LIBRARY OF CONGRESS DDDQLlflHDbmi -_ T-«S * lV^ *° #'++ mw< : j x -j \ £ ^"V '-.' :/^_ ,0* ^b W * ^ t^^ ^ ^ a: ^oi? 0* o«"'* 'o ~V V'™*^ °^*™'V 1 ' •» o, ** -TO^- ,^ -\ -MR* „.♦♦ ** 6 v *%•*&&*' -<.•-«•* -,: j - o* '^0^ -: ^ov* .0'' V *o«o 9 ^ o **,,* .0 «k * ow0 < s* a ;* <& « ^ .* -^ ° 4 > WW /\ « ^ *"** /^ a v w ^ ^ ^ ^ .4°^ ^°^ ^ & W ■ ^••. v-o 1 r oK ^o^ ft^te* t TO WILLIAM SAMPSON, ESQ, THE ENLIGHTENED ADVOCATE AND ACCOMPLISHED SCHOLAR, ) KW S2Horfc IS RESPECTFULLY AND SINCERELY DEDICATED BY HIS FRIEND THE EDITOR. • •• • * THE ELEMENTS OF GREEK GRAMMAR, a Rj VALPY, D.D. F.A.S. WITH ADDITIONS EY C/ANTHOX, SAY PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW-YORK. FOURTH EDITION. W. E. DEAN, PRINTER. PUBLISHED BY COLLINS & CO., COLLINS & HANNAY, G. & C. & H. CARVILL O. A. ROORBACH, AND WHITE,G ALLAHER & WHITE. 1830. TAi ,V4S I?d0 Southern District of JVta-Yorlc, mm. BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the 21st day of July, A. D. 1830, in the fifty-fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, W. E. Dean, of the said District, hath deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as Proprietor, in the words following, to wit : "The Elements of Greek Grammar, by R. Valpy, D.D. F.A.S. With Additions, by C. Anthon, Jay Professor of Languages in Columbia College, New- York. Fourth Edition." In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, entitled " An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned," and also to an Act, entitled " an Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled, An Act for the encourage- ment of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of Designing, Engraving, and Etching Historical and other Prints." " FRED. J. BETTS, Clerk of the Southern District of JfewTork. IXDEX. Page. Accents 16,294 Accusative 196,211 Active Voice 132 Adjectives 52 Adverbs...., 187,219 Anapaestic Verse 284 Apostrophe 14,291 Article 21 Syntax of 201 Augment 101 Breathings 7 Caesura 286 Cases 19 Change of Letters 8 Comparison 67 Conjunctions 250 Contracted Verbs 137 Contractions 292 Dative 195,208 Declensions 23 Deponents 136 Dialects 302 History of 309 Digamma 289 Diphthongs 4 Dual in ov, w 96 El/iot, to clothe one's self. 163 ■E.lju,tobe 92 -Dialects of 315 E2/u, to go 156 T Hf/ai 162 *>?p 166 Feet 278 Figures affecting Syllables... 16 Genitive 191,202 Hiatus 12 Page. Homeric Digamma 289 Iambic Verse 281 "Iriju, to send ...» 159 lota Subscript 4 Irregular Nouns 47 Adjectives 67 Verbs 158 v I(7i7u< 165 Kufa< 164 Letters, Dialect changes of.. 316 Change of, for Eu- phony 8 Measures 280 Middle Voice 128 ■ Remarks on... 90 Moods, Remarks on 263 N added.. 13 Numerals 75 Particles 252 Negative 257 Passive Voice 134 Patronymics 50 Prepositions 221 Pronouns 82 Prosody 272 Stops 17 Syntax 197 General r rinciples of. 190 Tenses, Signification of 259 Formation of Active. 108 Passive. 124 Middle. 129 Trochaic Verse 283 Verbs in a 144 Mi 144 Voices, General Remarks on. 90 PREFACE. The plan pursued by the Editor in enlarging the Greek Grammar of Dr. Valpy has been, to make such additions and improvements as might render the volume a more complete manual for the student, not only previous to, but also during a portion, at least, of his Collegiate career. In order to accomplish this end, it has been the Editor's endeavour to bring together, in a small compass, the re- marks of the latest and best Grammarians, on various points connected with the more accurate knowledge of the Greek language. The general features of Dr. Valpy's work are retained, except that the notes are, in most in- stances, removed from the bottom of the page, and thrown into the form of observations which follow after the text. This has been done for the purpose of bringing them more immediately under the eye of the student. The ad- ditions made by the Editor are, for the most part, enclos- ed in brackets ; and it will be perceived, that no pains have been spared to render them both copious and inter- esting. In the use of this Grammar, it would be advise- able that the attention of the young student should be first called to those parts of it which have an immediate bear- ing upon his studies, and that, upon a second and third revisal, he should be taken in succession over those por- tions which might only tend to embarrass him in' the commencement of his career. The result of such a mode of proceeding will be, not only to render his Grammar a more agreeable companion to the young Hellenist, but also to give him a more systematic acquaintance with the language itself. In one or two instances some useless matter has been removed from the work, especially that part which relat- ed to the formation of the Greek language, and in which the theory of Hemsterhuis was followed. It may be a very specious and plausible system, to suppose that the Greek language, in its earliest state, consisted of monosyl- labic and dissyllabic words ; but to this supposition there are two insurmountable objections : it contains an ill- grounded and gratuitous assumption that the Greek lan- guage was original and indigenous, and it is at variance with what we know historically of the language itself. Under the head of Prepositions, the Editor has taken the liberty of attempting to explain their uses on a new plan, which it is hoped may prove serviceable. The arrangement of the previous edition has been re- tained in the present, with the exception of the Remarks on the Tenses and Moods ; these have been enlarged and placed at the end of the Syntax. Along with the new matter introduced into this edition will be found some observations on the Sanskrit language, under the History of the Dialects, and the admirable dis- sertation of Thiersch on the Homeric Digamma. Among the sources whence the principal supplies for the present work have been obtained, the following may be enumerated. The Grammars of Matthiae, Buttmann, Rost, Weller, Golius, and Lancelot ; the Animadversions of Fischer on the Grammar of Weller, and the Hebrew Grammar of Professor Stuart of Andover. To the last of these the Editor acknowledges himself indebted for some valuable remarks in relation to the resemblance which exists between the letters of the Greek and Hebrew alphabets. The Editor, having received from Dr. Valpy a copy of the latest English edition of his Grammar, has been ena- bled to introduce into the present work the most recent improvements of that learned scholar. Col. College, -July, 1830. ORTHOGRAPHY. THE ALPHABET. . — There are twenty-four Letters in the Greek Language [ Corresponding [Meaning of the [ebrew Letters. Hebrew Letters, j Figure. Names. Power, b A a ["AXoivix*j"ia. To these Simonides of Ceos is said to have added 6, %, ; Xgfw, for Xeyo-w, from Xsyw; fl-Xsfw for zXexa-oj, from irXiaw; ccXckJ/w for u\sijv(x£s is used instead of 'A^varfiJe.] [The simple letters are divided, according to the organs with which they are pronounced, into Labials, /3, p, sr, (p, *]/. Linguals, 8, £, 0, X, v, f, are to be consi- dered as terminating in xg and irg. The only exceptions to this remark are h, ow, and ou^, and these never occur at the end of a clause.] BREATHINGS. [To the written characters belong also the spi- ritus or breathings, of which there are two, the soft (spiritus knis, xi/evpci ty\6ty and the rough or aspirate (spiritus asper, -kvsv[jlu ha&v). One of these breathings is placed over every vowel or diphthong beginning a word.] The aspirate is equivalent in pronunciation to the English H, as 6Vj, hoti ; ovrog, houtos. T and p at the beginning of a word have al- ways the aspirate. If two p come together, the former has the soft, the latter the aspirate ; as, sppsov, oippnTog, Tlvppos. [Obs. 1. In diphthongs which begin a word, the^breathing is placed over the second vowel, as Evgiirlfrtis, ofog. This, however, is not the case with the improper diphthongs, as 'AkJtlc, aSyg.] Obs. 2. Anciently H was the mark for the aspirate in Greek, as it is in the Latin : thus HEKATON was written for ixctrov. This was afterwards divided, and one half P used as the mark for the aspirate, the other 1 as the mark for the soft breath- ing. This form was afterwards simplified into [_ and J ; and lastly rounded into the present shape, (') and ('). [Both the F and the H or F seem, according to Knight, to have been dropt from the Greek Alphabet, nearly at the same time, pro- bably about the period of the Persian war. The first figure of the latter was, however, retained to represent the double or long E, and the former seems to have continued in use in particular places, where a fondness for the ancient dialects prevailed, even to the final subversion of the Greek republics by the Roman arms. Knight on the Greek Alphabet, p. 12.] [Obs. 3. All words which begin with a vowel, but are not pronounced with the rough breathing, have, or are supposed to have, the soft breathing over their initial letter ; because every word that begins with a vowel can be distinguished in the pronunciation by no other means from the preceding let- ters than by drawing the breath from the lungs with a mode- 8 rate effort. The spiritus lenis therefore has an actual force, and is, in fact, the oriental aleph. The ancients were the ra- ther led to denote it as they -wrote in general without a divi- sion of words.] [Obs. 4. The ancient Greek language appears to have had no spiritus asper, at least the iEolians were without it ; and in the Ionic dialect, like all other aspirates, it rarely occurs. Hence aX as vep&sis, (ntKngog, r£y%oj.] [Rule 2. As in some instances the concurrence even of two consonants may produce roughness, this is avoided in two ways. 1. By the introduc- tion of a third consonant, as ^sa-^Cgia for fietrvfA- gict, av$g6g for av-gfisi. 2. By the transposition of a consonant, as 'ivgaQw for 'ivctgdov, from wkgdu ; stpahia for #ap§»a.] [Note. In ^sa^t^'a, the letter I appears to supply the place of an aspirate : so yaji/Sfog for yaps fog. {Knight on the Greek Alphabet, p. 7. Lennep. Analog. Grcec. p. 286.) In dv<$£o's, the 5 is inserted after the v, being of the same class with it, viz, a lingual.] [Rule 3. In the concurrence of two or more consonants, those only which are of the same class are put together. Hence an aspirated con- sonant is joined to an aspirate, a middle to a mid- dle, a smooth to a smooth j as $0im, cL%Qog, (3hXv- pog, Ivrd, vvxrog. When, in the formation of words, therefore, two dissimilar consonants come together, the first generally assumes the proper- ties of the second. Thus, by adding the termina- tions rof, H», Qeig, are formed, from ypd rpzQtoi not Qpkqiu. In the last two verbs, the aspirate enters again, however, in the first syllable of the future, the second aspirate being lost, as, 0pe%oj, dps^u.] [Obs. 1. There are Jive exceptions to this rule. 1. In com* pound words ; as o|yiio4^ag, avdopogoj ; (though sometimes in this case also the first aspirate is changed, as ix?xeigia, front s%u and x s '*g 5 £*«6'6)dmv ; (excepting two verbs only, 6vw and Marteof, not MaMoLios ; "BuTnpti, not 2a£ into ^, before /3, ^t, jr, ^>, ^ ; into X, £, 5", before X, §, e\ Thus, lyygdtyu for hypd'poo ; efi,€a.fou for ev€ai- vu ; nvXha^Qdvu for trvv'ka[j,€dv&j ; trvppstz) for , *},, are changed into ^ ; as \k\sippou for XiXsiT^oci ; rsrv^oci for rervftpL&t. Before the same letter, ;b and j£ are changed into y, as XsXsy^ai for Xi- Xexpui ; dl^07j*flfl for hk^oxy.ai ; and the linguals d, 9, r, J, into «r.] [Ofo. The following are exceptions, dx^, au^os, ify,uy, X£X0£U()fASV0£, "ffOTfJlOg.] [Rule 9. The linguals d, 0, r, £, can only stand before X, /x, », f. They are dropped before ta. So also, agv&crct) for d^a^gff-w.] [Rule 10. v is dropped before £ and «■ in de- clension, and also in the preposition trdv ; (Rule 7. Obs.) as pfiifscb fjL^veart, iinvvi, fJLTjtri ; vv^p for &w%p ; a, argt- f*«ra, 'iXsysv, dl w for hot, uv. When an apostrophe takes place, a lenis before an aspirate is changed into its corresponding as- pirate : thus, for ccjto °v> dv 9 ov is changed into Apostrophe in general removes the short final vowels, a, e, /, o. [The following, however, are exceptions: 1. The o in kpo is not cut off, but in certain cases coalesces with the following vowel. 2. The ; in nsg] is not cut off except in the iEolic Dialect. 3. The < in 6V< is not cut off; since, if this were done, 6V might be confounded with ots, and oQ' with 6'0j. 4. The i is rarely cut off in the dative singular and plural of the third declension.] \Obs. 1. Not only short vowels, but diphthongs also, are elided; not indiscriminately however, for 1. They are hot elided in the infinitive of the perfect active and passive, nor in that of the aorists passive, neither are they elided in the 3d person singular of the optative, nor in the nominative plural of nouns. 2. Diphthongs are not elided by the Attic poets before short vowels. 3. Diphthongs are rarely, if ever, elided in prose.] [06s. 2. The Attics and Dorians use the apostrophe, in final long syllables, on the short vowels of the following word ; as s^aurcc for sWauOa.] [8. Tmesis is when the parts of a compound are separated by an intervening word, as uirsg nva, syzn for iSareg^siv rivet.} OF ACCENTS. There are three accents, the acute ('), the grave Q, and the circumflex ("). The acute is placed on one of the three last syllables of a word. The grave is never placed but on the last syl- lable. The circumflex is placed on a long vowel or a diphthong in one of the two last syllables. Obs. 1. The circumflex was first marked \ then n , and lastly ~. [Obs. 2. The acute is called in Greek o^sTa (pgrt-taSfa, ac- cent, being understood) ; the grave is styled f3af>s7a ; the cir- cumflex grtsgitftfwfis'w*], that is, wound about.'] [Obs. 3. In accentuation, words are called, in Greek, 1 . 'Olwova, which have the acute (oSjug tovoj) on the last syllable ; as dsfe. 17 2. ITapogy-Tova, which have it on the penultima ; as t£tu|X(as- VO£. 3. HgoirctgoguroM, which have it on the antepenultima ; as 4. negifl'ir'wfASva, which have the circumflex on the last syl- lable ; as rtpu. 5. n^orfsgitfirw/xsva, which have it on the penultima ; as "Xguy^a. 6. Ba^uTova, are all words which have no accent on the last syllable, because, according to the custom of gramma- rians, the syllable which is neither marked with the acute nor the circumflex has the grave, (f3a^uv tovov).] [Obs. 4. For a more enlarged view of the doctrine of ac cents, vid. Appendix, D.] MARKS OF READING. [1. When two vowels are separated in pronunciation, and do not constitute a diphthong, the latter of the vowels has two points over it, as vgbvtfugxu.; aidqs- This is called Dies- resis.] [2. Diastole or Hypodiastole is a comma put at the end of the compound in compound words, to distinguish it from other words consisting of the same letters ; as, o, ts the neuter of Sg and ts, to distinguish it from ots {since). So also to, Tsand tots, o, ri and on.] [Obs. The Diastole is rendered almost useless by the art of printing. Many, instead of the Diastole, only leave a small space between the parts of the compound, as is the case in old MSS. and editions ; 6' ts, to ts, o ti.] [3. The marks of punctuation in Greek are for the most part the same as those in Latin, except the colon and mark of interrogation. The colon is put at the upper part of the last word, as etas' The colon and semicolon are not distinguished from each other.] [4. The mark of interrogation is (;), the semicolon of mo- dern languages.] [5. Besides these, there is a mark which shows that two words belong to each other, and which is called Hyphen, (y, an animal. The declension of the Article is as follows : <0, fc r6, The. Singular. Dual. Plural. M. F. N. N. 6, *j, to, G. roD, *%, rot? : D. rw, rji, rw, A. rov, rnv, to, M. F. N. N.A. TU, T&, TOJ. G.D. tq7'j,tu7v,to7v, M. F. N. N. ol, uU rd, G. tuv, tuv, r&v, D. ro7s, Tu7g,ro7s, A. roi>s,Tdg, rd* [Obs. 1 . That the appellation of iWoraxnxov a^fov, or sub- junctive article, which many of the ancient Grammarians ap- plied to the relative o$, is an improper one, appears fully from 22 a remark of Apollonius. In comparing it with the tfgotaxn- jcov «|^ov, or p?'epositive article, he not only confesses it to dif- fer, as being expressed by a different word, and having a dif- ferent place in every sentence, but in Syntax, he adds, it is wholly different. Be Syntax, Lib. 1, c. 43. Theodore Gaza makes a similar acknowledgment. Gramm. Introd. Lib. 4.] [Obs. 2. There is no form of the article for the vocative ; for w is an interjection, ranked with the other interjections under adverbs; improperly, however, vid. p. 18.] [Obs. 3. If the particles ys and 8s are annexed to the arti- cle, it has the signification of the pronoun " this." The de- clension remains the same, oSs, (Att. 6<5i), *j<5s (*)<5i), riSs (roSi) ; rovSs, , f , £, g, ■$,, °f a h" genders, and increases in the genitive. [Obs. 1. In the first two declensions, the termination only of the nominative case is changed in the oblique cases, so that the number of syllables remains the same. In the third, on 23 the contrary, the terminations of the other cases are affixed to the nominative, yet with some change. Hence the two first declensions are called parisyllabic, the third imparisyl- labic] Obs. 2. The old grammarians reckoned ten declensions ; Jive simple and Jive contracted. The simple were, 1. as, r\g. 2. a, r\. 3. os, ov. 4. us, wv. 5. a, i, v, v, g, £, s, 4'' — Of these the four first are parisyllabic, the last is imparisyllabic. The contracted were, 1. vs, ss, os. 2. is, i. 3. evs, vg, v, 4. w, wff. 5. a?. These are all imparisyllabic. Tabular View of the Three Declensio?is. Singular. I. II. III. Nom. a jj otg q$ o?, Neut. ov a,ivuv%ggi^ Gen. #j jj£ ov Dat. a ?j a p Ace. av ?ji> av qv Voc. a ?j a n N. A. V. a G. D. a/v Nom. a* Gen. uv Dat. ajf Ace. ag Voc. a< e, Neut. od Dual. CO oiv Plural. oj Neut. a w otg ovg Neut. a o* Neut. a o? (us) a or y Neut. — like Nom. 6 Oil) eg Neut. a t^ ^ ripri, ^e honour Dual. N. A. V. ra r^d G. D. raw npaTv Plural. N. at ripai G. TUV Tift&V D. raTg Tipa7g A. ra? rifidg V. r*fca» Nouns in a? make the Genitive in oy, and the Dative in a, and the rest like Moytra : thus, 25 Singular. N. 6 vsaviag G t rov veuviov D. ruj vsotviq, A. rov vsaviav V. v savin [o vsnviug-, the youth. Dual. N. N,A.V.r*> vfnvin G. D. G.D. rorj/ veuvwiv A. V. Nouns in jj^ make the Genitive cusative in q*, and the Vocative rest like Movam : thus, o rshuvYis, the publican. Plural, ol vsuviut ruv vsnvmv roTg veavicug rovg vsuviag vsnvinh} in ov, the Ac- m jj, and the Singular. DuaL Rural. N. o rsXwvjj; N. of rs Xoitui G. rov rs"kwiiov N.A.V. rSi rCkwvn G.TW TsXuVUV D.rw reXwvvi D.rofr rs\wn\g A. rov r.e\wvyiv G.D. ro7v Tikuvaiv A. rovg rs\mng V. re'kwvYi V. TS\UVM. Observations on the First Declension. Obs. 1. The termination in a which makes as in the geni- tive is generally long. Hence words in a contracted, as 'Afltj- va, fjwa, &c. make a?. [The termination in a, on the contra- ry, which has v\s in the genitive, is always short The voca- tive in a of masculines in as is long, of those in vis short. The Dual termination in a is always long.'] Obs. 2. From the genitive in as is derived the ancient ge- nitive of the first declension of Latin nouns* as paterfamilias, materfamilias. [The Dorians said ^outlets for povffris ; and the iEolians, adding an i to it, made it ^ov/fats, from which the La- tins, cutting off the S, have taken musai or musoz in the geni- tive. So also the JEolians said /x.;Xaig for fisXas, raXaij for rakxe. Etym. M. p. 575, 1. 53. Maittaire Dial. p. 208. ed. Sturz.~\ From the Dative in at or a, is formed the Latin Da- tive in ce. The similarity between the accusative in av and the Latin am, is obvious. 3 26 06s. 4. Some nouns in as make the genitive in a as well as in eu ; as TLvQayogas, G. — ou, and — a ; «ow£a\oiaer, G. — ou, and — a. Some keep a exclusively ; as 0wps, G. ©w/xa ; Boj>£a£, G. Bog£a ; 2«Tav£<:, G. 2ai- •yeg&a, Su£uoira. Hence in Latin, cometa, planeta, poeta, from xo^rris, *Xav^T7)f, "7roi*)T»jj, and hence the Latins regularly changed the Greek names in as into a ; and the Greeks, on the other hand, turned the Roman names in a into as, as 2uX- Xa.c, FaX§a?, KariXi'va?.] Obs. 7. Of Nouns in *]g of the first declension, the follow- ing make the Vocative in a : Nouns in j- vr t s, afoagirns, #aXhikap ^» ''iv. This, however, is never done in the accusative plural.] \_Obs. 9. This declension has also some words contracted, as yrj from yia, (hence yswjxgV^vj?,) XsovtSj from Xsovrg'*), f/.v« from /xvaa, Adr;va from 'A^vaa, 'E^utjs from 'E^'as. They are declined exactly the same as the examples which have been given under this declension ; viz. those in a like the pure nouns : while in those in orj the v\ absorbs the vowel precedingj as owrXoSj, airXSj.] SECOND DECLENSION. 6 "koyog, the word. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. 6 Xoyog N. of \6yoi G. row \6yov N.A.V. ru Uyu G. tuv "koyuv D. tu "koyu D. to7$ "hoyoig A. 70s Xoyov G. D. roTv \6yoiv A. Tovg "koyovg V. Uys [ro Oytf V. voe, vov Contracted Forms. 6 pqoj, vovs, the mind. Dual. N. A. V. j»6w, m G. D. vboiv. voT'j. Plural. N. Td ut/ojyeu Gr. y-wv dvcljysuv A. tc£ dvuysu V. uwyefp.'] Plural. N. vooi, voT G. POWVj i>wv D. vooig, yofc A. i/6oy£, vovs v. vooi, i/or. [ro o, os-Tom, the bone. Singular. N- OtTTSOV, OTTOVV G. otrriov, 6) &a|«.s- fag G. D. To7t» &ng < Plural. N. o» Qr&s G. tuv Sri^uiV D. roTg Qngcri A. rove Greets V. 4%&$»k :31 Singular. N. TO ffUfAOC D. rw s£ G. TUV [JLWUV D. rofe [A?i srai^wv D. roTf araiT* A. Toit$ xccidug V. jraTd^.] Observations on the Third Declension. GENITIVE. [The inflexion of words of this declension, de- pends chiefly upon the consonants which precede 32 the termination o; of the genitive, and are retains ed through all the other cases, except 3ome de- viations in the accusative singular,] [06s. 1. The termination of the genitive singular is og. This is subject to various rules. 1. It is in some cases an- nexed immediately to the nominative, as fiijv, ^v-og, (furty, *°P, xig will be iXirtS-og, changed to SXvftfg to prevent its being confounded with the genitive, and softened subsequently to iXirig. So otpig originally made o ; (36rgv$ , a bunch of grapes, G. fiorgvog, A. fiorpys', vavs, a ship, Q. vccbs, A, mvv ; /3oD;, an ox, G. /36os, A. fiovv. — 2. Barytons in is and vs, whose genitive ends in os impure, make both a and y ; as %gi& strife, G. 'igidog, A. Hgidu and 'igiv ; %6§vs, an helmet, G. xogudos, A. xo- gvdcc, and xogvv. [O&s. 1. Sometimes in the accusative of words in v, the syl- lable va is omitted, as 'AtfoXXw for 'AiroXXwva ; IXoCskSw for Ho.~] [06s. 2. Proper names in xX?]<: make xXeig in the vocative ; for the nominative is properly — xksrig , and the vocative — xXesg, contracted — xXeig : as, 'H£axX?j.c (contracted from 'H^axXerjs), V. 'H^axXeig, (contracted from 'H^axXse.c.)] [06s. 3. s is dropped in the vocative of nouns whose no- minative ends in sug, i£, ug, ovg. and aig ; as, /SatfiXeuc, V. (3a- ffiXsu ; Hang, V. Ila^i : TSjdug, V. Trjdu ; vovg, V. vov ; iralg, V. yjigsa-tn ; &vd§£$, &vhge(re and g ; as, "A^ccgss, 'A^agsifi, "Afoc^i ; af/ss, a't'yetfi, allgi ; ffs^osTSJ, /xe^otfsa'i, f/.S£o%^i 5 xo£ax££, xo^axsfl'i,- xofagi ; T |'X s f» TO^'' tyS'-l [4. Of those which reject s before d, some change the s mute into the more sonorous a ; as tfurigsg, (■srocTs^so'i, by syn- cope Etarfgtfi,;) changed to s, dative /36Fe» ; in the dative plural fioYs.stfi, and hence jSoetfi. By making the usual omissions and con- tractions, the dative became in the common dialect jSoCtfi. Dunbar on the Greek and Latin Languages, p. 92. seqq.] CONTRACTED DECLENSION. Contracts of the First Declension. In the First Declension sa is contracted into jj; as, N. ys«, yyj } the earth ; G. yeas, yqg ; D. ysq, , yfi ; A. yeav, ynv ; V. yea, y% ; &c. and sag is con- tracted into 5fc, as N. 'Egpeag, \EffiSfr, Mercury ; G. 'Effteoy, 'E^poS ; D. 'E^la, 'Eg/tji, &c Ts«, and all other terminations, drop the former vowel; as, N. ?££«, i*a; the earth; G. J^g- «?> i§£e ; &c. N. cbrXo*}, cbrX5j, simplicity ; G. asrX6?j?, cwrX^ ; &c. Contracts of the Second Declension. In the Second Declension, if the latter vowel is short, the contraction is in ov ; if long, the for- mer vowel is dropt ; as, N. voog, wuf , the mind ; G. >>6ot/, vov ; D. nou, vy ; &c. v Contracts of the Third Declension. 1. Nouns in vg, vos, have only two contractions, viz. vsg and va$ into vg : thus, 38 Singular, N. (26rgvg, G. fiorgvog, D. /36rfyV, A. fiorgvv, V. (36t§v. 6 fiorpvgi //&e 6imcA of grapes. Dual. N. A. V. /36rg«/ff, /36rfuoiv G. D. t Plural. N. fiorgvssi vg, G. fiorgvojv, D. /36rf u£(W!>. Plural. N. 6'0£££, £/£, G. oQeoji), D. O0£ D. ficurfkk'i, ej, A. /3oi(Tj ; they have also the common genitive, in sag ; thus, to cJLvTVi the city. Dual. PluraL N. SLa-rsa, ?j, N.A.V. fern, Singular. N. #0TU, G. &5ja, Cvsa), V, vrfi> ATTIC. Singular. N. ^ vavg, G. r?fc i^w?, D. rji vn'h A. r^i/ yaw, V. vav. 44 Dual. Dual. N. A- V. wanting. N. A. V- wanting-' ), G. rwv vsuv, D. ra?