ARMSTRONG'S PRIMER ov UNITED STATES HISTORY ^78 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. iJ^pDy^'jpw^ !"♦ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. DISCOVERIES. 8R/T MADEiRAi^. y- ' lapeake ^ay A " \ ■/ HAfiLES "'T'" lap, - ^' V.V^DOR a)7umJ«s,i:i^2 ■ 'T ^^ --'- RUSSELL & STRUTHEH'..N.r. ARMSTRONGS PRIMER United States History SCHOOL AND FAMILY USE. WITH MAPS. v^'>> NEW YORK : A. C. ARMSTRONG & SON, 714 Broadway. 1881. O Copyright, 1881, By a. C. ARMSTRONG & SON. \^ V A^ PRESS OF J. J. LITTLE & CO., HOS. 10 TO 20 ASTOR PLACE, NEW YORK. "^ PREFACE. Although some decry the primer system because of its necessary meagreness of detail, it is conceded by many that the English primers of history and literature recently published are invaluable as form- ing a foundation upon which a detailed study of the subjects may be based. The same system has been followed in this Httle work. The aim of the writer has been to present simply and briefly, without any attempt at fine writing, the chief events of our coun- try's history, their causes and results. • The work has been published without pictures, for the reason that school-book illustration has reached such a high degree of perfection that an attempt to compete with those already in the market would so increase the cost of the book as to interfere with its general use as a text-book. It always seems absurd, too, to attempt to picture scenes of warfare when the page allows only space for a scene which fails utterly to give an adequate idea of the event illustrated. As the intelligent study of history depends greatly upon a knowledge of the local geography of the coun- try under consideration, carefully prepared maps have 3 4 Preface. been introduced, showing the growth of the country and the scenes of her wars. A full series of questions, classified in chapters, will be found at the end of the book, as it was thought better not to interrupt the narrative by their insertion at the end of each chapter. PRIMER OF UNITED STATES HISTORY. CHAPTER I. DISCOVERIES. The Northmen.— Away up in the northwest- ern part of Europe Hved the Northmen, or Norse, a people who were great sailors. They were a large, strong race, wearing skins of animals for robes, and heavy armor, and who were never content unless they were roving about on the sea, or destroying or carrying off goods belonging to the people on whose shores they landed. So much were they feared, and such fierce fighters were they, that besides Norway and Denmark, they got possession of part of the country now called France, and also of parts of Eng- land. A party of these Northmen sailed from Denmark - about the year 900, and in a storm was driven upon the shores of Iceland. Thus Iceland was found by chance. Some years afterward this island was set- tled by Danes, who made trading voyages back and forth from the mainland. About thirty years after this, Greenland was found by an Icelander who had sailed in a direction not usually taken ; and some of the Iceland people went there to live. One of these trading parties started for Norway, and the ships were separated by a storm. When one of them reached Norway, the leader found that 5 6 The Northmen. [chap. i. his father had sailed for Greenland. He started in the same direction, but another storm drove him to the southwest. After two or three days he found himself near land which he knew could not be Greenland, because he had been told that its shores were rough and covered with ice hills, and these shores were quite flat and covered with wood. So on he sailed, and although he saw land several times, would not allow his men to go on shore. His crew were very angry at this, for the voyage had been long, and they were tired of it ; and perhaps, too, they were curious to know what kind of a country it was that they had reached. How differ- ently the leader would have acted if he had known that these were the shores of a new world ! As it was, he paid no heed to their complaints, and sailed away, and after a few days came in sight of land again. This time it was indeed Greenland, and glad they must have been to get back to their own people, and tell them what they had seen. At last a brave captain, named Leif the Lucky, thought he would like to find out whether these stories were true, and having bought the vessel in which the others had made the voyage, started off with a small number of men, about the year looo. To their great surprise, the land was found just where it had been described. They made several landings before they came to a place which pleased them, and there they built huts in which to pass the win- ter. From time to time they sent out parties to explore the country around, and one day a man came back to the huts in great joy, saying that he had found vines and grapes. He was not believed at first, but the next day others went with him and found them. When they began to think about going home, they filled their ship with felled trees, and piled the deck with grapes. It was on account of the grapevines that Leif the Lucky gave the coun- try the name of Vinland. CHAP. II.] Columbus. 7 Some years passed, and a brother of Leif named Thorvald, thinking that the former sailors had been too hasty in their return, visited Vinland, and find- ing the place in which the huts had been built, spent the winter there. In the spring his men w^ere attacked by strange-looking men, who shot at them with arrows, and then ran away as fast as they could. But the Norse leader was wounded so that he died, and this so disheartened his men that they went back to Greenland. Of course these men talked a great deal about Vinland, and told wonderful stories about the beauty of the country and its pleasant climate ; for, no doubt, even the cold of winter was not as severe as these hardy people were used to bear in their own country. Several other companies were tempted to go to Vinland, and tried to found a colony ; but some were attacked by Indians, against whose arrows the armor of the Northmen was a poor defense ; and others quarreled with their own people, and could not live together. Therefore, as they were not strong enough to live apart, they were forced to give up the idea of settling. It is supposed that Leif the Lucky landed at Labrador, and then at other places on the coast, until he got as far south as Massachusetts ; and that it was here his party stayed. Others went to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Rhode Island. But their discoveries did no good, except to satisfy their love of adventure ; and if it were not for their own legends, it would be difficult to believe that they ever came to our country. CHAPTER IL DISCOVERIES CONTINUED Columbus. — Thus you see that the discoveries of the brave Norsemen were useless, because nobody 8 Columbus. [chap. ii. but themselves knew anything about them. There were no newspapers in those days to tell people what was being done all over the world, nor did people travel about then as they do now. Nearly five hundred years had passed away before anybody else found his way to the new world ; and then it was not thought to be a new world, but a part of the old world, only reached in another way. But, during these five hundred years, great changes had taken place in Europe. When the great Roman empire was destroyed by the fierce tribes that rushed in upon it, scarcely any one paid any attention to the study of geography, and the arts and sciences, as they had done before that time. Now the countries along the Mediterranean Sea began to trade with one another, and to grow wealthy. Of course, the merchants must have trav- eled back and forth, and in that way they came to know not only the people of other countries, but also to learn many things that they did not know before. Among other things that they learned was the art of 3ailing ships. Great improvement was made in ship-building. The mariner's compass had been invented, and sailors did not have to depend upon the stars to steer by. The peopl-e of Western Europe were trying to make use of this nsw knowledge by finding a way to India by sailing around Africa, instead of mak- ing the long, tedious journey that they had hitherto been forced to make overland. At this time a great man appeared, who found, as he thought, a short road to India, but who really gave to Europe a new world. Christopher Columbus, or Colon, was born in Genoa, in 1447. His father was a carder of wool ; but several of his family were sailors, and with them the boy spent his early years. These men hired themselves to any country that would pay them for fighting ; or, if that failed, they attacked CHAP. II.] Columbus. 9 vessels whose cargoes were at all valuable, and took away what they could. Thus Columbus learned to manage a ship, and to govern a crew. In a battle off the coast of Spain the ship in which he sailed was set on fire, and the sailors were compelled to swim for their lives. Columbus reached Lisbon, where there were many of his countrymen, who re- ceived him kindly. Here he married the daughter of a famous sailor, who owned many charts and books about the art of sailing, which afterward be- came his own property. From these, and from what he knew before, Co- lumbus made up his mind that the world was round, but smaller than people thought ; and that the shortest way to India would be to take a v\est- erly direction. For eighteen years he worked hard to make men believe that this could be done. They were afraid to trust the western seas, which they had always- believed to be full of dangers. And, besides, for many years they had thought that the earth was flat, and could not beHeve anything else. First, Columbus went to his native city, and offered to go in search of this wonderful India, and if found it should belong to Genoa ; but he was too poor to go without help, and this help the Geno- ese refused. Then he went to John II. of Portugal, and he was almost on the point of giving him the needed afd ; but the wise men of his kingdom per- suaded him not to do it. Then he went to Spain, where he made many good friends, who did all they could to induce Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen, to help him. At last, when he had made up his mind to give up trying in Spain, and go to England and France, Isabella decided to help him. Three vessels were procured, the Sa7ita Maria, the Finta, and the Nina. The Santa Maria was commanded by Columbus ; the Finta and the Niiia by two brothers named Pinzon. These two were 10 Columbus. [chap. ii. small vessels, and not one; of them was strong enough for a very long voyage. On the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus sailed from Palos, and steered for the Canary Islands, where he was obliged to stop and repair his vessels. Then he started on his way across the unknown ocean. As none of his crew had ever been very far from home, you may be sure the voyage seemed very long. At last they lost all courage, and insisted that Colum- bus should go back to Spain ; but he knew well how to control them, and kept on his way. On the 1 2th of October they were all filled with joy at the sight of land, and soon all were on the shores of an island, which Columbus named San Salvador. But he did not see the cities and palaces, and the quantities of gold and precious stones that he thought he should find in India. When he asked the natives where he could find gold, they pointed south. Then he sailed about, in and out among the islands, but did not find what he sought. Mean- while, the Santa Maria, the largest of his vessels, was wrecked and lost ; and therefore he determined to leave part of his men upon the island to make a colony, while he returned to Spain, to tell what he had found ; for he still thought that the country was a part of India. Back he went in a wretched little vessel, that scarcely held together until he reached Spain. As soon as he arrived, he hurried to the king and queen to tell them of his success. Their delight knew no bounds ; and everywhere he was greeted as the greatest of men, for giving to Spain a country which would add so much to its wealth. They immedi- ately began to fit out a fleet of ships to go back with him ; and many people who before had laughed at him were now quite ready and anxious to join him. This time he took a much larger number of ships and people ; but when he reached Hispaniola, where CHAP. II.] Columbus. II he had left his little colony, no one was there. They had quarreled with the Indians, and had been killed. He then chose another place for a colony, and began building a city ; and, in the meantime, sent bodies of men to explore the country around, and find the gold and wealth he was in search of. When he could be spared from the colony, he too went to explore, and they did succeed in finding some gold. But the people who had come with him this time were angry with Columbus, for making them think that he had found such a rich country ; for they had to work very hard and then could barely live. They sent such complaints to Spain, that Columbus was forced to return, and he carried with him the gold and cotton which he had found. He was also anxious to know what the sovereigns would advise him to do. Ferdinand and Isabella decided that they would send more ships and people to the colony. So, in 1498, Columbus sailed for the third time across the ocean. He sent some of the ships direct to His- paniola, and steered toward the south. After mak- ing several landings, he found that he had reached the mainland of a continent, and not an island, as he had done before. This was his first discovery of the continent of America. Upon his return to Hispaniola, he found that the people had quarreled with one another ; and some of his enemies had so excited the people against him, that they accused him of many things, and carried such falsehoods about him to Spain, that Ferdinand and Isabella sent over an agent to see if the accounts were true, and if true, to send Colum- bus to Spain. As this man too was an enemy, Colum- bus was sent home in chains. His sovereigns were very much shocked at this, and treated him kindly ; but they were so greatly influenced by his enemies that they did not give him back his power over the colony, and he felt 12 Sebastian Cabot, [chap. hi. that they did not trust him. He afterward went on another voyage, but v/as shipwrecked, and suffered so many hardships that he died not long after, in 1506, at ValladoUd. CHAPTER III. DISCOVERIES CONTINUED. Amerigo Vespucci, an ItaUan, went in 1499 on a voyage v/ith Ojeda (who had made one voyage with Columbus) to the country surrounding the Gulf of Mexico. Afterward the King of Portugal gave him three ships, with which he sailed along and explored the coast of South America as far as Patagonia. When he reached home he wrote an account of his voyage, and said that he had been the first to find the mainland of the newly-found country ; and, although all the writers of his time say that the honor belongs to Columbus, the conti- nent was called America, from his first name, Amerigo. John Cabot was a Venetian, living in England, and he thought that if there was a western passage to India, it was to be found toward the north. The King of England (Henry VII.) gave him help in fit- ting out ships, and he sailed in 1497, taking a north- westerly course, until he came to land which, it is now thought, was the island of Newfoundland. He found the country barren and the weather cold, although it was July, and soon returned to England, taking with him three of the savage natives. Sebastian Cabot". — In 1498, John Cabot's son Sebastian made a second voyage, taking a large number of people to found a colony. He sailed along the coast for a long distance, probably from Labrador to Cape Hatteras, looking in vain for the strait which would lead him to India. He returned to England, and afterward, in the service of the King CHAP, iij.] Vasco Niines de Balboa. 13 of France, he made a voyage, in which he sailed up a river which he called Rio de la Plata (meaning river of silver), but did not make another attempt to form a settlement. It was in consequence of the discoveries of the Cabots that England after- ward laid claim to the greater portion of the North American continent. Ponce de Leon, in the year 15 12, left the island of Porto Rico, of which he was governor, to go in search of a land where, the natives told him, he would find not only gold and precious stones in abundance, but w^here there were streams whose waters gave endless youth to those who drank of or bathed in them. He landed on the coast of a country which he called Florida. But it was in vain that he wandered through the country, tasting and bathing in every stream that flowed through the woods ; for, instead of living in endless youth, he died not long after from the poison of an Indian's arrow. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, from the colony at Hispaniola, sailed in 15 13 with a party of explorers down the coast of Mexico, to the isthmus which con- nects North and South America. There he learned that, at the end of a six days' journey, there was another sea, and a land where there were such quan- tities of gold that the people ate and drank from dishes made of it. Fighting their way through tribes of fierce Indians, his people came at last to a mountain, beyond which, the guides said, was the sea. Balboa ordered his men to follow, and climbed to the top. With great delight at his discovery of a new ocean, which from its calmness he at once named the Pacific, he took possession of the coun- try in the name of Ferdinand of Spain. He then hastened down the other side of the mountain slope, and when he reached the water, waded in, and de- clared that it and everything upon it, should belong to his sovereign. 14 Cartier. [chap. hi. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, wanted the King of Portugal to give him a fleet, with which he might go in search of a westward route to the Molucca and Spice Islands, that would be shorter than the passage around the Cape of Good Hope, which sailors then used. For some reason the king refused, and Magellan went to Spain, where Charles V. granted his request. This, you see, was the sec- ond time that Portugal refused to a great explorer and navigator the help that Spain gave, and so lost the honor of discoveries which might have been hers. In 1520 he sailed down the coast of South Amer- ica, looking for a strait that would carry him across the continent, but found none until he came to that which he called after his own name. He sailed through this, and came to the longed-for Southern Sea. But he found himself farther from the islands than he thought, for he sailed toward the north- west for nearly four months before he reached land. This proved to be one of a group of islands which he called die Ladrones. He afterward discovered the Philippine Islands. Here Magellan died ; but his party chose another leader and sailed on, touched at some of the islands in the Indian Ocean, sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and up the coast of Africa, and at last landed in Spain, having sailed around the globe in a little more than three years. Verazzani. — About the year 1524 the northern part of the eastern coast of the American continent was explored for France by Verazzani. He took back such accounts of the good fishing that the Ad- miral of France thought it would be well to found a colony. Cartier. — In 1534 Jacques Cartier was sent with about a hundred men to found this colony. He sailed to Newfoundland, but was disappointed to find that island and the mainland near it barren and rocky. He took possession of the country in the CHAP. III.] Ferdinand de Soto, 15 name of France ; and then, after sailing up the St, Lawrence River some distance, went back to France, taking with him two sons of an Indian chief, whom he promised to bring back the next year. When he returned, he sailed up the St. Lawrence to the Saguenay, and afterward to an Indian settle- ment, to which he gave the name Montreal. The Indians vv^ere very friendly, and the two boys whom he had taken to France helped him very much in talking with them. After his return to the settle- ment many of his men became ill and died, and Cartier took those who were left back to France. Although he was sent with another party in 1541, no colony was founded, and France made no other attempt in North America until 1562, and then a place was chosen in Florida, where the climate was milder, the land more fertile, and everything more attractive than in Newfoundland. Ferdinand de Soto, who, although he had gained great wealth with Pizarro, in Peru, was anx- ious for more gold, sailed from Cuba in 1539, and landed on the western coast of Florida. Several parties had gone to Florida and failed ; but he thought that in the interior parts of this country, as well as in other portions of the new world, precious metals might be found. On his way inland he met a Spaniard who had been taken captive by the In- dians some years before, and he was of great use as a guide and interpreter. The party, learning where gold was to be found, went northward. They forced the tribes of Indians which they met to give them food and be their servants, and were so cruel that often the Indians, knowing very well by this time what the white men wanted, w^ould tell them to go in this direction or that, just to get rid of them. Their next course was westward, as far as the Indian village of Mavilla, now the city of Mobile ; then north again, and at last they came to and crossed the great river, the Mississippi. But, before they 1 6 Virginia. [chap. iv. could find gold and a place to settle in, De Soto died. After his death, his followers decided to re- turn to Cuba. They felled trees for timber, ham- mered chains, stirrups, and everything else of iron that they possessed into nails, and built small ves- sels, in which they sailed down the river, fighting as they went with the Indians, who feared and hated them, and were glad to see them going away. Although these men had been through great dan- gers, although many of their companions had died from want of food and other causes, and although they had utterly failed in what they went to do, yet they carried to the people in the older colonies such an account of a great country yet to be explored, that another party went to explore it. But this met with a like fate, and the Spaniards did not try again to settle north of the Gulf of Mexico. CHAPTER IV. SETTLEMENTS. PART /. — Virginia^ North and South Carolina. — 1607-1670. England had not forgotten the north-western passage to India, and several expeditions went to look for it. The failure of these caused England to send an expedition to discover a north-eastern passage. This also failed. Then the north-western was tried again^ and in 1587 John Davis went as far as Baffin's Bay, but could go no farther because of the ice. At this time Sir