was situated on the present site of Kingston, at the outlet of Lake 
 Ontario. Marching through the country of the Indians who were still 
 friendly to the English, Bradstreet reached Oswego, embarked his forces, 
 crossed the lake and landed within a mile of Frontenac. The place was 
 feebly defended, and a siege of two days compelled a capitulation. The 
 fortress, so imporfamt to the French, was demolished. Forty-six cannon, 
 nine vessels of war and a vast quantity of stores were the fruits of the 
 victory. Except in the waste of life, Bradstreet's success more than coun- 
 terbalanced the failure of the English at Ticonderoga. The French were 
 every^vhere weakened and despairing. In Canada the crops had failed, 
 and there was almost a famine. "Peace, peace, no matter with what 
 boundaries," was the message which the brave Montcalm sent to the 
 French ministry. 
 
 Late in the summer, Forbes, at the head of nine thousand men, ad- 
 vanced from Philadelphia against Fort du Quesne. Washington led the 
 Virginia provincials, and Armstrong, who had so distinguished himself 
 at Kittaning, the Pennsylvanians. The main body moved slowly, clear- 
 ing a broad road and bridging the streams. Washington and the pro- 
 vincials were impatient. Major Grant, more rash than M-ise, pressed on 
 to within a few miles of Du Quesne. Attempting to lead the French 
 and Indians into an ambuscade, he was himself ambuscaded, and lost a 
 third of his forces. Slowly the main division approached the fort, which 
 was defended by no more than five hundred men. On the 24th of No- 
 vember, Washington with the advance was within ten miles of Du 
 Quesne. During that night the garrison took the alarm, burned the fort- 
 ress and floated down the Ohio. On the 25th the victorious army 
 marched over the ruined bastions, raised the English flag, and named 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 273 
 
 the place PiTTSBtiRG. The name of the great British minister was jastly 
 Avritten over " the gateway of the West." 
 
 General Amherst was now promoted to the chief command of the 
 American forces. Parliament cheerfully voted twelve million pounds 
 sterlino- to carry on the war. The colonies exerted themselves to the 
 utmost. By the beginning of summer, 1759, the British and colonial 
 forces numbered nearly fifty thousand men. The whole population of 
 Canada was only eighty-two thousand; and the entire French army 
 scarcely exceeded seven thousand. Nothing less than the conquest of all 
 Canada would satisfy Pitt's ambition. Three campaigns were planned 
 for the year. General Prideaux was to conduct an expedition against 
 Niagara, capture the fortress and descend the lake to Montreal. Amherst 
 was to lead the main division against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 
 <xeneral Wolfe was to proceed up the St. Lawrence and finish the work 
 by capturing Quebec. 
 
 By way of Schenectady and Oswego, Prideaux led his forces to 
 Niagara. On the 10th of July the place was invested. The French 
 general D'Aubry collected from Detroit, Erie, Le Boeuf and Venango a 
 body of twelve hundred men, and marched to the relief of the fort. On 
 the 15th, by the accidental bursting of a mortar. General Prideaux was 
 killed. Sir William Johnson, succeeding to the command, disposed his 
 forces so as to intercept the approaching French. On the morning of the 
 24th, D'Aubry's army came in sight. A bloody engagement ensued, in 
 which the French were completely routed, leaving their unnumbered 
 dead scattered for miles through the forest. On the next day Niagara 
 capitulated and received an English garrison. The French forces in the 
 town, to the number of six hundred, became prisoners of war. Commun- 
 ication between Canada and Louisiana was for ever broken. 
 
 At the same time Amherst was conquering on Lake Champlain. 
 With an army of more than eleven thousand men he proceeded against 
 Ticonderoga. On the 22d of July the English forces were disembarked 
 near the landing-place of Abercrombie. The French did not dare to 
 stand against them. There was a slight skirmish, and then the trenches 
 were deserted. Fort Carillon was given up. On the 26th the French 
 garrison, having partly destroyed the fortifications, abandoned Ticon- 
 deroga and retreated to Crown Point. Five days afterward they de- 
 serted this place also, and entrenched themselves on Isle-aux-Noix, in the 
 river Sorel. The whole country of Lake Champlain had been recovered 
 without a battle. 
 
 It remained for General Wolfe to achieve the final victor}'. As 
 soon as a tardy spring had cleared the St. Lawrence of ice, he began the 
 
274 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 VICINITY OF QUEBEC, 1759. 
 
 ascent of the river. His force consisted of nearly eight thousand men, 
 assisted by a fleet of forty-four vessels under command of Admiral Saun- 
 ders. On the 27th of June the armament arrived without accident at 
 the Isle of Orleans, four miles below Quebec. The English camp was 
 
 pitched at the upper end of the 
 island. Wolfe's vessels gave him 
 immediate command of the river, 
 and the southern bank was unde- 
 fended. On the night of the 29th, 
 General ]\Ionckton was sent with four 
 battalions to seize Point Levi. The 
 movement was successful, and an 
 English battery was planted opposite 
 the city. From this position the 
 Lower Town was soon reduced to 
 ruins, and the Upper Town much 
 injured ; but the fortress seemed im- 
 pregnable. The French, knowing 
 that it would be impossible to storm 
 the city from the river side, had drawn their line of entrenchment from the 
 northern bank of the St. Lawrence, reaching for five miles from the 
 Montmorenci to the St. Charles. Here Montcalm with ten or twelve 
 thousand French and Canadians awaited the movements of his antao-onist. 
 Wolfe was restless and anxious for battle. On the 9th of July he 
 crossed the north channel, and encamped with his army on the east bank 
 of the Montmorenci. It was determined in a council of war to hazard 
 an engagement. The Montmorenci was fordable when the tide ran out. 
 The attack was planned for July 31st, at the hour of low water. Generals 
 Townshend and Murray were ordered to ford the stream with their two 
 brigades, and at the same time Monckton's regiments of regulars were to 
 cross the St. Lawrence from Point Levi and aid in the assault. The 
 signal was given, and the grenadiers of ^Murray and Townshend dashed 
 across tiie Montmorenci ; but the boats of Monckton ran aground, and there 
 was considerable delay. The impatient grenadiers, without waiting for 
 orders or support, rushed forward against the French entrenchments, and 
 were driven back with great loss. Before the regulars could be formed 
 in line the battle was decided. Night was approaching ; the tide rising ; 
 a storm portended ; and Wolfe, after losing nearly five hundred men, with- 
 drew to his camp. 
 
 Disappointment, exposure and fatigue threw the English general 
 into a violent fever, and for many days he was confined to his tent. A 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 
 
 275 
 
 council of officers was called, and the indomitable leader proposed a second 
 assault on the French lines. But the proposition was overruled, and it 
 M'as decided to ascend 
 the St. Lawrence, and 
 if possible gain pos- 
 session of the Plains 
 of Abraham, in the 
 rear of the city. The 
 camp on the Mont- 
 morenci was accord- 
 ingly broken up, and 
 on the 6th of Septem- 
 ber the troops and ar- 
 tillery were conveyed 
 to Point Levi. Keep- 
 ing the French excited 
 with appearances of 
 activity, Wolfe again 
 transferred his army to 
 a point several miles 
 up the river. He then 
 busied himself with a 
 careful examination of 
 the northern bank, in 
 the hope of finding 
 
 some path among the precipitous cliffs by which to gain the plains. On 
 the 11th he discovered the place called Wolfe's Cove, and decided that 
 here it was possible to make the ascent. Montcalm, deceived by the 
 movements of the fleet, was still in the trenches below the city. 
 
 On the night of the 12th of September everything was in readi- 
 ness. The English silently entered their transf)orts and dropped down 
 the river to the cove. With great difficulty the soldiers clambered up 
 the almost perpendicular precipice ; the feeble Canadian guard on the 
 summit was disjjersed ; and in the gray dawn of morning Wolfe mar- 
 shaled his army for battle. Montcalm was in amazement when he heard 
 the news. " They are now on the weak side of this unfortunate town," 
 said he ; " and we must crush them before mid-day." With great haste 
 the French were brought from the trenches and thrown between Quebec 
 and the advancing English. The battle began with an hour's cannonade ; 
 then Montcalm attera])ted to turn the English flank, but was beaten back. 
 The Canadians and Indians were routed. Then came the weakened bat- 
 
 GENERAL JAMES WOLFE. 
 
276 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 talions of the French ; but they were poorly disciplined ; the ground was 
 uneven, and Montcalm's lines advanced brokenly. The English reserved 
 their fire until the advancing columns were within forty yards, and then 
 discharged volley after volley. The French wavered and were in con- 
 fusion. Wolfe, leading the charge, was wounded in the wrist. Again 
 he was struck, but pressed on at the head of his grenadiers. Just at the 
 moment of victory a third ball pierced his breast, and he sank quivering 
 to the earth. " They run, they run !" said the attendant who bent over 
 him. " Who run ?" was the feeble response. " The French are flying 
 everywhere," replied the officer. " Do they run already ? Then I die 
 happy," said the expiring hero; and his spirit passed away amid the 
 smoke of battle. Monckton was dangerously wounded and borne fi'om the 
 field. Montcalm, still attempting to rally his broken regiments, was 
 struck with a ball, and fell. " Shall I survive ?" said he to his surgeon. 
 " But a few hours at most," replied the attendant. " So much the better," 
 replied the heroic Frenchman. " I shall not live to witness the surrender 
 of Quebec." 
 
 Further defence of the Canadian stronghold was useless. Five 
 days after the battle the French authorities surrendered to General Town- 
 shend, and an English garrison took possession of the citadel. The year 
 1759 closed with the complete triumph of the English arms. In the 
 following spring France made a great effort to recover her losses. A severe 
 battle was fought a few miles west of Quebec, and the English were 
 driven into the city. But reinforcements came, and the French were 
 beaten back. On the 8th of September, in the same year, Montreal, the 
 last important post of France in the valley of the St. Lawrence, surren- 
 dered to General Amherst. Canada had passed under the dominion of 
 England. 
 
 In the spring of 1760 the Cherokees of Tennessee rose against the 
 English. Fort Loudoun, in the north-eastern extremity of the State, was 
 besieged by the Red men, and forced to capitulate. Honorable terms were 
 promised to the garrison ; but as soon as the surrender was made, tlie 
 savages fell upon their prisoners and massacred or dragged into captivity 
 the whole company. Colonels Montgomery and Grant were despatched 
 by General Amherst to chastise the Indians. After a vigorous campaign 
 the savages were driven into the mountains and compelled to sue for 
 peace. 
 
 The conquest of Canada was the overthrow of the French power 
 in America. It remained, however, for the English authorities to 
 take actual possession of the immense territory bordering on the Great 
 Lakes. At the time of the capture of Montreal this vast domain was 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 277 
 
 held by feeble fortresses, scattered here and there, and garrisoned by 
 detachments of French soldiers. The Marquis of Vaudreuil in sur- 
 rendering Montreal had stipulated that all the western forts under the 
 control of France should be given up to England. In the I'all of 1760 
 Major Robert Rogers was accordingly despatched by General Amherst, 
 with a company of two hundred provincial rangers, to receive the sur- 
 render of the outposts. 
 
 By the last of November, Rogers, having ascended the St. Law^ 
 rence and passed through Lakes Ontario and Erie, reached Detroit. 
 Over this, the most important of the French posts in the West, the 
 Ensrlish flag: was raised ; Forts Miami on the southern shore of Lake 
 Michigan and Ouatanon on the Wabash were also given up without 
 resistance. Rogers then pressed on to take possession of Mackinaw, 
 Green Bay and St. Marie, but was turned back by the storms on Lake 
 Huron ; and it was not until the following summer that those remote 
 fortresses were garrisoned by detachments of British soldiers. 
 
 No sooner were the English in complete possession of the coun- 
 try than they began by neglect and ill-treatment to excite the dor- 
 mant passions of the Red men. During the progress of the war the 
 Indians had become completely subordinated by French influence ; 
 and the English were hated with all the ferocity of the savage na- 
 ture. It was not long till there were mutterings of an outbreak. 
 The tribes could not be made to comprehend that Canada had been 
 finally taken from their friends, the French. They confidently ex- 
 pected the day when the king of France should send new armies and 
 expel the detested English. Infatuated with this belief, instigated 
 by the French themselves, and stung by many insults real and im- 
 aginary, the warriors began their usual atrocities on the frontiers. 
 In the summer of 1761, the Scnecas conspired with the Wyandots to 
 capture Detroit by treachery, and massacre the garrison ; and the plot 
 was barely thwarted by Colonel Campbell, the commandant. In the 
 following summer another attempt of a similar sort was discovered 
 and defeated. It was in this condition of affairs that the celebrated 
 Pontiac came forward and organized the most far-reaching and dan- 
 gerous conspiracy ever known among the Indian tribes of America. 
 
 Pontiac was chief of the Ottawas, whose principal seat was the 
 district between Lakes Erie and Michigan. In the somewhat pro- 
 longed interval between the conquest of Canada and the treaty of 
 1763, this sagacious warrior, doubting the possibility of a peace be- 
 tween the rival nations, conceived the design of uniting all the Indian 
 tribes from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi in an overwhelming 
 
278 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 confederacy, ■which should upon a given day strike all the English 
 forts upon the frontier a deadly blow, and sweep away in a common 
 ruin every English family west of the mountains. The plot was con- 
 structed with the AVhite man's skill and the Eed man's cunning. The 
 7th of May, 1763, was named as the day of destruction. But when 
 the time came the impatient savage tribes were unable to act in per- 
 fect concert, and ultimate failure was the consequence, though the 
 immediate result was terribly disastrous. 
 
 Poutiac reserved for himself the most difficult task of all — the 
 capture of Detroit. But in the hour of impending doom, woman's 
 love interposed to save the garrison from butchery. An Indian girl 
 of the Ojibwa nation, came to the fort with a pair of moccasins for 
 
 THE KEVELiTION OF PONTIAC'S CONSPIHACY. 
 
 Major Gladwyn, the commandant, and in parting with him manifested 
 unusual agitation and distress. She was seen to linger at the street 
 corner, and the sentinel summoned her to return to the major's quar- 
 ters. There, after much persuasion and many assurances of protec- 
 tion, she yielded to his urgent inquiries into the cause of her grief 
 and revealed the plot. When Pontiac's band on the following day 
 atten.pted to gain the fort by treachery, they found every soldier and 
 citizen under arms and ready to receive them. Then followed a 
 protracted siege, and the savage horde was finally driven off. But 
 
TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 279 
 
 in all other quarters the attacks were attended with the most fatal 
 results. Ou the IGth of May Fort Sandusky was takeu aud burned, 
 and the garrison butchered by a band of Wyandots. A few days 
 later Fort St. Joseph suffered a similar fate at the hands of the Pot- 
 tawattamies. On the 29th of the month Fort jSIackinaw was taken 
 and its defenders nearly all murdered by the Chipj^eways. One out- 
 post after another was captured and burned, until by the middle of 
 summer every English fort in the West, except Niagara, Fort Pitt 
 and Detroit, had fallen into the hands of the savages. But in tlie 
 mean time rumors of a treaty between France and England were 
 borne to the Red men ; and they, becoming alarmed at their own 
 atrocities, began to sue for peace. The confederacy crumbled into 
 nothing. Every tribe seemed as anxious to avoid the consequences 
 as it had been to take up the hatchet. Pontiac and his band of Ot- 
 tawas held out for two years longer; then, abandoned by his follow- 
 ers, he fled to the Illinois, among whom he was finally killed in a 
 drunken brawl at the Indian town of Cahokia, opposite St. Louis. 
 
 For three years after the fall of ^Montreal the war between 
 France and England lingered on the ocean. The English fleets were 
 everywhere victorious. On the 10th of February, 1763, a treaty of 
 peace was made at Paris. All the Fi-ench possessions in North Amer- 
 ica eastward of the IMississippi from its source to the river Iberville, 
 and thence through Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, were surrendered to Great Britain. At the same time 
 Spain, with whom England had been at war, ceded East and West 
 Florida to the English Crown. As reciprocal with this provision 
 France was obliged to make a cession to Spain of all that vast terri- 
 tory west of the Mississippi, known as the Province of Louisiana. 
 By the sweeping provisions of this treaty the French king lost his 
 entire jMssessions in the New World. Thus closed the French and 
 Indian War, one of the most important in the history of mankind. 
 By this conflict it was decided that the decaying institutions of the 
 Middle Ages should not prevail in the West ; and that the powerful 
 language, laws and liberties of the English race should be planted 
 for ever in the vast domains of the New World. 
 
280 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 BEFORE entering upon the stirring events of the Revolution, it 
 will be of interest to glance at the general condition of the 
 American Colonies. There were thirteen of them : four in New 
 England, — Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hamp- 
 shire ; four Middle Colonies, — New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- 
 nia, Delaware; five Southern, — Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Georgia. All had grown and prospered. The ele- 
 ments of power were everywhere present. A willful, patriotic, and 
 vigorous race of democrats had taken possession of the New World. 
 Institutions unknown in Europe, peculiar to the West, made neces- 
 sary by the condition and surroundings of the colonies, had sprung 
 up and were taking deep root in American soil. 
 
 According to estimates made for the year 1760 the population 
 of the colonies amounted to a million six hundred and ninety-five 
 thousand souls. Of these about three hundred and ten thousand were 
 blacks. Massachusetts was at this period perhaps the strongest col- 
 ony, having more than two hundred thousand people of European 
 ancestry within her borders. True, Virginia was the most populous, 
 having an aggregate of two hundred and eighty-four thousand inhab- 
 itants, but of these one hundred and sixteen thousand were Africans, 
 slaves. Next in strength stood Pennsylvania Avith a jjopulation of 
 nearly two hundred thousand; next Connecticut with her hundred 
 and thirty thousand people ; next Maryland with a hundred and four 
 thousand; then New York with eighty-five thousand; New Jersey not 
 quite as many; then South Carolina, and so through the feebler col- 
 onies to Georgia, in whose borders were less than five thousand in- 
 habitants, including the negroes. 
 
 By the middle of the eighteenth century the people of the Amer- 
 ican colonies had to a certain extent assumed a national character; but 
 they were still strongly marked with the peculiarities which their an- 
 cestors had brought from Europe. In New England, especially in Mas- 
 sachusetts and Connecticut, the principles and practices of Puritanism 
 still held universal sway. On the banks of the Hudson the language, 
 manners, and customs of Holland were almost as prevalent as they 
 
CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 281 
 
 had been a hundred years before. By the Delaware the Quakers 
 were gathered in such niunbers as to control all legislation, and to 
 prevent serious innovations upon the simple methods of civil and 
 social org-anization introduced bv Penn. On the northern bank of 
 the Potomac, the youth- 
 ful Frederick, the sixth 
 Lord Baltimore, a friv- 
 olous and dissolute gov- 
 ernor, ruled a people 
 who still conformed to 
 the order of things es- 
 tablished a hundred and 
 thirty years previously 
 by Sirs George and Ce- 
 cil Calvert. In Vii"- 
 ginia, mother of States 
 and statesmen, the peo- 
 ple had all their old 
 peculiarities ; a some- 
 what haughty demean- 
 or; pride of ancestry; 
 fondness for aristocratic 
 sports; hospitality; love 
 of freedom. The North 
 Carolinians were at this 
 epoch the same rugged 
 and insubordinate race 
 of hunters that they had 
 always been. The leg- 
 islative assembly, in its 
 controversies with Gov- 
 ernor Dobbs, manifested all the intractable stubbornness which char- 
 acterized that body in the days of Seth Sothel. In South Carolina 
 there was much prosperity and happiness. But there, too, j)opular 
 liberty had been enlarged by the constant encroachment of the leg- 
 islature upon the royal prerogative. The people, mostly of Frenoli 
 descent, were as hot-blooded and jealous of their rights as their an- 
 cestors had been in the times of the first immigrations. Of all the 
 American colonies Georgia had at this time least strength and spirit. 
 Under the system of government established at the first the common- 
 wealth had languished. Not until 1754, when Governor Reynolds 
 
 THE OLD THIRTEEN COLONIES. 
 
 I< 
 
 / 
 
282 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 assumed control of the colony, did the affairs of the people on the 
 Savannah begin to flourish. Even afterwards, something of the 
 indigence and want of thrift which had marked the followers of 
 Oglethorpe still prevailed in Georgia. Nevertheless, after making 
 allowance for all these diifereuces of colonial character, a consid- 
 erable degree of American unity had been attained ; inter-colonial 
 relations were well established; and the people were far less antag- 
 onistic and sectional than they had been. 
 
 In matters of education New England took the lead. Her 
 .system of free schools extended everywhere from the Hudson to the 
 Penobscot. Every village furnished facilities for the acquirement of 
 knowledge. So complete and universal \vere the means of instruc- 
 tion that in the times preceding the Revolution there was not to be 
 found ill all New England an adult, born in the country, who coidd 
 not read and write. Si^lendid achievement of Puritanism ! In the 
 Middle Colonies education was not so general ; but in Pennsylvania 
 there was much intelligent activity among the people. Especially in 
 Philadelphia did the illustrious Franklin scatter the light of learn- 
 ing. South of the Potomac educational facilities were irregular and 
 generally designed for the benefit of the wealthier classes. But in 
 .some localities the means of enlightenment were well provided ; in- 
 stitutions of learning sprang up scarcely inferior to those of the East- 
 ern provinces, or even of Europe. Nor should the private schools of 
 the colonial times be forgotten. Many men^— Scottish reformers, Irish 
 liberals, and French patriots — despising the bigotry and intolerance 
 of their countrymen, fled for refuge to the New World, and there by 
 the banks of the Housatonic, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Poto- 
 mac, the Ashley, and the Savannah, taught the lore of books and 
 the lesson of liberty to the rugged boys of the American wilderness. 
 Among the Southern colonies Virginia led the van in matters of edu- 
 cation ; while Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia lagged behind. 
 Previous to the Revolution nine colleges worthy of the name had 
 been established in the colonies. These were Harvard, William and 
 Mary, Yale, Princeton, King's (now called Columbia), Brown, Queen's 
 (afterwards called Rutgers), Dartmouth, and Hampden and Sydney. 
 In 1764 the first medical college was founded, at Philadelphia. 
 
 Of the printing-press, that other great agent and forerunner of 
 civilization, the work was already effective. As early as 1704 the 
 Boston News-Letter, first of periodicals in the New AVorld, was pub- 
 lished in the city of the Puritans ; but fifteen years elapsed before 
 another experiment of the same sort was made. In 1721 the New 
 England Courant, a little sheet devoted to free thought and the ex- 
 
CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. 283 
 
 tinotion of rascality, was established at Boston by the two Franklins 
 — James and Benjamin. In 1740 New York had but one period- 
 ical, Virginia one, and South Carolina one ; and at the close of the 
 French and Indian War, there were no more than ten newspapers 
 published in the colonies. The chief obstacles to such publications 
 were the absence of great cities and the difficulty of communication 
 between distant sections of the country. Boston and Philadelphia 
 had each no more than eighteen thousand inhabitants; New York 
 but twelve thousand. In all Virginia there was not oii« important 
 town; while as far south as Georgia there was scarcely a considerable 
 village. To reach this widely scattered population with periodical 
 publications was quite impossible. Books were few, and of little 
 value. Some dry volumes of history, theology, and politics were the 
 only stock and store. On the latter subject the publications were 
 sometimes full of pith and spirit. But notwithstanding this barren- 
 ness of books and general poverty of the resources of knowledge, it 
 was no unusual thing to find at the foot of the Virginia mountains, 
 in the quiet precincts of Philadelphia, by the banks of the Hudson, 
 or in the valleys of New England, a man of great and solid learn- 
 ing. Such a man was Thomas Jefferson; such were Franklin, and 
 Livingston, and the Adamses — men of profound scholarship, bold in 
 thought, ready with the pen, skillful in argument ; studious, witty, 
 and eloquent. 
 
 Nothing impeded the progress of the colonies more than the 
 want of thoroughfares and easy comminiication between the different 
 sections. No general system of post-offices or post-roads had as yet 
 been established; .and the people were left in comparative or total 
 ignorance of passing ev'ents. No common sentiments could be ex- 
 pressed — no common enthusiasm be kindled in the country — by the 
 slow-going mails and packets. The sea-coast towns and cities found 
 a readier intercourse by meaus of small sloops plying the Atlantic ; 
 but the inland districts were wholly cut off from such advantages. 
 Roads were slowly built from point to point, and lines of travel by 
 coach and wagon were gradually established. To the very beginning 
 of the Revolution the people lived apart, isolated and dependent upon 
 their own resources for life and enjoyment. When in 1766 an ex- 
 press wagon made the trip from New York to Philadelphia in two 
 days, it was considered a marvel of rapidity. Six years later the first 
 stage-coach began to run regularly between Boston and Providence.* 
 
 * It is remarkable to note liow tardily the attention of a people will be turned to the 
 building of roads. Thus, for instance, in so old a country as Scotland there were no 
 great thoroughfares constructed until after the Scotch Eebellion of 1745. 
 
284 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Before the Revolution the Americans were for the most part 
 an agricultural people. Within the tide-water line of Virginia the 
 lands were divided into estates, and the planters devoted themselves 
 almost exclusively to the cultivation of tobacco. Farther inland the 
 products were more various: wheat, maize, potatoes; upland cotton, 
 hemp, and flax. In the Carolinas and Georgia the rice crop was 
 most important; after that, indigo, cotton, and some silk; tar, tur- 
 pentine, and what the hunter and fisherman gathered from the woods 
 and streams. New York, Philadelphia and Bostou were then as now 
 the great centers of trade ; but commerce was carried on in a slow 
 and awkward manner, wholly unlike the rushing activity of more 
 recent times. Ship-building was one of the most important colonial 
 interests. In the year 1738 no less than forty-one sailing vessels, 
 with an average burden of a hundred and fifty tons, were built and 
 launched at the ship-yards of Boston. Xew England was the seat of 
 wliatevor manufacturing interest prevailed in the country. But all 
 enterprise in this direction was checked and impeded by tlie British 
 Board of Trade, whose stupid and arbitrary restrictions acted as a 
 damper on every kind of colonial thrift. No sooner would some 
 enterprising company of New England men begin the building of a 
 factory than this officious Board would interfere in such a way as to 
 jnake success impossible. So jealous was the English ministry of 
 American progress ! If, previous to the Revolution, any colonial 
 manufacture was successfully established, it was done against the will 
 of Great Britain, and in spite of her mean and churlish opposition. 
 
 Such were the American colonies — such the people whose bud- 
 ding nationality was now to be exposed to the blasts of war. These 
 people, whose ancestors had been driven into exile by the exactions 
 of European governments and the bigotry of ecclesiastical power, had 
 become the I'ightful proprietors of the New World. They had fairly 
 won it from savage man and savage nature. They had subdued' it 
 and built States within it. They owned it by all the claims of actual 
 possession ; by toil and trial ; by the ordeal of suffering ; by peril, 
 privation, and hardship; by the baptism of sorrow and the shedding 
 of blood. No wonder that patriotism was the child of such travail 
 and discipline ! No wonder that the men who from mountain and 
 sky and river, from orchard and valley and forest, from the memO' 
 ries of the past, the aspirations of the present and the hopes of the 
 future, had drank in the spirit of Liberty until their souls were per- 
 vaded witli her sublime essence, — were now ready when the iron heel 
 of oppression was set upon their cherished rights, to draw the vindic- 
 tive sword even against the venerable monarchy of England J 
 
PART IV. 
 
 EEYOLUTIOi^ AND CONFEDEEATIOK 
 
 A. D. 1775-1789. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 THE war of American Independence was an event of vast moment, 
 affecting the destinies of all nations. The question decided by the 
 conflict was this : Whether the English colonies in America, becoming 
 sovereign, should govern themselves or be ruled as dependencies of a 
 European monarchy. The decision was rendered in favor of separation 
 and inde])endence. The result has been the grandest and most promising 
 example of republican government in the history of the world. The 
 struggle was long and distressing, though not characterized by great 
 violence ; the combatants were of the same race and spoke a common lan- 
 guage. It is of the firet importance to understand the causes of the war. 
 The most general cause of the American Revolution was the right 
 OF AEBITEARY GOVERNMENT, claimed by Great Britain and denied by 
 the colonies. So long as this claim was asserted by England only as a 
 theory, the conflict was postponed ; when the English government began 
 to enforce the principle in jjractice, the colonies resisted. The question 
 began to be openly discussed about the time of the treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, in 1748 ; and from that period until the beginning of hostilities, 
 in 1775, each year witnessed a renewal of the agitation. But there were 
 also many subordinate causes tending to bring on a conflict. 
 
 First of these was the influence of France, which was constantly 
 exerted so as to incite a spirit of resista,nce in the colonies. The French 
 king would never have agreed to the treaty of 1763 — by which Canada 
 was ceded to Great Britain — had it not been with the hope of securing 
 American independence. It was the theory of France that by giving up 
 Canada on the north the English colonies would become so strong as to 
 renounce their allegiance to the crown. England feared such a result. 
 
 More than once it was proposed in Parliament to re-cede Canada to France 
 
 (285) 
 
286 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in order to check the growth of the American States. " There, now !" 
 said a French statesman when the treaty of 1763 was signed'; "we have 
 arranged matters for an American rebellion in which England will lose 
 her empire in the "West." 
 
 Another cause leading to the Revolution was found in the natural 
 disposition and inherited character of the colonists. They were, for tiie 
 most part, republicans in politics and dissenters in religion. The people 
 of England were monarchists and High Churchmen. The colonists had 
 never seen a king. The Atlantic lay between them and the British min- 
 istry. Their dealings with the royal officers had been such as to engender 
 a dislike for monarchical institutions. The people of America had not 
 forgotten — could not well forget — the circumstances under which their 
 ancestors had come to the New World. For six generations the colonists 
 had managed their own affairs ; and their methods of government were 
 necessarily republican. The experiences of the French and Indian War 
 had shown that Americans were fully able to defend themselves and their 
 country. 
 
 The growth of public opinion in the colonies tended to independence. 
 The more advanced thinkers came to believe that a complete separation 
 from England was not only possible, but desirable. As early as 1755, John 
 Adams, then a young school-teacher in Connecticut, wrote in his diary : 
 " In another century all Europe will not be able to subdue us. The only 
 way to keep us from setting up for ourselves is to disunite us." Such 
 opinions were at first expressed only in private, then by hints in pam- 
 phlets and newspapers, and at last publicly and eveiywhere. The mass 
 of the people, liowever, were slow to accept an idea which seemed so rad- 
 ical and dangerous. Not until the war had actually begun did the ma- 
 jority declare for independence. 
 
 Another cause of the conflict with the mother country was found in 
 the personal character of the king. George III., who ascended the Eng- 
 lish throne in 1760, was one of the worst monarchs of modem times. 
 His notions of government were altogether despotic. He was a stubborn, 
 stupid, thick-headed man in whose mind the notion of human rights was 
 entirely wanting. It was impossible for him to conceive of a magnan- 
 imous project or to appreciate the value of civil liberty. His reign of 
 sixty years was as odious as it was long. In tlie management of the 
 British empire he employed only those who were the narrow-minded 
 partisans of his own policy. His ministers were, for the most part, men 
 as incompetent and illiberal as himself. With such a king and such a 
 ministry it was not likely that the descendants of the Pilgrims would get 
 on smoothly. 
 
& 
 
 CAUSES. 287 
 
 The more immediate cause of the Revolution was the passage by 
 Parliament of a number of acta destructive of colonial liberty. These acta 
 were resisted by the colonies, and the attempt was made by Great Britain 
 to enforce them with the bayonet. The subject of this unjust legislation, 
 which extended over a period of twelve years just preceding the war, was 
 tlie question of taxation. It is a well-grounded principle of English 
 common law that the people, by their representatives in the House of 
 Commons, have the right of voting whatever taxes and customs are neces- 
 sary for the support of the kingdom. Tlie American colonists claimed 
 the full rights of Englishmen. With good reason it was urged that the 
 general assemblies of colonies held the same relation to the American 
 people as did the House of Commons to the people of England. The 
 English ministers replied that Parliament, and not the colonial assemblies, 
 was the proper body to vote taxes in any and all j^arts of the British 
 empire. But we are not represented in Parliament, was the answer of 
 the Americans ; the House of Commons may therefore justly assess taxes 
 in England, but not in America, ilany of the to\vns, boroughs and 
 shires in these British isles have no representatives in Parliament, and 
 yet the Parliament taxes them, replied the ministers, now driven to 
 sophistry. If any of your towns, boroughs and shires are not represented 
 in the House of Commons, they ought to be, was the American rejoinder ; 
 and there the argument ended. Such were the essential points of the 
 controversy. It is now proper to notice the several parliamentary acts 
 which the colonies complained of and resisted. 
 
 The first of these was the Importation Act, passed in 1733. 
 This statute was itself a kind of supplement to the old Navigation Act 
 of 1651. By the terms of the newer law exorbitant duties were laid on 
 all the sugar, molasses and rum imjjorted into the colonies. At first the 
 payment of these unreasonable customs was evaded by the merchants, 
 and then the statute was openly set at naught. In 1750 it was further 
 enacted that iron-works should not be erected in America. The man- 
 ufacture of steel was specially forbidden ; and the felling of pines, outside 
 of enclosures, was interdicted. All of these laws were disregarded and 
 denounced by the people of the colonies as being unjust and tyrannical. 
 In 1761 a strenuous effort was made by the ministry to enforce the Im- 
 portation Act. The colonial courts were authorized to issue to the king's 
 officers a kind of search-warrants, called Writs of Assistance. Armed 
 with this authority, petty constables might enter any and every place, 
 searching for and seizing goods which were suspected of having evaded 
 the duty. At Salem and Boston the greatest excitement prevailed. The 
 application for the writs was resisted before the courts. James Otis, an 
 
288 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 able aud temperate man, pleaded eloquently for colonial rights, and de- 
 nounced the parliamentary acts as unconstitutional. The address was a 
 masterly defence of the peojjle, aud produced a profound sensation through- 
 out the colonies. Already there were hints at resistance by force of arms. 
 In 1763, and again in the following year, the English ministers 
 undertook to enforce the law requiring the payment of duties on sugar 
 and molasses. The officers of the admiralty were authorized to seize and 
 confiscate all vessels engaged in the unlawful trade. Before the passage 
 of this act was kno%vn at Boston, a great town-meeting was held. Samuel 
 Adams was the orator. A powerful argument was produced showing 
 conclusively that under the British constitution taxation and representa- 
 tion were inseparable. Nevertheless, vessels from the English navy were 
 sent to hover around the American harbors. A great number of mer- 
 chantmen bearing cargoes of sugar and wine were seized ; and the colonial 
 trade with the West Indies was almost destroyed. 
 
 The year 1764 witnessed the fii'st formal declaration of the purpose 
 of Parliament to tax the colonies. Mr. Grenville was now prime minis- 
 ter. On the 10th of March a resolution was adopted by the House of 
 Commons declaring that it would be proper to charge certain stamp- 
 duties on tlie American colonies. It was announced that a bill embody- 
 ing this principle would be prepared by tlie ministers and presented at 
 the next session of Parliament. In the mean time, the news of the pro- 
 posed measure was borne to America. Universal excitement and indig- 
 nation prevailed in the colonies. Political meetings became the order of 
 the day. Orators were in great demand. The newspapers teemed Math 
 arguments against the proposed enactment. Resolutions were passed by 
 the people of almost every town. Formal remonstrances were addressed 
 to the king and the two houses of Parliament. Agents were appointed 
 by the colonies and sent to London in the hope of preventing the passage 
 of the law. 
 
 A new turn was now given to the controversy. The French and 
 Indian War had just been concluded with a treaty of peace. Great 
 Britain luid incurred a hea\'y debt. The ministers began to urge that the 
 expenses of the war ought to be borne by the colonies. The Americans 
 replied that England ought to defend her colonies, from motives of 
 humanity ; that in the prosecution of the war the colonists had aided 
 Great Britain as much as Great Britain had aided them ; that the cession 
 of Canada had amply remunerated England for her losses ; that it was 
 not the payment of money which the colonies di-eaded, but the surrender 
 of their liberties. It was also added that in case of another war the 
 American States would try to fight their own battles. 
 
CAUSES. 289 
 
 Early in March of 1765, the English Parliament, no longer guided 
 by the counsels of Pitt, passed the celebrated Stamp Act. In the House 
 of Commons the measure received a majority of five to one. In the 
 House of Lords the vote was unanimous. At the time of the passage of 
 the act the king was in a fit of insanity, and could not sign the bill. On 
 the 22d of the month the royal assent was given by a board of commis- 
 sioners acting for the king. "The sun of American liberty has set,' 
 wrote Benjamin Franklin to a friend at home. " Now we must light the 
 lamps of industry and economy." " Be assured," said the friend, in reply, 
 " that we shall light torches of another sort." And the answer reflected 
 the sentiment of the whole country. 
 
 The provisions of the Stamp Act were briefly these : Every note, 
 bond, deed, mortgage, lease, license and legal document of whatever sort, 
 required in the colonies, should, after the 1st day of the following No- 
 vember, be executed on paper bearing an English stamp. This stamped 
 paper was to be furnished by the British government ; and for each sheet 
 the colonists were required to pay a sum varying, according to the nature 
 of the document, from three pence to six pounds sterling. Every colonial 
 pamphlet, almanac and newspaper was required to be printed on paper 
 of the same sort, the value of the stamps in this case ranging from a half- 
 penny to four pence ; every advertisement was taxed two shillings. No 
 contract should be of any binding force unless written on paper bearing 
 the royal stamp. 
 
 The news of the hateful act swept over America like a thunder- 
 cloud. The people were at first grief-stricken ; then indignant ; and then 
 wrathfiil. Crowds of excited men surged into the towns, and there were 
 "some acts of violence. The muflled bells of Philadelphia and Boston 
 rung a funeral peal; and the people said it was the death-knell of liberty. 
 In New York a copy of the Stamp Act was carried through the streets 
 with a death's-head nailed to it, and a placard bearing this inscription: 
 The Folly of England and the Ruin of America. The general 
 assemblies were at first slow to move ; there were many loyalists among 
 the members ; and the colonial governors held their offices by appointment 
 of the king. It was hazardous for a provincial legislator to say that an 
 act of the British Parliament was the act of tyrants. But the younger 
 representatives, hot-blooded as well as patriotic, did not hesitate to ex- 
 press their sentiments. In the Virginia House of Burgesses there was a 
 memorable scene. 
 
 Patrick Henry, the youngest member of the House, an uneducated 
 mountaineer recently chosen to represent Louisa county, waited for some 
 older delegate to lead the burgesses in opposition to Parliament. But the 
 
290 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 older members hesitated or went home. Offended at this lukewarmness, 
 Henry in his passionate way snatched a blank-leaf out of an old law- 
 book and hastily drew up a series of fiery resolutions, declaring that the 
 
 Virginians were Eng- 
 lishmen with English 
 rights ; that the people 
 of Great Britain had 
 the exclusive privilege 
 of voting their own 
 taxes, and so had the 
 Americans ; that the 
 colonists were not 
 bound to yield obedi- 
 ence to any law im- 
 posing taxation on 
 them; and that who- 
 ever said the contrary 
 was an enemy to the 
 country. The resolu- 
 ;, tions were at once laid 
 "^^ ' before the house. 
 
 A violent de- 
 bate ensued, in which 
 the patriots had the 
 best of the argument. 
 It was a moment of 
 intense interest. Two 
 future Presidents of the United States were in the audience; Washington 
 occupied his seat as a delegate, and Thomas Jefferson, a young collegian, 
 stood just outside of the railing. The eloquent and audacious Henry 
 bore down all opposition. " Tarquin and Caesar had each his Brutus," 
 said the indignant orator ; ," Charles I. had his Cromwell, and George 
 III. — " " Treason !" shouted the speaker. " Treason ! treason !" exclaimed 
 the terrified loyalists, springing to their feet. " — And George III. may 
 profit by their example," continued Henry ; and then added as he took 
 his seat, " If that be treason, make the most of it !" The resolutions were 
 put to the house and carried ; but the majorities on some of the votes were 
 small, and the next day, when Henry was absent, the most violent par- 
 agraph was reconsidered and expunged : some of the members were 
 greatly frightened at their own audacity. But the resolutions in their 
 entire form had gone before the country as the formal expression of the 
 
 -.^ 
 
 PATBICK HENBY. 
 
CAUSES. 291 
 
 oldest American commonwealth, and the effect on the other colonies was 
 like the shock of a battery. 
 
 Similar resolutions were adopted by the assemblies of New York 
 and iMassachusetts — in the latter State beibre the action of Virginia was 
 known. At Boston, James Otis successfully agitated the question of an 
 American Congress. It was proposed that each colony, acting without 
 leave of the king, should appoint delegates, who should meet in the fol- 
 lowing autumn and discuss the affairs of the nation. The proposition w;is 
 favorably received ; nine of the colonies ajjpointed delegates ; and on tlie 
 7th of October the First Colonial Congress assembled at New York. 
 There were twenty-eight representatives : Timothy Ruggles of Massachu- 
 setts was chosen president. After much discussion A Declaration of 
 Rights was adopted setting forth in unmistakable terms that the Amer- 
 ican colonists, as Englishmen, could not and would not consent to be 
 taxed but by their own representatives. Memorials were also prepared 
 and addressed to the two houses of Parliament. A manly petition, pro- 
 fessing loyalty and praying for a more just and humane policy toward 
 his Aineriean subjects, was directed to the king. 
 
 The 1st of November came. On that day the Stamp Act was to 
 take efiect. During the summer great quantities of the stampeil paj^er 
 had been prepared and sent to America. Ten boxes of it were seized by 
 the people of New York and openly destroyed. In Connecticut, the 
 stamp-officer was threatened with hanging. In Boston, houses were de- 
 stroyed and the stamps given to the winds and flames. Whole cargoes 
 of the obnoxious paper were reshipped to England ; and every stamp- 
 officer in America was obliged to resign or leave the countiy. By the 
 1st of November there were scarcely stamps enough remnining to furnish 
 after times with specimens. The day was kept as a day of mourning. 
 The stores were closed; flags were hung at half mast; the bells were 
 tolled ; effigies of the authors and abettors of the Stamp Act were borne 
 about in mockery, and then burned. The people of New Haiupshire 
 formed a funeral procession and buried a coffin bearing the inscription of 
 Liberty. A cartoon was circulated hinting at union as the remedy for 
 existing evils. The picture represented a snake broken into sections. 
 Each joint was labeled with the initials of a colony ; the head was marked 
 " N. E." for New England ; and the title was Joi7i or Die ! 
 
 At first, legal business was almost entirely saspended. The court- 
 houses were shut up. Society was at a standstill ; not even a marriage 
 license could be legally issued. By and by, the people breathed more 
 freely ; the offices were opened, and business went on as before ; but was 
 not transacted with stamped paper. It was at this juncture that the 
 
292 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 patriotic society known as the Sons of Liberty was organized. The 
 members were pledged to oppose British tyranny to the utmost, and to 
 defend with their lives the freedom of the colonies. Equally important 
 was the action of the colonial merchants. The importers of New York, 
 Boston and Philadelphia entered into a solemn compact to purchase no 
 more goods of Great Britain mitil the Stamp Act should be repealed. 
 And the people, applauding the action of their merchants, cheerfully de- 
 nied themselves of all imported luxuries. 
 
 Great was the wrath of the British government when the news of 
 these proceedings was borne across the ocean. But a large party of Eng- 
 lish tradesmen and manufactiu-ers sided with the colonists. Better still, 
 some of the most eminent statesmen espoused the cause of America. Even 
 Lord Camden in the House of Lords spoke favorably of colonial rights. 
 Before the House of Commons Mr. Pitt delivered a powerful address. 
 " You have," said he, " no right to tax America. I rejoice that America 
 has resisted. Three millions of our fellow-subjects so lost to every sense 
 of virtue as tamely to give up their liberties would be lit instruments to 
 make slaves of the rest." The new Whig prime minister, the marquis 
 of Rockingham, was also a friend of the colonies, and looked with dis- 
 favor on the legislation of his predecessor. On the 18th of March, 1766, 
 the Stamp Act was formally i-epealed. As a kind of balm to soothe the 
 wounded feelings of the Tories — as the adherents of Grenville were now 
 called — a sujjplemental resolution was added to the repeal declaring that 
 Parliament had the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 The joy both in England and America was unbounded. The 
 vessels in the river Thames were decked with flags, and the colonial 
 orators spoke to enthusiastic crowds gathered around bonfires. There was 
 a great calm in all the country ; but it was only the lull before the com- 
 ing of a greater storm. A few months after the repeal of the Stamp Act 
 the ministry of Rockingham was dissolved and a new cabinet formed 
 under the leadership of Pitt, who was now made earl of Chatham. Un- 
 fortunately, however, the prime minister was for a long time confined by 
 sickness to his home in the country. During his absence, Mr. Towns- 
 liend, chancellor of the exchequer, in a moment of unparalleled folly, 
 Itrouglit forward a new scheme for taxing America. On the 29th of June, 
 1767, an act was passed imposing a duty on all the glass, paper, painters' 
 colors and tea which should thereafter be imported into the colonies. 
 At the same time a resolution was adojitcd suspending the powers of the 
 general assembly of New York until that body should vote certain sup- 
 plies for the royal troops stationed in the province. A more rash and 
 disastrous piece of legislation never was enacted. 
 
CAUSES. 293 
 
 All the smothered resentment of the colonies burst out anew. 
 Another agreement not to purchase British goods was immediately en- 
 tered into by the American merchants. The newspapers were filled with 
 bitter denunciations of Parliament. Early in 1768 the a.ssembly of Mas- 
 sachusetts adopted a circular calling upon the other colonies for assistance 
 in the effort, to obtain redress of grievances. The ministei's were enraged 
 and required the assembly in the king's name to rescind their action, and 
 to express regret for that " rash and hasty j^roceeding." Instead of that, 
 the sturdy legislature reaffirmed the resolution by a nearly unanimous 
 vote. Thereupon Governor Bernard dissolved the assembly ; but the 
 members would not disperse until they had prepared a list of charges 
 against the governor and requested the king to remove him. 
 
 In the month of June fuel was added to the flame. A sloop, 
 charged with attempting to evade the payment of duty, was seized by the 
 custom-house officers. The people ro.-e in a mob ; attacked the houses 
 of the officers, and obliged the occupants to seek shelter in Castle William, 
 at the entrance of the harbor. The governor now appealed to the min- 
 isters for helj) ; and General Gage, commander-in-chief of the British 
 forces in America, was ordered to bring from Halifax a regiment of reg- 
 ulars and overawe the people. On the 1st of October the troops, seven 
 hundred strong, marched with fixed bayonets into the capital of Mas- 
 sachusetts. The people were maddened by this military invasion of their 
 city. When the governor required the selectmen of Boston to provide 
 quartei-s for the soldiers, he was met with an absolute I'efusal ; and the 
 troops were quartered in the state-house. 
 
 In February of 1769, Parliament advanced another step toward 
 war. The people of Massachusetts were declared rebels, and the governor 
 was directed to arrest those deemed guilty of treason and send them to 
 England for trial. The general assembly met this additional outrage 
 with defiant resolutions. Scenes almost as violent as these were at the 
 same time enacted in Virginia and North Carolina. In the latter State 
 a popular insurrection was suppressed by Governor Tryon ; the insur- 
 gents, escaping across the mountains, obtained lands of the Cherokees, and 
 became the founders of Tennessee. 
 
 Early in 1770 a serious aifray occurred in New York. The 
 soldiers wantonly cut down a liberty pole which had stood for several 
 years in the park. A conflict ensued, in which the people came out best ; 
 another pole was erected in the northern part of the city. On the 5th 
 of March a more serious difficulty occurred in Boston. An altercation 
 had taken place between a party of citizens and the soldiers. A crowd 
 gathered, surrounded Captain Preston's company of the city guard, hooted 
 
•294 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at them, and dared them to fire. At length the exasperated soldiers dis- 
 charged a volley, killing three of the citizens and wounding several others. 
 This outrage, known as the Boston Massacre, created a profound sensa- 
 tion. The city was ablaze with excitement. Several thousand men 
 assembled under arms. Governor Hutchinson came out, promising that 
 justice should be done and trying to appease the multitude. The brave 
 Samuel Adams spoke for the people. An immediate withdrawal of the 
 troops from the city was demanded, and the governor was obliged to 
 yield. Captain Preston and his company were aiTested and tried for 
 murder. The prosecution was conducted with great sjiirit, and two of 
 the oSenders were convicted of manslaughter. 
 
 On the very day of the Boston massacre. Lord North, who had 
 become prime minister, secured the passage by Parliament of an act re- 
 pealing all the duties on American imjiorts except that on tea. The 
 exception was made only to show that the right of taxing the colonies 
 was not relinquished. The merchants of New York and Boston at once 
 relaxed their non-importation agreement except so far as it related to tea ; 
 to that extent the compact was retained; and the people voluntariljr 
 pledged themselves to use no more tea until the duty should be uncon- 
 ditionally repealed. The antagonism toward the mother country was 
 abating somewhat, when in 1772 an act was passed by Parliament requir- 
 ing that the salaries of the governor and judges of Massachusetts should 
 be paid out of the colonial revenues without consent of the assembly. 
 That body retaliated by a declaration that the parliamentary statute was 
 a violation of the chartered rights of the people, and therefore void. 
 About the same time the (iaspee, a royal schooner which liad been annoy- 
 ing the people of Providence, was boarded by a company of patriots and 
 burned. 
 
 In 1 773 the ministers attempted to enforce the tea-tax by a strat- 
 agem. Owing to the duty, the price of tea in the American market had 
 been doubled. But there was no demand for the article ; for the people 
 would not buy. As a consequence the warehouses of Great Britain were 
 stored with vast quantities of tea, awaiting shipment to America. Par- 
 liament now removed the export duty which had hitherto been charged 
 on tea shipped from England. The price was by so much lowered ; and 
 the ministers persuaded themselves that, when the cheaper tea was otfered 
 in America, the silly colonists would pay their own import duty without 
 suspicion or complaint. 
 
 To carry out this scheme English ships were loaded with tea for 
 the American market. Some of the vessels reached Charleston ; the tea 
 was landed, but the people forbade its sale. The chests were stored in 
 
CAUSES. 
 
 295 
 
 mouldy cellars, and the contents ruined. At New York and Philadelphia 
 the ports were closed and the ships forbidden to enter. At Boston the 
 vessels entered the harbor. The tea had been consigned to Governor Hut- 
 chinson and his friends ; and sj^ecial precautions M'ere taken to prevent a 
 failure of the enterprise. But the authorities stubbornly stood their 
 ground, and would not permit the tea to be landed. On the 16th of De- 
 cember the dispute was settled in a memorable manner. There was a great 
 town-meeting at which seven thousand people were assembled. Adams 
 and Quincy spoke to 
 the multitudes. Eve- 
 ning came on, and the 
 meeting was about to 
 adjourn, when a war- 
 whoop was heard, and 
 about fifty men dis- 
 guised as Indians pass- 
 ed the door of the Old 
 South Church. The 
 crowd followed to 
 Griffin's wharf, where 
 the three t e a-s hips 
 were at anchor. Then 
 everything became 
 quiet. The disguised 
 men quickly boarded 
 the vessels, broke open 
 the three hundred and 
 forty chests of tea that 
 composed the cargoes, 
 and poured the con- 
 tents mto the sea. 
 Such was THE Boston Tea-Pa rty. 
 
 Parliament made haste to find revenge. On the last day of March, 
 1774, THE Boston Port Bill was pa.ssed. It was enacted that no 
 kind of merchandise should any longer be landed or shipped at the 
 wharves of Boston. The custom-house was removed to Salem, but the 
 people of that town refused the benefits which were proffered by the hand 
 of tyranny. The inhabitants of Marblehead tendered the free use of 
 their warehouses to the merchants of Boston. The assembly stood stoutly 
 by the cause of the people. When the news of the passage of the Port 
 Bill reached Virginia, the burgesses at once entered a protest on the 
 
 SAMUEL ADAMS. 
 
296 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 journals of the house. When Governor Dunmore ordered the members 
 to their homes, they met in another place, and passed a recommendation 
 for a general congress of the colonies. On the 20th of May the vener- 
 ated charter of Massachusetts was annulled by act of Parliament. The 
 people were declared rebels; and the governor was ordered to send 
 abroad for trial all persons who should resist the royal officers. The 
 colonial assembly made answer by adopting a resolution that the jiowers 
 of language were not sufficient to express the impolicy, injustice, in- 
 humanity and cruelty of the acts of Parliament. 
 
 In September the Second Colonial Congress assembled at 
 Philadelphia. Eleven colonies were represented. It was unanimously 
 agreed to sustain Massachusetts in her conflict with a wicked ministry. 
 One address was sent to the king ; another to the English nation ; and 
 another to the people of Canada. Before adjournment a resolution was 
 adopted recommending the suspension of all commercial intercourse with 
 Great Britain until the wrongs of the colonies should be redressed. Par- 
 liament immediately retaliated by ordering General Gage, who had been 
 recently appointed governor of Massachusetts, to reduce the colonists by 
 force. A fleet and an army of ten thousand soldiers were sent to America 
 to aid in the work of subjugation. 
 
 In accordance with the governor's orders, Boston Neck was seized 
 and fortified. The military stores in the arsenals at Cambridge and 
 Charlestown were conveyed to Boston; and the general assembly was 
 ordered to disband. Instead of doing so, the members resolved them- 
 selves into a provincial congress, and voted to equip an army of twelve 
 thousand men for the defence of the colony. There was no longer any 
 hope of a peaceable adjustment. The mighty arm of Great Britain was 
 stretched out to smite and crush the sons of the Pilgrims. The colonists 
 we*-e few and feeble ; but they were men of iron wills who had made up 
 their minds to die for liberty. It was now the early spring of 1775, and 
 the day of battle was at hand. 
 
THE BEGINNING. 297 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 THE BEGINNING. 
 
 AS soon as the intentions of General Gage were manifest, the people 
 of Boston, concealing their ammunition iu cart-loads of rubbish, 
 conveyed it to Concord, sixteen miles away. Grage detected the move- 
 ment, and on the night of the 18th of April despatched a regiment of 
 eight hundred men to destroy the stores. Another purpose of the exp«!- 
 dition was to capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who were suj>- 
 posed to be hidden at Lexington or Concord. The fact was that they 
 were not hidden anywhere, but were abroad encouraging the people. 
 The plan of the British general was made with great secrecy ; but the 
 patriots were on the alert, and discovered the movement. 
 
 About midnight the regiment, under command of Colonel Smith 
 and Major Pitcairn, set out for Concord. The people of Boston, Charles- 
 town and Cambridge were roused by the ringing of bells and the firing 
 of cannons. Two houi's before, the vigilant Joseph Warren had de- 
 spatched William Dawes and Paul Revere to ride with all speed to Lex- 
 ington and to spread the alarm through the country. Against two o'clock 
 in the morning the minute-men were under arms ; and a company of a 
 hundred and thirty had assembled on the common at Lexino;ton. The 
 patriots loaded their guns and stood ready ; but no enemy appeared, and 
 it was agreed to separate uutil the drum-beat should announce the hour 
 of danger. At five o'clock the British van, under command of Pitenirn, 
 came in sight. The provincials to the number of seventy reassembled ; 
 Captain Parker was their leader. Pitcairn rode up and exclaimed : 
 " Disperse, ye villains ! Throw down your arms, ve rebels, and dis- 
 persej" The minute-men stood still ; Pitcairn discharged his pistol at 
 them, and with a loud voice cried, " Fire !" The first volley of the 
 Revolution whistled through the air, and sixteen of the patriots, nearly a 
 fourth of the whole number, fell dead or wounded. The rest fired a few 
 random shots, and then dispersed. 
 
 The British pressed on to Concord ; but the inhabitants had re- 
 moved the greater part of the stores to a place of safety, and there was 
 but little destruction. Two cannons were spiked, some artillery carriages 
 
298 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 burned, and a small quantity of ammunition thrown Lato a mill-pond. 
 While the British were ransacking the town the minute-men began to 
 assemble from all quarters. Attempting to enter the village, the patriots 
 encountered a company of soldiers who were guarding the North Bridge, 
 over Concord River. Here the Americans, for the first time, fired under 
 orders of their officers, and here two British soldiers were killed. The 
 bridge was taken by the provincials, and the enemy began a retreat — first 
 into the town, and then through the town on the road to Lexington. 
 This was the signal for the minute-meu to attack the foe from every side. 
 For six miles the battle was kept up along the road. Hidden behind 
 rocks, trees, fences and barns, the patriots poured a constant fire upon the 
 thinned ranks of the retreating enemy. Nothing but good discipline and 
 reinforcements which, under command of Lord Percy, met the fugitives 
 just below Lexington, saved the British from total rout and destruction. 
 The fight continued to the precincts of Charlestown, the militia becoming 
 more and more audacious in their charges. At one time it seemed that 
 the whole British force would be ol^liged to surrender. Such a result 
 was prevented only by the fear that the fleet would burn the city. The 
 American loss in this the first battle of the war was forty-nine killed, 
 thirty-four wounded and five missing ; that of the enemy was two hundred 
 and seventy-three — a greater loss than the English army sustained on the 
 Plains of Abraham. 
 
 The battle of Lexington fired the country. Within a few days an 
 army of twenty thousand men had gathered about Boston. A line of 
 entrenchments encompassing the city was drawn from Roxbury to Chel- 
 sea. To drive Gage and the British into the sea was the common talk 
 in that tumultuous camp. And the number constantly increased. John 
 Stark came down ^ the head of the New Hampshire militia. Israel 
 Putnam, with a leather waistcoat on, was helping some men to build a 
 stone wall on his farm when the news from Lexington came flying. 
 Hurrying to the nearest town, he found the militia already mustered. 
 Bidding the men follow as soon as ])0ssible, he mounted a horse and rode 
 to Cambridge, a distance of a hundred miles, in eighteen hours. Rhode 
 Island sent her quota under the brave Nathaniel Greene. Benedict 
 Arnold came with the provincials of New Haven. Ethan Allen, of 
 Vermont, made war in the other direction. 
 
 This daring and eccentric man was chosen colonel by a company of 
 two hundred and seventy patriots who had assembled at Bennington. 
 Before the battle of Lexington, tlie legislature of Connecticut had pri- 
 vately voted a thousand dollars to encourage an expedition against Ticou- 
 deroga. To capture this important fortress, with its vast magazine of 
 
THE BEGINNING. 299 
 
 stores was the object of Allen and the audacious mountaineers of whom he 
 was the leader. Benedict Arnold left Cambridge, and joined the expe- 
 dition as a private. On the evening of the 9th of May, the force, whose 
 movements had not been discovered, reached the eastern shore of Lake 
 Champlain, opposite Ticoiideroga. 
 
 Only a few boats could be procured ; and when day broke on the 
 following morning, but eighty-three men had succeeded in crossing. With 
 this mere handful — for the rest could not be waited for — Allen, with 
 Arnold by his side, made a dash, and gained the gateway of the fort. 
 The sentinel was driven in, closely followed by the mountaineers, who set 
 up such a shout as few garrisons had ever heard. Allen's men hastily 
 faced the barracks and stood ready to fire; he himself rushed to the 
 quarters of Delaplace, the commandant, and shouted for the incumbent to 
 get up. The startled official thrust out his head. " Surrender this fort 
 instantly," said Allen. " By what authority?" inquired the astomided 
 officer. " In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Con- 
 gress !" * said Allen, flourishing his sword. Delaplace had no altei'native. 
 The garrison, numbering forty-eight, were made jn-isoners and sent to 
 Connecticut. A fortress which had cost Great Britain eight million 
 pounds sterling was captured in ten minutes by a comjxiny of undiscip- 
 lined provincials. By this daring exploit a hundred and twenty cannon 
 and vast quantities of military stores fell into the hands of the Americans. 
 Two days afterward Crown Point was also taken without the loss of life. 
 
 On the '25th of May, Generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne arrived 
 at Boston. They brought with them powerful reinforcements from Eng- 
 land and Ireland ; the British army was augmented to more than ten thou- 
 sand men. Gage, becoming arrogant, issued a proclamation, branding 
 those in arms as rebels and traitors, oifering pardon to all who would 
 submit, but excepting Samuel Adams and John Hancock ; these two were 
 to suffer the penalty of treason — provided Gage could inflict it. It was now 
 rumored — and the rumor was well founded — that the British were about 
 to sally out of Boston with the purpose of burning the neighboring towns 
 and devastating the country. The Americans determined to anticipate 
 this movement by seizing and fortifying Bunker Hill, a height which 
 commanded the peninsula of Charlestown. • 
 
 On the night of the 16th of June the brave Colonel Prescott, 
 grandfather of Prescott the historian, was sent with a thousand men to 
 occupy and entrench the hill. Marching by way of Charlestown Neck, 
 
 * This saying will appear especially amusing when it is remembered that the " Conti- 
 nental Congress" referred to did not convene until about six hours after Ticonderoya was 
 captured. 
 
300 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tlie provincials came about eleven o'clock to the eminence which they 
 were instructed to fortify. Prescott and his engineer Gridley, not liking 
 the position of Bunker Hill, proceeded down the peninsula seven hundred 
 yards to another height, afterwai-d called Breed's Hill. The latter was 
 within easy cannon range of Boston. On this summit a redoubt eight 
 rods square M'as planned by the engineer ; and there, from midnight to 
 day-dawn, the men worked in silence. The British ships in the harbor 
 were so near tiiat the Americans could hear the sentinels on decic repeat- 
 ing the night call, " All is well." The works were not j'et completed 
 when morning revealed the new-made redoubt to the astonished British 
 of Boston. 
 
 " We must carry those works immediately," said General Gage to 
 his officers. For he saw that Prescott's cannon now commanded the city. 
 
 \^ soon as it was light, the ships in 
 the harbor began to cannonade the 
 American position. The British bat- 
 teries on Copp's Hill also opened a 
 heavy fire. But little damage M'as 
 done in this way ; and the Americans 
 returned only an occasional shot ; for 
 their supply of ammunition was very 
 limited. Just after noon a British 
 colunm of about three thousand ve<>- 
 erans, commanded by Generals Howe 
 and Pigot, landed at Morton's Point. 
 The plan was to carry Breed's Hill 
 by assault. The Americans num- 
 bered in all about fifteen hundred. They were worn out with toil and 
 hunger; but there was no quailing in the presence of the enemy. During 
 the cannonade Prescott climbed out of the defences and walked leisurely 
 around the parapet in full view of the British officers. Generals Putnam 
 and Warren volunteered as privates, and entered the trenches. At three 
 o'clock in the afternoon Howe ordered his column forward. At the same 
 time every gun in the fleet and batteries was turned upon the American 
 position. Charlestown was wantonly set on fire and four hundred build- 
 ings burned. Thousands of eager spectators climbed to the house-tops 
 in Boston and waited to behold the shock of battle. On came the British 
 in a stately and imposing column. 
 
 The Americans reserved their fire until the advancing line was 
 within a hundred and fifty feet. " Fire !" cried Prescott ; and instantly 
 from breastwork and redoubt every gun was discharged. The front rank 
 
 
 ■Jt,;. 
 
 SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF BUNKEK 
 HILL, 1775. 
 
THE BEGINNING. 301 
 
 of the British melted away ; there was a recoil, and fifteen minutes after- 
 ward a precipitate retreat. Beyond musket range Howe rallied. his men 
 and led them to the second charge. Again the American fire was with- 
 held until the enemy was but a few rods distant. Then with steady aim 
 volley after volley wa.s poured upon the charging column until it was 
 broken and a second time driven into flight. 
 
 The British officers were now desperate. The vessels of the fleet 
 changed position until the guns were brought to bear upon the inside of 
 the American works. For the third time the assaulting column was put 
 in motion. The British soldiers came on with fixed bayonets up the 
 hillside strewn with the dead and dying. The Americans had but three 
 or four rounds of amnmnition remaining. These were expended on the 
 advancing enemy. Then there was a lull. The British clambered over 
 the ramparts. The provincials clubbed their guns and hurled stones at 
 the a.ssailant.s. It was in vain ; the heroic defenders of liberty were driven 
 out of their trenches at the point of the bayonet. Prescott lived through 
 the battle, but the brave Warren gave his life for freedom. The loss of 
 the British in this terrible engagement was a thousand and fifty-four in 
 killed and wounded. The Americans lost a hundred and fifteen killed, 
 three hundred and five wounded, and thirty-two prisoners. Prescott and 
 Putnam conducted the retreat by way of Charlestown Neck to Prospect 
 Hill, where a new line of entrenchments was formed which still com- 
 manded the entrance to Boston. 
 
 The battle of Bunker Hill rather inspired than discouraged the 
 colonists. It was seen that the British soldiers were not invincible. To 
 capture a few more hills would cost General Gage his whole army. The 
 enthusiasm of war spread throughout the country. The news was borne 
 rapidly to the South, and a spirit of determined opposition was every- 
 where aroased. The people began to speak of the United Colonies 
 OF America. At Charlotte, North Carolina, the citizens ran together in 
 a hasty convention, and startled the country by making a declaration of 
 indepeadence. The British ministers had little dreamed of raising such 
 a storm. 
 
 On the day of the capture of Ticonderoga the colonial Congress, 
 which had adjourned in the previous autumn, reassembled at Philadelphia. 
 Washington was there, and John Adams and Samuel Adams, Franklin 
 and Patrick Henry ; Jefferson came soon afterward. A last appeal was 
 addressed to the king of England ; and the infatuated monarch was plainly 
 told that the colonists had chosen war in preference to voluntary slavery. 
 Early in the session John Adams made a powerful address, in the course 
 of which he sketched the condition and wants of the country and of the 
 
302 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 army. The necessity of appointing a commander-in-chief and the qual- 
 ities requisite in that high officer were dwelt upon ; and then the speaker 
 concluded by putting in nomination George Washington of Virginia. As 
 soon as his name was mentioned, Washington arose and withdrew from 
 the hall. For a moment he was overpowered with a sense of the respon- 
 sibility which was about to be put upon him, and to his friend Patrick 
 Henry he said with tears in his eyes : " I fear that this day will mark the 
 downfall of my reputation." On the 15th of June the nomination was 
 unanimously confirmed by Congress ; and the man who had saved the 
 wreck of Braddock's army was called to build a nation. 
 
 George Washington, descended from the distinguished family 
 of the Wessyngtons in England, was born in Westmoreland county, 
 Virginia, on the 11th of February (Old Style), 1732. At the age of 
 eleven he was left, by the death of his father, to the sole care of a talented 
 and affectionate mother. His education was limited to the common 
 branches of learning, extending only to geometry and trigonometry. Sur- 
 veying was his favorite study. In his boyhood he was passionately fond 
 of athletic sports and military exercises. As he grew to manhood he was 
 marked above all his companions for the dignity of his manners, the 
 soundness of his judgment and the excellence of his character. At the 
 age of sixteen he was sent by his uncle to survey a tract of land on the 
 South Potomac, and for three years his life M-as in the wilderness. On 
 reaching his majority he was already more spoken of than any other 
 young man in the colony. The important duties which he performed in 
 the service of the Ohio Company, the beginning of his military career 
 and his noted campaign with Braddock have already been narrated. After 
 the French and Indian War he was a member of the Virginia House of 
 Burgesses ; was then chosen a member of the Continental Congress ; and 
 was now called by that body to control the destinies of the unorganized 
 mass of men composing the American army. With great dignity he 
 accepted the appointment, refused all compensation beyond his actual 
 expenses, set out with an escort by way of New York, and reached Cam- 
 bridge fifteen days after the battle of Bunker Hill. 
 
 Washington's duties and responsibilities were overwhelming. Con- 
 gress had voted to raise and equip twenty thousand men, but the means 
 of doing so were not furnished. The colonies had not yet broken their 
 allegiance to the British Crown. For six months Congress stood waiting 
 for the king's answer to its address. The country was sound and patri' 
 otic ; but its methods of action were irregular and uncertain. Washington 
 had a force of fourteen thousand five hundred men, but they were undis- 
 ciplined and insubordinate. The revenues and supplies of war were 
 
THE BEGINNING. 303 
 
 almost wholly wanting. At the time of the battle of Bunker Hill the whole 
 ai'my had but twenty -seven half barrels of powder. The work of organ- 
 ization was at once begun. Four major-generals, one adjutixnt and eight 
 brigadiers wore appointed. The army was arranged in three divisions. 
 The right wing, under General Ward, held lloxbury ; the left, commanded 
 by General Charles Lee, rested at Prospect Hill, near Charlestown Neck ; 
 the centre, under the immediate direction of the commander-in-chief, lay 
 at Cambridge. Boston was regularly invested, and the siege was pressed 
 with constantly increasing vigor. 
 
 During the summer and autumn of 1775, the king's authority was 
 overthrown in all the colonies. The royal governors either espoused the 
 cause of the people, were compelled to resign or were driven off in insur- 
 rections. Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, seized the public powder. 
 Patrick Henry led the people, and demanded restitution. The govei'nor 
 was overawed, and paid the value of the powder. Fearing fiirther aggres- 
 sion, he went on board a man-of-war, proclaimed freedom to the slaves, 
 raised a force of loyalists, met the provincials at the village of Great 
 Bridge near Norfolk, and was defeated. Obliged to retire from the coun- 
 try, he gratified his vindictive disposition by burning Norfolk. 
 
 The American colonics looked to Canada for sympathy and aid. 
 It was believed that the Canadians would make common cause against 
 Great Britain. In order to encourage such a movement and to secure 
 possession of the Canadian government, an expedition was planned against 
 the towns ou the St. Lawrence. Generals Schuyler and Montgomery 
 were placed in command of a division which was to proceed by way of 
 Lake Champlain and the river Sore! to St. John and INIontreal. The 
 former fort was reached on the 10th of September, but the Americans, 
 finding the place too strong to be carried by assault, fell back twelve miles 
 to Isle-aux-Noix in the Sorel. This place General Schuyler fortified, 
 and then returned to Ticonderoga for reinforcements. Sickness detained 
 him there, and the whole command devolved on Montgomery. This 
 gallant officer returned to St. John and captured the fortress. Fort 
 Chambly, ten miles farther north, was also taken. Montreal was next 
 invested, and on the 13th of November obliged to capitulate. 
 
 Leaving garrisons in the conquered towns, Montgomery proceeded 
 with his regiment, now reduced to three hundred men, against Quebec. 
 This stronghold was already threatened from another quarter. Late in 
 the autumn. Colonel Benedict Arnold set out with a thousand men from 
 Cambridge, passed up the Kennebec and urged his way through the wil- 
 derness to the Chaudiere, intending to descend that stream to Point Levi. 
 The march was one of untold hardship and suffering. As winter came 
 
304 HISTOIIY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 on the men were brought to the verge of starvation. The daring leader 
 pressed on in the hope of gathering supplies from some unguarded French 
 villao-e. Before his return the famishinsr soldiers had killed and devoured 
 eveiy dog that could be found. Then the brave fellows gnawed the roots 
 of trees and ate their moose-skin moccasins until Arnold's return, when 
 the whole force proceeded to Quebec. IMorgan, Greene and Meigs, all 
 tlu-ee noted leaders of the Revolution, and Aaron Bm-r, one day to be- 
 come Vice-President of the United States, were in this company of suf- 
 fering heroes. 
 
 Arnold and his men, climbing to the Plains of Abraham, as Wolfe 
 had done sixteen years previously, offered battle. But the English gar- 
 rison of Quebec remained in then- fortifications awaiting an assault which 
 the Americans were not strong enough to make. Conscious of his weak- 
 ness, Arnold withdrew his men to Point aux Trembles, twenty miles up 
 the river, and there awaited the approach of Montgomery. When the 
 latter arrived, he assumed command of the whole force, which did not 
 exceed nine hundred effective men. Quebec was defended by greatly 
 superior numbers, well fortified and warmly quartered. For three Aveeks, 
 with his handful of men, Montgomery besieged the town, and then, rely- 
 ing only on the courageous valor of his men, determined to stake every- 
 thing on an assault. 
 
 It was the last day of December, 1775. Before daybreak the little 
 army was divided into four columns. The fii-st division, under Mont- 
 gomery, was to pass down the St. LaAvrence and attack the Lower Town 
 in the neighborhood of the citadel. The second column, led by Arnold, 
 was to sweep around the city to the north, attack by way of the St. 
 (/harles, and join ^Montgomery in order to storm tiie Prescott Gate. The 
 other two divisions were to remain in the rear of the Upper Town, making 
 feigned attacks to draw the attention of the garrison. Montgomery's 
 column reached the point from which the charge was to begin. A battery 
 lay just before, and it was thought that the gunners had not discovered 
 the assailants. " Men of New York," said the brave Montgomery, "you 
 will not fear to follow where your general leads! Forward!" There 
 were masses of ice and clouds of blinding snow, and broken ground and 
 the cold gray light of morning. As the Americans were rushing forward, 
 all of a sudden the battery burst forth with a storm of grape-shot. At 
 the first discharge Montgomery and both of his aids, fell dead. The 
 column was shattered. The men were heartbroken at the death of their 
 beloved general. They staggered a moment, then fell back, and returned 
 to Wolfe's Cove, above the city. 
 
 Arnold, ignorant of what had happened, fought his way into the 
 
THE WORK OF 76. 305 
 
 Lower To^vn on the north. While leading the charge he was severely 
 wounded and borne to the rear. Captain Morgan, who succeeded him, 
 led his brave band farther and farther along the narrow and dangerous 
 streets until he was overwhelmed and compelled to surrender. Arnold 
 retired with his broken remnant to a point three miles above the city. 
 Reinforcements soon began to arrive; but the smallpox broke out in the 
 camp, and active operations could not be resumed. As soon as the ice dis- 
 appeared from the St. Lawrence, Quebec was strengthened by the arrival 
 of fresh troops from England. Governor Carleton now began offensive 
 movements ; the Americans fell back from post to post, until, by the mid- 
 dle of the following June, Canada was entirely evacuated. 
 
 The worst calamity of the whole campaign was the death of Gen- 
 eral Richard Montgomery. He was one of the noblest of the many noble 
 men who gave their lives in the cause of American liberty. Born of an 
 illustrious Irish family, he became a soldier in his boyhood. He had 
 shared the toils and the triumph of Wolfe. To the enthusiasm of a warm 
 and affectionate nature he joined the highest order of military talents and 
 the virtues of an exalted character. Even in England his death was 
 mentioned with sorrow. New York, his adopted State, claimed his body, 
 brought his remains to her own metropolis and buried them witii tears. 
 To after times the Congress of the nation transmitted his fame by erecting 
 a noble monument. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 THE WORK OF 76. 
 
 AT last came the king's answer to the appeal of Congress. It was 
 sucii an answer as George III. and his ministers always made to the 
 petitioners for human rights. The colonies were insulted and spurned ; 
 their petition was treated with contempt. The king of England did not 
 know any such a body as the Continental Congress. The first thing 
 necessary was to disband the army and to submit without conditions. 
 Then the monarch would settle all questions with each colony separately. 
 By this offensive and tyrannical answer the day of independence was 
 brought nearer. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Howe had succeeded Gage in command of the 
 
 20 
 
306 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 British troops in Boston. All winter long the city was besieged by 
 Washington. By the middle of February the American army had in- 
 creased to fourteen thousand men. The country became restless; and 
 Congress urged the commander-in-chief to press the enemy with greater 
 vigor. Washington, knowing the insufficiency of his supplies, and fear- 
 ing the consequences of rashness more than the charge of inactivity, nar- 
 rowed his lines, strengthened his works, and waited his opportunity. By 
 the first day of spring, 1776, he felt hiroself strong enough to risk an 
 assault ; the officers of his staff thought otherwise, aud a different plan 
 was adopted. 
 
 On the noi'th, Boston was commanded by the peninsula of Charles- 
 town ; on the south, by Dorchester Heights. Since the battle of Bunker 
 Hill the former position had been held by the British ; the latter was, as 
 yet, unoccupied. Washington noAV resolved to take advantage of the 
 
 enemy's oversight, to seize the 
 Heights and drive Howe out of 
 Boston. A strong entrenching party 
 ^v•as prepared and put under com- 
 mand of General Thomas. For two 
 days the attention of the British was 
 drawn by a constant fire from the 
 American batteries. Then, on the 
 night of the 4tli of March, the de- 
 tachment set out under cover of the 
 darkness, passed over Dorchester 
 Neck, and reached the Heights un- 
 perceived. Through the night the 
 Americans worked with an energy 
 rarely equaled. The British, dis- 
 tracted with the cannonade, noticed nothing unusual ; and when morning 
 dawned, they could hardly trust their senses. There was a line of for- 
 midable entrenchments frowning upon the city ; cannon were mounted, 
 and the Americans in force. Howe saw at a glance that he must imme- 
 diately carry the threatening redoubts or himself abandon Boston. En- 
 raged at being outgeneraled, he ordered Lord Percy to select a column 
 of two thousand four hundred men and storm the American works before 
 nightfall. 
 
 Percy put his men in order and proceeded as far as Castle Island, 
 intending to make the assault in the afternoon. Washington visited the 
 trenches aud exhorted his men. It was the anniversary of the Boston 
 Massacre, and the soldiers were eager to avenge the deaths of their coun- 
 
 
 \MitleJiL^ 
 
 SIKGE OP BOSTON, 1776. 
 
1775 76 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 Louis XVI. 
 
 p^ ! Capture of Mo 
 
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 87 
 
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 /f CHART III. \ 
 
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 Virgin 
 
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 nt Vernon. 
 
 North-western 
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 territory 
 
 Virginia rat- 
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 the Consti- 
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 the 
 
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 the Constitu'n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE WORK OF 76. 307 
 
 ttyinca. A battle was momentarily expected ; but while Percy delayed, 
 a violent storm arose and rendered the harbor impassable. It continued 
 to blow for a whole day, and the attack could not be made. Before the 
 following morning the Americans had so strengthened and extended their 
 foitifications that all thoughts of an assault were abandoned. Howe 
 found himself reduced to the humiliating extremity of giving up the 
 capital of New England to the rebels. 
 
 After some days there was an informal agreement between Washing- 
 ton and the British general that the latter should be allowed to retire 
 from Boston unmolested on condition that the city should not be burned. 
 On the 17th of March the arrangement was consummated, and the whole 
 British army went on board the fleet and sailed out of the harbor. Nearly 
 fifteen hundred loyalists, fearing the vengeance of the patriots, left their 
 homes and fortunes to escape \\ith Howe. The American advance at 
 once entered the city. On the 20th, Washington made a formal entry at 
 the head of the triumphant army. The desolated town, escaping from 
 the calamities of a ten months' siege, broke forth in exultation. The 
 exiled patriots returned by thousands to their homes. The country was 
 wild with delight. From all quarters came votes of thanks and messages 
 of encouragement. Congress ordered a gold medal to be struck in honor 
 of Washington, victorious over an enemy " for the first time put to flight." 
 
 The next care of the commander-in-chief was to strengthen the 
 defences of Boston. That done, he repaired with the main division of 
 the army to New York. It was not known to what part of the coast 
 Howe would dii-ect his course ; and Washington feared that his antagonist 
 might make a sudden descent in the neighborhood of Long Island. Gen- 
 eral Lee pressed forward with the Connecticut militia, and i-eaclied New 
 York just in time to baffle an attempt of Sir Henry Clinton, whose 
 fleet arrived off Sandy Hook and threatened the city. Clinton next 
 sailed southward, and on the 3d of May was joined by Sir Peter 
 Parker, in command of another fleet, and Lord Coi-nwallis with two thou- 
 sand five hundred men. The force was deemed sufficient for any enter- 
 prise, and it wius determined to capture Charleston. 
 
 In the mean time. General Lee had reached the South, and was 
 watching the movements of Clinton. The Carolinians rose in arms and 
 flocked to Charleston. The city was fortified ; and a fort, which com- 
 manded the entrance to the harbor, was built on Sullivan's Island. On 
 the 4th of June the British squadron came in sight, and a strong detach- 
 ment was landed on Long Island, a short distance east of Fort Sullivan. 
 There was a delay until the 28th of the month ; then the British fleet 
 began a furious bombardment of the fortress, which was commanded by 
 
308 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Colonel Moultrie. Three men-of-war, attempting to pass the fort, were 
 sti-anded. Clinton ordered a storming-party to wade the channel between 
 Long Island and Sullivan's Island and carry the works hy assault ; but 
 the water was too deep to be forded, and Colonel Thompson, who was 
 stationed with a company of riflemen on the opposite bank, drove the 
 British l>ack in confusion. For eight houi-s the vessels of the fleet poured 
 a temjjest of balls upon the fort; but the walls, built of tlie spongy ]3al- 
 metto, were little injured. The four hundred militiamen who composed 
 the garrison fought like veterans. The republican flag was shot away 
 and thrown outside of the parapet ; Sergeant Jasper leapetl down from the 
 wall, recovered the flag and set it in its place again. The fire from the 
 fleet was returned with great spirit ; and as evening drew on the British 
 were obliged to retire with a loss of more than tw-o hundred men. Lord 
 Campbell, the royal governor of South Carolina, was killed, and Admiral 
 Parker was severely wounded. The loss of the garrison amounted in 
 killed and wounded to thirty-two. As soon as the British could repair 
 their shattered fleet they abandoned the siege and set sail for New York. 
 In honor of its brave defender the fort on Sullivan's Island was named 
 Fort Moultrie. 
 
 During the summer Washington's forces were augmented to about 
 twenty-seven thousand men ; but the terms of enlistment were constantly 
 expiring ; sickness prevailed in the camp ; and the effective force was but 
 little more than half as great as the aggregate. On the other hand. Great 
 Britain was making the vastest preparations. By a treaty with some of 
 the petty German States, seventeen thousand Hessian mercenaries were 
 hired to fight against America. George III. -was going to quell his re- 
 volted provinces by turning loose upon them a brutal foreign soldiery. 
 Twenty-five thousand additional English troops were levied ; an immense 
 squadron was fitted out to aid in the reduction of the colonies, and a 
 million dollars were voted for the extraordinary expenses of the war 
 department. 
 
 By these measures the Americans were greatly exasperated. Until 
 now it had been hoped that the difficulty with tlie mother country could 
 be satisfactorily adjusted without breaking allegiance to the British Crown. 
 The colonists had constantly claimed to be loyal subjects of Great Britain, 
 demanding only the rights and liberties of Englisiimen. Now the case 
 seemed hopeless; and the sentiment of disloyalty spread with alarming 
 rapidity. The people urged the general assemblies, and the general 
 assemblies urged Congress, to a more decided assertion of sovereignty. 
 The legislature of Virginia led the way by advising in outspoken terms a 
 declaration of independence. Congress responded by recommending all 
 
THE WORK OF 76. 309 
 
 the colonies to adopt such governments as might best conduce to the hap- 
 piness and safety of the people. This action was taken early in May, and 
 in the course of the following month nearly all the provinces complied 
 with the recommendation. 
 
 Finally, on the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Vii'ginia 
 offered a resolution in Congress declaring that the United Colonies are, 
 and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are 
 absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown; and that all political 
 connection between them and Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved. 
 A long and exciting debate ensued. The sentiment of independence 
 gained ground ; but there was still strong opposition to the movement. 
 After some days the final consideration of Lee's resolution was postponed 
 until the 1st of July. On the lltli of June a committee, consisting of 
 five members, was appointed to prepare a more elaborate and formal dec- 
 laration. Mr. Lee had been called home by sickness ; and his colleague, 
 Thomas Jefferson, was accordingly made chairman of the committee. The 
 other members were John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin 
 of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut and Robert R. Livingston 
 of New York. The special work of preparing the paper was allotted to 
 Jefferson and Adams ; the latter deferred to the former, whose vigorous 
 style of writing specially fitted him for the task. The great document 
 was accordingly produced in Jefferson's hand, with a few interlinings by 
 Adams and Franklin. 
 
 On the 1st of July, Lee's resolution was taken up, and at the same 
 time the committee's report was laid before Congress. On the next day 
 the original resolution was adopted. During the 3d, the formal declara- 
 tion was debated with great spirit, and it became evident that the work 
 of the committee would be accepted. The discussion was resumed on the 
 morning of the 4th, and at two o'clock on the afternoon of that memorable 
 day the Declaration of American Independence was adopted by 
 a unanimous vote. 
 
 All day long the old bellman of the State House had stood in the 
 steeple ready to sound the note of freedom to the city and the nation. The 
 hours went by ; the gray-haired veteran in the belfry grew discouraged, and 
 began to say : " They will never do it — they \vill never do it." Just then 
 the lad who had been stationed below ran out and exclaimed at the top of 
 his voice, " Ring ! ring !" And the aged patriot did ring as he had never 
 rung before. The multitudes that thronged the streets caught the signal 
 and answered with shouts of exultation. Swift couriers bore the o-lad news 
 throughout the land. Everywhere the declaration was received with 
 enthusiastic applause. At Philadelphia the king's arms were torn down 
 
310 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from the court-house and burned in the street. At Williamsburg, 
 Charleston and Savannah there were bonfires and illuminations. At 
 Boston tlie declaration was read in Faneuil Hall, while the cannon from 
 Fort Hill and Dorchester shook the city of the Puritans. At New York 
 the populace pulled down the leaden statue of George III. and cast it into 
 bullets. Washington received the message with joy, and ordei'ed the 
 declaration to be read at the head of each brigade. Former suffering and 
 future jjcril were alike forgotten in the general rejoicing. 
 
 The leading principles of the Declaration of Independence are 
 these : That all men are created equal ; that all have a natural right to 
 liberty and the pursuit of happiness ; that human governments are insti- 
 tuted for the sole purpose of secm-ing the welfare of the people ; that the 
 peo2)le have a natural right to alter their government whenever it becomes 
 destructive of liberty ; that the government of George III. had become 
 destructive of liberty ; that the despotism of the king and his ministers 
 could be shown by a long list of indisputable jjroofs — and the proofs are 
 given ; that time and again the colonies had humbly petitioned for a 
 redress of grievances; that all their petitions had been spurned with 
 derision and contempt ; that the king's irrational tyranny over his Amer- 
 ican subjects was no longer endurable ; that an appeal to the s^^•ord is prel- 
 erable to slavery ; and that, therefore, the United Colonies of America are, 
 and of right ought to be, free and independent States. To the support 
 of this sublime declaration of principles the members of the Continental 
 Congress mutually pledged their lives, their fortunes and their sacred 
 honor. 
 
 On leaving Boston, General Howe sailed to Halifax. There he 
 remained until the middle of June, when he embarked his forces and 
 set sail for Sandy Hook. Early in July he landed a force of nine thou- 
 sand men on Staten Island. Thither Clinton came from the unsuccess- 
 ful siege of Charleston, and Admiral Howe, brother of General Howe, from 
 England. The whole British force, now gathered in the vicinity of New 
 York, amounted to fully thirty thousand men. Nearly half of them were 
 the hated Hessians whom the king of Great Britain had hired at thirty- 
 six dollars a head. Washington's army was inferior in numbers, poorly 
 equipped and im})erfectly disciplined. 
 
 There was some delay in military operations ; for Lord Howe, the 
 admiral, had been instructed to try conciliatory measures with the Amer- 
 icans. First, he sent to the American camp an officer with a despatch 
 directed to George Washington, Esquire. Of course Washington refused 
 to receive a communication which did not recognize his official position. 
 In a short time Howe sent another message, addressed to George Wash- 
 
THE WORK OF 76. 
 
 311 
 
 ington, etc., etc., etc. ; and the bearer, who was Howe's adjutant-general, 
 insisted that and-so-forth might be translated General of the American 
 Army. Washington was the last man in the world to be caught with a 
 subterfuge ; and the adjutant was sent away. It was already well known 
 that Howe's authority extended only to granting pardons, and to unes- 
 sential matters about which the Americans were no longer concerned, 
 "Washington therefore replied that since no offence had been committed 
 no pardon was required ; that the colonies were now indejjendent, and 
 would defend themselves against all aggression. 
 
 Baffled in his efforts, Lord Howe and his brother determined to 
 begin hostilities. On the 22d of August the British, to the number of 
 ten thousand, landed on the south-western coast of Long Island, near the 
 village of New Utrecht. The Americans, about eight thousand strong, 
 commanded by Generals Sullivan and Stirling, were posted in the vicinity 
 of Brooklyn. The advance of the British was planned with great skill. 
 From Gravesend, where Howe's forces were landed, there were three 
 roads to Brooklyn ; the British army M'as accordingly arranged in three 
 divisions. The first column, commanded by General Grant, was to ad- 
 vance by way of Utrecht and the Narrows. The second division, com- 
 posed of the Hessians, under command of General Heister, was to proceed 
 to Flatbush, and thence to Bedford and Brooklyn. The third and strong- 
 est column, led by Clinton and Cornwallis, was to make a circuit to the 
 right as far as Flatland, reach the 
 Jamaica road, and pass by way of 
 Bedford to the rear of the American 
 left wing. xVll of the movements 
 were executed with perfect ease and 
 fatal precision. 
 
 The advance from Gravesend 
 began on the morning of the 27th of 
 August. Grant's division proceeded 
 as far as the hill now embraced in 
 Greenwood Cemetery, where he met 
 General Stirling with fifteen hundred 
 men ; and the battle at once began. 
 But in this part of the field there was 
 no decisive result. Heister, in com- 
 mand of the British centre, advanced 
 
 beyond Flatbush, and engaged the main body of the Americans, under 
 General Sullivan. Here the battle began with a brisk cannonade, in 
 ■which the Hessians gained little or no ground until Sullivan was suddenly 
 
 njjjji 
 
 V M I; 
 
 M ^ 
 
 / r/ 
 
 
 
 BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND, 1" 
 
812 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 alarmed by the noise of battle on his left and rear, and the battalions of 
 Clinton came rushing on the field. 
 
 For General Putnam, who had come over and taken command of 
 the entire force of the island, had, neglectful of Washington's orders, 
 failed to guard the passes on the left of the American army. During the 
 previous night Clinton had ocoupied the heights above the Jamaica road, 
 and now his force came down, unopposed and unperceived, by way of 
 Bedford. Sullivan found himself surrounded, cut off, hemmed in between 
 the two divisions of Clinton and Heister. From that moment it was only 
 a question as to what part of the army could be saved from destruction. 
 The men fought desperately, and many broke through the closing lines of 
 the British. The rest Avere scattered, killed or taken prisoners. 
 
 Coruwallis's division pressed on to cut off the retreat of Stirling. 
 At first the British were repulsed, and Stirling began his retreat toward 
 Brooklyn. At Gowanus Creek a number of his men were drowned and 
 many others captured ; the rest reached the American lines in safety. 
 Before the battle was ended Washington arrived on the field, and his 
 soul was wrung Avith anguish at the sight. At first his army seemed 
 ruined ; but his resolute and tranquil spirit rose above the disasters of the 
 battle. Generals Stirling, Sullivan and Woodhull were all prisoners in 
 the hands of the enemy. Nearly a thousand patriot soldiers were killed, 
 wounded or missing. It seemed an easy thing for Clinton and Howe to 
 press on and capture all the rest. Yet in a few hours Washington 
 brought together his shattered forces, reorganized his brigades and stood 
 ready for an assault in the trenches back of Brooklyn. 
 
 During the 28th, Howe, who was a sluggish, sensual man, ate 
 pudding and waited for a fitter day. On the 29th there was a heavy 
 fog over island and bay and river. Washington, clearly perceiving that 
 he could not hold his position, and that his array was in great peril, re- 
 solved to withdraw to New York. The enterprise was extremely hazard- 
 ous, requiring secrecy, courage and despatch. By eight o'clock on that 
 memorable night every boat and transport that could be obtained was 
 lying at the Brooklyn ferry. There, under cover of the darkness, the 
 embarkation began. Washington personally superintended every move- 
 ment. All night with mufHed oars the boatmen rowed silently back and 
 forth, bearing the patriots to the northern side of the channel. At day- 
 light on the following morning, just as the last boatload was leaving the 
 wharf, the movement Avas discovered by the British. They rushed into 
 the American entrenchments, and found nothing there except a few worth- 
 less guns. After a severe battle which had cost him nearly four hundred 
 men, Howe had gained possession of Long Island — and nothing more 
 
THE WORK OF 76. 313 
 
 General Greene, who was a competent judge, declared that Washington's 
 retreat was the most masterly he ever read or heard of. 
 
 The defeat on Long Island was very disastrous to the American 
 cause. The army was dispirited. As fast as their terms of enlistment 
 expired the troops returned to their homes. Desertions became alai-m- 
 ini^ly frequent; and it was only by constant exertion that Washington 
 kept his army from disbanding. To add to the peril, the British fleet 
 doubled Long Island and anchored within ciinnon-shot of New York. 
 Washington, knowing himself unable to defend the city, called a council 
 of war, and it was determined to retire to the Heights of Harlem. On 
 the 15th of September the British landed in force on the east side of 
 Manhattan Island, about three miles above New York. Thence they 
 extended their lines across the island to the Hudson, and took possession 
 of the city. It was in this juncture of affairs that Howe made overtures 
 of peace to Congress. General Sullivan was paroled and sent to Philadel- 
 phia as Howe's agent; but Congress was in no mood to be conciliated. 
 Franklin, on behalf of that body, wrote Howe a letter, telling him many 
 unpalatable trutlis about what might henceforth be expected from the 
 American colonies. 
 
 On the next day after the British gained possession of New York, 
 there was a skirmish between the advance parties of the two armies north 
 of the city. The Americans gained a decided advantage, and the British 
 were driven back with a loss of a hundred men. On the American side 
 the loss included Colonel Knowlton and Major Leitch — two valuable 
 officers — and nearly fifty privates. On the night of the 20th of Septem- 
 ber a fire broke out in New York and destroyed nearly five hundred 
 buildings. On the 16th of October, while the Americans were still in 
 their entrenchments above the city, Howe embarked his forces, passed 
 into Long Island Sound and landed in the vicinity of Westchester. The 
 object was to get upon the American left flank and cut off communica- 
 tions with the Eastern States. Washington, ever on the alert, detected 
 the movement, put his army in motion and faced the British east of Har- 
 lem River. For some days the two generals manoeuvred, and on the 
 2Sth a battle was brought on at White Plains. Howe began the engage- 
 ment with a furious cannonade, which was answered with "spirit. The 
 Americans were driven from one important position, but immediately re- 
 entrenched themselves in another. Night came on ; Howe waited for 
 reinforcements, and Washington withdrew to the heights of North Castle, 
 Howe remained for a few days at White Plains, and then returned to 
 New York. 
 
 Washington, apprehending that the British would now proceed 
 
314 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 SCENK OF OPERATIONS ABOUT 
 KEW YORK, 1776. 
 
 against Philadelphia, crossed to the west bank of the Hudson and toot 
 post "with General Greene at Fort Lee. Four thousand men were left at 
 
 North Castle under command of General Lee. 
 Fort Washington, on Manhattan Island, five 
 miles north of the citj', was defended by three 
 thousand men under Colonel Magaw. This 
 fort was a place of great natural and artificial 
 strength. The skill of its construction had 
 attracted the attention of Washington and led 
 to an acquaintance with the engineer, who 
 from tliat time forth, through the stormy vi- 
 cissitudes of nearly a quarter of a century, en- 
 joyed the uncKouded confidence of his chief; 
 the engineer was Alexander Hamilton, 
 then a stripling of but twenty years of age. 
 On the 16th of November the British 
 attacked Fort Washington in overwhelming 
 force. The garrison made a stubborn defence. 
 More than five hundred of the assailants wcrt 
 killed or wounded. But valor could not prevail against superior num- 
 bers, and Magaw, after losing a hundred and fifty men, was obliged to 
 capitulate. The garrison, numbering more than two thousand, were made 
 prisoners of war and crowded into the foul jails of New York. Two 
 days after the surrender, Cornwallis crossed the Hudson with a body of 
 six thousand men and marched against Fort Lee. Seeing that a defence 
 would only end in worse disaster, Washington hastily withdrew across the 
 Hackensack. All the baggage and military stores collected in Fort Lee 
 fell into the hands of the British, who at once pressed forward after the 
 retreating Americans. Washington witli his army, now reduced to three 
 thousand men, crossed the Passaic to Newark ; but Cornwallis and Knyp- 
 hausen came hard after the fugitives. Tlie patriots retreated to Elizabeth- 
 town, thence to New Brunswick, thence to Princeton, and finally to 
 Trenton on the Delaware. The Britisli were all the time in close pursuit, 
 and the music of their bauds was frequently heard by the rearguard of 
 the Americaii army. Nothing but the consummate skill of Washington 
 saved the remnant of his forces from destruction. Despair seemed settling 
 on the country like a pall. 
 
 On the 8th of December, Washington crossed the Delaware. The 
 British essayed to do the same, but tlie American commander had secreted 
 or destroyed every boat within seventy miles. In order to effect his 
 passage, Cornwallis, must build a bridge or wait for the freezing of the 
 
THE WORK OF 76. 315 
 
 river. Tlie latter course was chosen ; and the British army was stationed 
 in detaehiucuts in various towns and villages east of the Delaware. Tren- 
 ton was held by a body of nearly two thousand Hessians under Colonel 
 Rahl. It was seen that as soon as the river should be frozen the British 
 would march uno[)posed into Philadelphia. Congress accordingly ad- 
 journed to Baltimore ; and there, on the 20th of the month, a resolution 
 was adopted arming Washington with dictatorial jiowers to direct all the 
 operations of the war. 
 
 Meanwhile, the British fleet under command of Admiral Parker 
 had left New York for Karragansett Bay. On the same day that Wash- 
 ington crossed the Delaware the islands of Rhode Island, Prudence and 
 Conanicut were taken ; and the American squadron under Commander 
 Hopkins was blockaded in Blackstone River. During his retreat across 
 New Jersey, Washington had sent repeated despatc-hes to General Lee, in 
 command of the detachment at North Castle, to join the main army as 
 soon as possible. Lee was a proud, insubordinate man, and virtually 
 disobeyed his orders. Marching leisurely into New Jersey, he reached 
 ]\Iorristown. Here he tarried, and took up his quarters at an inn at 
 Basking Ridge. On the 13th of December, a squad of British cavalry 
 dashed up to the tavern, seized Lee and hurried him off to New York. 
 General Sullivan, who had recently been exchanged, now took command 
 of Lee's division, and hastened to join Washington. Fifteen hundred 
 volunteers from Pliiladelphia and vicinity were added, maldng the entire 
 American force a little more than six thousand. 
 
 The tide of misfortune turned at last. Wiishington saw in the 
 disjiosition of the British forces an opportunity to strike a blow for his 
 disheartened country. The leaders of the enemy were off their guard. 
 They believed that the M'ar was ended. Cornwallis obtained leave of 
 absence, left New Jersey under command of Grant, and made preparations 
 to return to England. The Hessians on the cast side of the river were 
 spread out from Trenton to Burlington. Washington conceived the bold 
 design of crossing the Delaware and striking the detachment at Trenton 
 before a concentration of the enemy's forces could be effected. The 
 American army was accordingly arranged in three divisions. The first, 
 under General Cadwallader, was to cross the river at Bristol and attack 
 the British at Burlington. General Ewing with his brigade was to pass 
 over a little below Trenton for the purpose of intercepting the retreat. 
 Washington himself, with Greene and Sullivan and twenty-four hundred 
 men, was to cross nine miles above Trenton, march down the river and 
 assault the to^vn. The movement was planned with the utmost secrecy 
 — the preparations made with prudence and care. Christmas night was 
 
316 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 selected as the time ; for it was known that the Hessians would spend the 
 day in drinking and carousals. 
 
 About the 20th of the month, the weather became veiy cold, and 
 by the evening of the 25th the Delaware was filled with floating ice. 
 Ewing and Cadwallader were both baffled in their efforts to cross the 
 river. Washington's division succeeded in getting over, but the passage 
 was delayed till three o'clock iu the morning. All hope of reaching 
 Trenton before daybreak was at an end ; but Washington, believing that 
 the Hessians would sleep late after their revels, divided his army into two 
 columns and pressed forward. One division, led by Sullivan, passed 
 down the river to attack the town on the west; 
 the other, commanded by Washington and Greene, 
 made a circuit to the Princetoit road. The move- 
 ment was entirely successful. At eight o'clock 
 in the morning the American columns came rush- 
 ing into the village from both directions. The 
 astonished Hessians sprang from their quarters 
 a,nd attempted to form in line. At the first onset 
 Colonel Eahl was mortally wounded. Forty or 
 fifty others fell before the volleys of the patriots. 
 For a few minutes there was confusion, and then 
 a cry for quarter. Nearly a thousand of the 
 dreaded Hessians threw down their arms And 
 begged for mercy. At the first alarm about six 
 hundred light horse and infantry had escaped 
 toward Bordcntown. All the rest were made prisoners of war. Before 
 nightfall Washington, with his victorious men and the whole body of 
 captives, was safe on the other side of the Delaware. 
 
 The battle of Trenton roused the nation from despondency. Con- 
 fidence in the commander and hope in the ultimate success of the Amer- 
 ican cause were everywhere revived. The militia from the neighboring 
 ')rovince3 flocked to the general's standard ; and fourteen hundre<l sol- 
 diers, whose term of enlistment now exjjired, cheerfully re-entered the 
 service. It was at this time that Eobert Morris of Philadelphia, the great 
 financier of (he Revolution, came forward with his princely fortune to 
 the support of his distressed country. As to Curnwallis, he found it nec- 
 essary to postpone his visit to England and hasten back to New Jersey. 
 Three days after his victory, Washington again crossed the Del- 
 aware and took post at Trenton. Here all the American detachments m 
 the vicinity were ordered to assemble. To General Heath, in command 
 of the New England militia stationed at Peekskill, on the Hudson, Wash- 
 
 BATTLE OP TRENTON AND 
 PRINCETON, 177G-7. 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77. 317 
 
 ington sent orders to move into New Jersey. The British fell back from 
 their outjiosts on the Delaware and concentrated in great force at Prince- 
 ton. Cornwallis took command in person, and resolved to attack and 
 overwhelm ^^'ashington at Trenton. So closed the year. Ten days 
 previously, Howe only waited for the freezing of the Delaware before 
 taking up his quarters in Pliiladelphia. Now it was a question whether 
 he would be able to hold a single town in New Jersey. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 OPERATIONS OF 77. 
 
 ON the 1st of January, 1777, "Washington's army at Trenton numbered 
 about five thousand men. On the next day Cornwallis approached 
 from Princeton with greatly superior forces. The British were exasper- 
 ated and the Americans resolute. During the afternoon there was severe 
 and constant skirmishing in the fields and along the roads to the cast and 
 north of Trenton. As the columns of the enemy pressed on, Wa.shington 
 abandoned the village and took up a stronger position on the south side 
 of Assanpink Creek. The British, attempting to force a passage, were 
 driven back ; it was already sunset, and Cornwallis deferred the attack 
 till the morrow. 
 
 2. Washington's position was critical in the extreme. To attempt to 
 rccross the Delaware was hazardous. To retreat in any direction was to 
 lose all that he had gained by his recent victory. To be beaten in battle 
 was utter ruin. In the great emergency he called a council of war and 
 announced his determination to leave the camp by night, make a circuit 
 to the east, pass the British left flank and strike the detachment at Prince- 
 ton before his antagonist could discover or impede the movement. Orders 
 were immediately issued for the removal of the baggage to Burlington. 
 In order to deceive the enemy, the camp-fires along the Assanpink were 
 brightly kindled and a guard left to keep them burning through the night. 
 Then the army was put in motion by the circuitoas route to Princeton. 
 Everything was done in silence, and the British sentries walked their 
 beats until the morning light .showed them a deserted camp. Just then 
 the roar of the American cannon, thirteen miles away, gave Cornwallis 
 notice of how he had been outgeneraled. 
 
 At sunrise Washington was entering Princeton. At the same mo- 
 
318 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ment the British regiments stationed there were marching out by the 
 Trenton road to reinforce CornwalHs. The Americans met them in the 
 edge of the village, and the battle at once began. The patriots, under 
 General Mercer, posted themselves behind a hedge, and \\ere doing good 
 work with their muskets until the British charged bayonets. Then the 
 militia gave way in confusion, and Mercer, one of the bravest of the brave, 
 received a mortal wound. But the Peuusvlvania reserves and regulars 
 were at hand, led by the commander-in-chief. The valor of Washington 
 never shone with brighter lustre. He spurred among his flying men, who 
 rallied at his call. He rode between the hostile lines and reined his horse 
 within thirty yards of the enemy's column. There he stood. From both 
 sides there came a crash of musketry. Washington's aid drew his hat 
 over his eyes that he might not see the chieftain die. The wind tossed 
 up the smoke, and there, unhurt, was the sublime leader of the American 
 armies. The British were already broken and flying, with a loss of four 
 himdred and thirty men in killed, woimded and missing. The loss of 
 the Americans was small ; but the gallant Mercer was greatly lamented. 
 
 Washington had intended to press on to Brunswick and destroy the 
 enemy's magazines. His men, however, were too much exhausted for the 
 march. The legions of Cornwallis were already in hearing, and there 
 was no time for delay. Washington accordingly withdrew to the north, 
 and on the 6th of January took a strong position at ]\Iorristown. Corn- 
 wallis hastened to New Brunswick to protect his stores. In a short tini" 
 the whole of New Jersey north of Newark and Elizabethtown was recov- 
 ered by the patriots. In all parts of the State the militia rose in arms; 
 straggling parties of the British were cut oft", and the outposts of the enemy 
 were kept in constant alarm. The Hessians, whose barbarous invasion 
 and brutal conduct had almost ruined the country, were the special objects 
 of patriot vengeance. Vexed by the perpetual assaults of partisan war- 
 fare, Cornwallis gradually contracted his lines, abandoning one post after 
 another, until his \vhole force was cooped up in New Brunswick and 
 Amboy. The boastful British army that was to have taken Philadelphia 
 now thought 'only of a safe return to New York. 
 
 In the early spring. General Howe despatched a fleet up the Hudson 
 to destroy the American stores at Peekskill. Macdougal, the commantl- 
 ant, finding himself too feeble to make a successful defence, blew up the 
 magazines and retreated. On the 13th of April Cornwallis marched a 
 division out of New Brunswick and surprised General Lincoln, mIio was 
 stationed at Boundbrook on the Raritan ; but the latter made good his 
 retreat with a trifling loss. On the 2oth of the same month, General 
 Tryon with a detachment of two thousand men landed on the north shore 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77. 319 
 
 of Long Island Sound, and proceeded against Danbuiy, Connecticut. 
 After destroying a large quantity of stores and burning the town the 
 British began a retreat to the coast. Immediately they were attacked on 
 flank and rear by the exasperated patriots, who, led by the aged Wooster 
 and the daring jVrnold, made charge after charge on the retreating foe. 
 Before regaining their shipping the British lost more than two hundred 
 men ; of the patriots about sixty were killed and wounded. The veteran 
 Wooster, now sixty-eight years of age, fell in tliis engagement. 
 
 A similar expedition, undei-taken by the Americans, was more suc- 
 cessful. Colonel Meigs, of Connecticut, learning that the British were 
 collecting stores at Sag Harbor, near the eastern extremity of Long Island, 
 gathered two hundred militiamen, and determined to surprise the post. 
 On the niglit of the 22d of May he embarked his men in Avhale-boats, 
 crossed the Sound, and reached Sag Harbor just before day dawn on tlie 
 following morning. The British, numbering a hundred, were over- 
 powered ; only four of them escaped ; five or six were killed, and the re- 
 maining ninety were made prisoners. A gun-ship, ten loaded transports 
 and a vast amount of stores were destroyed by the victorious patriots, who, 
 without the loss of a man, returned to Guilford with their captives. For 
 this gallant deed Colonel j\Ieigs received an elegant sword from Congress. 
 
 Washington remained in his camp at Morristown until the latter 
 part of May. Cornwallis was still at New Brunswick, and it was neces- 
 sary that the American commander should watch the movements of his 
 antagonist. The patriot forces of the North were now concentrated on the 
 Hudson ; and a large camp, under command of Arnold, was laid out on 
 the Delaware. Both divisions were within supporting distance of Wash- 
 ington, who now broke up his winter-quarters and took an advantageous 
 position at Boundbrook, only ten miles from the British camp. Howe 
 now crossed over from New York, reinforced Cornwallis and threatened 
 an attack upon the American lines ; but Washington stood his ground, 
 and Howe pressed forward as far as Somei-set Court-House, in the direc- 
 tion of the Delaware. The movement was only a feint intended to draw 
 Washington from his position ; but he -was too wary to be deceived, and 
 tiie British fell back through Ne\'.' Brunswick to Amboy. The American 
 lines were now advanced as far as Quibbletown. While in this position, 
 Ho^ve, on the night of the 25th of June, turned suddenly about and made 
 a furious attack on the American van ; but Washington withdrew his 
 forces without serious loss and regained his position at Boundbrook. 
 Again the British retired to Amboy, and on the 30th of the month crossed 
 over to Staten Island. After more than six months of manoeuvring and 
 fighting the invading army was fairly driven out of New Jersey. 
 
320 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On the lOtli of July a brilliant exploit was performed in Rhode 
 Island. Colonel William Barton, of Providence, learning that Major- 
 General Prescott of the British army was quartered at a farm-house near 
 Newport, apart from his division, determined to capture him. On the 
 night of the 10th of July the daring colonel, with forty volunteers, em- 
 barked at Providence, dropped down the bay, and reached the island 
 near Prescott's lodgings. The movement was not discovered. The 
 British sentinel was deceived with a plausible statement, and then threat- 
 ened with death if he did not remain quiet. The patriots rushed foi'M'ard, 
 burst open Prescott's door, seized him in bed, and hurried him, half clad, 
 to the boats. The alarm was raised; a squad of cavalry came charging 
 to the water's edge ; but the provincials were already paddling out of 
 sight with their prisoner. This lucky exploit gave the Americans an 
 officer of equal rank to exchange for General Lee. Colonel Barton was 
 rewarded with jjromotion and an elegant sword. 
 
 Meanwhile, Congress had returned to Philadelphia. The American 
 government was at this time essentially weak in its structure and ineffi- 
 cient in action. Nevertheless, there was much valuable legislation which 
 tended to strengthen the army and the nation. But the most auspicious 
 sign that gladdened the patriots was the unequivocal sympathy of the 
 French. From the beginning of the contest the people of France had 
 espoused the American cause. Now, after the lapse of two years, their 
 symjjathy became more outsi^oken and enthusiastic. True, the French 
 government would do nothing openly which was calculated to provoke a 
 war Avith Great Britain. Outwardly the forms and sentiments of peace 
 were preserved between the two nations ; but secretly the French rejoiced 
 at British misfortune and applauded the action of the colonics. Soon the 
 Americans came to understand that if money was required France would 
 lend it; if supplies were needed, France would furnish them; if arms 
 were to be purchased, France had arms to sell. During the year 1777 
 the French partisans of America managed to supply the colonies with 
 more than twenty thousand muskets and a thousand barrels of powder. 
 
 At last the republicans of France, displeased with the double-deal- 
 ing of their government, began to embark for America. Foremost of all 
 came the gallant young Marquis of La Fayette.* Though the king 
 withheld permission, though the British minister protested, though family 
 and home and kindred beckoned the youthful nobleman to return, he left 
 all to fight the battle of freedom in another land. Fitting a vessel at his 
 own expense, he eluded the officers, and with the brave De Kalb and a 
 small company of followers reached Georgetown, South Carolina, in 
 * La Fayette's name was Oilbert MoUer. 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77. 321 
 
 April of 1777. He at once entered the patriot army as a volunteer, and 
 in the following July was commissioned as a major-general. Not yet 
 twenty years of age, lie clung to Wiisliingtou as sou to father, and through 
 life their friendship was unclouded. 
 
 One of the most important events of the M'hole war was the cam- 
 paign of Lieutenant-General Burgoyne. This distinguished British oiScer 
 arrived at Quebec in March of 1777. Superseding Sir Guy Carleton in 
 command of the Englisii forces in Canada, he spent the months of April 
 and May in organizing a powerful army for the invasion of New York. 
 By the beginning of June he had thoroughly equipped a force of ten thou-^ 
 sand men, of whom about seven thousand were British and Hessian vet- 
 erans; the rest were Canadians and Indians. The plan of the campaigm 
 embraced a descent upon Albany by way of Lake Champlain, Lake 
 George and tlie Upper Hudson. From Albany it was Burgoyne's pur- 
 pose to descend tlie river to New York and unite his forces with the main 
 division of the British army. By this means New England was to be cut 
 off from the Middle and Southern colonies and the whole country ])laced 
 at tlie mercy of Howe. That any successful resistance could be offered to 
 the progress of the invading army was little imagined. 
 
 On the 1st of June Burgoyne reached St. John's, at the foot of 
 Lake Cliamplain, and on the IGtli proceeded to Crown Point. This 
 place, which was undefended, was occupied by a British garrison ; and 
 the main army swept on to Ticonderoga, which was at that time hekl by 
 tliree thousand men under General St. Clair. The British soon gained 
 possession of Mount Defiance, and planted a battery seven hundred feet 
 above the American works. Mount Hope was also seized and retreat by 
 way of Lake George cut off. St. Clair, seeing that resistance would be 
 hopeless, abandoned the fort on the night of the 5th of July, and escaped 
 with the garrison byway of Mount Independence and Wood Creek. Tiie 
 British pressed after the fugitives, and overtook tliem at Hubbardton, a 
 village in Vermont, seventeen miles from Ticonderoga. A sharp engage- 
 ment ensued, in which the Americans fought so obstinately as to check the 
 pursuit ; and then continued their retreat to Fort Edward. On the fol- 
 lowing day tlie Britisii reached Whitehall and captured a large quantity 
 of baggage, stores and provisions. 
 
 At this time the American army of the North was commanded by 
 General Schuyler, a man whose ])atriotism was greater than his abilities. 
 His headquarters were at Fort Edward, where he remained until after the 
 arrival of St. Clair. The garrison now numbered between four and five 
 thousand men ; but this force was deemed inadequate to hold the plfce 
 
 against Burgoyne's army. Schuyler therefore evacuated the post and 
 
 11 
 
322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 retreated down the Hudson as far as the islands at the mouth of the 
 Mohawk. Burgoyne came on by way of Fort Ann, which the Americans 
 had demolished, and thence through the woods over obstructed roads to 
 Fort Edward, where he arrived on the 30th of July. Fearing that his 
 supplies would be exhausted before he could reach Albany, the British 
 general now made a halt, and despatched Colonel Baum with five hundred 
 men to seize the provincial stores at Bennington, Vermont. Colonel 
 John Stark rallied the New Hampshire militia, and on the IStli of 
 August met the British a short distance from the village. On the follow- 
 ing morning there was a furious battle, in which Baum's force was fairly 
 annihilated. A battalion of Hessians, led by Breymann, arrived on the 
 field, only to be utterly routed by the Americans, who were reinforced by 
 the gallant colonel Warner. The British lost a hundred and forty in 
 killed and wounded, and nearly seven hundred jjrisoners. The whole 
 country was thrilled by the victory, and the patriots began to rally from 
 all quarters. 
 
 A few days after the buttle of Bennington, Burgoyne received in- 
 telligence of a still greater reverse. At the beginning of the invasion a 
 large force of Canadians, Tories and Indians, commanded by General St. 
 Leger, had been sent by way of Oswego against Fort Schuyler, at the 
 head of navigation on the ISIohawk. This important post was held by a 
 small garrLson under Colonel Gansevoort. On the 3d of August St. Leger 
 invested the fort, and it seemed that a successful defence was impossible ; 
 but the brave General Herkimer rallied the militia of the surrounding 
 country and advanced to the relief of the garrison. When nearing the 
 fort, the patriots fell into an Indian ambuscade, and a terrible hand-to- 
 hand conflict ensued in the woods. Hei-kimer was defeated with a loss 
 of a hundred and Bixty men in killed, wounded and prisoners. The loss 
 of the savages was almost as great. Hardly had the conflict ended when 
 the garrison made a sally, carried everything before them, and then fell 
 back with trophies and prisoners. Already the impetuous and fearless 
 Arnold had volunteered to lead a detachment from the Hudson for the 
 relief of the fort. At his approach the savages plundered the British 
 camp and fled. St. Leger, dismayed at the treachery of the barbarians^ 
 raised the siege and retreated. Fort Schuyler was saved and strengthened. 
 Such was the news that was borne to Burgoyne at Fort Edward. 
 
 The British general had now lost a month in procuring supplies 
 from Canada. Should he retreat? Ruin and disgrace were in that 
 direction. Should he go forward? More than nine thousand patriot 
 soldiers were in that direction. For General Lincoln had arrived with 
 the militia of New England ; Washington had sent several detachments 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77. 
 
 323 
 
 SCENE OF BURGOYNE'S 
 INVASION, 1777. 
 
 from the regular army; Morgan had come with his famous riflemen. 
 Meanwhile, General Gates had superseded Schuyler in command of the 
 northern army. On the 8tli of September the American headquarters 
 were advanced to Stillwater. At Bemis's Heights, 
 a short distance north of this place, a strong- 
 camp was laid out and fortified under direction 
 of the noted Polish engineer Thaddeus Kos- 
 ciusko. On the 14th of tlie month, Burgoyne 
 crossed the Hudson and took jiost at Saratoga. 
 Until the 18th he advanced his camp a mile each 
 day, when the two armies were face to face and 
 but two miles apart. On the afternoon of the 
 19th the advance parties of the British attacked 
 the American wings, and a general battle ensued, 
 continuing until nightfall. The conflict, though 
 severe, was indecisive; the Americans retired 
 within their lines, and the British slept under 
 arms on the field. To the patriots, whose num- 
 bers were constantly increasing, the result of the battle was equivalent 
 to a victory. 
 
 The condition of Burgoyne grew more and more critical. On all 
 sides the lines of Gates were closing around him. His supplies failed ; 
 his soldiers were put on partial rations ; his Canadian and Indian allies 
 deserted his standard. But the British general was courageous and 
 resolute; he strengthened his defences and flattered his men mth the 
 hope that General Clinton, who now commanded the British army in 
 New York, would make a diversion in their favor. The latter did 
 ascend the river as far as Forts Clinton and Montgomery. Both tliese 
 forts, after an obstinate defence, were carried by assault. Colonel Vaughan 
 was sent on with a thousand men as far as the toM'n of Kingston, which 
 was burned ; besides the destruction of stores and private property', nothing 
 further was accomplished, and the condition of Burgoyne became des- 
 perate. On the 7th of October he hazarded another battle, in which he 
 lost his bravest ofEcei-s and nearly seven hundred privates. The conflict 
 was terrible, lasting from two o'clock in the afternoon till twilight. At 
 last Morgan's riflemen singled out the brave General Fraser, who com- 
 manded the British right, and killed him. His disheartened men turned 
 and fled from the field. On the American side, Arnold, who had re- 
 signed his commission, rode at fiill speed to his old command, and, without 
 authority, became the inspiring genius of the battle. He charged like a 
 madman, drove the enemy before him, eluded Gates's aid who was sent to 
 
324 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 call him back, burst into the British camp and was severely wounded. 
 The Americans were completely victorious. 
 
 On the night after the battle Burgoyne led his shattered army to 
 a stronger position. The Americans immediately occupied the abandoned 
 camp, and then pressed after the ftigitives ; for the British were already 
 retreating. On the 9th of October Burgoyne reached Saratoga and 
 attempted to escape to Fort Edward. But Gates and Lincoln now com- 
 manded the river, and the proud Briton was hopelessly hemmed in. He 
 held out to the last extremity, and finally, when there were only three 
 days between his soldiei-s and starvation, was driven to surrender. On 
 the 17th of October terms of capitulation were agreed on, and the whole 
 army, numbering five thousand seven hundred and ninety-one, became 
 prisoners of war. Among the captives were six members of the British 
 Parliament. A splendid train of brass artillery consisting of forty-two 
 ^(ieces, together with nearly five thousand muskets, and an immense 
 quantity of ammunition and stores, was the further fruit of the victory. 
 The valor of the patriots had fairl}' eclipsed the warlike renown of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 As soon as Burgoyne's invasion was at an end, a large portion of 
 the victorious army of the North was despatched to the aid of Washing- 
 ton. For, in the mean time, a great campaign had been in progress in 
 the South ; and the patriots were sorely pressed. At the beginning of 
 July, Howe had abandoned New Jersey. On the 23d of the same month 
 he sailed with eighteen thousand men to attack Philadelphia by way of 
 the Delaware. Washington, suspecting the object of the expedition, broke 
 up his camp and marched rapidly southward. Off the capes of Virginia 
 Howe learned that the Americans had obstructed the Delaware, so as to 
 prevent the passage of his fleet. He therefore determined to enter the 
 Chesapeake, anchor at the head of the bay and make the attack by land. 
 As soon as Washington obtained information of the enemy's plans, he 
 advanced his headquarters fi'om Philadelphia to Wilmington, and there 
 the American army, numbering between eleven and twelve thousand 
 men, was concentrated. The forces of Howe were vastly superior in 
 numbers and equipments, but W^ashington hoped by selecting his ground 
 and acting on the defensive to beat back the invaders and save the 
 capital. 
 
 On the 25th of August, the British landed at Elk River, in Mary- 
 land, and nine days afterward began their march toward Philadelphia. 
 After a council of war and some changes in the arrangement of his forces, 
 Washington selected the left bank of the Brandywine as his line of de- 
 fence. The left wing of the American army was stationed at Chad's Ford 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77. 325 
 
 to dispute the passage, while the right wing, under General Sullivan, was 
 extended for three miles up the river. On the 11th of September the 
 British reached the opposite bank and began battle. What seemed to be 
 their principal attack was made by the Hessians under Knyphausen at 
 the ford ; and here Wayne's division held the enemy in check. But the 
 onset of Knyphausen was only a feint to keep the Americans engaged 
 until a stronger column of the British, led by Cornwallis and Howe, could 
 march up the south bank of the Brandywine and cross at a point above 
 the American right. In this way Sullivan, who was not on tlie alert, 
 allowed himself to be outflanked. Washington was misled by false in- 
 formation ; the right wing, though the men under La Fayette and Stir- 
 ling fought with great courage, was crushed in by CornwallLs ; and the 
 day was hopelessly lost. 
 
 During the night the defeated patriots retreated to Westchester. 
 Greene brought up the rear in good order ; through his efforts and those 
 of the commander-in-chief the army was saved from destruction. The 
 loss of the Americans in killed, wounded and missing amounted to fully 
 a thousand men ; that of the British to five hundred and eighty-four. The 
 gallant La Fayette was severely wounded ; Count Pulaski, a brave Pole 
 who had espoused the patriot cause, so distinguished himself in this en- 
 gagement that Congress honored him with the rank of brigadier and gave 
 him command of the cavalry. On the day after the battle, Washington 
 continued his retreat to Philadelphia, and then took post at German town, 
 a few miles from the city. Undismayed by his reverse, he resolved to 
 risk another engagement. Accordingly, on the 15th of the month, he 
 recrossed the Schuylkill and marched toward the British camp. Twenty 
 miles below Philadelphia he met Howe at Warren's Tavern. For a 
 while the two armies manoeuvred, the enemy gaining the better position ; 
 then a spirited skirmish ensued, and a great battle was imminent. But 
 just as the conflict was beginning a violent tempest of wind and rain 
 swept over the field. The combatants were deluged, their cartridges 
 soaked, and fighting made impossible. On the next day Howe marched 
 down the Schuylkill ; Washington recrossed the river and confronted his 
 antagonist. Howe turned suddenly about and hurried up stream along 
 the right bank in the direction of Reading. Washington, fearing for his 
 stores, pressed forward up the left bank to Pottstown. But the move- 
 ment of the British westward was only feigned ; again Howe wheeled, 
 marched rapidly to the ford above Norristown, crossed the river and 
 hastened to Philadelphia. On the 26th of September the city was entered 
 without opposition, and the main division of the British army encamped 
 at Germantown. 
 
326 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 At the approach of Howe, Congress adjourned to Lancaster. On 
 the 27th of September the members met at that place, and again adjourned 
 to York, where they assembled on the 30th and continued to hold their 
 sessions until the British evacuated Philadelphia in the following summer. 
 Washington now made his camp on Skippack Creek, about twenty miles 
 from the city. As soon as Howe found himself safe in the " rebel cap- 
 ital," as he was pleased to call it, he despatched a large division of his 
 army to capture forts Mifflin and Mercer on the Delaware. German town 
 was thus considerably weakened, and Washington resolved to attempt a 
 a surprise. The same plan of attack which had been so successful at 
 Trenton was again adopted. On the night of the 3d of October the 
 American army, ai'ranged in several divisions, marched silently toward 
 Germantowii. The roads were rough, and the different columns reached 
 the British outposts at irregular intervals. The morning was foggy, and 
 the movements of both armies were unsteady and confused. There was 
 much severe fighting, and at one time it seemed that the British would be 
 overwhelmed ; but they gained possession of a large stone house and 
 held it. A foolish attempt to dislodge them gave the enemy time to 
 rally. Some strong columns of Americans were kept out of the battle 
 by the inefficiency of their commanders ; the tide turned against the 
 patriots, and the day was lost. Of tlie Americans a hundred and fifty- 
 two were killed, five liundred and twenty-one wounded, and about four 
 hundred missing. Howe reported the British loss at five hundred and 
 thirty-five. The retreat of the Americans was covered by Greene and 
 Pulaski. 
 
 On the 22d of October Fort Mercer, on the New Jersey side of 
 the Delaware, seven miles below Philadelphia, was assaulted by twelve 
 hundred Hessians under Count Donop. The garrison, though number- 
 ing but four hundred, made a brave and successful resistance. The 
 assault was like that at Bunker Hill. Count Donop received a mortal 
 wound, and nearly four hundred of his men fell before the American 
 entrenchments. At the same time the British fleet, assisted by a land- 
 force from Philadelphia, attacked Fort Mifflin on Mud Island, in the 
 Delawai-e. Here also the assailants met with an obstinate resistance. 
 The assault became a siege, which lasted till the 15th of November. Tlie 
 patriots held out against superior numbers until every gun was dismounted 
 and every palisade demolished. Then at midnight the ruined fortress 
 was set on fire, and the garrison escaped to Fort Mercer. To make a 
 second attack on this place Howe despatched two thousand men under 
 Cornwallis. Washiugton sent General Greene to succor the fortress ; but 
 Coruwallis was strongly reinforced, and the American general would not 
 
OPERATIONS OF 77. 
 
 327 
 
 hazard a battle. On the 20th of November Fort Mercer was abandoned 
 to the British ; and thus General Howe obtained undisputed control of 
 the Delaware. 
 
 After the battle of Germantown Washington took up his head- 
 quarters at Whitemarsh, twelve miles from Philadelphia. Winter was 
 approaching, and the patriots began to suffer for food and clothing. 
 Howe, knowing the distressed condition of the Americans, determined to 
 surprise their camp. On the evening of the 2d of December he held a 
 council of war, and it was decided to march against Washington on the 
 following night. But Lydia Darrah, at whose house the council was 
 held, overheard the plan of the enemies of her country. On the follow- 
 ing morning she obtained a passport from Lord Howe, left the city on 
 pretence of going to mill, rode rapidly to the American lines, and sent 
 information of the impending attack to Washington. When, on the 
 morning of the 4th, the British approached Whitemarsh they found the 
 cannon mounted and the patriots standing in order of battle. The British 
 general manceuvred for four days, and then marched back to Philadel- 
 phia. During the remainder of the winter the city was occupied by 
 nearly twenty thousand English and Hessian soldiers. There they 
 reveled and rioted. Everything that the magazines of Great Britain 
 could furnish was lavished upon the army of invaders M'ho lay warmly 
 housed in the city of Penn. In the patriot camp there was a diiferent 
 scene. 
 
 On the 11th of December Washington left his position at White- 
 marsh and went into winter-quarters at Valley Forge on the right bank 
 of the Schuylkill. The march thither occupied four days. Thousands 
 of the soldiere were without shoes, and 
 the frozen ground was marked with bloody 
 footprints. The sagacity of Washington 
 had pointed to a strong position for his 
 encampment. To the security of the 
 river and hills the additional security of 
 redoubts and entrenchments was added. 
 Log cabins were built for the soldiers, and 
 everything was done that could be done 
 to secure the comfort of the suffering pat^ 
 riots. But it was a long and dreary winter ; moaning and anguish were 
 heard in the camp, and the echo fell hea\'y on the soul of the commander. 
 These were the darkest days of Washington's life. Congress in a mea- 
 sure abandoned him, the people withheld their sympathies. The brilliant 
 success of the army of the North was unjustly compared with the reverses 
 
 ENCAMPMENT AT VALLEY FOROE, 
 
 1777-8. 
 