£ i>}juat5f, V- yqeg. V. ^5j££-] Remarks on some of the Contracted Forms of the Third Declension. Nouns in is and i. [Obs. 1. The dative singular very frequently occurs in Ionic writers, with a single i, as fjwjn for pyrs'i, II. -\!. 315. ifoXi for tfoXs'i, Herod. 1, 105. duvctfju for Svva^si, Herod. 2, 102. o^i for o'-^s'i, Herod. 2, 141, &c. Besides these, the form e'i is used by the Ionians, as iro&e'i, wdXsV, &c. In Homer and others, the contracted form si is one of very common occurrence.] [Obs. 2. Instead of the accusative in iv, the form a also oc- curs, as tfo'Xvja, Hesiod. Scut. 105. — The contracted form in the plural is frequent in Homer. In the accusative he has the contraction in is. This contraction in 15 was regular in Attic in the words 0/5 and X 0£W ^ contracted X°^*3 45 Nouns in vis, eg, and og. [Obs. 1. Like rgity'ts, are declined also proper names which are not patronymics, as, 6 A*j|xoiv.] [Ois. 2. The Dorians and Ionians, in the genitive, use the contraction evg for ovg ; as, 'Agitfroya.vsvg, Eujx^suj, ^siXsuj from ^srXo?, ogevg from o'^os, ds'^sus from dips.] [Obs. 3. The jEolians in the genitive and vocative omit S, as 2wx£5.g, the oblique cases of which occur in the Attic poets also, not only in the chorusses but elsewhere ; asvafe, Enrip. Hec. 1253. vat, Iphig. T. 891 (in the chorus), vasg, Iphig. A. 242. (in the chorus). The accusative vaag occurs in TJieocr. 7. 152 : 22. 17.] [Obs. 2. The Hellenistic writers use vaa in the accusative singular, and vaag in the accusative plural.] [Obs. 3. In like manner with vaug is declined *j ygavg, the old woman, (Ion. y%r$s) G. rfgygaog, D. ry yga'i, A. t^v ygavv, V. ygav, (Ion. yfp$.) PI. N. a\ ygueg and yffig, (not a; ygavg), G. twv y^awv, D. $rgv], VS, D. tp?r)TP;/](p(V, for (pPyrg'fi ; atfb tfT^ar 6o's, the decree, plural ra ; vj xsXsv&og, the way, plural 7a xsXsvQa ; 6 xCxXog, the circle, plural ret xuxXa ; o Xu^- vo£, fAe lamp, plural rot Xu^vct ; 6 c(7£' Another form XP ^ occurs, which is declined like /Sous, (vid. page 57.) and hence we have in the genitive Xf wro'g and x£°°Vj dative xgwi and xg°'> accusative X£wra and 48 Xfo'cc. The dative has still a third form ^w, which is used mostly in prose. Adjectives compounded of Xgws have also among the Attics, usually the termination xf w £> as Xswo'^£W£.] [Obs. 5. Some words in the plural are derived from other forms different from those of the singular ; as tfgstf^euT^s, which has 01 rfgiaQsig in the plural, from #gii after the third. So also 'A£»6i§Y\g, TavraXt($T)£, Ala.xl8i\g, from Ko5|oj, TavraXoj, Alaxog. The form in fwv was peculiar to the Ionians.] [Rule 2. From nouns in io£ comes the form laSyg ; as,"HXios, *HXia5r)ff ; "A7V10?, ^ Ayvia,Si]g ; 'ACxXtjiho?, , A]£ from Ausgnog for Aas^g. A deviation from this rule is ^A\xeiSr\g from 'AXxaTog, instead of which the form 'AXxJug appears to have been also used. Pindar has ' AXxotiSrig. (01. 6. U5.)l [Rule 3. From nouns in rig and ag, of the first declension, Comes the form in a&jg; as, 'IvKbtyg, 'ItftfoTa5r]j; 'AXsuas 51 'AXsva&is. From nouns in ag the iEolians formed patrony- mics in aSiog ; as 'l£ba.8io£, from v Yg£as.] f Rule 4. In nouns of the third declension, the genitive serves as the basis of the derivation. If the penultima of the genitive be short, the patronymic from og is formed in iSr\g ; as 'AyetfJi.efM'WV, 'Aya/AEfMiovos, 'Aya^SfAvovi(5r^ ; Ay)tu, Ar^Toog, A»j- ro'iSrig: if it be long, then in ia.5yjfr, as 'Afjupw-puuv, 'Ajxtptrpuu- vo£, 'A(X(piT|uwviai5r]g ; TgXaffcwv, TsXa^wvo^, TsXafji-wvia^s.] [06s. 1. Hence nouns in sug, which in the Ionic have the genitive in yog, give rise to the patronymic form riiaSr}*;, us Urfhevg, IlvjXiiog, Hr{K'/iiaSr]g ; Hegtfcjg, Us^og, HEggrjiaSvig. But since these have also the termination sug in the genitive, which continued the prevailing one in the Attic and in the common dialect, hence arose from Uegtievg TLzgieug, Usg Wj A. (xax^ov, av, ov V. f/.ax£g, a, ov N. A. V. , /j.c.xpw, u, w, ' G. D. fAaxppjv, a~v, oh. Plural. N. |Uax£o<\ a< a, G. /agcx^wv, wv, uv, D. fwafofc, afc, oTs, A. paxgovg, aj, a, V. /juxx£ ), a», a. Singular. N. xaXof, 13, ov, G. xaXov, r\g, ov, D. xaXu, f), u, A. xaXov, ^v, ov, V. xaXs, y), ov, 53 xaXos, beautiful. Dual. N. A. V. xaXu, d, u, G. D. xaXorv, ah, oh. Plural. N. xaXoi\ aj, a, G. xaXwv, wv, wv, D. xakoTc. aTs, 0%, A. kuXous, ag, a, V. xaXoi, a/, a. Four adjectives, dXkog, rjjXtaourog, roiovrog, ro- (rooros : and four pronouns, og relative, ayro? and its compounds, ovrog and exslvog, make the neu- ter in 0. ag. ir&g, all. (teXccg, black. Singular. Singular. N. piXug, etna, ! -ar. [xiXa-vog, uivrig, D. [xs'kocvi, a/^jj, A. /AsXata, ajyai/, V. juiXap, a»m, Dual. N. A. V. [jlsXoivs, aiva, G. D. Trotiro/p, irdtruiv, ffdvTQiv. [xsXdvow, uivaiy, Plural. G. 5rai»ro?, sraa-jj?, srairoc D. ttolvtU jrav^j, kudu, A. irdvTU., z&g-ocj* rtiv, V. Traj, xao-a, way. Dual. N. A. V. warn, sraVa, irdvre, G. D. N. ram?, Ararat, jravra, G. araprwi/, wagws> comely. Singular. N.%CCgi£iS, Srra, sv, G. xcigievrogi srrvig, svrog, D. ^oigievri, irryi, svti, A. xaoisvTCc, srrav, sv, Y.W& or] srra, sv. Dual. N. A. V. Xflgtevre, srra, svrs, G.D. Xagiivroiv, erraiv 3 evroiv. Plural. N. xagisvrsg, strew, svra, G. xugiforojv, srruv, svruv, D. xagisiiri, srraig,siri, A. ^a^Wa^eVo-a?, sura, V. xctgisvresi serai, sura* JJV. ri^Tjv, tender. Singular. Dual. N. regw, siva, G. regsvog, sivns, D. r&gsvi, sivjj, evoSi SVl, N. A. V. r'spsvs, siva, svs, G.D. A. rsgsva, sivav, V. r£fsi>, fiva, SV, sv, tspsvoiv, sivaiv, svoiv. 55 Plural. N. rigevsg, G. regemv, SlVCCh em, ElVM, kvuv, D. regs, y, V. o^t), «?a, y. Dual. N. A. V. o'fss, sia, is, G.D. ofgojy, eia.iv, sow. Plural. N. 6%e;g, si;, sTcci, ice, G. of swt> j £iwy, iwf, D. dfs-n, £i'ai£, £. Dual. N. A. V. ry^oyyrf, ouVa, ovvre^ G.D. rvxovvroiv, ovaraiv, ofarow. 57 Plural. Plural. ovres, ovtrai, ovra, N. rvwovvrsg, ovcut, ovvrcx,, ovtojv, ovtuv, ojtwVjG. tvttovvtuv, ovcr&v, ovvtuv, N. sxovrss, ovo-at, ovtu, G. exovrojv, ovtr&v, ovrwv, D. exoviri, oviratg, ovtrt, A. ezdvrag, ova-ag, ovra, V. hovreg, ovirat, ovru. IT. TVTtUUVt &$, L»yUlA»5 VVVtVQ G.tvttovvtuv, ovfuv, ovvtu*, D. vvnovvt, oviratg, overly A. rvvovvrag, ova-ag, ovvra, V. rvvovvreg, ovtrat, ovvra. rtpuv, honouring. Singular. Dual; N. ripm, wca, wj> G. ripwrog, ojtrvis, fivrog, D. rififivrt, utryi, mti, A. rtfAuvra, fi, aff, a», nh ev, n, «ff, iff, & ouff, oyy, t/ff, t/, WP, OP, Wf, Of, Wff, WF. I^ogoff, glorious. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. N. N. 2t/do£off, ov, N. I'k3o|oi, a> G. ivdofov, N.A.V. ii^w, G. ii/o'oJ'wv, D. ev$6*w, D. ivo'oi'Oiff, A. hfciov. G. D. frftgoii . A. gp^ofowff, a, V. Mefe, ov. V. iriagoi, a. as»»«ff, perpetual. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. N. N. detvaff, ai>, N. A. V. I ^. clsivoLiiree, aura, G. as/fai/roff, usivuvre, ( y. dsivavruv, D. aslvctvri, G. D. 1 3. dsivccri, A. ueivcevret, «>, aeivdvroiv. i \. usivavras, aura, V« feivav, } f. ueivavree, avra. 59 N. N. &j>pnh en, G. clppSVQS, D. dppevi, A. SLppeva, ev, V. &/>psv. Appnh male. Dual. R.LV.&ppste, G. D. upphoiv. Plural. N. N. &ppsvts, eva, G. appsvuv, D. &ppsj%, /r«c. Singular. Dual Plural. N. N. N. aX»j%, £f N. A. V. N. aXjj&'f^ ffo la, ? G. aX»}0eof, oOf, G.D. aX>j0£OJi>, o7v. G. aXjj^fiwv, w», D. aX^d'si, £7, D. aXtj^eVi, A. aX*j0£ot, ^, Jf V. AX^Iff. A. aXjj^eaf, *fr, V. dX»j^£5ff, «7f, ia, 5} Singul lar. svx&gig, acceptable. Dual. Plural. N. A. V. N * '%&&*#* , ' , G. svvapiruv, evvcigire, n ,™ , s ia gy^afin, G D evxugHTh A. evvdpiTK, rj,i. , ' , A. svvuPiTas, V. ey^ag*. * 5 V. evxugiTss, N. vjxH^ G. si>xcL§iro; D. gy^a^iri- A _ > _ f _ N. N. jra &Voy?, ft#o footed. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. N. N. SiVoyf, oy» N. A. V. &IS-0&?, G.D. oWo&mv. N. &/«&*, o^a G. di'xota?, G. 5,| N A y addxpvog, , », ,* ,» / s aoaxpve. aoaxpvi, r ri aoaxpvv, ddaxpv. ddaxpvoiv. N. dddxpveg, v$, va? G. adaxpvwv, D. uddxgvtri, A. uddxgvag, vg, va, V. ubdxgveg, vg, vex,. abitpgtov, discreet. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. N. N. £0!>0£, N.A.V. £, and *f, ifog -, as 6, ^, ipvydg ; 6, ^, avaXajj . The great- er number, however, are found only with sub- stantives of the feminine gender. 62 IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. Msyus and voXve have only the Nominative Accusative and Vocative Masculine and Neuter of the Singular, and borrow the other cases from fAeydhog, n, oi>, and jtoXXoj, j), 6v : thus, Miyag, great. Singular. N. META2, ^syoCk-r], META. G. psyaXov, *]£, ou, D. fisyaXu, yi, w, A. MET AN, psyak-rp, META, V. META, fJ^syaX*), META, Dual. N. A. V. jJt-syaXw, a, u, G, D. /xsyaXoiv, aiv, oju. Plural. N. [ASyaXoi, c.i, a, G. (xsyaXuv, wv, wv, D. f^syaXojs, aig, oig, A. fAsyaXoug, as, a, V. jxsyaXoi, at, a. tfoXug, much. Singular. N. nOA'TS, iroXkij, nOAT, G. *oXXoO, ns, 01), D. #oXXw, ji, w> A. nOATN, tfoXX^v, noAx, v. noAx, *oxx^, noAT. Plural Dual. N. A. V. tfoXXw, a, u, G. D. *oXXo(V, oJv, civ. N. tfoXXo;, ou, a, G. tfoXXwv, wv, wv, D. rfoXkolg, aig, oig, A. tfoXXovg, ag, a, V. tfoXXo/, a;\ a. 63 REMARKS ON Adjectives of Three Terminations. 1. Termination in off. [Obs. 1. Adjectives in off pure, and pog, have the feminine in •»] in the Ionic dialect ; thus, I Xf' J(,,£o ' v 5 I Contr. X$ v(f ™S> j X£ u0 ^> 3 XS v 5 G. ^£i) ^furfsaff, > ^otfg'ou, Contr. X? utfo ^' 5 Xf utf % ? X? U(J, °^» & c - When another vowel or the letter £ precedes the termina- tion off, the feminine is contracted not into r\ but into a, as, i^ssoff, woollen, contr. igeovg, spsd, spsovv. dpyvpsog, silver, contr. dpyvpovg, agyvpa, cLgyvpow. The neuter plural, however, always has a ; as rd x^ su > contracted xS od "- 5 ™ "S7 l ''S sfl ' contracted dfyufa.] [05s. 3. Adjectives in doff make *] in the feminine, as oySoog, oySot], oySoov, tlie eighth ; 66og, 6oy, 0dov, swift. But if | pre- cede, they have a ; as d6poog, ddpoa, d&poov, frequent : ddpovg, noiseless, is a different form, viz. 6, *;, ddpovg, to cl^ouv.] [Obs. 4. Some adjectives in doff are contracted into oOff : as difXiog, Sitr'koog, &c. These uniformly contract or\ into % and oa into a : thus, M. F. N. Sing. N. owrXo'off, ) owrXo'i?, > owrXdov, > Contr. owrXouff, $ owrX?j, $ owrXouv. $ PI. N. atfXdoi, ) affXdai, ) diikoa, ~i Contr. owrXof", $ owrXar, $ cwrXa. $ The compounds of crXouff, navigation, form a class of adjec tives totally distinct, and must not be confounded with the nu- merical adjectives in #Xouff. Thus, o, *j, cwrXoyff, unnavigable ; 6, 7], sii-irXouff, easy to sail into, &c. These are adjectives of two terminations, and form the neuter singular in ouv, and the neuter plura! in oa.j 64 2. Terminations in sig and oug. [06s. 1. Most of the adjectives of this termination have, in the penultima, the vowels, % o, u ; as ti/x^sis', ai/xardstj, x*i- ■Tueig : even xa^isig must have arisen from ^cc^i-rosis.] [06s. 2. The terminations »?sis and osis, are often contract- ed ; viz. fas, sjetftfa, ■jjsv, into %, Sjtftfa, Sjv, and osig, oscftfa, ocv, into ou£, outfrfa, ouv : thus, N. n^yis, Tf^tfCa, XH iros > comes evj^is, eu^dfirog. The com- pounds of tfdXig, however, have in the genitive >5og ; as owro- Xig, umXtSog. In the accusative they have a and v ; as d*oX(. Six and dsroXiv.] 4. Termination in wg. [Obs. 1 . The compounds in oug of three terminations, have 6* 66 already been treated of. With regard to compounds of two terminations, it must be observed, that in the case of the compounds of ifovg, (which are all of only two terminations, and properly make itobog in the genitive after the third de- clension,) the Attics often use the second declension ; as tou tfoXutfou, s; z'vvovg, e'vv'ov, from vovs, voC ; &c] 5. Termination in vg. [Obs. The compound adjectives in vg, which are derived from <5dx£u, occur only in the nominative and accusative sin- gular, in the rest of the cases the form utos is used ; as d5ax- gurou, oL8axg{iT(fj, &c. The declension of aSax^vg, therefore, as given by Valpey, is rather to be considered as an exercise for the student, in forming cases by analogy, than a list of forms which actually occur.] 6. Termination in ug. [Obs. 1 . Adjectives in ug of this termination, sometimes form the neuter also in u ; as dytyug, neuter dy/^wv and ayy\- £W.] [Obs. 2. The compounds of ys'Xws, yshwrog, commonly for- sake the declension of this substantive and follow the Attic second declension ; so also those which are formed from xsgag, xs§&Tsg, with a change of the a into w. Both, however, have the genitive u?og also ; thus )T§iov, clyvwaVo'v, /xaivofASvov, d^ofjuarov, &c. So the feminine of ys'^wv is supplied by ye^aia.] Irregular Declension. [Obs. From the old (xs/aXo^we have u /xsyaXs Zsu, in JEs- chylus Sept. c. Th. 824. The forms tfoXXo's, ffoXXov, are Ionic ; the regular forms of tfoXug occur in the Epic writers ; thus woXsos, II. 8', 244. s, 597. The accusative singular, masculine and neuter, passim. Nominative plural masculine iro7Jes, II. /•?', 610, &c. and fo'keTs, 11. X', 707. genitive pi. tfoXswv, 11. £, 691. 6,680, &c. dative, tfoXstfi, II. 8', 388. accusative iroXs'a?, II. a, 559. also ffoXsTs, 2Z. 6, 66. The nominative iroXkog, and accusative tfoXXo'v, however, also occur in Homer. The regular forms of rfo\vs are occasionally met with also in the Dramatic writers.] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. [Since adjectives show the properties or qua- lities of objects, they may also be so changed as to exhibit, by their inflexion, a higher or the highest degree in which an object possesses those properties. These inflexions are called Degrees of Comparison, of which there are two, the Com- parative and the Superlative. The Positive is the proper determination of the adjective, and can- not properly be considered as a degree of Com- parison, since it expresses none.] 1 . The Comparative is most usually formed by the addition of Ts^og, the Superlative by the ad- 68 dition of rarog, to the Nominative ; as jwaaaf, [AKxdgrsgog> (Aamgrarog. 1. Adjectives in o£ drop g before these terminations. If the penultima of the positive be long, o remains unchanged ; as arTpog, drr|x6r££0£, cwT/xoTaToj ; Suvog, Ssivorsgog, 8sivorarog. If, however, the penult be short, o is changed into u ; as tfo- (poff, rfotpwTS^oj, CofpcliTctros ; tfnv&g, tf Tjrfu^aiVs^oj. rtXyrfiog, "ffX^tfiaiVaros. ^dSwg, £a5l£fl'T££0£. acp&ovcg, aySovedrigog. (jrfovScuog CircvScuitfrarog. I^W^JVOJ, Z^upsvitf-TSPog. ] Observations. [Obs. 1. The change of the short o into w, in adjectives which end in 05 and have a short penult, was probably caused by the conditions of the Hexameter verse, by means of which 69 the Greek language was first formed ; since otherwise four short syllables would come together. This rule, however, could not have been observed in xuxogeivursgog, (Horn. Od. u, 376.) nor in oi^vgdregov, (II. g', 446.) since a measure would thus have been produced equally incompatible with Hexame- ter verse.] [Obs. 2. In some adjectives o or w is rejected before the termination of the comparative and superlative ; as, (pi'Xoj, 106. a8iuv, f3ga8is^g ana- logous to this, we shall have 1. cpsgssgro) which has the sense of a comparative, infe rior (II. a, 80. 6', 400.) a comparative x s i e ' iUV was derived, and a superlative X £ ^ tfT0 5> as from fyvs, dgsiw, agiffrog. From this, by transposition, came x s k uv > X s ' i S lari§osi rarog, by syncope irgoarog, by era- sis n^rog. bffsg, vnegregog, rdrog, by syncope vtt ~rog> From Verbs. Xw, Xw'/'wp, \uuv-, \dj°i : D. IW, ^ua, g'l/ij G. D. ^yf?y and dwo7y.|D. hwi. A. eua, ^t/au, Sri J |A. — .Fgj ta sxardv « fttp». drcrf, are indeclinable. The round numbers from 200 are declined regularly like adjectives. The termination -dtfioj in- dicates 100 ; as (SicwcoVioi, a<, a, 200 ; r^jaxotfjoi, 300, &c] 2. To express the 9 units, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds, the Greeks used the letters of the alphabet. But as there are only 24 letters, they used £' called Fav, or iiei4v\\M\>, for 6; J& > called xoirtfa, for 90 ; and 3, called rfay m, (a * co- vered with a reversed C, or old sigma ; cTav being the name ap- plied to the sigma in the old Greek, and also in Doric) for 900„ 77 3. A mark is placed over the letters to denote the num. bers. Placed under them, it expresses thousands ; thus s is 5, but s is 5000. The figures of the present year are awX', 1830. ' 4. In the expression of numbers by capitals, the following characters are used : viz. I, 1, is the mark of Unity. II, 5, is the initial of IlsVrs. A, 10, Aha. H, 100 is the initial of Hsxarov. X, 1000, Xi'Xioi. M, 10,000, Mu|ioi. Each of these may be repeated four times : thus, IIII, 4, AAA, 30, AAAA, 40. MM, 20,000, MMM, 30,000, MMMM, 40,000. II, inclosing a numeral letter, multiplies it by 5 ; thus, JAf, 50, &c. 78 5. The names of the Greek numbers, with the mode of expressing them by the letters of the alphabet, are as fol- low : — j d * 40 # TsircragdxQVToi, 2 P Su'o 50 V vsvr'/izovra, 3 i rjjiTf 60 r e%71xovra, 4 i retro-ages 70 eGdopqkovTotj 5 k irevrs 80 4 6ydor,xovra r 6 £ H 90 i favsvfaovrai 7 £ hrd 1 00 i SZUTQV, n 6xr& 200 i diuzocriot, 9 &' hveot 300 7 rgiccxotrioi, 10 i texa 400 V TStrcugcczotrios. 11 id hfaxa, 500

£. Thus, 1st. ifguros, (in speaking of two, tf^ors^og), 2d. Sstrsgos,, 3d. r^Tog, 4th. riragros and rir^arog, 5th. ns^tfros, 6th. sxros, 7th. eSSopos, and s§5o'/xaToj, 8th. oyiJoos, and o/cioaroff. 9th. I'waroj. swros, and £('va, ow. bfjL®os, a, ov, #owr. 3. Relative, off, Sj, o, wAo ; 4. Demonstrative- oorof, «&V»&, royro, )^ "sxsTvoc, 53 o, /Actf- atfrdff, ?)• o, Ae. sAe, it. 83 5. Reciproca . 6. Indefinites. i/A«yroy, of myself. riff, n\ am/. (reuvTOv, of thyself. ^r^a, some o?^e. suvrov, of himself. aXX?jX«j>, of one another. 1. 'EycD, /. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. iyo), N. fycAsfr, G. i^oy, or [aqv, N. A. jiwV, vw, G. fyLAWP, D. 's^coj, or pol, G. D. i>wYi>, i>wt> D. fyttiV, A. i/Af, or ^g. A. fifing. 2y\ thou. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. , D. of, G. D. & artpsot 2. oj, 5j, o, w/fco, which, what. Singular. Dual. Plural. N. Off, n, o, G. r oy, fe oy, D. w, * * A. 01/, jjy, o. w, a, w, N. A. G. D. ofi>, alV, o'fi/. N. pt, a/, &, G. wv, wv, wy, D. of?, afe, offf, A. oSff, aff, a. 84 OuTog, aurv), toCto, is declined and prefixes tf like the arti- cle : thus, Singular. M. F. N. N ovrog, uvTq, TOVTO, G. TOVTOV, ruvTyig, TOVTOV, D. royrw, TadTfr TQVTU, A. TOVTOV, TttVTqVi Dual. TOVTO. N A. TOVTW, TavToc, royrw, G D. TOVTOll), TUVTUIV, Plural. TOVTOiV. N. ouro/, uvtui. TOLVTOC, G. TOVT00V, rovTwv, TOVTtoV, D. TOVTOig, TavTaig, TOVTOig, A. TQVTOVg, rccvTag, TUVTOC. "OSs is compounded of the Article, and the Particle is declined like the Article throughout. Autos and hsTvog, are declined like og, % o. 3. From the personal pronouns and ufoog, are compounded, spuvTOv, osavTov, sc&vtov. Singular. G. eaVTOv, luvTqg, savrov D. savTu, eocvTYt, suvtw, A. suvtoi), savTn'Ji &DCVTO. Plural. N.- , , . GJuvTuvisavTuv, eavTwv, D.eavTo7g,eavTa,7g,eccvTOig. A.eavTO'jg,eavTtiLg<, suvtcc. In like manner are declined s/xauroO* and (feuvrov, but in the Singular only : they want the Dual and Plural. 85 Dual. N.A. aXX'^Xw, aXXjjXa, G.D. 'AXXjjXwj/. N. Plural. G. aXXjjXwv, D. aXX»jXoJS, aXX^Xai?, dXXjjXoif, aXX?jXaji>.|A. aXX'^Xoy;,aXX^Xaff,aXXjjXa Singular. N. rfe G. rjvd^, D. ri4 A. U9&, 4. T/V, «wy. Dual. N. A: nvl G. D. rivolv. Plural. N. rivk, G. rivu9 9 D. r«n\ A. rwcte, N. rivcS. N. G. D. A. rov* ry, rbv, AsTvu, some one. Singular. Plural. h, 70, dsTva, N. oj, helves, 7tjs, row, dsTvog, G. rwu, foiwv, rij, 7u, ^5^/, D. , , r?jv, to, dsTva. A. , . [It is sometimes also indeclinable ; as, jXixauTV), TqXixouro, from rrfkixog. The i paragogicum is often annexed to these also, as roiourovi, roiouron, Toiaurait, TOIKUTal'.] [Obs. 5. The Attics sometimes use rourov for tgCVo ; as rou- tov iriXayog, Pausan. 8. 54. (See Obs. 9. below.) So also, rotfourov for Totfouro, and toioutov for toioCto. Xen. Cyrop. 1.1. Thucyd. 2. 50. In like manner, to aXXov for to ctXXo, Arrian. Exp. Alex. 1. 19.] [Ota. 6. s'xelvoc; has also the i paragogicum ; as, JxEivotfi, s'xs*- vout, £xgivovi. For Ixsrvoc:, the Ionians, and likewise the Attic tragic writers, used xshog. The iEoiians said xr,vo$. The Do- rians T7]V0£.] [06s. 7. AutoV was used for the third person; and yet it has the proper signification of he, she, it, only in the oblique cases ; and even in these only when they stand after some other word or words in the clause. In the nominative, and in the oblique cases when these last begin a clause, it signi- fies, not he or him ; but he himself, himself, &c. ; thus %8uxev ai- ToTg, he gave to them ; ov-% ewgaxag aurov, thou hast not seen him ,- but auros syy). he himself said it : vtagsyivovro uvtoi, they them- selves were present : aurov supaxa, I have seen the person him- self : avToTg Uuxs, he gave to the persons themselves; &c. When the article immediately precedes, the phrase means the same ; as o avros avf;g, the same man : to avro or ravro, the same thing. ~] [ Obs. 8. aurou, airy, aurov, &c. with the rough breathing on the initial syllable, are not from av?6s immediately, but are contracted for saurou, laurw, lauro'v, &c] Obs. 9. The Attics frequently use raurov, for to auro, Arh- ioph. 253. Xen. Ages. 3. 2. id. Anab. 6. 3. &c] 4. Reciprocal Pronouns. [Obs. 1. These pronouns are not compounded of ifxs, crl, e, and avrig, but of spio, ffg'o, so, old genitive forms for £(aov, Ccu, ou. These pronouns never occur in Homer as one voweJ, but separate, as i^s aurov, tfs aurov, s aurov, &c. In Hero- dotus they are separated and transposed; as, auVou i^tv, avroi (xoi, &c. The Attics separate or transpose, when they wish to convey a reflexive meaning : for it is observable, that in these compound pronouns, unless thus arranged, auVoV loses its peculiar force ; thus, (fauro'v means thee merely, but aCriv e's, thee thyself] [Obs. 2. Properly, according to their composition, only the genitive of these pronouns should have been in use. It 88 is owing to arbitrary usage, that ipso, tfs'o, and so, are compound- ed with other cases of auro'g besides the genitive.] [Obs. 3. Whenever there is need of a plural for s^avrov, and (fsavrov, the parts of the compound are declined separately ; as >j/xsk; auToi, v^sTg uwoi, ^(jlwv ai3, Future r,du. II. Verbs circumflex. 1st. £w. 2d. in aw. 3d. in 6w. III. Verbs in f/.i. 1st. in *jai, tj?, Infin. f'vai. 2d. in /)\i-i, r\g, Infin. aval. 3d. in u;m, Infin. o'vai. 4th. in ufw, Infin. (>ym. The modern and more simple division takes its origin from Vervey and Weller.] 8* 90 [OBSERVATIONS VOICES OF THE GREEK VERB. The Active and Passive Voices having nothing very pecu- liar in their signification, as compared with those of the Latin language, we shall confine ourselves, therefore, to a conside- ration of the Middle Voicp, The Middle Voice, in Greek, is so called, because it has a middle signification between the Active and Passive Voices, implying neither action nor passion simply, but an union, in some degree, of both- Middle Verbs may be divided into Five Classes, as follows : 1. In Middle verbs of the First Class, the action of the Verb is reflected immediately back upon the agent ; and hence Verbs of this Class are exactly equivalent to the Active Voice joined with the Accusative of the reflexive Pronoun; as Xovu, I wash another ; Aori^ai, I ivash myself; the same as Xouw s/xau- , ovarx, ov, being. G. bvrog, QVT.r^i bvrog. Future. N. £0-o,«?ro£, etrofisviii stropLsvov, about to be. G. £8v}v • ^/jie- da, fads, Yivra. This, however, is properly an imperfect mid- dle, and does not make its appearance in the best grammars : it is disapproved of by the Grammarians.] [06s. 6. Instead of i'atfi in the imperative, there was also an old form sVo, or s, rv 7trs\s TV7TT Sh S. riiirru, rvxreis rvvrreh D. rvvrerov, rvvrerW) P. rujrroftffp, TV7TTS7S, riTrroviri. 97 Imperfect, 7 was striking. S. iruffrov, 'irvffreg, 'irvvrs, D. iryjrreroy, irusrrgrjjv, P. iriffroftev, srvffrere, 'irvffrov. First Future, I shall strike. S. ry^w, rv-i^eis, rv-^sh D. ry^rov, ry^erov, P. ry^o^tfj/, rt/tj/sr*, ryij/oyc^ First Aorist, I struck. S. ervi^ci, 'irv-^ug, %rvfye, D. iry^aroi/, irv-tytkruv, P. Jry'if/a^tsv, erv^are, erv^/ocv, Perfect, / ^ave struck. S. riryipa, riryfpa?, reryp*, D. rsrytparov, r£ryirti9 9 P. ru-^Gifisv, TV-Doits') rvfyoisv. First Aorist, / might have struck. S. rti^ai^i, ry^a»r? ryj/a*, P. j-yij/aiftfi;, rv\^ot,iTe, rv^ouev. 99 iEolic First Aorist. S. rvi^siK, ry^gjaf, rv^sie, D. rv^siuTOs, tv^/sikt^v, P. rv$/siapev, Tv^siurs, tv-^siocv. Perfect, / might have been striking. S. r$rv$oipi, rsrvQois, rsrvtpoi, D. tstvQoitov, rsTvipoirnv, P. rerv$oi[A,ev, rsrvtpoiTS, rervQoiev. Second Aorist, / might have struck. S. rysroi/xi, twoj£, ryjroi, D. ry^oirov, ryjro/rjjv, P. rviroi[JLSv, rviroire, tvttoisv. Second Future, / should hereafter strike. S. ryjroT/Aij rvnoTg, rviro7<, D. twoTtov, TVToirriv, P. rwoJ^sVy rvffolrs, rvxolev. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present, / may strike. S. rbitru-, rvzrps, rvzrp, D. rvKT'/irov, rvxrnrov, P. rv7rrco(jLev, rwrjjr*, rvirruari. First Aorist, I may have struck. S. ruif'W, rv->l>vis, tv-^vj, D. rv-^viTov, ryj^ov, P. r6\^ij[Jt,e», tv^ts, rv-^utri. Perfect, / may have been striking. S. rsry> P. Tvirufisv, Tvzvirs, TV7fOJTh INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, Tvirrsiv, to strike. First Future, tv^siv, to be going to strike. First Aorist, rv^>ai, to have struck. Perfect, rervQhai, to have been striking. Second Aorist, rvirsTv, to have struck. Second Future, rvTreft, to be going to strike. PARTICIPLES. N. rvirrcovj rvxrovtra,, tvttqv, G. rvirrovTos, rvvrovarnsi rvvroyTog, &c. First Future, going to strike. G. rv^ovrog* rvyawris, rv^ovrog. First Aorist, having struck. N. ru-^ag, rvt^oura,, rv^av, G. rv^avros, Tu^>dJw, / love, perfect, srgp/Xjjza, not Qetpi'kvixct, ; &vw, 1 sacrifice, perf. Tsfoxa,, not 6k8vxu. 3. The Augment of the Pluperfect is formed by prefixing s to the Reduplication of the Per- fect, as srsrvQeiv. 4. The Paulo-post-futurum, which is formed from the Perfect, has the reduplicative augment like that tense, as rervi^opoii. Exceptions and Remarks. Obs. 1. [1. In Verbs beginning with |, after the augment | is dou- bled, as £iVrw, J cast, imperfect, s^iirrov ; ^su, I flow, imper- fect, l'||sov.'] [2. In the three verbs /3ouXojxai, 1 will, Sumpou, I am able, IxsXXw, I am about, the Attics often prefix the temporal instead of the syllabic augment ; as t)Qov\6(lv)v, ?j<5iivajw)v, t^sXXov. There appears indeed, to be some analogy between these verbs in point of meaning.] [3. The Ionians, and all the Poets except the Attics, often omit the augment in the imperfect, pluperfect, and the two aorists ; as xaiovro, for Jxalovro ; TiJipsjtfav for srsnipsufay ; 5£%o.tv, xa- fiw ; from xapco ; irgVidov, irstfidsiv ; for sV»()ov, in&sTv ; from <*ei- to.] 104 Obs. 2. 1. If the verb begin with £, the perfect and pluperfect do not take the reduplication, but the f is doubled, and s prefix- ed, as gjVrw, s^ispa. [yid. Obs. 1. Rule 1. Homer, however, has $egvirufj.eva, Od. £'. 59.] 2. When a verb begins with a double consonant, instead of the reduplication, s alone is used, as Qqrlu, s^vyrrim ; |*sw, gfstfixai ; -^aXXw, g-^aXxa. 3. In most cases also where the verb begins with two con- sonants, no reduplication takes place, but s alone is used ; as oVgi'fw, etfir ugpai ; (p&eij>u, ecpSugxa ; x, as oizify, mifyv. s is changed in some verbs into si, a s £'x.w, ef%ov. fo is changed into £w, as sogrd£u y Iw^ra^oi/. [Of the other vowels already long, a usually becomes »j ; while jj, w, 7, y , admit no augment whatever ; as, qTrdopciiy nrrjjpnv, >?7T»]/Aaj, &C.J Exceptions and Remarks. [1. All these changes from the long to the short vowel, had their origin in the coalescing or contracting of the syllabic augment s with the initial vowel of the verb ; as iayov, 'Jjyov ; £sX*i£ov, ^X], and so into w, are not so much in conformity with the com- mon rule of contractions, as that of ss into sj.] 2. The verbs which change s into ei, are the following : Jaw, JXxuw, sfjw. s6u, IVw, eaViacj e/)i£w, eVofiai, *X W * I'Xw, l^ya^oftai, sw. iXi'tfrfcj, e'^oj. sXxw, i^ifu^w. [Of these, the verb sVu has given rise to much discussion. While some consider it merely as another instance of the change of s into ei, others maintain that sftfcc, eTvov, &c. do not properly come from snru, but from the form eiVw, with the first syllable lengthened after the manner of the Ionians ; for they assert, that, if it be viewed as coming from IVw, si would be an augment, and would be retained throughout the moods contrary to all analogy.] 106 [3. In general where the augment would interfere with eu- phomj, or produce confusion, we find it omitted, and the verb remaining unchanged. The following instances are particu- larly worthy of notice. [Verbs in a : No augment takes place in cw]5i'£o|xai, dvi6i f rom o^utftfw ; oSw- 5a for w&x, from o£w ; JjA?]fj.sxa for ^isxa, from £jxsw ; JX^Xuda for '^Xuga, from l^ofAai ; dxijxoa for vjxoa, from dxouw ; sXrjXafAai for ^Xajxai, from dXdw.] 107 [In iygriyoga a f is added, probably from the abbreviation of the present tense zygo^ou for iyei^ai : agaigrixu, agai£v)fjt.ai, are merely Ionic forms from for figaxu, fi^ctt, from ai^'w.] [In the pluperfect the vowel is made long in the reduplica- tion, as 7)xr\xisN ; ugugvxro ; TjXy^ajjwjv ; except only i~Kv\v6a y which makes i\r[kv6stv.~] III. Augment in Compound Verbs. 1. Verbs compounded with a Preposition take the Augment between the Preposition and the Verb, as sr^oj-SaXXw, 5rfoi(fw from 6'Xw, d^ltfw from agu. The primitive form s ; in the rest it is termed the Second Future. This Second Future, however, is, after all, an imagi- nary tense, being a mere invention of the Grammarians, and ought in strictness to be banished from the common School- Grammars. ] [O&s. 2. All the changes mentioned above, as occurring in the several conjugations, are grounded upon the existence of the old form e'tfw, and the principle of euphony. According to the rules of euphony, the consonants 8, 6, t, £ are omitted before tf, and the remaining consonants (3, it, and I ; while if v precedes S, 6, from X£*J rfw 5 faKau, contracted rXaw, rXvjtfw ; and most verbs which have s, o, before the final aw, as /3odw, /3o?]tfw ; dXoaw, dXo*j- tfw : 0xgoa.oiJ.ou, however, makes axgoadofuxt. The Ionians, however, often put an •»), e. g. tfs^o'w, as the Dorians universally do an a, e. g. /3oatfw, ■nu.aa'w. The verb xaw, an Attic contracted form for xai'w, and the verb xXaw, a similar one for xXai'w, both make autfw in the future ; as, xautfw, xXaJtfw, like the verbs from which they are contracted. Both these verbs, xdw, and xXaw have no contractions, and the student must be careful not to confound this xXaw with the long a, with xXaw frango, a contract verb, whose penult is short. 2. Yerbs in ?w sometimes make eVw in the future ; these are teXs'w, ofxg'w, pw, dxs'ojxai, dXew, i/xg'w, veixsw, &c. Some verbs which are comprehended under this head, come from verbs in w, as oXsffw, dgsrfw, aiSsdo^ai, from 6'Xw, d§w, a'iSoixai ; and, probably, in rskiu, dgxs'w, and the rest which have been mentioned, the future in itfw is from the primitive forms r.gXw, d^xw, axo^ai, dXw, £/xu, vei'xw ; instead of which the forms in e'w came sub- sequently into use. 113 Some verbs in eu have £ofjuxi, /SouX'/jtfofxai ; oJo/xai, onjtfopi-cei ; o'/^ofxai, oi^tfo/xai. Pro- bably this form was occasioned by a custom, on the part of the Ionians, of lengthening many verbs in w, by substituting the termination eu. The Ionians said, for instance, paysopM, tfujx§ccXX&o i aai, &c. What might regularly take place in some verbs, was afterwards transferred by custom to other verbs also, without implying the necessity or utility of considering every future in r\du, as having for its basis a present in ew;] Obs. 6. The verbs f^w, T^a'^w, i^etpu, tt, and not Te6^(pa, but in the Passive w, change w into *a, and the s of the First Future into a, as creXw, eWaXm, from areXXw: ffirsgSi, 'icrira.gxoL, from trireigv; Polysyllables, on the contrary, retain the e; as 6cy- ysXoj, %yy£\xoc, from ayyeXXw. 115 Verbs in tvu, ui/w, and ewu, throw away v before a, and retain the short vowel of the future : which, however, in verbs in sivu, is changed into a ; as xgivti,xsxgixa, from xgivu ; xtsvoj, eKrccxa,-, from xTsisco; jr^yyw, irhirXv/.a^ from 55-XyW Verbs in aivco change v before x into y ; as $a- vw, xeQayxa, from Qmvat; (juuvcH, [xspiuyxu, from [Ofes. 1. As the Perfect in some verbs pre-supposes a fu- ture in s'tfw, so verbs in fxcj and vw particularly pre-suppose a future in fata, and change w into ^xa ; as, vjjuw, vsv^xa ; /xs- vw, (xs/xsv^Ka ; dgapu, co, /3s§gsfW]xa ; rgs^u, rsrfs^rixa. So from <5aiw, or &/w, comes the perfect <5e<5o«]xa, as if from a future Sufau : from £uw comes s^Tjxa ; from X09. In Polysyllables ei is changed into ; -. as dy.-f^. -/;y- r fo>. (tract Obs. 2.) 2. In consonants by the omission of r. and of the last of two liquids ; as rvsra, promt ; $dkk*. Some Mutes are changed into others of the same order : thus, t into /3, as - ageXwra, IraXyCoi. > (n' ergayoi ; Pgd^u, pgtieru, eQgadow. (vid. Obs. 6.) [rer&s pure want the Second Aorist. and the forms which do occur come from barytone verbs that are sometimes met with in the present ; thus isoy-o; from oo'jri^ : k/.aaoi from kqzu ;. k^:^ from ^'Jza).] [The Second Aorist is wanting also in all de- rivative verbs formed from other verbs with a regular termination, like o£«, .£~. ai.uj, dm#, bvu. All verbs, moreover, which cannot undergo any of the changes mentioned above, as Igum, ysztv. 6cc. and all verbs in which there would be no dif- ference between the Second Aorist and Imper- fect, except in the quantity of the vowel, want the former tense. They may have, however, a Second Aorist Passive, as iygd&nt.] [Of other verbs, the greater part have the First Aorist, and much the smaller portion the Second, although it is assumed in the grammar even in verbs which do not possess it. in order to teach the formation of other tenses, particularly the Second Aorist Passive.] Obsercatiotis oil the Second Jurist. [06s. 1. The true mode of forniins this tense is antfd edly from the second future, as it is called. rid. Obs. 6. be- low, and the observations on the second future/] [06s. 2. From the necessity of a short penultima in the second aorist, it frequently happens that when two consonants 118 come together they are transposed, as Segxu, sSgaxov ; 9e§g6u, siegaSov. These forms, however, occur only in the Ionic and other old poets.] Obs. 3. nXVCw, to strike the body, makes evrX^yov ; to strike the mind, eirXayov. [Obs. 4. The change of s into a in the second aorist of Dis- syllables of the Fourth Conjugation, takes place in some verbs beginning with a Mute and Liquid, as tfXsxw, sVXaxov ; kXsVtw, sxXowrov ; (frgiyu, etfr^atpov.] [Obs. 5. The aorists s§Xa§ov, IxaXuSov, sxpu§ov, are suppos- ed to come from the old radical forms, /3Xa§w, xaku^u, x|u§w. With regard, however, to the verbs which change * of the present into

a%u, (tgaysdu, , rwzroiardo'j? 7vz7oi(r0nv, P. rvTrroipefa, rvxronrde, rvvroivro. 11 122 Perfect, / might have been struck. S. rsrv^evog sfyv, sivig, eiq, D. rervfApevcd, einrov, sinryiv, P. rsrv[/,fjLei/Qi s'iyjfJLSv, s'lTire, s'lncrav. Paulo-post-Futurum, I might be on the point of be- ing struck. S. rsrvi^oiiAw, 7£Tv-^oio, rerv^oiro, D. rsrv^oifisQov, rsTv^onrdov, TSTv-^o'ardnv, P. r£Tv^oi(/.£0oo, TSTv-^QitrQe, rsrv^omo. First Aorist, / might have been struck. S. rvtpQsinv, rvtpfeing, rvfySsin, D. rv$@sinTOVi rvtpQsirpnv, P. rvipdeinpev, > rvpdeinre, rutpQeinrav. First Future, / might be struck hereafter. D. rv(pdn^jjyo/*l»jj, rv0^a pure into /x/a«j } as r&rv-Qa, 7s7v- 125 into 4 ttCi/, as zsQiXn-zu, TrstpiXn-pai. Obs. 1. The following, however, are excepted from this rule and retain C, dxou'w, ^xouc'/xai ; Sguvu, Ts^av(f^ai ; xsksvu, xsxs r Xsurffxai ; xksiu, xixkeufpw ; xgovu, xsx^o\j(ffxai ; tfai'w, ffsVaitf/xai ■ wrai'w, IWaio'fAai ; tfsi'w, tfeVsitf/xai. 06s. 2. Some have a peculiar usage, and change xa into jxai, as /t*a*. Obs. On the same principle, su is changed into u ; thus, xsyswa, xi-xytfpui and xs^uy-ai ; crgipsu^a, wg'6-u. The Infinitive is formed by changing s of the 2d. Person Plural Indicative into into 7)v, as en^-ov, hfo-nv. Obs. 1. No second Aorist passive occurs in 8r\v, 6rtv, jXa ; xXd^u, hXayov, xexXnyoo, 130 Except xga^u, sx^ayov, xsxgoLyu ; flrgafltfy, IVgayov, affsgwryriv, vixwig, and hence also in the second future of barytons ; as cpavoiijv from (pai'vw, fut. qsavw.] [06s. 2. Instead of the form .aifti in the first Aorist of the Optative, the Attics chiefly use the primitive JEolicform, £ia, stag, eis, after the example of the Ionians and Dorians, but only in the second and third persons singular, and third person plu- ral. The JEolians use it also in (tie first."] SUBJUNCTIVE. [Obs. 1. The third person singular of the Subjunctive, in Ionic, received the addition of the syllable (ft, as sX^tfi, \a£j)- tfi, tpsgjjrfi, for 5\6v„ "ku£rj, (piffl. ] [Obs. 2. In the old poets, the subjunctive active, if the pe- nultima be long, has, for the most part, in the first and second persons plural the short vowel instead of the long one, as 6u~ ^fojxsv, II. j8'. 72. sgugo/xev, Od. 6. 297. atfoXutfo/xsv, II. x'. 449. &c. The student must not mistake any of these forms for fur tures."] INFINITIVE. [06s. The infinitives in siv and vai, in the ancient language and in the dialects, had a form in (*sv and /*sva«. Assuming the form psvui as the primitive one, we should, according to ana- logy, proceed thus ; ru«r£(*svar, by apocope, TWrs^ev, by syn- 12 134 cope TvifTssv, by contraction riWsiv. From ruirre'sv comes also by contraction the Doric Tikrsv.] PASSIVE VOICE. [Obs. 1. The original termination of the second person singular of the Passive Voice was stfai in the Present, Futures, and Perfect of the Indicative ; sdo in the Imperfect and Plu- perfect of the Indicative and Present of the Imperative : and ojrfai in the Present of the Subjunctive. The Ionians dropped the rf, and accordingly converted stfai into sai, srfu into so, and rtfm into yjcu ; and the common dialect again contracted these forms into j) and ou, as follows : Present Ind. Totfrsa'ai, Ion. Com. ]()S]va» ; avaSrj^evai for dv«§Sjvai.] DEPONENT VERBS. [The Deponent Verbs are to be distinguished from the Middle, since they have the form of Passives, but the sense of Actives, as, a(V()dvo(jt.ai, Ssyou-ai, yi'vopiai, (Jso/xai, (Juvafj.ai, &c. Some of these, in the Perfect and Aorist, have the form of the Passive, others of the Middle ; in others, one of the tenses has the Passive, the other the Middle form, as a/tfddvo- f*cu, |jtf&i}(jtai, tjV^ojx^v ; 6l^o(xai, SeSey^cu, EcJsgdfwjv ; y/voftai, ysysvr^iM and ysyova, iyivopviv ; §j>ya£opa}, s'lgyarffkcu, dgyutfk- fwqv ; Hgxpiuu ij"kSov, sXrfkvQa, ; ^ysofxai, r\yi][iai } rfftySa.\},t\v ; fuiivbfMti, fii|xi»]va, Jj*avi]v ; fid^o^ai, fjiSfxa^aai, J/xa^so'a(ji.*]v. A deponent of this land seldom has a perfect of the active form, as oip£opt>ai, oi'p^wxa.] The following is a Synopsis of their form : Indie. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. £ , #£p£o'fJt,*]V ^ Ss^-OV -Ol'(Jt/»]V -w/xai -stfdai Ssdsyiiai ) 5e8s-%o -y/X£V0g ■ X dai 5e /ove ; (pfkisig, QtXeTg. Verbs in ow contract o before a long vowel into w, as %£y 2 U> o »a v 3 S» s. '3 *3 is o o ^ ~S ^o 3 u *3 UJ ~3 o «- ^ „ 8 o «8 Uj o ll > a -a b J- »3 c 5-1 a. S '8>'S © VK Ktt »S- «u © la r/3 »3 '3 «3 ^ 3 a n? ^o *? *> Si . . S=* 3 o © ,^ »a »a „ »3 o o S =^ =? § =T sT n '8 1 » 'S3 '3 © 8 £ *.£ =3 5 « *5» ^ s io l-» ~.» *<3 «o o o p > o o o m -a s -o H H § > a 0) na H § < 02 <3 »3 O o o •^ »8 > -t-3 >S '5 V o H Pi £ o w "5 3 9 a u> o 1 =L S v _ "3 ^3 ,^ 1— 13 v 3 o © f^g O >-uj © b 3 »* '- '2 ^ *»~ * „T »8 '5 © *"t$ -u» ■*© »3 J3 13 o o tie o CO 8 ,_ ia «a «3 © © i. ©** ©or b ©• X ~ (A co ■ . i = » v ? ? b b €► ^ ■S .-a <:s * a 02 *3 © © jv or w>jv ; as . They borrow the two last ACTIVE VOICE. The Moods and Tenses. Indie. Present. Imperf. Imp. Opt. -adt | -aiV -e« -si'rjv -061 -orxjv the rest like the Present. Subj. Infin. Part. -u -avai l-fc -w -ivai 1 -BiS -w -o'vai 1 -oOf -Wttl b* { SO^V 2d. Aor. < e^7jv tfdjdl 1 tfrai'yjv tfTW tfTTjvai 6k 0£lV dw deTvai dog J 5oir}v <5w <5oCvai tfras 8wg The other Tenses are regularly formed from "Verbs in w: thus, 1st. Fut. 1st. Aor. Indie. I 8iiOD. Present. Sing. Dual. Plur. «? Sing. Dual. Plur. hide, i > f**jv, tfo, ro, [IS&OV, tf^ov, tf^v, fji^Oa, tf()s, vto. i(Je»xvij. t IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. kra. " Sing. Dual. Plur. Co, », ov. 5eimvii.sv.os, J FORMATION OF THE TENSES. The Present is formed from the Present Active, by shorten- ing the penultima, and changing h , ijv (frV-«i -aipjv -u/xai -atfdai -eejwvos (SsTf-ai -ai'pjv -wftai -a, «, jasdov, tfdov, d6r\v, Sing. fASVOJ, fA£V»J, fXEVOV. 153 The Second Aorist Middle is formed from the Imperfect, by dropping the Reduplication, as in the Second Aorist Active ; as 'eTiOipqv, IQkfinv j hrd[inh evrdpnv. Special Remark respecting the Verb "Ih I place ; \'ctv}v, I was placing ; 'icrTnxcx,, I have placed myself and continue placed, i. e. / stand i etirrnxsiv, I had placed myself and continued plac- ed, i, e. 1 was standing ; 'ss-tviv, I stood. — The 1st Aorist. 'i] remains un- changed into a, and a contraction into us immediately takes place.] 06s. 5. Some irregularities occur in the formation of the Perfect of these Verbs. Thus, Verbs in \ii derived from £u, change y in the penultima of the Perfect into si, as 6r) not 6kt, 86&i. In Compound Verbs, the termi- nation a.6evruv for iro^a^gVwtfav.] OPTATIVE. [06s. The Optative Present and Second Aorist have in (he plural, in the Poets as well as prose writers, more commonly eipev, etre, sisv ; ai/xev, airs, a»ev ; oi/uuev, oite, ojev.] PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES. 06s. In the second person singular of the Present in the Passive and Middle, the Ionic dialect drops the tf, and the Attic contracts that resolution, as frratfai, Ionic iWocai, Attic 'itfrji ; E%tfo, Ion. Sdeo, Att. e&ov. INDICATIVE. [06s. The First Aorist Middle of tWtj/xj and SiSuiuu, want the rest of the Moods and Participles.] IMPERATIVE. [06s. The Imperative flou, for dstfo 6so, occurs only in the compounds, as irsgWou, uffo'Oou, "jra^oUJov. In i'tfrafiai, i'tfru is more common than iWatfo. The Second Aorist Imperative and Optative Middle of iW^pi, namely, crVatfo and 0Vai'|x»]v, are given in the conjugation of that Verb merely to show the analogy. They are seldom used.] OPTATIVE. [06s. The Present Passive, and Second Aorist Middle of this Mood, have frequently the form of the Optative of a Ba- rytone Verb in w, as tWoito, sVidoip£0a, ifgiaQoiro, &c] IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS IN pi may be divided into Three Classes, each con- taining three Verbs. 156 I. From &y are derived slpi, to be ; efyi and 'hpi, to go. II. From I'w are derived fy/xj, to send ; qfiah to sit ; eT^ai, to clothe one's self. HI. KsTpou, to lie down ; '/itjj/ai, to know ; ?Ya. Blom- field, however, in his remarks on Matthias's grammar, con- siders jju to be actually the First Aorist from s'iu, or effju, eo ; thus iqffla. contracted into^a, as E^suoainto s'x^ua, and zwtfa. (from xs'w) into I'jojcc. He farther observes, that in his opinion it may always be construed as an Aorist.] [06s. 5. The Imperative i'di is more used than sf.] 3. "IqfAt, to go. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. Sing. Dual. Plur. irii/A, 'iris, 'iritfi, i'srov, 'ierov, '/s/xsv, »s ^)£j 5f)j | f^TOV, l^TOV, iwflEV, S5JTS, Jwifj. Perfect. Second Aorist. (3, rfa fi, I tJtov, ycrov, j cSjasv, ^]v, tfo, to, (*s^ov, tfdov, oTJtjv, I jxeda, tf^s, vto. P. p. Future. First Aorist. First Future. sl'tfo/xai, sdrjv and si'^v | i^tfofAoci. MIDDLE VOICE. Present and Imperfect like the Passive. First Aorist. Sing. Dual. Plur. ^x-ajjwiv, w, ccto ct(xs^ov, arf^ov, atfdnjv, | afxe^a, atfds, avTo. First Future. Tjtf-ofjt-ai, ij, sraij | ofxsdov, so*$ov, stfdov, | o^sda, stfQs, owrai. Second Aorist. IffMjv, s'tfo, sto, | i'fXedov, s'tfdov, i'tfflyjv, j fyisda, 2tfds, £vro. IMPERATIVE MOOD Second Aorist. gtfo, % 0) ro> /xsdov, sTda.v. Obs. 3. "IrjfM, in the Active Voice, signifies / send another ; "lepou, in the Middle Voice, / send myself. Hence it is gene- rally used in the latter Voice in the sense of wishing ; thus, i'srou ulv&s, Horn. Od. j3'. 327. He earnestly' wishes. In this sense it is the root of 'ipsgog, a desire, and of JfASi'^w, to desire. 2. r H[ioii, to sit. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Sing. Dual. Plur. ^(juxi, ^tfai, rjrou, | ripeSov, 7)]V, 7j 6,(xr,v, w, aro, | a|i£0ov, atfdov, atrdvjv, | a^eda, cut&s, ai/T9. fcitf. S 164 PARTICIPLES. Present and Perfect. £i(A£V0S. First Aorist. Remarks on Ef/*ai. Obs. This Verb may he considered as Middle. The Active is the radical sw or Swvyu, forming sj^u,/, to 5a?/. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. Sing. Dual. Plur. q»lp, cprie, , ^{Asv, v]T£, vjifav. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. d,yo\yu, r/yayov ' f Av8 ' u \ "^ s '°°» «&J tf w> ^^xa, 7)tio\> & HaSov, Fao«. 3 Verbs in a£w, frequentatives, as ^o^a^w, to run often* 1. "Ayai, to break, conjugated with the Digamma, Fdyu, forms iFofa, iFaya, liayov. But as the Digamma is seldom expressed in writing, the words will be eai;a, ca^a, eayov. [2. The aorist fjl-a. is not used by good writers. We have likewise in the passive voice, perf. fyjxai ; 1. aor. ijfyflijv ; fut. dytfijiro/iai ; and an old form which remained in Doric, ayftyoya or aydyo^a and dy^oyo.] 3. This seems to be put for Isala. That u<5u> had the Digamma ap- pears from evatie, Odyss. v\ 28. 4. Verbs of these three classes, and others in this list of the same form have generally the Pres. and Imperf. only. 15 170 Verbs in aOu, derivatives,* as fauxdQcu, from fauxu, to pursue. Verbs in ajw, derivatives, 2 as xsgociu, from xegdu, to mix. To take, Ai£e'w, 1 IXw, £/'Xov, slXo'p'jv, IXw, iXouftoci, siXa- ai^tfw, > |J.*]v. 3 jjf*|XO, ) perceive, Aj(T0avofjt.ai, ai'tfds'w, euVdVoM-w'} ^rjfAeu, ^Cdofjwjv. increase, 'AXoai'vw, i ,-,,, >-*,„ „«,* ** i aXefsw, aXsf ?jtfw. s/wm, 'AXg'o/xai, aXsuw, -^XEutfa, vjXsudfJwiv, & ^Xeafjtqv by Syncope. roW, 'AXjvoVw, aXi'w, dXiVw, ^Xixa. ft * a> 'rf 5 ^° w > aXw-tfw, tfofjuaj, tjXwtfa, JjXwxa & ' £ laXwxa, ■JjXw/J.ai, JjXuv & laXwv. 4 ^»d owf, , AX9a('vcd, dXtps'w, dXprjtfw. sin, 'Ap-a^rdvw, dfjoa^re'w, djxa^T^.rfw, tfofAai, TjfAa^Trj.tfa, xa, ftai, '/j(j,a^Tov, Poet. ^(/.§|otov. open, 'Avwyw, \ dvwgw, f avuysu, Imp. Tjvwyouv, avw^rfw. ^voya & ? dvwy*)jxi, Imp. dvwyijto, dvw^di. oivoya, 5 J be hated, 'Airsx^ /*"'* dirs^sw, ccfS^^tfofAai, dirrj^riftflo, dirtj^. t)0(JW]V. please, 'Af s'tfxw, ) d£sw, df e'-tf w, tfofiai, ^gsCa, 7)£S, a%u>, ifw, otva), una), are generally derived; as Tijiiw from ripi), i\iw, from ^Aoj, &jXg> from Sr)\os, SovXcvid, from &>uXoy, Stud^u, from &'k>7, tXirifu from jXttij, crifiaivia from vtljia, fiTjKUVU) from priKos, &C. [3. etXdptiv is a later Alexandrian form.] [4. iJXuKa and S/Xwv, are used in a passive sense, as is also aXweopai, the future middle.] [5. In the Attic poets this verb always occurs in the perfect without an augment, but with it in the pluperfect.] [6. Sp]{Aai, g§ouX^- B^4ife-fe [1. This verb has with the lonians the causative signification, " to bring." This signification is exclusive in the fut. act. /?>}pt «w ?r"-™> «w>, ty- ' { 7VU/XI, E^VljJV. 6iui 5a^*)Cfofjiai, Oe'Ja^nxa, iSagdw, s<5a£<3ov & g(5pa()ov. /ear, Aei'<5w, r feiffc (Js'ostxa, become Tiyvofiai, Tivofuu t l learn, Aai'w, divide, Aai'w, Jife, Aaxvw, s/eep, Aa£(3avw, ^ W ' 3 hs^i, I SKTW, > r., „ .,*. t OIW, & igosixa, J Imper. <5; (Matfxsw, 8i8aw, poetical, as 'egsehu, to ask. sjVov, g;Vg, sfwa, s;Vov, g/Varw, gjtfai. say, SllfSlV,' ask, Ei£w, 3 ££W, g£o/xai / gi^g'w, g (Ionic ipiw) from fipw — As the present of this verb, r]jxai were also used, or that the « was arbitrarily considered as an augment, which might be again taken from the verb, as if the present tense had been pia. For otherwise the derivatives f>np.a, prjais, pfjTup from 'k-prijiai, d-pnaai, d-pnrai, cannot be explained. To this arbitrary root may be referred also ip'pidriv or tppijdtjv, pndrjvai, fadeis. Elpidv in He- rodotus is analogous to t'ipriKa, sfyr/rcu, as tvprjrai, cvpidriv. Others derive Ipfirjdijv from a peculiar form fiiu, which, however, if it ever did exist, was first derived from cipma in the same arbitrary manner.] J3. See preceding note.] 4. The root of i\aivu is !Au>, which, besides Aa'a>, and Aavvw. admits 175 [am emploij-,, ed, pursue, ' ' [ask, "E|o/xai, 3 perish, "E||w, make ,„ . , , Epuflaivw, red b come "Egxpfiou, 3 eat, > l'5w. Sleep, find, Eu^cd, Eipjtfxw, £U($£Cd, svgiu, have, "E X ", 4 ifw, C rf x £ ' w > cook, "E^w. ( fX^'> 2d. Aor. ecVov, tfirglv, oVwv.] gXeudw, iXsvtf opai, ■%'hevffa, y\v6ov, Syn. £xdov, Perf. M. ^Xu0a & JXrjXu- fla. £i^5r;rfoj. (r^TJ-tfw, tfofiai, t'rf^yj-xa, jjicci, 2d. A. Imper. tfx^* the forms IXXw, £t),o>, dAto, 'AXw, to Srirag- together, corn-pel, drive into a corner. From efXw, IXXw, comes the Homeric ?X ^X u * s ma( ^ e mto " a X a > (as iviava from hi™) which, in Attic more particularly, often occurs in the same sense as I^u. The forms of the aorist without e are again made the basis of other forms (as aitiiv of cmevSciv,) and from the pre- sent ff^tw, which w only imaginary, comes, on the one hand, the fut. 176 z. live, Zaw, 1 ) Vl „<, v , , v r TV) gird, Zwwuw, > £ow, ^wrfwj g^utfa, l£wtfau.i)v, g^w-xa, ©. be willing 0sXw, SaXsw, SsXyjO'Wj H^sXigrfa, ridsX^xa. sharpen, ©ijyavw, Syyu, S^fw, sd^a, ^r)|a|*>jv, vs^-ya, y/xai. /omcA, Qiyyavw, Sri'yw, Si'-fw, 1-ofJtai, sdiyov. 