Humphrey Gilbert thought that it would be a good plan to send colonies to the New World, and make it a part of England ; for he was afraid that Spain, then an enemy of England, might become powerful in the northern as she had already become in the southern part of the continent. I DURING FRENCH ANDINDI/^ SCALE OF MILES Augustine RUSSELL dt STRurHtrtS,N.Y CHAP. IV.] Virginia, 17 In 1578 he received a charter from EHzabeth which gave him the right to discover, and have for his own, any lands not owned by any other sover- eign. He sailed in 1583 with a large company, intend- ing to settle somewhere between the St. Lawrence and Florida. After landing at St. Johns he started southward, but soon found himself in a fearful storm, which forced him out to sea ; so he Vvcnt back to England, meaning to return the next year for silver, and to plant a colony. But the vessel in which he sailed was lost, and the carrying out of his design was left to his famous half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh. Raleigh obtained a patent from the queen, and sent out a colony under Amadas and Barlow. They returned with the report of a land abounding in fruits and trees and fish and maize, which so pleased the queen that she called the country Virginia. Several attempts to found a colony here were unsuc- cessful. An expedition in 1602, under Gosnold, arrived off Cape Cod, and then sailed southward, touched at Martha's Vineyard, which they named (because, like Leif the Lucky, they had found a land of grapes) ; then explored the mainland, where they would have stayed, but that their stores gave out, and they were obliged to go back to England. But Gosnold was in part the means of causing two companies, known as the London and Plymouth Companies, to be formed in 1606, for the purpose of planting colonies. The colonies of the London Company could settle- between the 34th and 38th degrees of latitude, and those of the Plymouth Company between the 41st and 45th degrees. Virginia. — The first permanent English settle- ment was made under the London Company in Vir- ginia, in 1607. The colony, numbering about one hundred men, entered the Chesapeake Bay on the 26th of April, and landed on its southern shore at a 1 8 Virginia. [chap. iv. point which they called Cape Henry. After they had opened their sealed packet of instructions, and found out who their governor was to be, they spent several days in loolcing for the best place on which to settle, and at last decided upon a place on the James River, and called it Jamestoitm. Not long after their village was built and their forts put up, they became dissatisfied with their governor, Wingfield, and appointed John Smith in his place. Smith traded with the Indians for corn, meat, and other food ; for the colonists would not try to raise any for themselves. He made journeys into the country, and during one of them was taken prisoner, and came very near losing his life. When he got back to Jamestown he found the colony in confusion, and the people, discouraged, preparing to go back to England, Just then Newport came from England with food and supplies, and the people gave up the idea of going home. The help that he brought did not last long, for they, did not take any pains to provide for themselves ; and in 1609, when a fleet arrwed bringing more people and food, the colonists were in such a starving state, the settle- ment was in such disorder, and the Indians so trou- blesome that their leader thought the best thing to do was to leave the place altogether. They were just about doing so when Lord de la Ware appeared with a fleet to take command of the colony. He rebuilt the fort, made peace with the Indians, and from this time the affairs of the colony were more prosperous. The next governor gave each man an amount of land, and made him cultivate it or starve. Tobacco began to be cultivated in 1616 ; and before long the governor was obliged to limit the amount of land on which one man could raise tobacco, or there would have been no land left on which to grow corn, so well did the tobacco pay the planters. Still larger tracts of land were given by the king to CHAP. IV.] Virginia. 1 9 the company, and still more people v.-ere sent over to cultivate it. In 16 19 a Dutch vessel brought some negroes from Guinea in Africa, whom the richer planters bought, and thus negro slavery was begun. In the same year the governor ordered that the peo- ple should appoint men to meet with the governor and council to make laws for the colony. But these laws had to be approved by the company in London before the people were obliged to obey them. Thus, after many difficulties, the first Eng- lish colony was firmly established in America. In 1642 Sir William Berkeley was appointed gov- ernor, and he ruled the cclcny wisely for ten years, during which time its laws were improved and the colony grew in num.bers, until, in 1646, there were twenty thousand people in Virginia. And yet, meanwhile, England was in great trouble on account of civil war, which naturally affected the colony somewhat. The colcny, too, was attacked by Indi- ans, and lost about three hundred m.en. On the death of Charles I. Virginia proclaimed Charles II. king ; and Cromwell, who was at the head of the government, determiined to make the colony submit to the Parliament, Ke forbade all ships to enter its harbors, and forced the people to send all their products to England, and sent over a ship of war to carry out these measures. Affairs were settled peacefully, however, and Virginia sub- mitted. But great was the disappointment of the people when, after all, Charles II. became king, to find that he also did great damage to the trade of the colonies, by taxing them and compelling them to send all their tobacco to England, where they did not get the highest price for it. He gave away the lands of the colony to his friends without making any compensation to the planters. The government becam.e so harsh and severe in other ways that finally the people rebelled, and took up arms, under Nathaniel Bacon, against Governor 20 South Carolina. [chap. iv. Berkeley. Berkeley was at last compelled to leave Jamestown, and the rebels burned it. But Berkeley regained power, restored order, and hanged the lead- ers of the revolt. In 1675 the king appointed Lord Culpepper governor for life ; but he governed so badly and cruelly that the king removed him and appointed some one else. North Carolina. — The northern part of the country, extending from the 30th to the 36th degree of latitude, called Carolina, had been settled in two or three places by Virghiians, and also by some Puritans from New England. In 1663 Lord Clar- endon and others received a grant, and the work of founding a colony really began. The owners of the land taxed the people so highly and gave them such bad governors that they rebelled and chose their own governor. Although they did not keep this power long, they showed by their conduct that they would not submit to injustice. Then better governors were appointed, and the colony grew pop- ulous and strong. Their greatest trouble arose from the Indians, and these they finally succeeded in driving out of the country. South Carolina.— The southern part of this territory was settled in 1670 by a colony from the northern part, which devoted itself to planting, and as the heat of the southern summers was too severe for English laborers, African slaACs were brought into the colony in larger numbers than ever before. Many people, too, from Holland, England, and the south of France came to this fertile country, and the colony grew very rapidly. Like their northern neighbors they rebelled against their bad governors, and like them carried on a successful war against the Indians. At first all Carolina was under one government ; but in 1729 a division was made at the Cape Fear River, and two distinct provinces formed. \ CHAP. IV.] Massachusetts. 21 CHAPTER IN .—Co7itimied. PART II. — Massachusetts., Connecticut,- Rhode Is- tand, and New Hampshire. — 1 620-1 636. Massachusetts.— In the reign of James I. of England, a number of the English people were dis- satisfied with the church established by law, and set up a church for themselves. But they were very badly treated by those who belonged to the Church of England. In order to be able to worship God as they pleased, many of them went to Holland, where they lived for some years, calling themselves Pilgrims because they had no fixed home. When these people heard of the great tracts of land to be had in America, they determined upon ■ going to a country where they could be free to wor- ship as they chose, and yet keep up the habits and manners of their own country. Accordingly, a party went from Holland in the Speedwell to Southampton, where they were joined by the Mayflower, with a party from London ; and together they sailed in the month of September, 1620. The Speedwell was compelled to return to port, not being strong enough for the voyage, and the Mayflower alone came in sight of Cape Cod in November. The place for a settlement was chosen on the 2ist of December, and the party went to work to build their homes. During this winter the colony suffered many hardships. Most of its peo- ple were sick, and many died ; food was scarce, and they had no means of getting more. But in the fol- lowing spring, some friendly Indians showed them how to plant and raise Indian corn, and made trea- ties for them with some of the powerful chiefs of the country. In 1628 a colony arrived, and settled at Salem, on Massachusetts Bay ; and when it was decided that the colony should govern itself, still more people came from Holland and England, and 22 Massachusetts. [chap. iv. by the year 1630 there were settlements from Cape Ann to Plymouth. They chose for their first governor Johnl^^in- throp, and passed very strict laws ; so strict, that many of the people were obliged to leave the older colonies and form new ones. For, although the Massachusetts Bay colony was made up of men who had left their homes because they wanted freedom, they were not willing that any should live among them who did not think just as they did. One of these who differed from them in opinion was Roger Williams, the minister of Salem, who so openly opposed some of the laws which the court had made about religion that he was banished from the colony, and went alone into the Indian country. He was kindly received by the Indians, whose part he had taken when the government would have imposed upon them; and in 1636 he, with a few friends who had joined him, bought a tract of land from the Indians, and made a settlement which he called Providence. Many others who found them- selves unable to remain in the colonies in Massa- chusetts, went to Williams ; and in 1641 a chief of the Narragansetts gave them Rhode Island, and a colony was established, where perfect religious free- dom was granted to every one. Meantime, as the settlements around Massachu- setts Bay were rapidly growing, parties left them and went inland. Settlements were thus made at New Haven, and at Windsor and Hartford, in Connecti- cut. New Hampshire had been settled in 1622 by the English, who had gone there for the purpose of trading, and later by some people from Massachu- setts ; but in 1641 the settlements asked to be taken under the government of Massachusetts, and so re- mained until 1679, when New Hampshire was made a separate province. CHAP, v.] New York, 23 CHAPTER V. SETTLEMENTS — CONTINUED. PART I. — New York, New Jersey, and Delaware. — 1609-1634. New York. — While Spain was growing rich by her colonies in South America, and while England was sending ship after ship to find the western pass- age to the Indies, a small nation was rising to power. Holland had been dependent upon Spain ; but by the end of the sixteenth century it had fought itself free, and was one of the first countries in Europe. Nearly all the trade with the East Indies was car- ried on in the ships of the Dutch East India Com- pany, which sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. About the year 1600 they tried to find a north-east passage, and failed. In 1609 Henry Hudson, an Englishman, sailed from Amsterdam, in a small vessel called the Half Moon, to find this north-eastern passage. Finding his way blocked with ice, Hudson steered for the west, hoping he might find a passage across the western continent to the Indian Ocean. In about two weeks he was opposite the coast of Newfound- land. Steering south, he sailed as far as Delaware Bay ; then turning, sailed north until he came to a beautiful harbor, which he entered just at nightfall. The next morning he found himself in what is now New York Bay. Thinking this might be a passage across the con- tinent, Hudson sailed up the great river which now bears his name, trading as he went with the friendly Indians for furs and fruits, until he found that the river was becoming more narrow and shallow. Then he returned to its mouth, and soon went back to Europe. 24 New York. [chap. v. When the Dutch heard of the rich furs that could be bought from the Indians, they began trading with them, and soon built a trading-post on Manhattan Island, and another further up the river. They also explored the country near by, one party sailing through Long Island Sound as far as Rhode Island, and another exploring inland to the Delaware River. In 1 62 1 the West India Company was formed, and sent people over to make settlements, which they did in several places along the river ; but, as the little settlements got into trouble with the Indians, they thought it best to make but one colony, and chose Manhattan Island as the best place to settle. This island had already received the name of New Amsterdam, and the surrounding country that of New Netherlands. In a few years the island w^as bought from the natives, and protected by a stone fort. The colony numbered nearly three hundred people, and carried on a busy trade with Holland. In 1633 the Dutch purchased land near Hartford, on the Connecticut River, and built a fort, which was afterward given up to the more powerful English, who had several settlements on the river. From 1640 to 1645 the settlements around New Amsterdam suffered from frequent attacks from the Indians. When, in 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed governor, he at once made treaties of peace with the natives. Then too a boundary w^as agreed upon between the Dutch settlements and those in New Englaii-d, the line being the same as that which now divides New York and Connecticut. Early in 1664 the King of England, Charles II., gave to his brother, the Duke of York, all the coun- try between the Kennebec and St. Croix Rivers, and between the Connecticut and Delaware, without any thought of the rights of the people who had dis- covered and settled it. The Duke of York immedi- ately sent a fleet under the command of Colonel CHAP, v.] Maryland. 25 Nichols, to take control of the country ; and after a brief resistance Stuyvesant was compelled to sub- mit, and New Amsterdam became an English pro- vince, under the name of New York. Thus the English ruled from Maine to Florida. New Jersey. — Up to 1664 several settlements had been made in New Jersey, but none remained for any length of time. When the Duke of York received his grant, he gave to Berkeley and Carteret this part of his province. Settlements were made in two or three places, and its name given to the country. In 1675 it was divided into East and West Jersey. East Jersey still belonged to Carteret, West Jersey, being given to William Penn for a Quaker settlement. Delaware. — In 1623 a large colony came from Flanders to New Netherlands, part of which entered the Bay of Delaware and built a fort, but before long went to New Amsterdam. In 1631 another colony settled at Lewistown, a few miles above Cape Henlopen. This was burned by the Indians in revenge for the death of one of their tribe. In 1637 the Swedes sent a colony to the northern part of Delaware, and a large settlement was formed. A colony which settled near the mouth of the Schuyl- kill was captured a little later by Stuyvesant, and came under the control first of the Dutch, and after- ward of the Duke of York. When Pennsylvania was settled, Delaware was united with it under one government, and so remained until 1691, when it withdrew, and had its own separate government. CHAPTER N .—Continued. PART II. — Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Georgia, —1634-1733. Maryland. — In 1629 George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, went to Virginia with a colony, with the 26 Georgia. [chap. v. purpose of settling ; but, being a Catholic, found that he could not take the oath that the government re- quired. He, therefore, obtained from the king a grant of land north of Virginia where he could found a Catholic colony. He died before his object was accomplished ; but his son, Leonard Calvert, sailed up the Chesapeake to the Potomac, and on the banks of that river made a settlement which he called Maryland. The Vir- ginians were much annoyed about the new settle- ment in what they called their province ; and Lord Baltimore's greatest trouble was caused by a Virgin- ian named Clayborne, who claimed as his own a part of the country, and who so worked upon the people that they rebelled against their governor. But Cal- vert soon regained his power over them, and firmly established a colony, which, although intended for Catholics, proved a safe home for men of any creed. Pennsylvania. — The Quakers were so success- ful in their colony in West Jersey, and after all their persecutions it seemed such a happy thing that they could at las^ live undisturbed, that in 1680 William Penn, a Quaker, asked for and obtained the grant of land which became the State of Pennsylvania. His object was to found a state where every one should have equal rights, and law and order be maintained without force. He made a treaty with the Indians which both parties kept unbroken, and in every way was a friend to the natives. In 1682 Philadelphia was founded, and the people began to choose their own governors and make their own laws. Georgia. — In 1732 George II. granted the charter for a colony between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers. This was done in ans.wer to the appeal of James Oglethorpe for a colony which would be a home for the poor, who for various rea- sons had Uttle hope of improving their condition in their own country. The present site of Savannah was chosen for the colony, and thither flocked peo- CHAP. VI.] Pequot War. 2 J pie, for the most part laborers, from all parts of the world. Treaties were made with the Indians, and slavery was forbidden. As soon as England declared hostility against Spain in 1739, war broke out between the colonists and their Spanish neighbors in Florida. But the Spaniards were ultimately defeated, and the colony enjoyed peace. But before long discontent began to show itself. ' The people were poor, and thought it was because they were denied slaves. At first slaves were hired, but soon the same system of labor existed here as in the other Southern colonies. CHAPTER VI. INDIAN AND COLONIAL WARS. Pequot War. — 1636. — The first war with the Indians, called the Pequot War, was undertaken to avenge the death of two colonists who had been murdered by the Pequot Indians. Their village on Block Island was attacked and destroyed, and the natives killed or left to starve. This roused the Indians of the mainland, and several settlements on the banks of the Connecticut River were attacked by them. Meanwhile, the Pequots tried to persuade some of the other tribes to join them in an attempt to drive the English out of the country. Roger Williams, fearing the result, went himself to the chief of the Narragansetts, who had already promised to be friendly to the English, and persuaded him not to break his promise. The Mohegans gave their aid to the English, and a force was raised from the Con- necticut settlements, which, under Mason, attacked the Pequots in their fort near the Mystic River and destroyed them. Another attack was made shortly afterward at Fairfield upon what was left of the 28 King William s War. [chap. vi. tribe, and one of the most powerful of the New England tribes was utteriy destroyed. King Philip's War.— 1675.— One of the first friends that the EngHsh at Plymouth made was Massasoit, the chief of tlie Wampanoags. When he died, and his son Philip became chief, the young men of the tribe began to show their jealousy of the English, who by degrees had bought up their land until all that they could call their own was part of what is now Rhode Island. And when two young men of the tribe were hung for the murder of an English settler, the Indians in revenge attacked one of the settlements and killed some of its people. The English immediately sent troops against them, who drove them from Mount Hope, the home of their chief. Then Philip went into Connecticut, where he was joined by some tribes. Many of the settlements were attacked and burned, and numbers of the people most cruelly killed. Next, Philip was joined by the Narragansetts, who at the beginning of the trouble had promised the English to have nothing to do with the war. Three thousand Indi- ans collected in a swamp in Rhode Island were attacked by the English and defeated. Philip escaped, but one thousand were killed, and several hundred taken prisoners ; and when, soon after, Philip was killed by a treacherous Indian, all idea of cittempting war again was given up. King William's Wan— 16S9-1697.