S28 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the army of the South, INIany men high in military and civil station 
 left the great leader unsupported in the hour of his grief; even Samuel 
 Adams, impatient under calamity, withdrew his confidence. There was 
 a miserable conspiracy headed by Grates, Conway and Mifflin. Washing- 
 ton was to be superseded, and Grates or Lee was to be made commander- 
 in-chief. But the alienation was only for a moment ; the allegiance of 
 the army remained unshaken, and the nation's confidence in the troubled 
 chieftain became stronger than ever. Still, at the close of 1777, the 
 patriot cause was obscured with clouds and misfortune. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 
 
 FOUR months before the declaration of independence, Silas Deane of 
 Connecticut was appointed commissioner to France. His business 
 at the French court was to act as the political and commercial agent of 
 the United Colonies. His first service was to make a secret arrangement 
 M'ith Beaumarchais, a rich French merchant, by which the latter was to 
 supply the Americans with the materials necessary for carrying on the war. 
 The king of France and his prime minister, Vergennes, winked at this 
 proceeding ; but the agents of Great Britain were jealous and suspicious, 
 and it was not until the autumn of 1777 that a ship laden with two hun- 
 dred thousand dollars' worth of arms, ammunition and specie could be 
 sent to America. In that ship came Baron Steuben, a veteran soldier and 
 disciplinarian from the army of Frederic the Great. Arriving at Ports- 
 mouth, the baron tarried a short time in New England, and then repaired 
 to York, where Congress was in session. From that body he received a 
 commission, and at once joined Washington at Valley Forge. His acces- 
 sion to the American army was an event of great importance. He re- 
 ceived the appointment of inspector-general ; and from the day in which 
 he entered upon the discharge of his duties there was a marked improve- 
 ment in the condition and discipline of the soldiers. The American reg- 
 ulars were never again beaten when confronted by the British in equal 
 numbers. 
 
 In November of 1776 Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin were 
 appointed by Congress to negotiate an open treaty of friendship and com- 
 
FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 329 
 
 merce with the Frencli king. In the following month they reached ParLs 
 and began their conferences with Vergennes. For a long time King 
 Louis and his minister were wary of the proposed alliance. They cor- 
 dially hated Great Britain, they rejoiced that the British empire was about 
 to be dismembered, tiiey gave secret encouragement to the colonies to hold 
 out in their rebellion, they loaned money and shipped arms to America ; 
 but an open alliance was equivalent to a war with England, and that the 
 French court dreaded. 
 
 Now it was that the genius of Dr. Franklin shone with a peculiar 
 lustre. At the gay court of Louis XVI. he stood as the representative 
 of his country. No nation ever had an amba-ssador of greater wisdom 
 and sagacity. His reputation for learning had preceded him ; the dignity 
 of his demeanor and the simplicity of his manners added to his fame. 
 Whether as philosopher or diplomatist, no man in that great city of fa.shion 
 was the equal of the venerable American patriot. His wit and genial 
 humor made him admired ; his talents and courtesy commanded respect ; 
 his patience and perseverance gave him final success. During the whole 
 of 1777 he remained at Paris and Versailles, availing himself of every 
 opportunity to promote the interests of his country. At last came the 
 news of Burgoyne's surrender. A powei-ful British army had been sub- 
 dued by the colonists without aid from abroad. The success of the Amer- 
 ican arms and the prospect of commercial advantage decided the wavering 
 policy of the king, and in the beginning of winter he made an announce- 
 ment of his determination to accept an alliance with the colonies. On the 
 6th of February, 1778, a treaty was concluded; France acknowledged the 
 independence of the United States and entered into relations of reciprocal 
 friendship with the new nation. It was further stipulated that in case 
 England should declare war against France, the Americans and the 
 French should make common cause, and that neither should subscribe to 
 a ti-eaty of peace without the concurrence of the other. In America the 
 news of the new alliance was received with great rejoicing ; in England, 
 with vindictive anger. 
 
 Benjajiin Fkanklin, the author of the first treaty between the 
 United States and a foreign nation, was born in Boston on the 17th of 
 January, 1706. His father was a manufacturer of soap and candles. 
 To this humble vocation the young Benjamin was devoted by his parents; 
 but the walls of a candle-shop were too narrow for his aspiring genius. 
 At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to his brother to learn the art of 
 printing ; but the brother beat him, and he ran off to New York. There 
 he found no employment. In 1723 he repaired to Philadelphia, entered 
 a printing-office, and rose to distinction. He visited England ; returned ; 
 
330 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 founded the first circulating library in America ; became a man of science; 
 
 edited Poor Bichard's Almanac ; originated the American Philosophical 
 
 Societ)- ; discovered the 
 identity of electricity 
 and lightning; made 
 himself known in both 
 hemispheres; espoused 
 the cause of the pat- 
 riots ; and devoted the 
 unimpaired energies of 
 his old age to per- 
 fecting the American 
 Union. The name of 
 Franklin is one of the 
 brightest in the history 
 of any nation. 
 
 In May of 1778 
 Congress ratified the 
 treaty with France. A 
 month before this time 
 a Fi'ench fleet, com- 
 manded by Count 
 d'Estaing, had been 
 despatched to Amer- 
 ica. The object \\2& 
 
 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 
 
 to sail into the Del- 
 aware and blockade the British squadron at Philadelphia. Both France 
 and Great Britain understood full well that war was inevitable, and each 
 immediately prepared for the conflict. George III. now became willing 
 to treat with his American subjects. Lord North, the prime minister, 
 brought forward two bills in which everything that the colonists had 
 claimed was conceded. The bills were passed by Parliament, and the 
 king assented. Commissioners were sent to America; but Congress in- 
 formed them that nothing but an express acknowledgment of the inde- 
 ])^ndence of the United States would now be accepted. Then the com- 
 missioners tried bribery and intrigue ; and Congress M-ould hold no further 
 conference with them. 
 
 From September of 1777 until the following June the British army 
 remained at Philadelphia. The fleet of Admiral Howe lay in the Del- 
 aware. In the spring of 1778, General Howe was superseded by Sir 
 Henry Clinton. When the rumor came that the fleet of D'Estaing M'as 
 
FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 331 
 
 approaching, the English admiral withdrew from the Delaware and sailed 
 for New York. Finally, ou the IStli of June, the British army evacuated 
 Philadelphia and retreated across New Jersey. Washington occupied the 
 city, crossed the river, and followed the retreating foe. At Monmouth, 
 eighteen miles south-east of New Brunswick, the British were overtaken. 
 On the morning of the 28tli General Lee was ordered to attack the enemy. 
 The first onset was made by the American cavalry under La Fayette : 
 but they were driven back by Cornwallis and Clinton. Lee, who had 
 opposed the battle, and was not anxious for victory, ordered liis line to 
 fall back to a stronger position ; but the troops mistook the order and 
 began a retreat, the British charging after them. Washington met the 
 fugitives, rallied them, administered a severe rebuke to Lee, and ordered 
 him to the rear. During the rest of the engagement the haughty officer, 
 half treacherous in his principles and practices, remained at a distance, 
 making satirical remarks about the battle. The fight continued till night- 
 fall ; the advantage was with the Americans ; and Washington, in hope 
 of a complete victory, anxiously waited for the morning. During the 
 niglit, however, Clinton succeeded in withdrawing his forces from the 
 field, and thus escaped the peril of defeat. 
 
 The loss of the Americans in the battle of Monmouth was sixty- 
 seven killed and a hundred and sixty wounded. The British left nearly . 
 three hundred dead on the field. On the day after the battle Washington 
 received an insulting letter from Lee demanding an apology for the lan- 
 guage which the commander-in-chief had used. Washington replied that 
 the language was warranted by the circumstances. This Lee answered 
 in a still more offensive manner, and was thereupon arrested, tried by a 
 court-martial, and dismissed from his command for twelve months. The 
 brave, rash man never re-entered the service, and did not live to see his 
 country's independence. 
 
 The British land and naval forces were now concentrated at New 
 York. Washington followed, crossed the Hudson, and took up his head- 
 quarters at White Plains. On the 11th of July Count d'Estaing's fleet 
 arrived off Sandy Hook and attempted to attack the British squadron in 
 the bay ; but the bar at the entrance prevented the passage of the French 
 vessels. D'Estaing next sailed for Newport, Rhode Island, where the 
 British, commanded by General Pigot, were in strong force. At the same 
 time a division of the American army, led by General Sullivan, proceeded 
 to Providence to co-operate with the French fleet in the attack on New- 
 port. Greene and La Fayette came with reinforcements, and the whole 
 army took post at Tiverton. On the 9th of August Sullivan succeeded 
 in crossing the eastern passage of the bay, and secured a favorable position 
 
332 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 on the island. A joint attack by land and sea was planned for the fol- 
 lowing day. On that morning, however, the fleet of Lord Howe, who 
 had left New York in pursuit of the French, came in sight ; and D'Estaing, 
 instead ?f beginning the bombardment of Newport, sailed out to give 
 battle to Howe. Just as the two squadrons were about to begin an en- 
 gagement a violent storm arose by which the fleets were parted and 
 greatly damaged. D'Estaing repaired to Boston, and Howe returned to 
 New York. 
 
 Sullivan laid siege to Newport; but when the French squadron 
 sailed away, he found it necessary to retreat. The British pursued the 
 Americans, and overtook them in the northern part of the island ; a battle 
 ensued, and Pigot was repulsed with a loss of two hundred and sixty 
 men. On the following night Sullivan succeeded in reaching the main- 
 land ; and it was well that he did so ; for on the next day General Clin- 
 ton arrived at Newport with a division of four thousand regulars. The 
 Americans saved themselves by hastily retiring from the neighborhood. 
 Clinton, having sent out a detachment under Colonel Grey to burn the 
 American shipping in Buzzard's Bay, destroy the stores in New Bedford 
 and ravage Martha's Vineyard, returned to New York. 
 
 The command of the British naval forces in America was now 
 ' transferred from Lord Howe to Admiral Byron. Sir Henry Clinton, 
 unable to accomplish anything in honorable warfare, descended to maraud- 
 ing and robbery. Early in October a band of incendiaries, led by Fer- 
 guson, burned the American ships at Little Egg Harbor. For several 
 miles inland the country was devastated, houses pillaged, barns burned, 
 patriots murdered. To the preceding July belongs the sad story of the 
 Wyoming massacre. Major .John Butler, a tory of Niagara, raised a 
 company of sixteen hundred loyalists, Canadians and Indians, and marched 
 into the valley of Wyoming, county of Luzerne, Pennsylvania. The 
 settlement was defenceless. The fathers and brothers were away in the 
 patriot army. There were some feeble forts on the Susquehanna in the 
 neighborhood of Wilkesbarre, but they were useless without defenders. 
 On the approach of the torics and savages the few militia remaining in 
 the valley, together with the old men and boys, rallied for the defence of 
 their homes. A battle was fought, and the poor patriots were utterly 
 routed. The fugitives fled to the principal fort, which was crowded 
 with women and children. On came the murderous horde, and demanded 
 a surrender. Honorable terras were promised by Butler, and tiie garrison 
 capitulated. On the 5th of July the gates were opened, and the bar- 
 barians entered. Immediately they began to plunder, then to burn, and 
 then to use the hatchet and the scalping-knife. There is no authentic 
 
FRANCE TO THE RESCUE. 333 
 
 record of the horrible atrocities that followed. The savages divided 
 into parties, scattered through the valley, plundered, robbed, burned, and 
 drove almost every surviving family into the swamps or mountains. In 
 this way George III. would subdue the American colonies. 
 
 November witnessed a similar massacre at the village of Cherr}^ 
 Valley, Otsego county, New York. Tliis time the invaders were led by 
 Joseph Brant, the Mohawk sachem, and Walter Butler, a son of Major 
 John Butler. The people of Cherry Valley were driven from their 
 homes ; every house in the village was burned ; women and children were 
 tomahawked and scalped ; and forty miserable sufferers dragged into cap- 
 tivity. To avenge these outrages an expedition was sent against the 
 savages on the Upper Susquehanna ; and they in turn were made to feel 
 the terrors of war. In the preceding December the famous Major Clarke 
 had received from Patrick Henry, then governor of Virginia, a commis- 
 sion to proceed against the Indians west of the Alleghauies. The expe- 
 dition left Pittsburg in the spi'ing of 1778 ; descended to the mouth of the 
 Ohio ; and on the 4th of the following July captured Kaskaskia. Other 
 important posts were taken ; and in August Vincennes was forced to 
 capitulate. 
 
 On the 3d of November Count d'Estaing's fleet sailed from Boston 
 tor the West Indies. In December Admiral Byron, in command of the 
 British squadron, left New York to try the fortunes of war on the ocean. 
 A few days previously, Colonel Campbell, with a force of two thousand 
 men, was sent by General Clinton for the conquest of Georgia. On the 
 29th of December the expedition reached Savannah. The place was de- 
 fended by General Robert Howe with a regiment of five hundred and 
 fifty regulars, and three hundred militia. Notwithstanding the superior 
 numbers of the British, Howe determined to risk a battle ; but the result 
 was disastrous. The Americans were routed and driven out of the city. 
 Escaping up the river, the defeated patriots crossed into South Carolina 
 and found refuge at Charleston. Such was the only real conquest made 
 by the British during the year 1778. It was now nearly four years since 
 the battle of Concord, and Great Britain had lost vastly more than she 
 had gained in her struggle with the colonies. The city of New York was 
 held by Clinton ; Newport was garrisoned by a division under Pigot ; th( 
 feeble capital of Georgia was conquered ; all the rest remained to the 
 patriots. 
 
6M HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 MOVEMENTS OF '79. 
 
 THE winter of 1778-79 was passed by the American army at Middle- 
 brook, New Jersey. With the opening of spring there was much 
 discouragement among the soldiers ; for they were neither paid nor fed. 
 Only the personal influence of Washington and the patriotism of the 
 camp prevented a mutiny. Clinton opened the campaign with a number 
 of predatory incursions into the surrounding country. In February, 
 Tr}'on, the old tory governor of New York, a man so savage in his natiu-e 
 that the Indians called him the Big Wolf, marched from Kingsbridge 
 with a body of iifteen hundred regulars and tories to destroy the salt- 
 works at Horse Neck, Connecticut. General Putnam, who chanced to 
 be in that neighborhood, rallied the militia and made a brave defence. 
 The Americans planted some cannon on the brow of a hill and fought 
 with much spirit until they were outflanked by the British and obliged to 
 fly. It was here that General Putnam, pursued and about to be over- 
 taken by a party of dragoons, turned out of the road, spurred his horse 
 down a precipice and escaped.* Tryon destroyed the salt-works, plun- 
 dered and burned the village of West Greenwich and returned to Kings- 
 bridge. 
 
 In the latter part of May Clinton himself sailed with an armament 
 up the Hudson to Stony Point. This strong position, commanding the 
 river, had been chosen by Washington as the site of a fort ; the Amer- 
 icans were engaged upon the unfinished works when Clinton's squadron 
 came m sight. The feeble garrison, unable to resist the overwhelming 
 numbers of the enemy, escaped from the fortifications. On the 1st of 
 June the British entered, mounted cannon and began to bombard A''cr- 
 planck's Point, on the other side of the river. Here the patriots made a 
 brave resistance ; but the British landed a strong force, surrounded the 
 fort and compelled a surrender. Both Verplanck's and Stony Point were 
 strongly fortified and garrisoned by the enemy. About the same time 
 Virginia suffered from an incursion of the tories. A vast amount of 
 public and private property was destroyed ; and several towns, including 
 Norfolk and Portsmouth, Avere laid in ashes. 
 
 * After all, Putnam's exploit was not so marvelous. In 1825 some of General La 
 5'ayette's dragoons rode down the same hill for sport. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF 79. 335 
 
 In July the ferocious Tryon again distinguished himself. With a 
 force of twenty-six hundred Hessians and tories he sailed to New Haven, 
 captured the city and would have burned it but for fear of the gathering 
 militia. Having set East Haven on fire, the destroyers sailed down the 
 Sound to the beautiful town of Fairfield, which was given to tlie flames. 
 At Norwalk, while the village was burning and the terrified people flying 
 from their homes, Tryon, on a neighboring hill, sat in a rocking-chair 
 and laughed heartily at the scene. It was not long until these dastardly 
 outrages were made to appear more dastardly by contrast with a heroic 
 exploit of the pati-iots. 
 
 Early in July General Wayne received orders to attempt the recap- 
 ture of Stony Point. On the 15th of the month he mustered a force of 
 light infantry at a convenient point on the Hudson and marched against 
 the seemingly impregnable fortress. The movement was not discovered 
 by the enemy. At eight o'clock in the evening Wayne halted a mile 
 from the fort and gave orders for the assault. A negro who had learned 
 the countersign went with the advance ; the British pickets were deceived, 
 caught and gagged. The Americans advanced in two columns, the first 
 led by Wayne, and the second by the gallant Frenchman, Colonel De 
 Fleury. Everything was done in silence. Muskets were unloaded and 
 bayonets fixed ; not a gun was to be fired. The two divisions, attacking 
 from opposite sides, were to meet in the middle of the fort. The assault 
 was made a little after midnight. Within pistol-shot of the sentinels on 
 the height, the Americans were discovered. There was the cry. To armn! 
 the rattle of drums, and then the roar of musketry and cannon. The 
 patriots never wavered. The ramparts were scaled ; and the British, find- 
 ing themselves between two closing lines of bayoneis, cried out for quar- 
 ter. Sixty-three of the enemy fell in the struggle ; the remaining five 
 hundred and forty-three Avere made prisoners. Of the Americans only 
 fifteen were killed and eighty-three wounded. In the days that followed 
 the assault Wayne secured the ordnance and stores, valued at more than 
 a hundred and fifty thousand dollars, then destroyed the fort and marched 
 away. On the 20th a division of the British arnay, arriving at Stony 
 Point, found nothing but a desolated hill. In honor of his brave deed 
 General Wayne received a gold medal from Congress. 
 
 Three days after the taking of Stony Point, Major Lee with a com- 
 pany of militia attacked the British garrison at Jersey City. Again the 
 assault was successful, the enemy losing nearly two hundred men. On 
 the 25th of the same month a fleet of thirty-seven vessels, which liad 
 been equipped by Massachusetts, was sent against a British post recently 
 established at the mouth of the Penobscot. The enterprise, however, was 
 
336 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mauaged with little skill and less success. On the 13th of August, while 
 the American ships were still besieging the post, they were suddenly 
 attacked and destroyed by a British fleet. In the summer of this year 
 an army of four thousand six hundred men, commanded by Generals Sul- 
 livan and James Clinton, was sent against the Indians of the Upper Sus- 
 (juelianna. The atrocities of Wyoming were now fully avenged, and the 
 savages driven to destruction. At Elmira, on the Tioga River, the In- 
 dians and tories had fortified themselves; but on the 29th of August they 
 were forced from their stronghold and utterly routed. The whole coun- 
 try between the Susquehanna and the Genesee was wasted by the patriots, 
 who, in the course of the campaign, destroyed forty Indian villages. In 
 the latter part of October Sir Henry Clinton, alarmed bj- tlie rumored 
 approach of the French fleet, withdrew the British forces from Rhode 
 Island. The retirement from Newport was made with so much haste that 
 the heavy guns and large quantities of stores were left behind. Such 
 were the leading military movements in the North. 
 
 IMcanwhile, the M'ar had continued in Georgia and South Carolina; 
 and the patriots had met with many reverses. At the beginning of the 
 year Fort Sunbury, on St. Catherine's Sound, was the only post held by 
 the Americans south of the Savannah. On the 9th of January this fort 
 was captured by a body of British troops from Florida, led by General 
 Prevost. This oflieer then joined his forces with those of Colonel Camp- 
 bell, -v^lio had just efiected the conquest of Savannah, and assumed com- 
 mand of the British army in the South. A force of two thousand reg- 
 ular and loyalists, commanded by Campbell, was at once despatched 
 against Augusta ; for there the republican legislature had assembled after 
 the fall of Savannah. On the 29th of January the British reached their 
 destination, and Augusta fell a prey to the invaders. For a while the 
 whole of Georgia was prostrated before the king's soldiery. 
 
 In the mean time, the tories of Western Carolina had risen in arms 
 and were advancing to join the forces of Campbell at Augusta. Wiiile 
 marching thither they were attacked and defeated in a canebrake by 
 the patriots under Captain Anderson. On the 14th of February the tories 
 were again overtaken in the country west of Broad River. Colonel 
 Pickens, at the head of the Carolina militia, fell upon them M'ith such 
 fury that the whole force v/as annihilated. Colonel Boyd, the tory leader, 
 and seventy of his men were killed. Seventy-five others were captured, 
 tried for treason and condemned to death ; but only five of the ringleaders 
 Mere hanged. On receiving intelligence of what had happened, Campbell 
 hastily evacuated Augusta and retreated toward Savannah. The western 
 half of Georgia was recovered more quickly than it had been lost. 
 
MOVEMENTS OF 79. 337 
 
 While the British were retreating down the river, General Lincoln, 
 who now commanded the American forces in the South, sent General 
 Ashe with a division of two thousand men to intercept the enemy. On 
 the 25th of February the Americans crossed the Savannah and pursued 
 Campbell as far as Brier Creek, forty-five miles below Augusta. The 
 bridge over this stream had been destroyed by the retreating British, and 
 the patriots came to a halt. While they were delayed General Prevost 
 marched with a strong force from Savannah, crossed Brier Creek above 
 the American position, and completely surrounded General Ashe's com- 
 mand. A battle was fought on the 3d of March ; the Americans, after 
 losing more than three hundred men in killed, wounded and prisoners, 
 were totally routed and driven into the swamps and river. The rem- 
 nants of Ashe's army rejoined General Lincoln at Perrysburg. The shock 
 of this defeat again prosti-ated Georgia, and a royal government was 
 established over the State. 
 
 But the Carolinians rallied with great vigor. Within a month Gen- 
 eral Lincoln was again in the field with a force of more than five thou- 
 sand men. Still hoping to reconquer Georgia, he advanced up the left 
 bank of the river in the direction of Augusta ; but at the same time Gen- 
 eral Prevost crossed the Savannah and marched against Charleston. On 
 the 12th of May he summoned the city to surrender, but General ^Moultrie, 
 who commanded the patriots, was in no humor to do it. Prevost made 
 preparations for a siege ; but learning that General Lincoln had turned 
 back to attack him, he made a hasty retreat. The Americans pursued, 
 overtook the enemy at Stono Ferry, ten miles west of Charleston, made 
 an imprudent attack and were repulsed with considerable loss. Before 
 retiring from the State, Prevost succeeded in establishing a post at Beau- 
 fort, and then fell back to Savannah. From June until September 
 military operations were almost wholly suspended. 
 
 And now came Count d'Estaing with his fleet from the West Indies 
 to Carolina to co-operate with General Lincoln in the reduction of 
 Savannah. Prevost was alarmed, and concentrated his forces for the 
 defence of the city. The storm-winds of the equinox were approaching, 
 and D'Estaing stipulated with the Americans that his fleet should not be 
 long detained on that coast devoid of harbors. On the 12th of September 
 the French, numbering six thousand, effected a landing, and advanced to 
 the siege. Eleven days elapsed before the slow-moving General Lincoln 
 arrived with his forces. Meanwhile, on the 16th of the month, D'Estaing 
 had demanded a surrender ; but Prevost, who asked a day for consulta- 
 tion and used it in strengthening his works and in receiving reinforce- 
 ments from Beaufort, answered with a message of defiance. After Lin- 
 
 22 
 
338 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 coin's arrival the siege was prosecuted with great vigor. The city was 
 bombarded wellnigh to destructiou; the people were driven into the 
 cellars, and dared not venture forth on peril of their lives. But the 
 British defences remained unshaken. At last the impatient D'Estaing 
 notified Lincoln that the city mast be stormed or the siege abandoned. 
 The former course was preferred. On the 8th of October a conference 
 was held, and it was determined to make the assault at daylight on the 
 following morning. 
 
 Accordingly, an hour before sunrise the allies advanced against the 
 redoubts of the British. The attack was made irregularly, but with great 
 vehemence; the defence, with despei-ate determination. The struggle 
 around the ramparts was brief but furious. At one time it seemed that 
 the works would be carried. The French and the patriots mounted the 
 parapet and planted the flags of Carolina and France. But the emblems 
 of victory, with those who bore them, were hurled into the dust. Here 
 the brave Sergeant Jasper, the hero of Fort Moultrie, fell to rise no more. 
 After an hour of the most gallant fighting, the allied columns were shat- 
 tered and driven back with fearful losses. D'Estaing was twice wounded. 
 The noble Pulaski was struck with a grape-shot and borne dying fi-om the 
 field. The repulse was complete, humiliating, disastrous. D'Estaing re- 
 tired with his men on board the fleet and sailed for France. Lincoln 
 with the remnants of his army retreated to Charleston. 
 
 While the siege of Savannah was progressing, the American arms 
 ■were made famous on the ocean. On the 23d of September Paul Jones, 
 cruising ofi" the coast of Scotland with a flotilla of French and American 
 vessels, fell in with a fleet of British merchantmen, convoyed by two 
 men-of-war. The battle that ensued was bloody be>ond precedent in 
 naval warfare. For an hour and a half the Se7'apis, a British frigate of 
 forty-four guns, engaged the Poor Richard* Avithin musket-shot. Tlien 
 the vessels, both in a sinking condition, were run alongside and lashed 
 together. The marines fought with the fury of madmen until the Serapis 
 struck her colors. Jones hastily transferred his men to the conquered 
 ship, and the Poor Richard went down. The remaining British vessel 
 was also attacked and captured. So desperate was the engagement that of 
 the three hundred and seventy-five men on board the fleet of Jones three 
 hundred were either killed or wounded. 
 
 So closed the year 1779. The colonies were not yet free. The 
 French alliance, which had promised so much, had brought but little 
 benefit. The credit of Congress had sunk almost to nothing ; the national 
 treasury was bankrupt. The patriots of the army were poorly fed, and 
 
 * So najiip*] in lionor of Dr. Franklin's almanac. 
 
REVERSES AND TREASON. 339 
 
 paid only with unkept promises. The disposition of Great Britain was 
 best illustrated in the measures adopted by Parliament for the campaigns 
 of the ensuing year. The levies made by the House of Commons were 
 eighty-five thousand marines and thirty-five thousand additional troops ; 
 while the extraordinary expenses of the War Department were set at 
 twenty million pounds sterling. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII. 
 
 REVERSES AND TREASON. 
 
 DURING the year 1780 military operations at the North were, for the 
 most part, suspended. Twice did the British under Knyphausen 
 advance from New York into New Jersey ; and twice they were driven 
 back. Early in July Admiral De Ternay arrived at Newport with a 
 French squadron and six thousand land-troops under Count Rocham- 
 beau. The Americans were greatly elated at the coming of then- allies ; 
 but Washington's army was in so destitute a condition that active co- 
 operation was impracticable. In September the commander-in-chief held 
 a conference with Rochambeau, and the plans of future campaigns were in 
 part determined. 
 
 In the South there was much activity, and the patriots suffered many 
 reverses. South Carolina was completely overrun with the invading 
 armies. On the 11th of February Admii-al Arbuthnot, in command of a 
 British squadron, anchored before Charleston. Sir Henry Clinton and a 
 division of five thousand men from the army in New York were on board 
 the fleet. The plan of the campaign was to subjugate the whole South, 
 beginning with Charleston. The city was defended by fourteen hundred 
 men, under General Lincoln, who began his preparations by fortifying 
 the neck of the peninsula. The British effected a landing a few miles 
 below the harbor, advanced up the right bank of Ashley River, and 
 crossed to the north of the city. A month was spent by Clinton in mak- 
 ing cautious approaches toward the American entrenchments. On the 
 7th of April Greneral Lincoln was reinforced by seven hundred veterans 
 from Virginia. Two days afterward Admiral Arbuthnot, favored by the 
 wind and tide, succeeded in passing Fort Moultrie with his fleet, and 
 anchored within cannon-shot of the city. A summons to surrender was 
 

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 340 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 answered by Lincoln vdtli the assurance that Charleston would be 
 defended to the last extremity. 
 
 A siege was at once begun, and prosecuted with great vigor. Desir- 
 ing to keep a way open for retreat, Lincoln sent a body of three hundred 
 men under General Huger to scour the country 
 north of Cooper River and rally the militia. 
 Apprised of this movement, Tarleton with a 
 legion of British cavalry stole upon Huger's 
 forces at Monk's Comer, thirty miles north of 
 Charleston, routed and dispersed the whole com- 
 pany. The city was now fairly hemmed in, and 
 the thunder of two hundred cannon shook the 
 beleaguered ramparts. From the beginning the 
 SIEGE OF CHARLESTON, 1780. defcncG liud been hopeless, and every day the 
 condition of the town became more desperate. 
 Finally the fortifications were beaten down, and Clinton made ready to 
 storm the American works ; not till then did Lincoln and the civil 
 authorities, dreadmg the havoc of an assault, agree to cai^itulate. On the 
 12th of May the principal city of the South was given up to the British 
 and the men who had so bravely defended it became j^risoners of war. 
 
 A few days before the surrender Tarleton, who was ranging the 
 country to the north and west, surprised and dispersed a body of militia 
 who had gathered on the Santee. After the capture of the city, three 
 expeditions were directed into different sections of the State. The Amer- 
 ican post at Ninety-Six, a hundred and fifty miles north-west of the cap- 
 ital, was seized. A second detachment of the British invaded the country 
 bordering on the Savannah. Cornwallis with the jirincipal division 
 marched to the north-east, crossed the Santee and captured Georgetown, 
 near the mouth of the Great Pedee. Here he learned that Colonel Buford, 
 with a body of five hundred patriots, who had left North Carolina for 
 the relief of Charleston, was now retreating through the district north of 
 Camden. Tarleton with seven hundred cavalry pressed rapidly across 
 the country, overtook the Americans on the Waxhaw, a tributary of the 
 Catawba, surprised them, and, A\hile negotiations for a surrender were 
 pending, charged upon and massacred nearly the whole company. For 
 this atrocious deed Cornwallis commended Tarleton to the special favor 
 of the British Parliament. 
 
 By such means the authority of Great Britain was re-established 
 over South Carolina. As soon as the work was done, Clinton and 
 Arbuthnot, with about half of the British army, sailed for New York. 
 Cornwallis was left with the remainder to hold the conquered territory ; 
 
REVERSES AND TREASON. 341 
 
 for it was the territory, and not the peojile, who were conquered. In this 
 condition of aifairs, two daring patriot leaders arose to rescue the repub- 
 lican cause. These men, ever afterward famous, were Thomas Sumter 
 and Francis Marion. Under their leadership the militia in the central 
 and western portions of the State, especially on the ujjjjer tributaries of 
 Broad River, were rallied, armed and mounted. An audacious partisan 
 warfare was begun, and exjjosed detachments of the British army were 
 swept off as though an enemy had fallen on them from the skies. At 
 Rocky Mount, on the Wateree, Colonel Sumter burst upon a party of 
 dragoons, who barely saved themselves. On the 6th of August he attacked 
 a large detachment of regulars and tories at Hanging Rock, in Lancaster 
 county, defeated them and retreated. It was in this battle that young 
 Andrew Jackson began his career as a soldier. 
 
 The exploits of Sumter were even surpassed by those of IMarion. 
 His company cousisted at first of twenty men and boys, white and black, 
 half clad and poorly armed. But the number constantly increased, and 
 the "Ragged Regiment" soon became a terror to the enemy. Every 
 British outpost was in peril. There was no telling when or where the 
 sword of the fearless leader would fall. From the swamps at midnight he 
 and his men would suddenly dart upon the encampments of the enemy, 
 sweeping everything before them. When the British expected jNIarion 
 ill front, he would assail the rearguard with the utmost fury, and then dis- 
 appear ; when they thought him hovering on their flank, he was a hun- 
 dred miles away. During the whole summer and autumn of 1780 he 
 swept around Cornwallis's positions, cutting his lines of communication 
 and making incessant onsets Avith an audacity as destructive as it was pro- 
 voking. In the midst of this wild and lawless warfare, jMarion preserved 
 an unblemished reputation. Fifteen years afterward, when he lay on his 
 deathbed, he declared that he had never intentionally wronged any man ; 
 and it was truthfully written on his monument that he lived without fear 
 and died without reproach. 
 
 After the fall of Charleston, General Gates was appointed to com- 
 mand in the South. With a strong force of regulars and such militia as 
 M'ould join his standard, he advanced across North Carolina, and at the 
 beginning of August reached the southern boundary of the State. Lord 
 Rawdou, who commanded the British posts in the northern parts of South 
 Carolina, called in his detachments and concentrated his forces at Camden. 
 Hither came also Cornwallis with reinforcements from Charleston and 
 Georgetown. The Americans moved forward and took post at Clermont, 
 thirteen miles north-west from Camden. By a singular coincidence Corn- 
 wallis and Grates each formed the design of surprising his antagonist in 
 
342 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 V 1 -K G I N ^Jr-K'- 
 
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 K (> K \t IiAs/a' O-B* irv^p L ^7 T N A 
 
 the night. Accordingly, on the evening of the loth of August, Gates set 
 out for Camden, and at the same time Cornwallis moved toward Cler- 
 mont. About daydawn the two armies met midway on Sander's Creek. 
 
 Both generals were surjjrised, 
 but both made immediate 
 preparations for battle. As 
 soon as it was light the con- 
 flict began. Steadiness and 
 courage in all parts of the 
 field would have given the 
 victory to the Americans, but 
 at the first onset the Virginia 
 and Carolina militia broke 
 line, threw their arms away 
 and fled. For a while the 
 Continentals of Maryland 
 and Delaware sustained the 
 battle with great bravery, but 
 at length they were outflank- 
 ed by Webster's cavalry and 
 SCENE OF opEKATioNs IS THE SOUTH, 1780, 8L drlveu Imck. Thc Amcricau 
 
 officers made heroic efforts to 
 save the day, but all in vain ; the retreat became a rout. Baron de Kalb, 
 the friend of La Fayette and fellow-sufferer with Washington at Valley 
 Forge, remained on the field trying to rally his men until he was wounded 
 eleven times and fell in the agony of death. More than a thousand of the 
 Americans were killed, wounded or captured. The shattered remnants 
 continued the retreat to Charlotte, North Carolina, eighty miles distant. 
 The military reputation of Gates, which never had any solid foundation, 
 was blown away like chaff, and he was superseded by General Greene, 
 who, after Washington, was the best officer of the Revolution. 
 
 Cornwallis was again ma-ster of South Carolina. A few days after 
 the battle of Sander's Creek, Sumter's corps was overtaken by Tarleton 
 at Fishing Creek, thirty miles north-west from Camden, and completely 
 routed. Onlj' Marion and his troopers remained to harass the victorious 
 enemy. The triumph of the British was marked by cruelty and oppres- 
 sion. Cornwallis visited the patriots with merciless severity, and the 
 ruined State crouched at the feet of the conqueror. On the 8th of Sep- 
 tember the British advanced from Camden into North Carolina, and on 
 the 25th reached Charlotte, the Americans having retreated to Salisbury. 
 While this movement was in progress. Colonel Ferguson, with a force of 
 
REVERSES AND TREASON 343 
 
 eleven hundred regulars and tories, was sent into the country west of the 
 Cata,wba to overawe the patriots and encourage the loyalists to take up 
 arms. On the 7th of October, while Ferguson and his men were en- 
 camped on the toj) of King's Mountain, they were suddenly attacked by 
 a thousand riflemen led by Colonel Campbell. The camp was surrounded; 
 a desperate battle of an hour and a half ensued ; Ferguson was slain, and 
 three hundred of his men were killed or wounded ; the remaining eight 
 hundred threw down their arms and begged for quarter. On the morn- 
 ing after the battle ten of the leading tory j^risoners were condemned by a 
 court-martial and hanged. During the remaining two months of the year 
 there were no nilitary movements of importance. Geoi'gia and South 
 Carolina were in the power of the British, and North Carolina was invaded. 
 
 Meanwhile, the financial credit of the nation was sinking to the 
 lowest ebb. Congress, having no silver and gold with which to meet the 
 accumulating expenses of the Avar, had resorted to paper money. At first 
 the expedient was successful, and the continental bills were received at 
 par; but as one issue followed another, the value of the notes raf)idly 
 diminished, until, by the middle of 1780, they were not worth two cents 
 to the dollar. To aggravate the evil, the emissaries of Great Britain 
 executed counterfeits of the congressional money and sowed the spurious 
 bills broadcast over the laud. Business was paralyzed for the want of a 
 currency, and the distress became extreme ; but Robert Morris and a few 
 other wealthy patriots came forward with their private fortunes and saved 
 the suffering colonies from ruin. The mothers of America also lent a 
 helping hand ; and the patriot camp was gladdened with many a contribu- 
 tion of food and clothing which woman's sacrificing care had provided. 
 
 In the midst of the general gloom the country was shocked by the 
 rumor that Benedict Arnold had turned traitor. And the news, though 
 hardly credible, was true. The brave, rash man, who, on behalf of the 
 patriot cause, had suffered untold hardships and shed his blood on more 
 fields than one, had blotted the record of his heroism with a deed of 
 treason. After the battle of Bemis's Height, in the fall of 1777, Arnold 
 was promoted by Congress to the rank of major-general. Being disabled 
 by his wound, he was made commandant of Philadelphia after the evac- 
 uation of the city by the British. Here he married the daughter of a 
 loyalist, and living in the old mansion of William Penn entered upon a 
 career of luxury and extravagance which soon overwhelmed him with 
 debt and bankruptcy. In order to keep up his magnificence, he began a 
 system of frauds on the commissary department of the army. His bear- 
 ing toward the citizens was that of a military despot ; the people groaned 
 nnder his tyranny, and charges were preferred against him by Congress. 
 
344 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The cause was finally heard by a court-martial in December of 1779. 
 Arnold was convicted on two of the charges, and, by the order of the 
 court, was mildly reprimanded by Washington. 
 
 Professing unbounded patriotism, and seeming to forget the dis- 
 grace which his misconduct had brought upon him, Arnold applied for 
 and obtained command of the important fortress of West Point on the 
 Hudson. On the last day of July, 1780, he reached the camp and 
 assumed control of the most valuable ai-senal and depot of stores in Amer- 
 ica. He had already formed the treasonable design of surrendering the 
 fort into the hands of the enemy. For months he had kept up a secret 
 correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, and now the scheme ripened, on 
 Arnold's part, into an open proposition to betray his country for gold. 
 It -was agreed that on a certain day the British fleet should ascend the 
 Hudson, that the garrison should be divided and scattered, and the fort- 
 ress given up without a struggle. 
 
 On the 21st of September Sir Henry Clinton sent Major John 
 Andre up the river to hold a personal conference Avith Arnold and make 
 
 the final arrangements for the surrender. 
 Andrfe, through whom the correspondence 
 between Arnold and Clinton had been car- 
 ried on, was a former acquaintance of Ar- 
 nold's wife, and now held the post of adju- 
 tant-general in the British army. He went 
 to the conference, not as a sjiy, but wearing 
 full uniform; and it was agreed that the 
 meeting; should be held outside of the Ameri- 
 can lines. About midnight of the 21st he 
 went ashore from the Vulture, a sloop of 
 war, and met Arnold in a thicket on the 
 west bank of the river, tAvo miles below 
 Haverstraw. Daydawn approached, and 
 the conspirators were obliged to hide 
 themselves. In doing so they entered the 
 American lines ; Arnold gave the password, aud Andre, disguising him- 
 self, assumed the character of a spy. 
 
 During the next day the traitor and his victim remained concealed 
 at the house of a tory named Smith. Here the awful business was com- 
 pleted. Arnold was to surrender West Point, its garrisons and stores, 
 and to receive for his treachery ten thousand pounds and a commission as 
 brigadier in the British army. All preliminaries being settled, papers 
 containing a full description of West Point, its defences and the best 
 
 
 SCENE OF ARNOLD'S 
 TREASON, 1780. 
 
THE END. 345 
 
 method of attack were made out and given to Andre, who secreted the 
 dangerous documents in his stockings. During that day an American 
 battery drove the VuUure from its moorings in tlie river ; and at night- 
 fall Andrfe was obliged to cross to the other side and proceed by land 
 toward New York. He passed the American outposts in safety ; but at 
 Tarrytown, twenty-five miles from the city, he was suddenly confronted 
 by three militiamen * who stripped him, found his papei-s, and delivered 
 him to Colonel Jameson at North Castle. Through that officer's amazing 
 stupidity Arnold was at once notified that John Anderson — that being 
 the assumed name of Andre — had been taken with his passport and some 
 papers " of a very dangerous tendency." Arnold, on hearing the news, 
 fled to the river and escaped on board the Vulture. Andre was tried by 
 a court-martial at Tappan, and condemned to deatli. On the 2d of Oc- 
 tober he was led to the gallows, and, under the stern code of war, was 
 hanged. Though dying the death of a felon, he met his doom like a 
 brave man, and after times have commisei'ated his sad fate. Arnold 
 received his pay. 
 
 In the dark days of December there came a ray of light from 
 Europe. For several years Holland had secretly favored the Americans ; 
 now she began negotiations for a commercial treaty similar to that already 
 existing between France and the United States. Great Britain discovered 
 the purposes of the Dutch government ; there were angry remonstrances, 
 and then, on the 20th of December, an open declaration of war. Thus 
 the Netherlands were added to the enemies of England ; it seemed that 
 George III. and his ministers would have enough to do without further 
 efforts to enforce a stamp-act or levy a tax on tea. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 THE END. 
 
 T710R the Americans the year 1781 opened gloomily. . The condition 
 -*- of the army was desperate — no food, no pay, no clothing. Even the 
 influence of Washington was not sufficient to quiet the growing discontent 
 of the soldiery. On the first day of January the whole Pennsylvania 
 line, numbering nearly two thousand, mutinied, left their camp at Morris- 
 
 * John Paulding, David Williams and Isaac van Wart. Congress afterward rewarded 
 them with silver medals and pensions for life. 
 
346 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 town and marched toward Philadelphia. Genei'al Wayne, after trying in 
 vail) to prevent the insurrection, went with his men, still hoping to con- 
 trol them. At Princeton they were met by two emissaries from Sir Henry 
 Clinton, and were tempted with offers of money, clothing and release from 
 military service if they would desert the American standard. The mu- 
 tinous patriots made answer by seizing the British agents and delivering 
 tiiem to General Wayne to be hanged as spies. For this deed the com- 
 missioners of Congress, who now arrived, offered the insurgents a large 
 reward, but the reward was indignantly refused. Washington, knowing 
 how shamefully the army had been neglected by Congress, was not un- 
 willing that the mutiny should take its own course. The congressional 
 agents were therefore left to adjust the difficulty with the rebellious 
 troops. But the breach was easily healed; a few liberal concessions on 
 the part of the government sufficed to quiet the mutiny. 
 
 About the middle of the same month the New -Jersey brigade, sta- 
 tioned at Pompton, revolted. This movement Washington quelled by 
 force. General Robert Howe marched to the camp with five hundred 
 regulars and compelled twelve of the principal mutineers to execute the 
 two leaders of the revolt. From that day order was completely restored. 
 These insurrections had a good rather than a bad effect; Congress was 
 thoroughly alarmed, and immediate ju-ovisions were made for the better 
 support of the army. An agent was sent to France to obtain a further 
 loan of money. Robert Morris was appointed secretary of finance ; the 
 Bank of North America was organized ; and although the outstanding 
 debts of the United States could not be paid, yet all future obligations were 
 promjjtly met, for Morris and his friends pledged their private fortunes 
 to sustain the credit of the government. 
 
 In the North military movements were begun by Arnold. On 
 arriving at New York the traitor had received the promised commission, 
 and was now a brigadier-general in the British army. In the preceding 
 November, Washington and Major Henry Lee formed a plan to capture 
 him. Sergeant John Champe undertook the daring enterprise, deserted 
 to the enemy, entered New York, joined Arnold's company, and with two 
 assistants concerted measures to abduct him from the city and convey him 
 to the American camp. But Arnold suddenly moved his quarters, and 
 the plan was defeated. A month afterward he was given command of a 
 fleet and a land-force of sixteen hundred men, and on the 16th of Decem- 
 ber left. New York to make a descent on the coasts of Virginia. 
 
 Early in January the traitor entered James River and began war on 
 his countrjmien. His proceedings were marked with much ferocity, but 
 not with the daring which characterized his former exploits. In the 
 
THE END. 347 
 
 vicinity of Eichmond a vast quantity of public and private property was 
 destroyed. The country along the river was devastated ; and when there 
 was nothing left to excite his cupidity or gratify his revenge, Arnold took 
 up his headquarters in Portsmouth, a few miles south of Hampton Roads. 
 Again Washington j^lanued his ca]3ture. The French fleet, anchored at 
 Newport, was ordered to sail for Virginia to co-operate with La Fayette, 
 who was sent in the direction of Portsmouth with a detachment of twelve 
 hundred men. But Admiral Arbuthnot, being apprised of the movement, 
 sailed from New York and drove the French squadron back to Rhode 
 Island. La Fayette, deprived of the expected aid, was forced to abandon 
 the undertaking, and Arnold again escaped. 
 
 About the |niddle of April General Phillips arrived at Portsmouth 
 with a force of two thousand British regulars. Joining his troops with 
 those of Arnold, he assumed command of the whole, and again the fertile 
 districts of Lower Virginia were ravaged with fire and sword. Early in 
 May, Phillips died, and for seven days Arnold held the supreme com- 
 mand of the British forces in Virginia. That was the height of his trea- 
 sonable glory. On the 20th of the month Lord Cornwallis arrived at 
 Petersbui^ and ordered him to begone. Returning to New York, he 
 received from Clinton a second detachment, entered the Sound, landed at 
 New London, in his native State, and captured the town. Fort Griswold, 
 which was defended by Colonel Ledyard with a hundred and fifty militia- 
 men, was carried by storm. When Ledyard surrendered, the British 
 officer who received his sword stabbed him to death ; it was the signal 
 for a massacre of the garrison, seventy-three of whom were murdered in 
 cold blood ; of the remainder, thirty were wounded and the rest made 
 prisoners. With this bloody and ignominious deed the name of Arnold 
 disappears from American history. 
 
 Meanwhile, some of the most stirring events of the war had occurred 
 at the South. At the close of the preceding year General Greene had 
 taken command of the American army — which was only the shadow of 
 an army — at Charlotte, North Carolina. Cornwallis had fallen back in 
 the direction of Camden. Greene with great energy reorganized his 
 forces and divided them into an eastern and a western division ; the com- 
 mand of the latter was given to General Morgan. In the first days of 
 January this gallant officer was sent into the Spartanburg district of South 
 Carolina to repress the tories and encourage the patriot militia. His suc- 
 cess was such as to exasperate Cornwallis, who immediately despatched 
 Colonel Tarleton with his famous cavalry legion to destroy Morgan's 
 forces or drive them out of the State. The Americans, apprised of Tarle- 
 ton's approach, took a favorable iiositiou at the Cowpens, where, on the 
 
348 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 17th of January, they were attacked by the British, eleven hundred strong. 
 Tarleton, confident of success, made the onset with impetuosity ; but Mor- 
 gan's men sustained the shock witli firmness, and, when the enemy's re- 
 serves were called into action, either held their ground or retired in good 
 order. At the crisis of the battle the American cavalry, commanded by 
 Colonel William AVashiugton, made a furious charge and scattered the 
 British dragoons like chaff before them. The rout was complete — the vic- 
 tory decisive. ^Yashington and Tarleton had a personal encounter on the 
 field, and the latter fled with a sword-gash in his hand. His corps was 
 annihilated ; ten British officers and ninety privates were killed, and five 
 hundred and twenty-three were captured. Tm'O pieces of artillery, eight 
 hundred muskets and two flags were among the trojjhies of the battle. 
 
 When Cornwallis, who was encamped with his army thirty miles 
 down the Catawba, heard of the disaster to his arms, he made a rapid 
 march up the river to reach the fords in Morgan's rear. But Greene, 
 who had also heard the news, hastened to the camp of Morgan, took com- 
 mand in person and began a hasty retreat. At the same time he sent 
 word to General Huger, who commanded the eastern division, to fall 
 back toward Charlotte, where it was proposed to form a junction of the 
 two wings of the army. On the 28th of January INIorgan's di\-ision 
 reached the Catawba and crossed to the northern bank, with prisoners, 
 spoils and baggage. Within two hours the British van arrived at the 
 ford ; but it was already sunset, and Cornwallis concluded to wait for the 
 morning; then he would cro&s and win an easy victory. During the 
 night the clouds opened and poured down torrents ; in the morning the 
 river was swollen to a flood. It was many days before the British forced 
 their way across, dispersing the militia on the opposite bank. And now 
 began a second race, this time for the fords of the Yadkin. 
 
 The distance was sixty miles and the roads wretched. In two days 
 the Americans reached the river. The crossing was nearly effected, when 
 the British appeared in sight, attacked the rearguard and captured a few 
 wagons; nothing else was injured. That night the Yadkin was made 
 impassable by rains in the mountains, and Cornwallis Mas again delayed; 
 Greene pressed forward to Guilford Court-House, where he arrived on the 
 7th of February. The British marched up the Yadkin to the shallow 
 ford at Huntsville, where, on the 9th of the month, they succeeded in 
 crossing. The lines of retreat and pursuit were now parallel, and the two 
 armies were less than twentj'-five miles apart. A third time the race 
 began, and again the Americans won it. On the 13th, Greene, with the 
 main division, crossed the Dan into Virginia, and on the following day 
 the American reai-guard entered thp boats and was safe. The British van 
 
THE END. 349 
 
 was already in sight and the whole army but a few miles distant. Never 
 was a retreat more skillfully conducted. Cornwallis, mortified at his 
 repeated failures, abandoned the pursuit and retired with liis army to 
 Hillsborough. 
 
 Once in Virginia, Greene was rapidly reinforced. After a feAV days 
 of recruiting and rest he felt himself strong enough to begin offensive 
 movements. On the 22d of February he recrossed the Dan into North 
 Carolina. Meanwhile, Cornwallis had despatched Tarleton with a body 
 of cavalry into the region between the Haw and Deep Rivers to encourage 
 the tories. Being informed of this movement, Greene sent Colonel Lee 
 into the same district. Three hundred loyalists, already under arms, 
 were marching to join Tai'leton. On the route they were intercepted by 
 the American cavalry, whom, supposing them to be British, they saluted 
 with a shout of " Long live the king !" Colonel Lee and his men quietly 
 surrounded the unsuspecting tories, fell upon them as a band of traitors, 
 and killed or captured the entire company. 
 
 By the addition of the Virginia militia Greene's army now num- 
 bered four thousand four hundred men. Determining to avoid battle no 
 longer, he marched to Guilford Court-House, took a strong position and 
 awaited his antagonist. Cornwallis, accepting the challenge, at' once 
 moved forward to the attack. On the 15th of March the two armies met 
 on Greene's chosen ground, and a severe but indecisive battle was fought. 
 The forces of Greene were superior in numbers, and those of Cornwallis in 
 discipline. If the American militia had stood firm, the result would not 
 have been doubtful ; but the raw recruits behaved badly, brok<j line and 
 fled. Confusion ensued ; the Americans fought hard, but were eventually 
 driven from the field and forced to retreat for several miles. In killed 
 and wounded the British loss was greatest ; but large bodies of the militia 
 returned to their homes, reducing Greene's army to less than three thou- 
 sand. Nevertheless, to the British the result was equivalent to a defeat. 
 
 Cornwallis now boasted, made big proclamations, and then re- 
 treated. On the 7th of April he reached the sea-coast at Wilmington, 
 and immediately thereafter proceeded to Virginia. How he arrived at 
 Petersburg, superseded Arnold and sent him out of the State has already 
 been narrated. The British forces in the Carolinas remained under com- 
 mand of Lord Rawdon, who was posted with a strong division at Cam- 
 den. With him General Greene, after the departure of Cornwallis, was 
 lett to contend. The American army was accordingly advanced into 
 South Carolina. A detachment was sent against Fort Watson, on tlie 
 east bank of the Santee, and the place was obliged to surrender. Greene 
 tiarched with the main body to Hobkirk's Hill, a short distance north of 
 
350 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Camden, jjosted his men in a strong position and awaited the movements 
 of Rawdon. What that officer would do was not long a question of doubt. 
 On the 25th of April he moved from Camden with his entire force and 
 attacked the American camp. For once General Greene came near being 
 surprised ; but his men were swiftly formed for battle ; Rawdon's column 
 was badly arranged ; and for a while it seemed that the entire British 
 force would be slain or captured. Just at the critical moment, however, 
 some valuable American officers who commanded in the centre were 
 killed ; their regiments, becoming confused, fell back ; Rawdon saw his 
 advantage, pressed forward, broke the centre, captured the hill, and won 
 the day. The Americans retired from the field, but saved their artillery 
 and bore away the wounded. Again the genius of Greene made defeat 
 seem little less than victory. 
 
 On the 10th of May Lord Rawdon evacuated Camden and retired 
 to Eutaw Springs, sixty-five miles above the mouth of the Santee. The 
 BritLsh posts at Grauby, Orangcbm-g, Fort Mott and Augusta fell suc- 
 <!essively into the hands of the patriots. By the 5th of June only Eutaw 
 Springs, Charleston and Ninety-Six remained in possession of the enemy. 
 The latter place was already besieged by General Greene, who, after the 
 battle-of Hobkirk's Hill, advanced to Fort Granby, and thence to Ninety- 
 Six. For twenty-seven days the siege was pressed with vigor. The 
 supply of water was cut off from the fort, and the garrison could not 
 have held out more than t\vo days longer; but Lord Rawdon was 
 rapidly approaching Avith a force of two thousand men ; and the Ameri- 
 cans, after an unsuccessful assault, were obliged, on the 18th of June, to 
 raise the siege and retreat. Rawdon pursued, but Greene escaped, as 
 usual, and the British, abandoning Ninety-Six, fell back to Orangeburg. 
 Greene, with ceaseless activity, followed the retreating enemy, and would, 
 but for their strength, have assaulted Rawdon's works. Deeming the 
 position impregnable, the American general recrossed the Santee and took 
 his station on the highlands in Sumter district. Here, in the healthful 
 air of the hill-country, he passed the sickly months of summer. 
 
 Sumter, Lee and Marion were constantly abroad, traversing the 
 country in all directions, cutting off supplies from the enemy, breaking 
 his lines of communication and smiting the tories right and left. Lord 
 Rawdon now resigned the command of the British forces to Colonel Stuart 
 and went to Charleston. While there he became a princiijal actor in one 
 of the most shameful scenes of the Revolution. Colonel Isaac Hayne, an 
 eminent patriot M'ho had formerly taken an oath of allegiance to the king, 
 was caught in command of a troop of American cavalry. He was at once 
 taken to Charleston, ai'raigned before Colonel Balfour, the commandant, 
 
THE END. 
 
 351 
 
 hurried through the mocker)^ of a trial and condemned to deatli. Raw- 
 don gave his sanction, and on tlie 31st of July Colonel Hayne was hanged. 
 Just men in Europe joined with the j^atriots of America in denouncing the 
 act as worthy of barbarism. 
 
 On the 22d of August General Greene left the heights of the Santee 
 and marched toward Orangeburg. The British decamped at his approach 
 and took post at Eutaw Springs, forty miles below. The Americans 
 pressed after them and overtook them on the 8th of September. One 
 of the fiercest battles 
 of the war ensued ; and 
 General Greene was 
 denied a decisive vic- 
 tory only by the bad 
 conduct of some of his 
 men, who, before the 
 field was faii-ly won, 
 abandoned themselves 
 to eating and drink- 
 ing in the enemy's 
 camp. Stuart rallied 
 his troops, returned to 
 the charge and regain- 
 ed his position. 
 Greene, after losing 
 five hundred and fifty- 
 five men, gave over 
 the struggle. The 
 British lost in killed 
 and wounded nearly 
 seven hundred, and 
 more than five hun- 
 dred prisoners. On 
 
 the day after the battle Stuart hastily retreated to Monk's Corner ; Greene 
 followed with his army, and after two mouths of manceuvring and de- 
 sultory warfare the British were driven into Charleston. In the mean 
 time, General St. Clair had cleared North Carolina by forcing the enemy 
 to evacuate Wilmington. In the whole country south of Virginia only 
 Charleston and Savannah remained under dominion of the king's army ; 
 the latter city was evacuated by the British on the 11th of July, and the 
 former on the 14th of December, 1782. Sucli was tlie close of the Revo- 
 lution in the Carolinas and Georda. 
 
 GENERAL GREENE. 
 
352 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 But the final scene Mas to be enacted in Virginia. There, in the 
 last days of April, 1781, Cornwallis took command of the British army 
 and began to ravage the country on both banks of the James. In the 
 course of the following two months projjerty, j)ublic and private, was 
 desti'oyed to the value of fifteen million dollars. La Fayette, to whom 
 the defence of the State had been entrusted, was imable to meet Corn- 
 wallis in the field, but watched his movements with sleepless vigilance. 
 Wliile the British were in the vicinity of Richmond a detachment under 
 Tarleton proceeded as far west as Charlottesville, where tiie Virginia 
 legislature was in session. The town was taken, the country devastated, 
 and seven members of the assembly made prisoners. Governor JeiFersou 
 escaped only by riding into the mountains. 
 
 AVhcn there was little left to destroy, Cornwallis marched down 
 the nortii bank of the James to Green Springs, eight miles above the site 
 of Jamestown. He had received orders from Sir Henry Clinton to de- 
 scend the river and take such a position on the coast as would keep the 
 army within supporting distance of New York ; for Clinton was very 
 apprehensive that Washington and the French would attack him. La 
 Fayette hovered upon the rear of Cornwallis ; and on the 6th of July, 
 when it was supposed that the main body of the enemy had ci-ossed the 
 James, General Wayne, wlio led the American advance, suddenly attacked 
 the whole British army. Cornwallis was so surprised by the audacious 
 onset that M'heu Wayne, seeing his mistake, made a hasty retreat, no pur- 
 suit was attemj)tGd. The loss of the two armies was equal, being a hun- 
 dred and twenty on each side. After the passage of James River, the 
 British marched to Portsmouth, where Arnold had had his headquarters 
 in the previous spring There Cornwallis would iiave fortified himself ; 
 but the orders of Clinton were otherwise; and in the first days of August 
 the army was again embarked and conveyed to Yorktown, on the southern 
 bank of York River, a few miles above the mouth. 
 
 La Fayette quickly advanced into the peninsula and took post but 
 eight miles distant from the British. From this position he sent urgent 
 despatches to Wasliington, beseeching him to come to Virginia and aid in 
 striking the enemy a fatal blow. A powerful French armament, com- 
 manded by Count de Grasse, was hourly expected in the Chesapeake, 
 and Ija Fayette saw at a glance that if a fleet could bo anchored in the 
 mouth of York River, cutting off retreat, the doom of Cornwallis would 
 be sealed. During the months of July and August, Washington, from 
 his camp on the Hudson, looked wistfully to the South. But all the while 
 Clinton was kept in feverisii alarm by false despatches, written for the 
 purpose of fallmg into his hands. These intercepted messages indicated 
 
THE END. 
 
 353 
 
 that the Americans and French would immediately begin the siege of 
 New York ; and for that Clinton made ready. When, in the last days 
 of August, he was informed that Washington had broken up his camp 
 and was already marching with his whole army toward Virginia, the 
 British general would not believe it, but went on preparing for a siege. 
 AVashington pressed rapidly forward, paused two days at Mount Vernon, 
 where he had not been for six years, and met La Fayette at Williams- 
 burg. Meanwliile, on the 30th of August, the French fleet, numbering 
 twenty-eight ships of the line, with nearly four thousand troops on board, 
 had reached the Chesapeake and safely anchored in the mouth of York 
 River. Cornwallis, with the British army, was blockaded both by sea 
 and land. 
 
 To add still further to the strength of the allies. Count de Barras, 
 who commanded the French flotilla at Ne\vport, sailed into the Chesa- 
 peake with eight ships of the 
 line and ten transports, bear- 
 ing cannon for the siege. On 
 the 5th of September the 
 English admiral Graves ap- 
 peared in the bay, and a naval 
 battle ensued, in which the 
 British ships were so roughly 
 handled that they returned 
 to New York. On the 28th 
 of September the allied 
 armies, superior in numbers 
 and confident of success, en- 
 camped around Yorktown. 
 The story of the siege is brief. 
 Tarleton, who occupied Glou- 
 cester Point, on the other side 
 of the river, made one spirited sally, but was driven back with severe 
 loss. On the night of the 6th of October the trenches were opened at the 
 distance of six hundred yards from the British works. The cannonade 
 was constant and eifective. On the lltli of the month the allies drew 
 their second parallel withm three hundred yards of Cornwallis's redoubts. 
 On the night of the 14th the enemy's outer M'orks were carried bv storm. 
 At daydawn of the 16th the British made a sortie, only to be hurled back 
 into their entrenchments. On the next day Cornwallis proposed a sur- 
 render ; on the 18th terms of capitulation were drawn up and signed; 
 
 and at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 19th Maior-General O'Hara— 
 23 ■' 
 
 
 rC^^^^J&ron }^\ JirtliBh laid 
 
 
 IVoslilnstiMi jL, 
 
 ]Uagiii)ne Gen.Knoi 
 
 SIEGE OF YORKTOWN, OCTOBER, 17S1. 
 
354 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 for Cornwallis, feigning sickness, remained in his tent — led the whole 
 British army from tlie trenches into an open field, where, in the presence 
 cf the allied ranks of France and America, seven thousand two Imndred 
 and forty-seven English and Hessian soldiers laid down their arms, de- 
 livered their standards, and became prisoners of war. Eiglit hundred 
 and forty sailors were also surrendered. Seventy-five brass and thirty- 
 one iron guns were taken, together with all the accoutrements of the 
 army. 
 
 By a swift courier the news was borne to Congress. On tlic even- 
 ing of the 23d the messenger rode into Philadelphia. When the sentinels 
 of the city called the hour of ten that night, they added, " and Cornwallis 
 is taken" On the morrow Congress assembled, and before that august 
 body the despatch of Washington was read. The members, exulting and 
 weeping for gladness, went in concourse with the citizens to the Dutch 
 Lutheran church and turned the afternoon into a thanksgiving. The note 
 of rejoicing sounded through the length and breadth of the land ; for it 
 was seen that the dominion of the Briton in America was for ever broken. 
 
 After the surrender the conquered army was marched under guard 
 to the barracks of Lancaster. Wasliington, with the victorious Americans 
 and French, returned to the camps of New Jersey and the Hudson. On 
 the Continent of Europe the news was received with every demonstration 
 of gladness. In England the king and his ministers heard the tidings 
 with mortification and rage ; but the English people were either secretly 
 pleased or openly rejoiced. During the fall and winter the ministerial 
 majority in Parliament fell oif rapidly ; and on the 20th of March, 1782, 
 Lord North and his friends, unable louger to conduct the goveriunent, 
 resigned their offices. A new ministry was immediately formed, favor- 
 able to America, favorable to freedom, favorable to peace. In the begin- 
 ning of May the command of the British forces in the United States was 
 transferred from Clinton to Sir Guy Carleton, a man friendly to American 
 interests. The hostile demonstrations of the enemy, now confined to New 
 York and Charleston, ceased ; and Washington made no efforts to dis- 
 lodge the foe, for the war had really ended. 
 
 In the summer of 1782 Richard Oswald was sent by Parliament 
 to Paris. The object of his mission was to confer with Franklin and 
 Jay, the ambassadors of the United States, in regard to the terms of 
 peace. Before tiie discussions were ended, John Adams, arriving from 
 Amsterdam, and Henry Laurens from London, entered into the negotia- 
 tions. On the 30th of November preliminary articles of peace were 
 agreed to and signed on the part of Great Britain by Oswald, and on be- 
 half of the United States by Franklin, Adams, Jay and Laurens. In 
 
MAP V. 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 I THE 
 
 CLOSE OP THE REVOLUTION 
 
 TO THE 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana. 
 1783-1803. 
 
THE END. 355 
 
 the following April the terms were ratified by Congress; but it M'as 
 not until the 3cl of September, 1783, that a final treaty was effected be- 
 tween all tiie nations that had been at war. On that day the ambassadors 
 of Holland, Spain, England, France and the United States, in a solenm 
 conference at Paris, agreed to and signed the articles of a permanent 
 peace. 
 
 The terms of the Treaty of 1783 were briefly these: A full 
 and complete recognition of the independence of the United States ; the 
 recession by Great Britain of Florida to Spain ; the surrender of ail the 
 remaining territory east of the Mississippi and south of the great lakes to 
 the United States ; the free navigation of tiie Mississippi and tlie lakes 
 by American vessels ; the concession of mutual rights in the Xewfound- 
 land fisheries ; and the retention by Great Britain of Canada and Nova 
 Scotia, witli the exclusive control of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 Early in August Sir Guy Carleton received instructions to evacuate 
 New York city. Three months were spent in making arrangements for 
 this important event. Finally, on the 25t]i of November, everything 
 M'as in readiness ; the British army was embarked on board the fleet ; the 
 sails were spread ; the ships stood out to sea ; dwindled to white specks 
 on the horizon ; disappeared. The Briton was gone. After the struggles 
 and sacrifices of an eight years' war the patriots had achieved the inde- 
 pendence of their country. The United States of America took an equal 
 station among the nations of the earth. 
 
 Nine days after Carleton's departure there was a most aifecting 
 scene in the city. Washington assembled his oflicers and bade them a 
 final adieu. When they were met, the chieftain spoke a few affectionate 
 words to his comrades, who came forward in turn and with tears and 
 sobs which the veterans no longer cared to conceal bade him farewell. 
 Washington then walked to Whitehall, followed by a vast concourse of 
 citizens and soldiers, and thence departed to Annapolis, where Congress 
 was in session. On his way he paused at Philadelphia and made to the 
 proper officers a report of his expenses during the war. The account was 
 in his own handwriting, and covered a total expenditure of sevent)'-four 
 thousand four hundred and eighty-five dollars — all correct to a cent. 
 The route of the chief from Paulus's Hook to Annapolis was a continuous 
 triumph. The people by hundreds and thousands flocked to the villages 
 and roadsides to see him pass ; gray-headed statesmen to speak words of 
 praise ; young men to shout with enthusiasm ; maidens to strew his way 
 with flowers. 
 
 On the 23d of December Washington was introduced to Congress. 
 To that body of patriotic sages he delivered an address full of feeling, 
 
356 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 wisdom and modesty. Then with that dignity wliich always marked his 
 conduct he surrendered his commission as commander-in-chief of the 
 American army. General Mifflin, tlie president of Congress, responded 
 in an eloquent manner, and then the hero retired to his home at Mount 
 Vernon. Tlie man \^liom, the year before, some disaffected soldiers were 
 going to make king of America, now, by his own act, became a citizen 
 of the Kepublic. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 CONFEDERATION AND UNION. 
 
 DURING the progress of the Revolution the civil government of the 
 United States was in a deplorable condition. Nothifig Ijut the im- 
 minent peril of the country had, in the first place, led to the calling of a 
 Continental Congress. And when that body assembled, it had no method 
 of proceeding, no constitution, no power of efficient action. The two 
 great wants of the comitry were money (o carry on the M'ar and a central 
 authority to direct the war: the former of these was never met; and 
 Wasliington was made to supply the latter. Whenever Congress Mouhl 
 move in the direction of a firmer government, division \vould spring uj), 
 and action M'ould be checked by the remonstrance of jealous colonies. 
 Nevertheless, the more flxr-seeing statesmen of the times labored constantly 
 to create substantial political institutions. 
 
 Foremost of all those who worked for better government was Ben- 
 jamin Franklin. As early as the times of the French and Indian War 
 he began to agitate the question of a permanent union of the colonies. 
 During the troubled years just preceding the Revolution he brooded over 
 his cherished jjroject, and in 1775 laid before Congress the plan of a per- 
 petual confederation of the States. But the attention of that body was 
 wholly occupied with the stirring events of the day, and Franklin's 
 measure received but little notice. Congress, without any real authority, 
 began to conduct the government, and its legislation was generally ac- 
 cepted by the States. Still, the central authority was only an authority 
 by sufferauce, and was liable at any time to be annulled by the caj)rice 
 of State legislatures. 
 
 Under such a system thinking men grew restless. On the 11 th of 
 June, 1776, a committee was appointed by Congress to prepare a plan 
 
CONFEDERATION AND UNION. 357 
 
 of confederation. After a month tlie work was completed and laid before 
 tlie house. Another month was spent in fruitless debates, and tiien the 
 question was laid over till the following spring. In April of 1777 the 
 discussion was resumed, and continued through the summer. Meanwhile, 
 the power of Great Britain being overthrown, the States had all adopted 
 republican governments, and the sentiment of national union had made 
 considerable headway. Finally, on the 15th of November, a vote was 
 taken in Congress, and the articles of confederation reported by the com- 
 mittee were adopted. The next step was to transmit the articles to the 
 several State legislatures for ratification. The time thus occupied ex- 
 tended to the following June, and then the new frame of government was 
 returned to Congress with many amendments. These having been con- 
 sidered and the most serious objections removed, the articles were signed 
 by the delegates of eight States on the 9th of July, 1778. Later in the 
 same month the representatives of Georgia and North Carolina affixed 
 their signatures. In November the delegates of New Jersey, and in the 
 following February those of Delaware, signed the compact. Maryland 
 held aloof; and it was not until March of 1781 that the consent of that 
 commonwealth could be obtained. Thus the Revolution was nearly 
 ended before the new s^'stem was finally ratified. 
 
 The government of the United States under the articles of con- 
 federation was a democratic republic. It presented itself under the form 
 of A Loose Uxion of Ixdependent Cojijionwealths — a con- 
 federacy of sovereign States. The executive and legislative powers of 
 the general government were vested in Congress — a body composed of 
 not less than two nor more than seven representatives from each State. 
 But Congress could exercise no other than delegated powers; the sover- 
 eignty was reserved to the States. The most important of the exclusive 
 privileges of Congress were the right of making war and peace, the regu- 
 lation of foreign intercourse, the power to receive and send ambassadors, 
 the control of the coinage of money, the settlement of disputed boundaries 
 and the care of the public domain. There was'uo chief magistrate of the 
 Republic ; and no general judiciarv was provided for. The consent of 
 nine States was necessary to comjilete an act of legislation. In voting 
 each State cast a single ballot. The imion of the States was declared to 
 be perpetual. 
 
 On the day of the ratification of the articles by Maryland the old 
 Congress adjourned, and on the following morning reassembled under the 
 new form of government. From the very first the inadequacy of that 
 government was manifest. To begin with, it contradicted the doctrines 
 of the Declaration of Independence. Congress had but a shadow of 
 
358 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 authority, and tliat shadow, instead of proceeding from the peoplo, 
 emanated from Stiates which were decliired to be sovereign and inde- 
 pendent. The first great duty of the new government was to provide 
 for tlie payment of the war debt, which had now reached tiie sum of 
 tliirty-eight million dollars. Congress could only recommend to the 
 several States the levying of a sufficient tax to meet the indebtedness. 
 Some of the States made the required levy ; others were dilatorv ; others 
 refused. At the very outset the government was balked and thwarted. 
 The serious troubles that attended the disbanding of the army were trace- 
 able rather to the inability than to the indisposition of Congress to pay the 
 soldiers. The princely fortune of Robert Morris was exhausted and him- 
 self brought to poverty in a vain effort to sustain the credit of the govern- 
 ment. For thi-ee years after the treaty of peace public affairs were in a 
 condition bordering on chaos. The imperiled state of the Republic was 
 viewed with alarm by the sagacious patriots M'ho had carried the Revolu- 
 tion to a successful issue. It was seen that unless the articles of confedera- 
 tion could be replaced M'ith a better system the nation would go to ruin. 
 
 The project of remodeling the government originated at INIount 
 Vernon. In 1785, Washington, in conference with a company of states- 
 men at his home, advised the calling of a convention to meet at Annapolis 
 in the following year. The proposition was received with favor; and in 
 September of 1786 the representatives of five States assembled. The 
 question of a tariff" on imports was discussed ; and then the attention of 
 the delegates M'as turned to a revision of the articles of confederation. 
 Since only a minority of the States were represented in the conference, it 
 was resolved to adjourn until May of the following year, and all the 
 States were urgently requested to send representatives at that time. 
 Congress also invited the several legislatures to appoint delegates to the 
 proposed convention. All of the States except Rhode Island responded 
 to the call ; and on the second Monday in May, 1787, the representatives 
 a&sembled at Philadelphia. "Washington, who was a delegate from Vir- 
 ginia, was chosen president of the convention. A desultory discussion 
 followed until the 29th of the month, when Edmund Randolph intro- 
 duced a resolution to set aside the articles of confederation and adopt a 
 new constitution. There was further debate ; and then a committee was 
 appointed to revise the articles. Early in September the work was clone; 
 the report of the committee was adopted ; and that report was the Con- 
 stitution OF THE United States.* At the same time it was resolved 
 to send copies of the new instrument to the several legislatures for ratifi- 
 cation or rejection. 
 
 * The Constitution was written by Gouverneur Morris, of Pennsylvania. 
 
CONFEDEBATION AND UNION. 
 
 359 
 
 While the constitutional convention was in session at Philadel- 
 phia the last colonial Congress was sitting in New York. The latter 
 hoAy was in a feeble and distracted condition. Only eight States 
 were represented. It was evident that the old Confederation, under 
 which the colonies had won their freedom, was tottering to its fall. 
 Nevertheless, before the 
 adjournment of Con- 
 gress, a measure was suc- 
 cessfully carried through 
 which was only second in 
 importance to the forma- 
 tion of the constitution. 
 This was the organiza- 
 tion of THE North- 
 western Territory. 
 As a preliminary meas- 
 ure this vast domain was 
 ceded to the United 
 States by Virginia, New 
 York, Massachusetts, 
 and Connecticut. For 
 the government of the 
 territory an ordinance, 
 drawn up liy Mr. Jeffer- 
 son, Avas adopted on the 
 '13th of July, 1787. General Arthur St. Clair, then presidentof Congress, 
 received the appointment of military governor, and in the summer of 
 the following year began his duties with headquarters at Marietta. 
 By the terms of the ordinance it was stipulated that not less than 
 three nor more than five States should be formed out of the great 
 territory thus brought under the dominion of civilization ; that the 
 States when organized should be admitted on terms of equality with 
 the original members of the confederation, and that slavery should be 
 proliibited. Out of this noble domain the five great States of Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin were destined in after 
 times to be formed and added to the Union. 
 
 On the question of adopting the Constitution the people were 
 divided. It was the first great political agitation in the country. 
 Those who favored the new frame of government were called Fed- 
 eralists; those who opposed, Anti-Federalists or Republicans. 
 The leaders of the former party were Washington, Jay, Madison, and 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 
 
3G0 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Hamilton, the latter statesman throwing the whole force of his genius 
 and learning into the controversy. In those able papers called the Fed- 
 endld he and Madison successfully answered every objection of the 
 anti-Federal part}'. Hamilton was the first and perhaps the greatest 
 expounder of constitutional liberty in America. To him the Republic 
 owes a debt of perpetual gratitude for having established on a firm and 
 enduring basis the true principles of free government. 
 
 Under the Constitution of the United States the powers of gov- 
 ernment are arranged under three heads — Legislative, Executive, 
 and Judicial. The legislative power is vested in Congress — a body 
 • composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The members 
 .of the Senate are chosen by the legislatures of the several States, and 
 serve for a period of six years. Each State is represented by two Sen- 
 ators. The members of the House of Representatives are elected by 
 the people of the respective States ; and each State is entitled to a num- 
 ber of representatives proportionate to the population of that State. 
 The members of this branch are chosen for a term of two years. Con- 
 gress is the law-making power of the nation; and all legislative ques- 
 tions of a general character are the appropriate subjects of congress- 
 ional action. 
 
 The executive power of the United States is vested in a Pres- 
 ident, who is chosen for a period of four years by a body of men 
 called the electoral college. The electors composing the college arc 
 chosen by the people of the several States ; and each State is entitled 
 to a number of electors equal to the number of its representatives and 
 senators in Congress. The duty of the President is to enforce the laws 
 of Congress in accordance with the Constitution. He is commander- 
 in-chief of the armies and navies of the United States. Over the 
 legislation of Congress he has the power of veto ; but a two-thirds con- 
 gressional majority may pass a law without the President's consent. 
 He has the right of appointing cabinet officers and foreign ministers; 
 but all of his appointments must be approved by the Senate. The 
 treaty-making power is also lodged with the President; but here again 
 the concur-i-ence of the Senate is necessary. In case of the death, resig- 
 nation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President becomes chief 
 magistrate ; otherwise his duties ar-e limited to presiding over the Senate. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States is vested in a supreme 
 court and in inferior courts established by Congress. The highest 
 judicial officer is the chief-justice. All the judges of the supreme and 
 inferior courts hold their offices during life or good behavior. The 
 jurisdiction of these courts extends to all causes arising under the 
 
CONFEDERATION AND UNION. 361 
 
 Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States. The right of 
 trial by jury is granted in all cases except the impeachment of public 
 officers. Treason against the United States consists only in levying 
 ■war against them, or in giving aid and comfort to their enemies. 
 
 The Constitution further provides that full faith shall be given 
 in all the States to the records of every State; that the citizens of any 
 State shall be entitled to the privileges of citizens in all the States; 
 that new territories may be oi'ganized and new States admitted into 
 the Union ; that to every State sliall be guaranteed a republican form 
 of government ; and that the Constitution may be altered or amended 
 whenever the same is proposed by a two-thirds majority of both houses 
 of Congress, and ratified by three-fourths of the legislatures of the sev- 
 eral States. In accordance with this last provision fifteen amendments 
 have been made to the Constitution. The most important of these are 
 the articles which guarantee religious freedom ; change the method of 
 electing President and Vice-President ; abolish slavery ; and forbid 
 the abridgment of suffrage on account of race or color.* 
 
 Such was the Constitution adopted, after much debate, for the 
 government of the American people. Would the people ratif\' if? or 
 had the work been done in vain '? The little State of Delaware was 
 first to answer the question. In her convention on the 3d of Decem- 
 ber, 1787, the voice of the commonwealtii was unanimously recorded 
 in favor of the new Constitution. Ten days later Pennsylvania gave 
 her decision by a vote of forty-six to twenty-three in favor of ratifi- 
 cation. On the 19th of December New Jersey added her approval 
 by a unanimous vote ; and on the 2d of the following month Georgia 
 did the same. On the 9th of .January the Connecticut convention 
 followed, with a vote of a hundred and twenty-eight to forty, in favor 
 of adoption. In Massachusetts the battle was hard fought and barely 
 won. A ballot, taken on the 6th of February, resulted in ratification 
 by the close vote of a hundred and eighty-seven to a hundred and 
 sixty-eight. This really decided the contest. On the 28th of April 
 Maryland rendered her decision by the strong vote of sixty-three to 
 twelve. Next came the ratification of South Carolina by a vote of a 
 hundred and forty-nine to seventy-three. In the New Hampshire 
 convention there was a hard struggle, but the vote for adoption finally 
 stood fifty-seven to forty-six, June 21st, 1788. This was the ninth 
 State, and the work was done. For, by its own terms, the new gov- 
 ernment was to go into operation when nine States should ratify. The 
 great commonwealth of A^'irginia still hesitated. "Washington and 
 
 ■*■ See Appendix F. 
 
362 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Madison were for the Constitution ; but Jefferson and Henry were 
 opjwsed. Not until the 25th of June did her convention declare for 
 adoption, and then only by a vote of eighty-nine to seventy-nine. 
 It was now clear that the new government would be organized, 
 and this fact was brought to bear as a powerful argument in favor of 
 adojjtion by the convention at Poughkeepsie. The hope that New 
 York city would be the seat of the Federal government also acted as 
 a motive, and a motion to ratify was finally carried, July 27th, 1788. 
 Only Rhode Island and North Carolina persisted in their refusal. But 
 in the latter State a new convention was called, and on the 13th of 
 November, 1789, the Constitution was formally adopted. As to Ehode 
 Island, her pertinacity was in inverse ratio to her importance. At 
 length Providence and Newport seceded from the commonwealth; the 
 question of dividing the teritory between Massachusetts and Connecti- 
 cut was raised, and the refractory member at last yielded by adopting 
 the Constitution, May 29th, 1790. Then, for the first time, the Eng- 
 lish-speaking race in the New World was united under a common gov- 
 ernment — strong enough for safety, liberal enough for freedom. 
 
 In accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and a reso- 
 lution of Congress, the first Wednesday of January, 1789, was named 
 as the time for the election of a chief magistrate. The people had but 
 one voice as to the man who should be honored with that trust. Early 
 in April the ballots of the electors were counted in the presence of 
 Congress, and George Washington was unanimously chosen President 
 and John Adams Vice-President of the United States. On the 14th 
 of the month AVashington received notification of his election, and 
 departed for New York. His route thither was a constant triumph. 
 Maryland M'elcomed him at Georgetown. Philadeljihia by her execu- 
 tive council, the trustees of her university, and the officers of the Cin- 
 cinnati, did him honor. How did the people of Trenton exult in the 
 presence of the hero who twelve years before had fought their battle ! 
 There over the bridge of the Assanpink they built a triumphal arch, 
 and girls in white ran before, singing and strewing the way with flow- 
 ers. At Elizabethtown he was met by the princi2)al officers of the gov- 
 ernment and welcomed to the capital where he was to become the first 
 chief magistrate of a free and grateful people. With this auspicious 
 event the period of revolution and confederation ends, and the era of 
 nationality in the New Republic is ushered in. Long and glorious be 
 the history of that Republic, bought with the blood of patriots,, und 
 consecrated in the sorrows of our fathers ! 
 
PART V. 
 
 NATIO:^rAL PEEIOD. 
 
 A. ». 17S9— 1880. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI. 
 
 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION, 17S9-1797. 
 
 ON the 30th of April, 1789, Washington was duly inaugurated 
 President of the United States, The new government was to 
 gone into operation on 
 the 4th of March, but 
 the event was con- 
 siderably delayed. 
 The inaugural cere- 
 mony was performed 
 on the balcony of the 
 old City Hall, on the 
 present site of the 
 Custom-House, in 
 AVall street. Chancel- 
 lor Livingston of New 
 York administered the 
 oath of office. The 
 streets and house-tops 
 were thronged with 
 people; flags flutter- 
 ed ; cannon boomed 
 from the Battery. As 
 soon as the public cere- 
 mony was ended, 
 Washington retired to 
 the Senate chamber 
 and delivered his in- 
 augural address. The organization of the two houses of Congress 
 already been effected. 
 
 (363) 
 
 fil-st 
 have 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 had 
 
3G4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The new government was embarrassed with many difficulties. The 
 opponents of the Constitution were not yet silenced, and from the begin- 
 ning they caviled at the measures of the administration. By the treaty 
 of 1783 the free navigation of the Mississippi had been guaranteed. Now 
 the jealous Spaniards of New Orleans hindered the passage of American 
 ships. The people of the West looked to the great river as the natural 
 outlet of their commerce ; they must be protected in their riglits. On 
 many parts of the frontier the malignant Red men were still at war with 
 the settlers. As to financial credit, the United States had none. In the 
 very beginning of his arduous duties Washington was prostrated with 
 sickness, and the business of government was for many weeks delayed. 
 
 Not until September were tlie first important measures adopted. 
 On the 10th of that month an act Mas passed by Congress instituting a 
 department of foreign affairs, a treasury department and a department of 
 war. As members of his cabinet Wasiiington nominated Jefferson, Knox 
 and Hamilton ; the first as secretary of foreign affairs ; the second, of war ; 
 and the third, of the treasury. In accordance with the provisions of the 
 Constitution, a supreme court was also organized, John Jay receiving the 
 appointment of first chief-justice. With him were joined as associate 
 justices John Rutledge of South Carolina, James Wilson of Pennsyl- 
 vania, William Cushing of Massachusetts, John Blair of Virginia, 
 and James Iredell of North Carolina. Edmund Randolph was chosen 
 attorney-general. Many constitutional amendments were now brought 
 forward, and ten of them adopted. By this action on the part of 
 Congress, the objections of North Carolina and Rhode Island were 
 removed and both States ratified the Constitution, the former in No- 
 vember of 1789 and the latter in the following May. 
 
 On the 29th of September, 1789, Congress adjourned until the 
 following January, and Washington availed himself of the opportu- 
 nity thus offered to make a tour of the Eastern States. Accompanied 
 by his secretaries, he set out in his carriage from New York on the 
 15th of October, and nine days afterward reached Boston. At every 
 point on the route the affection of the people, and especially of the 
 Revolutionary veterans, burst out in unbounded enthusiasm. On 
 reaching Boston the President was welcomed by Governor John 
 Hancock and the selectmen of the city. No pains were S})ared that 
 could add to the comfort and pleasure of the new nation's chief mag- 
 istrate. After remaining a week among the scenes associated Avith 
 his first command of the American army, he proceeded to Portsmouth 
 and thence returned with improved health and peace of mind by way 
 of Hartford to New York. 
 
1789 
 
 93 
 
 97 
 
 1801 
 
 French 
 
 Greor 
 
 Kevolutiou. 1 Napo 
 
 97. Pinckney rejected 
 94. Partition of Poland. 
 93. Execution of Louis XVI. 99. Overth 
 
 93. Fall of the Girond ists. 99. Napole 
 
 93. Reign of Te rror. 
 
 94. Fall of Robes pierre. ISOO, 
 
 ge III. 96. Gr eat political disturbane 
 
 Washington, 
 
 91. Vermon 
 
 the 
 
 89. North Carolina rat 
 
 90. Rhode Island 
 
 90. Seat of govern 
 
 President. 
 
 t admitted into 
 Union, 
 ifles the Constitution. 
 
 92. K 
 
 Wash 
 
 91. i 
 
 St. 
 
 91. Bank of 
 
 John Adams, Vice- 
 
 leon Bonaparte. 
 
 by the French Directo ry. 
 
 4. The 
 
 row of the Directory. 
 
 on, First Consul. . -t 
 ' 4. Nap 
 
 Sombardment of 
 Copenhagen. 
 Marengo. 
 
 es in Eneland. 
 
 1800. 
 to 
 
 96. Te nnessee admitted into 
 ratifies the Constituti on. l.SOO. 
 
 John Adams, 
 
 ment at Philadelphia. 
 
 94. ''t '\ Wayne's 
 93. Genet, French min 
 eutucky admitted into 
 ington re-elected 
 Clair's defeat. 
 
 the United States estab 
 
 94. Whisky Insur 
 
 95. Jay's T 
 
 President. 
 
 Jo hn Adams re-elected 
 John Jay, Chief- Justice. 
 Jefferson, Secret ary of State. 
 Hamilton, Sec retary of Treasury. 
 Knox, Secre tary of War. 
 
 99. Wasliin 
 98. War with Fra 
 
 victory. 
 
 ister at Washington. 
 
 the Union. 99. Treaty 
 
 President. 
 
 lished. 
 
 rection. 
 reaty. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson 
 
 Vice-President. 
 
 great Ir 
 oleon, E 
 
 6. 
 6.) 
 
 2. Ohio admitted 
 
 Removal of the seat of 
 Washington, D. C. 
 the Union. 
 Passage of the Alien 
 
 President. 
 
 gton dies at Mount Ver 
 nee. 
 
 4. Ha 
 
 with France. 
 
 Thomas Jeffer 
 
 into thi] 
 govern) 
 
 and Sed 
 
 milton \ 
 6. 
 
 I! 
 
 Vice-President. 
 
 % m~fm f 
 
 1. Aaron Bnrr, Vice- 
 1. War with Tripoli. 
 
 3. Commod 
 3. Purchase 
 
 son, ; 
 
 5. The i 
 
 UsI 
 
 Jeff«j 
 
 4 
 
 Preside: 
 
 Georg 
 
 ore Prt 
 
 of Lou 
 
13 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 1833 
 
 8. The 
 rebellion. 
 ".Treaty of 
 
 ;ror. 
 
 jr. 
 
 I Jena. 
 
 ;kadeofthe 
 
 ■rlilz. 
 
 9. Divorce of Joseph! 
 Peninsular War. 
 
 10. Marriage of N 
 Tilsit. to Maria 
 
 12. In 
 Orders in Conn 
 
 a Laws. 
 
 ed in a du 
 rr's conspir 
 
 iident. 
 em of patro 
 in the pub 
 
 on re-elee 
 T.Firststea 
 
 7. Attacic 
 7. Passage 
 
 linton, Vi 
 
 sent to the 
 
 14. Deposition of 
 ne 14.1.ouisXVIII. 
 
 apoleon 15. lp|J Wa 
 Louisa. |*--*J 
 
 vasion of Russia. 
 cil. 1.5. Treaty 
 
 15. Else of 
 
 Wagram. 
 
 coast from Brest to 
 the Elbe. 
 
 James 
 
 12. Su 
 12. Su 
 
 el. 
 acy. 
 
 11. Dl?''>pe 
 
 ll.k^neiV 
 
 12. Se 
 12. W 
 
 12. P 
 George Clinton re- 
 
 12. P\ 
 
 nage estab- 
 
 lie offices. 12. 
 
 15. 
 
 16. Pa 
 Bomb 
 
 15. War wi 
 
 Napoleon. 
 
 terloo, and banishment 
 
 of Paris. 
 
 the Radical Party in 
 George IV. 
 
 rliamentary reforms. 
 ardment of Algiers. 
 
 th Algiers. 
 
 Madison, Presid 
 
 rrender of Mackinaw, 
 rrender of Detroit. 
 canoe. 14. Hartford Co 
 enry Dearborn appoin 
 
 14. li !;1 Capture 
 
 12.^ 
 
 ted President. 
 
 12.^ 
 mboat on the HudsoD 
 
 on the Chesapeake. 
 of the Embargo Act. 
 
 ce-President. 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 12. Lo 
 
 esident and Little Belt. 
 Madison re-elec 
 
 cond embargo. 
 
 ar declared against Gr 
 
 Fort Dearborn. 
 
 elected Vice-President. 
 14. Capture and 
 Queenstovm. 
 
 The Constitution and 
 14. Treaty of Gh 
 The Wasp and the Frol 
 
 The United States and 
 
 The Constitution and 
 13. ||[|lj^rcmcAiot«»re. 
 
 14. ^gj|i?'(W« Jl/i; 
 
 13. * «| Fort Meigs. 
 
 13. 
 
 Perry's victo 
 
 13.p\rae Thames. 
 
 \5.^S^NewOrlea 
 13.8-4 Horseshoe Bend. 
 
 13. ^E\ The Hornet 
 
 r^"^ The Chesapea 
 
 uisiana admitted into 
 
 Elbridge Gerry, Vi 
 
 13. 
 
 The Argus 
 14. k^Lundy's 
 
 U.^Plattsburg. 
 
 ent. 
 
 nvention. 
 
 ted commander-in-chi 
 
 20. M 
 
 the 
 
 of York. 
 
 ted President. 
 
 eat Britain. 
 
 18. The Seminole 
 18. Capture of St. 
 
 Ijurning of Wasliingt 
 
 Janies Monro 
 
 the Guerriere. 
 
 ent. 
 
 ic. 
 
 the Macedonian. 
 
 the Java. 
 
 18. Illinois admit 
 
 Henri/. 
 
 Uauiel Tompkins, 
 
 (liaua admitted into 
 
 ry. 
 
 21. Napoleon dies. 
 
 24. Ciiarles X. 
 
 of Napoleon. 
 
 England. 
 
 ef. 
 
 aine admitted into 
 Union. 
 
 War. 
 
 Marks and Pensacola. 
 24. Vis- 
 it of La 
 on. Fayette. 
 
 e» President. 
 
 Monroe re-elect- 
 ed President. 
 
 21. Missouri admitted 
 into the Union. 
 
 ted into the Union. 
 
 Vice-President. 
 the Union. 
 Tompkins re-elect- 
 ed Vice-President. 
 
 19. Alabam a admitted 
 
 in to the Union. 
 
 and the Peacock, 
 ke and the Shannon. 
 the Union. 
 ce-President. 
 
 and the Pelican. 
 
 Lane. 
 
 17. Mississippi admitt 
 19. Florida 
 
 21. Rise of the Slavery 
 agitation. 
 
 21. The Missouri Com- 
 promise. 
 
 ed into the Union. 
 ceded to the 
 
 United! States. 
 
WASHINGTON" S ADMINISTRATION. 365 
 
 111 the first months of his administration Washington was much 
 vexed about questions of ceremony and etiquette. How shoukl he 
 appear in public ? How often ? What kind of entertainment should 
 he give? - Who should be invited? What title should he bear? And 
 in what manner be introduced ? In these matters there was no pre- 
 cedent to guide him; for who had ever held such a station before? 
 He must not, on the one hand, demean himself like a king, surrounded 
 with peers and courtiers, nor, on the other hand, must he degrade his 
 liigh office by such blunt democratical ceremonies as would render 
 himself ridiculous and the Presidency contemptible. In his embar- 
 rassment Washington sought the advice of Adams, Jeiferson, Hamilton, 
 and others in regard to a suitable etiquette and ceremonial for the 
 Republican court. Adams in answer would have much ceremony ; 
 Jefferson, none at all. The latter said : " I hope that the terms Excel- 
 lency, Honor, Worship, Esquire, and even, Mr. shall shortly and 
 forever disappear from among us." Hamilton's reply favored a mod- 
 erate and simple formality; and this view was adoj)ted by Washington 
 as most consistent with the new frame of government. In the mean- 
 time Congress had declared that the chief magistrate should have no 
 title other than that of his office ; namely, President of the United 
 States. So with ceremonies few and simple the order of affairs in the 
 presidential office was established. 
 
 The national debt, however, was the greatest and most threat- 
 ening question ; but the genius of Hamilton triumphed over every 
 difficulty. The indebtedness of the United States, including the 
 revolutionary expenses of the several States, amounted to nearly 
 eighty millions of dollars. Hamilton adopted a broad and honest 
 policy. His plan, which was laid before Congress at the beginning 
 of the second session, proposed that the debt of the United States 
 due to American citizens, as well as the war debt of the individual 
 States, should be assumed by the general government, and that all 
 should be fully paid. By this measure the credit of the country was 
 vastly improved, even before actual payment was begun. As a 
 means of augmenting the revenues of the government a duty was 
 laid on the tonnage of merchant-ships, with a discrimination in favor 
 of American vessels; and customs were levied on all imported arti- 
 cles. Hamilton's financial schemes were violently opposed ; but his 
 policy prevailed, and the credit of the government was soon firmly 
 established. 
 
 The proposition to assume the debts of the States had been coupled 
 with another to fix the seat of government. After much discussion it was 
 
366 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 agreed to establish the capital for teu years at Philadelphia, and afterward 
 at some suitable locality on the Potomac. The next important measure 
 was the organization of the territory south-west of the Ohio. In the 
 autumn of 1790 a war broke out with the JNIiami Indians. Fort Wash- 
 ington, on the present site of Cincinnati, had been established as the 
 capital of the North-western Territory ; and General St. Clair had re- 
 ceived the appointment as governor. The Indians had fairly relinquished 
 their rights to the surrounding country ; but other tribes came forward with 
 pretended claims, and went to war to recover their lost possessions. At 
 the close of September, General Harmar, with fourteen hundred troops, 
 set out from Fort Washington to chastise the hostile JMiamis. After de- 
 stroying several villages and wasting the country as far as the Maumee, 
 he divided his army into detachments. Colonel Hardin, who commanded 
 the Kentucky volunteers, was ambuscaded and his forces routed at a vil- 
 lage eleven miles from Fort Wayne; and on the 21st of October the 
 main division was defeated with great loss at the JMaumee Ford. Gen- 
 eral Harmar was obliged to abandon the Indian country and retreat to 
 Fort Washington. 
 
 In the beginning of 1791 an act was passed by Congress establish- 
 ing THE Baxk of the Uxited States. The measure originated with 
 the secretary of tlie treasury, and was violently opposed by Jefferson and 
 the anti-federal party. About the same time Vermont, whicii had been 
 an independent territory since 1777, adopted the Constitution, and on the 
 18th of February was admitted into the Union as tlie fourteenth State. 
 The claim of New York to the jurisdiction of the province had been pur- 
 chased, two years previously, for thirty thousand dollars. The first census 
 of the United States, completed for the year 1790, showed that the popu- 
 lation of the country had increased to three million nine hundred and 
 twenty-nine thousand souls. 
 
 After tlie defeat of Harmar the government adopted more vigorous 
 measures for the repression of Indian hostilities. On the 6th of Septem- 
 ber, 1791, General St. Clair, with an army of two thousand men, set out 
 from Fort ^^'ashi^gton to break the power of the Miami confederacy. 
 On the night of November 3d he reached a point nearly a hundred miles 
 north of Fort Washington, and encamped on one of the upper tribu- 
 taries of the Wabash, in what is now the south-west angle of Mercer 
 county, Ohio. On the following morning at sunrise his camp was sud- 
 denly assailed by more than two thousand warriors, led by Little Turtle 
 and several American renegades who had joined the Indians. After a 
 terrible battle of three hours' duration, St. Clair was completely defeated, 
 with a loss of fully half his men. The fugitive militia retreated pre- 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 367 
 
 cipitately to Fort Washington, where they arrived four days after the 
 battle. The news of the disaster spread gloom and sorrow throughout 
 the land. When the tidings reached Philadelphia the government 
 wa.s for a while in consternation. For once the benignant spirit of 
 Washington gave way to wrath. "Here" said he in a tempest of 
 indignation, — " here, in this very room, I took leave of General St. 
 Clair. I wished him success and honor. I said to him, 'You have 
 careful instructions from the secretary of war, and I myself will add 
 one word — beware of a siu-prise. You know how the Indians fight us. 
 Beware of a surprise ! ' He went off with that, my last warning, 
 ringing in his ears. And yet he has suffered that army to be cut to 
 pieces, hacked, butchered, tomahawked by a surprise, — the very thing 
 I guarded him against ! How can he answer to his country ? The 
 blood of the slain is upon him, — the curse of widows and orphans ! " 
 INIr. Lear, the secretary, in whose presence this storm of wrath burst 
 forth, sat speechless. Presently Washington grew silent. " What I 
 have uttered must not go beyond this room," said he in a manner of 
 great seriousness. Another pause of .several minutes ensued, and then 
 he continued in a low and solemn tone: "I looked at the despatches 
 hastily and did not note all the particulars. General St. Clair shall 
 have justice. I will receive him Avithout disjjleasure, — he shall have 
 full justice." Notwithstanding his exculpation by a committee of Con- 
 gress, poor St. Clair, overwhelmed with censures and reproaches, 
 resigned his command and was superseded by General Wayne, whom 
 the people had named Mad Anthony. 
 
 The population of the Territory of Kentucky had now reached 
 seventy-three thousand. Only seventeen years befoi-e, Daniel Boone, 
 the hardy hunter of North Carolina, had settled with his companions 
 at Boonesborough. Hari'odsburg and Lexington were founded about 
 the same time. During the Revolution the pioneers were constantlv 
 beset by the savages. After the expedition of General Clarke, in 
 1779, the frontier was more secure; and in the years following the 
 treaty thousands of immigrants came annuallv. In the mean time, 
 Virginia had relinquished her claim to the territory ; and on the 1st 
 of June, 1792, Kentucky was admitted into the Union. At the presi- 
 dential election, held in the autumn of the same year, Washington was 
 again unanimously chosen; as Vice-President, John Adams was also 
 re-elected. 
 
 During Washington's second administration the country was 
 greatly troubled in its relations with foreign governments. Europe 
 was in an uproar. The French Revolution of 1789 was still running 
 
368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 its dreadful course. After three years of unparalleled excesses, the Ja- 
 cobins of France had beheaded the king and abolished the monarchy- 
 Citizen Genet was sent by tl^e new French republic as minister to the 
 United States. On his arrival at Charleston, and on his way to Phil- 
 adelphia, he was greeted with unbounded enthusiasm. Taking advan- 
 tage of his popularity, the ambassador began to abuse his authority, 
 fitted out privateers to prey on the commerce of Great Britain, planned 
 expeditions against Louisiana, and, although the President had already 
 issued a proclamation of neutrality, demanded an alliance with the 
 government. Washington and the cabinet firmly refused; and the au- 
 dacious minister threatened to appeal to the people. In this outrageous 
 conduct he was sustained and encouraged by the anti-Federal party, 
 and for a while the government was endangered. But Washington 
 stood unmoved, declared the course of the French minister an insult 
 to the sovereignty of the United States, and demanded his recall. The 
 republican authorities of France heeded the demand, and Genet was 
 superseded by M. Fouchet. 
 
 The President was also much embarrassed by dissensions in his cab- 
 inet. From the beginning of his first official term the secretaries of 
 state and the treasury had maintained towards each other an attitude 
 of constant hostility. They had gradually become the heads of rival 
 parties in the government. Hamilton's financial measures were at- 
 tacked with vehement animosity by Jefferson ; and the policy of the 
 latter in his relations and duties as secretary of foreign affairs was the 
 subject of much bitter criticism from the former's scathing pen. The 
 breach between the rivals grew wider and wider. AVashington's influ- 
 ence was barely sufficient to prevent the breaking up of his caliinct. 
 So great were the abilities and so valuable the experience of the two 
 secretaries that the services of neither could be spared without serious 
 detriment to the government. Both officers were patriots, and both 
 had insisted on Washington's reelection to the Presidency. After that 
 event, however, Jefferson, in .January of 1794, resigned his office and 
 retired to private life at Monticello. A year later Hamilton also re- 
 tired from the cabinet and was succeeded by Oliver Wolcott of Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 During the smnmer and autumn of 1794 the country was much 
 disturbed by a difficulty in Western Pennsylvania known as the whisky 
 insurrection. Hoping to improve the revenues of the government. Con- 
 gress had, three years previously, imposed a tax on all ardent spirits dis- 
 tilled in the United States. While Genet M'as at Philadelphia, he and 
 his partisans incited the people of the distilling regions to resist the tax- 
 
WASHiXG TON'S ADMINISTRATION. 369 
 
 collectors. The disaffected rose in arms. Washington issued two proc- 
 lamations, warning the insurgents to disperse; but instead of obeying, 
 they fired upon and captured the officers of the government. The Presi- 
 dent then ordered General Henry Lee to enter the rebellious district with 
 a sufficient force to restore order and enforce the law. When the troops 
 reached the scene of the disturbance, the rioters had already scattered. 
 The insurrection was a political rather than a social outbreak : the anti- 
 Federalists were in a majority in the distilling region, and the whisky-tax 
 was a measure of the Federal party. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Wayne had broken the INIiami confederacy. 
 In the fall of 1793 he entered the Indian country with a force of three 
 thousand men. Reaching the scene of St. Clair's defeat, he built a 
 stockade named Fort Recovery, and then pressed on to the junction of 
 the An Glaize and the Maumee, in Williams county, Ohio. Here he 
 built and garrisoned Fort Defiance. Descending the JNIaumee to the 
 rapids, he sent proposals of peace to the Indians, who were in council but 
 a few miles distant. Little Turtle, more wise than the other chiefs, 
 would have made a treaty ; but the majority were for battle. On the 
 20th of August AVayne marched against the savages, overtook them 
 where the i)resent town of Waynesfield stands, and routed them with tei'- 
 rible losses. The relentless general then compelled the humbled chief- 
 tains to purchase peace by ceding to the United States all the territory 
 east of a line drawn from Fort Recovery to the mouth of the Great 
 Miami River. This was the last service of General Wayne. Re- 
 maining for a while in the Indian countr}^ he embarked on Lake 
 Erie to return to Philadelphia. In December of 1796 he died on 
 board the vessel, and was buried at Presque Isle. 
 
 The conduct of Great Britain toward the LTnited States became as 
 arrogant as that of France was impudent. In November of 1793 George 
 III. issued secret instructions to British privateers to seize all neutral 
 vessels that might be found trading in the French West Indies. The 
 United States had no notification of this high-handed measure ; and 
 American commerce to the value of many millions of dollars was swept 
 from the sea by a process differing in nothing fnim highway robber}t\ 
 But for the temperate spirit of the government the country would have 
 been at once plunged into war. Prudence prevailed over passion ; and 
 in May of 1794 Chief-Justice Jay was sent as envoy extraordinarj' to 
 demand redress of the British government. Contrary to expectation, 
 his mission was successful; and in the following November an honor- 
 able treaty was concluded. The terms of settlement, however, were 
 exceedingly distasteful to the partisans of France in America, and they 
 
 24 
 
370 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 determined to prevent its ratification. Every argument and motive 
 which ingenuity or prejudice could supply was eagerly parade<l before 
 the people to excite their discontent. Public meetings were held and 
 excited orators harangued the multitudes. In New York a copy of 
 the treaty was burned before the governor's mansion. In Philadel- 
 phia there was a similar proceeding ; and the whole country was in 
 an uproar. Washington, however, believing the treaty to be just in 
 its main provisions, and earnestlv desiring that M'ar might be avoided, 
 favored ratification. The majority in the Senate remained unmoved, 
 and finally in the latter part of June, 1795, the terms of settlement 
 were duly ratified, and signed by the President. It was specified in 
 the treaty that Great Britain .should make ample reparation for the 
 injuries done by her privateers, and surrender to the United States 
 certain Western posts which until now had been held by English gar- 
 risons. Thus was the threatened war averted. 
 
 In October of 1795 the boundary between the United States and 
 Louisiana was settled by a treaty with Spain. The latter country at the 
 same time guaranteed to the Americans the free navigation of the I\Iis- 
 sissippi. Less honorable was the treaty made with the kingdom of 
 Algiers. For a long time Algerine pirates had infested the jNIediter- 
 raneau, jjreying upon the commerce of civilized nations; and those 
 nations, in order to purchase exemption from such ravages, had adopted 
 the ruinous policy of paying the dey of Algiei-s an annual tribute. In 
 consideration of the tribute the dey agreed that his pirate ships should 
 confine themselv^es to the Mediterranean, and should not attack the vessels 
 of such nations as made tlie payment. Now, however, with the purpose 
 of injuring France, Great Britain winked at an agreement with the dey 
 by which the Algerine sea-robbers were turned loose on the Atlantic. 
 By their depredations American commerce suifered greatly; and the 
 government of the United States was obliged to purchase safety by 
 paying the shameful tribute. 
 
 In the summer of 1796, Tennessee, the third new State, was 
 organized and admitted into the Union. Six years previously Nortli 
 Carolina had surrendered her claims to the territory, which at that time 
 contained a population of thirty-five thou-sand ; and within five years the 
 number Avas more than doubled. The first inlialjitants of Tennessee were 
 of that hardy race of pioneers to whom the jjerils of the wilderness are as 
 nothing provided the wilderness is free. By the addition of the two 
 States south-west of the Ohio more than eighty-three thousand square 
 miles of territory were brought under the dominion of civilization. 
 
 Nothing in history is more surprising than the ascendency which 
 
WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 37I 
 
 \yasliington, unto the end of his official career, continued to exercise 
 over the minds of his countrymen. In the House of Representatives, 
 during the hist two sessions, there had been a clear majority against 
 him and his policy ; and yet the House continued its support of his 
 measures. Even the provisions necessary to carry into effect the hated 
 treaty with Great Britain were made by that body, though the vote 
 was close. So powerful were the President's views in determining 
 the actions of the people that Jeiferson, writing to Monroe at Paris, 
 said : " Congress has adjourned. You Avill see by their proceedings 
 the truth of what I always told you, namely, that one man outweighs 
 them all in influence over the people, who support his judgment against 
 their own and that of their representatives. Republicanism resigns the 
 vessel to its pilot." 
 
 Washington was solicited to become a candidate for a third elec- 
 tion to the presidency ; but he would not. His resolution had already 
 been made to end his public career. With the Father of his Country 
 the evening of life drew on, and rest was necessary. Accordingly, in 
 September of 1796, he issued to the people of the United States his 
 Farewell Address — a document crowded with precepts of political 
 wisdom, prudent counsels, and chastened patriotism.^ As soon as the 
 President's determination was made known the political parties mar- 
 shaled their foi'ces and put forward their champions, John Adams ap- 
 pearing as the candidate of the Federal, and Thomas Jeiferson of the 
 anti-Federal party. Antagonism to the Constitution, which had thus 
 far been the chief question between the parties, now gave place to 
 another issue — whether it was the true policy of the United States to 
 enter into intimate relations with the republic of France. The anti- 
 Federalists said. Yes! that all republics have a common end, and that 
 Great Britain was the enemy of them all. The Federalists said. No ! 
 that the American republic must mark out an independent course 
 among the nations, and avoid all foreign alliances. On that issue Mr. 
 Adams was elected, but Mr. Jefferson, having the next highest num- 
 ber of votes, became Vice-President ; for according to the old provis- 
 ion of the Constitution, the person who stood second on the list was 
 declared the second officer in the government. 
 
 * See Appendix G 
 
372 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UyiTED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATIOy, 1797-1801. 
 
 JOHN ADAMS, second President of the United States, M-as born in 
 the town of Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19th, 1735. He was a 
 great-grandson of that Henry Adams who, emigrating from Great Brit- 
 ain in 1640, founded in America a family made famous by many illus- 
 trious names. Eight 
 sons of the elder 
 Adams settled around 
 Massachusetts B a y , 
 the grandfather of the 
 President in that part 
 of Braintree after- 
 wards called Quincy. 
 The father of John 
 Adams was a Puritan 
 deacon, a selectman 
 of the town, a farmer 
 of small means, and a 
 shoemaker. The son 
 received a classical ed- 
 ucation, being gradu- 
 ated at the age of 
 twenty from Harvard 
 College. For a while 
 he taught school, but 
 finding that vocation 
 to be, as he expressed 
 it, a school of affliction, he turned his attention to the study of law. In 
 this profession he soon became eminent, removed to Boston, engaged 
 with great zeal in the controversy with the mother country, and was 
 quickly recognized as an able leader of pulilic o])ini<Mi. From this 
 time forth his services were in constant dcnuuid both in his native 
 State and in the several colonial Congresses. He was a member of 
 the celebrated committee aj)pointed to draft the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, and in the debates on that instrument was its chief defender. 
 
 JOHN ADAMS. 
 
ABAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 373 
 
 During the last years of the Revolution he served his country as 
 ambassador to France, Holland, and Great Britain, being the first 
 minister to that country after the recognition of American independ- 
 ence. From this important station he returned in 1788, and was soon 
 afterwards elected Vice-President under the new frame of government. 
 After serving in this office for eight years, he was chosen as the suc- 
 cessor of Washington. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1797, President Adams was inaugurated. 
 From the beginning his administration was embarrassed by a power- 
 ful and well-organized opposition. Adet, the French minister, made 
 inflammatory appeals to the people, and urged the government to 
 conclude a league with France against Great Britain. When the 
 President and Congress stood firmly on the doctrine of neutrality, 
 the French Directory grew insolent, and began to demand an alli- 
 ance. The treaty which Mr. Jay had concluded with England was 
 especially complained of by the partisans of France. On the 10th 
 of March the Directory issued instructions to French men-of-war to 
 assail the commerce of the United States. Soon afterward Mr. Pinck- 
 ney, the American minister, was ordered to leave the territory of 
 France. 
 
 These proceedings were equivalent to a declaration of war. The 
 President convened Congress in extraordinary session, and measures 
 were devised for repelling the aggressions of the French. Elbridge 
 Gerry and John Marshall were directed to join Mr. Pinckney in a 
 final ettbrt for a peaceable adjustment of the difficulties. But the 
 effort was fruitless. The Directory of France refused to receive the 
 ambassadors except upon condition that they woald pledge the pay- 
 ment into the French treasury of a cpiarter of a million of doUai-s. 
 Pinckney answered with the declaration that the United States had 
 millions for defence, but not a cent for tribute. The envoys were then 
 ordered to leave the country ; but Gerry, who was an anti-Federalist, 
 was permitted to remain. These events occupied the summer and fall 
 of 1797. 
 
 In the beginning of the next year an act was passed by Con- 
 gress completing the organization of the army. Washington was called 
 from the retirement of his old age and appointed commander-in-chief. 
 Hamilton was chosen first major-general. A navy of .six frigates, be- 
 sides privateers, had been provided for at the session of the jjrevious 
 year; and a national loan had been authorized. The patriotism of 
 the people was thoroughly aroused ; the treaties with France were de- 
 clared void, and vigorous preparations were made for the impending 
 
374 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 war. The American frigates put to sea, and in the .summer and fall 
 of 1799 did good service for the commerce of the country. Commo- 
 dore Truxtun, in the ship Constellation, won distinguished honors. On 
 the 9th of February, M-hile cruising in the West Indies, he attacked 
 the Insurgent, a French man-of-war carrying forty guns and more than 
 four hundred seamen. A desperate engagement ensued ; and Truxtun, 
 though inferior in cannons and men, gained a complete victory. A 
 year later he overtook another frigate, called the Vengeance, and after 
 a five hours' battle in the night would have captured his antagonist 
 but for a storm and the darkness. These events added greatly to the 
 renown of the American flag. 
 
 The organization of the provisional army was soon completed. 
 The commander-in-chief repaired to Philadelphia and remained five 
 weeks with Generals Hamilton and Pinckney, superintending the 
 work. Such measures were taken as were deemed adequate to the 
 defence of the nation, and then Washington retired to Mount Ver- 
 non, leaving the greater part of the resj)onsibility to be borne by 
 Hamilton. The news of these warlike proceedings was soon carried 
 to France, and the shrewd Talleyrand, minister of foreign aifairs for 
 the French republic, seeing that his dismissal of Mr. Monroe and 
 General Pinckney had given mortal oifence to the American people, 
 managed to signify to Vans Murray, ambassador of the United States 
 to Holland, that if President Adams would send another minister to 
 Paris he would be cordially received. Murray immediately transmit- 
 ted this hint to the President, who caught eagerly at this opportunity 
 to extricate the country from apprehended war. On the 18th of Feb- 
 ruary he transmitted a message to the Senate nominating Mr. Murray 
 liimself as minister plenipotentiary to the French republic. The nom- 
 ination was confirmed, and the ambassador was authorized to proceed at 
 once to France. It was also agreed by the Senate that two other per- 
 sons should be added to the embassy ; and Oliver Ellsworth and AVill- 
 iam R. Davie were accordingly commissioned to proceed to Amsterdam 
 and join Murray in his important mission to the French capital. 
 
 Meanwhile, Napoleon Bonaparte had overthrown the Directory 
 of France and made himself first consul of the republic. More wise 
 and politic than his associates in the government, he immediately 
 sought peace with the the United States. For he saw clearly enough 
 that the impending war would, if prosecuted, inevitably result in an 
 alliance between America and England — a thing most unfavorable to 
 the interests of France. He was also confident that peaceful overtures 
 on his part w^ould be met with favor. The three American ambassa- 
 
ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 375 
 
 dors — ^Murray, Ellswortli and Davie — reached Paris, after raany delays, 
 in the beginning of March, 1800. jS'egotiations were at once opened, 
 and, in the following September, were happily terminated witli a treaty 
 of peace. In all liis relations with tlie United States Napoleon acted the 
 part of a consistent and honorable ruler. 
 
 Before the war-cloud was scattered America was called to mourn 
 the loss of ^Yashington. On the 14th of December, 1799, after an illneas 
 of only a day, the venerated chieftain passed from among the living. AH 
 hearts were touched with sorrow. The people put on the garb of mourn- 
 ing. Congress went in funeral procession to the German Lutheran church, 
 where General Henry Lee, the personal friend of Washington, delivered 
 a touching and eloquent oration. Throughout the civilized world the 
 memory of the great dead was honored with appropriate ceremonies. To 
 the legions of France the event was announced by Bonaparte, M'ho paid 
 a beautiful tribute to the virtues of " the warrior, the legislator and the 
 citizen without reproach." As the body of Washington was laid in the 
 sepulchre, the voice of partisan malignity that had not hesitated to assail 
 his name was hushed into everlasting silence ; and the world with un- 
 covered head agreed with Lord Byron in declaring the illustrious dead to 
 have been among warriors, statesmen and patriots 
 
 " The first, the last, the best, 
 
 The Cincinnatus of the West." 
 
 The administration of Adams and the eighteenth century drew to a 
 close together. In spite of domestic dissensions and foreign alarms, the 
 new republic was growing strong and influential. The census of 1800 
 showed that the i)Oi>uIation of the country, including the black men, had 
 increased to over five millions. The seventj'-five post-offices reported by 
 the census of 1790 had been multiplied to nine hundred and three; the 
 exports of the United States had grown from twenty millions to nearly 
 seventy-one millions of dollars. The permanency of the Constitution as 
 the supreme law of the land was now cheerfully recognized. In Decem- 
 ber of 1800 Congress for tlie first time assembled in Washington city, the 
 new capital of the nation. Virginia and Maryland had ceded to the 
 United States the District of Columbia, a tract ten miles square lying on 
 both sides of the Potomac ; but the j)art given by Virginia was afterward 
 re-ceded to that State. The city ^^■hich was designed as the seat of govern- 
 ment was laid out in 1792; and in 1800 the population numbered be- 
 tween eight and nine thousand. 
 
 With prudent management and unanimity the Federal party might 
 have retained control of the government. But there M'ere dissensions in 
 
376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Mr. Adams's cabinet. Much of the recent legislation of Congress had 
 been unwise and unpopular. The alien law, by which the President was 
 authorized to send out of the country any foreigners whose presence 
 should be considered prejudicial to the interests of the United States, was 
 specially odious. The sedition law, which punished with fine and im- 
 prisonment the freedom of speech and of the press when directed abusively 
 against the government, was denounced by the opposition as an act of 
 tyranny. Partisan excitement ran high. Mr. Adams and Mr. Charles 
 C. Pinckney were put forward as the candidates of the Federalists, and 
 Thomas .Jefferson and Aaron Burr of the Republicans or Democrats. The 
 latter were triumphant. In the electoral college Jefferson and Burr each 
 received seventy-three votes; Adams, sixty-five; and Pinckney, sixty-four. 
 In order to decide between the Democratic candidates, the election was re- 
 ferred to the House of Representatives. After thirty-five ballotings, the 
 choice fell on Jefferson ; and Burr, who was now second on the list, was 
 declared Vice-President. After controlling the government for twelve 
 years, the Federal party passed from power, never to be restored. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1801-1S09. 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON was born in the county of Albemarle, 
 Virginia, on the 2d of April, 1743. Of his ancestry, history has 
 preserved no record other than the name of his father. Colonel Peter 
 Jefferson, a man noted for native abilities and force of character. The 
 son found excellent advantages of early training in the private school 
 of an exiled Scottish clergyman, and afterwards completed his educa- 
 tion at William and Mary College. He then entered upon the study 
 of law, and soon rose to distinction. Like his predecessor in the pres- 
 idential office, he became in his early manhood deeply absorbed in the 
 controversy with the mother country, and by his radical views in the 
 House of Burgesses contributed much to fix forever the sentiments of 
 that body against the arbitrary measures of the English ministry. 
 
 From the councils of his native State Jefferson Avas soon called 
 to the councils of the nation. His coming was anxiously awaited in 
 the famous Congress of 1776 ; for his fame as a thinker and a demo- 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 377 
 
 crat had preceded him. To his pen and brain the almost exclusive 
 authorship of the great Declaration must be awarded. During the 
 struggles of the Revolution he was among the most distinguished and 
 uncompromising of the patriot leaders. After the war was over, he 
 was sent abroad with 
 Adams and Franklin 
 to negotiate treaties 
 of amity and com- 
 merce with the Eu- 
 ropean nations, and 
 was then appointed 
 minister plenipoten- 
 tiary of the new 
 Eepublic to France. 
 From this high trust 
 he was recalled to 
 become secretary of 
 state under Wash- 
 ington; in 1796 was 
 elected Vice - Presi - 
 dent, and in 1800 
 President of the 
 United States. The 
 American decimal 
 system of coinage, 
 the statute for relig- 
 ious freedom, the Declaration of Independence, the University of 
 Virginia, and the presidency of the Union are the immutable foun- 
 dations of his fame. 
 
 At the beginning of his administration Mr. Jefferson transferred 
 the chief offices of the government to members of the Democratic 
 party. This policy had in some measure been adopted by his prede- 
 cessor; but the principle was now made universal. Such action was 
 justified by the adherents of the President on the ground that the 
 affairs of a I'epublic will be best administered when the officers hold 
 the same political sentiments. One of the first acts of Congress was 
 to abolish the system of internal revenues. The unpopular laws against 
 foreigners and the freedom of the press were also repealed. But the 
 territorial legislation of Jefferson's first term was most important of 
 all. 
 
 In the year 1800 a line was drawn through the North-west 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON. 
 
378 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Territory from the iiioiith of the Great Miami River to Fort Recovery, 
 and thence to Canada. Two years afterward the country east of this 
 line was erected into the State of Ohio and admitted into the Union. 
 The portion west of the line, embracing the present States of Indi- 
 ana, Illinois, Wisconsin and a jjart of Michigan, was organized under 
 the name of the Indiana Territory. Vincennes was the capital ; 
 and General "William Henry Harrison received the appointment of 
 governor. About the same time the organization of the Mississippi 
 Territory, extending from the western limits of Georgia to the great 
 river, M'as completed. Thus another grand and fertile district of a 
 hundred thousand square miles was reclaimed from barbarism. 
 
 More important still Avas the purchase of Louisiana. In 1800 
 Napoleon had comjDelled Spain to make a secret cession of this vast 
 territory to France. The First Consul then prejjared to send an army 
 to New Orleans for the purpose of establishing his authority. But 
 the government of the United States remonstrated against such a pro- 
 ceeding; France was threatened with multijjliod wars at home; and 
 Bonaparte, seeing the dilhculty of maintaining a colonial empire at so 
 great a distance, authorized his minister to dispose of Louisiana by 
 sale. The President appointed INIr. Livingston and James Monroe 
 to negotiate the purchase. On the 30th of April, 1803, the terms of 
 transfer were agreed on by ^e agents of the two nations ; and for the 
 sum of eleven million two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, Louisi- 
 ana was ceded to the United States.* In another convention, which 
 was signed on the same day, it was agreed that the government of 
 the United States should assume the payment of certain debts due 
 from France to American citizens ; but the sum thus assumed should 
 not, inclusive of interest, exceed three million seven hundred and fifty 
 thousand dollars. Thus did the vast domain west of the ^Mississippi, 
 embracing an area of more than a million square miles, pass under 
 the dominion of the LTnited States. 
 
 Four nations — France, the United States, Great Britain, and 
 Spain — were concerned in determining the boundaries of the ceded 
 territory. In regard to the eastern limit, all were agreed that it 
 should be the Mississippi from its source to the thirty-first parallel 
 of latitude. On the south-east the boundary claimed by the United 
 States, Great Britain, and France, was the thirty-first parallel from 
 the Mississippi to tlie Appalachicola, and down that river to the Gulf. 
 
 * Bonaparte accepted in payment six per cent, bonds of the United States, payable 
 fifteen years after date. He also agreed not to .sell the bonds at such a price as would 
 degrade the credit of the American goTernment. 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMIXISTEATION. 379 
 
 From this line, however, Spain dissented, claiming the Iberville and 
 Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain as the true limit between Louisi- 
 ana and her possessions in West Florida ; but she was obliged, after 
 fruitlessly protesting, to yield to the decision of her rivals. On the 
 south, by the consent of all, the boundary was the Gulf of Mexico as 
 far west as the mouth of the Sabine. The south-western limit was 
 established along the last named river as far as the thirty-first j)aral- 
 lel ; thence due north to Red River ; up that stream to the one-hun- 
 Iredth meridian from Greenwich ; thence north again to the Arkan- 
 sas; thence with that river to the mountains; and thence north with 
 the mountain chain to the forty-second parallel of latitude. Thus far 
 all four of the nations were agreed. But the L^nited States, Great 
 Britain, and France — again coinciding — claimed the extension of the 
 boundary along the forty-second parallel to the Pacific Ocean ; and to 
 this extension Spain, for several years, refused her assent; but in the 
 treaty of 1819 her objections were formally withdrawn. In fixing the 
 northern boundary only the United States and Great Britain were 
 concerned ; and the forty-ninth parallel from the Lake of the Woods 
 to the Pacific was established as the international line.* 
 
 The purchase of Louisiana was the greatest event of Jefferson's 
 administration. Out of the southern portion of the new acquisition 
 the Territory of Orleans was organized, with the same limits as 
 the present State of Louisiana ; the rest of the vast tract continued 
 to be called the Territory of Louisiana. The possession of the 
 Mississippi was no longer a matter of dispute. Very justly did Mr. 
 Livingston say to the French minister as they arose from signing the 
 treaty : " We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our 
 whole lives." 
 
 Two years previous to these events John Marshall had been 
 nominated and confirmed as chief-justice of the United States. His 
 appointment marks an epoch in the history of the country. In the 
 colonial times the English constitution and common law had pre- 
 
 ■•■■■ See Map VII. The discussion of tlie boundaries of Louisiana is thus fully given 
 because of the many statements, needlessly contradictory, which have been made on 
 the subject. Between the years 1803 and 1819 there was some ground for controversy, 
 but since the latter date none whatever— except as to the northern line. For all the 
 facts tending to elucidate the subject, see American Slate Papers; topics: Treaty of 
 Paris, 1763; Definitive Treaty between Great Britain and the United States, 1783; Text 
 of the Louisiana Cession, 1803; Boundary Conventions between the United States and 
 Great Britain, 1818 and 1846; Treaty of Washington, 1S19. See also Walker's Statis- 
 tical Atlas nfthe United States; subject: Areas and Political Divisions, pp. 2 and 3; and 
 t\\e American Cyclopaedia. ; article: Louisiana. 
 
380 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vailed in America, and judicial decisions were based exclusively on 
 precedents established in English courts. When, in 1789, the new 
 republic was organized, it became necessary to modify to a certain 
 extent the principles of j urisprudence and to adapt them to the al- 
 tered theory of gov- 
 ernment. In some 
 measure this great 
 work was undertak- 
 en by Chief-Justice 
 Jay ; but he was a 
 great statesman ra- 
 ther than a great 
 judge. It remained 
 for Chief-Justice 
 Marsliall to estab- 
 lish on a firm and 
 enduring basis the 
 noble structure of 
 Amei'ican law. For 
 thirty-five years he 
 remained in his high 
 office, bequeathing 
 to after times a great 
 number of valuable 
 decisions, in which 
 the principles of the 
 jurisprudence of the United States are set forth with unvarying clear- 
 ness and invincible logic. 
 
 The Mediterranean pii-ates still annoyed American merchantmen. 
 All of the Barbary States — as the Moorish kingdoms of Xortiicrn Af- 
 rica are called — had adopted the plan of extorting annual tributes 
 from the European nations. The emperors of Morocco, Algiers and 
 Tripoli became especially arrogant. In 1803 the government of the 
 United States despatched Commodore Preble to the ]\Iediterranean to 
 pi'otect American commerce and punish the hostile powers. The ar- 
 mament proceeded first against Morocco ; but the frigate Philadelphia, 
 commanded by Captain Bainbridgc, was sent directly to Tripoli. When 
 nearing his destination, Bainbridge gave chase to a pirate which fled 
 for safety to the batteries of the harbor. The Philadelphia, in close 
 pursuit, ran upon a reef of rocks near the sliore, became unmanage- 
 able, and was captured by the Tripolitans. The crew and officers 
 
 CHIEF-JUSTICE MARSHALL. 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 381 
 
 were taken ; the latter were treated with some respect, but the former 
 were euslaved. The emperor Yusef and his barbarous subjects were 
 greatly elated at their unexpected success. 
 
 In the following February Captain Decatur recaptured the P7n7- 
 adelphla in a marvelous manner. Sailing from Sicily in a small ves- 
 sel called the Intrepid, he came at nightfall in sight of the harbor of 
 Tripoli, where the Philadelphia was moored. The Intrepid, being a 
 Jloorish ship which the American fleet had captured, was either un- 
 seen or unsuspected by the Tripolitans. As darkness settled on the 
 «ea, Decatur steered his course into the harbor, slipped alongside of 
 the Philadelphia, lashed the two ships together, sprang on deck with 
 his daring crew of only seventy-four men, and killed or drove over- 
 board every Moor on the vessel. In a moment the frigate was fired, 
 for it was the purpose to destroy her ; then Decatur and his men, es- 
 caping from the flames, returned to the Intrepid and sailed out of the 
 harbor amid a storm of balls from the Tripolitan batteries. Not a 
 man of Decatur's gallant band was lost, and only four were wounded. 
 
 In the last of July, 1804, Commodore Preble arrived with his 
 fleet at Tripoli and began a blockade and siege which lasted till the 
 following spring. The town was frequently bombarded, and several 
 Moorish vessels were destroyed ; but not even the pounding of Amer- 
 ican cannon-balls was sufficient to bring Yusef to terms. In the mean- 
 time, however, it was ascertained that the services of Hamet, Yusef 's 
 elder brother, the deposed sovereign of Tripoli, might be secured to 
 aid in reducing the barbarians to submission. Hamet was at this time 
 in Upper Egypt, commanding an army of Mamelukes in a war against 
 the Turks. To him General William Eaton, the American consul at 
 Tunis, was despatched with proposals of an alliance against the usurp- 
 ing Yusef. Hamet eagerly accepted the overture, and furnished Gen- 
 eral Eaton with a fine body of Arab cavalry and seventy Greek soldiers. 
 With this force the American commander set out from Alexandria on 
 the 5th of March, 1805. He traversed the Desert of Barca for a thou- 
 sand miles, and on the 25th of April reached Derne, one of Yusef 's 
 eastern sea-ports. Yusef himself was already approaching with an 
 army ; and General Eaton found it necessary to storm the town. A 
 division of the American fleet arrived in the harbor at the fortunate 
 moment and aided in the work. The place was gallantly carried. 
 The assaulting column was made up of Arab cavalry, Greek infiintrv, 
 Tripolitan rebels, and American sailors serving on land ! The Stai's 
 ■iind Stripes never before or since waved over so motley an assem- 
 blage ! Yusef, alarmed at the dangers which menaced him by sea 
 
382 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and land, made hasty overtures for peace. His offers were accepted by Mr. 
 Lear, the American consul-general for the Barbary States ; and a treaty 
 was concluded on the 4th of June, 1805.* For several years thereafter 
 the flag of the United States ^v•as respected in the Mediterranean. 
 