'Svaw, rs'^VTjxa, Tgdvaa, Tg<5v£ixa & jxw,TS<)v*j-gw, ofJiai. Tg()v*]jxi, Pr. Imper. &o|g'w, ©^wtfxw, 5 So£>j(J'w, £<)o£ov, So^ovfjiai. place, 'lSguvu, Soguw, \5gvdu, i'oguffa, lo^utfafMiv, S'5fu-xa t (MX I, lO^U^TJV & J5^uv4*)v. cawse to tTy , £ i?aw, i?7j(to> I'^tfa. Sit I '£w, irfw, ;rfa. Verbs in »£«, derivatives from Verbs, as jroXe- jea/^w from vo"kepzco, to fight. direct, 'Ifluvw, iduw, idutfw, '/dutfa. , T , i i'xw, i'?ou,ai, IIJau/MV, iVuai, ixou.*iv. come, Ixveojxai, { „ y ' t * r ' b r ' ' /r ' ^' ^ '§«, 'S ov - j™, middle, c^o-o^at) which the Grammarians without reason call more Attic than c^ojiai) perf. ?aa, pcpiuTai, in preference to those from £aa>. And yet $ij« occurs in Plato, Rep. 5. p. 36. (au, is one of the few verbs which instead of the vowel of contraction a, have a Doric j? ; as $du, fjjj, £g ; ?£W, sfys, $%n &c.] 177 ,,_ , _, C iXotw, iXcttfouai, iXaffau-Tiv, Tkyxa, Waif- appease, IXacfxo^,, S ^ v , iW^of««. To/t/, "ItfTVJfAl, /o £wrn, Kai'cj, 1 xa!;Cw, xs'xauxa, mix, Ks^avvuw, Ke^awufju xsgdavu), xexigSayxa, > ffraoj, rfri)ai, Ixsgoufbrp, xegcufditifoitiM. I x£ xij^sw, xj^tfo/xai, Jx/p^ffa, ix»j£*] xX'ijyw, Perf. M. xgxXrya. cXa 7 xa, ) fXai'w, 2 } Xautfw, > xXai;'t gxXauxa, ) s/iowf, KXa^w, xXa^ xlxXccj^a toecp, KXai'w " xXautfw xg'xXa /tear, K>uw, i;w, xXairjfl'oj. xXu/ai, Imper. xXW; & x?xXudi. K^s/xavvufj-i tfau.rjv, satisfy, Kopiwvu, > xogeu, 3 xo^g'tfw, txogsifa gxo^gtfafj/qv, xg'xo^ij. Ko^ivvu/xi, $ xa, fjuxi, exoge(fdr\v. , 4 £ x^5(xaw, x^jfjiatfa;, ix^atfa, ix^Sfiaiia r { x^EfM]fAi;x^£fi>afuu. Zci/Z, Ktei'voj, } XTeVW, FxtfjSjfM, £X)V, Llf. ixraxa, & £ xro.tftiat, Part, xaw is used, having the long a and being without contrac- tions, like Krfu : fut. fcXaiitrw, &c] [3. Net to be confounded with the regular Kopi &>, fiou>, to sireep.] [4. The aorist passive iKpepdadnv is common to the middle and intransi- 178 roll, KuXi'v&o, farm, Kuvsw, xuvrjtfw, xuXi'w, xuX/tfw, IxuXirfo, IxuXirf^v. xuXtvfJew, xuXivdrjo'w. xuw, xutfu, sxutfa j§Wj X'^ofi-ai, Xe'X'/jipa, Att. EjXqfa, X£Xy]u,ju(,ai & ei'X*)jU.|*a», £X*)(Q^*]V & Sj'X^qjdnjv, XvupflijCo/xai, tXa^ov, IXa- XaSs'w, XsXa§>jxa. Xo,(a€w, Xafjuj^opuxi, iAau^afjwjv, Xg'XofJi.(xai f sXafJ.', 76. We have also XtXa^i'/o-u^tv in Hesychius.] [2. For slXvpai, Euripides (Ion. 1113.) uses XfX W ai, whence the Doric XtXciTTTut in Hesychius. The form XtXd/Ji/xa is Ionic, and analogous to ancic rSvriKa from cnreKrova. Another old form is Xd^o/iai.] [3. From '£\adov Homer has a new verb XeXiOu, in a transitive sense, " to make to forget," II. /?', 600.] [4. Both na^ficojxai and ^a^ou^ai are used in the derivative tenses. The first, however, is common : 'E/ia^aafoyv occurs in Attic, tfia^riadnvv in Ho- mer.] 179 care, MeXw, 1 To min- Miyvuu, gle, Miyvvju, remem- MlfJWJjtfxW, ber. remain, Ml'fJLVU, wipe Mo^yvuw, off, Mo^/vujxi, 'OfJio^vufw, belloio, Muxu, /xs'/xuxa, e'ftuxov, inhabit, Na/w, Verbs in vdu, . . vkr,i. be pained, '0<5agw, $mell, "Q>&, "Orfw, Perf. M swell, Oi'oai'vu, OlSavu, OidiVxu, think, 0'/o(xai, 3 Oi(/.ai, g °' , Oi'xoM-ai, 2. A . ifaopiV, /xeXsw, (xsX'^tfw, F/xeX^rfa/xiv, jXE/xsXii.xa, Xov, jxe^vjXcc. (JL£(JL»go(Aai, l(XI^*jV, 2. A. P. ^fJLI- y*)v, piiy»j' and w/iijv. In the rest of the per- sons and moods oi'o^at only is the basis. The active forms oiw and 3fo>, are retained in some dialects, in Homer both are frequent. The Spartan woman, in Aristophanes Lysistr. 15(>. uses o"u>. Thomas Magister, p. 645. states that the Grammarians made a distinction between ofy/ai,and dtofiai, applying the one to certain, determinate things, the other to indeter- minate things. This distinction is so nice that hardly any language, ex- cept one of books, could ever have observed i'.] 180 > oXjcfdew, u\'nf6y].rfa, xa, ukrtdov, wXiVd/jv. destroy, OXXdoj, l ,. , ' ,. '. „ % ' „. "r»"X"X 1 oXuXsxa, wXetfflyjv, wXov, wAojxtjv, V 1 ' { oXou/xai, cLXa & o'XwXa. To slide, 'OXitfdaiW 'OXitfdavw, ,„ , ( ojaow, oaotfw, o'jaotfa, waotfa/jwiv, £W.oxa st«ear, 'Ojjwuw, V c - ' „ r m - v.-. < & ofAW-/xoxa, jxai, 2, r . Box ojxou- ^ ' ( fiai. imprint, 'O/xof yvu/xi, o/xo'^w, o(*6^|w, &/xo£§a/Jwjv< „~ C ovt'w, ovw-cTw, tfojxai, wvrtfct, wviotfaaiiv & ams£, Ovthxi, } , ', ," , ,'. ' 1 , n , < wva.ja?]v, wvr](ji,ai, wvafl^v, 2. Aor. " ' { wvau/qv. rise, OfVUfJU, smell, 'Otfcpfai'vo/xai, otf(p£s'w orfo^cfofji.ai, wrfpfo/xigv. owe, , s ivo/xai, ;, 'Opsi'Xw, } oipsjXs'w, oqjsiX'/jtfw, w w eVadijtfa, rfftfa^xa. Perf. M. -jrsVovda, ireVotf-da & IIs£v?)fjii, f tfe^aw, 1 Syn. tff au, erf atfw, irstfgu-xa., (xai, ni-n'fad'xcdj £ ffeV^afl'ofji.ai, sVpa()»)v, flr^a^tfoffcai. IIfia(xai, J 6ot7, Ilstfrfw, ttsVtw, irs-^w, IVs^'a, iriifs^iiai, Iif£cp6r)v. , _ , i rfsra^w, irsratfu, insratfa, rtStfsraxa & open, n.ravvuH.'J ■. & ^^a,, ^ra^v. jum, gg * ' r / ai> M ^; V) ^ ^ 1. IIcpt£a>, fo pass info another country ; irepvaw, to pass for the purpose of selling ; irpfa/iat, in the Middle Voice, to 6wy a person, or thing, brought from, another country. [2. The old verb -Khofiai is the root, by which was expressed the spread- ing of the wings in flying, and afterwards merely the general idea of spread- ing] 181 To drink, nivw, 1 give to drink, Tlifitfxw, Jill, II)VX7](jii, ni'jx*XT)jxi II»(JwrXavtt ijiu; c .avw, { M Iliwrw, sneeze, n Imp. Pass. sVXTj^yjv. irgVu, IVstfa, gVgtfafMjv. ffgtfi'oJ, IVstfov, 2 F. M. tfjCOUfACCJ. 'nrou'gw, IWa^ov. tfgi^w, *£i5o'o/xai, tfgVufl'fAai, sVu<)o/*»jv, , (ptiStru ;) from the second iopya, £p£u, i-pifa, and by transposition pt'fu), tpcfa.] 16 182 Verbs in estu, 1 derivatives, form their tenses from their primitives, as sbgitrKu, eu^ew, evgntru, &c. to find. offer li- Sirivow, bation, spread, Uto^swuw, ^Tofe'vvufJU, 2t6^vu(xi, 2tpwvvuw, ) Ctpow, tfr^wrfw, srfr'guifa., JflV^wtfafjwjv, gtf. 2£- XO|X»)V, TETOXCC. !f£, dp/er/co), to please ; from /Jidu, Pitiow, (Si&oku, to live ; and from fitdiu), jiedvaiD, /ie0u<7kw, to fie drunk. Some of these, like Verbs in /«, prefix the Reduplication, as yiyvcSawtf, to A:nou>, from yx<5, fiBac™, to grow up. 183 ( Tvykm, rvyytfu, i~\jyr\ stsu^cc i(4 and i-nyxavu must be carefully distin- guished as respects meaning : the first denotes to prepare, and is regular in its formation, the second to attain, to happen. The verb Tuy^oi/M has the meaning to happen, to find one's self, only in the present, imperfect, and 2d aonst, viz. rvyxdvoi, hvy^avov, and Itv^ov : the rest of the tenses (and also ctv^ov likewise) have the signification to attain.] [2. *peai is used only in composition, as ixtyptiv, to bring out, thptlv, to bring in, £ia signifies to produce ; , X«f u > xs'x«£x«, obtain, Xav<5avu, gape, Xatfxu, Xatfxa^w, colour, X^wvvuw, X^WVVUjXJ, bury, Xcjvvuw, Xwwujxi, drive, •n«w, gwdouv, Mtof-u. X. ^ X a gsu, ycKgrfiu, ■%agr l (fo(J.ai, ^X"f )V ' \ X x£ X a s y) ' xa >f* a '' ) xs^aJ'/jCofJiai. S X"? w ) £'x a ^ ov ' x ^X. a -^ a - l X s *'? i xsi'tfoftai. Xat'vw, X av( ^> X aV0 ^ K, J =X aV0V i *£X ava & Xs'X*]va. > Xj° w s XS^^t ^s'xfw-fAai & tffAai. ? X oW 5 X^ '^' s'x w0 ' a ) xs'xwo'fJiai, eX«tfd»jv> } X'^Syjtfcu.ai. udu, utu, CxSa, uffpui, utfdriv. VERBAL NOUNS. are formed from Tenses of the Indicative, by dropping the augment and changing the termination. Some are formed from the Present, as £vvap.i£, strength, from (Jo'vajxai, fo fee atte ; xXgViov, a court, a place for dispensing justice ; &c. Occasionally, however, nouns with this termination depart from analogy ; thus civoMrauT?j£iov, besides denoting a resting- place, signifies also a lime for enjoying rest. -TP02-TPA- Those in rgog, =rga, and t£ov, may be consi- -TPON dered as derived by syncope from the last mentioned Nouns, and the feminine and neuter terminations are in like manner used Substantively, to denote some instrument or thing, by assistance of which, or in conside- ration of which, the action of the Verb is performed, as dxg'tfT^a, a needle, o^^tfr^a, the orchestra, or that part of the stage in tvhich 187 the chorus danced, Si8a.x, II. X'. 50, &c.) and in others the common termination also of the genitive occurs in the same sense ; as odi, poetic form, and ov, ifo6i and *ou.] [Obs. 2. Adverbs in o7 appear to have been old Datives, and to have the i adscribed according to the old mode of writing, instead of having it subscribed ; thus, olxoi, in Homer ; o'lxuSe and oixovSz, in Homer and the Attics.] 189 [06s. 7. The Dorians, in place of the termination 5s, used 8sg or <5i£, as o'ixadsg. Homer also has ^afjia<5ig in place of ■^aiia^s. Homer sometimes puts the termination 5s twice, as ov5s 66flov5s, II. ir'. 445, &c] [06s. 8. The terminations da., 8i, oi, and 6s, of the preposition h ; and those in 6s, %s, j, (the same.l 190 Ayj signifies difficulty, as IvrTv/ku, to be unhap- py- Ne and vq signify privation, like the Latin tie, as vvikefc, without pity. PREPOSITIONS. Six are Monosyllables : els, ex or «f , h, a-fo, jr^o?, eruv. Twelve Dissyllables : dfx(pl, dvd, dvrl, drh, &c£, e#i\ xar^j yuerd, nagd, fi'egl, vffeg, vko. In composition, five of these increase the sig- nification: els, ez or if, oryv, sr^i, bveg. Six sometimes increase, and sometimes change : dvri, dvo, did, xocrd, nagd, zgbq. One diminishes : biro. One changes : perd. CONJUNCTIONS are exhibited with the Moods, to which they are joined, in the SYNTAX. [Preliminary Observations on the GREEK SYNTAX. [The following remarks on the general principles of con- struction are given previous to the common rules of Syntax, for the benefit of the more advanced student. They will be found to contain a much more liberal view of the language, than that which is given by resorting to the doctrine of El- lipses- 191 [1. GENITIVE. The Greek language takes a much wider range in its uee of the genitive case than the Latin. In Greek, words of all kinds may be followed by other words in the genitive, when the latter class limit and show in xvhat respect the meaning of the former is to be taken. In the case of Verbs : as 'AdTjvaJoj 8s, us tfoSuiv sl-^ov, ifioy&cov, " the Athenians brought relief, as they had themselves with respect to their feet," i. e. " as fast as they could run ;" — xaXwg e^Siv psSris, " to have one's self well with respect to in- toxication," i. e. " to be pretty drunk ;" — us sxursgos ris suvoias f) (Av^jxvjj e^oi, " as each one had himself with respect to favour or remembrance," i. e. " as each one wished well to a party or remembered the past ;" — sv Jjxsiv to? /3iou, " to have come on well ivith respect to the means of subsistence," i. e. " to be in prosperous circumstances ;" — iirsiystiAcu a£*]os, " to urge one's self on with respect to the fight," i. e. " to be eager for the fight ;" — dvis'vaj ( < *fX wv e ^ va ') : — such again are adjectives and substantives in which the same idea of govern- ing is implied ; as tyxgaryg *j5'ov5jj:, " master over pleasure ;" rjTTuv rjSovris, " a slave to pleasure ;" tjttu tov ird|xa6ovs7v dsw tou- ruv, " to upbraid the god on account of these things." Hence the genitive is found with verbs signifying " to accuse," " to criminate," with verbs of praying, with verbs of beginning ; the genitive being that of the person or thing, on account of which the accusation is made, the prayer offered up, or the affair begun. So too the genitive stands alone in exclamations, with and without an interjection, or a word that expresses ad- miration, indignation, compassion, &c. ; as "AiroXXov, tou x 013 "- y.r)fiaros, " Apollo ! what a swallow !" r f2 Zsu fiacfikev, Tr\g "Keif. tot»)to5 ;v iyu>, I am a Greek, supply iljxl. This is most frequently the case with cToifxog, and with verbals in rhv. The most remarkable construction, however, is that in which the nominative is converted into an accusative, and made to depend upon an- other verb ; as oT&a ere rls J, / know thee who thou art, for olSa rig £7, J knovi who thou art. So also fiSee yap Kara 8vjibv tiStXQcfiv, u>j hovelro, for u>j Ittovuto &8e\$6s. Horn.] 2. As a Noun of multitude Singular may be followed by a "Verb Plu- ral, so a Neuter Plural is often taken in a collective sense, and follow- ed by a Verb Singular. Thus when Homer says Sovpa aicrinc, he means the collection of planks and timber, with which the ships were constructed. 17* 198 A Dual Nominative is sometimes joined with a verb Plural ; as, "AfAipw Xgyoutfi, Both say. 1 SUBSTANTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE. Substantives signifying the same thing agree in Case ; as, The Plural Noun is sometimes Masculine or Feminine, but it is used in a collective sense ; as a^urai &^a\ jicXiwv, Pindar ; SiSoktcu rAifyiovts fvyai, Euripides. [Heyne has altered the passages in Pindar where this construction occurs ; but see Herin. dc Metris, p. 246. seqq. and also Boeckh's edition of Pindar, where the common readings are defended and retained. The Grammarians call this schema Pindaricum, and, Boso- tium.] [This idiom is more observed by the Attics than by the older writ- ers in the Ionic and Doric dialects. The latter often join the neuter plural with a plural verb ; as, ovri ti vZlv 'dpicia Icaovrat. II. x\ 266. — aniix ava *PY a ytvovTo, II. X. 310. The scholiasts, in commenting on these passages, observe, that they are constructed op^aiicSs. The Attics also sometimes join the neuter plural with the plural verb, especially in two cases ; 1. when the neuter plural signifies living persons : 2. when the abstract is put for the concrete, and animate creatures, not things, are referred to. — Perhaps the constructions of neuters plural with singular verbs may be accounted for on the principle of the association of ideas : neuter and inanimate objects being considered generally, but animate agents individually.] This construction is not confined to the Greek language. It is fre- quent in the Hebrew: see Exodus xxi. 4. Job. xii. 7. Isaiah ii. 11. Psalm lxxxiii. 7, &c. In French this mode is common in every Gen- der in an Impersonal form: Ii est des hommes, il est des femmes. But the Verb in that case precedes the Nominative, il vient de sonner dix heures ; if the Nominative precedes, it has a Verb Plural, dix heures vi- ennent de sonner. 1. In prose this construction is generaL In the same manner a Dual Substantive, as it signifies more than one, may have an adjective Plural ; but the Verb or Adjective can seldom be of the Dual number, when the Noun implies more than two. [Butt- mann (Ausf. Gr. Gr. vol. 1. p. 135.) makes the Dual to have been an old form of the plural, which became gradually restricted to the denot- ing of two. Hence in the earlier state of the language we do actually find the Dual used when more than two are meant. This is strongly corroborated by the imitations of later writers, as Aratus, 968 ; Oppian, 1, 72. According to GLuintilian (1, 5, 42.) some persons in his time wished to consider the Latin forms in ere, of the third person plural of the perfect, as dual forms in contradistinction to those in erunt. The attempt did not succeed; but it serves to show, however, that the se- parate use of a dual form in Greek owed its origin, no doubt, to a simi- lar though more successful effort on the part of the early Greek Gram- marians.] 199 Kuafa£*]£, 6 iA('irirou (sc. ^wpav), into the land of Philip ; to Trjs xo\ews (sc. Trpdyiiara), the affairs of the city. The ellipsis of some case oi uiot or ira7s is very common in tracing genealogies, while, on the other tun ;, the omission* of dvydnjp is much less frequent. Thus, Ovyaripa Si aiof/v Xzyovai elvat AiirtaiWoj, rov Tiaa/ievov, rov QipadvSpov, tou TloXvveiKtof. They say that she was a daughter of Autesion, who was the son of Titamenes, who was the son of Thersander, who was the son of Polynices. Herod. Moreover, as b in the singular refers to v't&s or irals understood, so oi in the plural indicates an ellipsis of viol or noiSes. Thus, o\ yoviwv hiaofijtuv (sc. 7r«T^£S,) the sons of distinguished families. Flut. The pre- sence or absence of the article, in these forms of construction, makes an important diiference in the sense; for example, SwKpa^f b Ew^porio-Kou, implies that Socrates was either the only son of Sophroniscus, or else th it ne was that Socrates who had Sophroniscus for his father, in order to be distinguished from others of the same name, and who were the sons of other parents ; whereas ~Zu>KpaTTn Sw^ponV/cou, means that he had Sophro- niscus tor his father and not some one else. Hence this latter form is used in pleadings, decrees, &c. wherever a strict and legal designation of an in- dividual is required.] [2. The Adjective is often found without any substantive with which it agrees, the latter having been omitted, or being easy to be supplied by the mind. In this case the Adjective is said to be used substantively, as 6 aoQ&i, the wise man, suppl. avrip ; j^ avvipos, the desert, suppl. yrj ; o\ ttoAXo?, the multitude, suppl. avOpd-jroi ; ra ifia, my property, suppl. Kpt/tara. So also the Pronouns oSroj, Zkuvos, ti's, &C."" 200 Tw yuvaixE, Xenophon, The two women. 1 A Substantive is sometimes used as an Adjec- tive ; as, rXwrftfav 'EXXouSa ididags, Her. He taught the Greek lan- guage. 2 The Substantive is often changed into a Ge- nitive Plural, preceded by a Pronoun or Arti- cle; as, 1. The Attic construction is used in order to generalize the sense, as Qc&s and Deus are applied to both sexes for a divine, avdpuntoi and homo, for a human, person. Thus ducente Deo in Virgil refers to Venus, and avTi]v ttiv 0cov, in Herodotus, to Minerva. Perhaps also this form is adopted to dignify the female sex. On this principle, when a woman speaks of herself in the Plural Number, a mode of speech adopted by the great, she uses the Masculine Gender : as ol xpoQvijoKovTes, Eurip. spoken by Alcestis of herself; KTtvovpcv, oiirtp e^cfica^tv, by Medea ; Trad6vTcs, ripapTriKOTCi, Sophocles, by Antigone. Thus, also, when a chorus of women speak of themselves. This mode is confined to the Dual and Plural. [But if a woman speaks of herself in the Singular, she uses the Feminine Gender ; and also when she speaks of the Female race in general : as, Kpanora, Trjv chOuav (bb'av) rj ma\ paAiora. Eurip. Med. The direct road is the best in which we women are naturally most skilled. The Coryphsea, as the representative of the chorus, appears some- times to have used the masculine gender with the singular number, as in Euripides, Hippol. 1107.] The Masculine Article is joined with a Feminine Noun in the Dual only. Compound and Derivative Adjectives in oj are considered by the Attic writers as of two terminations, consequently used as Feminine as well as Masculine. Comparatives and Superlatives of three terminations sometimes ex- press the Feminine by the Masculine termination : as, airopwrepoi f) A^tf, Thucydides. [So also, in the same writer, SvccuSoXdrcpo; § AoKpis. These comparatives are thus used by Thucydides, because the radical adjective of the positive is common or of two terminations. It is, after all, however, a very rare construction, since comparatives and superlatives of adjectives which are common, or of those which are used as common, have usually three terminations.] When the Adjective is put in the Neuter after a different Gender, Xpn^ is understood ; as bpQbv ^ aXrjBeia, Soph. Thus triste lupus stabu- lis, Virg. The ellipsis is sometimes supplied, as rl X9W a fyums ', Soph. [We must not, however, suppose that X9^l ta > or some equivalent term, is always understood : since it frequently happens, that the neuter gender is used by the writer simply because the thing mentioned has no proper predicate, or because one does not immediately suggest itself to the mind. vid. Herm. ad Viger. p. 575.] 2. So ficus anus, Pliny, An old Jig-tree. This combination is common in English ; thus, sea-water, house-dog. 'EAXaj may be considered as an Adjective used as a Substantive. 201 Oi ciyetdoi ■n\daT7]v rtji orpaTias, Thuc. In the Greek idiom the Genitive of the Personal is used instead of the Possessive Pronouns, as rf/v piripa fiov n/«aj, Xen. You honour my mother. But the latter are sometimes found with the article, particular- ly in the orators, as ttiv bfidvoiav rfiv vjieripav oi iroAXo: //io-oEo-i, Isoc. [But wherever any emphasis is required, the Possessive and not the Personal Pronoun must be used. Hence, in the Lord's prayer, the phrase Tlarep fip&v denotes that God is the father of the whole human race; and is equivalent to Father of us (all.) Whereas Xldrcp fi/xfrcpt would be em- phatic, and consequently improper, denoting, our I'ather, and implying that God is the father of only a part of his creatures. Most commonly, however, the Possessive is altogether omitted in ideas that always stand in necessary connexion, as those of natural relations, father, son, friend ; hand, toot, &c. ; and its place is supplied by the Article alone.] 2. As the Relative and the Article have the same origin, as they are frequently used the one for the other, and the Feminine "in both is dis- tinguished only by the accent, they are joined under one head. 202 'Ev roug lograTs, oug yyofiev, Aristophanes, In the festivals, ichich we celebrated. 1 The Article is poetically used for the Rela- tive; as, U.ewTg£, o a 1 ' ergstpe, Horn. Your father who educated you. The Article in the Neuter Gender, before a Genitive, signifies elliptically possession or rela- tion; as, 'O 0£o£ rot «rwv dv6gutfuv Sioms'i, Isoc. God directs the affairs of men.' THE GENITIVE. 3 One Substantive governs another, signifying a different thing, in the Genitive ; as, 2i\ag, JjXiou, Light of the sun. An Adjective in the Neuter Gender, without a Substantive, governs the Genitive ; as, To Xoitfov (ptgos) ttjs fylii §Hg-, The rest of the day. 1. This is called attraction, as the Antecedent attracts the Relative into its case. This Attic form has been imitated in Latin ; Si quid agas eorum, quorum, consuesti, Cicero. The Relative, in this construction, sometimes precedes the Substan- tive ; as, civ rj fyus Swdpet, Xen. [The principle of attraction pervades the whole Greek language, and is based upon the association of ideas in the mind of the writer.] 2. Sometimes the ellipsis is supplied, as ra tZv 6>i6aiu>v vpdyjiara icaicws i%u, Isoc. In some cases the relation between the Article and the Noun follow- ing is so close, that the distinction of the property and the thing itself is scarcely perceptible, as rd tTis tu^s &%eia; e^et t&s jicraBoXas, Fortune has sudden revolutions. Thus rb tybv, ra fya, are sometimes equivalent to iyu>, Sec. 3. The primary signification of the Genitive is the origin, or cause, from which a thing proceeds, or possession. To these may be traced most of the uses to which that case is applied. But in construction, it must de- pend either on a Substantive, or a Preposition, expressed or understood. \vid. Preliminary remarks on the Greek Syntax.] 203 Adjectives* signifying plenty, worth, condemna- tion, power, and their contraries ; and those which signify an emotion of the mind; require the Geni- tive ;' as, *E£/a flrXsiflVou agia, Works worthy of the highest value. Twv ^aXstfwv aireipos dia§i&rf7], You shall live without trou- ble. TujULvarfia /xerfra dvo^wv, Places of exercise full of men. 'Ava»V«og acpgoduvrig, Not blameablefor imprudence. The matter of which a thing is made, and also the measure of a thing, are put in the Genitive ; Tov 67a.vxnv. Isocr. On the same principle, of a stronger reference, the same verbs are used occasionally with irp6i and an accusative ; as, fiSo- va; irpoj ft&ov&s, Kai \virat npb; Xviraf Kai 6vov. De- mosth. iypd'^aro (pe) rouriov ahrSv ivtKa. Plut. ypd'peeBal Tiva ypa $&vov Tpav/iaroi. iEschin. droypd Bipet, Thuc. [The ellipsis of M is a convenient one for the young student ; the philosophical principle, however, on which this use of the genitive is founded, seems to be in reality the reference to a •part of time. vid. Preliminary Remarks. See also the notes to the rule for the genitive absolute.] 3. Ojjioi is often prefixed, as oljioi tSv kukSv, Aristoph, i. e. Ivcko.. [xid. Preliminary Remarks.] 205 Comparatives are followed by a Genitive ; as, 'Ava££»'as p$7£ov ow stfp xewov, Sophocles, There is no greater evil than anarchy. 