— James II. of England made himself so hateful to his people by his acts that when, in 1689, WilHam of Orange came to claim the crown, many of the people took his part,' and James was forced to leave the country. France, however, insisted that he ought to be king, and war was declared between the two countries. Any trouble of this kind in the mother countries was certain to cause trouble between their colonies. Accordingly, the French in New France (Canada) and the English in New England took up the quarrel. CHAP. VI.] ^ii'g George s War. 29 The war began in New Hampshire, and extended into New York, the Indians aiding the French. It lasted until 1697, and the colonists took Nova Scotia from the French. But, by the treaty of Ryswick between France and England, the war was ended, William was acknowledged king, and Nova Scotia restored to France. Queen Anne's War. — 1702. — On the death of William III. of England, France took the part of one of the sons of James II. in his claim upon the Eng- lish crown, and war was again declared between the two countries. The Indians needed little urging by the French to make attacks upon settlements in Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts, and in 1 701 a company of five hundred men was sent out to aid the distressed villages. Jealous of the increasing power of the French, the colonies determined at least to attempt to drive them out of Canada, and an unsuccessful expedition was sent in 1707 against Port Royal in Nova Scotia. In 1 7 10 a large expedition carrying five regiments of troops attacked and took Port Royal. Two expedi- tions were then fitted out to go into Canada, and but for the delay of the commander would have been successful. But France had already asked for peace, and, by the treaty of Utrecht in 17 13, England gained possession of Labrador and Nova Scotia, which her colonies had already taken for her. King George's War. — 1744-1748. — This war arose because England and France took opposite sides in the contest as to the rightful claimant to the throne of Austria on the death of Charles VI., a con- test in which nearly all the countries of Europe were interested. The principal action in America was the siege of Louisburg in Cape Breton Island. This fortress guarded the entrance to the St. Law- rence River, and the governor of Massachusetts thought that its possession would make the conquest of Canada an easier matter. Nearly all the colonies 30 TJie French and Indian War. [chap vii. sent him aid in fitting a force to go against it, and about four thousand men set out under Sir William Pepperell of Maine. To the utter surprise of the French, who thought their fort too strong to be taken, the siege was successful, and the English obtained not only Louisburg, but the whole island. When peace was made between the mother coun- tries. Cape Breton Island was given back to France, without any regard for the expense and trouble to which the colonists had been put in order to gain it, and not until the final contest between the colo- nies of the two countries was fought out was it restored to the English. ' CHAPTER VII. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. — 1754-1763. Causes. — By Cabot's discovery of the eastern coast of North America, England claimed the coun- try through from ocean to ocean. Their settle- ments stretched along the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, but did not extend inland. On the other hand, the French, settling first in Nova Sco- tia, had entered the St. Lawrence, settled at and around Montreal, and then passed westward to the great lakes, and down the Mississippi, and some of the rivers that flow into it from the east. When the English began to see the need of settling the interior of the country if they would keep it, the French determined to prevent them, and accordingly a company was sent from Canada to settle the region about the Ohio River and to build forts. This company in 1753 attacked a party of English, and took some of the men to Canada as prisoners. This act aroused the anger of the English and also of the Indian tribes of that region, who resented the intrusion of the French, CHAP. VII.] The War.— iy$4. 31 and immediately renewed their treaty with the Eng- lish. The governor of Virginia, Dinwiddie, before using force, determined to send a messenger to the French commander, asking him to withdraw from the Ohio. The person chosen for this task was a young surveyor named George Washington, des- tined to play an important part in the future of his country. In October, 1753, he set out from Wil- liamsburg on the York River, with a small party, traveled up the Potomac, then across the mountains to the present site of Pittsburgh, then north to Presque. Isle (Erie), to the French commander there. But he declared that the French had dis- covered the Ohio Valley and meant to keep it, and if necessary, would fight for it. It was quite evi- dent to Washington that the French were getting ready for war ; for they were strengthening their old forts, and building a new one at the point where the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers joined, a point that he had himself selected as a gcod position for a British fort. He hastened back to Virginia as fast as he could, in the bitter winter weather, and learned that a party had been sent out which marched directly to the very spot that both he and the French had chosen. As they were not strong enough, however, to keep it, it was fortified by the French and called Fort Du Quesne. The War. — The English were now determined to drive the French from the territory, and the first expedition of the war was fitted out in May, 1754, under Washington, to capture Fort Du Quesne. On the 26th he reached Great Meadows, where he built a fort which he named Fort Necessity. Here he learned that the French were at hand, and were going to attack him, whereupon he advanced upon them and defeated them. He then returned to Fort Necessity to wait for more troops ; but, before these came, he was attacked by a large body of 32 The War. — 1755. [chap. vii. French, and obliged to give up the fort and to with- draw his troops from the country. The French were left in possession of the Ohio Valley. Up to this time all action in the matter had been confined to Virginia ; but now all the colonies were aroused to their danger, and when orders came from England that they should unite to resist the intruders, they were ready to do so. In June, dele- gates from seven of the colonies met at Albany and made the necessary plans, and also made further treaties with the chief of the Six Nations, whose confidence in the English had been somewhat shaken by their late defeat. Meantime the French were busy fortifying Crown Point and Niagara. In September, 1754, the British Parliament saw that something must be done to help the colonies ; so they sent over some troops under General Brad- dock, with orders to take command of all the forces in North America. He was directed to send forces against Acadia, Crown Point, and Niagara, and to go himself against Fort Du Quesne. These points were chosen for attack, for the reason that each was situated in such a way as to command an important position. Acadia, or Nova Scotia, commanded the entrance to the St. Lawrence, and the river from the ocean to Quebec and Montreal ; Crown Point commanded the passage to the very heart of the colonies through Lake Champlain ; Niagara com.- manded the passage from the great lakes to the St. Lawrence ; and Fort Du Quesne commanded the Ohio Valley, and therefore the passage from Cana- da to the Gulf of Mexico. In April, 1755, Braddock left Virginia with two thousand men, most of them British regulars, that is, trained soldiers from England, the remainder provincials. Braddock was an able general, but not at all used to the Indian way of fighting. The Indians did not form themselves into regular bodies and fight openly, but hid themselves behind trees CHAP. VII.] The War.—iysS' 33 and rocks, or crouched behind shrubs or in a thicket, and could shoot at the regularly formed troops with- out being much injured in return. On the yth of June, the forces assembled at Fort Cumberland on Will's Creek, and then trav- eled over the mountain to Great Meadows, where Washington persuaded Braddock to leave a part of the army, and push on with the rest to Fort Du Quesne. Following this advice, he approached the fort by a roundabout way ; but when near it, fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians, which the French commander had prepared as the only way of saving the fort, for the English force was much larger than his. Five hundred men were at- tacked in this way in a wood where the road was very narrow, and the troops fell in numbers. The provincials stood their ground bravely, and wanted to adopt the Indian method of fighting ; but Brad- dock thought it cowardly to "hide behind the trees, and unwisely forbade it. The regular troops became terrified, and Braddock, who was badly wounded, took Washington's advice and ordered a retreat. The troops that were left fled to' Fort Necessity, where Braddock died, and then they went back to Philadelphia. The loss was very great, and the whole country was in despair. General Braddock's plan had been to take Fort Du Quesne, and then march northvv'ard to join Gen- eral Shirley in the attack upon Niagara ; and, at the same time that Shirley left Albany for Niagara, Gen- eral Johnson was to leave for Crown Point. But as Shirley was about to start, news of Braddock's de- feat arrived ; and, as many of his men were dis- couraged and deserted, the idea of an attack was given up, the more readily that Shirley had heard that the French were going to attack Oswego. So he sent a force to strengthen Oswego, and returned to Albany. Meanwhile, the French had learned that an army 3 34 ^^^^ JVar. — 1756. [chap. vn. had set out for Crown Point, and the force that had been prepared for the attack on Oswego was sent to this place. The EngUsh had encamped at the south- ern end of the lake, which the French called St. Sacrament, but which they called George, after their king, and had built a fort near by, meaning to pro- ceed up to Ticonderoga, at the southern end, on Lake Champlain, as soon as they were joined by more troops. But the French commander, Dieskau, left Crown Point well defended, and marched the rest of his army to within a few miles of the English. On hearing this the English at once started for the fort, but the advance fell into an ambuscade. The English leaders were killed almost immediately ; but the troops retreated in a very orderly manner to the main force, and, protected by their camp defenses, opened such a steady fire on the French that they were obliged to retreat with great loss. After this victory the English strengthened the fort at the head of the lake, naming it Fort William Henry, and placed a garrison there and at Fort Edward. Although Acadia had been given to England by the treaty of 17 13, it was peopled almost entirely by French. Fearing a rebellion among them, a new oath of allegiance was demanded from them, which as Catholics they could not take. A force w^as sent against them in 1756, and all who would not take the oath were banished from the country. In the beginning of the summer of 1756 reinforce- ments arrived from France, under the comm.and of the Marquis of Montcalm. This able general imme- diately set about fortifying Niagara, and after several attacks upon small places in the neighborhood, at- tacked Oswego and destroyed the forts. He then withdrew to Montreal. The next summer Mont- calm set out for Fort William Henry. The com- mander there, Colonel Monro, had two or three thousand regulars, and there were about four thou- sand more at Fort Edward under General Webb. CHAP. VH.] The War. — 1757-8. 35 The French called upon Monro to surrender, which he refused to do, trusting to Webb for aid. This Webb refused to give, and advised Monro to yield. After a week's siege Monro surrendered, and the garrison was massacred by the Indians. The fort was burned, and Montcalm returned to Canada. At the end of this year, 1757, so great had been the success of the French, that both the colonies and England were very much discouraged. The English troops had far outnumbered the French ; but, through want of knowledge in some cases, and through the inactivity of the commanders in others, their strength had been wasted and nothing gained. But a change in the ministry in England caused a change in the war. A new energy was given to the Americans by the willingness with which the prime minister, Pitt, promised to aid them with arms and other necessaries, on condition that the colonies should furnish and pay the men. To this they agreed at once. New commanders were appointed in place of those of the previous year. General Abercrombie was appointed commander-in-chief. The first action of 1758 was an attack upon Louis- burg under General Amherst, which resulted in its capture. While Amherst was at this place General Abercrombie attacked Ticonderoga. Montcalm awaited the attack behind his intrenchments, which he strengthened by placing felled trees in front. Abercrombie urged on his men, only to see them fall in numbers. At last they were obliged to re- treat, with a loss of nearly two thousand men and one of their best leaders, Lord Howe. Abercrom- bie withdrew to Fort George, and sent an expedi- tion against Fort Frontenac, at the outlet of Lake Ontario, which was more successful, and the fort was destroyed. The third expedition planned for this year, which left Philadelphia under command of General Forbes for Fort Du Quesne, was also successful ; for the 36 The War. — 1759. [chap. vn. French set fire to the fort and deserted it on their approach. The English flag was raised over the ruins, and the place named Pittsburgh. Three expeditions were planned for 1759, against Niagara, Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Quebec, the object being a final attempt to conquer Canada. Niagara surrendered on the second day of the siege. Amherst advanced against Ticonderoga, and the French retreated to Crown Point. The English fol- lowed, and the French again retreated. Thus Lake Champlain fell into the hands of the English. The command of the expedition against Quebec was given to General Wolfe, who had distinguished himself by his bravery at Louisburg. With eight thousand men and a fleet of about fifty vessels un- der Admiral Saunders, he sailed up the St. Law- rence River in June, and encamped his troops, some just below Quebec, and others on a point opposite the city. Montcalm, expecting an attack, had sent for aid from Montreal, and thought the city was safely guarded, for it was naturally well situated, a part being on the shore of the river, the other on a promontory above, and on this promontory was the fortress. The English threw shells into the city, and did much damage to the upper and lower towns, but could not harm the fortress. Wolfe, therefore, determined on another mode of attack. The French defenses stretched for five miles below the city. He would attack these and weaken the force. An at- tack Avas planned by which two bodies of troops, one from each camp, should fall at the same time upon the French at the Montmorenci. But the di- vision from Point Levi ran aground, and the other was badly defeated. At the back of the upper city was a large plain, and it was quite clear to Wolfe that an attack from that point could not fail. The difficulty lay in get- ting up to it, as the steep and dangerous paths were well guarded. He called his generals together and Quebec, RUSSELL i. STHUTMErtSjENG'S,! CHAP. VIII.] TJie Revolutionary War. 37 told them the plan. They thought it could be done, and on the night of the twelfth of July his men took to the boats, and floated up the river with the tide. Landing at a point a little above the city, they disem- barked, climbed the steep paths, and in the morn- ing, to the amazement of Montcalm, who thought them still on the Montmorenci, they were on the Plains of Abraham, marching straight for the city. Montcalm summoned all his troops, and sending to Montreal for more, ordered an attack. The English marched on without returning the fire, until they were near the intrenchments. Then they opened such a deadly fire that the French fled. Both par- ties lost their brave leaders in the contest. The next year the French tried to regain Quebec, but failed. Montreal soon surrendered, and the English were masters of Canada. In 1763, when peace was formally settled between France and England, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Canada were ceded to England. But, in the interval between the fall of Canada and the treaty, the Indians, who had been the firm allies of the French, gave the English constant trouble ; and at last a conspiracy was discovered, by which the Indians intended to unite all the tribes and de- stroy the Enghsh. But the Indians found the Eng- lish ready to meet their attacks, and when news of the peace came they were ready to submit. By the same treaty, Spain, with whom England had also been at war, gave up Florida, and France ceded Louisiana to Spain, so that the King of France had not a possession left in the country. CHAPTER VIIL THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. Causes. — At the close of the French and Indian War, the colonies had a population of over one and 38 Causes. [chap. vm. a half million of people. Schools had been founded, several newspapers established in Boston and Phila- delphia, and a large trade was carried on with England. The colonies had grown and prospered in spite of many difficulties ; but a new trouble now arose more serious than any that they had hitherto encountered. ^ The French and Indian War had been a great expense to England, and the English Parliament thought the colonies ought to help pay it. This they were quite willing to do, but wanted to do it in their own way. Hence, when the English Government declared that they should pay it by means of taxes upon some of the articles they were obliged to use, the colonists, through their agents in London, asked that they should not be required to do so unless they were represented in Parliament. But William Pitt was not now prime minister, and those in power were not as friendly to America as he had been; and besides, the king, George III., was very stubborn, and cared not nearly as much for the good of the colonies as for his own selfish plans. So it is not sur- prising that, in spite of the friends of the colonies, the Stamp Ac f was passed in 1765. This act required that ail paper used in transacting business should bear a stamp. To this the people were very much opposed. The assembly in Virginia declared that English subjects in America had the same rights as English subjects in England ; that the colonists would not submit to being taxed except by their own representatives. Declarations like these were made in the assemblies in New York and Massachusetts, and in the latter, James Otis proposed that a con- gress of the colonies should be held. The colonies agreed, and the first Colonial Congress met at New York the 7th of October, 1765. A Declaration of Rights was formed, which was in effect the same as that already passed by Virginia. The stamped paper was destroyed, and the people prepared to resist all efforts at taxation. I CHAR VIII.] The IVa?'. — 1775. 39 When the EngHsh Parliament saw how strongly the people in both countries felt about the Stamp Act, it was repealed. But the joy which this caused did not last long, for the government insisted on the right to tax the colonies, and when the people re- fused to pay, the government said that they were rebels, and sent troops to see that they obeyed, and to keep them in order. These troops were quar- tered in the houses of the citizens, which was ex- tremely annoying ; and when, one day, a quarrel arose between some soldiers and citizens, the peo- ple demanded that the governor should remove them. In 1773 all the taxes were withdrawn except that on tea, and that was reduced to a small sum, the ministers thinking that the people would be content. This, however, was a great mistake. When vessels containing tea arrived in the harbors of New York, Philadelphia, and other cities, they were not allowed to land their cargoes. In Boston the vessel was boarded by a party of men disguised as Indians, and the tea thrown into the water. This so angered the English Government that in 1774 a bill passed Par- liament which forbade any vessels to enter Boston Harbor for the purpose of trading. This last act aroused all the colonies, for if the English Govern- ment could take away the trade from Boston, it could take it away from all other ports, and thus ruin the colonies. A second Colonial Congress was held in Philadelphia, in September, 17 74, and the colonies decided to aid Massachusetts in her resist- ance. When this news reached England, ten thou- sand soldiers were sent out to General Gage, with directions to put down the rebellion by force, and the assembly in that colony was ordered to cease all action. Instead of obeying, they voted to raise twelve thousand men for their own defense. The War. — 1775. — General Gage's first move- ment was to seize the arms and ammunition in. Bos- 40 The War. — 1775. [chap. vm. ton, but the citizens quietly removed them to Con- cord. To capture or destroy these Major Pitcairn was sent on the night of the i8th of April, 1775. But the patriots were aroused by Paul Revere and William Dawes, who rode from Boston through the country a little in advance of the British, and when Pitcairn reached Lexington, he found a few^ men ready to meet him. He commanded them to disperse, and when they refused, fired upon them, wounding sev- eral. He then marched toward Concord. Here the provincials were collecting so rapidly that the British, after a slight contest, retreated toward Boston, while all along the road a steady fire was kept up by the patriots from behind fences, houses, and barns, in- flicting such loss upon the retreating troops that if aid had not reached them from Boston, they would have been utterly destroyed. The news of the battle of Lexington sped through the country with such rapidity and effect that in a few days there was an army of twenty thousand men around Boston. On the 9th of May Ethan Allen of Vermont led an attack against Fort Ticonderoga for the purpose of getting possession of its large quantity of military stores, and so forcible was the attack that the com- mander surrendered immediately. Two days later a successful attack was made upon Crown Point. On the 25th of May Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne reached Boston, bringing with them more English troops. The Americans immediately seized and fortified Bunker Hill, on the peninsula of Char- lestown, opposite Boston. On the night of the i6th of June one thousand provincials under Col. Pres- cott quietly fortified Breed's Hill, a little nearer the city. When, on the morning of the 17th, the British found them in possession, they began a fierce cannonade, and about noon landed three thousand men to attack the American works. Twice the British ascended the hill, and twice the Americans drove them back. But now their ammunition gave CHAP. VIII.] '^71^' 41 out, and therefore at the third attack the Americans were obHged to retreat. The British loss was over a thousand ; the American, one hundred and fifteen and over three hundred wounded. Among the killed was General Warren. In the meantime the Congress at Philadelphia had been led to see the need of raising an army and of appointing a commander-in-chief. For this office George Washington of Virginia was selected. We have already seen the part that Washington had taken in the French and Indian War. When that war closed, he was a member of the Virginia Assem- bly, and afterward a member of the Colonial Con- gress. He was now chosen to lead the country through its greatest struggle. All the colonies had not yet decided to break off all allegiance to Eng- land ; but only wanted to compel the king to give them just treatment, and they had lately sent a last appeal asking this. Congress voted that twenty thousand men should be raised, and Washington went to work to organize an army. An expedition was sent against Canada, which resulted in the cap- ture of St. Johns and Montreal. Richard Mont- gomery and Benedict Arnold made an attack on Quebec ; but found the city so well defended that the Americans were badly defeated, and v\^ere obliged to withdraw step by step from Canada. The greatest loss of the expedition was the death of Montgomery, who was killed as his troops were re- treating. 