 In the summer of 1804 the country was shocked by the intelligence 
 that Vice-President Burr had killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. As 
 the first term of Mr. Jefferson drew to a close, Burr foresaw that the 
 President would be renominated, and that he himself would not be re- 
 nominated. Still, he had his eye on the presidency, and was determined 
 not to be baffled. He therefore, while holding the office of Vice-Presi- 
 dent, became a candidate for governor of Xew York. From that posi- 
 tion he would pass to the presidency at the close of Jefferson's second 
 term. But Hamilton's powerful influence in New York prevented Burr's 
 election ; and his presidential ambition received a stunning blow. From 
 that day he determined to kill the man whom he pretended to regard as 
 the destroyer of his hopes. He accordingly sought a quarrel M^ith Hamil- 
 ton ; challenged him; met him at Weehawken, opposite New Yoi-k, on 
 the morning of the 11th of July, and deliberately murdered him; for 
 Hamilton had tried to avoid the challenge, and when face to face with 
 his antagonist refused to fire. Thus under the savage and abominable 
 custom of dueling the brightest intellect in America was put out in 
 darkness. 
 
 In the autumn of 1804 Jefferson was re-elected President. For 
 Vice-President George Clinton of New York was chosen in place of 
 Burr. In the following year that part of the North-western Territory 
 called Wayne county was organized under a separate territorial govei'n- 
 meut with the name of Michigan. In the same sjjring, Captains Lewis 
 and Clarke, acting under orders of the President, set out from the falls 
 of the Missouri River with a party of thirty-five soldiers and hunters to 
 cross the Rocky Mountains and explore Oregon. Not until November 
 did they reach their destination. For two yeare, through forests of gigantic 
 pines, along the banks of unknown rivers and down to the shores of the 
 Pacific, did they continue their explorations. After wandering among 
 unheard-of tribes of barbarians, encountering grizzly bears more ferocious 
 than Bengal tigers, escaping pei-ils by forest and flood, and traversing a 
 route of six thousand miles, the hardy adventurers, with the loss of but 
 one man, returned to civilization, bringing new ideas of tiie vast domains 
 of the West. 
 
 * It is a matter of astonishment that Lear agreed to pay Yusef sixty thousand dollars 
 for the liberation of American slave*: their liberation ought to have been compeUed— 
 and might have been if Lear had said so. 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 883 
 
 After the death of Hamilton, Burr fled from po2)ular indignation 
 and sought refuge in the South. At the opening of the next session of 
 . Congress he returned to the capital, and presided over the Senate until 
 tlie expiration of his term of office. Then he delivered his valedictory, 
 ■went to the West, and, after traveling through several States, took up his 
 residence with an Irish exile named Harman Blannerhassett, who had 
 laid out an estate and built a splendid mansion on an island in the Ohio, 
 just below the mouth of the Muskingum. Here Burr made a wicked 
 and treasonable scheme against the peace and happiness of the countr}^ 
 His plan was to raise a sufficient military force, invade Mexico, wrest that 
 country from the Spaniards, detach the Western and Southern States from 
 the Union, make himself dictator of a South-western empire, and perhaps 
 subvert the government of the United States. For two years he labored 
 to perfect his plans. But his purposes were suspected. In accordance 
 with a proclamation of the President, the military preparations at Blan- 
 nerhassett's Island were broken up ; and in February of 1807 Burr him- 
 self was arrested in Alabama and taken to Richmond to be tried on a 
 charge of treason. Chief-Justice Marshall j^resided at the trial, and Burr 
 conducted his own defence. The verdict was, " Not guilty, for want of 
 sufficient proof" But his escape was so narrow that under an assumed 
 name he fled from the country. Returning a few years after\\'ard, he re- 
 sumed the practice of law in New York, lived to extreme old age, and 
 died alone in abject poverty. 
 
 Daring Jefferson's second administration the country was con- 
 stantly agitated by the aggressions of the British navy on American com- 
 merce. England and France were enjiased in deadlv and continuous war. 
 In order to cripple the resources of their enemy, the British authorities 
 struck blow after blow against the trade between France and foreign 
 nations ; and Napoleon retaliated with equal energy and vindietiveness 
 against the commerce of Great Britain. The measures adopted by the 
 two powers took the form of blockade — that is, the surrounding of each 
 other's ports with men-of-war to prevent the ingress and egress of neutral 
 ships. By such means the commerce of the United States, which had 
 grown vast and valuable while the European nations were fighting, was 
 greatly injured and distressed. 
 
 In May of 1806 England declared the whole coast of France from 
 Brest to the Elbe to be in a state of blockade. Neutral nations had no 
 warning. Many American vessels, approaching the French ports, were 
 seized and condemned as prizes ; all this, too, while the harbors of France 
 were not actually, but only declared to be, blockaded. In the following 
 November Bonaparte issued a decree blockading the British isles. Again 
 
384 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the unsuspecting merchantmen of the United States were subjected to 
 seizure, this time by the cruisers of France. In January of the next 
 year the government of Great Britain retaliated by an act prohibiting 
 the French coasting-trade. Every one of these measures was in fla- 
 grant violations of the laws of nations. The belligerent powers had 
 no right to take such steps toward each other; as to neutral States, 
 their rights were utterly disregarded; and the nation that suifered 
 most was the United States. 
 
 In addition to these causes of complaint an old crime against 
 international law had, in the mean time, been revived by the Eng- 
 lish government, to the great distress of American commerce. At the 
 outbreak of the French and Indian War George II. had issued an edict 
 forbidding the vessels of neutral nations to trade with the colonies of 
 France or the provinces of any other country with which Great Brit- 
 ain might be at war. The offences committed under the authority of 
 this arbitrary decree, which was known as the Rule of 1756, had 
 been greatly injurious to the commerce of the colonies, and during 
 Washington's administration had occasioned many complaints and re- 
 monstrances. But in June of 1801, in a treaty between Great Britain 
 and Russia, the former government assented to such a modification of 
 the Rule as rendered it comparatively harmless. The effect of this 
 modification was exceedingly beneficial to neutral nations, especially 
 to America. Between the years 1803 and 1806 the foreign carrying- 
 trade of the United States was increased nearly fivefold, while that of 
 England fell off in a nearly corresponding ratio. Vexed and morti- 
 fied at this result, and caring little for justice if the supremacy of the 
 British merchant-marine could be maintained, tlie ministry, in the 
 summer of 1805, revived the old edict in full force, and impudently 
 asserted that it was a part of the law of nations f The result, as had 
 been clearly foreseen by the English lords of trade wlio contrived the 
 measure, was that American merchantmen trading largely with the 
 dependencies of France and Spain, were driven from the ocean, and 
 the commerce of the United States shrank suddenly into insignifi- 
 cance. 
 
 Finally Great Britain aggravated her injustice by a still more 
 arrogant and unwarrantable procedure. The English theory of citi- 
 zenship is, that whoever is born in England remains througli life a 
 subject of the British Empire. The privilege of an Englishman to 
 expatriate himself — that is, the right to go abroad, to throw off his 
 allegiance to the British crown, and to assume the obligations of citi- 
 zenship in another nation — is absolutely denied. Under this iron rule 
 of " once an Englishman, always an Englishman," the British cruisers 
 
JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTEA TION. 385 
 
 were from time to time authorized to search American vessels and to 
 take therefrom all persons suspected of being subjects of Great Brit- 
 ain. One of the chief objects had in view in this iniquitous business 
 was to prevent the emigration of the Irish to the United States. The 
 impulsive sons of the Emerald Isle, hearing of the free institutions and 
 boundless j)rospects of America, were flocking hither in great num- 
 bers, and something must be done to stop the movement. George IIi. 
 and his advisers therefore marshaled forth their despotic theory of cit- 
 izenship and set it up like a death's-head at every port of the British 
 Isles. Inasmuch as every Irishman or Scotchman who ventured on 
 board an American vessel would exjwse himself to the peril of seizure 
 and impressment, it was, with good reason, believed that not many 
 would take the fearful risk. And the apprehensions of the emigrants 
 were well founded ; for all those who had the misfortune to be over- 
 taken at sea were, without inquiry, impressed as marines in the Eng- 
 lish navy. To crowd the decks of their men-of-war with unwilling 
 recruits, torn from home and friends, was the end which the British 
 king and ministry were willing to reach at whatever sacrifice of na- 
 tional honor. Finally to these general wrongs was added a special act 
 of violence which kindled the indignation of the Americans to tli' 
 highest pitch. 
 
 On the 22d of June, 1807, a frigate, named the Chesapeake whicli 
 had just sailed out of the bay of the same name, was approached by a 
 British man-of-war, called the Leopard. The frigate was hailed ; Brit- 
 ish officers came on board as friends, and tlien, to the astonishment of 
 Commodore Barron, who commanded the Chesapeake, made a demand 
 to search the vessel for deserters. The demand was indignantly re- 
 fused and the ship cleared for action. But before the guns could be 
 gotten in readiness, the Leopard poured in several destructive broad- 
 sides and compelled a s\irrender. Four men were taken from the 
 captured ship, three of wiiom proved to be American citizens; the 
 fourth, who was an actual deserter, was tried by the British naval 
 officers and hanged. The government of Great Britain disavowed 
 the outrage of the Leopard, and promised reparation ; but the prom- 
 ise was never fulfilled. 
 
 The President at once issued a proclamation forbidding British 
 ships of war to enter the harbors of the United States. Still, there 
 was no reparation ; and on the 21st of December Congress passed the 
 celebrated Embaego Act. By its provisions all American vessels 
 were detained in the poi-ts of the United States. The object ^vas, by 
 cutting off commercial intercourse with France and Great Britain, to 
 compel them to recognize the rights of American neutrality. But tiie 
 
386 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 measure was of little avail ; and after fourteen months the embargo 
 act was repealed.* Meanwhile, in November of 1808, the British 
 government outdid all previous proceedings by issuing an " order in 
 council," prohibiting ull trade with France and her allies. And Napo- 
 leon, not to be outdone, issued his famous " Milan decree," forbidding 
 all commerce with England and her colonies. Between these outra- 
 geous acts of foreign nations and the American embargo, the com- 
 merce of the United States was well-nigh crushed out of existence. 
 
 While the country was distracted with these troubles Robert Ful- 
 ton was building the first steamboat. This event exercised a vast 
 
 influence on the fu- 
 ture development of 
 the nation. It was 
 of the first impor- 
 tance to the people 
 of the inland States 
 that their great riv- 
 ers should be enliv- 
 ened with rapid and 
 regular navigation. 
 This, without the ap- 
 plication of steam, 
 was impossible ; and 
 this Fulton success- 
 fully accomplished. 
 Indeed, the steam- 
 boat was the harbin- 
 ger of a new era in 
 civilization. Fulton 
 was an Irishman by 
 descent and a Penn- 
 sylvanian by birth. His education was meagre and imperfect. In 
 his boyhood he became a painter of miniatures at Philadelphia. His 
 friends sent him to London to receive instruction from Benjamin 
 West; but his tastes led him to the useful rather than to the fine 
 arts. From London he went to Paris, where he became acquainted 
 with Chancellor Livingston ; and there he conceived the project of 
 applying steam to the purposes of navigation. Returning to New 
 York, he began the construction of a steamboat in East River. When 
 
 * Tlie enib.irgo act was the subject of much ridicule. The opiK)nents of the measure 
 spelling tlie word backward, called it the Oi-ab me act. 
 
JEFFERSOyS ADmXISTRATIOy. 387 
 
 the ungainly craft was completed and brought around to the Jersey 
 .side of the city, Fulton invited his friends to go on board and enjoy 
 a trip to Albany. It was the 2d of Septembei-, 1807. The incredu- 
 lous crowds stood staring on the shore. The word Avas given, and the 
 boat did not move. Fulton went below. Again tlie word was given, 
 and this time the boat moved. On the next day the hajjpy company 
 reached Albany. For many years this first rude steamer, called the 
 Clermont, plied the Hudson. The old methods of river navigation 
 were revolutionized. 
 
 But tlie inventive genius of Fulton was by no means satisfied 
 with the great achievement. For years his thouglits had been busy 
 with another jjroject which was considered by himself of greater value 
 and importance to the future interests of mankind tlian the steamboat. 
 His object was to produce some kind t)f an engine, so destructive to 
 ships as to banish naval irarfare by makuig it possible for any one to 
 destroy the most formidable vessels irhich could be constructed. Finally 
 his plans were matured, and the result was the invention of that sul)- 
 marine bomb, called the Torpedo, which has played so important a 
 part iu the bay and river battles of modern times. This terrible ma- 
 chine is as distinctly and certainly the fruit of Fulton's brain as i- 
 steam navigation itself; but the result has hardly met the expectations 
 of the inventor. As early as 1804, having completed the invention at 
 Paris, he offered it successively to the governments of France, Hol- 
 land, and Great Britain ; but neither nation would accept the patron- 
 age of so dangerous an engine. In England a public demonstration 
 ftf its destructive effects was given in the presence of British states- 
 men and men of science.* On the 15th of October, in Walmer Roads, 
 within sight of the residence of William Pitt, the Danish brig Doro- 
 thea, which had been given by the government for that purpose, was 
 blown to atoms on the first trial. But, although the success of the 
 torpedo was manifest, the English ministry refused to accept the in- 
 vention on the ground that Great Britain, already mistress of the seas, 
 did not need torpedoes, and that their use by other nations woidd de- 
 stroy her supi-emacy. Logic of habitual selfishness ! In 1807, and 
 again in 1810, Fulton offered his invention to the United States, and 
 in the latter year received an appropriation of five thousand dollars 
 for further experiments. Such was the terror inspired by the torpedo 
 that, although it was not very successfully used in the war that ensued, 
 the British cruisers were notably shy of the American coast, and many 
 a sea-port town was saved from destruction. 
 
 * Colonel Congreve, inventor of the "Congreve Kocket," was present on the occasion. 
 
388 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 JeiFerson's administration drew to a close. The territorial area 
 of the United States had been vastly extended. Burr's wicked and 
 dangerous conspiracy had come to naught. Pioneers were pouring 
 into the valley of the IMississippi. Explorers had crossed the mount- 
 ains of the great West. The woods by the river-shores resounded 
 with the cry of steam. But the foreign relations of the United States 
 were troubled and gloomy. There were forebodings of war. The 
 President, following the example of Washington, declined a third 
 election, and was succeeded in his high office by James Madison of 
 ^'irgiuia. For Vice-President George Clinton was re-elected. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 MADISON S ADMINISTRATION, AND WAR OF 1S12. 
 
 JAMES MADISON, fourth President of the United States, was born 
 at King George, Virginia, on the 16th of March, 1751. He was 
 educated first in a private school and afterwards at Princeton College, 
 Avhere he was graduated at the age of twenty. Devoting himself to 
 the profession of the law, he found time for extensive reading and a 
 profoimd study of morals, metaphysics, and polite literature. From 
 these pursuits, so congenial to his disposition, his sterling patriotism 
 called him to take an active part in the struggles of the Revolution. 
 In the councils of his own State and afterwards in the Continental 
 Congress his influence was marked and powerful. But of all the pa- 
 triot leaders Madison had the calmest and least aggressive spirit. Not 
 by oratory and vehemence of passion, but by philosophy and cogent 
 argument, did he mould the opinions of his fellow-men. It was he 
 who, in 1786, secured the passage by the legislature of Virginia of 
 the resolution, suggested by Washington, calling for a convention of 
 the States at Annaj)olis — a work M-hich resulted in the formation of 
 ■the Federal Constitution. Afterwards, with Hamilton and Jay, he 
 defended that great instrument in the Federalid; but with the new 
 division of parties, his views underwent a change and he joined him- 
 self with the Jeifersonian school of statesmen. For eight years he 
 held the office of secretary of state ; and on the 4th of March, 1809, 
 was inaugurated as Jefferson's successor in the presidency. He owed 
 his election to the Democratic party, whose sympathy with France 
 and hostility to the policy of Great Britain were well known. Three 
 
MADISON'S ADMIXISTRA TION. 
 
 389 
 
 days before the new administration came into power, the embargo act 
 was repealed by Congress ; but another measure was adopted instead, 
 called the non-intercourse act. By its terms American merchantmen 
 were allowed to go abroad, but were forbidden to trade with Great Brit- 
 ain. Mr. Erskine, the 
 British minister, now 
 gave notice that by 
 the 10th of June the 
 " orders in council," 
 so far as they affect- 
 ed the United States, 
 should be repealed. 
 But the British gov- 
 ernment disavowed 
 the act of its agent; 
 and the orders stood 
 as before. 
 
 In the following 
 spring the e m p e r o r 
 of the French issued 
 a decree authoriz- 
 ing the seizure of all 
 American vessels 
 that might approacli 
 the ports of France 
 or other harbors held by his troops. But in November of the same 
 year the hostile decree was reversed, and all restrictions on the com- 
 merce of the United States were removed. If Great Britain had acted 
 Avith equal liberality and justice, there would have been no further 
 complaint. But that government, with peculiar obstinacy, adhered to 
 its former measures, and sent ships of war to hover around the Amer- 
 ican ports and enforce the odious orders issued in the j)revious years. 
 It was only a question of time when such insolence would lead to re- 
 taliation and war. 
 
 The affairs of the two nations were fast approaching a crisis. It 
 became more and more apparent that the wrongs perpeti-ated by Great 
 Britain against the United States would have to be corrected by force 
 of arms. That England, after such a career of arrogance, would now 
 make reparation for the outrages committed by her navy was no longer 
 to be hoped for. The ministry of that same George III. with whom 
 the colonies had struggled in the Revolution still directed the affair.* 
 
 JAMES MADISON. 
 
390 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the kingdom; from him, now grown old and insane, nothing was 
 to be expected. The government of the United States had fallen 
 completely under control of the party which sympathized with France, 
 while the Federal party, from its leaning toward British interests and 
 institutions, grew weaker year by year. The American j^eople, smart- 
 ing under the insults of Great Britain, had adopted the motto of Free 
 Teade and Sailors' Eights, and for that motto they had made up 
 their minds to fight. The elections, held between 1808 and 1811, 
 showed conclusively the drift of public opinion; the sentiment of the 
 country was that war was preferable to fui'ther humiliation and dis- 
 grace. 
 
 In the spring of 1810 the third census of the United States was 
 completed. The population had increased to seven million two hun- 
 dred and forty thousand souls. The States now numbered seventeen, 
 and several new Territories were preparing for admission into the 
 Union. The resources of the nation were abundant; its institutions 
 deeply rooted and flourishing. But with the rapid march of civilization 
 westward the jealousy of the Red man was aroused, and Indiana Ter- 
 ritory was afflicted with an Indian war. 
 
 The Shawnees were the leading tribe in the country between the 
 Ohio and the "Wabash. Their chief was the famous Tecumtha, a brave 
 and sagacious wari-ior; and with him was joined his brother Elkswa- 
 tawa, called the Prophet. The former was a man of real genius; the 
 latter, a vile impostor who pretended to have revelations from the 
 spirit-world. But they both worked together in a common cause; and 
 their plan was to unite all the nations of the North-west Territory in 
 a final effort to beat back the whites. When, therefore, in September 
 of 1809, Governor Harrison met the chiefs of several tribes at Fort 
 Wayne, and honorably purchased the Indian titles to three million 
 acres of land, Tecumtha refused to sign the treaty, and threatened 
 death to those who did. In the year that followed he visited the 
 nations as far south as Tennessee and exhorted them to lay aside their 
 sectional jealousies, in the hope of saving their hunting-grounds. 
 
 Governor Harrison from Vincennes, the capital of the Territory, 
 remonstrated with Tecumtha and the Prophet, held several conferences 
 with them, and warned them of what would follow from their proceed- 
 ings. Still, the leaders insisted that they would have back the lands 
 which had been ceded by the treaty of Fort Wayne. The governor 
 stood firm, sent for a few companies of soldiers and mustered the mi- 
 litia of the Territory. The Indians began to prowl through the Wa- 
 bash Valley, murdering and stealing. In order to secure the country 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 391 
 
 and enforce the terms of the treaty, Harrison advanced up tlie river 
 to Terra Haute, built a fort wiiich received iiis own name, passed on 
 to Montezuma, where another block-house was built, and then hastened 
 toward the town of the Prophet, at the mouth of the Tippecanoe. 
 AVhen within a few miles of his destination, Harrison was met by In- 
 dian ambassadors, who asked for the appointment of a conference on 
 the following day. Their request Avas granted ; and the American 
 army encamped for the night. The jjlace selected -was a jjiece of high 
 ground covered with oaks. Burnet Creek skirted the encampment on 
 the west. Beyond that, as well as to the east of the oak grove, were 
 prairie marsh-lands covered with tall grass. Before daylireak on the 
 following morning, 7th of November, 1811, the treacherous savages, 
 nundicring seven hundred, crept through the marshes, surrounded 
 Harrison's position and burst upon the camp like demons. But the 
 American militia were under arms in a moment, and fighting in the 
 darkness, held the Indians in cheek until daylight, and then routed 
 them in several vigorous charges. On the next day the Americans 
 burned the Prophet's town and soon afterward returned victorious to 
 Vincennes. Tecumtha was in the South at the time of the battle ; 
 when he Returned and found his people scattered and subdued, he re- 
 paired to Canada and joined the standard of the British. 
 
 Meanwhile, the powers of Great Britain and the United States 
 had come into conflict on the ocean. On the 16th of May Commo- 
 dore Eodgers, cruising in the American frigate President, hailed a 
 vessel off the coast of Virginia. Instead of a polite answer, to his 
 .salutation, he received a cannon-ball in the mainmast. Other shots fol- 
 lowed, and Eodgers responded with a Ijroadside, silencing the enemy's 
 guns. In the morning — for it was already dark — the hostile ship 
 M'as found to be the British sloop-of-war Little Belt. The vessel had 
 been severely though justly punished by the President, having eleven 
 men killed and twenty-one wounded. The event produced great ex- 
 citement throughout the country. 
 
 On the 4th of November, 1811, the twelfth Congress of the 
 United States assembled. In the body were many men of marked 
 ability and patriotism. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina now took 
 his seat as a member of the House of Representatives. Henry Clay, 
 already distinguished as a statesman, was chosen speaker. From the 
 first it was seen that war was inevitable. It was impossible for the 
 United States, knowing that more than six thousand American citi- 
 zens had been impressed into the British navy, to endure, without dis- 
 honor, further injury and insolence. Still, many hoped for peace; and 
 
392 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the winter passed without decisive measures. The President himself 
 had no disposition and little capacity for war; and his various mes- 
 sages to Congress were marked as the productions of a ruler over-cau- 
 tious and timid. But not so witli the fiery leaders of the Democracy 
 who supported the President's administration ; and notwithstanding 
 the opposition of the Federalists, the war-spirit fired the popular heart. 
 
 In the mean time a transaction was brought to light which cre- 
 ated intense excitement and roused the indignation of the whole 
 country. On the night of the 2d of February, 1812, an Irishman, 
 named John Henry, now a naturalized citizen of the United States, 
 called at the President's mansion and revealed to him the astounding 
 fact that the ministry of Great Britain, cooperating with Sir James 
 Craig, governor of Canada, had been engaged for some years in a trea- 
 sonable scheme to destroy the American Union! Henry bore a letter 
 from Governor Gerry of Massachusetts, and all the documents neces- 
 sary to prove the truth of his statements. As early as 1808 the atten- 
 tion of the Canadian governor had been called to certain publislied 
 articles written by Henry against republican governments; and the 
 latter was summoned to Montreal. From him Craia; learned of the 
 intense hostility of the Federal party to the administration -and of the 
 great distress of New England on account of the Embargo and other 
 restrictions on commerce. These facts were communicated to the 
 British ministry, and Sir James promised Henry an annual salary of 
 five thousand dollars to return to Boston and become the secret agent 
 of England and Canada. 
 
 The purjjose of the conspirators was to aggravate the popuhir dis- 
 content of New England until the Eastern States should be induced 
 to secede from the Union and join themselves with Canada. But 
 with the repeal of the Embargo and the subsidence of political excite- 
 ment, Henry found the depravity of his business onlv equaled by its 
 unprofitableness. The people of Massachusetts were in no humor to 
 be led into a rebellion. Sir James Craig died, and Henry, unsuc- 
 cessful and unpaid, went, in 1811, to London and presented his claim 
 for thirty thousand pounds to the English ministers. By them he was 
 well received; but the payment of thirty thousand pounds for services 
 which had resulted in nothing was reckoned a serious matter; and 
 Henry was sent back to get whatever remuneration he could from Sir 
 George Prevost, the successor of Craig in the governorship of Canada. 
 Enraged at his treatment, the spy, instead of returning to Montreal, 
 sailed to Boston, and going thence to Washington divulged the whole 
 conspiracy to the President, surrendered his correspondence with 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 393 
 
 Craig, and received therefor fifty thousand doHars out of the secret 
 service fund of the United States. The disclosure of tliis perfidious 
 business contributed greatly to consolidate public sentiment against 
 Great Britain and to strengthen the hands of the war party in the 
 government. 
 
 On the 4th of April, 1812, an act was passed by Congress laying 
 an embargo for ninety days on all British vessels within the jurisdic- 
 tion of the United States. But Great Britain would not recede from 
 her hostile attitude. One of the ministers declared that it was " an 
 ancient and well-established right " of His Majesty's government to 
 impress British seamen on board of neutral vessels. Before the final 
 decision of England was known, Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was, 
 on the Stii of April, admitted into the Union. The area of the new 
 commonwealth was more than forty-one thousand square miles ; and 
 her population, according to the census of 1810, had reached seventy- 
 seven thousand. 
 
 On the 4th of June a resolution declaring war against Great 
 Britain was passed by the House of Representatives. On the 17th of 
 the same month the bill received the sanction of the Senate ; and two 
 days afterward the President issued his proclamation of war. Vigor- 
 ous preparations for the impending conflict were made by Congress. 
 It was ordered to raise twenty-five thousand regular troops and fifty 
 thousand volunteers. At the same time the several States were re- 
 quested to call out a hundred thousand militia for the defence of the 
 coasts and harbors. A national loan of eleven million dollars was au- 
 thorized. Henry Dearborn of Massachusetts was chosen first major- 
 general and commander-in-chief of the army. 
 
 Great Britain was already prepared for the conflict. Her armies 
 in Europe were immense and thoroughly equipped. Napoleon just at 
 this time began his famous invasion of Russia, and the allied nations 
 of Western Europe were for a while relieved of their apprehensions. 
 The British navy amounted to no less than a thousand and thirty-six 
 vessels. Of these there were two hundred and fifty-four ships-of-the- 
 line, not one of which carried less than seventy-four guns of large 
 caliber. At various stations on the American coast there were eighty- 
 five war-Vessels bearing the English flag, and ready for immediate ac- 
 tion. Lake Ontario was commanded by four British brigs carrying an 
 aggregate of sixty guns. The Canadian armies of England amounted 
 to seven thousand five hundred regulars and forty thousand militia. 
 Back of all these forces and armaments stood the seemingly inexhaust- 
 ible British treasury, with the ambitious young Lord Castlereagh and 
 
394 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 SCENE OF HULL'S CAMPAIGN, 
 1S12. 
 
 his associate ministers to disburse it. As to George III., old age and 
 incurable insanity had at last prevailed to displace him from the throne 
 and to make the Prince Regent, George IV., the actual sovereign. In 
 all that appertained to preparation and readiness for the conflict the 
 United States bore no comparison to the pow- 
 erful foe. 
 
 The first movement of the war was made 
 by General William Hull, governor of Michi- 
 gan Territory. A force of twelve hundred Ohio 
 volunteers, together with three hundred regu- 
 lars, was organized at Dayton for the purpose 
 of overawing the Indians on the north-western 
 frontier. Hull was also authorized, should cir- 
 cumstances warrant such a course, to invade and 
 conquer Canada. The march began on the 1st 
 of June ; and it was a full month before the 
 army, toiling through more than two hundred 
 miles of forests, reached the western extremity 
 of Lake Erie. Arriving at the Maumee, Hull despatched his baggage, 
 stores and official papers in a boat to Detroit. But the British forces 
 posted at Maiden had already been informed of the declaration of 
 hostilities; and Hull's boat Mith every thing on board was captured. 
 Nevertheless, the American army pressed on to Detroit, where early 
 in July the general received despatches informing him of the dec- 
 laration of war, and directing him to proceed with the invasion of 
 Canada. On the 12th of the month he crossed the Detroit River to 
 Sandwich with the avowed j)urj)ose of capturing ]\Ialdcn. And this 
 might easily have been accomplished had not the inefficiency of the 
 general checked the enthusiasm of the army. 
 
 Meanwhile, the news came that the American post at Mackinaw 
 had been surprised and captured by the British. This intelligence fur- 
 nished Hull a good excuse for recrossing the river to Detroit. Here 
 he received intelligence that Major Brush, sent forward by Governor 
 Meigs of Ohio, was approaching with reinforcements and supplies. 
 Major Van Home was accordingly despatched with a body of troops 
 to meet Brush at the River Raisin and conduct him safely to Detroit. 
 But Tecumtha, assisted by some British troops, had cut the lines of 
 communication and laid an ambush for Van Home's forces in the 
 neigborhood of Brownstown. The scheme was successful ; Van Home 
 ran into the trap and was severely defeated. Any kind of energetic 
 movement on Hull's part Mould have retrieved the disaster; but en- 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 395 
 
 ergy was altogether wanting; and when, three days later, Colonel ]\Iil- 
 ler with another detachment attacked and routed the savages with great 
 loss, he was hastily recalled to Detroit. The officers and men lost all 
 faith in the commander, and there were symptoms of a mutiny. 
 
 In the mean time, General Brock, the governor of Upper Can- 
 ada, arrived at Maiden and took command of the British forces. Act- 
 ing in conjunction with Tecumtha, he crossed the river, and on the 
 16th of August advanced to the siege of Detroit. The Americans in 
 their trenches outside of the fort were eager for battle, and stood with 
 lighted matches awaiting the order to fire. When the British were 
 M'ithin five hundred yards, to the amazement of both armies Hull 
 hoisted a white flag over the fort. There was a brief parley and then 
 a surrender, perhaps the most shameful in the history of the United 
 States. Not only the army in Detroit, but all the forces under Hull's 
 command, became prisoners of war. The whole of Michigan Territory 
 was surrendered to the British. At the capitulation the American offi- 
 cers in rage and despair stamped the ground, broke their swords and 
 tore off their epaulets. The whole country was humiliated at the dis- 
 graceful business. The government gave thirty British prisoners in 
 exchange for Hull, and he was brought before a court-martial charged 
 with treason, cowardice and conduct unbecoming an officer. He was 
 convicted on the last two charges, and sentenced to be shot ; but the 
 President, having compassion on one who had served the country in 
 the Revolution, pardoned him. After all the discussions that have 
 been had on Hull and his campaign, the best that can be said of him 
 is that he was a patriot and a coward. 
 
 About the time of the fall of Detroit, Fort Dearborn, on the 
 present site of Chicago, was invested by an army of Indians. The 
 garrison was feeble, and the commandant proposed a surrender on 
 condition that his men should retire without molestation. This was 
 agreed to; but the savages, finding that the garrison had destroyed 
 the whisky that was in the fort, fell upon the retreating soldiers, killed 
 some of them, and distrilnited the rest as captives. On the day after 
 the capitulation Fort Dearborn M'as burned to the ground. 
 
 These losses, however, were more than compensated by the brill- 
 iant achievements of the young American navy. From the first it 
 became apjwrent that the war was destined to be a conflict on the sea- 
 coast and the ocean. The United States would act for the most part 
 on the defensive, and Great Britain would rely chiefly upon her navy. 
 The condition of both nations was such as to provoke this sort of war- 
 fare. On the one side was the British armament superior to any other 
 
;39G HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 in the world, and on the other an exposed sea-coast, a few fortresses, 
 and a navy of almost insignificant proportions. From the beginning, 
 the policy of the American government had been distinctly declai'ed 
 aarainst a standin<r army and a regular fleet. It M'as held that a citizen 
 soldiery and an extemporized flotilla would be sufficient for every 
 emergency. A large military establishment, said the defenders of the 
 American system, is enormously expensive and a constant menace to 
 civil liberty. After the Revolution, especially during the administra- 
 tion of Jefferson, the military spirit was discouraged and the defenses 
 of the country fell into decay. In 1808 the whole coast of Maine 
 was defended only by Fort Sumner, at Portland. New Hampshire had 
 but one fortress, a half ruined block-house at Portsmouth. On the 
 coast of Massachusetts four fortifications — one at Cape Ann, one at 
 Salem, one at Marblehead, and Fort Independence in Boston Harbor 
 furnished the only security against attack. In the neighborhood of 
 Newport, Rhode Island, there were six works, some of importance, 
 others insignificant. New London, Connecticut, was defended by Fort 
 Tnimbnll, a block-house of considerable strength but in bad repair. 
 On Governor's Island, in New York Harbor, stood Fort Jay, which, 
 together with the Battery at the south end of Manhattan and some 
 slight fortifications on Ellis's and Bedloe's Islands, furnished a toler- 
 able protection. The whole coast of New Jersey lay open to invasion. 
 On Mud Island in the Delaware, a short distance below Philadelphia, 
 stood the formidable Fort Mifflin, an old British fort of the Revolu- 
 tion. Not less in strength and importance was Fort McHenry on the 
 Patapsco, commanding the approach to Baltimore. Annapolis was 
 defended by Fort Severn, then only a group of breast-works. Nor- 
 folk, Virginia, relied for protection on a fort of the same name and 
 another work, called Fort Nelson, on the opposite side of Elizabeth 
 River. In Charleston Harbor stood Fort Johnson on James's Island, 
 Fort Pinckney in front of the city, and Fort Moultrie of Revolutionary 
 fame. Upon these scattered fortifications and the terror inspired by 
 Fulton's torpedoes the Americans must depend for the defense of a 
 coast-line reaching from Passamaqnoddy to the St. Mary's. 
 
 Such M'as the attitude and relative strength of the two nations. 
 Great, therefore, was the astonishment of the world when the American 
 sailors, not waiting to be attacked, went fcn-tli without a tremor to 
 smite the mistress of the seas. And greater the admiration when a 
 series of brilliant victories declared for the flag of the Republic. 
 During the summer of 1812 the navy of the United States won a just 
 and lasting renown. On the 19th of August the frigate Constitution, 
 
MADISON'S ADMINISTEATION. 397 
 
 commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, overtook the British ship-of-war 
 Guerrierc, off the coast of Massachusetts. Captain Dacres, who com- 
 manded the British vessel, had been boasting of his prowess and send- 
 ing challenges to American vessels to come out and tight; now there 
 was an opportunity to exhibit his valor. The vessels manoeuvred for 
 a while, the Constitution closing with her antagonist, until at half-pistol 
 shot she poured in a terrible broadside, sweeping the decks of the 
 Guerriere and deciding the contest. Dacres, after losing fifteen men 
 killed and sixty-three wounded, struck his colors and surrendered his 
 shattered vessel as a prize. The American loss was seven killed and 
 an equal number wounded. On the following morning the Guerrierc, 
 being unmanageable, was blown up; and Hull returned to port with 
 his prisoners and sj)oils. 
 
 On the 18th of October the American sloop-of-war Wftup, of 
 eighteen guns, under command of Captain Jones, fell in with a fleet 
 of British merchantmen oif the coast of Vii'ginia. The squadron was 
 under convoy of the brig Frolic, of twenty-two guns, commanded by 
 Captain Whinyatcs, who put his vessel between the merchantmen and 
 the Was]), and prepared for battle. A terrible engagement ensued, 
 lasting for three-quarters of an hour. Both ships became nearly help- 
 less ; but the Was]) closed with her foe and delivered a final broadside 
 which completely cleared the deck. The American crew then boarded 
 the Frolic and struck the British flag; for not a seaman was left above 
 deck to perform that service. Scarcely had the smoke of the conflict 
 cleared away when the Poictiers, a British seventy-four gun ship, bore 
 down upon the scene, captured the Wasp and retook the wreck of the 
 Frolic. But the fame of Captain Jones's victory M'as not dimmed by 
 the catastrophe. 
 
 Seven days afterward. Commodore Decatur, commanding the 
 frigate United States, of forty-four guns, attacked the British frigate 
 Macedonia, of forty-nine guns. The battle was fought a short distance 
 west of the Canary Islands. After a two hours' engagement, in which 
 the United States was but little injured, the Macedonia surrendered, 
 with a loss in killed and wounded of more than a hundred men. On 
 the 12th of December the ship Essex, commanded by Captain Porter, 
 captured the Nocton, a British packet, having on board fifty-five thou- 
 sand dollars in specie. More important still was the capture of the 
 frigate Java by the Constitution, nOw under command of Commodore 
 Bainhridge. On the 29th of December the two vessels met oft' San 
 Salvador, on the coast of Brazil. A furious battle ensued, continuing 
 for two hours. Every mast was torn from the British siiip, and her 
 
398 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. 
 
 hull was burst with round shot. The deck was made slippery with the 
 blood of more than two hundred killed and wounded seamen. Tlio 
 vessel was reduced to a wretdv before her flag was struck ; then the 
 crew and passengers, numbering ujnvard of four hundred, were trans- 
 ferred to the Constitution, and the hull of the Jaca was burned at sea. 
 The news of these successive victories roused the enthusiasm of the 
 people to the highest pitch. In the course of the year two hundred 
 and fifty British ships, carrying three thousand sailors, and cargoes of 
 immense value, were captured by the American cruisers. Filled with 
 exultation, the people of the United States saw in these naval tri- 
 umphs the omens of complete overthrow to the arrogant dominion of 
 Britain on the seas. The nations of Europe heard in astonishment. 
 France was well pleased; for in these humiliations of her great enemy 
 she witnessed the fulfillment of Napoleon's prophecy when, at the 
 cession of Louisiana, he exclaimed with delight: " There! I have this 
 day given to England a maritime rival that will sooner or later hum- 
 ble her pride!" For a while the English themselves were well-nigli 
 paralyzed. The British newspapers burst forth raging and declared 
 that the time-honored flag of England luid been disgraced " by a jjiece 
 of striped bunting flying at the mast-heads of a few fir-built frigates, 
 manned by a liandful of * * * * and outlaws!" And the com- 
 ment, though stated in unpleasant language, was true! 
 
 During tlie summer and autumn of 1812 military operations 
 were active, but not decisive, on the Niagara frontier. The troops 
 in that quarter, consisting of the New York militia, a few regulars, 
 and recruits from other States, were commanded by General Stephen 
 Van Rensselaer. The first movement of the Americans was made 
 against Queenstown, on the Canada side of the river. On the 13th 
 of October a thousand men were embarked in boats and landed on 
 the western shore. They were resisted at the water's edge, and 
 Colonel Solomon Van Kcnsselaer, the leader, was wounded. The 
 subordinate officers led the cliarge, and the Britisli batteries on the 
 heights of Queenstown were carried. Tlie enemy's forces were ral- 
 lied, however, by General Brock, and returning to the charge, were 
 a second time repulsed. General Brock fell mortally wounded. The 
 Americans began to entrench themselves, and orders were sent across 
 the river for the remaining division, twelve hundred strong, to has- 
 ten to the rescue. But the American militia on the eastern shore de- 
 clared that they were there to defend the United States, and not to 
 invade Canada. There they stood all afternoon, while their comrades 
 at Queenstown were surrounded by the British, who came with strong 
 
MADISON'S ADMIXISTEA TION. 
 
 .S!)9 
 
 reinforcements from Fort George. The Americans bravely defended 
 themselves until they had lost a hundred and sixty men in killed and 
 ■wounded, and were then obliged to surrender. General Van Rensse- 
 laer, disgusted at the conduct of the New York militia, resigned his 
 command, and was succeeded by General 
 Alexander Smyth of Virginia. 
 
 This officer began his career as com- 
 mander by issuing two proclamations that 
 would have put to shame the bulletins of 
 Bonaparte or Caesar. He declared that in 
 a few days his standards should be planted 
 in the strongholds of Canada. After cross- 
 ing Niagara and conquering the British do- 
 minions, he would annex them to the United 
 States ! His j)redecessors in command of the 
 army had been popular men, but wholly des- 
 titute of skill or experience in the art of war ! 
 The soldiers of the "Army of the Center," as 
 he called the militia under his authority, had 
 now a general who would lead them to cer- 
 tain victory ! Every man who performed a 
 gallant action should have his name immortalized in the annals of his 
 country ! And so on for quantity and style. 
 
 In the mean time the Americans, numbering between four and 
 five thousand, had been rallied at Black Rock, a few miles north 
 of Buffiilo. From this point, on the 28th of November, a company 
 was sent across to the Canada shore ; but instead of followins with 
 a stronger detachment. General Smyth ordered the advance party to 
 return. A few days afterward another crossing Avas planned, and the 
 Americans were already embarked, when they were commanded to 
 return to winter quarters. The militia became mutinous. Smyth was 
 charged with cowardice and disloyalty, and after three months was 
 deposed from his command. Thus ended the military ojjerations of 
 1812. In the autumn Madison was re-elected President; the choice 
 ,for Vice-President fell on Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. In the 
 debates at the opening of Congress the policy of the administration 
 was strongly condemned by the opponents of the war ; but vigorous 
 measures were adopted for strengthening the army and navy. 
 
 THE NIAGARA FRONTIER, 1812. 
 
400 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 WAR OF 181:2.— CONTINUED. 
 
 IN the beginning of 1813 the American army was organized in three 
 divisions : the Aemy of the North, commanded by General 
 Wade Hampton, to ojjcrate in the country of Lake Champhiin ; the 
 Army of the Centre, under direction of tlie commander-in-chief, to 
 resume offensive movements on the Niagara frontier and Lake Ontario j 
 THE Army of the West, under conmiand of General Wincliestcr, 
 who was soon superseded by General Harrison. Early in January the 
 latter division, made up of various detachments of militia from the 
 Western States, moved toward the head of Lake Erie to regain the 
 ground lost by Hull in the previous summer. On the 10th of the month 
 the American advance, composed of eight hundred men under Winchester, 
 reached the rapids of the Maumee. A body of British and Indians was 
 posted at Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, thirty miles from Winchester's 
 camp. A detachment of Americans pressed forward, attacked the enemy, 
 captured the town, encamped there, and on the 20th of the month were 
 joined by Winchester with the main division. 
 
 Two days afterward the Americans were suddenly assaulted by a 
 force of a thousand five hundred British and Indians under command of 
 General Proctor. A severe battle was fought, each party losing nearly 
 three hundred men. The British were checked, and for a while the issue 
 was doubtful ; but General Winchester, having been taken by the enemy, 
 advised his forces to cajiitulate under a pledge of protection given by 
 Proctor and his subordinates. As soon as the surrender was made the 
 British general set off at a rapid rate to return to Maiden. The American 
 wounded were left to the mercy of the savages, who at once began their 
 work with tomahawk and scalping-knife and torch. The two houses 
 into which most of the wounded had been crowded were fired, while the 
 painted barbarians stood around and hurled back into the flames whoever 
 attempted to escape. The rest of the prisoners were dragged away through 
 untold sufferings to Detroit, where they were ransomed at an enormous 
 price. This shameful campaign has fixed on the name of Proctor the 
 indelible stain of infamy. 
 
 General Harrison, on hearing the fate of Winchester's division, fell 
 back from the Maumee, but soon returned and built Fort Meigs. Here 
 
WAR OF '12. 401 
 
 he remained until the 1st of May, when he was besieged by a force of two 
 tiiousand British and savages, led by ProetoAaud Tccunitha. Meanwhile, 
 General Clay with twelve hundred Kentuckians advanced to the relief of 
 the fort. The besiegers were attacked in turn, and at the same time the 
 besieged made a successful sally. But for the mistake of Colonel Dudley, 
 who allowed his detachment to be cut off and captured, the British would 
 have been completely routed. Again the American prisoners were treated 
 with savage cruelty until Tecumtha, not Proctor, interfered to save them. 
 In a few days the Indians deserted in large numbers, and Proctor, be- 
 coming alai'med, abandoned the siege, and on the 9th of May retreated to 
 Maiden. 
 
 For nearly three months active operations were suspended. In the 
 latter part of July, Proctor and Tecumtha with a force of nearly four 
 thousand men returned to Fort Meigs, now commanded by General Clay. 
 For several clays the British general beat about the American position, 
 attempting to draw out the garrison. Failing in that, he filed off with 
 about half his forces and attacked Fort Stephenson, at Lower Sandusky. 
 This place was defended by a hundred and sixty men under command of 
 Colonel Croghan, a strijiling but twenty-one years of age. But he ex- 
 hibited the skill and bravery of a veteran. To the enemy's summons, 
 accompanied with a threat of massacre in case of refusal, he answered that 
 the fort should be held as long as there was a man left alive within it. 
 For a while the British cannonaded the ramparts without much eifect, 
 and on the 2d of August advanced to carry the place by storm. Croghan 
 filled his only gun with slugs and grape-shot, and masked it in such a 
 position as to rake the ditch from end to end. The British, believing the 
 fort to be silenced, crowded into the fatal trench, and were swept away 
 almost to a man. The repulse was complete. Proctor, fearing the ap- 
 proach of Harrison, raised the siege and returned to Maiden. 
 
 At this time the waters of Lake Erie were commanded by a British 
 squadron of six vessels carrying sixty-three guns. It was seen that a suc- 
 cessful invasion of Canada could only be made by first gaining control of 
 the lake. This serious undertaking was imposed on Commodore Oliver 
 H. Perry of Rhode Island — a young man not twenty-eight years old who 
 had never been in a naval battle. His antagonist. Commodore Barclay, 
 was a veteran from the sea-service of Europe. With indefatigable energy 
 Perry directed the construction of nine ships, carrying fifty-four guns, and 
 was soon afloat on the lake. On the 10th of September the two fleets met 
 a short distance north-west of Put-in Bay. Careful directions had been 
 given by both commanders for the impending battle ; both were resolved 
 on victory. The fight was begun by the American squadron, Perry's 
 
 26 
 
402 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 flag-ship, the Lawrence, leading tlie attaclv. His principal antagonist was 
 the Detroit, under the immediate command of Barclay. The British guns, 
 being longer, had the wider range, and were better served. The Lmorence 
 was ruined ; nearly all the cannon were dismounted, masts torn away, 
 sailors killed. 
 
 Between the other ships the battle was proceeding in a desultory 
 way without much damage ; but Barclay's flag-ship was almost as nearly 
 wrecked as the Lawrence. Perceiving with quick eye how the battle stood, 
 the dauntless Perry, himself unhurt, put on his uniform, seized his ban- 
 ner, got overboard into an open boat, passed within pistol-shot of the 
 enemy's ships, a storm of balls flying around him, and transferred his flag 
 to the Niagara. A shout went up from the American fleet ; it was the 
 signal of victory. With the powerful Niagara still uninjured by the 
 battle. Perry bore down upon the enemy's line, drove right through 
 the midst, discharging terrible broadsides right and left. In fifteen 
 minutes the work was done ; the British fleet Avas helpless. Perry with 
 a touch of pride returned to the bloody deck of the Lawrence, and there 
 received the surrender. And then he sent to General Harrison this 
 famous despatch : " We have met the enemy, and they are ours — two 
 ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop." 
 
 This victory gave the Americans full control of Lake Erie. Both 
 Proctor and Harrison awaited the result. If Barclay should win. Proctor 
 ■would invade Ohio ; if Perry should prove victorious, Harrison would 
 conquer Canada. For the Americans the way was now opened. On the 
 27th of September Harrison's army was embarked at Sandusky Bay and 
 landed near Maiden. The disheartened British retreated to Sandwich, 
 the Americans following hard after. From the latter place Proctor con- 
 tinued his retreat to the river Thames, and there faced about to fight. 
 The battle-field was well chosen by the Britishj whose lines extended 
 from the river to a swamp. Here, on the 5th of October, they were 
 attacked by the Americans led by Harrison and General Shelby, governor 
 of Kentucky. In the beginning of the battle. Proctor, being a coward, 
 ran. The British regulars sustained the attack with firmness, and were 
 only broken when furiously charged by the Iventuckians under Colonel 
 Richard M. Johnson. When that part of the field was won, the Ameri- 
 cans wheeled against the Indians, who, to the number of fifteen hundred, 
 lay hidden in the swamp to the west. Here the battle raged fiercely. 
 Tecumtha had staked all on the issue. For a while his war-whoop 
 sounded above the din of the conflict. Presently his voice was heard no 
 longer, for the great chieftain had fallen. At the same time Colonel 
 Johnson was borne away severely wounded. The savages, appalled by 
 
WAR OF '12. 
 
 403 
 
 the death of their leader, fled in despair. The victory was complete. So 
 ended the campaign in the West. The Indian confederacy was broken 
 to pieces. All that Hull had lost was regained. Michigan was recovered. 
 Ohio no longer feared invasion. Perry swept Lake Erie with his fleet. 
 Canada was prostrated before the victorious army of Harrison. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Creeks of Alabama, kinsmen of the Shawnees, had 
 taken up arms. In the latter part of August, Fort Mims, forty miles 
 north of Mobile, was surprised by the savages, who appeased their thirst 
 for blood with the murder of nearly four hundred people ; not a woman 
 or child was spared, and but few of the men in the fort escaped. The 
 news of the massacre spread consternation throughout the Southwest. 
 The governors of Tennessee, Georgia and Mississippi Territory made 
 immediate preparations for invading the country of the Creeks. The 
 Tennesseeans, under command of General Jackson, were first to the res- 
 cue. A detachment of nine hundred men, led 
 by General Coffee, reached the Indian town 
 of Tallushatchee, attacked it, burned it, left 
 not an Indian alive. On the 8th of Novem- 
 ber a battle was fought at Talladega, east of 
 the Coosa, and the savages were defeated with 
 severe losses. In the latter part of the same 
 month another fight occurred at Autosse, on 
 the south bank of the Tallapoosa, and again 
 the Indians were routed. 
 
 During the winter Jackson's troops, un- 
 provided and starving, became mutinous and 
 were going home. But the general set the 
 example of living on acorns ; then rode before 
 the rebellious line and threatened with death the first mutineer who 
 stirred. And no man stirred. On the 22d of January, 1814, the battle 
 of Emucfau was fought on the west bank of the Tallapoosa. The valor 
 of the Tennesseeans again gave them the victory. At Tohopeka, called 
 by the whites the Horseshoe Bend, the Creeks made their final stand. 
 Here the Tallapoosa winds westward and northward, enclosing a large 
 tract of land in the form of a peninsula with a narrow neck. This posi- 
 tion the Indians had fortified with more than their usual skill. The 
 whites, led by General Coffee, surrounded the place, so as to prevent 
 escape by crossing the river. On the 27th of March, the main body 
 of whites under General Jackson stormed the breastworks and drove 
 the Indians into the bend. There, huddled together without the pos- 
 sibility of escape, a thousand Creek warriors, with the women and 
 
 SCENE OF THE CREEK WAR, 
 lSlo-14. 
 
404 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 children of the tribe, met their doom. The desperate Red men asked 
 no quarter, and none was given. The few chiefs who were still abroad 
 sent in their submission ; the spirit of the nation was completely 
 broken. 
 
 On the 25th of April, 1813, General Dearborn, commanding the 
 Army of the Centre, embarked his forces at Sackctt's Harbor, near the 
 eastern extremity of Lake Ontario. The object of the expedition was to 
 capture Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada. Here was the most im- 
 portant depot of supplies in British America. The American fleet under 
 Commodore Chauncey had already obtained the mastery of the lake, so 
 that Dearborn's passage was unopposed. On the 27th of the month a 
 force of seventeen hundred men, commanded by General Pike, was 
 landed within two miles of Toronto. At the water's edge they were 
 met by the British. The Americans drove the enemy for a mile and 
 a half, stormed a battery, and rushed forward to carry the main de- 
 fences. At that moment the British magazine blew up with terrilic 
 violence. The assaulting column was covered with the debris of the 
 explosion. Two hundred men were killed or wounded. General Pike 
 was fatally injured, but lived long enough to hear the shout of vic- 
 tory; for the Americans, first shocked and then maddened by the 
 calamity, made a furious charge and drove the British out of the town. 
 General Sheaffe with a body of regulars escaped ; the rest were taken 
 prisoners. Property to the value of a half million dollars was secured 
 to the victors. 
 
 While this movement M'as taking place the enemy made a descent 
 on Sackett's Harbor. By the withdrawal of the American forces that 
 post had been left exposed. The British succeeded in destroying a quan- 
 tity of stores ; but General Brown rallied the militia, and drove back the 
 assailants with considerable loss. Meanwhile, the victorious troops at 
 Toronto had re-embarked and crossed the lake to the mouth of the 
 Niagara. On the 27th of May the Americans, led by Generals Chandler 
 and AVinder, crossed the river and stormed Fort George, on the Canada 
 shore. The British hastily destroyed their posts along the Niagara and 
 retreated to Burlington Bay, at the western extremity of the lake. The 
 Americans, pursuing them thither, were attacked in the night, but suc- 
 ceeded in repulsing the enemy with loss. 
 
 During the months of summer military operations on the frontier 
 were suspended. After the battle of the Thames, General Harrison had 
 transferred his forces to Buffalo, and then resigned his commission. On 
 account of old age and ill health Geiloral Dearliorn also withdrew from 
 the service, and Wuo succeeded by General Wilkinson. The next cam- 
 
WAR OF 12. 405 
 
 paign, which was ijlanned by General Armstrong, secretary of war, em- 
 braced the conquest of Montreal. For this purpose the Army of the 
 Centre, under Wilkinson, was ordered to join the Army of the North at 
 some convenient point on the St. Lawrence. The enterprise was attended 
 with many difficulties and not a few delays. Not until the 5th of Novem- 
 ber did a force of seven thousand men, embarking from the mouth of 
 French Creek, twenty miles north of Sackett's Harbor, sail down the St. 
 Lawrence for the conqu&st of Montreal. Parties of British, Canadians 
 and Indians, gathering on the northern bank of the river, constantly im- 
 peded the progress of the expedition. General Brown was landed with a 
 considerable force to disperse these bands or drive the enemy into the 
 interior. On the 11th of the month a severe battle was fought at a 
 place called Chrysler's Field. Neither party gained a victory, but the 
 advantage remained with the British. The Americans, having lost 
 nearly three hundred men in the fight, passed down the river to St. 
 Regis, on tlie southern shore, where the forces of General Plampton 
 were expected from Plattsburg to form a junction with Wilkinson's 
 command. But Hampton did not stir; and the project of attacking' 
 Montreal had to be abandoned. The Americans then went into winter 
 quarters at Fort Covington, at the fork of Salmon River, nine miles 
 from St. Regis. 
 
 In the mean time, the British on the Niagara frontier rallied and 
 advanced against Fort George. General INIcClure, the connuandant, 
 abandoned the place on the approach of the enemy, but before retreating 
 burned the Canadian town of Newark. It cost the people of Northern 
 New York dearly ; for the British and Indians crossed the river, cap- 
 tured Fort Niagara, and fired the villages of Youngstown, Lewiston and 
 Manchester. On next to the last day of the year Black Rock and Buffalo 
 were laid in ashes. 
 
 In the sea-fights of 1813 victory generally declared for the British. 
 During the year both nations wasted much blood and treasure on the 
 ocean. OS the coast of Demarara, on the 24th of February, the sloop- 
 of-war Hornet, commanded by Captain James Lawrence, fell in with the 
 British brig Peacock. The ships were equally matched. A terrible battle 
 of fifteen minutes ensued, and the Peacock, already sinking, struck her 
 colors. While the Americans were trying to transfer the conquered crew 
 the ocean ya^^^led and the brig sank out of sight. Nine British sailors 
 and three of La'WTence's men were sucked down in the whirlpool. 
 
 On returning to Boston the command of the Chesapeake — one of 
 the best frigates in the American navy — was given to Lawrence, and 
 ^aia he put to sea. Before sailing he received a challenge from Captain 
 
406 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Broke, of the British frigate Shannon, to come out and fight him. Law- 
 rence ought not to have accepted the banter ; for his equipments were 
 incomplete and liis crew ill assorted, sick and half mutinous. But he was 
 young, and the favorite of the nation ; fired with applause, he went un- 
 hesitatingly to meet his foe. Eastward from Cape Ann the two vessels 
 met on the first day of June. The battle was obstinate, brief, dreadful. 
 In a short time every ofScer who could direct the movements of the 
 Chesapeake was either killed or wounded. The brave .young Lawrence 
 was struck with a musket-ball, and fell dying on the bloody deck. 
 As they bore him down the hatchway he gave in feeble voice his last 
 heroic order — ever afterward the motto of the American sailor — " Don't 
 GIVE UP THE SHIP !" The British were already leaping on deck, and 
 the flag of England was hoisted over the shattered vessel. Both 
 ships were charnel-houses ; but the Shannon was still able to tow her 
 prize into the harbor of Halifax. There the bodies of Lawrence and 
 Ludlow, second in command, Mere tenderly and honorably buried by the 
 British. 
 
 The next important naval battle was fought on the 14th of August 
 between the American brig Argus and the British Pelican. The former 
 vessel had made a daring cruise about the coasts of England, capturing 
 more than twenty ships. Herself overtaken by the Pelican, she Mas 
 obliged, after a severe conflict, to surrender. On the 5th of September 
 another British brig, the Boxer, cruising oif the coast of INIaine, was over- 
 hauled and captured by the American Enterprise, commanded by Captain 
 Burrows. The fight raged for three-quarters of an hour, when the Bo.rer 
 surrendered. Captain Blyth, the British commander, was killed ; and 
 the gallant Burrows received a mortal wound. The bodies of both 
 officers were taken to Portland and buried side by side with military 
 honors. All summer long Captain Porter in the frigate Essex cruised in 
 the South Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. For five months he was tlie 
 terror of British merchantmen in those broad Maters. On the 28th of 
 the following March, M'hile the Essex was lying in the harbor of Val- 
 paraiso, she M-as beset, contrary to the law of nations, by tMO po\verfu] 
 British vessels, the Phoebe and the Cherub. The Essex had been crippled 
 by a storm, and was anchored in neutral waters ; in that condition Captain 
 Porter fougiit his two antagonists until nearly all of his men M-ere killed 
 or M-ounded ; then struck his colors and surrendered. NotM'ithstanding 
 the losses sustained by the American na\y, privateers continued to scour 
 the ocean and capture British vessels. 
 
 From honorable Marfare the naval ofiicers of England stooped to 
 marauding along the sea-shore. Early in the year a squadron entered 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF '14 407 
 
 Delaware Bay and anchored before Lewistown. A requisition on the in- 
 liabitants to supply the fleet with provisions was met with a brave refusal. 
 A threat to burn the town was answered with a message of defiance. A 
 bombardment of twenty-four houi-s' duration followed ; the houses were 
 much injured, and the people fled, carrying their property to places of 
 safety. Other British men-of-war entered the Chesapeake and burned 
 several villages on the shores of the bay. At the town of Hampton, just 
 above the Roads, the soldiers and marines perpetrated such outrages as 
 covered theii' memory with shame. Commodore Hardy, to whom the 
 blockade of the New England harbors had been assigned, behaved with 
 more humanity ; even the Americans recognized and praised liis liouor- 
 able conduct. The year 1813 closed without decisive results. 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 THE CAMPAIGNS OF '14. 
 
 IN the spring of 1814 another invasion of Canada was planned. Thfe 
 Niagara frontier was the scene of operations ; but there was much 
 delay in bringing the scattered detachments of General Wilkinson's ai-my 
 into proper position. Not until the 3d of July did Generals Scott and 
 Ripley, at the head of three thousand men, cross the Niagara from Black 
 Rock to Fort Erie. This post, garrisoned by two hundred British, was 
 surrendered without a battle. On the following day the Americans ad- 
 vanced down the river-bank in the direction of Chippewa village. Before 
 reaching that place, however, they wei'e met by the British ai'my, led by 
 General Riall. On the evening of the 5th a severe battle was fought on 
 the plain just south of Chippewa River. The Americans, led on by 
 Generals Scott and Ripley and the gallant Major Jessup, won the day ; 
 but their loss amounted to three hundred and thirty-eight men. The 
 British veterans, after more than five hundred of their number had fallen, 
 were driven into their entrenchments. 
 
 General Riall retreated first to Queensto\vn and afterward to Bur- 
 lington Heights. General Scott, commanding the American right, was 
 detached to watch the movements of the enemy. On the evening of the 
 25th of July he found himself suddenly confronted by Riall's army, 
 stropgly posted on the high groundij in sight of Niagara Falls. Here 
 
408 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was fought the hardest battle of the war. A man less courageous and 
 self-confident than Scott would have retreated; but with extraordinary 
 daring he held his own until reinforced by the other divisions of the 
 army. The British reserves were also rapidly brought into action. 
 Twilight faded into darkness, and still the battle was undecided. A de- 
 tachment of Americans, getting upon the British rear, captured General 
 Riall and his entire staif. Still the contest raged. The key to the 
 enemy's position was a high ground crowned Mith a battery. Calling 
 Colonel James Miller to his side and pointing to the hill. General Brown 
 said, " Colonel, take your regiment and storm that battery." " I'll try, 
 SIR," was the answer of the gallant officer ; and he did take it, and held 
 it against three desperate assaults of the British. In the last charge 
 General Drummond, who led, was wounded, and the royal army, num- 
 bering fully five thousand, was driven from the field with a loss of eight 
 hundred and seventy-eight men. The Americans engaged in the battle 
 numbered about four thousand ; their loss in killed, wounded and miss- 
 ing was more than eight hundred. 
 
 After this battle of Niagara, or Lundy's Lane, as it is sometimes 
 called, General Ripley took command of the American forces ; for Generals 
 Brown and Scott were both wounded. It M^as deemed pyrudent to fall 
 l^ack to Fort Erie. To that jilace General Gaines crossed over from 
 Buffalo, and being the senior officer, assumed command of the army. 
 Very soon General Drummond received reinforcements, moved forward, 
 and on the 4th of August invested Fort Erie. The siege contiiuied for 
 ten days, and then the British attempted to storm the works, but were 
 driven back with severe losses. But the enemy was reinforced and the 
 siege resumed. A regular and destructive bombardment was kept up by 
 the British, and was answered by the Americans with equal energy. On 
 the 28th of August General Gaines was injured by the explosion of a 
 shell and obliged to relinquish his command. General Brown, though 
 still suffering from the wound received at Niagara, was again called to 
 direct the defences of the fort. On the 17th of September a sortie was 
 ordered, and the advanced works of the British were gallantly carried. 
 At the same time news arrived that the American general Izard was ap- 
 proaching from Plattsburg with strong reinforcements. Alarmed at the 
 threatening aspect of affairs, the British raised the siege and retreated to 
 Fort George. On the 5th of November Fort Erie Avas evacuated and 
 destroyed by the Americans, who then recrossed the Niagara and went 
 into winter quartei-s at Black Rock and Buflalo. So ended the war in 
 the country between Lakes Erie and Ontario. 
 
 The winter of 1813-14 was passed by the Army of the North at 
 
THE CA3IPAIGNS OF 14. 409 
 
 French Mills, afterward called Fort Covington. In the latter part of 
 February General Wilkinson advanced his forces to Plattsburg, and in 
 the following month began an invasion of Canada. At La Colle, on the 
 west bank of the Sorel, he encountered a force of the enemy, made an im- 
 prudent attack and was defeated. Falling back to Plattsburg, he was 
 superseded "by General Izard. How that officer marched to the relief of 
 General Brown at Fort Erie has already been narrated. The remaining' 
 division of the northern army, fifteen hundred strong, was left under com- 
 mand of General Macomb at Plattsburg. At this time the American 
 flotilla on Lake Champlain was commanded by Commodore ]\IacDonough. 
 For the purpose of destroying this fleet and obtaining control of the lake, 
 the British general Prevost advanced into JSTorthern New York at the 
 head of fourteen thousand men, and at the same time ordered Commodore 
 Downie to ascend the Sorel with his fleet. 
 
 The invading army reached Plattsburg without opposition. Com- 
 modore MacDonough's squadron lay in the bay. On the 6th of Septem- 
 ber General Macomb retired with his small but courageous army to the 
 south bank of the Saranac, which skirted the village. On carne the 
 British, entered the to^vn, and attempted to cross the river, but were 
 driven back. For four days they renewed their efforts; the Americans 
 had torn up the bridges, and a passage could not be effected. The British 
 fleet was now ready for action, and a general battle by land and water 
 was planned for the 11th. Prevost's army, arranged in three columns, 
 was to sweep across the Saranac and carry Macomb's position, while 
 Downie's powerful flotilla was to bear down on ISIacDonough. The 
 naval battle began first, and was obstinately fought for two hours and a 
 half. At the end of that time Downie and many of his officers had been 
 killed; the heavier British vessels were disabled and obliged to strike 
 their colors. The smaller ships escaped ; for the American brigs were 
 so badly crippled that pursuit could not be made. Nevertheless, the 
 victory on the lake was complete and glorious. The news was carried 
 ashore, where the Americans were bravely contesting the passage of the 
 river against overwhelming numbers. At one ford the British column 
 succeeded in ci-ossing ; but the tidings from the lake fired the militia m itli 
 ardor ; they made a rush, and the enemy was driven back. Prevost, after 
 losing nearly two thousand five hundred men and squandering two and a 
 half million dollars in a fruitless campaign, retired precipitately to Canada. 
 The ministry of England, made wise by the disasters of this invasion, 
 began to devise measui-es looking to peace. 
 
 In the country of the Chesapeake the scenes of the previous year 
 were renewed by the British. Late in the summer Admiral Cochrane 
 
410 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 arrived off the coast of Virginia with an armament of twenty-one vessels. 
 General Ross M'itli an army of four thousand veterans, treed from service 
 in Europe, came with the fleet. The American squadron, commanded 
 by Commodore Barney, was unable to oppose so powerful a force. The 
 enemy's flotilla entered the Chesapeake with the purpose of attacking 
 Washino;ton and Baltimore. Tiie laro-er division of the British fleet 
 sailed into the Patiixent, and on the 19th of August the forces of General 
 EiOSS were landed at the town of Benedict. Commodore Barney was 
 obliged to blow up his vessels and take to the shore. From Benedict the 
 British advanced against Washington. At Bladensburg, six miles north- 
 east of the capital, they were met, on the 24tli of the month, by the 
 militia and the marines under Bai-ney. Here a battle was fought. The 
 undisciplined militia behaved badly. Barney's seamen were overpowered 
 by the Britisli, and himself taken prisoner. The news of the defeat was 
 rapidly borne to Washington. The President, the cabinet officers and 
 the people betook themselves to flight, and Ross marched unopposed into 
 the city. He had been ordered by his superiors to use the torch, and the 
 work of destruction was accordingly begun. All the public buildings ex- 
 cept the Patent Office were bui-ned. The beautiful but unfinished Capitol 
 and the President's house were left a mass of blackened ruins. JIany 
 private edifices were also destroyed; but General Ross, himself a humane 
 man, did less than he was ordered to do.* 
 
 Five days after the capture of Washington, a portion of the British 
 fleet, ascending the Potomac, reached Alexandria. The inhabitants of 
 that town, in order to avoid the fate of the capital, purchased the forbear- 
 ance of the enemy by the surrender of twenty-one ships, sixteen thousand 
 barrels of flour and a thousand hogsheads of tobacco. Baltimore redeemed 
 herself more bravely. Against that city, after the capture of Washington, 
 General Ross proceeded with his army and fleet. Meanwhile, the militia, 
 to the number of ten thousand, had gathered under command of General 
 Sanmel Smith, a Revolutionary veteran. On the 12th of September the 
 British were landed at North Point, at the mouth of the Patapsco ; and 
 the fleet began the ascent of the river. The land-forces, after marching 
 about halfway to Baltimore, were met by the Americans under General 
 Strieker. A skirmish ensued in which General Ross was killed ; but 
 Colonel Brooks assumed command of the invading army, and the march 
 continued. AYhen approaching the city, the British came upon the Ameri- 
 can lines and were brought to a halt by a severe cannonade. General 
 
 * An excuse for this outrageous barbarism was found in the previous conduct of the 
 Americans, who, at Toronto and other places on the Canadian frontier, had behaved but 
 little better. 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF '14. 4H 
 
 Strieker, however, ordered his men to fall back to a second line of 
 defences, from which they gave the enemy a permanent clieclc. 
 
 Meanwhile, the British squadron had ascended the Patapsco and 
 besun the bombardment of Fort McHenrv, at the entrance to the har- 
 bor. From sunrise of the 13th until after midnight the guns of the 
 fleet poured a tempest of shot and shells upon the fortress.* At the 
 end of that time the soldiers of the garrison were as full of spirit and 
 the works as strong as at the beginning. It was plain that the Brit- 
 ish had undertaken more than they could accomplish. Disheartened 
 and baffled, they ceased to fire. The land-forces retired from before 
 the American entrenchments and re-embarked. The siege of Balti- 
 more was at an end. 
 
 During the summer of 1814 two expeditions were made against 
 the British and Indians of the North-west. In INIay a force of two 
 hundred men ascended the Mississipjii from St. Louis and took post 
 at Prairie du C'hien, a short distance above the mouth of the Wiscon- 
 sin. The object was to overawe the hostile Winnobagocs and C'hip- 
 pewas by establishing an outpost in their territory. But befoi'e the 
 fort was well begun a force of six hundred Canadians and Indians in- 
 vested the place, and on the 17th of July compelled the detachment 
 to surrender. The more imjjortant expedition was directed against 
 the British fortress and depot of stores at Mackinaw. A regiment 
 of six hundred men, commanded by Colonel Croghan, famous for his 
 heroism at Sandusky, marched northward in midsummer from De- 
 troit. Some vessels of Perry's fleet accompanied the land forces as a 
 convoy ; but the movement was slow, and Mackinaw was not reached 
 until the 4th of August. Finding the defences of the place too high 
 and strong to be injured by his guns, Croghan ordered an assault, 
 which was made with spirit, but repulsed. The enterprise M-as then 
 abandoned, with no further injury to the British than the destruc- 
 tion of some supplies and shipping in Georgian Bay. 
 
 New England did not escape the ravages of war. On the 9th 
 and 10th of August the village of Stonington, in the south-eastern 
 corner of Connecticut, was bombarded by Commodore Hardy; but 
 the British, attempting to land, were beaten back by the militia. 
 The fisheries of the New England coast were for the most part bro- 
 ken up. The salt-works at Cape Cod escaped only by the payment 
 of heavy ransoms. All the principal harbors from Maine to Dela- 
 
 * During the night of the bonibarilmcnt, Francis S. Key, detained on board a British 
 ship and watcliing the American flag oyer Fort McHenry — seen at intervals by the glare 
 of rockets and the flash of cannon — composed Tlie Star-spangled Banner. 
 
412 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ware were under a rigorous blockade, and the foreign commerce of 
 the Eastern States was totally destroyed. The beacons in the light- 
 houses were allowed to burn out, and a general gloom settled over 
 the country. 
 
 From the beginning many of the people of New England had 
 opposed the war. Their interests centred in ships and factories; the 
 former were captured at sea, and the latter came to a stand-still. 
 Industry was paralyzed. The members of the Federal party cried out 
 against the continuance of the contest. The legislature of ^lassachu- 
 setts advised the calling of a convention. The other Eastern Spates 
 responded to the call ; and on the 14th of December the delegates 
 assembled at Hartford. The objects of the convention were not very 
 clearly expressed ; but opposition to the war and the j^oHcy of the 
 administration was the leading principle. The leaders of the Dem- 
 ocratic party, who supported the war-policy of the government, did 
 not hesitate to say that the purposes of the assembly were disloyal 
 and treasonable. Be that as it may, the convention ruined the Fed- 
 eral party. After remaining in session with closed doors for nearly 
 three weeks, the delegates published an address more moderate and 
 just than had been expected; and then adjourned. But little hope 
 of political preferment remained for those Avho participated in the 
 Hartford convention. 
 
 During the progress of the war the Spanish authorities of Flor- 
 ida sympathized with the British. In the month of August a de- 
 tachment of the enemy's fleet was allowed by the commandant of 
 Pensacola to use that jrost for the purpose of fitting out an expedition 
 against Fort Bowyer, commanding the entrance to the bay of Mobile. 
 On the 15th of September the latter post was attacked, but the assail- 
 ants were driven off. General Jackson, who at that time commanded 
 the American forces in the South, remonstrated with the Spaniards 
 against this violation of neutrality, but received no satisfaction. Jack- 
 son, whose way it was to mete out summary justice to offenders, marched 
 a force against Pensacola, stormed the town and drove the British out 
 of Florida. This was the bceinnina- of the last campaisn of the war. 
 
 After the taking of Pensacola, General Jackson returned to his 
 headquarters at Mobile. There he learned that the British were mak- 
 ing formidable preparations for the conquest of Louisiana. Ile])airing 
 at once to New Orleans, he assumed control of the city, declared mar- 
 tial law, mustered the militia, and adopted the most vigorous meas' 
 ures for repelling the invasion. From La Fitte, chief of a band of 
 smugglers in the Bay of Barataria, he obtained information of the 
 
THE CAMPAiaXS OF '14. 413 
 
 enemy's plans. The British army, numbering twelve thousand, came 
 in a fleet of fifty vessels from Jamaica. Sir Edward Packenham, broth- 
 er-in-law of the duke of Wellington, was commander of the invading 
 forces. On the 10th of December the squadron entered the outlet of 
 Lake Borgne, sixty miles north-east of New Orleans. Four days af- 
 terward a flotilla of gun-boats which had been placed to guard the 
 lake was captured by tlie British, but not until a severe loss had been 
 inflicted on the enemy. 
 
 On the 22d of the month Packenham's advance reached the 
 Mississippi nine miles below the city. A detachment was sent to the 
 western bank of the river, but this operation was checked by a counter 
 movement on the part of the Americans. On the night of the 23d 
 General Jackson sent a schooner down the Mississippi to bombard the 
 British camp, while at the same time he and General Cofiee advanced 
 with two thousand Tennessee riflemen to attack Packenham's camp 
 in front. After a bloody assault Jackson was obliged to retire, the 
 enemy losing most in the engagement. On the following day Jackson 
 fell back and took a strong position along the canal, four miles below 
 the city. Packenham advanced, and on the 28th cannonaded the 
 American position with but little efiect. On New Year's day the 
 attack was renewed. The heavy guns of the British had now been 
 brought into position ; but the Americans easily held their ground, and 
 the enemy was again driven back. Packenham now made arrange- 
 ments to lead his whole army in a grand assault on the American lines. 
 
 Jackson was ready. Earthworks had been constructed, and a 
 long line of cotton-lialcs and sand-bags thrown up for protection. On 
 the morning of the memorable 8th of January the Bi-itish moved for- 
 ward. They went to a terrible fate. The battle began with the light 
 of early morning, and was ended before nine o'clock. Packenham 
 hurled column after column against the American position, and col- 
 umn after column was smitten with irretrievable ruin. Jackson's men, 
 behind their breastworks, were almost entirely secure from the enemy's 
 fire, while every discharge of the Tennessee and Kentucky rifles told 
 with awful efiect on the exposed veterans of England. Packenham, 
 trying to rally his men, was killed; General Gibbs, second in com- 
 mand, was moi-tally wounded. General Keene fell disabled; only 
 General Lambert was left to call the shattered fragments of the army 
 from the field. Never was there in a great battle such disparity of 
 losses. Of the British fully seven hundred were killed, fourteen hun- 
 dred wounded, and five hundred taken prisoners. The American loss 
 amounted to eight killed and thirteen wounded. 
 
414 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 After the buttle Jackson granted a truce for the burial of the 
 British dead. That done, General Lambert recalled the detachment 
 from the west bank of the river and retired -with his ruined army into 
 Lake Borgne. At Fort Bowyer he received the news of peace. 
 Jackson marched into New Orleans with his victorious army, and was 
 received with unbounded enthusiasm. Such, so far as oj^erations by 
 land were concerned, was the close of the war. On the ocean hostili- 
 ties lingered until spring. On the 20th of February the American 
 frigate Constitution, cruising off Cape St. Vincent, caught sight of two 
 hostile vessels, gave chase, and after a severe fight captured them. 
 They proved to be British brigs — the Cyanc, of thirty-six guns, and 
 the Levant, of eighteen. On the 23d of March the American Hornet, 
 commanded by Captain Biddle, ended the conflict by capturing the 
 British Penguin off the coast of Brazil. 
 
 Already a treaty of peace had been made and ratified. Both na- 
 tions had long desired such a result. In the summer of 1814 Amer- 
 ican commissioners were sent to Ghent, in Belgium, and were there 
 met by Lord Gambler, Henry Goulburn and William Adams, ambas- 
 sadors of Great Britain. The agents of the United States were John 
 Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell and 
 Albert Gallatin. Several months were spent in negotiations ; and on 
 the 24th of December, 1814, a treaty was ;igreed to and signed. In 
 England the news was received with deep satisfaction ; in the LTnited 
 States, with a delight bordering on madness. Before the terms of 
 settlement conld be known, the people broke forth in universal jubilee. 
 Nobody stopped to inquire whether the treaty was good or bad, hon- 
 orable or dishonorable. The Federalists found abundant reason for 
 rejoicing that a M^ar which they had persistently opposed as impolitic 
 and unjust, was at an end. The Democrats sent up a double huzza, 
 shouting first for Jackson's victoiy and afterward for peace. Xor 
 could the country well be blamed for rejoicing that a conflict M'hich 
 had cost the United States a thousand six hundred and eighty-three 
 vessels and more than eighteen thousand sailors, was ended. The 
 war-cloud rolled away like an incubus from the public mind. The 
 long blockaded, half-rotten shipping of New England was decked with 
 flags and streamers, and in one daj/ the dock-yards were ringing with 
 the sound of saw and hammer. On the 18th of February the treaty 
 was ratified by the Senate of the United States, and peace was publicly 
 proclaimed. It was in the interim between the conclusion of the treaty 
 and the reception of the news in the United States that the battle of New 
 Orleans was fought. A telegraph would have saved all that bloodshed." 
 
 There never was a more absurd treatv than that of Ghent, Its 
 
THE CAMPAIGNS OF '14. 415 
 
 only significauce was that Great Britain and the United States, having 
 been at war, agreed to be at peace. Not one of the distinctive issues 
 to decide which the war liad been undertaken was settled or even men- 
 tioned. Of the impressment of American seamen not a word was said. 
 The wrongs done to tlie commerce of the United States were not re- 
 ferred to. The rights of neutral nations were left as undetermined as 
 before. Of " free trade and sailors' rights," which had been the battle- 
 cry of the American navy, no mention was made. The principal articles 
 of the compact were devoted to the settlement of unimportant bounda- 
 ries and the possession of some petty islands in the Bay of Passama- 
 qnoddy. There is little doubt, however, that at the time of the treaty 
 Great Britain gave the United States a private assurance that impress- 
 ment and the other wrongs complained of by the Americans should be 
 practiced no more. For the sjiace of sixty years vessels bearing the flag 
 of the United States have been secure from such insults as caused the war 
 ol'1812. Another advantage gained by America was the recognition of 
 her naval power. It was no longer doubtful that American sailors were 
 the peers in valor and patriotism of any seamen in the world. It was 
 no small triumph for the Eepublic that her flag should henceforth be 
 honored on every ocean. 
 
 At the close of the conflict the country was burdened with a 
 debt of a hundred million dollars. The monetary affairs of the na- 
 tion were in a deplorable condition. The charter of the Bank of the 
 United States expired in 1811, and in the following years the other 
 banks of the country were obliged to suspend specie payment. The 
 people were thus deprived of the currency necessary for the transac- 
 tion of business. Domestic commerce was paralyzed by the want of 
 money, and foreign trade destroyed by the enemy's fleet. In the year 
 after the close of the war a bill was passed by Congress to recharter 
 the Bank of the United States. The measure being objectionable, the 
 President interposed his veto ; but in the folloAving session the bill 
 was again passed in an amended form. The capital was fixed at thir- 
 ty-five million dollars. The central banking-house was established at 
 Philadelphia, and branches were authorized at various other cities. 
 On the 4th of March, 1817, the new financial institution went into 
 operation ; and the business and credit of the country were thereby 
 greatly imjDroved. Meanwhile, the United States had been engaged 
 in a foreign war. 
 
 During the conflict Avith Great Britain the Algerine pirates re- 
 newed their depredations on American commerce. As soon as the treaty 
 of Ghent was concluded the government of the United States ordered 
 Oommodore Decatur, commanding a fleet of nine vessels, to proceed to 
 
416 HISTORY OF THE VXITED STATES. 
 
 the Mediterraneaii and chastise the Barbaiy sea-robbers into submission. 
 On the 17th of June, Decatur, cruising near Gibraltar, fell in with the 
 principal frigate of the Algerine squadron, and after a severe tight of 
 twenty minutes compelled the Moorish ship to surrender. Thirty of the 
 piratical crew, including the admiral, were killed, and more than four 
 hundred taken prisoners. On the 19th Decatur captured another frigate, 
 bearing twenty guns and a hundred and eight men. A few days after- 
 ,-ward he sailed into the Bay of Algiers, and dictated to the humbled and 
 terrified dey the terms of a treaty. The Moorish emperor was obliged to 
 release his American prisoners without ransom, to relinquish all claims to 
 tribute, and to give a pledge that his ships should trouble American mer- 
 chantmen no more. Decatur next sailed against Tunis and Tripoli, com- 
 pelled both of these states to give pledges of good conduct, and to pay 
 large sums for former violations of international law. From tliat day 
 until the present the Barbary powers have had a wholesome dread of the 
 American flag. 
 
 The close of Madison's troubled administration was signalized by 
 the admission of Indiana — the smallest of the Western States — into the 
 Union. The new commonwealth, admitted in December, 1816, came 
 with an ai'ea of nearly thirty-four thousand square miles, and a popula- 
 tion of ninety-eight thousand. About the same time was founded the 
 Colonization Society of the United States. Many of the most distin- 
 guished men in America became members of the association, the object 
 of which was to provide somewhere in the world a refuge for free persons 
 of color. Liberia, on the western coast of Africa, was finally selected as 
 the seat of the proposed colony. A republican form of government was 
 established there, and immigrants arrived in sufficient numbers to found 
 a flourishing negro State. The capital Avas named Monrovia, ia honor of 
 James Monroe, who, in the fall of 1816, was elected as Madison's suc- 
 cessor in the presidency. At the same time Daniel D. Toiupkios of lSQ,\f 
 York was chosen Vice-President. 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 IN its political principles the new administration was Democratic. The 
 policy of Madison was adopted by his successor. But the stormy 
 times of Madison gave place to many years of almost unbroken peace. 
 The new President was a native of Virginia ; a man of great talents and 
 
MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 417 
 
 accomplishments. He had been a Revolutionary soldier ; a member of 
 the House of Representatives ; a senator ; governor of Virginia ; envoy 
 to France ; minister to England ; secretary of state under Madison. The 
 members of the new cabinet were — John Quincy Adams, secretary of state ; 
 William H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury ; John C. Calhoun, secre- 
 tary of war ; William Wirt, attorney-general. The animosities and party 
 strifes of the previous years were in a measure forgotten. Statesmen of all 
 parties devoted their energies to the payment of the national debt. It was 
 a herculean task ; but commerce revived ; the government was economic- 
 ally administered ; population increased ; wealth flowed in ; and in a few 
 years the debt was honestly paid. 
 
 In the first summer of Monroe's administration the attention of 
 the United States was directed to the little kingdom of Hayti in tlie 
 northern part of St. Domingo. Christophe, the sovereign of tlie 
 country, was anxious to secure from America a recognition of Hay- 
 tian independence ; for he feared that Louis XVIIL, the restored 
 Bourbon king of France, would reclaim Hayti as a part of the French 
 empire. The President met the overtures of Christophe ^vith favor, and 
 an agent was sent out in the frigate Congress to conclude a treaty of 
 commerce with the kingdom. But the Haytian authorities refused to 
 negotiate with an agent who was not regularly accreditctl as a minister 
 to an independent state; and the mission resulted in failure and dis- 
 appointment. 
 
 In September of the same year an important treaty was con- 
 cluded with the Indian nations of what was formerly the Northwestern 
 Territory. The tribes mostly concerned wei'e the Wyandots, Dela- 
 wares, Senecas, and Shawnees ; but the Chippewas, Ottawas, and Pot- 
 tawattamies were also interested in the treaty. The subject discussed 
 was the cession, by purchase and otherwise, of various tracts of land, 
 mostly in Ohio. The Indian title to about four millions of acres, em- 
 bracing the valley of the Maumee, was extinguished by the payment 
 to the tribes concerned of fourteen thousand dollars in cash. Besides 
 this, the Delawares were to receive an annuity of five hundred dollars; 
 while to the Wyandots, Senecas, Shawnees and Ottawas was guaran- 
 teed the payment of ten thousand dollars annually forever. The 
 Chippewas and Pottawattamies received an annuity of three thousand 
 three hundred dollars for fifteen years. A reservation of certain tracts, 
 amounting in the aggregate to about three hundred thousand acres, 
 was made by the Red men with the approval of the government. For 
 it was believed that the Indians, living in small districts surrounded 
 with American farms and villages; would abandon barbarism for the 
 
 27 
 
418 HISTORY OF 'THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 habits of civilized life. But the sequel proved that the men of tho 
 woods had no aptitude for such a change. 
 
 In December of 1817 the western portion of ISIississippi Terri- 
 tory was organized as the State of Mississippi and admitted into the 
 Union. The new State contained an area of forty -seven thousand 
 square miles, and a population of sixty-five thousand souls. At the 
 same time the attention of the government was called to a nest of 
 buccaneers who had established themselves on Amelia Island, off the 
 north-eastern coast of Florida. One Gregor McGregor, acting under 
 a commission from the revolutionary authorities of New Granada and 
 Venezuela, had put himself at the head of a band of adventurers, 
 gathered mostly from Charleston and Savannah, and fortified the island 
 as a rendezvous of slave-traders and South American privateers. It 
 was thought by the audacious rascals that the well-known sympathy 
 of the United States for the Spanish American republics south of the 
 Isthmus of Darien would protect them from attack. They accord- 
 ingly proclaimed a blockade of St. Augustine and proceeded with their 
 business as though there was no civilized power in the world. But 
 the Federal government took a different view of the matter. An 
 armament was sent against the pirates, and the lawless establishment 
 was broken up. Another rendezvous of the same soi't, on the island 
 of Galveston, off the coast of Texas, was also suppressed. 
 
 In the first year of Monroe's administration the question of inter- 
 nal improvements began to be much agitated. The territorial vastness 
 of the country made it necessary to devise suitable means of communi- 
 cation between the distant parts. Without railroads and canals it was 
 evident that the products of the great interior could never reach a 
 market. Had Congress a right to vote money to make the needed 
 improvements? Jefferson and Madison had both answered the cpies- 
 tion in the negative. Monroe held similar views; and a majority of 
 Congress voted against the proposed appropriations. In one instance, 
 however, a bill was passed ajjpropriating the means necessary for the 
 construction of a national road across the Alleghanies, from Cumber- 
 land to Wheeling. The question of internal improvements was then 
 referred to the .several States; and New York took the lead by con- 
 structing a splendid canal from Buffalo to Albany, a distance of three 
 hundred and sixty-three miles. The cost of this important work Avas 
 more than seven and a half million dollars, and the eight years of 
 Monroe's administration Avere occupied in com])leting it. 
 
 In the latter part of 1817 the Seminole Indians on the frontiers of 
 Georgia and Alabama became hostile. Some bad negroes and treacher- 
 
MONROE'S ADMIXISTRATION. 419 
 
 ous Creeks joined the savages in their depredations. General Gaines, 
 commandant of a post on Flint River, was sent into the Seminole 
 country, but after destroying a few villages his forces were found in- 
 adequate to conquer the Red men. General Jackson was then ordered 
 to collect from the adjacent States a sufficient army and reduce the 
 Seminoles to submission. Instead of following his directions, that 
 stern and self-willed man mustered a thousand riflemen from West 
 Tennessee, and in the sj^ring of 1818 overran the hostile country with 
 little opposition. The Indians Avere afraid to fight the man whom 
 they had named the Big Knife. 
 
 While engaged in this expedition against the Seminoles, Jackson 
 entered Florida and took possession of the Spanish post at St. Mark's. 
 He deemed it necessary to do so in order to succeed in suppressing 
 the savages. The Spanish troops stationed at St. Mark's were removed 
 to Pensacola; and two Englishmen, named Arbuthnot and Ambristcr, 
 who fell into Jackson's hands, were charged with inciting the Semi- 
 noles to insurrection, tried by a court-martial, and hanged. Jackson 
 then advanced against Pensacola, captured the town, besieged and took 
 the fortress of Barancas, at the entrance to the bay, and sent the Span- 
 ish anthoi'ities to Havana. These summary proceedings excited much 
 comment throughout the countiy. The enemies of Gonci-al Jackson 
 condemned him in unmeasured terms; but the President and Con- 
 gress justified his deeds. A resolution of censure, introduced into the 
 House 'of Representatives, was voted down by a large majority. Tlie 
 king of Spain complained much ; l>ut liis complaint was unheeded. 
 Seeing that the defence of such a province would cost more than it 
 was worth, the Spanish monarch then proposed to cede the territory 
 to the United States. For this purpose negotiations were opened at 
 Washington City; and on the 22d of February, 1819, a treaty was 
 concluded by which East and West Florida and the outlying islands 
 were surrendered to the American government. In consideration of 
 the cession the United States agreed to relinquish all claim to the ter- 
 ritory of Texas and to pay to American citizens, for depredations com- 
 mitted by Sjianish vessels, a sum not exceeding five million dollars. 
 By the same treaty the eastern boundary of ISIexico was fixed at the 
 River Sabine. 
 
 The year 1819 M'as noted for a great financial crisis — the first of 
 many that have occurred to disturb and distress the country. With 
 the reorganization of the Bank of the United States in 1817, the im- 
 jH'ovcd facilities for credit gave rise to many extravagant speculations, 
 generally conceived in dishonesty and carried on by fraud. The great 
 
420 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 branch bank at Baltimore was especially infested by a band of unscrii-. 
 pulous speculators who succeeded, in connivance with the officers, in 
 withdrawing from the institution fully two millions of dollars beyond 
 its securities. President Cheves, however, of the superior Board of 
 Directors, adopted a policy which exposed the prevailing rascality, 
 and l^y putting an end to the system of unlimited credits, gradually 
 restored the business of the country to a firmer basis. But, for the 
 time being, financial affairs were thrown into confusion ; and the 
 Bank of the United States itself was barely saved from suspension 
 and bankruptcy. 
 
 Monroe's administration was noted for the great number of nc^v 
 members which were added to the Union. In 1818, Illinois, the 
 twenty-first State, embracing an area of more than fifty-five thousand 
 square miles, was organized and admitted. The population of the 
 new commonwealth was forty-seven thousand. In December of the 
 following year Alabama was added, with a population of a hundred 
 and twenty-five thousand, and an area of nearly fifty-one thousand 
 square miles. About the same time Arkansas Territory was organ- 
 ized out of the southern j)ortion of the Territory of Missouri. Early 
 in 1820 the province of Maine, which had been under the jurisdic- 
 diction of ISIassachusetts since 1652, was separated from that govern- 
 ment and admitted into the Union. At the time of admission the 
 population of the new State had reached two hundred and ninety- 
 eight thousand; and its territory embraced nearly thirty-two thou- 
 sand square miles. In August of 1821 the great State of Missouri, 
 with an area of sixty-seven thousand square miles, and a population 
 of seventy-four thousand, M-as admitted as the twenty-fourth member 
 of the Union ; but the admission was attended with a political agita- 
 tion so violent as to threaten the peace of the country. 
 
 The bill to organize Missouri as a territory was brought forward 
 in February of 1819. The institution of slavery had already been 
 planted there, and the question was raised in Congress whether the 
 new State should be admitted with the existing system of labor, or 
 whether by congressional action slave-holding should be prohibited. 
 On motion of James Tallmadge of New York a clause was inserted in 
 the territorial bill forbidding any further introduction of slaves into 
 Missouri and granting freedom to all slave-children on reaching the 
 age of twenty-five. The bill as thus amended became the organic 
 law of the territory. A few days afterwards when Arkansas was 
 presented for territorial organization, John W. Taylor of New York 
 moved the insertion of a clause similar to that in the Missouri bill; 
 
MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 421 
 
 but the proposed ainendnient was voted down after a hot debate. 
 Taylor then made a motion that hereafter, in the organization of ter- 
 ritories out of the Louisiana purchase, shivery should be interdicted 
 in all that part north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty 
 minutes. This proposition was also lost after a very excited discus- 
 sion. Meanwhile, Tallmadge's amendment to the ISIissouri bill was 
 defeated in the Senate, and as a consequence both the new territories 
 were organized icithoid rc.sfrictlons in the matter of slavery. 
 
 When the bill to admit Missouri as a State was finally, in Jan- 
 uary of 1820, brought before Congress, the measure was opj)osed by 
 those who had desired the exclusion of slavery. But at that time the 
 new Free State of Maine M'as asking for admission into the Union ; 
 and those who favored slavery in Missouri determined to exclude 
 Maine unless Missouri should also be admitted. After another angry 
 debate, M'hich lasted till the 16th of February, the bill coupling the 
 two new States together was actually passed ; and then Senator Thomas 
 of Illinois made a motion that henceforth and forever slavery should 
 be excluded from all that part of the Louisiana cession — Missouri 
 excepted — lying north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty 
 minutes. Such was the celebrated Missouri Compromise, one of the 
 most important acts of American legislation — a measure chiefly sup- 
 ported by the genius, and carried through Congress by the persistent 
 eiforts, of Henry Clay. The principal conditions of the plan were 
 these: first, the admission of Missouri as a slave-holding State; sec- 
 ondly, the division of the rest of the Louisiana purchase by the par- 
 allel of thii'ty-six degrees and thirty minutes ; thirdly, the admission 
 of new States, to be formed out of the territory south of that line, with 
 or without slavery, as the people might determine ; fourthly, the pro- 
 hibition of slavery in all the new States to be organized out of terri- 
 tory north of the dividing-line. By this compromise the slavery agi- 
 tation was allayed until 1849. 
 
 Meanwhile, the country had measurably recovered from the 
 effects of the late war. With peace and plenty the resources of the 
 nation were rapidly augmented. Toward the close of his term the 
 President's administration grew into high favor with the people; and 
 in the fall of 1820 he was re-elected with great unanimity. AsA^ice- 
 President, Mr. Tompkins was also chosen for a second term. Scarcely 
 had the excitement over the admission of Missouri subsided when the 
 attention of the government was called to an alarming system of 
 piracy which had sprung up in the West Indies. Early in 1822 the 
 American frigate Congress, accompanied with eight smaller vessels. 
 
422 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 was sent thither; and in the course of the year more than twenty 
 piratical ships wei-e captured. In the following summer Commodore 
 Porter was despatched with a larger fleet to cruise about Cuba and 
 the neighboring islands. Such was his vigilance that the retreats of 
 the sea-robbers were completely broken up; not a jjirate was left 
 afloat. 
 
 At this time the countries of South America were disturbed 
 with many revolutions. From the days of Pizarro these states had 
 been dependencies of European monarchies. Now they declared their 
 independence, and struggled to maintain it by force of arms. The 
 peojile of ,the United States, having achieved their own liberty, nat- 
 urally sympathized with the patriots of the South. Mr. Clay urged 
 upon the government the duty of giving ofiicial recognition to the 
 South American republics. At last his views prevailed ; and in ISIarch 
 of 1822 a bill was passed by Congress recognizing the new states as 
 sovereign nations. In the following year this action was followed up 
 by the President with a vigorous message, in which he declared that 
 for the future the American continents were not to be considered as sub- 
 jects for colonization by any European pou'cr. This famous declara- 
 tion constitutes what has ever since been known in the politics and 
 diplomacy of the United States as THE Monroe Doctrine — a doc- 
 trine by which the entire Western hemisphere is consecrated to free 
 institutions. 
 
 Great was the joy of the American people in the summer of 
 1824. The venerated La Fayette, now aged and gray, returned once 
 more to visit the land for whose freedom he had shed his blood. The 
 honored patriots who had fought by his side came forth to greet him. 
 The younger heroes crowded around him. In every city, and on 
 every battle-field which he visited, he was surrounded by a throng of 
 shouting freemen. His journey through the country was a triumph. 
 It was a solemn and sacred moment when he stood alone by the grave 
 of Washington. Over the dust of the great dead the patriot of 
 France paid the homage of his tears. In September of 1825 he bade 
 a final adieu to the people who had made him their guest, and then 
 sailed for his native land. At his departure, the frigate Brandy- 
 wine — a name significant for liim — was prepared to bear him away. 
 While Liberty remains to cheer the West, the name of La Fayette 
 shall be hallowed. 
 
 Before the departure of the illustrious Frenchman another pres- 
 idential election had been held. It was a time of great excitement 
 and much division of sentiment. Four candidates were presented for 
 
ADAMS'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 423 
 
 the suffrages of the people. There was an apj^earance of sectionalism 
 in the canvass. John Quincy Adams was put forward as the candi- 
 date of the East; 
 William H. Craw- 
 ford of Georgia as 
 the choice of the 
 South ; Henry Clay 
 and Andrew Jack- 
 son as the favorites 
 of the West. Nei- 
 ther candidate re- 
 ceived a majority of 
 the electoral votes, 
 and for the second 
 time in the history 
 of the government 
 the choice of Presi- 
 dent was referred to 
 the House of Rep- 
 resentatives. By 
 that body Mr. Ad- 
 ams was duly elec- 
 ted. For Vice- 
 President, John C. ^^ ^'''■^"^• 
 Calhoun of South Carolina had been chosen by the electoral college. 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION, 1S25-1S29. 
 
 THE new President was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1825. 
 He .was a man of the highest attainments in literature and states- 
 manship. At the age of eleven years he accompanied his father, John 
 Adams, to Europe. At Paris and Amsterdam and St. Petersburg the 
 son continued his studies, and at the same time became acquainted 
 ^vith the manners and politics of the Old World. The vast ojiportu- 
 nities of his youth were improved to the fullest extent. In his riper 
 years he served his country as ambassador to the Netherlandsj Portu- 
 
424 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 gal, Prussia, Russia and England. Such were his abilities in the field 
 of diplomacy as to elicit from Washington the extraordinary praise of 
 being the ablest minister of which America could boast. His life, from 
 1794 till 1817, was devoted almost wholly to diplomatical services at 
 the various European capitals. At that critical period when the rela- 
 tions of the United States with foreign nations were as yet not well 
 established, his genius secured the adojDtion of treaty after treaty in 
 which the interests of his country were guarded with patriotic vigi- 
 lance. In 1806 he was honored with the professorship of Rhetoric 
 and Belles- Lettres at Harvard College of which he was an alumnus. 
 He had also held the office of United States senator from Massachu- 
 setts; and on the accession of Monroe to the presidency was chosen 
 secretary of state. To the presidential chair he brought the wisdom 
 of mature years, great exiiericnce and unusual ability. 
 
 The new administration was an epoch of jjeace and prosperity in 
 the country ; but the sj^irit of party manifested itself with much vio- 
 lence. The adherents of General Jackson and Mr. Crawford united 
 in opposition to the policy of the President; and there was a want of 
 unanimity between the different departments of the government. In 
 the Senate the political friends of Mr. Adams were in a minority, 
 and their majority in the lower House only lasted for one session. 
 In his inaugural address the President strongly advocated the doc- 
 trine of internal improvements; but the adverse Vieyis of Congress 
 prevented his recommendations from being adopted. 
 
 For a quarter of a century a difficulty had existed between the 
 government of the United States and Georgia in respect to the lands 
 hi'ld in that State by the Creek Indians. When, in 1802, Georgia 
 rfjlinquished her claim to Mississippi Territory, the general govern- 
 ment agreed to purchase and surrender to the State all the Creek 
 lands lying within her own borders. This pledge on the part of the 
 United States had never been fulfilled, and Georgia complained of 
 bad faith. The difficulty became alarming; but finally, in March of 
 1826, a treaty was concluded between the Creek chiefs and the Pres- 
 ident, by which a cession of all their lands in Georgia was obtained. 
 At the .same time the Creeks agreed to remove to a new home beyond 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1826— just fifty years to a day after the Dec- 
 laration of Independence — the venerable John Adams, second Presi- 
 dent of the United States, and his successor, Thomas Jefferson, both 
 died. Both had lifted their voices fin- freedom in the early and per- 
 ilous days of the Revolution. One had written and both had signed 
 
1825 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 Frederick Wil liam III. | 
 
 27. Acknowl edgiuent of the independ euce of Greece. 
 
 Charles X. 
 
 George IV. 
 
 28. Abo 
 
 30. French Kevolu 
 liOuis 
 
 lition of the " Test Act." 
 30. Polish Revolu 
 31. Fall of 
 32 Pas 
 30. \VUUam1iv. 
 
 tion and election of 
 Philippe. 
 
 tion. 
 
 Warsaw. 
 
 sage of the Great Reform 
 
 40. 
 
 37. Attempted capturi 
 
 39. Sup))! 
 40.' 
 bill by Parliament. 
 37. Victoria. 
 
 John Q. Adams, 
 
 25. Controversy concern 
 
 26. John Adams 
 26. Thomas Jeff 
 
 John C. Calh 
 
 28. Gr 
 
 President, 
 ing the lands of the Creek 
 
 Andrew Jack 
 
 The 
 
 d. July 4. 
 erson d. July 4. 
 
 OUn, Vice-President, 
 
 32. The 
 
 eat political excitement 
 
 Calhoun re-elected 
 32. Orea 
 32. The 
 32. Proe 
 
 
 Indians. 
 
 son, President. 
 
 Black Hawk War. 
 
 36. Ar 
 
 Jackson re-elected 
 
 35. Seminole 
 
 bill to recharter the Uni 
 throughout the country. 
 35. Removal 
 
 Vice-President. 
 t tariff excitement, 
 doctrine of nullification de 
 lamation by the President. 
 Alartin Van Buren, 
 33. Passage of Mr. Clay's 
 
 33. Removal of Govern 
 
 San Antonio 
 36. 
 36. 
 
 36. 
 
 taken 
 
 I 
 
 TEX 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 Santa Anna, President. 
 36. The 
 
 37. Michigan admitt 
 
 kansas admitted into I 
 
 President. 
 
 War. 
 
 Martin Van I 
 
 ted States Bank vetoec 
 37. Failure of the t^ 
 
 of the Cherokeea. 
 
 40. 
 
 Glared by South Carol: 
 
 Vice-President. 
 Compromise bill. 
 
 Richard M. J<j 
 
 ment funds fi-om the ( 
 37. Financial crisis. 
 
 by the Te.xans. 
 
 The Alamo. 
 
 AS INDEPENDE^l 
 
 38. Lamar, X'\ 
 San Jacinto. 
 
 38. Vera Cruz li< 
 "Central RepubUc" ■' 
 37. Bustamente, 1 ' 
 
41 45 49 53 
 
 
 48. Oil 
 
 tbreak of the Hungarian 
 
 Revolution. 
 
 iderick William IV. 
 
 46. Election of Pius 
 
 IX. 52. Fall 
 
 of Kossuth and the Hun- 
 
 
 48. Ee 
 
 volution in France. ga 
 
 nan cause. 
 
 vladrid by Don Carlos. 
 
 48. A 
 
 republic proclaimed. 
 
 
 
 48. Lo 
 
 uis Napoleou Boiiapa rte elected President. 
 
 on of the Carlists in Sp 
 
 am. 
 
 52. Louis Napoleon, Presi- 
 
 body of Napoleon return 
 
 ed to France. 
 
 dent for ten years. 
 52. liO uis Napoleon, Emperor. 
 
 
 
 54. The Crimean War. 
 
 nto the Union. 
 
 43. The Dorr 
 
 Jnion. 
 
 44. First 
 
 11. The Webster-Ashbur- 
 ton treaty. 
 
 reil, President. 
 
 the President, 
 reasury bill. 
 
 William H. Har 
 
 (Died April 4, 
 age of the Treasury bill. 
 il. Treasury bill repealed. 
 :1. Passage of the Baukru 
 tl. Veto of the United Sta 
 
 and resignation of the 
 
 dent's Cabinet. 
 
 ISOU; Vice-President. 
 ed States bank. 
 
 John Tyler, vice- 
 
 md President from April, 
 
 ^1. Houston, President. 
 
 lent. 
 
 tl. Santa Anna, Presld 
 
 jed by the French. 
 
 ired. 
 
 lent. 
 
 James K. Polk, 
 
 45. Florida admitted into 
 
 rebellion in Rhode Island. 
 46. Iowa admitted 
 telegraph line in the Uni 
 48. Wis 
 46. Thenorth-weste 
 46. General Taylor 
 .46. Congress declar 
 
 46. 
 
 *J HPaloAlto. 
 
 46. J?^|i?6sa<;a de 
 46. sllCaptorco/ 
 
 46. ,7 nMo7iterei/. 
 
 George M. Dallas, 
 
 48. Dis 
 riSOll, President. 
 
 1S41.) 
 
 47. iP't^we 
 
 pt law. y^'^ 
 
 tes Bank, VjXi 
 
 Presi- 47. h^A Ver 
 
 47.p!j| Cer 
 47. ft It Con 
 
 President, ^''■ 
 1841. 
 
 47. 
 
 Mol 
 
 2^ Cha puUepec. 
 
 47. lyi^aii 
 48.Tre 
 45. Texas admitted into 
 
 ent. 
 
 President. 
 the Union. 
 
 Zachary Taylor, 
 
 (Died July 9, 
 into the Union. 
 
 ted States. 
 
 consin admitted into the 
 rn boundary fixed at 4U°. 
 ordered to the Rio Grande, 
 es war against Mexico. 
 
 la Palma. 
 
 Ilatamoras. 
 
 Vice-President, 
 coveryof gold in Californ 
 
 Millard Fillmo 
 
 President from 
 na Vista. 
 
 a Cruz. 
 
 President. 
 
 1850.) 
 
 Fr'iiklin Pierce, 
 
 Union. [President. 
 
 54. Treaty with Ja- 
 pan. 
 
 54. Passage of the 
 Kansas and 
 Nebraska bill. 
 
 54. The Missouri 
 Compromise repealed. 
 
 ia, 54. Troubles in 
 Kansas. 
 
 rC, Vice-President, and 
 July, 1850. 
 
 W. R. King, Vice-Pres. 
 
 51. The Fugi live Slave law passed. 
 
 a.Territorial government. 
 
 ro Gordo. 
 
 50. Utah erected into 
 
 ti-eras. 
 
 ino del Hey. 
 
 49. New Mexico erected 
 
 of Mexico. 
 
 aty of peace with Mexico, 
 the Union. 
 
 50. The "Omnibus Bill" passed. 
 
 50. California adm I itted into the Union. 
 
 into a Territorial govern- 
 ment. 
 
ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. 425 
 
 the great Declaration. Both had lived to see their country's independ- 
 ence. Both had served that country in its highest official station. Both 
 had reached extreme old age : Adams was ninety ; Jeflcrson, eighty- 
 two. Now, while the cannon were booming for the fiftieth birthday 
 of the nation, the gray and honored jjatriots passed, almost at the same 
 hour, from among the living. 
 
 In the following September, William Morgan, a resident of 
 Western New York, having threatened to publish the secrets of 
 the jNIasonic fraternity, of which lie was a member, suddenly disap- 
 peared from his home, and was never heard of afterward. The ]\Ia- 
 sons fell under the suspicion of having abducted and murdered him. 
 A great clamor was raised against them in New York, and the ex- 
 citement extended to other parts of the country. The issue between 
 the Masons and their enemies became a political one, and many emi- 
 nent men were embroiled in the controversy. For several years the 
 anti-Masonic party exercised a considerable influence in the elections 
 of the country. De Witt Clinton, one of the most prominent and 
 valuable statesmen of New York, had to suffer much, in loss of repu- 
 tation, from his membership in the order. His last days were clouded 
 ^vith the odium which for the time being attached to tlie Masonic 
 name. 
 
 In the congressional debates of 1828 the question of the tariff 
 was much discussed. By a tariff is understood a duty levied on im- 
 ported goods. The object of the same is twofold : first, to produce a 
 revenue for the government ; and secondly, to raise the price of the 
 article on which the duty is laid, in order that the domestic manu- 
 facturer of the thing taxed may be able to compete Avith the foreign 
 producer. When the duty is levied for the latter purpose, it is called 
 a 2»'otcetive tariff. Whether it is sound policy for a nation to have 
 protective duties is a question which has been much debated in all 
 civilized countries. Mr. Adams and his friends decided in favor of 
 a tariff; and in 1828 the duties on fabrics made of wool, cotton, linen 
 and silk, and those on articles manufactured of iron, lead, etc., were 
 much increased. The object of such legislation was to stimulate the 
 manufacturing interests of the country. The question of the tariff 
 has always been a sectional issue. The people of the Eastern and 
 Middle States, where factories abound, have favored protective du- 
 ties ; while in the agricultural regions of the South and West such 
 duties have been opposed. 
 
 The administration of John Quiney Adams was the beginning 
 of a new epoch in the history of the United States. The Revolution- 
 
426 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 aiy sages had gradually fallen out of the ranks of leadership ; and the 
 influences of the lievolution were not any longer distinctly felt in the 
 decision of national questions. Even tlie Avar of 1812, with its bitter 
 party antagonisms, its defeats and victories, and its absurd ending, was 
 fading out of memory. Xew dispositions and tastes arose among the 
 people ; new issues confronted the public ; new methods prevailed in 
 the halls of legislation. Old pai'ty linos could no longer be traced ; 
 old jtartv names were reduced to a jargon. Already the United States 
 had surpassed in growth and development the sanguine expectations 
 of the fatliers. But the conflicting ojiinions and interests of tlie na- 
 tion, reflected in the stormy debates of Congress, gave cause for con- 
 stant anxiety and alarm. 
 
 With the fall of 1828 came another presidential election. The 
 contest was specially exciting. i\Ir. Adams, supported by jSIr. Clay, 
 the secretary of state, was put forward for re-election. In accordance 
 with an understanding which liad existed for several years. General 
 Jackson ajjpeared as the candidate of the oj)position. In the previ- 
 ous election Jackson had received more electoral votes than Adams ; 
 but disregarding the popular preference, the House of Eeprcsenta- 
 tives had chosen the latter. Now the jjeople were determined to 
 have their way; and Jackson was triumphantly elected, receiving a 
 hundred and seventy-eight electoral votes against "eighty -three for 
 his opponent. As soon as the election was over, the excitement — 
 as usual in such cases — abated ; and the thoughts of the people were 
 turned to other subjects. 
 
 T 
 
 CHAPTEE LIY. 
 
 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1829-1837. 
 
 HE new President was a native of North Carolina, born on the 
 Waxhaw, March 15th, 1767. His belligerent nature broke out in 
 boyhood, and his mother's plan of devoting him to the ministry was 
 hopelesslv defeated. At the age of thirteen he was under arms and 
 witnessed Sumter's defeat at Hanging Rock. He was captured by the 
 British, maltreated, and left to die of smallpox ; but his mother se- 
 cured his release from prison and his life was saved. After the Eevo- 
 lution he began the study of law, and at the age of twenty-one went 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTEA TIOX. 
 
 427 
 
 to Nashville. In 1796 he was elected to the House of Representatives 
 from tlie new State of Tennessee. Here his turbulent and willful dis- 
 position manifested itself in full force. During the next year he was 
 jjromoted to the Senate, where he remained a year, without making a 
 speech o r casting a 
 
 vote. He then re- :^:^S^^»^ .. 
 
 signed his seat and 
 
 returned home. His J 
 
 subsequent career is a 
 part of the history of 
 the country, more par- 
 ticularly of the South- 
 west with which sec- 
 tion his name w a s 
 identified. He came 
 to the presidential of- 
 fice as a military hero. 
 But he was more than 
 that: a man of great 
 native powers and in- 
 flexible honesty. 
 His talents were 
 strong but u n p o 1 - 
 ished ; his integrity 
 unassailable; his will 
 like iron. He was 
 one o f those men 
 
 for whom no toils are too arduous, no responsibility too great. His 
 personal character was strongly imjiressed upon his administration. 
 Believing that the public affairs would be best conducted by such 
 means, he removed nearly seven hundred office-holders, and appointed 
 in their stead his own political friends. In defence of such a course 
 the precedent established by Mr. Jefferson was pleaded. 
 
 In his first annual message the President took strong grounds 
 against rechartering the Bank of the United States. Believing that 
 institution to be both inexpedient and unconstitutional, he recom- 
 mended that the old charter should be allowed to expire by its cm'u 
 limitation in 1836. But the influence of the bank, with its many 
 branches, was very great; and in 18-32 a bill to recharter was brought 
 before Congress and passed. To this measure the President opposed 
 his veto ; and since a two-thirds majority in favor of the bill could not 
 
 ANDREW JACKSON. 
 
428 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 be secured, the proposition to grant a new charter failed, and the bank 
 ceased by the original limitation. 
 
 It was in the early part of Jackson's administration that the 
 partisan elements of the country, which for some years had been 
 whirling about in a chaotic condition, was resolved into the two great 
 factions of Whig and Democratic — a form which remained as the es- 
 stablished order in politics for a quarter of a century. The old Fed- 
 eral party, under whose auspices the government was organized, had 
 lost control of national affairs on the retirement of John Adams from 
 the presidency. Still the party lingered, opposed the war of 1812, and 
 became odious from its connection with the Hartford Convention. In 
 1820 only enough of the old organization remained to be severely 
 handled in the great debates on the Missouri Compromise. Then fol- 
 lowed, during Monroe's second term, what is known in American po- 
 litical history as THE Era of Good Feeling. Partisanship seemed 
 ready to expire. On the other side, the line of political descent had 
 begun with the anti-Federalists who after opposing the National consti- 
 tution and the administrative policy of Washington and Adams, became 
 under the name of Bcpublicuns the champions of France as against 
 Great Britain. But this name was soon exchanged for that of Demo- 
 crats; and under that title the party came into power with the admin- 
 istration of Jefferson. Then followed the administrations of Madison, 
 Monroe, and John Qnincy Adams under the same political banner. 
 But in the ease of Adams the new forces were already at work. When 
 Jackson became President his arbiti'ary measures alarmed the country 
 and drove all the elements of the opposition into a compact phalanx 
 under the leadership of Clay and Webster. To this new party organi- 
 zation the name of Whir/ was given — a name taken from the old 
 Scotch Covenanters and English republicans of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, worn by the patriots of the American Revolution to distinguish 
 them from the Tories, and now adopted as the permanent title of the 
 opponents of Jeffersonian Democracy. 
 
 The reopening of the tariff question occasioned great excitement 
 in Congress and throughout the country. In the session of 1831-32 
 additional duties were levied upon manufactured goods imported from 
 abroad. By this act the manufacturing districts were again favored 
 at the expense of the agricultural States. South Carolina was spe- 
 cially offended. A great convention of her people was held, and it 
 was resolved that the tariff-law of Congress was unconstitutional, and 
 therefore null and void. Open resistance was threatened in case the 
 officers of the government should attempt to collect the revenues in 
 
JA CKSON'S ADMIXISTRA TION. 
 
 429 
 
 the harbor of Charleston. In the United States Senate the right of a 
 State, under certain oircumstances, to nullify an act of Congress was 
 boldly proclaimed. On that issue occurred the famous debate be- 
 tween the eloquent Colonel Hayne, senator from South Carolina, and 
 D a n i e 1 AY e b s t e r 
 of Massachusetts, per- 
 haps the greatest mas- 
 ter of American ora- 
 tory. The former ap- 
 jjeared as the cham- 
 pion of State rights, 
 and the latter as the 
 advocate of constitu- 
 tional supremacy. 
 
 But the question 
 was not decided by 
 debate. The Presi- 
 dent took the matter 
 in hand and issued a 
 proclamation denying 
 the right of any State 
 to nullify the laws of 
 Congress. But Mr. 
 Calhoun, the Vice- 
 President, resigned his 
 
 office to accept a seat in the Senate, where he might better defend 
 the doctrines of his State. The President, having warned the people 
 of South Carolina against pursuing those doctrines further, ordered a 
 body of troops under General Scott to proceed to Charleston, and also 
 .sent thither a man-of-war. At this display of force the leaders of the 
 nullifying party quailed and receded from their position. Bloodshed 
 was hn]3pily avoided ; and in the following spring the excitement was 
 allayed by a compromise. Mr. Clay brought forward and secured the 
 passage of a bill providing for a gradual reduction of the duties 
 complained of until, at the end of ten years, they should reach the 
 standard demanded by the South. 
 
 In the spring of 1832 the Sac, Fox and Winnebago Indians of 
 Wisconsin Territory began a war. They were incited and led by the 
 famous chief Black Hawk, who, like many great sachems before him, 
 believed in the possibility of an Indian confederacy sufficiently pow- 
 erful to beat back the whites. The lands of the Sacs and Foxes, 
 
 DANIEL WEBSTER. 
 
430 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lying in tlie Rock River countiy of Illinoi.s, had been purchased by 
 the government twenty-five years previously. The Indians, however, 
 remained in the ceded territory, since there was no occasion for im- 
 mediate occupation by the whites. When at last, after a quarter of a 
 century, the Indians were required to giv^e possession, they caviled at 
 the old treaty, and refused to comply. The government insisted that 
 the Red men should fulfill their contract, and hostilities began on the 
 frontier. The governor of Illinois called out the militia, and General 
 Scott was sent with nine companies of artillery to Chicago. At tiiat 
 place his force was overtaken with the cholera, and he was prevented 
 from co-ojierating witli the troops of General Atkinson. The latter, 
 however, waged a vigorous campaign against the Indians, defeated 
 them in several actions, and made Black Hawk pi-isoner. The cap' 
 tive chieftain was taken to AVashington and the great cities of the 
 East, where his understanding was opened as to the j'ower of the 
 nation against which he had been foolish enough to lift his hatchet. 
 Returning to his own people, he advised them that resistance was 
 hopeless. The warriors then abandoned the disputed lands and re- 
 tired into Iowa. 
 
 Difficulties also arose with the Cherokees of Georgia. These 
 were the most civilized and humane of all the Indian nations. They 
 had adopted the manners of the whites. They had pleasant farms, 
 goodly towns, schools, printing-presses, a written code of laws. The 
 government of the United States had given to Georgia a })ledge to 
 purchase the Cherokee lands for the benefit of the State. The pledge 
 was not fulfilled ; the authorities of Gcoruia irrcw tired of waiting 
 for tlic removal of the Indians ; and the legislature passed a statute by 
 \vhich the government of the Red men was abrogated and the laws of 
 the State extended over the Indian domain. With singular illiberal- 
 ity, it was at the same time enacted that the Cherokees and Creeks 
 should not have the use of the State courts or the protection of the laws. 
 This code, however, was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court 
 of the United States. The Indians then appealed to the President for 
 help ; but he refused to interpose between them and the laws of Geor- 
 gia. He also recommended the removal of the Cherokees to lands be- 
 yond the Mississippi ; and with this end in view, the Indian Terri- 
 tory was organized in the year 183-1. The Indians yielded with great 
 reluctance. More than five million dollars were paid them for their 
 lands; but still they clung to their homes. At last General Scott 
 was ordered to remove them to the new territory, using force if 
 necessary to accomplish the work. The years 1837-38 were oc- 
 
JACKSON'S ADBIINISTEATION. 431 
 
 cupied with the final transfer of the Cherokeos to their homes in 
 the West. 
 
 More serious still was the conflict with the Seminoles of Florida. 
 The trouble arose from an attempt on the part of the government to 
 remove the tribe to a new domain beyond the Mississippi. Hostili- 
 ties began in 1835. and continued for four vears. The chief of the 
 Seminoles was Osceola, a half-breed of great talents and audacity. He 
 and Micanopy, another chieftain, denied the validity of a former treaty 
 liy which the Seminole lands had been ceded to the government. So 
 liaughty was the bearing of Osceola that General Thompson, the agent 
 of the government in Florida, arrested him and put him in irons. 
 The red warrior dissembled his purpose, gave his assent to the old 
 treaty, and Avas liberated. As might have been foreseen, he immedi- 
 ately entered into a conspiracy to slaughter the whites and devastate 
 the country. 
 
 At this time the interior of Florida was held by General Clinch, 
 who had his headquarters at Fort Drane, seventy-five miles south-west 
 from St. Augustine. The post was considered in danger; and Majoi 
 Dade with a hundred and seventeen men was desjjatched from Fort 
 Brooke, at the head of Tampa Bay, to reinforce General Clinch. After 
 marching about half the distance, Dade's forces fell into an ambus- 
 cade, and were all massacred except one man who was left alive un- 
 der a heap of the dead. On the same day Osceola, with a Ijand of 
 warriors, prowling around Fort King, on the Ocklawaha, surrounded 
 a storehouse where General Thompson was dining with a company of 
 friends. The savages poured in a murderous fire, and then rushed 
 forward and scalped the dead before the gari'ison of the fort, only 
 two hundred and fifty yards away, could bring assistance. General 
 Thompson's body was pierced by fifteen balls; and four of his nine 
 companions were killed. 
 
 On the 31st of December General Clinch fought a battle with 
 the Indians on the banks of the Withlacoochie. The savages were 
 repulsed, but Clinch thought it prudent to retreat to Fort Drane. In 
 the following February General Scott took command of the American 
 forces in Florida. On the 29th of the same month General Gaines, 
 who was advancing from the West with a force of a thousand men 
 for the relief of Fort Drane, was attacked near the battle-field where 
 Clinch liad fought. The Seminoles made a furious onset, but were 
 reindsed with severe losses. In Mav some stragg-linff Creeks who 
 still remained in the country began hostilities; but they were soon 
 subdued and compelled to seek their reservation beyond the Missis- 
 
432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 sippi. In October of 1836 Governor Call of Florida marched with 
 a force of two thousand men against the Indians of the interior. A 
 {livision of his army overtook the enemy in the Wahoo Swamp, a 
 short distance from the scene of Dade's massacre. A battle ensued, 
 and the Indians were driven into the Everglades with considerable 
 losses. Soon afterward another engagement was fought on nearly the 
 same ground; and again the savages were beaten, though not deci- 
 sively. The remainder of the histoiy of the Seminole War belongs 
 to the following administration. 
 
 In the mean time the President had given a final quietus to 
 the Bank of the United States. After vetoing the bill to recharter 
 that institution, he conceived that the surplus funds which had accu- 
 mulated in its vaults would be better distributed among the States. 
 He had no warrant of law for such a step; but believing himself to 
 be in the right, he did not hesitate to take the responsibility. Ac- 
 cordingly, in October of 1833, he ordered the accumulated funds of 
 the great bank, amounting to about ten million dollars, to be distri- 
 buted among certain State banks designated for that purpose. This 
 action on the part of the President was denounced by the opposition 
 as a measure of incalculable mischief — unAvarranted, arbitrary, dan- 
 gerous. In the Senate a poM'erful coalition, headed by Calhoun, Clay, 
 and Webster, was formed against the President; and the new officers, 
 who had been appointed to carry out his measures, were rejected. A 
 resolution censuring his conduct was then introduced and carried; but 
 a similar proposition failed in the House of Representatives. For a 
 while there was a general cry of indignation, and it seemed that the 
 administration would be overwhelmed; but the President, ever as 
 fearless as he was self-willed and stubborn, held on his course, un- 
 moved by the clamor. The resolution of censure stood upon the jour- 
 nal of the Senate for four years and was then expunged from the 
 record through the influence of Senator Thomas H. Benton of Mis- 
 souri. The financial panic of 1836-7, following soon after the 
 removal of the funds, was attributed by the ojjponcnts of the admin- 
 istration to the President's arbitrary action and the prospective des- 
 truction of the national bank. To these strictures the adherents of 
 his own party replied that the financial distress of the country was 
 attributable to the l)ank itself, which Mas declared to be an institution 
 too powerful and despotic to exist in a free government. The Presi- 
 dent was but little concerned with the excitement: he had just en- 
 tered on his second term, with Martin Van Buren for Vice-President 
 instead of Mr. Calhoun. 
 
 In 1834 the strong will of the chief magistrate was brought into 
 
WSSJ 
 
JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 435 
 
 conflict with Fi'aiice. The American government hold an old claim 
 against that country for damages done to the commerce of the United 
 States in the wars of Napoleon. In 1831 the French king had agreed 
 to pay five million dollars for the alleged injuries; but the dilatory 
 government of France postponed and neglected the payment until 
 the President, becoming wrathful, recommended to Congress to make 
 i-eprisals on French commerce, and at the same time directed the 
 American minister at Paris to demand his passports and come home. 
 These measures had the desired effect, and the indemnity was jjromptly 
 paid. The government of Portugal was brought to terms in a similar 
 manner. 
 
 The country, though flourishing, was not without calamities. 
 Several eminent statesmen fell by the hand of death. On the 4th of 
 July, 1831, ex-President Monroe passed away. Like Jeffei'son and 
 Adams, he sank to rest amid the rejoicings of the national anniver- 
 sary. In the following year Charles Carroll of CaiTollton, the last 
 surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, died at the age 
 of ninety-six. A short time afterward Philip Freneau, the poet of 
 the Revolution, departed from the land of the living. The patriot 
 b;ird had reached the age of eighty. On the 24th of June, 1833, Joh.. 
 Randolph of Roanoke died in Philadelphia. He was a man admirei; 
 for his talents, dreaded for his wit and sarcasm, and respected for his 
 integrity as a statesman. In 1835 Chief-Justice Marshall breathed 
 his last, at the age of fourscore years; and in the next year ex-Pres- 
 ident Madison, worn with the toils of eighty-five years, passed away. 
 To these losses of life must be added two great disasters to jiroperty. 
 On the 16th of December, 1835, a fii-e broke out in the lower part 
 of New York City and laid thirty acres of buildings in ashes. Five 
 hundred and twenty-nine houses and property valued at eighteen 
 million dollars were consumed. Just one year afterward the Patent 
 Office and Post-Oflice at Washington were destroyed in the same 
 manner. But upon the ruins of these valuable buildings, more noble 
 and imposing structures were soon erected. 
 
 Jackson's administration was signalized by the addition of twi 
 new States. In June of 1836 Arkansas was admitted, with an aret; 
 of fifty-two thousand square miles, and a population of seventy thou- 
 sand. In January of the following year Michigan Territory was 
 organized as a State and added to the Union. The new common- 
 wealth brought a population of a hundred and fifty-seven thousand, 
 and an area of fifty-six thousand square miles. The administration 
 was already within two months of its close. The President, follow- 
 ing the example of Washington, issued a patriotic farewell address. 
 
436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The dano-ers of discord and sectionalism amons: the States were set 
 forth with all the masculine energy of the Jacksonian dialect. The 
 peo2)le of the United States were again solemnly warned, as i\\e\ had 
 been by the Father of his Country, against the baleful influence of 
 demagogues. The horrors of disunion were portrayed in the strong- 
 est colors; and peojjle of every rank and section were exhorted to 
 maintain and defend the American Union as they would the last 
 fortress of human liberty. This was the last of those remarkable 
 public papers conti-ibuted by Andrew Jackson to the history of his 
 country. Already, in the autumn of the previous year, Martin Yan 
 Buren had been elected President. The opposing candidate was Gen- 
 eral Harrison of Ohio, who received the support of the new Whig 
 party. As to the vice-presidency, no one secured a majority in the 
 electoral college, and the choice devolved on the Senate. By that 
 body Colonel Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky was duly elected. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 VAN BUREN' S ADMINISTRATION, 1837-1841. 
 
 MARTIN VAN BUREN, eighth President of the United States, 
 was born at Kinderhook, New York, on the 5th of December, 
 1782. After receiving a limited education he became a student of 
 law, and before reaching his majority was recognized as an influential 
 democratic politician. In his thirtieth year he was elected to the 
 Senate of his native State ; and six years afterwards, by supplanting 
 De Witt Clinton, became the recognized leader of the Democracy in 
 New York. In 1821, and again in 1827, he was chosen United States 
 Senator ; but in the following year he resigned his office to accept the 
 governorship of his native State. He also, in 1831, resigned his 
 place as secretary of State in the first cabinet of President Jackson, 
 and was appointed minister to England. But when, in December of 
 the same year, his nomination was submitted to the Senate the influence 
 of Vice-President Calhoun assisted by the Whig leaders, Clay and 
 Webster, procured the rejection of the appointment. Mr. Van Buren 
 returned from his unfulfilled mission ; became the candidate for the 
 vice-presidency, and was elected in the fall of 1832. Four years 
 later he was called by the voice of the powerful ])arty to wliieh he be- 
 longed, to succeed General Jackson in the highest office of the nation. 
 