1 Partitives, Comparatives, Superlatives, Inter- rogates, and Numerals, govern the Genitive Plural; as, Movoff /3f otwv, The only one of mortals. O) veurigoi dvdgutuv, The younger of men. KaKkKfres mrapuv, The most beautiful of rivers. Verbs signifying the senses, are followed by a Genitive, excepting verbs of sight, which re- quire the Accusative ; as, Tuv jjt,a£ru£wv dx7\x6a.rs, Isoc. You have heard the wit- nesses. [1. Most Grammarians make the genitive of comparison depend on avrl or irp6 understood. Sometimes these prepositions are expressed; as, ftu^ova ivri Tijs aitov jrarpaj. Soph, avrl rov T&xpvs Kptiaaut. Eu- np. oiaiv p TvpawU xpb iXevdepiqs jjv auTracrdTtpov. Herod. In these and other similar constructions, however, the preposition will be found to impart a force to the comparison which it would not otherwise possess ; and hence the reason of its being added. The true principle on which the genitive of comparison depends will be found stated in the Preliroinary Remarks.] [2. Verbs of seeing always govern an Accusative. Many of the others likewise govern an Accusative with the Attic writers. The Verb dxoiJw most commonly governs the Accusative of the sound, and the Genitive of that which produces it ; but neither without exception. The use of the Accusative after verbs of seeing, seems to have arisen from the cir- cumstance, of the Greeks considering the eye as deriving its images from its own operations on the objects presented to it ; whereas the other senses were supposed to be acted upon by external objects, not to act upon them. When the Attics therefore made other verbs than those of sight govern an accusative, they ascribed to themselves, from a feel- ing of national vanity, a greater rennement in all the organs of sense than was supposed to be possessed by their neighbours, for they placed hearing, Sec. on a level with sight, and made the former senses as active in their operations on external objects as the faculty of vision.] 'Akovui, signifying to hear one's self called, or simply to be called, has the construction of Verbs of existence ; as ovt' aKovad/iai ndicoi, Soph. It is often used with the Adverbs t$, kukSs, and xaXSy, and followed by urro or irapa with a Genitive; as kokZs olkovciv into rmv no\iTtav, Isoc. Thus Cicero, Est hominis ingenui velle bene audire ab omnibus. So Mil- ton, Or hearst thou rather pure etherial stream. [Perhaps the construe- 18 206 'Ogois oiiv xti.} yUvfiuxag sgw o§v ly& col oi tpdovrjow, Xen. aoi Traiiiov ri Sti, Eurip. [Xpj), wpenet, and 8c.T, it bchov- eth, govern the Accusative with the Infinitive, according to the lan- guage of the Grammarians ; and Su and xP'i, signifying necessity or want, eXKdira, iieKu, &c. govern the Dative of the person and the Genitive of the thing.] [2. Perhaps the only true Impersonate are those where we supply it, and some operation of nature or of circumstances is denoted ; as Ui, it rains. The Verbs commonly called Impersonal, are so only in name, for they have an actual subject, which is expressed either by an Infini- tive or other dependent clause. Thus, in the example under the rule, the Nominative to efart is the infinitive amhai, and the passage is equivalent to to amhai Qzari /tot, the going away is lawful to me. So also, Set tySt roiro rrouTv, it behoves you to do this, is the same as, the doing this is in- cumbent upon you.] 18* 210 Oux 'Aya^s^vovi tySuvs Qv^u, It did not please the mind of Agamemnon. Neuter Adjectives in rsov, govern the Person in the Dative, and the Thing in the case of the Verb, from which they are derived ; as, Ti 6j, by fad rarely; 5 as, 1. One of these Accusatives is governed by Kara understood. 2. To the Accusative of the thing are frequently joined the Adverbs ev, kuXws, KaicGis, instead of na\a, Kaica, &c. The Verb alone, implying treatment, may have the same construction ; as Zeis pe ravr' cdpaacv. Aris- toph. 3. Verbs of adjuring and swearing are also found with two Accusa- tives ; as, dp/city at ovpavdv, Orpheus. Thus in Latin, Hcec eadem Terrain, Mare, Sidera juro, Virg. A change of Voice implies a change in the Case of the Person ; but the case of the Thing is preserved ; as fyt?; ir^eicra thepytrovfitda, Xen. Soipdnov hhvojihoi, Dem. Thus in Latin, Induitur faciem cultumque Diana, Ovid. Inscripti nomina regum, Virg. [4. The Accusative of Distance and Space, and that of Time, are both governed by a Preposition understood.] [5. Frequently, however, the Dative is appended to passive verbs, with or without bird, especially to the perfect passive of verbs whose perfect active is not much used ; as, ravra Xf'XsKTat fyuv, for \e\cxa rav- ra.] Some Verbs, which in the Active are followed by the Genitive or 213 'O votis u*o oi'vou Stayfeigerai, Tsoc. The understanding is impaired by wine. INFINITIVE. One Verb governs another in the Infinitive; as, ©e'aw Xs'yejv, I wish to speak. The infinitive is often used to signify what is expressed in Latin by ad and the gerund, or by the participle in dus ; as, "MSuksv uvto Soii'ku u a\^8jj X/yw, / speak truth. JLtym &s, I say that or thus ; Ikuvos ov iroXtfiti, he does not make war. So, And they told him that Jesus passeth by. Luke 18. It is not necessary that tis should be always joined with Sj. We find in Homer, Tiyviietcuv 8 ol airis vneipc^t %£?paj 'Att6\\oiv : i. e. TiyvuxrKwv o, Knowing this: Apollo stretched his hand over him. "On is sometimes used at the end of a sentence, in a manner which strongly elucidates this explanation : dXX' ovk axoi&cus, oiS' Bn, Aristoph. But you will not restore it, I know that. Sometimes Bn is added to strengthen the force of another Pronoun ; a practice common to the best Greek and Latin writers: dXX' oZvlywy si navaopai, tout iad' Sri, Aristoph. Hoc ipsum scias. The Greeks in narrations frequently use the Present Tense, when Bn introduces the words of the person who is the subject of the narrative. [*On, in such constructions, may either be rendered " as follows," or, what is far preferable, may be regarded as equivalent to the inverted commas in English, and remain consequently untranslated.] But the La- tins, in the idiom of the Accusative and Infinitive, place the Verb in the Perfect Tense. "On sometimes signifies that, or to the end that. In this sense the La- tin uti, generally shortened into ut, is the same word. Here it is still the Pronoun, and the full expression is Sia tin, for that, for this. The two words often coalesce, and become Si6n. Thus Shakspeare, For that I am some twelve or fourteen moonshines lag of a brother. Sometimes Bn signifies elliptically what is the reason that — ; as tfaoi Bn riaoov t^eiaoro *oI6oj ' Kir6\\uv, Horn. Here the full expression is tfaot rt iariv a'lriov Brt — let him say what is the reason for this, Phabus is so en- raged ; or Sia Bn. It is likewise frequently used for because, and is there too governed by Sia, for this reason. These observations will easily suggest an analogical solution of the ori- gin and use of the word in other languages. 2. This construction has seldom been imitated in Latin. But Bn haa been rendered by quod, quia, and even quoniam, in the Vulgate, a trans* lation which disgusted the classical reader, and which was succeeded by the more elegant versions of Beza and of Castalio. Yet we find some in- stances of that use of quod. Equidem scio jam fclius quod amet meus t Ter. Prcemoneo, nunquam scripta quod ilia legat, Ovid. 216 Ms'XXu Tgflvttvai, Plato, I am about io die* The Infinitive of some Verbs is preceded by H^w, in the sense of dvvufxcM ; as, Mi)8iv Ej(outf»v ejtfav, Dem. They have nothing to say. 1 The Infinitive is often governed by another Verb in an Imperative sense, understood ; as, MV- tfu/' ddavaTojtfi (xa^etfciai, Horn. (6|a, beware, or Ss'Xs, HrasA, und.) iVor contend thou with the immortals? The Infinitive is sometimes put absolutely, without another Verb expressed ; as, e f2? owrXws slfteTv, Dem. To speak plainly. Aoxsiv Ipioif, Soph. As it. appears io me. 3 Mix£ou SsTv, Isoc. Nearly.* PARTICIPLE. 5 The Infinitive is often elegantly preceded by 1. Thus, De Diis neque ut sint, neque ut non sint, habco dicere, Cic. 2. Thus in Italian, non dit niente, take care to say nothing. [Matthise, Gf. Gr. vol. 2. p. 824, considers it probable that this usage of the Infi- nitive Was a remnant of the ancient simplicity of the language, from which the action required was expressed by means of the Verb absolute, or the Mood of the Verb which of itself indicated the action, without any reference to other parts of speech.] [3. When a particle is joined to the Infinitive with the meaning of af- ter, when, before, until. &c. there is supposed to be an ellipsis of ovp- Salva, or awi6r), or avfiSain, or avfiSjj, (according as the context requires a Present or a Past Tense, the Optative or Subjunctive Mood). When, however, the particle has the meaning of as or so, then cfcoTi, <$i7, cUbi itri, or something equivalent, is supposed to be understood : thus, dif db-Xfij slittlv, is for d>5 Qioti dirAu? ilirfiv', ( as far as it is permitted) to speak plain- ly. So also, Jif \htiv alirbv, -when he saw him, for i ISeiv avrbv, when (it happened that) he saw him ; irpiv i\ixropa D em - ^ e wCts no ' aw enemy. Tov Xoyov tfou Sau^octfag t^w, Plato. I have admired your speech. 2 With a Participle rvy^dvco signifies by chance ; "kavQdvw, privately or ignorantly ; (pddvu, 3 previously ; as, "E9dvot.s iroiZv tovto, Eurip. You cannot be too quick in doing this, or, do it immediately. Toiyap 8dvotT' sr } uv Bv^okovtcs, Eurip. for oi (pBdvoire aXXo ti irda^ovres icpiv }) BvficKeiv, you will quickly die. The sense of i av aXXwj tovto Siairpa- fo^tvof, Isoc. Having considered, I found that I could by no means other- ■wise execute the business : Siairpa^dfievog is attracted into the Case of ckoitov- fievoi. Qvt£ vvv poi jieTc.fii\tt ovrws a-Ko\oyr)aajihb>, Plato. I do not now re- pent having thus defended myself; for airo\oyijtTao-dai. Thus in Latin, Sed non sustineo esse conscius mihi dissimulanti. 4. "lie and ISov, behold, which are sometimes, like the Latin en and ecce, found with a Nominative, are really Verbs, and govern the Accusative ; as ISov pc, Eurip. 220 Nouns, or because those Cases are governed by a Preposition understood. 1 Examples of the former. nXvjv, rejection, tfX-qv §[mv, iEschyl. Excepting me. 2 Xa£iv, for the sake, XH tv "Exro^os, Horn- For the sake of Hector. Xugis, separation, x u g'£ T & v a-vS^uv, Her. Without the men. Tou Aibs ivuifiov, Plut. In the sight of God. Examples of the latter. *Avsu ovo|*a, Soph. In the former time. In the same manner they are used for Substantives, as ol wAas, Saph. T,ie- neighbours, ol irdvv, Eurip. The illustrious, 2. nX^v sometimes assumes the nature of a Disjunctive, and is followed by every Case, according to the government of the Verb with which it is connected ; as obSlv Itmv aXXo tydppaKov, n-Xjjv Xdyoj, Isoc. oh Sipis n ^*i v r0 't fiaBfiTaicnv \lytiv, Aristoph. [3. The particle pa, of itself, neither affirms nor denies, but adds strength to that which is affirmed or' denied. In affirmations pa is usually preceded by vai ; in negations the particle oi, or something equivalent, is added.] 4. The Preposition is sometimes expressed ; i ko; air' iwvtwv, Her. pixps Iff' ifiov, Horn. rrjXe &irb c^cStys, Hom. ajia civ ab'r-ols, Plut. 5. Thns in Latin, Nee minus JEneas se matutinus agebat, Virg. iNfeq. yespertinus circumgemit ursus ovile, Hqr., 221 Two or more Negatives strengthen the Nega- tion ; as, Oux IWjv ovSsv, Eurip. There is nothing. Oudsifors ovSsv ou i^ri yhrpm twv Ssovtojv, Dem. Nothing that is necessary will ever be done. 1 But if the two Negatives belong to two dif- ferent Verbs, they form an Affirmative ; as, OvSsv JoViv on oux iiss(S-/STo, He promised every thing. PREPOSITIONS govern the Genitive, Dative, or x\ccusative. a GENITIVE. Prepositions governing the Genitive. 'Asro, &vri, ex or if, ngo. 1. In Latin, two Negatives make an Affirmative ; yet the Greek idiom has been imitated : Neque tu haud dicas tibi non prccdiclum, Ter. [The Greek idiom is of frequent occurrence in Plautus, and other old writers, though sometimes found in more recent ones, as in Propertius, 2. 15. ult. and Ovid. Pont. 1. 1. 66.] 2. The principal relations of things to one another are expressed in Greek by three Cases ; origin and possession by the Genitive, acquisition and com- munication by the Dative, and action by the Accusative. The other re- lations, of time and place, cause and effect, motion and rest, connexion and opposition, are expressed by Prepositions. In the origin of language and of civilization, Prepositions were few; but when the progress of arts increased the relations of things, they be- came more numerous. In succeeding ages, when the extension of mathe- matical, and the improvements in philosophical, science, produced new com- binations of language, and required a greater precision of expression, the number of Prepositions was necessarily increased. But that great variety, which became expedient in modern times, has been applied to the Greek language, and produced some confusion and dif- ficulty to the learner. Twenty different meanings have been assigned to a Greek Preposition ; nor were those meanings marked with slight shares of difference : the same Preposition has been made to bear the most oppo- site senses : to and from, for and against, above and below. Some successful efforts have lately been made to clear these perplex- ities. One primary, natural sense has been assigned to each Preposi- tion : to that sense may be referred all the other significations, arising from analogical or figurative relations, easily flowing from it, and regu- lated by the Case to which the Preposition is prefixed. Prom the com- binations of the Prepositions with the different Cases arises that variety which forms one of the beauties of the Greek language. But that varie- ty is consistent. 19* 222 DATIVE. 'Ev, thty are grateful in consideration of (i. e. they set their gratitude as a return against) thz great favours they have received. In composition it denotes, 1. equality ; as, dvri&eog, equal to a god (i. e. fit to be matched against a god). 2. reciprocity ; as, avripsTgiw, 1 return in the same measure or proportion, (i. e. I set measure against 223 measure). 3. comparison ; as, dvrixfivu, J compare, (i. e. I judge of two things by facing one against another). 4. But more commonly it denotes opposition ; as, dwrktftfu, J draw up against an enemy.'] 'A/ro. [This preposition is properly used in reference to an object which before was on, with, ai, another (not in, nor merely in the near vicinity of, another,) from which it is now separated. Hence cwro generally shows a removal, and its primary meaning is From ; thus, From. 'A*sws (psujsiv, implies merely that the person has been near the city, whereas ix s% ffoAew? cpsuysiv pre-supposes that one has been in the city. From the two general meanings just given, we may deduce others of a kindred nature. 1. ix irai6wv, from boyhood, (i. e. out of the very state or time of boy- hood). 2. if aluivos, from all eternity, (i. e. out of eternity ; pre-supposing an intimate commingling and connection with eternity : whereas diro aluvos is much weaker in meaning ; as Sia, rfroiaarog ruv ayiuv twv ait' ai&vos ir^ocprjTUiv, by the mouth of his holy prophets which have been from ancient times). 3. ix , &c. Thus, Gen. Through. Aid ^sipt-wvo?, through the winter. Sometimes, however, Sia marks the direction of an action upon an object, and in consequence is joined with the accusa. live. When thus followed by an accusative case, it has the ge- neral meaning of on account of : as, 229 Ace. On account of. Aid pdo'vov. On account of envy<, 1. From the general meaning of Sia. with the genitive, we deduce other kindred meanings : 1. It marks the instrument ; since that through which the thing done passes, as it were, to its accomplishment, is said to be the medium of that accom- plishment, inasmuch as it lies in the midst, between the voli- tion and the action ; as, <$ia piXavog ygaysw, to write with ink, (i. e. through the means of ink). So also, &' £Xs' t° have in one's hands, to take care of, to look to, (i. e. to have a thing in one's hands, and to pass it through them from one hand to the other ; to handle ; to exercise more or less obser- vation and care towards a thing). 10. Sid fM/*jfjw)£ ri&SG&ai, to remind, (i. e. to put a thing through another's remembrance). 11. Sid crav-rwu agios &(ag, worthy of being noticed among all, (i. e. through the midst of all). 12. Si ai-r'tag s'^siv, to accuse, (i. e. to hold a person bound, by due form of law, to go through a charge preferred against him and answer to it). So also, Si' diriag, efvai, to be accused (i. e. to be going through an accusation, and striving to clear one's self from it). 13. With the verbs Uvai, sgxzc&ui, Xaii.Qa.vsiv, &c. it constitutes other and similar periphrases ; as, <5ioL T\j-yy\c, Uvai, to be fortunate, (i. e. to be going through a career of fortunate operations) : Sid to oe i n J ear i (i> e - to he going through the state of being in fear) : <5i' o'i'xtou XaQsTv, to pity, (i. e. literally, to tc ke through pity or compassion ; to make another experience the full extent of one's compassionate feelings, by leading him, as it were, through the very midst of those feelings). II. Yfith the accusative, as already remarked, Sid denotes the direction of an action upon a definite object, and signifies generally on account of. But as the object and the occasion, 20 230 or cause, of an action are nearly related, (the object being in one sense the occasion), hence Sia, with an accusative, though translated on account of, for the sake of, is often, if not always, exactly equivalent to through. This meaning of through, however, differs, as will readily be perceived, from that which 8m has with the genitive, in its carrying with it a re- ference to some action exerted upon a definite object, and there- fore taking not the genitive but the accusative case. From the general meaning of, on account of, for the sake of, which Sia has with the accusative, may be deduced other kin- dred meanings : 1. ou 81 s^s, not by me, (not on account of any thing I have done ; not through my fault). 2. <5idt Cs rccura y£ vptiv oi'/3ou, for the love of Apollo, (i. e. doing something round about Apollo, in a figurative sense, on account of some kind- ness conferred by him on us, some favour proceeding from him). 3. cpuvai a,w(p( QsCJv xaXa, to speak xoell of the gods, (i. e. to speak well round about the gods, in consequence of blessings issuing from them towards us). 4. d(upi rys iroXsug, in the environs of, or, round about the city (i. e. round about from the city, or, round about in respect of the city). II. With the dative. 1. d/j^p 1 w.aoirf/v iSuddro tsir^sa, -x.oCka, he put on the fine armour, (i. e. he put the fine armour round about his person, and it depended from, or rested upon, his shoulders : in other words, his shoulders supported the prin- cipal superincumbent weight of the armour). 2. dy^pi [td,xV TodauTa. slj>r)(f&6}, let thus much have been said concerning the fight. (Here the presence of the perfect £j£*jtft)w, with its reference to continuance of action, naturally calls for dfjupj with the dative ; and the passage is equivalent to, " let thus much have been said and remain said round about, on the subject of the battle"). 3. djxfji<»jxov*-a IV*), about seventy years, (i. e. round about seventy years, and advancing^ rapidly toioards that period). 4. Joined with a proper name, it is used in three different senses — First. It denotes the person signified by the proper name, with his companions, followers, &c. as, ol dficpi neiCiVr^aTov, Pisistratus with his troops : oi d^(pi ]v Qriguv, the hunters ; j, it is in my power, (i. e. it is cZose- 241 !tf and intimately connected with my ability to perform). 10 aXXoi I*' to have in one's hands, vid. Introductory Remarks. IV. In composition it denotes, 1. change ; as, |xg?/ much,, (i. e. moving on % the side of much). 15. irag' oXiyov, J3/ &#Ze. 16. rfaga fjuxgov ^Xdsv don it). 6. irsgi with a contu- melious manner d. e. looking towards, resembling, insolence 248 of manner). 10. ou irfos tovs vpsrsgovs Xo'yous, not according to your words, or, not taking your words as a pattern. 11. *£og Saifiova, against the will of the god, (i. e. looking boldly to- wards the god ; facing and opposing his decrees). IV. In composition it generally signifies, 1. addition ; as, fgoifdiSwiu, I give in addition ; I give besides. 2. towards; as irgo aoout the same time, (i. e. just moving under, and being acted upon by, the same space of time). 6. virb rt, in some measure, somewhat, (i. e. moving under and acted upon by an object in some degree). IV. In composition virb retains the above significations ; but often imports likewise, 1. decrease or diminution ; as, viroye\u t J smile, (i. e. I keep under a laugh) : virofigsxw, I moisten a little, (i. e. I moisten in a degree under, or less than, what is usual or requisite) : virs'kuvvu, I urge on gently, (i. e. I urge on in a degree under, or less violent than, what is usual or might be required). 2. privacy ; as, inrayui, I withdraw pri- vately ; I retire, (i. e. I lead under or concealed from obser- vation, I withdraw from observation, whether it be myself or another). 3. the beginning of an action ; as, ii-ropauo'xw, to begin to shine, (i. e. to shine a little \, to shine under, or with Jess brilliancy than, its full power ; not to have attained: m yet its meridian splendour).] [General Remarks PREPOSITIONS. Obs. 1. Prepositions are often used in an adverbial sense, their case being understood; especially lv in Ionic, signifying amongst others, amongst them, &c. according as the context requires. So also nf>6s in Attic, imply- ing besides, particularly. Obs. 2. Hence in Ionic writers they are often put twice, once without a case, adverbially, and again with a case, or in composition with a verb ; as, av' i' 'oSvaei; no\6jjL7]Tig aviuraro, up arose the sage Ulysses. Homer. 'Ev $e after, since. 'EtfSiVoi, j M^, lest. "Otfov, whilst. "Ocpga, whilst. Pas 1. A.'6c, t'6e, and other Particles, are sometimes joined with the Imper- fect and 2d Aorist of 6ftfou>, as aW 8 &XS h until. Ei, 1 if. Mri, forbidding.* MyiTus, lest. 'OtfoVe, } e O*oVav, > zoAen. •On, > INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, and INFINITIVE. "Av, xe, 3 Potential. II^jv, before. *Eu£, as long as, 'fi?, iZtetf. Mqirofe, ZesJ. 1. E2 and grt are used by the Dramatic Poets with the Indicative and Op- tative only. By Homer el is used with the Subjunctive also, joined to &v or Kt. E2 yap with the Indicative and Optative is used for utinam. When d is used with an Imp. or an Aor. Indicative, the Verb in the corresponding clause, preceding or following, is put in the Indie, with av, as d pri r<5r' c-kovovv, vvv av ovk ti^paivdfiriv, Aristoph. 2. Mrj, forbidding, with the Present, governs the Imperative ; with the Future the Indicative ; with the Aorist, when it refers to the Past, the Op- tative ; when it refers to the Future, the Subjunctive. 3. These Particles, aV used in prose, and Kt and kcv in verse, give a Potential sense to the Verb. Thus in the Imp. ilx ov signifies / had, ety^ov aV, / would have. In the 2d. Aor. tTnov means [said, drcov av, I would have said. The Present Optative with «V is often used by tragic writers in the sense of a Future Indicative ; thus pvot/j' av, Soph. / will stay. "Av, joined with indefinite pronouns and adjectives, signifies soever, as 252 INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, and INFINITIVE. 'Enetirj. ) . I "fitfTc, so that. 1 OPTATIVE and SUBJUNCTIVE. ''EtfSav, after. \ Mr,, lest. Conjunctions Postpositive are yo\%, /xsv, Ss, rs, toi'vuv. These are Prepositive and Postpositive, civ, aga, foj, j'va. The rest are Prepositive. [Signijicaiio7i of some of the Particles. "Agou 1. Most common meaning therefore. 2. Where it ap- pears expletive it would seem, in fact, to have a meaning analo- gous to in the nature of things, of course, ex ordine, &c. 3. When interrogative it has the force of nu?n ? The difference between a?' ou and ago. fwg is, that af ou, nonne, requires an af- firmative answer ; a^a p/q, num, a negative, as ago. does alone ; but pj imparts some degree of dubiousness to the question, and that for the purpose sometimes of irony. Ts is a restrictive particle. 1. Its most common meanings are at least, indeed, certainly, however, &c. as si /jmj 6'Xov, /xc'^og ys, " if not the whole, at least a part :" 'dyuye, I indeed, I at least, I for my part, &c. In English, however, the sense of ys, in most combinations, can only be rendered by heightening the tone of the word to which it refers. Tag. For, always follows other words, in which respect it re- sembles the Latin enim. It often occurs in answers, when it must be referred to something not expressed, as to vai or ou, ou- Slv Saufjuxtfrov, bg&tis Xs'ysi?, and the like. Thus, in answers, Irfn yag ourw is equivalent to vai (" yes,") or bg6u$ "keyeis ("you speak rightly,") yag sCtiv outw. &irav9' Sv' av Xey, Theocr. i. e. av, 1 would have come. 1, These have Sv, expressed or understood, with the Optative 253 A?j k In prose never begins a sentence or member of a sen* tence ; in verse it sometimes does, but not in Attic writers ; 1. It signifies, certainly, surely, without doubt, &c. Nuv dq with a past tense is, just now, a little while since. 2. This par- ticle is also very commonly used in continuation of a recital, in which it is usually rendered igitur, then. 3. When joined with xa< it signifies, now-, by this time, already, xai 5ri is also used in asseverations, indeed. Atjctou and Syrfovdey, signify 1. doubtless^ of course, and also, 2. ironically, to be sure, forsooth. Ar,6sv signifies 1. cwro rov fr/\ (i. e. aid tou vuv), forthwith, in- stantly* 2. It has an affirmative force, but rather in deceit and simulation, than in declaration of truth. Hence it may often be rendered, as if, forsooth, ostensibly, as ivas pretended. Avjra. 