1776. — All winter the British held possession of Boston, and Washington kept his army just outside the city, waiting till he should think his force strong enough to expel the enemy. Early in the spring of 1776 he ordered General Thomas to fortify Dor- chester Heights, on the south side of Boston — a site that overlooked the city. Lord Howe ordered Percy to attack the Heights from the harbor side ; but a storm prevented this, and Howe, without making 42 ^71^' [chap. VIII. any further attempt, withdrew, and left Massachu- setts in the hands of the Americans. Washington suspected that Howe would sail for New York, and sent General Sullivan to reinforce Lee, already there, promising to join them himself as soon as possible. Fortifications were built on the heights on the Brooklyn side of the river, and on New York opposite, and recruits were summoned from all directions. Meanwhile the attention of the British was turned to another quarter. The governor of Carolina thought that that colony might easily be reduced, and a force was sent from England for that purpose. Clinton met this force at Wilmington, and took com- mand. But active preparations had been made to oppose them. Charleston was fortified against the land forces, and a fort was erected on Sullivan's Island in the harbor, by which Colonel Moultrie, the commander, hoped to keep out the fleet. The British appeared on the 31st of May, but did not make an attack until the 28th of June. Then the land and naval forces acted together. Such a fire opened upon Clinton's land forces that they were compelled to withdraw, and all the afternoon a fierce fire was kept up between Fort Sullivan and the two hundred guns of the fleet. The British guns did little harm, for the shot fell into the soft palmetto wood of which the fort was built, and most of the shells fell into the marsh and sand of the in- terior. Once the flag was shot down. Instantly Sergeant Jasper sprang over the wall and set it up again. In the evening the enem.y, giving up all hope of taking South Carolina, withdrev/ and sailed for New York. The fort on Sullivan's Island was re- named Fort Moultrie, after its brave defender. While these events were taking place, George the Third had sent his reply to the appeal of the colonies ; had declared that he would listen to nothing until they should submit to his authority, and announced CHAP. VIII.] ^71^' 43 his intention of reducing them by arms. He was, moreover, raising troops by hiring the subjects of some of the smaller German states. His refusal to listen to their appeal put an end to all indecision, and by the end of June the colonies were ready to sever all connection with the mother country. The Continental Congress was in session at Philadelphia, and there, on the 7th of June, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, declared that the colonies ought to be absolved from all allegiance to the British crown. Active discussion followed this, and on the nth of the month, five members — Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston — were appointed to prepare a formal Declaration of Independence. This was done, and the resolutions were adopted by Congress on the Fourth of July. Copies of the Declaration were sent throughout the country, and read to the army. From all quarters came expressions of the joy to which it gave rise. Preparations were still going on to receive an attack upon New York. At the end of June Howe arrived from Halifax — whither he had gone upon leaving Boston — and landed his troops upon Staten Island. Here he was joined by Admiral Howe, and later by the Hessian allies. The British force con- sisted of at least thirty thousand men, well armed, many of whom had seen service, and under the command of experienced officers. The American force under Washington was smaller, with scanty supply of arms and ammunition, and few of its num- ber had had any experience in war. After trying to bring the Americans to terms without fighting, the British crossed the bay to Gravesend on Long Island, on the 2 2d of August. From this point the British marched in three divisions on the 27th. Their first encounter was with Stirling, and was without decided result. But, through the neglect of General Putnam, certain 44 ^Tl^' [chap. VIII. points had been left unguarded, and the main army under SulHvan was suddenly attacked front and rear. After a desperate fight some few escaped, but numbers were taken prisoners. The division under CornwalHs now pressed after Stirling, and cap- tured the general himself and a number of his men. The rest succeeded in reaching the American lines. Washington crossed from New York during the battle, but could give no aid. All that he could do was to try to save what was left of the army. He supposed that the British would follow up the de- feated troops. But instead they remained inactive the day after the battle, and during the fog which succeeded on the 29th Washington silently with- drew his shattered forces across the river to New York, and afterward went further up the island to Harlem Heights. On the 15 th of September the British landed a little above New York, and routed a party of Americans in a skirmish. After several skirmishes of little importance a battle was fought at White Plains on the 28th. The Americans were driven from one position to another, and night came on before any decisive result. Howe returned to New York and Washington withdrew to North Castle. Both armies were much weakened by this action. Howe now turned toward the Hudson, and Wash- ington, fearing that he meant to enter New Jersey ;ind proceed to Philadelphia, left a force under Lee at North Castle and another at Fort Washington, on the east side of the Hudson, and crossed over to Fort Lee on the west side. Howe followed. Fort Washington was taken, and the enemy crossed the river. Wash- ington abandoned Fort Lee, and retreated through New Jersey, his army growing smaller as he went, closely pursued by the British. On the 8th of December Washington reached Trenton and crossed the Delaware. The British encamped at Trenton, to wait for the river to freeze over before attempting to CHAP. VIII.] ^777' 45 cross ; for Washington had taken care that no boats should be at hand for the use of the enemy. The Brit- ish, feehng confident in their strength, and assured that their defeated foes could not prevent their march into the capital, divided their forces so that Corn- wallis occupied Princeton, and two thousand Hes- sians under Rahl lay at Trenton, which was but poorly defended. Washington saw in this the oppor- tunity for an attack. His force had been strength- ened by recruits, and the troops which he had left under Lee in New York. Several times he had or- dered Lee to join him, but his orders had been so slowly obeyed that Lee himself fell into the hands of the British. Sullivan, who had been exchanged, then took command and eagerly hastened to Wash- ington. The night of the 25th of December was chosen for the attack upon Trenton. The Dela- ware was so blocked with floating ice that the pass- age was delayed several hours. When it had been effected, the Americans in two divisions fell upon the city from different directions, and so surprised the Hessians that they were compelled to surrender. That evening Washington took across the Delaware with him more than nine hundred prisoners. This victory filled the nation with joy. 1777. — On the 13th of December Washington took up a position at Trenton, and on the 2d of January, 1777, Cornwallis arrived from Princeton. Washington, fearing defeat, and aware that a hasty retreat under fire of the enemy would destroy his army, determined to escape in another way. There were two roads from Trenton to Princeton, one direct, which the British held, and one circuitous. .This latter the American army took, leaving their camp-fires burning to deceive Cornwallis, and en- tered Princeton just as three regiments were leaving to join the main army at Trenton. A severe con- test took place, in which the Americans succeeded in repulsing the British. CornwalHs, angry at the 46 Burgoynes Campaign. [chap, viii, escape of the enemy, hastened back to Princeton, and found that the Americans had gone to Morris- town, where they remained for the rest of the winter. The opening of the year 1777 brought encourage- ment from abroad. Through the exertions of FrankHn and others, who had been sent to Europe, money and arms were raised in France. Among the private men who thus aided the Americans was the Marquis of Lafayette, who fitted out an expedi- tion and reached America in April. He offered to serve as a volunteer, and Congress gave him the rank of major-general. On the 25 th of April, Try on, formerly governor of New York, proceeded against Danbury, Connec- ticut, and destroyed some stores ; but he was at- tacked by Wooster and Arnold on his retreat, and badly defeated. An attack made upon the British stores at Sag Harbor was more successful. In July Colonel Barton made a raid upon the house in New- port where the British General Prescott lodged, and took him prisoner. In May Washington left Morristown, and took up his position within ten miles of the enemy at New Brunswick. Howe brought reinforcements to Corn- waUis, and an attack was made on the 25th of June. Washington was obliged to withdraw, but did so without loss. The British crossed over to Staten Island, so that New Jersey was left in the hands of the patriots. Burgoyne's Campaign. — The most important action of this year was the campaign in the north. General Burgoyne led an expedition from Canada for the purpose of getting control of the Hudson, and so cutting off communication between New England and the Middle States. The first event of the campaign was the seizure of Fort Ticonderoga. This fort was commanded by General St. Clair, with three thousand men. But, as the British took pos- session of a hill overlooking the fort, the garrison CHAP. VIII. J Burgoynes Campaig7i. 47 abandoned it and withdrew into Vermont. The British pursued and overtook them at Hubbardton ; but they met such a fire as compelled them to give up the pursuit. The Americans then fell back to Fort Edward, where General Schuyler took com- mand, and led them to the mouth of the Mohawk River. While on his way southward in pursuit, Burgoyne sent Colonel Baum with a few hundred men into Vermont to capture the stores at Bennington. The militia under Colonel Stark completely routed them, with a loss of one hundred and forty killed and wounded, and seven hundred prisoners. When Burgoyne started on his expedition, he sent a force of Canadians and Indians to capture Fort Schuyler. When the news of their coming spread abroad, the militia of the neighborhood under Gen- eral Herkimer prepared to assist the small garrison at the fort. This force of militia fell into an ambush, and would have been destroyed if the garrison had not rushed out to their assistance. The sudden force of this attack completely routed the enemy. The news of this repulse reached Burgoyne just after the battle of Bennington, and made him unde- cided as to the best thing to do. The American troops were gathering from all quarters, cheered by late successes, and General Gates was at the head of about nine thousand men at Stillwater. On the 14th of September Burgoyne took position at Sara- toga, and four days later encamped within two miles of Gates. On the 19th a battle took place, which had reached no decided result when night fell, and both armies retired to their camps. More than two weeks passed before any further action took place. Meantime, Burgoyne was falling short of provis- ions, and his Indian and Canadian allies were de- serting. On the other hand, Gates's forces were increasing. At last, assured that some of the Amer- ican troops would be called off to protect the Hud- 48 Washingtofi s Campaign, [chap. vm. son from an anticipated attack by Clinton, Burgoyne began a second battle at Stillwater, on the 7th of October. He was badly defeated, and driven from his position. In this battle General Fraser was killed, and many others of Burgoyne's bravest officers and men. On the American side Arnold distinguished himself by his reckless daring. The Americans pursued the defeated enemy as far as Saratoga, and then Burgoyne, finding himself hemmed in, surrendered. On the 1 7th of October, his army, numbering about five thousand eight hundred men, became prisoners of war, and a large quantity of arms and other valuable stores passed into the hands of the Americans. The success of the army in the north was the more grateful to the colonists, because the army under Washington was suffering reverses. Washington's Campaign. — In the latter part of July, Washington saw Howe move his fleet and troops from Staten Island. Suspecting that he was on his way to Philadelphia Washington marched rapidly thiiher. When Howe found that the Amer- icans had control of Delaware Bay, he sailed south to the Chesapeake, and on the 25th of August landed his troops, and marched toward Phila- delphia. Washington's forces were stationed on the Brandywine, where he hoped so to defeat the en- emy as to prevent their reaching the capital. But General Sullivan, who was in command of one di- vision, mistook the movements of the enemy, and Washington was misled by contradictory reports ; so that an attack on the nth of September re- sulted in the defeat of the Americans. Fully a thousand men were killed, wounded, and missing. Next day Washington led the troops back toward Philadelphia, and took position at Germantown. On the 15th he marched toward the British camp, but a storm prevented a battle. Howe, after a series of maneuvers intended to mislead Washing- CHAP. VIII.] Washington s Campaign. 49 ton, entered Philadelphia on the 26th of September. Upon this, Congress removed first to Lancaster, and then to York, where it continued to meet until the capital was abandoned by the British the next summer. One of Howe's first movements was to send a large division of his arm)^ against Forts Mifilin and Mercer on the Delaware. Washington, thinking that this would be an excellent time to attack the re- maining forces, which were stationed at German- town, moved his army in three divisions and fdl upon the British. At first the attack seemed successful ; but a party of British got possession of a stone house, and kept up such a steady fire from it that the Americans were forced to retreat with great loss. On the 2 2d of October, Fort Mifflin was attacked by the British fleet. The garrison held out as long as possible, and then fled to Fort Mercer, which had already been unsuccessfully attacked by the Hessians under Donop. Cornwallis was sent to make a second attack ; and although General Greene took reinforcements to the garrison, the British force was so much larger than the American, that in No- vember the fort was abandoned, and the British left in control of the Delaware. Howe failed to draw the Americans into another engagement, and went into winter-quarters at Phila- delphia. Washington retired to Valley Forge, where the soldiers suffered most severely all winter for the want of food, clothes, and every other necessary. Many deserted, and those who remained needed all their patriotism and all the power of their comman- der to make their condition bearable. Some of Washington's enemies blamed him for the reverses his army had sustained, and strove to have him re- moved, and Lee or Gates put in his place ; but the army and the greater part of the people remained true to him. During this winter the. Americans received further 4 50 177S. [chap. IX. encouragement from Europe. Baron von Steuben, a Prussian who had fought under Frederick the Great, arrived, and proved of great ' assistance in teaching and driUing the army. The French gov- ernment, too, yielding to the urgent requests of Frankhn and the other agents, made a treaty with the United States. In consequence, England tried to appease the colonies by repealing all the offen- sive laws. But she would not recognize the inde- pendence of the colonies ; and nothing else would now satisfy them. CHAPTER IX. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR CONTINUED. 1773' — N'o important action took place until the summer of this year. Then the British, fearing the occupation of the Delaware by a French fleet, left Philadelphia for New York. On the i8th of June the army of fourteen thousand men, under Sir Henry Clinton, began its march through New Jersey. As soon as Washington learned this, he marched in pursuit ; and on the 27th came to with- in five miles of the enemy near Monmouth. Gen- eral Lee was ordered on the 28th to attack the enemy, which he did ; but a part of his detachment, mistaking one of his movements, began a retreat pursued by the British. Washington came up in time to rally the troops, and, rebuking Lee for his bad generalship, ordered him to the rear, and him- self took the command. The contest continued until night, and the advantage was with the Americans ; but before morning Clinton, evidently fearing de- feat, removed his forces, and continued his march. Washington followed, and took position at White Plains. In July a French fleet under D'Estaing arrived at CHAP. IX.] 1779- 51 Newport Harbor. General Pigot, with six thousand British and Hessians, held the town ; and Sullivan, in command of ten thousand Americans, was await- ing a favorable opportunity to attack him. The two armies, French and American, arranged to make a united attack on the loth of August. On the 9th Howe's fleet appeared, and D'Estaing went out to meet it. A storm separated the fleets, and D'Es- taing was obliged to put into Boston for repairs. In November he sailed for the West Indies without having been of any assistance to the Atnericans. Sulhvan, however, determined to make the proposed attack, and besieged Newport. But he was obHged to retreat. The British pursued him to the northern part of the island, where they were repulsed with great loss. Then Sullivan, learning that Clinton was on his way with reinforcements, retreated to the mainland. In July, Major Butler, a Tory, led a company of British and Indians into Wyoming Valley, Pennsyl- vania, attacked the fort, and obliged the garrison to surrender. They then fell upon the helpless people, and robbed and massacred all on whom they could lay their hands. A similar massacre took place in Cherry Valley, New York, during w^hich most of the houses were burned, and many people killed or driven from their homes. In revenge for these cruelties an expedition went from Virginia against the Indians on the western frontier, which resulted in the capture of several important posts. In December, Clinton sent two thousand men under Colonel Campbell to get possession of Geor- gia. The Americans, under General Robert Howe, were surprised at Savannah, and obliged to retreat, losing thereby a great part of their force. The re- mainder crossed into South Carolina, took posses- sion of Charleston, and left Georgia in the hands of the British. 1779- — Another expedition was led by Tryon into 52 1779- [chap. IX. Connecticut, in the early spring of this year, to de- stroy some works. After doing this, he burned the village of West Greenwich, and then went back to New York. In July he sailed for New Haven with about twenty-five hundred men, and captured the town. Then he plundered and burned the towns of Fairfield, East Haven, and Norwalk. In May, Clinton had approached Stony Point on the Hudson where the Americans were building a fort, and had driven them from the place. Wash- ington determined not to lose so important a post, and chose General Wayne to retake it. On the T5th of July Wayne led his troops up the side of the steep hill, and so silently was the approach made that the sentinel at the sumimit had only just given the alarm when the patriots scaled the walls and summoned the garrison to surrender. Over five hundred prisoners and valuable stores passed into the hands of Wayne. These he secured, and then destroyed the fort. Three days afterward the Brit- ish garrison at Paulus Hook was surprised and taken by Lee. In August, a fleet which had been fitted out by Massachusetts, was captured by the British while besieging a post on the Penobscot. Meanwhile, the war in the South went on. While Colonel Boyd, with a party of Tories, was on his way to Augusta to join Colonel Campbell, he was attacked and defeated by some militia under Colonel Pickens. In March, General Lincoln, now in com- mand in the South, ordered Colonel Ashe to proceed against the British on their way from Augusta to Savannah. He was surprised at Brier Creek by General Prevost, and his small army scattered ; a few only reached the main army. General Lin- coln rallied his forces, and in May was on his way to Savannah by way of Augusta. On the 12th, General Prevost appeared before Charleston, and ordered its surrender. This General Moultrie re- II CHAP. IX.] 1779' 53 fused ; and Prevost, learning that Lincoln was com- ing to the relief of the city, retreated, and, after for- tifying Beaufort, returned to Savannah. In the early part of September, D'Estaing came from the West Indies with six thousand men, to aid Lincoln in an attack upon Savaniiah. When, after considerable delay, Lincoln arrived, the siege was begun but without success. On the 8th of Octo- ber they determined to make an assault upon the city as their last hope of gaining it. After an hour's most severe fighting, the assailants were driven back with fearful loss. D'Estaing embarked immediately for France, and Lincoln retired to Charleston. While the patriots were thus being defeated on land, a more encouraging event was taking place at sea. In September Paul Jones, with a few French and American vessels, fell in with some British mer- chant ships and two men-of-war, off the coast of England. For more than an hour the Bon Hoinine Richard and the Serapis were engaged in the most desperate battle. When both vessels were shattered by shot they were lashed together, and the mariners fought hand to hand until the Serapis struck her colors. Then Jones removed what was left of his men to the captured vessel, and the Bon Homme Richaj'd was left to sink. The other man-of-war was captured. But his victory cost Jones most of his men ; for only seventy-five were left out of three hundred and seventy-five. Thus closed the fifth year of the war, and inde- pendence seemed as far off as ever. The treasury was bankrupt, and Congress had no power to raise money by taxes. The soldiers were ill-fed and worse paid. The French, from whom so much had been expected, had so far rendered little effective assistance. And England showed her determination to carry on the struggle by raising over a hundred thousand more troops, and twenty million pounds for expenses. 