VAN BUR£N-S ADMINISTRATION. 437 
 
 One of the first duties of the new administration was to finish the 
 Seminole War. In the beginning of 1837 the command of the army in 
 Florida was transferred from General Scott to General Jessup. In the 
 following fall Osceola came to the American camp with a flag of truce ; 
 but he was suspected of treachery, seized, and sent a prisoner to Fort 
 Moultrie, where he died in 1838. The Seminoles, though disheartened 
 !)y the loss of their chief, continued the war. In December Colonel 
 Zachary Taylor, with a force of over a thousand men, marched into the 
 Eve'-glades of Florida, determined to fight the savages in their laii-s. 
 After unparalleled sufferings he overtook them, on Christmas day, near 
 Lake Okeechobee. A hard battle was fought, and the Indians were de- 
 feated, but not until a hundred and thirt^y-nine of the Mhites had fallen. 
 For more than a year Taylor continued to hunt the Eed men through the 
 swamps. In 1839 the chiefs sent in their submission and signed a treaty; 
 but their removal to the West was made with much reluctance and delay. 
 In the first year of Van Buren's administration the country was afflicted 
 with a monetary jianic of the most serious character. The preceding years 
 liad been a time of great prosperity. The national debt was entirely liqui- 
 dated, and a surplus of nearly forty million dollars had accumulated in 
 the treasury of the United States. By act of Congress this vast sum had 
 been distributed among the several States. Owing to the abundance of 
 money, speculations of all sorts grew rife. The credit system pervaded ever}' 
 department of business. The banks of the country were suddenly multi- 
 plied to nearly seven hundred. Vast issues cf irredeemable paper money 
 stimulated the speculative spirit and increased the opportunities for fraud. 
 
 The bills of these unsound banks were receivable at the land-offices ; 
 and settlers and speculators made a rush to secure the public lands while 
 money was plentifid. Seeing that in receiving such an unsound currency 
 in exchange for the national domain the government was likely to be 
 defrauded out of millions. President Jackson had issued an order called 
 THE Specie Circular, by which the land-agents were directed hence- 
 forth to receive nothing but coin in payment for the lands. The effects 
 of this circular came upon the nation in the first year of Van Buren's 
 administration. The interests of the government had been secured by 
 Jackson's vigilance ; but the business of the country was prostrated by 
 the shock. The banks suspended specie payment. Mercantile houses 
 failed ; and disaster swept through every avenue of trade. During the 
 months of March and April, 1837, the failures in New York and New 
 Orleans amounted to about a hundred and fifty million dollars. A com- 
 mittee of business men from the former city besought the President to 
 rescind the specie circular and to call a special session of Congress. The 
 
438 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 former request was refused and tlie latter complied with ; but not until 
 the executive was driven by the distresses of the country. 
 
 "When Congress convened in the following September, several measures 
 of relief were brought forward. A bill authorizing the issue of treasury 
 notes, not to exceed ten millions of dollars, was passed as a temporary ex- 
 pedient. More important by far was the measure proposed by the Presi- 
 dent and brought before Congress under the name of the Independent 
 Treasury Bill. By the provisions of this remarkable project the 
 public funds of the nation were to be kept on deposit in a treasury to be 
 established for that special purpose. It was argued by Mr. Van Buren 
 and liis friends that the surplus money of the country would drift into 
 tlie independent treasury and lodge there ; and that by this means the 
 speculative mania would be effectually checked ; for extensive speculations 
 could not be carried on without an abundant currency. It was in the 
 nature of the President's plan to separate the business of the United States 
 from the general business of the country. 
 
 The independent treasury bill was passed by the Senate, but de- 
 feated in the House of Representatives. But in the following regular 
 session of Congress the bill was again brought forward and adopted. In 
 the mean time, the business of the country had in a measure revived. 
 During the year 1838 most of the banks resumed specie payments. 
 Commercial affairs assumed their M'onted aspect; but trade was less 
 vigorous than before. Enterprises of all kinds languished, and the people 
 were greatly disheartened. Discontent prevailed ; and the administration 
 was blamed with everything. 
 
 In the latter part of 1837 there was an insurrection in Canada. A 
 portion of the people, dissatisfied with the British government, broke out 
 in revolt and attempted to establish their independence. The insurgents 
 found much symjiathy and encouragement in the United States, especially 
 in New York. From that State a party of seven hundred men, taking 
 arms, seized and fortified Navy Island, in the Niagara River. The 
 loyalists of Canada attempted to capture the place, and failed. They suc- 
 ceeded, however, in firing the Caroline, the supply-ship of the adven- 
 hirers, cut her moorings, and sent the burning vessel over Niagara Falls, 
 i'hese events created considerable excitement, and the peaceful relations 
 of the United States and Great Britain were endangered. But the Presi- 
 dent issued a proclamation of neutrality, forbidding interference with the 
 affairs of Canada ; and General Wool was sent to the Niagara frontiei 
 with a sufficient force to quell the disturbance and punish the disturbers. 
 The New York insurgents on Navy Island were obliged to surrender, 
 and order was soon restored. 
 
VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION. 439 
 
 Hardly had the excitement attendant upon the Canadian troubles 
 subsided, before the question was raised as to Van Buren's successor 
 in the presidency. The canvass began early and in a very bitter 
 spirit. The measures of the administration had been of such a nature 
 as to call forth the fiercest political controversy. The Whigs, ani- 
 mated with the hope of victory, met in national convention on the 4th 
 of December, 1839, and again nominated General Harrison as their 
 leader in the coming contest. On the Democratic side Mr. Van Bureu 
 had no competitor ; but the unanimity of his party could hardly com- 
 pensate for his misfortunes and blunders. The canvass was the most 
 exciting in the political history of the country. The President was 
 blamed with every thing. The financial distress was laid at his door. 
 Extravagance, bribery, corruption — every thing bad was charged upon 
 him. Men of business advertised to pay six dollars a barrel for flour 
 if Harrison should be elected ; three dollars a barrel if Van Buren 
 should be successful. The ^Vliig orators tossed about the luckless ad- 
 ministration through all the figures and forms of speech; and the 
 President himself was shot at with every sort of dart that partisan wit 
 and malice could invent. The enthusiasm in the ranks of the oppo- 
 sition rose higher and higher; and the result was the defeat of the 
 Democrats in every State except Alal^ama, Arkansas, Illinois, Missouri, 
 New Hampshire, Virginia, and South Carolina. The electoral votes 
 of these States — numbering sixty — were given to Van Buren; and 
 the remainder, amounting to two hundred and thirty-four, were cast 
 for General Hari'ison. After controlling the destinies of the govern- 
 ment for nearly forty years, the Democratic party was temporarily 
 routed. For Vice-President, John Tyler of Virginia was chosen. 
 
 In the last year of Van Buren's administration was completed the 
 sixth census of the United States. The tables were, as usual, replete 
 with the evidences of growth and progress. The national revenues 
 for the year 1840 amounted to nearly twenty millions of dollars. Dur- 
 ing the last ten years the center of population had moved westward 
 along the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude from the South Fork of 
 the Potomac to Clarksburg, West Virginia — a distance of fifty-five 
 miles. The area of the United States now actually inhabited, amounted 
 to eight hundred and seven thousand square miles, being an increase 
 in ten years of twenty-seven and six-tenths per cent. The frontier 
 line, circumscribing the population, passed through Michigan, Wiscon- 
 sin, Iowa, and the western borders of Missouri, Arkansas, and Loui- 
 siana — a distance of three thousand three hundred miles. The pojju- 
 lation had reached the aggregate of seventeen million souls, being an 
 
440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 increase since 1830 of more than six millions. It was found fi-om the 
 tables that eleven-twelfths of the people lived outside of the larger 
 cities and towns, showing the strong preponderance of the agricultural 
 over the manufacturing and commercial interest. One of the most 
 interesting lessons of the census was found in the fact that the wonderful 
 growth of the United States was in extent and area, and not in accu- 
 laulation — in the spread of civilization rather than in intensify. For, 
 since 1830, the average population of the country had not increased 
 by so much as one person to the square mile ! 
 
 The administration of Van Buren has generally been reckoned 
 as unsuccessful and inglorious. But he and his times were unfortu- 
 nate rather than bad. He was the victim of all the evils which fol- 
 lowed hard upon the relaxation of the Jacksonian methods of govern- 
 ment. He had neither the will nor the disposition to rule as his 
 predecessor had done; nor were the j^eople and their representatives 
 any longer in the humor to suffer that sort of government. The pe- 
 riod was unheroic: it was the ebb-tide between the belligerent excite- 
 ments of l^Z'l and the war M'ith Mexico. The financial panic added 
 opprobrium to the popular estimate of imbecility in the government. 
 " The administration of Van Buren," said a bitter satirist, " is like 
 a parenthesis: it may be read in a low tone of voice or altogether 
 omitted without injuring the sense!" But the satire lacked one essen- 
 tial quality — truth. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER, mi-1845. 
 
 THE new President was a Virginian by birth, and the adopted son 
 of Robert Morris, the financier of the Revolution. He was a grad- 
 uate of Hampden-Sidncy College, and afterward a student of medicine. 
 Attracted by the military life, he entered the army of St. Clair; was 
 rapidly promoted; became lieutenant-governor and then governor of 
 Indiana Territory, which office he filled with great ability. His mil- 
 itary career in the North-west has already been narrated. He was 
 inaugurated President on the 4th of March, 1841, and began his 
 duties by issuing a call for a special session of Congress to consider 
 "sundry important matters connected with the finances of the coun- 
 try." An able cabinet was organized, at the head of which was Dan- 
 
ADMIXISTRATIONS OF HARE ISDN AND TYLER. 441 
 
 iel Webstei' as secretary of state. Everything promised well for the 
 nevv' Whig administration ; but before Congress could convene, the 
 venerable President, bending under the weight of sixty-eight years, 
 fell sick, and died just one month after his inauguration. It was 
 the first time that such a calamity had befallen the American peo- 
 ple. Profound and universal grief was manifested at the sad event. 
 On the 6th of April Mr. Tyler took the oath of office, and became 
 President of the United States. 
 
 He was a statesman of considerable distinction ; a native of Vir- 
 ginia ; a graduate of William and Mary College. At an early age he 
 left the profession of law to enter public life ; was chosen a member 
 of Congress; and in 1825 was elected governor of Virginia. From 
 that position he Avas sent to the Senate of the United States ; and now 
 at the age of fifty-one was called to the presidency. He had been 
 put upon the ticket with General Harrison through motives of exjje- 
 diency ; for although a Whig in political principles, he was knoivn to 
 be hostile to the United States Bank. And this hostility M-as soon to be 
 manifested in a remarkable manner. 
 
 The special session of Congress continued from May till Septem- 
 ber. One of the first measures proposed and carried was the repeal 
 of the independent treasury bill. A general bankrupt law was then 
 brought forward and passed, by which a great number of insolvent 
 business men were relieved from the disabilities of debt. The next 
 measure — a favorite scheme of the Whigs — was the rechartering of 
 the bank of the United States. The old charter had expired in 1836; 
 but the bank had continued in operation under the authority of the 
 State of Pennsylvania. Now a bill to recharter was brought forward 
 and passed. The President interposed his veto. Again the bill was 
 presented, in a modified form, and received the assent of both Houses, 
 only to be rejected by the executive. By this action a final rupture 
 was produced between the President and the party which had elected 
 him. The indignant Whigs, baffled by a want of a two-thirds major- 
 ity in Congress, turned upon him with storms of invective. All the 
 members of the cabinet except ]Mr. Webster resigned ; and he retained 
 his place only because of a pending difficulty with Great Britain. 
 
 The difficulty was in the nature of a dispute about the north- 
 eastei'n boundary of the United States. The territorial limit of the 
 country in that direction, not having been clearly defined by the treaty 
 of 1783, had been one of the points under discussion by the commis- 
 sioners at Ghent in 1814. But like other matters presented for adju- 
 dication before that polite and easily satisfied congress, the boundary 
 
442 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 question had been po.st|)one(l rather than settled. It was then agreed, 
 however, to refer the establishment of the entire line between the 
 United States and Canada to the decision of three commissioners to be 
 jointly constituted by the two governments. The first of these bodies 
 accomplished its work successfully by awarding to the United States 
 the islands in the Bay of Passaniaquoddy. The third commission 
 also performed its duty by establishing the true boundary line from 
 the intersection of the forty-fifth parallel of latitude with the River 
 St. Lawrence to the western point of Lake Huron. To the second 
 commission was assigned the more difficult task of settling the bound- 
 ary from the Atlantic to the St. Lawrence ; and this work they failed 
 to accomplish. For nearly twenty-five years the limit of the United 
 States on the northeast remained in controversy ; and at times the dif- 
 ficulty became so serious as to endanger the peace of the two nations. 
 Finally the whole matter at issue Avas referred to Lord Ashburton, 
 acting on the part of Great Britain, and Mr. Webster, the American 
 Secretary of State. After an able discussion of all the jjoints in dis- 
 pute, the boundary was definitely established as follows: Fi-om the 
 mouth of the River St. Croix ascending that stream to its western 
 fountain; from that fountain due north to the St. John's; thence with 
 that river to its source on the watershed between the Atlantic and 
 the St. Lawrence; thence in a southwesterly direction along the crest 
 of the highlands to the northwestern source of the Connecticut; and 
 down that stream to and along the forty-fifth parallel to the St. Law- 
 rence. The work of the commissioners extended also to the estab- 
 lishment of the boundary from the western point of Lake Huron 
 through Lake Superior to the northwestern extremity of the Lake of 
 Woods, thence — confirming the treaty of October, 1818, — southward 
 to the fi>rty-ninth parallel of latitude, and thence with that parallel to 
 the Rocky ^lountains. This important settlement, known as the Web- 
 ster- Ashburton Treaty, was completed on the 9th of August, 1842, 
 and was ratified by the Senate on the 20th of the same month. 
 
 In the next year the country was vexed with a domestic trouble. 
 For nearly two centuries the government of Rhode Island had been 
 administered under a charter granted by Charles II. By the terms 
 of that ancient instrument the right of suffrage was restricted to those 
 who held a certain amount of property. There were other clauses re- 
 pugnant to the spirit of repul)licanism; and a proposition was made 
 to change the constitution of the State. On that issue the people of 
 Rhode Island were nearly unanimous ; but in respect to the manner 
 of abrotratins; the old charter there was a serious division. One fac- 
 
ADMINISTBATIOXS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 443 
 
 tion, called the " law and order party," proceeding in accordance with 
 the former constitution, chose Samuel W. King as governor. The 
 other faction, called' the "suffrage party," acting in an irregular wav, 
 elected Thomas W. Dorr. In May of 1842 both parties met and or- 
 ganized their rival governments. 
 
 The " law and order party " now undertook to suppress the faction 
 of Dorr. The latter resisted and made an attempt to capture the 
 State arsenal. But the militia, under the direction of King's officers, 
 drove the assailants awav. A month later the adherents of Dorr ag-ain 
 appeared in arms, but were dispersed by the troops of the United 
 States. Dorr fled from Rhode Island ; returned soon afterward, was 
 caught, tried for treason, convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment for 
 life._ He was then offered jiardon on eontlition of taking an oath of 
 allegiance. This he stubbornly refused to do; and in June of 1845 
 obtained his liberty without conditions. 
 
 The year 1842 was noted for the completion of the Bunker 
 Hill Monument. No enterjjrise of a similar character had, in the 
 Avhole history of the country, called forth so much patriotic enthusiasm. 
 The foundation of the noble struc- ^|. 
 
 ture was laid on the 17th of June, Ml 
 
 ' VMM 'm 
 
 1825, the corner-stone being put into 
 its place by the venerable La Fay- 
 ette. Daniel Webster, then young 
 in years and fame, delivered the ora- 
 tion of the day, while two hundred 
 Revolutionary veterans — forty of 
 them survivors of the battle fought 
 on that hill-crest just fifty years be- 
 fore — gathered with the throng to 
 hear him. But the work of erection 
 went on slowly. More than a hun- 
 dred and fifty thousand dollars were 
 expended, and seventeen years 
 elapsed before the grand shaft — com- 
 memorative of the heroes living and 
 dead — was finished. At last the 
 work was done, and the mighty column, of Quincy granite, thirty-one 
 feet square at the base and two hundred and twenty-one feet in height, 
 stood out sublimely against the clouds and sky. It was deemed fit- 
 ting, however, to postpone the dedication until the next anniversary 
 of the battle; and preparations were made accordingly. On the 17th 
 
 t-Jt- 
 
 BUNKEK HILL MONUMENT. 
 
444 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of June, 1843, an immense multitude of people — ineluding most of 
 the Revolutionary soldiers who had not yet fallen — gathered from all 
 parts of the Republic to witness the imposing ceremony. Mr. Web- 
 ster, now full of years and honors, was chosen to deliver the address of 
 dedication — a duty which he perfoi-med in a manner so touching and 
 eloquent as to add new luster to his fame as an orator. The celebra- 
 tion was concluded with a public dinner given in Faneuil Hall, the 
 cradle of American liberty. 
 
 In the latter part of Tyler's administration the State of New 
 York was the scene of a serious social disturbance. Until the year 
 1840 the descendants of Van Rensselaer, one of the old Dutch pa- 
 troons of New Netherland, had held a claim on certain lands in the 
 counties of Rensselaer, Columbia and Delaware. In liquidation of 
 this claim they had continued to receive from the farmers certain 
 trifling rents. At last the farmers grew tired of the payment, and 
 rebelled. From 1840 until 1844 the question was frequently dis- 
 cussed in the New York legislature ; but no satisfactory settlement 
 was reached. In the latter year the anti-rent party became so bold 
 as to coat with tar and feathers those of their fellow-tenants who 
 made the payments. Officers were sent to apprehend the rioters ; 
 >.aid them they killed. Time and again the authorities of the State 
 were invoked to quell the disturbers ; and the question in dispute has 
 never been permanently settled. 
 
 Of a different sort was the difficulty with the Mormons, who now 
 began to play a part in the history of the country. Under the leader- 
 ship of their prophet, Joseph Smith, they made their first important set- 
 tlement in Jackson county, Missouri. Here their numbers increased to 
 fully fifteen hundred ; and they began to say that the great West was 
 to be their inheritance. Not liking their neighbors or their practices, 
 the people of Missouri determined to be rid of them. As soon as op- 
 portunity offered, the militia was called out, and the Mormons were 
 obliged to leave the State. In' the spring of 1839 they crossed the 
 Mississippi into Illinois, and on a high bluff overlooking the river 
 laid out a city which they called Nauvoo, meaning the. Beautiful. 
 Here they built a splendid temple. Other Mormons from different 
 parts of the Union and from Europe came to join the community, 
 until the number was swelled to ten thousand. Again popular sus- 
 picion was aroused against them. Under the administration of Smith, 
 laws were enacted contrary to the statute of Illinois. The people 
 charged the Mormons Avith the commission of certain thefts and mur- 
 ders ; and it was believed that the courts in the neighborhood of Nau- 
 voo would be powerless to convict the criminals. 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 445 
 
 In the midst of much excitement Smith and his brother were ar- 
 rested, taken to Carthage, and lodged in jaih On the 27th of June, 1844, 
 a mob gathered, broke open the jail doors and killed the prisoners. Diir- 
 ino- the rest of the summer there were many scenes of violence. In 1845 
 the charter of Nauvoo was annulled by the legislature of Illinois. Most 
 of the Mormons gave up in despair and resolved to exile themselves be- 
 yond the limits of civilization. In 1846 they began their march to the 
 far West. In September Nauvoo was cannonaded for three days, and the 
 remnant of inhabitants driven to join their companions at Council Bluffs. 
 Thence they dragged themselves wearily westward; crossed the Rocky 
 Mountains; reached the basin of the Great Salt Lake, and founded Utah 
 Territory. 
 
 Meanwhile, a great agitation had arisen in the country in regard to 
 the republic of Texas. From 1821 to 1836 this vast territory lying be- 
 tween Louisiana and Mexico, had been a province of the latter country. 
 For a long time it had been the policy of Spain and Mexico to keep 
 Texas uninhabited, in order that the vigorous race of Americans might 
 not encroach on the Mexican borders. At last, however, a large land- 
 grant was made to Moses Austin of Connecticut, on condition that he 
 would settle three hundred American families within the limits of his do- 
 main. Afterward the grant was confirmed to his son Stephen, with the 
 privilege of establishing five hundred additional families of immigrants. 
 Thus the foundation of Texas was laid by people of the English race. 
 
 Owing to the oppressive policy adopted by Mexico, the Texans, 
 in the year 1835, raised the standard of rebellion. Many adventurers 
 and some heroes from the United States flocked to their aid. In the 
 first battle, fought at Gonzales, a thousand Mexicans were defeated by 
 a Texan force numbering five hundred. On the 6th of March, 1836, 
 a Texan fort, called the Alamo, was surrounded by a Mexican army 
 «f eight thousand, commanded by President Santa Anna. The feeble 
 garrison was overpowered and massacred under circumstances of great 
 atrocity. The daring David Crocket, an ex-congressman of Tennessee, 
 and a famous hunter, was one of the victims of the butchery. In the 
 next month was fought the decisive battle of San Jacinto, which gave 
 to Texas her freedom. The independence of the new State was ac- 
 knowledged by the LTnited States, Great Britain and France. 
 
 As soon as the people of Texas had thrown off the Mexican voke 
 they asked to be admitted into the LTnion. At first the proposition 
 was declined by President A'an Buren, who feared a war with Mex- 
 ico. In the last year of Tyler's administration the question of annex- 
 ation was again agitated. The population of Texas had increased to 
 more than two hundi-ed thousand souls. The territory embraced an 
 
440 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 area of two hundred and thirty-seven thousand square miles — a do- 
 main more than five times as large as the State of Pennsylvania. It 
 was like annexing an empire. The proposition to admit Texas into 
 the Union was the great question on which the people divided in 
 
 the presidential elec- 
 tion of 1844. The 
 annexation wat? fa- 
 vored by the Demo- 
 crats and opposed by 
 the Whigs. The 
 parties were equally 
 matched in strength; 
 and the contest sur- 
 passed in excitement 
 anything which had 
 been known in Amer- 
 ican politics. James 
 K. Polk of Tennessee 
 was put forward as 
 the Democratic can- 
 didate, while the 
 Whigs chose their 
 favorite leader, Hen- 
 PROFEssoK MORSE. Ty'^^'^y- i hc lomier 
 
 was elected, and the 
 hope of the latter to reach tlie j)residency was forever eclipsed. For 
 Vice-President, George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania was chosen. 
 
 The convention by which Mr. Polk was nominated was held at 
 Baltimore. On the '29th of May, 1844, the news of the nomination was 
 sent to Washington by the Magnetic Telegraph. It was the first 
 despatch ever so transmitted ; and the event marks an era in the his- 
 tory of civilization. The inventor of the telegraph, which has proved 
 so great a blessing to mankind, was Professor Samuel F. B. Morse 
 of Massachusetts. The magnetic princijile on which the invention 
 depends had been known since 1774 ; but Professor Morse was the first 
 to apply tliat jtrinciple for the benefit of men. He began his experi- 
 ments in 1832: and five years afterward succeeded in obtaining a 
 patent on his invention. Then followed another long delay; and it 
 was not until the last day of the session in 1843 that he procured 
 from Congress an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars. With 
 that apjDropriation was constructed between Baltimore and Wash' 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 447 
 
 iiigton the first telegraphic line in the world. Perhaps no other 
 invention has exercised a more beneficent influence on the welfiire 
 and happiness of the human race. 
 
 When Congress convened in December of 1844, the proposition 
 to admit Texas into the Union was formally brought forward. Dur- 
 ing the winter the question was frequently debated ; and on the 1st 
 of March — only three days before Tyler's retirement from the presi- 
 dency — the bill of annexation was adopted. The President imme- 
 diately gave his assent; and the Lone Star took its place in the 
 constellation of the States. On the day before the inauguration of 
 Mr. Polk bills for the admission of Florida and Iowa were also 
 signed; but the latter State — the twenty-ninth member of the Amer' 
 ican Union — was not formally admitted until the following year. 
 
 CHAPTER LYII. 
 
 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE MEXICAN WAR, IS40-IS4S. 
 
 PRESIDENT POLE was a native of North Carolina. In boyhood 
 he removed with his father to Tennessee ; entered the legislature 
 of the State ; and was then elected to Congress, where he served as 
 member or speaker for fourteen years. In 1839 he was chosen gov- 
 ernor of Tennessee, and from that position was called, at the early 
 age of forty-nine, to the presidential chair. At the head of the new 
 cabinet was placed James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. It was an of- 
 fice requiring high abilities; for the threatening question with Mexico 
 came at once to a crisis. As soon as the resolution to annex Texas 
 was adopted by Congress, Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washing- 
 ton, demanded his passports and left the country. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1845, the Texan legislature ratified the act 
 of annexation ; and the union was completed. Knowing the warlike 
 determination of Mexico, the authorities of Texas sent an immediate 
 and urgent request to the President to despatch an army for their pro- 
 tection. Accordingly, General Zachary Taylor was ordered to march 
 from Camp Jessup, in Western Louisiana, and occupy Texas. The 
 real question at issue between that State and Mexico was concerning 
 boundaries. The foundation of the difficultv had been laid as earlv as 
 
448 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the Mexican revolution of 1821. By that event Mexico had achieved 
 her indejjendence of Spain, and in rearranging her civil administra- 
 tion had united Coahuila and Texas — the two frontier States east of 
 the Rio Gi-ande — under one provincial government. Such was the 
 condition of aifairs at the time of the Texan rebellion of 1836. Texas, 
 being successful in her struggle with Mexico, naturally claimed that 
 her own independence carried with it the independence of Coahuila, 
 and that, therefore, the territory of the latter province became an in- 
 tegral jmrt of the new Texan republic. This theory the joint legis- 
 lature of Texas and Coahuila made haste to put into statutory form 
 by a resolution of December 19th, 1836. Mexico, however, insisted 
 that Texas only, and not Coahuila, had revolted against her authority, 
 and that, therefore, the latter province, Avas still rightfully a part of 
 the INIoxican dominions, Thus it came to pass that Texas — now a 
 State in the American Union — claimed the Rio Grande as her west- 
 ern limit, while Mexico was de- 
 termined to have the Nueces as 
 the separating line. The ter- 
 ritory between the two rivers 
 was in dispute. The govern- 
 ment of the United States made 
 a proposal to settle the contro- 
 versy by negotiation, Ijut the 
 authorities of Mexico scornfully 
 refused. This refusal was con- 
 strued by the Americans as a 
 virtual acknowledgment that 
 the Mexicans were in the 
 Avrong, and that the Rio Grande 
 might justly be claimed as the 
 boundary. Instructions were 
 accordingly sent to General 
 Taylor to advance his army as 
 near to that river as circum- 
 stances would warrant. Under these orders he moved forward to Cor- 
 pus Christ!, at the mouth of the Nueces, established a' camp, and by 
 the beginning of November, 1845, had concentrated a force of between 
 four and five thousand men. 
 
 In the following January General Taylor Avas ordered to advance 
 to the Rio Grande. It was known that the Mexican government had 
 resolved not to receive the American ambassador sent thither to ne- 
 
 TEXAS AND COAHUILA, IMo 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 449 
 
 SCENE OFTAYLOR'S CAMPAIGN, 
 1846-17. 
 
 gotiate a settlement. It had also transpired that an army of Mexicans 
 was gathering in the northern part of the country for the invasion of 
 Texas, or, at any rate, for the occupation of the 
 disputed territory. On the Sth of March the 
 American army began the advance from Corpus 
 Christi to Point Isabel, on the gulf. At that 
 place General Taylor established a depot of sup- 
 plies, aud then pressed forward to the Rio 
 Grande. Arriving at the river a few miles 
 above the mouth, he took his station opposite 
 Matamoras and hastily erected a fortress, after- 
 ward named Fort Brown. 
 
 On the 26th of April, General Arista, who 
 had arrived at Matamoras on the previous day and assumed com- 
 mand of the INIexican forces on the frontier, notified General Tay- 
 lor that hostilities had begun. On the same day a company of Amer- 
 ican dragoons, commanded by Captain Thornton, was attacked by a 
 body of Mexicans, cast of the Rio Grande, and after losing sixteen 
 men in killed and wounded, was obliged to surrender. This was the 
 first bloodshed of the war. At the same time large bodies of Mexi- 
 cans — marauders, infantry, and cavalry — crossed the Rio Grande be- 
 low Fort Brown and threatened the American lines of communication. 
 General Taylor, alarmed lest the Mexicans should make a circuit and 
 capture the stores at Point Isabel, hastened to that place and strength- 
 ened the defences. The fort opposite Matamoras was left under the 
 command of Major Brown with a garrison of three hundred men. The 
 withdrawal of the American general with the greater part of his forces 
 was witnessed by the Mexicans in Matamoras, who, mistaking the 
 movement for a retreat inspired by fear, w'ere in great jubilation. 
 The Republican Monitor, a Mexican newspaper of Matamoras, pub- 
 lished on the following day a flaming editorial, declaring that the 
 cowardly invaders of Mexico had fled like a gang of poltroons to the 
 sea-coast and were using every exertion to get out of the country be- 
 fore the thunderbolt of Mexican vengeance should smite them. Ar- 
 ista himself was confident that the Americans, becoming alarmed at 
 their exposed position, had shrunk from the conflict and that it was only 
 necessary for him to bombard Fort Brown in order to end the war. 
 
 As soon as his supplies at Point Isabel were deemed secure, 
 General Taylor set out with a provision-train and an army of more 
 than two thousand men to return to Fort Brown. Meanwhile, the 
 
 Mexicans to the number of six thousand had crossed the Rio Grande 
 29 
 
450 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and taken a strong position at Palo Alto, directly in Taylor's route. At 
 noon on the 8tli of May the Americans came in sight and immediately 
 joined battle. After a severe engagement of five hours' duration the 
 ]\Iexicans were driven from the field, with the loss of a hundred men. 
 The American artillery was served with signal effect ; Mhile the fighting 
 of the enemy was clumsy and ineffectual. Only four Americans were 
 killed and forty wounded; but among the former was the gallant and 
 much-lamented Major Ringgold of the artillery. 
 
 On the following day General Taylor resumed his march in the 
 direction of Fort Brown. When within three miles of that j^lace, he 
 again came upon the Mexicans, who had rallied in full force to dispute 
 his advance. They had selected for their second battle-field a place 
 called Resaca de la Palma. Here an old river-bed, dry and overgrown 
 with cactus, crossed the 'road leading to the fort. The enemy's artilleiy 
 was well posted and better served than on the previous day. The Ameri- 
 can lines were severely galled until the brave Captain May with his regi- 
 ment of dragoons charged through a storm of grape-shot, rode over the 
 Mexican batteries, sabred the gunners, and captured La Vega, the com- 
 manding general. The Mexicans, abandoning their guns and flinging 
 away their accoutrements, fled in a general rout. Before nightfall they 
 had put the Rio Grande between themselves and the invincible Americans. 
 On reaching Fort Brown, General Taylor found that during his absence 
 the place had been constantly bombarded by the guns of Matamoras. 
 But a brave defence had been made, which cost, with other losses and 
 suffering, the life of Major Brown, the commandant. Such was the be- 
 ginning of a war in which Mexico experienced a long list of humiliating 
 defeats. 
 
 When the news of the battles on the Rio Grande was borne through 
 the Union, the war spirit was everywhere aroused. Party dissensious 
 were hushed into silence. The President, in a message to Congress, noti- 
 fied that body that the lawless soldiery of Mexico had shed the blood of 
 American citizens on American soil. On tin 11th of May, 1846, Con- 
 gress promptly responded with a declaration that war already existed by 
 the act of the Mexican government. The President was authorized to 
 accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and ten million dollars 
 were placed at his disposal. War meetings were held in all parts of the 
 country, and within a few weeks nearly three hundred thousand men 
 rushed forward to enter the ranks. A grand invasion of Mexico was 
 planned by General Scott. The American forces were organized in three 
 divisions : the Army of the West, under Genera! Kearney, to cross 
 ihe Rocky Mountains and conquer the northern Mexican provinces; 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 4*1 
 
 THE Army of the Centre, under General Scott as commander-in- 
 chief, to march from the gulf coast into the heart of the enemy's country , 
 THE Army of Occupation, commanded by General Taylor, to subdue 
 and hold the districts on the Rio Gi'ande. 
 
 The work of mustering the American troops was entrusted to Gen- 
 eral Wool. By the middle of summer he succeeded in despatching to 
 General Taylor a force of nine thousand men. He then established his 
 camp at San Antonio, Texas, and from that point prepared the gathering 
 recruits for the field. Meanwhile, Taylor had resumed active operations 
 on the Rio Grande. Ten days after the battle of Resaca de la Palma he 
 crossed from Fort Brown and captured Matamoras. Soon afterward he 
 began his march up the right bank of the river and into the interior. 
 The Mexicans, grown wary of their antagonist, fell back and took post at 
 the fortified town of Monterey. To capture that place was the next object 
 of the campaign ; but the American army was feeble in numbers, and 
 General Taylor was obliged to tarry near the Rio Grande until the latter 
 part of August. By that time reinforcements had arrived, increasing his 
 numbers to six thousand six hundred. With this force the march against 
 Monterey was begun ; and on the 19th of September the town, defended 
 by fully ten thousand troops, under command of Ampudia, was reached 
 and invested. 
 
 The siege was pressed with great vigor. On the 21st of the month 
 several assaults were made, in which the Americans, led by General 
 Worth, carried the fortified heights in the rear of the town. In that j^art 
 of the defences only the bishop's palace — a strong building of stone — re- 
 mained ; and this was taken by storm on the following day. On the 
 morning of the 23d the city was successfully assaulted in front by Gen- 
 erals Quitman and Butler. In the face of a tremendous cannonade and 
 an incessant tempest of musket-balls discharged from the house-tops and 
 alleys, the American storming-parties charged resistlessly into the town. 
 They reached the Grand Plaza, or public square. They hoisted the vic- 
 torious flag of the Union. They turned upon the buildings where the 
 Mexicans were concealed ; broke open the doors ; charged up dark stair- 
 ways to the flat roofs of the houses ; and drove the terrified enemy to an 
 ignominious surrender. The honors of war were granted to Ampudia, 
 who evacuated the city and retired toward the capital. The storming of 
 Monterey was a signal victory, gained against great superiority of num- 
 bers and advantage of position. 
 
 After the capitulation General Taylor received notice that overtures 
 of peace were about to be made by the Mexican government. He there- 
 fore agreed to an armistice of eight weeks, during which time neither party 
 
452 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 should renew hostilities. In reality the Mexicans had no thought of 
 peace. They employed the whole interval in warlike preparations. The 
 famous general Santa Anna was called home from his exile at Havana 
 to take the presidency of the country. In the course of the autumn a 
 Mexican army of twenty thousand men was raised and sent into the field. 
 In the mean time, the armistice had expired ; and General Taylor, acting 
 under orders of the War Department, again moved forward. On the 15th 
 of November, the town of Saltillo, seventy miles south-west from Mon- 
 terey, was captured by the American advance under General Worth. In 
 the following month, Victoria, a city in the province of Tamaulipas, was 
 taken by the command of General Patterson. To that place General 
 Butler advanced from Monterey on the march against Tarapico, on the 
 river Panuco. At Victoria, however, he learned that Tampico had 
 already capitulated to Captain Conner, commander of an American 
 ilotilla. Meanwliile, General Wool, advancing with strong reinforce- 
 ments from San Antonio, entered Mexico, and took a position within sup- 
 porting distance of IMontcrcy. It was at this juncture that General Scott 
 arrived and assumed tlie command of tlie American forces. 
 
 The Army of the West had not been idle. In June of 1846 
 General Kearney set out from Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri, for 
 the conquest of Xew ]\Iexico and California. After a long and wearisome 
 march he reached Santa Fe, and on the 18th of August captured and gar- 
 risoned the city. The whole of Xew Mexico submitted without further 
 resistance. With a body of four hundred dragoons Kearney then con- 
 tinued his march toward the Pacific coast. At tlie distance of three hun- 
 dred miles from Santa Fe he was met by the famous Kit Carson, who 
 brought intelligence from the far West that California had already been 
 subdued. Kearney accordingly sent back three-fourths of his forces, and 
 with a party of only a hundred men made his way to the Pacific. On 
 that far-off coast stirring events had happened. 
 
 For four years Colonel John C. Fremont had been exploring the 
 country west of the Rocky Mountains. He had hoisted the American 
 flag on the highest peak of the great range, and then directed his route by 
 Salt Lake to Oregon. Turning southward into California, he received 
 despatches informing him of the impending war with Mexico. Deter- 
 mined to strike a blow for his country, he urged the people of California, 
 many of whom were Americans, to declare their independence. The 
 hardy frontiersmen of the Sacramento valley flocked to his standard ; and 
 a campaign was at once begun to overthrow the Mexican authority. In 
 several petty engagements the Americans were victorious over greatly 
 superior numbers. ^Meanwhile, Commodore Sloat, commanding an 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 453 
 
 American fleet, had ca})tured the town of Monterey, on the coast, eighty 
 miles south of San Francisco. A few days afterward Commodore Stock- 
 ton took command of the Pacific squadron and made himself master of 
 San Diego. Hearing of these events, Fremont raised the flag of the 
 United States instead of the flag of California, and joined the naval com- 
 manders in a successful movement against Los Angelos, which was taken 
 without opposition. Before the end of summer the whole of the vast 
 province was subdued. In November General Kearney arrived with his 
 company and joined Fremont and Stockton. About a month later the 
 Mexicans rose in rebellion, but were defeated on the 8th of January, 
 1847, in the decisive battle of San Gabriel, by which the authority of the 
 United States was completely established. A country large enough for 
 an empire had been coufpiered by a handful of resolute men. 
 
 In the mean time. Colonel Doniphan, who had been left by Kear- 
 ney in command of New Mexico, had made one of the most brilliant 
 movements of the war. With a body of seven hundred fearless men he 
 began a march through the enemy's country from Santa Fe to Saltillo, a 
 distance of more than eight hundred miles. Reaching the Rio Grande on 
 Christmas day, he fought and gained the battle of Bracito ; then, crossing 
 the river, captured El Paso, and in two months pressed liisway to within 
 twenty miles of Chihuahua. On the banks of Sacramento Creek he met 
 the ^Mexicans in overwhelming numbers, and on the 28th of February 
 completely routed them. He then marched nnopposed into Chihuahua — 
 a city of more than forty thousand inhabitants — and finally reached the 
 division of General Wool in safety. 
 
 As soon as General Scott arrived in IMexico he ordered a large part 
 of the Army of Occupation to join him on the gulf for the conquest of the 
 capital. By the withdrawal of these troops from the divisions of Taylor 
 and \Yool tiiese officers were left in a very exposed and critical condition ; 
 for Santa Anna was rapidly advancing against them with an army of 
 twenty thousand men. To resist this tremendous array General Taylor 
 was able to concentrate at Saltillo a force numbering not more than six 
 thousand ; and after putting sufficient garrisons in that town and ]Mon- 
 terey, his effective forces amounted to but four thousand eight hundred. 
 With this small but resolute army he marched boldly out to meet the 
 ^Mexican host. A favorable battle-ground was chosen at Buena Vista, 
 four miles south of Saltillo. Here Taylor posted his troops and awaited 
 the enemy. 
 
 On the 22d of February the Mexicans, twenty thousand strong, 
 came pouring through the gorges and over the hills from the direction of 
 San Luis Potosi. Santa Anna demanded a surrender, and was met with 
 
454 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 defiance. On the morning of tlie 23d the battle began M'ith an effort to out- 
 flank the American position on the right ; but the attempt was thwarted by 
 the troops of Illinois. A heavy column was then thrown against the centre, 
 only to be shattered and driven back by Captain Washington's artillery. 
 The Mexicans next fell in great force upon the American left flank, where 
 the second regiment of Indianians, acting under a mistaken order, gave 
 way, putting the army in great peril. But the troops of IMissis.sippi and 
 Kentucky were rallied to the breach ; the men of Illinois and Indiana 
 came bravely to the sup)port; and again the enemy was hurled back. 
 In the crisis of the battle the Mexicans made a furious and final charge 
 upon Captain Bragg's battery ; but the gunners stood at their posts un- 
 daunted, and the columns of lancers were scattered with terrible volleys 
 of grape-shot. A charge of American cavalry, though made at the sacri- 
 fice of many lives, added to the discomfiture of the foe. Against tremen- 
 dous odds the field was fairly won. On the night after the battle the 
 Mexicans, having lost nearly two thousand men, made a jjrecipitate re- 
 treat. The American loss was also severe, amounting, in killed, wounded 
 and missing, to seven hundred and forty -six. This was the last of General 
 Tavlor's battles. He soon afterward returned to the United States, where 
 he was received with great enthusiasm. 
 
 On the 9th of IMarch, 1 847, General Scott began the last campaign 
 of the war. With a force of twelve thousand men ho landed to the south 
 
 of Vera Cruz, and in three days the 
 investment of the city was completed. 
 Trenches were opened at the distance 
 of eight hundi-ed yards ; and on the 
 mornin": of the 22d the cannonade 
 was begun. On the water side Vera 
 Cruz was defended by the celebrated 
 castle of San Juau d'Ulloa, erected 
 by Spain in the early part of the sev- 
 enteenth century, at the cost of four 
 million dollars. For four days an 
 incessant storm of shot and shell from the fleet of Commodore Conner and 
 the land-batteries of Scott was poured upon the doomed castle and town. 
 Life and property were swept into a common ruin. An assault was 
 already planned, when the humbled authorities of the city proposed ca- 
 pitulation. On the night of the 27th terms of surrender were signed, and 
 two days afterward the American flag floated over Vera Cruz. 
 
 The route from the gulf to the capital was now open. On the Sth 
 of April General Twiggs, in command of the American advance, set out 
 
 ijuExrcf 
 
 SCENE OF SCOTT'S CAMPAIGN, 1817, 
 
FOLIC S ADMINISTRATION. 455 
 
 On the road to Jalapa. Tlie main division, led by General Scott in 2)er- 
 son, followed immediately. For several days there was no serious oppo- 
 sition ; but on the 1 2th of the month Twiggs came upon Santa Anna, 
 ■who, with an army of fifteen thousand men, had taken possession of the 
 heights and rocky pass of Cerro Gordo. The position, though seemingly 
 impregnable, must be carried, or further advance was impossible. On the 
 morning of the 18th the American army was arranged for an assault whicli, 
 according to all the rules of war, promised only disaster and ruin. But to 
 the troops of the United States nothing now seemed too arduous, no deed too 
 full of peril. Before noondaj' every position of the Mexicans had been suc- 
 cessfully stormed and themselves driven into a precipitate rout. Ne;irly 
 three tliousand prisoners were taken, together with forty-three pieces of 
 bronze artillery, five thousand muskets and accoutrements enough to 
 supjily an army. The American loss amounted to four hundred and 
 thirty-one, that of the enemy to fully a thousand. Santa Anna escaped 
 with his life, but left behind his private 2)apers and wooden kr/. 
 
 On the next day the victorious army entered Jalapa. On the 22d 
 the strong castle of Perote, crowning a peak of the Cordilleras, was taken 
 without resistance. Here another park of artillery and a vast amount of 
 warlike stores fell into the hands of ths Americans. Turning southward. 
 General Scott next led his army against the ancient and sacred city of 
 Puebla. Though inhabited by eighty thousand people, no defence was 
 made or attempted. The handful of invaders marched unopj)Osed through 
 the gates, and on the 15th of May took up their quarters in the city. 
 The American army was now reduced to five thousand men, and General 
 Scott was obliged to pause until reinforcements could be brought forward 
 from Vera Cruz. Negotiations wore again opened in the hope of peace ; 
 but the Mexican authorities, stubborn and foolhardy as at the beginning, 
 preferred to fight it out. 
 
 By the 7th of August General Scott had received reinforcements, 
 swelling his numbers to nearly eleven thousand. Leaving a small garri- 
 son in Puebla, he again began his march upon the capital. The route 
 now lay over the summit of the Cordilleras. At the passes of the moun- 
 tains resistance had been expected ; but the advance was unopposed, and 
 the army swept through to look down on the Valley of Mexico. 
 Never before had the American soldiery beheld such a scene. Clear to 
 the horizon stretched a most living landscape of green fields, villages and 
 lakes — a picture too beautiful to be torn with the dread enginery of war. 
 
 The army pressed on to Ayotla, only fifteen miles from the capital. 
 Thus far General Scott had followed the great national road from Vera 
 Cruz to Mexico ; but now, owing to the many fortifications and danger- 
 
456 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ous passes in front, it was deemed advisable to change the route. From 
 Ayotla, therefore, the army wheeled to the south, around Lake Chalco, 
 and thence westward to San Augustine. From this place it was but ten 
 miles to the capital. The city could be approached only by causeways 
 leading across marshes and the beds of bygone lakes. At the ends of 
 these causeways were massive gates sti'ongly defended. To tlie left of 
 the line of march were the almost inaccessible positions of Contreras, San 
 Antonio and Molino del Key. Directly in front, beyond the marshes and 
 closer to the city, were the powerful defences of Churubusco and Chapul- 
 tcpec, the latter a castle of great strength. These various positions were 
 lield by Santa Anna with a force of more than thirty thousand ^lexicans. 
 That General Scott, with an army not one-third as great in numbers, 
 could take the city seemed an impossibility. But he was resolved to 
 do it. 
 
 On the 19th of August the divisions of Generals Pillow and Twiggs 
 were ordered to storm the Mexican ^Josition at Contreras. About night- 
 fall the line of communications between that place and Santa Anna's re- 
 serves was cut, and in the darkness of the following midnight an assault- 
 ing column, led by General Persifer F. Smith, moved against the enemy's 
 camp. The attack was made at sunrise, and in seventeen minutes six 
 thousand Mexicans, commanded by General Valencia, ■\\ere driven in 
 utter rout from their fortifications. The American storm ing-party num- 
 bered less than four thoasand. This was the frst victory of that mem- 
 orable 20th of August. A few hours afterward General Worth advanced 
 against San Antonio, compelled an evacuation and routed the ilying gar- 
 rison. This was the second victory. Almost at the same time General 
 Pillow led a column against one of the lieights of Ciiurubusco where the 
 enemy had concentrated in great force. After a terrible assault the posi- 
 tion was carried and the Mexicans scattered like chaff. This was the 
 third triumjjh. The division of General Twiggs added a fourth victory 
 by storming and liolding another height of Churubusco, while the ffth 
 and last was achieved by Generals Shields and Pierce, who defeated 
 Santa Anna, coming to reinfirce his garrisons. The whole Mexican army 
 was hurled back upon the remaining fortification of Chapultcpcc. 
 
 On the morning after the battles the Mexican authorities sent out 
 a proposition to negotiate. It was only a ruse to gain time, for the terms 
 proposed by them were such as conquerors would have dictated to the 
 vanquished. General Scott, who did not consider his army vanquished, 
 rejected the proposals with scorn, rested his men until the 7th of Scjitem- 
 ber, and then rencM-ed hostilities. On the next morning General Worth 
 was ordered to take Molino del lley and Casa de ]Ma.ta, the western de- 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 457 
 
 '^Si^i 
 
 Jences of Chapultepec. These positions were Iield by fourteen tliousand 
 Mexicans; but the Americans, after losing a fourth of their number in the 
 desperate onset, were again victorious. The guns were next brouglit to 
 bear on Ciiapultepec itself, and on the 1.3th of the month that frowning 
 citadel was cai-ried by storm. Through the San Cosme and Belen gates 
 the conquering army swept resistlessly, and at nightfall the soldiers of the 
 Union were in the suburbs of IMexico. 
 
 In the darkness of that night Santa Anna and the officers of the 
 government fled from 
 the city; but not un- 
 td they had turned 
 loose two thousand 
 convicts to fire upon 
 the American army. 
 On the f 1 1 o w i n g 
 morning, liefore day- 
 dawn, forth came a 
 deputation from the 
 city to beg for mercy. 
 This time the messen- 
 gers were in earnest; 
 but General Scott, 
 weary of trifling, 
 turned them away 
 with contempt. " For- 
 ward!" was the order 
 that rang along the 
 American lines at sun- 
 rise. The war-worn 
 regiments swept into 
 tht beautiful streets of 
 the famous city, and 
 
 at seven o'clock the flag of the United States floated over the halls of the 
 Montezumas. So ended one of the most brilliant campaigns known in 
 modern histoiy. 
 
 On leaving his conquered capital Santa Anna, with his usual 
 treachery, turned about to attack the American hospitals at Puebla. 
 Plere about eighteen hundred sick men had been left in charge of Colonel 
 Childs. For several davs a gallant resistance M'as made by the feeble 
 garrisqn, until General Lane, on his march to the capital, fell upon the 
 besiegers and scattered them. It was the closing stroke of the war — a 
 
 ■^^^?^^ 
 
 GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT. 
 
458 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 contest in which the Americans, few in number and in a far-distant4. 
 densely -jjeopled country, had gained every victory. 
 
 The military power of Mexico was now completely broken. Santa 
 Anna was a fugitive. It only remained to determine the conditions of 
 peace. In the winter of 1847-48 American ambassadors met the Mexican 
 Congress, in session at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and on the 2d of February a 
 treaty was concluded between the t\\'o nations. The comjjact wa.s ratified 
 by both governments, and on the 4th of the following July President Polk 
 made a proclamation of peace. By the terms of settlement the boundary- 
 line between IMexico and the United States was fixed as follows: The 
 Rio Grande from its mouth to the southern limit of New Mexico ; thence 
 westward along the southern and northward along the western boundary 
 of that territory to the river Gila ; thence down that river to the Colo- 
 rado ; thence westward to the Pacific. The whole of New IMexico and 
 Upper California was relinquished to the United States. Mexico guar- 
 anteed the free navigation of the Gulf of California, and the river Colo- 
 rado from its mouth to the confluence of the Gila. In consideration of 
 these territorial acquisitions and privileges the United States agreed to 
 surrender all places held by military occupation in Mexico, to pay into 
 the treasury of that country fifteen million dollars, and to assume all debts 
 due from the Mexican government to American citizens, said debts not to 
 exceed three million five hundred thousand dollars. Thus at last Avas the 
 territory of the United States spread out in one broad l)elt from ocean to 
 ocean. 
 
 In the mean time the troublesome and alarming question of IHE 
 Oregon Boundary was finally disposed of. For more than a quarter 
 of a century the territorial limit of the United States on the northwest 
 had been a matter of controversy between the Federal government 
 and Great Britain. By the terms of the convention of 1818 the in- 
 ternational line had been carried westward from the northwestern ex- 
 tremity of the Lake of the. Woods along the forty-ninth parallel' to 
 the crest of the Rocky Mountains ; but from that point to the Pacific 
 no agreement could be reached. As early as 1807, and again in 1818 
 and 1826, the United States had formally claimed the parallel of fifty- 
 four degrees and forty minutes; but this boundary Great Britain refused 
 to accept. By a convention, held in August of 1827, it was agreed by 
 the representatives of the two powers that the territory lying between 
 the forty-ninth parallel — which, according to the English theory, was 
 the true international line — and the parallel of fifty-four degrees and 
 forty minutes should remain open indefinitely and impartially for the 
 joint occupancy of British and American citizens. By this action the 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATIOX. 459 
 
 difficulty was postponed for sixteen years; Init thouglitful statesmen 
 of botli nations became alarmed that a question of such magnitude 
 should remain unsettled, and negotiations were renewed. In 1843 
 the minister resident of the United States in London again proposed 
 the parallel of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes, but the proposition 
 was rejected. In the next year the British ambassador at Washington 
 again suggested the forty-ninth degree of latitude as the true bound- 
 ary; but to this the government of the United States refused to ac- 
 cede. Then came the war with Mexico and with it the prosj^ective 
 extension of territoiy on the southwest. The views of the adminis- 
 tration in reo-ard to the northwestern boundary became less strins-ent ; 
 and finally, in a convention of the two powers held on the 15th of 
 June, 1846, the question was definitely settled b)' a treaty. Every 
 point of the long-standing controversy was decided in favor of Great 
 Britain. The forty-ninth parallel was established as the international 
 boundary from the summit of the Rocky Mountains to the middle of 
 the channel which separates the continent from Vancouver's Island; 
 thence southerly through the middle of said channel and of Fuca's 
 Straits to the Pacific. Vancouver's Island itself was awarded to Great 
 Britain; and the free navigation of the Columbia River was guaran- 
 teed to the Hudson Bay Company and other British subjects on the 
 same conditions as those imposed on citizens of the United States. 
 The treaty was by no means so favorable as might have been expected, 
 .and by many it was denounced as actually dishonorable to the Fed- 
 eral government. It is certain that ))etter terms might have been de- 
 manded and obtained. '■' 
 
 A few days after the signing of the treaty of peace with Mexico 
 an event occurred in California which spread excitement through the 
 civilized world. A laborer, employed by Captain Sutter to cut a mill- 
 race on the American fork of tlie Sacramento River, discovered some 
 pieces of gold in the sand where he was digging. With further search 
 other particles were found. The news spread as if borne on the wind. 
 From all quarters adventurers came flocking. Other explorations led 
 to further revelations of the precious metal. For a while there seemed 
 no end to the discoveries. Straggling gold-hunters sometimes picked 
 up in a few hours the value of five hundred dollars. The intelligence 
 
 '&^ 
 
 went flying through the States to the Atlantic, and then to the ends 
 
 '•■' Such was the indignation of the opponents of this treaty — especially of the leaders 
 of the Whig party — that the political hattle-ciy of ^'Fifty-four Forty or Flrjht.'" became 
 almost as popular a motto as "Free Trade and Sailors' RirjlUs " had been in the War 
 of 1812. 
 
460 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the v.orld. Men thousands of miles away were crazed with excite- 
 ment. AVorkshops were shut up, business houses abandoned, fertile 
 farms left tenantless, offices deserted. Though the overland routes to 
 California wei'e scarcely yet discovered, thousands of our eager adven- 
 turers started on the long, long journey. Before the end of 1850 San 
 Francisco had grown from a miserable village of huts to a city of 
 fifteen thousand inhabitants. By the close of 1852 the territory had 
 a population of more than a quarter of a million. The importance 
 of the gold mines of California, whose richness is not yet exhausted, 
 caii hardly be overestimated. 
 
 
 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
 
 In April of 1846, Congress passed an act organizing the Smith- 
 sonian Institution at Washington City. Twenty-two years previ- 
 ously an eminent English chemist and philanthropist named James 
 Smithson* had died at Genoa, bequeathing on certain conditions a 
 large sum of money to the United States. In the fall of 1838, by 
 the death of Smithson's nephew, the proceeds of the estate, amount- 
 ing to five hundred and fifteen thousand dollars, were secured by the 
 
 •"Until after liis graduation at Oxford in 17S6, this remarkable man was known by 
 the name of Jmius Lewis Mack. Afterward, of his own accord, he chose the name of 
 his reputed father, Hugh Smithson, duke of Northumberland. 
 
POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 461 
 
 agent of the national government and deposited in the mint. It had 
 been provided in the will that the bequest should be used for the 
 establishment at Washington of an institution jor the increase and dij- 
 fusion of knowledge among men. To carry out the great design of the 
 testator a plan of organization, prepared by John Quincy Adams, was 
 laid before Congress and after some modifications adopted. 
 
 In the act of establishment it was provided that the institution 
 contemplated by Mr. Sniithson should be named in his honor " The 
 Smithsonian Institution " ; that the same should be under the imme- 
 diate control of a Board of Regents composed of the President, Vice- 
 President, judges of the Supreme Court, and other principal officers 
 of the government ; that the entire Smithsonian fund, amounting with 
 accrued interest to six hundred and fifty-five thousand dollars, should 
 be loaned forever to the United States at six per cent. ; that out of the 
 proceeds, together with congressional appropriations and private gifts, 
 buildings sliould be provided suitable to contain a museum of nat- 
 ural history, a cabinet of minerals, a chemical laboi'atory, a gallery 
 of art, and a library. Professor Joseph Henry of Princeton College 
 was chosen secretary of the institution, and the plan of organization 
 was speedily and successfully carried out. The result has been tlie 
 establishment in the United States of one of the most beneficent in- 
 •stitutions known in the history of mankind. The Smithsonian Con- 
 tributions to Knowledge already amount to eighteen volumes quarto ; 
 and the future is destined to yield still richer results in widening the 
 boundaries of human thought and increasing the happiness of men. 
 
 In the first summer of President Polk's administration the coun- 
 try was called to mourn the death of General Jackson. The veteran 
 warrior and statesman lived to the age of seventy-eight, and died at 
 liis homo, called the Hermitage, in Tennessee. On the 23d of Feb- 
 ruary, 1848, ex-President John Quincy Adams died at the city of 
 Washington. At the time of his decease he was a member of the 
 House of Representatives. He was struck with paralysis in the very 
 seat from which he had so many times electrified the nation with his 
 eloquence. 
 
 In 1848 Wisconsin, the last of the five great States formed from 
 the North-western Territory, was admitted into the Union. The new 
 commonwealth came with a population of two hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand and an area of nearly fifty-four thousand square miles. By estab- 
 lishing the St. Croix instead of the Mississippi as the western boundary 
 of the State, Wisconsin lost a considerable district rightfully belonging 
 to her territory. 
 
462 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Near the close of Polk's administration an important addition 
 was made to the President's cabinet by the establishment of the De- 
 partment OF THE Interior. To the three original departments of 
 the government, as oi-ganized during the administration of Washing- 
 ton, had already been added the offices of Postmaster-General and 
 Secretary of the Navy. The Attorney-General had also come to be 
 recognized as a regular member of the cabinet. AVith the growth 
 and development of the nation it was found that the duties belong- 
 ing to the departments of state and the treasury had become so man- 
 ifold as to require the establishment of a separate office. A certain 
 part of these duties were accordingly detached, and the new " Home 
 Department" — afterwards called Department of the Interior — was 
 constituted by act of Congress. In the beginning of the next admin- 
 istration the new secretaryship was assigned to General Thomas Ewing 
 of Ohio. 
 
 Another presidential election was at hand. Three well-known 
 candidates were presented for the suffrages of the people. General 
 Lewis Cass of Michigan was nominated by the Democrats, and Gen- 
 eral Zachary Taylor by the Whigs. As the candidate of the new 
 Free-Soil party, ex-President Martin Van Buren was put forward. 
 The rise of this new party was traceable to a question concerning the 
 territory acquired by the Mexican War. In 1846 David Wilmot of 
 Pennsylvania brought before Congress a bill to prohibit slavery in all 
 the territory which might be secured by treaty with Mexico. The 
 bill was defeated ; but the advocates of the measure, wliich was called 
 the Wilmot Proviso, formed themselves into a party, and in June 
 of 1848 nominated Mr. Van Buren for the jjresidency. The real 
 contest, however, lay between Generals Cass and Taylor. The posi- 
 tion of the two leading parties on the question of slavery in the new 
 territories was as yet not clearly defined, and the election was left to 
 turn on the personal popularity of the candidates. The memory of 
 his recent victories in Mexico made General Taylor the favorite with 
 the people, and he was elected by a large majority. As Vice-Presi- 
 dent, Millard Fillmore of New York was chosen. So closed the agi- 
 tated but not inglorious administration of President Polk. 
 
ADMINISTItAT10^S OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 463 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII. 
 
 ADirimSTBATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE, 1S49-1S53. 
 
 THE new President was a Virginian by birtli, a Kentnckian by breed- 
 ing, a soldier by profession. In 1808 he left the farm to accept a 
 commission in the army. During the war of 1812 he distinguished him- 
 self in the Xorth-west, especially in defending Fort Harrison against the 
 Eed men. In the 
 Seminole War he bore 
 a' conspicuous part, but 
 earned his greatest re- 
 nown in Mexico. His 
 reputation, t li o u g h 
 strictly military, was 
 enviable, and his cha- 
 racter above reproach. 
 His administration be- 
 gan with a violent agi- 
 tation on the question 
 of slavery in the terri- 
 tories; California, the 
 El Dorado of the West, 
 was the origin of the 
 dispute. 
 
 In his first mes- 
 sage President Taylor 
 expressed his sympa- 
 thy witli the Califor- 
 nians, and advised 
 them to form a State 
 government prejjara- 
 
 tory to admission into the Union. The advice was promptly accejrtcd. 
 A convention of delegates was held at j\Ionterey in September of 184D. 
 A constitution prohibiting slavery was framed, submitted to the people, 
 and adopted with but little opposition. Peter H. Burnet was elected 
 governor of the Territory ; members of a general assembly were chosen ; 
 and on the 20th of December, 1849, the new government was organized 
 
 PRESIDENT TAYI.OB. 
 
484 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at San Jose. At the same time a petition in the usual form was for- 
 warded to Congress asking for the admission of California as a State. 
 
 The presentation of the petition was the signal for a bitter contro- 
 versy. As in the case of the admission of Missouri, the members of Con- 
 gress, and to a great extent the people, were sectionally divided. But 
 now the position of the j^arties was reversed ; the proposition to admit the 
 new State was favored by the representatives of the North and opposed 
 by those of the South. The ground of the opposition was tliat witli the 
 extension of the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific the right to in- 
 troduce slavery into California was guaranteed by the general government, 
 and that therefore the proposed constitution of the State ought to be re- 
 jected. The reply of the North was that the argument could apply only 
 to a 2:)art of the new State, that the Missouri Compromise had respect only 
 to the Louisiana purchase, and that the people of California had framed 
 their constitution in tlieir own way. Such Avas the issue; and the debates 
 grew more and more violent, until the stability of the Union was seriously 
 endangered. 
 
 Other exciting questions added fuel to the controversy. Texas 
 claimed New ]\Iexico as a part of her territory, and the claim was resisted 
 by the people of Santa Fe, who desired a separate government. The peo- 
 ])le of the Soutii complained bitterly that fugitive slaves, escaping from 
 their masters, were aided and encouraged in the North. The opponents 
 of slavery demanded the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of 
 Columbia. Along the whole line of controversy there was a spirit of 
 suspicion, recrimination and anger. 
 
 The illustrious Henry Clay appeared as a jJeaccmakcr. In the 
 spring of 1850 he was appointed chairman of a committee of thirteen, to 
 whom all the questions under discussion were referred. On the 9th of 
 May he brought forward, as a comj)romise covering all the points in dis- 
 pute, THE Omnibus Bill, of which the provisions were as follows: First, 
 the admission of California as a free State ; second, the formation of new 
 States, not exceeding four in number, out of the territory of Texas, said 
 States to permit or exclude slavery as the people should determine; third, 
 the oi'ganization of territorial governments for New Mexico and Utaii, 
 without conditions on the question of slavery; fourth, the establishment 
 of the present boundary between Texas and New Mexico, and the pay- 
 ment to the former for surrendering the latter tlie sum of ten million dol- 
 lars from the national treasury ; f/th, the enactment of a more rigorous 
 law for tiie recovery of fugiti\-c slaves ; sixth, the abolition of the slave- 
 trade in the District of Columbia. 
 
 When the Omnibus Bill was laid before Congress, the debates began 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 
 
 465 
 
 anew, and seemed likely to be interminable. While the discussion was at 
 its height and the issue still undecided, President Taylor fell sick, and 
 died on the 9th of July, 1860. In accordance with the provisions of the 
 constitution, Mr. Fillmore at once took the oath of office and entered upon 
 the duties of the presidency. A new cabinet was formed, with Daniel 
 ^Vebster at the head as secretary of state. Notwithstanding the death of 
 the chief magistrate, the government moved on without disturbance. 
 
 The compromise proposed by Mr. Clay and sustained by his elo- 
 quence was at length 
 approved by Congress. 
 On the 18th of Sep- 
 tember the last clause 
 was adopted, and the 
 whole received the im- 
 mediate sanction of the 
 President. The ex- 
 citement in the coun- 
 try rapidly abated, and 
 the distracting contro- 
 versy seemed at an end. 
 Such was the last, and 
 perhaps the greatest, 
 of those pacific mea- 
 sures originated and 
 carried through Con- 
 gress by the genius 
 of Henry Clay. He 
 shortly afterward bade /, 
 adieu to the Senate, 
 and sought at his be- 
 loved Ashland a brief 
 rest from the arduous 
 cares of public life. 
 
 The passage of the Omnibus Bill brought a political quiet ; but 
 the moral convictions of very few men were altered by its provisions. 
 Public opinion remained as before : in the North, a general, indefinite, 
 but growing hostility to slavery ; in the South, a fixed and resolute 
 purpose to defend and extend that institution. To the President, 
 whose party was in the ascendency in most of the Free States, the 
 measure was fatal ; for although his cabinet had advised him to sign 
 the bill, the Whigs were at heart opposed to the fugitive slave law, 
 so 
 
 HENKY CLAY. 
 
466 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and when he gave his assent they turned coldly from him. In the 
 Whig National convention, two years afterwards, although the policy 
 of the President was approved and the compromise measures ratified 
 by a vote of two hundred and twenty-seven against sixty, not twenty 
 Northern votes could be obtained for his renomination. Thus do 
 political parties punish their leaders for hesitating to espouse a prin- 
 ciple which the parties themselves are afraid to avow. 
 
 The year 1850 was marked by a lawless attempt on the part of 
 some American adventurers to gain possession of Cuba. It was 
 thought that the people of that island were anxious to throw oif the 
 Spanish yoke and to annex themselves to the United States. In order 
 to encourage such a movement. General Lopez organized an expedi- 
 tion in the South, and on the 19th of May, 1850, effected a landing 
 at Cardenas, a port of Cuba. But there was no uprising in his favor ; 
 neither Cubans nor Spanish soldiers joined his standard, and he was 
 obliged to seek safety by returning to Florida. Eenewing the attempt 
 in the following year, he and his band of four hundred and eighty 
 men were attacked, defeated and captured by an overwhelming force 
 of Sjjaniards. Lopez and the ringleaders were taken to Havana, 
 tried, condemned and executed. 
 
 The first annual message of the President was a document of 
 great ability. Among the many important measures pressed upon the 
 attention of Congress were the following : a system of cheap and uni- 
 form postage ; the establishment, in connection with the Department 
 of the Interior, of a Bureau of Agriculture; liberal appropriations for 
 the imjjrovement of rivers and harbors; the building of a national 
 aiiylum for disabled and destitute seamen ; a permanent tariff with 
 specific duties on imports and discrimination in favor of American 
 manufactures ; the opening of communication between the Mississippi 
 and the Pacific coast ; a settlement of the land difficulties in Califor- 
 nia; an act for the retirement of supernumerary officers of the army 
 and navy; and a board of commissioners to adjust the claims of pri- 
 vate citizens against the government of the United States. Only two 
 of these important recommendations — the asylum for sailors and the 
 settlement of the land claims in California — were carried into effect. 
 For the President's party were in a minority in Congress; and the 
 majority refused or neglected to approve his measures. 
 
 In 1852 a serious trouble arose with England. By the terms 
 of former treaties the coast-fisheries of Newfoundland belonged ex- 
 islusivcly to Great Britain. But outside of a line drawn three miles 
 from the shore American fisherman enjoyed equal rights and privi- 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 467 
 
 leges. Now the dispute arose as to whether the line shoukl be drawn 
 from one headhmd to another so as to give all the bays and inlets to 
 England, or whether it should be made to conform to the irregulari- 
 ties of the coast. Under the latter construction American fishing- 
 vessels would have equal claims in the bays and harbors; hut this 
 privilege was denied by Great Britain, and the quarrel rose to such a 
 height that both nations sent men-of-war to the contested waters. But 
 reason triumphed over passion, and in 1854 the difficulty was happily 
 settled by negotiation; the right to take fish in any of the bays of 
 the British possessions was conceded to American fishermen. 
 
 During the summer of 1852 the celebrated Hungarian patriot 
 Louis Kossuth made the tour of the United States. Austria and 
 Russia had united against his native land and overthrown her liber- 
 ties. He came to plead the cause of Hungary before the American 
 people, and to obtain such aid as might be privately furnished to his 
 oppressed countrymen. Every-where he was received with expres- 
 sions of sympathy and good-will. His mission was successful, though 
 the long-established jjolicy of the United States forbade the govern- 
 ment to interfere on behalf of the Hungarian patriots. 
 
 About this time the attention of the American people was di- 
 rected in a special manner to explorations in the Arctic Ocean. In 
 1845 Sir John Franklin, one of the bravest of English seamen, went 
 on a voyage of discovery to the extreme Xorth. He believed in the 
 possibility of passing through an open polar sea into the Pacific. 
 Years went by, and no tidings came from the daring sailor. It was 
 only known that he liad passed the country of Esquimaux. Other 
 expeditions were despatched in search, but returned without success. 
 Henry Grinnell, a wealthy merchant of New York, fitted out several 
 vessels at his own exjjense, put them under command of Lieutenant 
 De Haven, and sent them to the North ; but in vain. The govern- 
 ment came to Mr. Grinnell's aid. In 1853 a new Arctic squadron 
 was equipped ; the command of which was given to Dr. Elisha Kent 
 Kane; but the expedition, though ricli in scientific results, returned 
 without the discovery of Franklin. 
 
 During the administrations of Taylor and Fillmore the country 
 was called to mourn the loss of many distinguished men. On the 31st 
 of March, 1850, Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina passed 
 away. His death was much lamented, especially in his own State, to 
 whose interests he had devoted the energies of his life. His earnest- 
 ness and zeal and powers of debate have placed him in the front rank 
 of American orators. At the age of sixty-eight he fell from his place 
 
468 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 like a scarred oak of the forest never to rise again. Then followed 
 the death of the President; and then, on the 28th of June, 1852, 
 Henry Clay, having fought his last battle, sank to rest. On the 24th 
 of the following October the illustrious Daniel "Webster died at his 
 
 home at Marshfield, 
 Massachusetts. The 
 place of secretary of 
 State, made vacant 
 by his death, was 
 conferred on EdM^ard 
 Everett. 
 
 In Europe the 
 news of LojJez's ri- 
 diculous invasion of 
 Cuba created great 
 excitement. Not- 
 withstanding a dis- 
 tinct disavowal of 
 the whole proceeding 
 on the part of the 
 Federal government, 
 notwithstanding the 
 
 immediate dismissal 
 of the officer at Xew 
 Orleans who had al- 
 lowed the expedition 
 of Lopez to escape 
 fi-ora that port, — the governments of Great Britain and France affec- 
 ted to believe that the covert aim and pui'pose of the United States 
 was to acquire Cuba by conquest. Acting upon this presumption the 
 British and French ministers proposed to the American government 
 to enter into a Tripartite Treaty — so called — in whicli each of the con- 
 tracting nations was to disclaim then and forever all intention of pos- 
 sessing Cuba. To this proposal Mr. Everett replied in one of the 
 most masterly State papers on record. Great Britain and France were 
 informed that the annexation of Cuba was regarded by the United 
 States as a measure hazardous and impolitic ; that entire good faith 
 would be kept with Spain and with all nations ; but that the Federal 
 government did not recognize in any European power the right to 
 meddle with affairs purely American, and that, in accordance with 
 the doctrine set forth by President Monroe, anj' such interferenoe 
 
 JOHN C. CALHOUN. 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 469 
 
 would be resented as an affront to the sovereignty of the United 
 States. 
 
 A.S Fillmore's administration drew to a close the political parties 
 again marshaled their forces. Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire 
 appeared as the candidate of the Democratic party, and General Win- 
 field Scott as the choice of the Whigs. The question at issue before 
 the country was the Compromise Act of 1850. But the parties, in- 
 stead of being divided, were for once agreed as to the wisdom of that 
 measure. Both the Whig and Democratic platforms stoutly reaffirmed 
 the justice of the Omnibus Bill, by which the dissensions of the coun- 
 try had been quieted. A third party arose, however, whose members, 
 both Whigs and Democrats, doubted the wisdom of the compromise 
 of 1850, and declared that all the Territories of the United States 
 ought to be free. John P. Hale of Xew Hampshire was put forward 
 as the candidate of this Free Soil party. Mr. Pierce was elected by a 
 large majority, and William R. King of Alabama was chosen Vice- 
 President. 
 
 CHAPTER LIX. 
 
 PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION, 1S.03-1S57. 
 
 rpHE new chief magistrate was a native of New Hampsliire, a graduate 
 -L of Bowdoiu College, a lawyer, a politician, a general in the Mexican 
 War, a statesman of considerable abilities. Mr. King, the Vice-Presi- 
 dent, had for a long time represented Alabama in the Senate of the United 
 States. On account of failing health he was sojourning in the island of 
 Cuba at the time of the inaugui-ation, and there he i-eceived the oath of 
 office. Growing still more feeble, he returned to his own State, where 
 he died on the 18th of April, 1853. As secretary of state under the new 
 administration William L. Marcy of New York was chosen. 
 
 In the summer of 1853 the first corps of engineers was sent out by 
 the government to explore the route for A. Pacific Railroad. The 
 enterprise was at fii-st regarded as visionary, then believed in as possible, 
 and finally undertaken and accomplished. In the same year that marked 
 the begimiing of the project the disputed boundary between New Mexico 
 and Chihuahua was satisfactorily settled. The maps on which the former 
 treaties with Mexico had been based were found to be erroneous. Santa 
 
470 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Anna, who had again become jJresiclent of the Mexican republic, at- 
 tempted to take advantage of the error, and sent an army to occujiy 
 the territory between the true and the false boundary. This action 
 was resisted by the authorities of New Mexico and the United States, 
 and a second Mexican war seemed imminent. The difficulty was ad- 
 justed, however, by the purchase of the doubtful claim of Mexico. 
 This transaction, known as the Gadsden Purchase, led to the erec- 
 tion of the new Territory of Arizona. 
 
 The first year of Pierce's administration was signalized by the 
 opening of intercourse between the United States and the great em- 
 pire of Japan. Hitherto the Japanese ports had been closed against 
 the vessels of Christian nations. In order to remove this foolish and 
 injurious restriction Commodore Perry, a son of Oliver H. Perry of 
 the war of 1812, sailed with his squadron into the Bay of Yeddo. 
 When warned to depart, he explained to the .Japanese officers the sin- 
 cere desire of the United States to enter into a commercial treaty with 
 the emperor. After much delay and hesitancy consent was obtained to 
 hold an interview with that august personage. Accordingly, on the 
 14th of July, the commodore with his officers obtained an audience 
 with the dusky monarch of the East, and j^resented a letter from the 
 President of the United States. Still the government of Japan was 
 wary of accepting the proposition, and it was not until the spring of 
 1854 that a treaty could be concluded. The privileges of commerce 
 were thus conceded to American merchant vessels, and two ports of 
 entry were designated for their use. 
 
 On the very day of Commodore Perry's introduction to the em- 
 peror of Japan the Crystal Palace was opened in the city of New York 
 for the second World's Fair. The palace itself was a marvel in ar- 
 chitecture, being built exclusively of iron and glass. Thousands of 
 specimens of the arts and manufactures of all civilized nations were 
 put on exhibition within the spacious building. The enterprise and 
 inventive genius of the whole country were quickened into a new 
 life by the beautiful and instructive display. International exhibitions 
 are among the happiest fruits of an enlightened age. 
 
 During the administration of Pierce the country was frequently 
 disturbed by the filibustering expeditions of General William AValker 
 into Central America. This audacious and unscrupulous adventurer 
 l)egan his operations in 1853 by escaping with a band of followers 
 from the port of San Francisco and making a descent on La Paz in 
 Lower California. In the spring of 1854 he marched overland with a 
 hundred men and raised the standard of revolt in the state of Sonora; 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 471 
 
 but the company was dispersed and himself made prisoner. In May 
 of the same year he was tried by the authorities of San Francisco and 
 acquitted. But not satisfied with his previous experience, he again 
 raised a band of sixty-two follovters and jwoceeded to Central America. 
 Being joined by a regiment of natives he fought and gained a battle 
 at Rivas, on the 29th of June, 1855. In a second battle at Virgin 
 Bay he was also successful. Fighting continued until the following 
 summer when his influence had become so powerful that he was 
 elected president of Nicaraugua. Then came a change in his fortunes. 
 A great insurrection ensued ; and the other Central American states, 
 assisted by the Vanderbilt steam-ship company, whose rights he had 
 violated, combined against him and on the 1st of May, 1857, he was 
 again made prisoner. But in a short time he was foot-loose at New 
 Orleans, where he organized a third company of adventurers — men 
 who had everything to gain and nothing to lose — and on the 25th of 
 November succeeded in reaching Pnnta Arenas, Nicaraugua. 
 
 Within less than a month, however, he was again obliged to sur- 
 render to Commodore Paulding of the United States navy. For a 
 while the great filibuster was a prisoner at New York ; but getting his 
 liberty, he continued his scheming, and in June of 1860 a third time 
 reached Central America at the head of a considerable force. This 
 time the descent was made at Truxillo, Honduras. But the president 
 of that state, assisted by a British man-of-war, soon overpowered and 
 captured the whole band. On the .3d of September Walker was tried 
 by a court-martial at Truxillo, condemned, and shot. The courage 
 with which he met his fate has half redeemed his forfeited fame and 
 left after times in doubt whether he shall be called fanatic or hero. * 
 
 To this period also belongs the history of what is known in 
 American diplomacy as the Martin Koszta Affair. Martin Koszta 
 was a leader in the Hungarian revolt against Austria, in 1849. After 
 the rebellion was suppressed he fled to Turkey whence he was demanded 
 by the Austrian government as a refugee and traitor. The Turkish 
 authorities, however, refused to give him up but agreed that he should 
 be sent into exile to some foreign land never to return. Koszta chose 
 the United States as his asylum, came hither, and took out partial but 
 not complete papers of naturalization. In 1854 he returned to Tur- 
 key, contrary — as it was alleged — to his former promise. At the city 
 of Smyrna he received a passport from the American consul residing 
 there, and went ashore. But the Austrian consul at Smyrna, hearing 
 
 *"It will be observed that the narrative of Walker's exploits and end, extends nearly 
 to the conclusion of Buchanan's administration. 
 
472 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of Koszta's arrival and having no power to arrest him on shore, iuduceu 
 some bandits to seize him and throw him into the water of the bay 
 where a boat in waiting picked him up and carried him on board an 
 Austrian frigate. The American officials immediately demanded his 
 release, which was refused. Thereupon Captain Duncan Ingraham, 
 commanding the American sloop of war St. Louis, loaded his guns, 
 pointed them at the Austrian vessel, and was about to make hot work, 
 when it was agreed by all parties that Koszta should be put in charge 
 of the French government until his nationality should be decided. In 
 this condition of affairs the question was given over for discussion to 
 Baron Hiilseman — the Austrian minister at Washington — and William 
 L. Marcy, the American secretary of state. The correspondence was 
 one of the ablest on record and extended, before its termination, to 
 almost every question affecting naturalization and citizenship, and in- 
 deed to many other important topics of international law. Mr. Maroy 
 was completely triumphant in his argument and Koszta was remanded 
 to the United States. Of so much importance is the life of one man, 
 when it involves the great question of human rights. 
 
 In the years 1853-54, the peaceable relations of the United 
 States and Spain were again endangered by Cuban difficulties. Presi- 
 dent Pierce believed that owing to the financial embarrassment of the 
 Spanish government, Cuba might now be purchased at a reasonable 
 price and annexed to the United States. The delicate business of ne- 
 gotiating was intrusted at first to Mr. Soule, the American minister 
 at Madrid. But afterwards James Buchanan and John Y. Mason were 
 added to the mission. A convention of the ambassadors of the vari- 
 ous governments concerned was held at Ostend, and an important in- 
 strument was there drawn up — chiefly by Mr. Buchanan — known as 
 THE Ostend Manifesto. The document was chiefly devoted to an 
 elaborate statement of the arguments in favor of the purchase and an- 
 nexation of Cuba by the United States, as a measure of sound wisdom 
 to both the Spanish and American governments. But nothing of prac- 
 tical importance resulted from the embassy or the manifesto. 
 
 And now the great domain lying west of Minnesota, Iowa and 
 Missouri was to be organized into territorial governments. Already 
 into these vast regions the tide of immigration was pouring, and it be- 
 came necessary to provide for the future. In January of 1854, Sen- 
 ator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois brought before the Senate of the 
 United States a proposition to organize the territories of Kansas and 
 Nebraska. In the bill reported for this purpose a clause was inserted 
 providing that the people of the two Territories, in forming their con- 
 
PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 473 
 
 stitutions, should decide for themselves whether the new States sliould be 
 free or slaveholding. This was a virtual repeal of the Missouri Com- 
 promise, for both the new territories lay north of the parallel of 
 thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes. Thus by a single stroke the 
 old settlement of the slavery question was to be undone. From Jan- 
 uary until May, Mr. Douglas's report, known as the Kansas-Ne- 
 braska Bill, was debated in Congress. All the bitter sectional 
 antagonisms of the past were aroused in full force. The bill was 
 violently opposed by a majority of the representatives from the East 
 and North ; but the minority, uniting with the congressmen of the 
 South, enabled Douglas to carry his measure through Congress, and 
 in May of 1854 the bill received the sanction of the President. 
 
 Kansas itself now became a battle-field for the contending par- 
 ties. Whether the new State should admit slavery now depended upon 
 the vote of the people. Wherefore both factions made a rush lor the 
 territory in order to secure a majority. Kansas was soon filled with 
 an agitated mass of people, thousands of whom had been sent tliither 
 to vote. An election held m November of 1854 resulted in the choice 
 of a pro-slavery delegate to Congress, and in the general territorial 
 election of the following year the same party was triumphant. The 
 State Legislature thus chosen assembled at Lecompton, organized the 
 government and framed a constitution permitting slavery. The Free 
 Soil party, declaring the general election to have been illegal on ac- 
 count of fraudulent voting, assembled in convention at Toj)eka, framed 
 a constitution excluding slavery, and organized a rival government. 
 Civil war broke out between the factions. Fi'om the autumn of 1855 
 until the following summer the Territory was the scene of constant 
 turmoil and violence. On the 3d of September the President ap- 
 pointed John W. Geary of Pennsylvania military governor of Kansas, 
 with full powers to restore order and punish lawlessness. On his ar- 
 rival the hostile parties were quieted and peace restored. But the 
 agitation in the Territory had already extended to all parts of the 
 Union, and became the issue on which the people divided in the presi- 
 dential election of 1856. 
 
 The parties made ready for the contest. James Buchanan of 
 Pennsylvania was nominated as the Democratic candidate. By plant- 
 ing himself on a platform of principles in which the doctrines of the 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill were distinctly reaffirmed, he was able to secure 
 a heavy vote both North and South. For many Northern Democrats, 
 though opposed to slavery, held firmly to the opinion that the people 
 of every Territory ought to have the right to decide the question for 
 
474 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 themselves. As the candidate of the Free Soil or Peoi^le's parts', 
 John C. Fremont of California was bronght forward. The exclusion 
 of slavery from all the Territories of the United States by congres- 
 sional action was the distinctive principle of the Free Soil platform. 
 Meanwhile, an American or Know-Xothing party had arisen in the 
 countiy, the leaders of which, anxious to ignore the slavery question 
 and to restrict foreign influences in the nation, nominated Millard Fill- 
 more for the presidency. But the slavery question could not be put 
 aside ; on that issue the people were really divided. A large majority 
 decided in favor of Mr. Buchanan for the presidency, while the choice 
 for the vice-presidency fell on John C. Bi-eckinridge of Kentucky. 
 
 CHAPTER LX. 
 
 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION, 1S57-1SG1. 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN was a native of Pennsylvania, born on the 
 13th of April, 1791, educated for the profession of law. In 1831 
 he was ajjpointed minister to Russia, was afterward elected to the 
 Senate of the United States, and from that position was called to the 
 office of secretary of state under President Polk. In 1853 he received 
 the appointment of minister to Great Britain, and resided at London 
 until his nomination for the presidency. As secretary of state in the 
 new cabinet, General Lewis Cass of Michigan was chosen. 
 
 A few days after the inauguration of the new chief magistrate, 
 the Supreme Court of the United States delivered the celebrated opin- 
 ion known in American history as the Dred Scott Decision. Dred 
 Scott, a negro, had been held as a slave by Dr. Emerson of Missouri, 
 a surgeon in the United States army. On the removal of Emerson to 
 Rock Island, Illinois, and afterwards, in 1836, to Fort Snelling, Min- 
 nesota, Scott was taken along ; and at the latter place he and a negro 
 woman, who had been bought by the surgeon, were married. Two 
 children were born of the marriage, and then the whole family were 
 taken back to St. Louis and sold. Dred thereupon brought suit for 
 his freedom. The cause was heard in the circuit and supreme courts 
 of Missouri, and, in May of 1854, was appealed to the Supreme Court 
 of the United States. After a delay of nearly three years a decision 
 was finally reached in March of 1857. Chief-Justice Taney, speaking 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 475 
 
 for the court, decided that negroes, whether free or slave, were not cit- 
 izens of the United States, and that they could not become such by any 
 process known to the Constitution ; that under the laws of the United 
 States a negro could neither sue nor be sued, and that therefore tlie 
 court had no jurisdiction of Dred Scott's cause ; that a slave was to 
 be regarded in the light of a personal chattel, and that he might be 
 removed from place to place by his owner as any other jiiece of prop- 
 erty ; that the Constitution gave to every slave-holder the right of re- 
 moving to or through any State or Territory with his slaves, and of 
 returning at his will witli tliein to a State where slavery was recog- 
 nized by law; and that therefore the Missouri Compromise of 1820, 
 as well as the compromise measures of 1850, was unconstitutional and 
 void. In these opinions six of tlie associate justices of the supreme 
 bench — Wayne, Nelson, Grier, Daniel, Camjibell, and Catron — con- 
 curred ; while two associates — Judges McLean and Curtis — dissented. 
 The decision of the majority, which was accepted as the opinion of 
 the court, gave great satisfaction to the ultra slave-holding sentiments 
 of the South, but excited in the North thousands of indignant com- 
 ments and much bitter opposition. 
 
 In the first year of Buchanan's administration there was a Mor- 
 mon rebellion in Utah. The difficulty arose from an attempt to ex- 
 tend the judicial system of the United States over the Territory. Thus 
 far Brigham Young, the Mormon governor, had had his own way of 
 administering justice. The community of Mormons was organized on 
 a plan very different from that existing in other Territories, and many 
 usages had grown up in Utah which were repugnant to the laws of 
 the country. When, therefore, a Federal judge was sent to preside 
 in the Territory, he was resisted, insulted and driven violently from 
 the seat of justice. The other officials of the Federal government 
 were also expelled, and the Territory became the scene of a reign 
 of teiTor. The Mormons, however, attempted a justification of their 
 conduct on the ground that the character of the United States offi- 
 cers had been so low and vicious as to command no respect. But 
 the excuse was deemed insufficient, and Brigham Young was super- 
 seded in the governorship by Alfred Cumming, superintendent of 
 Indian affiiirs on the Upper Missouri. Judge Delana Eckels of In- 
 diana was appointed chief-justice of the Territory; and an army of 
 two thousand five hundred men was organized and despatched to 
 Utah to put down lawlessness by force. 
 
 But Young and the Mormon elders were in no humor to give 
 up their authority without a struggle. The approaching American 
 
476 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 army was denounced as a horde of barbarians, and preparations were 
 made for resistance. In September of 1857 the national forces reached 
 tlie Territory ; and on tlie 6th of October a company of Mormon ran- 
 gers made good the threats of Young by attacking and destroying 
 most of the supply trains of the army. Winter came on, and the 
 Federal forces, under command of Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, 
 were obliged to find quarters on Black's Fork, near Fort Bridges. 
 Meanwhile, however, the President had despatched Thomas L. Kane 
 of Pennsylvania with conciliatory letters to the Mormons. Going by 
 way of California, he reached Utah in the spring of 1858, and in a 
 short time succeeded in bringing about a good understanding between 
 Governor Cumming and the insurgents. In the latter part of May, 
 Governor Powell of Kentucky and Major McCulloch of Texas ar- 
 rived at the quarters of the army, bearing from the President a proc- 
 lamation of pardon to all who would submit to the national authority. 
 The passions of the Mormons had by this time somewhat subsided 
 and they accepted the overture. In the fall of 1858 the army pro- 
 ceeded to Salt Lake City, but was soon afterwards quartered at CamjJ 
 Floyd, forty miles distant. The Federal forces remained at this place 
 until order was entirely restored, and in May of 1860 were withdrawn 
 from the Territory. 
 
 Early in 1858 an American vessel, while innocently exploring 
 the Paraguay River, in South America, was fired on by a jealous gar- 
 rison. When reparation for the insult was demanded, none was given, 
 and the government of the United States was obliged to send out a 
 fleet to obtain satisfaction. A commissioner was sent with the squad- 
 ron who was empowered to offer liberal terms of settlement for the 
 injury. The authorities of Paraguay quailed before the American 
 flag, and suitable apologies were made for the wrong Avhich had been 
 committed. 
 
 The 5th of August, 1858, was a memorable day in the history 
 of the world. On that day was completed the laying of the first 
 TELEGRAPHIC CABLE across the Atlantic Ocean. The successful ac- 
 complishment of this great work was due in a large measure to the 
 energy and genius of Cyrus W. Field, a wealthy merchant of New 
 York. The cable, one thousand six hundred and forty miles in 
 length, was stretched from Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, to Valentia 
 Bay, Ireland. Telegraphic communication was thus established be- 
 tween the Old World and the New, and the fraternal greetings of 
 peaceful nations were for the first time transmitted through the 
 depths of the sea. 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 477 
 
 In 1858 Minnesota was added to the Union. The area of the new 
 State was a little more than eighty-one thousand square miles, and its 
 population at the date of admission a hundred and fifty thousand souls. 
 In the next year Ore- 
 gon, the thirty-third 
 State, was admitted, 
 with a population of 
 forty-eight thousand, 
 and an area of eighty 
 thousand square miles. 
 On the 4th of the pre- 
 ceding March General 
 Sam Houston of Texas 
 bade adieu to the Sen- 
 ate of the United 
 States and retired to 
 private life. His ca- 
 reer had been marked 
 by the strangest vicis- 
 situdes. He was a 
 
 Virginian by birth, 
 but his youth was 
 hardened among the 
 mountains of Tennes- 
 .see. He gained a mil- 
 itary fame in the Sem- 
 inole War, then rose 
 
 to political distinction, and was elected governor of his adopted State. 
 Overshadowed with a domestic calamity, he suddenly resigned his office, 
 left his honae, and exiled himself among the Cherokees, by whom he was 
 made a chief. Afterward he went to Texas, joined the patriots, and be- 
 came a leading spirit in the struggle for independence. It was he who 
 commanded in the decisive battle of San Jacinto ; he who became first 
 president of Texas, and also her first representative in the Senate of the 
 United States. Through all the misfortunes, dangers and trials of his 
 life his character stood like adamant. 
 
 In the fall of 1859 the people of the United States were called 
 to mourn the death of Washington Irving, the Prince of Amer- 
 ican Letters. For full fifty years the powers of his sublime genius 
 had been unremittingly devoted to the great Mork of creating for his 
 iiative land a literature that should adorn and glorify his own and 
 
 #- 
 
 GENERAL SAM HOUSTON. 
 
478 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 afte-r ages. On both sides of the Atlantic, in every civilized countrv, 
 his name had become familiar as a household word. He it was, first 
 of all, who wrung from the reluctant and proscriptive reviews of 
 
 Eng-land and Seot- 
 land an acknowledg- 
 ment of the power 
 and originality of 
 Amercan genius. The 
 literature of the New 
 World was no longer 
 a scoff and a by-word 
 when Murray, the 
 bookseller of London, 
 was obliged to pay 
 for the manuscript of 
 " Braeebridge Hall " 
 — which he had not 
 yet seen — the sum of 
 a thousand guineas. 
 Except Sir "Walter 
 Scott and Lord Byron 
 no other author of 
 Irving's times re- 
 ceived such a munifi- 
 cent reward for his labor — no other was so much praised and loved. 
 Whether as humorist or writer of prose fiction, historian or biogra- 
 pher, his name ranks among the noblest and brightest of the world. 
 When the petty revolutions of society and the bloody conflicts of the 
 battle field are forgotten, the monument which the affections of his 
 countrymen have reared to the memory of the illustrious Irving shall 
 stand unshaken and untarnished, transmitting to all after times the 
 record of his virtues and achievements. 
 
 From the beginning the new administration had stormy times. 
 The slavery question continued to vex the nation. The Dred Scott 
 Decision, to which the President had looked as a measure calculated 
 to allay the excitement, had only added fuel to the flame. In some 
 of the Free States the opposition rose so high that Persox.vl Lib- 
 erty Bills were passed, the object of which was to defeat the exe- 
 cution of the Fugitive Slave law. In the fall of 1859 the excitement 
 was still further increased by the mad attempt of .lohn Brown of 
 Kansas to excite a general insurrection among the slaves. With a 
 
 WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 479 
 
 party of twenty-one men as daring as himself, he made a sudden de- 
 scent on the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, captured the 
 place, and held his ground for nearly two days. The national troops 
 and the militia of Virginia were called out in order to .suppress the 
 revolt. Thirteen of Brown's men were killed, two made their escape, 
 and the rest Avere captured. The leader and his six companions were 
 given over to the authorities of Virginia, tried, condemned and 
 hanged. In Kansas the old controversy still continued, but the Free 
 Soil party gained ground so rapidly as to make it certain that slavery 
 would be interdicted from the State. All these facts and events 
 tended to widen the breach between the people of the North and the 
 South. Such was the alarming condition of affairs when the time 
 arrived for holding the nineteenth presidential election. 
 
 The canvass was one of intense excitement. Four candidates 
 were presented. The choice of the People's party — now called Re- 
 publican — was Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. The j'latform of prin- 
 ciples adopted by this party again declared opposition to the extension 
 of slavery to be the vital issue. In the month of April the Democratic 
 convention assembled at Charleston. The delegates were divided on 
 tlie question of slavery, and after much debating the party was dis- 
 rupted. The Southern delegates, unable to obtain a distinct expres- 
 sion of their views in the platform of principles, and seeing that the 
 Northern wing was determined to nominate Mr. Douglas — the great 
 defender of popular sovereignty — withdrew from the convention. The 
 riist continued in session, balloted for a while for a candidate, and on 
 the 3d of May adjourned to Baltimore, where the delegates, reassem- 
 bling on the 18th of June, chose Douglas as their standard-bearer in 
 the approaching canvass. The seceding delegates adjourned first to 
 Richmond, and afterwards to Baltimore, where they met on the 28th 
 of June and nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The 
 American party — now known as Constitutional Unionists — chose 
 John Bell of Tennessee as their candidate. The contest resulted in 
 the election of Mr. Lincoln. He received the electoral votes of all 
 the Northern States except those of New Jersey, which were divided 
 between himself and his two opponents. The support of the South- 
 ern States was for the most part given to Breckinridge. The States 
 of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee cast their ballots, thirty-nine 
 in number, for Mr. Bell. Mr. Douglas received a large popular but 
 small electoral vote, his supporters being scattered through all the 
 States without the concentration necessary to carry any. Thus after 
 controlling the destinies of the Republic for sixty years, with only 
 
480 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tlie temporary overthrow of 1840, the Democratic party was broken 
 into fragments and driven from the field. 
 
 The result of the election had been anticipated. The leaders of the 
 South had openly declared that the choice of Lincoln would be regarded 
 as a just cause for the dissolution of the Union. The Republicans of the 
 populous North crowded to tiie polls, and their favorite was chosen. As 
 to the government, it was uuder the control of the Douglas Democracy ; 
 but a majority of the cabinet and a large number of senators and re2)re- 
 sentatives in Congress were supporters of Mr. Breckinridge and the advo- 
 cates of disunion as a justifiable measure. It was now evident that with 
 the incoming of the new administration all the departments of the govern- 
 ment would pass under the control of the Republican party. The times 
 were full of passion, animosity and rashness. It was seen that disunion 
 was now possible, and that the possibility would shortly be removed. The 
 attitude of the President favored the measure. He was not himself a 
 disunionist. He denied the right of a State to secede ; but at the same 
 time he declared himself not armed with the constitutional power neces- 
 sary to prevent secession by force. The interval, therefore, between the 
 presidential election in November of 1860 and the inauguration of the 
 following spring was seized by the leaders of the South as the opportune 
 moment for dissolving the Union. 
 
 The actual work of secession began in South Carolina. On the 
 17th of December, 1860, a convention assembled at Charleston, and after 
 three days of deliberation passed a resolution that the union hitherto 
 existing between South Carolina and the other States, under the name of 
 the United States of America, was dissolved. It was a step of fearful 
 importance. The action was contagious. The sentiment of disunion 
 sj)read with great rapidity. The cotton-growing States were almost 
 unanimous in support of the measure. By the 1st of February, 1861, 
 six other States — Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and 
 Texas — had passed ordinances of secession and withdrawn from the 
 Union. Nearly all of the senators and representatives of those States, 
 following the action of their constituents, resigned their seats in Congress 
 and gave themselves to the disunion cause. 
 
 In the secession conventions there was but little opposition to the 
 movement. In some instances a considerable minority vote was cast. A 
 few of the speakers boldly denounced disunion as bad in principle and 
 ruinous in its results. The course of Alexander H. Stephens, afterward 
 Vice-President of the Confederate States, was peculiar. In the con- 
 vention of Georgia he undertook the task of jjreventiug the secession of 
 his State. He delivered a long and powerful oration in which he de- 
 
BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 481 
 
 fended the theory of secession, advocated the doctrine of State sove- 
 reignty, declared his intention of abiding by the decision of the conven- 
 tion, but at the same 
 time spoke against se- 
 cession, on the ground 
 that the measure was 
 impolitic, unwise, dis- 
 astrous. Not a few 
 prominent men at the 
 South held similar 
 views; but the oppo- 
 site opinion pi-evailed, 
 and secession was ac- 
 complished. 
 
 On the 4th of 
 February, 1861, dele- 
 gates from six of the 
 seceded States assem- 
 bled at Montgomery, 
 Alabama, and formed 
 a n e M' government, 
 under the name of 
 The Confederate 
 States of America. 
 On the 8th of the 
 month the government 
 
 was organized by the election of Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as provis- 
 ional President, and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-President. On the 
 same day of the meeting of the Confedei'ate Congress, at INIontgomerj', a 
 peace conference assembled at Washington. Delegates from twenty-one 
 States were present; certain amendments to the Constitution were pro- 
 posed and laid before Congress for adoption, but that body gave little heed 
 to the measures suggested, and the conference adjourned without practical 
 results. 
 
 The country seemed on the verge of ruin. The national govern- 
 ment was for the time being paralyzed. The army was stationed in de- 
 tachments on remote frontiei-s. The fleet was scattered in distant seas. 
 The President was distracted with hesitancy and the adverse counsels of 
 his friends. With the exception of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 
 Charleston Harbor, Fort Pickens near Pensacola, and Fortress IMonroe in 
 the Chesapeake, all the important posts in the seceded States had been 
 
 31 
 
 ' f ^-^r ^t^ - 
 
 AI/EXANDER H. STEPHENS. 
 
482 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 seized by the Confederate authorities, even before the organization of their 
 government. All this while the local warfare in Kansas had continued ; 
 but the Free State party had at last gained the ascendency, and the early 
 admission of the new commonwealth, with two additional Republican 
 senators, was foreseen. Early in January the President made a feeble 
 attempt to reinforce and provision the garrison of Fort Sumter. The 
 steamer Star of the West was sent with men and supplies, but in approach- 
 ing the harbor of Charleston was fired on by a Confederate battery and 
 compelled to return. Thus in gloom and grief, and the upheavals of 
 revolution, the administration of Buchanan drew to a close. Such was 
 the dreadful condition of affairs that it was deemed prudent for the new 
 President to approach the capital without recognition. For the first time 
 in the history of the nation the chief magistrate of the republic slipped 
 into Washington city by night. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI. 
 
 LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865. 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN, sixteenth President of the United States, 
 was a native of Kentucky, born in the county of Larue, on the 
 12th of February, 1809. His ancestors had emigrated thither from 
 Rockingham County, Virginia : both father and mother were Virgin- 
 ians by birth. The childhood of the future President was passed in 
 utter obscurity. In 1816 his father removed to Spencer County, In- 
 diana — just then admitted into the Union — and built a cabin in the 
 woods near the present village of Gentryville. Here was the scene 
 of Lincoln's boyhood — a constant struggle with poverty, hardship, and 
 toil. At the age of sixteen we find him managing a ferry across the 
 Ohio, at the mouth of Anderson Creek — a service for which he was 
 paid six dollars per month. In his youth he received in the aggregate 
 about one year of schooling, which was all he ever had in the way of 
 education. In the year of his majority he removed with his father's 
 family to the north fork of the Sangamon, ten miles west of Decatur, 
 Illinois. Here another log-house was built and a small farm cleared 
 
LINCOLN' S A D MINIS TEA TION. 
 
 483 
 
 and fenced ; and here Abraham Lincohi began for himself the hard 
 battle of life. 
 
 The uncleared forest, the unbroken soil, 
 
 The iron bark tliat turns the lumberer's axe, 
 The rapid that o'erbears the boatman's toil, 
 
 The prairie, hiding the mazed wanderer's tracks. 
 
 The ambushed Indian, and the prowling bear; — 
 
 Such were the needs that helped his youth to train- 
 Rough culture ! — but such trees large fruit may bear, 
 If but their stocks be of right girth and grain ! 
 
 After serving as a flatboatman on the Mississippi, Lincoln re- 
 turned to New Salem, twenty miles from Springfield, and became 
 a clerk in a country 
 store. Then, as cap- 
 tain of a company of 
 volunteers, he served 
 in the Black Hawk 
 war. From 1883 to 
 1836 he was engaged 
 in merchandising, but 
 a dissolute partner 
 brought him to bank- 
 ruptcy. Turning his 
 attention to the prac- 
 tice of the law, for 
 which p r o f e s s i o n 
 he had always had a 
 liking, he gradually 
 gained the attention 
 of his fellow-men and 
 soon rose to distinc- 
 tion. His peculiar 
 power — manifested at 
 all periods of his life — 
 of seizing the most difficult thought and presenting it in such quaint 
 and homely phrase as to make the truth appreciable by all men, made 
 him a natural leader of the people. As candidate for the office of 
 United States senator from Illinois he first revealed to the nation, in 
 his great debates with Senator Douglas, the full scope and originality 
 of his genius. Now, at the age of fifty-two, he found laid upon him 
 
 ABRAHAM UNCOLN. 
 
484 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 such a burden of care and responsibility as had not been borne by 
 any ruler of modern times. On the occasion of his inauguration he 
 delivered a long and thoughtful address, declaring his fixed purpose 
 to uphold the Constitution, enforce the laws, and preserve the integ- 
 rity of the Union. 
 
 The new cabinet was organized with William H. Seward of New 
 York as secretary of state. Salmon P. Chase of Ohio was chosen sec- 
 retary of the treasury, and Simon Cameron secretary of war ; but he, 
 in the following January, was succeeded in office by Edwin M. Stan- 
 ton. The secretaryship of the navy was conferred on Gideon Welles. 
 In his inaugural address and first official papers the President indi- 
 cated the policy of the new administration by declaring his purpose 
 to repossess the forts, arsenals and public property which had been 
 seized by the Confederate authorities. It was with this purpose tliat 
 the first military jireparations were made. In the mean time, on the 
 12th of March, an eifort was made by commissioners of the seceded 
 States to obtain from the national government a recognition of their 
 independence ; but the negotiations were unsuccessful. Then followed 
 a second attempt on the part of the government to reinforce the gar- 
 rison of Fort Sumter; and with that came the beginning of actual 
 hostilities. 
 
 The defences of Charleston Harbor wei-e held by Major Robert 
 Anderson. His entire force amounted to seventy-nine men. Owing 
 to the weakness of his garrison, he deemed it prudent to evacuate 
 Fort Moultrie and retire to Sumter. Meanwhile, Confederate volun- 
 teers had flocked to the city, and powerful batteries had been built 
 about the harbor. "WHien it became known that the Federal gov- 
 ernment would reinforce the forts, the authorities of the Confederate 
 States determined to anticipate the movement by compelling Ander- 
 son to surrender. Accordingly, on the 11th of April, General P. T. 
 Beauregard, commandant of Charleston, sent a flag to Fort Sumter, 
 demanding an evacuation. Major Anderson replied that he should 
 hold the fortress and defend his flag. On the following morning, 
 at half-past four o'clock, the first gun was fired from a Confederate 
 battery. A terrific bombardment of thirty-four hours' duration fol- 
 lowed ; the fort M^as reduced to ruins, set on fire, and obliged to ca- 
 pitulate. The honors of war were granted to Anderson and his men, 
 who had made a brave and obstinate resistance. Although the can- 
 nonade had been long continued and severe, no lives were lost either 
 in the fort or on the shore. Thus the defences of Charleston Harbor 
 were secured by the Confederates. 
 
LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 486 
 
 The news of this startling event went through the country like a 
 flame of fire. There had been some expectation of violence, but the 
 actual shock came like a clap of thunder. The people of the towns 
 poured into the streets and the country folk flocked to the villages 
 to gather the tidings and to comment on the coming conflict. Gray- 
 haired men talked gravely of the deed that was done, and prophesied 
 of its consequences. Public opinion in both the North and the South 
 was rapidly consolidated. Three days after the fall of Sumter Presi- 
 dent Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve 
 three months in the overthrow of the secession movement. Two days 
 later Virginia seceded from the Union. On May 6th Arkansas followed 
 the example, and then North Cai'olina on the 20th of the same month. 
 In Tennessee — especially in East Tennessee — there was a powerful op- 
 position to disunion, and it was not until the 8th of June that a secession 
 ordinance could be passed. In Missouri, as will presently be seen, the 
 movement resulted in civil war, while in Kentucky the authorities issued 
 a proclamation of neutrality. The people of Maryland were divided 
 into hostile parties, the disunion sentiment being largely prevalent. 
 
 On the lOtli of April, when the first regiments of Massachusetts 
 volunteers were passing through Baltimore on their way to Washington, 
 they were fired upon by the citizens, and three men killed. This was the 
 first bloodshed of the war. On the day before this event a body of Con- 
 federate soldiers advanced against the armory of the United States at 
 Haqjer's Ferry. The officer in command hastily destroyed a portion of 
 the vast magazine collected there, and then escaped into Pennsylvania. 
 On the 20th of the month another company of Virginians assailed the 
 great navy yard at Norfolk. Tlie officers commanding fired the build- 
 ings and ships, spiked the cannon and withdrew their forces. Most of 
 the guns and many of the vessels were afterward recovered by the Con- 
 federates, the property thus captured amounting to fully ten millions of 
 dollars. So rapidly was Virginia filled with volunteers and troops from 
 the South that, for a while, Washington city was in danger of being 
 taken. But the capital was soon secured from immediate danger; and 
 on the 3d of May the President issued another call for soldiers. This 
 time the number was set at eightj^-three thousand, and the term of service 
 at three years or during the war. Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott 
 was made commander-in-chief. As many war ships as could be provided 
 were sent to blockade the Southern ports. On every side were heard the 
 notes of preparation. In the seceded States there was boundless and in- 
 cessant activit)'. Already the Southern Congress had adjourned from 
 Montgomery, to meet on the 20th of July at Richmond, which waa 
 
486 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 chosen as the capital of the Confederacy. To that place had already 
 come Mr. Davis and the officers of his cabinet, for the purpose of direct- 
 ing the aifairs of the government and the army. So stood the antag- 
 onistic powers in the beginning of June, 1861. It was now evident to 
 all men (how slow they had been to believe it !) that a great war, perhaps 
 the greatest in modern times, was impending over the nation. It is 
 appropriate to look briefly into the Causes of the approaching conflict. 
 
 CHAPTER LXII. 
 
 CAUSES. 
 
 THE first and most general cause of the civil war in the United States 
 was the different construction put upon the national Constitution by tlie 
 people of the North and the South. A difierence of ojjiniou had ah\"ays 
 existed as to how that instrument was to be understood. The question 
 at issue was as to the relation between the States and the general govern- 
 ment. One party held that under the Constitution the Union of the 
 States is indissoluble ; that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in the 
 central government; that the States are subordinate; that the acts of 
 Congress, until they are repealed or pronounced unconstitutional by the 
 supreme court, are binding on the States; that the highest allegiance of 
 the citizen is due to the general government, and not to his own State ; 
 and that all attempts at nullification and disunion are in their nature dis- 
 loyal and treasonal)le. The other party held that the national Constitu- 
 tion is a compact between sovereign States ; that for certain reasons the 
 Union may be dissolved ; that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in 
 the individual States, and not in the central government ; that Congress 
 can exercise no other than delegated powers; that a State feeling ag- 
 grieved may annul an act of Congress ; that the highest allegiance of the 
 citizen is due to his own State, and afterward to the general government ; 
 and that acts of nullification and disunion are justifiable, revolutionary 
 and honorable. 
 
 Here was an issue in its consequences the most fearful that ever 
 disturbed a nation. It struck right into the vitals of the government. 
 
LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 487 
 
 It threatened with each renewal of the agitation to undo the whole civil 
 structure of the United States. For a long time the parties who disputed 
 about the meaning of tiie Constitution were scattered in various sections. 
 In the earlier history of the country the doctrine of State sovereignty was 
 most advocated in New England. With the rise of the tariff question 
 the position of parties changed. Since the tariff — a congressional mea- 
 sure — favored the Eastern States at the expense of the South, it came to 
 pass naturally that the people of New England passed over to the advo- 
 cacy of national sovereignty, while the people of the South took up the 
 doctrine of State rights. Thus it happened that as early as 1831 the right 
 of nullifying an act of Congress was openly advocated in South Carolina, 
 and thus also it happened that the belief in State sovereignty became more 
 prevalent in the South than in the North. These facts tended powerfully 
 to produce sectional parties and to bring them into conflict. 
 
 A second general cause of the civil war was the different system, of 
 labor in the North and in the South. In the former section the laborers 
 were freemen, citizens, voters ; in the latter, bondmen, property, slaves. 
 In the South the theory was that the capital of a country should own the 
 labor ; in the North that both labor and capital are free. In the begin- 
 ning all the colonies had been slaveholding. In the Eastern and Middle 
 States the system of slave-labor was gradually abolished, being unprofit- 
 able. In the five great States formed out of the North-western Territory 
 slavery was excluded by the original compact under -which that Territoiy 
 was organized. Thus there came to be a dividing line drawn through 
 the Union east and west. It was evident, therefore, that whenever the 
 question of slavery was agitated a sectional division would arise between 
 the parties, and that disunion and war would be threatened. The danger 
 arising from this source was increased and the discord between the sections 
 aggravated by several subordinate causes. 
 
 The first of these was the invention of THE CoTTON GiN. In 
 1793, Eli Whitney, a young collegian of Massachusetts, went to Georgia, 
 and resided with the family of Mrs. Greene, widow of General Greene, 
 of the Revolution. While there his attention was directed to the tedious 
 and difficult process of picking cotton by hand — that is, separating the 
 seed from the fibre. So slow was the process that the production of up- 
 land cotton was nearly profitless. The industry of the cotton-growing 
 States was paralyzed by the tediousness of preparing the product for the 
 market. Mr. Whitney undertook to remove the difficulty, and succeeded 
 in inventing a gin which astonished the beholder by the rapidity and 
 excellence of its work. From being profitless, cotton became the most 
 profitable of all the staples. The industry of the South was revolution- 
 
488 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ized. Before the civil war it was estimated that Whitney's gin had 
 added a thousand millions of dollars to the revenues of the Southern 
 States. The American crop had grown to be seven-eighths of all the 
 cotton produced in the world. Just in proportion to the increased profit- 
 ableness of cotton slave-labor became imj)ortant, slaves valuable and the 
 system of slavery a fixed and deep-rooted institution. 
 
 From this time onward there was constant danger that the slavery 
 question would so embitter the politics and legislation of the country as 
 to bring about disunion. The danger of such a result was fully mani- 
 fested in THE Missouri Agitation of 1820-21. Threats of dissolving 
 the Union were freely made in both the North and the South — in the 
 North, because of the proposed enlargement of the domain of slavery ; in 
 the South, because of the proposed rejection of Missouri as a slave-holding 
 State. When the Missouri Compromise was enacted, it was the hope of 
 Mr. Clay and his fellow-statesmen to save the Union by removing for ever 
 the slavery question from the politics of the country. In that they suc- 
 ceeded for a while. 
 
 Next came the Nttllification Acts of South Carolina. And 
 these, too, turned upon the institution of slavery and the profitableness of 
 cotton. The Southern States had become cotton-producing; the Eastern 
 States had given themselves to manufacturing. The tariff measures 
 favored manufactures at the expense of producers. Mr. Calhoun and his 
 friends proposed to remedy the evil complained of by annulling the laws 
 of Congress. His measures failed ; but another compromise was found 
 necessary in order to allay the animosities which had been awakened. 
 
 The Annexation of Texas, with the consequent enlargement of 
 the domain of slavery, led to a renewal of the agitation. Those who 
 opposed the Mexican War did so, not so much because of the injustice of 
 the conflict as because of the fact that thereby slavery would be extended. 
 Then, at the close of the war, came another enormous acquisition of 
 territory. Whether the same should be made into free or slave-holding 
 States was the question next agitated. This controversy led to the passage 
 of the Omnibus Bill, by whidi again for a brief period the excitement 
 was allayed. 
 
 In 1854 the Kansas-Nebraska bill was passed. Thereby the 
 Missouri Compromise was repealed and the whole question opened anew. 
 Meanwhile, the character and the civilization of the Northern and the 
 Southern people had become quite different. In population and wealth 
 the North had far outgrown the South. In the struggle for territorial 
 dominion the North had gained a considerable advantage. In 1860 the 
 division of the Democratic party made certain the election of Mr. Lincoln 
 
1S37 61 
 
 Frederick AVilliaiii IV. 
 
 65 
 
 69 
 
 (iO. Tic 
 
 Napoleon III. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 Lity of Peace l:)ctweeu Chi 
 01. William I. 
 
 62. Death of I'rlnc 
 
 Go. Feiiiiin troubles in Ire 
 
 e Albert, the Consort. 
 
 US. Pas 
 
 5S. Jlutiuy in tlie E.ast India army. 
 
 JAMES BVCHAKAN, 
 
 President. 
 John CBreckinridge, 
 
 Vice-President. 
 
 .)7. The Dred Scott De- 
 cision 
 
 57. Personal Liberty Bill. 
 
 ">7. The Mormon rebellion 
 in Utah. 
 
 58. The first Atlan 
 tic Telegraph 
 Cable. 
 
 58. 9liiinesola ad 
 
 mltted into the 
 Union. 
 
 60. Wal 
 
 teri 
 
 def 
 
 68. The great camp 
 
 Mr. Lincoln an 
 
 Douglas. 
 
 58. Troubles with P 
 
 59. Washingt 
 died, age 
 
 ABRAHA1I I.INt^UI^^ 
 Hannibal Hamlin, Vi 
 
 (jl. Ten of the Southern W 
 Ul. Tlie"Starof the West' 
 
 Gl. 1^ I^all of Fori Sumte 
 
 61. Tlie President calls for 
 61. Tlio Confederate Cong 
 Gl. Tlie President calls for 
 ., Yr^ Hull Run. 
 *''■■ L—i Ball's Muff. 
 
 C2. ^^ Mill Spring. 
 
 Gl. Mason ASIiiloIl capl'd, 
 61. Kansasadiiiitlfd into 
 c) V 1 Fort Donelji 
 ''^- i~\ Piltsbiirg La 
 The Muiulor 
 I he .1/. 
 
 60. Til 
 
 0. Di 
 D 
 at 
 
 Po 
 
 De 
 oc 
 
 60. So 
 
 59. Oregon 
 
 Union. 
 
 57. Distracted condition of 
 
 62. 
 
 IIG. War between 
 and Anstria. 
 
 67. Hanover 
 iia and England. 
 
 GS. For 
 
 l*rn*4Mia 71. liin;:; V 
 
 Emi 
 70. Beginningof th 
 absorbed by Prussia. 
 
 inationof -a Nortii Gen 
 land. 70. P^ Sedan. 
 
 70. Downfall of Si 
 
 'i- l^iiTreal 
 
 sage of the Reform Bill. 
 
 70. DLsestablishmi' 
 
 71. Bill torb 
 
 72. P< 
 
 ...> Ir>i Marfrecsbor 
 
 "- m Front Roijul 
 
 , 1^-^ Fair Oaks. 
 
 — U-i Seven Days' 
 
 Pi Ant 
 
 ker'sfilibus- (~!.'l'he I'.nia 
 ng schemes ,..> t"^ -SV' ue 
 eated. "■*• l~i r/iir/c 
 
 aign of ^.7 I 1 Luul.ii 
 
 d Senator 
 
 63 Wesi Virl 
 
 araguay. „., | -. '''I'l/i 
 "'■ V — i l^ee i 
 
 on Irving «!■ Pi «-«i/s 
 d 76. 63. Tlie Prcsi 
 
 64. 'I'lie 
 
 e .Japanese Com- ' r^ 
 ission in tlie <.. W^ 
 
 nlted States. "^' Mi 
 
 sruption of the ^^' P^ 
 euiiicralic Party 64. She 
 Cliarleston. 64 F ^ 
 
 pulation, 31,443,2.31. ^^ P" 
 64: K 
 
 President, 
 ce- President, 
 lates secede, 
 fired upon. 
 ^ bii. The Atlantic Ca 
 
 6,000 volunteers, 
 ress at Montgomery. 
 500,000 men. 
 
 65. Reconstruction of the 
 ABfOKKW JOIINKOX 
 
 05. Amnesty Proelam 
 
 the Union. 
 
 jn. 00. Tennessee re-ad 
 
 ndiiig. 
 
 and 
 
 mac. 07. Purchase 
 
 ough. 
 and Port Republic. 
 
 68. Imp 
 battles. 68. Tlie 
 
 68. Ark 
 
 ncipaliou Proclitiiial 
 
 (// Mvksburg. 
 
 (imaiKja. 
 
 lU MuiDitain. 
 
 itariy Rulgc. 
 
 Kiniunduiitted into the 
 
 of Knoxville. 
 
 fin's raid. 
 
 cellorsville 
 
 uvades Pennsylvania. 
 
 burg. 
 
 lent, orders a draft for 200, 
 President calls for 300.000 
 f'alfon, Resaca. 
 Dallas, Kenesaw. 
 
 feat of the Dem 
 ratic party. 
 
 64. I.I 
 
 nth Carolina secedes. 
 
 admitted into the 
 
 64. Jfe 
 
 62. French invasion of Mexico, 
 affairs in Mexico. 
 
 Siege of Ailania. 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Nashville. 67. Nebraska 
 
 r-nian's marcli. 
 Fort M'.Allister. 
 Petersburg, 
 Molnh' Bay. 
 Fort Fi.lher. 
 
 The Alabama and the Ke 
 
 The Wilderness. 
 Cold Ifarbor- 
 JlVOI.y re-elected. 
 ,.- f-^ Five Forks. 
 *" ■ L ^i I.ee's surrender. 
 (m. I'i-i"<ident Lincoln assa 
 vada admittefi into tlic 
 
 64. Ma 
 
 imilian elected Kmper 
 67 The Frenc 
 67. naxiniil 
 
 I'l.YSSE.S S. (iRANI 
 
 Sclinyler C'olfjix, Vic 
 
 69. The Pacific Raih'oa' 
 69. Edwin M. Stanton d 
 ble laid. 
 
 70. The Fifteenth 
 70. Robert E. Le. 
 70. .\dmiral Farr:i 
 70. Virginia, Miss 
 
 70. Population, :; 
 eceded States undertake 
 President after April 1" 
 ation. 
 
 luitted into the Union 
 
 of Alaska. 
 
 eachmeut of President .1 
 Fourteenth Amendnien 
 insas, Alabama, Georgi:i 
 
 ion. 
 
 71. Burning 
 
 69 Great monetary pan 
 Union. 
 
 72. 
 
 I'h 
 
 72. 
 
 W 
 
 72. 
 
 ti 
 
 7!!. 
 
 H 
 
 7'2. 
 
 (4. 
 
 72. 
 
 (4 
 
 72. 
 
 Bi 
 
 000 troops. 
 men. ' 
 
 idmitted into the Unioi 
 
 arsarge. 
 
 ssinated. 
 Union. 
 
 or. 
 
 h nrniy withdrawn, 
 
 inn executed at Que* 
 
81 
 
 1885 
 
 i:iiii proclaimed 
 raiic«»-l*riissiaii War 
 
 Coufederation. 
 . Tlie Irisli University 
 ~i. Overtliiow of th 
 7:1. ]>iNi-iieli, Prim 
 
 >Ie<>n III. 
 
 Parts ; 
 Peace. 
 
 f tlie Irish Churcli. 
 
 JS tlie sale of Comissio 
 
 itiou of the United Kin 
 
 7. 'I'be ItiisKO.'I'nrkiNli 
 
 - ]r^ Caiiiure 0/ Plevna 
 '■ H^ Collapse of tile Ot 
 
 78. Trealy of San 
 7H. 'I'reaty of Bei- 
 
 Bill deleateil 
 
 e Gladstone Ministry. 
 
 e Minister. 
 
 79. The Zulu 
 79. Deatli of 
 79. Death of 
 79. Accession 
 79. Overthrow 
 79. Gliidstone 
 SO. Brit 
 
 IS. 
 
 ;dora, 31,46.5,480. 
 
 Wjir brealvs out. 
 b.v the Kussiaus. 
 toman Empire. 
 
 Klefaiio. 
 
 War. 
 
 the Prince Imperial. 
 
 Pius IX. 
 
 of Leo XIII. 
 
 of the Disraeli Ministry. 
 
 Premier of England, 
 ish troubles in Afshani.st an. 
 81. .\s,sassiiiation of the , Czar of Russia. 
 
 81. Acci'.ssion of Alexaud er III. 
 
 esident. 
 esidcnt. 
 aiplcted. 
 aged 55. 
 
 nendment adopted. 
 
 'd, aged li;!. 
 
 died, aged G9. 
 
 ^pi, and Texas re-adniitt 
 
 ,371. 
 
 7 the President. 
 
 5. 
 
 ICIJTIf£RF4>ICI> B. II 
 William A. Wlicelvr, 
 
 "7 The disputed Presiden 
 '7. New policy adopted 
 ■7. Tlie great Railroad Str 
 
 ed into the Union. 
 
 ... The Nez Perce Wa 
 
 77. Great financial depres 
 77. Oliver P. Morton died, 
 
 AYES. President. 
 
 Vice-President. 
 
 .1 A Mi:n A. UARFIEI.lt 
 
 t'tiewter A. Artliiii-, Vi 
 
 c.v is settled hy a .loinl Hi 
 towaid the Southern Stat 
 ikes anil Riots. 
 81. President Garijcld aissa." sinated. 
 
 President. 
 ce-President. 
 h Commission. 
 
 son. 
 
 opted. 
 
 srida, Louisiana, North 
 
 78. The act remonet 
 78. The Halifax Fis 
 lars against the 
 78. William CuUen 
 78. The Yellow Fev 
 78. Bayard Taylor 
 78. Establishment 
 78. The Life-saving 
 Carolina, and South Carol 
 
 sion in the country, 
 aged 54, 
 
 ciiesti:ra.arthi7r 
 
 19, IS.S1. 
 izing silver pa.s.sed by Con 
 her.v Commissiou make 
 
 Uniteil State.s. 
 
 Brvaiit died, aged 84. 
 
 er scourges the Southern 
 
 died, aged 54. 
 
 of a Chinese Embassy in 
 
 Service eslablislied by the 
 ina re-admitted into the 
 
 President after September 
 
 gress. 
 in award of 5,500,000 dol- 
 
 Ch ieago. 
 
 New York City. 
 
 labaina CiiiiniH settled, 
 n n. Seward died, aged 71. 
 S'T re-elected. 
 
 [eiiry WlKoii, Vice 
 
 e Greeley dieil, aged 61. 
 d George G. Meade died, 
 fire in Boston. 
 iary <lispute between 
 
 . niodoc War. 
 
 . The Credit Mobilier in 
 Chief-Justice Cha.se di 
 . Great financial crisis. 
 
 74. Charles Sumner 
 
 76. I'lie 
 
 76. Th 
 76. Col 
 76. Ceil 
 
 79. Resumpti on of .''pecie Payments by 
 77-79 ToiirofI (ieneral Grant around th 
 79. Zacliariah Chandler dial. 
 
 States. 
 
 the United States. 
 Government. 
 Union. 
 
 the Government. 
 t world. 
 
 80. The 
 80 The 
 
 President, died Novemb 
 
 aged 57. 
 the United States and Gre 
 
 vest I gat ion. 
 ed, aged 65. 
 
 died, aged 6.3. 
 
 Sionx War. 
 
 Custer .Massacre. 
 orado admitted into the 
 teiiiiial I'eKbratioii at 
 
 Refunding Question in Co 
 Tenth Census: Populatio 
 
 er 22, 1875. 
 
 at Britain settled. 
 
 81. Matt. H. Carpenter 
 
 n gress. 
 
 n, 50,152,866. 
 
 lied. 
 
 Union. 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 CMART VI. 
 
 NATIONAL PERIOD-THIRD SECTION. 
 
 A. D. 1857-1885. 
 
LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 489 
 
 by the votes of the Northern States. The people of the South were 
 exasperated at the choice of a chief-magistrate whom they regarded as 
 indifferent to their welfare and hostile to their interests. 
 
 The third general cause of the civil war was the want of intercourse 
 between the people of the North and the South. The great railroads and 
 thoroughfares ran east and west. Emigration flowed from the East to the 
 ^yest. Between the North and the South there was little travel or inter- 
 change of opinion. From want of acquaintance the people, without in- 
 tending it, became estranged, jealous, suspicious. They misjudged each 
 other's motives. They misrepresented each other's beliefs and purposes. 
 They suspected each other of dishonesty and ill-will. Before the out- 
 break of the war the people of the two sections looked upon each other 
 almost in the light of different nationalities. 
 
 A fourth cause was found in the ptiblication of sectional books. Dur- 
 ing the twenty years preceding the war many works were published, both 
 in the North and the South, whose popularity depended wholh- on the 
 animosity existing between the two sections. Such books were generally 
 filled with ridicule and falsehood. The manners and customs, language 
 and beliefs, of one section were held up to the contempt and scorn of the 
 people of the other section. The minds of all classes, especially of the 
 young, were thus prejudiced and poisoned. In the North the belief was 
 fostered that the South was given up to inhumanity, ignorance and bar- 
 barism, while in the South the opinion prevailed that the Northern people 
 were a selfish race of mean, cold-blooded Yankees. 
 
 11. The evil influence of demagogues may be cited as the fifth general 
 cause of the war. It is the misfortune of republican governments that 
 they many times fall under the leadership of bad men. In the United 
 States the demagogue has enjoyed special opportunities for mischief, and 
 the people have suffered in proportion. From 1850 to 1860 American 
 statesmanship and patriotism were at a low ebb. Many ambitious and 
 scheming men had come to the front, taken control of the political parties 
 and proclaimed themselves the leaders of public opinion. Their purposes 
 were wholly selfish. The welfare and peace of the country were put aside 
 as of no value. In order to gain power and keep it many unprincipled 
 men in the South were anxious to destroy the Union, while the dema- 
 gogues of the North were willing to abuse the Union in order to accom- 
 plish their own bad purposes. Such, in brief, were the causes which led 
 to the civil war, one of the most terrible conflicts of modern times. 
 
4yo 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII. 
 
 FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 
 
 ON the 24th of May the Union army crossed the Potomac from Wash- 
 ington city to Alexandria. At this time Fortress Monroe, at the 
 mouth of James River, was held by twelve thousand men, under command 
 of General B. F. Butler. At Bethel Church, in the immediate vicin- 
 ity, was stationed a detachment of Con- 
 federates commanded by General Ma- 
 gruder. On the 10th of June a body 
 of Union troops was sent to dislodge 
 them, but was repulsed with consider- 
 able loss. Meanwhile the conquest of 
 West Virginia had been undertaken 
 by General George B. M'Clellan. 
 
 In the last days of May General T. 
 A. Morris moved forward from Parkers- 
 burg to Grafton with a force of Ohio and 
 Indiana troops, and on the 3d of June 
 came upon the Confederates stationed at 
 Philippi. After a brief engagement the 
 Federals were successful ; the Confede- 
 rates retreated toward the mountains. General McClellan now arrived, 
 took command in person, and on the 11th of July gained a victory at Rich 
 Mountain. General Garnett, the Confederate commander, fell back with 
 his forces to Carrick's Ford, on Cheat River, made a stand, was again de- 
 feated and himself killed in the battle. On the 10th of August General 
 Floyd, commanding a detachment of Confederates at Carnifex Ferry, on 
 Gauley River, was attacked by General Rosecrans and obliged to retreat. 
 On the 14th of September a division of Confederates under General Rob- 
 ert E. Lee was beaten in an engagement at Cheat Mountain — an action 
 which completed the restoration of Federal authority in West Virginia. 
 In the mean time, other movements of vast importance had taken place. 
 