1. Appears to be put for &i, now. 2. It is used in ex- horting, beseeching, &c. yes, do, pray, I entreat. 3. It is em- ployed in questions, and answers to tandem, prithee ; and 4. in affirmation or asseveration, indeed, truly. Kai and rs serve for the simple union, both of single ideas, and of entire parts of a proposition. The connection by s yap ov after affirmative sentences, as Exsiva piiv a|ia ^gc^itoj xa/ eVkivou xgivu, cwg ya(» ou ; J judge those things deserving of thanks and praise ; for how can I judge otherwise ? of course I judge them so. 3. This particle, even not interrogatively used, retains its accent, when it sig- nifies, in some certain manner, emphatically. And when, in this sense, ir£>s (joev — £ by Plato and others. To augment its signification, it is joined with other equivalent words, as to/^' av, si tv/o>, x«/ toutov vjdixsi. Demosth. ror^a jtoi, drjro', having nearly the same signification as the simple :ai dtrsTos. So also, rovgyov i%rix[>'i[3u}, net ou, is joined with conditional particles ; as, si pi, sotv fxrj, 6Vav (Jt/q, %c. not si ou, sav ou, dec. for by their very nature the?e particles indicate that something is proposed as a supposition or thought of some one. And, in the same manner, the relative og is used with im?, when we intend it to have an hypothetical signification ; as, .y) ou, on the contrary, the idea of an apprehension being entertained that a thing will not take place. Hence are derived the following rules. 1. Ou \)/q, is an extensive and emphatical negation, and in- dicates the imagining of a thing which should not and must not take place ; as, ou p.y) 8vo iov onisdiruffQu, let the anchor he weighed and remain so. rs8va8i, lie dead, fs/Wnjv. way I be dead, &c. Several perfects are always used to denote only the finished action whose effect is permanent ; and therefore in English are translated by the present of some other verb, which expresses the consequence of the action contained in the Greek verb ; thus, from xaXs'w, I name, we have %s-av, and put them quickly to fight. As the aorist does not definitively mark the point of time when an action was Derformed, but only denotes generally that something has taken place at some period or other of the past, the Greeks use it also to indicate that something has occurred repeatedly at different periods, or that something is wont to take place. Such an aorist is translated in English by the present, or by the auxiliary verbs, to be won*, to use, &c. as 2ux°arrig s8iSa%s j, when something is not likely to be positively denied, but is on- ly stated as unlikely to occur. In this case we com- monly translate the subjunctive by the future ; as, ou /jtfq e7irw, J will not say. — sav tovs itaX, yivoio trur^s evx£)v K^ohj's, hear then, O Croesus. 3. If the requisition is to be expressed negatively, as a pro- hibition, or dissuasion, the negative |xjj must always be used. In this case also the imperative stands in the present, when the action is conceived as permanent, consequently always when, being begun, it is to be discontinued. On the contrary, instead of the imperative of the aorist, which should enter when the action is conceived as momentaneous, therefore principally, when an action not yet begun is to be omitted, the Attics, at least, commonly use the subjunctive of the aorist : thus, w fxoi avriXsys refers to the contradiction having already begun : " Dont be contradicting me :" whereas /uwj f^oi ccvriXs'^g is used when the contradiction is to be prevented. So fwg xXsVts and W xks-^-fls, the former a general dissuasion from theft, the lat- ter in reference to a particular and individual case. 4. The Greeks form also an imperative of the perfect. Such an imperative denotes either a permanent stale ; or it refers merely to the recollection of some past occurrence, and is used in assuming that a past action has been performed at a differ- ent time or in a different manner from what is really the fact ; or it indicates generally a perfectly^ finished action. 5. The imperative following cuVd' 6Vi, oiVd 1 o, ofcd' us, is to be explained elliptically in the same way as the English con- structions of this kind, wherein the imperative, which follows in the Greek, precedes ; as, oititf o Sgatfov ; do, you know what 1 — ofrfd' us iroiricfov ; make it, you know hoiv ? The Infinitive Mood has already been consider- ed under the Syntax, to which the Student is therefore referred. 272 PROSODY. [Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the quantity of syllables in the construction of verses. In the ancient Grammarians, ifgoduSia. applies also to accent. The vowels s, o, are naturally short ; *i and w naturally long ; but a, i, u, are called doubtful, being long in some syllables,, and short in others. The quantity of syllables is determined by various methods : — ] 1. POSITION. A short vowel, or a doubtful vowel, before two consonants or a double letter, is almost always long ; as Ssm t tis xkayyrj, auraj? ifxs Zej£ Kara (pje'va, iroXkas axog ; X6£<$af , xogSaxog ; vsaf , vi&xog l*E ^ayoj ; cfuP(pa%, tfugcp&xog ; 4>ai'a|, <£cuaxcs ; [and, in general all Nouns ending in a| pure,] are long. Genitives in avog, as ai, sxf6r\v. The Perfect follows the quantity of the First Future, as cpvu, ipotfw, tfspoxoc. Verbs in irrw, — except those in u#tw, and iriVrw and £iVrw, — shorten the penultima of the Perfect. 275 In the Attic reduplication the penultima is short, as ogforu, The Perject Middle follows the quantity of the Second Aorist, as sVOirov, rirvrfa ; except (3iQf>T8o., sffcrya, xexgayu, xs- xgTya, fxs'jxoxa, tfiirgaya., necpglxa, rirgrya, &c. The doubtful vowels before tfi are long, as rsfvyot&i, Seixvvifi. [yid. pages 36 and 153.] In the First Aorist Participle, atfa is long. [In the Second Conjugation a is short, except in the Third Person Plural of the Indicative Mood, the Subjunctive Mood, and the Participles of the Active Voice ; 'ifaapiv, i'tfcafli. WtSl. van, i'aVafl'o, &c. In the Ionic dialect a is short in the penult, of the prater Tenses, as ysyda, yzycius ; in the Third Person Plural of the Passive Voice, as sarai, SsS^oLto ; in the Second Person of the First Aorist Middle, as ££sufa». But the Ionic a, in Verbs in aw, is long when it is preceded by a long syllable, as jas- voivaa. In polysyllabic words of the Fourth Conjugation u is short, except in the Singular Number of the Present Tense Active Voice, and in the Third Person Plural, as £suyO|xi, gsuyvutfi, &c. In dissyllables it is always long, as §WSi', sSdrs, (Sovcci, &c] In the First Future a, i, and v, followed by tfw, are short ; as Saujxa^w, Sau/xatfw ; vofju'^w, vofjua'w ; xXv^u, xXutfw. ' But atfw is long from Verbs in aw preceded by a vowel, or in £aw, as Ssov, &c. [CUSTOM OR AUTHORITY. [In the Superlative a is always short, as alvordiTog. The penult, of Verbs in avw is short ; au^ocvw, however, is sometimes lengthened, and cp8uvu always in Homer, but in the Attic writers it is short. 'Ixavw is always long. The penult, of the Present and Imperfect of Verbs in aw is short by nature, but it may be made long by poetic licence, or by the insertion of the digamma. Nouns in awv have the penult, long, whether their incre- ment be long or short, as Ilotfsi&xwv, Ma^awv. Neuters in avov have the penult, short, as ojyavov, Sgeifavov. 276 Proper names, and names of stones in arris, have the pe- nult, long, as Evcpgarys, 'k^ar^s, except Takarrjs, AaX^arris, EtyvSarys, and a few others. The penult, of patronymic Nouns in a5r,s is short, as U77- XrjiaSris. Most proper names of females in ais have the penult, long, as Nats, k&ts ; but masculines in ais are short, as KoiXous, The penult, of Adverbs in axis and uxt is short, as tfoKhaxtg, roddaxt. In numerals the a is long, as rgtaxotfios ; and also in Verbals in acfiSi atftjAos, aros, wty, arr\s, arixos, derived from Verbs in aw ; as xgatfts, ta(fi[ios, 6saros, tarty, 6iar r t)S, &c. but in Nouns derived from Verbs of other Conjugations the a is short, as Suvaros. 'Avr]g has a in the Nominative common, but in the oblique Cases and its compounds it is long. Verbs in tu have the penult, sometimes long, and sometimes short. Also Verbs in ivw, as rim, *}£> xrXrv\S- Patronymics, and most other Nouns in i,v*j, have the penult, long, as Nvifwi, d^Tvri ; except siXcwrrvrj, and feminine Adjec- tives formed from masculines in tvos, as fju;££rv<>], xeSgTvu. Derivatives in ufts, tros, are short, as xgtiis, dngTros, &c. ; so in txos and ipos, as trguxrixos, votfrTpos. But those in ijxcc vary according to the quantity of the penult, of the words whence they are derived, as x£i>cc from xsxfjxo.t ; x? 4 "^" from %|Fw. Comparatives in iwv have the penult, long in Attic, short elsewhere. The penult, of Verbs in ww, vgu, v/li, is mostly long ; as, tiivvu, xQgu, Pgvxu ; but in the Tenses derived from the Future it is short ; as, xvgeu, fXagTugsw. Polysyllables in vvvj, as X^otfuvv} ; some Nouns in vrris, as (3ga8vrris ; diminutives in v\os, as /xixxuXos ; and numerous Adjectives in uvos and vgog, have the penult, short. The penult, is short also in Verbals in vtits, as XU (xr]vuTU|, &c. and in the greatest part of those in utoj, wr)g, vrls, as xwxOtoj, |otoj, irggiv, when circumflexed. [But Sophocles makes ^rv, ujj,rv ; and the Epic Dialect has also dfifjuv, Cfji^rv] ; uv. 8. An Antibacchius consists of two long and a short sylla- ble ; as ' ijyclHf rog. Feet of four syllables are sixteen. 1. A Choriambus consists of a long, two short, and a long syllable ; or, it is formed of a Trochee (sometimes called Choree) and an Iambus : as 'tJ/xsts^w. 2. An Antispast consists of a short, two long, and a short syllable ; cr of an Iambus and Trochee ; as x°Xu$?vt.£'XSJ(.'n, or, in the Macedonian dialect, firjv, fcs, j3rj). (7. As GIVoi, Q,Valis, show a guttural in connexion with a labial, so, by a comparison of the forms ?p, which frjp, according to Varro, de Ling. Lat. B. v. p. 45. was further softened by the Ionians into fitjp. So rpdha; dropped its 9 in the form rtVas, preserved by Hesychius in the gloss yiaas, tyddpas. In the same man- ner we may explain the JEolic forms (ScXaTves, fiekdiot, fifoeap (Etym. M, 25 290 Under /3Aify), equivalent to £e\7vcs, AcX^o/, &i\cap, by reference to the primi- tive fi&e\, and derivatives from these, N. B. The German Zwo, i. e. 6o an( ^ many more, for the genuine tiap, viv, on those of Axus in Crete. \ 4. Thirdly, the hints supplied by ancient lexicographers and others are numerous; thus BaAnaurvf, says Hesychius, was the Cretan word for evvi<]»i(los, i. e. FaXiiaojrT/r (com. jJXi/ciaiTJ/f") ; FaVaf and Favjp (com. aval; and avf)p) are given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as iEolic forms, and Fdva£ is also quoted from Alcman by Apollonius ; Fidev (com. fflev) and FoT(com. ol) are obtained from Sappho and AIceus ; Fdpava{com. tlptjvri) is given as iEolic by Priscian ; Thro and Tivvov, i. e. Fhro and Fcvvov, are explained ; the one in Suidas and Hesychius by e\a(Stv, aviXajlev, and the other in Hesychius by \d$e, that is, they are the old digammated shapes of IXcro, (\ro, and, by the same substitution through which IjvBc stood for. 291 %\Qe, hro, and of sXov, by a similar substitution hov or evvov. To this list many might be added, and its limits might be greatly extended by a com- parison of the Greek with the Latin and Teutonic tongues. III. 1. From that which has been advanced it appears, that the labial sound, universally, but especially in its most remarkable form, the digamma, was retained in those words which dropped it in the Attic and common dialects, not by the ^Eolians alone, but also by Ionians, Cretans, and Doric tribes. It has been traced likewise in the languages of other nations besides the Greek. The just conclusion is, that this sound was a peculiarity of the old Grecian, and the tongues related to it, and that its alphabetic character was called JEolic only because the iEolians continued to employ it, as the Latins em- ployed their F, in writings while, with the other Greeks, it served merely for a mark of number. 2. Next to general analogy, the foregoing conclusion is supported by the testimony of ancient authors. Thus, Dionysius Halicar. (Archseol. Rom. p. 16.) treats of the digamma as a letter belonging to the ancient Greeks, who prefixed it, he says, to most words beginning with a vowel ; and Trypho (Mus. Crit. No. I. p. 34.) affirms that the Ionians and Dorians made use of it as well as the iEolic tribes. 3. The question as to its use by Homer must, therefore, first be stated without reference to the condition of his poems ; thus, Is it likely that the Homeric poetry, composed in an early period of Greek history, should have possessed a sound belonging to that ancient epoch, and to the original constitution of the Greek tongue? 4. We may be inclined to answer this question in the affirmative, al- though the sound, in the course of centuries, disappeared from the Ho- meric poems, and was the more certainly neglected in committing them to writing, inasmuch as in Attica, where this process took place, the alphabetic character of the digamma was out of use. 5. The silence of the ancient grammarians as to Homer's use of the digamma does not make against this opinion. They found their copies of the poet destitute of that character, and thought the less of restoring it to its original rights, from perceiving it to be, in actual use, confined to the MoMc dialect. -j 6. Still, of a sound that exerted so decided an influence over the quantity and form of words, some traces must have remained in the Homeric poetry, which no lapse of time could efface. And these it should be our next step to discover. IV. 1. In the list of digammated words we placed and explained yewov and yivro, i. e. Fivvov and Fivro, old forms of e\ov and '{hero. This yivro or Fevro is found in Horn. II. N. v. 25, twice in 2. vv. 476, 477, and in one or two other passages — in all required by the metre, which would be destroyed by throwing the initial letter away. 2. Of the same nature are yiovirrjaav and ySovwos, that is F&ovirriaav and vSovttos, old forms of SovTrrjuav (ISovtnjaav) and Sovjtos. See Horn. II. A. 45. E. 672. H. 411. K. 329. A. 152. M. 235. N. 154. II. 88. Odyss. e. 465. O. 112. 180. 3. On the same principle may be explained the word atpavSdvei, Od. II. 387. Instead of the , it should be written with a digamma, aFav&dva, that is, the verb is compounded not of and and avSdvw, a very suspicious derivation, but of o privative and Fav&dvw, the old shape of avidvu. 292 1. Where the digamma itself has vanished, the traces of its original presence have remained. No where is ihis so evident as m the pronoun of the third person. Its ancient forms, as was partly pointed out in the list of digammated words, wereFeo, Fidev, Foi, FL That this pronunciation en dured still at the epoch of the Homeric dialect, is demonstrate! firs* by the negative ov, which is so placed before them, as if not an aspirated vowel, but a consonant followed it : thus, hel ov ZBev karl \cpeiJ>v, II. A. 114. ov ol freira, II. B. 392. Compare II. E. 53. P. 410. Od. A. 262. hd «.« k, II. St. 214. Now, had the pronunciation not been ov redev, ov Fot, ov re, both the pronunciation, and afterwards the orthography, must have been ov^ Wtv, ovx ol, ovx i, like ovx bain, Od. X. 412. ov% ianio-Briv, II. r. 239. and. other similar collocations. 2. Another clear trace of a lost digamma is the absence of the para- gogic N before this pronoun in Sate ol, II. 2. 4. 6? ki o'i aZOi, II. Z. 2bl ol k£ i, II. L 155. and a number of other passages, which must have been Saw ol, ksv ol, Kiv i, and so on. had they not been pronounced &aU toi, k£ rot, ici fs, and the like. A great many examples of apparent hiatus will be remedied by restoring these words to their original form. See Iliad A. 510. B. 23S. X. 142. 572. Od. IS. 353. Z. 133, &c. The collocation 6i ol alone, without elision, oc- curs in more than one hundred instances. 3. In a great number of instances, also, a short syllable is lengthened before the cases of this pronoun, without the aid of ceesura, — a most de- cisive proof that they had in their beginning a consonant which gave the force of position to preceding syllables. VI. 1. By similar tests we may prove that many other words had the digamma in Homeric versification, especially such as are known to have had it in the ancient form of the Greek tongue. a. When short vowels suffer no elision before them: as a*pia II. A. 4. (read FtXtipia and compare Thro, i. e. F«ro above) ; 'ArpdSys re ai/a|, II. a. 7. (read Fdva%, and compare above II. 4.) b. Wlien in composition, also, neither elision nor crasis takes place ■ as Siaeuriutv, inidvo'avE, aTr6enre, acpyos, aayrjg, afKijri, asXntfs, tK&tp- yos, OeouSrjs, all of which are compounded of words that, according to various authorities, had the digamma in the old language. When verbs, where it appears that they should have the temporal augment, take the syllabic, as ea^e, 'ial-av, II. H. 270. Od. r. 298. id\j], II. N. 408 ; have the digamma converted into v still remain- ing ; as tZaSsv, II. E. 340. P. 647. 2. In this way it may be easily demonstrated, that most of those words., which were pronounced with the digamma in the ancient tongue, retained the same peculiarity in the Homeric language. The non-elision of vowels before them will alone be a sufficient test with reference to many vocables. Thus, with reference to several beginning with a ; and particularly, under the words aval and dvdaaa, see the Misc. Cric. of Dawes, p. 141. who has collected all the examples in Homer, and amended those passages which seem to oppose this notion. 3. With reference to words that begin with e, it is necessary to ob- serve : a. That the syllabic augment, originally, did not differ from redu- plication, (as the forms tst^kovto, \e\a9ftjQai, XcXdKovro, AsXa^fir, neQpaSiuv testify), so that digammated verbs would have the di,- 293 gamma prefixed also to their augments. For example, since eXnojiai was really FeXirojuai, and cikui Fcikw, therefore 'OSvorja UXrrero, Od. *. 345. should be 'OSvarja FsFi'SirtTO : lis tima coikc, II. r. 158. should be sis <5^a FiFoiKe, and so in similar instances, b. But since, even in Homer's time, the first consonant of the redu- plication was so far shaken, that it appeared only in certain words, and in these not universally, (for we find tA^oi', e\a%£, &c. as well as \t\dxr]Tt, II. *. 76. \t\dx^ and its varieties and derivatives ; flw™, £\ ob\ajx6s t oJXoj. VII. 1. But few words, however, are used by the poet, without exception, in. the manner required by the digamma, with which they commenced ; viz. such as but rarely occur. These are &\Svai, dpaids, Uvov, tdeipai, cdvos, Za-xepos, err/s, £pf>, ijvoip, tov, loSvcpis, lovBds, ovXajxds. 2. In all the rest, either a greater or less number of instances oppose the digamma. But few, however, as we have seen, in the case of to, o\, I, &c. Next to these, the digamma is maintained most steadily in the words aval-, acrrv, ci/xa, and cognate vocables; and coikc (fIfoike or cfouct), a word which occurs in 115 places, only nine of which reject the digamma. With re- gard to the exceptions, in the case of these words, therefore, it may be re- ceived as certain, that the ignorance of later times, when the digamma had been banished from the Homeric poems, and the alterations to which the poems were subjected, were the real causes of their introduction. 3. But in the case of other words, considered as having had the digamma, so many places and such undeniable readings militate against the use of this letter, that the ignorance above alluded to, and the alterations produced by it, will not suffice to clear up all difficulty. Thus, there appears in twenty-five places fiowiris rdrvta "Hpri, leading us to the form Ffipr; ; and, on the other hand, we find Ota \tvK?Xe- jsta^ff) <5' eiKvla ; vvv 5' eicaOev ; tv S y o'IkjS' 'iKiuOai ; h< 5' olviv 'iyr.oev, &C (fee. 7. The licence given to the simple Si cannot be refused to '6Se, ZSe, obSi, and SO rSS'' elirijievai, II. H. 375. w5' eiTcr/ariv, II. H. 300. o'i5' i> Traic": d^ivvu, II. n. 522. may stand without offence. 8. Fi exerts the same force as Si in the suppression of a following as- pirate. Since, then, Si suppresses the digamma as well as the ami; ate, the same privilege may be allowed to yi ; and we may preserve, without any offence to the digamma, airup by faV p' dufj, II. 6. 406. bfp e'l-w, II. H. 68. and, in a similar man- ner, lv- ilSjjs ; ap^ar avdnriiiv ; iciSv' elovia ; /caX' ehvla ; ela-OjL eK&arriv ; tcQi y ekijXoj ; Tipjiaff tKiaiyojiev ; SiXjivqji Jvr^crcrt, &C. 10. Still a much greater number of places lemaiaa that reject the inci- pient digamma in words to which it belonged, without any apostrophe to suppress that letter: so that the question arises, Whether tm d gamma may be supplanted as well by the necessities of versification as by the in Jluence of apostrophe ? 11. To account, generally, for the disappearance of the digamma, let us observe, a. What was previously said as to its attenuation and rejection, whence we may understand how some words, originally dom- inated, such as Favfjp, Ft\i. ■;, FvSoop, entirely lost the digamiria in the Homeric dialect; and how others, though they retained digam- ma in themselves, lost it in their derivatives, as FT0; in "If6i^oj, 'l^m- XeiSrjg ; FiSov in "lSofjievev( ; FeXiaau) m t'X'moSes; Fiirot, in h/iffira. b. The disappearance of other consonants from the beginning of words. Thus i>A\evpav and d\evpov; Ka-Kr\vr\ (Thessalonian) and airfivn; especially that of it in aXj, hat. sal, Eng. salt ; 'h, Lai. sese, Eng. self; t£etv, Lat. sedere, Eng. sit ; elf, hat. sex, Eng. six; iirrd, Lat. septem, Eng. seven; v-nip, Lat. super ; vn6, Lat. sub ; 2y, Lat. sus, Eng. sow ; and from the middle of w ards, us Mo3cra, Spartan Muia ; KXtorca, Spart. KXeux! ; irai^uvauiv, Spari. ira-55(-)ai/| Movado.iv, Lat, Musarum; iroinTdwv, Lai. poetarum, &c 295 12. Moreover, that the same word, at the same epoch, might be pro- nounced with or without the digamma, according to the exigencies of metre, — as ¥£iirov or elvov, ripyov or epyov, — we learn from the analogy of words, which, in like manner, retain or reject some other initial consonant. Thus, K in Kiiiv, Iwv : as, Xe^osSe kiwv, II. r. 447, and in other places, but Ail- avros Wv, II. A. 138, &c. : the latter forms (Mv, lovaa, foiev, &c.) are found in about 200 places, the former (/ci(ii», nwvaa, tcloficv, k'ioits, &c.) in about 50. A in \ti(3w, £i/3a) : as, Ait Xelfieiv, II. Z. 266, (fee. but Sdxpvov d(3et, II. T. 323, &C : in \atyt}p6$, al4>vp6s : as, jiivog Xai^-qpd re yovva, II. T, 323, &C. : as in Xai^r]p6g, abpripds : as, jtivos Xaiiptipdre yovva, II. X. 204, &C but -KavojiaC atyrjpbs Se Kdpog Kpvepolo ydoto, Od. A. 103. Compare II. T. 276, &c. M in ftia i'a : as rw oe jxirjs vepl vrjbs c^ov ir6vov, II. O. 416, &C but rrjs fiev Irjg c-Ti^bi i/px £ , 11- n. 173, &c. as the necessity of metre may de- mand. The form "a is even occasionally found employed merely to avoid the repetion of p, as b> Se Ijj (read r' Ijj) Tipjj fyuv kokSs, II. I. 319 ; just as, without necessity, the fa : /juris, yaia, yalr\s, yalav, &C., according to the exigencies of the metre, might also be pronounced as liiv, io/Acv, e'i(Suj, al^vpu;, Irjs, ala, alrjs, alav, &c. it need not seem extraordinary that diganmiated words should, on the same principle, sometimes throw away the digamma ; especially since, in their case, the mutability of the letter, its suppression after apostrophe, and its entire extinction in later times, come in aid of such a supposition. Thus we may allow, in one series of examples, the collocations dXXd, vdva%, aK\a Tdvacaa, TaXahi&ao ■gdvaKTOi, &C. ; and, in another series, yap dvaKTos, [iev dva^, r)g xep avauae, Svydv avaxros, &c. : in one place tydpfiaKa feiSihg, and in another, dye pev ei- odm ; in one place dvhpa vima-ov, and in another, Qvpbv haon? ; and so fe- ffos 01' e~og. f epyov Or epyov, &C. 14. That which has been here admitted on the grounds of analogy and induction, namely, that the digamma may stand or fall, according to the exi- gencies of :neire is demonstrated — (not to mention again yevro, i. e. ¥ivro or vcXto, which is' found in some places, while e'lXero appears in others) — in the word eaiySovizos, i. e. epiv&oviros, which becomes ipiSovnos when the syllable requires to be shortened : thus, eptyfoviroio, II. E. 672, &c. ipiySov- Tiog T'Stn? HpjlS, II- H. 411, &C. but aKrduiv epi&ovizov, II. T. 50. alOoiarjg epiSov- ttov, II. a, 323, &c. It is demonstrated also in T t "as," which is