54 1780. [chap. IX. 1780. — The most active operations of this year were carried on in the South. In the North, the British, under Knyphausen, made two unsuccessful marches from New York into New Jersey. The patriots were greatly encouraged by the arrival of six thousand troo'ps under Count Rochambeau, and a squadron under Admiral de Ternay. But Wash- ington's army was unable to unite with these for any immediate action, although plans were laid for the future. In February, a British squadron appeared before Charleston under Admiral Arbuthnot, bringing from New York Sir Henry Clinton, and five thousand men to force the South into submission. Clinton landed below the harbor, and led his forces north of the city. A few days later, the fleet passed Fort Moultrie in safety, and anchored in the harbor. Lincoln, who had received reinforcements from Vir- ginia, refused to surrender, and the British began the siege. In order to keep a way open for re- treat, Lincoln sent out General Huger with three hundred men to raise recruits from the miHtia. Scarcely had they left Charleston when Tarleton fell upon them, completely routing the whole force. The city was now surrounded, and Lincoln was forced to surrender. The British took possession on the T2th of May. Expeditions were now sent out to disperse the militia and to take possession of important posts. Everywhere the successes of the British were marked by the cruel treatment of the people ; so that, although the most important parts of the State came under their control, the greater portion of the people were only waiting for the time to come when they could throw off their authority. Some of the more daring spirits fled into North Caro- rolina, and formed themselves into bands, which an- noyed the British by their petty attacks. Of these, two bands under Sumter and Marion, were the most famous. These parties would fall upon detached CHAP. IX.] Arnold's Treason. 55 bodies of British at the most unexpected times and places, and often inflict considerable loss. During the whole campaign of 1780, the British never felt quite secure from them. Congress appointed General Gates to succeed Lincoln in the South ; and, with a strong force of regular troops and such militia as would join him on his way, he crossed into North CaroHna. Hear- ing this, Lord Rawdon took up his position at Cam- den, in the northern part of South Carolina, and Cornwallis hastened from Charleston. The Amer- icans advanced into South Carolina until they were within fourteen miles of Camden. Each leader, in- tending to surprise the other, ordered his army for- ward, and at dawn, on the i6th of August, the two armies met. The Americans had the stronger force, and occupied a good position ; but want of courage and firmness on the part of some of the leaders, and of experience on the part of some of the troops, gave the advantage to the British. The Continen- tal troops under De Kalb fought long and bravely, but were at last overpowered and driven back. De Kalb himself was mortally wounded in the contest. The shattered army retreated to Charlotte, North Carolina, and afterward to Salisbury. A few days after the battle of Camden, Sumter, who had led a detachment from the main army to intercept sup- phes, was attacked and badly defeated by Tarleton. Meantime, Colonel Campbell, with a thousand men, surprised a party of British at King's Moun- tain, and compelled them, after a desperate battle, to surrender. The close of this year saw Gornwallis still master in the South, and making cruel use of his power to induce or compel allegiance to the king. Arnold's Treason. — The whole country was greatly shocked in the autumn of 1780, by the news that Benedict Arnold, the brave patriot, who had distinguished himself in the earlier struggles of the 56 1 78 1. [chap. IX. war, was a traitor to his country. He had, in 1779, been charged by Congress with abusing his trust as commandant of Philadelphia, and had been tried and removed from office. In July, 1780, he ob- tained the command at West Point. This place he proposed giving up into the hands of the British. In order to complete the arrangements. Major John Andre went up from New York, and met Arnold near Haverstraw, who, gi\"ing the password, took him within the American lines. The next day all arrangements were made. West Point was to be surrendered, and Arnold was to receive in return the rank of brigadier in the British army and ten thousand pounds. At night Andre crossed the river, and set out by land for New York. When he reached Tarrytown, he was stopped by three patriots named John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart, who searched him, and foimd concealed in his stockings, papers containing plans of West Point, and instructions for its attack. Scorning his offers of payment if they would let him go, they took him to the commander at North Castle, who no- tified Arnold of his capture. Arnold at once made his escape down the river, and was received into the British army as arranged. Andre was tried, con- demned as a spy, and executed on the 26. of October. 1781. — Early in this year some of the troops in New Jersey, roused by their prolonged sufferings and the neglect of Congress, revolted and m.arched toward Philadelphia, resisting all General W^ayne's efforts to appease them. But even in their anger against Congress, they were too loyal to listen to the proposals of British agents to desert. They were promised food, clothing, and freedom from military ser\dce ; but in reply they seized the proposers and gave them up as spies. Congress praised their action, and yielded to some of their demands. When another brigade mutinied a little later. Gene- ral Lee put down the disturbance by force. But CHAP. IX.] 1 78 1. 57 Congress, realizing the necessity of providing more carefully for the needs of the men upon whom the whole cause greatly depended, took measures to raise means to do so. At this time the Bank of North America was founded : and, to insure the credit of the Government, Robert Morris and some others pledged their private fortunes. The opening month of 1781 saw active prepara- tions going on in the South. Greene, who had been appointed to the command, no sooner assumed it than he set about reorganizing the broken forces. The troops were divided into two divisions. Early in January, Morgan, who at the head of the western division had gone into the northwestern district of South Carolina to arouse the militia and put down the Tories, was attacked by Tarleton near Cowpens. Aware of the enemy's approach, Morgan had taken a good position, and met the attack firmly. Tarleton was sure of success, when Colonel Washington made so desperate a charge that the British turned and fled, leaving over five hundred prisoners and some ammunition in the hands of the victors. As soon as Cornwallis heard of Tarleton's defeat he hastened from his camp on the Catawba in pur- suit of Morgan. But Greene, too, had heard the news. Hastening to Morgan he took command, and led a retreat to Charlotte, in the meantime summon- ing the- other division under Huger to meet him. Across the State they marched, closely pursued by Cornwallis. Twice they barely escaped him. Twice the British were detained by swollen streams, over which the Americans had passed in safety. At last the Americans crossed into Virginia, and were safe. Here Greene was reinforced by Virginia militia, and, as his troops now numbered over four thousand men, he resolved to risk a battle. Accord- ingly he advanced to Guilford Court House, and aAvaited the enemy. On the 15th of March the armies met. Although in possession of an advanta- 58 1 78 1. [chap. IX. geous position, Greene's divisions seem to have been unwisely posted ; and in the opening contest it hap- pened that some raw American troops were opposed by some of CornwalHs's best. So that, although the Americans fought bravely, they were driven from the field and forced to retreat. But in effect the defeat was a victory, for Cornwallis soon after left for Virginia. Greene now advanced toward Camden, where Lord Rawdon was stationed with a strong force. On the 25th of April, Rawdon made a successful attack. Next month, however, he removed his force to Eutaw Springs ; and one post after another was given up to the Americans. At length, in August, Greene advanced against Orangeburg, one of the few posts remaining to the British. Finding it abandoned, he followed to Eutaw Springs where one of the fiercest battles of the war took place. It re- sulted in the retreat of the British into Charleston ; and as, during the same interval, St. Clair had suc- ceeded in driving them from North Carolina, their power in the South was evidently at an end. Cornwallis, on reaching Virginia, found Arnold in supreme command. This general had been placed by Clinton at the head of sixteen thousand men, and had gone into Virginia to aid the cause of his coun- try's enemy. Twice Washington had planned his capture, and had failed. When Cornwallis arrived he showed his contempt for the traitor by ordering him out of the State. Arnold next received a force with which he went against New London. Captur- ing the town, he forced the garrison to surrender, and allowed many of them to be massacred. From May to July, Cornwallis spent his time lay- ing waste the country, and destroying property in Virginia, closely watched meantime by Lafayette, who was, however, too weak to meet the enemy in the open field. At last, obeying Clinton's orders, Cornwallis fortified himself at Yorktown. Lafayette CHAP. IX.] 1783- 59 knew that De Grasse was expected shortly with a fleet, and saw that with this fleet to block the mouth of the York River, and a force sufficiently powerful to oppose him on the peninsula, Cornwallis would he completely at their mercy. Accordingly he urged Washington to join him, which he did in August with his entire force of aUied troops. Meantime, the looked-for fleet had arrived, and so, too, had a French fleet from Newport, bringing the ordnance for a siege. Cflnton, whom Cornwallis had besought for aid, had been so sure that Wash- ington was planning an attack upon New York that he not only refused to send any more troops to Virginia, but ordered Cornwallis to be ready to send him aid if needed. At last, when informed that Washington had moved south, a fleet was sent under Graves to the Chesapeake. This the French fleet attacked, and compelled to return to New York. On the 28th of September, the forces, consist- ing of seven thousand French and nine thousand Americans, were around Yorktown. On the 6th of October cannonading began, and continued with- out interruption until the 14th, when an assault was made which carried the outer w^orks. On the i6th, the British, making a sortie, were driven back, and Cornwallis, aware that he could neither hold out nor retreat, proposed to surrender. On the i8th the terms of surrender were signed ; and on the 19th, his army of over seven thousand men laid down their arms in the presence of the victorious troops. On the 23d the news reached Philadelphia, and Congress went in a body to the Lutheran church and gave thanks. A great throb of joy went through the land, for the power of Great Britain in the United States was ended forever. In 1783 articles of peace were drawn up between Great Britain and the United States, of which the following were the terms : The independence of the 6o The Administrations. [chap. x. United States was fully recognized ; all the terri- tory south of the lakes and east of the Mississippi was given up to the United States ; while Great Brit- ain retained Canada and Nova Scotia, and control of the St. Lawrence. Both countries were to have equal right to the fisheries at Newfoundland ; and Florida was ceded to Spain. On the 25th of November the British evacuated New York. Nine days afterward, Washington took leave of his officers, and proceeded to Congress to resign his commission as commander-in-chief of the army. CHAPTER X. THE ADMINISTRATIONS. In 1754, Benjamin Franklin had proposed a union of the colonies, but his plan fell to the ground. Each colony regarded its own sovereignty as su- preme, and was jealous of any general authority. During the Revolution, the need of a central power was sorely felt ; yet nothing but the greatest neces- sity urged the colonies to allow even a Continental Congress, and its action was constantly hampered by its want of power, for it could not compel the colonies to carry out its orders. In June, 1776, a committee appointed for that purpose drew up the Articles of Confederation, which Congress accepted in November, 1777. The legislatures of the various States proposed many amendments ; and these hav- ing been satisfactorily arranged, all the States but Maryland had adopted the Articles by February, 1779, and Maryland consented in 1781. But as soon as Congress met, it was evident that the new plan was not much better than the old one. An immense war debt was to be paid, and Congress could only request the States to raise money for CHAP. X.] Washington s Administration. 6i that purpose. To this request some responded ; some did not. The country was in a most distressed condition, and it seemed as if the nation must come to ruin. After three years of trial and difficulty a new plan was proposed. It was now more clearly seen what the needs of Congress were ; and Washington with some others suggested the calling of a conven- tion at Annapohs, in 1786 ; but it did not meet for action until the 17th of May, 1787, and then met at Philadelphia. After long discussion Randolph pro- posed to set aside the old Articles, and adopt a new constitution. In September this was done, and the Constitution of the United States was sent to the several States for acceptance, on the condition that it should go into effect as soon as nine of them should ratify it. This was done in the following order : Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Caro- lina, and New Hampshire. Then, after long debate, Virginia and New York. North Carolina did not ratify until 1789, and Rhode Island not until 1790. The first Wednesday in January, 1789, was the day appointed for the election of the first president of the United States. There was but one man in the people's estimation for the office ; and when the ballots of the electors were counted, George Wash- ington was unanimously elected president, and John Adams vice-president. Washington's Administration. — 1789-97. — The 4th of March was the day set apart for the inauguration of the president ; but it was not until the 30th of April that the event took place. Then, upon the balcony of the old City Hall, New York, Washington took the oath of office, and de- livered his inaugural address before the Senate. He chose for his Cabinet, Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Foreign Affairs ; Knox, Secretary of War ; Alex- ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, and 62 Washington s Administration, [chap. x. John Jay, Chief Justice. Hamilton brought his genius to bear upon the most pressing question of the time, and presented to Congress a plan for the payment of all debts incurred by the war. Not- withstanding great opposition, his plan was accepted ; taxes were imposed; and credit established. Dur- ing this session, Congress selected Philadelphia as the seat of government for ten years, hoping before the expiration of that time to choose a permanent site for a capital. In 1791 the Bank of the United States was established, and in the autumn of the same year Vermont was admitted into the Union. In 1787, the tract of country knovv'n as the North- west Territory, which had in 1783 been ceded to the United States by the States to which it belonged, was organized. St. Clair was appointed military governor ; and it was agreed that when it should be divided, not less than three nor more than five States should be made from it, and that no slavery should be allowed in them. In 1790, war broke out with the Miami Indians in this territory. Troops were sent out from Fort Washington (now Cincinnati), the capital of the territory, but were defeated and compelled to return to the fort. In 1 791 the gov- ernment sent troops to General St. Clair, and these also were defeated. St. Clair then resigned, and was succeeded by General Wayne, who, in 1793, after building a new fort and garrisoning an old one, sent proposals of peace to the Indians. When the Indians refused to accept these, he went against them, and so completely routed them that they were obliged to give up all claim to the territory from Fort Recovery, on one of the upper branches of the Wabash, to the mouth of the Great Miami River. In 1792, Kentucky was admitted into the Union. In the fall of the same year the presidential election took place, and Washington and Adams, were re- elected. Difficulties soon arose from the want of CHAP. X.] Washington s Administration, 63 sympathy in State matters between some of the members of the cabinet. Two parties had arisen in the country. One, the Federalists, who were in favor of the new constitution, and the other, the Anti-Federahsts, who opposed it. The leaders of the first party were Washington, Jay, and Hamilton ; while Jefferson was the recognized head of the second. In 1794, Jefferson resigned his office ; and in 1795, Hamilton also resigned. In 1794, the distillers of whisky in Western Penn- sylvania refused to pay the taxes which the govern- ment had imposed upon that article, and arose in arms against the tax officers. The president sent troops to put down the disturbance, but the rioters had disbanded before they arrived. This is known as the Whisky Riot. Considerable damage was done in 1793 to Amer- ican commerce by the seizure of trading vessels by British privateers. In consequence of which Jay was sent to England in 1794, to demand redress; and a treaty was concluded in November. Great hostiUty to this treaty existed in parts of the coun- try, but it was ratified at last, and war was averted by England ceding certain Western posts to the United States. In 1795, by a treaty with Spain, the boundary between the United States and Florida was determined, and unrestricted use of the Missis- sippi insured. In the same year the government agreed to pay the Dey of Algiers a certain amount of money yearly, in order to prevent the seizure of American merchant vessels by the pirates of that country. In 1796, Tennessee asked for and obtained ad- mission into the Union. Before the elections this year, Washington declared his intention of not be- coming a candidate for re-election. The division between the parties was stronger than before, for they differed not only upon the constitution, but also upon matters of State policy ; especially upon 64 Adams* Administration. [chap. x. those referring to the relations proper between the United States and France. The Anti-Federahsts desired to take up the cause of the French Repub- lic ; while the Federalists desired America to be free from all alliance with foreign nations. Both parties put up their candidates — Adams, of the Federal, and Jefferson, of the Anti-Federal. Adams, receiv- ing the greatest number of votes, became president, and Jefferson, receiving the next highest, became vice-president. Adams' Administration.— 1797-1801.— John Adams, the second president of the United States, had been a delegate from Massachusetts to the Co- lonial Congress, and one of the committee to draw up the Declaration of Independence. He was the first Minister to Great Britain from the United States as an independent government, and had served in other official capacities. The French Revolution was now in progress, and a large part of the Americans, urged on by the French Minister, were anxious that the government should ally itself with the French Republic. The president, in spite of strong opposition, insisted upon strict neutrality. Whereupon the French Di- rectory demanded an alliance, ordered its men-of- war to interfere with American commerce, and fi- nally dismissed the American Minister from Paris. Gerry, Marshall, and Pinckney, were sent to Paris to attempt a settlement ; but the Directory refused to receive them, unless a quarter million of dollars were first paid down as restitution for injuries which they pretended to have received by Jay's treaty with Great Britain. This the ambassadors refused, and they, too, were ordered to leave. In 1798, prepara- tions were made for war. The army was organized, and a navy fitted out for the protection of American commerce. In the next year Admiral Truxton won renown by his services. On one occasion, he at- tacked and took a French man-of-war with a force c ^^-'> ISLANDS .tCr* C ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY SCALE OF MILES 100 300 5(10 NOTE- Thefiffures on eaelt Scale give the year of iU admission into the U CHAP. X.] Jefferson s Administration. 