 In the becrinnins: of June General Robert Patterson marched from 
 Chambersburg with the intention of recapturing Harper's Ferry. On 
 the 11th of the month a division of the army commanded by Colonel 
 
 SCENE OF OPERATIONS IN WEST 
 VIRGINIA, 1S61. 
 
FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 
 
 491 
 
 Lewis Wallace made a sudden and successful onset upon a detachment 
 of Confederates stationed at Romney. Patterson then crossed the Poto- 
 mac with the main body, entered the Shenandoah Valley, and pressed 
 back the Confederate forces to Winchester, Thus far there had been 
 only petty engagements, skirmishes and marching. The time had now 
 come when the first great battle of the war was to be fought. 
 
 After the Union successes in West Virginia the main body of the 
 Confederates, under command of General Beauregard, was concentrated 
 at Manassas Junction, on the Orange Railroad, twenty-seven miles west 
 of Alexandria. Another large force, commanded by General Joseph E. 
 Johnston, was within supporting distance in the Shenandoah Valley. The 
 Union army at Alexandria was commanded by General Irwin McDowell, 
 while General Patterson was stationed in front of Johnston to watch his 
 movements and prevent his forming 
 a junction with Beauregard. On the 
 16th of July the national army moved 
 forward. Two days afterward an 
 unimportant engagement took place 
 between Ccntreville and Bull Run. 
 The Unionists then pressed on, and on 
 the morning of the 21st came upon 
 the Confederate army, strongly posted 
 between Bull Run and Manassas 
 Junction. A general battle ensued, 
 continuing with great severity until 
 noonday. At that hour the advan- 
 tage was with McDowell, and it 
 seemed not unlikely that the Confed- 
 erates would suffer a complete defeat. 
 
 But in the crisis of the battle General Johnston arrived with nearly six 
 thousand fresh troops from the Shenandoah Valley. The tide of victory 
 turned immediately, and in a short time McDowell's whole army was 
 luu-Jed back in utter rout and confiLsion. A ruinous panic spread through 
 the defeated host. Soldiers and citizens, regulars and volunteers, horsemen 
 and footmen, rolled buck in a disorganized mass into the defences of 
 Washington. The Union loss in killed, wounded and prisoners amounted 
 to two thousand nine hundred and fifty-two ; that of the Confederates to 
 two thousand and fifty. 
 
 Great was the humiliation of the North, and greater the rejoicing of 
 the South. For a while the Federal government was more concerned about 
 its own safety than about the conquest of Richmond. In that city, on the 
 
 VICINITY OF MANASSAS jnNCriON, 1861. 
 
492 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED Sl'ATES. 
 
 day before the battle, the new Confederate government was organized. In 
 the Southern Congress and cabinet were many men of distinguished abil- 
 ities. Jefferson Davis, the President, was a far-sighted man, of wide expe- 
 rience in the affairs of state, and considerable reputation as a soldier. He 
 had led the troops of Mississippi in the Mexican War, had served in both 
 houses of the national Congress, and as a member of President Pierce's 
 cabinet. His talents, decision of character and ardent advocacy of State 
 
 rights had made him a 
 natural leader of the 
 South. 
 
 The next milita- 
 ry movements were 
 made in Missouri. 
 That commonwealth, 
 though slaveholding, 
 still retained its place 
 in the Union . A con- 
 vention, called by 
 Governor Jackson in 
 accordance with an act 
 of the legislature, liad 
 in the previous ilarch 
 refused to pass an or- 
 dinance of secession. 
 The disunionists, how- 
 ever, M'ere numerous 
 and powerful; the 
 governor favored their 
 cause, and the State 
 became a battle-field 
 for the contending 
 parties. Both Federal and Confederate camps were organized, and hos- 
 tilities began in several places. By capturing the United States arsenal 
 at Liberty, in Clay county, the Confederates obtained a considerable sup- 
 ply of arms and ammunition. By the formation of Camp Jackson, near 
 St. Louis, the arsenal in that city was also endangered ; but by the vigi- 
 lance of Captain Nathaniel Lyon the arms and stores were sent up the 
 river to Alton, and thence to Springfield. Camp Jackson was soon after- 
 ward broken up by the exertions of the same officer. 
 
 The lead-mines in the south-west part of the State became an object 
 of great importance to the Confederates, who, in order to secure them. 
 
 JEFFERSON DAVIS. 
 
FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR. 
 
 493 
 
 hurried up large bodies of troops from Arkansas and Texas. On the 17th 
 of June Lyon encountered Governor Jackson with a Confederate force at 
 Booneville, and gained a decided advantage. On the 5th of July the 
 Unionists, led by Colonel Franz Sigel, were again successful in a severe 
 engagement with the governor at Carthage. On the 10th of August the 
 hardest battle thus far fought in the West occurred at Wilson's Creek, a 
 short distance south of Springfield. General Lyon made a daring but 
 rash attack on a much superior force of Confederates under command of 
 Generals McCullougli and Price. The Federals at fii-st gained the field 
 against heavy odds, but General Lyon was killed, and his men retreated 
 under direction of Sigel. 
 
 General Price now ^^ 
 pressed northward across the 
 State to Lexington, on the 
 Missouri Hiver. This place 
 was defended by a force of 
 Federals two thousand six 
 hundred strong, commanded 
 by Colonel Mulligan. A 
 stubborn defence was made 
 by the garrison, but Mulligan 
 was soon obliged to capitulate. 
 Price then turned southward, 
 and on the 16th of October 
 Lexington was retaken by 
 the Federals. General John 
 C Fremont, who had been 
 
 SCENE OP OPERATIONS IN THE SOUTH-WEST, 1861. 
 
 appointed to the command of 
 
 the Union forces in Missouri, followed the Confederates as far as Spring- 
 field, and was on the eve of making an attack, when he was superseded 
 by General Hunter. The latter, after retreating to St. Louis, was in turn 
 superseded by General Halleck on the 18th of November. It was now 
 Price's turn to fall back toward Arkansas. The only remaining move- 
 ment of importance was at Belmont, on the ]\Iississippi. 
 
 The Confederate general Polk, acting under orders of his govern- 
 ment, had, notwithstanding that State's neutrality, entered Kentucky with 
 an army, and had captured the town of Columbus. Batteries planted here 
 commanded the Mississippi. The Confederates gathered in force at Bel- 
 mont, on the opposite bank. In order to dislodge them Colonel Ulys- 
 ses S. Grant, with a brigade of three thousand Illinois troops, was sent by 
 "way of Cairo into Missouri. On the 7th of November he made a vigor- 
 
494 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ous and successful attack on the Confederate camp; but General Polk 
 sent reinforcements across the river, the guns of Columbus were brought 
 to bear on the Union position, and Grant was obliged to retreat. 
 
 The rout at Bull Run had the effect to quicken the energies of the 
 North, and troops were rapidly hurried to Washington. The aged Gen- 
 eral Scott, unable to bear the burden resting upon him, retired from active 
 duty, and General McClellan was called from West Virginia to take com- 
 mand of the Army of the Potomac. By the middle of October his forces 
 had increased to a hundred and fifty thousand men. On the 21st of that 
 month a brigade, numbering nearly two thousand, was thrown across the 
 Potomac at Ball's Bluff. Without proper support or means of retreat, 
 the Federals were attacked by a strong force of Confederates under Gen- 
 ei'al Evans, driven to the river, their leader, Colonel Baker, killed, and 
 the whole force routed with terrible loss. Fully eight hundred of Baker's 
 men were killed, wounded or taken prisoners. 
 
 During tlie summer of 1861 the Federal government sent to sea 
 several important naval expeditions. One of these, commanded by Com- 
 modore Stringham and General Butler, proceeded to the North Carolina 
 coast, and on the 29th of August captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet. 
 On the 7tli of November a second armament, under command of Com- 
 modore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman, entered the harbor of 
 Port Royal, and captured Forts Walker and Beauregard. Hilton Head, 
 a point most advantageous for military operations against Charleston and 
 Savannah, thus fell into the power of the Federals. Around the whole 
 coast the blockade became so rigorous that commerce and communication 
 between the Confederate States and foreign nations were almost M-holly 
 cut off. In this juncture of affairs a difficulty arose which brought the 
 United States and Great Britain to the very verge of war. 
 
 The Confederate government had appointed James M. Mason and 
 John Siidell, formerly senators of the United States, to go abroad as am- 
 bassadors from the Confederate States to France and England. The envoys 
 went on board a blockade runner, and escaping from Charleston Harbor, 
 reached Havana in safety. At that port they took passage on the British 
 mail steamer Trent, and sailed for Europe. On the 8th of November 
 tlie vessel was overtaken by the United States frigate San Jacinto, com- 
 manded by Captain Wilkes. The Trent was hailed and boarded; the 
 two ambassadors and their secretaries were seized, transferred to the San 
 Jacinto, carried to Boston, and imprisoned. The Trent proceeded on lier 
 way to England ; the story of the insult to the British flag was told, and 
 the whole kingdom burst out in a blaze of wrath. 
 
 At first the people of the United States loudly applauded Captain 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 
 
 495 
 
 i^fo^: 
 
 Wilkes, and the government was disposed to defend his action. Had 
 such a course been taken, war would have been inevitable. The country 
 was saved from the 
 peril by the adroit and 
 far-reaching diploma- 
 cy of William H. Sew- 
 ard, the secretary of 
 state. When Great 
 Britain demanded rep- 
 aration for the insult 
 and the immediate lib- 
 eration of the prison- 
 ers, he replied in a 
 mild, cautious and very 
 able paper. It was con- 
 ceded that the seizure 
 of Mason and Slidell 
 was not justifiable ac- 
 cording to the law of 
 nations. A suitable 
 apology was made for 
 the wrong done, the 
 Confederate ambassa- 
 dors were liberated, 
 put on board a vessel 
 and sent to their des- 
 tination. This action of the secretary was both just and politic. The 
 peril of war went by, and Great Britain was committed to a policy in 
 regard to the rights of neutral flags which she bad hitherto denied and 
 which the United States had always contended for. So ended the first 
 year of the civil war. 
 
 WILLIAM H. SEWARD. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV. 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 
 
 THE Federal forces now numbered about four hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand men. Of these nearly two hundred thousand, under command 
 of General McClellan, were encamped in the vicinity of Washington. 
 Another army, commanded by General Buell, was stationed at Louisville, 
 
496 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Kentucky, and it was in this department that the first military move- 
 ments of the year were made. On the 9th of January Colonel Humphrey 
 Marshall, commanding a force of Confederates on Big Sandy Eiver, in 
 Eastern Kentucky, was attacked and defeated by a body of Unionists, led 
 by Colonel Garfield. Ten days later another and more important battle 
 was fought at Mill Spring, in the same section of the State. The Con- 
 federates were commanded by Generals Crittenden and Zollicoffer, and 
 the Federals by General George H. Thomas. After a hot engagement, 
 in which both sides lost heavily, the Confederates suffered a defeat which 
 was rendered more severe by the loss of Zollicoffer, who fell in the battle. 
 
 The next operations were on the Tennessee and the Cumberland. 
 The former river was commanded at the southern border of Kentucky by 
 Fort Henry, and the latter by the more important Fort Donelson, ten 
 miles south of the Tennessee line. At the beginning of the year the cap- 
 ture of both these places was planned by General Halleck. Early in 
 February Commodore Foote was sent up the Tennessee with a flotilla of 
 gunboats, and at the same time General Grant was ordered to move for- 
 ward and co-operate in an attack on Fort Henry. Before the land-forces 
 were well into position the flotilla compelled the evacuation of the fort, 
 the Confederates escaping to Donelson. Eighty-three prisoners and a 
 large amount of stores were captured. 
 
 The Federal gunboats now dropped down the Tennessee, took on 
 supplies at Cairo, and then ascended the Cumberland. Grant pressed on 
 from^Fort Heniy, and as soon as the flotilla arrived began the siege of 
 Fort Donelson. The defences were strong, and well manned by more 
 than ten thousand Confederates, under General Buckner. Grant's entire 
 force numbered nearly thirtj' thousand. On the 14th of February the 
 gunboats were driven back with considerable loss, Commodore Foote 
 being among the wounded. On the next day the garrison, hoping to 
 break through Grant's lines, made a sally, but met a severe repulse. On 
 the 16th Buckner was obliged to surrender. His army of ten thousand 
 men became prisoners of war, and all the magazines, stores and guns of 
 the fort fell into the hands of the Federals. It was the first decided vic- 
 tory which had been won by the national arms. The immediate result 
 of the capture was the evacuation of Kentucky and the capital of Tennes- 
 see by the Confederates. 
 
 After his success at Fort Donelson General Grant ascended the Ten- 
 nessee as far as Pittsburg Landing. In the beginning of April a camp 
 was established at Shiloh Church, a short distance from the river; and 
 here, on the mornine of the 6th, the Union army was suddenly attackefl. 
 by the Confederates, led by Generals Albert S. Johnston and Beauregard. 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 497 
 
 The onset was at first successful. All day long the battle raged with tre- 
 mendous slaughter on both sides. The Federals were forced back to the 
 river, and but for the protection of the gunboats would have been driven 
 to destruction. Night fell on the scene with the conflict undecided ; but 
 in this desperate crisis General Buell arrived from Nashville with strong 
 reinforcements. On the following morning General Grant assumed the 
 offensive. General Johnston had been killed in the battle, and Beaure- 
 gard, on whom the command devolved, was obliged to retreat to Corinth. 
 The losses in killed, wounded and missing in this dreadful conflict were 
 more than ten thousand on each side. There had never before been such 
 a harvest of death in the New World. 
 
 Events of importance were also taking place on the INIississippi. 
 When the Confederates evacuated Columbus, Kentucky, they proceeded 
 to Island Number Ten, a few miles below, and built strong fortifications 
 commanding the river. On the western shore was the town of New Mad- 
 rid, which was held by a Confederate force from Missouri. Against 
 this place General Pope advanced with a body of Western troops, while 
 Commodore Foote descended the Mississippi M'ith his flotilla to attack 
 the forts on the island. Pope was entirely successful in his movement, 
 aud gained possession of New Madrid. The land-forces then co-operated 
 witii the gunboats, and for twenty-three days Island Number Ten wa.s 
 vigorously bombarded. On the 7th of April, when the Confederates 
 could hold out no longer, they attempted to escape ; but Pope had cut off 
 retreat, and the entire garrison, numbering about five thousand, was ca:p- 
 tured. The Mississippi was thns opened as far down as IMemphis, and 
 tliat city was taken by the fleet of Commodore Davis on the 6th of the 
 following June. 
 
 In the beginning of the year General Curtis had pushed forward 
 through Missouri, entered Arkansas and taken position at Pea Ridge, 
 amOng the mountains in the north-western angle of the State. Here he 
 was attacked on the 6th of March by an array of more than twenty thou- 
 sand Confederates and Indians, under command of Generals McCulloch, 
 Mcintosh and Pike. After a hard-fought battle, which lasted for two 
 days, the Federals were victorious. McCulloch and Mcintosh were botli 
 killed and their men obliged to retreat toward Texas; but the Uniou 
 losses were most severe, and the battle was barren of results. 
 
 On the next day after the conflict at Pea Ridge an event occurred 
 at Fortress Monroe which came near changing the character of naval 
 warfare. Captain John Ericsson of New York had invented and built a. 
 peculiar war- vessel with a single round tower of iron exposed above the 
 water-line. Meanwhile, the Confederates had raised the United States 
 
498 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 frigate Merrimac, one of the sunken ships at the JSTorfolk navj' yard, and 
 had plated the sides with an impenetrable mail of iron. This done, the 
 vessel was sent to attack the Union fleet at Fortress Monroe. Reaehinsr 
 that place on the 8th of March, the Jlerrmiac, now called the Virgmia, 
 began the work of destruction, and before sunset two valuable vessels, the 
 Cumberland and the Congress, were sent to the bottom. During the night, 
 however, Ericsson's strange ship, called the Monitor, arrived from New 
 York, and on the following morning the two iron-clad monsters turned 
 their terrible enginery upon each other. After fighting for five hours, 
 the Virginia was obliged to give up the contest and to return badly dam- 
 aged to Norfolk. Such was the excitement produced by this novel sea- 
 fight that for a while the whole energies of the navy department were 
 devoted to building monitors. 
 
 Early in 1862 a strong land and naval force, commanded by Gen- 
 eral Ambrose E. Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough, was sent 
 against the Confederate garrison of Roanoke Island. On the 8th of Feb- 
 ruary the squadron reached its destination; the fortifications on the island 
 were attacked and carried, and the garrisons, nearly three thousand strong, 
 taken prisoners. Burnside next proceeded against Newbern, North Car- 
 olina, and on the 14th of March captured the city after four hours of 
 severe fighting. Proceeding southward, he reached the harbor of Beau- 
 fort, carried Fort Macon, at the entrance, and on the 26th of April took 
 possession of the town. • 
 
 On the 11th of the same month Fort Pulaski, commanding the 
 mouth of the Savannah River, surrendered to General Gillmore. By 
 this important capture the chief emporium of Georgia Avas effectually 
 blockaded. But these reverses of the Coui'ederates Avere trifling in coni- 
 parisou with that which they sustained in the loss of the city of New 
 Orleans. Early in April a powerful squadron, commanded by General 
 Butler and Admiral Farragut, entered the Mississippi and proceeded as 
 far as Forts Jackson and St. Philip, thirty miles above the gulf. The 
 guns of these forts, standing on opposite shores, completely commanded 
 tiie river, and obstructions had been placed in the channel. The forty- 
 five vessels comprising the Federal fleet were brought into position, 
 nnd a furious bombardment of the forts was begun. From the 18th to 
 the 24th of April the fight continued without cessation. At the end of 
 that time the forts were but little injured, and Farragut undertook the 
 hazardous enterprise of running past the batteries. In this he succeeded, 
 breaking the chain across the river and overpowering the Confederate 
 fleet above the obstructions. On the next day he reached New Orleans 
 with a portion of his fleet, and took possession of the city. General But- 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 499 
 
 ler became commandant, and the fortifications were manned with fifteen 
 thousand Federal soldiers. Three days afterward Forts Jackson and St, 
 Pliilip sm-rendered to Admiral Porter, who had remained below and 
 prosecuted the siege. The control of the Lower Mississippi and the me- 
 tropolis of the South was thus recovered by the Federal government. 
 
 The Confederates were not going to give up Kentucky without a 
 struggle. From East Tennessee they invaded the State in two strong 
 divisions, the one led by General Kirby Smith and the other by General 
 Bragg. On the 30th of August Smith's array reached Richmond, at- 
 tacked a force of Federals stationed there, and routed them with heavy 
 losses. Lexington was taken, and tlien Frankfort; and Cincinnati wa.s 
 saved from capture only by the extraordinary exertions of Genei'al Wal- 
 lace. ]\Ieanwhile, the army of General Bragg had advanced from Chatta- 
 nooga to Mumfordsville, where, on the 17tli of September, he captured a 
 Federal division of four thousand five hundred men. From this jjoint 
 tiie Confederate general pressed on toward Louisville, and would have 
 taken the city but for a forced march of General Bueil from Tennessee. 
 The latter arrived with his army only one day ahead of Bragg, but that 
 one day gave the Unionists tiie advantage, and the Confederates were 
 turned back. From the Nortli came reinforcements for Buell's army, 
 swelling his numbers to a hundred thousand. In the beginning of Octo- 
 ber lie again took the field, the Confederates slowly retiring to Perryville. 
 At this place, on the 8tii of October, Bragg was overtaken, and a severe 
 l:)ut indecisive battle was fouglit. The retreat was then continued to East 
 Tennessee, the Confederates sweeping out of Kentucky a train of four 
 tliousand wagons laden with the spoils of the campaign. 
 
 In September there were some stirring events in Mississippi. On 
 the 19th of the month a hard battle was fought at luka between a Fed- 
 eral army, commanded by Generals Eosecrans and Grant, and a Confed- 
 erate force, under General Price. The latter was defeated, losing, in addi- 
 tion to liis killed and wounded, nearly a thousand prisoners. General 
 llosecrans now took post at Corinth with twenty thousand men, while 
 General Grant, with the remainder of the Federal forces, proceeded to 
 Jackson, Tennessee. Perceiving this division of the army, the Confede- 
 rate generals Van Dorn and Price turned about to recapture Corinth. 
 Advancing for that purpose, they came on the 3d of October upon the 
 Federal defences. Anotlier obstinately contested battle ensued, which 
 ended, after two days' fighting and heavy losses on both sides, in the re- 
 pulse of the Confederates. 
 
 In the mean time. General Grant had removed his headquarters 
 from Jackson to La Grange. His purpose was to co-operate with Gen- 
 
500 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eral Sherman, then at Memphis, in an ett'ort to capture Vicksburg. The 
 movement promised to be successful, but on the 20th of December Gene- 
 ral Van Dorn succeeded in cutting Gi'ant's line of supplies at Holly 
 Sprinjjs, and obliged him to I'ctreat. On the same day General Sherman, 
 with a powerful armament, dropped down the river from Memphis. 
 
 Proceeding as far as the Yazoo, he 
 effected a landing, and on the 29th 
 of the month made an unsuccessful 
 attack on the Confederates at Chick- 
 asaw Bayou. The assault was ex- 
 ceedingly disastrous to the Federals, 
 who lost in killed, wounded and pris- 
 oners more than three thousand men. 
 The enterprise was at once aban- 
 doned, and the defeated army re- 
 turned to the fleet of gunboats in 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 The closing conflict of this 
 year's operations in the West was 
 the great battle of Murfreesborough. 
 After his successful defence of Cor- 
 inth General Rosecrans was trans- 
 ferred to the command of the Army 
 of the Cumberland. Late in the fall 
 he made his headquarters at Xash- 
 ville, and there collected a powerful 
 army. Meanwhile, General Bragg, 
 on his retirement from Kentucky, 
 had thrown his forces into Murfreesborough. Thus the two generals 
 found themselves face to face, and but thirty miles apart. Late in 
 December Rosecrans moved forward to attack his antagonist, and on the 
 evening of the 30th came upon the Confederates strongly posted on 
 Stone's River, a short distance north-west of Murfreesborough. During 
 the night preparations were made on both sides for the impending 
 battle. The plan of attack adopted by the Federal commander contem- 
 plated the massing of his forces on the left in such nurabei's as to crush 
 rtie Confedei'ate right wing under Breckinridge before assistance could 
 be brought from the west side of the river. Bragg's plan of battle was 
 the exact counterpart of that adopted by Rosecrans. Before daylight 
 the Confederates were heavily massed under Hardee on the left; and 
 in the early morning the battle begau by a furious and unexpected 
 
 BATTLE OF MURFREESBOROUGH, DEC. olST, 1S02. 
 
CAMPAIGN OF '62. 
 
 501 
 
 charge on McCook who commanded the right wing of the Federals. 
 McCook's outcry for helj) was at first unheeded by Rosecrans, who did 
 not realize the real nature of the Confederate onset. After a terrible 
 struggle which lasted until noonday the Union right Avas shattered to 
 fragments and driven from the field. The brunt of the battle now fell 
 upon General Thomas, who commanded tlie 
 Federal right center ; and he, too, after des- 
 perate fighting, was obliged to fall back to 
 a new position. Here, however, he rallied 
 his forces and held his ground until Gen- 
 eral Rosccrans readjusted his whole line of 
 battle. While this work was going on, the 
 Confederates wei-e barely pi-evented from a 
 complete and overwhelming triumph bv the 
 almost unparalleled heroism of tlie division 
 of General William B. Hazen. AVith only 
 thirteen hundred men he stayed the oncom- 
 ing tide of victorious assailants until the 
 Federal lines were completely restored. At 
 nightfall more than seven thousand Union 
 soldiers were missing from the ranks. 
 
 But General Rosecrans, though de- 
 feated, was by no means disposed to abandon 
 
 BATTLE OF MUKFREESEOROUGH, JAN. 
 :;d, 1863. 
 
 the contest. During the night after the bat- 
 tle, a council of war was held and complete preparations were made for 
 renewing the struggle on the morrow. On New Year's morning Gen- 
 eral Bragg found his antagonist strongly posted, with .shortened lines, 
 and manifest disposition for battle. The Confederate commander 
 grew cautious; and the day was spent in indecisive skirmishing and 
 artillery firing at long range. Early on the morning of the ^d, the 
 conflict broke out afresh on the east side of Stone's River, and for 
 some hours there was terrific cannonading in that quartei". At three 
 o'clock in the afternoon the Confederates were massed against the 
 Union left, and the Nationals were driven across the river by the 
 .shock. But at this juncture the Federal artillery, advantageously 
 posted on the hills west of the .stream, opened a murderous fire 
 on the a.s.sailing columns. At the same time, the discomfited 
 Federals, rallying to the charge, turned upon their pursuers and 
 in one tremendous on.set drove them from the field with the slaugh- 
 ter of thousands. General Bragg had lo.st the prize. During the 
 night he withdrew his broken and exhausted columns through 
 
502 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Murfreesboroiigli ami retreated in tlie direction of Tullahoma. The 
 Union loss in the two battles was a thousand five hundred and thirty- 
 three killed, seven thousand two hundred and forty-five wounded, and 
 nearly three thousand prisoners; that of the Confederates amounted 
 in killed, wounded, and prisoners to between ten and eleven thou- 
 sand men. 
 
 In Virginia the campaigns of 1862 were even more grand and 
 destructive than those in the West. The first stirring scenes of the 
 year were enacted in the Shenandoah Valley. Desiring to occupy 
 this important district, the Federal government sent forward a strong 
 division under Genei'al Banks, who pressed his way southward, and in 
 the last days of March occupied the town of Harrisonburg. In order 
 to counteract this movement, the gallant Stonewall Jackson was sent 
 with a force of twenty thousand men to pass the Blue Ridge and cut 
 off Banks's retreat. At Front Royal, ou the Shenandoah, just before 
 the gap in the Mountains, the Confederates fell upon a body of 
 Federals, routed them, captured their guns and all the military stores 
 in the town. Banks succeeded, however, in passing with his main 
 division to Strasburg. There he learned of the disaster at Front 
 Royal, and immediately began his retreat down the valley. Jackson 
 pursued him hotly, and it was only by the utmost exertions that the 
 Federals gained the northern bank of the Potomac. 
 
 The Confederate leader, though completely victorious, now found 
 himself in great peril. For General Fremont, at the head of a strong 
 force of fresh troops, had been sent into the valley to intercept the re- 
 treat of the Confederates. It was now Jackson's time to save his 
 army. With the utmost celerity he sped up the valley, and succeeded 
 in reaching Cross Keys before Fremont could attack him. Even 
 then the battle was so little decisive that Jackson pressed on to Port 
 Republic, attacked the division of General Sliields, defeated it, and 
 then retired from the scene of his brilliant campaign to join in the 
 defense of Richmond. 
 
 On the 10th of March the grand army of the Potomac, num- 
 bering nearly two hundred thousand men, under command of General 
 McCIellan, set out from the camps about Washington to capture the 
 Confederate capital. The advance proceeded as far as JIanassas Junc- 
 tion, the Confederates falling back and forming a new line of defences 
 on the Rappahannock. At this stage of the camj)aign McCIellan, 
 changing his plan, embarked a hundred and twenty thousand of his 
 men for Fortress Monroe, intending from that point to march u]) the 
 peninsula between the James and the York. By the 4th of April the 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 
 
 503 
 
 N N S V_ U/', V, A S 
 
 transfer of troops was completed, and the Union army left Fortress 
 Monroe for Yorktown. This place was garrisoned by ten thousand 
 Confederates under General Magruder ; and yet with so small a force 
 McClellan's advance was delayed for a whole month. When at last, 
 on the 4th of May, Yorktown was taken by siege, the Federal army 
 pressed forward to Williamsburg, 
 where the Confederates made a 
 stand, but were defeated with se- 
 vere losses. Four days afterward, 
 in an engagement at West Point, 
 at the confluence of the Matta- 
 pony and Pamunkey, the Confed- 
 erates were again overpowered and 
 driven back. The way to Rich- 
 mond was now open as far as the 
 Chickahorainy, ten miles north 
 of the city. The Union army 
 reached that stream without fur- 
 ther i-esistance, and crossed at 
 Bottom's Bridge. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Wool, 
 the commandant of Fortress Mon- 
 roe, had not been idle. On the 
 10th of May he led an expedition 
 against Norfolk and captured the 
 town ; for the Confederate garri- 
 son had been withdrawn to aid in the defence of Richmond. On the 
 next day the celebrated iron-clad Virginia was blown up to save her 
 from capture by the Federals. The James River was thus opened for 
 the ingress of national transports laden with supplies for the Army 
 of the Potomac. That army, now advanced toward Richmond, and 
 when but seven miles from the city was attacked on the 31st of May by 
 the Confederates at a place called Fair Oaks or Seven Pines. Here 
 for a part of two days the battle raged with great fury. At last the 
 Confederates were driven back; but McClellan's victory was by no 
 means decisive. The Confederate loss was largest, amounting to 
 nearly eight thousand in killed and wounded; that of the Feder- 
 als was more than five thousand. Among the severely wounded was 
 General Joseph E. Johnston, the commander-in-chief of the Con- 
 federates. Two days after the battle his place was filled by the 
 appointment of General Robert E. Lee, a man of military genius, 
 
 SCENE OF CAMPAIGN IN VIRGINIA, MAJtYtAND 
 AND PENNSYLVANIA, 1862. 
 
504 
 
 HISTORY OF THE V SIT ED STATES. 
 
 who, until its final downfall, remained the chief stay of the Confed- 
 eracy. 
 
 In the lull that followed the battle of Fair Oaks, McClellau 
 formed the design of changing his base of supplies from the White 
 House, on the Pamunkey, to some suitable point on the James. The 
 
 movement was one 
 of the utmost haz- 
 ard, and before it 
 was fairly begun 
 General Lee, on 
 the 25tli of June, 
 swooped down on 
 the right wing of 
 the Union army at 
 Oak Grove, and a 
 hard - fought battle 
 ensued without de- 
 cisive results. On 
 the next day an- 
 other dreadful en- 
 gagement occurred 
 a t Mechanicsville, 
 and this time the 
 Federals won the 
 field. But on the 
 following m o r n i n g 
 Lee renewed the 
 struggle at Gaines's Mill, and came out victorious. On the 28th there 
 was but little fighting. On the 29th McClellan's I'etreating army was 
 twice attacked — in the morning; at Savage's Station and in the afternoon 
 in the White Oak Swamp — but the divisions defending the rearguard 
 kept the Confederates at bay. On the 30th was fought the desperate 
 but indecisive battle of Glendale or Frazier's Farm. On that night 
 the Federal army reached Malvern Hill, on the north bank of the 
 James, twelve miles below Eichmond. Although this position was 
 protected by the Federal gunboats in the river. General Lee deter- 
 mined to carry the place by storm. Accordingly, on the morning of 
 the 1st of July the M'hole Confederate army rushed forward to the as- 
 sault. All day long the furious struggle for the possession of the high 
 grounds continued. Not until nine o'clock at night did Lee's shat- 
 tered columns fall back exhausted. For seven days the terrific roar 
 
 GKNEKAL ROBERT E. LEE. 
 
CAMPAIGXS OF '62. 
 
 505 
 
 VICINITY OF EICHMOND, 1862 
 
 of battle had been heard almost without cessation. No such dreadful 
 scenes had ever before been enacted on the American continent. 
 
 Although victorious on Malvern Hill, General McClellan, instead 
 of advancing at once on Elchmond, chose a less hazardous movement, 
 and on the 2d of July retired with his army to Harrison's Landing, 
 
 a few miles down the river. The 
 
 great campaign was really at an 
 end. The Federal army had lost 
 more than fifteen thousand men, 
 and the capture of Eichmond, the 
 great object for which the expedi- 
 tion had been undertaken, seemed 
 further oif than ever. The losses 
 of the Confederates had been heav- 
 ier than those of the Union army, 
 but all the moral eifect of a great 
 victory remained with the exultant 
 South. 
 
 General Lee, perceiving that 
 Richmond was no longer endan- 
 gered, immediately formed the de- 
 sign of invading Maryland and capturing the Federal capital. The 
 Union troops between Richmond and Washington, numbering in the 
 aggregate about fifty thousand, were under command of General John 
 Pope. They were scattered in detachments from Fredericksburg to 
 Winchester and Harper's Ferry. Lee moved northward about the 
 middle of August, and on the 20th of the month Pope, concentrating 
 his forces as rapidly as possible, put the Rappahannock between his 
 army and the advancing Confederates. Meanwhile General Banks, 
 wliile attempting to form a junction with Pope, was attacked by Stone- 
 wall Jacksou at Cedar Mountain, where nothing but desperate fighting 
 saved the Federals from complete rout. 
 
 No sooner had Pope gotten his forces well in hand than Jackson 
 shot by with his division on a flank movement, reached Manassas 
 Junction, and made large captures of men and stores. Pope with great 
 audacity threw his array between the two divisions of the Confederates, 
 hoping to crush Jackson before Lee could come to the rescue. On 
 August 28th and 29th there was terrible but undecisive fighting at 
 Manassas Junction, the old Bull Run battle-ground, and Centrevdlle. 
 At one time it seemed that Lee's army would be completely defeated ; 
 but Pope's reinforcements were purposely delayed by General Porter, 
 
50(3 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and on the 31st of the month the Confederates bore down on the 
 Union army at Chantilly, fought all day, and won a victory. Gen- 
 erals Stevens and Kearney were among the thousands of brave men 
 who fell in this battle. On that night Pope withdrew his shattered 
 columns as rapidly as possible, and found safety within the defences 
 of Washington. His wish to be relieved of his command was imme- 
 diately complied with ; his forces, known as the Army of Virginia, 
 were consolidated with the Army of the Potomac, which had now 
 been recalled from the peninsula below Richmond; and General Mc- 
 Clellan was placed in supreme command of all the divisions about 
 Washington. 
 
 General Lee prosecuted his invasion of Maryland. Passing up 
 the right bank of the Potomac, he crossed to Point of Rocks, and on 
 the 6th of September captured Frederick. On the 10th Hagerstown 
 was taken, and on the 15th a division of the Confederate army, led 
 by Stonewall Jackson came upon Harper's Ferry and frightened Colo- 
 nel Miles into surrender by which the garrison, nearly twelve thou- 
 sand strong, became prisoners of war. On the previous day there was 
 a hard-fought engagement at South Mountain, in which the Federals, 
 led by Hatch and Doubleday, were victorious. MeClellan's whole 
 army was now in the immediate rear of Lee, who, on the niglit oi' the 
 14th, fell back to Antietam Creek, and took a .strong position in the 
 vicinity of Sharpsburg. On the morning of the 15th there was some 
 sh?.rp but desultory fighting between the Union and Confederate cav- 
 alry. During the afternoon the Federal advance, coming in on the 
 Sharpsburg road from Keedysville, received the opening salutes of the 
 Confederate guns on the Antietam. But nightfall came without a se- 
 rious conflict. On the following morning there was great activity of 
 preparation in both armies. Later in the day the corps of General 
 Hooker, who commanded on the Federal right, was thrown across the 
 stream which separated the combatants and brought into a favorable 
 position for action. In this quarter of the field the Confederate left 
 under General Hood was assaulted and driven back a half mile in the 
 direction of Sliarpsburg. The rest of the day was spent in an irregu- 
 lar cannonade. During the night General Mansfield's corps crossed 
 the Antietam on the north bridge and joined Hooker. 
 
 On the morning of the 17th both commanders had their armies 
 well into position, the Federals being strongest in numbers and the 
 Confederates having the advantage of an unfordable stream in their 
 front. It was of the first importance that General McClellau should 
 gain and hold the four stone bridges by which only his forces could 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF '62. 
 
 507 
 
 be thrown to the other side. General Burnside, who was ordered to 
 take the lower bridge, cross over, and attack the division of A. P. 
 Hill, encountered unexpected delays and was greatly retarded in his 
 movements. On the right, Hooker renewed the battle at sunrise, and 
 until late in the afternoon the conflict raged with almost unabated 
 fury. Here fell the 
 veteran Genei'al Mans- 
 field and thousands of 
 his comrades. Mean- 
 while, Burnside had 
 forced the lower cross- 
 ing and carried the 
 battle far up in the di- 
 rection of Sharpsburg. 
 But the Confederates 
 being reinforced from 
 other parts of the field 
 made a rally, and the 
 Federals were driven 
 back nearly to the An- 
 tietam. It was only by 
 terrible fighting that 
 General Burnside suc- 
 ceeded in holding his 
 position on the west 
 bank of the stream. 
 But on the appi'oach 
 of darkness the great- 
 er part of the Uuion 
 army had gained a safe 
 lodgment between the 
 creek and Sharpsburg. 
 Nevertheless, the Confederate forces occupied nearly the same ground 
 as in the morning ; and it seemed that the final struggle was reserved 
 for the morrow. On that day, however, General McClellan acted on 
 the defensive. Two strong divisions of reinforcements, under Generals 
 Humphreys and Couch, arrived, and it was resolved to renew the at- 
 tack on the following morning. But in the mean time. General Lee 
 had taken advantage of the dclav, withdrawn his shattered legions from 
 their jiosition, and recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. The great 
 conflict which had cost each army more than ten thousand men had 
 
 THE BATTLE OF ANTIETAM, SEPTEMBER 17, '62. 
 
508 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 \V ASUING'fBStev 
 
 ended in a drawn battle in which there is little to be praised except 
 the heroism of the soldiery. To the Confederates, however, the result 
 was almost as disastrous as defeat. The promised uprising of the 
 people of ]\Iaryland in behalf of the Confederate cause did not occur 
 and General Lee was oliliged to give up a fruitless and hopeless in- 
 vasion which, in the short space of a month, had cost him nearly 
 
 thirty thousand men. On the 
 S. other side, the exjjectations 
 which had been inspired by 
 the movements and despatch- 
 es of the Union commander 
 previous to the battle had been 
 sorely disappointed. 
 
 On the 26th of October, 
 General McClellan, following 
 the retreating Confederates, 
 again entered Virginia, and 
 reached Rectortown. It was 
 the jiurpose of the Federal 
 government that the Army 
 of the Potomac should, be- 
 fore the approach of winter, 
 be thrown forward in a sec- 
 ond attempt against Rich- 
 mond. The Union command- 
 er still preferred to advance 
 by the route which he had 
 taken the previous spring, making his base of supplies at West Point 
 on the Pamunkey. But this plan was open to the objection that Wash- 
 ington city would thereby be again uncovered and exposed to a coun- 
 ter movement on the part of the Confederates. Yielding to the pro- 
 test of the President and his cabinet, McClellan altered his plans and 
 chose Alexandria on the Potomac as his base of operations. From 
 this point it was proposed to advance on the Confederate capital by 
 way of the Orange Railroad through Culpepper to Gordonsville, and 
 thence by the Virginia Central to its junction with the line reaching 
 from Fredericksburg to Richmond. The month of October was 
 wasted with delays, and November was well begun before the Federal 
 general with his army of a hundred and twenty thousand men, an- 
 nounced himself ready for the forward movement. On the 7th of 
 
 THE PROPOSED KOUTES FROM WASHINGTON TO RICH- 
 MOND, 1S62. 
 
CAMPAIGNS OF ^62. 509 
 
 the month, just as the Union commander was about to begin the cam- 
 paign, he was superseded and his command transferred to General 
 Bnrnside. Right or wrong, the President at last reached the decision 
 that General McClellan was a man over-cautious and slow — too pru- 
 dent and too much absorbed in preliminaries to lead the armies of 
 the Republic to victory. 
 
 General Burnside immediately changed the plan of the proposed 
 campaign. It was decided to form a new base of supplies at the 
 mouth of Acquia Creek, fifty-five miles below Washington and from 
 that point to force a way by battle southward through Fredericks- 
 burg. But again movements were much delayed, and that, too, when 
 everything depended on celerity. The pontoons, which were neces- 
 sary for the crossing of the Rappahannock, were not forthcoming, 
 and a fortnight was lost in preparations. General Lee found abun- 
 dant time to gather his legions and occupy the heights in the vicinity 
 of Fredericksburg. It was not a part of his plan to dispute the pas- 
 .sage of the river but to allow the Federals to cross over and then 
 beat them back from his entrenchments. On the 11th of December 
 the Union army was brought into position on the east bank of the 
 Rappahannock. The divisions lay from the village of Falmouth to 
 & point opposite the month of the Massaponax, about three miles be- 
 low. In front of the corps of General Franklin, who commanded 
 the Federal left wing, the pontoons were successfully laid and the 
 crossing of the river was effected without serious opposition. But 
 opposite Fredericksburg, where the divisions of Generals Sumner and 
 Hooker, who held the Union center and right, were to cross, the work 
 of laying the bridges was hindered by the Confederate sharpshooters 
 lying concealed in the town. General Burnside ordered the Federal 
 guns to be turned in that direction, and in a short time Fredericks- 
 burg was battered and burned into I'uins. Some Union regiments 
 were next ferried over in boats, and the Confederate picket lines were 
 driven back to the heights. The bridges were completed, and by 
 nightfall of the 12th the army had been transferred to the western 
 .side of the river. 
 
 On the morning of the 13th the battle began on the left where 
 Franklin's division encountered the corps of Stonewall Jackson. A 
 gallant charge was made by General Meade and a gap was made in 
 the Confederate lines; but no reinforcements were sent forward; the 
 Confederates rallied, and the Federals were driven back with a loss 
 of three thousand seven hundred men. Jackson's loss was almost as 
 
510 HlSiORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 great, and in this part of the field neither side might claim a decisive 
 victory. Not so in the center and on the right. Here a poi-tion of 
 General Sumner's men were ordered forward against the Confederates 
 securely and impregnably posted on Marye's Hill. They were mowed 
 down by thousands and hurled back in disdain, M'hile the defenders 
 of the heights hardly lost a man. Time and again the assault was 
 recklessly renewed. A part of Hooker's gallant troops, led by Gen- 
 eral Humplireys, came forward ; charged with unloaded guns ; and in 
 fifteen minutes one-half of the four thousand brave fellows went down 
 in death. Night came and ended the nseless carnage. General Burn- 
 side would have renewed the l;)attle ; but his division commanders 
 finally dissuaded him and on the night of the 15th the Federal army 
 was silently withdrawn across the Rappahannock. The Union losses 
 in this terrible conflict amounted to a thousand five hundred killed, 
 nine thousand one hundred wounded, and sixteen hundred and fifty 
 prisoners and missing. The Confederates lost in killed five hundred 
 and ninety-five, four thonsand and sixty-one wounded, and six hun- 
 dred and fifty-three missing and prisoners. Of all the important 
 movements of the war only that of Fredericksburg was undertaken 
 with no probability of success. Under the plan of the battle — if 
 plan it might be called, nothing could be reasonably expected Init 
 repulse, rout, and ruin. Thus in gloom and disaster to the Federal 
 cause ended the great campaign of 1862. 
 
 CHAPTEE LXV. 
 
 THE WOEK OF '63. 
 
 THE war had now grown to enormous proportions. The Confederate 
 States were draining every resource of men and means in order to 
 support their armies. The superior energies of the North, though by no 
 means exhausted, were greatly taxed. In the previous year, on the day 
 after the battle of Malvern Hill, President Lincoln had issued a call for 
 three hundred thousand additional troops. During the exciting days of 
 Pope's retreat from the Rapi)ahannock he sent forth another call for three 
 
THE WORK OF '63. oil 
 
 hundred thousand, and to that was added a requisition for a draft of three 
 hundred thousand more. Most of these enormous demands were promptly 
 met, and it became evident that in respect to resources the Federal gov- 
 ernment was vastly superior to the Confederacy. 
 
 On the 1st day of January, 1863, the President issued one of the 
 most important documents of modern times : The Emancipation 
 Proclamation.* The war had been begun with no well-defined inten- 
 tion on the part of the government to free the slaves of the South. But 
 the President and the Republican party looked with disfavor on the in- 
 stitution of slavery ; during the progress of the war the sentiment of 
 abolition had grown with great rapidity in the North ; and when at last 
 it became a military necessity to strike a blow at the labor-system of the 
 Southern States, the step was taken with but little hesitancy or oppo- 
 sition. Thus, after an existence of two hundred and forty-four years, the 
 institution of African slaveiy in the United States was swept away. 
 
 The military movements of the new year began on the Mississippi 
 After his defeat at Chickasaw Bayou, General Sherman laid a i)lan for 
 the capture of Arkansas Post, on the Arkansas River. In the first days 
 of January an expedition set out for that purpose, the land-forces being 
 commanded by General McClernand, and the flotilla by Admiral Porter. 
 Entering the Arkansas, the Union forces reached their destination on the 
 10th of the month, fought a hard battle with the Confederates, gained a 
 victory, and on the next day received the surrender of the post Viith 
 nearly five thousand prisoners. After this success the expedition returned 
 to the vicinity of Vicksburg, in order to co-operate with General Grant 
 in a second effort to capture that stronghold of the Confederacy. 
 
 Again the Union forces were collected at Memphis, and embarked 
 on the Mississippi. A landing was effected at the Yazoo; but the cap- 
 ture of the city from that direction was decided .to be impracticable. The 
 first three months of the year were spent by General Grant in beating 
 about the bayous, swamps and hills around Vicksburg, in the hope of 
 getting a position in the rear of the town. A canal was cut across a 
 bend in the river with a view to turning the channel of the Mississip}H 
 and opening a passage for the gunboats. But a flood in the river wasiiod 
 the works away, and the enterprise ended in failure. Then another 
 canal was begun, only to be abandoned. Finally, in the first days of 
 April, it was determined at all hazards to run the fleet past the Vicksburg 
 batteries. Accordingly, on the night of the 16th, the boats were made 
 ready and silently dropped down the river. All of a sudden the guns 
 burst forth with terrible discharges of shot and shell, pelting the passing 
 
 "See Appendix H. 
 
512 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 steamei-s ; but they M'ent by with comparatively little damage, and found 
 a safe position below the city. 
 
 Elated with the successful pas- 
 sage of his fleet, General Grant 
 now marched his laud-forces down 
 the right bank of the Mississippi 
 and formed a junction with the 
 squadron. On the 30th of April 
 he crossed the river at Bruinsburg, 
 and on the following day fought 
 and defeated the Confederates at 
 Port Gibson. The evacuation of 
 Grand Gulf, at the mouth of the 
 Big Black River, followed imme- 
 diately afterward. The Union army 
 Vicksburg. On the morning of 
 
 VICKSEURG AND VICINITY, 1663. 
 
 now swept around to the rear of 
 the 12th a strong Confederate force was encountered at Raymond, and 
 after a severe engagement was repulsed. Pressing on toward Jackson, 
 the capital of Mississippi, General Grant's right wing, under Sherman and 
 McPherson, met the advance of General Johnston's division coming to 
 reinforce the garrison of Vicksburg. Here, on the 14th of the month, 
 a decisive battle was fouglit ; the Confederates were beaten, and the city 
 of Jackson captured. The communications of Vicksburg were noAv cut 
 off, and General Pembertou was obliged to repel the Federals or suffer a 
 siege. Sallying forth with the greater part of his forces, he met the Union 
 army on the 16th at Champion Hills, on Baker's Creek. In the battle 
 that followed, as well as in a conflict at the Black River Bridge on the 
 17th, Grant was again victorious, and Pemberton retired with his dis- 
 heartened troops witliin the defences of Vicksburg. 
 
 The investment of the city was rapidly comjileted. Believing that 
 the Confederate works could be carried by storm, General Grant, on tlie 
 19th of May, ordered an assault, which resulted in a repulse with terrible 
 losses. Three days afterward the attempt was renewed, but the assailants 
 v<-ere again hurled back with a still greater destruction of life. The 
 Union loss in these two unsuccessful assaults amounted to nearly three 
 thousand men. Finding that Viclcsburg could not be taken by storm, 
 General Grant began a regular siege, and pressed it with ever-increasing 
 severity. Admiral Porter got his gunboats into position and bombarded 
 the unfortunate town incessantly. Reinforcements swelled the Union 
 ranks. On the other hand, the garrison of the city was in a starving con- 
 dition. Still, Pemberton held out for more than a month ; and it was 
 
THE WORK OF '63. 513 
 
 not until the 4th of July that he w.os driven to surrender. By the act 
 of capitulation the defenders of Vicksburg, numbering nearly thirty 
 thousand, became prisoners of war. Thousands of small-arms, hundreds 
 of cannon, vast quantities of ammunition and warlike stores were the 
 fruits of this great Union victory, by which the national government 
 gained more and the Confederacy lost more than in any previous struggle 
 of the war. 
 
 Meanwhile, General Banks, who had superseded General Butler in 
 command of the department of the gulf, had been conducting a vigor- 
 ous campaign on the Lower Mississippi. Early in Januarj', from his 
 headquartei-s at Baton Rouge, he advanced into Louisiana, reached Brash- 
 ear City, and shortly afterward gained a victory over a Confederate force 
 at a place called Bayou Techc. Returning to the Mississippi, he moved 
 northward to Port Hudson, invested the place and began a siege. The 
 beleaguered garrison, under General Gardner, made a brave defence ; and 
 it was not until the 8th of July, when the news of the fall of Vicksburg 
 was borne to Port Hudson, that the commandant, with his force of more 
 than six thousand men, was obliged to capitulate. By this important 
 surrender the control of the Mississippi throughout its whole length was 
 recovered by the National government. 
 
 During the progress of the war cavalry raids became more and more 
 frequent. Of this nature was Stonewall Jackson's campaign down the 
 Shenandoah valley in the summer of 1862. Later in the same year, just 
 after the battle of Antietam, the Confederate General Stuart, with a troop 
 of eighteen hundred cavalrymen, made a d;ush into Pennsylvania, reached 
 Chambersburg, captured the town, made a complete circuit of the Army 
 of the Potomac, and returned in safety to Virginia. Just before the in- 
 vestment of Vicksburg, Colonel Benjamin Grierson, of the Sixth Illinois 
 Cavalry, struck out with his command from La Grange, Tennessee, en- 
 tered Mississippi, traversed the State to the east of Jackson, cut the rail- 
 roads, destroyed property, and after a rapid course of more than eight 
 hundred miles gained the river at Baton Rouge. By these raids the 
 border country of both sections was kept in perpetual agitation and alarm. 
 
 For a while after the battle of Murfreesborough Rosecrans re- 
 mained inactive. Late in tiie spring Colonel Streight's command went 
 on a raid into Georgia, met the division of the Confederate general 
 Forrest, was surrounded and captured. In the latter part of June, Rose- 
 crans by a series of flank movements succeeded in crowding General Bragg 
 out of Tennessee into Georgia. The union general followed his antago- 
 nist and took post at Chattanooga, on the left bank of the Tennessee. 
 During the summer months General Bragg was heavily reinforced by 
 
514 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 Johnston from Mississippi, and Longstreet from Virginia. On the 19th 
 of September he turned upon the Federal army at Chickamauga Creek, 
 in the north-west angle of Georgia. During this day a hard battle 
 was fought, but night fell on the scene with the victory undecided. 
 Durina- the nitrht the Confederates were reinforced by the arrival of 
 General Longstreet, who was stationed with his division on the left 
 
 wing of Bragg's army. The 
 right was given to General 
 Polk, while the center was 
 held by Ewell and Johnston. 
 The Federal left * wing was 
 c o m ni a n d e d b y General 
 Thomas, the center by Crit- 
 tenden, and the right by Mc- 
 Cook. The plan of the Con- 
 federate commander was to 
 crush the Union line, force 
 his way through a gap in 
 Missionary Ridge, capture 
 Rossville and Chattanooga, 
 and annihilate Rosecrans's 
 army. The battle began at 
 half past eight o'clock on 
 the morning of the 20tli, 
 the Confederates moving on 
 i n ji o w e r f u 1 masses, and 
 the Federals holding their 
 ground with unflinching courage. After the conflict had continued 
 for some hours, the national battle-line was opened bv General AVood, 
 acting under mistaken orders. The Confederate general, seeing his 
 advantage, thrust forward a heavy column into the gap, cut the Union 
 army in two, and drove the shattered right wing in utter rout from 
 the field. General Thomas, with a desperate firmness hardly equaled 
 in the annals of war, held the left until nightfall, and then, under 
 cover of darkness, withdrew into Chattanooga, where the defeated 
 army of Rosecrans had already found shelter. The Union losses in 
 this dreadful battle amounted in killed, wounded and missing to 
 nearly nineteen thousand, and the Confederate loss was even more 
 appalling. 
 
 General Bragg at once pressed forward to besiege Chattanooga. 
 The Federal lines of communication were cut off, and for a while the 
 army of Rosecrans was in danger of being annihilated. But General 
 
 BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA, SEPT. 19, 20, 1863. 
 
THE WORK OF 63. 
 
 515 
 
 Hooker arrived with two corps from the Army of the Potomac, opened 
 the Tennessee River, and brought relief to the besieged. At the same 
 time General Grant, being promoted to the chief command of the 
 Western armies, assumed the direction of affairs at Chattanooga. Gen- 
 eral Sherman also arrived with his division, so strengthening the Army 
 of the Cumber- 
 
 r^ 
 
 land that ofFen- 
 s i v e operations 
 were at once 
 renewed. The 
 left wing of 
 the Confederate 
 army now rest- 
 ed on Look- 
 out Mountain, 
 and the right 
 o n Missionary 
 Ridge. A po- 
 sition seemingly 
 more impregna- 
 ble could hard- 
 ly be conceived 
 of. General 
 Bragg was not 
 only confident 
 of his ability to 
 hold his lines 
 against any ad- 
 
 
 LOOKOUT MOnNTAIN AND MISSIONARY IlIDGE, NOV. 23-25, 1863. 
 
 vance of the Federals but even contemplated the storming of Chatta- 
 nooga. On the 20th of November he gave notice to General Grant to 
 remove all non-combatants as the town was about to be bombarded; 
 but no attention was paid to the despatch. On the 23d General Hooker 
 threw his corps across the river below Chattanooga and gained a foot- 
 ing at the mouth of Lookout Creek facing the mountain. From this 
 position the assault was made on the following morning. Hooker was 
 supported by the divisions of Generals Geary and Osterhaus, and the 
 remainder of the Union army was kept in a .state of activity in order 
 to prevent the reinforcement of Lookout from Missionary Ridge. A 
 dense fog hung like a hood over the mountain, eifectually concealing 
 the movements of the Federals. The charge began between eight and 
 nine o'clock, and in tlie space of two hours the ranges of Confederate 
 rifle-pits among the foot-hills had been successfully carried. It bad 
 
516 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 been General Hooker's purpose to pause when this work should be 
 accomplished, but the enthusiasm of his army rose to such a pitch as 
 to suggest the still greater achievement of carrying the whole Confed- 
 erate position. Taking advantage of the fog and the spirit of his 
 soldiers Hooker again gave the command to charge ; and up the almost 
 inaccessible slopes of the mountain the troops sprang forward with re- 
 sistless energy. It was such a scene of dauntless heroism as has rarely 
 been portrayed in the records of battle. The charging columns, strug- 
 gling against the obstacles of nature and facing the murderous fire of 
 the Confederate guns, could not be checked. The Union flag was 
 carried to the top; and before two o'clock in the afternoon Lookout 
 Mountain, with its cloud-capped summit overlooking the town and 
 river, was swarming with Federal soldiers. The routed Confederates 
 retreated down the eastern slope and across the intervening hills and 
 valleys in the dii-ection uf Missionary Ridge. 
 
 The second great conflict was reserved for the morrow. During 
 the night of the 24th General Bragg concentrated his forces and made 
 prejiarations to defend his position to the last. On the following 
 morning Hooker's victorious troops poured down from Lookout, 
 crossed the Chattanooga, and renewed the battle at the southwestern 
 extremity of Missionary Ridge. General Sherman had already built 
 pontoon bridges over the Tennessee and Chickamauga, thrown his 
 corps across those streams, and gained a lodgment on the northeastern 
 declivity of the Ridge. General Thomas, commanding the Union 
 center, lay with his impatient soldiers, on the southern and eastern 
 slopes of Orchard Knob, awaiting the result of Sherman's and Hooker's 
 onsets. At two o'clock in the afternoon orders were given by Gen- 
 eral Grant for an assault along the whole line. And the command 
 was instantly obeyed. The thrilling scene of Lookout Mountain was 
 asrain enacted. The Federal soldiers charged to the summit of Mis- 
 sionary Ridge and the Confederates were driven into a disastrous rout. 
 During the night General Bragg withdrew his shattered columns and 
 retreated in the direction of Ringgold, Georgia. The Fedei-al losses 
 in the two great battles amounted to seven hundred and fifty-seven 
 killed, four thousand five hundred and twenty-nine wounded, and three 
 hundred and thirty missing; the loss of the Confederates in killed, 
 wounded and prisoners reached considerably beyond ten thousand. 
 The results of the conflict were so decisive as to put an end to the 
 war in Tennessee until it was renewed by Hood at Franklin and 
 Nashville in the winter of 1864. 
 
 In the mean time, Gen«"al Burnside was making an effort to hold 
 Ea.st Tennessee. On the 1st of September he arrived with his command 
 
THE WORK OF '63. 517 
 
 at Knoxville, where he was received by the people with lively satisfac- 
 tion. After the battle of Chickamauga, General Longstreetwas sent into 
 East Tennessee to counteract the movements of the Unionists. On liis 
 march to Knoxville he overtook and captured several small detachments 
 of Federal troops, then invested the town and began a siege. On the 
 29th of November the Confederates made an attempt to carry Knoxville 
 by storm, but were repulsed with heavy losses. After the retreat of Bragg 
 from Chattanooga, General Sherman marched to the relief of Burnside; 
 but before he could reach Knoxville, Longstreet raised the siege and re- 
 treated into Virginia. 
 
 In the early part of 1863 the Confederates, led by Generals Mar- 
 maduke and Price, resumed activity in Arkansas and Southern Missouri. 
 On the 8th of January they made an attack on Springfield, but were re- 
 pulsed with considerable losses. Three days afterward, at the town of 
 Hartsville, a battle was fought with a similar result. On the 26th of 
 April, General Marmaduke attacked the post at Cape Girardeau, on the 
 Mississippi, but the garrison succeeded in driving the Confederates away. 
 On the day of the surrender of Vicksburg the Confederate general 
 Holmes, with a force of nearly eight thousand men, made an attack 
 on Helena, Arkansas, but was repulsed with a loss of one-fifth of his 
 men. On the 13th of August the town of Lawrence, Kansas, was 
 sacked and burned, and a hundred and forty persons killed by a band 
 of desperate fellows led by a chieftain called Quantrell. On the 10th 
 of September the Federal general Steele reached Little Rock, the 
 capital of Arkansas, captured the city and restored the national authority 
 in the State. 
 
 To the summer of this year belongs the story of General John 
 Morgan's great raid through Kentucky into Indiana and Ohio. His 
 starting-point was Sparta, Tennessee; the number of his forces three 
 thousand. Pushing northward through Kentucky, he gathered strength, 
 reached the Ohio at Brandenburg, crossed into Indiana, and began his 
 march to the north and east. He was resisted at Corydon and other 
 points by bodies of home-guards, and hotly pursued by a force under 
 General Hobson. Morgan crossed into Ohio at Harrison, made a circuit 
 to the north of Cincinnati, and attempted to recross the river. But the 
 Ohio was now guarded by gunboats, and the raiders were driven back. 
 With numbei-s constantly diminishing the Confederate leader pressed on, 
 fighting and flying, until he came near the town of New Lisbon, where 
 he was surrounded and captured by the brigade of General Shackelford, 
 For nearly four months Morgan was held as a prisoner; then mak- 
 ing his escape, he fled to Kentucky, and finally reached Richmond. 
 
 The year 1863 was marked by some movements of importance on 
 
518 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the sea-coast. On tlie 1st of January General Marraaduke, by a brilliant 
 exploit, captured Galveston, Texas. By tliis means the Confederates se- 
 cured a port of entry, of which thev M-cre greatly in need in the South- 
 west. On the 7th of April Admiral Dupont, with a powerful fleet of iron- 
 clads, made an attempt to capture Charleston, but the squadron was driven 
 back much damaged. In the last days of June the siege of the city was 
 begun anew by a strong land-force, under command of General Q. A. 
 Gillmore, assisted by the fleet under Admiral Dahlgren, The Federal 
 army first effected a lodgment on Folly Island, and soon afterward on 
 the south end of Morris Island, where batteries were planted bearing upon 
 Fort Sumter in the channel and Fort Wagner and Battery Gregg at the 
 northern extremity of the island. After the bombardment had continued 
 for some time. General Gillmore, on the 18th of July, made an attempt 
 to carry Fort Wagner by assault, but was repulsed with a loss of more 
 than fifteen huudred men. The siege then progressed until the night of 
 the 6th of September, when the Confederates evacuated the fort and Bat- 
 tery Gregg, and retired to Charleston. Gillmore thus obtained a position 
 within four miles of the city, and brought his guns to bear on the wharves 
 and buildings of the lower town. Meanwhile, the walls of Fort Sumter 
 on the side next to Morris Island had been pounded into powder by the 
 land-batteries and guns of the monitors. The harbor and city, however, 
 still remained under control of the Confederates, the only gain of the 
 Federals being the establishment of a blockade so complete as to seal up 
 the port of Charleston. 
 
 During the spring and summer of 1863 the Army of the Potomac 
 was engaged in several desperate conflicts. After his fatal repulse at 
 Fredericksl)urg General Burnside was superseded b\' General Joseph 
 Hooker, who, in the latter part of April, moved forward with his army in 
 full force, crossed the Eappahannock and the Rapidan, and reached 
 Chancellorsville. Here, on the evening of the '2d of May, he was at- 
 tacked by the veteran Army of Northern Virginia, led by Lee and Jack- 
 son. The latter general, with extraordinary daring, put himself at the 
 head of a division of twenty-five thousand men, filed off" from the battle- 
 field, outflanked the Union army, burst like a thunder-cloud upon the 
 right wing, and swept everything to destruction. But it was the last of 
 Stonewall's battles. As night came on, with ruin impending over the 
 Federal army, tlie brave Confederate leader, riding through the gather- 
 ing darkness, received a volley from his own lines, and fell mortally 
 wounded. He lingered a -week, and died at Guinea Station, leaving a 
 gap in the Confederate ranks which no other man could fill. 
 
 On the morning of the 3d the battle was furiously renewed. Gen- 
 eral Sedgwick, attempting to reinforce Hooker from Fredericksburg, was 
 
THE WORK OF '63. 
 
 519 
 
 defeated and driven across the Rappahannock. The main army was 
 crowded between Chancellorsville and the river, where it remained in the 
 utmost peril until the evening of the 5th, when General Hooker succeeded 
 in withdrawing his forces to the northern bank. The Union losses in 
 these terrible battles amounted in killed, wounded and prisoners to about 
 seventeen thousand ; that of the Confederates was less by five thousand. 
 Taken altogether, the campaign was the most disastrous of any in which 
 the Federal army had yet been engaged. 
 
 The defeat of General Hooker was to some extent mitigated by the 
 successful cavalry raid of General Stoneman. On the 29tli of April he 
 crossed the Rappahannock with a body of ten thousand men, tore up the 
 Virginia Central Railroad, dashed on to the Chiekahominy, cut General 
 Lee's communications, 
 swept around within 
 a few miles of Rich- 
 mond, and on the 8th 
 of May recrossed the 
 Rappahannock in 
 safety. At the same 
 time. General Peck, 
 the Federal command- 
 ant of Suffolk, on the 
 Nansemond, was suc- 
 cessfially resisting a 
 siege conducted by 
 General Longstreet. 
 The Confederates re- 
 treated from before the 
 town on the very day 
 of the Union disaster 
 at ChancellorSville. 
 
 Elated with his 
 success on the Rappa- 
 hannock, General Lee 
 determined to carry 
 the war into Mary- 
 land and Pennsylvania 
 
 *The true name of this remarkable man was Thomas Jonathan Jackson. In the be- 
 ginning of the battle of Bull Kun, when the Confederates in one part of the field were 
 routed and flying, General Bee, pointing to an immovable column of men, cried out, 
 "Here is Jackson, standing like a stone wall.'" From that day the man at the head of 
 that column was called Stonewall Jackson. 
 
 STONEWALL JACK30N.* 
 
 In the first week of June he moved forward 
 
520 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lyith his whole army, crossed the Potomac, and captured Hagerstown. 
 On the 22d of June the invaders entei-ed Chambersburg, and then 
 pressed on through Carlisle to within a few miles of Harrisburg. 
 The militia of Pennsylvania was called out, and volunteers came 
 pouring in from other States. General Hooker, at the head of the 
 Army of the Potomac, pushed forward to strike his antagonist. It 
 
 was evident that 
 a great and deci- 
 sive battle was at 
 h and. General 
 Lee, abandoning 
 his purpose of 
 invasion, rapidly 
 concentrated his 
 forces near Get- 
 tysburg, the cap- 
 ital of Adams 
 County, Penn- 
 sylvania. On the 
 very eve of bat- 
 tle the command 
 of the Union ar- 
 my was transfer- 
 red from General 
 Hooker to Gen- 
 eral George G. 
 Meade, who has- 
 tily advanced his 
 forces through 
 the hill - country 
 in the direction 
 of Gettysburg. 
 After more than 
 
 two years of indecisive warfare it seemed that the fate of the Amer- 
 ican Republic was to be staked on the issue of a single battle. On 
 the morning of the 1st of July the Union advance, led by Generals 
 Reynolds and Buford, while moving westward from Gettysburg, en- 
 countered the Confederate division of General Hill, coming up on the 
 road from Hagerstown ; and the struggle began. In the afternoon 
 strono; reinforcements were received and a severe battle was fought 
 for the possession of Seminary Ridge. In this initial conflict the 
 
 BATTLE OF GETTYSEUKG, JULY 1, 2, 3, 1863. 
 
THE WORK OF '63. 521 
 
 Confederates were victorious, driving the Union line from its posi- 
 tion, tlirough the village, and back to the high grounds southward. 
 Here at nightfall a stand was made, and a new battle-line was formed 
 reaching from an eminence called Round Top, where the left wing 
 rested, around the crest of the ridges to Cemetery Hill, where the 
 center was posted, and thence to Wolf Hill on Rock Creek. To 
 this position, well-chosen and strong, the whole Union army, ex- 
 cept Sedgwick's corps, was hurried forward during the niglit. Thf' 
 Confederate forces were all brought into position on Seminary Ridge 
 and the high grounds to the left of Rock Creek, forming a semi- 
 circle about live miles long. The cavalry of both armies hung upon 
 the flanks, doing eifective service but hardly participating in the 
 main conflict of the center. 
 
 On the morning of July 2d, the corps of General Longstreet on 
 the Confederate right moved forward impetuously and attacked the 
 Union left under Sickles. The struggle in this part of the field was 
 for the possession of Great and Little Round Top ; and after terrible 
 fighting, which lasted until six o'clock in the evening, these strong 
 positions remained in the hands of the Federals. In the center a 
 similar conflict, lasting for the greater part of the day, ensued for the 
 possession of Cemetery Hill. Here, too, notwithstanding the desper- 
 ate assaults of the Confederates, the integrity of the National line was 
 preserved till nightfall. On the right the Confederate onset was more 
 successful, and the Union right under General Slocum was somewhat 
 shattered. But at ten o'clock at night, when the fighting ceased, it 
 was found that the position of the two armies had not l)ccn materially 
 changed by a conflict which had left forty thousand dead and wounded 
 men on the field of battle. 
 
 Under cover of the darkness both generals made arrangements 
 to renew the struggle on the morrow, but when morning came both 
 were loath to begin. For each felt that this day's action must be de- 
 cisive. General Meade had some advantage in the fact that Lee, in 
 in order to continue his invasion, must carry the Union position or 
 retreat. The whole forenoon of the 3d was spent in preparations. 
 At midday there was a lull. Then burst forth the fiercest cannonade 
 ever known on the American continent. Until after two o'clock the 
 hills were shaken with the thunders of more than two hundred heavy 
 guns. The Confederate artillerymen concentrated their fire on the 
 I^nion center at Cemetery Hill which became a scene of indescribable 
 uproar and death. Then came the crisis. The cannonade ceased. 
 A Confederate column, nearly three miles long, headed by the Vir- 
 
522 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ginians imder General Pickett, made a final and desperate charge on 
 the Union centre. But the onset was in vain, and the brave men who 
 made it were mowed down with terrible slaughter. The victory remained 
 with the national army, and Lee was obliged to turn back with his shat- 
 tered lesrions to the Potomac. The entire Coni'ederate loss in this the 
 greatest battle of the war was nearly thirty thousand ; that of the Fede- 
 rals in killed, wounded and missing, twenty-three thousand a hundred 
 and eiglity-six. General Lee withdrew his forces into Virginia, and the 
 Union army resumed its old position on the Potomac and the Rappahan- 
 noclv. Such were the more important military movements of 1863. 
 
 During this year the administration of President Lincoln was beset 
 with many difficulties. The war-debt of the nation was piling up moun- 
 tains hish. The last calls for volunteers had not been fullv met. The 
 anti-M'ar party of the North had grown more bold, and openly denounced 
 the measures of the government. On the 3d of March the Conscrip- 
 tion Act was passed by Congress, and two months afterward the Presi- 
 dent ordered a general draft of three hundred thousand men. All able- 
 bodied citizens between the ages of twenty and forty-five years were 
 subject to the requisition. The measure was bitterly denounced by the 
 opponents of the war, and in many places the draft-officers were forcibly 
 resisted. On the 13th of July, in the city of New York, a vast mob rose 
 in arms, demolished the buildings which were occupied by the provost 
 marshals, burned the colored orphan asylum, attacked the police, and 
 killed about a hundred people, most of whom were negroes. For three 
 davs the authorities of the city were set at defiance. On the second 
 day of the reign of terror Governor Seymour arrived and addressed 
 the mob in a mild-mannered way, promising that the draft should be 
 suspended, and advising the rioters to disperse ; but they gave little 
 heed to his mellow admonition, and went on with the work of de- 
 struction. General Wool, commander of the military district of New 
 York, then took the matter in hand; but the troops at his disposal 
 were at first unable to overawe the insurgents. Some volunteer regi- 
 ments, however, came trooping home from Gettysburg ; the Metropol- 
 itan police companies were compactly organized ; and the combined 
 forces soon crushed the insurrection with a strong hand. After the 
 fall of A^icksburg and the retreat of Lee from Pennsylvania, there 
 were fewer acts of domestic violence. Nevertheless, the anti-war 
 spirit in some parts of the North ran so high that on the 19th of 
 August President Lincoln issued a proclamation suspending the priv- 
 ileges of the writ of habeas corj^'is throughout the Union. 
 
 As a means of procuring soldiers the draft amounted to nothing; 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 52;J 
 
 only about fifty thousand men were thus directly obtained. But volun- 
 teering was greatly quickened by the measure, and the employment of 
 substitutes soon filled the ranks of the army. Such, however, were the 
 •terrible losses by battle and disease and the expiration of enlistments 
 that in October the President issued another call for three hundred tliou- 
 sand men. At the same time it was provided that any delinquency in 
 meeting the demand would be supplied by a draft in the following Janu- 
 ary. By these active measures tiie columns of the Union army were made 
 more powerful than ever. In the armies of the South, on the other hand, 
 there were already symptoms of exhaustion, and the most rigorous con- 
 scription was necessary to fill the thinned but still courageous ranks ot 
 the Confederacy. It was on the 20th of June in tiiis year that West Vir- 
 ginia, separated from the Old Dominion, was organized and admitted as 
 the thirty-fifth State of the Union. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI. 
 
 THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 AS in the previous year, tlie military movements of 1864 began in the 
 West. In the beginning of February General Sherman left Vicks- 
 burg with the pui'pose of destroying the railroad connections of Eastern 
 Mississippi. Marching toward Alabama, he reached Meridian on the 
 15th of the month. Here, where the railroad from IMobile to Corinth 
 intei'sects the line from Vicksburg to INIontgomery, tiie tracks were torn 
 up for a distance of a hundred and fifty miles. Bridges were burned, 
 locomotives and cars destroyed, vast quantities of cotton and corn given 
 to the flames. At Meridian General Sherman expected the arrival of a 
 strong force of Federal cavalry which had been sent out from IMemphis, 
 under command of General Smith. The latter advanced into Mississippi, 
 but was met, a hundred miles north of Meridian, by the cavalry of For- 
 rest, and driven back to Memphis. Disappointed of the expected junc- 
 tion of his forces, General Sherman retraced his course to Vicksburg. 
 Forrest continued his raid northward, entered Tennessee, and on the 24th 
 of March captured Union City. Pressing on, he reached Paducah, Ken- 
 tucky, made an assault on Fort Anderson, in the suburbs of the town, but 
 was repulsed with a loss of three hundred men. Turning back into Ten- 
 nessee, he came upon Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi, seventy miles 
 above Memphis. The place was defended by five hundred and sixty 
 
524 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 soldiers, about half of whom were negroes. Forrest, having gained 
 the outer defences, demanded a surrender, but was refused. He 
 then ordered an assault, and carried the fort by storm. 
 
 To the sjiring of 1864 belongs the story of the Red River Expe- 
 dition, conducted by General Banks. The object had in view was the 
 cajjture of Shreveport, the seat of the Confederate government of Louisi- 
 ana. A strong land-force was to march up Red River, supported by a 
 fleet of gunboats, under command of Admiral Porter. The army was 
 composed of three divisions : the first, from Vicksburg, numbering ten 
 tliousand, commanded by General Smith ; the second, from New Orleans, 
 led by General Banks in person; the third, from Little Rock, under com- 
 mand of General Steele. In the beginning of March Smith's division 
 moved forward to Red River, and was joined by Porter with the fleet. 
 On the 14th of the same month the advance reached Fort de Russy, 
 which was taken by assault. The Confederates retreated up the river to 
 Alexandria, and on the 16th that city was occupied by the Federals. 
 Three days afterward Natchitoches was captured ; but hei'C the road 
 turned from the river, and further co-operation between the gunboats 
 and the army was impossible. The flotilla proceeded up stream toward 
 Shreveport, and the land-forces whirled off in a circuit to the left. 
 
 On the 8th of April, when the advanced brigades were approach- 
 ing the town of Mansfield, they were suddenly attacked by the Confede- 
 rates in full force and advantageously posted. After a short and bloody 
 engagement, the Federals were completely routed. The victors made a 
 vigorous pursuit as far as Pleasant Hill, where they were met on the 
 next day by the main body of the Union army. The battle was renewed 
 with great spirit, and the Federals were barely saved from ruin by the 
 hard fisrhtinff of the division of General Smith, who covered the retreat 
 to the river. Nearly three thousand men, twenty pieces of artillery and 
 the supply-trains of the Federal army were lost in these disastrous bat- 
 tles. With great difficulty the flotilla descended the river from the direc- 
 tion of Shreveport ; for the Confederates had now planted batteries on the 
 banks. When the Federals had retreated as far as Alexandria, they were 
 again brought to a standstill ; the river had fallen to so low a stage that 
 the gunboats could not pass the rapids. The squadron was finally saved 
 from its peril by the skill of Colonel Bailey of Wisconsin, who constructed 
 a dam across the river, raising the water so that the vessels could be 
 floated over. The whole expedition returned as rapidly as possible to 
 the Mississippi. General Steele had, in the mean time, made an advance 
 from Little Rock to aid in the reduction of Shreveport ; but learning of 
 the Federal defeats, he withdrew after several severe engagements. To the 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 525 
 
 national government the Red River expedition was a source of luueh 
 shame and mortification. General Banks was relieved of his command, 
 and General Canby was appointed to succeed him. 
 
 On the 2d of March, 1864, General Grant was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of all the armies of the United States. The high grade 
 of lieutenant-general was revived by act of Congress, and conferred upon 
 him. Ko less tlian seven hundred thousand Union soldiers were now to 
 move at his command. The first montli after his appointment was spent 
 in planning the great campaigns of the year. These were two in num- 
 ber. The Army of the Potomac, under command of Meade and the gen- 
 eral-in-chief, was to ad- 
 vance upon Richmond, 
 still defended by the 
 Army of Northern Vir- 
 ginia, under Lee. Gen- 
 eral Sherman, command- 
 ing the army at Chatta- 
 nooga, now numbering 
 a hundred thousand men, 
 was to march against 
 Atlanta, whicli was de- 
 feuded by the Confed- 
 erates, under General 
 Johnston, To these two 
 
 SHERMAN'S CAMPAIGN, 1S61. 
 
 great movements all other military operations were to be subordinate. 
 
 On tlie 7tli of May General Sherman moved forward from Cliatta- 
 nooga. At Daltou he was confronted by the Confederate army, sixty thou- 
 sand strong. After some raanoeuvri n g an d fighting, he succeeded in turning 
 Johnston's flank, and obliged iiim to fall back to Resaca. After two hard 
 battles on the 14th and 15th of May, this place was also carried, and tiie 
 Confederates retreated by way of Calhoun and Kingston to Dallas. 
 Here, on the 28th, Johnston made a second stand, entrenched himself 
 and fought, but was again outnumbered, outflanked, and compelled to 
 fall back to Lost Mountain. From this position he was forced on tlie 
 17th of June, after three days of desultory fighting. The next stand of 
 the Confederates was made on the Great and Little Kenesaw Mountains. 
 From this line on the 22d of June the division of General Hood made a 
 fierce attack upon the Union centre, but M'as repulsed with heavj' losses. 
 Five days afterward General Sherman attempted to carry the Great Ken- 
 esaw by storm. The assault M-as made with great audacity, but ended in. 
 .a dreadful repulse and a loss of three thousand men. Sherman, undis- 
 
526 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 mayed by his reverse, resumed his former tactics, outflanked his antago- 
 nist, and on the 3d of July compelled him to I'etreat across the Chatta- 
 hoochee. By the 10th of the month the whole Confederate army had 
 retired within the defences of Atlanta. 
 
 This stronghold of the Confederacy was at once besieged. Here 
 were the great machine-shops, foundries, car-works and depots of sup^jlies 
 upon the possession of which so much depended. At the very beginning 
 of the siege the cautious and skillful Genei'al Johnston was superseded by 
 the rash but daring General J. B. Hood. It was the policy of the latter 
 to fight at whatever hazard. On the 20th, 22d and 28th of July he made 
 three desperate assaults on the Union lines around Atlanta, but M'as re- 
 pulsed with dreadful losses in each engagement. It was in the beginning 
 of the second of these battles that the brave General James B. McPherson, 
 the pride of the Union army, was killed while reconnoitring the Con- 
 federate lines. In the three conflicts the Confederates lost more men 
 than Johnston had lost in all his masterly reti'eating and fighting between 
 Chattanooga and Atlanta. For more than a month the siege was pressed 
 with great vigor. At last, by an incautious movement. Hood separated 
 his army ; Sherman thrust a column between the two divisions ; and the 
 immediate evacuation of Atlanta followed. On the 2d of September the 
 Union army marched into the captured city. Since leaving Chattanooga 
 General Sherman had lost fully thirty thousand men ; and the Confederate 
 losses were even greater. 
 
 By retiring from Atlanta Hood saved his army. It was now his 
 policy to strike northward into Tennessee, and thus compel Sherman to 
 evacuate Georgia. But the latter had no notion of losing his vantage- 
 ground ; and after following Hood north of the Chattahoochee, he turned 
 back to Atlanta. The Confederate general now swept up through Northern 
 Alabama, crossed the Tennessee at Florence and advanced on Nashville. 
 Meanwhile, General Thomas, with the Army of the Cumlierland, had 
 been detached from Sherman's army at Atlanta and sent northward to 
 confront Hood in Tennessee. General Schofield, who commanded the 
 Federal forces in the southern part of the State, fell back before the Con- 
 federates and took post at Franklin, eighteen miles south of Nashville. 
 Here, on the 30th of November, he was attacked by Hood's legions, and 
 after a hard-fought battle held them in check till nightfell, when he 
 escaped across the river and retreated within the defences of Nashville. 
 At this place all of General Thomas's forces were rapidly concentrated. 
 A line of entrenchments was drawn around the city on the south. Hood 
 came on, confident of victory, and prepared to begin the siege bv block- 
 ading the Cumberland; but before the M'ork was fairly begun, General 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 627 
 
 
 ■^, 
 
 Thomas, on the 15th of December, moved from his works, fell upon the 
 Confederate army, and routed it with a loss, in killed, wounded and 
 prisoners, of more than 
 twenty-five thousand 
 men. For many days 
 of freezing weather 
 Hood's shattered col- 
 umns were pursued, 
 until at last they found 
 refuge in Alabama. 
 The Confederate army 
 was ruined, and the 
 rash general who had 
 led it to destruction 
 was relieved of his 
 command. 
 
 On the 14th of 
 November General 
 Sherman burned At- 
 lanta and began his 
 famous March to 
 THE Sea. His army 
 of veterans numbered 
 sixty thousand men. 
 Believing that Hood's 
 army would be de- 
 stroyed in Tennessee, and knowing that no Confederate force could with- 
 stand him in front, he cut his communications with the North, abandoned 
 his base of supplies, and struck out boldly for tlie sea-coast, more than 
 two hundred and fifty miles away. As had been foreseen, the Confed- 
 erates could offer no successful resistance. The Union army swept on 
 through Macon and Milledgeville ; reached the Ogeechee and crossed in 
 safety ; captured Gibson and Waynesborough ; and on the 10th of De- 
 cember arrived in the vicinity of Savannah. On the 13th Fort McAllister, 
 below the city, was carried by storm by the division of General Hazcn. 
 On the nigiit of the 20th General Hardee, the Confederate commandant, 
 escaped from Savannah with fifteen thousand men and retreated to 
 Charleston. On the following morning the national advance entered, 
 and on tlie 22d General Sherman made his headquarters in the city. On 
 his march from Atlanta he had lost only five hundred and sixty-seven men. 
 
 The month of Januarj^, 1865, was spent by the Union ann}'^ at 
 
 \ 
 
 GENEKAI- THOMAS. 
 
528 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Savannah. On the 1st of February General Sherman, having garri- 
 soned the city, began his march against Columbia, the capital of South 
 Carolina. To the Confederates the further progress of the invasion 
 through the swamps and morasses of the State had seemed impossible. 
 
 Now that the veteran 
 legions were again 
 in motion, alarm 
 and terror pervaded 
 the country. Gov- 
 ernor Magarth had 
 already summoned 
 to the field every 
 w h i t e man in the 
 State between the 
 ages of sixteen and 
 sixty ; but the requi- 
 sition was compar- 
 atively inerPeetual. 
 Nevertheless, the 
 Confederates formed 
 a line of defence 
 along the Salkhatch- 
 ie and prepared to 
 dispute Sherman's 
 march nortliwurd. 
 It was all in vain. 
 The passages of the 
 river were forced, 
 and on the 11th of the month the Confederate lines of communica- 
 tion between Charleston and Augusta were cut otf. On tlie next day 
 Orangeburg was taken by the Seventeenth Corps. On the 14th the 
 fords and bridges of the Congaree were carried and the State road 
 opened in the direction of Columbia. The several divisions pressed 
 rapidly forward; bridges were thrown across the Broad and Saluda 
 Rivers, and the capital lay at the mercy of the conquerors. On the 
 morning of the 17th ]\Iayor Goodwyn and a committee of the com- 
 mon council came out in carriages and the city was formally sur- 
 rendered. 
 
 As soon as it became certain that Columbia must fall into the 
 hands of the Federals, General Hardee, the coniniandant of Charles- 
 ton, determined to abandon that city also, and to join Generals Beau- 
 
 GENERAL SHESMAN. 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 529 
 
 regard and Johnston in North Carolina. Accordingly, on the day of 
 the capture of the capital, guards were detailed to destroy all the ware- 
 houses, stores of cotton, and depots of supplies in Charleston. The 
 torch was applied, the flames raged, and consternation spread through- 
 out the city. The great d6p6t of the Northwestern Railway, where a 
 large quantity of powder was stored, caught fire, blew up with terrific 
 violence, and buried two hundred people in the ruins. Not until four 
 squares in the best jjart of the city were laid in ashes was the confla- 
 gration checked. During the same night General Hardee witii his 
 fourteen thousand troops escaped from desolate Charleston and made 
 his way northward. On the morning of the 18th the news was borne 
 to the National forces on James's and Morris Islands. During the 
 forenoon the Stars and Stripes were again raised over Forts Sumter, 
 Ripley, and Pinckney. Mayor Macbeth surrendered the city to a 
 company which was sent up from Morris Island. The work of saving 
 whatever might be rescued from the flames was at once begun, the 
 citizens and the Federal soldiers working together. By strenuous ex- 
 ertions the principal arsenal was saved; a depot of rice was also pre- 
 served and its contents distributed to the poor. Colonel Stewart L. 
 Woodford of the One Hundred and Twenty-seventh New York was 
 appointed military governor; and relations, more friendly than might 
 have been expected, were soon established between the soldiery and 
 the citizens. 
 
 After destroying the arsenals, machine shops, and founderies of 
 Columbia General Sherman immediately renewed his march north- 
 ward in the direction of Charlotte, North Carolina. The army swept 
 on without ojiposition as far as Winnsboro, where a junction was ef- 
 fected with the Twentieth Corps under Slocum. Crossing the Great Pe- 
 dee at Cheraw, the Union commander pressed on towards Fayetteville 
 where he arrived without serious hindrance, and on the 11th of March 
 took possession of the town. Three days before the campaign had 
 been rendered exciting by a dashing fight between Hampton's and 
 Kilpatrick's cavalry. The former officer was defending the rear of 
 Hardee's column on the retreat from Charleston when the latter, re- 
 solving to intercept him, cut through the Confederate lines. But 
 early the next morning Kilpatrick was surprised in his quarters, at- 
 tacked, and routed, himself barely escaping on foot into a swamp. 
 Here, however, he suddenly rallied his forces, turned on the Confed- 
 erates and scattered them in a brilliant charge. Hampton, not less 
 resolute than his antagonist, now made a rally and returned to the 
 onset. But Kilpatrick held his ground until he was reinforced by a 
 
530 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 division of the Twentieth Corps under General ISIitoheli, when the 
 Confederates were finally driven back. The Union cavalry then pro- 
 ceeded without further molestation to Fayetteville where Sherman's 
 forces wei'e concentrated on the 11th of March. 
 
 General Johnston had now been recalled to the command of the 
 Confederate forces, and the advance of the Union forces began to be 
 seriously opposed. At Averasborough, on Cape Fear River, a short 
 distance north of Fayetteville, General Hardee made a stand, but was 
 repulsed with considerable loss. When, on the 19th of March, Gen- 
 eral Sherman was incautiously approaching Bentonsville, he was sud- 
 denly attacked by the ever-vigilant Johnston, and for a while the 
 Union army, after all its marches and victories, was in danger of des- 
 truction. But the tremendous fighting of General Jefferson C. Davis's 
 division saved the day, and on the '21st Sherman entered Goldsborough 
 unopposed. Here he was reinforced by a strong column from New- 
 bern under General Schofield, and another from Wilmington com- 
 manded by Genei'al Terry. The Federal army now turned to the 
 north-west, and on the 13th of April entered Raleigh. This was the 
 end of the great march ; and here, thirteen days after his arrival, Gen- 
 eral Sherman received the surrender of Johnston's array. 
 
 While these great and decisive events were taking place in the 
 Carolinas, the famous cavalry raid of General Stoneman was in pro- 
 gress. About the middle of March he set out from Knoxville with a 
 force of six thousand men, crossed the mountains, captured Wilkes- 
 boro, and forced his way across the Yadkin at Jonesvillc. It had 
 been the original purpose of the raid that Stoneman should make a 
 diversion in favor of Sherman by striking into the western districts 
 of South Carolina ; but that commander, by the celerity of his move- 
 ments, had already reached Goldsboro in the North State, and was in 
 no need of help. Stoneman's movement therefore became an inde- 
 pendent expedition, the general object being the destruction of public 
 property, the capture of Confederate stores, and the tearing up of 
 railroads. Turning to the north, the troopers traversed the western 
 end of Noi-th Carolina and entered Carroll county, Virginia. At 
 Wytheville the railroad was torn up, and then the whole line was de- 
 stroyed from the bridge over New River to within four miles of Lynch- 
 burg. Christiansburg M-as captured and the track of the railway ob- 
 literated for ninety miles. Turning first to Jacksonville and then 
 southward, the expedition next struck and destroyed the North Caro- 
 lina Railroad between Danville and Greensboro. The track in the 
 direction of Salisbury was also torn up, and the factories at Salem 
 
 & 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 531 
 
 burned. The Union prisoners at Salisbury were removed by the 
 Confederates in time to prevent their liberation ; but the town was 
 captured and a vast store of ammunition, arms, provision, clothing, and 
 cotton fell into the hands of the raiders. Finally, on the 19th of April, 
 a division under Major Moderwell reached the great bridge where the 
 South Carolina Rail- 
 road crosses the Ca- 
 tawba River. This 
 magnificent struct- 
 ure, eleven hundred 
 and fifty feet in 
 
 length, was set on % I 5* 
 
 fire and completely 
 destroyed. After a 
 fight with F e r g u - 
 son's Confederate 
 cavalry, the Feder- 
 als turned back to 
 Dallas, where all the 
 divisions were con- 
 centrated, — and the 
 raid was at an end. 
 During the progress 
 of the expedition 
 six thousand prison- 
 ers, forty-six pieces 
 of artillery, and im- 
 mense quantities of 
 
 small arms had fallen into the hands of Stoneman's men : the amount 
 of property destroyed and the damage otherwise done to the tottering 
 Confederacy could not be estimated. 
 
 Meanwhile, events of even greater importance had occurred on 
 the gulf and the Atlantic coast. In the beginning of August, 1864, 
 Admiral Farragut bore down with a powerful squadron upon the de- 
 fences of Mobile. The entrance to the harbor of this city was com- 
 manded on the left by Fort Gaines, and on the right by Fort Morgan. 
 The harbor itself was defended l)y a Confederate fleet and the monster 
 iron-clad ram Tennessee. On the 5th of August Farragut ]irepared 
 for battle and ran past the forts into the harbor. In order to direct 
 the movements of his vessels, the brave old admiral mounted to the 
 maintop of his flag-ship, the Hartford, lashed himself to the rigging, 
 
 ADMIRAL FARRAGUT. 
 
532 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and from that high perch gave his commands during the battle. One 
 of the Union ships struck a torpedo and went to the bottom. The 
 rest attacked and dispersed the Confederate squadron ; but just as the 
 bay seemed won the terrible Tennessee came down at full speed to 
 strike and sink the Hartford. The latter avoided the blow ; and then 
 followed one of the fiercest conflicts of the war. The Union iron-clads 
 closed around their black antagonist and battered her with their beaks 
 and fifteen-inch bolts of iron until she surrendered. Two days after- 
 ward Fort Gaines was taken ; and on the 23d of the month Fort 
 Morgan was obliged to capitulate. The port of Mobile was effectually 
 sealed up. 
 
 Not less important to the Union cause was the capture of Fort 
 Fisher. This powerful fortress commanded the entrance to Cape Fear 
 River and Wilmington — the last sea-port held by the Confederates. In 
 December Admiral Porter was sent with the most powerful American 
 squadron ever afloat to besiege and take the fort. General Butler, with 
 a laud-force of six thousand five hundred men, accompanied the expedi- 
 tion. On the 24th of the mouth the bombardment began, and the troops 
 were sent ashore with orders to carry the works by storm. When Gen 
 eral Weitzel, who led the column, came near enough to the fort to recon- 
 noitre, he decided that an a'^sault could only end with the destruction of 
 his army. General Butler held the same opinion, and the enterprise was 
 abandoned. Admiral Porter remained before Fort Fisher with his fleet, 
 and General Butler returned witli the land-forces to Fortress ]\Ionroe. 
 Early in January the same troops were sent back to M'ilmington, under 
 command of General Terry. The siege was at once renewed by the army 
 and the fleet, and on the 1 5th of the month Fort Fisher was taken by 
 storm. 
 
 In tlie previous October the control of Albemarle Sound had been 
 secured by a daring exploit of Lieutenant Gushing of the Federal navy. 
 Those waters were commanded by a tremendous iron ram called the Albe- 
 marle. In order to destroy the dreaded vessel a number of daring volun- 
 teers, led by Cushing, embarked in a small steamer, and on the night of 
 the 27th of October entered the Roanoke. The ram was discovered lying 
 at the harbor of Plymouth. Cautiously approaching, the lieutenant with 
 his own hands sank a terrible torpedo under the Confederate ship, ex- 
 ploded it, and left the ram a ruin. The adventure cost the lives or cap- 
 ture of all of Cushing's party except himself and one other, who escaped. 
 A few days afterward the town of Plymouth was taken by the Federals. 
 During the progress of the war the commerce of the United States 
 had suffered dreadfully from the attacks of Confederate cruisers. As 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 533 
 
 early a? 1861 the Southern Congress had granted commissions to priva- 
 teers; but neutral nations would not allow such vessels to bring prizes 
 into their ports, and the Privateering Act was of little direct benefit to 
 the Confederacy. But the commerce of the United States was greatly 
 injured. The first Confederate sliip sent out was the Savannah, which 
 was captured on the same day that she escaped from Charleston. In June 
 of 1861 the Sumter, commanded by Captain Semmes, ran the blockade at 
 New Orleans, and for seven months did fearful work with the Union 
 merchantmen. But in February of 1862 Semmes was chased into the 
 harbor of Gibraltar, where he was obliged to sell his vessel and discharge 
 his crew. In the previous October the Nashville ran out from Charles- 
 ton, went to England, and returned with a cargo worth three millions of 
 dollars. In March of 186.3 she was sunk by a Union iron-clad in the 
 mouth of the Savannah River. 
 
 The ports of the Southern States were now so closely blockaded 
 that war-vessels could no longer be sent abroad. In this emergency the 
 Confederates turned to the ship-yards of Great Britain, and from that 
 vantage-ground began to build and equip their cruisers. In sj)ite of the 
 remonstrances of the United States, the British government connived at 
 this proceeding ; and here was laid the foundation of a difficulty which 
 afterward cost the treasury of England fifteen millions of dollare. In the 
 harbor of Liverj)aol the Florida was fitted out ; and going to sea in the 
 summer of 1862, she succeeded in running into Mobile Bay. Escaping 
 in the following January, she destroyed fifteen merchantmen, was cap- 
 tured in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil, and brought into Hampton Roads, 
 where an accidental collision sent her to the bottom. The Georgia, the 
 Olustee, the Shenandoah and the Cluchamauga , all built at the ship-yards 
 of Glasgow, Scotland, escaped to sea and made great havoc with the mer- 
 chant-ships of the United States. At the capture of Fort Fisher tlie 
 Chickamauga and another cruiser called the Tallahassee were blo-\vn up 
 by the Confederates. The Georgia was captured in 1863, and the Shen- 
 andoah continued abroad until the close of the war. 
 
 Most destructive of all the Confederate vessels was the famous 
 Alabama, built at Liverjjool. Her commander was Captain Raphael 
 Semmes, the same who had cruised in the Sumter. A majority of the 
 crew of the Alabama were British subjects ; her armament was entirely 
 British; and whenever occasion required, the British flag was carried. 
 In her whole career, involving the destruction of sixty-six vessels and a 
 loss of ten million dollars to the merchant service of the United States, 
 she never entered a Confederate port, but continued abroad, cajituring 
 and burning. Early in the summer of 1864 Semmes entered the harbor 
 
534 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of Cherbourg, France, and was there discovered by Captain Winslow, 
 commander of the steamer Kcar»arffc. The French government gave 
 the Confederate captain orders to leave the port, and on the 19th of 
 June he went out to give his antagonist battle. Seven miles from 
 the shore the two ships closed for the death-struggle; and after a 
 desperate battle of an hour's duration, the AJahamd was shattered 
 and sunk. Scmmes and a part of his officers and crew were picked 
 up by the English yacht Decrhound and carried to Southampton. 
 
 After the great battle of Gettysburg, the Confederate array under 
 General Lee was withdrawn into the Shenandoah valley. The Union 
 cavalry, led by General Gregg, pressed after him and at Shepherds- 
 town gained some advantage over the division of Fitzhugh Lee. 
 Meade himself, at the head of the Army of the Potomac, entered Vir- 
 ginia near Berlin and moved southward thronoh Lovettsville to War- 
 renton. The Blue Ridge was again inter])osed between the two armies. 
 It was the policy of the LTnion commander to preoccupy and hold the 
 passes of the mountains and to strike his antagonist a fatal blow when 
 he should attempt to return to Richmond. But Lee's movements 
 were marked with his usual caution and sagacity. Making a feint of 
 crowding his army througli Manassas Gap, he succeeded in drawing 
 thither the bulk of the Federal forces, and then by a rapid march 
 southward gained Front Royal and Chester Gap, swept throngh the 
 pass, and reached Culpcp})er in safety. General Meade, disappointed 
 in his expectations of a battle, advanced his army and took np a po- 
 sition on the Rappahannock. 
 
 In the lull that ensued from July till September of 1863, both 
 generals were much weakened by the withdrawal of large numbers of 
 their troops to take part in the struggles of the Southwest. From 
 Lee's army Longstreet's whole corps had been detached for the aid of 
 Bragg who was hard pressed by Rosecrans, in Tennessee. General 
 Meade, learning of the weakened condition of his foe, crossed the 
 Rappahannock, pressed him back to the south bank of the Rapidan 
 and himself occupied Cnlpe})per. Soon, however, Howard's and Slo- 
 cum's corps were withdrawn from the Army of the Potomac, and 
 ?ileade w^as in turn obliged to act on the defensive. But his ranks 
 were soon filled with reinforcements and the middle of October found 
 liim planning a forward movement. Lee, however, had already as- 
 sumed the offensive and by skillful manoeuvers had again thrown his 
 army on the Union flank. Then began the old race for the Potomac, 
 and in that the Federals were successful, reaching Bristow Station and 
 taking up a strong position on the Heights of Centreville. Lee in 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 
 
 535 
 
 turn fell back and the two great armies at last came to rest for the 
 winter, the one at C'uli:)epper and the other on the Upper Rappahan- 
 nock. 
 
 In the following spring no movements of importance occurred 
 until the beginning of the campaign of the Army of the Potomac, 
 
 now commanded by Generals ^ ^ 
 
 Grant and ]\Ieade ; and this, 
 which may well be consider- 
 ed as one of the great cam- 
 paigns of history, has been 
 reserved for the closing nar- 
 rative of the war. On the 
 night of the 3d of May, 1864, 
 the national camp at Culpep- 
 per was broken up, and the 
 march on Richmond was 
 begun. In three successive 
 summers the Union army 
 had been beaten back from 
 . that metropolis of the Confed- 
 eracy. Now a hundred and 
 forty thousand men, led by 
 the lieutenant-general, were 
 to begin the final struggle 
 with the veterans of Lee. 
 On the first day of the ad- 
 vance Grant crossed the Rap- 
 idan and entered the Wilder- 
 ness, a country of oak woods and thickets west of Chancellorsville. 
 He was immediately confronted and attacked by the Confederate 
 army. During the 5th, 6th and 7th of the month the fighting con- 
 tinued incessantly with terrible losses on both sides; but the results 
 were indecisive. Lee retired within his intrenchments, and Grant 
 made a flank movement on the left in the direction of Spottsylvania 
 Court-house. Here followed, from the morning of the 9th till the 
 niffht of the 12th, one of the bloodiest struggles of the war. The 
 Federals gained some ground and captured the division of General 
 Stewart; but the losses of Lee, who fought on the defensive, were less 
 dreadful than those of his antagonist. 
 
 After the battle of Spottsylvania, Grant again moved to the left, 
 "jossed the Pamunkey to Hanovertown, and came to a place called 
 
 OPERATIONS IN VIRGINIA, '64, AND '65. 
 
536 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Cold Harbor, twelve miles north-east of Eichmond. Here, on the 1st 
 of June, he attacked the Confederates, strongly posted, but was re- 
 pulsed with heavy losses. On the morning of the 3d the assault was 
 renewed, and in the brief space of half an hour nearly ten thousand 
 Union soldiers fell dead or wounded before the Confederate entrench- 
 ments. The repulse of the Federals was complete, but they held their 
 lines as firmly as ever. Since the beginning of the campaign the 
 losses of the Army of the Potomac, including the corps of Burnside, 
 had reached the enormous aggregate of sixty thousand. During the 
 same j^eriod the Confederates had lost in killed, wounded and pris- 
 oners about thirty-five thousand men. 
 
 General Grant now changed his base to James River with a view 
 to the capture of Petersburg and the conquest of Richmond from the 
 south-east. General Butler had already moved with a strong division 
 from Fortress Monroe, and on the 5th of May had taken Bermuda Hun- 
 dred and City Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox. Advancing 
 against Petersburg, he was met on the 16th by the corps of General 
 Beauregard and driven back to his position at Bermuda Hundred, where 
 he was obliged to entrench himself and act on the defensive. Here, on 
 the 15th of June, he was joined by General Grant's mIioIc army, and the 
 combined forces moved against Petersburg. On the 17tli and 18th sev- 
 eral assaults were made on the Confederate entrenchments, but the woi'ks 
 could not be carried. Lee's army was hurried within the defences, and 
 in the latter part of June Petersburg was regularly besieged. 
 
 Meanwhile, movements of great importance M-ere taking place in 
 the Shenandoah valley. When General Grant moved forward from the 
 Rapidan, he sent General Sigel up the valley with a force of eight thou- 
 sand men. While the latter was advancing southward he was met at 
 New Market, fifty miles above Winchester, by an army of Confederate 
 cavalry, under General Breckinridge. On the 15th of May Sigel was 
 attacked and routed, and the command of his flying forces was transferred 
 to General Hunter. Deeming the valley cleared, Breckinridge returned 
 to Richmond, whereupon Hunter faced about, marched toward Lynchburg, 
 came upon the Confederates at Piedmont, and gained a signal victory. 
 From this place he advanced with his own forces and the cavalry troops 
 of General Averill against Lynchburg ; but finding that he had run into 
 peril, he was obliged to retreat across the mountains into West Virginia. 
 By this movement the valley of the Shenandoah was again exposed to an 
 invasion by the Confederates. 
 
 In the hope of compelling Grant to raise the siege of Petersburg, 
 Lee immediately despatched General Early with orders to cross the Blue 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 537 
 
 Ridge, sweep down the valley, invade Maryland and threaten "Washing- 
 ton dty. With a force of twenty thousand men Early began his move- 
 ment northward, and on tlie 5th of July crossed the Potomac. On the 
 9th he met the division of General Wallace on the Monocacy, and de- 
 feated him with serious losses. But the check given to the Confederates 
 by the battle saved Washington and Baltimore from capture. After 
 dashing up within gunshot of these cities, Early ordered a retreat, and 
 on the 12th his forces recrossed the Potomac with vast c^uantities of 
 plunder. 
 
 General Wriglit, who was sent in pursuit of Early's army, fol- 
 lowed him as far as Winchester, and there, on the 24th of July, defeated 
 a portion of his forces. But Early wheeled upon his antagonist, and the 
 Union troops were in turn driven across the Potomac. Following up his 
 advantage, the Confederate general next invaded Pennsylvania, burned 
 Chambersburg, and returned into the valley laden with spoils. Seeing 
 the necessity of putting an end to these devastating raids, General Grant 
 in the beginning of August appointed General Philip H. Sheridan to the 
 command of the consolidated army on the Upper Potomac. The troops 
 thus placed at Sheridan's disposal numbered nearly forty thousand, and 
 with these he at once moved up the valley. On the 19th of September 
 he came upon Early's army at Winchester, attacked and routed him in a 
 hard-fought battle. On the 22d he overtook the defeated army at Fish- 
 er's Hill, assaulted Early in his entrenchments, and gained another com- 
 plete victory. 
 
 In accordance with orders given by the commander-in-chief, Sher- 
 idan now turned about to ravage the valley. The ruinous work was fear- 
 fully well done ; and what with torch and axe and sword, there was noth- 
 ing left between the Blue Ridge and the AUeghanies worth fighting for. 
 Maddened by this destruction and stung by his defeats, the veteran Early 
 rallied his shattered forces, gathered reinforcements, and again entered 
 the valley. Sheridan had posted his army in a strong position on Cedar 
 Creek, a short distance from Strasburg, and feeling secure, had gone to 
 Washington. On the morning of the 19th of October Early cautiously 
 approached the Union camp, surprised it, burst in, carried the position, 
 captured the artillery, and sent the routed troops flying in confusion to- 
 ward Winchester. The Confederates pursued as far as Middletown, and 
 there, believing the victory complete, paused to eat and rest. On the 
 previous night Sheridan had returned to Winchester, and was now com- 
 ing to rejoin his army. On his way he heard the sound of battle, rode 
 twelve miles at full speed, met the panic-struck fugitives, rallied them 
 with a word, turned upon the astonished Confederates, and gained one 
 
538 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the most signal victories of the war. Early's army was disorganized 
 and ruined. Such was the end of the strife in the valley of the Shenan- 
 doah. 
 
 All flill and winter long, General Grant pressed the siege of Peters- 
 burg with varying success. On the 30th of July a mine was exploded 
 under one of the forts. An assaulting colunm sprang forward to carry 
 the works, gained some of the defences, but was finally repulsed with 
 heavy losses. On the 18th of August a division of the Union army 
 seized the Weldon Eailroad and held it against several desperate assaults, 
 in which each army lost thousands of men. On the 28th of September 
 Battery Harrison, on the right bank of the James, was stormed by the 
 Federals, and on the next day General Paine's brigade of colored soldiers 
 carried a powerful redoubt on Spring Hill. On the 27th of October 
 tliere was a hard-fought battle on the Boydton road, south of Petersbui'g ; 
 and then the army went into C[uarters for the winter. 
 
 Late in February the struggle began anew. On the 27th of the 
 month General Sheridan, who had moved from the Shenandoah, gained a 
 victory over the forces of General Early at \\ aynesborough, and then joined 
 the commander-in-chief at Petersburg. On the 1st of April a severe 
 battle was fought at Five Forks, on the Southside Railroad, in which the 
 Confederates were defeated with a loss of six thousand prisoners. On 
 the next day Grant ordered a general assault on the lines of Petersburg, 
 and the works were carried. On that night the army of General Lee and 
 the members of the Confederate government fled from Richmond; and on 
 the following morning that city, as well as Pctei-sburg, was entered by the 
 Federal army. The warehouses of the ill-fated Confederate capital were 
 fired by the retreating soldiers, and the better part of the city was reduced 
 to ruins. 
 
 The strife lasted but a few days longer. General Lee retreated 
 as rapidly as possible to the south-west, hoping to join the army of 
 General Johnston from Carolina. The Confederates, flying from Pe- 
 tersburg, joined those on the retreat from Richmond at Amelia Court 
 House. To this place General Lee had ordered his supply-trains; 
 but the officer having the same in charge, had foolishly mistaken his 
 orders and driven the train, on in the direction of Danville. Nearly one- 
 half of the Confederate army, now growing hopeless, had to be dis- 
 persed to gather supplies by foraging. The 4th and 5th of April — 
 days precious to the sinking heart of Lee — were consumed with the 
 delay. The victorious Federals were pressing on in full pursuit; and 
 on the morning of the 6th nearly the whole Union army was at Jet- 
 tersville, on the Danville railroad, ready to strike the Confederates at 
 
THE CLO,SING CONFLICTS. 
 
 539 
 
 Amelia. Sheridan pressed on by the left flank in the direction of 
 Deatonsville. Ord came up with his division by M'ay of the South 
 Side Railroad to Burke's Station. Lee fell back to the west from 
 Amelia Court House and reached Deatonsville where a severe battle 
 was fought, in which Ewell's division six thousand strong was over- 
 whelmed and captured by Sheridan. The main army of the Confed- 
 erates, however, gained the Ajjpomattox at Farmville, crossed to the 
 northern bank, and burned the bridges. Lee now endeavored to in- 
 terpose the river as a barrier between himself and his relentless pur- 
 suers ; but it was all in vain. Hoping against hope, he made a des- 
 
 PETERSBUKG, RICHMOND, APPOMATTOX, 1865. 
 
 perate effort to hold the line of the Lynchburg Railroad, but the vig- 
 ilant Sheridan was there before him. On the 7th of April a slight 
 success in battle gave a momentaiy encouragement to the exhausted 
 army ; but the flame of hope was blown out as soon as kindled. On 
 that day General Grant, now at Farmville, addre.s.sed a note to the 
 Confederate commander expressing a desire that the further effusion 
 of blood might be saved by the surrender of the Confederate army. 
 To this General Lee replied by declaring his desire for peace but add- 
 ing that the occasion for the surrender of the Army of Northern 
 Virginia had not arrived. On the morning of the 9th, however, 
 when it became known that the left wing of the Union army had se- 
 cured the line of the Lynchburg Railroad — when the wreck of Long- 
 street's veterans, attempting to continue the retreat, were confronted 
 and driven back by Sheridan — then the iron-souled Confederate leader, 
 seeing the utter uselcssness of a further struggle, sent General Grant 
 a note asking for a meeting preliminary to a surrender. The Union 
 commander immediately complied with the request. At two o'clock 
 in the afternoon of Palm Sunday, the 9th of April, 1865j the two 
 
540 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 great generals met each other in the parlor of William McLean at 
 Appomattox Court House. There the terms of surrender were dis- 
 cussed and settled. It was agreed that General Grant should put his 
 proposition in the form of a military note to which General Lee 
 should return a formal answer. The Union commander accordingly 
 drew up and presented the following memorandum : 
 
 Appomattox Court House, Va., April 9, 1865. 
 General: In accordance with the substance of my letter to you of tlie 8th inst- 
 ant, I propose to receive the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia on the fol- 
 lowing terms, to-wit : Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate; one 
 copy to be given to an officer to be designated by me, the other to be retained by such 
 other officer or officers as you may designate. The officers to give their individual 
 paroles not to take up arms against the Government of the United States until properly 
 exchanged; and each company or regimental commander to sign a like parole for the 
 men of their commands. The arms, artillery, and public property, to be parked, and 
 stacked, and turned over to the officers appointed by me to receive them. This will not 
 embrace the .side-arms of the officers nor their private horses or baggage. This done, 
 each officer and man will be allowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by 
 United States autliority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force 
 
 where they reside. ^^ ^ „„ . ,-rr., -r ■ ^. , 
 
 U. S. GRANT, Lieutenant- General. 
 
 To this memorandum General Lee responded as follows: 
 
 Head-Quaeteks, Army of Northern Virginia, April 9, 1865. 
 General: I received your letter of this date, containing the terms of the surren- 
 der of the Army of Northern Virginia, as propo.sed by j'ou. .^s they are substantially 
 the same as those expressed in your letter of the Sth instant, they are accepted. 1 
 will proceed to designate the proper officers to carry the stipulations into effect. 
 
 R. E. LEE, General. 
 
 Thus the work was done ! How the army of General Johnston 
 was surrendered at Raleigh a few days later has already been nar- 
 rated. After four dreadful years of bloodshed, devastation, and .sorrow, 
 THE Civil War in the United States was at an end. 
 
 The Federal authority was rapidly extended over the Southern 
 States. After the surrender of Lee and Johnston, there was no further 
 hope of reorganizing the Confederacy. Mr. Davis and his cabinet escapeil 
 to Danville, and there for a few days kept up the forms of government. 
 From that place they fled into North Carolina and were scattered. The 
 ex-President with a few friends continued his flight through South Caro- 
 lina into Georgia, and encamped near the village of Irwinsville, where, on 
 the 10th of May, he was captured Isy General Wilson's cavalry. He was 
 conveyed as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, and kept in confinement until 
 May of 1867, when he was taken to Richmond to be tried on a charge of 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 541 
 
 treason. He was admitted to bail ; and his cause, after remaining untried 
 I'or a year and a half, was finally dismissed. 
 
 At the presidential election in the autumn preceding the downfall 
 of the Confederacy, Mr. Lincoln was chosen for a second term. As Vice- 
 President, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was elected in place of Mr. 
 Hamlin. The opposing candidates, supported by the Democratic party, 
 Mere General George B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton of Ohio. 
 Mr. Lincoln's majority was very heavy, General McClellan carrying only 
 the States of Kentucky, Delaware and New Jersey. In the summer pre- 
 ceding the election the people of Nevada framed a constitution, in accord- 
 ance with an act of Congress, and on the 31st of October the new common- 
 wealth was proclaimed as the thirty-sixth State of the Union. The gold 
 and silver mines of Nevada were developed with such rapidity that they 
 soon surpassed those of California in their yield of the precious metals. 
 
 At the outbreak of the civil war the financial credit of the United 
 States had sunk to a very low ebb. By the organization of the army and 
 navy the expenses of the government were at once swelled to an enormous 
 aggregate. The price of gold and silver advanced so rapidly that the 
 redemption of bank-notes in coin soon became impossible; and on the 
 30th of December, 1861, the banks of New York, and afterward those of 
 the whole country, suspended specie payments. Mr. Chase, the secretary 
 of the treasury, first sought relief by issuing Treasury Notes, receivable 
 as monev and bearing seven and three-tenths per cent, interest. This 
 expedient was temporarily successful, but by the beginning of 1862 the 
 expenses of the government had risen to more than a million of dollars 
 daily. 
 
 To meet these tremendous demands other measures had to be 
 adopted. Congress accordingly made haste to provide AN Internal 
 Revenue. This was made up from two general sources : first, a tax on 
 manufactures, incomes and salaries; second, fr stamp-duty on all legal 
 documents. The next measure was the issuance by the treasury of a 
 hundred and fifty millons of dollars in non-interest-bearing Legal 
 Tender Notes of the United States, to be used as money. These are 
 the notes called G-reenbachs. The third great measure adopted by the 
 government was the sale of United States Bonds. These were made 
 redeemable at any time after five and under twenty years from date, and 
 were from that fact called Five-Twenties. The interest upon them was 
 fixed at six per cent., payable semi-annually in gold. Another important 
 series of bonds, called Ten-Forties, was afterward issued, being redeem- 
 able by the government at any time betM-een ten and forty years from 
 date. In the next place. Congress passed an act providing for the estab- 
 
542 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lishment of National Banks. The private banks of the country liad 
 been obliged to suspend operations, and the people were greatly distressed 
 for want of money. To meet this demand it was provided that new 
 banks might be established, using national bonds, instead of gold and 
 silver, as a basis of their circulation. The currency of these banks was 
 furnished and the redemjJtion of the sanic guaranteed by the treasury of 
 the United States. By these measures the means for prosecuting the war 
 were provided. At the end of the conflict the national debt had reached 
 the astounding sura of nearly three thousand millions of dollars. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1865, President Lincoln M"as inaugurated for 
 his second term. A month afterward the military power of the Confed- 
 eracy was broken. Three days after the evacuation of Richmond by Lee's 
 army the President visited that city, conferred with the authorities, and then 
 returned to Washington. On the evening of the 14th of April he attended 
 Ford's theatre with his wife and a party of friends. As the play drew near 
 its close a disreputable actor, named John Wilkes Booth, stole unnoticed 
 into the President's box, leveled a pistol at his head, and shot him through 
 the brain. Mr. Lincoln fell forward in his seat, was borne from the 
 building, lingered in an unconscious state until the following morning, and 
 died. It was the greatest tragedy of modern times — the most wicked, 
 atrocious and diabolical murder known in American history. The assassin 
 leaped out of the box upon the stage, escaped into the darkness, and fled. 
 At the same hour another murderer, named Lewis Payne Powell, burst 
 into the bed-chamber of Secretar}' Seward, sprang upon the couch of the 
 sick man, stabbed him nigh unto death, and made his escape into the 
 nio-ht. The city was wild with alarm and excitement. It was clear that 
 a plot had been made to assassinate the leading members of the govern- 
 ment. Troops of cavalry and the police of Washington departed in all 
 directions to hunt down the conspirators. On the 26th of April Booth 
 was found concealed in a barn south of Fredericksburg. Refusing to 
 surrender, he was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett, and then dragged 
 forth from the burning building to die. Powell was caught, convicted 
 and hanged. His fellow-conspirators, David E. Herrold and Geo. A. 
 Atzerott, together with Mrs. Mary E. Surratt, at whose house the plot 
 was formed, were also condemned and executed. Michael O'Laugh- 
 lin, Dr. Samuel A. Mudd, and Samuel Arnold were sentenced to im- 
 prisonment for life, and Edward Spangler for a term of six years. 
 
 So ended in darkness, but not in shame, the career of Abraham 
 Lincoln. He was one of the most remarkable men of any age or country 
 — a man in whom the qualities of genius and common sense were strangely 
 mingled. He was prudent, far-sighted and resolute; thoughtful, calm 
 
THE CLOSING CONFLICTS. 543 
 
 and just; patient, tender-hearted and great. The manner of his 
 death consecrated his memory. From city to city, in one vast funeral 
 procession, the mourning j)eople followed his remains to their last 
 resting-place at Springfield. From all nations rose the voice of sym- 
 pathy and shame — sympathy for his death, shame for the dark crime 
 that caused it. 
 
 He had been born a destined work to do, 
 And lived to do it ; four long-suffering years— 
 
 Ill-fate, ill-feeling, ill-report lived through— 
 And then he heard the hisses change to cheers, 
 
 The taunts to tribute, the abuse to praise 
 
 And took them both with his unwavering mood ; 
 
 But as he came on light from darlcest days. 
 
 And seemed to touch the goal from wliere he stood, 
 
 A felon hand, between that goal and him, 
 
 Beached from behind liis head, a trigger prest, 
 
 And those perplexed and patient eyes were dim, 
 Those gaunt long-laboring limbs were laid to resti 
 
 The words of mercy were upon his lips. 
 
 Forgiveness in his heart and on his pen, 
 "When this vile murderer brought swift eclipse 
 
 To thoughts of peace on earth, good-will to men. 
 
 The Old World and the New, from sea to sea. 
 
 Utter one voice of sympathy and shame! 
 Sore heart, so stopped when it at last beat free, 
 
 Sad life, cut short just as its triumph came! 
 
 A deed accurst! Strokes have been struck before 
 
 By the assassin's hand, whereof men doubt 
 If more of horror or disgrace tlicy bore; 
 
 But thy foul crime, like Cain's stands darkly out I 
 
 /■ 
 Vile hand ! that liranded murder on a strife. 
 
 What e'er its grounds, stoutly and nobly striven. 
 And with the martyr's crown crownest a life 
 
 With much to praise, little to be forgiven ! * 
 
 ^ These verses are from the London Punch of May 6th, 1865. For years that pape.- 
 had caricatured Mr. Lincoln and ridiculed the National government; but now that 
 the deed was done, the British heart reiicted and spoke out for humanity. 
 
544 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVII. 
 
 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1865-1869. 
 
 ON the day after the assassination of Mr. Lincohi, Andrew Johnson 
 took the oath of office, and became President of the United States. 
 He was a native of North Carolina, born in Raleigh, on the 29th of 
 December, 1808. With no advantages of education, he passed his boy- 
 hood in poverty and neglect. In 1826 he removed with his mother to 
 Tennessee and settled at Greenville. Here he was married to an in- 
 telligent lady who tauglit him to write and cipher. Here by dint of 
 native talent, force of will, and strength of character, he first eai-ued 
 the applanse of his fellow-men. Here, through toil and hardship, he 
 rose to distinction, and after holding minor offices was elected to Con- 
 gress. As a member of the United States Senate in 1860-61 he op- 
 posed secession with all his zeal, even after the legislature had declared 
 Tennessee out of the Union. On the 4th of March, 1862, he was ap- 
 pointed military governor of that State, and entered upon his duties at 
 Nashville. He began his administration and carried out his measures 
 with all the vigor and vehemence of his nature. There was no quail- 
 ing or spirit of compromise. His life was many times in peril ; but he 
 fed on danger and grew strong under the onsets of his enemies. He 
 held the office of governor until 1864, when he was nominated for the 
 vice-presidency in place of Mr. Hamlin. Now, by the tragic death 
 of the President, he was suddenly called to assume the responsibili- 
 ties of chief magistrate. In his first congressional message he fore- 
 shadowed a policy of great severity towards the civil and military 
 leaders of the overthrown Confederacy. 
 
 On the 1st of February, 1865, Congress adopted an amendment to 
 the Constitution by which slavery was abolished and forl)i(lden in all the 
 States and Territories of the Union. By the 18th of the following De- 
 cember the amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of twenty- 
 seven States, and was duly proclaimed as a part of the Constitution. The 
 emancipation proclamation had been issued as a military measure; now 
 the doctrines and results of that instrument were recognized and incor- 
 porated in the fundamental la^v of the land. 
 
 On the 29tli of ISIny the Amnesty Proclamation was issued by 
 President Johnson. By its provisions a general pardon was extended to 
 all persons — except those specified in certain classes — who had particij)ated 
 in the organization and defence of the Confederacy. The condition of the 
 pardon was that those receiving it should take an oath of allegiance to the 
 
t 18 from Washingwin 13 
 
 95 from Greenwich 
 
JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 545 
 
 United States. The excepted persons might also be pardoned on 
 special application to the President. During the summer of 1865 
 the great armies were disbanded, and the victors and vanquished re- 
 turned to their homes to resume the work of peace. 
 
 The finances of the nation were in an alarming condition. The war- 
 debt went on increasing until the beginning of 1866, and it was only by 
 the most herculean exertions that national bankruptcy could be warded 
 off. The yearly interest on the debt had grown to a hundred and thirty- 
 three million dollars in gold. The expenses of the government had 
 reached the aggregate of two hundred millions of dollars annually. But 
 the augmented revenues of the nation proved sufficient to meet these 
 enormous outlays, and at last the debt began to be slowly diminished. 
 On the 5th of December, 1865, a resolution was passed in the House of 
 Representatives jjledging the faitli of tiie United States to the full pay- 
 ment of the national indebtedness, both principal and interest. 
 
 During the civil war tiie emperor Napoleon III. interfered in the 
 affairs of Mexico, and succeeded, by overawing the people with a French 
 army, in setting up an empire. In tlie early part of 1864 the crown of 
 Mexico was conferred on ]\Iaximilian, the archduke of Austria, who 
 established his government and sustained it with French and ^Vustrian 
 .soldiers. But the ]\Iexican president Juarez headed a revolution against 
 the usurping emperor; the government of the United States rebuked 
 France for having violated the Monroe doctrine; Napoleon, becoming 
 alarmed, withdrew his army ; and Maximilian M-as overthrown. Flying 
 from Mexico to Queretaro, he was there besieged and taken prisoner. 
 On the 13th of June, 1867, he was tried by court-martial and condemned 
 to be shot ; and six days afterward the sentence was carried into execu- 
 tion. The scheme of Napoleon, who liad hoped to profit by the civil war 
 and gain a foothold in the New World, was thus justly brought to shame 
 and contempt. 
 
 After a few weeks of successful operation the first Atlantic telegraph, 
 laid by Mr. Field in 1858, had ceased to work. The friends of the enter- 
 prise were greatly disheartened. Not so with Mr. Field, who continued 
 both in Europe and America to advocate the claims of his measure and to 
 plead for assistance. He made fifty voyages across the Atlantic, and 
 finally secured sufficient capital to begin the laying of a second cable. 
 The work began from the coast of Ireland in the summer of 1865. When 
 the steamer Great Eastern had proceeded more than twelve hundred miles 
 on her way to America, the cable parted and M-as lost. Mr. Field held on 
 to his enterprise. Six millions of dollars had been spent in unsuccessful 
 attempts, but still he persevered. In July of 1866 a third cable, two 
 thousand miles in length, was coiled in the Greai Eastern, and again tho 
 
 35 
 
546 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 vessel started on her way. This time the work was completely suc- 
 cessful. After twelve years of unremitting effort Mr. Field received . 
 a gold medal from the Congress of his country, and the plaudits of 
 all civilized nations. 
 
 By an act of Congress, passed on the 1st of November, 1864, 
 THE Postal Money-Order System was established in the United 
 States. The design of the measure was to secure a safe and conven- 
 ient method of transferring small sums of money through the mails. 
 The money-order is divided into two parts — the order proper and the 
 advice. From the order, which is received and transmitted by the 
 purchaser, the name of the payee is omitted. In the advice, which is 
 sent by the post-master of the issuing office to the post-master of the 
 paying office, the name of the payee is inserted. The advice and the 
 order receive the same stamp and number, and being transmitted sep- 
 arately, constitute an almost perfect check against loss, robbery, and 
 fraud. The largest sum which may be transmitted in one order is 
 fifty dollars, though larger amounts may be sent in separate orders. 
 The amount charged for issuing is trifling, varying with the value of 
 the order, and the security is perhaps as great as human sagacity can 
 provide. Notwithstanding the invaluable benefits of the system, it 
 was at first received with little favor. In 1870 there were two thou- 
 sand and seventy-six post-offices from which money-orders were issued. 
 During that year the orders numbered a million six hundred and sev- 
 enty-one thousand two iuindred and fifty-three; and the amount trans- 
 mitted was above thirty-four millions of dollars. On the 1st of October, 
 1875, the number of money-offices in operation was three thousand six 
 hundred and ninety-six ; the number of orders issued during the fiscal 
 year ending on the 30th of June amounted to five millions six thou- 
 sand three hundred and twenty-three; the amount of money sent to 
 more than seventy -seven millions of dollars. Of all the orders issued 
 during that year only twenty-seven were paid to persons not entitled 
 to receive them. Such have been the advantages of the system as to 
 require its extension to foreign lands. Postal conventions have al- 
 ready been held and arrangements completed for the exchange of 
 money-orders with Switzerland, Great Britain and Ireland and Ger- 
 many. The requirements of civilization will no doubt soon demand 
 a similar compact with every enlightened nation. 
 
 The administration of President Johnson is noted as the time when 
 the Territories of the United States assumed their final form. The vast 
 domains west of the Mississippi were now reduced to proper limits and 
 organized with a view to early admission into the Union as States. A 
 
JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 547 
 
 large part of the work was accomplished during the administration of 
 President Lincoln. In March of 1861 the Territory of Dakota, with an 
 area of a hundred and fifty thousand square miles, was detached from 
 Nebraska on the north, and given a distinct territorial organization. In 
 February of 1863 Arizona, with an area of a himdred and thirteen thou- 
 sand square miles, was separated from New Mexico on the west and 
 organized as an independent Territory. On the 3d of March in the same 
 year Idaho was organized out of portions of Dakota, Nebraska and Wash- 
 ington Territories ; and on the 26th of May, 1864, Montana, with an area 
 of a hundred and forty-six thousand square miles, was cut off from the 
 eastern part of Idaho. By this measure the area of the latter Tcn-itoiy 
 was reduced to eighty-six thousand square miles. On the 1st of Marcli, 
 1867, the Territory of Nebraska, reduced to its present area of seventy- 
 six thousand miles, was admitted into the Union as the thirty-seventh 
 State. Finally, on the 25th of July, 1868, the Territory of "Wyoming, 
 with an area of ninety-eight thousand square miles, was organized out of 
 portions of Dakota, Idaho and Utah. Thus were the Territories of the 
 great West reduced to their present limits as represented in the accom- 
 panying map. 
 
 The year 1867 was signalized by the Pitrchase of Alaska. 
 Two years previously the territory had been explored by a corps of 
 scientific men with a view of establishing telegraphic communication with 
 Asia by way of Behring Strait. The report of the exploration sho\\'ed 
 that Alaska was by no means the worthless country it had been supposed 
 to be. It was found that the coast-fisheries were of very great value, and 
 that the forests of white pine and yellow cedar were among tlie finest in 
 the world. Negotiations for the purchase of the peninsula were at once 
 opened, and on the 30th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded by which, 
 for the sum of seven million two hundrwl thousand dollars, Russia ceded 
 Alaska to the United Statas. The territory thus added to the domains 
 of the Republic embraced an area of five hundred and eighty tliousand 
 square miles, and a population of twenty-nine thousand souls. 
 
 Very soon after his accession to the chief magistracy a serious dis- 
 agreement arose between the President and Congress. The difficulty 
 grew out of the great question of reorganizing the Southern States. The 
 particular point in dispute was as to the relation Avhich those States had 
 sustained to the Federal Union during the civil war. The President held 
 that the ordinances of secession were in tlieir very nature null and void, 
 and that therefore the seceded States had never been out of the Zhuon. 
 The majority in Congress held that the acts of secession were illegal and 
 unconstitutional, but that the seceded States had been by those acts 
 
548 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 actually detached from the Union, and that special legislation and special 
 guarantees were necessary in order to restore them to their former rela- 
 tions under the government. Such was the real foundation of the diffi- 
 culty by which the question of reconstructing the Southern States was so 
 seriously embarrassed. 
 