j, i. e. fjJ, in II. B. 144., s'nee on that line (Kivrjdrj &' dyopr), &$ K-upara patcpa SdXao-arjs) the Scholiast remarks that Zcnodotus wrote tpr) Kvuara; and thus too at 11. 3. 499. — 6 <5t f,, unless, with Aristarchus, in spite of sense and connexion, we give up lilt verse altogether, from an uncritical horror of the tford

j or f^. 15. Lastly, in furtherance of our proofs, we may cite also those forms, which, as we shdl presently see, had the digamma in the middle of the * Doubtless from manuscripts. It may be observed, by the way, that Hcmeri i criticism would gain much in clearness and certainty, if more at- tention weie paid to Zenodotus, and to his important and remarkable read- ngs of the poet's text, than to the often partial and pedantic Aristarchus. 296 Word, and yet dropped it as the verse might require : thus, tS/csAaji. e. ?F*»r Ao? and £/«;Aoj, avrap i. e. atrip and drdp, 'Arpsitiao i. e. 'ArpeMaFo and 'Arpse- <5cw, Fai) were deposited ; we find also hiPSas, i. e. im Sairi, according to the Scholiast on Pind. Pyth. iv. 249. and aipSr/v, there quoted; pv/xflos from j>vu> in the Etym. Majrn. Add "o-foj, apropos. The sound is retained in yapflpos, iicarinfipir}. To this class belongs also the well-known AFYTO, pro- perly &vt6, in the Delian inscription. Now as Taos, ovXai, yvpos, have come from vltxros, SXrai, yipvos, so similar long vowels and diphthongs appear to be 297 of similar origin_ as oi^a/iis, _ ipoiwfvom _ip6eo, u/i/i, from rhoi, riVjtrj. So Hjii'Xos, iriS'i'Xov, TriSal;, (pvXov, 4 i 'X w i ^"X^i ^Tuti). 3. The digamma stands also between vowels : avarus, Sarog (ararof) Z.tos ; Achivi, 'A.%atsot ; cevum, ahv must have arisen, after the neglect of the digamma, from the contraction of -dwv to -aw, and the insertion of o. ' From all this it seems already clear that, in the old language, the digam- ma appeared very commonly in words between the open vowels. 5. It has already been stated that, before a vowel, the digamma often pass-- ed into u, in Greek into v. Priscian quotes from Latin the nunc mare nunc siluce of Horace, and the zonam soliiit diu ligatam of Catullus. As aves gives auceps and augur, faveo,Jautor, and lavo, lautus, so from Suoi, i. e. aFi'w, came avio, and with the insertion of d, avdio, audio, from yaiu>, i. e. ya?iw, came gavio (hezice gavisus'), and gaudeo, gaudium. The Etym. Mag. has JEolic avtas, h h&s ; Hesychius has j, fijiipa ; Eusta- thius, p. 548, has avpviKTos for cipbijKTos from avpnaros infr actus ; and Hera- cleides ha?, as JEolic, Sav\6s, Sa\6s (Spartan Safie\6s)> so that it was Sav&ds, SafieXos, Sav\ds, 6a\Sg. Observe also lav%Ev, l&xtv, (in German jauchen, jauchzen). X. Of the digamma in the middle of i»ords in Homer. 1. The digamma appears connected with a consonant, in Homer, hi //%- PXtro, jiepi^'hoiKc, itapfiififfXiaxt. This verb was /ufXw pi(i\w, as, in Hesy- chius, we find (jifiXuv jxiWziv (or, as it should be written, pi\tiv.) Thus liis\ofiac, ftep.ili'XsTo, pinfi\tTo, and so forth. So we may explain aSSr/v, MSrjKd- T£f, eSieicrev, v-Kob'b'daavTts, as having been ciSv7]v, difriKdrrts, £$P£iosv, inro&Fci- oavTis, compared with 7cro?, app.6pas, dp'prjKTOS, from "aios, apropos, dvprjKTOS, compared also with duellum, which was dvellum, dbellum, and hence bel- lum (perhaps connected with -SucAXa), as Duillius, Diiellius, were called likewise Billius, Bellius. "A<5f?;v is found also as aSr/v, without the digam- ma ; and thus it augments the list of words, which retain, or drop this let- ter ascording to the demands of metre. 2. We may conclude, from preceding remarks, that the digamma appear- ed also between open vowels, in Homeric Greek. 'Atw, dio-o-o), Sis, xXms, 'Apiji'ov, &c. since they are never found contracted into atw, ao-ao), oTs, kXjis, ' Aprjon, were evidently pronounced dfiui, aFiWu, Sfij, kA^fij, *Apijviov, as ai- k>jv, dtpyos, &c. were aviicwv, aFtpyos, &c. Thus likewise 8avaK6s, davdaauv, tFacov, dseO'Xov, dvd (alef), alt'.&w, aFeipu), aviano; (not dvfcrnoj), 'AF(<5>?S, aFs- 298 IijXos, d\oFd, (liXojd), aFoXXfo, avo, s (wXf), aFop, aFopr^p, aFof (aJoj), aFaXf0» (aiaXtoj) aFTiJ (uOtjJ), afpi (aOrp;) German athmen, yepaF6s (yepatSs) Or ypaFdj German grau, anciently grav, <5aF,)p, <5dFu> (<5a, ^pa- Fu, ^pt foj, together with all substantives and verbs of the same kind having a vowel before the final vowel. In case of contraction the digamma disap- pears, thus 'Arpeiiavo, ' Arpci&ao, 'ArpdSeia. 3. The Homeric language is full of traces of the digamma changed into v. It appears in the termination eus, as (iaaXcv;, 'oSvaccvs, 'Arprf$, 'A%io>, XP" 10 , were once Oixw, KXdFw, jtvefu, xP dFb) , (German graben) ; and, further, the parts and derivatives of aXulvoy, k6u>, kXew jiiw, %£<«>, as iXeiaaBat, KaBfta, kXvtos, 1>vt6s, %uti5{, point to dAfFw, Kdtm, kX/fw, (properly to make a noise, so the German klefien, applied to dogs — as the German gaffen, Eng. gape, may be compared with %dFo) (vdu, %afva>), &c. 5. In some verbs, the digamma is either retained or dropped in the pre- sent, as 6i(j> or fciu, or is not at all thrown away, as 0aciXevu>, Upnw. In some the a is suppressed instead of it, as ^e<3u», (not x rf(ru )) Od. B. 222, and so x^ ov )> Od. B. 544. x cv " VTWV > Od. A. 214. x e " av > X^ at > &*• 6. In the aorist of dXee/vu from dXtFu, the digamma not only suppresses o-, SXrva, aXevai, aXzvaaBat, &c. but it is also lost itself, as in aXiaaBai, II. N. 436, and so aXeaaBs, aXiairo, in other places, which were undoubtedly aXeFacrBat, iXiFatra. Exactly in the same manner we find cvktjXos and the common ZkvXos, evaSev instead of caSev, aviaxo;, avaraXios, and the strange form airpu- eav, which may be explained aFiovaav, viz. vipvaav with the intensive o pre- fixed. From all this, and the preceding remarks, it seems evident that the diphthongs ai, ei, arose from the attenuation of <»f and h. XI. Hi-story of the digamma in Homeric criticism. 1. Bentley was the first who clearly recognised the traces of the digam- ma in the Homeric poems, and the necessity of attending to it in the treat- ment of the Homeric text. On the margin of Stephanus's edition of Ho- mer in Poet, principp. Her. he marked the lections of several manuscripts, prefixed the digamma to the proper words, and endeavored to alter the ad- verse passages according to its demands, often improving on himself, as he proceeded, and amassing or examining a great variety of matter. From these .jotes he drew up a full and elaborate treatise, in which he goes through the digammated words in alphabetical order, and overthrows all ap- parent objections to his doctrine. The notes alluded to (called the codex Bentleiamis) were sent to Heyne, but not the treatise, and thus the dis- persed observations, and somewhat crude views of the great critic have be- 299 Come known, but the larger work remains, still unpublished, in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, where it was shown to me, in manuscript) together with the above-mentioned codex, in the year 1815. 2. After the labours of Dawes, < and of Payne Knight 2 on the subject of the digamma, this letter found inHeyne'J an eminent protector, who, after his fashion, gave many useful hints, but wavered in his observations, and brought the question to no decision. Both on this account, and be- cause, following the example of his predecessors, he was too prone to change, or to throw suspicion on every passage that seemed to oppose the digamma, and thus to mangle the works of Homer, he gave ample grounds for con- tradiction and even censure. * Soon after the outbreaking of this literary war Hermanns took the held, dividing the truth from error with singular sagacity, and endeavoring with great pains to destroy the arguments against the reception of the digamma into the Homeric poems, but, at the same time, to prescribe proper limits to its use in Homeric criticism. Theneg' lect of the digamma, in solitary instances, he admitted as a proof of the later origin of those passages, in which such instances occurred* The doctrine immediately acquired fresh partisans in Germany, as, for example, Buttmann In his Greek Gramma^ and Boeckh. 8 Recently, a new oppo- nent to the digamma has appeared in the person of Spitzner, who, howe- ver, without combating the other proofs of its existence, rests his hostility to the letter on this single circumstance — that hiatus cannot be, by its aid, en- tirely removed from the poetry of Homer j expellasfurcd, tamen usque re currit.] APPENDIX— B, [OF THE APOSTROPHE, No general rule can be given respecting the use of the Apostrophe in the Greek prose writers, The Attic writers used it more than the Ionic, and the later Attic more frequently than the old, all of them chiefly in the monosyllabic particles St, yi, rt, in the adverbs rore, rirs, &c. in d.XXa, ahrUa, &c. and always in the prepositions which end with o or o ; more rarely in other words. The following remarks may be of service to the student : 1. It depends in some measure upon the sense of a passage whether the Apostrophe is to be used or not : if the sense require that any pause, how- ever short, should be made after a word ending in a short vowel and pre- ceding another which begins with a vowel, the first vowel is not dropped, as abrlKa, er), t'tfp. 2. A short vowel is not cut off before another, when such elision would injure the harmony of the sentence ; nor when a particle is emphatic. 3. The particle apa is Apostrophised before ov and oiv, but not before 1. In the Misc. Critica. 2. In his Analytical Essay on the Greek Alphabet, and Ms edition of the Homeric poems. 3. In his ed. of the Iliad, and, particularly, the three Excursus at II. T. 384. vol. vii. pp. 708—772. 4. See the review of his Homer in the Allg. Lit. 1803. p, 285, 5. In a review of Heyne's Homer in the Leips. Lit. 1803. July. 6. See Boeckh on the versification of Pindar, Berlin 1809 ; and in his edition of Pindar, de metris Pindaricis, cap. xvii. 300 other words. If a particle closely adheres in sense to a preceding word, it does not generally suffer Apostrophe. 4. The Apostrophe is very frequent in Demosthenes, whose orations were written to be spoken, and a leading feature of whose style is rapidity. Upon the whole it seems reasonable to say, respecting the prose writers, that, within certain limits, they used or neglected the Apostrophe as they judged it most conducive to harmony.] APPENDIX— C. [OF CONTRACTIONS. 1. GENERAL ROLES. 1. The long vowels n and u absorb all the rest of the simple vowels. 2. o absorbs all the vowels following it, except o and w. 3. e unites in the diphthong «, or the long vowel ij, with all vowels fol- lowing it except o and , and unites in one syllable with e and o, as Kipa'i, Ktpo: ; opt?, Bpu : S'is, °, ae (lodu, (Sow ; XQ w6u> i X9 vlsS> - 0r > a * so becomes 301 4, yet only in Ionic and Doric. Observe, however, that Oa becomes ou in fiAas, jSoSj, jici^ova;, ftei^ovi ; and also that, in adjectives, the termination oo is contracted into a, and o>; into 7. Oe and Oo become ou, as urtpieaaa, itripmxsua; Trpdoirros, irpoviTTOS ; and in composition a-poiJrpE^'tv for ffpotVpE^iv ; KaKoVpyos for Kaxdcpyos. But observe that ut,dp6os, avri^oos, and other words compounded with £ooj, do not fall un- der this rule ; and that in words compounded of 6/iou, when u is omitted, oe remains unchanged, as bjiocdv/'is ; if follows it is contracted into H(>>p6(piog trom !>fi, as o^Xovroi/, o^Xoi- rov. Xt is not contracted if these vowels are in two syllables, as 06rpvt. In those cases where v seems to coalesce with a vowel following, it may be sup- posed to have taken the power of a consonant like our V. 3. PECULIAR DIALECT FORMS. Frequently, (especially in Attic,) a word that ends with a diphthong or a vowel, is contracted into one with the following word that begins with a vowel or diphthong. If an 1 be among these vowels, it is subscribed : but more properly it is only subscribed when it is the last of the two contracted vowels. The rules are the same as those preceding : only a few particular ones occur. A with a, as rSSixa for t& aSi«i, but only when the second d is short ; thus, not Tad\a but to. Se\a. Ai with a, as Kavi for Kal and ; k£v for xai iv. (The 1 rejected, and aa. contracted.) A with «, as rapd for ra lp&. At with E, as Kayi) for Kal iyu>, itarx for Kal trt. At with si, as k$tvov for Kal oivov ; xv f° r Kat °^ O with a, as , of the article often unite with the simple vowel of the following word, and become a long; as 6 ETEpof, contr. aTEpoj ; rb 'irepov, contr. Bdrepov ; tou mpou, contr. Barlpov ; t-3 hepw, contr. daripw. (In Doric, orEpoj was put for the simple ertpos :) thus also rayaBou for tou aya0ou ; rdv&pbs for tou dvofoj ; ravSpl for ry dyopi, &c. j? ou is written separately, but pronounced as one syllable • also aw; as iyu> ou._ a with at, as ly&Sd for lyca o?5a. a with e, as Tovniypdpnari for r5 E7riypa/i/«m.] 2G 302 APPENDIX.— D, ACCENTS, i The Acute is used on the last syllable, the penultimaj or the antepenul- tima. I. Accents were first marked by Aristophanes, a Grammarian of By- zantium, who lived about 200 years before the Christian sera. He proba- bly first reduced them to a practical system, because some marks must have been necessary in teaching the language to foreigners, as they are used in teaching English. For the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one syllable in every word should be distinguished by a tone, or an elevation of the voice. On this syllable the Accent is marked in the Greek language. This ele- vation does not lengthen the time of that syllable ; so that Accent and Quan- tity are considered hj the best critics as perfectly distinct, but by no means inconsistent with each other. That it is possible to observe both Accent and Gluantity is proved by the practice of the modern Greeks, who may be supposed to have retained, in some degree, the pronunciation of their an- cestors. Thus in Twropivtiv they lengthen the first and last syllable, and elevate the tone of the penultima. In our language the distinction between Accent and Gluantity is obvious. The Accent falls on the antepenultima equally in the words liberty and library, yet in the former the tone only is elevated, in the latter the syllable is also lengthened. The same difference will appear in bd.rona.nd bacon, in level and lever, in Redding, the name of a place, in which these observa- tions are written, and the participle redding. The Welsh language affords many examples of the difference between Accent and Gluantity, as dwlch, thanks. It has been thought by many that the French have no Accent : but in the natural articulation of words this is impossible. Their syllabic em- phasis is indeed in general not strongly expressed ; but a person conversant in their language will discover a distinctive elevation, particularly in public Speaking. This is in many cases arbitrary : thus the word cruel, in ex- pressing sorrow and affection, will on the French stage be pronounced cruel : in expressing indignation and horror, cruel. But the general rule is, that in words ending in e mute the Accent is on the penult ; as formidable} rivdge : in other words on the last syllable, as hauteur, vertu. On one of the three last syllables of a word the Accent naturally falls; Hence no ancient language, except the Etruscan, carried it farther back than the antepenultima. The modern Greeks sometimes remove it to the fourth syllable ; and the Italians still farther. In English it is likewise car- ried to the prs-antepenultima, but in that case a second Accent appears to be laid on the alternate syllable, as determination, unprofitable. In poe- try the metre will confirm this remark. That variation existed in the different States of Greece, which is now observed in the different parts of Britain. The iEolians adopted a baryton fronunciation throwing the Accent back, saying lyia for eyii, S/os for $s6;. n this they were consistently followed by the Latin dialect. But some Words in the latter language changed their Accent : thus in the Voc. Va- leri, the Accent was anciently on the antepenultima, and was afterwards advanced to the penultima. In English a contrary effect has been produced : thus acceptable is now acceptable ; corruptible, corruptible ; advertisements, advertisements ; &c. In Welsh the Accent is never thrown farther back than the penultima, and is rarely placed on the last 303 The Grave is used on the last syllable only ; but when that syllable is the last of a sentence, or followed by an enclitic, ' the Acute is used. The Circumflex is used on the last or the penultima.2 The Acute and the Grave are put on long and short syllables ; the Cir- cumflex on syllables long by nature, 3 and never on the penultima, unless the last syllable is short. 4 No word has more than one Accent, unless an Enclitic follows. Enclitics^ throw their Accent on the preceding word, as avOpwno; ih X"9°}i- P - X e: P e s, Xfipw, XW', X s{ P a ^ 2 Dissyllables, if the first :s long and the last short, circumflex the for- mer, as/io5(ra;8 in other cases,, they acute the former, as povcri;, X^yoj. \6yov. Polysyllables, if the last syllable is short, acute the antepenulthna, as Mpuxos ; if long, the penultima, as avdp&nov. 4 Exceptions xci'Ji Hie lest syllable short : 1. Participles Perfect Passive, as rtrv^ho^. 2. Verbals in eos and sov, as ynaTrios, ypa-ariov. 3. The increasing Cases of Oxytons, as Xajxnas, ^ajjendio; ; rvireli, rvnev- 4. Many derivatives, as natSiov, Ivavrios. as Above tn> Aonian viount. When these Atonies are at the end of the sentence, or following the word to which they are naturally prefixed, they recover their accent, as 'i%ovTts cuipp AveSav -pXoybs »5), Pind. mian s|, Theocr. Sefo S>$, Horn. When they precede an Enclitic, they are accented, as tt /is. ■ 1. The following appear to be excepted at, vvv, oZv, vs, ipvs, fivs, ypav;, vav$, 0J5, ■aaf; -a7s, nvp ; but many of them are probably contractions ; thus vvv, from vivy, ovv from cov, iraj from nda;, navs or ndvrs. Indeed the circumflex always leads to the suspicion of some contraction. 2. Except Participles, and res interrogative, with tiatiuv, Sjuiwv, Stiwv, updrcav, \'iwv, naiiiixv ; Trdvroiv, irairuv, Ktxai ; Tpu>v t (ptiroiv; lotoiv, ojtiov. 3. EiVf(j, roivw, (hare, Sit:, are considered as two words, the latter of which is an Enclitic ; tney cannot, therefore, be cireumflexed. Nouns in £, increasing long, acute the penult, as Siopat;, *rtfpu|, olvlI ; if they increase shcrt, they circumflex it,, as aJAaf, fyf;A£ J'mjus :■ they lengthen the short is in oris, the Genitive of os. %®5 5. Compounds of i&XXu, iro\£u>, %£&>, ^ not w i tn a Preposition, as &);- 6<5Xa f . 6. Compounds of tIktu, ktzWu^ rpifu, with a Noun, if they have an Ac- tive signification, as irpioTorticos, she who produces her first child ; li, I advise : 7i6vrjpo;, laborious ; rp6x<>s, a course \ v, a contest. intjdis, true. AXAa, but. an\6os, simple. &pa, an interrogation. /3iis, a bow. iiSd/jisv, to give. 6oKis, a beam. dm, they are. evl, in. r^0p<5, hostile things fabv, living. $si), a goddess. ■S-iiv, of gods. Ibv, going. ftaXSj, well. Xods, a people. \tvxfi, white. povij, a mansion. jivpiot, innumerable. veb;, a field. voftbf, a pasture. bpQs, together. iteidi>, persuasion. wovnpb;, wicked. rpo^dj, a wheel. &libs, cruel. The list might easily be extended, particularly in marking the difference between a proper and a common name, as Edvflos, a river ; favflfc, yellow j; "Apyoi, a man, or a city ; dpydj, white, &c. In English the same difference may be observed ; thus conduct, produce? Nouns ; conduct, produce, Verbs. Job, the name of a man ; job r a common Word, &c. # # . 3- These exceptions have given occasion to some to inveigh against the 26* 306 FJxecptions with the- last Syllable long. The Attic mode of keeping the Accent on the antepenultima in MeviXe- «5 for MsvAaos, Xt'lcwf for Xifcos ; or the Ionic genitive, as n^'utffw; or the Compounds of ysXus, as fiX6ycXu>s, can scarcely be called exceptions, as the two last syllables were in pronunciation contracted into one. At and 01 final are considered as short in Accentuation, as povoai, avdpoi- rroi. i Except Optatives, as t\rjcrai,2 tstv^ol ; Infinitives of the Perfect in all Voices, of the Second Aorist Middle, and of the Present of Verbs in pi, as TiTvipivat, TETvavo-Giv ; 4 except Adjectives of the 1st Declension, .whose Masculine is 01 the 2d, as ayioi, ayiuv, ayia, ay iW : with crtiaiav, ^XoiWv, and %p;;ff- TICV. Oxytons of the first and 2d Decl. circumflex the C enith'es and Datives, as S. rijifj, Tigris, Tiny, rijiir/i', Tiji']. D. ripa, Ttjialv. P. Tipal } ti^wv, rivals, Tijxas, use of Accents, as vague and arbitrary ; and to- more to neglect them en- tirely. An attempt to. reduce these apparent inconsistencies to a system may tend to rescue this branch of Greek Grammar from that objection. The most general cause of these exceptions is abbreviation. Thus the original form TvxTijxvjaL, on which the Accent is placed regularly, was shor- tened into rvTrTe/ui and rvirrivai, which retain the Accent, on the same syl- lable. From TirvtyEjievai was formed rtrvfivai, from Tviri^cvai rvaiivai, from nerv^d/iei-os TCTVjijiivoi. Verbals in eov were formed from Siov ; thus ypaitriov was originally ypdir' rti.v Siov, necessary to write, whence probably was derived the Latin scri- bendum. Naun'Xo? may naturally be formed from vclutZxzXos for va-jTr\lKnXos. 'HaiSiov is abbreviated from iraildptov, or from irai&tSiov, which is formed from reals, as alyiStov is from aT£. Thus vsavlo-Kos and vaiSio-xo; are probably foruied from vcaviq. and naiSl, with do-xio. It is natural that the cases of a Noun or Participle and the persons of a Tense, should retain the Accent through every intlection ; thus from Xap- 7rus, XnfxndScg, &C. from Tvireis, Tvirforos, &c. and from tvttw, TVirovjitv, tvttov- jiai, &c. So nat jv t Horn. i)#7J tt Kat yrjpaos, Hes. fym> phi •&toj JoTev, SzjC. But the best critics have suspected the genuineness of the readings, pud proposed emendations. In the last passage dcol may be read as a monosyllable. 2. Hence (piXf,oiXijoai. 1. Aor. Inf. QiXqoat, Imper.. Middie. 3. Oixoj cannot be thought an exception, as it is put for owa, of which it is the ancient form. 4. Because it is a contraction from the original form povo-duiv. 5. MtfTijp and ^uyo'rijp, when not syncopatedi accent the penult, in e^ery 307 Vocatives Singular in ev and 01 are circumflexed as (laeCXev, atSoT. Pronouns are Oxytons, except ouroj, Uelvos, Suva, and those in rtpos, an fiumpo;. 1 The Imperatives i\6e, el™, evpe, ISe, and XaSt, are accented on the last, to be distinguished from the 2d. A. Ind. The Prepositions placed after their Case throw back their Accent, as, Seoii arrb. Except ava and 8i& to distinguish them from ava, the Vocative of ava% ; and from Ma, the Accusative of Acts or A/?. Oxytons undeclined lose their Accents when the final vowel suffers eli- sion, as aAX' aye, Trap Ipou. Those that are declined throw an Acute on the penult, as *6\X hi, 8s(v' haOov. Contractions are circumflexed, if the former syllable to be contracted is acuted, as vdogvov;; e, ca, toi, and 8s, after Accusa- tives of motion, as okovSe. Enclitics throw their Accent on the last syllable of the preceding word, if that word is acuted on the antepenult, or circumflexed on the penult, as f/Kovad tivos, fade fxoi. Enclitics lose their Accent after words circumflexed on the last syllable, as dyarfs fit ; and after Oxytons, which then resume the Acute Accent, as dv/jp ns. They preserve their Accent in the beginning of a clause, and when they are emphatical, or followed by another Enclitic. Enclitic Monosyllables lose their Accent after a word acuted on the pe- nultima, as \6yog jwv ; but Dissyllables retain it, as \6yo; fori; else the ac- cent would be on the prfe-antepenultima. 3 The Pronouns preserve their accent after Prepositions, and after Iveia,. or rj, as <5ia cL 'Eo-ri accents its first syllable, if it begins a sentence, is emphatical, or follows dXV, el, ical, ovk, cLs, or tovt, as oIk sari. case, except the Vocative : a case, which from its nature frequently throws back the Accent, as avep, -ndrep, aZrep. 1. Before ye they throw back their accent,, as eywye, Ijxoiys. 2. Except metals, as dpyvpeo; dpyvpovg ; with d8s\^>i8eo;, d8e\ij>t8ou; f Aivsoj Xivovg, iropfipeog rzopebvpous, oiviKeog ipoiviKOvg. 