65 vastly superior to his own ; and on another, his suc- cess was only prevented by a sudden storm. The French Minister, Talleyrand, seeing these preparations, asked that some one might be sent to treat for peace. But, before an ambassador could reach Paris, Bonaparte had overthrown the Direc- tory, and had made himself master of France. He was anxious for peace with America, seeing that otherwise she must ally herself with the greatest enemy of France, England. Accordingly peace was signed in September, 1800. The year 1800, the last of Adams' administration, was saddened by the death of Washington. Even those who had been opposed ^o him in some of his political views, mourned the loss of one who had ever been ready to lay aside everything at his country's call. The strife between the political parties had in- creased with time and with the passage of some unpopular acts. Among these Avere the " Alien and Sedition Laws," the first of which gave the president power to remove from the country any foreigner who might be thought dangerous to the United States ; while the second interfered with the free- dom of the press when it was directed against the government. The elections at the close of this year caused, therefore, great excitement. The Federal- ists offered Adams and Pinckney as their candi- dates ; the Democrats (as they were now called) offered Jefferson and Burr. As the two latter re- ceived an equal number of votes, the election was referred to the House of Representatives, where, after repeated balloting, Jefferson was chosen presi- dent, and Aaron Burr vice-president. Jefferson's Administration. — 1801-1809. — Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, the well-known author of the Declaration of Independence, began his administration by removing from office all whose political principles did not agree with his own — a precedent which has been followed by every presi- 66 Jefferson s Administration, [chap. x. dent who has succeeded him. He next caused some of the unpopular laws of the preceding ad- ministration to be repealed. The changes in the West were among the most important events of this administration. In 1802 the state of Ohio was withdrawn from the Northwest Territory and admitted into the Union ; and the re- mainder of the tract became known as the Indiana Territory. At the same time the land from Georgia westward to the Mississippi was formed into the Mississippi Territory. In 1800, Spain had ceded the Territory of Louisiana to France ; and now Napo- leon, finding that it would be difficult to manage a colony so far away, listened willingly to proposals from the United States to purchase it. Accordingly, for the sum of about fourteen million dollars, the United States came into possession of the immense tract of land having for its boundary on the north the forty-ninth degree of latitude ; on the east the Mississippi River and Florida ; on the south the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the west the Sabine River, the Red River, the mountains north of the Arkan- sas River, until the forty-second degree of latitude was reached, when the Pacific became the western boundary. In 1803, the government sent a naval force to the Mediterranean to protect American commerce, which was suffering at the hands of the states on the north coast of Africa. In February, 1804, Commo- dore Decatur, in the Intrepid^ made a brave capture of the frigate Philadelphia, which had been taken by the Tripolitans the year previous. Slipping cauti- ously into the harbor of Tripoli, he lashed the In- trepid to the Philadelphia, and boarded her, over- powering the crew ; after which he set fire to her, and then escaped without losing a man, though under heavy fire from the guns of the fort. Com- modore Preble arrived in July, and commenced the siege of Tripoli ; and, with the aid of the deposed CHAP. X.] Jefferson s Administration. 6/ brother of the sovereign, brought the Tripolitans to terms. A treaty was concluded in 1805. In the summer of 1804, Burr, the vice-president, angered by Hamilton's frequent interference in his ambitious aims, challenged him, and, in the duel which followed, killed him. Fleeing from New- York, where public opinion was strong against him, Burr went west, and two years afterward was accused of being concerned in a conspiracy to raise troops to get control of Mexico, and then to erect a new republic in the southwest. As there was not sufficient evidence to convict him, he was acquitted. But owing to his unpopularity, which was now very great, he went into voluntary exile. Meantime Jefferson was re-elected in 1804, and George Clinton of New York made vice-president. The government was at this time greatly troubled by the state of American commerce. France and England were at war ; and, in order to inflict the more injury upon each other other, each forbade neutral vessels to enter the ports of the other. In May, 1806, England declared France to be in a state of blockade — that is, she placed vessels outside the ports of France to prevent trading vessels from entering or leaving them. As the neutral vessels knew nothing of this, they were captured. In No- vember of the same year France declared the British Isles in a state of blockade, and French vessels were at hand to capture unwary ships. Next, Great Britain claimed the right of boarding American ves- sels, and seizing any person who had been born in her territories, and impressing them into her service. At last, on the 22d of June, 1807, the British man-of- war Leopard approached and hailed the American frigate Chesapeake when off the coast of Virginia. The officers went on board and insisted on searching the vessel. This was refused, and, before the ship could be made ready for action, the Leopard fired upon her and compelled her surrender. This roused both 68 Madison s Administration, [chap. xi. president and people. Reparation was demanded, which was promised but never made. Then the president issued the Embargo, which prohibited British vessels from entering any American port. But this also prevented American vessels from pass- ing out, and, with two other acts of the same time, came near destroying her commerce. These two acts were, first, the British Orders in Council, which forbade all trade with France and her allies ; and, second, Napoleon's Milan Decree, which forbade all trade with England and her allies. During this administration Robert Fulton applied steam to purposes of navigation, and in 1807 launched the first steamboat on the Hudson River, He also invented a torpedo for use in naval warfare. CHAPTER XI. THE ADMINISTRATIONS — CONTINUED. — WAR OF l8l2. Madison's Administration. — 1809-1817.— James Mc4.dison found himself at the head of a na- tion in troublous times. France had removed all her restrictions on American commerce ; but Eng- land continued her overbearing measures. Six thou- sand American citizens had been seized and forced into the British service, and the people would bear this no longer. Although the president would have preferred to settle the matter, if possible, with- out war, those who served under him were violent in their hatred of Great Britain. In November, 181 1, Congress met, and it was evident that war must come. And yet it seemed a daring thing to propose : for America had no army, and a very in- ferior navy, manned by inexperienced seamen ; while- Great Britain had an immense army in the field which Napoleon's advance on Russia had left with- out fear of immediate action, and a large and finely- manned navy. CHAP. XI.] Madison s Administration. 69 But two special acts had roused the people. In May, 181 1, Commodore Rodgers, cruising off the coast of Virginia, hailed a vessel, and in reply re- ceived a succession of shots. Rodgers replied in the same way, and silenced his enemy, which proved to be the British ship Little Belt, In February, 181 2, a conspiracy between Great Britain and the governor of Canada for the destruction of the United States was discovered. Some of the New England States were opposed to the Democratic administra- tion, and the conspirators hoped to win over these States to secede. But they signally failed, and the discovery of the attempt only strengthened the feel- ing of hostility. In 181 2, while war was pending, Louisiana was ad- mitted into the Union. On the 19th, of June the president issued a proclamation declaring war against Great Britain, and Congress ordered twenty-five thousand regular troops and fifty thousand volun- teers, and called upon the States to protect their coasts and harbors with their militia. Henry Dear- born, of Massachusetts, was appointed commander- in-chief. In 1 8 10, a war occurred with the Indians in the North-west. Jealous of the advance of the white man, the Indian tribes were aroused by Tecumseh to lay aside all jealousy of each other, and unite for the expulsion of the intruders. When Harrison, governor of the Territory, offered to buy their lands, Tecumseh refused to sign the treaty, and determined to get back what had already been ceded. Harri- son then decided to enforce the treaty, and advanced to the mouth of the Tippecanoe. Here, while wait- ing for a conference with the chiefs, the troops were suddenly attacked by the Indians. The attack was, however, promptly met and the Indians were routed ; after which Tecumseh gave up his design, and allied himself with the British in Canada. The first action of the war with England was a 70 Madison's Admiitistration. [chap, xi, movement by the Americans to overawe the Indians on the North-west frontier, and to invade Canada. For this purpose General WilHam Hull advanced with twelve hundred Ohio volunteers toward De- troit. The vessel containing his stores and dispatches was seized on the way by the British commander at Maiden, who had been informed of the declaration of war. Hull then determined upon attacking Mai- den, and on the 12th of July crossed the Detroit. But before preparations were completed, news came of the loss of the post on the Mackinaw, and the de- feat of a body of reinforcements on its way to him. He, therefore, recrossed to Detroit ; and when the British, who had been strengthened, advanced upon him there in August, Hull, overestimating his ene- my's force, offered to surrender. The day before this occurred, a body of Indians fell upon Fort Dearborn (Chicago), and, forcing its surrender, killed or took prisoners most of its people. An attack made from New York upon Queens- town in October, was at first successful, but the place was retaken by the British very soon afterward. Another party in November crossed from near Buf- falo, but were recalled by their commander. But while the Americans were so unsuccessful on land, their navy was winning a reputation for itself. On the 19th of August, the American frigate Constitu- tion fell in with the Gnerriere off the coast of Massa- chusetts. The Guerriere opened fire, but the Con- stitution poured such a broadside upon her that she was compelled to strike her flag ; after which, her prisoners were taken off, and she was burnt. On the 1 8th of October, the Wasp, under Captain Jones, be- tween Cape Cod and the Bermudas, met six British merchant-men and the Frolic^ which offered battle. After a furious fire the vessels came close together, and the Wasfs men boarded the F?'olic and lowered her flag. Almost immediately, however, the British ship Poictiers came upon the scene of action, and CHAP. XI.] I813. ^ 71 carried off both the vessels. On the 25th of the same month, the United States, under Commodore Decatur, attacked and captured the Macedonian near the Canary Islands. On the 26th, the Essex sailed from Delaware, and, later in the winter, took a British ship with about fifty thousand dollars on board. Th?n she sailed for the Pacific, where, after doing great harm to British merchantmen through- out 1813, she was herself captured in the spring of 1814. In the autumn of 181 2, Madison was reelected, and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, elected vice- president. Measures for strengthening the army and navy were passed in Congress. 1813. — In January, an army under General Win- chester undertook to regain the points lost by Hull in the previous campaign. An attack by an advance force upon Frenchtown, where a body of British and Indians were posted, resulted in the capture of the town. Here they were joined by the main army, and here the British, in a few days, attacked them. After severe fighting, with great loss on both sides, Winchester advised surrender. Notwithstanding his promise of safety, Proctor left the wounded prisoners to be massacred by the Indians. On the istof May, two thousand British and Indians besieged General Harrison at Fort Meigs ; and, but for a mistaken movement on the part of a division of reinforce- ments from Kentucky, the British would have been completely routed. As it was, Proctor was obliged to abandon the idea of taking the fort, and retreated to Maiden. After three months he made another attempt, and again failed. He next made an at- tempt at Lower Sandusky. Here he also failed, and with great loss. Up to this time the results had been unimportant. Little had been gained or lost ; but now an attempt was made by the Americans to get control of Lake Erie, and so of its shores. This task was given to 72 .^ I813. [CHAP. XI. a young Rhode Island man, Oliver Perry. Under his direction, a small fleet of nine ships was built ; and in September met the British fleet of six ships, commanded by Barclay, a skilled officer, at Put-in Bay. Perry, in his flag-ship, the Lawrence^ began the attack. The Lawi-ence was soon a wreck ; but Perry crossing to another ship in an open boat, and, amid the fierce fire of the enemy, took a fresh start and broke through the enemy's line, pouring from both sides of his vessel a deadly fire. In fifteen minutes he forced the enemy to surrender. Two armies were awaiting the result of this battle. Im- mediately after the victory. General Harrison crossed to Maiden, and began a pursuit of the retreating British. The latter were overtaken at the Thames, and completely routed. Tecumseh was killed, and the Indians subdued. Perry's victory on Lake Erie had been followed by a like success on Lake Ontario by Chauncey. And, in April, General Dearborn crossed from Sackett's Harbor to make an attack upon To- ronto, an important post of the British. On the 27th seventeen hundred men made the attack, and, although they were met with great force by the British, succeeded in driving them from the town. They then recrossed the Niagara to Fort George, from which the British retreated. But the Americans pursued, overtook, and defeated them. Meantime the British attacked Sackett's Harbor, which had been left undefended, but the militia was called out, and they were driven back with heavy loss. No further action took place until November, when the conquest of Montreal was attempted. General Wilkinson, with seven thousand men, left French Creek, and sailed down the St. Lawrence, their passage being constantly opposed by the Brit- ish and Indians on the shores. On the nth a se- vere battle was fought, after which the Americans went to St. Regis, where they awaited forces from CHAP. XI.] 1 8 14. 73 Plattsburg. As these did not arrive, they went into winter-quarters at the Salmon River. Meantime Fort Niagara was captured by the British, and Buffalo burnt. At sea the American navy did not meet with the success of the previous year. On February 24th, a severe battle took place between the British brig Peacock and the American sloop Hornet^ in which the Americans were victorious. On June ist, the Chesapeake, under Captain Lawrence, answered a challenge from the Shannon, and the furious action which followed resulted in the boarding and capture of the Chesapeake. Lawrence himself made a brave fight, but fell mortally w^ounded. On August 14th, the American Argus was captured off the coast of England by the Pelican ; and on September 5th, the Enteipi'ise captured the British brig Boxer. In August of this year, the Creek Indians of Alabama, who had taken up arms in sympathy with the Indians of the North, surprised Fort Mimms, near Mobile, and massacred nearly all its inhabitants. An army was raised, and General Jackson, at the head of a force from Tennessee, entered the State from the north, and attacked and defeated the In- dians at several points. At last they intrenched themselves at Horse Shoe Bend, and here Jackson surrounded and destroyed them almost to a man. 1814. — Another invasion of Canada was deter- mined upon for the spring ; but there was so much delay in getting ready that it was not until July 3d that Generals Scott and Ripley crossed to Fort Erie, which immediately surrendered. Next day, on their way down the Chippewa River, they were met by the British under General Riall, and a severe battle en- sued, in which the Americans were successful. Gen- eral Riall retreated to Burlington Heights ; and on the 23d, Scott found the enemy strongly posted near Niagara Falls. A battle followed which lasted until darkness fell, but neither side would yield. 74 1 8 14' [chap. XI, Then General Riall and his staff were captured, and a detachment was sent under Colonel Miller to take a battery upon a commanding hill. When this was gained the British were driven from the field. This was the most severe battle of the war ; the British loss being nearly nine hundred, and the American over eight hundred. After the battle of Niagara, the American army returned to Fort Erie. Here the British, under General Drummond, began a siege on the 4th of August, which lasted with varying success until the 17 th of September, when the ad- vance works of the British were destroyed ; and, hearing that reinforcements were expected, they re- treated to Fort George. The Americans, after de- stroying Fort Erie, went into winter-quarters at Buf- falo. The invasion was also attempted in the North by General Wilkinson, who, however, only reached the Sorel River, when he was repulsed and obliged to fall back to Plattsburg. Here he was superseded by General Izard. But the British now determined to invade New York, and get control of Lake Champlain, which was occupied by Commodore MacDonough. General Prevost reached Plattsburg ; then for four days he tried to cross the Saranac River, but was kept back the while by General Macomb. When the British fleet was ready to assist, a united attack was planned. On the nth of September the fleet opened the battle with MacDonough ; and although the American ships were soon badly shattered, the British were more so, and were obliged to strike their col- ors. On land the British were overpowering the Americans with their numbers, when the news of the naval victory so inspirited them, that Prevost was obliged to retreat. He then went back into Canada. The war on the Canada frontier was now over ; but it still raged in other parts of the country. In August, a fleet bearing four thousand soldiers entered CHAP, XI.] 1 8 14. 75 Chesapeake Bay, where the American fleet was too weak to oppose them. Landing, they proceeded at once to Washington, defeated the mihtia who tried to prevent their advance, and burned the city. Then they advanced upon Baltimore. Here, however, they were checked by the miUtia, and withdrew to their ships. The last land contest of the war took place in the South. In August, by permission of the Spanish authorities, there was fitted out at Pensacola a fleet of British ships, for the purpose of besieging Mobile. General Jackson, after remonstrating in vain with the authorities, marched against Pensacola and drove the British out. Learning that they intended the conquest of Louisiana, he prepared for its defense. On the 23d of December Generals Jackson and Coffee advanced to meet the British, under Sir Edward Packenham, and were obliged to retreat. But Jackson took his position a little below New Orleans, and awaited the enemy. On the 28th can- nonading commenced, but without success. On the 8th of January the British advanced for an assault. Jackson, intrenched behind earthworks, defended by sand-bags and cotton-bales, poured such a deadly fire upon the British columns that they were nearly destroyed. Their loss was seven hundred, while that of the Americans was but eight killed and thirteen wounded. Peace had been arranged on December 24th, at Ghent ; but the news had not yet reached the United States, and it was not until the i8th of February that the treaty was ratified. The navies, still igno- rant of the fact, carried on hostilities until spring. The Constitution^ off Cape St. Vincent, captured two ships after severe fighting ; and later, off Brazil, the Hornet captured the Penguin. News of the peace was received with great joy, for the commerce of the Eastern States had been destroyed by the war on the seas. The coast from 'j6 Monroe s Administratioii. [chap. xii. Maine to Delaware was blockaded, and the financial affairs of the country were in a wretched condition. No sooner had the treaty of Ghent been ratified than the United States were obliged to undertake another war. This time it was against the pirates of the Mediterranean, who renewed their attacks upon American merchant ships. Commodore Decatur commanded the fleet of nine vessels, and, on the 17th and 19th of June, 1814, captured Moorish frigates carrying a number of men. Then he went to Algiers, and demanded a treaty. By this treaty the Dey gave up all claim to tribute, and promised no further interference. The same course was pur- sued with Tripoli and Tunis. In 1 8 16, Indiana was admitted into the Union, and at the same time a colony for free negroes was established in Liberia. The result of the elections held this year was that James Monroe became pres- ident, and Daniel Tompkins, vice-president. CHAPTER XII. THE ADMINISTRATIONS CONTINUED. Monroe's Administration. — 1817 - 1825. — Jhe important event of this administration was the admission of new States, and the questions that arose thereupon. In 181 7, Mississippi was organized as a State, and admitted. Illinois was admitted in 181 8, and Alabama in 1819. In the latter year a bill pro- posing the formation of the territories of Missouri and Arkansas was brought before Congress. A hot debate followed as to whether slavery should or should not be prohibited in the new territories, which resulted in their formation without any re- strictions concerning slavery. But in the next year, when Missouri sought admission as a State, it was opposed by the enemies of slavery. At the same time, however, Maine was asking the same thing, CHAP. XII.] Jackson s Administration. yy and those who desired slavery in Missouri were de- termined to oppose the admission of Maine. In order to settle the dispute, the Missouri Compromise was passed. Both States were admitted ; Missouri as a slave state. But the bill provided that there- after slavery should not exist in the States formed from the Louisiana territory north of parallel thirty- six degrees, thirty minutes ; and that it might exist in States formed south of that line if the people of those States so willed. The Spanish colonies in South America, having revolted from their sovereign, had resolved them- selves into republics. In 1822 their independence was acknowledged by the United States govern- ment ; and when it seemed possible that an attempt would be made by the allied powers of Europe, to wrest from them their liberty, the United States interfered, and the president declared that the American continents " were not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any Euro- pean power." This has since been known as the Monroe Doctrine. John Quincy Adams' Administration.