 In the summer of 18G5 measures of reconstruction were begun by' 
 the President in accordance with his own views. On the 9th of Jlay a 
 proclamation was issued for the restoration of Virginia to the Union. 
 Twenty days afterward another proclamation was issued establishing a 
 provisional government over South Carolina; and at brief intervals 
 similar measures were adopted in respect to the other States of the late 
 Confederacy. On the 24th of June all restrictions on trade and inter- 
 course with the Soutliern States were removed by proclamation of the 
 President. On the 7th of the following September a second amnesty 
 proclamation was issued, by which all persons who had upheld the Con- 
 federate cause — excepting the leaders — were unconditionally pardoned. 
 Meanwhile, the State of Tennessee had been reorganized, and in 18G6 
 was restored to its place in the Union. Meanwhile, the national Con- 
 gress was pursuing its own line of policy in regard to the reconstruc- 
 tion of the Southern States. During the session of 1865-66, a com- 
 mittee of fifteen was appointed by that body to whom all matters 
 appertaining to the reorganization of the States of the overthrown 
 Confederacy should be referred. Soon afterwards the celebrated Civil 
 Rights Bill, was passed, the object of which was to secure to the 
 freedmen of the South the full exercise of citizenship. The measure 
 was opposed and vetoed by the President, but was immediately re- 
 passed by a two-thirds congressional majority. On the occasion of the 
 celebration of Washington's birthday at the Capital, the bill was se- 
 verely denounced by the President in a speech delivered in front of 
 the executive mansion ; and the position assumed by Congress was de- 
 clared to be a new rebellion against the government of the United 
 States. In subsequent specclies and messages the same sentiment was 
 reiterated, and the attitude of the executive and legislative departments 
 became constantly more unfriendly. 
 
 In the summer of 1866 a call was issued for a national conven- 
 tion to be held in Philadelphia on the 14th of August. The objects 
 had in view were not very clearly defined; but it was understood that 
 the general condition of the country would be considered, measures 
 of national policy discussed, and all the political elements, in opposi- 
 tion to the majority in Congress be consolidated into a new political 
 party, with which the President's name would be associated in leader- 
 
JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 549 
 
 ship. At the appointed time delegates from all the States and terri- 
 tories were present; many members of the Republican party took part 
 in the movement, and the convention was not lacking in enthusiasm. 
 Still, the meeting exercised but very little permanent influence on the 
 affairs of the country. 
 
 Soon afterwards the President made another effort to rally pub- 
 lic opinion in favor of his policy. In the latter part of August la- 
 set out from Washington, accompanied by Secretaries Seward, Welles, 
 and Randall, General Grant, Admiral Farragut, and other prominent 
 officials, to make a tour of the Northern States. The ostensible ob- 
 ject had in view was that the President should be present at the laying 
 of the corner stone of a monument to Senator Douglas at Chicago. 
 Departing from the Capital, the presidential party passed through Phil- 
 adelphia, New York, and Albany, and after taking part in the cere- 
 monies at Chicago, returned by way of St. Louis, Indianapolis, Louis- 
 ville, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg. At all the principal towns and cities 
 through which he passed, the President spoke freely to the crowds in 
 defence of his own policy and in denunciation of that of Congress. 
 The whole journey was a scene of intense excitement and partisan ani-. 
 mosity. The general effect of the President's course was disastrous 
 to him and his political adherents; for in the elections of the follow- 
 ing autumn the measures of Congress were sustained and the members 
 reelected by increased popular majorities. Nevertheless, the i-esult of 
 the election had very little effect in altering the President's views or 
 softening his feelings towards the legislative department of the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 By degrees the affairs of the administration grew critical. When 
 Congress convened in December of 1866 the policy of the President 
 was severely condemned. The congressional committee, appointed at 
 the session of the previous year, now brought forward a report em- 
 bodying a full plan of reorganizing the Southern States. Alter much 
 discussion the measures proposed by the committee were adopted by 
 Congress, and the work of reconstruction was begun. As the first 
 condition for the reiidmission of a State into the Union it Avas enacted 
 that the people of the same, by their legislative assembly or other- 
 wise, should ratify the fourteenth amendment to the constitution which 
 declared the citizenship of all persons born or naturalized in the 
 United States. In furtherance of this policy Congress, at the same 
 session, passed an act requiring that in the national territories the 
 elective franchise should be granted without distinction of race or 
 color, before such territories should be admitted into the Union. A 
 
550 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 similar measure was adopted in respect to the District of Columbia, 
 forbidding the further restriction of the right of suffrage to white 
 men. To all of these acts President Johnson opposed his veto ; but 
 in every case his objection was overcome by the two-thirds majority 
 in Congress. 
 
 Concerning the reorganization of the Southern States, the real 
 question at issue was as to whether a civil or a military method of re- 
 construction ought to be adopted. From the beginning, the President 
 had urged the superiority of the civil process. But in Congress the 
 opposite opinion prevailed, and the views of the majority were rather 
 intensified by the hostility of the executive. On the 2d of March, 
 1867, an act was passed by which the ten seceded States were divided 
 into five military districts, each district to be under the control of a 
 governor appointed by the President. After appointing the comman- 
 ders required by this law, the chief magistrate asked the opinion of 
 Mr. Stanbery, his attorney-general, as to the validit}^ of the con- 
 gressional measures of reconsti'uction. An answer was returned that 
 most of the acts were null and void ; and the President accordingly 
 issued to the military commanders an order which measurably nulli- 
 fied the whole proceeding. But Congress passed a supplemental act 
 declaring the meaning of the previous law, and the j)rocess of reor- 
 ganization was continued under the congressional plan. The work, 
 however, was greatly retarded by the distracted counsels of the gov- 
 ernment and the chaotic condition of affairs in the South. But in due 
 time the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, 
 North Carolina, and South Carolina were reconstructed, and in the 
 months of June and July, 1868, readmitted into the Union. In every 
 case, however, the readmission was effected against the protest, and 
 over the veto of the President. 
 
 In tlie mean time, a difficulty had arisen in the President's cabinet 
 wliich led to his impeachment. On the 21st of February, 1868, he noti- 
 fied Edwin ]\I. Stanton, secretary of war, of his dismissal from office. 
 Tlie act was regarded by Congress as a usurpation of authority and a 
 violation of law on the part of the President. The reconstruction diffi- 
 culties had already broken off" all friendly relations between the two 
 Houses and the executive. Accordingly, on the 3d of March, articles of 
 impeachment were agreed to by the House of Representatives, in ac- 
 cordance with the forms of the Constitution, and the cause was im- 
 mediately remanded to the Senate for trial. Proceedings began 
 before that body on the 23d of March and continued until the 26th 
 of May, when the President was acquitted. But his escape was 
 
JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 551 
 
 very narrow; a two-thirds majority was required to convict, a7ul 
 but one vote was wanting. Chief-Justice Salmon P. Chase, one of the 
 most eminent of American statesmen and jurists, presided over this 
 remarkable trial. 
 
 The time for 
 holding another j^resi- 
 dential election was 
 already at hand. 
 General Ulysses S. 
 Grant was nomina- 
 ted by the Republi- 
 cans, and Horatio 
 Seymour of New 
 York by the Demo- 
 crats. The canvass 
 was attended with 
 great excitement. 
 The people were still 
 agitated by the recent 
 strife through which 
 the nation had passed, 
 and the questions 
 most discussed by the 
 political speakers were 
 those arising out of 
 the civil war. The 
 
 principles advocated by the majority in Congress furnished the basis of 
 the Republican platform of 1868, and on that platform General Grant 
 was chosen by a very large electoral majority. The votes of twenty- 
 six States, amounting, in the aggregate, to two hundred and fourteen 
 ballots, were cast in his favor, while his competitor received only 
 the eighty votes of the remaining eleven States. Of the popular vote, 
 however, Mr. Seymour obtained two million seven hundred and three 
 thousand six hundred, against three million thirteen thousand one 
 hundred and eighty-eight given to General Grant. At the same elec- 
 tion, the choice for the vice-presidency fell on Schuyler Colfax of 
 Indiana. 
 
 CHIEF-JUSTICE CHASE. 
 
552 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTEE LXVIII. 
 GRANT'S ADMINISTARTION, 1SG9-1S77. 
 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT, eighteenth President of the United States, is 
 a native of Ohio, born at Point Pleasant, in that State, Ajjril 27th, 
 1822. At the age of seventeen he entered the United States Military 
 Academy at West Point, and was graduated in 1843. He served ^ith 
 
 distinction and Avas 
 promoted for gallantry 
 in tlie Mexican war; 
 but his first national 
 reputation was won by 
 the capture of Forts 
 Henry and Donel- 
 son in 1862. From 
 that time he rapidly 
 rose in rank, and in 
 March, 1864, received 
 the appointment of 
 lieutenant-general and 
 commander-i n-chi ef 
 of the Union army. 
 His subsequent career 
 at the head of that 
 army has already been 
 narrated. At the 
 close of the war his 
 reputation, though 
 strictly military, was 
 very great ; and his 
 being involved in 
 the imbroglio between President Johnson and Congress rather height- 
 ened than diminished the estimation in which he was held by the 
 people of the North. Before the Republican convention, held at 
 Chicago on the 21st of May, 1868, he had no competitor, and was 
 unanimously nominated on the first ballot. On the day following his 
 inauguration as President, he sent in to the Senate the followinjc 
 
 PBKSIDENT GRANT. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 55g 
 
 nominations for cabinet officers: For secretary of state, Elihu B. 
 Washburne of Illinois; for secretary of the treasury, Alexander T. 
 Stewart of New York ; for secretary of the interior, Jacob D. Cox of 
 Ohio ; for secretary of the navy, Adolph E. Borie of Pennsylvania ; 
 for secretary of war, John M. Schofield of Illinois; for postmaster- 
 general, John A. J. Creswell of Maryland ; for attorney-general, E. 
 R. Hoar of Massachusetts. These nominations were at once con- 
 firmed ; but it was soon discovered that Mr. Stewart, being engaged 
 in commerce, was ineligible, and George S. Boutwell of Massachu- 
 setts was appointed in his stead. Mr. "Washburne also gave up his 
 office to accept the position of minister to France ; and the vacant 
 secretaryship was given to Hamilton Fish of New York. 
 
 The first event by which the new administration was signalized 
 was the completion of the Pacific Railroad. This vast enterprise was 
 projected as early as 1853; but ten years elapsed before the work of 
 construction was actually begun. The first division of the road ex- 
 tended from Omaha, Nebraska, to Ogden, Utah, a distance of a thou- 
 sand and thirty-two miles. The western division, called the Central 
 Pacific Railroad, reached from Ogden to San Francisco, a distance of 
 eight hundred and eighty-two miles. On the lOth of May, 1869, the 
 great work was completed with appropriate ceremonies. 
 
 Before the inauguration of President Grant two additional amend- 
 ments to the Constitution had been adopted by Congress. The first of 
 these, known as the Fourteenth Amendment, extended the right of citi- 
 zenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and de- 
 clared the validity of the public debt. This amendment was submitted 
 in 1867, was ratified by three-fourths of the States, and in the following 
 year became a part of the Constitution. A few weeks before the expiration 
 of Mr. Johnson's term the Fifteenth Amendment was adopted by Congress, 
 providing that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
 be denied or abridged on account of race, color or previous condition of 
 servitude. This clause, which was intended to confer the right of suffi-age 
 on the emancipated black men of the South, was also submitted to the 
 States, received the sanction of three-fourths of the legislatures, and on 
 the 30th of March, 1870, was proclaimed by the President as a part of 
 the Constitution. 
 
 In the autumn of 1869 occurred the most extraordinary mone- 
 tary excitement ever known in the United States, or perhaps in the 
 world. A company of unscrupulous speculators in New York city, 
 headed by Jay Gould and James Fisk, jr., succeeded in producing 
 what is known as a "corner" in the gold market and brought the 
 
554 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 business interests of the metropolis to the verge of ruin. During the 
 civil war the credit of the government had declined to such an extent 
 that at one time a dollar in gold was worth two hundred and eighty- 
 six cents in paper currency. But after the restoration of the national 
 authority the value of paper money appreciated, and in the fall of 
 1869 the ratio of gold to the greenback dollar had fallen to about one 
 hundred and thirty to one hundred. There were at this time, in the 
 banks of New York, fifteen million dollars in gold coin and in the 
 sub-treasury of the United States a hundred millions more. The plan 
 of Gould and Fisk was to get control by purchase of the greater part 
 of the fifteen millions, to prevent the secretary of the treasury from 
 selling any part of the hundred millions under his authority, then — 
 having control of the market — to advance the price of gold to a fab- 
 ulous figure, sell out all which the}^ held themselves, and retire from 
 the field of slaughtered fortunes with their accumulated millions of 
 sf)oils! Having carefully arranged all the preliminaries, the conspir- 
 ators, on the 13th of September, began their work of purchasing gold, 
 at the same time constantly advancing the price. By the 22d of the 
 month, they had succeeded in putting up the rate to a hundred and 
 forty. On the next day the price rose to a hundred and forty-four. 
 The members of the conspiracy now boldly avowed their determina- 
 tion to advance the rate to two hundred, and it seemed that on the 
 morrow they would put their threat into execution. On the morning 
 of the 24th, known as Black Friday, the bidding in the gold-room 
 began with intense excitement. The brokers of Fisk and Gould ad- 
 vanced the price to a hundred and fifty, a hundred and fifty-five, and 
 finally to a hundred and sixty, at which figure they were obliged to 
 purchase several millions by a company of merchants who had banded 
 themselves together with the determination to fight the gold-gamblers 
 to the last. Just at this moment came a despatch that Secretary Bout- 
 well had ordered a sale of four millions from the sub-treasury ! There 
 was an instantaneous panic. The price of gold went down twenty 
 per cent, in less than as many minutes ! The speculators were blown 
 away in an uproar; but they managed, by accumulated frauds and 
 corruptions, to carry off ivith them more than eleven million dollars as 
 the fruits of their nefarious game! Several months elapsed before the 
 business of the country recovered from the eifects of the shock. 
 
 In the first three months of 1870 the M'ork of reorganizing the 
 Southern States was completed. On the 24th of January the senators 
 ami representatives of Virginia were formally readmitted to their seats in 
 Congress, and the Old Dominion ouce more took her place in the Union. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 555 
 
 On the 23d of February a like action was taken in regard to Mississippi; 
 and on the 30tii of March the woi'k was finished l)y the readmission of 
 Texas, the last of the seceded States. For the first time since the outbreak 
 of the civil war the voice of all the States was heard in the councils of 
 the nation. 
 
 In this year was completed the ninth census of the United States. 
 It was a work of vast importance, and the results presented were of the 
 most encouraging character. Notwitlistanding the ravages of war, the 
 last decade had been a period of wonderful growth and progress. During 
 that time the population had increased from thirty-one million four hun- 
 dred and forty-three thousand to thirty-eight million five Imndred and 
 eighty-seven thousand souls. The centre of population had now moved 
 westward into the great State of Oliio, and rested at a point fifty miles 
 east of Cincinnati. The national debt, though still enormous, was rapidly 
 falling off. The products of the United States had grown to a vast 
 aggregate ; even the cotton crop of the South was regaining much of its 
 former importance. American manufactures were competing with those 
 of England in the markets of the world. The Union now embraced 
 thirty-seven States and eleven Territories.* From the narrow limits of 
 the thirteen original colonies, with their four hundred and twenty-one 
 tliousand square miles of territory, the national domain had sjDread to the 
 vast area of three million six hundred and four thousand square miles. 
 Few things, indeed, have been more marvelous than the territorial growth 
 of the United States. The purcliase of Louisiana more than doubled the 
 geographical area of the nation ; the several Mexican acquisitions were 
 only second in importance ; while the recent Russian cession alone was 
 greater in extent than the original thirteen States. The nature of this 
 territorial development will be best understood from an examination of 
 the accompanying map. 
 
 In January of 1871 President Grant appointed Senator Wade of 
 Ohio, Professor White of New York and Dr. Samuel Howe of Massa- 
 chusetts as a board of commissioners to visit Santo Domingo and report 
 upon the desirability of annexing that island to the United States. The 
 question of annexation had been agitated for several years, and the 
 measure was earnestly favored by the President. After tliree months 
 spent abroad, the commissioners returned and reported in favor of the 
 proposed annexation ; but the proposal was met with violent opposition 
 in Congress, and defeated. 
 
 The claim of the United States against the British government for 
 damages done to American commerce by Confederate cruisei's during the 
 * Including the Indian Territory and Alaska. 
 
656 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 civil war still remained unsettled. These cruisers had been built and 
 equipped in English ports and with the knowledge of the English gov- 
 ernment. Such a proceeding was in plain violation of the law of nations, 
 even if the independence of the Confederate States had been recognized. 
 Time and again Mr. Seward remonstrated with the British authorities, 
 but without effect. After the war Great Britain became alarmed at her 
 own conduct, and grew anxious for a settlement of the difficulty. On 
 the 27th of February, 1871, a joint high commission, composed of five 
 British and five American statesmen, assembled at Washington cit\'. 
 From the fact that the cruiser Alabama had done most of the injury 
 complained of, the claims of the United States were called the Alabama 
 CIjAims. After much discussion, the commissioners framed a treaty, 
 known as the Treaty of Washington, by which it was agreed that all 
 claims of either nation against the other should be submitted to a board 
 of arbitration to be appointed by friendly nations. Such a court w;is 
 formed, and in the summer of 1872 convened at Geneva, Switzerland. 
 The cause of the two nations was impartially heard, and on the 14th of 
 September decided in favor of the United States. Great Britain was 
 obliged, for the wrongs which she had done, to pay into the Federal 
 treasury fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 During the year 1871, there were laid and put into operation in 
 the United States no less than seven thousand six hundred and seventy 
 miles of railroad! There is perhajDS no fact in the history of the 
 world which exhibits so marvelous a development of the physical 
 resources of a nation. Ere the mutterings of the civil war, with its 
 untold destruction of life and treasure, had died away in the distance, 
 the recuperative power, enterprise, and genius of the American peo- 
 ple were revealed, as never before, in establishing and extending the 
 lines of travel and commerce. In 1830 there were but twcntv-three 
 miles of railway track in the New World. In 1840 the lines in the 
 United States had been extended to two thousand eight hundred and 
 eighteen miles. Ten years later there were nine thousand and twenty- 
 one miles of track. According to the reports for 1860, the railroads 
 of the country had reached the enormous extent of thirty thousand 
 six hundred and thirty-five miles; and in the next ten years, embrac- 
 ing the period of the civil war, the amount was nearly doubled. Such 
 is the triumphant power of free institutions — the victory of free enter- 
 prise, free industry, free thought. There stands the fact ! Let the 
 adherents of the Old World's methods, the eulogists of the past, take 
 it and read it. Wherever the human race pants for a larger activity, 
 a more glorious exercise of its energies, let the story be told ho\v the 
 
100 LongitUi 
 
«t 18 from WasbiDgtoQ 13 
 
 3t y^ from GfecDwich 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 557 
 
 United Statei^, just emerged from the furnace of war, smarting with 
 wounds, and burdened with an enormous debt, built in a single year 
 more than twice as many miles of railroad as Spain, ridden with her 
 pi'ecedents of kingcraft and priestcraft, has ever built in her whole 
 career. 
 
 The year 1871 is noted in American history for the burning of 
 Chicago. On the evening of the Stii of October a fire broke out in De 
 Koven street, and was driven by a high wind into the lumber-yards and 
 wooden houses of the neighborhood. The flames leaped the South Branch 
 of the Chicago River and spread with great rapidity through the business 
 parts of the city. All day long the deluge of fire rolled on, crossed the 
 main channel of the river, and swept into a blackened ruin the wliole dis- 
 trict between the North Branch and the lake as far northward as Lincoln 
 Park. The area burned over was two thousand one hundred acres, or 
 three and a third square miles. Nearly two hundred lives were lost in 
 the conflagration, and the property destroyed amounted to about two 
 hundred millions of dollars. No such a terrible devastation had been 
 witnessed since the burning of Moscow in 1812. In the extent of the 
 district burned over, the Chicago fire stands first, in the amount of 
 property destroyed second, and in the suffering occasioned third, among 
 the great conflagrations of the world. 
 
 On the 21st of October, 1872, was settled the only remaining 
 dispute concerning the boundaries of the United States. By the terras 
 of the treaty of 1846 it was stipulated that the North-western bound- 
 ary line, running westward along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, 
 should extend to the middle of the channel which separates the con- 
 tinent from Vancouver's Island, and thence southerly through the mid-* 
 die of said channel and of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific. But what was 
 "the middle of said channel"? for there were several channels. The 
 British government claimed the Straits of Rosario to be the true line 
 intended by the treaty, while the United States would have the Canal 
 de Haro. So the question stood for a quarter of a century, and was 
 then referred for settlement to the arbitration of William I., Em- 
 peror of Germany. That monarch heard the cause, decided in favor 
 of the United States, and the Canal de Haro became the international 
 boundary. 
 
 As the first official term of President Grant drew to a close the 
 political parties made ready for the twenty-second presidential election. 
 Many jjarts of the chief magistrate's policy had been made the subjects of 
 criticism and controversy. The congressional plan of reconstructing the 
 . Southern States had prevailed, and with that plan the President was in 
 
558 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 accord. But the reconstruction measures had been unfavorably re- 
 ceived in the South. The elevation of the negro race to the full rights 
 of citizenship was regarded with apprehension. Owing to the disor- 
 ganization of civil government in the Southern States, an opportunity 
 was given in certain districts for bad men to band themselves together 
 
 in lawlessness. Tlie 
 military spirit was 
 still rife in the coun- 
 try, and the issues 
 of the civil war were 
 rcdiscussed, some- 
 times with much 
 bitterness. On these 
 issues the people di- 
 vided in the election 
 of 1872. The Re- 
 publicans renomi- 
 nated General Grant 
 for the presidency. 
 For the vice-presi- 
 dency Mr. Colfax 
 declined a renomi- 
 nation, and was suc- 
 ceeded by H e n r y 
 Wilson of Massa- 
 chusetts. As the 
 standard -v bearer of 
 the Liberal 'Republican and Democratic parties Horace Greeley, ed- 
 itor of the New York Tribune, was nominated. This was the last act 
 in that remarkable man's career. For more than thirty years he had 
 been an acknowledged leader of public opinion in America. He had 
 discussed with vehement energy and enthusiasm almost every question 
 in which the people of the United States have any interest. After a 
 lifetime of untiring industry he was now, at the age of sixty -one, 
 called to the forefront of political strife. The canvass was one of 
 wild excitement and bitter denunciations. Mr. Greeley was over- 
 whelmingly beaten, and died in less than a month after the election. 
 In his death the nation lost a great philanthropist and journalism its 
 brightest liajht. 
 
 A few days after the presidential election the city of Boston -was 
 visited by a conflagration only second in its ravages to that of Chicago 
 
 HORACE GREELEY. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 559 
 
 in the previous year. Oii the evening of the 9th of November a fire 
 broke out on the corner of Kingston and Summer streets, spread to 
 the north-east, and continued witli almost unabated fury until the 
 morning of the 11th. The best portion of the city, embracing some 
 of the finest blocks in the United States, was laid in ashes. The 
 burnt district covered an area of sixty-five acres. Eight hundred 
 buildings, property to the value of eighty million dollars, and fifteen 
 lives were lost by the conflagration. 
 
 In the spring of 1872 an order had been issued to Superintendent 
 Odeneal to remove the Modoc Indians from their lands on the soutlicrn 
 shore of Lake Klamath, Oregon, to a new reservation. The Indians, who 
 had been greatly mistreated by former agents of the government, refused 
 to go ; and in the following November a body of troops was sent to force 
 them into compliance. The Modocs resisted, kept up the war during the 
 winter, and then retreated into an almost inaccessible volcanic region 
 called the lava-beds. Here, in the spring of 1873, the Indians were sur- 
 rounded, but not subdued. On the lltii of April a conference was held 
 between them and six members of the peace commission ; but in the 
 midst of the council the treacherous savages rose upon the kind-hearted 
 men who sat beside them and murdered General Canby and Dr. Thomas 
 in cold blood. Mr. Meacham, another member of the commission, was 
 shot and stabbed, but escaped with his life. The Modocs were then be- 
 sieged and bombarded in their stronghold; but it was the 1st of June 
 before General Davis with a force of regulars could compel Captain Jack 
 and his murderous baud to surrender. The chiefs were tried by court- 
 martial and executed in the following October. 
 
 In the early part of 1873 a dilficulty arose in Louisiana which 
 threatened the peace of the country. Owing to the existence of double 
 election-boards two sets of presidential electors had been chosen in the 
 previous autumn. At the same time two governors — William P. Kellogg 
 and John McEnery — were elected; and rival legislatures were also re- 
 turned by the hostile boards. Two State governments were accordingly 
 organized, and for a while the connnonwealth was in a condition border- 
 ing on anarchy. The dispute was referred to the Federal government, 
 and the President decided in favor of Governor Kellogg and his party. 
 The rival government was accordingly disbanded ; but on the 14th of 
 September, 1874, a large party, opposed to the administration of Kellogg 
 and led by D. B. Penn, wlio had been returned as lieutenant-governor 
 with McEnery, rose in arms and took possession of the State-house. 
 Governor Kellogg fled to the custom-house and appealed to tlie President 
 for help. The latter immediately ordered the adherents of Penn to dis- 
 
560 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 perse, and a body of national troops was sent to New Orleans to enforce 
 the proclamation. On the assembling of the legislature in the following 
 December the difficulty broke out more violently than ever, and the sol- 
 diery was again called in to settle the dispute. 
 
 About the beginning of President Grant's second term, the country 
 was greatly agitated by what was known as the Credit Wobii.ier 
 Investigation in Congress. The Credit Mobilier of America was a 
 joint stock company organized in 1863 for the purpose of facilitating the 
 construction of public works. In 1867 another company \vhicli had 
 undertaken to build the Pacific Railroad purchased the charter of the. 
 Credit Mobilier, and the capital was increased to three million seven 
 hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Owing to the profitableness of the 
 work in which the company was engaged, the stock rose rapidly in value 
 and enormous dividends were paid to the shareholders. In 1872 a law- 
 suit in Pennsylvania developed the startling fact that much of the stock 
 of the Credit Mobilier ?/Y^'? owned by members of Congress. A suspicion 
 that those members had voted corruptly in the legislation affecting the 
 Pacific Railroad at once seized the public mind and led to a congressional 
 investigation, in the course of which many scandalous transactions were 
 brought to light, and the faith of the people in the integrity of their 
 servants greatly shaken. 
 
 In the autumn of 1873 occurred one of the most disastrous finan- 
 cial panics known in the history of the United States. The alarm 
 was given by the failure of the great banking-house of Jay Cooke & 
 Company of Philadelphia. Other failures followed in rapid succes- 
 sion. Depositors everywhere hurried to the banks and withdrew their 
 money and securities. Business Avas suddenly paralyzed, and many 
 months elapsed before confidence was sufficiently restored to enable 
 merchants and bankers to engage in the usual transactions of trade. 
 The primary cause of the panic was the fluctuation in the volume and 
 value of the national currency. Out of this had arisen a wild spirit 
 of speculation which sapped the foundations of business, destroyed 
 financial confidence, and ended in disaster. 
 
 Not the least of the evil results of the great monetary disturb- 
 ance was the check given to the Northern Pacific Railroad. 
 As early as 1864 a company had been organized under a congressional 
 charter to construct a railway from Lake Superior to Puget Sound. 
 The work also contemplated the running of a branch road, two hun- 
 dred miles in length, down the valley of the Columbia River to Port- 
 land, Oregon. Large subsidies were granted to the company by Con- 
 gress, and other favorable legislation was expected. In 1870 the worlv 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 561 
 
 of construction was begun and carried westward from Duluth, Minne- 
 sota. Jay Cooke's banking-iiouse made heavy loans to the company, 
 accepting as security the bonds of the road ; for it was confidently 
 expected that such legislation would be obtained as should secure the 
 success of the enterprise and bring the bonds to par. In this condi- 
 tion of affairs the Credit Mobilier scandal was blown before the coun- 
 try ; and no Congress would have dared to vote further subsidies to 
 a railroad enterprise. Jay Cooke's securities became comparatively 
 worthless; then followed the failures and the panic. The work of 
 constructing the road was arrested by the financial distress of the 
 country, and has since been pushed forward but slowly and with great 
 difficulty. In 1875 the section of four hundred and fifty miles, ex- 
 tending from Duluth to Bismarck, Dakota, had been put in opera- 
 tion; and another section, a hundred and five miles in length, between 
 Kalama and Tacoma, in Washington Territory, had also been com- 
 pleted. Meanwhile, the attention of the country was turned to the 
 Texas and Pacific line, which had been projected from Shreveport, 
 Louisiana, and Texarkana, Arkansas, by way of El Paso to San Diego, 
 California — a distance from Shreveport of a thousand five hundred 
 and fourteen miles. In 1875 the main line had been carried west- 
 ward a hundred and eighty-nine miles to Dallas, Texas, while the line 
 from Texarkana had progressed seventy-five miles towards El Paso. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1875, the Territory of Colorado was au- 
 thorized by Congress to form a State constitution. On the 1st of 
 July, in the following year, the instrument thus provided for, was 
 ratified by the people ; a month later, the President issued his proc- 
 lamation, and " the Centennial State " took her place in the Union. 
 The new commonwealth embraced an area of a hundred and four 
 thousand five hundred square miles, and a population of forty-two 
 thousand souls. Public attention was directed to the territory by the 
 discovery of gold, in the year 1852. Silver was discovered about the 
 same time, and in the winter of 1858-9, the first colony of miners 
 was established on Clear Creek and in Gilpin County. The entire 
 yield of gold up to the time of the admission of the State was esti- 
 mated at more than seventy millions of dollars. Until 1859, Colo- 
 rado constituted a part of Kansas; but in that year a convention 
 was held at Denver, and in 1861 a distinct territorial organization 
 was efiected. Since 1870, immigration has been rapid and constant. 
 
 The last years of the history of the Republic have been noted 
 for the number of public men who have fallen by the hand of death. 
 In December of 18G9, Edwin M. Stanton, secretary of war under 
 
562 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 President Lincoln, and more recently justice of the supreme court of the 
 United States, died. In 1870 General Eobert E. Lee, president of 
 Washington and Lee University, General George H. Thomas and Ad- 
 miral Farragut passed away. In 1872 William H. Seward, Professor 
 Morse, Horace Greeley and General Meade were all called from the 
 
 scene of their earth- 
 ly labors. On the 
 7th of May, 1873, 
 Chief-Justice Chase 
 fell under a stroke 
 of paralysis at the 
 home of his daugh- 
 ter in New York 
 City; and on the 
 11th of March in 
 the following year. 
 Senator Charles 
 Sumner of Massa- 
 chusetts died at 
 Washington. He 
 was a native of Bos- 
 ton ; born in 1811 ; 
 liberally educated at 
 Harvard College. 
 At the age of thir- 
 ty - five he entered 
 the arena of public 
 life, and in 1850 succeeded Daniel Webster in the Senate of the 
 United States. This position he retained until the time of his death, 
 speaking much and powerfully on all the great questions that agitated 
 the nation. His last days were spent in considering the interests 
 and welfare of that country to whose service he had given the life- 
 long energies of his genius. On the 22d of November, 1875, Yicc- 
 President Henry Wilson, whose health had been gradually failing 
 since his inauguration, sank under a stroke of paralysis and died at 
 Washington city. Like Roger Sherman, he had risen from the shoe- 
 maker's bench to the highest honors of his country. Without the 
 learning of Seward and Sumner — without the diplomatic skill of the 
 one or the oratorical fame of the other — he nevertheless possessed 
 those great abilities and sterling merits which will transmit his name 
 to after times on the roll of patriot statesmen. 
 
 CHARLES SCJrNEH. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 563 
 
 As the Centennial of American Independence drew near, the 
 people made ready to celebrate the great event with approjiriate 
 ceremonies. A hundred years of national prosperity — though not 
 unclouded by ominous shadows and not unhurt by the devastations 
 
 ^ 
 
 fi ^ ;i ?^ I ^ ^^ ., w 
 
 riirftii' 
 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALT., 1876. 
 
 of war — had swept away, and at last the dawn of the centennial 
 morning was rising in the eastern sky. It was not to be supposed 
 that the thoughtful and patriotic of the land would allow so lustrous 
 an epoch to go by without impressing upon the present generation the 
 
564 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lesson of the past and the hope of the future. As early as 1866, a 
 proposition was made by Professor John L. Campbell of Wabash 
 College, that steps should be taken looking to the proper celebration 
 of the great national anniversary. About the same time the question 
 of an international exhibition in honor of our independence, was 
 agitated by the Honorable John Bigelow, a former minister of the 
 United States to France. A correspondence was soon afterward 
 begun and carried on by the Honorable Morton McMichael, INIayor 
 of Philadelphia, Senator Henry S. Lane of Indiana, M. P. Muckle of 
 Pennsylvania, and General Charles B. Norton, who had served as a 
 commissioner of the United States at the Exposition Internationale of 
 1867. To these men, more than to others perhaps, must be awarded 
 the honor of having originated the Centennial Exposition. But it is 
 hardly to be supposed that the American people would have failed, 
 from the want of leaders or any other circumstance, to mark with an 
 imposing display the hundredth year of the Republic. 
 
 Such was the origin of the movement; but the development of 
 the project was discouraged for a while with considerable opposition 
 and much lukewarmness. The whole scheme was a vision of enthu- 
 siasm, a Quixotical dream, — said the critics and objectors. No such 
 an enterprise could be carried through except under the patronage of 
 the Government, and the Government had no right to make appropri- 
 ations merely to preserve an old reminiscence. We had liad enough 
 of the Fourth of July already. Besides, — said the wits and caricatur- 
 ists, — the otiier nations would present a ludicrous figure in helping us 
 to celebrate the anniversary of a rebellion which they had tried to 
 crush a hundred years ago. Victoria was exi^eeted — so said they — 
 to .send over commissioners to heap contumely and contempt on the 
 grave of her grandfather! No nation of Europe would consent to its 
 own stultification by joining in the jubilee of republicanism. Besides 
 all tliis caviling, it was foreseen that Philadelphia would quite 
 certainly be .selected as the .scene of the proposed display, and on 
 that account a good deal of local jealousy was excited in the other 
 principal cities of the Union. Nevertheless, the advocates of the 
 enterprise continued to urge the feasibility and propriety of the 
 exposition ; the more enlightened newspapers, of the country lent 
 their influence, and the popular voice soon declared in favor of tlie 
 measure. 
 
 As early us the beginning of 1870, the general plan and jn-inci- 
 pal features of the celebration had been determined in the minds of 
 its projectors. As to the form of the display, an International Expo- 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 565 
 
 sition of Arts and Industries was decided on ; as to the scene, the city 
 of Philadelphia, hallowed by a thousand Revolutionary memories, 
 was selected; as to the lime, from the 19th of April to the 19th of 
 October, 1876. The first organized body to give aid and encourage- 
 ment to the enterprise was the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. 
 Through the influence of that patriotic^ organization, a Centennial 
 Commission, consisting of seven members appointed by the city 
 council, was constituted, with John L. Shoemaker as chairman. 
 Sliortly afterwards a resolution was adopted by the Legislature of 
 Pennsylvania, invoking the aid of Congress in behalf of the proposed 
 celebration ; and on the .3d of March, 1871, a bill was passed by the 
 House of Representatives, which became the basis of all subsequent 
 proceedings relating to the Centennial. 
 
 In this bill it was provided that an exhibition of American and 
 Foreign arts, products and manufactures should be held under the 
 auspices of the Government of the United States, in the city of Phil- 
 adelphia, in 1876; that a Centennial Commission, consisting of one 
 member and one alternate from each State and Territory, should be 
 appointed by the President; that to this board of commissioners should 
 be referred the entire management and responsibility of the enter- 
 prise; that the members of the board should receive no compensa- 
 tion ; that the United States should not be liable for any of the 
 expenses of the exposition ; and that the President, when officially 
 informed that suitable buildings had been erected and adequate pro- 
 visions made for the proposed exhibition, should make proclamation 
 of that fact to the people of the United States and to all foreign 
 nations. During the year 1871, the Centennial Commission was con- 
 stituted in accordance with the act of Congress. On the 4th of March, 
 1872, the members assembled at Philadelphia and efiPected a perma- 
 nent organization by the election of General Joseph R. Hawley of 
 Connecticut as President. Orestes Cleveland of New Jersey, John D. 
 Creigh of California, Robert Lowry of Iowa, Robert Mallory of Ken- 
 tucky, Thomas H. Coldwell of Tennessee, John McNeill of Missouri, 
 and William Gurney of South Carolina, were chosen as the seven vice- 
 presidents of the organization. As secretary. Professor John L. Camp- 
 bell of Indiana was elected. The important office of director-general 
 was conferred on Alfred T. Goshorn of Ohio ; and as counselor and 
 solicitor John L. Shoemaker of Pennsylvania was chosen. 
 
 The question of money next engaged the attention of the man- 
 agers. How to provide the funds necessary for carrying forward .so 
 vast an enterprise became a source of much discussion and no little 
 
566 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 anxiety. The positive refusal of the government to become respon^ 
 sible for any part of the expenses of the Exhibition added to the em- 
 barrassment; for it was now seen that private resources and the good 
 will of the people must furnish the entire sum necessary for the suc- 
 cess of the enter])rise. Several measures were accordingly adopted 
 
 by the Centennial Commis- 
 sion looking to the creation 
 of a treasur}'. By an act of 
 Congress, passed on the 1st 
 of June, 1872, provision was 
 made for the organization of 
 a Centennial Board of Fi- 
 nance, to which the whole 
 m o n 6 1 a r y management of 
 the Exposition should be 
 entrusted. This board was 
 organized by the election 
 of John Welsh of Philadel- 
 phia as president. William 
 Sellers and John S. Barbour 
 were chosen vice-presidents. 
 The office of secretary and 
 treasurer was conferred on 
 Fi-ederick Fraley ; that of 
 auditor, on H. S. Lansing ; 
 and that of financial agent, on William Bigler. The board was au- 
 thorized to issue stock in shares of ten dollars each, the whole num- 
 ber of shares thus issued not to exceed one million. It was also ])yo- 
 vided that a series of Centennial Memorial Medals should be struck at 
 the mint of the United States, and that the sale of such medals should 
 be under the exclusive control of the Board of Finance. The medals 
 were elegantly executed in several styles and sizes — of gilt, silver, and 
 bronze — furnishing for after ages an imjiressive token of the American 
 Republic in its hundredth year. 
 
 Careful estimates, made by the Centennial Commission and the 
 Board of Finance, placed the entire expense of the Exposition at eight 
 million five hundred thousand dollars. Of this sum about two and a 
 half millions were raised by the sale of stock — a work which was at 
 first entrusted to the banks of the country and afterward to a Bureau 
 of Revenue established for that purpose. Long before this amount 
 was secured, however, the legislatui-e of Pennsylvania Juade a glorious 
 
 GENEEAI, JOSEPH R. IIAWLEV. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 567 
 
 record for that State by appropriating one million dollars for the 
 Exhibition. The " City of Brotherly Love " did better still by voting 
 the sum of one million five hundred thousand dollars. The people 
 of New York City made a contribution of a quarter of a million. 
 The State of New Jersey gave a hundred thousand dollars; New 
 
 CENTENNIAL ME3AL.— OBVERSE. 
 
 CENTENNIAL MEDAL.— REVERSE. 
 
 Hampshire, Connecticut, and Delaware, ten thousand dollars each. 
 But notwithstanding these magnificent contributions, the aggregate 
 sum fell far .short of the estimates ; and the Centennial Commission — 
 in the face of the former illiberal action of Congress — resolved to 
 make a second appeal to that body for help. A bill was accordingly 
 prepared, asking for an appropriation of three million dollars from 
 the national treasury; but on the 6th of May, 1874, the bill was 
 decisively defeated — an act well calculated to bring the American 
 name into contempt and shame.* The managers of the Exposition 
 were again thrown back upon the people for sympathy and aid. 
 
 Meanwhile, the sale of stock and of medals, as wei! as other 
 enterprises for the increase of the Centennial funds, was going on 
 successfully. The Exposition gained constantly in public favor. 
 Even in the Far West, Centennial orators traveled through the 
 country districts, stirring up the enthusiasm of the people. The 
 public Free Schools, by exhibitions and excursions, contributed their 
 part towards the success of the great celebration. In June of 1874, 
 
 * After times may be astonished to know that the empire of Japan cheerfully 
 contributed six hundred thousand dollars to the success of the American Centennial 
 after the Congress of the United States had twke refused to vote a cent. 
 
568 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the President of the United States extended a cordial invitation tc 
 all the civilized nations of the Morld to j)articipate in an Interna- 
 tional Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil 
 and Mine, to be held in the city of Philadelphia in 1876, in honor 
 of the one hundredth anniversary of American Independence. By 
 and by, the contagion spread even to Congress, and that body passed 
 an act appropriating five hundred and five thousand dollars for the 
 erection of a Centennial Building in honor of the United States and 
 for the illustration of the functions and resources of the American 
 Government in times of peace and of war. The legislatures of sev- 
 eral of the States also became interested in the enterprise, and made 
 appropriations — ranging from five thousand to fifty thousand dollars — 
 for the purpose of erecting State Buildings on the Exhibition 
 grounds, the sum thus contributed amounting to nearly a half 
 million dollars. Finally, as the success of the Exposition became 
 more and more assured, the patriotism of the people and the clamors 
 of the press drove the national Congress into an appropriation of a 
 million five hundred thousand dollars to supply the deficit which was 
 still rejjorted by the Board of Finance. Such were the principal 
 measures by which the Centennial fund was finally secured. 
 
 One of the first matters to which the attention of the Centennial 
 Commission was directed, was the selection of suitable grounds for 
 holding the Exposition. But that problem was soon solved in the 
 most satisfactory manner. By the act of March 3d, 1871, it was 
 decided by Congress that the Exhibition should be held within the 
 corporate limits of Philadelphia. The authorities of that city, throw- 
 ing their whole energies into the enterprise, at once proffered to the 
 commissioners the free use of Fairmount Park, one of the largest 
 and most magnificent in the world. This beautiful tract, presenting 
 every variety of surface, well wooded and -well watered, extends on 
 both sides of the Schuylkill for more than seven miles, and along the 
 banks of the Wissahickon for nearly the same distance. The entire 
 park embraces two thousand seven hundred and forty acres, and 
 presents to the eye every thing that is lovely and refreshing in 
 woodland scenery, beautified and adorned by the hand of art. The 
 portion of the grounds more particularly set apart for the purposes 
 of the Exposition, including an area of four hundred and fifty acres, 
 lies on the right bank of the Schuylkill, below Belmont, and was 
 formerly known as the old Lansdowne Estate. 
 
 The formal transfer of the grounds to the Centennial Commission 
 was made on the 4th of July, 1873. An immense throng of citizens 
 
V569) 
 
570 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 and strangers gathered in the park to witness the ceremonies. The 
 address of pi-esentation was made by the Honorable Morton Mc- 
 Michael of Philadelphia, and the response by General Hawley, 
 president of the Commission. The dedicatory oration was then 
 delivered by Governor Hartranft of Pennsylvania, who, after reciting 
 the congressional acts and various other measures upon which the 
 Centennial enterprise had thus far proceeded, continued in the 
 following eloquent manner : 
 
 " We have assembled here to dedicate a portion of this beauti- 
 ful park to the uses of a great International Exhibition, which is 
 to commemorate the anniversary of our country's birth. Upon 
 the threshold of the century to expire in 1876, thirteen poor and 
 feeble colonies, with no common ties other than their love of liberty 
 and hatred of oppression, declared their independence. These 
 Thirteen Colonies, with their offspring, now increased in number to 
 thirty-seven, stretch their empire across a continent, and afford the 
 grandest exhibition of a nation's progress in the world's history. In 
 all the wondrous changes wrought in the nineteenth century, none 
 are so wondrous and conspicuous as the industrial, moral, and physi- 
 cal growth of this our native land. With those powerful auxiliaries, 
 steam and the telegraph — both of which our country gave to man- 
 kind — we are striding with majestic steps toward a dominion unri- 
 valed by any other nation on the face of the earth. Let us, then, 
 from every State — north, south, east, and west — bring to this great 
 city, the consecrated place where our liberty was born, the evidences 
 of our culture, the proofs of our skill, and our vast and varied 
 resources, that the world may have a glimpse of our enlargement, 
 industry, wealth, and power. To the myriads who will gather here, 
 let us accord a welcome which shall be in keeping with the dignity 
 and magnitude of our country. Here, too, let our own people gather, 
 garnering new and fresh ideas from a survey of the world's arts and 
 industries; and let us dedicate ourselves to a higher civilization, to 
 more extensive fields of development, to more liberal and more widely 
 diffused education, to the purification of our institutions, and to the 
 preservation of that lil)crty which is the foundation-stone of our 
 prosperity and happiness." 
 
 Governor Hartranft was followed by George M. Robeson, secre- 
 tary of the navy, who read a proclamation by the President of the 
 United States ; and then the General Regulations for the government 
 of the Exposition were announced as follows : 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 571 
 
 I. The International Exhibition of 1876 will be held in Fair- 
 mount Park, in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1876. 
 
 II. The date of opening the Exhibition will be Aj^ril 19th, 
 1876, and of closing will be October 19th, 1876. 
 
 III. A cordial invitation is hereby extended to every nation of 
 the earth to be represented by its arts, industries, progress, and 
 development. 
 
 IV. A formal acceptance of this invitation is requested previous 
 to March 4th, 1874. 
 
 V. Each nation accepting this invitation is requested to appoint 
 a Commission, through which all matters pertaining to its own inter- 
 ests sliall be conducted. For the purpose of convenient intercourse 
 and satisfactory supervision, it is especially desired that one member 
 of every such Commission be designated to reside at Philadelphia 
 until the close of the Exposition. 
 
 VI. The privileges of exhibitors can be granted only to citizens 
 of countries whose governments have formally accepted the invitation 
 to be represented, and have appointed the aforementioned Commis- 
 sion ; and all communications must be made through the Govern- 
 mental Commissions. 
 
 VII. Applications for space within the Exposition buildings, or 
 in the adjacent buildings and grounds under the control of the Cen- 
 tennial Commission, must be made previous to March 4th, 1875. 
 
 VIII. Full diagrams of the buildings and grounds will be fur- 
 nished to the Commissioners of the different nations which shall 
 accept the invitation to participate. 
 
 IX. All articles intended for exhibition, in order to .secure 
 proper position and classification, must be in Philadelphia on or 
 before January 1st, 1876. 
 
 X. Acts of Congress pertaining to custom-house regulations, 
 duties, etc., together with all special regulations adopted by the Cen- 
 tennial Commission in reference to transportation, allotment of space, 
 classification, motive power, insurance, police rules, and other matters 
 necessary to the proper display and preservation of materials, — will be 
 promptly communicated to the accredited representatives of the sev- 
 eral governments cooperating in the Exposition. 
 
 On the day after the dedication of the grounds in Fairmount 
 Park, a copy of the President's proclamation, already mentioned, was 
 transmitted to each of the foreign ministers resident at Washington. 
 At the same time, the American secretary of state notified the minis- 
 
672 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ters that the proposed display was intended as an International 
 Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and 
 Mine ; tluit the special design of the Exposition was to comniemorate 
 the Declaration of the Independence of the United States ; that 
 another prime object was to furnish to all nations an opportunity for 
 mutual improvement and a higher culture in beholding the products 
 of each other's civilization ; that the President of the United States 
 indulged the hope that all the diplomatic representatives of foreign 
 nations would bring the Exposition and its objects to the attention 
 of the people of their respective countries ; and that the Exhibition 
 might greatly conduce to the establishment and perpetuation of in- 
 ternational friendship and good will. These official communications 
 were cordially received by the foreign ministers and by the govern- 
 ments which they represented. The President's invitations were 
 quickly accepted ; and before the expiration of the allotted time, the 
 following nations had notified the American Government of their 
 desire and intention to participate in the Exposition : The Argentine 
 Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Chili, China, Den- 
 mark, Ecuador, Egypt, France (including Algeria), German Empire, 
 Great Britain and her Colonies, Greece, Guatemala, Hawaii, Hayti, 
 Honduras, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, 
 Norway, Orange Free State, Persia, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Siam, 
 Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunis, Turkey, United States of Colom- 
 bia, Venezuela. 
 
 One of the earliest and most difficult of the subjects which 
 engaged the attention of the Centennial Commission was the proper 
 analysis and classification of the materials to be exhibited. Until 
 this question was settled it could not be known what buildings to 
 erect or how to erect them. Nor could the various nations know in 
 advance how to select and arrange their products so as to come into 
 proper competition with each other, until a General Classification 
 should be prepared and reported. It was foreseen, moreover, tliat 
 a mistake in this regard would be in a great measure fatal to the 
 success of the Exposition, as a bad classification would be sure to 
 result in heaping u]) in the Centennial buildings a vast and chaotic 
 mass of nuiterials which nobody could appreciate or understand. In 
 this important work of classification the Commissioners — considering 
 the magnitude and novelty of the task imposed upon them — succeeded 
 admirably. It was decided to arrange all of the materials which 
 should be presented for exhibition in ten great classes or departments, 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 573 
 
 the names of which should suggest, even to the common beholder, 
 the particular object on display. The following was the General 
 Classification adopted by the Commission : 
 
 I. Raw Materiai-,s ; Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. 
 
 II. JNIaterials and Manufactures used for Food or in 
 THE Arts ; the results of Extractive or Combining Processes. 
 
 III. Textile and Felted Fabrics ; Apparel, Costumes, and 
 Personal Ornaments. 
 
 IV. Furniture and Manufactures of General Use in 
 Construction and in Dwellings. 
 
 V. Tools, Implements, Machines, and Processes. 
 
 VI. Motors and Transportation. 
 
 VII. Apparatus and Methods for the Increase and Dif- 
 fusion of Knowledge. 
 
 VIII. Engineering ; Public Works, Architecture, etc. 
 
 IX. Plastic and Graphic Arts. 
 
 X. Objects illustrating Efforts for the Improvement 
 OF THE Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Condition of 
 Man. 
 
 Each of these general departments was divided and subdivided 
 until a proper classification of all the materials about to be exhibited 
 was secured. 
 
 To erect buildings suitable in character and capacity — buildings 
 illustrative of the taste, equal to the enterprise, and worthy of the 
 genius of the American people — was the next great duty devolved 
 upon the Centennial Commission. Here success was necessary. To 
 succeed was to elicit the admiration of every people; to fail was to 
 fail ingloriously. The reputation of the United States was at stake. 
 For the foremost men of all the world, the savants of Europe and 
 Asia — art critics, wits, and journalists; statesmen, poets, and philoso- 
 phers; admirers of the beautiful, l\«en-seented satirists, and dislikers 
 of republicanism out of every clime under heaven — were sure to gaze 
 upon and criticise whatever should be built in Fairmount Park, and 
 to carry abroad the story of our honor or our disgrace. Grand and 
 imposing structures would add to the dignity of the great occasion. 
 Mean and insignificant buildings would insure a mean and insignificant 
 exhibition, and that, in its turn, would produce among all nations a 
 contemptuous estimate of the American people and their institutions. 
 
 After much deliberation, the Centennial Commission determined 
 upon the erection of five principal buildings, the name and character 
 
574 HI8T0R Y OF THE UNITED STA TES. 
 
 of each to be determined by the nature of the materials therein to be 
 displayed. The first of these, called the Main Building, was de- 
 signed with special reference to the exhibition of Products of the 
 Mine, Workmanship in the Metals, Manuflictures in general, Edu- 
 cational and Scientific displays. The second building — called the 
 Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery — was planned for the exhibi- 
 tion of the Fine Arts in all their various branches and modifications 
 — Sculpture, Painting, Engraving, Lithograpliy, Photography, Indus- 
 trial and Architectural Designs, Decorations, and Mosaics. Tlie tliird 
 principal Iniilding was named Machinery Hall, and was designed 
 for the display of Machines of every pattern and purpose known to 
 man — Motors, Generators of Power, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Appa- 
 ratuses, Railway Enginery, and Contrivances for Aerial and Water 
 Transportation. The fourth edifice projected by the Coiumissioners 
 was called Agricultural Hall, and was planned for the exhibition 
 of all Tree and Forest Products, Fruits of every grade and descrip- 
 tion. Agricultural Products proper, Land and Marine Animals includ- 
 ing the Apparatus used in the Care and Culture of the same, Animal 
 and Vegetable Products, Textile Materials, Implements and Processes 
 peculiar to Agriculture, Farm Engineering, Tillage and General Slan- 
 agement of Field, Forest, and Homestead. The fifth and last build- 
 ing, called Horticultural Hall, was designed for the pi-oper dis- 
 play of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, and Flowers — Hot-houses, Conserv- 
 atories, Graperies ; Tools, Accessories, Designs, Construction, and 
 Management of Gardens. Such was the general plan under which 
 the principal edifices of Fairmount Park were begun. 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1874, the foundations of Memorial Hall 
 were laid with appropriate ceremonies. In the following September, 
 work was begun on the Main Building, and was steadily carried for- 
 \tard during the whole of the next year and until the beginning of 
 February, 1876, when the immense structure was completed. Machin- 
 ery Hall was built between the months ot January and October, 1875. 
 On the 1st of May, in tlie same year, the foundations of Horticultural 
 Hall were laid, and the building was brought to completion April 
 1st, 1876. Agricultural Hall was not begun until September of 1875, 
 but the work was carried forward so rapidly that tlie edifice was com- 
 pleted by the middle of the following April. Meanwhile, the work 
 on THE Government Building, th.e construction of whicli had 
 been provided for by the congressional act of March 3d, 1875, was 
 pressed to completion early in 1876. Moreover, it had become appar- 
 ent to the Commissioners that the space provided in Memorial Hall 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRA TION. i n 
 
 would by no means accommodate the immense exhibition of Fine 
 Arts which was now confidently expected; and an Art Annex was 
 accordingly planned and built. It was also found from the rapidly 
 accumulating applications for space that the Main Building itself 
 would be filled to overflowing ; and two Annexes — the principal one 
 for carriages and the other for the display of the Minerals of the 
 United States — were- accordingly added to that immense structure. 
 
 Other buildings — illustrative of various interests and enterprises 
 brought together from the ends of the earth — were rapidly planned 
 and constructed. A Woman's Pavilion, projected and carried to 
 completion by an organization called tiie Women's Centennial Exec- 
 utive Committee, was begun in the middle of October, 1875, and fin- 
 ished in the following January. The building was designed for the 
 special exhibition of whatever woman's skill, jjatience and genius 
 have produced, and are jjroduciug, in the way of handicraft, inven- 
 tion, decorations, letters, and art. Next came the several States and 
 Territories, selecting grounds and constructing a scries of State 
 Buildings, commemorative of the spirit and illustrating the re- 
 sources of the respective commonwealths of the Union. Nearly all 
 the foreign nations participating in tlie Exposition made haste to 
 erect, for their own convenience and for the honor of native land, 
 elegant Government Buildings — French, Spanish, or British — 
 which became a kind of head-quarters and rendezvous for the sev- 
 eral nationalities. Then came model dwellings and Bazaars, School- 
 houses and Restaurants, Judges' Halls and model Factories, News- 
 paper Buildings and Ticket Offices, — until the Centennial grounds 
 (capacious as they were) were filled with — shall it be called a city? — 
 the most imposing, spacious, and ornate ever seen in the world. A 
 more complete description of some of those grand structures will here 
 be apiu'opriate. 
 
 The first and largest of them all was the Main Building, situated 
 immediately east of the intersection of Belmont and Elm Avenues. 
 The edifice was in the form of a parallelogram, having a length from 
 east to west of eighteen hundred and eightv feet,* and a breadth 
 from north to south of four hundred and sixty-four feet. The l)uild- 
 ing throughout its greater extent was one story high, the main cornice 
 being forty-five feet from the ground. The general height within was 
 seventy feet, rising to ninety feet under the principal arcades. From 
 each of the four corners of the building rose a rectangular tower 
 forty-ei^ht feet square and seventy-five feet high. Over the central 
 
 "Eighteen hundred and seventy-six feet (the Centennial number) in the clear 
 
576 
 
 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED UTA TES. 
 
 w-^y^M 
 
 portion of the main structure a 
 raised roof one hundred and eigh- 
 ty-four feet square was likewise 
 surmounted at tlie corners hy four 
 towers a hundred and twenty feet 
 in height. In the middle of the 
 two sides, looking north and south, 
 were the principal projections, four 
 hundred and sixteen feet in length. 
 The corresponding projections at 
 the ends were two hundred and 
 sixteen feet long, and extended, 
 the western in the direction of 
 Machinerj- Hall, and the eastern 
 towards the city. In these four 
 projections were placed the main 
 entrances to the building; that on 
 the east facing the carriage-ways 
 to the city ; the southern receiv- 
 ing passengers from the street-cars 
 and the dejDot of the Pennsylvania 
 Railway ; the western being i-ath- 
 cr an exit to other parts of the 
 grounds than an entrance proper; 
 and the northern facing Memorial 
 Hall and the Schuylkill. 
 
 In the ground-plan of this 
 immense building a central nave 
 or avenue, a hundred and twenty 
 feet in width, traversed the main 
 diameter to the distance of eight- 
 een hundred and thirty-two feet. 
 Parallel with this, two side aisles 
 a hundred feet wide, and of the 
 same length with the principal 
 nave, divided the spaces between 
 the same and the .sides of the 
 building. These three main ave- 
 nues wei'e intersected at right an- 
 gles by cross aisles forty-flight feet 
 in width, dividine- the whole area 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 577 
 
 of the floor into blocks or squares, with spacious avenues entirely around 
 them. The principal nave and its parallel aisles were likewise inter- 
 sected by the main and two subordinate transepts, dividing the cen- 
 tral space of the ground-floor into nine great squares, free from 
 columnar support, and embracing an area of over a hundred and 
 seventy-three thousand square feet. The entire area of the ground- 
 floor was eight hundred and seventy-two thousand three hundred 
 and twenty square feet ; of the floors in the projections, thirty- 
 seven thousand three hundred and forty-four feet; of the tower floors, 
 twenty-six thousand three hundred and forty-four feet; — making an 
 aggregate area of nine hundred and thirty-six thousand and eight 
 square feet, or twenty-one and forty-seven hundredths acres ! The 
 ground-floor proper covered a space of a little more than twenty acres,* 
 The building was chiefly of iron and glass, and contained a mass 
 of material unprecedented in the history of architecture. The outer 
 walls were carried up in brick-work to the height of seven .feet from 
 the foundations, which consisted of stone piers of the most substantial 
 masonry. Above the brick-work the panels between the columns of 
 support were occupied with glazed sash, sections of which were movable 
 for purposes of ventilation. The roof was of tin, laid solidly on boards 
 of pine ; and the exterior ornaments — abounding on all the corners, 
 angles, and towers — were of galvanized iron. The columns of interior 
 support — numbering six hundred and seventy-two, and ranging from 
 twenty-three to one hundred and twenty-five feet in length — were 
 of rolled iron, and had an aggregate weight of two million two hun- 
 dred thousand pounds. The roof trusses and girders were of the same 
 material, and weighed about five million pounds. No less than seven 
 million feet of lumber were used in the construction of the building. 
 
 * A comparison of the leading Centennial buildings (in respect of dimensions) with 
 other famous edifices may prove of interest. 
 
 Name of Stbucture. 
 
 Main Exposition Building, 
 
 Machinery Hall, 
 
 Agricultural Hall, 
 
 Memorial Hall, 
 
 Horticultural Hall, 
 
 Tlie Louvre (including the 
 
 St. Peter's, 
 
 The Capitol, 
 
 The Coliseum, 
 
 St. Paul's, 
 
 Cathedral of Milan, 
 
 Tuileries, 
 
 Westminister, 
 
 St. Sophia, 
 
 St. Stephen's, 
 
 Xotre Dame, 
 
 37 
 
 Area of Geound-Flooe. 
 
 t), 
 
 872,320 Square 
 
 feet, 
 
 20.02 Acrea 
 
 558,440 
 
 
 " 
 
 12.82 
 
 
 442,800 
 
 
 " 
 
 10.16 
 
 
 76,650 
 
 
 li 
 
 1.76 
 
 
 73,912 
 
 
 " 
 
 1.69 
 
 
 .309,888 
 
 
 " 
 
 7.11 
 
 
 273,927 
 
 " 
 
 .< 
 
 6.28 
 
 
 261,348 
 
 
 " 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 245,340 
 
 
 it 
 
 5.63 
 
 
 142,500 
 
 
 u 
 
 3.27 
 
 
 1.39,968 
 
 
 " 
 
 3.21 
 
 
 108,864 
 
 
 11 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 103,733 
 
 
 " 
 
 2.38 
 
 <s 
 
 82,600 
 
 
 u 
 
 1.89 
 
 r. 
 
 81,420 
 
 
 (( 
 
 1.86 
 
 '■ 
 
 56,160 
 
 
 " 
 
 1.27 
 
 ■■ 
 
678 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The water and drainage pipes — laid for the most part underueath the 
 floor — were four miles in length. Light — whether streaming through 
 acres of stained and fretted glass by day, or blazing from thousands 
 of gas-jets and burnished reflectors by night — was equally and abun- 
 dantly distributed. Hydrants — everywhere and ever full — promised 
 security against the destroyer. 
 
 Such were the principal features of the largest, if not the most 
 imposing, edifice in the world. The general effect, notwithstanding 
 the immense size of the building, was especially airy and pleasing. 
 Happy proportions and the regularity of irregularity reduced the 
 apparent dimensions of the mammoth pavilion till the vision was 
 nowhere oppressed with a sense of cumbrous outlines or heaviness 
 of structure. In practical adaptation to the purjDOses for which it 
 was designed, the building was all that could be desired ; and in its 
 effect upon that sense — call it by what name you will — which takes 
 cognizance of the sublime and beautiful, there was small room for 
 caviling and criticism. From the great towers and observatories, 
 rising grandly above the roof, the eye of the beholder, sweeping 
 around the horizon, drank in without fatigue the historic outline 
 of the surrounding country and the midsummer glories of Fair- 
 mount Park. Here wound the Schuylkill. Yonder was Laurel Hill, 
 where Elisha Kent Kane sleeps in an uninscribed grave on the rocky 
 hillside. No need of epitaphs for such as him ! Farther on there 
 came a glimpse of Germantown, where through the fogs and deso- 
 lations of that forbidding October day-dawn a hundred years ago the 
 greatest man of all history, at the head of his ragged and half-starved 
 army, struggled against the foe. Here to the east, spreading away 
 from the very feet of the beholder to the distant rolling Delaware, 
 and right and left to the skirts of the horizon, slumbered under the 
 summer sun the old City of Penn, where in those same heroic days, 
 now gliding dreamily into the shadows of the past, Adams and Jef- 
 ferson and Franklin did the bravest deed in the civil history of the 
 human race. Such were the thrilling associations which clustered 
 around the great Centennial Building. Only one melancholy reflec- 
 tion arose to trouble the soul of the beholder: the grand edifice Avas 
 designed only as a temporary structure — meant to subserve the fleeting 
 purposes of the International Exhibition. 
 
 The building second in importance, though not in size, among 
 the Centennial structures, was the Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery. It 
 stands upon a broad terrace in the Lansdowne Plateau, at the dis- 
 tance of two hundred and fifty feet from the north projection of the 
 
aJi!illil|i!'ll|ii!i'"'';'llWf!i»i:!iR^ 
 
 (oTJ) 
 
580 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Main Building, and a hundred and sixteen feet above the level of 
 the Schuylkill. The structure is of iron, granite, and glass, and is in 
 that modern style of architecture called the Renaissance. The build- 
 ing is in the form of a rectangular parallelogram, and is three hun- 
 dred and sixty-five feet in length, two hundred and ten feet wide, and 
 fifty-nine feet in height above a twelve-foot basement of stone. The 
 dome, also rectangular in form, rises a hundred and fifty feet above 
 the terrace, and is surmounted with a colossal bell bearing a mag- 
 nificent statue of the goddess America, cast in zinc, twenty-three and 
 a iialf feet in height, and weighing six thousand pounds. At the four 
 cornei-s of the base of the dome are seated other statues representing 
 the four quarters of the globe. The floor of the main hall below has 
 an area of more than a half acre, and is capable of accommodating 
 eight thousand sj)ectators at one time. In its architectural elements 
 the building embraces hints derived from many styles, some of which 
 — as, for instance, the arcades — date back as far as the villas of An- 
 cient Rome ; but the general effect is that of unity, elegance, and 
 grandeur. 
 
 The Centennial surroundings of Memorial Hall were appropriate 
 and striking. Before the main entrance and on either hand were .sta- 
 tioned two colossal bronze pegasi curbed by the Muses. On the south- 
 west angle of the terrace a group of statuary, also in bronze, repre- 
 sented the firing of a mortar and the flight of the shell, watched by 
 the men of the battery ; while on the southeast angle a corresponding 
 group depicted a dying lioness, surrounded by her whelps and guarded 
 by her lord. Opposite the main entrances of the edifice the terrace 
 was ascended by flights of stone steps, spacious and grand ; and the 
 beholder, when for the first time he reached the plateau, found him- 
 self face to face with an edifice among the most novel and beautiful 
 in the New World. As he stood midway between the site of the i\Iain 
 Building and Memorial Hall, he saw, on the one hand, a mammoth 
 structure designed for the exhibition of all things practical, utilitarian, 
 and profitable among the products of thought and application ; and, 
 on the other, a temple fit for the repose and revelation of all things 
 ideal, beautiful, and sublime among the trophies of human genius. 
 
 The Art Gallery was built at a cost of a million five hundred 
 thousand dollars. The funds for this purpose were the joint contri- 
 bution of Philadelphia and the State of Pennsylvania. The building 
 was designed as a permanent structure, affording for pp-esent time a 
 suitable gallery for the Fine Art display of the International Exhibi- 
 tion, and, in its final purpose, becoming a national memorial of the 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 581 
 
 Centennial year. After the close 
 of the Exposition, the edifice was 
 converted, according to tlie pur- 
 pose of its founders, into a recep- 
 tacle for the Pennsylvania Museum 
 of Industrial Art, — an iustituti(jn 
 similar to that of South Kensing- 
 ton, in London. When the other 
 structures, many in purpose and 
 fashion, which the Centennial cel- 
 ebration had caused to spring up 
 in Fairmount Park, were struck 
 from their foundations — disappear- 
 ing even as they came, like an 
 exhalation of the night, — Memo- 
 rial Hall, with its higher purpose 
 and destiny, was happily preserved 
 for after ages as an enduring mon- 
 ument of the artistic taste and pa- 
 triotism of the American people. 
 
 In its general plan and out- 
 line Machinery Hall was similar to 
 the Main Exposition Building, and 
 only second thereto in dimensions. 
 The ground-plan was a rectangu- 
 lar parallelogram fourteen hun- 
 dred and two feet in length, and 
 three hundred and sixty feet in 
 width. On the south side the cen- 
 tral transept of the main hall pro- 
 jected into an Annex, two hun- 
 dred and eight feet in depth by two 
 hundred and ten feet in breadth. 
 . On the north the front of the prin- 
 cipal structure was on a right line 
 with the corresponding front of 
 the Main Building, and the two 
 edifices were separated by an inter- 
 vening space or promenade of only 
 five hundred and forty-two feet ; 
 60 that, glancing from the east end 
 
582 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of the Main Building to the western extreme of Machinery Hall, 
 the eye swept along an almost unbroken front line more than seventy- 
 two hundredths of a mile in length ! The principal materials used in 
 the construction of Machinery Hall M'ere iron and glass. The piers 
 of the foundation were of stone, and the supporting columns, for the 
 most part, of wood. The main cornice without was forty feet from the 
 ground, and the general height within was seventy feet. The build- 
 ing was painted in a pleasing tint of purplish blue, relieved by various 
 hues of contrasted colors. At the ibur corners and over the main 
 side-entrances stood the towers, a hundred feet in height, breaking \w 
 in some measure the otherwise monotonous outline of the building. In 
 the north-east tower was hung the famous chime of bells, thirteen \i> 
 number, weighing twenty-one thousand pounds, — many-tongucd and 
 clamorous with the silver music which they flung out upon the air in 
 honor of the Old Thirteen States. Over the central gallery a royal 
 bald-eagle looked down upon the great clock which calmly marked 
 the hours of the Centennial summer. 
 
 Machinery Hall could hardly be called a thing of beauty : it 
 was too long and low for that ; — but if adaptability to the purposes 
 f(„)r which it was designed be a criterion, the structure was by no means 
 wanting in taste. American civilization is the civilization of utility, 
 invention, and mechanism. The engine is the emblem, and Quct 
 Prosunt Omnibus the motto, over the doorway of our temple. On 
 the porches and architrave of what great structure might the em- 
 blem and the motto be more appropriately set than on the arches 
 of Machinery Hall? For here Invention was queen, and Utility her 
 minister of state. Here was the realm where Thought had the mas- 
 tery over Matter — the empire of wheels and pistons, where Steam 
 was the Mother of Motion. — All this and more was foreshadowed and 
 provided for in the grand structure designed by the Centennial Com- 
 mission for the display of machinery. 
 
 The fourth principal building of the Exposition grounds was Ag- 
 ricultural Hall, situated on the eastern side of Belmont Avenue, and 
 beyond the valley of the same name. The ground-plan of the edifice 
 presented a central nave eight hundred and twenty feet in length, 
 and one hundred and twenty-five feet wide. This principal aisle was 
 crossed at right angles by a main and two subordinate transepts — the 
 former one hundred feet, and the latter eighty feet, in width. The 
 projections of these transepts formed two courts on either side of the 
 main structure, which, together with the four spaces similarly formed 
 at the corners of the building, were enclosed with fronts and roofs, — 
 
(583) 
 
584 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 whereby the edifice was extended into an immense parallelogram eight 
 hundred and twenty feet long, and five hundred and forty feet in 
 width. The entire area thus embraced in the ground-floor was ten 
 and three-tenths acres. 
 
 As to its style, Agricultural Hall had a tonch of Gothicism — 
 suggested by the Howe truss-arches of the nave and transepts — in its 
 construction. Over the bisection of the central avenue and the main 
 transept, rose an elegant cupola surmounted by a weather-vane. The 
 entrances were ornamental, and at each side were handsome turrets. 
 The roofs were pointed, stained a greenish tint, and flecked with sky- 
 lights. The body of the building was composed of w-ood, iron, and 
 glass, and was painted brown. The general eifect was pleasing, and a 
 bird's-eye view revealed in the edifice and its surroundings a pictur- 
 esqueness hardly discoverable in any other of the Exposition struct- 
 ures. This building, being devoted to the general purposes of an 
 agricultural display, had the necessarj' concomitant of yards for the 
 exhibition of all the domestic fowls and animals. The entire cost of 
 Agricultural Hall was nearly two hundred and sixty thousand dollars. 
 The building was a temporary structure, and at the close of the Ex- 
 position was taken down and removed from the Park. 
 
 In the erection of Horticultural Hall — fifth and smallest of the 
 main Exhibition edifices — the Centennial committees displayed their 
 liking for the Moors. For the building is Arabesque in its archi- 
 tecture. The twelfth century furnishes the model, and the nineteenth 
 does the work. As to situation, Horticultural Hall stands on the 
 Lansdowne Terrace, north of the valley, overlooking the Schuylkill. 
 As to materials, — iron, glass, and wood. As to dimensions, — three 
 hundred and eighty-three feet long, one hundred and ninety-three 
 feet broad, and sixty-nine feet to the top of the lantern. As to 
 cost, — three hundred thousand dollars. As to purpose, — a temple of 
 flowers. As to destiny, — a permanent ornament of Fairmount Park. 
 For the city of Philadelphia contributed the funds for the building, 
 and decided that it should stand in spite of the general demolition 
 and temple-crushing which prevailed at the close of the Exposition. 
 
 Next among the notable structures of the Exhibition grounds 
 was that building provided for by the Congressional act of March .3d, 
 1875, and called the United States Government Building. It stood 
 on Belmont Avenue, northward from Machinery Hall. The ground- 
 plan was a cross, with the main stem four hundred and eighty feet, 
 and the transept three hundred and forty feet, in length. In tlic cen- 
 tral part, the building was two stories in height. Over the bisection 
 
'Il!liiiiii!iiliiii{!.i>i;:ii.i;::iiiu:iiiii.iii;i!!!iiiiii!liiii 
 
 (585) 
 
586 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 of tlic nave and transept rose an octagonal dome, surmounted by & 
 flag-staff. Tlie edifice was elegantly painted, the prevailing color being 
 brown. The roof was black, the dome in imitation of wood, and all 
 the ceilings blue. The walls within were divided into panels, in each 
 of which was laid off a diamond-shaped space containing in its center 
 an emblem representing some department or function of the Govern- 
 ment. The general effect of the building was that of airiness and 
 ease — hardly to have beeen expected in an edifice so strongly and 
 heavily built. 
 
 The Woman's Pavilion, already mentioned, was located at the 
 western end of the Horticultural section of the grounds, and was one 
 of the most beautiful of the Centennial buildings. The structure was 
 of wood and glass. Here again the ground-plan was a cross, each of 
 the arms being a hundred and ninety-two feet long, and sixty-four 
 feet in width. The end of each transept was adorned with an elegant 
 porch ; and the spaces in the corners — formed by the four projections 
 of the building — were convei'ted into four minor pavilions, and made 
 an integral part of the main hall. Within, there were in all only four 
 columns of support, the roof resting mainly upon the outside walls. 
 The whole interior was painted in delicate tints of blue, the color with- 
 out being gray. The central part of the building, surmounted by a 
 lantern bearing a cupola, rose to the height of ninety feet. The 
 ground-floor embraced an area of nearly seven-tenths of an acre. 
 
 The British Government Building, generally called " St. George's 
 House," stood on George's Hill, and was the head-quarters of the Brit- 
 ish commissioners. The edifice, embracing in the ground-plan an area 
 of twenty-two hundred and fifty square feet, was in the style of archi- 
 tecture prevalent in the times of Queen Elizabeth. The roof was com- 
 posed of red tiles; and the fixtures, furniture, and decorations were all 
 after models which were fashionable at the close of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. The building, which was two stories high, was very handsome — 
 even elegant — in its general appearance, recalling forcibly to mind the 
 most brilliant and romantic period in English history. St. George's 
 House was designed for the accommodation not only of the commis- 
 sioners from the home empire of Great Britain, but also for the use 
 and comfort of the agents from the British colonial possessions in 
 difi'erent parts of the world. 
 
 The Building of the French Government was located eastward 
 from Memoi'ial Hall. The ground-plan was a parallelogram sixty feet 
 long by forty feet in width. The structure was composed of brick, iron, 
 and glass, and in its general aspect was not unworthy to express the 
 
588 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 interest felt by the authorities of the Third Republi<; in the American 
 Centennial. The building was designed to subserve the double pur- 
 pose of a home for the French Commission and of a hall for the dis- 
 play of models representing the public works of France. 
 
 The Building of the German Empire was an edifice still more 
 spacious and imposing. It was located east of Belmont Avenue, near 
 the head of the Lansdowne Valley. The structure was an imitation of 
 stone, in the style of the Renaissance. The area of the ground-plan 
 was thirty-four hundred and forty-four square feet, being a parallelo- 
 gram. Tiie main portico and principal hall were very beautiful, and 
 the walls and ceilings were ornamented with frescos in the best style 
 of art. Here were the head-quarters of the Imperial German Commis- 
 sion, and here also was a suite of reception-rooms for the accommoda- 
 tion of strangers and visitors from the different parts of Father-Laud. 
 
 The single word "Espana" over the portal of an elegant frame 
 structure standing on George's Hill, told the beholder that he was at 
 the entrance to the Government Building of Spain. The edifice was of 
 wood, was two stories in height, and eighty by one hundred feet in dimen- 
 sions. As in the case of the other structures erected by foreign gov- 
 ernments, the Spanish Building was intended primarily for the accom- 
 modation of the Centennial Commissioners from Spain, and as a j)lace 
 of assembly for Spaniards and their friends who may be present at 
 the Exposition. The secondary design was that of a suitable hall for 
 the display of models and drawings representing the more important 
 public works, fortifications, historical buildings, etc., of Spain. 
 
 The Kingdom of Sweden made a unique contribution to the Cen- 
 tennial grounds in the way of a Model School-house. The building 
 was constructed and furnished in Sweden according to the pattern 
 commonly employed in the better class of the national High Schools. 
 The structui-e was of native wood, unpainted, but brought to a high 
 degree of luster by skillful polishing. The furniture, apparatus, and 
 text-books displayed within, were excellent in their respective kinds; 
 and the building in its entirety was fully worthy of the ten tliousand 
 encomiums which were pronounced upon it. 
 
 As already mentioned the different States of the Union — except- 
 ing Maine, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Flor- 
 ida, Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, Kentucky, Minnesota, and Oregon 
 — erected buildings on the Centennial grounds, commemorative of 
 the history, public spirit, and resources of the respective common- 
 wealths. These structures varied greatly in their style, expensivcness, 
 and proportions — according to the liberality or parsimony of the sev- 
 
ii{|i!liiniililllllliiii:i, 
 
 (5S9) 
 
590 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 eral State authorities. The buildings of New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kansas were perhaps superior to any others 
 of this class in elegance of design and structure. Of similar sort 
 was the splendid Educational Hall of Pennsylvania, designed for the 
 display, by models and model-work, of all the methods and products 
 of education in the Keystone State. 
 
 Of private structures the grounds were full. There was a commo- 
 dious and valuable edifice situated at the intersection of the Agricul- 
 tural Avenue with that of the Republic, called the Department of 
 Public Comfort — a name significant of its design. An elegant build- 
 ing, devoted to the displays of the Singer Sewing Machine Company, 
 stood on the southern declivity of the Lansdowne Valley, north of 
 the Art Gallery. Southward from Machinery Hall a Shoe and 
 Leather Building had been erected, the design of which was to illus- 
 trate the various processes and products of that important branch of 
 manufacture. The Building of the Centennial Photographic Associa- 
 tion was located on the east side of Belmont Avenue, and was a spacious 
 edific^e where all the processes of ])hotography were illustrated. Sev- 
 eral of the leading newspapers of the country had buildings of limited 
 size, where their respective publications were advertised and offered 
 for sale. Then came the restaurants, cafds, and bazaars, varying in 
 their sort from common-place and mediocrity to a high degree of ele- 
 gance and luxury. — An extended description of structures of this 
 grade and fashion would hardly be appropriate in an abridged history 
 of the great Exhibition. 
 
 This account of the Exposition buildings can not be better con- 
 cluded than by a brief reference to the unexpected and extraordinary 
 pai-t which the Empire of Japan had taken in the Centennial. The 
 Japanese buildings — two in number — though neither elaborate in their 
 style nor expensive in construction, were far more elegant, tasteful, 
 and commodious than had been anticipated. The Japanese Dwelling 
 stood on George's Hill, north of the Spanish Government Building; 
 and the oriental edifice was the better of the two! Spain, whose immor- 
 tal navigator of the fifteenth century "gave a New World to Castile 
 and Leon," did obeisance at the American Centennial to the dusky 
 Island Empire of the Far Pacific ! The Bazaar of these progressive 
 foreigners was located near the Building of Public Comfort, and ex- 
 tended around three sides of a court. The edifice was of carved wood, 
 built without nails, low in elevation, covered with tiles. The grounds 
 were laid off in the style of a Japanese garden, and were surrounded 
 with a quaint fence of interwoven bamboo. These buildings, however, 
 
OBANT's administration: 591 
 
 creditable as they were, by no means did justice to the enterprise and 
 wit of the men who had them in charge. The people of the Western 
 Nations have felt a keen surprise at the intelligence, public spirit, and 
 progress manifested by the Japanese at the Centennial Exhibition. 
 
 Such were the buildings erected for the great occasion. And the 
 time drew near when they were to fulfill their purpose. On the 5tli 
 of January, 1876, the formal reception of articles for the Exposition 
 was begun. From that time forth the work of setting in proper array 
 the almost infinite variety of materials which came pouring in from 
 all quarters of the world, was pressed with the utmost expedition by 
 the Centennial Commissioners. A branch track of the Pennsylvania 
 Railway was laid to the very portals of the great halls, and every meas- 
 ure was adopted by the managers which could facilitate the delivery 
 and aiTangement of the articles of display. Still, there were delays, 
 foreseen and unforeseen ; and it became apparent that a brief post- 
 ponement of the formal opening of the Exhibition would be neces- 
 sary. The anniversary of the battle of Lexington had been fixed upon 
 as a suitable time for the inaugural ceremonies ; but the work lagged, 
 and the Commissioners reluctantly changed the date of opening to the 
 10th of May, and of closing to the 10th of November. 
 
 Meanwhile, on the 13th of October, 1875, A System of Awards 
 had been adopted by the Centennial Commission. The members of 
 that body — availing themselves of past experience, and improving 
 upon the imperfect methods employed by the managers of the Inter- 
 national Expositions of Paris and Vienna — presented the following 
 General Scheme : 
 
 I. Awards shall be based upon Written Reports, attested by the 
 signatures of their authors. 
 
 II. Two hundred Judges shall be appointed to make such re- 
 ports, one-half of whom shall be foreigners, and one-half citizens of 
 the United States. They siiall be selected for their known qualifica- 
 tions and character, and shall be experts in the departments to which 
 they shall be respectively assigned. The foreign members of this 
 body shall be appointed by the commissioners of each country, and 
 in conformity with the distribution and allotment to each, which will 
 be hereafter announced. The judges from the United States shall be 
 appointed by the Centennial Commission. 
 
 III. The sum of one thousand dollars will be paid to each com- 
 missioned judge, for personal expenses. 
 
 IV. Reports and awards shall be based upon Merit. The ele- 
 ments of merit shall be held to include considerations relating to 
 
592 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 originality, invention, discovery, utility, quality, skill, workmanship, 
 fitness for the purposes intended, adaptation to public wants, economy, 
 and cost. 
 
 V. Each report shall be delivered to the Centennial Commission 
 as soon as completed, for final award and publication. 
 
 VI. Awards shall be finally decreed by the United States Cen- 
 tennial Commission, in compliance with the act of Congress, and 
 shall consist of a Diploma, with a uniform bronze Medal, and a spe- 
 cial Report of the judges on the subject of the award. 
 
 YII. Each exhibitor shall have the right to reproduce and pub- 
 lish the report^awarded to him, but the United States Centennial 
 Commission reserves the right to publish and dispose of all reports 
 in the manner it thinks best for public information, and also to em- 
 body and distribute the reports as records of the Exhibition. 
 
 The day of opening came. Philadelphia was thronged with 
 strangers from all parts of the world. Every line of travel contrib- 
 uted its multitude. The morning of the 10th of May broke heavily 
 with clouds and rain. But patriotism made gloom impossible in the 
 Quaker City, and enthusiasm supplied the place of sunshine. A 
 thousand flags fluttered in every street, and more than ten times ten 
 ihousand people, cheering as they went, pressed their way towards 
 Fairmount Park. A military escort, four thousand strong, conducted 
 the President of tlie United States to the Centennial grounds. For 
 it was he who should declare the formal opening of the Exposition. 
 The notables of many nations had already preceded him to the scene 
 of the ceremonies. The great open space — traversed by the Avenue 
 of the Republic — between the Main Building and Memorial Hall, 
 had been prepared for the inauguration. There had assembled the 
 Supreme Court of the United States, members of the Cabinet and 
 the American Congress, the governors of many of the States, distin- 
 guished officers of the army and navy, the ministers from foreign 
 countries, Dom Pedro II. of Brazil and his queen, illustrious civil- 
 ians, statesmen and diplomatists, noblemen with titles and greater 
 men without them, — to witness the imposing pageant. 
 
 At the appointed hour the splendid orchestra, led by Theodore 
 Thomas, burst forth with the national airs of the various countries 
 participating in the Exhibition. Soon the President ascended the 
 platform and was seated, with the Brazilian Emperor and Empress 
 on his right. Then followed Wagner's celebrated Centennial Inaugu- 
 ration 3Iuveh, composed for the occasion. Matthew Simpson, bishop 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church, then offered an eloquent and fer- 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTBA TION. 
 
 593 
 
 vent prayer, which was followed by the singing of John G. Whittier's 
 Centennial Hymn. When the strains had died away, the Honorable 
 John Welsh, chairman of the Board of Finance, arose and made a 
 formal presentation of the buildings and grounds to General Hawley, 
 president of the Centennial Commission. The latter, in an appropri- 
 ate manner, accepted the trust; and then followed the singing of Sid- 
 ney Lanier's Ceniennial Cantata. General Hawley next delivered an 
 address, recounting briefly the things accomplished by the Centennial 
 Commission, and in the name thereof presenting to the President of 
 the United States the Inteenationai. Exhibition op 1876. The 
 President — most famous of all American chief-magistrates for not de- 
 
 INAUGURAL CEREMONIES OF THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 
 
 livering orations — replied to General Hawley in the following well- 
 chosen address : — 
 
 " My Countrymen : It has been thought appropriate, upon this 
 Centennial occasion, to bring together in Philadelphia, for popular 
 inspection, specimens of our attainments in the Industrial and Fine 
 arts, and in literature, science, and philosophy, as well as in the great 
 business of agriculture and commerce. That we may the more thor- 
 oughly appreciate the excellencies and deficiencies of our achieve- 
 ments, and also give emphatic expression to our earnest desire to cul- 
 tivate the friendship of our fellow-members of this great family ot 
 nations, the enlightened agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing 
 people of the world have been invited to send hither corresponding 
 
594 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 specimens of their skill to exhibit on equal terms, in friendly com- 
 petition with our own. — For so doing we render them our hearty 
 tliauks. 
 
 " The beauty and utility of the contributions will this day be 
 submittou i^ your inspection. We are glad to know that a view of 
 specimens of the skill of all nations will afford you unalloyed pleas- 
 tire, as well as yield to you a valuable practical knowledge of so 
 many of the remarkable results of tlie wonderful skill existing in 
 enlightened communities. 
 
 " One hundred years ago our country was new, and but partially 
 settled. Our necessities have compelled us chiefly to expend our 
 means and time in felling forests, subduing prairies, building dwell- 
 ings, factories, ships, docks, warehouses, roads, canals, and machin- 
 ery. Most of our schools, churches, libraries, and asylums have been 
 established within a hundred years. Burdened with these great pri- 
 mal works of necessity, which could not be delayed, we yet have done 
 what this Exhibition will show in the direction of rivaling older and 
 more advanced nations in law, medicine, and theology ; in science, 
 literature, philosophy, and the fine arts. Whilst proud of what we 
 have done, we regret that we have not done more. Our achievements 
 have been great enough, however, to make it easy for our people to 
 acknowledge superior merit wherever found. 
 
 " And now, fellow-citizens, I hope a careful examination of what is 
 about to be exhibited to you will not only inspire you with a profound 
 respect for the skill and taste of our friends from other nations, but 
 also satisfy you with the attainments made by our own people dur- 
 ing the past one hundred years. I invoke your generous cooperation 
 with the worthy Commissioners, to secure a brilliant success to this 
 International Exhibition, and to make the stay of our foreign visit- 
 ors — to whom we extend a hearty welcome — both profitable and 
 pleasant to them. 
 
 " I DECLARE THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION NOW OPEN." 
 
 When the President's brief oration Mas concluded, the National 
 ensign was flung out as a signal from the great flag-staff of the Main 
 Building ; the banners of foreign nations were immediately unfurled ; 
 cheers rent the air; a salute of a hundred guns from the battery on 
 George's Hill answered to the shout. Memorial Hall, the Main 
 Building, and Machinery Hall were now thrown open to receive the 
 procession of invited guests — four thousand in number, and first to 
 behold the handiwork of the nations. General (irant and Major 
 Alfred T. Goshorn, the able and indefatigable Director-General of 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 595 
 
 the Exhibition, led the way from the Main Building, and down the 
 great aisle of Machinery Hall to the center, where a special work had 
 been reserved for the President and the Brazilian Emperor. This 
 honorable duty was to open the valves of the mighty Corliss Engine, 
 whose tremendous pistons were to start into life and motion the in- 
 finite machinery of the hall. At twenty minutes past one o'clock, the 
 signal was given by George 
 H. Corliss, the maker of the 
 iron giant. The President 
 and the Emperor, standing 
 upon the raised platform, 
 opened the valves ; the 
 ponderous fly-wheel started 
 on its tireless rounds, and 
 the multitudinous engines of 
 the hall began their varied 
 work. — The Centennial Ex- 
 hibition was fairly inaugu- 
 rated under the most auspi- 
 cious omens. 
 
 Such was the begin- 
 ning. Into the spacious 
 and beautiful park, into the 
 great buildings provided by 
 national wealth and patriot- 
 ism, had come the products 
 of all lands and the people of all climes. Never before in the his- 
 tory of the world had so many of the fruits of human genius been 
 brought together — never before had so rich a display of the handi- 
 work and skill of man been made. What, therefore, of the Exposi- 
 tion itself? How did it impress the imagination of the beholder? 
 How enlarge his faculties and increase his fund of knowledge? In 
 what way conduce to a higher standard of civilization ? For that 
 was the object aimed at. 
 
 The first effect of the great Exposition upon the mind of the be- 
 holder was a sense of (ilarm and bewilderment at the extent of the dis^ 
 platf. At the verv beginning, he despaired of realizing the exhibition 
 on account of its vast proportions. On ascending from the valley of 
 the Schuylkill to the Lansdowne Plateau, a vision rose ujidn him pos- 
 sessing every element of intellectual interest, from the simple beauty of 
 the green sward and flower-gardens at his feet, to the stately magnifi- 
 
 ALFRED T. GOSHORN. 
 
696 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cence of" the Main Building and the grandeur of Memorial Hall. Here 
 wound tlie long asphaltura boulevards, thronged, but not crowded, 
 with ten thousand strangers. Beyond lay a landscape of slojiing hill- 
 sides, lakes, forest, and fountains. The entire space, though a most 
 living picture, was noiseless, airy, and clean — a field of many colors, 
 full of sunshine, foliage, and flags. For the banners of all nations 
 waved everywhere. 
 
 Entering under the eastern arches of the Main Building, tlic vis- 
 itor, rallying from his first surprises, began a work which he should 
 never accomplish — ihat of examining in detail the exhibits of the great 
 hall. From the gallery overhead floated down upon him the melodi- 
 ous and far-reaching harmonics of the mammoth Hastings organ witli 
 its twenty-seven hundred pipes and its twelve hundred and eighty 
 square feet of front. Ascending to the gallery, the observer found 
 himself face to face with the splendid educational display of tlie State 
 of Massachusetts — best of its kind at the Exposition — embracing the 
 finest of the plans, models, and methods employed in the schools of 
 the Old Bay Commonwealth. Turning about and glancing to the 
 west, down the long avenues, the full vision of tlie Exhibition burst 
 upon him. There on the ground-floor lay the magnificent " courts," 
 or hollow squares, into which the space had been divided — each of 
 these courts an exposition in itself. Afar to the right, where the 
 main transept ended in the north projection of the building, the gal- 
 lei-v was occupied with the great Roosevelt organ M'itli its electric 
 echo and hydraulic engine. In the corresponding gallery, at tiu' 
 south end of the transept, were the fine educational displays of Maine, 
 New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Maryland, 
 Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
 and Iowa. In the gallery at the western end of the main avenue — 
 dimly seen at the distance of thirty-five hundredths of a mile — was 
 placed the exhibit of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the 
 display consisting of models, drawings, and photographs peculiar to 
 engineering art. 
 
 Descending to the main floor, the observer found himself in a 
 world of wonders. Near the eastern entrance was the fine exhibit 
 made by American stationers, and south of this the splendid l)ook 
 dis[)lay, representing the superb work done by all the great publisli- 
 ing houses of the country. Further westward was the departnicut 
 allotted to the Yale Lock Manufacturers for the exhibition of tiicir 
 model post-offices. Next came the large section set aj>art for tiic dis- 
 play of American silks, woolens, and cotton goods — faln-ics rivaling 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 697 
 
 the riclipst products of European aiul Oriental factories. And the 
 carpet pavilion — also American — with its patterns, delicate, novel, 
 luxurious, merited ei][ual praise for the splendor of its treasures. Nor 
 did' the cutlery of the United States, which was exhibited above the 
 sections allotted to textile fal)rics, suffer by comparison with the finest 
 corresponding products of British skill. 
 
 Among the southeastern squares was likewise set the display ot 
 American pottery and porcelain. Near by stood a collection of gran- 
 ite monuments, and in the same vicinity a splendid exhibit of iron 
 and steel, chiefly from the furnaces and works of Pittsburgh. ]\Iore 
 attractive still was the great display of American watches, made by 
 
 
 -^^t-^^^^^^'^^-^v- f^ 
 
 ii 'Pdm 
 
 VIEW IN THE MAIN EXHIBITION BUILDING. 
 
 the Waltham Company of Massachusetts and the Elgin of Illinois. 
 Beyond the main aisle, to the north, bristled batteries of Gatling and 
 Parrott guns, and farther on were placed exhibits of safes from sev- 
 eral noted firms. The next sections were occupied with the beautiful 
 and costly displays of furnishing goods, costumes, etc., from the prin- 
 cipal merchants of New York and Philadelphia. Then came an ex- 
 hibit of vases, pedestals, and fountains, in terra cotta ; then the sec- 
 tions set apart for threads, cordage, and cables ; and south of these, 
 beyond the principal avenue, the massive display of the Centennial 
 Safe Deposit Company and the beautiful department of American 
 clocks. 
 
 On the line of the main aisle, between the eastern entrance and 
 
598 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 the greater transept, were arranged the fine collections of cut and 
 ground glass, the best being from the works of Wheeling and Pitts- 
 burgh. In the adjacent sections stood the glittering show-cases of the 
 Meriden Britannia Company with their beautiful specimens of silver, 
 plated wares, and bronzes. But more magnificent still was the jew- 
 elers' pavilion — Moorish in its style — standing at the southeast angle 
 of the principal nave and transept. In this were disjjlayed the almost 
 priceless treasures of the leading American jewelers — Starr and Mar- 
 cus, Caldwell of Philadelphia, and the Gorliam Manufacturing Com- 
 pany of Providence. Among the articles exhibited by the latter was 
 the celebrated Century Vase, representing by its beautiful allego- 
 ries and emblems in raised silver the progress of America from bar- 
 barism to renown. Here also were the matchless show-cases of Tiffany, 
 starlit with diamonds, and blazing with all manner of precious stones. 
 It was here, moreover, that the observer found the best view over- 
 head ; for at this point, by the bisection of the principal nave and 
 transept, abundant room was afforded above for the display of art. 
 Each of the four sides of the vaulted space was occupied with an 
 immense allegorical painting. That on the east represented America, 
 with Washington and Franklin for its central figures. The piece em- 
 blematical of Europe stood opposite, with Charlemagne and Shake- 
 speare as its typical heroes. Asia was represented at the south curve 
 of the transept by a group of figures and emblems, with Confucius 
 and Mohammed in the midst; while in the north division was set the 
 painting of Africa, Rameses II. and Sesostris occupying the center. 
 
 In the section south and east of the jewelers' pavilion were 
 placed the exhibits of ores, paints, and chemicals. The display of 
 printing-inks was made near by; and further to the east stood the 
 perfume-fountains with their jets of cologne and halos of fragrant 
 mist. Still eastward were set the cases containing the exhibit of phil- 
 osopliical and surgical instruments ; and in the same vicinity, to the 
 south, were the sections allotted to furniture, much of whieii was of 
 the richest woods and most elaborate finish known to that branch of 
 art. And before the observer had finished his examination of these 
 superb apartments — for here the courts were fitted up after the man- 
 ner of a suite of rooms — his ear was saluted with strains of music, 
 and turning about, he found himself face to face with the finest dis- 
 play of jjiano-fortes ever made in the world. All of the great makers 
 had here done their best, under the stimulus of the sharpest compe- 
 tition — Steinway, Chickering, Decker, Steck, Kuabe, AVeber,— eaoli 
 with his claims of peculiar excellence, and each anxious for the su- 
 
GHANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 599 
 
 preme award. — So ended a ramble through the seven acres of space 
 apportioned on the ground-floor of the Main Building to the exhibits 
 of the United States. 
 
 But the Saxon's Island Empire, mother of English liberty, was 
 also there with her arts and industries. Over the northwest angle 
 of the main aisle and transept hung the Red banner of Lancaster, 
 bearing the words " Great Britain and Ireland." There were 
 the courts apportioned to the British commission. In the first of 
 these was placed the celebrated exhibit of the Elkingtons, silver- 
 smiths of Birmingham. Their collection embraced several pieces 
 worthy to rank among the highest products of human skill and pa- 
 tience. The work was mostly in the new style of art called Repousse 
 — the process of developing figures in relief upon metallic surfaces by 
 hammering. Here stood the Helicon Vase with its infinite stories 
 from the legends of Greece. Here hung THE Milton Shield, bear- 
 ing upon its ample disc the sublime visions of Paradise Lost.* Here 
 a great number of less valuable works in silver and bronze gave ex- 
 tent and variety to one of the richest collections in the whole Exhi- 
 bition. 
 
 Nearer to the northern projection of the Main Building were 
 placed the British porcelains and potteries, embracing some of the 
 finest specimens of cei'amic art. Farther northward was the display 
 of ornamental iron-work, and to the west an extensive exhibit of 
 tiles. Next came the department of British furniture, rivaling that 
 of the United States in the elaborate and sumptuous character of its 
 specimens. Near by, the pavilion of the Royal School of Art and 
 Needlework attracted a constant throng of visitors. For the queen 
 herself and the members of her fiimily were the makers of those splen- 
 did embroideries. Farther to the west was the magnificent display of 
 the British carpet-dealers. Then came the exhibit of fire-arms, cut- 
 lery, philosophical instruments, stained glass, jewelry — chiefly Scot- 
 tish — and then the superb collection of cotton and woolen goods, 
 Irish poplins, cloths, silks, and laces, with which the section was 
 filled along the main avenue. 
 
 The British Colonies had emulated the zeal of the mother-coun- 
 try. The Canadian exhibit was of the highest order. The educa- 
 tional system of Ontario was fully and meritoriously displayed by 
 
 ■■■' It was a matter of oft-repeated inquiry among the visitors at tlie Centennial, why 
 these snpei-b specimens of workmanship exhibited by the Elliingtons, as well as the 
 Tiffany Bryant Vase and the Gorham Century Vase, were not transferred to Memorial 
 Hall, along with other works of art in no respect superior. 
 
600 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 models, plans, and drawings illustrative of the methods and work of 
 the public schools. The geological department was enriched with a 
 full collection of ores, especially plumbago, coal, and granite. The 
 Canadian Indians had sent a large contribution of peltiy, bead-work, 
 and apparel ; and this display was contrasted with the richer and more 
 extensive exhibit of furs made by the Company of Hudson Bay. In 
 another section specimens of furniture from the shops of Quebec and 
 Toronto gave token of tastefully furnished homes in the Dominion. 
 Models of Canadian vessels showed commercial enterprise ; cotton 
 and woolen goods told of extensive factories; sewing-machines and 
 pianos repeated the music of the Northern household. 
 
 Far Australia had also remembered the jubilee of Independence. 
 The flocks on her hill-sides had contributed their magnificent fleeces 
 to surprise the Western nations. The Argonauts of the South Pacific 
 were home again with the richest of treasures ! Here stood an obe- 
 lisk of phantom gold, showing in cubic inches the quantity of real 
 gold taken from the mines of New South Wales since 1851. Here 
 were bars of New Zealand tin and blocks of coal ; sections of beau- 
 tiful timber and cocoons of silk; ores of antimony and copper; na- 
 tive wines and heaps of precious stones. Excellent photographs of 
 Australian cities and scenery added much to the interest of the ex- 
 hibit. 
 
 British India had also contributed specimens of her arts and 
 industries. Photographs of her dusky people — oldest of the Aryan 
 races — whose ancestors and our ancestors, in the far hill-country of 
 Bactria, abode together, watching the same flocks, gazing at the same 
 stars, and dreaming the same dream of destiny in the ages agone, — 
 and photographs of Hindu homes as well, made the display of special 
 interest. India carpets, gems from Bombay, and Delhi embroidery 
 added brilliancy to the exhibit. Here, too, were jeweled weapons, 
 native pottery, and precious stones; shawls and laces; silks and wool- 
 ens; cereals and cotton from the banks of the Indus. 
 
 The colony of New Zealand was chiefly represented by paintings 
 and drawings. But an important display of copper ores, lead, and 
 coal was also made. The section of the Cape of Good Hope was 
 occupied with a collection of native wines and brandies; gems and 
 weapons ; costumes and ores ; and specimens illustrating the natural 
 history of the country. Gold-dust, skins of animals, idols, ornaments, 
 and weapons composed the display from the Gold Coast. Jamaica 
 sent her rums and sugars, native woods and hemp. Tasmania had 
 also come with an exhibit of zoological and mineral specimens. The 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 601 
 
 Bahamas, Bermudas, Trinidad, and Guiana were represented by their 
 various products, ranging from shells and corals to sugars, tobacco, 
 and manufactures. 
 
 La Belle France — for the third time a repulblic ! After a hun- 
 dred years the land of LaFayette had come to do homage at the 
 shrine which his blood had helped to consecrate. The space allotted 
 to the French Commission was located between the main aisle and 
 the north wall of the building, east of the central transept. The 
 section of chief importance was that containing the exhibit of porce- 
 lains, rivaling in beauty and excellence the choicest work of the East. 
 In glassware, too, the French display was of the highest order. The 
 su])crb mirrors and chandeliers, exhibited by Brocard of Paris, were 
 a delight to thousands who thronged around them. The section set 
 apart for the display of bronzes and antiques was also crowded with 
 admiring multitudes. Here stood an elegant mantel-piece of black 
 marble, fifteen feet in height, exquisitely embellished with statues^ 
 and reliefs ; and here were grouped artistic cabinets, quaint figures,, 
 and articles in gilt. 
 
 Another department of great beauty was that in wiiich were ex- 
 hibited the treasures of French fashion — laces, gloves, silks, velvets, 
 satins, and costumes. In this dazzling court Lyons and Paris were 
 rivals. Near by was a second department of apparel, where courtly 
 wax-figures, dressed to the excess of magnificence, did obeisance to 
 other figures in splendid shawls and laces. Furtlier on, stood the 
 pavilion of the book publishers of France ; and opposite to this was 
 the court of engravings. The walls of the booksellers' pavilion were 
 hung with the most elegant tapestries ; and many of the jjublica- 
 tions displayed within were in the highest style of art. North of 
 these sections, was the department of French vehicles — a unique col- 
 lection, ranging from the quaint Cynofere, or dog-car, to carriages- 
 of state. 
 
 In the matter of personal ornaments and articles of household 
 economy, the French exhibit was of great excellence. The display 
 of the Paris jewelers was exceptional in its beauty and tastefulness. 
 Of mantel ornaments there was an almost infinite variety, ranging 
 from little ivory sprites and phantoms in ebony to elaborate clocks 
 and bronzes. Of musical instruments — violins, flutes, cornets, music- 
 boxes, and mimic birds — the exhibit was elegant after its kind. But 
 the French pianos and organs were hardly comparable with the mag- 
 nificent instruments displayed by the United States. In the depart- 
 ment of cutlery a fine collection was presented, but the display was 
 
<)02 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 inferior to the corresponding exhibit made Ijy Great Britain. Tho 
 comparison turned the other way, however, in the section of phite 
 glass ; for in that department the French specimens were peerless.* 
 
 West of the central transept and south of the principal aisle were 
 the sections allotted to the German Empire. Across the avenue, di- 
 rectly opposite the American jewelers' pavilion, was placed the mag- 
 nificent exhibit of the Royal Factory of Berlin. Here stood an im- 
 posing crescent-shaped case, with black columns at either end, bearing 
 upon their summits the golden eagles of empire — the empire of Caesar 
 and Charlemagne restored in Hohenzollern. In this case were dis- 
 played the German porcelains, next to the French in excellence and 
 beauty. Here were plates, busts, and statuettes, elaborate in design 
 and intensely national in every part. Here were the three superb 
 emblematical pieces called the Germaxia, the Ai'rora, and the 
 Otho Vases — queenly rivals of the splendid works of the Elkingtons, 
 Titfany, and Gorham. Further to the west was the section of plate 
 glass ; then the exhibit of the German jewelers ; and then the court 
 ■of armory, where were displayed the uniforms, acconterments, and 
 weapons of the German soldiery, from the Crusading times to the 
 present. Next came a section filled with toys from Niirnberg, and 
 next the displays of Elberfeld silks and Saxon hosiery. On the 
 southern aisle the objects of chief interest wei-e the ivories exhibited 
 by Meyer of Hamburg, the woven wire goods of Dresden, the gold 
 and silver leaf exhibit of Bavaria, and the perfumes of Cologne. 
 Nearer to the southern wall was the display of the German chem- 
 ists. Then came the Leipsic lamps and lanterns, and then the Lin- 
 den pavilion of velvets. 
 
 The southwest section of the German department was occupied 
 with what musical instruments soever are played upon in Fatherland. 
 But here again, as in the department of France, the inadequacy of 
 the pianos and organs to compete with the instruments of the United 
 States was plainly apparent. Along the southern wall was placed 
 an interesting collection of articles illustrating the appliances and 
 
 ■■ The manufacture of American plate glass is yet in its incipiency, and is beset with 
 special difficulties. Chief among the embarrassments which have attended the enter- 
 prise is the want of adequate protection, and the inveterate determination of foreign 
 establishments to prevent the success of such manufact\ire in the United States. Never- 
 theless, it is known to the author that but for the serious misfortune of breaking the 
 finest plate in packing, tlie Honorable W. C. De Pauw, president of the Star (ilass 
 Works of New Albany, Indiana, would have contributed to the Exposition specimens 
 of his work fairly rivaling the best of the French exhibit. The largest of the De Pauw 
 collection was a magnificent plate h.aving a superficial area q/'21,095 square inches. 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 603 
 
 methods of a German army hospital. Near by was the exhibit of 
 the Schwartzwold cloclc-makers — a quaint and beautiful collection. 
 Models of the Hamburg steamships were found in the southeastern 
 sections, and, finally, the elegant pavilion of the German booksellers 
 — best of the kind from Europe. 
 
 A descriptit)n of the departments of the leading Western nations, 
 and of the exhil)its made thereby, is in some measure a description 
 of the rest. True, the beholder as he wandered from court to court 
 was ever impressed with the multifarious aspects of human life and 
 the ever-varying phases of civilization. Still, so far as the displays 
 made by the different branches of the Aryan race were concerned, 
 there was unity in variety — a generic similarity with specific modifi- 
 cations. As to the Oriental nations, there was a wider depai'ture 
 from the common type, but a noticeable similarity of features among 
 their own displays. The thoughtful observer rarely failed to find in 
 the various courts an exhibit typical of a known civilization, but he 
 also found more than that. Thus, for instance, the Austrian sections 
 presented the expected treasures of Bohemian cut-glass ; of amber- 
 work and meerschaums; of pipes ad wfinitnm; of Viennese porte- 
 monnaies, diaries, and albums ; and the wnexpected treasures of the 
 silk-weavers of the Danube. Also in the Italian court were found 
 the anticipated reproductions of ancient art; trophies commemorative 
 of the Italian Radicals from Columbus to Garibaldi ; the religious 
 halo over every thing ; and the «)(anticipated display of Venetian 
 pottery. The Belgian section presented the finest of Brussels linens, 
 laces, and tapestries ; and, as if in contrast with these, an elaborate 
 display of fire-arms and an illuminated advertisement of the min- 
 eral waters of Spa. Holland made an exhibit of what things soever 
 the Netherlander prizes — from dikes to pipe-stems, from magnificent 
 bridges to humble roofs of thatch. Nor had the conquerors of the 
 North Sea forgotten the refinements of letters ; for the Dutch Ijook- 
 sellers' pavilion was among the finest at the Exposition. 
 
 Here stood the cuckoo clocks of Switzerland. Geneva, city of 
 political philosophy and quaint watches, was present with all her arts. 
 The embroidered lace curtains of St. Gall hung tastefully over pho- 
 tographs of the Alpine glens, and the Swiss pavilion of education 
 stood near by. Sweden contributed a court of exceptional elegance, 
 well filled with the products of her arts and industries. The chief 
 attractions of the display were the specimens of Bessemer steel and 
 cutlery, Swedish arms and armor, woolens and silks, safety-matches 
 and pottery. Norway presented her glassware from Christiana. An- 
 
604 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 oient weapons were placed in contrast with a modern Norwegian 
 school-lioiise, and old coins and medals with modern jewels and sil- 
 verware. 
 
 Among the sections of chief interest were the courts of Den- 
 mark, Egypt, and Spain. These were set contiguous, fronting the 
 main aisle, and representing in their style and contents three diverse 
 types of civilization. The articles most a-ttractive in the Danish court 
 were terra cotta ornaments, silverware from Copenhagen, Esquimau 
 apparel, and a rich collection of furs. Across the entrance-way ta 
 the Egyptian court was this inscription : " Egypt — Soudan — the 
 
 OLDEST PEOPLE OF THE WOULD SENDS ITS MORNING GREI;TING TO 
 
 THE YOUNGEST NATION." Entering, the visitor was confronted with 
 a bust of Rameses the Great and a model of the Pyramid of Gizeh. 
 Then came a gorgeous display of the caparisons and gold-studded 
 harness of the steeds of the modern Pharaohs; then cabinets of 
 ebony, costly and quaint; and then an exhibit of Arabic books and 
 manuscripts. The court of Spain was richly hung with Spanish tro- 
 phies and curtains of velvet. Within were the portraits of those dar- 
 ing adventurers, Cortez, De Leon, De Soto, and Pizarro. The articles 
 displayed were typical of the country and people. Scarfs and shawls, 
 silks and woolens, porcelain tiles and glassware, chemicals and fire- 
 arms, were the chief products exhibited. 
 
 Opposite the departments allotted to Sweden stood the court of 
 Japan. The contents surpassed description. The display of bronzes 
 attracted universal attention and universal jiraise. The porcelains 
 were, beyond comparison, the finest of the whole Exposition — finest 
 in quality and in the immense variety of the exhibit. Richness of 
 coloring — vivid hues of scarlet, green, and gold — prevailed every- 
 where. Lacquered ware of every variety, superb cabinets, and silken 
 screens embroidered with figures infinite, curious faces, and Japanese 
 costumes, made up a display which astonished the Western mind with 
 the profusion of Eastern art. 
 
 China did not half so well — yet well. About the whole display- 
 were the anticipated characteristics of overdone conservatism. Here 
 was the expected array of drawings without perspective and designs, 
 consisting wholly of color. Here was a pagoda painted in fantastic 
 hues, and here that China ware — a rich profusion of plates and vases — 
 for which the Celestial empire has had immemorial fame. Here, too, 
 were the beautiful silks, and cloths with gold embroidery, and elab- 
 orate bedsteads carved with dragons' heads, and woven forms unnam- 
 able in tapestry and screen. The polite and impassive man of the 
 
GHANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 605 
 
 nlmond eyes and cue — manager of the exhibit — walked among the 
 ti-opliies of his civilization and did reverence before a wooden image 
 of Fo. 
 
 The Russian court was placed between the sections of Spain and 
 Austria. An iron statue of the inspired barbarian, Peter the Great, 
 stood liite a grim sentinel to guard the treasures of his empire. Mucli 
 fine silverware, of excellent design and workmanship, was displayed 
 as the exhibit of Moscow. A magnificent piece in Repousse, called 
 The Adoration of the Magi, elicited universal praise. St. Peters- 
 burg had sent a similar collection, and also a unique group of bronzes 
 illustrative of the life and manners of the Russian peasants. Another 
 section contained a superb chandelier, together with statuettes, cas- 
 kets, cabinets, and mantels. The exhibit of Russian furs was unsur- 
 passed ; and the display of embroidered cloths, velvets, and silks was 
 well calculated to excite the jealousy of more favored lands. 
 
 The section of Portugal was found in the rear of the court of 
 Egypt. Glassware, porcelain, and pottery constituted a large part of 
 the exhibit. The life, costumes, and manners of the Portuguese peas- 
 antry were here represented by groups of statuary in plaster. The 
 Azores made a beautiful display of phantom ships and flower-baskets 
 .woven of the fiber of the fig-tree. Along the south wall of the sec- 
 tion was placed a fine collection of geological and topographical maps 
 and charts illustrating the physical aspect of Portugal. The exhibit 
 of raw silk, cotton goods, blankets, and embroidery, M'as exceptionally 
 ^00 d. 
 
 Of the African kingdoms — after Egypt — the best and only dis- 
 plays were made by the Orange Free State and Tunis. The court 
 of the latter was located in the rear of the sections of Denmark and 
 Turkey, and was almost exclusively occupied with the personal ex- 
 hibit made by the Dey. The collection consisted of articles illustra- 
 tive of the manners and customs of the Bedouins, and of antiquities 
 from the ruins of Carthage. The court of the Orange Free State 
 occupied the southwestern angle of the building, and was wholly 
 devoted to the governmental exhibit made by the authorities of that 
 country. An unexpected array of minerals, native woods, ivory, 
 grains, mohair, and wool, composed the chief part of the collection. 
 But the cases containing the wealth of the feathery races of South- 
 eastern Africa, from the infinitesimal humming-birds, of Madagascar 
 to the straggling descendants of the dinornis, were of still greater 
 interest and beauty. 
 
 No department in the Main Building was more admired and 
 
606 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 praised than the court of Brazil. Dom Pedro and his queen had no 
 cause of shame in the presence of their national exhibit. The Bra- 
 zilian pavilion was located between the courts of the Netherlands and 
 Belgium, and was characterized throughout by elegant magnificence 
 of structure and contents. At the entrance was a brilliant display of 
 flowers and designs delicately woven from the plumage of Brazilian 
 birds. Topographical maps and photographs illustrated the physical 
 aspect of the country; while the splendid display of tropical woods, 
 together with the finest of coffees, yams, ginger, and rice, revealed 
 the true riches of the empire. 
 
 The minor South American States were also fairly represented. 
 The pavilion of Peru was tastefully ornamented ; the contents, of 
 value and interest. Gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, iron, and lead, 
 were the principal minerals exhibited; coffee, pepper, cinnamon, co- 
 coa, caoutchouc, and cinchona, the chief vegetable products. The 
 court of Chili was of similar sort, and contained some fine specimens 
 of silk and worsted-work; but the most interesting part was the case 
 filled with the stuffed skins of Chilian wild animals. The exhibit of 
 the Argentine Confederation was chiefly of ores — gold, silver, copper, 
 and lead. The display also embraced fine specimens of building- 
 stone, quartz, and plumbago. The manufactures were, for the most 
 part, of leather; and handicraft was mainly illustrated in a collection 
 of native weapons. — Far Hawaii, also, had a pavilion of considerable 
 interest, containing a collection of birds, shells, and sea-weed ; fans,. 
 ferns, and feather-work. 
 
 Mexico, with her pseudo-Latin civilization and anarchic repub- 
 licanism, had pitched her court next to that of the United States. 
 The pavilion was Aztec in its style, with hints of a more modern 
 date. The exhibit was principally historic, consisting of antiquities 
 and remains. The display of manufactures embraced some fine silks 
 and elegant leather goods. Here M'ere effigies of Mexican cavaliers, 
 formidable as Quixote in armor. Here were native wines and me- 
 dicinal plants, and here a fine collection of ores — silver, galena, and 
 iron. But the exhibit in its entirety was neither striking nor ex- 
 tensive. 
 
 In the Carriage Annex the observer found much to instruct and 
 amuse. For here were the ridiculous vehicles which the fathers made 
 their journeys in — old Virginia or Concord coaches, heavy enough 
 for a fortification. But here, in contrast, was the full triumph of 
 modern art in the combination of the ornate and the useful. All 
 things elegant and luxurious of silver-palace car or private carriage- 
 
GRANT'S A D MINIS TEA TION. 
 
 607 
 
 studded with gold, and all things pVosy of sj^okes and hubs and har- 
 ness, were here displayed in profusion. Here again Brazil, eonipet- 
 ing with Pullman and Woodruff, presented a splendid coaeh from 
 the Rio Janeiro llailway. Here Canadian sleighs and sledges were 
 eontrasted with the diminutive coaches of Italy and the substantial 
 vehicles of Old England. — And so the rambler, passing under the' 
 western arches of the INIain Building, found himself in the open air, 
 facing the Bartholdi Fountain. 
 
 The way across the beautiful esplanade led to Machinery HalL 
 
 INTERKI \IE« jr MACIIINERi HALL 
 
 Entering at the southeastern portal of that great edifice, the observer 
 came at once into the department of the German Empire. Immedi- 
 ately before him stood the famous Krupp guns, gigantic twelve hun- 
 dred pounders, black and terrible as the Miltonic artillery. Several 
 rifled cannon of smaller caliber were set in contrast; and just across 
 the aisle was a pyramid of iron-ore, showing the material out of which 
 the great guns were cast. On the opposite side of the battei'y Avas 
 exhibited a brick-making machine from Berlin. Near the southeast- 
 ern angle of the building, the Gas Motor Factory of Deutz displayed 
 a peculiar engine in which the piston is propelled by the explosion 
 of gas. The best steam-engines exhibited in the German section were 
 troni the works of Leipsic. 
 
€08 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The deiiartmeiit of France embraced the northeastern division of 
 the grouud-floor. Near the entrance thereto was placed an elegant 
 pavilion in which were illustrated the processes of working in brass 
 and copper. The confectioners' section, where bon-bons were made 
 and sold, came next, and then the department of Parisian soaps and 
 cosmetics. In this part also stood the silk-looms of I^yons, and fur- 
 ther to the north a set of machines illustrating the processes of li- 
 thography. An apparatus for the manufacture of beet-sugar was also 
 exhibited, and an ice-making machine from Paris. The rest of the 
 French contrivances had respect, for the most part, to fashionable 
 wants and the avocations of polite society. 
 
 Further westward was placed the section of Belgium. Chaudron 
 -of Brussels led the exhibit with an effective and tremendous machine 
 for boring wells.* Car-wheels and axles from Louvain, a trip-ham- 
 mer and steam shears from Marcinelle, and models of machinery for 
 the manufacture of stearine, were the next attractive features of the 
 display. A splendid cxliibit of wool-carding apparatus was presented 
 as the contribution of Verviers ; and the city of Ghent added a superb 
 horizontal engine, built for the mint at Brussels. 
 
 The Xorthern nations had contributed little in the way of ma- 
 chinery : Denmark nothing at all. Sweden made a small but respect- 
 able display in the way of trip-hammers, stationary engines, one small 
 locomotive, a fii-e-engine, and several sewing-machines. The con- 
 tribution of Norway consisted of some odd-looking machinery for 
 working in wood and metal. The Russian display was almost wholly 
 of artillery — partly good, partly indifferent in its quality. In the same 
 vicinity was the fine exhibit made by Brazil, consisting of nuidels of 
 dry docks and men-of-war; military and naval enginery; arms, ac- 
 oouterments, and munitions; stationary, hicomotive, and fire-engines; 
 pumps, pin-making apparatus, and machinery employed in the Imjie- 
 rial mint. 
 
 Tlie best of the exhibits made by foreign nations was that of 
 Great Britain. Two of the Rochester traction-engines, standing near 
 the eastern entrance to the hall, were much wondered at and praised. 
 So, also, the fine carding-machine just opposite. Manchester made a 
 fine display of steam hammers, circular saws, and enginery of coinage 
 and stamping dies. The armor-plate exhibited here was the best ever 
 produced, ranging from nine inches to twenty-two inches in thickness, 
 
 * It is clear that, in respect to machines for upland excavation, the Americans have 
 much to learn. That whole line of contrivance, beginning with the plow and eliding 
 witli the dredging-niachine, is subject to great and radical improvements. 
 
GRA^^T'S ADMINISTRATION. 609 
 
 seemingly impenetrable. The Applebys of London exhibited two of 
 their tremendous cranes— giants after their kind. English sewing- 
 machines — mostly of the hand-power pattern — were plentifully dis- 
 played. In the sections near by, the spinning and winding of cotton 
 thread was illustrated, and further on, the delicate looms for weaving 
 silken badges were in operation. Gadd of Manchester exhibited an 
 engine capable of printing calicoes in eight colors at one impression. 
 An effective system of railway switching and signaling was shown by 
 Brierly and Reynolds of London. In an adjoining square stood a 
 fine model of an Inman steamship, and east of this a Walter printing- 
 press in operation. Farther on, Tait and Watson of London displayed 
 a collection of machines, including a sugar-mill, a valveless engine, 
 and centrifugal drying-pans. — Across the aisle was the exhibit of Can- 
 ada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, — embracing turbine wheels, a 
 set of railway signals, quartz-mills from Halifax, Toronto marbles, 
 fire-engines, sewing-machines, and Indian canoes. 
 
 Of the American department — three-fourths of the whole in ex- 
 tent — the greatest trophy was the Corliss vertical engine, standing in 
 the middle of the central aisle. The platform was fifty-six feet in 
 diameter ; the stroke of the piston, ten feet ; the weight of the fly- 
 wheel, a hundred and twelve thousand pounds. It required twenty 
 tubular boilers of large capacity to furnish the proper amount of 
 steam. The periphery of the fly-wheel was geared with cogs into tlie 
 underground line of shafting, and the power applied was equivalent 
 to that of fourteen hundred horses ; but the movements of the great 
 engine were smooth and noiseless. 
 
 From the central station, the oliserver, glancing down the south 
 transept, had a full view of the Hydraulic Annex. Here pumps of 
 every grade and fashion were pouring their torrents into a vast tank 
 having a capacity of sixty-three thousand cubic feet of water. An 
 interesting display of steel ware was made in a section near by, and 
 further on, an exhibit of metal piano-frames by the Steinways. Here 
 the process of making nails and tacks was illustrated, and there a 
 machine was cutting corks. On this hand was an extensive collec- 
 tion of files and screws, and on tliat a pyramid of grindstones. Far- 
 ther on, to the west, was an exhibit of rolled iron, and next, a large 
 display of axles and machinists' tools. A huge brick-making ma- 
 chine, capable of moulding four thousand bricks in an hour, was fairly 
 matched with a mammoth planing machine, weighing a hundred and 
 sixty-two thousand pounds, and having a traverse of forty-four feet. 
 In an adjacent section, paper envelopes were made by an automatic 
 
 39 
 
610 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 apparatus at the rate of a huudred and twenty per minute. Worces- 
 ter, Massachusetts, contributed a collection of edged tools, dies, and 
 presses; and Paterson, New Jersey, a machine for spinning silk. On 
 the central aisle model steamers, men-of-war, yachts, and life-boats- 
 were exhibited. Next came the sections occupied with Hoe and Bul- 
 lock printing-presses; then the book-binding, stereotyping, and elec- 
 trotyping display, and then the splendid roller-drum book-press of 
 Cottrell and Babcock, New York. A type-writer stood near by, and 
 farther on was a section where all the steam- and sailing-vessels owned 
 in the ports of Massachusetts were exhibited by models. 
 
 In the department of confections the American display rivaled 
 that of France. Close to the bon-bon section were placed some fine 
 wheat-cleaning and centrifugal sugar-drying apparatuses. Then came 
 an old Virginia tobacco factory, where all the processes of making 
 were exhibited. And the colored people, as they wrought, made the 
 hall resound with the weird plantation melodies of the Southland. 
 Farther east the manufacture of India-rubber shoes of all sorts and 
 sizes was illustrated by the actual processes of the art. Then came 
 the glass-blowers' exhibit, and then an excellent display of wall- 
 paper by the Howells of Philadelphia. A collection of washing- and 
 wringing-machines caught the attention for a moment, and then tlie 
 observer found himself before tlie huge sugar-refining apparatus ex- 
 hibited by the Colwell Iron Works of New York. The Wharton 
 automatic switch was exhibited near by, and then came a splendid 
 display of common and platform scales. Mining machinery was 
 shown by the Dickinson Company of Scranton, and American loco- 
 motives — unsurpassed by any in the world — by the Baldwin Works 
 and the Pennsylvania Railway. In the adjacent section the Westing- 
 house air-brake and the Henderson hydraulic-brake were exhibited 
 in sharp competition. The Backus water-motor here attracted much 
 attention, as did also an odd hydraulic-ram near the western entrance. 
 The department of American power-looms — rivaling those of the best 
 European factories — was constantly thronged with visitors, and the 
 section where Waltham watches were made was a similar scene of 
 eager interest. The Pyramid Pin Company of New Haven exhibited 
 a quaint little machine for sticking pins in papers. A powerful hy- 
 draulic cotton-press was shown by the Taylor Iron Works of Charles- 
 ton, and a magnificent collection of wire ropes and cables by the 
 Roeblings of Trenton. 
 
 The display of railway bars — iron and steel — was, for the most 
 part, made by the works of Pittsburgh. Among the western sections 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 611 
 
 of the hall some fine ditching and draining enginery was exhibited ; 
 and near by was the display of American knitting-machines. Of sew- 
 ing-machines the exhibit was unrivaled. The competition reminded 
 the observer of that among the piano-fortes in the Main Building. 
 Every form of patent, from the original Howe to the most recent in- 
 novation, was duly praised by its group of advocates and admirers. 
 The American Steamship Company exhibited their vessels by models, 
 and eastward from their section stood a handsome pavilion contain- 
 ing an unlimited assortment of saws. The department of fire-engines 
 and extinguishers was adjacent ; and near by, the flunous Weimar 
 blowing-engine and an apparatus for charging blast-furnaces were 
 displayed. 
 
 Many relics of old machinery were exhibited in various parts of 
 the hall. Chief of these antiquated contrivances was a section of the 
 FIRST STEAM-ENGINE cver used in the United States, — an odd piece 
 of mechanism of the Cornish pattern, which was brought to America 
 in 1753 and set in operation in a copper-mine near Newark, New 
 Jersey. The first saw-maker's anvil, imported in 1819, was exhibited 
 near bv. In another section were .several pieces of excellent work- 
 manship from the mechanical department of Cornell University. An 
 automatic shingle-machine, having a working ca])acity of twenty-five 
 thousand shingles per day, was an attractive object in an adjoining 
 division; and in the same space the work of dovetailing, moulding, 
 carvins;, and paneling bv machinery was illustrated. Then came the 
 work of barrel-making, shown Ijy the actual processes ; then an ex- 
 hibit of scroll-saws in operation; then blast-turnaces by models, steam 
 drills, gas apparatus of every variety, and a machine for crushing an- 
 thracite coal. — Taken all in all, the exhibit of American machinery 
 was the finest display of the kind ever made by man. 
 
 On his way from the western entrance of ^lachinery Hall to the 
 Oovernment Building of the United States, the observer would hardly 
 fail to pause and admire the Roman Catholic Total Abstinence Fount- 
 ain, one of the most beautiful of the outdoor works of Fairmount Park. 
 Thence a brief walk northward on Belmont Avenue brought him to 
 the edifice erected by Congress for the exhibition of the functions of 
 the American Government in times of peace, and its resources in war. 
 The building itself has already been described. Without, to the east, 
 ^;tood a model monitor, having the same dimensions and appearance 
 as the original. In the same vicinity a huge Rodman twenty-inch 
 gun and others hardly less formidable were exhil>ited. On the south, 
 also, many pieces of heavy artillery were displayed, together with shot, 
 
612 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 shells, and projectiles of various kinds. Here, too, were the boats 
 Failli and A(h-inicc, used by De Haven and Kane in their Arctic 
 voyages. Near by, two ]>ostai cars, for the fast-mail service of the 
 United States, were cxliibited by the Post-office Department. On the 
 nortii, the War Department made a display of pontoons, bridge trains, 
 and army wagons. Within, the south division of the principal tran- 
 sept was occupied with the Centennial Post-office. Here the mails 
 were regularly received and distributed with systematic precision. The 
 subordinate sections of this department were named respectively the 
 divisions of Topography, of Books and Blanks, of Mail Equipment, 
 and of Stamps. In the last section a machine of unimaginable inge- 
 nuity was displayed, having an automatic capacity to cut, fold, gum, 
 .stamp, count, and pack, the Government envelopes. 
 
 Another large display in the Government Building was made 
 under the auspices of the Agricultural Bureau. The subordinate di- 
 visions of this exhibit were of Statistics, Chemistry, Botany, Micros- 
 copy, Entomology, and Horticulture. In the first named of these 
 sections were large outline maps of the United States, showing the 
 areas of forest- and farming-lands, the various products and capaci- 
 ties of soils, the distribution of animals, etc. In the department ot 
 chemistry was a fine and well-arranged exhibit of the earths, together 
 with illustrations of the processes of growth, fermentation, distilla- 
 tion, and tlie like, as well as the methods of manufacturing vegetable 
 products. In the botanical division the various woods of the United 
 States were exhaustively exhibited. The collection was very exten- 
 sive and valuable, embracing .sections of nearly every species of wood 
 growing between Central America and Canada, and from Passania- 
 quoddy to the Golden Gate. The microscopic section was occupied 
 with a -series of charts and drawings illustrative of vegetable diseases. 
 The entomological division was chiefly devoted to an exhibit of insect- 
 eating birds and of what creatures soever prey upon the farmer's fruits 
 and grains. In the horticultural section a di.splay was made of those 
 plants which have an economic and commercial value, such as corn, 
 tobacco, cotton, and flax. 
 