3. If several Enclitics follow each other, the last only is unaccented, as. It rit Tivd (j>rjai ftoi. 308 APPENDIX— E. [DIALECTS. tf The Greek language, like every modern one, was not, in ancient times, spoken and written in the same manner in all parts of Greece : but almost every place had its peculiarities of dialect, both with respect to the use of single letters, and of single words, forms of words, inflections and ex- pressions. Of these dialects there are four principal ones, the JEolic, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Attic. Originally, however, there was but one common language^ and this was tlie Doric;, not indeed the Doric of later times, but a language spoken by the Dorians, from which were derived the iEolic and Ionic varieties, after the colonization of the coasts of Asia Mi- nor. It was not tilt the Greeks colonized Asia Minor, that their language began to assume both consistency and polish. The Ionians were the first who softened its asperities, and, by attention to euphony, laid aside, by de- grees, the broadness and harshness which were retained by their iEolian neighbours on the one hand, and by the Dorians on the other. The rich soil of Ionia, and the harmonious temperature of its climate, combined with the more proximate causes of its vicinity to Lydia, and its commercial prosperity, will account for this change of language. It was from the co- lonies that the mother country first adopted any improvements in her own dialects." II. " It seems probable, that all the Greek colonists in A sia Minor spoke at first a common language. One of the most remarkable features in the change, which originated with the Ionians, was the gradual disuse of the digamma. This letter the Dorians laid aside at a later period ; the iEo- lians, on the contrary, always retained it j whence its appellation of JEolic^ The first change which the inhabitants of Attica made, was to modify their old Doric to the more elegant dialect of their richer and more polished colonists ; so that, if we recur to the period of about 1000 years B. C, we may conclude, that the language of Attica was nearly the same as that in which the Iliad was composed. Subsequently, however, as the people of 1. MatthiaVs Greek Grammar, vol. i. § 1. et seqq. (Blomfield's trans- lation.) 2. " Ut Omnium Grsecarum urbium et nationum origo referenda est ad Thessaliam, Macedonian!, Epirum, et loca vicina, quoniam qui ea loca primis temporibus incolebant, et antea Tpaucol vel UtXaayoi dicebantur, pri- mum "EWtivss leguntur nominati fuisse ab Hellene, Deucalionis filio, qui, ut Deucalion, in Phthiotide, Thessalisa regione, regnasse traditur ; et quo- niam 'EAXas fuit urbs atque regio in Thessalia, cum nondum ulla alia in terrarum orbe nota esset 'EXXa't : ita linguam antiquissimam et primitivam Graecorum, quae proprie dicebatur 'EXX^viti), fuisse Thessalorum sive Mace- donum propriam, sed ab initio, si quidem cum lingua Gx8ecorum,.qualeminr Iibris hodie exstantibus reperimus, imprimis cum Attica comparaveris, valde horridam et incultam, et ba-rbaram potius quam Graecam, reliquarum tamen Grades dialectorum omnium fontem et originem statuendam esse, non verisimile modo, sed peene certum est." Sturzius de Dialecto Macedonica et Alexand.- % 3.. 309 Attica embarked in a more extended commerce, the form of their dialect was materially altered, and many changes were introduced from foreign idioms." III. ' The -EOLIC DIALECT prevailed on the northern side of the Isth- mus of Corinth, (except in Megaris, Attica, and Doris) as well as in the iEolic colonies in Asia Minor, and some northern islands of the JEgean Sea ; and was chiefly cultivated by the lyric poets in Lesbos, as Alcseus and Sappho : and in Boeotia, by Corinna. It retained the most numerous traces of the ancient Greek : hence also the Latin coincides more with this than with the other Greek dialects. It is peculiarly distinguished by re- taining the old digamma, called, from this circumstance, the Molic digamtna. Akffius is considered as the model of this dialect." IV. " The DORIC DIALECT, as being the language of men who were most of them originally mountaineers, was hard, rough, and broad, parti- cularly from the frequent use of a for y and u ; as for instance, a \aQa, rav Kopav, for fi \rj6ri, r&v Kuptiv : and from the use of two consonants where the other Greeks employed the double consonant; as, for instance, ; in avoiding the col- lision of several vowels in two different words, by contracting them into a diphthong, or long vowel ; in preferring the consonants with an aspirate, whilst the Ionians used the tenues ; &c. Thus arose the middle Attic, in which Gorgias of Leontium was the first who wrote. The writers in this dialect are, besides the one just mentioned, Thucydides, the tragedians, Aristophanes, and others. The new Attic is dated from Demosthenes and iEschines, although Plato, Xenophon, Aristophanes, Lysias, and Isocrates, have many of its peculiarities. It differed chiefly from the foregoing, in preferring the softer forms ; for instance, the 2d Aor. cvWcyuq, cnralXaycis, instead of the ancient Attic and Ionic, avW^deh, caraXKayOtis ; the double pj> instead of the old pa, which the old Attic had in common with the Ionic, Doric, and iEolic ; the double rr instead of the hissing aa. They said also, irXzyjxmi, yva)%za6ai for rav, to swim, and aporpi$v for apovv, to plough. Against this, however, the Grammarians often pedantically and unreasonably struggled ; and, in their treatises, placed by the side of these offensive or inelegant modernisms the true forms from the old Attic writers. Hence it became usual to understand by Attic, only that which was found in the ancient classics, and to give to the common language of literature, formed in the manner indicated, the name of Koivrj, ' the vulgar,' or iWvvt- *ij, 'the Greek,' i.e. ' the vulgar Greek. 1 This koiW) fiidXcKro;, after all, however, remained essentially Attic, and of course every common Greek grammar assumes the Attic dialect as its basis." IX, " To the universality, however, of the Attic dialectj an exception was made in poetry. In this department the Attics remained the models only in one branch, the dramatic. For the other sorts of poetry, Homer and the other elder Ionic bards, who continued to be read in the schools, remain- ed the standard ■. The Doric dialect, however, even in later da} r s, was not excluded from poetry ; on the contrary, it sustained itself in some of the subordinate branches of the art, particularly in the pastoral and humorous. When, however, the language that prevails in the lyrical portions of the drama, that is, in the chorusses and passionate speeches, is called Doric, it is to be remembered that the Doricism consists in little else than the pre- dominance of the long a, particularly in the place of v, which was a fea- ture of the ancient language in general, and retained itself for its dignity in sublitne poetry, while in common life it remained in use only among the Dorians i" X.i " The Macedonian dialect must be especially regarded among those which are, in various degrees, incorporated with the later Greek. The Ma- cedonians were allied to the Greeks, and numbered themselves with the Dorians. They introduced, as conquerors, the Greek cultivation and re- finement among the conquered barbarians. Here also the Greek was spo- ken and written, not, however, without some peculiarities of form which the Grammarians denominated Macedonian. As Egypt, and its capital ci- ty Alexandria, became the principal seat of the later Greek culture, these forms were comprehended under the name of the Alexandrian dialect. The natives also of these conquered countries began to speak the Greek (i\\ij- vl£eiv), and such an Asiatic Greek was denominated iWriviurfi;. Hence the style of the writers of this class, with which were incorporated many forms not Greek, and many oriental turns of expression, was denominated Hellenistic. It need scarcely be observed, that this dialect is contained in. the Jewish and Christian monuments of those times, especially in the Sep- tuagint and in the New Testament, whence it passed, more or less, into the works of the Fathers. New barbarisms of every kind were introduced during the middle ages, when Constantinople, the ancient Byzantium, 1. Patten's translation of Buttmann's account of the Greek dialects, (ap- pended to Thiersch's Greek Tables.) Note 12; 312 became the seat of the Greek empire and centre of literary cultivation. Out of this arose the dialect of the Byzantine writers, and finally, the yet living language of the modern Greeks;" XI. i " As regards more particularly the Greek of the Scriptures, it must be ob- served, that the language of popular intercourse, in which the various dia- lects of the different Grecian tribes, heretofore separate, were more or less mingled together, and in which the Macedonian dialect was peculiarly pro- minent constitutes the basis of the diction employed by the Seventy, the writers of the Apocrypha, and those of the New Testament. The Egyp- tian Jews learned the Greek, first of all, b} r intercourse with those who spoke this language, and not from books ; for they had, in the time of our Saviour, a decided aversion to Greek culture and literature; When they appeared as authors, they did not adopt the style of writing employed by the learned, but made use of the popular dialect, which they had been ac- customed to speak. The character of this dialect, however, can be only imperfectly known ; as the Septuagint, the New Testament, and some of the fathers of the Church, exhibit the only monuments of it, and these are not altogether pure. Since, however, much which belonged to it was peculiar to the later Greek writings ; so writers in the Koivit SkiXckto;, particularly Polybius, Plutarch, Artemidorus, Appian, &c. and more especially the By- zantine historians, may be used as secondary sources. That this later dia- lect had peculiarities of its own, in several provinces, is quite probable ; as the ancient Grammarians, who have written upon the Alexandrian dia- lect, have asserted. Accordingly, some find Cilicisms in the writings of St. Paul ; though tliis hypothesis is rejected by recent critics as untenable and devoid of any firm support. The popular Greek dialect was also inter- mixed by the Jews with many idiomatic forms of expression from their na- tive tongue. Hence arose a Judaizing Greek dialect, which was in some degree unintelligible to the native Greeks, and became an object of their contempt." XII. As respects the Latin language, which many have regarded in its origin as only another dialect of the Greek, it may be remarked that three differ- ent tongues combine to form it, viz. the Celtic, the iEolic Greek, and the Pelasgic. The basis of the Latin tongue appears to be the Celtic. a The iEolic Greek is supposed to have been introduced by some of the wander- ing remnants of the iEolic tribes 3 who had fought before Troy, and were driven by storms on the coast of Italy when returning to their homes ; while the Pelasgic came in with that ancient race when they laid the foun- dation of the Etrurian commonwealth. 4 Whatever the Greek and Latin possess in common with the Sanskrit (Sonskrito) language, appears to have been obtained through the medium of the Pelasgi ; and it is remarkable that, as this ancient people made a permanent settlement in Italy, so the Latinpresents far more traces than the Greek of affinity with the Sanskrits 1. Winer's Grammar of the New Testament, by Stuart and Robinson.; 2. Oxford Classical Journal, vol. 8. p. 119. seqq. 3. Mannert's Geographie der Griechen und Roemer, vol. 9. p. 562. 4; Lempriere's Classical Diet, articles Hetruria, Italia, Pelasgi ; An- thon's edit. 1827. 5. Schlegel, ueber die Sprlche und Weisheit der Indier, p. 6. et seqq. Bopp's Analytical Comparison of 'the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Teuto- nic languages, (Biblical Repertory, vol. 2. p. 165 et seqq.) 313 XIII. i " The opinion that the Greek and Latin owed their origin to the Sans* krit, and consequently that the last is of greater antiquity than the other two, was never, we believe, questioned till Mr. Stewart broached a directly opposite doctrine in his last volume of the philosophy of the Human Mind. In this he has been supported, with much ingenuity and learning, by Profes- sor Dunbar, in his Enquiry into the Structure of the Greek and Latin Lan- guages.a In the Appendix to this work, he has endeavoured to establish the derivation of the Sanskrit from the Greek. Mr. Stewart supposes ' that the conquests of Alexander in India, and the subsequent establish- ment of a Greek Colony in Bactrim diffused among the native inhabitants a knowledge of the Greek language, of wliich the Brahmins availed them- selves to invent their sacred dialect.' It does not clearly appear, whether the opinion of Mr. Stewart and Professor Dunbar is, that this dialect was formed simply by adapting Greek terminations to the vernacular tongue, cr by forming it entirely from the Greek. But, take whichever supposition we please, the opinion is equally groundless. The object of the Brahmins was to invent a sacred dialect ; that is, a dialect not understood by the mass of the people. But if they merely combined Greek with the vernacular tongue, so as to make the terminations of the languages coincide, particu- larly the inflections of the verb, as is the case, the sacred language would, with very little trouble, be learnt by the people. If, on the other hand, the Brahmins formed the whole of their sacred dialect from the Greek, with perhaps some few alterations either in the vocabulary or in the gram- matical structure, it must have been understood by the Greek inhabitants of Bactria; and, if Mr. Stewart is correct in his opinion, that the conquests of Alexander, and the Greek colonists had diffused among the native inha- bitants a knowledge of the Greek language, the sacred dialect must have been equally accessible to them. Mr. Stewart admits, ' that it must be as- certained from internal evidence which of the two languages was the pri- mitive and which the derivative ; and whether the mechanism of the Sans- krit affords any satisfactory evidence of its being manufactured by such a deliberate and systematic process as has been conjectured.' Merely calling the attention of the reader to the absurdity of supposing, that any language ever was or could be formed by such a deliberate and sys- tematic process, we shall now examine the internal evidence adduced by Professor Dunbar, in support of the derivation of the Sanskrit from the Greek. The Professor maintains, that the Greek verbs of motion and ex- istence form the terminations of every verb in Sanskrit The verbs of mo- tion and existence are undoubtedly very similar in those two languages, but which are the original, and which the derivative, is not proved. His strong- est evidence, however, is this : the Sanskrit augment, significative of past time, is borrowed from a Greek word, which, however, was not employed as an augment in the earlier periods of the Greek language ; therefore the Greek could not have been derived from the Sanskrit, but the latter must have been derived from the Greek, at a time when the augment was used. ' The augment.' he says, was f just coming into use in Homer's time, as he seldom uses it, unless when compelled by the nature of the verse.' He gives several examples of the separate use of the essential verb, (from which the augment was afterwards formed,) even when the language was carried to its 1. Foreign Review, Number 4. p. 503. 2. An inquiry into the Structure and Affinity of the Greek and l>atin Languages, &c. by George Dunbar, F. R. S. E. and Professor of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. 27 314 highest slate of perfection. This is a plausible mode of reasoning, but, iii our opinion, not satisfactory, nor decisive of the question. The essential Verbs are the same both in Sanskrit and Greek : at the remote period when the latter was derived from the former, it is highly probable that the primi- tive mode of using them separately was universal in the Sanserit. As the Greek became polished and refined, the grammatical structure was chang- ed ; the essential verbs were shortened and converted into augments. The Brahmins, equally attentive to the improvement of the grammatical struc- ture of their language, would soon perceive that the change of these verbs into augments would tend to that improvement. In fact, we know, that in all languages there is a tendency to incorporate words, and to effect this in- corporation by the same processes as were adopted by the Greeks. In our own language, the word loved is, in fact, formed by the annexation of the essential verb, did, to the radical term. In this manner the past tense is formed in the Anglo-Saxon and our oldest English writers. The employ- ment of the essential verb did, separately, unmutilated, and placed before the radical term, does not, we believe, occur in WicklirTe : it was after' wards introduced, but is now nearly laid aside again, except where particu- lar emphasis is meant to be given. From these considerations we cannot lay much stress on Professor Dunbar's argument, grounded on the employ- ment of the augment in the Sanskrit, and its unfrequent use in the Greek Of Homer' s time. But there are other proofs against the doctrine broached by Mr* Stew- art, and adopted by Professor Dunbar, that the Sanskrit is a compara- tively modern language, manufactured by the Brahmins out of the Greekj after the time of Alexander, for their peculiar use. Mr. Colebrook, in his Essay on the Sanskrit and Prakrit Languages, maintains that there is no food reason for doubting that the Sanskrit was once universally spoken in ndia : and, he adds, when it was the language of Indian courts, it was cultivated by all persons who devoted themselves to the liberal arts ; in short, by the first three tribes, and by many classes included in the fourth* He farther states, that nine-tenths of the Hindoo, which, with a mixture of Persic, forms the modern Hindostanee, may be traced back to the parent Sanskrit ; that there are few words in the Bengalee which are not evident- ly of the same origin ; and that all the principal languages of India contain much pure as well as corrupt Sanskrit. With respect to the Sanskrit it- self, ' It evidently derives its origin, and some steps of its progress may even now be traced, from a primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various climates, and became Sanskrit in India, Pahlavi in Persia, and Greek on the shores of the Mediterranean.' To these overwhelming objections to the opinion of Mr. Stewart and Professor Dunbar, we shall merely add, that, in the time of Alexander, the five rivers of the Panjeab, which fall into the Indus, bore Sanskrit names, the same as they do at present. Taking into consideration the relation between the vowels a and u in Oriental orthography, and the connection of the consonants B and V with the aspirate, the Hydasper of NearchuSj Alexander's admiral, is the Bedusta or Vetasta of the Sanskrit. The name given it by Ptolemy, Bidaspes, serves, as Dr. Vincent justly remarks, on this occasion, as well as on all others, * as the point of connection be- tween the Macedonian orthography and the Sanskrit. For the steps by which the names given to the other four rivers, "hj Nearchus, may be traced through the names given them by Ptolemy, to these Sanskrit ap- pellations, we must refer the readers to the first volume of Dr. Vincent's learned and ingenious work on the Commerce and Navigation of the An- cients, pp. 94, 98, 101, 101, 108. See also 146 8, 163, and vol. ii. pp. 388, 395, 411, 432, 494, 500, 669.] 315 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE DIALECTS. The Attici loves contractions, as ^tXS for ^Xtw, jjtieiv for tthw. Its favourite letter is u>, which it uses for o. It changes long into short, and short into long syllables, as Xe&i foi» Xa<5s- In Nouns, it changes o, oi, and ov of the Second Declension into s, G. Xcy, D. XeZ, A. Xei>v, &c. It changes etg into vs, as l7rn*j$ for «V7reij. It makes the Vocative like the Nominative, as 3> -xdrcp, Z 0(Xoj, Soph. In some Nouns it makes the Accusative in &>, instead of wv, wa, or uva ;. as, Xayut, MtVu, EIo<7£i<5ui, for Xaydv, Mtvua, KooeiiG>va.2 It changes the Gen. eoj into euj, as /WtA/wj for ftaoiXios.3 1. A marked difference exists between the OZd and the A r ew> Attic. The former used short and simple forms : the latter softened, and, in some cases, lengthened, the word. The former used the short words 8e7v, dXeiv, &i- pccrOai, veTv, kvcTv : for these the latter substituted Scajxeveiv, aXi'rftiv, Sep/tal- vcz&cu, vqQeiv, Kv-fiBtiv. The Old neglected t, which the New added or sub-, scribed ; the former wrote Kdu>, KXdw, Xwcrrjy, irpuSpv : the latter, naiio, K\atpaoy for fy aov ; cZxu, foiKa for XiX^a, eifiapjiai for liijiapfiat, cTXeyfiai for XtXey/zat. It drops the Reduplication in Verbs beginning with two consonants, as l6\doTr)Ka for fitSKacTVKa. It repeats the two first letters of the Present before the Augment of Verbs beginning with a, e, o; as tiki <■>, iXeica, <5X<6Xe/ca. It forms the 1st Fut. and Perfect of Verbs in w, as from eu ; thus SeXw, $e\r} for niTrr/rwo-av ; Tv^aVTiov for nt/tfrwo-av; and aduiaiv into o-0o)y, as TWKTiaQw, TUTTriaOioaav. It makes the Optative of Contracts in jjv, as and wj into aw, as atSovv for al&6a. In Verbs, it removes the Augment, as 01} for Ifo. It prefixes an unusual Reduplication, as kIko-ixov for ekolhov, \c\a9la0o> for It terminates the Imperfect and Aorists in oxov, as tvtztcokov, rvipacKov, for truTrrov, crvipa. It adds for ££o>.» In Nouns of the First Declension, it changes ov of the Genitive into a, as attfa for atSov. In the Second Declension it changes ov of the Genitive into w, as Scm. for 3to5 ; and ouy of the Accusative Plural into cj and o>y, as Scbs for $£oi>sy 9V0poj7r(i)s for itvOo&irovi. In the Third Declension it changes so; of the Genitive into evy, as ^eiXtuy for ^ttXtoy. In Verbs, it forms the 2d and 3d Persons Singular of the Present in £j, and t, as tvittzs, Tvirrt, for rum-ny, TtiTrra. It changes o/xcv of the 1st, and ovoi of the 3d Person Plural into opes and ovrt, as \iyojiti, \iyovn, for Myopei', \iyovm. It forms the Infinitive in /u* and jievat, as tvtttI^v and Tvirr&pevM for rtnr- T£IV. 3 It forms the Feminine of Participles in oic-a, tvaa, and wtra, as Hhrroioa ■rijirrevaa, and TVTTTwtra, for TU7rn>u<7a. It forms the first Aorist Participle in ais, aiaa, aw, as rv^-ais, cuoa, aiv, for rv^i-as, a for tujitou. In the Middle, it circumflexes the First Future, as -rvipoiifiai for ri^ojiai. It forms the 1st Person Sing, of the Future in zvjiai, and the 3d Plural in bvvtcu, as TVipCVjiaL, TV^SVVTal. 1. The addition of i is frequent in poetry. 2. Z is composed of <5y ; the Doric only reverses the order of those let- ters. 3. It kas been thought that rvi!Ti\ievai was the original form, which was shortened by Apocope into Twrijicv ; the next abbreviation was riirrcev,. which was contracted into tv-ktuv. The Doric shortened it still more intC- rS! ATE!/. 4. Some forms are promiscuously used by more than one dialect. Thuss those in toScv and eaOa are Attic as well as Doric. 21* 318 The JEolxc changes the Aspirate into the Soft breathing, as yuepa for fy/pa.i It draws back the Accent, as fy and u>t into an', as alSSrv for aMda ; and the Genitive ov; into u>j. It forms the 3d Person Plural of the Imperfect and Aorists of the In- dicative and Optative in aav, as hxncTocav for Ittv-htcv.^ It change.: the Infinitive in a> and ow into at; and oig, as yiXats for ytA^v, ^puo-oTj for %pv for Sajidu), lytvro for iyivero. They drop syllables, as cX^t for a\i ; as Ktt from 5j£0j, vavtpt for vaiicri. So avr6fjpi), fuga from , /alio from c$, veapa from , ada, oku, cr7rcD, a^u), f(i)j cio), tivo), jjw, oiaw, ov(d, and u«, as jhSpwOoi^ ffoj, &c. So flpffw from fyu>, &c. They have Particles peculiar to themselves, as fyai, 5>j0a, Ikjjtc, fyos, yla-l*ias Ionic. Doric. .Eolic. Poetic. lySiv, iy&vji, tyii- iyu>, eyuiv, y yib ya, iytivya B. id), Xuvya f/ts3 B. c/xovs tyte* Ifiiu- ijiot, B. fyu) — iijiij fifi-fte aws apiobv, afiiiiiv afifiuv, aftpiiov ajifii, a/i/xiv aftftiixiv fjpehtv cLjias, djut, Sji- ap/tci;, apjifas hpfiai 2i, Doric. JEolic. Poetic ri, rivr], riya Toivrj rev, revs, reovs ?/" " — let, tool Sing. }j, r)aQa ea, »}a, «;, las — liqVj e'rjv^ ij£J, sas, eov, rjov, irjcQa COKOV iaai ivrl EVTl, tZvTt IptVy elficv ire eacrcrt djxU Imperfect. Dual. Plur. ?«v; erjv, >> Sing. earov erev, ctTTijv. ijarov, rjarriv, Pluperfect. Dual. Plur. loav, iaeaVy Iukov tlan Sing. eaeai, taoaai Future. Dua iaevfiai, icajj, faaouai, luati taccirai iaucrai Plur. — laofairal Imperative. — Present. Dual, Plur. Optative.— Present. iarwv $tvrv Sing. iotjtt, iot( ioi Sing. ?u, clta, eric, tfjff, er\, elij, — #cn, inert, — £1170-1 Dual. Plur. | — — | sljiev — — dtv. Subjunctive. — Present. Dual. Plur. ibtflCV, tloptv, — Jwffi t'ujusv, — trial 5/JtJ t» — s !': 322 Infinitive. — Present. I. ipcv, clfitv D. ifievai, elfitvat, Sfpev, Slpts, (Tpss EL. ijifitvai P. l/i/zev Future. P. I, Itf, h/ii or dpi, and ioopl. From lu> are form- ed mis ; hi contracted into t?j ; il ; and from its Future hu> is formed its Middle iaofiat. From eul and laspi are formed he, latrl, or lari, &c. From sfyd we have dm, &c. Thus the Tenses of the Verb sum, are formed from, sum, fuo^forem, «« and dpi. 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