— 1825-1829. — In 1826 a treaty was concluded with the Creek Indians in Georgia by which they gave up all their lands in that State, and agreed to move beyond the Mississippi. Treaties were also con- cluded with the Kansas Indians and the Osages of Arkansas, by which their lands were ceded to the United States. In 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of the sign- ing of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson and John Adams died. One had written, and both had signed the Declaration ; and both had been presidents of the nation which it had brought into existence. Jackson's Administration. —1829 - 1837. — The tariff bill, which had been brought forward but not settled during the preceding administration, 78 Jackson s Administration, [chap. xii. came up again in the early part of this. By its provisions a revenue tax was imposed upon certain imported goods. Several of the States opposed the bill, and South Carolina went so far as to declare the law unconstitutional, and to refuse payment. The question was debated in the Senate ; but the president not waiting for it to be decided in that way, first issued a proclamation in which he denied the right of any State to set at nought an act of Congress, and then ordered troops to the disaffected State. The matter was amicably settled by a com- promise suggested by Henry Clay. In 1832 a proposal was made to recharter the Bank of the United States, whose charter would expire in 1836. This was strongly opposed by the president, and his opposition raised a strong party against him called the Whig party, the leaders of which were Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. Certain lands in Wisconsin Territory, purchased from the Indians a few years before, had not been set- tled by whites, and the Indians still held them. Now, when they were wanted, the Indians refused to give them up. A force was sent against them, and sev- eral battles followed, in one of which their chief. Black Hawk, was taken prisoner. He advised his people to yield to the demands of the whites, and they withdrew, into Iowa. In 1834, the Indian Territory was organized in order that the Cherokee Indians, formerly in Geor- gia, might have a home beyond the Mississippi. They proved unwillmg to go, however, until forced to do so by United States troops ; and even then it was not until 1838 that the removal was complete. The Seminoles in Florida also disputed their treaty, and m 1835 ^^^^ broke out with them. Sev- eral battles were fought at the Withlacoochie, at Fort Drane, and at Wahoo Swamp. But no decis- ive result was reached. In 1837, the war was re- CHAP. XII.] Vail Btirens Administration. 79 newed. In the fall, Osceola, the chief of the nation, was taken prisoner ; but the war went on until De- cember 25th, 1838, when Colonel Taylor marched into the Everglades, and fought a desperate battle, in which the savages were defeated. In the next year, the chiefs signed a treaty, and agreed to re- move to the "West. In 1836, Arkansas was admitted into the Union ; and Michigan Territory w?.s organized as a State, and admitted the next year. At the elections of 1836, Martin Van Buren was chosen president, and Rich- ard M. Johnson, vice-president. Van Buren's Administration. — 1837- 1841. — In the first year of this administration, the country was distressed by a financial panic. Speculation had increased greatly, and business was to a great extent conducted upon a credit system. Jackson had issued the specie circular, which demanded that all pay- ments for public lands should be made in coin. It was not until the present administration that the ef- fect was felt, and the result was panic. A session of Congress was called for the purpose of devising some method by which relief might be obtained. A way was devised at the next session, and business began to revive. In 1838, the banks resumed pay- ment. In 1837, some Canadians conceived the idea of revolting fiom Great Britain. Many were found in the United States to sympathize with the movement, and especially in New York. A party from the lat- ter State seized an island in the Niagara River, and fortified it. But the government interfered, and order was restored. As early as the winter of 1839 the question of the next president began to be considered. The present administration was blamed for all the distress which the people had suffered, and when the elections took place, Van Buren was defeated for a second term, and General Harrison, the Whig candidate, chosen. 8o Harrison — Tyler Administration, [chap. xii. Harrison and Tyler's Administration. — 1841-1845. — One month after his inauguration, the president died, and was succeeded by the vice-presi- dent, John Tyler. Tyler's first official action was a great disappointment to the party that had made him president : he refused to recharter the Bank of the United States. In consequence, every member of his cabinet resigned except Webster, the secretary of state. And it was fortunate that he did not fol- low the example of his colleagues ; for his skill was needed in order that a difficulty with Great Britain concerning the north-eastern boundary of the United States might be peaceably settled. In 1842, the people of Rhode Island had a do- mestic quarrel over a new charter, and matters went so far that troops were sent to restore order. In the same year was erected the Bunker Hill monument, the corner stone of which had been laid by General Lafayette in 1825. In the latter part of this administration the Mor- mons, who had settled first in Missouri, and then in Illinois, we^e forced to remove farther West. In or- der to be beyond reach of hostility, they crossed the Rocky Mountains, and settled in what has since become Utah Territory. Now another event stirred and divided the people. In 1835, Texas, weary of her oppressive government, resolved to separate from Mexico. Accordingly, the Texans took up arms, and in a battle in April, 1836, gained a decisive victory. As soon as its indepen- dence was recognized, Texas sought admission into the United States. Van Buren feared war with Mexico, and denied the request. The question came up again in 1844, and upon this the election of the next president was based. The Democrats favored, the Whigs opposed, annexation. The an- nexation party carried the day. James K. Polk was elected, and Texas was admitted early in the follow- ing year. RUSSELL d STRUTHERa.N.y CHAP. XIII.] PoWs Administration. 8 1 In 1844, the Morse telegraph was established. After several years of experimenting and of delay, a line was set up between Baltimore and Washington, and the first message sent over it, carried the news of Polk's nomination. CHAPTER XIII. ^ THE ADMINISTRATIONS CONTINUED. — THE MEXI- CAN WAR. Polk's Administration. — 1845-49. — As soon as the annexation was confirmed, Texas asked the president to send some troops to protect her in case of trouble with Mexico, as a dispute had already arisen concerning the boundary line. The Texans claimed the Rio Grande as the w^estern boundary, and the Mexicans claimed the Nueces. When the Mexicans refused to settle the matter by treaty, American forces were sent under General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande ; and, on the eighth of March, 1846, he took his position near that river at Fort Brown. On April 26th, the Mexicans under General Arista occupied. Matamoras, while others crossed the river, and hostilities commenced. By the time that Tay- lor had secured his stores at Point Isabel, the Mexi- cans had taken a stand at Palo Alto. Here, on May 8th, the Americans met them. A severe en- gagement took place, in which the Mexicans, though vastly superior in numbers, were defeated. On his way back to Fort Brown, Taylor again met the Mexicans in strong position at Resaca de la Palma. Here they made a far more desperate fight, but again were beaten, and fled across the river. As soon as the news of these battles reached Washington, Congress authorized the president to call for volunteers. Fifty thousand men and ten 6 82 Polk's Administration. [chap. xm. million dollars were raised, and the troops organized into three divisions : one, under General Scott, to go to the capital of Mexico ; one, under General Kear- ney, to enter Mexico from the North ; and one, under General Taylor, to hold the disputed territory. After the battle of Resaca de la Palma, General Taylor captured Matamoras, and then marched to- ward Monterey. The Mexicans, ten thousand strong, occupied the city under General Ampudia ; and, on the 19th of September, Taylor, with six thousand, began the siege. Some heights in the rear of the town were taken on the 21st, and on the 23d the Americans forced an entrance into the town. On the 24th it capitulated. The Mexicans now made Santa Anna their president, and raised twenty thousand men. The Americans, too, were active ; and, by the end of the year, several towns had fallen into their hands. In the meantime. General Kearney had crossed the Rocky Mountains, entered New Mexico, cap- tured Santa Fe, and in August received submission from the entire territory. He then passed on with part of his force to California, where John C. Fre- mont, hearing of the existence of war, had rallied the people to throw off the Mexican yoke. By January 8th, 1847, the authority of the United States was established there. Meantime, the re- mainder of Kearney's army had niarched from Santa Fe into Mexico, and, defeating a large opposing force, entered Chihuahua on February 28th, 1847. Santa Anna, with twenty thousand men, was ad- vancing meantime against Saltillo, where General Taylor had only six thousand men to oppose him. But the Americans chose a suitable battle-ground at Buena Vista, and waited. On the 28th of February Santa Anna sent demands for a surrender, which were, of course, refused. The next morn- ing the battle was opened. Every onset of the Mexicans was repulsed by the Americans. Once CHAP. XIII.] Polk's Administration. 83 a regiment mistook an order, and placed the army in a dangerous position ; but the other troops ral- lied, and the field was won against fearful odds. At the beginning of 1847, Scott arrived at the scene of action, and took some of Taylor's troops to join his own in an expedition into the heart of the country. In March, he landed at Vera Cruz with twelve thousand men. The city was strongly fortified, and guarded by numbers superior to those under Scott ; but by the end of the month it was forced to surrender. Santa Anna held Cerro Gordo, but it surrendered ; and shortly afterward Jalapa, which was supposed to be impregnable, did the same. Then Perote, then Puebla, which, though having eighty thousand inhabitants, offered no resistance to the small army. Scott's forces, now somewhat re- duced, were reinforced, and he began his march to Mexico. Not only was the city difficult of access and well defended, but the road to it lay past sev- eral strong castles and fortresses. Bat Scott was determined to reach the city. On August 29th, one of the outposts, Contreras, was taken ; then San Antonio, then Churubusco. Scott then rested his forces until September 7th. Then Chapultepec was carried ; and, on the night of the 13th the city of Mexico was evacuated by the government, and the American flag was raised next day in the capital. The Mexicans made attempts to regain some of the captured cities, but they were unsuccessful. Early in 1848, peace was concluded. The Rio Grande was made the western boundary of Texas, and New Mexico and California ceded to the United States ; in return for which the United States prom- ised to pay fifteen million dollars to Mexico. Shortly after the cession of California, great ex- citement was caused by the discovery of gold on the Sacramento River. People flocked thither from the East, and from all parts of the old world, and the population grew with great rapidity. 84 Taylor — Fillmore Administration, [chap. xm. In the meantime, Florida and Iowa had been admitted into the Union; the former in 1845, and the latter in 1846. In 1848, Wisconsin was admitted. In the fall of this year, General Zachary Taylor being the popular favorite, was chosen president, with Millard Fillmore as vice-president. • Taylor and Fillmore's Administration. — 1849-1853. — The organization of California led to severe disputes in Congress. By the constitution which California adopted, slavery was prohibited in her territory ; and when she asked to be admitted into the Union, the Southern States wished to refuse because of her determination regarding slavery. They claimed that as the line fixed by the Missouri Compromise passed through the territory, slavery ought not to be prohibited. Another cause for agi- tation, throughout not only Congress but the whole country, was that Texas, a slave State, insisted that New Mexico belonged to her territory ; while New Mexico claimed a separate government. In 1850, Henry Clay offered his celebrated Omnibus Bill, which provided for all the disputed points, and its passage allayed, for the time, the difficulties. While this bill was before Congress, the president died, and Fillmore assumed the duties of the office. During this year an attempt at revolution took place in Cuba, with the aid or at the instigation of some American adventurers, and failed. A second at- tempt was made the next year, which resulted in the defeat of the insurgents, and the execution of their leader. A dispute arose with Englrnd concerning the Newfoundland fisheries, which tnreatened the coun- try with trouble ; but it was settled by treaty in 1854. Three statesmen died during this adminis- tration — John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and Daniel Webster. The point on which the result of the elections of 1852 depended was the Compromise of 1850. The CHAP. XIII.] Pierce s Admmistration, 85 Whigs and Democrats agreed that its provisions should be adhered to. Another party, which had arisen out of the slavery disputes, the Free Soil party, thought these provisions unwise. The Demo- cratic candidate, Franklin Pierce, was elected. Pierce's Administration. — 1853 - 1857.— In the first year of this administration the route for a railroad to the Pacific was explored ; a possible second war with Mexico was averted by the pur- chase of some land which both Mexico and New Mexico claimed ; and a treaty with Japan w^as pro- posed, although it was not concluded until the next year. In 1854 Senator Douglass proposed the organiza- tion of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, claim- ing that the question of slavery should be settled by the people of the States themselves. This was vio- lently opposed by Northern members, because it was directly contrary to the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, but it was at last carried. The deci- sion being left to the States, both parties used their utmost influence to have the matter decided accord- ing to their view. The result was that rival govern- ments were formed, and a constitution adopted by each ; but civil war broke out between the parties, and in 1856 the government was obliged to interfere and restore order. The excitement thus created spread throughout the country. It was not until 1859 that a constitution forbidding slavery was rati- fied ; and in 1861 Kansas was admitted into the Union. During this administration an affair of diplomacy attracted considerable attention. Martin Koszta was a Hungarian who fled from Austria to escape punishment for rebellion against the government. He came to the United States, and took out some of the papers necessary to his becoming a citizen. Shortly after this he went to Europe, and was seized by the Austrian authorities. America demanded that 86 Buchanan's Administration, [chap. xm. he should be released, and the affair was left for the Austrian Minister at Washington and the Secretary of State to settle. The result was that Koszta was sent back to the United States. The Democratic candidate this year was James Buchanan, who was a strong advocate of the Kansas- Nebraska Bill. The Free Soil party nominated John C. Fremont, but Buchanan was elected by a large majority. Buchanan's Administration.— 1857-1861.— In the first year of this administration a rebellion broke out among the Mormons. They had been under the governorship of Brigham Young. But the central government, deeming some of their laws in- consistent with the laws of the country, sent a judge to carry on the business of the courts, and he was not permitted to exercise the duties of his office. The government then appointed a new governor for Utah, and sent an army to enforce obedience. The Mormons prepared to resist the troops, but before they arrived an agent of the government appeared who had authority to settle matters without using force. Gradually order was restored, and the troops withdrawn. In 1858, the Atlantic cable was laid, thus con- necting the two hemispheres by telegraph. In the same year, Minnesota was admitted into the Union, and in the next year Oregon. All through the administration the slavery ques- tion was agitated. In the beginning of it, Chief Justice Taney had decided a case which had come before him, by declaring that slaves had no rights, except as the property of their owners, and had fur- ther declared the Missouri Compromise, and the Compromise of 1850, to be null, and contrary to the meaning of the constitution. In 1859, the excite- ment was increased by an attempt to rouse the slaves to rebellion. John Brown, with a party of twenty men, seized the government arsenal at Harper's CHAP, xiii.] Buchanan's Administration. 87 Ferry, and held it until they were taken and im- prisoned by the Virginia militia. The leader and some of his followers were tried, convicted, and hanged. While this excitement was fresh in the minds of the people, a presidential election was pending. There were four candidates. The Republican candi- date was Abraham Lincoln ; the candidate of the Northern Democrats, Stephen A. Douglas ; of the Southern Democrats, John C. Breckinridge ; and of the American party, John Bell. Several of the Southern States had declared that if the country was to be controlled by the principles of the Repub- lican party, the Union could no longer be held to- gether. The election of Lincoln by a large majority of the electoral college was, therefore, the signal for secession. President Buchanan admitted that, al- though he did not believe in the right of a State to secede, he had no authority to prevent it. Accord- ingly, the States which sought separation carried their wishes into effect during the interval between Lincoln's election and his inauguration. South Carolina set the example ; and on December 20th passed a resolution dissolving her connection with the other States. In quick succession, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed ; and in February, 1861, the government of the Confederate States of America was organized at Montgomery, with Jefferson Davis as president, and Alexander H. Stephens, as vice-president. The country at large was unprepared for war. The seceded States had seized nearly all the forts and arsenals lying in their territory ; and only For- tress Monroe, in Virginia, Forts Sumter and Moul- trie, at Charleston, and Fort Pickens, in Florida, re- mained to the national government. 88 The Civil War, — 1861. [chap. xiv. CHAPTER XIV. THE CIVIL WAR. Lincoln's Administration. — 1861-1865. — Shortly after Lincoln's inauguration, the Southern States asked for a recognition of their independence, which was denied. On April nth. General Beaure- gard sent an order to Major Anderson, the com- mander of Fort Sumter, to surrender. Upon his refusal, fire was opened upon the fort, which lasted thirty-four hours. At the end of that time, the fort was destroyed, and Anderson was forced to aban- don it. This was the signal for war. Three days after this event, the president called for seventy-five thousand men to put down the rebellion. Virginia then seceded, and in the next month was followed by Arkansas and North Carolina. The first bloodshed of the war occurred in Balti- more on April 19th, as some Massachusetts troops were passing through that city on their way to Washington. They were fired upon by a mob, and three men killed. The armory at Harper's Ferry, and the Norfolk navy yard were next seized by the Confederates. On May 3d, eighty-three thousand troops were called for, for three years' service. Active preparations were made both in the I-^orth and in the South. General Scott was appointed commander-in-chief of the Federal forces, and ships of war were sent to blockade the Southern ports. 1861.— Events in the East. — During the latter part of May, General McClellan moved toward the mountains of West Virginia, and on July nth gained a victory at Rich Mountain. This was followed by victories at Cheat River and at Gauley River, by General Rosecrans. In September, General Robert ^ . Xexiiigton ' "^PERSON CITY^"""""^^ • CITIL. W SCALE OF MILES 1 ^ Tliio :e T^ T I Mm Spriii ^f;!l 1) r* A». >? NASHVILLE , .ibo^'^"''' Coriiitli* XlJ '"'"■ ^"^~ "/r^ ..f VICINITY OF CHATTANOOGA jFrederiA \ • I!alti]nore"V^ VICINITY OF HARPER'S FERR/> JVawy Ytf RUSSELL & STRUTMERSjN.y. CHAP. XIV.] 1 86 1 — Events in the West. 89 E. Lee was defeated at Cheat River, and Federal authority was established in West Virginia. Mean- time there was considerable skirmishing in the Shen- andoah Valley ; but the first great battle of the war was not fought until July 21st. Then General Beauregard was posted near Bull Run. The Union army, under General McDowell, advanced toward him from Centreville on their way to Richmond, then the capital of the Confederacy. A severe battle followed in which the Federals had at first a prospect of victory ; but General Joseph E. John- ston, whom McDowell supposed. at a safe distance in the Shenandoah Valley, came up and so altered matters that the Union army was completely routed. This result filled the South with delight, and the North with mortification. Troops poured into Washington in such numbers that by the middle of October there were one hundred and fifty thou- sand men in the Federal army. General Scott re- signed his command, and General George B. Mc- Clellan was appointed in his place. 1861.— Events in the West.— In the West, Missouri was the scene of civil war. In the pre- vious March, the Legislature had failed to pass a vote of secession ; but as the secessionists were nume- rous, hostilities soon arose between the two parties. United States stores were seized by both parties, and several engagements took place, from which there were no decisive results except that Carthage and Lexington were left under Federal control, and Bel- mont on the Mississippi under Confederate. Ken- tucky had decided to remain neutral, but the Con- federates entered that State, and took possession of Columbus. Colonel U. S. Grant undertook to force them from the city, but failed. During this year the Federal government suc- ceeded in blockading the Southern coast so as to prevent nearly all communication with other "coun- tries. 9C. 1 862 — Events in the West. [chap. xiv. The country came very near being involved in a war with England at this time, from which it was saved by William H. Seward, Secretary of State. The Confederate government sent James M. Mason and John Slidell as ambassadors to England and France. The English vessel in which they were was overtaken by the San Jacinto under Captain Wilkes, was boarded, and Mason and Slidell seized and carried back to the United States. England resented the insult to her flag, and demanded repa- ration. Although many of the people in their ex- citement approved of what had been done,' Secretary Seward sent a suitable apology to the English gov- ernment, ordered the men to be released from prison, and sent them to Europe. 