 The exhibit made by the Department of the Interior was com- 
 posed cliiefly of the well-known treasures of the Patent Office and tin- 
 National Museum at Washington. In addition to these, special dis- 
 plays were made by the Land and Indian offices, and by the Bureaus 
 of Education and Pensions. Here, also, was exhibited a complete set 
 of the census reports from 1790 to 1870, inclusive. But surpassing 
 all in interest and value was the magnificent exhibit made by the 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 613 
 
 Smithsonian Institution. This extraordinary display embraced, first 
 of all, a classified collection of the animals of America. These ani- 
 mals were grouped according to the relation which they bear to man, 
 as useful or injurious ; and the exhibit included all those contrivances 
 and implements which man employs in <'apturing them wiien wild, or 
 subjecting and controlling them wiieu domesticated. The collection 
 illustrative of the fishery resources of the United States was equally 
 complete and full of interest. In the department of American eth- 
 nology an extensive exhibit was made of aboriginal implements and 
 contrivances peculiar to the primitive modes of life. The last branch 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNIMENT BUILDING. 
 
 of the Smithsonian contribution was that illustrating the mineral re- 
 sources of the United States — a collection of great extent and value. 
 
 The first section under the auspices of the Treasury Department 
 was devoted to the exhibition of the money, money-making, and med- 
 als of the national mint. The special display, made by the Light- 
 house Board, of lanterns, reflectors, sea-signals, and electrical and 
 calcium liglits, fairly rivaled the great exhibit of similar apparatus 
 made in the government building of France. The whole collection 
 was of the highest order, and gave token that no branch of humani- 
 tarian science is making more rapid strides than that which ajiper- 
 tains to the perfection of light-houses and the safety of mariners. 
 
 The Navy Department made an exhibit of torpedoes, and of the 
 
614 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 methods of using them in naval warfare. The collection embraced all 
 of the patterns of that terrible engine, from the original as invented 
 by Fulton, to the more modern forms produced by Ericsson and Lay. 
 Another section was devoted to marine arms and armor, shot, shells, 
 munitions, uniforms, and what -weapoury soever is peculiar to men- 
 of-war. The Naval Observatory exhibited — besides its own publica- 
 tions — a fine collection of photographs and chronometers. Here, too, 
 were found most of the precious relics of the Arctic explorations, from 
 the voyage of De Haven to that of Hall. 
 
 The exhibit made by the War Department was still larger and 
 more complete. In this division was arranged the splendid display 
 of the Signal Service under direction of General Albert J. INIeyer, 
 chief signal officer of the army. Here were exhibited all of the del- 
 icate instruments and tentative apparatus peculiar to the half-formed 
 science of meteorology ; and here the methods of observing and re- 
 cording the multiform and many times capricious phenomena of earth, 
 air, and sky, were fully illustrated. The Engineering Corps also con- 
 tributed an interesting exhibit, chiefly composed of maps and draw- 
 ings illustrative of the coast, lake, and river improvements of the 
 United States during the past century. The section of the Ordnance 
 Service was devoted to the display of fire-arm manufacture as the 
 same is carried on at the Government Armory at Springfield, Massa- 
 chusetts. The making of cartridges was also fully illustrated by the 
 actual processes. Next came the exhibits made by the Post Hospital 
 and the Laboratory — full of interest after their kind — and, last of all, 
 the model light-house standing at the northeast angle of the building, 
 without, and not far off the tremendous fog-horn called the Siren. 
 
 In the extensive exhibits of Agricultural Hall — varied and full 
 of interest, as they were — there was, of course, a less display of hu- 
 man skill and a greater revelation of the beneficence of nature. For 
 here the products exhibited were, for the most part, the offspring of 
 the ground — the fruits of air, water, and sunshine. In this vast hall, 
 the agency of man extended but little further than the modification and 
 utilization of the gratuitous riches of the world. The display, there- 
 fore, was in a large measure limited to the collection and exhibition 
 of things uncommon and prodigious. — A brief summary of the objects 
 of principal interest in the various departments of the hall may here 
 suflice. 
 
 The products of the United States occupied more space than did 
 those of all other nations combined. And the general superiority of 
 American exhibits over those of foreign lands was noticeable from the 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 615 
 
 first. In the northeastern division of the hall were placed the sec- 
 tions of agricultural implements, plows being a specialty. The ex- 
 hibit made by Speer and Sons of Pittsburgh, as well as that by Oliver 
 Ames and Sons of North Easton, Massachusetts, was specially varied 
 and excellent. In a section to the north were shown rakes and 
 threshers of the most approved patents, and in the same collection a 
 specimen of Foust's hay-lifting machine, which called forth manv 
 commendations. Near by stood the superb plows manufactured bv 
 the Oliver Chilled-Plow Company of South Bend, Indiana.* Far- 
 ther on was another collection, by the Higganum Plow Company of 
 Connecticut ; and then came a section of gang-plows, exhibited by 
 Collins and Comjiany of New York. 
 
 In the department of reapers and mowers all the great makers 
 were fully represented. The Sweepstakes, Harvester, McCormick, 
 Champion, and Buckeye machines were specially conspicuous in the 
 exhibit. The Union Corn Planter, from the shops of Peoria, Illi- 
 nois, attracted much attention, and the superb Westinghouse steam- 
 thresher was greatly praised. An excellent reaper, called the Planet, 
 was shown by the Wayne Agricultural Works of Richmond, Indiana. 
 Slosser's self-loading excavator — a powerful ditch-digging machine — 
 .stood close by; and near the eastern entrance was exhibited one of 
 the well-known Adams Power Cornshellers. 
 
 Grain-drills next attracted attention, especially the display made 
 by the Farmers' Friend Company of Dayton, Ohio. In the south end 
 of the central transept several excellent cider-mills were exhibited in 
 operation — that of Boomer and Boschert leading the collection. Farm 
 scales were shown by the Howe Manufacturing Company, and farm 
 saw-mills by Harbert and Raymond of Philadelphia. In this vicin- 
 ity two models of stables — one of wood, and the other of iron — were 
 exhibited, and also some fine horse-poMcrs from Racine, Wisconsin. 
 
 The observer next found himself in other scenes, amid the Amer- 
 ican wine-growers' exhibit, near the northern entrance. The Califor- 
 nia display was first in excellence and extent. After the vintage oi' 
 the Pacific Slope came the fine exhibits of Ohio, Missouri, and New 
 York. South of the wine collection, at the bisection of the nave and 
 transept, stood a large bronze fountain, throwing high its cooling- 
 waters ; and at the four angles round about was set the display of 
 canned fruits and meats, hops, malts, and spices. Here, too, was a 
 
 * One plow exhibited by this firm was perhaps the finest ever made. Tlie metallic 
 parts were plated with nickel, and the rosewood frame was splendidly embossed with 
 agricultural emblems. 
 
616 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 spleiKlid exhibit of starches, chief of which was the fine perfumetl 
 starcli mauulactured by Erkenbrecher of Cincinnati. Here, more- 
 over, the apjjetite of whatsoever creatures live by bread was provoked 
 by the bountiful display of that article. Close by, in the middle of 
 the avenue, stood a huge wiudniill, purposely old-fashioned, thirty 
 I'eet in height, dated 1776. Next came the zoological exhibit, com- 
 posed of stuffed animals and birds, but more especially of a magnifi- 
 cent museum of plaster casts prej^ared by Professor Henry A. ^^'ard 
 of Rochester University. Along the western wall of the building all 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OF AGRICULTURAL HALL. 
 
 varieties of edible fishes, out of the fresh and salt waters of the United 
 States, were exhibited alive in a series of aquaria. 
 
 The northwestern courts of the building were occupied with the 
 tobacconists' pavilions. The display was very extensive, embi'acing 
 every variety and caprice of manufacture. North of the tobacco sec- 
 tion the Delta Moss Company of New Orleans exhibited a tree bear- 
 ing a rich array of Southern moss ; and the prepared product was 
 shown in bales near by. A huge evaporator for drying fruits, and a 
 massive road-roller driven by steam, next caught the attention ; and 
 then came the sections set apart for the general display of the woods, 
 grains, vegetables, and fruits of the various States — perhaps the larg- 
 est and most imposing collection of such articles ever brought to- 
 gether. In the court of New Hampshire were exhibited, along with 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 617 
 
 other wonders, two enormous swine, stuifed, stupid, and prodigious 
 as nature and taxidermy could make them. Farther on was the fish 
 and fishery exhibit of Massachusetts, and farther still, the silk-worm 
 display of California. South of the central transept the rich soils of 
 Iowa were exhibited in large glass cylinders ; and beyond was placed 
 a fine collection of the minerals of Nevada. — Such were the objects 
 of chief interest in the departments allotted to the United States. 
 
 The exhibit of Great Britain occupied the southeast division of 
 the hall. First of all, the display of condiments was equal to the 
 expectancy of the most accomplished epicure. Equally commendable 
 were the exhibits of preserved meats, patent coffees and teas, jirepara- 
 tions of milk, sugar, and the like, presented by the Colonial Produce 
 Company of London. An adjoining section contained a full assort- 
 ment of the famous English ales ; and farther south was placed the 
 department of British agricultural machinery, embracing some fine 
 road-wagons, ])ortable engines, and the smaller implements peculiar 
 to field, orchard, and garden. Last of all came a display of mill- 
 stones, tiles, and ornaments in terra cotta. 
 
 The Canadian section, in the southwest quarter of the hall, was 
 well filled with interesting products. And the exhibit was specially 
 well arranged. The front line of cases was occupied with an exten- 
 sive display of root vegetables, pulse, and cereals. In the next line, 
 secondary products, such as wool, feathers, and pelts, Avere shown : 
 and in the third tier of cases, prepared animal and vegetable mate- 
 rials — cured fish, flour, salt, pickles, and cheese — were displayed. Of 
 agricultural implements the list was varied and extensive. Plows, 
 rivaling the best of the American collection, were exhibited by Spar- 
 die of Stratford, Ontario, and by Ross of Chatham. Fine threshing- 
 machines, adjustable platform reapers, and turnip-drills of superior 
 pattern, were the other objects of chief interest in the collection. — 
 British Columbia, also, made a creditable display of her products, 
 consisting chiefly of wheat and oats, woods, barks, and woolen goods 
 of Indian manufacture. 
 
 France displayed her vintage. The exhibit wa* complete, em- 
 bracing the whole list of vinous liquors from claret to brandy. In 
 the same section were shown the unrivaled chocolates manufactured 
 by Menier and Company of Paris. Vilraorin and Andrieux of the 
 same city exhibited the products of their famous flower-gardens; and 
 Strasbourg displayed her preserved fruits, sardines, and condiments. 
 The process of manufacturing mineral waters was illustrated by Ga- 
 zaubon of Paris, and near by was shown the method of bottling wine. 
 
•618 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Millstones, crucibles, cements, and artificial stone, were displayed in 
 another dejiartnient ; and last of all, the line cocoons and raw silks 
 for which Southern France is so justly celebi-ated. 
 
 Along the south wall of the Iniilding was arranged the exhibit 
 of the German Empire. Here, again, the display of wines was pre- 
 eminent. The vintage of the Rhine elicited most praise. Nor did 
 Ciamlirinus the king look down displeased from the ilorid labels of 
 the Bavarian and Prussian beer-mugs. The exhibit of smoking- and 
 chewing-tobacco was next in extent and importance ; after that, the 
 display of confections. Then came a palm-tree with the mowing 
 scythes of Wurtemberg for its branches ; then specimens of curled 
 hair out of the shops of Frankfort, and then some beautiful tufts of 
 wool from the sheepcotes of Silesia. 
 
 The products of Austria and Hungary were displayed together. 
 The cereals of the different parts of the empire were well exhibited. 
 Vienna sent a fine collection of canned fruits, Pesth her boxes of 
 nuts, and Prague her offering of wine and raisins. Flax, and wool, 
 iuid hemp, were the staples of the Hungarian section, and leather of 
 the exhibit of Bohemia. 
 
 On the south side of the central transept lay the court of Russia. 
 And the display was unexpectedly complete and well arranged. The 
 strictly agricultural element predominated throughout the whole ex- 
 hibit, only a small space being devoted to wines and liquors. "Wheat, 
 ■oats, rye, and barley — all of the finest quality — constituted the major 
 part of the display, and gave token of abundant wealth in the al- 
 most sunless fields of the Muscovite. The fiber-producing plants, of 
 many and superior kinds, were shown ; and excellent candied fruits 
 and confections — the contribution of Poland — completed one of the 
 most interesting divisions of the hall. 
 
 Among the best of the exhibits made by the Southern nations, 
 was that of Spain, located on the south side of the central transept, 
 adjoining the Russian court. Here, again, the true agricultural idea 
 was maintained, and the wine and liquor exhibit given a secondary 
 rank. The display of Spanish cereals, fruits, pulse, and nuts, was set 
 in glass-encased panels, around the sides of the court, presenting a 
 fair summary of the field and garden products of the kingdom. The 
 exhibit of wools was among the finest of the Exposition, and the col- 
 lection of wines admirable after its kind. Specimens of the gum- and 
 resin-bearing trees of the Philippine Islands were exhibited in an 
 adjoining section ; and near by, Havana displayed her cigars and 
 ■chocolates. The space allotted to Portugal was well filled with her 
 
GRANTS ADMINISTRATION. 619 
 
 products, the exhibit being similar to that of Spain, and equally 
 meritorious. 
 
 The Italian court occupied the southeast division of the hall. 
 The collection embraced specimens of all those products for which 
 the peninsula has been imraemorially famous. Here were grains, and 
 fruits, and nuts; olive-oil and raisins; oranges, figs, and lemons; 
 citrons, pomegranates, and liquorice ; and wine— such as the Latin 
 wits and poets quaifcd when Britain belonged to the Druids. 
 
 The court of the Netherlands joined that of Austria on the south. 
 The Dutch display was arranged with much skill and tastefulness ; 
 and neither Gambrinus nor the grape was the be-all and tlie end-all 
 of the exhibit. But the collection was as intensely national as those 
 of Germany. The products were mostly shown under the auspices 
 of the Giilderland and Zealand agricultural societies. The various 
 sections presented a full array of grains, plants, and pulse, as well as 
 the more valuable woods, especially those used in the manufacture 
 of dyes. Fine specimens of the famous Holland cheese and flour 
 were shown, and in the sections to the west an assortment of choc- 
 olates and cod-liver oil. The Dutch fishing interests were also well 
 illustrated with tackles, seines, and boats. The beet-sugar makers of 
 Arnhem made a fine display of their product, as did also the manu- 
 facturers of those peculiar pungent beers, gins, and heavy liquors, 
 which are so popular in Holland. 
 
 In the court of Norway the section of greatest interest was that 
 containing the exhibit of her fisheries. The collection of fishing ves- 
 sels and apparatus was extensive and complete. Cured specimens of 
 nearly all the fishes known in the Norwegian marts were included in 
 the display. The space devoted to agricultural implements contained 
 some rude l)ut characteristic machines and tools from the fields and 
 shops of the North. But the display of leather was excellent, and 
 that of the waterfowl of Norway especially interesting. — Similar in 
 sort were the exhibits made by Sweden and Denmark. 
 
 In the Japanese court the jjrincipal product displayed was tea — 
 a largo and varied collection. Here, again, the fishing interest was 
 well represented, nets and tackle being a specialty. Then came illus- 
 trations of the silk culture, by the actual processes, from the worm to 
 the web. The woods of Japan were disj>layed to good advantage as 
 were also the grains and vegetables of the empire. — No exhibit of their 
 agricultural resources was made by the other nations of the East. 
 
 Among tiie South American States, Brazil here — as elsewhere — 
 was ])rec'minent. Before the Brazilian court stood a much admired 
 
620 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 rustic pavilion so flecked on post and rafter with tufts of fleecy cottoD 
 as to look like the greatcoat of St. Nicholas. Within was the coffee 
 exhibit — a full and complete display of the leading industry of the 
 empire. Leaf-tobacco was also shown, and near by was an unsur- 
 passed collection of the tropical woods for which Brazil is famous. 
 In a section farther on were exhibited fine Brazilian sugars, rivaling 
 those of Cuba and the United States. Last of all came the display of 
 the silk interest of Brazil, beginning with the mild-mannered worm 
 peculiar to that country, and ending with the finished fabric. — Vene- 
 zuela and the Argentine Republic also made small but interesting ex- 
 hibits of their resources, ranging from feathers, waxes, and native 
 gums to leather-work, silk, and liquors. Here, too, Liberia made a 
 display of her resources and industries. 
 
 Entering tlic Mauresque doorways of the Horticultural Building, 
 the rambler sto])ped to admire' the Foley Fountain in the center of 
 the hall. Around him was the luxuriance of the tropics. Fragrance 
 bathed the air, and silence sat like a plumed but songless bird on 
 all the motionless leaves of this green world of wonders. Here was 
 the great central conservatory, filled with the choicest plants and 
 richest flowers culled out of every clime where sunshine and air are 
 woven into leaf and petal. Here were the date-tree and the palm, 
 fern, and cactus, lemon shrub and banana — a wilderness of blossoms 
 and fruits, cool and silent as the bowers visited in dreams. 
 
 Along the sides of the main conservatory were the green-houses 
 for the projiagation of plants. The floors were sunk ten feet below 
 the level of the main hall, and the aisle in each was a hundred feet 
 in length. Passing up and down these avenues, the observer fi)und 
 on either side an indescribable array of whatever the hand of nature 
 has done of quaint or beautiful in moss, or fern, or flower. No ex- 
 tended account will here be attempted of the variety and beauty of this, 
 the kingdom of the plants. — The collections of Horticultural Hall were 
 the floral offering of the United States — a wreath for the altar of Inde- 
 pendence. But the leaves of the garland were gathered from all climes. 
 
 No structure of Fairmount Park was more characteristic of the 
 epoch than the Woman's Pavilion. The building and its contents 
 illustrated one of the grandest tendencies of American civilization — 
 the complete emancipation of woman. In ancient times her chains 
 were forged; the Middle Age re-riveted them upon her; the Modern 
 Era — even the Reformatian— ^has mocked her with the semblance and 
 the xJioui of liberty. America sets her free and lifts her to the seat of 
 Jionor. 
 
GBANT'S A DM L\IS TEA TIOX. 
 
 621 
 
 The collections of the Pavilion were rich and varicil. The 
 iioutheast division was set apart for the display of woman's inven- 
 tions. The contrivances were mostly of such sort as appertain to 
 domestic economy and the improvement of home. Xow and then, 
 however, some capricious apparatus of fashion, invented in the realm 
 of whim, attracted tlie gaze of the curious. Photographs of such 
 benevolent institutions as a:e under the conduct of women formed an 
 interestinur exhibit, as did also the worsted and silk embroideries 
 whicii were displayed in an adjoining court. The art collection em- 
 braced some creditable — even excellent — specimens of drawing, a fair 
 
 fe^'f,^4/^^p^!^M'^^'^^^^^ 
 
 INTERIOR VIEW OF HORTICULTURAL HALL. 
 
 display of paintings, and several commendable pieces of statuary. 
 In the center of the hall was an elegant printing office, where Tlie 
 New Century for Women was published and distributed during the 
 Exposition. 
 
 The south\yestern (piarter was occupied by foreign exhil>itors. 
 Here, too, the display of woman's work was varied and of a high or- 
 der of merit. The royal ladies of the Old World had contributed 
 much to the excellence and interest of the exhibit. Queen Victoria's 
 School of Art and Needlework made some splendid offerings of em- 
 broiderv. Many contributions of similar sort were presented by the 
 women of France, Sweden, and Canada. Egypt had its section of 
 artistic designs in gold and silver thread-work; even the queen of 
 Tunis had heard of Independence and sent some superb gold-em- 
 broidered velvets as a token of her good will. The Japanese exhibit 
 
622 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 \\i\s composed for the most part of silken screens, writing desks, and 
 cabinets, delicately ornamented after the style of the country. The 
 Brazilian women, also, had honored the pavilion with some beautiful 
 specimens of gold lace, shell work, and silk and worsted embroideries. 
 
 But it was among the art treasures of Memorial Hall that the 
 stranger in Fairniount Park tarried longest : and then came again 
 and again. For the variety was wellnigh infinite — the pageant ever 
 new. Plere were the bright ideals which flit for a moment across the 
 vision of genius, and in that moment are made immortal. Here was 
 a scene where the human imagination had transfused itself into the 
 radiant imagery of the canvas and the imperishable forms of marble. 
 Here, for a season, the scales fell from the sordid eyes of Utility, 
 and the gaze was lifted up in the serener air of the True and the 
 Beautiful. 
 
 In the arrangement of the exhibits in the Art Gallery, Italy was 
 given the preference. The main hall, before the southern entrance, 
 was set apart for her treasures. Here the best of the Italian sculp- 
 tors were represented by their works. Caroni of Florence exhibited 
 his Africaine and several" other fine pieces of statuary. Tlie Boy 
 Frnnklin from the studio of Zocchi and Wufthlngton and his Hatchet 
 from that of Romanetti attested how much American legends are 
 loved in Italy ; and a colossal bust by Gaurnerio of Milan showed the 
 heroic estimate placed upon the Father of his Country in that land. 
 The humorous in art was well represented in The Forced Prayer by 
 tlie same noted artist. The ^lilanese sculptor, Baroaglio, was repre- 
 sented by several fine pieces, chief of which was a colossal statue 
 called Fhjlng Time. Hardly less attractive were the Berenice by 
 Peduzzi, and Siumhine and Storm by Popatti. The Florentine Torelli 
 presented Eva St. Clair as a specimen of his work ; and Ropi of 
 Milan contributed a bust of Garibaldi. The Xight of October llfh 
 was the name of a piece by D'Amore, illustrating the discovery of 
 Guanahani ; while a number of child-statues were shown as the work 
 of the Milanese sculptor Pereda. A Miltonie Lucifer from the studio 
 of Corti was a work of the highest order of merit, as»w'as also the 
 beautiful Madonna by Romanelli. A Psyche by Pagani attracted 
 much attention; and a Bacchus Ijy Braga was greatly praised. 
 
 Of Italian paintings — mostly copies from the famous productions- 
 of the old masters — the collection was large and attractive. One of 
 the finest of the exhibit was Galileo before the Liquisition, after Ra- 
 l)hael. The original pictures, mostly of the Penais.^ance, were of va- 
 rious degrees of merit, the Columbus in Chains by Fumigalli deserving. 
 
OR A NT'S A DMIMSTEA TION. 
 
 623 
 
 special praise. — Nor must mention be omitted of the famous Cas- 
 tellaui Museum of Antiquities, which was exhibited in the northeast- 
 ern quarter of the hall — a display unsurpassed in interest by any other 
 of tlie whole Exposition. The exhibit embraced one of the i-arest, 
 most valuable, and best classified collections of ancient and mediaeval 
 gems, classic busts, and personal ornaments, now in existence. The 
 museum was under the care of Professor Castellani himself, and the 
 section was the especial haunt of scholars and antiquaries. 
 
 The American exhibit in ^Memorial Hall was divided between the 
 
 ryrtV'v*^ 
 
 ^?, 
 
 EOTDNDA OF MEMORIAL HALL. 
 
 main edifice and the annex. The collection was very extensive, em- 
 bracing several thousand works in painting and statuary. Tiic chief 
 display of paintings was made in the great north corridor of the main 
 hall. Here wei-e exhibited a vast number of pieces, ranging from 
 second-class and mediocrity to the higjiest productions of genius. The 
 eastern end of the corridor was wholly occupied with Rothermel's 
 immense pointing of Tlic Battle of Gettysburg. Page's Farragid in 
 Mobile Bmj was also exhibited as a historic skfetch ; and as an alle- 
 gorical work, Thorpe's Westward the Star of Empire fakes its Way was 
 shown. Here, also, were exhibited six of Bierstadt's famous land- 
 scapes — splendid scenes from the Pacific coast. Then came a num- 
 
624 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 bcrless array of portraits, laiulscapes, sketches, and ideal works, by 
 well-known American artists and new aspirants tor fame, among 
 whose productions, though furnishing abundant room for comment 
 and criticism, it would be invidious, within this narrow limit, to dis- 
 criminate. 
 
 Of American statuary, also, a large exhibit was made — chiefly in 
 the central hall. Under the dome was set a fine group in terra cotta, 
 being the allegory of America from the Albert Memorial in Hyde 
 Park, London. Not far ofl" stood Connelly's Thetis with the Ivjaid 
 Achilles, much and justly admired. Story's Iledea gave proof of that 
 artist's genius; and Margaret Foley's Cleopatra was a work of great 
 beauty. Several busts of Americans by Americans, attested the skill 
 of the artists, especially that of Charles Sumner by Preston Powers. 
 In the northwest corridor was exhibited The Dying Cleopatra — a work 
 of remarkable beauty and power — by Edmonia Lewis, the colored 
 sculptress. 
 
 Too much praise could hardly be bestowed upon the British col- 
 lection of paintings. It was generally conceded that the exhibit, both 
 in the merit of the works themselves and in the admirable grouping 
 which had been effected by the managers, was the best of the Ex- 
 position. If any doubt existed as to whether the first artists had 
 contributed their choicest works, to the American collection, no such 
 doubt existed in respect to the genius of England. For here was 
 The Battle of Xasciy by Sir John Gilbert; a Summer Moon by Fred- 
 erick Leighton; The Railway Station by Powell; Armitage's Julian 
 the Apostate; Sir Edwin Landseer's Lions and Marriage oj Griselda; 
 Maclise's Banquet Scene in Macbeth; Sir Thomas Lawrence's Three 
 Partners of the House of Baring; William Powell Frith's Marriage 
 of the Prince of Wales; West's Death of Wolfe; and a vast number of 
 landscapes, sketches, portraits, drawings, water-colors, pencilings and 
 crayon-work — making a collection so complete and meritorious as to 
 awaken the pride of every Briton. 
 
 The art department of France was hardly representative of the 
 genius of that country. Still, the collection embraced many pieces 
 deserving of high praise. Among the best was Eizpah protecting the 
 Bodies of her Soyis, by George Becker ; The Conspiracy of the Medici, 
 by Louis Adan ; and The Death of Casar, by Clement. Hillemachor's 
 Napoleon I. v:ith Goethe and Wieland, and Viger's Josephine in 1814, 
 were notable pieces of portraiture. Leda and the Swan, by Jules 
 Saintin, and The First Step in Crime, by Pierre Antigua, received 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 625 
 
 many commendations, and Duran's exquisite portrait of Mademoi- 
 selle Croixette of tlie Theatre Fran9ais was universally praised. 
 
 In the German collection the most striking picture was Steifeck's 
 Crown Prince in the Front of Battle. Louis Braun and Count Harras 
 each contributed a Surrender of Sedan — striking sketches of that his- 
 toric event. The Arrest of Luther, likewise by Harras, was a picture 
 of great merit, as was also Elizabeth signing the Death Warrant oj Mary 
 Stuart, by Julius Schrader. In the way of humorous pictures, After 
 the Church Festival was exhibited by Ferdinand Meyer, and the Village 
 Gossips by Meyer of Bremen. Nor should mention be omitted of 
 The Flight of Frederick V. from Prague, by Faber du Tour — one of 
 the best historic pieces in Memorial Hall. Another work of the 
 same sort, and almost equally meritorious, was Briicke's Discovery of 
 America. Last of all — exhibited in a separate corridor — was Wag- 
 ner's great painting, A Scene in the Circus Maximus at Pome. In the 
 way of portraits, that of Pauline Lucca by Begas, and of George Ban- 
 croft by Gustave Richter, were worthy of special praise. 
 
 In the eastern gallery was placed the collection of Austria. Here 
 was John Makart's magnificent picture, entitled Venice Paying Hom- 
 age to Catharine Cornaro — a historic study of great interest. As speci- 
 mens of figure-painting Ernest Lafitte contributed a Girl of Upper 
 Austria, and Aloysius Schonn a Siesta of an Oriental Woman. Of 
 similar sort were the two fine pictures, A Page and A Girl with Fruit, 
 by Canon of Vienna — works in imitation of Rembrandt. Friedlan- 
 der was represented in the collection by Tasting the Wine, antl Muller 
 by an English Garden at Palermo. — Several fine pieces of statuary 
 were shown as a part of the Austrian exhibit. The principal of these 
 were the busts of Francis Joseph, Maximilian I., and Charles \. To 
 this collection also belonged TJie Freedman, by Pezzicar — a bronze 
 statue emblematical of the emancipation of the slaves by Lincoln. 
 
 In the Spanish department The Landing of Columbus was the sub- 
 ject of two paintings — the first by Gisbert, and the second by Puebla. 
 Here also was shown a Christ on the Cross by Murillo. Columbus 
 before the Monks of La Rabida was the title of a large and striking 
 work by Gano. But the painting most esteemed in the Spanish ex- 
 hibit was a superb production called The Burial of St. Lorenzo, by 
 Alejo Vera of Rome. — The Portuguese painters and sculptors were 
 not represented in the collections of the hall. 
 
 The Northern nations — Sweden, Norway, Denmark — made a 
 creditable showing of their art. The Swedish collection was ar- 
 
626 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 ranged along the eastern wall of the western gallery, and was com- 
 posed of sevei-al fine and some commonplace productions. One of 
 the best was Tlie Burning of the Royal Palace at Stockholm — a paint- 
 ing by Hockert. Then came Tlie Winter Day, The First Sjiow, and 
 The Poor People's Burying Ground, by Baron Hermelin, the Swedish 
 art commissioner at the Exposition. A fine work called Dark Mo- 
 ments was exhibited by Baron Cedcrstrom, and Sigurd Ping by Se- 
 verin Nilsson. Several other legends of the Vikings were represented 
 in the works of Winge, exhibited near by ; while a Market Day in 
 Dilsseldorf illustrated the genius of August Jernberg. — The Norwe- 
 gian collection was made up of two fine pieces by Professor Gude ; 
 one excellent pictui-e entitled A Scene in Romsdalsjiord, by Norman ; 
 The Hardengerfiord, from the studio of Thurman ; and several pro- 
 ductions of less conspicuous merit. — The Danish group embraced The 
 Discovery of Greenland in A. D. 1000, by Rasmussen ; Two Greenland 
 Pilots, by the same artist; and A Midsummer Night under Iceland's 
 Rough, Weather, by Wilhelm Melby. 
 
 The Belgian pictures constituted a notable collection. Here, first 
 of all, was Autumn on the Meuse, by Asselberg — a work of great ex- 
 cellence; as was, also, Rome from the Tiber, by Bossuet. De Keyser's 
 Dante and the Young Girls of Florence attracted much admiration. 
 Then came The Sentinel at the Gate of the Harem, by St. Cyr; Sunday 
 at the Convent, by Meerts ; Xavier Mellery's Woman of the Roman 
 Campagna; Mols's Dome of the Invalides ; Sraits's War; Stallaei't's 
 Cave of Diomede; and After the Rain, by Van Luppen. The Desde- 
 mona of Van Kiersbilck, and The Deception by Jean Portaels, were 
 works deserving the highest praise. 
 
 Next in interest was the art exhibit of the Netherlands. Nor 
 did the collection in its entirety suffer by comf)arison with the best 
 at the Exposition. Here again the observer was constantly reminded 
 of the nationality — both of the artist and Iiis work. Every thing- 
 was distinctly marked with the characteristics of Lowland life, method, 
 and manners. First in the display were four large pieces by Altmann 
 of Amsterdam — all excellent paintings — entitled respectively The 
 Bayiquet of the Civic Guards, The Five Masters of the Drapers, The 
 Masters of the Harlem Guild, and The Young Bidl — a copy from Paul 
 Potter. Then came Koster's View on the Yo, Rust's Amsterdam, in the 
 Sixteenth Century, and A Landsr.ape on the Mediterranean Coast by 
 Hilverdink. The otlier principal pieces of the collection were Four 
 Weeks after St. John's Day by Huybers, Bosboom's Church of Trier, 
 and Mesdag's Evening on the Beach. Besides these, many minor 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 627 
 
 paintings in the exhibit testified of the genius of the Lowland 
 artists. 
 
 In the eastern galleries of the annex were placed a few meritor- 
 ious pictures by the painters of Brazil and Mexico. But the collec- 
 tions were comparatively unimportant. Among the Brazilian produc- 
 tions the best were Tlic. Defcme of C'abrito and The Battle of Humuita — 
 both scenes from the recent war with Paraguay. In tlie Mexican 
 gallery the most interesting pieces were The Valley of Mexico by Val- 
 esquez, and portraits of Bartholomew de las Casas and Donna Isabella 
 of Portugal. — Such is a brief survey of the art treasures of Memorial 
 Hall. 
 
 During the months of early summer, every day brought its 
 throng to Fairmount Park. The enthusiasm of the people rose with 
 the occasion. The fame of the great Exposition spread through all 
 the land. Success had crowned the enterprise. As the Anniversary 
 of Independence drew near preparations were made for an elaborate 
 celebration at Philadelphia. The day came. Countless multitudes 
 thronged the streets.* The city was alive with flags and banners. 
 Battery answered battery with thunderous congratulation. The scene 
 was set in Independence Square, in the rear of the old Hall, on the 
 very spot where liberty was proclaimed a century ago. Platforms 
 were erected and awnings spread above them, wliere four thousand in- 
 vited guests could be seated to witness the ceremonies. The people 
 crowded into the open space to the south until the whole square was 
 a sea of upturned faces. Senator Ferry of Michigan, acting Vice- 
 President of the United States, was the presiding officer. General 
 Hawley and other members of the Centennial Commission acted as his 
 assistants. Dom Pedro II. and Prince Oscar of Sweden sat near by, 
 and distinguished citizens of many nations were present. At ten 
 o'clock the exercises were formally opened. Centennial hymns were 
 sung, and the national airs were played by the finest bands of the 
 country. Richard Henry I^ee, grandson of him who offered the fa- 
 mous Resolution of Independence, then read the Declaration from the 
 original manuscript. Other music followed ; and then came the read- 
 ing of The National Ode by Bayard Taylor. Last of all came The 
 Centennial Oration by William M. Evarts of New York. The throng 
 receded, and the ceremonies were at an end. But the pageant was re- 
 vived at night with a display of fireworks and a brilliant illumination 
 of the city. 
 
 *It was estimated that on the iiiglit of tlie 3d of July there were fully two hun- 
 <lred and fifty thousand strangers in Philadelphia. 
 
628 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The daily attendance at the Exhihition grounds during the sum- 
 mer varied from five thousand to two hundred and seventy-five thou- 
 sand. And the interest in the Centennial was intensified near its 
 close. The whole number of visitors attending the Exposition, as 
 shown by the registry of the gates, was nine million seven hundred 
 and eighty-six thousand one hundred and fifty-one. The daily average 
 attendance was sixty-one thousand nine hundred and thirty-eight. 
 The grounds were open for one hundred and fifty-eight days, and the 
 total receipts for admission were three million seven hundred and 
 sixty-one thousand five hundred and ninety-eight dollars. 
 
 On the 10th of November — in accordance with the purpose of the 
 Centennial Commissioners — the International Exhibition of 1876 was 
 formally closed. At two o'clock in the afternoon the President of 
 the United States attended by General Hawley, Director-General 
 Goshorn — upon whom for his successful management of the Exposi- 
 tion too great praise can hardly be bestowed — other members of the 
 Commission, and distinguished foreigners — ascended the platform, and 
 the ceremc)nies began. Theodore Thomas's magnificent orchestra 
 again furnished music worthy of the occasion. A hundred thousand 
 people were present to witness the closing exercises. Brief addresses 
 were delivered by the Honorable Daniel J. Morrell of Pennsylvania 
 and the Honorable John Welch, president of the Board of Finance. 
 The history of the Exposition and of its management was then re- 
 counted in appropriate orations by Major Goshorn and General Haw- 
 ley. The hymn America was sung by the audience, led by the or- 
 chestra ; and then President Grant arose and said : — 
 
 " I DKCLARE THE InTEENATIONAL EXHIBITION CLOSED." 
 
 The valves of the great Corliss engine were shut, and the M'ork 
 was done. In its general character and results the Exposition had 
 outranked all of its predecessors, and had left an impress upon the 
 minds of the American people likely to endure for a generation and 
 then become a patriotic tradition with posterity.* 
 
 * Since the closeof the Exhibition steps have been taken to secure as far as practi- 
 cable the permanency oi the Centennial display. Machinery Hiill has been purchased 
 by the Common Council of Philadelphia, and is to stand intact. The Main Building 
 also, has been sold by auction, and the purchasers have decided that it shall remain as a 
 permanent Exposition hall. The Woman's Executive Committee have voted that their 
 Pavilion shall also stand in its present state. The authorities of Great Britain, Ger- 
 maiiv, and France have given their respective Government Buildings to the city of 
 Philadelphia as permanent ornaments of the grounds and as tokens of international 
 good will; and it seems not unlikely that tlie principal features of the delightful park, 
 where so many thousand people have spent the holiday hours of the Centennial sum. 
 mer, will be preserved as they were during the Exposition. 
 
GRANT 'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 62» 
 
 During the last year of President Grant's administration the 
 country was disturbed by A war with the Sioux Indians. These 
 fierce savages had, in 1867, made a treaty with the United States 
 atrreeing to relinquish all the territory south of the Niobrara, west of 
 the one hundred and fourth meridian, and north of the forty-sixth 
 parallel of latitude. By this treaty the Sioux were confined to a 
 larsre reservation in southwestern 
 Dakota, and upon this reservation 
 they agreed to retire by the 1st of 
 January, 1876. Meanwhile, how- 
 ever, gold was discovered among 
 the Black Hills — a region the 
 greater part of which belonged, by 
 the terms of the treaty, to the 
 Sioux reservation. But no treaty 
 could keej) the hungry horde of 
 gold-diggers and adventurers from 
 overrunning the interdicted dis- 
 trict. This gave the Sioux a good 
 excuse for gratifying their native ^'^'^^''^ "^ ""^ ^'"'"'^ ^'"'^- ^- '"• 
 
 disposition by breaking over the limits of the reservation and roam- 
 ing at large through Wyoming and Montana, burning houses, steal- 
 ing horses, and murdering whoever opposed them. 
 
 The Government now undertook to drive the Sioux upon their 
 reservation. A large force of regulars, under Generals Terry and 
 Crook, was .sent into the mountainous country of the Upper Yellow- 
 stone, and the savages to the number of several thousand, led by 
 their noted chieftain Sitting Bull, were crowded back against the Big 
 Horn Mountains and River. Generals Custer and Reno, who were 
 sent forward with the Seventh Cavalry to discover the whereabouts 
 of the Indians, found them encamped in a large village extending 
 for nearly three miles along the left bank of the I^ittle -Horn. On 
 the 2oth of June, General Custer, without waiting for reinforcements, 
 charged headlong with his division into the Indian town, and was 
 immediately surrounded by thousands of yelling warriors. Of the 
 details of the struggle that ensued very little is known. For General 
 Custer and every man of his command fell in the fight. The conflict 
 equaled, if it did not surpass, in desperation and disaster any other 
 Indian battle ever fought in America. The whole loss of the Sev- 
 enth Cavalry was two hundred and sixty-one killed, and fifty-two 
 wounded. General Reno, who had been engaged with the savages 
 
630 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 at the lower end of the town, held his position on the bluffs of the 
 Little Horn until General Gibbon arrived with reinforcements and 
 saved the remnant from destruction. 
 
 Other divisions of the army were soon hurried to the scene ol 
 hostilities. During the summer and autumn the Indians were beaten 
 in .several engagements, and negotiations were opened looking to the 
 removal of the Sioux to the Indian Territory. But still a few des- 
 perate bands held out against the authority of the Government; be- 
 sides, the civilized Nations of the Territory objected to having the 
 fierce savages of the North for their neighbors. On the 24th of No- 
 vember, the Sioux were decisively defeated by tlie Fourth Cavalry, 
 under Colonel McKenzie, at a pass in the Big Horn Mountains. The 
 Indians lost severely, and their village, containing a hundred and 
 seventy-three lodges, was entirely destroyed. The army now went 
 into winter-quarters at various points in the hostile country ; but 
 active operations were still carried on by forays and expeditions during 
 December and January. On the 6th of the latter month, the sav- 
 ages were again overtaken and completely routed by the division 
 of Colonel Miles. 
 
 Soon after this defeat, the remaining bands, under Sitting Bull and 
 Crazy Horse, being able to offer no further serious resistance, escaped 
 across the border and became subject to the authorities of Canada. 
 Here they remained until the following autumn, when the Govern- 
 ment opened negotiations with them for their return to their reserva- 
 tion in Dakota. A commission, headed by General Terry, met Sitting 
 Bull and his warriors at Fort AValsh, on the Canadian frontier. Here 
 a conference was held on the 8th of October. Full pardon for past 
 offenses was offered to the Sioux on condition of their peaceable re- 
 turn and future good behavior. But the irreconcilable Sitting Bull 
 and liis savage chiefs rejected the proposal with scorn ; the conference 
 was broken off, and the Sioux were left at large in the British domin- 
 ions north t)f Milk Kiver.* 
 
 The excitement occasioned by the outbreak of the war with the 
 Sioux, and even the interest felt in the Centennial celebration, was soon 
 overshadowed by the agitation of the public mind, attendant upon the 
 twenty -third Presidential election. Before the close of June the national 
 conventions were held and standard-bearers selected by the two leading 
 political parties. General Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio and William 
 
 ■■■■■ The result of the Fort Wiilsli conference was \>y no means distasteful to the Govern- 
 ment. By formally refusing to return to their reservation, the Indians virtually re- 
 nounced all relations witli tlie United States, and the autliorities were tlius, by an unex- 
 pected stroke of good fortune, freed from tlie whole complication. Canada can hardly 
 be congratulated on such nn accession to her population! 
 
GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION. 631 
 
 A. Wheeler of New York, were chosen as candidates by the Repub- 
 licans; Samuel J. Tilden of New York and Thomas A. Hendricks of 
 Indiana, by the Democrats. A third — the Independent Green- 
 back — party also appeared, and presented as candidates Peter Cooper 
 of New York and Samuel F. Gary of Ohio. The canvass began early 
 and with great spirit. The battle-cry of the Democratic party was 
 Reform — reform in the public service and in all the methods of ad- 
 ministration. For it was alleged that many of the departments of 
 the Government and the officers presiding therein had become cor- 
 rupt in practice and in fact. The Republicans answered back with 
 the cry of Reform, — averring a willingness and an anxiety to correct 
 public abuses of whatsoever sort, and to bring to condign punishment 
 all who dared to prostitute the high places of honor to base uses. To 
 this it was added that the nationality of the United States, as against 
 the doctrine of State sovereignty, must be upheld, and that the rights 
 of the colored people of the South must be protected with additional 
 safeguards. The Independent party echoed the ciy of Reform — mon- 
 etary reform first, and all other reforms afterwards. For it was al- 
 leged by the leaders of this party that the measure of redeeming the 
 national legal-tenders and other obligations of the United States in 
 gold — which measure was advocated by both the other parties — was 
 a project unjust to the debtor-class, iniquitous in itself, and impossi- 
 ble of accomplishment. And it was further argued by the Independ- 
 ents that the money-idea itself ought to be revolutionized, and that 
 a national paper currency ought to be provided by the Government, 
 and be based, not on specie, but on a bond bearing a low rate of 
 interest, and interconvertible, at the option of the holder, with the 
 currency itself. But the advocates of this theory had only a slight 
 political organization, and did not succeed in securing a single elect- 
 oral vote. The real contest lay — as it had done for twenty years — 
 between the Republicans and the Democrats. The canvass drew to a 
 close. The election was held , the general result was ascertained, and 
 both parties claimed the victory! The election was so evenly balanced 
 between the two candidates, there had been so much irregularity in 
 the voting and subsequent electoral proceedings in the States of 
 Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon, and the powers of 
 Congress over the votes of such States were so vaguely defined, under 
 existing leg-islation, that no certain declaration of the result could be 
 made. The public mind was confounded with perplexity and excite- 
 ment ; and more than once were heard the ominous threatenings ot 
 civil war. 
 
632 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 When Congress convened in December, the whole question of 
 the disputed presidency came at once before that body for adjust- 
 ment. The situation was seriously complicated by the political 
 complexion of the Senate and the House of Representatives. In the 
 former body the Republicans had a majority sufficient to control 
 its action ; while in the House the Democratic majority was still 
 more decisive and equally willful. The debates began and seemed 
 likely to be interminable. The question at issue was as to whether 
 the electoral votes of the several States should, at the proper time, be 
 opened and counted by the presiding officer of the Senate, in accord- 
 ance with the immemorial and constitutional usage in such cases, or 
 whether, in view of the existence of duplicate and spurious returns 
 from some of the States, and of alleged gross irregularities and frauds 
 in others, some additional court ought to be constituted to open and 
 count the ballots. Meanwhile the necessity of doing something became 
 more and more imperative. The great merchants and manufacturers 
 of the country and the boards of trade in the principal cities grew 
 clamorous for a speedy and peaceable adjustment of the difficulty. 
 The spirit of compromise gained ground ; and after much debating in 
 Congress it was agreed that all the disputed election returns should be 
 referred to A Joint High Commission, consisting of five members to 
 be chosen from the United States Senate, five from the House of 
 Representatives, and five from the Supreme Court. The judgment of 
 this tribunal should be final in all matters referred thereto for de- 
 cision. The Commission was accordingly constituted. The counting 
 was begun as usual in the presence of the Senate and the House of 
 Representatives. When the disputed and duplicate returns were 
 reached they were referred, State by State, to the Joint High Commis- 
 sion ; and on the 2d of March, only two days before the time for the in- 
 angurntion, a final decision was rendered. The Republican candidates 
 were declared elected. One hundred and eighty-five electoral votes 
 were cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and one hundred and eighty-four foi 
 Tilden and Hendricks. The greatest political crisis in the history of 
 the country passed harmlessly by without violence or bloodshed. 
 
HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 63S 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX. 
 
 HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION, 1S77-1881. 
 
 RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, nineteenth President of tlie United 
 States, was horn in Delaware, Ohio, on the 4th day of October, 
 1822. His ancestors were soldiers of the Revolution. His primary 
 education was received in the public schools. Afterwards, his studies- 
 were extended 
 to Greek and 
 Latin at the 
 N o r w a 1 k 
 Academy ; and 
 in 1837 he 
 became a stu- 
 dent at Webl>'s 
 preparatory 
 school, at Mid- 
 dletown, Con- 
 necticut. In 
 the following 
 year, he en- 
 tered the 
 Freshman 
 class at Ken- 
 yon College, 
 and in 1842 
 was graduated 
 from that in- 
 stitution with 
 the highest 
 
 honors of his class. Three years after his graduation, he completed 
 his legal studies at Harvard University, and soon afterward began 
 the practice of his profession, first at Marietta, then at Fremont,, 
 and finally as city solicitor, in Cincinnati. Here he won distinguished 
 reputation as a lawyer. During the Civil War he performed much 
 honorable service in the Union cause, rose to the rank of major- 
 
 PRESIDENT HAYES. 
 
634 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 general, and in 1SG4, while still in the field, was elected to Congress. 
 Three years later he was chosen governor of his native State, and 
 was reelected in 1869, and again in 1875. At the Cincinnati conven- 
 tion of 1876, he had the good fortune to be nominated for the presi- 
 dency over .several of the most eminent men of the nation. 
 
 In his inaugural address, delivered on the 5th of Mai'ch,* President 
 Hayes indicated the policy of his administration. The patriotic and 
 conciliatory utterances of the address did much to quiet the bitter 
 spirit of partisanship which for many months had disturbed the 
 country. The distracted South was assured of right purposes on the 
 part of the new chief-magistrate ; a radical reform in the civil service 
 was avowed as a part of his policy ; and a speedy return to specie 
 payments was recommended as the final cure for the deranged finances 
 of the nation. The immediate effect of these assurances — so evidently 
 made in all good faith and honesty — was to rally around the incipient 
 administration the better part of all the parties and to introduce a new 
 "Era of Good Feeling" as peaceable and beneficent in its character 
 ^s the former turbulence had been exciting and dangerous. 
 
 On the 8th of March, the President named the members of his 
 cabinet. Here, again, he marked out a new departure in the policy 
 of the government. For the cabinet, though esceptionably able and 
 statesmanlike, was noticeably non-partisan in its character. As secre- 
 tary of state William M. Evarts, of New York, was chosen ; John 
 Sherman, of Ohio, was named as secretary of the treasury ; George W. 
 McCrary, of Iowa, secretary of war; Richard W. Thompson, of 
 Indiana, secretary of the navy; Carl Schurz, of Missouri, secretary of 
 the interior; Charles E. Devens, of Massachusetts, attorney-general; 
 and David M. Key, of Tennessee, postmaster-general. These nomina- 
 tions were duly ratified by the Senate ; and the new administration 
 and the new century of the republic were ushered in together. 
 
 In the summer of 1877 occurred the great labor disturbance 
 known as the Raileoai) Strike. For several years the raining 
 districts of the country had been vexed with disputes and outbreaks 
 having their origin in the question of wages. The manufacturing 
 towns and cities had witnessed similar troubles, and the great cor- 
 poi-ations having control of the lines of travel and commerce were 
 frequently brought to a stand-still by the determined opposition of 
 their employes. The workingmen and the capitalists of the country 
 
 ■'■The iih of March fell on Sunday. Tlie same thing has happened in the following 
 years: 1753, 1781, 1821 (Monroe's inauguration, second term), 1849 (T.iylor's inaug- 
 uration), 1877 (Hayes's inauguration); and the same will hereafter occur as follows: 
 1917, 1945, 1973, 2001, 2029, 2057, 2085, 2125, 2153. 
 
HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. G35 
 
 liad for some time raaintaincd towards each otlier a kind of armed 
 neutrality alilve liurtfiil to the interests of both. In the spring of this 
 year, the managers of the great railways leading from the seaboai-d 
 to the West declared a reduction of ten per cent in the wages of their 
 workmen. This measure, which was to take effect at the middle of 
 July, was violently resisted by the employes of the companies, and 
 the most active steps were taken to prevent its success. The workmen 
 of the various roads entered into combinations, and the officers stood 
 firm. On the 16th of July, the employes of the Baltimore and Ohio 
 Railroad left their posts and gathered such strength in Baltimore and 
 at Martinsburg, West Virginia, as to prevent the running of trains 
 and set the authorities at defiance. The militia was called out by 
 Governor Matthews and sent to Martinsburg, but was soon dispersed 
 by the strikers who, for the time, remained masters of the line. The 
 President then ordered General French to the scene with a body of 
 reo-ulars, and the blockade of the road was raised. On the 20th of 
 the month, a terriljle tumult occurred in Baltimore; but the troops 
 succeeded in scattering the rioters of whom nine were killed and 
 many wounded. 
 
 Meanwhile the strike spread everywhere. In less than a week 
 the trains had been stopped on all the important roads between the 
 Hudson and the Mississippi. Except in the cotton-growing States the 
 insurrection was universal. Travel ceased, freights perished en route, 
 business was paralyzed. In Pittsburgh the strikers, rioters, and dan- 
 gerous classes gathering in a mob to the number of twenty thousand, 
 obtained complete control of the city and for two days held a reign 
 of terror unparalleled in the history of the country. The lawless 
 violence and madness of the scene recalled the fiery days of the 
 French Revolution. The Union Depot and all the machine shops 
 and other railroad buildings of the city were burned. A hundred and 
 twenty-five locomotives, and two thousand five hundred cars laden 
 with valuable cargoes, were destroyed amid the wildest havoc and 
 uproar. The insurrection was finally suppressed by the regular troops 
 and the Pennsylvania militia, but not until nearly a hundred lives had 
 been lost and property destroyed to the value of more than three mill- 
 ions of dollars. 
 
 On the 25th of the month, a similar but less terrible riot occurred 
 at Chicago. In this tumult fifteen of the insurgents were killed by 
 the military of the city. On the next day, St. Louis was for some 
 hours in peril of the mob. San Francisco was at the same time the 
 scene of a dangerous outbreak which was here directed against the 
 
ma HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 Cliinese immigrants and the managers of the lumber yards. Cincin- 
 nati, Columbus, Louisville, Indianapolis, and Fort Wayne were for 
 a while in danger, but escaped without serious loss of life or property. 
 By the close of the month, the alarming insurrection was at an end. 
 Business and travel flowed back into their usual channels; but the 
 sudden outbreak had given a great shock to the public mind, and 
 revealed a liidden peril to American institutions. 
 
 In the mean time, a war had broken out with the Nez Perc6 
 Indians of Idaho. This tribe of natives had been known to the Gov- 
 ernment since 1806, when the first treaty was made with them by the 
 explorers, Lewis and ('larke. Afterwards, missionary stations were 
 established among them, and the nation remained on friendly terms- 
 until after the war with Mexico. In 1854 the authorities of the 
 United States, purchased a parr of the Nez Perc6 territory, large reser- 
 vations being made in North-western Idaho and North-eastern Oregon ; 
 but some of the chiefs refused to ratify the purchase and remained at 
 large. This was the beginning of difficulties. 
 
 The war began witli the usual depredations by the Indians. Gen- 
 eral Howard, commanding the Department of the Columbia, marched 
 against them with a small force of regulars; but the Nez Perces, led 
 by their noted chieftain Joseph, fled first in this direction, and then in 
 that, avoiding battle. During the greater part of the summer the pur- 
 suit continued; still the Indians could not be overtaken. In the fall 
 they were chased through the mountains into Northern Montana, where 
 they were confronted by other troops commanded by Colonel Miles. 
 
 The Nez Percys, thus hemmed in, were next driven across the 
 Missouri River, near the mouth of the Musselshell, and were finally 
 surrounded in their camp, north of the Bear Paw Mountains. Here, 
 on the 4th of October, they were attacked by the forces of Colonel 
 Miles. A hard battle was fought, and the Indians were com])lctely 
 routed. Only a few, led by the chief White Bird, escaped. All 
 the rest were either killed or made prisoners. Three hundred and 
 seventy-five of tiie cajitive Nez Perces were brought back to the 
 American post on the Missouri. The troops of General Howard had 
 made forced marches through a mountainous country for a distance of 
 sixteen hundred miles! — The campaign was crowned with complete 
 success. 
 
 During the year 1877, the public mind was greatly agitated 
 concerning the Remonetization of Silver. By the first coinage 
 regulations of the United States, the standard unit of value was the 
 American Silver Dollar, containing three hundred and seventy-one 
 
HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 637 
 
 •and one-fourth grains of pure silver. From the date of the adoption 
 of this standard, in 1792, until 1873, the quantity of pure metal in this 
 standard unit had never been changed, though the amount of alloy 
 contained in the dollar was several times altered. Meanwhile, in 1849, 
 a gold dollar was added to the coinage, and from that time forth the 
 standard unit of value existed in both metals. In the years 1873- 
 '74, at a time when, owing to the premium on gold and silver, both 
 metals were out of circulation, a series oi' acts were adopted by Con- 
 gress bearing upon the standard unit of value, whereby the legal- 
 tender quality of silver was first abridged and then aboli.shed. These 
 enactments were completed by the report of the Coinage Committee in 
 1874, by which the silver dollar was finally omitted from the list of 
 coins to be struck at the national mints. The general effect of these 
 acts was to leave the gold dollar of twenty-three and twenty-two- 
 hundredths grains the single standard unit of value in the United 
 States. 
 
 In January of 1875, the Resumption Act was passed by Con- 
 gress, whereby it was declared that on the 1st of January, 1879, the 
 Government of the United States should begin to redeem its outstand- 
 ing legal-tender notes in coin. As the time for resumption drew near, 
 and the premium on gold fell off, the question was raised as to the 
 meaning of "coin" in the act for resuming specie payments; and now, 
 for the first time the attention of the people at large was aroused to 
 the fact that by the acts of 1873— '74, the privilege of paying debts in 
 silver had been taken away, and that after the beginning of 1879 all 
 obligations must be discharged according to the measure of the gold 
 dollar only. A great agitation followed. The cry for the remonetiza- 
 tion of .vlrcr was heard everywhere. The question reached the Gov- 
 ernment, and early in 1878 a measure was passed by Congress for the 
 restoration of the legal-tender quality of the old silver dollar, and pro- 
 viding for the compulsory coinage of that unit at the mints at a rate 
 of not less than two millions of dollars a month. The President re- 
 turned the bill with his objections, but the veto was crushed under a 
 tremendous majority; for nearly three-fourths of the members of Con- 
 gress, without respect to party affiliations, gave their support to the 
 measure, and the old double standard of values was restored. 
 
 In the summer of 1878, several of the Gulf States were scourged 
 with a Yellow Fever Epidemic, unparalleled in the history of the 
 country. The disease made its appearance in New Orleans in the 
 latter part of May, and from thence was quickly scattered among the 
 other towns along the Mississippi. Unfortunately, the attention of 
 
638 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tlie people in the Gulf country had been but little given to sanitary 
 precautions, and the Southern cities were nearly all in a condition to 
 invite the presence of the scourge. The terror soon spread from town 
 to town, and the people began to fly from the pestilence. The cities 
 of Memphis and Grenada became a scene of desolation. At Vicks- 
 burgh the ravages of the plague were almost equally terrible; and 
 even in the parish-towns remote from the river, and as for north as 
 Nashville and Louisville, the horrors of the scourge were felt. All 
 summer long the disease held on unabated. The helpless populations 
 along the Lower Mississippi languished and died by thousands. A 
 regular system of contributions was established in the Northern States, 
 and men and treasure were poured out without stint to relieve the 
 suiiering South. The efforts of the Howard Association at New Or- 
 leans, Memphis, and elsewhere, M'ere almost unequalcd in heroism 
 and sacrifice. After more than twenty thousand people had fallen 
 victims to the plague, the grateful frosts of October came at last and 
 ended the pestilence. 
 
 By the XVIIIth Article of the Treaty of Washington,* it was 
 agreed that the right of the inhabitants of the United States in cer- 
 tain sea-fisheries which had hitherto belonged exclusively to the sub- 
 jects of Great Britain, should be acknowledged and maintained. It 
 was conceded, moreover, that the privilege of taking fish of every 
 kind — except shell-fish — on the sea-coasts and shores, and in the 
 bays, harbors, and creeks of the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
 New Brunswick, Prince Edward's Island, and the islands thereunto 
 adjacent, without restriction as to distance from the shore, should be 
 guaranteed to American fishermen, without prejudice or partiality. 
 On the other hand, the government of the United States agreed to 
 relinquish the duties which had hitherto been charged on certain 
 kinds of fish imported by British subjects into American harbors. 
 Several other concessions of minor importance were mutually made 
 by the contracting parties; and in order to balance any discrepancy 
 that might appear in the aggregate of such concessions, and to make 
 the settlement of a vexed question full, fair, and final, it was further 
 agreed tliat any total advantage to the United States arising from 
 the treaty, might be compensated by a sum in gross to be paid liy the 
 American government to Great Britain. And in order to determine 
 what such sum should be, a Commission was provided for, the same 
 to consist of one commissioner to be appointed by the Queen, one 
 by the President, and a third (provided the Queen and the Presi- 
 
 ■• See page 556. 
 
HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 039 
 
 dent should not agree on a third) by the Austrian ambassador at 
 the Court of St. James!* Accordingly, in the summer of 1877, the 
 Commission was constituted, and the sittings began at Halifax. But 
 little attention was given to the proceedings of the body until No- 
 vember, when the country was startled by the announcement that 
 by the casting vote of Mr. Delfosse, Belgian minister to the United 
 States, who had been named as third commissioner by the Austrian 
 ambassador at London, an mcanl of fice millions of dollars had been 
 made against the American government ! The decision was received 
 with general surprise, both in the United States and in Europe ; 
 and for awhile it seemed probable that the arbitration might be 
 renounced as iniquitous. It was decided, however, that the award, 
 whether just or unjust, would better stand; and accordingly, in 
 November, 1878, the amount was paid — not without great pojiular 
 dissatisfaction — to the British government. 
 
 The year 1878 witnessed the establishment of A eesidext Chinesk 
 EMBASSY at Washington. For twenty years the great and liberal treatv 
 negotiated by Anson Burlingame had been in force between the United 
 States and China. Under the protection of this compact, the commer- 
 cial relations of the two countries had been vastly extended, and a knowl- 
 edge of the institutions, manners, and customs prevalent in the Celes- 
 tial Empire so widely diffused as to bi'eak down in some measure the 
 race-prejudice existing against the Mongolians. The enlightened 
 policy of the reigning emperor had also contributed to establish more 
 friendly intercourse with the United States, and to promote such 
 measures as should make that intercourse lasting. The idea of send- 
 ing resident ambassadors to the American government had been en- 
 tertained for several years. The emperor had been assured that the 
 people of China — more particularly her ministers — would be received 
 with all the courtesy shown to the most favored nation. The officers- 
 chosen by the imperial government as its representatives in the United 
 States were Chen Lan Pin, minister plenipotentiary, Yung Wing, 
 assistant envoy, and Yung Tsang Slang, secretary of legation. On 
 the 28th of September the embassy was received by the President. 
 
 ■•"A sti-ange and inexplicable provision. As a matter of fact, it came to pass that the 
 man who by the terms of the treaty held the power of appointing, and who did appoint, 
 the umpire in the Halifax Commission, was Count Von Beust, a Bourbon of the Bour- 
 bons in politics, a Saxon renegade, an upholder of the House of Hapsburg by choice, 
 and a hater of all republican institutions. It thus happened that a question which had 
 proved too much for the Joint High Commission itself, was rem-anded for settlement to 
 a political adventurer temporarily resident in London .' To understand the proceeding- 
 requires the wisdom of a — statesman! 
 
MO HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES. 
 
 The ceremonies of the occasion were among the most novel and in- 
 teresting ever witnessed in Washington. The speech of Chen Lan 
 Pin was equal in dignity and approjjriateness to the best efforts of a 
 European diplomatist. Addressing the President the Chinese minister 
 said: 
 
 "]\[r. President: His Majesty, the Emperor of China, in ap- 
 pointing us to reside at Washington as ministers, instructed us to 
 present your Excellency his salutations, and to express his assurances 
 of friendship for you and the people of the United States. His 
 Majesty hopes that your administration may be one of signal success, 
 and that it may bring lasting peace and prosperity to the whole 
 country. On a former occasion the Chinese government had the 
 honor to send an embassy to Washington on a special mission, and 
 the results were most beneficent. His Majesty cherishes the hope 
 tliat this embassy will not only be the means of establishing on a 
 firm basis the amicable relations of'the two countries, but may also 
 be the starting-point of a new diplomatic era which will eventually 
 unite the East and West under an enlightened and progressive civil- 
 ization." 
 
 The history of modern times contains many pleasing evidences 
 of the growing estimate placed by civilized states upon the value of 
 human life. In the legislation of Congress several important acts 
 bear witness to the general interest felt in the United States on the 
 sul)ject of better protection for those M'ho are exposed by land and sea. 
 The question of affording adequate succor to shipwrecked sailors has 
 especially engrossed the attention of the government, and many meas- 
 ures have been proposed with a view of giving greater security to 
 "them that go down to the sea in ships." During the last session of 
 the Forty-fifth Congress a bill was brought forward by S. S. Cox, of 
 Xew York, for the reorganization of the Life-Saving Service of 
 THE United States, under the patronage and control of the govern- 
 ment. This service had existed as a private enterprise since 1871. 
 The plan proposed and adopted June 18, 1878, embraced the establish- 
 ment of regular stations and light-houses on all the exposed parts of 
 the Atlantic coast and along the great lakes. Each station was to be 
 manned by a band of surfmcn experienced in the dangers peculiar to 
 the shore in times of storms, and drilled in the best methods of rescue 
 and resuscitation. Boats of the most approved pattern — capable of sur- 
 viving any storm that ever lashed tlie sea — were provided and 
 equipped. A hundred appliances and inventions suggested by the 
 wants of the service — life-cars with hawsers, and mortars for firing 
 
HAYEKS ADMINISTRATION. 641 
 
 shot-lines into vessels foundering at a distance from the shore — were 
 supplied and their use skillfully taught to the brave men who were 
 employed at the stations. The success of the enterprise has been so 
 great as to reflect the highest credit on its promoters. The number of 
 lives saved through the direct agency of the service reaches to thou- 
 sands annually, and the amount of human suffering and distress alleviated 
 by this beneficent movement is beyond computation. So carefully are 
 the exposed coasts of the United States now guarded that it is almost 
 impossible for a foundering ship to be driven within sight of the shore 
 without at once beholding through the darkness of the otherwise hope- 
 less night the sudden glare of the red-light signal flaming from the 
 beach, telling the story of friends near by and rescue soon o come. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1879, the Kesumption of Specie Pay- 
 ments was formally accomplished by the treasury of the United 
 States. For more than seventeen years, owing to the disorders arising 
 from the Civil War, gold and silver coin had been at a premium 
 over the legal-tender notes of the Government. During this whole 
 period the monetary affairs of the Nation had been in a state of dis- 
 traction. As a matter of fact, the monetary unit had been so fluctu- 
 ating as to render legitimate business almost impossible. The actual 
 purchasing power of a dollar could hardly be predicted from one 
 week to another. Resulting from this, a spirit of rampant specula- 
 tion had taken possession of most of the market values of the coun- 
 try. The lawful transactions of the street, carried forward in obedi- 
 ence to the plain principles of political economy, suffered shipwreck, 
 while parvenu statesmen gave lectures on the nature of debt and the 
 evils of overproduction ! After the passage of the Resumption Act, 
 in 1875, owing to the steady and rapid appreciation of the value of 
 the monetary unit, the debtor classes of the country entered a period 
 of great hardship; for their indebtedness constantly augmented in a 
 ratio beyond the probability, if not the possibility, of payment. It 
 was an epoch of financial ruin and bankruptcy, which was only 
 checked, but not ended, by the abrogation of the Bankrupt Act, in 
 1878. With the near approach of Resumption, however, a certain 
 degree of confidence supervened ; and the actual accomplishment of 
 the fact was hailed by many as the omen of better times. 
 
 The presidential election of 1880 was accompanied with the usual 
 excitement attendant upon great political struggles in the United 
 States. The congressional elections of 1878 had generally gone 
 against the Republican party, insomuch that in both houses of the 
 Forty-sixth Congress the Democrats had a clear majority. It was 
 
642 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 therefore not unreasonable to expect that in the impending contest for 
 the presidency the Democratic party would prove successful. The 
 leaders of this party were hopeful of success and entered the campaign 
 with renewed zeal and energy. The Republican national convention 
 was held in Chicago on the ■2d and 3d of June. A platform of prin- 
 ciples was adopted largely retrospective. The history of the party 
 during the twenty years of its supremacy in the government was 
 recited as the best reason why its lease of power should be continued 
 by the people. The platform reaffirmed and emphasized the doctrine 
 of nationality as opposed to the theory of states' rights; declared in 
 favor of popular education ; advocated a system of discriminating duties 
 in favor of American industries ; called on Congress to limit Chinese 
 immigration; avoided the question of finance; complimented the 
 administration of President Hayes; and arraigned the Democratic 
 party as unpatriotic in its principles and fraudulent in its practices. 
 Upon this platform — after the greater part of two days had been con- 
 sumed in balloting — General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, was nom- 
 inated for President, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice- 
 President. 
 
 The Democratic national convention assembled in Cincinnati, on 
 the 22d of June. The platform of principles declared adherence to the 
 doctrines and traditions of the party ; opposed the tendency to central- 
 ization in the government; adhered to gold and silver money and 
 paper convertible into coin; advocated a tariff for revenue only; ^vo- 
 claimed a free ballot; denounced the administration as the creature of 
 a conspiracy; opposed the presence of troops at the polls; compli- 
 mented Samuel J. Tilden for his patriotism; declared for free ships 
 and an amendment to the Burlingame treaty as against Chinese im- 
 migration; and appealed to the acts of the Forty-sixth Congress as 
 proof and illustration of Democratic economy and wisdom. After 
 adopting this platform the convention nominated for the presidency 
 General Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, and for the vice- presi- 
 dency William H. English, of Indiana. 
 
 Meanwhile the National Greenliack party had held a convention 
 in Chicago, on the 9th of June, and nominated as standard-bearers 
 General James B. Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and General Benja- 
 min J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-President. The jjlatform ot 
 principles declared in favor of the rights of the laborer, as against the 
 exactions of capital; denounced monopolies and syndicates; proclaimed 
 the sovereign power of the government over the coinage of metallic 
 and the issuance of paper money; advocated the abolition of the 
 
HA YES'S ADMINISTRA TION. 643 
 
 National banking system and the substitution of legal-tender currency ; 
 declared for the payment of the bonded debt of the United States as 
 against all refunding schemes; denounced land-grants; opposed 
 Chinese immigration and an increase of the standing army; favored 
 the equal taxation of all property and unrestricted suffrage ; demanded 
 reform in the methods of congressional proceedings; and appealed for 
 support to the sense of justice in the American people. 
 
 The canvass had not progressed far until it became evident that 
 the contest lay between the Republican and the Democratic party, and 
 that the long-standing sectional division into North and South was 
 likely once more to decide the contest in favor of the former. That 
 part of the Democratic platform which declared for a tariff for revenue 
 only, alarmed the manufacturing interests and consolidated them in 
 support of the Republican candidates. Tlie banking and bond-hold- 
 ing classes rallied with great unanimity to the same standard, and the 
 old war spirit, aroused at the appearance of a "solid South" insured a 
 solid North against the Democracy. The election resulted in the choice 
 of Garfield and Arthur. Two hundred and fourteen electoral votes, 
 embracing those of all the Northern States except New Jersey, Nevada, 
 and four out of the five votes of California, were cast for the Republican 
 candidates, and one hundred and fifty-five votes, including those of 
 every Southern State, were given to Hancock and English. The can- 
 didates of the National party secured no electoral votes, though the 
 popular vote given to Weaver and Clir.mbers aggregated 307,000 as 
 against 81,000 cast for Cooper and Cary in 1876. 
 
 The administration of President Hayes and the last session of tiie 
 Forty-sixth Congress expired together on the 4th of March, 1881. 
 The closing session had been chiefly occupied with the matter of 
 refunding the national debt. About seven hundred and fifty millions 
 of dollars of five and six per cent, bonds became due during the year ; 
 and to provide for the payment or refunding of this large sum was the 
 most important matter claiming the attention of Congress. Late in 
 the session a bill was passed by that body providing for the issuance 
 by the government of new bonds of two classes, both bearing three 
 |ier cent.; the first class payable in from five to twenty years, and the 
 second class in from one to ten years. The latter bonds were to be 
 issued in small denominations, adapted to the conditions of a popular 
 loan. One provision of the bill required the national banks holding- 
 five and six per cent, bonds to surrender the same — the bonds having 
 fallen due — and to receive instead the new three per cents. This 
 clause of the law aroused the antagonism of the banks, and by every 
 
644 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 possible means they sought to prevent the passage of the bill. On the 
 last dav of the session, tlie measure having been adopted by botli 
 houses of Congress, the act was laid l)efore the President for his 
 approval, which was withheld. A veto message was returned to Con- 
 gress; the advocates of the bill being unable to command a two-third's 
 majority in its favor, the bill failed to become a law, and the session 
 closed without any provision for the refunding of the 750,000,000 
 dollars of bonds falling due in 1881. 
 
 Soon after retiring from the presidency, General Grant with his 
 familv and a company of personal friends, set out to visit the countries 
 of Europe and Asia, and to make a tour of the world. Though the 
 expedition was intended to be private it could but attract the most 
 conspicuous attention both at home and abroad. The departure from 
 Philadelphia on the 17th of May, 1877, was the beginning of a pageant 
 which, in its duration and magnificence, was never before extended to 
 any citizen of any nation of the earth. Wherever the distinguished ex- 
 President went he was welcomed with huzzas and dismissed with 
 plaudits. First in England — at Liverpool, Manchester, London — 
 and afterwards, in midsummer, in Belgium, Switzerland, Prussia, 
 and France, everywhere the General's coming was announced by 
 the thunder of cannon, the tlironging of multitudes, and a chorus 
 of cheers. A short stay in Italy was followed by a voyage to Alexan- 
 dria, and a brief sojourn in Egypt. Thence the company proceeded to 
 Palestine and afterwards to Greece. The following spring found the 
 ex-President and his party again in Italy — at Rome, Florence, Venice, 
 and Milan ; and the summer carried them into Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Norway. The next countries visited were Austria and Russia, wliile 
 for the winter the distinguished tourists chose the south of France and 
 Sj>ain. Ireland was visited, and in January of 1879 the company em- 
 barked from Marseilles for the East. The following year was spent in 
 visiting the great countries of Asia — India first; then Burmah and 
 Siam; then China; and tlien Japan. In the fall of 1879 the party 
 returned to San Francisco, bearing with them the highest tokens of 
 esteem which the great nations of the Old World could bestow upon 
 the honored representative of the civilization of the New. 
 
 The census of 1880 was undertaken with more system and care 
 than ever before in the history of the country. The work was entrusted 
 to the general superintendency of Professor Francis A. Walker, under 
 whose direction the admirable census of 1870 was conducted. During 
 the decade the .same astounding progress which had marked the pre- 
 vious historv of the United States was more than ever illustrated. In 
 
HA YES'S AD MINIS TEA TION. 
 
 645 
 
 every source of national power, in every element of national vigor, the 
 development of the country had continued without abatement. The 
 total population of the states and territories of the Union now amounted 
 to 50,182,525 — an increase since 1870 of inore than a million inhabit- 
 ants a year! New York was still the leatiing state, having a popula- 
 tion of 5,083,173. Nevada was least populous, showing an enumera- 
 tion of but 62,265. Of the 11,584,188 added to the population since 
 the census of 1870, 2,246,551 had been contributed by immigration, 
 of whom about 85,000 annually came from Germany alone. The 
 number of cities having a population of over 100,000 iidiabitants had 
 increased during the decade from t()urteen to twenty.* The center 
 of population had moved westward about fifty miles, and now rested 
 at the city of Cincinnati. 
 
 The statistics of trade and industry were likewise of a sort to 
 gratify patriotism, if not to excite national pride. The current of the 
 precious metals which for many years had flowed constantly from the 
 United States to foreign countries turned strongly, in 1880, toward.^! 
 America. The importation of specie during the year just mentioned 
 amounted to §93,034,310, while the exportation of the same during 
 the year reached only $17,142,199. During the greater part of the 
 period covered by the census abundant crops had followed in almost 
 unbroken succession, and the overplus in the great staples peculiar to 
 our .soil and climate had gone to enrich the country, and to stimulate 
 to an unusual degree those fundamental industries upon which national 
 j)crpetuity and individual happiness are ultimately founded. t 
 
 * The following table will show the population and rate of increa.se in the ten lead- 
 ing cities in the United States, according to the censuses of 1870 and 1880: 
 
 City. 
 
 State. 
 
 Population 
 
 Per cent, 
 of increase. 
 
 New York _ . . . 
 Philadelphia . . 
 Brooklyn . . . 
 St. Louis .... 
 Chic.igo .... 
 Baltimore .... 
 
 Boston 
 
 Cincinnati .... 
 New Orleans . . . 
 San Francisco . . 
 
 1870 
 
 New York . . . . ' 942,292 
 Pennsylvania . . 674,022 
 New York .... 396,099 
 Missouri .... 310,864 
 
 Illinois 298,977 
 
 Maryland .... 267,354 
 Massachusetts . . , 250,526 
 
 Ohio 216,239 
 
 Louisiana .... 191,418 
 California . . . . | 149,473 
 
 1880 
 
 1,206,590 
 846,984 
 586,689 
 350,522 
 503,304 
 333,190 
 362,535 
 255,708 
 216,140 
 233,956 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 48 
 
 13 
 
 72 
 
 24 
 
 44 1 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 56 
 
 t At the date of sending this edition to the press, only the preliminary results of the 
 census of 1880 have been given to the public. 
 
646 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 During the administration of President Hayes several eminent 
 Americans fiassed from the scene of their earthly activities. On the 
 1st of November, 1877, the distinguished Senator Oliver P. Morton, 
 of Indiana, after battling for many years against the deadly en- 
 croachments of paralysis, died at his home in Indianapolis. His 
 death, though not unforeseen, was much lamented. Still more 
 universally felt was the loss of the great poet and journalist, William 
 Cnllen Bryant, who, on the 12th of June, 1878, at the advanced age 
 of eighty-four, passed from among the living. For more than sixty 
 years his name had been known and honored wherever the English 
 hmguage is spoken. His life had been an inspiration, and the 
 ])riglitest light of American literature was extinguished in his death. 
 On the 19th of December, in the same year, the illustrious Bayard 
 Taylor, who had recently been appointed American minister to the 
 German Empire, died suddenly in the city of Berlin. His life had 
 been exclusively devoted to literary work ; and almost every depart- 
 ment of letters, from the common tasks of journalism to the liighest 
 charms of poetry, had been adorned by his genius. His death, at the 
 early age of fifty-four, left a gap not soon to be filled in the shining 
 ranks of literature. On the 1st day of November, 1879, Senator 
 Zachariah Chandler, of Michigan, one of the organizers of the Re- 
 publican party, and a great leader of that party in tlie times of the 
 civil wai-, died suddenly at Chicago ; and on the 24th day of February, 
 1881, another senator, the distinguished Matt. H. Carpenter, of 
 Wisconsin, after a lingering illness, expired at Washington. One 
 by one the strong men who battled for the preservation of American 
 nationality in the stormy days of the civil war are passing or have 
 passed into the land of rest. 
 
ADMINISTBATIONa OF QABFIELD AND ABTHUB. 
 
 64:7 
 
 CHAPTEE LXX. 
 ADMINI8TBATI0N8 OF QABFIELD AND ABTEUR. 
 
 JAMES A. GARFIELD, tweDtieth President of the United States, 
 was born at Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio, November 19th, 18.31. 
 By the death of his father lie was left in infancy to the sole care 
 of his mother and to the rude surroundings of a backwoods home. 
 
 Blest with great 
 native energy 
 and an abundance 
 of physical vigor, 
 the boy gathered 
 from country toil 
 a sound constitu- 
 tion, and from 
 country schools 
 the rudiments 
 of education. 
 In boyhood his 
 services were in 
 frequent demand 
 by the farmers 
 of the neighbor- 
 hood — for he de- 
 veloped unusual 
 ^, skill as a mc- 
 ^ chanic. After- 
 wards he served 
 as a driver and 
 pilot of a canal 
 boat plying the 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania canal. At the age of seventeen he attended 
 the High School in Chester, where he ajjplied himself with great dili- 
 gence, extending his studies to algebra, Latin, and Greek. In the fall 
 of 1851, he entered Hiram College, in Portage county, Ohio, where he 
 remained as student and instructor until 1854. In that year he entered 
 
 JAMES A. GAEPIELD. 
 
648 HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED ST A TES. 
 
 Williams College, from which, in August of 1856, he was graduated 
 with honor. He then returned to Ohio, and was made first a professor 
 and afterwards jjresident of Hiram College. This position he held 
 until the outbreak of the civil war when he left his post to enter the 
 army. Meanwhile he had studied law, imbibed a love for politics, and 
 been elected to the Ohio State Senate. 
 
 As a soldier Garfield was first made lieutenaut-colonel and after- 
 wards colonel of the Forty-second regiment of Ohio volunteei's. Ad- 
 vancing with his men to the front he was soon promoted to a brigadier 
 generalship, and did good service in Kentucky and Tennessee. He 
 was made chief of staff to General Rosecrans, and bore a distinguished 
 part in the battle of Chickamauga. Soon afterwards, while still in the 
 field, he was, in 1862, elected by the people of his district to the lower 
 house of Congress, where he continued to serve as a member for seven- 
 teen years. In 1879 he was elected to the United States Senate, and 
 hard upon this followed his nomination and election to the presidency. 
 American history has furnished but few instances of a more steady and 
 brilliant rise from the poverty of an obscure boyhood to the most dis- 
 tinguished elective office in the gift of mankind. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1881, President Garfield, according to the 
 custom, delivered his inaugural address. A retrospect of the progress 
 of American civilization during the last quarter of a century was given 
 and the country congratulated on its high rank among the nations. 
 The leading topics of politics were briefly reviewed, and the policy of 
 the executive department of the government with respect to the great 
 questions likely to engross the attention of the people, set forth with 
 clearness and precision. The public scliool system of the United 
 States should be guarded with jealous care; the old wounds of the 
 South should be healed' and the heai'tburnings of the civil war be 
 buried in oblivion; the present banking system should be maintained; 
 the practices of polygamy should be repressed; Chinese immigration 
 should be curbed by treaty; the equal rights of the enfranchised blacks 
 should be asserted and maintained. 
 
 On the day following the inauguration the President sent to the 
 Senate for confirmation the names of the members of his cabinet. 
 The nominations were, for secretary of state, James G. Blaine, of 
 Maine; for secretary of the treasury, "William Windom, of Minnesota; 
 for secretary of war, Robert T. Lincoln, of Illinois ; for secretary of the 
 navy, William H. Hunt, of Louisiana; for secretary of the interior, 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood, of Iowa; for attorney -general, Wayne McVeagh, 
 of Pennsylvania; for postmaster-general, Thomas L. James, of New 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OP GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. G49 
 
 York. These nominations were promptly confirmed, and the new 
 administration entered upon its course with omens of an auspicious 
 future. 
 
 One of the first issues which engaged the attention of the govern- 
 ment after Garfield's accession to the Presidency, was the question of 
 Reform in the Civil Service. This question had been inherited 
 from the administration of Hayes, by whom several spasmodic efforts 
 had been made to introduce better methods in the selection of men to 
 fill the appointive offices of the United States. The real issue was 
 whether the choice of the officials of the government should be made 
 on' the grounds of the character and fitness of the candidate, or on the 
 principle of distributing jwlitical patronage to those who had best 
 served the party — whether men should be promoted from the lower 
 to the higher grades of official life, and retained according to the 
 value and proficiency of the service rendered, or be elevated to posi- 
 tion in proportion to their success in carrying elections and maintain- 
 ing the party in power. The members of Congress to whom the help 
 of efficient supporters in their own districts and states seemed essential, 
 and by whom the patronage of the government had been dispensed 
 since the days of Jackson, held stoutly to the old order, unwilling to 
 relinquish their influence over the appointing power. President 
 Hayes, after vainly attempting to establish the opposite policy, aban- 
 doned the field near the close of his administration. The national 
 Republican platform of 1880, however, vaguely endorsed "civil service 
 reform" as a principle of the party, and some expectation existed that 
 President Garfield would follow the policy of his predecessor. With 
 the incoming of the new administration the rush for office was unpre- 
 cedented in the previous history of the country. The politicians and 
 place-seekers, who claimed to have "carried the election," swarmed 
 into Washington and thronged the executive mansion, clamoring for 
 office, until, for the time, all plans and purposes of reform in the civil 
 service were quite crushed out of sight and forgotten. As always 
 hitherto, ambition for political power and hunger for the spoils of 
 office triumphed over the better sense of the American people. 
 
 The prospects of the new administration were soon darkened 
 with political difficulties. A division arose in the ranks of the Re- 
 publican party, threatening the disruption and ruin of that organiza- 
 tion. The two wings of the Republicans were nicknamed the "Half- 
 breeds " and the " Stalwarts : " the latter, headed by Senator Conkling, 
 of New York, being the division which had so resolutely supported 
 General Grant for the Presidency in the Chicago Convention ; the 
 
650 HISTORY OF TEE UNITED STATES. 
 
 former, led by Mr. Blaine, now Secretary of State, and indorsed by 
 the President himself, had control of the government, and were 
 nnmerically stronger than their opponents. The Stalwarts claimed 
 the right of dispensing the appointive offices of the Govermnent, after 
 the manner which prevailed for several preceding administrations; 
 that is, the distribution of the offices in the several States, imder the 
 name of patronage, by the Senators and Kepresentatives of those States 
 in Congress. The President, supported by his division of the party, 
 and in general by the reform element in politics, insisted on naming 
 the officers in the various States according to his own wishes and what 
 he conceived to be the fitness of things. 
 
 The chief clash between the two irrfluences in the party occurred 
 in respect to the offices in New York. The collectorship of customs 
 for the port of ISTew York is the best appointive office in the gift of 
 the Government. To fill this position the President appointed Judge 
 "William Robertson, and the appointment was bitterly antagonized by 
 the New York Senators, Roscoe Conkling and Thomas C. Piatt, who, 
 failing to prevent the confirmation of Robertson, resigned their seats, 
 returned to their State, and failed of a reelection. The breach thus 
 effected in the Republican ranks was such as to threaten the dis- 
 memberment of the party. 
 
 Such was the condition of affairs at the adjournment of the Senate 
 in June. A few days afterward the President made arrangements to 
 visit Williams College, where his two sons were to be placed at school, 
 and to pass a short vacation with his sick wife at the sea-side. On 
 the morning of July 2d, in company with Secretary Blaine and a few 
 friends, he entered the Baltimore depot at Washington, preparatory to 
 taking the train for Long Branch, N. J. A moment afterward he was 
 ap}n-oached by a misei-able political miscreant named Charles Julius 
 Guiteau, who, from behind, and unperceived, came within a few feet 
 of the company, drew a pistol, and fired upon the chief -magistrate 
 of the Republic. The aim of the assassin was too well taken, and the 
 second shot struck the President centrally in the right side of the 
 back, infiicting a dreadful wound. The bleeding chieftain was qiiickly 
 borne away to the executive mansion, and the vile wretch who had com- 
 mitted the crime was hurried to prison. 
 
 For a week or two the hearts of the American people vibrated 
 between hope and fear. The best surgical aid was procured, and bul- 
 letins were daily issued containing a brief outline of the President's 
 condition. The conviction grew day by day that he would ultimately 
 recover. Two surgical operations were performed with a view of im- 
 
ADMINISTRATIONS OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 651 
 
 proving his chances for life ; but a series of relapses occurred, and the 
 President gradually weakened under his sufferings. As a last hope 
 he was, on the 6th of September, carefully conveyed from Washington 
 City to Elberon, where he was placed in a cottage only a few 
 yards from the surf. Here, for a brief period, hope again revived, 
 but the symptoms were aggravated at intervals, and the patient sanlc 
 day by day. 
 
 At half past ten on the evening of September 19th, the anniversary 
 of the battle of Chickamauga, in which President Garfield had won his 
 chief military reputation, his vital powers suddenly gave way under the 
 destructive influence of blood poisoning and exhaustion, and in a few 
 moments death closed the scene. For eighty days he had borne the 
 pain and anguish of his situation with a fortitude and heroism rarely 
 witnessed among men. The dark shadow of the crime which had laid 
 him low heightened rather than eclipsed the luster and glory of his 
 great and exemplary life. 
 
 On the day following this deplorable event Vice-President 
 Arthur took the oath of office in New York, and immediately repaired 
 to Washington. For the fourth time in the history of the American 
 Republic the duties of the presidency had been devolved by death 
 upon the man constitutionally provided for such an emergency. The 
 heart of the people, however, clung for a time to the dead rather than 
 to the living President. The funeral of Gai-field was observed first of 
 all at Washington, whither the body was taken and placed in state in 
 the rotunda of the Capitol. Here it was viewed by tens of thousands 
 of people during the 22d and 23d of September. In his life-time the 
 illustrious dead had chosen as the place of his burial the Lakeview 
 Cemetery, at Cleveland, Ohio, and thither, on the 2-ltli of the montli, the 
 remains were conveyed by way of Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. As 
 in the case of the dead Lincoln, the funeral processions and ceremonies 
 were a pageant, exhibiting every-where the loyal respect and love of 
 the American people for him who had so lately been their pride. On 
 the 26th of September his body was laid in its final resting-place. The 
 day of the burial was observed throughout the country' in great as- 
 semblies gathered from hamlet and town and city, all anxious to tes- 
 tify, by some appropriate word or token, their sorrow for the great 
 national calamity, and their appreciation of the grand example of 
 James A. Garfield's life. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, called by this sad event to be the President of the 
 United States, was born in Franklin County, Vennont, October 5, 1830. 
 He is of Irish descent, and was educated at Union College, from which 
 
Go-2 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 institnrioii he was graduated in 1S49. For a while he taught school 
 in his native State, and then came to New York City to study law. 
 Here he was 
 soon admitted 
 to the bar and 
 rapidly rose to 
 il i stinction. 
 During the 
 Civil War he 
 was Quarter- 
 master-Gener- 
 al of the State 
 of New York, 
 a very impor- 
 tant and try- 
 i n g office, 
 which he filled 
 with great 
 credit to him- 
 self and the 
 government. 
 After 1865 he 
 returned to 
 the pi-acticeof 
 law, and was 
 appointed Col- 
 lector of Cus- 
 toms for the 
 
 port of New York in 1871. This position he held until July, 1878, 
 when he was removed by President Hayes. Again he returned to his 
 law practice, but was soon called by the voice of his party to be a 
 standard-bearer in the presidential canvass of 1880. His election to 
 the vice-presidency followed, and then. In* the death of President 
 Garfield, he rose to the post of chief lionor among the American 
 people. 
 
 The assumption of the duties of his high office by President 
 Arthur was attended with but little ceremony or formality. On the 
 22d of September the oath of office was again administered to him in 
 the Yice-President's room, in the Capitol, Chief-justice Waite officiat- 
 ing. After this, in the presence of the few who were gathered in 
 the apartment, he delivered a brief and appropriate address, referring, 
 
 CHESTER A. AKTHIR. 
 
ADMINISTRArTONS OF GARFIELD AND ABTUUB. 653 
 
 ill a toucliing' uiaiiner, tu the death of his predecessor. Those present 
 — iiichiding General Grant, ex-President Hayes, Senator Slierinan, and 
 his brother tlie General of the army — then paid their respects, and 
 tlie ceremony was at an end. 
 
 In accordance with the custom, the members of the Cabinet, as 
 constituted so recently by President Garfield, immediately tendered 
 "their resignations. These were not at once accepted, the President in- 
 stead inviting all of the members to retain their places as his consti- 
 tutional advisers. For the time all did so except Mr. Windom, Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury, wlio was succeeded by Judge Folger, of New 
 Yoi-k, and Mr. MacVeagh, Attorney General, whose successor was not 
 immediately appointed. No disposition to make radical changes in 
 the policy of the Government was manifested by the new administra- 
 tion, and the people generally, without respect to party lines, were 
 well pleased with the spirit shown by him who had so suddenly been 
 ■called to the chief magistracy of the Union. 
 
 The History of Ock Country has thus been traced from the 
 times of the aborigines to the present day. The story is done. The 
 Eejjublic has passed through stormy times, but has at last entered her 
 Second Century in safety and peace. The clouds that were recently 
 so black overhead have broken, and are sfaking behind the horizon. 
 The equality of all men befure the law has been written with the iron 
 pen of war in the constitutidu of the nation. The union of the States 
 lias been consecrated anew by the blood of patriots and the tears of the 
 lowly. The temple of freedom reared by our fathers still stands in 
 undiminished glory. The Past has taught its Lesson; the 
 Present has its Duty ; and the Future its Hope. 
 
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CONCLUSION. 655- 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 WHAT, then, of the outlook for the American Republic? What 
 ■shall another century bring forth ? What is to be the destiny 
 of this vigorous, aggressive, self-governing Anglo-American race ? 
 How will the picture, so well begun, be completed by the annalists 
 of posterity ? Is it the sad fate of humanity, after all its struggles, 
 toils, and siffhina:, to turn forever round and round in the same 
 beaten circle, climbing the long ascent from the degradation of sav- 
 age life to the heights of national renown only to descend again 
 into the fenlands of despair? Is Lord Byron's gloomy picture of 
 the rise and fall of nations indeed a true portrayal of the order of the 
 world ? — 
 
 Here is the luoral of all liniiuiii tales, — 
 
 'Tis but the same rehearsal of the past, 
 
 First freedom and then glory — vvht-n that fails. 
 
 Wealth, vice, corruption, barbarism at last: 
 
 And History with all her volumes vast 
 
 Hath but one page ! 
 
 Or has the human race, breaking the bonds of its servitude and es- 
 caping at last from its long imprisonment, struck out across the fields 
 of sublime possiljility the promised pathway leading to the final tri- 
 umjjh? There are still doubts and fears — perplexities, anxieties, and 
 sometimes anguish — arising in the soul of the philanthropist as he 
 turns his gaze to the future. But there are hopes also, grounds of 
 confidence, auspicious omens, tokens of the substantial victory of truth, 
 inspirations of faith welling up in the heart of the watcher as he scans 
 the dappled horizon of the coming day. 
 
 As to present achievement the American people have far sur- 
 passed the expectations of the fathers. The visions and dreams of the 
 Revolutionary patriots have been eclipsed by the luster of actual ac- 
 complishment. The territorial domains of the Republic enclose the 
 grandest belt of forest, valley, and plain that the world has in it. 
 Since the beginning of time no other people have j^ossessed such a 
 territory — so rich in resources, so varied in products, so magnificent 
 in physical aspect. Soil and climate, the distribution of woods and 
 
656 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 lakes and rivers, the interposition of moiintaiu ranges, and the fertil- 
 ity of valley and prairie, here contribute to give to man a many-sided 
 and powerful development. Here he finds bays for his shipping, 
 rivers for his steamers, fields for his plow, iron for his forge, gold for 
 his cupidity, landscapes for his pencil, sunshine enough for song, and 
 snow enough for courage. Nor has the Anglo-American failed to profit 
 by the advantages of his surroundings. He has planted a free gov- 
 ernment on the largest and most liberal scale known in history. He 
 has espoused the cause of liberty and right. He has fought like a 
 hero for the freedom and equality of all men. He has projected a 
 civilization which, though as yet but dimly traced in outline, is the 
 vastest and grandest in the world. Better than all, he believes in the 
 times to come. So long as man is anxious about the future the fu- 
 ture is secure. Only when he falls into apathy, sleeps at his post, and 
 cares no longer for the morrow, is the world in danger of relapse and 
 barbarism. 
 
 To the thoughtful student of history several things seem neces- 
 sary to the perpetuity and complete success of American institutions. 
 The first of these is the prevalence of the Idea of National Unity. 
 Of this spake Washington in his Farewell Address, warning his coun- 
 trymen in solemn words to preserve and defend that government which 
 constituted them one people. Of this wrote Hamilton and Adams. 
 For this pleaded Webster in his great orations. Upon this the far- 
 seeing statesmen of the present day, rising above the strifes of party 
 and the turmoils of war, plant themselves as the one thing vital in 
 American politics. The idea that fhe United States ore one Nation, 
 and not thirty-eight nations, is the grand cardinal doctrine of a sound 
 political faith. State pride and sectional attachment are natural pas- 
 .sions in the human breast, and are so near akin to patriotism -as to be 
 distinguished from it only in the court of a higher reason. But there 
 is a nobler love of country — a patriotism that rises above all places 
 and sections, that knows no County, no State, no North, no South, but 
 onl)' native land ; that claims no mountain slope ; that clings to no 
 river bank; that worships no range of hills; but lifts the aspiring eye 
 to a continent redeemed from barbarism by common sacrifices and 
 made sacred by the shedding of kindred blood. Such a patriotism is 
 the cable and sheet-anchor of our hope. 
 
 A second requisite for the preservation of American institutions 
 is THE Universal Secular Education of the People. Monarchies 
 govern their subjects by authority and precedent; republics by right 
 reason and free will. Whether one method or the other will be better, 
 
CONCLUSION. 657 
 
 turns wholly upon the intelligence of the governed. If the subject 
 have not the knowledge and discipline necessary to govern himself, it 
 is better that a king, in whom some skill in the science of government 
 is presupposed, should rule him. As between two stupendous evils, 
 the rational tyranny of the intelligent few is preferable to the furious 
 and irrational tyranny of the ignorant many. No force which has 
 moved among men, impelling to bad action, inspiring to crime, over- 
 turning order, tearing away the bulwarks of liberty and right, and 
 converting civilization into a waste, has been so full of evil and so 
 powerful to destroy as a blind, ignorant, and factious democracy. A 
 republic without intelligence — even a high degree of intelligence — is 
 z. paradox and an impossibility. What means that principle of the 
 Declaration of Independence which declares the consent of the gov- 
 erned to be the true foundation of all just authority? What kind of 
 "consent" is referred to? Manifestly not the passive and unresisting 
 acquiescence of the mind which, like the potter's clay, receives what- 
 -ever is impressed upon it ; but that active, thinking, resolute, conscious, 
 personal consent which distinguishes the true freeman from the puppet. 
 When the people of the United States rise to the heights of this noble 
 and intelligent self-assertion, the occupation of the party leader — most 
 despicable of all the tyrants — will be gone forever; and in order that 
 the people may ascend to that high plane, the means by which intel- 
 ligence is fostered, right reason exalted, and a calm and rational jiub- 
 lic opinion produced, must be uuiversally secured. The public Free 
 School is the fountain whose streams shall make glad all the lands 
 of liberty. We must educate or perish. 
 
 A third thing necessary to the perpetuity of American liberties 
 is Toleration — toleration in the broadest and most glorious sense. 
 In the colonial times intolerance embittered the lives of our fathers. 
 Until the present day the baleful shadow has been upon the land. 
 The prescriptive vices of the Middle Age have flowed down with the 
 blood of the race and tainted the life that now is, with a suspicion and 
 distrust of freedom. Liberty in the minds of men has meant the privi- 
 lege of agreeing with the majority. Men have desired free thought, 
 but fear has stood at the door. It remains for the United States to 
 build a highway, broad and free, into every field of liberal inquiry, 
 and to make the poorest of men who walks therein, more secure in life 
 and reputation than the soldier who sleeps behind the rampart. Pro- 
 scription has no part nor lot in the American system. The stake, the 
 gibbet, and the rack, thumb-screws, sword, and pillory, have no place 
 on this side of the sea. Nature is diversified ; so are human faculties, 
 
 42 
 
658 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 beliefs, and practices. Essential freedom is the right to differ; and 
 that right must be sacredly respected. Nor must the privilege of dis- 
 sent be conceded with coldness and disdain, but openh', cordially, and 
 with good will. No loss of rank, abatement of character, or ostracism 
 from society must darken the pathway of the humblest of the seekers 
 after truth. The right of free thought, free inquiry, and free speech, 
 is as clear as the noonday and bounteous as the air and ocean. With- 
 out a full and cheerful recognition of this right, America is only a 
 name, her glory a dream, her institutions a mockery. 
 
 The fourth idea, essential to the welfare and stability of the Re- 
 public, is THE Nobility of Labor. It is the mission of the United 
 States to ennoble toil and honor the toiler. In other lands to labor 
 has been considered the lot of serfs and peasants ; to gather the fruits 
 and consume them in luxury and war, the business of the great. 
 Since the medieval times European society has been organized on the 
 basis of a nobilifi/ and a people. To be a nobleman was to be distin- 
 guished from the people; to be one of the people was to be forever 
 debarred from nobility. Thus has been set on human industry the 
 stigma of jierpetual disgrace. Something of this has been transmitted 
 to the new civilization in the West — a certain disposition to renew 
 the old order of lord and laborer. Let the odious distinction jDcrish : 
 the true lord is the laborer and the true laborer the lord. It is the 
 genius of American institutions, in the fullness of time, to wipe the 
 last opprobrious stain from the brow of toil and to crown the toiler 
 with the dignity, luster, and honor of a full and perfect manhood. 
 
 The scroll of the century is rolled together. The work is done. 
 Peace to the memory of the fathers! Green be the graves where 
 sleep the warriors, patriots, and sages! Calm be the resting-place of 
 all the brave and true ! Gentle be the summer rains on flimous fields 
 where armies met in battle ! Forgotten be the animosities and heart- 
 burnings of the strife! Sacred be the trusts committed to our care, 
 and bright the visions of the coming ages! 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE'S ARGUMENT ON THE FIGURE 
 OF THE EARTH. 
 
 [Since tlie paragraph in tlie text lias been tlie subject of some doubts and criticism, 
 the original of Sir John Mandeville's argument is here appended. Tlie orthography 
 and phraseology are not more quaint than the logic is invincible. In order that the ar- 
 gument may be more easily followed and clearly understood, a translation or paraphrase, 
 is added. It must not be forgotten that the date of Sir John's book is 1356 — a hundred 
 and thii-ty-six years before the discovery of America by Columbus. — The Authok.] 
 
 In that Lond, ne in many othere bezonde that, no man may see the Sterre trans- 
 montane, that is clept the SteiTe of the See, that is unmevable, and that is toward the 
 Nortlie, that we clepen the Lode Sterre. But men seen another Sterre, the contrarie to 
 him, that is toward the Southe, that is clept Antartyk. And right as the Schip men 
 taken here .\vys here, and governe hem be the Lode Sterre, right so don Schip men 
 bezonde the parties, be the Sterre of the Southe, the whiche Sterre apperethe not to us. 
 And this Sterre, that is toward the Nortlie, that wee clepen the Lode Sterre, ne apperethe 
 not to hem. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the Lond and the See ben 
 of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of tlie Firmament schewethe in o Contree, 
 that schewethe not in another Contree. And men may well preven be experience and 
 sotyle compassement of Wytt, that zif a man fond passages be Schippes, that wolde go 
 to serchen the World, men niyghte go be Schippe alle aboute the World, and aboven 
 and benuthen. The whiche thing I prove thus, aftre that I have seyn. For I have 
 ben toward the pai-ties of Braban, and beholden the Astrolabre,* that the Sterre that is 
 clept the Transmontayne, is 53 Degrees highe. And more forthere in Almayne and 
 Bewme, it hathe 58 Degrees. And more forthe toward the parties septemtrioneles, it is 
 6- Degrees of lieghte, and certeyn Mynntes. For I my self have mesured it by the 
 Astrolabre. Now schulle ze knowe, that azen the Ti'ansmontayne, is the totlier Sterre, 
 that is clept Antartyke; as I have seyd before. And tlio 2 Sterres ne meeven nevere. 
 And be hem turnetlie alle the Firmament, righte as dothe a Wheel, that turnethe be 
 his Axille Tree: so that tho iSterres beren tlie Firmament in 2 egalle parties; so that 
 it hathe als niochel aboven, as it hathe benethen. Aftre this, I have gon toward the 
 parties meridionales, that is toward the Southe : and I have founden, that in Lybye, 
 men seen first the Sterre Antartyk. And so fer I have gon more forthe in tho Contrees, 
 that I have founde that Sterre more highe ; so that toward the highe Lybye, it is 18 
 Degrees of heghte, and certeyn Minutes (of the whiche, 60 Minutes niaken a Degree). 
 •Aftre goynge be See and be Londe, toward this Contree, of tliat I have spoke, and to 
 other Yles and Londes bezonde that Contree, I have founden the Sterre Antartyk of 33 
 Degrees of heghte, and mo mynutes. .Vnd zif I liadde had Comjianye and Schipjiynge, 
 for to go more bezonde, I trowe wel in certeyn, that wee scholde have seen alle the 
 
 '^In Mandeville's time, Astronomers had attained but very little accuracy iii taking observations. 
 
 659 
 
(iOO APPENDIX A. 
 
 ronndnes.se of the Firmament alle abonte. * * * * * Be the whiche I seve 
 
 zou certeynly, that men may envirowne alle the Ertlie of alle the World, as wel undre 
 as aboven, and turnen azeii to his Contree, that hadde Companye and Schippynge and 
 Conduyt: and alle weyes he scholde fynde Men, Londes, and Yles, als wel as in this 
 Contree. For zee wyten welle, that thei that ben toward the Antartyk, thei ben 
 streglite, feet azen feet of hem, that dwellen undre transmontane; als wel as wee and 
 thei that dwellyn under us, ben feet azenst feet. For alle the parties of See and of 
 Lond han here appositees, babitables or trepassables, and thei of this half and bezond 
 half. "■ * "*" * * ■•■■ And whan men gon bezonde tho iourneyes, toward Ynde and 
 to the foreyn Yle."?, alle is envyronynge the roundnVsse of the Erthe and of the Sec, 
 undre cure Contrees on this half. And therfore bathe it befallen many tymes of o 
 thing, that I bave herd cownted, whan I was zong; how a worthi man departed som- 
 tyme from onre Contrees, for to go sercbe the World. And so he pas.sed Ynde, and the 
 Yles bezonde Ynde, where ben mo than 5000 Y'les: and so longe he wente be See and 
 Lond, and so enviround the World be many seysons, that he fond an Yle, where he 
 herde speke his owne Langage, callynge on Oxen in the Plowghe, suche Wordes as men 
 speken to Bestes in his owne Contree: whereof he hadde gret Mervayle : for he knewe 
 not how it myghte be. But I seye, that he had gon so longe, be Londe and be See, that 
 he had envyroiind alle the erthe, that he was comen azen envirounynge, that is to seye, 
 goynge aboute, unto his owne Marches, zif he wolde have passed forthe, til he had 
 founden his Contree and his owne knouleehc. But he turned azen from thens, from 
 whens he was come fro ; and so he loste moche peynefulle labour, as him self seyde, a 
 gret while aftre, that he was comen liom. For it befelle aftre, that he wente in to Nor- 
 weye; and there Tempest of the See toke him ; and he arryved in an Yle ; and whan 
 he was in that Yle, he knew wel, that it was the Yle, where he had herd speke his owne 
 Langage before, and the callynge of the Oxen at the Plowghe : and that was possible 
 thinge. But how it semethe to syraple men unlerned, that men ne mowe not go undre 
 the Erthe, and also that men scholde falle toward the Hevene, from undre ! But that 
 may not be, upon lesse, than wee mowe falle toward Hevene, fro the Erthe, where wee 
 ben. For fro what partie of the Erthe, that men duelle, outher aboven or benethen, it 
 semethe alweys to hem that duellen, that thei gon more righte than ony other folk. 
 And righte as it semethe to us, that thei ben undre us, righte so it semethe hem, that 
 wee ben undre hem. For zif a man myghte falle fro the Erthe unto the Firmament; 
 be grettere resoun, the Erthe and the See, that ben so grete and so hevy, scholde fallen 
 to the Firmament: but that may not be. * * * And alle be it that it be possible 
 thing, that men may so envyronne alle the World, natheles of a 1000 persones, on ne 
 myghte not happen to returnen in to his Contree. For, for the gretnes.-ie of the Erthe 
 and of the See, men may go be a 1000 and a 1000 other weyes, that no man cowde redye 
 him perfitely toward the parties that he cam fro, but zif it were be aventure and happ, or 
 be the grace of God. For the Erthe is fulle large and fulle gret, and holt in roundnesse 
 and aboute envyroun, be aboven and be benethen 20425 Myles, aftre the opynyoun of 
 the olde wise Astronomeres. And here Seyenges I repreve noughte. But aftre my lyty lie 
 wytt, it semethe me, savynge here reverence, that it is more. And for to have bettere 
 understondynge, I .seye thus. Be ther ymagyned a Figure that hathe a gret Compas; 
 and aboute the poynt of the gret Compas, that is clept the Centre, be made another 
 litille Compas: than aftre, be the gret Compas devised be Lines in manye parties; and 
 that alle the Lynes meeten at the Centre ; so that in as many parties, as the grete 
 Compas schal be departed, in als manye schalle be departed the litille, that is aboute 
 the Centre, alle be it that the spaces ben lesse. Now thanne, be the gret compas 
 represented for the firmament, and the litille compas represented for the Erthe. Now 
 thanne the Firmament is devysed, be Astronomeres, in 12 Signes ; and every Signe is 
 
MANDEVILLE'S ARGUMENT. 661 
 
 Jevysed in 30 Degrees, that is 360 Degrees, tliat tlie Firiuaiiient hatlie aboveii. Also, 
 be tlie Ertlie devysed in als many parties, as tlie Firmament; and lat every partye an- 
 swere to a Degree of the Firmament: and wytethe itwel, that aftre the Auctoiires of 
 Astrononiye, 700 Furlonges of Erthe answeren to a Degree of the Firmament; and tlio 
 ben 87 Miles and 4 Furlonges. Now be that here multiplyed by 360 sitlies; and than 
 thai ben 31500 Myles, every of 8 Furlonges, aftre Myles of oure Contree. So moche 
 hathe the Erthe in roundnesse, and of heghte enviroun, aftre myu opynyoun and myri 
 andirstondynge. 
 
 [paraphrase.] 
 
 In that land and in others beyond no man may see the fixed star of the North which 
 we call the Lode Star. But there men see another star called the Antarctic, opposite to the 
 star of the North. And just as mariners in this hemisphere take tlieir leclconing and 
 govern their course by the North Star, so do the mariners of the Soutli by the Antarctic. 
 But the star of the North appears not to the people of the South. Wherefore men may 
 easily perceive that ihe laiid and the sea are f round shape and figure. For that part of the 
 firmament which is seen in one country is not seen in anotlier. And men may prove 
 botli by experience and sound reasoning that if a man, having passage by ship, sliould 
 go to search the world, he might with his vcxsel sail around the world, both above and under it. 
 This proposition I prove as follows: I liave myself in Prussia seen the Nortli Star Oy 
 the astrolabe fifty-three degrees above the horizon. Further on in Boiiemia it rises to 
 the height of fifty-eight degrees. And still fartlier northward it is sixty-two degrees 
 and some minutes high. I myself have so measured it. Now the South Pole Star is. 
 as I have said, opposite the North Pole Star. And about these poles the whole celestial 
 sphere revolves like a wheel about the axle; and tlie firmament is thus divided into 
 two equal parts. From the N(jrth I have turned southward, passed the equator, and 
 found that in Lybia the Antarctic Star first appears above the horizon. Farther on in 
 those lands that star rises higher, until in southern Lybia it reaches the height of 
 eighteen degrees and certain minutes, sixty minutes making a degree. After going 
 by sea and by land towards that country [Australia perhaps] of which I have spoken, 
 I have found the Antarctic Star more than thirty-three degrees above the horizon. 
 And if I had had company and shipping to go still farther, 1 knmo of a certainly that I should 
 ham seen the whole circumference of the heavens. '" * '■'■ •'' •■■ * And I repeat that men 
 may environ the whole world, as well under us above, and return to their own country, ij they had 
 company, and ships, and conduct. And always, as well as in their own land shall they find 
 inhabited continents and islands. For know you well that they who dwell in the 
 southern hemisphere are feet against feet of them who dwell in the northern hemi- 
 sphere, /uji^ a.5 we and they that dwell under us are feet to feet. For every part of the sea and 
 the land hatlt its antipode. * * * * * Moreover when men go on a journey toward 
 India and the foreign islands, they do, on the whole route, circle the circumference of 
 the earth, even to those countries which are under ns. And therefore hath that same 
 thing, which I heard recited when I was young, happened many times. Howbeit, upon 
 a time, a worthy man departed from our country to explore the world. And so he 
 passed India and the islands beyond India — more than five thousand in number — and 
 so long lie went by sea and land, environing the world for many seasons, that he found 
 an island where he heard them speaking his own language, hallooing at the oxen in 
 the plow with the identical words spoken to beasts in liis own country. Forsooth, he 
 was astonished ; for he knew not how the thing might happen. But I assure you that 
 
662 APPENDIX A. 
 
 he had gone so far by hind and sea that he had actuallj' gone around the world and 
 was come again through the long circuit to his own district. It only remained for him 
 to go forth and find his particular neighborhood. Unfortunately he turned from the 
 coast which he had reached and thereby lost all his painful labor, as he himself after- 
 wards acknowledged when he returned home. For it happened by and by that he 
 went into Norway, being driven thither by a storm ; and there be recognized an island 
 as being the same in wliich he had heard men calling the oxen in his own tongue : 
 and that was a possible tiling. And yet it seemeth to sinijjle unlearned rustics that 
 men may not go around tlie world, and if they did Uiey would, fall off! But that absurd 
 thing never could hajjpen uidess we ourselves from where we are should fall toward 
 heaven! For upon what part soever of the earth men dwell, whether above or under, 
 it always seemeth to them that they walk more perpendicularly than other folks! And 
 just as it seemeth to us that our antipodes are under us head downwards, just so it 
 seemeth to tliem that we are under them head downwards. If a man might fall from 
 the earth towards heaven, by much more reason the earth itself, being so heavy, should 
 fall to heaven — an impossible thing. •■■' * * *' ® Perhaps of a thousand men who 
 should go around the world, not one might succeed in returning to his own particular 
 neighborhood. For the earth is indeed a body of great size, its circumference being — 
 according to the old wise astronomers — twenty thou.sand four liundred and twenty-five 
 miles. And I do not reject their estimates ; but according to my judgment, saving their 
 reverence, the circumference of the earth is somewhat more than that. And in order to have 
 a clearer understanding of the matter, I use the following demonstration: Let there be 
 imagined a great sphere and about the point called (he center another smaller spliere. 
 Then from different parts of the great sphere let lines be drawn meeting at the center. 
 It is clear that by this means the two .spheres will be divided into an equal number of 
 parts having the same relation to each other; but between the divisions on the smaller 
 sphere the absolute space will be less. Now the great sphere represents the heavens 
 and the smaller sphere the earth. But the firmament is divided by astronomers into 
 twelve Signs, and each Sign into thirty degrees, making three hundred and sixty de- 
 grees in all. On the surface of the earth there will be of course, di^'isions exactly cor- 
 responding to those of the celestial sphere, every line, degree and zone of the latter 
 answering to a line, degree or zone of the former. And now know well that nccordiny 
 to the authors of astronomy'- seven hundred furlongs, or eighty-seven miles and foui- fur- 
 longs, answer to a degree of the firmament. Multiplying eighty-seven and a half miles 
 by three hundred and sixty — the number of degrees in the firmament — we have thirty- 
 one thousand five hundred English miles. And this according to my belief and dem- 
 onstration is the true measurement of the circumference of the earth. 
 
 •■'An everlasting shiime be to the " olile wise Astronomeres " ! If they liad sriveu Sir John the cor- 
 rect mensuroment of a degree of latitude, he would not liuve missed the eireumlerence of the worli; 
 by as much as ten miles ! His argument is absolutely correct. This, too, in A. D. X35&. 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 A PLAN OF PERPETUAL UNION, 
 
 FOR 
 
 HIS majesty's colonies in north AMERICA: 
 PROPOSED BY BENJ. FRANKLIN, 
 
 AND 
 
 Adopted by the Colonial Convention at Albany, July 10th, 1754. 
 
 [This document will be found of special interest as containing the germ of the 
 Articles of Confederation and the Constitution of the United States. It should be 
 remembered that this " Plan of Union," though adopted by the Congress at Albany — 
 only the delegates from Connecticut dissenting — was rejected both by the colonial 
 assemblies and the British Board of Trade, — by the former as being too despotic a 
 constitution and by the latter as a piece of high-handed presumption. — The Author.] 
 
 That the general government of His Majesty's Colonies in North America be 
 administered by a President-General, to be appointed and sujiported by the crown ; and 
 a Grand Council, to te ehcsen by the representatives of the people of the several colonies 
 met in their respective A&^emblies; 
 
 Who shall meet for the first time at the city of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania, being 
 called by the President-General as soon as conveniently may be after his appointment; 
 
 That there shall be a new election of the members of the Grand Council every three 
 years; and on the death or resignation of any member, his place should be supplied by a 
 new choice at the next sitting of the Assembly of the colony he represented ; 
 
 That after the first three years, when the proportion of money arising out of each 
 colony to the general treasury can be known, the number of members to be chosen for 
 each colony shall from time to time, in all ensuing elections, be regulated by that propor- 
 tion, yet so as that the number to be chosen by any one province be not more than seven, 
 nor less than two ; 
 
 That the Grand Council shall meet once in every year, and oftener if occasion require, 
 at such time and place as they shall adjourn to at the last preceding meeting, or as they 
 ihall be called to meet at by the President-General on any emergency ; he having first 
 obtained in writing the consent of seven of the members to such call, and sent due and 
 timely notice to the whole ; . 
 
 That the Grand Council have power to choose their speaker; and shall neither be 
 dissolved, prorogued, nor continued sitting longer than six weeks at one time, witliout 
 their own consent or the special command of tlie crown ; 
 
 That the members of the Grand Council shall be allowed for their service ten shil- 
 lings per diem, during their session and journey to and from the place of meeting; twenty 
 miles to be reckoned a day's journey ; 
 
 That the assent of the President-General be requisite to all acts of the Grand 
 Council, and that it be his oSice and duty to cause them to be carried into execution : 
 
 That the President-General, with the advice of the Grand Council, hold or direct all 
 
 663 
 
664: FRANKLIN'S CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Indian treaties, in which the general interest of the colonies may be concerned; and 
 nialce jieace or declare war with Indian nations ; 
 
 That they make sudi laws as they judge necessary for regulating all Indian trade; 
 
 Tliat they make all pv»rchases, from Indians for the crown, of lands not now within 
 the bounds of particular colonies, or that shall not be within their bounds, when some of 
 them are reduced to more convenient dimensions ; 
 
 That they make new settlements on such pui'chases, by granting lands in the king's 
 name, reserving a quit-rent to the crown for the use of tlie general treasury ; 
 
 That they make laws for regulating and governing such new settlements, till the 
 crown shall think fit to form them into particular governments; 
 
 Tliat they raise and pay soldiers and build forts for the defence of any of the colo- 
 nies, and equip vessels of force to guard the coasts and protect the trade on the ocean, 
 lakes, or great rivers ; but they shall not impress men in any colony, without the consent 
 of the legislature ; 
 
 That for these purposes they have power to make laws, and lay and levy such 
 general duties, imposts, or taxes, as to them shall appear most equal and just (considering 
 tlie ability and other circumstances of the inhabitants in the several colonies,) and such 
 as may be collected with the least inconvenience to the people; rather discouraging luxury, 
 than loading industry with unnecessary burthens ; 
 
 That they may appoint a General Treasurer and Particular Treasurer in each gov- 
 ernment, when necessary; and from time to time may order the sums in the treasuries of 
 each government into the general treasury, or draw on them for special payments, as they 
 find most convenient ; 
 
 Yet no money to issue but by joint orders of the President-General and Grand 
 Council ; except where sums have been appropriated to particular purposes, and 
 the President-General is previously empowered by an act to draw such sums; 
 
 That the general accounts shall be yearly settled and reported to the several 
 Assemblies; 
 
 That a quorum of the Grand Council, empowered to act with the President-General, 
 do consist of twenty- five members; among whom there shall be one or more from a ma- 
 jority of the colonies ; 
 
 That the laws made by them for the purposes aforesaid shall not be repugnant, but, 
 as near as may be, agreeable to the laws of England, and shall be transmitted to tlie 
 King iu Council for approbation, as soon as may be after their passing; and if not disaji- 
 proved within three years after presentation, to remain in force; 
 
 Thai, in case of the death of the President-General, the Speaker of the Grand Council 
 fur the time being shall succeed, and te vested with the same powers and authorities to 
 continue till the King's pleasure be know; 
 
 That all military commission officers, whether for land or sea service, to act under 
 this general constitution, shall be nominated by the President-General ; but the appro- 
 bation of the Grand Council is to be obtained, before they receive their commissions; and 
 all civil officers are to be nominated by the Grand Council, and to receive the President- 
 General's approbation before they officiate; 
 
 But, in case of vacancy by death or removal of any officer civil or military under 
 this constitution, the Governor of the province in which such vacancy happens, may 
 appoint, till the pleasure of the President-General and Grand Council can be known ; 
 
 That the particular military as well as civil establishments in each colony remain 
 in their present state, the general constitution notwithstanding; and that on sudden 
 emergencies any colony may defend itself; and lay the accounts of expense thence 
 arising before the President-General and General Council, who may allow and order 
 payment of the same, as far as they judge such accounts just and reasonable. 
 
APPENDIX C. 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 
 
 Adopted by Congress, July 4, 1776. 
 
 A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF 
 AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve 
 the political bands which have connected them with anotlier, and to assume among the 
 powers of the earth tiie separate and equal station to whicli tlie laws of nature and of 
 nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
 sliould declare tlie causes wliicli impel them to the separation. 
 
 We liold tliese truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ; that they 
 are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, 
 liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these rights, governments are insti- 
 tuted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, 
 whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the 
 people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on 
 such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most 
 likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that govern- 
 ments long est-iblished should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accord- 
 ingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils 
 are sufierable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- 
 tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same 
 object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is 
 their duty, to throw ofT such a government, and to provide new guards for their futnre 
 security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the 
 necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history 
 of the present King of Cireat Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all 
 having in direct object tlic establishment of an ab.solute tyranny over these States. To 
 prove this, let facts he submitteil to a candid world : — 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary foi tlie public 
 good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, 
 unless suspended in their operations, till his assent should be obtained; and, when so 
 suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of ]x>ople, 
 unle.ss those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature; a 
 right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and dis- 
 tant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them 
 into compliance with his measures. 
 
 665 
 
666 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 He lias dissolved represeiitath'e houses repeatedly for opposing, with manly firmness, 
 his invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; 
 whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at 
 large, for their exei'ci.se ; the State remaining, in the mean-time, exposed to all the dan- 
 gers of invasions from without, and convulsions witliin. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose, 
 obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to 
 encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations 
 of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his as.sent to laws for 
 establishing juciiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and 
 the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass 
 our people, and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of peace, slamling armies, without the consent of 
 our legislatures. 
 
 He has afl'ected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. 
 
 He has combined witli others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our consti- 
 tution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended 
 legislation : — 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 
 
 For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they 
 should commit on the inhabitants of these States; 
 
 For cutting offour trade with nil parts of the world ; 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our con.sent ; 
 
 For depriving us, in many ca.ses, of the benefits of trial by jury; 
 
 For tran.sporting us beyond .seas to be tried for pretended offences ; 
 
 For abolishing tlie free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establish- 
 ing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at 
 once an example and fit instrument for introducing the .same absolute rule into the.se 
 Colonies; 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, funda- 
 mentally, the powers of our governments; 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power 
 to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging 
 war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed 
 the lives of our people. 
 
 He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the 
 works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and 
 perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of 
 a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms 
 against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall 
 themselves by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on 
 the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of war- 
 fare is an undistinguished destruction of all age.s, sexe.s, and conditions. 
 
APPENDIX a 667 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most hum- 
 ble terms ; our repeated petitions liave been answered by repeated injur}". A prince 
 whose character is tlius marlced by every act whicli may define a tyrant, is unfit to be 
 tlie ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor liave we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned 
 tliem, from time to time, of attempts by tlieir legislature to extend an unwarrantable 
 jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
 settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we 
 iiave conjured tliem, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
 which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have 
 been deaf to the voice of Justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in 
 the necessity, which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of 
 mankind, enemies in war; in peace, friends. 
 
 We, tlierefore, tlie representatives of the United States of Americ,\, in general 
 congress a.s.sembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of 
 our intentions, do, in tlie name and by the authority of the good people of these Colo- 
 nies, solemnly publisli and declare, that the.se United Colonies are, and of right ought to 
 be, Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British 
 crown, and tliat all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, 
 and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as Free and Independent States, they have 
 full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do 
 all other acts and things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support 
 of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Dn'iNE Providence, we 
 mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 
 
 John Hancock. 
 
 New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Tliornton. 
 
 Masschusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge 
 Gerry. 
 
 Rhode Island, etc. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 
 
 Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William AVilliams, Oliver 
 Wolcott. 
 
 New York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. 
 
 New Jersey. — Richard Stockton, John Withersixion, Francis Hopkinson, John 
 Hart, Abraham Clark. 
 
 Pennsi'I.vani.\. — Roliert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, 
 George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, Geoi-ge Ross. 
 
 Delaware. — Ciesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. 
 
 Maryland. — Samuel Cliase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of 
 Carrollton. 
 
 ViRGiNi.\. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Har- 
 rison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. 
 
 North Carolina. — William Hooper, Josepli Hewes, John Penn. 
 
 South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hayward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 Georgia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 
 
 [The Articles of Confederation were drawn up by a committee of gentlemen, who 
 were appointed by Congress for this purpose, June 12, 1776, and finally adopted, No- 
 vember 15, 1777. The committee were Messrs. Bartlett, Samuel Adams, Hopkins, Sher- 
 man, K. R. Livingston, Dickinson, M'Kean, Stone, Nelson, Howes, E. Kutledge, ami 
 Gwinnet.] 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION. 
 
 Between the States of Neu' Hampshire, 3Ia.''sacliusdlx Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plan- 
 tations, Connecticut, jNew Yorh, Seiv Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delauare, Maryland, Virginia, 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 The style of this confederacy shall be, " The United States of America." 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, 
 jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to tlie United 
 States in Congress assembled. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each 
 
 other, for their common defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and 
 
 general welfare, binding themselves to a.ssist each other against all force offered to, or 
 
 attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or 
 
 any other pretence whatever. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Section 1. — The better to secure and pei-petuate mutual friendship and intercourse 
 among the people of the different States in this union, the free inhabitants of each of 
 these States — paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted — shall be entitled 
 to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the jjeople of 
 each State shall have free ingress and egress to and from any other State, and shall 
 enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, 
 impositions, and restrictions, as the inhabitants tliereof respectively; provided, that 
 such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property importejl 
 into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inliabilant; provided also, 
 that no imposition, duties, or restriction, shall be laid by any State on the property of 
 the United States, or either of them. 
 
 Sec 2. — If any person, guilty of, or charged with treason, felony, or other high 
 misdemeanor, in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United 
 States, he shall, upon the demand of the Governor or executive power of the State 
 from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his 
 offence. 
 
 668 
 
ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 669 
 
 Sec. 3. Full faith and credit sliall be given, in each of these States, to tlie records, 
 acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. 
 
 Section 1. — For the more convenient management of the general interests of the 
 United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature 
 of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November in every 
 year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any 
 time within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the year. 
 
 Sec. 2. — No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than 
 seven members ; and no person shall he capable of being a delegate for more than three 
 years, in any term of six years; nor shall any jierson, being a delegate, be capable of 
 holding any ofSce under the United States, for which he, or any other for his benefit, 
 receives any salary, fees, or emolument, of any kind. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and 
 while they act as members (if the committee of these States. 
 
 Sec. 4. — In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each 
 State shall have one vote. 
 
 Sec. 5. — Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or 
 -questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be 
 protected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments dui'ing the time of their 
 going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of 
 the peace. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 Section 1. — No State, without the con.sent of the United vStates in Congress assem- 
 bled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any confer- 
 ence, agreement, alliance, or treaty with any king, prince, or State, nor shall any person 
 holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept of 
 any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
 fo]-eign state ; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant 
 any title of nobility. 
 
 Sec. 2. — No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation, or alli- 
 ance whatever, between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress 
 assembled, specifying accurately the purpo.ses for which the same is to be entered into, 
 and how long it shall continue. 
 
 Sec. 3.— No State shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with any 
 stipulations in treaties entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any 
 king, prince, or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress to the 
 -courts of France and Spain. 
 
 Sec. 4.— No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except 
 such number only as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assem- 
 bled, for the defence of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up 
 by anv State, in time of peace, except such number only as, in the judgment of the United 
 States in Congress assembled, sliall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for 
 the defence of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and 
 disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly 
 have readv for use, in public stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a proper 
 <juantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage. 
 
 Sec. 5. — No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States 
 in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have 
 received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade 
 
GTO APPENDIX D. 
 
 such St:!te, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of delay till the United States 
 in Congress assembled can be consulted ; nor shall any State grant commissions to any 
 ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration 
 of war hy the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the kingdom 
 or State, and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such 
 ren-nlations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless 
 such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for thai 
 occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in 
 Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 When land forces are raised by any State for the common defence, all officers of or 
 under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of eacii State respect- 
 ively by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, 
 and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 All charo-es of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common 
 defence or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, 
 shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the .several 
 States, in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted to or surveyed 
 for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be esti- 
 mated, according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled shall, from 
 time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid 
 and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within 
 the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 Section 1. — The United States in Congress assembled shall have the sole and 
 exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases men- 
 tioned in the sixth article, of sending and receiving ambassadors; entering into treaties 
 and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the legisla- 
 tive power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such inipo.sts and 
 duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the 
 expin-tation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever; of 
 establisliing rules fur deciding in all cases what captures on land or water shall be legal, 
 and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United 
 States shall be divided or appropriated ; of granting letters of marque and ro[irisal in 
 times of peace; appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonie^i committed on 
 the high seas; and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in 
 all cases of capture; provided tjiat no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge 
 of any of the said courts. 
 
 Sec. 2. — The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on 
 appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or that hereafter may arise between 
 two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction, i r any other cause whatever; 
 which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following: Whenever tlie 
 legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy witU 
 another, shall present a petition to Congress, stating the matter in question, and pray- 
 in" for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative 
 or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the 
 appearance of thn parties by their lawful agents, who shall then bo diiected to appoint. 
 
ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 671 
 
 by joint consent, commissiouprs or juJges to constitute a court for hearing and deter- 
 niining tlie matter in question ; but if they can not agree, Congress shall name three 
 persons out of each of the United States, and from tlie list of sucli persons each party 
 shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be 
 reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine 
 names, as Congress shall direct, shall, in the presence of Congress, be drawn out by lot ; 
 and the persons whose names shall be so drawn, or any five of them, shall be commis- 
 sioners or judges to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major 
 part of the judges, who shall hear the cause, shall agree in the determination : and if 
 .either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons 
 ■which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present, shall refuse to strike, the Con- 
 gress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of 
 Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgment and 
 sentence of the court, to be appointed in the manner before prescribed, shall be final 
 and conclusive ; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such 
 court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed 
 to pronouncesentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and decisive; the 
 judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, 
 and lodged among the acts of Congress, for the security of the parties concerned: pro- 
 vided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be 
 administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State where the 
 cause shall be tried, " well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according 
 to the best of his judgment, without favor, aftection, or hope of reward." Provided, also, 
 that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 3. — All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under dif- 
 ferent grants of two or more States, whose jurisdiction, as they may respect such lands, 
 and the States wliich passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them 
 being at the same time claimed to liave originated antecedent to such settlement of 
 jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, 
 be finally determined, as near as may be, in tlie same manner as is before prescribed for 
 deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States. 
 
 Sec. 4. — The United States in Congress a.ssembled shall also have the sole and 
 exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own 
 authority, or by that of the respective States; fixing the standard of weights and meas- 
 ures throughout the United States; regulating the trade, and managing all affairs with 
 the Indians,.not members of any of the States; provided that the legislative riglit of 
 any State, within its own limits, be not infringed or violated; establishing and regu- 
 lating post offices from one State to another throughout all the United States, and 
 exacting .such postage on the papers jiassing through the same, as may be requisite to 
 defray the expen.ses of the said office ; appointing all officers of the land forces in the 
 service of the United States, excepting regimental officers; appointing all the officers 
 of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United 
 States; making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval 
 forces, and directing their operations. 
 
 Sec. 5. — The United States in Congress assembled shall, have authority to appoint 
 a committee to sit in the rece.ss of Congress, to' be denominated, "A Commitlee of the 
 States," and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other com- 
 mittees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affiiirs of tlio 
 United .States under their direction; to appoint one of their number to preside; pro- 
 vided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year 
 In any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for 
 
<)72 APPENDIX D. 
 
 the service of the Unileil States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying 
 the public expenses; to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the United Stales, 
 transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of mcmey 
 so borrowed or emitted ; to build and equip a navy ; to agree upon the number of land 
 forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the 
 number of white inhabitants in such State, which requisition shall be binding; and 
 thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the 
 men, clothe, arm, and equip 'them, in a eoldier-like manner, at the expense of the 
 United States; and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march 
 to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress 
 assembled ; but if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of 
 circumstances, judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a 
 smaller number than its quota, and that any other State should raise a greater number 
 of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, 
 armed, and equipped, in the same manner as the quota of sucli State, unless the legis- 
 lature of such State shall judge that such extra number can not be safely spared out of 
 the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, clothe, arm, and equip, as many of such 
 extra number as they judge can be safely spared, and the officers and men so clothed, 
 armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed 
 on by the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 Sec. 6. — The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor 
 grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or 
 alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and 
 expenses necessary for the defence and welfare of the United States, or any of them, 
 nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate 
 money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to be built or purchased, or the 
 number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander-in-chief of the 
 army or navy, unless nine States a.ssent to the same : nor shell a question on any other 
 point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined, unless by the votes of a 
 majority of the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 Sec. 7. — The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any 
 time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of 
 adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish 
 the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, 
 alliances, or military operations, as in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas 
 and nays of the delegates of each State, on any question, shall be entered on the journal, 
 when it is desired by any delegate ; and the delegates of a State, or any of them, at his 
 or their request, shall be furnislied with a transcript of the said journal, except such 
 parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, 
 in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States, in Con- 
 gress as,sembled, by the consent of nine States, shall, from time to time, think expedient 
 to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated to the said committee, for the 
 exerci.se of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States, in the 
 Congress of the United States assembled, is requisite. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 Canada, acceding to this Confederation, and joining in the measures Oi the United 
 States, shall be admitted into and entitled to all the advantages of this Union: But 
 
ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 6To 
 
 no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed toTiy 
 nine States. 
 
 ARTICLE xn. 
 
 AH bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and debts contracted by or under the 
 authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of tlie 
 present Confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United 
 States, for payment and s^atisfaction whereof the said United States and the public faith 
 are hereby solemnly pledged. 
 
 ARTICLE xm. 
 
 Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress 
 assembled, in all questions which by this Confederation are submitted to them. And 
 the articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and 
 the union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in 
 any of them ; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, 
 and be afterwards confirmed by the legislature of every State. 
 
 And whereas it hath pleased the great Governor of the world to incline the hearts 
 of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress to approve of, and to authorize 
 us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, Know ye, that we, 
 the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that 
 purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, 
 fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the .said Articles of Confed- 
 •eration and Perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein con- 
 tained. And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective 
 constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Con- 
 gress assembled, in all questions which by the said Confederation are submitted to 
 them; and that the articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we 
 respectively represent, and that the union shall be perpetual. In witness whereof we 
 have hereunto set our liands in Congress. 
 
 Done at Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, the 9th day of July, in the year of our Lord 
 1778, and in the third year of the Independence of America. 
 
 New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, John Wentworth, Jr. 
 
 Mass.^chusetts Bay. — John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, Francis 
 Dana, James Lovel, Samuel Holton. 
 
 Rhode Islakd, etc. — William EUery, Henry Mai-chant, John Collins. 
 
 Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Oliver Wolcott, Titus Hos- 
 mer, Andrew Adams. 
 
 New York. — James Duane, Francis Lewis, William Duer, Gouverneur ilorrLs. 
 
 New Jersey.— John Wither.^poon, Nath. Scudder. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Daniel Roberdeau, Jona Bayard Smith, William 
 Clingan, Joseph Reed. 
 
 Delaware. — Thomas M'Kean, John Dickinson, Nicholas Van Dyke. 
 
 Maryland. — John Hanson, Daniel Carroll. 
 
 Virginia. — Richard Henry Lee, John Banister, Thomas Adams, John Harvie, 
 Trancis Ligbtfoot Lee. 
 
 North Carolina. — John Penn, Cons. Harnett, John Williams. 
 
 SoDTH Carolina. — Henry Laurens, Wm. Henry Drayton, John Matthews, Richard 
 Hutson, Thomas Heyward, Jr. 
 
 Georgia. — John Walton, Edward Telfair, Edward Langworthy. 
 43 
 
APPENDIX E. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish 
 justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the gen- 
 eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain 
 and establish this Constitution for the United States of North America. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Section 1. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- 
 gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 Sec. 2. — The House of Eepresentatives shall be composed of members chosen 
 every second year by tlie people of tlie several States, and the electors in each State 
 shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
 State legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of 
 twenty-five years, ami been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall 
 not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States 
 which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which 
 shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
 bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of 
 all other persons. .The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the 
 first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of 
 ten year.s, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives 
 shall not e.xcced one for every tliirty thousand ; but eacli State shall have at least one 
 representative; and until sucli enumeiation shall be made, the State of New Hampshire 
 shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts, eight, Rhode Island and Providence 
 Plantations, one, Connecticut, five. New York, six, New .Jersey, four, Pennsylvania, 
 eight, Delaware, one, Maryland, six, Virginia, ten, North Carolina, five, South Carolina, 
 five, and Georgia, three. 
 
 When v.acancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive 
 authority tliereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 
 
 Tlie House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and 
 shall have the sole power of ini))eachment. 
 
 Sec. 3. — The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from 
 each State, cliosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have 
 one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of tlie first election, 
 they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. Tlie seats of the 
 senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the 
 
 674 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 673 
 
 second class, at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the tliird class at the expira- 
 tion of the sixth year, so tliat one-tliird may be chosen every second year; and if 
 vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of 
 any State, the executive thereof m&y make teuijjorary appointments until the next 
 meeting of the legislature, which shall then till such vacancies. 
 
 No person shall -be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, 
 and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that State for which be shall be chosen. 
 
 The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall 
 have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the 
 absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office as President of the 
 United States. 
 
 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for 
 that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
 States is tried, the chief-justice shall jireside; and no person shall be convicted without 
 the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from 
 office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under 
 the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to 
 indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 
 
 Sec. 4. — The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and rep- 
 resentatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Con- 
 gre.ss may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places 
 of choosing senators. 
 
 The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year ; and such meeting 
 shall be on tlie first Monday in December, unless they sliall by law appoint a dif- 
 ferent day. 
 
 Sec. 5. — Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications 
 of its own members; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; 
 but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel 
 the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each 
 house may provide. 
 
 Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members foi 
 disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish 
 the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas, 
 and nays of the memliers of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one- 
 fifth of tliose present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the 
 other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the 
 two houses shall be sitting. 
 
 Sec. 6. — The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their 
 services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United Statis. 
 They shall, in all cases except treason, felon}', and breach of the peace, be privileged 
 from arrest during their attendance on the session of their respective houses, and in 
 going to and returning from the same ; and, for any speech or debate in either house, 
 they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 No senator or representative shall, during tlie time for which he was elected, be 
 appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have 
 been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; 
 
670 APPENDIX E. 
 
 and no person holding any office nnder tlie United States shall be a member of eithtr 
 house during his continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 7. — All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Bepresenta- 
 tives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, 
 shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he 
 approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house 
 in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their 
 journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that 
 house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the 
 other bouse, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds 
 of that house, it shall become a law. But, in all such cases, the votes of both houses 
 shall be determined by yeas and nays; and the names of the persons voting for and 
 against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill 
 shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall 
 have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed 
 it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall 
 not be a law. 
 
 Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House 
 of Kepresentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be 
 presented to the President of the United States ; and, before the same shall take effect, 
 shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two- 
 thirds of the Senate and House of Kepresentatives, according to the rules and limita- 
 tions prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Sec. 8. — The Congress shall have power: — 
 
 To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and prr>vidu 
 for the common defence and general welfare, of the United States; but all duties,, 
 imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the United States: 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several Slates, and 
 with the Indian tribes : 
 
 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject ol 
 bankruptcies throughout the United States: 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard 
 of weights and measures: 
 
 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of 
 the United States : 
 
 To establish post-offices and post-roads : 
 
 To pi'omote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited 
 times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and 
 discoveries: 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court: 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and 
 oiFences against the law of nations : 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rule^: concerning 
 captures on land and water : 
 
 To raise and support armies; but no ajipropriation of money to that use shall be 
 for a longer term than two years : 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy : 
 
 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
 forces : 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 677 
 
 To provide for calling forth llie militia to exectite the laws of the Union, surrres.- 
 insurrections, and repel invasions : 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governini; 
 «nch part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, referving to 
 the States respectively, the api>iiintment of tlie officers, and the autliority of traininsf 
 the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress: 
 
 To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not 
 exceeding ten miles square) as may, Ijy cession of particular States, and the acceptance 
 of Congress, become tlie seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like 
 authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in 
 which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and 
 other needful buildings: — And 
 
 To nuike all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution 
 the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in tlie govern- 
 ment of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 Sec. 9. — The migration or importation of such persons, as any of the States now 
 existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to 
 the year one tliousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax, or duty, may be imposed on 
 such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in 
 cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the censn^ 
 or enumeration, hereinbefore directed to be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preferen(> 
 shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over 
 those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear 
 or pay duties, in another. 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriationu 
 made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures o£ 
 all [lublic money shall be published from time to lime. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding 
 any office of profit or trust under them sliall, without the consent of the Congress, 
 accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, 
 prince, or foreign state. 
 
 Sec. 10. — No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant 
 letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing 
 but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, 
 ex. post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of 
 nobility. 
 
 No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on 
 imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspec- 
 tion laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports 
 or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws 
 Shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without 
 the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time 
 of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign 
 power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will 
 not admit of delay. 
 
678 APPENDIX E. 
 
 AKTICLE n. 
 
 Section 1. — The executive power sliall be vested in a President of the United 
 States ofAmerica. He shall hold his office during tlie term of four years, and together 
 with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: — 
 
 Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a 
 number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to 
 which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or 
 person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
 an elector. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two per- 
 sons, of whom one, at least, sliall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them- 
 selves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of 
 votes for each; which list lliey shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
 of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The 
 president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Kepresentatives, 
 open all the certificates; and the votes shall then be counted. Tlie person having the 
 greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such 
 majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Kepresentatives shall 
 immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President; and if no person have a 
 majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said house shall, in like manner, 
 choose the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by 
 States; the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose 
 shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States ; and a majority of 
 all the States .shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the 
 President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be Vice- 
 President. But, if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate 
 shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President. 
 
 The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on 
 which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the 
 time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; 
 neither shall any person be eligible to tnai office who shall not have attained to the age 
 of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or 
 inability to discharge the powt.rs or duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on 
 the Vice-President; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, 
 death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring 
 what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
 the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 
 The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which 
 shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have 
 been elected ; and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from 
 the United States or any of them. 
 
 Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or 
 affirmation : — 
 
 " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of Pre.s 
 ident of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and 
 4efend the Constitution of the United States." 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 679 
 
 Sec. 2. — The President shall be commander-in-chief of the array and navy of the 
 United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service 
 of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in 
 «ach of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
 respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences 
 against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make 
 treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and, 
 by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint, ambassadors, other 
 public ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the 
 United States, whose appointments are not lierein otherwise provided for, and which 
 shall be established by law : but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of 
 such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, 
 or in the heads of departments. 
 
 The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during 
 the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of 
 their next session. 
 
 Sec. 3. — lie shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state 
 of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge 
 necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or 
 ■either of them, and, in case of disagreement between them with respect to tlie time 
 «f adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
 receive ambasisadors and otlier public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be 
 faithfully executed; and sliall commissien all the officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 4. — The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, 
 shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, 
 or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE in. 
 
 Section 1. — Tlie judicial power of the United States shall be vested in a Supreme 
 Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and 
 establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices 
 during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compen- 
 sation, which .shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 2. — The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising 
 under this Constitution, the laws of the United St.ates, and treaties made, or which 
 shall be made, under their authority; to all ca.ses afiecting ambassadors, other public 
 ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to contro- 
 versies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or 
 more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different 
 States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different 
 States, and between a State, or the citizens tliereof, and foreign States, citizens, or 
 subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, .and those in 
 which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In 
 all the other cases before mentioned, the Sujireme Court shall have appellate jurisdic- 
 tion both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the 
 Congress shall make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and 
 such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes sliall have been committed : 
 
680 APPENDIX E. 
 
 but, when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as 
 the Congress may by law have directed. 
 
 Sec. 3. — Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against 
 them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall 
 be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, 
 or on confession in open court. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no 
 attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during 
 tlie life of the person attainted. 
 
 AKTICLE IV. 
 
 Section 1. — Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, 
 records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by gen- 
 eral laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings sliall be 
 proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Sec. 2. — The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities 
 of citizens in the several States. 
 
 A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee 
 from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority 
 of the State from which he tied, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having 
 jurisdiction of the crime. 
 
 No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws thereof, escaping; 
 into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged 
 from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom 
 siicli service or labor may be due. 
 
 Sec. 3. — New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but 
 no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; 
 nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, 
 without the consent of the legislature of the States concerned, as well as of the 
 Congress. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regu- 
 lations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and 
 nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
 United States, or of any particular State. 
 
 Sec. 4. — The United States sliall guarantee to every State in this Union a repub- 
 lican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on 
 application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature can Mot be 
 convened), against domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, nhall 
 propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of 
 two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, 
 which, in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Consti- 
 tution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by con- 
 ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be 
 proposed by the Congress; Provided, that no amendment, which may be made prior to 
 the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and 
 fourtli clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its 
 consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 681 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Con- 
 stitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under 
 the Confederation. 
 
 This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursu- 
 ance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the autliority of the 
 United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall 
 lie bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- 
 witlistanding. 
 
 The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of tlie several 
 State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States 
 and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Con- 
 stitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office 
 or public trust under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE vn. 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States .shall be sufficient for the estab- 
 lishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the Slates present, the seventeenth day of Sep 
 tember, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the 
 Independence of the United States of America the tivelfth. In witness whereof we have 
 hereunto subscribed our names. 
 
 George Washington, President, 
 
 and Deputy from Vir^nia. 
 
 New Hampshire. — John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 
 
 Massachusetts. — Nathaniel Gorham, Kufus King. 
 
 Connecticut. — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. 
 
 New York. — Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 New Jersey. — William Livingston, David Bearly, William Patterson, Jonathan 
 Dayton. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Eoliert Morris, George Cly- 
 mer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. 
 
 Delaware. — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bas- 
 sett, Jacob Broom. 
 
 Maryland. — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. 
 
 Virginia. — John Blair, James Madison, Jr. 
 
 North Carolina. — William Blount, Ricliard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. 
 
 South Carolina. — John Eutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinclc- 
 aey, Pierce Butler. 
 
 Georgia. — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. 
 
 Attest : 
 
 William Jackson, Secretary. 
 
682 APPENDIX E. 
 
 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Congress shall make no law resjiecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
 the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the 
 right of tlie people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of 
 grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of 
 the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 AKTICLE m. 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace, be q\iartered in any house without the consent 
 of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, 
 against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants 
 shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and parti 
 describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized. 
 
 ticularl 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless 
 ■on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or 
 naval forces, or in the militia when in actual .service in time of war or public danger ; 
 nor shall any person be subject, for the same ofTence, to be twice put in jeopardy of life 
 or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; 
 nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall pri- 
 ■vate property be taken for public use without just comjjensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and 
 public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have 
 been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained l)y law; and to 
 be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the wit- 
 nesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor 
 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, 
 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury shall be other- 
 wise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the 
 common law. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 683 
 
 ARTICLE VUl. 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and 
 unusual punishments inllicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to 
 deny or disparage others retained by tlie people. 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited 
 by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be con.strued to extend to any suit 
 in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens 
 of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 
 
 ARTICLE Xn. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President 
 and Vice-President, one of wliom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State 
 with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and 
 in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct 
 lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, 
 and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit 
 sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the 
 Senate; the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
 Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the per- 
 son having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such 
 number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have 
 such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three 
 on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose 
 immediately, by ballot, the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall 
 be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for 
 this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a 
 majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Repre- 
 sentatives shall not choose a President, whenever tlie right of choice shall devolve upon 
 them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act 
 as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the Pres- 
 ident. 
 
 The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the 
 Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
 and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the 
 Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
 necessary to a choice. 
 
 But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President, shall be eligible 
 to that of Vice-President of the United States. 
 
084 APPENDIX E. 
 
 ARTICLE Sm. 
 
 Section 1. — Keither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for 
 crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, sliall exist within the United 
 States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate leg- 
 islation. 
 
 ARTICLE xrv. 
 
 Section 1. — All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to 
 the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they 
 reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges 
 or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive an}' person 
 of life, liberty, or property, witliout due proce.«s of law, nor deny to any per.son within 
 its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Sec. 2. — Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according 
 to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, 
 excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for choice of 
 electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Con- 
 gress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature 
 thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of sucli State being twenty-one years 
 of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation 
 in rebellion or other crime, tlie ba.sis of representation therein shall be reduced in 
 the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number 
 of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
 Sec. 3. — No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, or elector of 
 President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United 
 States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Con- 
 gress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any Stat'^ legislature, or as 
 an executive or judicial officer nf any State, to support the Constitution of the United 
 States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or 
 comfort to the enemies thereof; but Congre.ss may, by a vote of two-thirds of each 
 house, remove such disability. 
 
 Sec. 4. — The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized by law, 
 including debts incurred for payment of pensions, and bounties for services in suppress- 
 ing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States, 
 nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of in.surrection 
 or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
 slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Sec. 5. — The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the 
 provisions of this Article. 
 
 ARTICLE XV. 
 
 Section 1. — The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied 
 or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous 
 condition of servitude. 
 
 Sec. 2. — The Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate 
 legiilation. 
 
APPENDIX F. 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAKE"S^^:LL ADDRESS. 
 
 Friends and Fellow-Citizens : — 
 
 The peiiod for a new election of a citizen to administer tlie executive government 
 of the United States being not far distant, and the time actually arrived when your 
 thoughts must be employed in designating the person who is to be clothed with that 
 important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more dis- 
 tinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprise you of the resolution I 
 have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those out of whom a 
 choice is to be made. 
 
 I beg you, at the same time, to do me the justice to be assured that this resolution 
 has not been taken without a strict regard to all the considerations appertaining to the 
 relation which binds a dutiful citizen to his country; and tliat, in witlulrawing the 
 tender of service, which silence in my situation might imply, I am influenced by no 
 diminution of zeal for your future interest; no deficiency of grateful respect for your 
 ]jast liindness; but am supported by a full conviction that the step is compatible 
 with both. 
 
 The acceptance of, and continuance hitherto in, the office to wliich your suffrages 
 have twice called me, have been a uniform sacrifice of inclination to the opinion of 
 •duty, and to a deference for what appeared to be your desire. I constantly hoped that 
 it would liave been much earlier in my power, consistently with motives whicli I was 
 not at liberty to disregard, to return to that retirement from which I had been reluc- 
 tantly drawn. The strength of my inclination to do this, previous to the last election, 
 had even led to the preparation of an address to declare it to you; but mature reflec- 
 tion on the tlien perplexed and critical posture of our aflTairs with foreign nations, and 
 the unanimous advice of persons entitled to my confidence, impelled me to abandon 
 the idea. 
 
 I rejoice that the state of your concerns, external as well as internal, no longer 
 renders the pursuit of inclination incompatible with the sentiment of duty or propriety; 
 and am persuaded, whatever partiality may be retained for my services, that, in the 
 present circumstances of our country, you will not disapprove of my determination to 
 retire. 
 
 The impressions with wliich I first undertook the arduous trust were explained on 
 the proper occasion. In the discharge of this trust, I will only say that I have, with 
 good intentions, contributed towards the organization and administration of the gov- 
 ernment the best exertions of which a very fallible judgment was capable. Not uncon- 
 scious in the outset of the inferiority of any qualifications, experience, in my own eyes — 
 perhaps still more in the eyes of others — lias strengthened the motives to difiidence of 
 myself; and every aay the increasing weight of years admonishes nie, more and more, 
 that the shade of retirement is as necessary to rae as it will be welcome. Satisfied that 
 5f any circumstances have given peculiar value to ray services they were temporary, I 
 
 685 
 
680 APPENDIX F. 
 
 have the consolation to belie%'e that, wliile choice and prudence invite me to quit tlie 
 political scene, patriotism does not I'orbid it. 
 
 In looking forward to the moment whicli is intended to terminate tlie career of my 
 public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledgment of tliat 
 debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved country for tlie many honors it has con- 
 ferred upon me ; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me; 
 and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attach- 
 ment, by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. 
 If benefits have resulted to our country from these services, let it always be remembered 
 to your praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that, under circumstances 
 in which the passions, agitated in every direction, were liable to mislead; amidst 
 nppeiirances sometimes dubious, vicissitudes of fortune often discouraging; in situations 
 in which, not unfrequently, want of success has countenanced the spiiit of criticism — 
 tlie constancy of your support was the essential prop of the efforts, and a guarantee of 
 the plans, by which they were effected. Profoundly penetrated with this idea, I shall 
 carry it with me to my grave, as a strong incitement to unceasing wishes, that Heaven 
 may continue to you the choicest tokens of its beneficence; that your union and broth- 
 erly afTection may be perpetual ; that the free Constitution, which is the work of your 
 hands, may be sacredly maintained ; that its administration, in every department, may 
 be stamped with wisdom and virtue; that, in line, the happiness of the people of these 
 States, under the auspices of liberty, may be made complete, by so careful a preserva- 
 tion and so prudent a use of this blessing as will acquire to them the glory of recom- 
 mending it to the applause, the aflfcctlon, and adoption of every nation which is yet 
 a stranger to it. 
 
 Here, perhaps, I ought to stop; but a solicitude for your welfare, which can not 
 end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger natural to that solicitude, urge 
 me, on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to 
 recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much 
 reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me all-important to 
 the permanency of your felicity as a peoi)le. These will be offered to you with the 
 more freedom, as you can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting 
 friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his counsels; nor can I forget, 
 as .an encouragement to it, your indulgent reception of my sentiments on a former and 
 not dissimilar occasion. 
 
 Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recom- 
 mendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment. 
 
 The Unity of Government, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to 
 you. It is justly so ; for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence — 
 the support of your tranquillity at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your 
 prosperity, of that very liberty which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to foresee 
 that, from different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, many 
 artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth ; as this is the 
 point in your political fortress against which the batteries of internal and external ene- 
 mies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) 
 directed— it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immen.se value 
 of your National Union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should 
 cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves 
 to think and speak of it as the palladium or your political safety and prosperity; 
 watching for its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may 
 suggest even a suspicion that it can, in any event, be abandoned; an<l indignanrly 
 frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of cuir 
 

 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS 68T 
 
 country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the 
 various parts. 
 
 For this you have every incUicement of sympathy and interest. Citizens by birth 
 or choice, of a common countrj', that country has a right to concentrate your afiections. 
 The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always 
 exalt the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local dis- 
 criminations. With slight shades of difference, you have the same religion, manners, 
 habits, and political principles. You have, in a common cause, fought and triumphed 
 together; the independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint counsels and 
 joint efforts — of common dangers, sufferings, and successes. ' 
 
 But these considerations, however powerfully they address themselves to your 
 sensibility, are greatly outweighed by those which apply more immediately to your 
 interest: here every portion of our country finds the most commanding motives for 
 carefully guarding and preserving the union of tlie whole. 
 
 The Nortli, in an unrestrained intercourse with the Soutli, protected by tlie equal 
 laws of a common government, finds, in the productions of the latter, great additional 
 resources of maritime and commercial enterprise, and precious materials of manu- 
 facturing industry. The South, in the same intercour.se, benefiting by the agency of 
 the North, sees its agriculture grow, and its commerce expand. Turning partly into its 
 own channels the seamen of the North, it finds its particular navigation invigorated; 
 and while it contributes, in different ways, to nourish and increase the general mass oi 
 the national navigation, it looks forward to the protection of a maritime strength to 
 which itself is unequally adapted. The East, in a like intercourse with the West, already 
 finds, and in the progressive improvement of interior communications, by land and 
 water, will more and more find a valuable vent for the commodities which it brings 
 from abroad, or manufactures at home. The West derives from the East supplies 
 requisite to its growth and comfort — and what is perhaps of still greater consequence, 
 it must of necessity owe the secure enjoyment of indispensable outlets for its own pro- 
 ductions to the weight, influence, and the future maritime strength of the Atlantic side 
 of the Union, directed by an indissoluble community of interest as one nation. Any 
 other tenure by which the West can hold this essential advantage, whether derived 
 from its own separate strength, or from an apostate and unnatural connection with any 
 foreign power, must be intrinsically precarious. 
 
 While, then, every part of our country thus feels an immediate and particular 
 interest in Union, all the parts combined can not fail to find in the united mass of 
 means and efforts, greater strength, greater resource, proportionably greater security 
 from external danger, a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations t 
 and what is of inestimable value, they must derive from Union an exemption from 
 those broils and wars between themselves, whicli so frequently afflict neighboring 
 countries, not tied together by the same government; which their own rivalships alone 
 would be sufficient to produce, but which opposite foreign alliances, attachnients, and 
 intrigues would stimulate and embitter. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the necessity 
 of those overgrown military establishments, which under any form of government are 
 inauspicious to liberty, and wlilch are to be regarded as particularly hostile to Eepub- 
 lican Liberty. In this sense it is, that your Union ought to be considered as the main 
 prop of your liberty, and that the love of the one ought to endear to you the preserva- 
 tion of the other. 
 
 These considerations speak a persuasive language to every reflecting and virtuous 
 
 mind, and exhibit the continuance of the Union as a primary object of patriotic desire. 
 
 Is there a doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere? Let 
 
 experience solve it. To listen to mere speculation in such a case were criminal. We 
 43 
 
688 APPENDIX F. 
 
 are authorized to hope that a proper organization of the whole, with tlie auxiliary- 
 agency of governments for the respective subdivisions, will aflord a happy issue 
 to the experiment. It is well worth a fair and full experiment. With such pow- 
 erful and obvious motives to Union affecting all parts of our country, while expe- 
 rience shall not have demonstrated its impracticability, there will always be reason 
 to distrust the patriotism of those who in any quarter may endeavor to weaken 
 its bands. 
 
 In contemplating the causes which may disturb our Union, it occurs as matter of 
 serious concern, that any ground should have been furnished for characterizing parties 
 by geographical discriminations — Northern and Southern, Atlantic and Western; whence 
 designing men may endeavor to excite a belief tliat there is a real difference of local inter- 
 ests and views. One of the expedients of party to acquire influence, witliin particular 
 districts, is to misrepresent the opinions and aims of other districts. You can not shield 
 yourselves too much against the jealousies and heart-burnings which spring from the.se 
 misrepresentations ; they tend to render alien to each other those who ought to be 
 bound together by fraternal affection. The inhabitants of our Western country have 
 lately had a useful lesson on this head : they have seen, in the negotiation by the exec- 
 utive, and in the unanimous ratification by the Senate, of the treaty with Spain, and 
 in the universal .sati.sfaction at the event throughout the United States, a decisive proof 
 how unfounded were the suspicious propagated among them of a policy in the general 
 government, and in the .\-tlantic States, unfriendly to their interests in regard to the 
 Mississippi : they have been witnesses to the formation of two treaties, that with Great 
 Britain and that witli Spain, which .secure to tliem every thing they could desire, 
 in respect to our foreign relations, towards confirming their prosperity. Will it not 
 be their wisdom to rely for the pi-eservation of these advantages on the Union by 
 which they were procured? Will they not henceforth be deaf to those advisers, 
 if such there are, who would sever them from their brethren, and connect them 
 with aliens? 
 
 To the efficacy and permanency of your Union, a government for the whole is 
 indispensable. No alliances, however strict, between the parts can be an adequate 
 substitute; they must inevitably experience the infractions and interruptions which 
 all alliances in all times have experienced. Sensible of this momentous truth, you 
 have improved upon your first essay, by the adoption of a Constitution of government 
 better calculated than your former for an intimate Union, and for the efficacious man- 
 agement of your Common concerns. This government, the offspring of your own 
 choice, uninfluenced and unawed, adopted upon full investigation and mature delib- 
 eration, completely free in its principles, in the distribution of its power.s, uniting 
 security with energy, and containing within itself a provision for its own amendment, 
 has a just claim to your confidence and your support. Respect for its authority, com- 
 pliance with its laws, acquiescence in its measures, are duties enjoined by the funda- 
 mental maxims of true liberty. Tlie basis of our political systems is the right of the 
 people to make, and to alter their constitutions of government. But the constitution 
 whicli at any time exists, until changed by an explicit and authentic act of tlie whole 
 people, is sacredly obligatory upon all. The very idea of the power and the right of 
 the people to establish government, presupposes the duty of every individual to obey 
 the established government. 
 
 All obstructions to the execution of the laws, all combinations and associations, 
 under ivhatever plausible character, with the real design to direct, control, counteract, 
 or awe the regular deliberation .and action of the constituted authorities, are destructive 
 of this fundamental principle, and of fatal tendency. They serve to organize faction, 
 to give it an artificial and extraordinary force — to put in the place of the delegated 
 
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 689 
 
 will of the nation, the will of a party, often a small but artful and enterprising minor- 
 ity of the community ; and, according to the alternate triumphs of diflt-rent parties, to 
 make the public administration the mirror of the ill-concerted and incongruous 
 projects of faction, ratlier than the organ of consistent and wholesome plans digested 
 by common councils and modified by mutual interests. 
 
 However combinations or associations of the above description may now and then 
 answer popular ends, they are likely, in the course of time and things, to become 
 potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men will be ena- 
 bled to subvert the power of the people, and to usurp for themselves the reins of 
 government; destroying afterward the very engines which have lifted them to unjust 
 dominion. 
 
 Towards the preservation of your government, and the permanency of your present 
 happy state, it is requisite, not only that you steadily discountenance irregular 
 opposition to its acknowledged authority, but also that you resist with care the 
 spirit of innovation upon its principles, however specious the pretexts. One method 
 of assault may be to effect in the forms of the Constitution alterations which will 
 impaii' the energy of the system, and thus to undermine what can not be directly 
 overthrown. In all the changes to which you may be invited, remember that time 
 and habit are at least as necessary to fix the true character of governments, as 
 of other human institutions; that experience is the surest standard by which to test 
 the real tendency of the existing constitution of a countr)' — that facility in changes 
 upon the credit of mere hypothesis and opinion, exposes to perpetual change from 
 the endless variety of hypothesis and opinion; and remember, especially, that for 
 the efficient management of your common interests, in a country so extensive as 
 ours, a government of as much vigor as is consistent with the perfect security of 
 liberty, is indispensable. Liberty itself will find in such a government, with powers 
 properly distributed and adjusted, its surest guardian. It is, indeed, little else 
 than a name, where the government is too feeble to withstand the enterprises of fac- 
 tion, to confine each member of the society within the limits prescribed by the laws, 
 and to maintain all in the secure and tranquil enjoyment of the rights of person and 
 property. 
 
 I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the state, with particular 
 reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take 
 a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the 
 baneful efTects of the spirit of party, generally. 
 
 This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its root in the 
 strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under different shapes in all govern- 
 ments, more or less stifled, controlled, or repressed; but in those of the popular form, it 
 is seen in its greatest rankness, and it is truly their worst enemy. 
 
 The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of 
 revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries h.is perpe- 
 trated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism. But this leads at 
 length to a more formal and permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries which 
 result, gradually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the absolute 
 power of an individual ; and sooner or later the chief of some prevailing faction, more 
 able or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of 
 his own elevation, on the ruins of public liberty. 
 
 Without looking forward to an extremity of this kind (which, nevertheless, ought 
 not to be entirely out of sight), the common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of 
 party are sufficient to make it the interest and the duty of a wise people to discourage 
 and restrain it. 
 
 a 
 
690 APPENDIX F. 
 
 It serves always to distract the public councils, and enfeeble the public adminis- 
 tration. It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kin- 
 dles the animosity of one part against anotlier, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. 
 It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to- 
 the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and 
 the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. 
 
 There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the ad- 
 ministration of government, and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty. This witliin 
 certain limits is probably true; and in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism 
 may look with indulgence, if not with favor, upon the spirit of party. But in those of 
 the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encour- 
 aged. From their natural tendency it is certain there will always be enough of that 
 spirit for every salutary purpose. And there being constant danger of excess, the effort 
 ought to be, by force of public opinion, to mitigate and assuage it. A fire not to be 
 quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, in- 
 stead of warming, it should consume. 
 
 It is important, likewise, that the habits, of thinking, in a free country, should 
 inspire caution in those intrusted with its administration, to confine tliemselves within 
 their respective constitutional spheres, avoiding in the exercise of the jiowers of one 
 department to encroach upon another. The spirit of encroachment tends to con- 
 solidate the powers of all the departments in one, and thus to create, whatever the form 
 of government, a real despotism. A just estimate of that love of powei', and prone- 
 ness to abuse it, which jiredominates in the human heart, is sufficient to satisfy us 
 of the truth of this position. The necessity of reciprocal checks in tlie exercise 
 of political power, by dividing and distributing it into different depositories, and 
 constituting each the guardian of the public weal against invasions by the others, 
 has been evinced by experiments ancient and modern ; some of them in our country 
 and under our own eyes. To preserve tliem must be as necessary as to institute them. 
 If, in tlie opinion of the people, the distribution or modification of the constitutional 
 powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected b)' an amendment in the way 
 wliicli the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation ; for 
 though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary 
 weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly 
 overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any 
 time yield. 
 
 Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and 
 morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of 
 patriotism, who should labor to subvert these great pillars of liuman happiness, these 
 firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the 
 pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them. A volume could not trace all their 
 connections with private and public felicity. Let it simply be asked, where is the 
 security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert 
 the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice? And let us 
 with caution indulge the supposition, that morality can be maintained without religion. 
 AVhatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar 
 structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can 
 prevail in exclusion of religious principle. 
 
 It is substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popul.ar 
 government. The rule indeed extends with more or less force lo every species of free 
 government. Who that is a sincere friend to it, can look with indifference upon attempts 
 to shake the foundation of the fabric? 
 
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS 691 
 
 Promote then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for tho general dif- 
 t'usion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to 
 public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. 
 
 As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public credit. One 
 method of prei=erving it is to use it as sparingly as possible, avoiding occasions of ex- 
 pense by cultivating peace; but remembering also tliat timely disbursements to prepare 
 for danger, frequently prevent much greater disbunsements to repel it; avoiding like- 
 wise the accumulation of debt, not only by .shunning occasions of expense, but by vig- 
 orous exertions in time of peace to discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may 
 liave occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity tlie burden which we our- 
 selves ought to bear. The execution of these maxims belongs to your Representatives, 
 but it is necessary that public opinion should co-operate. To facilitate to tbem the 
 performance of their duty, it is es.sential that you should practically beai- in mind, tliat 
 toward the payment of debts there must be revenue; that to have revenue there must be 
 taxes ; that no taxes can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and 
 unpleasant; that the intrinsic embarrassment inseparable from the selection of tlie proper 
 objects (which is always a choice of difficulties) ought to be a decisive motive for a 
 candid construction of the conduct of the government in making it, and for a spirit of 
 acquiescence in the measures for obtaining revenue which the public exigencies may at 
 any time dictate. 
 
 Observe good faith and justice towards all nations, cultivate peace and harmony with 
 all ; religion and morality enjoin this conduct, and can it be that good policy does not 
 equally enjoin it? It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a 
 great nation, to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel examjjle of a people 
 always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. Who can doubt but that in the 
 course of time and things, the fruits of such a plan would richly repay any temporary 
 advantage which might be lost by a steady adherence to it? Can it be that Providence 
 has not connected the permanent felicity of a nation witli its virtue? The experiment, 
 at least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature. Alas! is it 
 rendered impos.sible by its vices? 
 
 In the execution of .such a plan, nothing is more essential than tliat permanent, 
 inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and jiassionate attachments for utliers, 
 should be excluded ; and that in place of them just and amicable feelings towards all 
 should be cultivated. The nation which indulges toward another an habitual hatred or 
 an habitual fondness, is in some degree a slave. It is a slave to its animosity or its aflec- 
 tion, either of which is sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interests. Antip- 
 atliy in one nation against another, disposes each more readily to offer insult and injury, 
 to lay hold of slight causes of umbrage, and to be haughty and intractable, when 
 accidental or trifling occasions of dispute occur. Hence frequent collisions, obstinate, 
 envenomed, and bloody contests. The nation, prompted by ill-will and resentment, 
 sometimes impels to war the government, contrary to the best calculations of policy. 
 The government sometimes participates in the national propensity, and adopts through 
 passion what reason would reject; at other times, it makes the animosity of the nation 
 subservient to projects of hostility instigated by pride, ambition, and other sinister and 
 pernicious motives. The peace often, sometimes perhaps the liberty, of nations has 
 been the victim. 
 
 So, likewise, a passionate attachment of one nation for another produces a variety 
 of evils. Sympathy for the favorite nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary 
 common interest in cases where no real common interest exists, and infusing into one 
 the enmities of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels 
 »nd wars of the latter, without adequate inducement or justification. It leads also 
 
692 APPENDIX F. 
 
 to concessions to the favorite nation of privileges denied to others, which is apt 
 doubJy to injnre the nation making the concessions, by unnecessarily parting with 
 •what ought to have been retained ; and by exciting jealousy, ill-will, and a dispo- 
 sition to retaliate, in the parties from whom equal privileges are withheld. And 
 it gives to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who devote themselves to 
 the favorite nation) facility to betray or sacrifice the interests of their own country, 
 without odium, sometimes even with popularity; gilding with the appearance of a 
 virtuous sense of obligation a commendable deference for public opinion, or a laudable 
 zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption, or 
 infatuation. 
 
 As avenues to foreign influence in innumerable ways, such attachments are 
 particularly alarming to the truly enlightened and independent patriot. How many 
 opportunities do they afford to tamper with domestic factions ; to practice the arts of 
 sedition, to mislead public opinion, to influence or awe the public councils! Such an 
 attachment of a small and weak, towards a. great and powerful nation, dooms the former 
 to be the satellite of the latter. Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence (I 
 conjure you to believe me, fellow-citizens,) the jealousy of a free people ought to be 
 constantly awake; since history and experience prove that foreign influence is one of 
 the most baneful foes of Republican Government. But that jealou.sy be useful must 
 be impartial; else it becomes the instrument of the very influence to be avoided, instead 
 of a defence against it. E.xcessive partiality for one foreign nation, and excessive 
 di-slike of another, cause those whom they actuate to see danger only on one side, and 
 serve to veil and even .second the arts of influence on the other. Keal patriots, who 
 may resist the intrigues of the favorite, are liable to become suspected and odious; 
 while its tools and dupes usurp the applause and confidence of the people, to surrender 
 tlieir interest. 
 
 The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is, in extending our 
 commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. So 
 (ar as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. 
 Here let us stop. 
 
 Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote 
 relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are 
 essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to impli- 
 cate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordi- 
 nary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities. 
 
 Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different 
 course. If we remain one people, under an efficient government, the period is 
 not far off when we may defy material injury from external annoyance; when we 
 take such an attitude as will cause the neutrality we may at any time resolve 
 upon to be scrupulously respected; when belligerent nations, under the impossi- 
 bility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provo- 
 cation ; when we may choose jieace or war, as our interest, guided by justice, shall 
 counsel. 
 
 Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit your own to 
 stand upon foreign ground? Wliy, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part 
 of Europe, entangle our peace and pro.sperity in the toils of European ambition, rival- 
 ship, interest, humor, or caprice ? 
 
 It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances witli any portion of 
 the foreign world — so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it ; for let me not 
 be understood as capable of patronizing infidelity to existing engagements. I hold 
 the maxim no less applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is always 
 
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 693 
 
 the best policy. I repeat it, therefore, let those engagements be observed in their 
 genuine sense. But, in my opinion, it is unnecessary, and would be unwise to extend 
 them. 
 
 Taking care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a respectable 
 defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emer- 
 gencies. 
 
 Harmony, and liberal intercourse with all natio.ns, are recommended by policy, 
 humanity, and interest. 
 
 But even our commercial policy siiould hold an equal and impartial hand ; neither 
 eeeking nor granting exclusive favors or preferences; — consulting the natural course 
 of things; diffusing and diversifying by gentle means the streams of commerce, but 
 forcing nothing; establishing, witli powers so disposed, in order to give trade a stable 
 course, to define the riglits of our merchants, and to enable the government to supjiort 
 them, conventional rules of intercourse, the best that present circumstances and mutual 
 opinion will permit, but temporary, and liable to be from time to time abandoned 
 or varied, as experience and circumstances shall dictate; constantly keeping in view, 
 that it is folly in one nation to look for disinterested favors from another; that it 
 must pay with a portion of its independence for whatever it may accept under that char- 
 acter; that by such acceptance, it may place itself in the condition of having given 
 equivalents for nominal favors, and yet of being reproached with ingratitude for not 
 giving more. There can he no greater error than to expect, or calculate upon, real 
 favors from nation to nation. It is an illusion which experience must cure, which a just 
 {ji'ide ought to discard. 
 
 In ofTering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and aflectionate friend. 
 I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting impression I could wish — that 
 they will control the usual current of the passions, or prevent our nation from running the 
 course which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations. But if I may even flatter my- 
 self tliat they may be productive of some partial benefit, some occasional good ; that they 
 may now and tlien recur to moderate the fury of party spirit, to warn against the mis- 
 chiefs of foreign intrigue, to guard against the impostures of pretended patriotism ; this 
 hope will be a full recompense for the solicitude for your welfare by which they have 
 been dictated. 
 
 How far in the discharge of my official iluties I have been guided by the principles 
 which have been delineated, the public records and other evidences of my conduct must 
 witness to you and to the world. To myself, the assurance of my own conscience is, that 
 I have at least believed myself to be guided by them. 
 
 In relation to the still subsisting war in Europe, my proclamation of the 22d 
 of April, 1793, is the index to my plan. Sanctioned by your approving voice, and 
 by that of your Representatives in both Hou.ses of Congress, the spirit of that measure 
 has continually governed me, uninfluenced by any attempts to deter or divert me 
 from it. 
 
 After deliberate examination, with the aid of the best lights I could obtain, I was 
 well satisfied that our country, under all the circumstances of the case, had a right to 
 take, and was bound in duty and interest to take, a neutral position. Having taken it, 
 I determined, as far as should depend upon me, to maintain it with moderation, perse- 
 verance, and firmness. 
 
 The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct, it is not necessary 
 on this occasion to detail. I will only observe, that, according to my understanding of 
 the matter, that right, so far from being denied by any of the belligerent Powers, has 
 been virtually admitted by all. 
 
 The duty of holding a neutral conduct may be inferred, without any thing more. 
 
694 APPENDIX F. 
 
 from the obligation which justice and humanity imposes on every nation, in cases in 
 which it is free to act, to maintain inviolate the relations of peace and amity towards 
 other nations. 
 
 The inducements of interest for observing that conduct will best be referred 
 to your own reflections and experience. With me, a predominant motive has been 
 to endeavor to gain time to our country to settle and mature its yet recent insti- 
 tutions, and to progress, without interruption, to that degree of strength and con- 
 Fistency which is necessary to give it, liumanly spealiing, the command of its own 
 fortunes. 
 
 Though, in reviewing the incidents of my administration, I am unconscious of 
 intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects, not to think it prob- 
 able that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently 
 beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall 
 also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indul- 
 gence; and that after forty-Bve years of my life dedicated to its service, with an upright 
 zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will he consigned to oblivion, as myself must 
 soon be to the mansions of rest. 
 
 Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that fervent 
 love towards it, which is so natural to a man wlio views in it the native soil of him- 
 self and his progenitors for several generations; I anticipate with pleasing expec- 
 tation that retreat, in which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet 
 enjoyment of partaking, in the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign influence of 
 good laws under a free government — the ever favorite object of my heart, and ths 
 hajijiy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers. 
 
 G. Washington 
 United States, Vlth September, 1796. 
 
APPENDIX G. 
 
 THE EMANCIPATION PEOCLAMATION. 
 
 BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 [If the Emancipation Proclamation is to be regarded as the caiise of tlie freedom 
 of the African race in the United States, then indeed must it be considered as among 
 the most important documents Icnown in history: perhaps the most important of all. 
 The truer view of the case, however, seems to be this : The inexorable Logic of Events 
 was rapidly bringing about the emancipation of the slaves. The National government 
 fell under a stringent necessity to strike a blow at the labor system of the Southern 
 States. With every struggle of the war the sentiment of abolition at the North rose 
 higher and higher. The President himself and the chief supporters of his administra- 
 tion had for years made no concealment of their desire that all men everywhere 
 should be free. The oecasion was at hand. Mr. Lincoln seized and generalized the 
 facts, embodied thera in his own words, and became for all time the oracle and inter- 
 preter of National Neccjfsily. — The Author.] 
 
 Whereas, on tlie twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
 thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a Proclamation was issued by the President of 
 the United States, containing among other things the following, to wit: 
 
 "That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred and sixty-tliree, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part 
 of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, sh.ill 
 be then, thenceforward and forever free, and the executive government of the United 
 States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and main- 
 tain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or 
 any of them, in any efiForts they may make for their actual freedom." 
 
 " That the executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, 
 designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively 
 shall then be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any State, or the 
 people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the 
 United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the quali- 
 fied voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong coun- 
 tervailing testimony, be c'aemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people 
 thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States." 
 
 Now, therefore, I, Abkaham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue 
 of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the 
 United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government 
 «f the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said 
 
 695 
 
696 APPENDIX G. 
 
 rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
 eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly 
 proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the day the first above- 
 mentioned, order and designate, as tlie States and parts of States wherein the people 
 thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, 
 to wit: 
 
 Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, 
 Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, 
 Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mis- 
 sissippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and 
 Virginia (except the forty-eight countie.s d&signated as West Virginia, and also the 
 counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and 
 Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts 
 are, for the present, left precisely as if this Proclamation were not issued. 
 
 And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare 
 that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and 
 henceforward shall be free ; and that the executive government of the United States, 
 including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the 
 freedom of said persons. 
 
 And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all 
 violence, unless in necessary self-defence, and I recommend to them that in all cases, 
 when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. 
 
 And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable condition 
 will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, 
 stations, and other places, and to man ves.sels of all sorts in said service. 
 
 And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the 
 Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind 
 and the gracious favor of Almighty God. 
 
 In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the 
 United States to be afBxed. 
 
 Done at the City of Washinfjton, this Jirst day of January^ in the year of our 
 [ L. s. ] Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence 
 
 of the United States the eighty-seventh, 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 By the President : 
 
 William H. Seward, 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
PEONUFOIATION" OF PROPEE K'AMES. 
 
 [E., English; F., French; S., Spanish; P., Portugese; It, Italian; G., German; N., Norse; Bw» 
 Swedish; Pol., Polish; L., Latin; I., Indian.] 
 
 Abenaki [I.], ab-e-nah-ki. 
 
 Abercrombie [E.], ftb-er-krum-bi. 
 
 Adet [F.], ah-da. 
 
 Adolphus [L.], a-dol-fus. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle [F.], aks-lah-shah-p6I. 
 
 Algonquin [I.]. 5l-guii-keu. 
 
 Almonte [S.], ivi-imiii-te. 
 
 Alvarado [S.], al-va-rah-dO. 
 
 Ambrister [E.], am-bris-ter. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci [It.], ali-mer-e-gO ves- 
 
 poot-ciie. 
 Amidas [E.], am-id-as. 
 Ampudia [.S.], am-poo-di-a. 
 Andre [F.], iln-dra. 
 Antietani [E.], iin-te-tara. 
 Antonio de Espego [S.], ahn-to-ni-O da es- 
 
 pfi-hO. 
 Arbutbnot [E.], abr-buth-not. 
 Arista [S.], ah-ris-la. 
 Armada [S.], ahr-niah-di. 
 Ashe [E.], ash. 
 Au Glaize [F.], 0-gIaz. 
 Avavalia [S.], i-ali-vahl-va. 
 Ayotla [S.], I-Ot-Ia. 
 Aztecs [I.], az-tek.s. 
 Bahia [S.], bah-e-a. 
 Bnlfour [E.], bal-foor. 
 Barron [E.], bahr-ron. 
 Baum [E.], bawm. 
 Banin:\rcliais [F.], bo-mahr-sha. 
 Bayard [E.], bi-ahrd. 
 Beaujeu [F.], bo-zhu. 
 Beauregard [F.], bo-ra-gabrd. 
 Beau-Sejour [F.], bO-sa-zboor. 
 BcUomont [E.], bel-O-mont. 
 Bernard [E.], ber-nahrd. 
 Bienville [F.], be-ong-vel. 
 Blennerliassett [E.], blen-ner-hSs-set. 
 Blytb [E.], blith. 
 Boscawen [E.], bos-kaw-en. 
 Buddhist [Sanscrit], bood-dist. 
 Bulkeley [E.], bnlk-li. 
 Bivrgovne [E.], bQr-goin 
 Cabot [E.], kab-6t. 
 Cadwallader [E.], kad-wahl-la-der. 
 Canoncbet [I.], ka-noii-sbet. 
 Canonicus [I.], ka-noii-i-kus. 
 Canseau [F.], kan-so. 
 Carleton [E.] kabrl-tiin. 
 Cartier [F.], kabr-ti-a. 
 Casimer [Sw.], kas i-mSr. 
 Castin [F.], kas-tan. 
 Cbabot [!'.], sba-bo. 
 Cham [Tartar], kdm. 
 Champe [E.], uam)). 
 ("liamplain [F.], slirun-plau. 
 
 Chapultepec [S.], kab-iiool-ta-pek. 
 
 Chaudiere [F.], sliode-ar. 
 
 Chauncey [E.], cbawn-Ke. 
 
 Cherbourg [F.], sher-boorg. 
 
 Cherokee [I.], cher-O-ke. 
 
 Chickamanga [E.], chik-a-iiiaw-ga. 
 
 Chickasaws [I.], chik-a-sa\vz. 
 
 Chicora [S.], che-ko-ra. 
 
 Cliignecto [I.], she-nek-to. 
 
 Chihuahau [S.], sbe-wah-wab. 
 
 Clioctaws [I.], chok-tawz. 
 
 Christison [Sw.], kris-ti-sun. 
 
 Cliristophe [S.], kris-to-fe. 
 
 Chrysler [E.], kris-ler. 
 ; Churubusco [S.]. koo-roo-boos-kO. 
 
 Clarendon [E.], kiar en-dim. 
 
 Cochrane [E.], kok-ran. 
 1 Coligni [F.]. ko-len-ye. "' 
 
 Columbus [L.], ko-lum-biis. 
 
 Conianches [I.], kO-man-chez. 
 
 Conde [F.], kon-da. 
 
 Contreras [S.], kOn-tra-ras. 
 
 Copernicns [L.], ko-per-nl-kfie. 
 
 Copley [E.], kop-le. 
 
 Corees [I.], ko-rez. 
 
 Cornwallis [E.], kawrn-wabl-lis. 
 
 Credit Mobilier [F.], cra-di-mo-bil-i-ar, 
 
 Croghan [E.], krog-han. 
 
 Dacre.s [E.], dak-erz. 
 
 Dahlgren [E.], dai-gren. 
 
 Darnih [E.], dahr-rah. 
 
 D'Anville [F.], dong-vel. 
 
 D'Aubrey [F.], dO-bra. 
 
 Daye [E.], da. 
 
 De Barras [F.], du bahr-rab. 
 
 Decatur [E.], de-ka-tiir. 
 
 De Fleury [F.], dfi finr-i. 
 
 De Grasse [F.], dfi gras. 
 
 De Kalb [F.], du kablb. 
 
 Delaplaee [F.], dfi-la-pias. 
 
 De Monts IP.], dfi mong;. 
 
 D'Estaing [F.], da->taiig. 
 
 De Ternay [F.], du ter-iia. 
 
 De Vaca [S.], da vah-ka. 
 
 De Vergor [F.], dfi-var-gor. 
 
 De Villiers [F.], du-vel-yar. 
 
 De Vries [F.], dii vrez. 
 
 Dieskau [F.], de-es-ko. 
 
 Dominic de Gourges [P.], do-man-ek dvs 
 goors. 
 
 Dongan [E.], dun-gan. 
 
 Doniplian [E.], don-i-fan. 
 
 Dupont [E.], du-pOnt. 
 
 Du Quesne [F.], dekan. 
 
 Dyar [E-], dl-ar. 
 
 Eldorado [S.], el-dOrab-dO. 
 C07 
 
■698 
 
 PRONUNGIATIOlf OF PROPER NAMES. 
 
 Elkswatawa [I.], elks-wah-tah-wah. 
 
 Emucl'au [I.], e-mook-faw. 
 
 Endicott [E.], eu-di-kot. 
 
 Ericsson [E.]. er-iks-sun. 
 
 Ei-skiiie [E.], iT-skin. 
 
 Esopus [E.], e-so-pus. 
 
 Esqiiinuuix [I.], es-ki-mOz. 
 
 Farragiit [E.] falir-ra-gu. 
 
 Ferdinand de Soto [S.], fer-di-nalmd da 
 
 so-to. 
 Ferdinand Gorges [E.],fer-di-nandg6r-jez. 
 Ferdinand Magellan [P.], f er-di-nand lua- 
 
 jel-lan. 
 Ferguson [E.], fur-gii-siin. 
 Fernandez de Cordova [S.], fer-nalm-deth 
 
 da kor-do-va. 
 Fernando Cortez [S.], fer-nahn-do kor-teth. 
 Fouchet [F.], foo-sha. 
 Fraser [E.], fril-zer. 
 Freneau [E.], fre-no. 
 Frobisher [E.], frob-ish-er. 
 Frontenac [F.], fron-te-nSk. 
 Gabarus [E.], ga-bar-Qs. 
 Galileo [It.], gah-li-Ia-o. 
 Gambler [F.], gabni-bi-a. 
 Ganowanian [I.], gahn-O-walm-I.in. 
 Gaspar Cortereal [P.], sahs-palir kOr-ta-ra- 
 
 alil. 
 Gaspe [F.], gas-pa. 
 Gawen [E.], gaw-en. 
 Genet [F.], zhe-na. 
 Gillis [G.], gil-lis. 
 Gladwyn [E.], giad-win. 
 Gloucester [E.], glos-ter. 
 Godyn [E.], gO-din. 
 Gofie [E.], gawf, 
 ■Gorgeana [E.], gor-je-du-a. 
 Gosnold [E.], gos-nold. 
 Goulburn [E.], gool-burn. 
 Grierson [E.]^ grer-sun. 
 ■Grijalva [S.], gre-hahl-va. 
 Guerriere [F.], ger-ri-ar. 
 (iustavus [L.], gus-ta-vus. 
 Hakluyt [E.], hflk-loot. 
 Havre de Grace [F.], hahver-du-grfts. 
 Havne [E.], haii. 
 Heister [G.], his-ter. 
 Herjull'son [N.], hrir-yoolf-sOn. 
 Herkimer [E.], hur-kl-mer. 
 Ilertel [F.], Iier-tel. 
 Ilocliehiga [I.], hOk-e-lah-gS,. 
 Hiisset [G.], hos-set. 
 Houston [E.], lioHs-tiui. 
 Iloveuden [E.], ho-ven-den. 
 llugeiiots [F.], hu-ge-nots. 
 Iroquois [I.], ir-O-Uwah. 
 Isabella [S.], iz-a-bel-la. 
 Isle-aux-Noix [F.], el-0-uooah. 
 luka [E.], i-yoo-ka. 
 Jameson [E.], jftm-e-sun. 
 Joris [G.], yO-ris. 
 Juan Ponce de Leon [S.], bwahn pon-tha 
 
 da la-on. 
 
 Juarez [S.], bwaw-rfith. 
 
 Jumonville [F.], zhg-mong-vel. 
 
 Kamtchatkans [I.], kam-tchftt-kinz. 
 
 Kearney [E.], Uahr-ne. 
 
 Kearsarge [£.], fealir-sabr-ge, or kftr s;i1m j. 
 
 Kielt [E.], keft. 
 
 Klamaths [I.], klSm-aths. 
 
 Knowlton [E.], nol-tun. 
 
 Knyphausen [G.], nep-liow-sen. 
 
 Kosciusko [Pol.], kOs-si-ns-ko. 
 
 Kossuth [G.], kos-slioot. 
 
 Koszta [Hungarian], kot-ta. 
 
 La Colle [F.], la-kol. 
 
 La Favette [F.], la-fa-et. 
 
 La Fitte [F.]. la-fit. 
 
 La Kocbe [F.], la-rosh. 
 
 La Eoque [F.], la-rok. 
 
 La Salle [F.], la-sal. 
 
 Latlirop [E.], la-tbrup. 
 
 Laudonniere [F.], lo-don-ni-ar. 
 
 Laurie [E.], law-ri. 
 
 La Vega [S.], lab va-ga. 
 
 Le Boeuf [F.], lu-buf. 
 
 Leddra [E.], led-ra. 
 
 Ledyard [E.], led-yabrd. 
 
 Leisler [G.], Ils-Ier. 
 
 Leitch [E.], lech. 
 
 Leverett [E.], lev-er-et. 
 
 Leyden [<-i], li-den. 
 
 Lief Eriekson [X.], lef er-ik-sun. 
 
 Lionel [E.], li-o-nel. 
 
 Lopez [S.], lo-petli. 
 
 Loudoun [E.], loo-doon. 
 
 Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon [S.], loo-kahs 
 
 vahs-ketb da ll-y5n. 
 Liitzen [G.], letz-eu. 
 Luzerne [Swiss], loo-zerii. 
 Macdonougb [E.], mak-dou-0. 
 Macdougall [E.], mak-tioo-gal. 
 jNIacomb [E.], ma-kom. 
 Magaw [E.], ma-gaw. 
 Mandeville [E.], man-de-vil. 
 Manteo [I.], inahn-te-o. 
 Manuel [P.], malin-oo-al. 
 Markbam [E.], iiiahrk-ani. 
 Marlborough [E], lualirl-bru. 
 Massasoit [I.], nias-sSs-0-it. 
 Mather [E.], mftthe-er. 
 Matoaka [I.], mat-O-ftk-a. 
 Matthews [E.], mftth-uz. 
 Maurepas [F.], mO-re-pah. 
 Maximilian [G.], max-i-niil-yan. 
 McCullough [E.], mak-kul-lo. 
 Mcintosh [E.], miik-in-tosb. 
 Meacham [E.], me-cham. 
 Meigs [E.], niegz. 
 
 Meta Incognita [L.], me-ta in-cog-ni-tS, 
 Miantonomoh [L], mi-an-to-no-mo. 
 Micanopy [L], mI-kftn-0-pi. 
 Minuit [G.], mln-oo-it. 
 Mobegan [I.], mo-he-gan. 
 Moncfcton [E.], munk-tun. 
 Monk [E.], muiik. 
 
PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES. 
 
 69y 
 
 Montcalm [F.], niont-knhm. 
 
 Mnnteano [S.], mOn-t;T-aliii-o. 
 
 Montezuma [I.], ni6n-te-zoo-iiia. 
 
 Montmorenci [F.], mont-mO-ren-si- 
 
 Mosley [E.], mos-le. 
 
 Moultrie [E.], mol-tn. 
 
 Nairne [E.], naru. 
 
 Nassau [F.], iias-so. 
 
 Naumkeag [I.], nawm-ke-ag. 
 
 Nipraucks [I.], nip-muks. 
 
 Nueces [S.], nwa-ses. 
 
 Ocklawaha [I.], ok-la-wfih-hah. 
 
 Odeneal [E.], o-den-el. 
 
 Ogletlioipe [E.], o-gel-thorp. 
 
 O'Hara [E.], O-halir-ia. 
 
 Ojetla [S.], O-hfi-ila. 
 
 Okeechobee [I.], o-ks-cho-bs. 
 
 Oldham [E.], old-am. 
 
 Ohistee [E.], 0-liis-te. 
 
 Opecancanough [I.], O-pe-kfin-kin-o. 
 
 Orapax [I.], 6r-apakx. 
 
 Osceola [I.], os-se-o-la. 
 
 Oswald [E.], 6s-wa\vld. 
 
 Ouatanon [I.], walit-a-n6ii. 
 
 Oxenstiern [Sw.], oks-en-stern. 
 
 Pamphilo de Narvaez [S.], pahm-fe-l5 da 
 
 nalir-vah-eth. 
 Pascua Florida [L.], palis-koo-a flor-i-da. 
 Pauw [G.], paw. 
 
 Pedro Menendez [S.], pa-drO ma-len-deth. 
 Pemaqnid [I.], pem-a-kwid. 
 Pepperell [E.], pep-iier-el. 
 Peqiiod [I.], pe-k\v6d. 
 Perote [S.], pa-ro-te. 
 Pigot [E.], pig-ot. 
 Pinta [S.], pen-ta. 
 Pitcaini [E.], pit-karn. 
 Pizarro [S.]. pe-th»hr-rcl. 
 Pocahontas [I.], p6k-a-h6n-tas. 
 Poictiers [F.], pwali-tS-a. 
 Point au Trembles [F.], pwan 15 tratambl. 
 Pontchartrain [F.], iiOn-sliahr-tran. 
 Poutrincourt [F.], poo-tran-koor. 
 Powhatan [I.], pow-hat-an. 
 Presque Isle [F.]. presk el. 
 Prevost [E.], prev-ost. 
 Prideanx [F.], pre-do. 
 Pulaski [Pol.], poo-lahs-kt. 
 Quantrell [E.], kwahn-trel. 
 Queretaro [S.], ka-ra-tah-rO. 
 Ralil [G.], rahl. 
 Keleigh [E.], raw-li. 
 Katclifle [E.], rat-klif. 
 Rawdon [E.], raw-dun. 
 Kaymbault [F.], ram-bo. 
 Revere [E.], re-ver. 
 Riall [E.], ri-al. 
 Riliault [F.]. re-bo. 
 Roberval [F.], rOb-er-vahl. 
 Rochambeau [F.], rO-sham-bo. 
 Rochelle [F.], rO-shel. 
 Roderigo Triana [S.], rOd-re-gO trg-ali-na,. 
 fiosecans [G.], ros-ekrahns. 
 
 Rvswick [G.], res-wik. 
 Saltillo [S.], sahl-tel yo. 
 Samosset [1.], sftm-O-set. 
 Santa Maria [S.], sahu-ta mah-re-a. 
 Sassacus [I.], sSs-sak-us. 
 Sayle [E.], sal. 
 Schuyler [E.], skl-Ier. 
 Selisli [I.], se-lish. 
 Seminoles [I.], sem-i-nOlz. 
 Sheafi'e [G.], shSf-fe. 
 Shoshonees [I.], slio-sli5-n6z. 
 Sicklemore [E], sik-el-mOr. 
 Sloughter [E.], slo-ter. 
 Sqnanto [1.], skwahn-to. 
 St. Croix [F.], sant-kroi. 
 Steuben [G.], stu-ben. 
 Stirling [E.], stur-Iing. 
 St. Leger [F.], san la-zha. 
 j Stoughton [E.], sto-tun. 
 1 St. Pierre [F.], san pe-ar. 
 Stuyvesanl [G.], sti-ves-ant. 
 Subercase [F.], sS-ber-kah.<». 
 Talladega [I.], tahl-la-de-ga. 
 TamauHpas [S.], tahm-aw-le-pils. 
 Tanacharisson [L.|, ia,n-a-kar-is-.sun. 
 Tecumtha [I.], tc-kum-tha. 
 There.sa [G.], ter-es-a. 
 Thorfinn Karlsefne [N.], tor-fin kahrl- 
 
 sef-ne. 
 Thorstein Erickson [N.],tor-stln 6r-ik-suu. 
 Tituba [I.], ti-too-ba. 
 Tohopeka [I.], to-ho-pe-ka. 
 Tomo-Chichi [I.], to-nio-che-chi. 
 Van Ren.sselaer [E.], van reiis-se-lahr. 
 Van Twiller [G.], van twcl-ler. 
 Vasco de Gama [P.], vahs-ko da jrah-mi. 
 Vasco Nunez de Balboa [S.], vatas-kouoon- 
 
 yeth da bahl-bo-a. 
 Vaudreuil [F.], vo-dru-el. 
 Vaughan [E.], vawn. 
 Vergennes [F.], ver-zhen. 
 Verhulst [G.], var-hoolst. 
 Verrazzani [It.], ver-rat-isali-ne. 
 Wainman [E.], AVaii-man. 
 Walloons [G.], walil-loonz. 
 Wampanoags [I.], wahm-pan-o-agz. 
 Warwick [E.], wahr-rick. 
 Wavmouth [£.], wa-muth. 
 Weide [E.], wel-de. 
 Weitzel [G.], wit-zel. 
 Whalley [E.], hwahl-Ii. 
 Whinvates [E.], hwin-vats. 
 White'field [E.], hwit-feld. 
 Wingina [I.], win-gg-na. 
 Worcester [E.], woos-ter. 
 Wouter [G.], woo-ter. 
 Xeres [S.], ha-reth. 
 Yamacraws [I.], yahni-a-kraiiz. 
 Yeamans [E.], ye-manz. 
 Yeardley [E.], yurd-li. 
 Youghiogheny [I.], yoli-ho-ga-ni. 
 Yusef [Moorish], j-oo-sef. 
 Zenger [G.], zen-ger. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 aBENAKIS, The, 
 
 War with, lis, ir.4. 
 
 ABERCKOMBIE, Geneb*!., 
 
 Expedition of against Ticonderoga, 271. 
 
 ACADIA, 
 
 Name of. 75 ; ruin of, 261-264. 
 
 ADAMS, .John, 
 
 Predicts American Independence. 2S6 ; nominates 
 Washington for genei al-in-chief, 301 ; member of 
 committee to draft Declaration, 309; commis- 
 sioner to Pari.s, 354 J Vice-President. 362 ; fiketcli 
 of, 372; administration of, 372-376 ; death of, 424. 
 
 AD.MUS, John Qiincy, 
 
 Secretary of State, 417; elected President, 423; 
 sketch of, 423 ; administration of, 423-426 ; death 
 of, 461. 
 
 AD.\MS, Samuel, 
 
 Speaks ont for liberty, 295. 
 
 ADET, JI., 
 
 Evil influence of in United States, 373. 
 
 ADOLPHUS, Gi'STAVUS, 
 
 Plans an American colony, 164. 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 
 
 Treaty of, 15a. 
 ALABAMA, 
 
 Admission of, 420. 
 ALABAMA. The, 
 
 Career of, 533. 
 ALABAMA CLAIMS, The, 
 
 Settlement of, 556. 
 ALASKA, 
 
 Purchase of, 547. 
 ALGIERS. 
 
 Tribute paid to, 370; brought tn terms, 416. 
 ALGONQUINS.The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 42 and Map 1. 
 ALLEN, Ethan, 
 
 Expedition of against Ticonderoga, 29S. 
 AMEND.MENTS TO CONSTITUTION, 
 
 Notice of, 361 ; passage of Fourteenth and Fif- 
 teenth, 553. 
 AMHERST, Genehal, 
 
 Commander-in-chief in America, 273. 
 AMIDAS, Philip, 
 
 Voyage of, SI. 
 AMNESTY PROCLAMATION, The, 
 
 Account of, 544. 
 ANDERSON, Robert, 
 
 At Fort Sumter, 4S4. 
 ANDRE, .loHX, 
 
 Connection of with Arnold's treason, 344 ; execu- 
 tion of, 345. 
 ANDROS, Sir EDMrND, 
 
 Career of in America, 123. 146, 147, 174, 191, 197, 200, 
 
 207. 
 ANTIETAM, 
 
 Battle of, 506. 
 ANTI-FEDERALIST PARTY, The, 
 
 Rise of, 359. 
 ARCHDALE, John. 
 
 Governor of South Carolina, 234. 
 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS, 
 
 Account of, 467. 
 ARGALL, SAMtiEL, 
 
 Expeditions of, lOS, 109. 
 ARKANSAS, 
 
 Organization of, 420 ; admission of, 435. 
 ARMADA. The Invincible. 
 
 Mentioned. ,S3. 
 
 700 
 
 ARNOLD, Bf.nedtct. 
 
 At Ticonderoga. 2y'.^; at Quebr-c, 303; heroism of at- 
 
 Saiatoga,323; treason of, 343; ia Virgiuia,346. 
 ARTHUR, Chkstkr A., 
 
 Vice-President, G43; becomes President, 652. 
 ATLANTA, 
 
 Capture of, 52r.. 
 
 B 
 
 BACON, Nath.\mf.l, 
 
 Uebellioii of, 120. 
 BALBOA, 
 
 Discovery of the Pacific by. 57. 
 BALTIMORE, 
 
 Siege of, 4\<) ; attack on Union soldiers in. 4S5. 
 UALTIMORE. Thf. Lords, 
 
 Colonize Maryland, 217. 
 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Organization of. 3ti6 ; expiration of charter ot,- 
 
 41o; rechartering of vetoed by Jackson, 4L*7 ; new 
 
 charter of vetoed by Tyler, 441. 
 BANKS, N. P., 
 
 In West Virginia, f>(^2; in command of the Rea- 
 
 River expedition, 524. 
 BARCLAY. Robert, 
 
 Governor of New Jersey, 207. 
 BARLOW, Arthur, 
 
 Voyage of, 81. 
 BAXTER, George. 
 
 Bearer of charter of Rhode Island, 197. 
 BELLOMONT, Earl of. 
 
 Governor of New York, 179. 
 BENNINGTON, 
 
 Battle of, 322. 
 BENTON, Thomas H., 
 
 Piocurf*s tho expunging of resolutions of ciisnre- 
 
 against Jackson, 432. 
 BERKELEY, Sir William. 
 
 Governor of Virginia. IH^ ; vengeance of, 121 ; pro- 
 prietor of New Jersey, 203. 
 BLACK FRIDAY. 
 
 Story of. j.'»;i. 
 BLACK HAWK WAR, The, 
 
 Account of, 42^. 
 BLOCKADE. 
 
 The question of in Europe, a'^4, 3S."t. 
 BOBADILLA, 
 
 Mentioned, 56. 
 BONAPARTE, Napoleon. 
 
 Policy of toward the United States, 374; sells-- 
 
 Louisiana, 37S ; measures of against Great Brit- 
 ain, 383; issues Milan Decree, 38fi ; invafiiou ot 
 
 Russia by,3'J3. 
 BONAPARTE. Loi'is Napoleon. 
 
 Intrigue of respecting Mexico, 545. 
 BOONE, Daniel. 
 
 Colonizes Kentucky, 367. 
 BOOTH. John Wilkes. 
 
 Assassination of Lincoln by, 542. 
 BOSTON. 
 
 Founded, 127; occupied by tlie British army, 29.3\, 
 
 massacre at, 29.1 ; siege of, 298-3ii7 ; evacuation of, 
 
 307 ; great fire in. 55S. 
 
 ISRADDOCK, EnwABD, 
 
 Campaign of, 25S-2G1 ; death of, 2fil. 
 
 BRADFORD. W'illiam. 
 
 Governor of Massachusetts, 124. 
 
 BRAGG. Braxton. 
 
 At Jlurfreesborough, .^00; at Chickamauga, 514*». 
 at Loukout and Missionary Ridge, 514. 515. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 tOl 
 
 SKANDYWINE, 
 
 Battle of, 321. 
 
 BRECKINRIDGE, John C, 
 
 V'ice-President, 474 ; in commaud in the Shenan- 
 doah VjiUey, aiii. 
 
 BROWN. John, 
 
 lusui'rectioii k'll by, 47S. 
 
 BBYANT. William Cpllen, 
 Death of, 639. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James. 
 
 Part of in Ostend Manifesto, 472; elected Presi- 
 dent, 474 ; slietcti of, 474 ; administration of. 474- 
 482. 
 
 BUENA VISTA, 
 Battle of, 453. 
 
 BULL RUN, 
 
 Battle of, 491 ; second battle of, 505. 
 
 BUNKER HILL. 
 
 Fortification of by .\nierican8, 299; battleof,300. 
 
 BUNKER HILL MONUMENT, The, 
 History of, 443. 
 
 BURUESSES, House of. 
 
 Establishment of, llu; scene in,2S9. 
 
 BURGOYNE, General 
 
 Invasion of. .'521 ; at Beniis's Heights, 323; capit- 
 nlatioii of, 324. 
 
 BUKNSIDE, Ambbose E., 
 
 In command of the .\rmyof the Potomac, .')09 ; at 
 Fredericksburg, :jii^3. 
 
 BURR, Aaron, 
 
 Elected Vice-President, 37<'i ; kills Hamilton, 3S2; 
 conspiracy of, 3^. 
 
 BUTLER, B.F., 
 
 At New Orleans, 498; at Fort Fisher, 532; at Ber- 
 muda Hundred, 53<t. 
 
 c 
 
 CABINET, The, 
 
 Organization of, .364. 
 
 CABLE, The Atlantic, 
 Laying of, 476, 54.'>. 
 
 CABOT, John, 
 Voyage of, 76. 
 
 CABOT, Sebastian, 
 
 Voyage and e.\ploration8 of, 77. 
 
 CALHOUN, John C, 
 
 In Congress, 391; secretary of war, 417; Vice- 
 President, 423 ; as a uuUifier, 429 ; death of, 467. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Discovery of gold in, 459; organization of, 463; 
 admission of, 464. 
 
 CALIFORNIANS. The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map I. 
 CALVERT, Sir George, 
 
 Sketch of, 217. 
 5ALVERT, Sir Cecil, 
 
 Colonizes Maryland, 218, 
 CAMDEN. 
 
 Battle of, 341. 
 CANADIAN INSUERECTION, The, 
 
 Account of, 438. 
 ■CANONCHET, 
 
 Notice of, 141 ; execution of, 143. 
 CANONICUS. 
 
 Notice of, 129. 
 CAPE BRETON. 
 
 Conquest of, 157, l.^iS. 
 CARTERET, Sir George, 
 
 Proprietor of New Jersey, 203. 
 CARTIER. James, 
 
 Voyage of, 71. 
 CARVER, John, 
 
 Leader of the Pilgrims, 91 ; death of, 123. 
 CENSUS, 
 
 Of 1790 and l.soo, 375 ; of 1810, 390 ; of 1S40, 439 ; of 
 
 1S70, ,5,'ii; of ISfO, 646. 
 
 <)ENTENNIAL OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 
 
 Account of, .'163-631. 
 
 ■tJERBO GORDO, 
 Battle of, 455. 
 
 CHAMPE, Sergeant John, 
 
 Attempt of to capture Arnold, 346. 
 CHAMPION HILLS, 
 
 Battle of, 512. 
 CHAMPLAIN.Samuei, 
 
 Career of in America, 75, 76. 
 CHANCELLORS VILLE, 
 
 Battle of, 518. 
 CHAPULTEPEC, 
 
 Battle of, 456. 
 CHARLES I., 
 
 Relations of with American colonies, see 3i(Ms« 
 
 chiisetU and Virginia. 
 CHARLES II., 
 
 Relations of with American colonies, see ilfassa- 
 
 chusetts and Virginia. 
 CHARLESTON, 
 
 Founding of, 231 ; taken by the British, 340; evac- 
 uation of, 351 ; siege of, 518; capture of by Sher- 
 man, 529. 
 CHARTER OF NEW ENGLAND, 
 
 Account of, 126. 
 CHARTER OAK, The, 
 
 Story of, 147, 191. 
 CHASE, Salmon P., 
 
 Secretary of the treasury, 484 ; presides at the 
 
 impeachment trial of Johnson, 551 ; death of, 562. 
 CHEROKEES, The, 
 
 Territorial position of. 43 and Map I. ; war witht 
 
 276 ; ditticullies with, 430. 
 CHESAPEAKE, Bay of. 
 
 Exploration of by John Smith, 103. 
 CHESAPEAKE, The, 
 
 Affair of, 385. 
 CHICAGO. 
 
 Burning of, 557. 
 CHICKAMAUGA, 
 
 Battle of, 514. 
 OHICORA, 
 
 Old name of Carolina, 62. 
 CHINESE EMBASSY, 
 
 E^tablishnlent of at "Washington, 6.39 
 CHIPPEWA, 
 
 Battle of, 407. 
 CHURUBUSCO, 
 
 Battle of, 456. 
 CIVIL RIGHTS BILL, The 
 
 Passage of, .'>4^. 
 CIVIL WAR, The, 
 
 Causes of, 466-489 ; history of, 490-540. 
 CITIZENSHIP, 
 
 English views of, 384. 
 CLARKE.JoHN, 
 
 Colonizes Rhode Island, 194 ; services of, 196. 
 CLARKE. William. 
 
 Exploring expedition of, 382. 
 CLAYBOBNE, William 
 
 Career of in Slaryland, 216-222. 
 CLAY. Hf.nky. 
 
 In Congress, 391 ; influence of in Missouri Com- 
 promise, 421 ; secures the passage of Omnibus 
 
 Bill, 465 ; death of, 468. 
 CLINTON. George, 
 
 Vice-President, 382. 
 CLINTON. Sir Henry, 
 
 .Mtempt of to save Burgoyne, 323 ; commander- 
 in-chief of British army, 330. 
 CODDINGTON. William, 
 
 Sets up Israel in Rhode Island, 195. 
 COLFAX, SCHUVLER, 
 
 Vice-President, 551. 
 
 COLIGNI, 
 
 Mentioned, 73. 
 
 COLLEGES, 
 
 Number and character of before Revolution, 2S2. 
 
 COLONIES, The American, 
 
 Reflections on character of, 245; number and ex- 
 tent uf, 280; population of, 2S0; tendency towards 
 unity, 2^0; education in, 282; printing and books 
 in,3S2; post offices untl roads in, 2-'i3; industries of, 
 2S4; reflections on, 2*14; dispute of with England, 
 285-296 ; independence of,309, 355. 
 
 COLONIZATION SOCIETY, The, 
 Organization of, 4l'i. 
 
702 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 COLORADO, 
 
 Admission of, 561. 
 COLUMBIA, DISTEICT OF, 
 
 Orgauization ol', 37o. 
 COLUMBUS, Chhistopher, 
 
 ISketch 01,55; discovery of America by, 55; mis- 
 
 lurtillies of, 55. 
 COMANOHES, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map I. 
 CONCORD, 
 
 Founding of, !30 ; battle of, 29S. 
 CONFEDERATION, The, 
 
 History of, 356-356 ; Articles of, Appendix E. 
 CONGRESS, The Fibst Colonial, 
 
 MCL'tingof, 291. 
 CONGRESS OF THE EEYOLnilON, 
 
 Assembling of, 2y6. 
 CONNECTICUT, 
 
 Colonization of, 130 ; history of, 184-192. 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 Analysis of. 360; adoption of by the States, 361 ; 
 
 text of. Appendix F. 
 CONSTITUTION, The, 
 
 Affair of, 397. 
 COOl'ER.SiK Ashley 
 
 Proprietor of Carolina, 225. 
 CORDOVA, 
 
 Explorations of, SS. 
 CORINTH, 
 
 Battle of, 499. 
 CORN BURY, Lord, 
 
 Governor of New York, 179. 
 UORNWALLIS, Lord. 
 
 Pursues Washington across New Jersey, 314 ; con- 
 siders the war ended, 315 ; returns to the work, 
 
 317; at Princeton, 318; at Brandy wine, 325 ; in 
 
 Carolina, 347; in Virginia, 352; surrender of at 
 
 Yorktown, 353. 
 COETEREAL, G.tSPAE, 
 
 Voyases of, 69. 
 CORTEZ, Fernando, 
 
 Conquest of Mexico by, 58-61. 
 COTTON GIN, The, 
 
 As a factor of the Civil War, 487. 
 CRANFIELD, Edward, 
 
 Guvernor of New Hampshire, 145; career of in 
 
 the province, 2i)0. 
 CREDIT MOBILIER, The. 
 
 Uproar concerning, 560. 
 CREEKS, The, 
 
 War with, 403f; diflBculties with, 421. 
 CROMWELL, Oliver, 
 
 Relaticms of with Virginia, 115-118; favors New 
 
 England, 135. 
 
 CROWN POINT 
 
 Expedition of Johnson against, 265. 
 CUBA, 
 
 Difficulties concerning, 466. 
 
 J) 
 
 DAKOTAS, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 and Map I. 
 DALE, Sir Thomas, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 107. 
 BABE, Virginia. 
 
 Uirth mentioned, S3. 
 DAIUIAH, LvniA, 
 
 Story of, 327. 
 DAVIS, Jefferson, 
 
 President of the Confederacy, 4S1 ; sketch of, 492; 
 
 flight of from Richmond, 538; capture and trial 
 
 of, 540. 
 DAYE, Stephen. 
 
 First printer in America, 132. 
 DEARBORN, Henry, 
 
 CoiMmander-in-chief of American army, 393. 
 De AYLLON, 
 
 Discovery of Carolina by, 62. 
 DECATUR, Commodore, 
 
 In the Mediterranean, 415. 
 
 DeGAMA, 
 
 Circumnavigation of Africa by, 78. 
 
 DeGOURGES 
 
 Settles with the Spaniards, 74. 
 
 DeKALB, Baron, 
 
 Fights for liberty, 320; killed, 342. 
 
 DELAWARE, 
 
 Colonization of, 165 ; secession of from Pennsyl- 
 vania, 213. 
 
 De LEON, Ponce, 
 
 Discovery of Florida by, 57. 
 
 DE.MAGOGUES, 
 Influence of, 4S9. 
 
 DEMOCRATIC PARTY. The, 
 
 Comes into power, 376; notice of, 428. 
 
 De MONTS, 
 
 In America, 75. 
 
 DeSOTO, FEltniNAND, 
 
 Explorations of, 64-67; discovery of the Missis- 
 sippi by, 65. 
 
 DETKOIT, 
 
 Capture of by the British, 395. 
 DONIPHAN, Colonel, 
 
 Campaign of, 45:5. 
 DORR INSURRECTION, The 
 
 Account of, 412. 
 DOUGLAS. Stephen A., 
 
 Favors popular sovereignty, 472. 
 DRAFT, The, 
 
 Ordered by Congress, 522. 
 DRAKE, Sir Francis, 
 
 Career uf, m ; carries off Raleigh's colony, 62. 
 DEED SCOTT DECISION, The, 
 
 History of, 474. 
 
 E 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, TheDutoh, 
 Mentioned, 92. 
 
 EATON, William, 
 
 Campaign of in Africa, 381. 
 
 EDUCATION, 
 
 Favored by the Puritans. 159 ; character and ex- 
 tent of in the colonies, 282 ; necessary to perpetu- 
 ity of American institutions, 642. 
 
 ELIZABETH, (Jueen, 
 Death of, 84. 
 
 EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, The, 
 Issued by Lincoln, 511 ; text of. Appendix H. 
 
 EMBARGO ACT, The, 
 
 Passage of, 385; ridicule of, 386. 
 
 ERICKSON, Lief, 
 
 Discovery of America by, 51. 
 
 ERICKSON, Thorwald a^d ThoeSTEIN, 
 Mentioned. 51, 52. 
 
 ERICSSON, John, 
 
 Invention of Monitor by, 497. 
 
 ESPEGO, 
 
 Founder of Santa F6, 68. 
 
 ESQUIMAUX, The, 
 Territorial positio 
 
 position of, 42 ant* Utap 1. 
 ECTAW SPRINGS, 
 Battle of, 351. 
 
 FAIR OAKS, 
 
 Battle of, 503. 
 FARRAGUT, Admiral, 
 
 On the Mississippi, 498 ; capture of Mobile by, 531, 
 FEDERALIST PARTY, The, 
 
 Rise of, a59 ; overthrow ot, 375. 
 FENUALL, JosiAS, 
 
 Governor of .Maryland, 223. 
 FIELD. CVRIS W., 
 
 Laying of Atlantic cable by, 476, 545. 
 FILLMORE, Millard, 
 
 Vice-President, 462; became President, 465 ; wise- 
 measures recommended by, 466. 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 703 
 
 FINANCIAL CRISES, 
 
 Of 1S19, 419; of 1837, 437; of 1873, 560. 
 
 FIVE FORKS, 
 
 Battle of, 538. 
 FLETCHER, Benjamin, 
 
 Governor of New York, 178. 
 
 FLORIDA, 
 
 Colonization of, 68 ; cession of, 419. 
 
 FORREST, N. B., , „ , 
 
 Raid of through Tennessee and Kentucky, 523. 
 
 FORT DONELSON, 
 
 Capture of, 496. 
 FORT DuQUESNE, 
 
 See Fort Pitt. 
 FORT FISHER, 
 
 Capture of, 532. 
 FORT JACKSON, 
 
 Capture of, 495. 
 FOHT Lr, BCEDF, 
 
 AflfairB at, 253. 
 FORT McHENRT, 
 
 Defence of, 411. 
 FORT MEIGS, 
 
 Siege of, 4UI. 
 FORT MIKFLIN, 
 
 Defence of, 326. 
 J'OKT MOULTRIE, 
 
 Attack on, 307. 
 FORT ORANGE (Nassau), 
 
 Building of, 94, 162. 
 
 FORT NASSAU, 
 Built, 203. 
 
 FORT NECESSITY, 
 
 Built and defended by Washington, 255, 256. 
 
 FORT PITT, 
 
 Built, 254; captured by French, 254; retaken, 272. 
 
 FORTS, 
 
 A list of at the beginning of the War of 1812,396. 
 
 FORT ST. PHILIP, 
 Capture of, 498. 
 
 FORT SUMTER, 
 
 Bombardment of, 4.^4. 
 
 FORT WILLIAM HENRY, 
 Siege of, 269. 
 
 FRANCE, 
 
 Possessions of ill America, 270; incites the colonies, 
 285; alliance with, 32S-33U ; difficulties with, 373. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, 
 
 Plans Union for America, 257: editor of New Eng- 
 land CouTnnt,2i^2; favors libertv, 289; at the court 
 of Louis XV 1, 329; sketch of, 329. 
 
 FREDERICKSBURG, 
 Battle of, 509. 
 
 FREMONT. JohnC, 
 Explorations of, 452. 
 
 FRENCH, Thb, 
 
 Explorations of in America, 70-76; 248,249; trad- 
 ing-posts of, 249 ; claim the Ohio Valley, 251. 
 
 FROBISHER. Maitin, 
 Voyages of, 79. 
 
 FROLIC, The, 
 Affair of, 397. 
 
 FULTON. Robert, 
 
 Invention of steamboat by, 386 ; the torpedo busi- 
 ness, 387. 
 
 G 
 
 GADSDEN PURCHASE, The, 
 Account of, 470. 
 
 GAGE, Ceneeal, 
 
 Occupies Boston, 293 ; career of, 297-301. 
 
 GARFIELD, James A., 
 
 Elected President, 643; sketch of, 647; administra- 
 tion of, 647-649; assassination and death of, 050, 651. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, 
 
 In command of the Army of the North, 323; in tlia 
 cabal against Washington, 32t;. 
 
 GATES, Sib Thomas, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 106. 
 
 GENET, Citizen, 
 
 Career of in the United States, 368. 
 
 GEORGE III., 
 
 Character of, 286. 
 
 GEORGIA, 
 
 Colonization of, 238 ; history of, 238-246. 
 
 GERRY, Elbridge. 
 
 Embassy of to France, 373 ; Vice-President, 39*. 
 
 GETTYSBURG, 
 Battle of, 520. 
 
 GHENT, 
 
 Treaty of, 414. 
 
 GILBERT, Sir IUimpheet, 
 Career of, 8U. 
 
 GIST, Christopher, 
 
 Expedition of to the Ohio, 251. 
 
 GOLD, 
 
 Discovery of in California, 459. 
 
 GORGES, Ferdinand, 
 
 Proprietor of New Hampshire, 198. 
 
 GOSNOLD, Bartholomew, 
 
 New route of to America, 84. 
 
 GRANT, Ulysses S., 
 
 At Donelson, 496; at Pittsburg Landing, 497; at 
 Vicksburg, 512 ; commander-in-chief, 525 ; in the 
 Wilderness, 535: besieges Petersburg, 536; in 
 pursuit of Lee, 53S-540; President, 551 ; sketch of, 
 5.52: .iilministration of, 552-632; tour of, 645. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, 
 
 Colonizes America, 76-91, 95-245 ; grants of terri- 
 tory by, see Map III : extent of possessions 
 (16.55), see Map IV ; oppresses the colonies, 285- 
 296; treaty with, 354; troubles uitb, 369; doc- 
 trine of respecting neutrals, 384. 
 
 GREELEY, Horace, 
 Notice of, 558. 
 
 GREENE, Nathaniel, 
 
 Saves the army at Brandywine, 325; splendid 
 campaigns of in the Carolinas, 347-351, 
 
 GRENVILLE, Sir Richard, 
 
 In command of Raleigh's fleet, 82. 
 
 6RIJALVA, 
 
 Explorations of, 58. 
 
 GUERRIERE. The, 
 Affair of, 397. 
 
 GUILFORD COURT HOUSE, 
 Battle of, 349. 
 
 H 
 
 HALF-KING, The, 
 
 Relations of with the French and English, 265. 
 
 HALF-MOON, The, 
 Voyages of, 92-94. 
 
 HALIF.iX FISHERY AWAKD, 
 History of, 638,639. 
 
 HAMILTON. Alexander, 
 
 Builder of Fort Washington, 314 ; defender of the 
 Constitution, 360 : sec'y of the treasury, 364 ; first 
 m;ijor-gen. of the army, 373 ; killed by Burr, 362. 
 
 HARMAR, General, 
 Expedition of, 366. 
 
 HARPER'S FERRY. 
 
 Destruction of arsenal at, 485. 
 
 HARRISON, William Henrt, 
 
 Governor of Iiiiliana, 390; at Tippecanoe, 391; in 
 command in the West, 4uo; President, 439 ; sketch 
 of, 440; administration of,44u; death of, 441. 
 
 HARTFORD CONVENTION, Account of, 412. 
 
 HARVARD COLLEGE, Founding of, 132. 
 
 HAYES, Rutherford B., 
 
 Elected President, 632; sketch of, 633; administra- 
 tion of, 633-646. 
 
 HAYNE, Senator, 
 
 Debate of with Webster, 429. 
 
 HAYTI, 
 
 Claims recognition, 417. 
 
 HENRY, John, 
 
 Couspiracy of against the United States, 392. 
 
 HENRY', Patrick, 
 
 3Iakes some remarks in the House of Burgesses, 
 2.*',i : leads the people, 303; opposes the Constitu- 
 tion, 362. 
 
704 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 HERJULFSON, 
 
 Mentioned, 51. 
 HESSIANS, The. 
 
 Hired to figlit America, 308: overpowered at 
 
 Treutou, 316. 
 
 HOBKIBK'S HILL, 
 
 BiUtle of, 350. 
 HOOD, J. B., 
 
 Diiven from Atlanta, 52G ; defeated at Nashville, 
 627. 
 
 HOOKER, Joseph, 
 
 At Lookout Mountain, 515; in command of the 
 Army of the Potomac, 51S; at Chancellorsville, 
 518. 
 
 HORNET, The, 
 
 .\(tair of, 405. 
 HOUSTON, Sam, 
 
 Sketch of, 477. 
 HOWE, General, 
 
 In command at Boston, 305; negotiates with 
 
 Washington, 310; sends ?, fleet up the Hudson, 
 
 318. 
 
 HUDSON, Sir Henry, 
 
 Efforts of to reach the Indies, 92; explorations in 
 
 America, 92 ; death of, 94 ; character of, Uiu. 
 HUGtJENOTS. The, 
 
 Mentioned, fi7; in Florida, fi7; destruction of, 63; 
 
 persecution of in France, 232. 
 HULL, William, 
 
 Disastrous campaign of, 39t. 
 HUMBOLDT, 
 
 Cited, M. 
 
 HUEON-IROQUOIS, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 and Map I. 
 HDTOHINSON, Anne, 
 
 Heresy of, 131 ; an 8.\ile to Khode Island, 132 ; 
 
 death of, 166. 
 
 ICELANDERS, The, 
 
 Discovery of America by, 51. 
 ILLINOIS, 
 
 Organization and admission of, 420, 
 IMPORTATION ACT, The, 
 
 Passage of, 287. 
 
 IMPRESSMENT, 
 
 Right of claimed by Great Britain, 393. 
 
 INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 Declaration of, 309 nnj Appendix D : achievement 
 of, 355; centennial of, 563-631. 
 
 INDIANA, 
 
 Organization of, 378 ; admission of, 410. 
 
 INDIANS, The, 
 
 Nanieof,41; originof,41; ethnology of, 42; fam- 
 ilies of, 42; characteristics of, 44,45; family or- 
 ganization of, 45; civil government among. 46; 
 religion of, 46; arts of, 47 ; language of, 47 ; writ- 
 ing of, 48; personal appearance of, 49; manners 
 and customs of, 49. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY, The, 
 Organization of, 430. 
 
 INTERIOR, Department of, 
 Eslablishnient of, 462. 
 
 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, 
 Question of, 418. 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE, The, 
 
 Account of, 541. 
 IROQUOIS, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 and Map I ; treaty with, 
 
 IRVING, WAsniNGTON, 
 
 Relation of to .\merican Literature, 477, 
 ISABELLA, 
 
 Favor of to Columbus, 55. 
 
 JACKSON, Andrew, 
 
 In command against the Creeks, 403; at New 
 Orleans, 412; against the Semiuoies, 419 ; elected 
 
 President, 426; sketch of,426; artminietratimi ot 
 426-436; censured by Congress, 432; Farewell Ad- 
 dress of, 435 ; death of, 461. 
 
 JACKSON, Stonewall, 
 
 At Cedar Mountain, .505; at Fredericksbnrg, 509; 
 at Cbancellorsville, 618 ; death of, 518. 
 
 JAMES II., 
 
 Relations of with American colonies, see Masm- 
 cnvsetts and Virginia, 
 
 JAMESTOWN. 
 
 Founding of, 87 ; affairs at, 95-113 
 
 JAPAN, 
 
 Opening of intercourse with, 470. 
 
 JAVA, The, 
 Affair of, 397. 
 
 JAY COOKE AND COMPANY, 
 Failure of, 500. 
 
 JAY, John, 
 
 Defends the Constitution, 359; appointed chief- 
 justice, 364 ; negotiates a treaty with Great Brit- 
 ain, 369. 
 
 JEFFERSON, Thomas, 
 
 Author of the Declaration, 309; drafts ordinance 
 for the North-western Territory, 359 ; opposes the 
 Constitution, 362; secretary of state, 364 ; Vice- 
 President, 371 ; elected President. 376 ; sketch of, 
 376; administration of, 370-358 ; death of, 424. 
 
 JESUITS, The, 
 
 Discoveries and ezplorations of in America, 248, 
 
 JOHNSON, Andrew, 
 
 Elected Vice-President. 541 ; becomes President, 
 
 544; sketch of, 544 ; administratiuu of, 544-551; 
 
 impeachment of, 550. 
 JOHNSTON, Joseph E., 
 
 At Manassas, 491 ; wounded, 503 ; generalship of 
 
 530 ; surrender of, 530. 
 
 K 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 Troubles in, 473. 
 
 KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL, The, 
 
 Account of, 473. 
 KEARNEY, Philip, 
 
 Expedition of to California, 462; killed at Chan- 
 
 tilly,506. 
 KEARSARGE, The. 
 
 Destruction of the Alabama by, 634. 
 KENESAW .MOUNTAIN, 
 
 Battle of, 525. 
 KENTUCKY, 
 
 Colonization of, 367; admission of, 367, 
 KIDD, William, 
 
 Career of, 179. 
 KIEFT, Sir William, 
 
 Governor of New Netherland, 165. 
 KILPATRICK, H. J., 
 
 Fight of witli Hampton, 529. 
 KLAMATHS, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map I. 
 KOSSUTH. Loins, 
 
 Visit of to the United States, 467. 
 KOSZTA, Martin, 
 
 Affair of, 471. 
 
 La FAYETTE, Marqfis de. 
 
 Gives himself to the cause of liberty, 320: cam' 
 
 paign of in Virginia, 3,52; visit of to America, 422. 
 LANE, Ralph 
 
 Governor of Raleigh, 82. 
 La ROCHE. Marquis of. 
 
 Plans a colony, 74. 
 La.s.\LLE, Robert pe, 
 
 E.-tplorations of, 248. 
 LAUDONNIERE, 
 
 In Florida, 74. 
 LAWRENCE. Captain, 
 
 Death of, 406. 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATEfi. 
 
 705 
 
 ^^Cond',K"t''o'?'as a general, f^^^.'^'^'t^^^^ '^ 
 Monmouth, 331 ; dismissal ot from service, o.U. 
 
 LEE. KlCHARD HENKV, <r . i,„ -mo 
 
 Kesolutions ot Independence offered by, 309. 
 
 ^EE, K""/;^ ?•■(,_ 450; commander-in-chief of tho 
 Confederates, 503; invades Maryland, Site ; at An- 
 Ue^anOOe; atFre'derickslmrg,509; at Chaucellors. 
 
 ville, 618; invades Pennsylvania, 519, atOettjs- 
 l,u E 520 ; in the Wilderness. 53.i ; retreat ot fi >m 
 KichmoiU, 538 ; surrender of, 540 ; death of, 602. 
 
 ^'^ lS onn™>'rrection in New York, 176. 
 
 LEOPARD. The, 
 
 Affair of, 385. 
 LEWIS, Captain, 
 
 Exploring expeaition of, 3S2. 
 LEWISTOWN, 
 
 Founding of, 163. 
 LEXINGTON. 
 
 Battle of, 293. 
 LIFE-SAVINC. SERVICE, 
 
 Establishment of, 640. 
 
 LINCOLN, Abraham, , ^ ,„« j • -„ 
 
 Elected President, 479; sketch of, 482; ndminiB- 
 tration of, 482-543 ; issues Emancipation Pro;' J- 
 mation,511 ; re-elected, Ml ; assassination of, j42 , 
 character of, 542, 543. 
 
 LITTLE BELT, The, 
 Affair of, 391. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Edward, 
 
 Agent to purchase Louisiana, 3,8. 
 
 LOCKE, John, ,. . , _„, 
 
 Prepares the Grand Model, 225. 
 
 LONDON COMPANY. j m„„ ttt • 
 
 Organization of. 85; grant to, 85 and Map III , 
 charter of, 86 ; fleet sent to America by, 8b. 
 
 LONG ISLAND, 
 Battle of, 311. 
 
 LONGSTKEET, General, 
 See Lee's cumlHiifjHs. 
 
 LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN, 
 Storming of, 515. 
 
 LOUDOUN, Lord, 
 
 Career of in America, 267-270, 
 
 LOUISBUBG, 
 
 Siege of, 157, 158. 
 
 Purchase of, 378 ; boundary of, 378 ; discord in, 559 
 LUNDY'S LANE, 
 Battle of, 408 
 
 '^^^InJb'as^sador of the Confederacy, 494; capture of, 
 
 494; liberation of, 495. 
 MASONIAN DIFFICULTIES, The. 
 
 Concerning Hew Hampshire, 196-202. 
 
 MATHEE, Cotton, , . ... ,-, ,-., 
 
 Kesponsible for witchcraft atrocities, 151-163. 
 
 MAY, C0RNELli;s, „ ., , , ,„ 
 Governor of New Netlieiland, 162. 
 
 McCLELLAN, George B., . . „„ , 
 
 Campaign of in West Virginia, 490; in com- 
 niand of the Army ol the Potomac, 494 ; peiiin- 
 Bular campaign of, 602-505 ; ;at Antietam 500; 
 superseded, 509 ; candidate for tho presidency, 
 541. 
 
 MEADE, George G., . r,,... 
 
 At Fredericksburg, 509; in command of the Ar- 
 my of the Potomac, 520; at Gettysburg, 520; in 
 the Wilderness, 535; death of, 562. 
 
 MEIGS, COMNEL, 
 
 E.\ploit of at Sag Harbor, 319. 
 MELENDEZ. Pedro, 
 
 Career of in Florida, 67. 
 
 LYON, Nathaniel, 
 In Missouri, 492. 
 
 M 
 
 MacDONOUGH. Commodore, 
 At Plattshnrg,409. 
 
 MADISON, .lAMES, , i.„ ., » 
 
 Favors tho Constitution, 362; elected President, 
 388; sketch of, 3^8; administration of, 388-416; 
 unwarlike disposition of, 392 ; death of, 435. 
 
 MAGELLAN, Ferdinand, 
 
 /Jircumnavigation of globe by, 61. 
 
 Colonization of, 136; admission of, 420. 
 MALVERN HILL, 
 
 Battle of, 504. 
 MANASSAS, 
 
 Battled', 491. 
 MANDEVILLE, Sir John, 
 
 On the figure of the earth, 54, unit Appendix A. 
 MANHATTAN ISLAND, 
 
 Purchase of, 162. 
 MARION, Francis, 
 
 Career of, 341,342, 350. 
 MARSHALL, John, 
 
 Embassy of to France, 373 ; in the chief-justice- 
 ship, 379. 
 MARYLAND, 
 
 Colonization of, 216; history of, 216.224. 
 45 
 
 MERRIMAC, The 
 
 Fight of with the Monitor, 498. 
 MIANTONOMOH, 
 
 Relations of with Roger W illiams, 194. 
 
 MICHIGAN, ^ ^ , . . , „. 
 
 Organization of, 382 ; admission of, 433. 
 
 MILL SPRING, 
 
 Battle of, 496. 
 MINNESOTA, 
 
 Admission of, 477^. 
 
 MINUIT, Peter, 
 
 Governor of New Nelherlaud, 162. 
 
 MISSIONARY RIDGE, 
 Storming of, 516. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, , J . . , ,,. 
 
 Organization and admission of, 418. 
 
 MISSOURI, J . . r .n. 
 
 Organization of, 420; admission of, 421. 
 
 MISSOURI COMPROMISE, The, 
 
 History of, 421. 
 MOniLIANS, The, , „ , 
 
 Territorial position of, 43 aiicl Map 1. 
 
 MODOCS. The. 
 
 War with. 559. 
 MONITOR. The, 
 
 Fight of with the Merrimac, 498. 
 MONMOUTH, 
 
 Battle of, 331. 
 
 MONROE, James, , , . „ - 
 
 Agent to purchase Louisiana, 3(8; elected Presi- 
 dent, 416; sketch of, 416; administration ot, 416- 
 423 ; death of, 436. 
 
 MONROE DOCTRINE, The, 
 Proclamation of, 422. 
 
 MONTEREY, 
 
 Storming of, 451- 
 
 MONTEZUMA, 
 
 Account of, 58-61. 
 
 MONTGOMERY Richard, 
 
 Expedition of against Canada, 303 ; death of, 304; 
 sketch of, 305. 
 
 MONTREAL, 
 
 Name of, 72 ; expedition against, 156. 
 
 MORTON, Olivek P., 
 Sketch of, G40. 
 
 MORGAN, Daniel, , „ 
 
 At Bemis's Heights, 323 ; at the Cowpens, 34, . 
 
 MORGAN, John, 
 
 Raid of into Indiana and Ohio, 517. 
 MORGAN, William, 
 
 Disappearance of, 425. 
 MORMONS, The, 
 
 Account of, 444 ; rebellion of, 475. 
 MORRIS, Robert, , , ^ . 
 
 Devotes his fortune to liberty, 316; appointed 
 
 secretary of finance, 346; brought to ruin, 351 
 
 MORRIS, f. A., 
 
 Campaign of in West Virginia, 490. 
 
 MORSE, S. F. B., 
 
 Invention of telegraph by, 44*. 
 
706 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 MORTON, OtivEE r., 
 
 Death of, 6U. 
 MOSCOSO, 
 
 Successor of De Soto, 66. 
 MURFEEESBOEOUGH, 
 
 Battle of, 500. 
 
 NARVAEZ, Pamphilo de. 
 
 Army sent by to Mexico, 60; governor of Florida, 
 
 63. 
 NASHVILLE, 
 
 Siege of, 526. 
 NATIONAL DEBT, The, 
 
 E,\tent of, 54,). 
 NEGRO PLOT, The, 
 
 In New York, 1.S2. 
 NEW AMSTERDAM, 
 
 Fountling of, 94 ; history of, 160-171. 
 NEW ENGLAND, 
 
 Colonization of, 91, 123,134,193, 19S ; education in, 
 
 282. 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, 
 
 Colonization of, 19S ; history of, 198-202. 
 NEW HAVEN, 
 
 founding of, 1S8. 
 NEW JERSEY, 
 
 Colonizatinu of, 203; history of, 203-208; division 
 
 of, 205. 
 Nfew NETHERLAND, 
 
 Name of, 94 ; history of, 160-171 ; conquest of, 171. 
 NEW ORLEANS, 
 
 Battle of, 413. 
 NEWPORT, Christopher, 
 
 Sent out l>y Loudon Company, 86. 
 NEW SWEDEN, 
 
 History of, 165-169 ; extent of. .Wr;. IV. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Colouization of, 160 ; history of, 160-183. 
 
 NEW YORK CITY, 
 
 Settlement of, 160 ; under the Dutch, 160-171 ; un- 
 der the English, 171-183 ; Britisli forces before, 
 310; captured by British, 313; evacuation of, 355. 
 
 NEZ PERCE INDIANS, The, 
 War with, 636. 
 
 IXICOLLS. RicHAitn. 
 
 (joveruor of New York. 172 
 KORSEME.V. The, 
 
 Discovery of America by, 51 ; character of, 5; 
 
 traces of in Rhode Island, 195. 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Colonization of, 224 ; history of, 224-229. 
 NORTH-EASTERN BOUNDARY, 
 
 Settlement of, 441. 
 KORTHEN PACIFIC RAILROAD, The, 
 
 Account of, 560. 
 NORTH-WESTERN TERRITORY. 
 
 Organization of, 359 ; division of, 377. 
 NULLIFICATION, 
 
 Account of, 428; a cause of the Civil War, 48S. 
 
 o 
 
 OHIO, 
 
 Organization and admission of, 378. 
 OHIO COMPANY. The, 
 
 Grant to, 2.50. 
 OGLETHORPE, James, 
 
 Sketch of, 238 ; career of in Georgia, 239-244. 
 OMNIBUS BILL, The, 
 
 History of, 464. 
 OPECHANCANOUGH, 
 
 Notices of, 100. 113. 
 ORDERS IN COUNCIL. The, 
 
 Issueti, 3'^6 ; promised repeal of, a*9. 
 OREGON BOUNDARY QUESTION, The, 
 
 Settlement of, 458. 
 OSTEND MANIFESTO, The, 
 
 History of, 472. 
 
 PACIFIC RAILROAD, The, 
 
 Project of, 469; completion of, 553, 
 PALO ALTO, 
 
 Battle of, 450. 
 PAPER MOSEY% 
 
 First used in America, 149. 
 PARRIS, Sami-el, 
 
 Responsible for witchcraft atrocities, 15(f-15S- 
 PATKOONS, TheDi'TCH, 
 
 Colonize New Netherland, 163, 164. 
 PAUL JONES. 
 
 Great naval battle of, 338. 
 PEACOCK. The, 
 
 Affair of, 405. 
 PENN. William, 
 
 In New Jersey, 205; proprietor of Pennsylvania, 
 
 209 ; sketch of, 210; career of, 210-215. 
 PENNSYLVANIA, 
 
 Colouization of, 209 ; history of, 209-215. 
 PEPPEREL, Sib William, 
 
 Expedition of against Louisburg, 157. 
 PEQUODS, The, 
 
 War with, 185-IS8. 
 PERRY, Oliver H.. 
 
 Victory of on Lake Erie, 401. 
 PETERSBURG, 
 
 Siege of, 536, 53S. 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 Founding of, 212 ; capture of by the British, 325„ 
 PHILIP, King of the Nabragansetts, 
 
 War with, 139-144. 
 PHIPPS, Sir William, 
 
 Connection of with Salem witchcraft, 151. 
 PICKETT, General, 
 
 Charge of at Gettysburg, 522. 
 PIERCE, Fkasklin, 
 
 Elected President, 469; sketch of, 469; adminis- 
 tration of, 469-474. 
 PILGRIMS, The, 
 
 See Pnritant. 
 PINCKNEY, C. C, 
 
 Embassy of to France, 373. 
 PITT. William, 
 
 Premier of England, 270; defends .America, 292. 
 PITTSBURG LANDING, 
 
 Battle of, 497. 
 PLYMOUTH, 
 
 Founding of, 91. 
 PLYMOUTH COMPANY, The, 
 
 Organization of, 85 ; grant to, 8.5 and Map III. 
 PLYMOUTH COUNCIL, The, 
 
 Organization of, 88; grant to, 88 anrf iUnp III. 
 POCAHONTAS, 
 
 Story of, 101-109. 
 POLK, James K., 
 
 Elected President, 446; sketch of, 447; adminis- 
 tration of, 447-462. 
 POLK, Leonidas, 
 
 Campaign of in Kentucky, 493. 
 PONTIAC, 
 
 Conspiracy of, 277-279. 
 POPE, John, 
 
 Campaign of in Virginia, 505. 
 PORT BILL, The Boston, 
 
 Passage of, 295. 
 PORTER, Admiral, 
 
 Bombards Vicksburg, 512; at Fort Fisher, 532. 
 PORT ROYAL, (Annapolis), 
 
 Founded, 75; siege of, 155. 
 roP.TUGESE. The, 
 
 Discoveries of in America, 69. 
 POSTAL MONEY- ORDER SYSTEM, The, 
 
 Establishment of, M6. 
 POWHATAN 
 
 Relations of with the colony at Jamestown, 96-112. 
 PREBLE, Commodore, 
 
 In the Mediterranean, 3S0. 
 PEESCOTT, General, 
 
 Capture of, 320. 
 
EISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 707 
 
 f EESIbENT. The, 
 
 A£fal< uf, 391. 
 TRINCETON, 
 
 Battle of, 318. 
 PKING Martin, 
 
 Voyage of, M. 
 PKINTING-PRESS, The, , . 
 
 Set up in Cambridge, 132 ; work of in tbe colonies, 
 
 2S2. 
 
 PULASKI, Count, 
 
 Honored for service at Brandjwine, 32o. 
 
 PUKITANS, The, , „ 
 
 Rise of, »S; at Lejden,S9; purposes of, 89; voy- 
 age of to America, 90 ; compact of, yl a»wi Appen- 
 dix B; colonization of Massactiusetts by, 91; 
 character of, 139. 
 
 PDTNAW, Israel, 
 Exploit of, 334. 
 
 Q 
 
 QUAKEBS, The, , „, 
 
 Arrival of at Boston, 136; persecutions of, 136, 
 137; in New Jersey, 206 ; colonization otl'eunsyl- 
 vaniaby,2U9-215. 
 
 QUEBEC, 
 
 Founding of, 76; expedition of Walker against, 
 1S5; capture of by Wolfe, 276; expedition ol Ar- 
 nold against, 303. 
 
 K 
 
 n.ilLROADS, 
 
 Extent of in tbe United States, 550. 
 EAILROAD STRIKE, The, 
 
 History of, 034-636. 
 E.ALEIOH, Sir Walter, 
 
 Attempts of to colonize America, 81; founds city 
 
 of Raleigb, 83. 
 BECONSTKUCTION OF SOUTHERN STATES, 
 
 DifUculLies concerning, 547, 549, 554. 
 BED RIVER EXPEDITION, The, 
 
 Account of, 524, 
 EESACA DE LA P.\I/M.4., Battle of, 450. 
 RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS. 
 
 jilstory of, 637-f.41. 
 REVERE, Paul, Ride of. 297. 
 
 REVOLUTION. The, 
 
 Causes of, 285-290; history of, 207-356. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, ,.^ , 
 
 Colonization of, 193; history of, 193-193; liberal 
 
 institutiuiis of, 194; traces of Norsemen in, 19.0; 
 
 domestic difficulties in, 442. 
 BIBAULT, John, 
 
 Voyages of, 73. 
 RICHMOND, 
 
 Capital of the Confederacy, 485; evacuation and 
 
 burning of, 53S. 
 ROANOKE ISLAND, 
 
 .\ttempt3 to colonize, 81. 
 liOBERVAL, Lord, 
 
 Voyage of, 72. 
 
 EOBIN'SON, John, 
 
 Leader of the Pilgrims, 89; counsels of, 125. 
 
 HOGERS, Major Robert, 
 
 Expedition of, 277. 
 ROLFE. John, 
 
 Accnunt of, lOS. 
 ROSECRANS, \V. S., 
 
 .\t Murfreesborough, 500; at Chickamauga, 514. 
 RYSWICK, 
 
 Treaty of, IJO. 
 
 SAG HARBOR, 
 
 Capture of, 319. 
 
 SALEM. 
 
 Founded, 126 ; witchcraft at, 150-153. 
 .BAMOSET, 
 
 Visit of to Plymouth, 123. 
 
 SANDER S CBEKK, 
 
 Battle of, 342. 
 SANDYS, Sir Edwtn, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, HI. 
 SANTA ANNA 
 
 At Buena Vista, 453; at Cerro Gordo, 455 ; driven 
 
 from 5Iexico, 457. 
 SANTO DOMINGO, 
 
 Project to annex, 555. 
 SAVANNAH, 
 
 Founding of. 2''j9; conquest of, 333; capture of 
 
 by Sherman, 527. 
 SATLE, William, 
 
 Governor of South Carolina, 230. 
 SCHUTLER, General, 
 
 In command of the Northern army, 321. 
 SCOTT, Wineield, 
 , At Luudy^s Lane, 405; plans theinvasionof Mex- 
 ico, 450; at Vera Cruz, 4.54; at Cerro Gordo, 455; 
 
 enters Mexico, 457 ; comniauder-in-cUief of the 
 
 Union army, 485. 
 SEA-KINGS, The. 
 
 Character of, 52. 
 SECESSION, 
 
 Account of, 480, 485. 
 SELISH, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map 1. 
 SEMINOLES, The, 
 
 War with, 418, 4.31. 
 SEVEN DATS' BATTLES, The, 
 
 Account, of, 504. 
 SEWARD, William H.. 
 
 Secretary of State. 484 ; diplomacy of in the Trent 
 
 affair, 495; attempted assassination of,542; death 
 
 of, 562. 
 SHERIDAN, Philip H., 
 
 In the Shenandoah \'alley,537; in pursuit of Lea, 
 
 539. 
 SHERMAN, W. T., 
 
 At Chickasaw Bayou, 500; campaign of froi^ 
 
 Chattanooga to .\tlantB, 525-526; March of to thit 
 
 Sea, 527 ; from Savannah to Raleigh, 528-530. 
 SHIRLEY, Sir William, 
 
 Governor of Massachusetts, 2&4. 
 SHOSHONEES, The, 
 
 Territorial position of, 44 and Map I. 
 SIGEL, Franz. In Missouri. 493. 
 SIL\'ER, Remonetization of, 036. 
 SIOUX INDIANS, The, 
 
 War with, 629,630. 
 SIX N.VTIONS, The, 
 
 Treaty with, 181. 
 
 SLAVERY, 
 
 Introduction of, 110; exclusion of from Georgia, 
 240; prohibition of in North-western Territory, 
 359 ; a cause of tbe Civil War, 4S7 ; aliolislicd by 
 the Emancipation .Proclamation, 511; congres- 
 sional abolition of, 544. 
 
 SLIDELL. John. 
 
 Ambassador of the Confederacj", 494; capture of, 
 
 494; liberation of, 495. 
 SLOCGHTER. William, 
 
 Governor of New York, 177. 
 
 SMITH, John-, 
 
 Voyaires of in New England. 87; captured, 88: 
 
 troubles of at Jamestown. 96; explores the Jame? 
 
 96 ; sketch of, 97 ; captivity of, 99 : exploration or 
 
 Chesapeake by, 102; presideut of Virginia, 101; 
 
 wounded, 105 ; returns to England, 105. 
 SMITHSON, James, 
 
 Notice of, 460. 
 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, The, 
 
 Establishment of, 460. 
 SMYTH. Alexander. 
 
 In command on tbe Niagara frontier, 399. 
 SONS OF LIBERTY. 
 
 Organization of, 292. 
 SOTHEL, Seth. 
 
 Career of in the Carolinas, 227, 23.3. 
 SOUTH CAROLIN,\, 
 
 Colonization of, 230; history of, 230-237. 
 
 SPAIN, 
 
 Discovers and colonizes America. .54-09: territti 
 rial possessions of in 1665, see Map IV; treaty 
 with, 419. 
 
708 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 SPECIli CIRrCLAK, The, , , 
 Issued by Jackson, 437 ; repeal of, 441. 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, 
 Buttle of, 493. 
 
 SQUANTO, 
 
 The Interpreter, 124. 
 
 STAMP ACT. , , „ „ 
 
 Passage of. 2S9 ; provisions of, 2S9 ; repeal of, 292. 
 
 STANDISH, Miles, , ,„, 
 
 General of New England, 123; mentioned, 125. 
 
 STANTON, Edwih M., 
 
 Secretary of war, 4S4 ; death of. 561. 
 
 STATE RIGHT.S. The Dohtkine or. 
 
 Advocated in South Carolina, 42>J ; a cause of the 
 Civil War, 4S6 ; as affecting the future of the Ela- 
 tion, 642. 
 
 ST. AUGUSTINE. 
 Founding of, 68. 
 
 ST. CLAIR, Arthur, , v, ., 
 
 At Ticonderoga, 321 ; governor of North-western 
 Territory, 359 ; e.\pedition of, 366. 
 
 STEAMBOAT, The. 
 Invention of, 3^6 
 
 STEPHENS, Alex.«der H., 
 
 Opposes secession, 481) ; Vice-President of the Con- 
 federacy, 481. 
 
 STONEMAN. Gen-kral, 
 Cavalry raids of, 519, 530. 
 
 STONY POINT. 
 
 Capture of by the British, 334; retaken by 
 
 Wayne, 3;^j. 
 STUYVESANT, Peter, 
 
 .Administration of in New Netherland, 167-171. 
 
 SULLIVAN, C»ENERAL, 
 
 Siege of Newport by, 332. 
 
 SUMNER, Charles. 
 
 Sketch and death of. oG2. 
 
 BUMTER, Thomas, 
 
 Career of in the Carolinas, 341, 342, 350. 
 
 SUPRIO.ME COURT, 
 
 Organization of, 364. 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Colonizes Delaware, 164. 
 
 TALLEYRAND, M., 
 
 Policy of respecting America, 374. 
 
 TARIFF, The, 
 
 Question of, 428. 
 TAXATION. 
 
 Right of claimed by Great Britain, 287. 
 
 TAYLOR, Zachary, „ „. ^ .„ 
 
 Sent to occupy Texas, 447; at Buena Vista, 453; 
 elected President, 462 ; sketch of, 463 ; administra- 
 tion of, 463-46^' ; death of, 465. 
 
 TEA-P.\RTY, The Boston, 
 
 Is celebrated, 295. 
 TEA-TAX, The, 
 
 Enacted, 292. 
 
 TECUMTHA, 
 
 War with, 390; death of, 402. 
 TELEGRAPH, The, 
 
 Invention of, 446. 
 TELEGRAPH, The Atlantic, 
 
 iiVe Cable. 
 TENNESSEE, 
 
 Colonization of, 293 ; admission of, 370. 
 TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Of the United States. 555 and Map VII. 
 TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 Final form of, 546 and Map VI. 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 Early history of. 445 ; annexation of proposed, 
 445 ; admission of into the Union, 447. 
 
 TICONDEROGA. , „^^ ... ., 
 
 Epedition of Johnson against. 265; attack on by 
 Abercrombie, 271; capture of by Ethan Allen. 
 299. 
 TIPPECANOE, 
 Battle of, 391. 
 
 TOLERATION, 
 
 A plea for, 643. 
 TOMPKINS. D. D., 
 
 Vice-President, 416, 421. 
 TORONTO, 
 
 Capture of, 404. 
 TORPEDO, 
 
 Invention of by Fulton, 387. 
 
 TREATY 
 
 Of Utrecht, 156; of Aix-la-Chapelle, 158; ofParis 
 (1763), 279 ; of alliance with France, 329 ; defini- 
 tive of 1783, 354 ; Jay's, 369; of Ghent, 414 ; with 
 North-west'n Indians, 417; of Washington (1819;, 
 419; the Webster-Ashmirton, 412; of Guadalupe 
 Hidalgo, 458; the Tripartite, 468; ol Washington 
 (1S72),556. 
 
 TRENT, The, 
 Affair of, 494. 
 
 TRENTON, 
 
 Battle of, 316. 
 
 TRIPOLI. 
 
 Besieged by Preble, 381. 
 
 TUSCARORAS. The, 
 Migration of, 181. 
 
 TYLER, John. , , , 
 
 Vice-President, 439 ; President, 441 ; sketch of,, 
 441 ; administration of, 44H47. 
 
 u 
 
 UTAH. 
 
 Colonization of, 445 ; rebellion in, 475. 
 
 UTRECHT. 
 
 Treaty of, 156. 
 
 VALLEY FORGE, 
 
 American army at, 327. 
 
 Van BUREN, Martin, , ^ ^ . . 
 
 Elected President, 436; sketch of, 436; adminis- 
 tration of, 436-440. 
 
 VANE. Sir Henry, 
 
 In New England, 130; governor of Massachusetts^ 
 
 130 ; defends liberty, 136; execution of, 138. 
 VERMONT, 
 
 Admission of, 366. 
 VERRAZZANI, John, 
 
 Voyage of, 70. 
 VESPUCCI, 
 
 Voyages of, .56. 
 VICKSBURG, 
 
 Siege of, 512. 
 VINLAND, 
 
 Limits of, 52. 
 
 VIRGINIA, , ,.. ^ „ 
 
 Name of, 82; colonization of, 95; history of, 95- 
 123. 
 
 WADSWORTH, William, „, ^ , 
 
 Hides the charter, 191 ; baffles Fletcher, 191. 
 
 WALKER. Sir Hovenden. 
 
 Expiditioii of against (Jnebcc, 155. 
 
 WALKER, William. „ ^ , . ,.. ,„ 
 
 Expeditions of into Central America, 4,0, 471. 
 
 WALLACE, Lewis, , „. . .■ .„„.„„ 
 
 At Koniney, 491 ; in defence of Cincinnati, 499; on 
 the Munocacy, 537. 
 
 WALLOONS, The, 
 In America, 161. 
 
 King Philip's, 139; King William's, 147; Queen 
 Anne's, 1,53; King Geo 
 
 i'e,,n.id,' 1S.5; 
 French and' Indian. 247-:79; Revolutionary, 297- 
 356: of 1812,388-419- with Mexico. 447-4.58; the 
 Civil, 482-540; the Sioux, 029; Ncz Perce, 636. 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 709 
 
 WAEKEN, Commodore, , ^ 
 
 Expeditiou of agaiust LouiSDurg, 167. 
 
 WARREN, Joseph, 
 At BuQkor Hill, 300. 
 
 WASHINGTON CITY, , . ,. n ••• i, ,iin 
 
 Founding of, 375; capture of by the British, 410. 
 
 WASHINGTON, AcorSTINE, 
 Mrutioned, U50. 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, , „„ k -ij. „„j 
 
 Sent by Dinwiddle to the French, 2.')2 ; builds and 
 defends Fort Necessity, 255 ; campaign of with 
 Braddock, 25S-2B1 ; made general-iu-chief, 3li ; 
 sketch of, 3112; negotiations of with Howe, 310; 
 saves the army at Long Island, 31-' ; retreat of 
 across New Jersey, 314 ; at rreuton, 31b ; at 
 Princeton, 317; at Brandywiue 324 ; sorrows of, 
 327 ; at Monmonth, 331 ; at- Yorktown, 353 ; favors 
 Union. 3.W; chosen I'resident, 362; administra- 
 tion of, 363-371 ; tour of, 36-1 ; wrath of, 36, ; re- 
 elected, 367; Farewell Address of, .3il niiri Ap. 
 ■pendix G; reappointed commander-in-chief, 3,3; 
 death of, 375. 
 
 WA.sniNGTON^. .ToHN, Mentioned, 119. 
 
 WASHINOTOX, Treaty of, 556. 
 
 WASP, The, 
 
 Affair of, 397. 
 WAYMOUTH, Georoe, 
 
 Voyage of, 85. 
 
 WAYNE, Anthony, ^. . , . , .v 
 
 At Stouy Point, 335; expedition of against the 
 Indians, 36'J; death of, 369. 
 
 WEBSTER, Daniel, , , . , 
 
 Debate of with Haynw, 429; concludes the Ash- 
 burton treaty, 442. 
 WESLEY, Charles, 
 
 Jletliudist and poet, 241. 
 WESLEY, John, 
 
 111 Georgia, 240. 
 WEYMOUTH, 
 
 Founding of, 12.!>. 
 WHIG PARTY, The, 
 
 Notice of, 42S ; in power, 439, 440 ; again tnampn- 
 
 ant, 462. 
 WHISKY INSnERECTION, The, 
 
 Account of, 368. 
 WHITE, John, 
 
 Governor of Kaleigh, 83. 
 WHITEFIELD. Georoe, 
 
 In Georgia, 241. 
 WHITNEY, Eli, 
 
 Inventor of the Cotton Gin, 487. 
 WILDERNESS, The, 
 
 Battles in, 535. 
 
 WILKINSON, General, 
 
 Commander-in-chief of the American army, 404. 
 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE, 
 
 Founding of, 122. 
 WILLIAMS FAMILY, The, 
 
 Story of, 154. 
 WILLIAMS, Roger, 
 
 Minister of Salem, 128 ; banishment of, 128; foun- 
 der of Providence, 129 ; sketch of, 193. 
 WILMOT PROVISO, The, 
 
 Account of, 462. 
 WILSON, Henry, 
 
 Vice-President, 558 ; death of, 562. 
 WINGFIELD, Edward, 
 
 President of Virginia, %. 
 WINGINA, 
 
 Murder of, S2. 
 WINTHROP, John. 
 
 Governor of Massachusetts, 127. 
 WINTHROP, The Yocnger, 
 
 Votes against persecution, 136; leader of the 
 Connecticut colony, 184. 
 WISCONSIN, 
 
 Admission of, 461. 
 WITCHCRAFT. The Salem, 
 
 Story of, 150-153. 
 WOLFE, Jame.s. 
 
 Expedition of against (Jnebec, 273-276; death of, 276. 
 
 WOOL, General, 
 
 Musters forces for Mexican war, 451. 
 WORLD'S FAIR, The, 
 
 Account of, 470. 
 WYATT, Sir Francis, 
 
 Governor of Virgina, 112. 
 WTOJIING, 
 
 Massacre of, 332. 
 
 YALE COLLEGE, 
 
 Founding of, 192. 
 YAMASSEES, The, 
 
 War with, 236. 
 YEAMANS, Sir John, 
 
 Governor of Carolina, 225. 
 Y'EARDLY, Sir George, 
 
 Governor of Virginia, 110, 
 YELLOW FEVEK EPIDEMIC, Story of, CT*. 
 VORKTOWN, Siege of, 353. 
 Y'USEF, The Emperor. 
 
 Is brought to his senses, 381. 
 
 * ^ * Whole number of pages, including Maps, Charts, Appendixes, 
 
 Vocabulary and Index, 7S3» 
 
? W 65 
 

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