1862. — Events in the West. — The first action of this year took place in the West. In January, Colonel Garfield defeated the Confederates in East Kentucky. Later in the same month they were again defeated by General Thomas, at Mill Spring, with heavy loss on both sides. The Federal forces then moved against Forts Henry and Donelson. In February, Commodore Foote and General Grant left Cairo with fifteen thousand men, sailed up the Ten- nessee River, and forced the Confederates from Fort Henry. They escaped to Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland, and Foote followed them, only stopping at Cairo for provisions. When he arrived at the fort he found Grant awaiting him, and the siege began. The gun boats were driven back, but Grant forced a surrender on the i6th of Febru- ary. General Grant next proceeded up the Ten- nessee, where near Pittsburg Landing he was at- tacked on March 6th by Generals Beauregard and Albert S. Johnston. The battle lasted the entire day, and the Federals were driven back ; but during the night reinforcements arrived from Gene- ral Buell's army, and the next day the Confederates were obliged to retreat to Corinth. More than ten CHAP. XIV. J 1862 — Events in the West. 91 thousand fell on each side in this fierce battle, and Johnston, one of the ablest of the Confederate gene- rals, was killed. In May, General Halleck moved the Union troops to Corinth, which was evacuated on his approach. Meantime, the Confederates, fearing that they could not hold Columbus, had removed to Island No. 10 in the Mississippi, a few miles below that city. Toward the point Commodore Foote and General Pope advanced. Pope got possession of New Mad- rid on the western shore, and then aided Foote in his attack upon the Island. On April 7th the garri- son was captured while attempting to escape. On June 6th Commodore Davis took Memphis, which opened the Mississippi down to that point. In the early part of 1862, a fleet under Commo- dore Goldsborough, and a land force under General Burnside, took Roanoke Island, New-Berne, and Beaufort ; and in April Fort Pulaski surrendered to General Gillmore. During the same month, General Butler and Admiral Farragut entered the Mississippi. Thirty miles above its mouth, the river was commanded by two powerful forts. These Farragut began to bombard ; but at the end of five days he had produced little effect, so he determined to force his way past them. Break- ing the chain which had been placed across the river, he sailed up to New Orleans in spite of the resistance of the Confederate fleet. The forts, a few days afterward, surrendered to Admiral Porter, and General Butler was placed in command of New Orleans. After the loss of Fort Donelson, the Confederates withdrew into East Tennessee, but returned to Ken- tucky in August, and took Richmond, Lexington, and Frankfort. General Bragg also entered the State from Chattanooga, and advanced to Louisville, which was only saved by the arrival of General Buell. In October, the Federal army was so strong, 92 1 862 — Events in the East. [chap. xiv. that General Bragg withdrew from the State, and posted himself at Murfreesborough, Tennessee. On September 19th, the Confederates, under Gen- eral Price, were defeated at luka, Mississippi, after a severe battle, by Generals Rosecrans and Grant : after which Rosecrans withdrew to Corinth, and Grant went into Tennessee. A Confederate attack upon Corinth shortly afterwards was defeated. General Sherman was now at Memphis, and Gen- eral Grant removed to La Grange, in order to unite with him in an attack upon Vicksburg ; but the plan had to be given up, for Grant was forced to retreat, and Sherman, after an unsuccessful attack at Chickasaw Bayou, was obliged to take to his gun- boats in the Mississippi. The last battle in the West this year was fought at Murfreesborough. Here General Rosecrans found the Confederates, on December 30th, in a strong position, and determined to bring a superior force to bear upon Bragg's weakest position. But Bragg had determined to do the same thing, and in con- sequence the right wing of the Federal army was driven from the field. By the heroism of part of the forces, the Confederates were kept from further success, until Rosecrans could rearrange his ranks. When night fell Rosecrans had been defeated, but he determined not to leave the field without another attempt. On January 2d, the battle broke out afresh, and lasted all day. In the afternoon, it seemed that the Federal forces must give way ; but they rallied, and drove the enemy from the field with immense loss. 1862. — Events in the East.— The forces in the East had not been inactive. In order to prevent the Confederates taking position at Manassas, Gen- eral Banks went into the Valley of the Shenandoah. At Kernstown, " Stonewall " Jackson fell upon a di- vision under General Shields, but was repulsed. Then Jackson pursued the main army, and Banks CHAP. XIV.] 1862 — Events in the East. 93 retreated to the Potomac. But now the Confederate general found himself in danger from General Fre- mont, so he hastened back down the valley. He reached Cross Keys before he could be attacked, and then the attack was a failure. He then defeated General Shields in an engagement, and joined the army for the defense of Richmond. With the purpose of taking Richmond, General McClellan left Washington on March loth, with two hundred thousand men, and advanced as far as Manassas Junction. Here he changed his plans, and embarked his troops for Fortress Monroe, in order to advance from that point. It was April 4th before the troops left Fortress Monroe. Yorktown w^as then held by ten thousand Confederates, under General Magruder, and the Federal army lay for a month outside the city awaiting its surrender. At the end of that time the city was taken, and the forces advanced, overtaking and defeating the en- emy at Williamsburg and West Point. The army now approached Richmond ; but the Confederates met them at Fair Oaks, and a severe battle was fought. Although the Confederates were driven back, the victory did not avail much. General J. E. Johnston was severely wounded in this battle, and the command devolved upon General Robert E. Lee, who continued commander-in-chief to the end of the war. On June 25th, Lee attacked the Federals at Oak Grove, but without result. Next day, at Mechanics- ville, the Federals gained the victory ; but on the next, at Gaines' Mill, Lee was successful. On the 29th battles were fought at Savage's Station and White Oak Swamp ; on the 30th at Frazier's Farm, and on the ist of July the Federals had reached Malvern Hill. Here Lee determined to make an attack, and a fierce struggle ensued ; but he was forced to fall back on Richmond. McClel- lan, instead of going on to Richmond, which he thought he could not do without reinforcements, 94 1 862 — Evcjtts in the East. [chap. xiv. now moved to Harrison's Landing, and nothing was gained by all this hard fighting and fearful loss of life. General Lee, seeing that the Federals were not going to follow up their advantage, moved north- ward for the purpose of invading Maryland. Gen- eral Pope collected the Union forces that were scat- tered over the surrounding country, and he also moved northward. On August 28th and 29th, there was a severe battle at Manassas Junction, in which thousands fell, and among them Generals Kearney and Stevens. Pope escaped with his shattered army to Washington, where he was relieved of his com- mand by General Halleck, who had been appointed commander-in-chief in place of McClellan. Lee pressed on to Maryland, and, on the 6th of September, took Frederick, and, on the loth, Hagers- town. McClellan followed, with a hastily organ- ized army, and overtook the enemy at South Moun- tain, where a division under Hooker fought a suc- cessful battle. On the 14th Lee fell back to An- tietam Creek. McClellan was now in his rear ; and, on the 15th, there was some slight fighting. Next day both armies prepared for battle. On the 17th and 1 8th the contest raged — now with success on one side, now on the other ; but finally the Union troops were victorious, and compelled General Lee to withdraw into Virginia. Again nothing resulted from a battle in which more than twenty thousand men fell. This was accounted for by the fact, that the Federal army was not supplied with the necessary stores. McClellan followed Lee's retreat as far as Rectortown. Another campaign against Richmond was now planned, and the time up to November 6th was spent in preparation, when the command was trans- ferred from McClellan to Burn side. Again there were delays; and it was not until December nth that the troops were ready to cross the Rappahan- CHAP. XIV.] 1863 — Events in the West. 95 nock. They had decided to do this at Fredericks- burg, which Lee had strongly defended. On the 12th the army crossed, and on the 13th the battle began. First, the Federals broke through the Con- federate lines, but only to be driven back with great loss. Charge after charge was made without success, while men were mowed down by the thou- sand. On the 15 th the shattered army recrossed the river. 1863. — On the I St day of January President Lin- coln issued his Proclamation of Emancipation, by which slavery was prohibited throughout the United States. Events in the West. — The first military oper- ations were on the INIississippi. The attempt at Chickasaw Bayou having failed. General McClernand, who had superseded General Sherman, moved to Arkansas Post, which surrendered with a num- ber of prisoners, some arms and ammunition. He then returned to Vicksburg. General Grant, after trying in every way to gain access to the city from above, determined to run the fleet past the city's batteries. This was accomplished in safety. Land- ing on April 3d, a little below the city, Grant crossed first to Jackson, defeating the Confederates in sev- eral engagements on the way. At Jackson, on May 14th, he met a part of Johnston's army coming to the reUef of Vicksburg. This he defeated, and captured the city. He then turned back to Vicks- burg. General Pemberton came out to meet him, but was defeated, and withdrew into the city. Grant first tried to storm it, but this was attended by such loss of life that he began a regular siege. Although in a starving condition, the garrison held out for more than a month. On July 4th, the Confederate army of nearly thirty thousand men surrendered, and great quantities of arms and ammunition fell into the hands of the Federal general. Several smaller town§ on the river now surrendered, and 96 1863 — Events in the hast, [chap. xiv. thus the Mississippi through its entire length was completely under Federal control. This great vic- tory was very disastrous to the Confederate cause. In June, General Rosecrans took position at Chattanooga, and, in September, General Bragg sta- tioned himself at Chicamauga Creek, not far off. Here a fierce battle was fought, which lasted two days. At the end of this time, Rosecrans' defeated army withdrew to Chattanooga — the army being saved from destruction by the bravery and skill of General Thomas. While Bragg was besieging the city, Generals Hooker and Sherman arrived with re- inforcements ; and, in October, General Grant came to take command. On the 24th of November an assault was made by Hooker upon the Confeder- ates on Lookout Mountain. The troops charged up the sides of the steep elevation, protected by a dense fog, and shortly after noon reached the sum- mit, driving the Confederates down into the valley ; and, on the next day, the same thing was done at Missionary Ridge. The Confederates were com- pletely route.d, and retired to Dalton, Georgia. Sherman tnen went to the relief of Burnside, whom Longstreet was besieging at Knoxville. In July of this year General Morgan made a des- perate raid into Ohio and Indiana. Starting from Sparta, Tennessee, he crossed Kentucky, through Indiana into Ohio, destroyed property, and took many prisoners ; yet met with no resistance strong enough to overcome him. At last he was captured and imprisoned, but escaped, after a few months, to Richmond. 1863.— Events in the East.— After the defeat of Burnside at Fredericksburg, General Hooker was placed in command. In April, he crossed the Rap- pahannock, and on May 2d, was attacked at Chan- cellorsville by Lee and Jackson. Night fell before the battle was decided ; but the Confederates had lost a man whose place could not be filled — the CHAP. XIV. j 1864. 97 brave Stonewall Jackson, said to have been struck by a bullet from one of his own men. The next day the battle continued with fearful loss on both sides. On the fifth Hooker withdrew his army across the river. Twenty-nine thousand men fell in this battle I General Lee now determined to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania. He crossed the Potomac, took Hagerstown and Chambersburg, and then drew up his forces near Gettysburg, Hither General Meade, Hooker's successor, hurried his forces. On July 1st, the battle began, and raged that day and the next without decisive results. On the afternoon of the third it was renewed, and with such force that thousands fell. But the Federal army forced the enemy from the field, and Lee was obliged to retreat into Virginia. This was the greatest bat<^le of the war, in the numbers engaged, in the purpose for which it was undertaken, and -in the terrible slaugh- ter on both sides ; and its result was a blow to the Confederate cause from which it never recovered. The Confederate loss was thirty thousand ; the Fed- eral, twenty-three thousand. During this year there had not been a sufficient number of volunteers to recruit the armies after their dreadful losses, and President Lincoln ordered a draft of men between the ages of twenty and forty- five. This draft met with much opposition, because of the law that enabled some men to purchase ex- emption from military duty. In New York a riot broke out, during which much property was destroyed. Troops were sent to the assistance of the authorities, and the riot was quelled. There was a strong feeling in many parts of the North against the war ; but, nevertheless, the ranks were filled. In June, of this year, West Virginia was or- ganized as a separate State, and admitted into the Union. 1864. — Again, we must go to the West for the first active work of the year. In the spring. Gen- 98 Lincoln s Administration, — 1864, [chap, xiv, eral Banks proposed the capture of Shreveport, Louisiana, a place of some importance to the Con- federates. Careful preparations were made for a land and naval attack. The army was sent forward in three divisions ; one of which was almost destroyed near Mansfield. The fleet was of no use, because of the shallowness of the river ; and the whole expedi- tion ended in failure. General Grant, recently appointed commander-in- chief of the Federal forces, now planned two great campaigns. One, under Sherman, to take Atlanta, the capital of Georgia ; and one, under his own lead- ership, to capture Richmond. On May 7th, General Sherman set out from Chat- tanooga with nearly one hundred thousand men ; and, about the same time, Johnston, with sixty thousand, came out from Atlanta to meet him, and drive him back. They fought a battle at Dalton, and John- ston was forced to retreat. At Resaca, he made a stand, waited for Sherman, fought him again ; was again defeated, and retreated to Dallas. Here, the same resul*" followed, and again at Kenesaw Moun- tains. At this latter place, Sherman was at first re- pulsed, but afterward forced Johnston back. By July loth, Johnston was driven into Atlanta, and was superseded by General Hood. Sherman lay outside the city, and at once began its siege. On September 2a, the Federal forces took possession of Atlanta. Hood endeavored to draw Sherman out of Georgia, by proceeding at once into Tennessee ; but Sherman sent General Thomas to oppose him there, and, after burning Atlanta, he began his march to the sea. In Tennessee, Hood approached Nash- ville, where all of Thomas's force lay; but, before he had finished his preparations for a siege, Thomas fell upon his army, and utterly routed it. Sherman marched straight for Savannah, seizing everything on his way to feed his army, and arrived there in December. Some resistance was offered, and Sher- CHAP. XIV ] Lincoln s Administration. — 1864. 99 man made preparations for a siege ; but during the night of December 21st the city was evacuated, and the Federal army took possession. On water the combatants were not idle. In Au- gust, Admiral Farragut took Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan, at the entrance of Mobile harbor, after a fierce contest. In October, Albemarle Sound came under Federal control ; and in December, Fort Fisher, at the entrance of Cape Fear River, was taken. Much damage was done to commerce during the war by privateers. After the blockade of the Southern coast, many of these were fitted out in England, and many vessels were destroyed by them. In 1864 a battle took place off the coast of France between the Alabama, built at Liverpool, and com- manded by the Confederate Captain Semmes, and the Kearsarge, commanded by Captain Winslow. After a severe fight, the Alabaina was sunk. After the battle of Gettysburg, Lee retired into the Valley of the Shenandoah. In order to prevent his advance to Richmond, General Meade tried to hold the passes of the mountains ; but Lee eluded him, and reached Culpepper. A little later the armies so moved about that Meade occupied Culpepper, and Lee was on the Rappahannock. On May 3d, 1864, the march on Richmond was begun. On the fourth Meade entered the Wilder- ness near Chancellorsville. Here the? Confederates attacked him, and for three days the battle raged, but it was without decisive results. At Spottsyl- vania Court House another battle took place ; and on June ist another only twelve miles from Rich- mond, in which the Union forces were defeated. On June 3d the Confederate lines on the Chickahominy were carried. Grant now moved South, and on the 15 th of June advanced against Petersburg, in connection with forces from Fortress Monroe under General Butler. Failing in an assault, Grant began a regular siege, which lasted all fall and winter. lOO Lincobis Administration. — 1865. [chap. xiv. But, meantime, hoping to draw Grant's attention from Petersburg, Lee sent General Early to threaten an attack on Washington. A series of raids followed ; and, for the purpose of putting an end to them, Grant sent General P. H. Sheridan with forty thou- sand men. On September 19th he defeated Early at Winchester. He then destroyed much property in the Shenandoah Valley, posted his army at Cedar Creek, and left it. In his absence, his forces were surprised and routed by Early ; but Sheridan hast- ened to the front, rallied his troops, and defeated the Confederates. On February 25 th, 1865, he gained another success over Early, and then went to Petersburg. On April 2 2d the works at Peters- burg were carried, and that night Lee and the offi- cers of the Confederate government left Richmond, which the Federal troops entered next day. The Confederate army fled to Farmville, on the Appo- mattox, pursued by Grant. Here Grant proposed that Lee should surrender and save further blood- shed. On the 9th of April the two leaders met, and agreed upon the terms of surrender. In the meantime Sherman was marching north- ward. On February ist he left Savannah for Co- lumbia. In vain the Confederates attempted to prevent him. Columbia surrendered at his ap- proach, and Charleston was abandoned at the same time. Sherman pressed northward to Char- lotte, North Carolina, and took the town on March nth. On the 19th he was attacked by Johnston, and his army put for a time in great peril. He went on, however, and on April 13th entered Raleigh. Here Johnston, being informed of Lee's surrender, followed his example, and surrendered his army to Sherman. The only conditions demanded by the victors were that the Confederates should lay down their arms, retire to their homes, and obey the laws of the Federal government. Jefferson Davis was im- CHAP. XV.] Johnson s Administration. loi prisoned to be tried for treason, but was afterward released without trial. In the fall of 1864, Lincoln was re-elected ; and his second inaugural took place on the 4th of the March following. On the night of April 14th, while at Ford's Theater, he was basely assassinated by an actor named John Wilkes Booth. At the same hour an attempt was made upon the life of Secretary Seward. The assassins were caught and executed. CHAPTER XV. THE ADMINISTRATIONS CONCLUDED. Johnson's Administration. — 1865- 1869. — Upon the death of Lincoln, the vice-president, Andrew Johnson, succeeded to the presidency. On February 1st, 1865, an amendment to the Constitution was passed by Congress, abolishing slavery throughout the Union. On the 29th of May, Johnson issued a proclamation pardoning those (with few exceptions) who had been engaged in the re- bellion, on condition that they would swear alle- giance to the United States. While the war was in progress, France had given the crown of Mexico to Maximilian of Austria, and sent troops to Mexico to help him maintain his au- thority. The Mexicans under Juarez revolted ; and the government of the United States resented the violation of the Monroe Doctrine. The French army was compelled to retire, and Maximilian was executed in 1867. During this administration and the preceding the following territories were formed : Dakota, in 1861 ; Arizona, in 1863 ; Idaho, in 1863 5 Montana, in 1864 ; and Wyoming, in 1868. Nevada was admitted as a State in 1864, and Nebraska in 1867. During this I02 Grant's Administration, [chap. xv. latter year the Territory of Alaska was purchased from Russia for seven million two hundred thousand dollars. Serious difficulty arose about ■ the reorganization of the seceded States. The president took the ground that they had no right to secede ; and, therefore, as they had never been out of the Union, they could not be readmitted to it. Congress took the ground that they had by their secession forfeited their claim to be States of the Union, and must be specially restored. Congress refused to carry out the plans of the president ; and the president vetoed the bills passed by Congress. At last so wide was the breach between the president and Congress, that they seized upon his dismissal of Stanton, the sec- retary of war, from office in February, 1868, as the basis of a trial for impeachment. The president was, however, acquitted. In June and July, 1868, all the States but Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were readmitted. At the presidential election, in the fall of 1868, General U. S. Grant was elected by a large major- ity ; and Schuyler Colfax was chosen vice-president. Grant's Administration.— 1869 - 1877.— In 1868, Congress had adopted an amendment to the Constitution giving the rights of citizenship to all people of the United States, native born or natural- ized ; and, just before Grant's inauguration, another amendment granted the right of suffrage to all people without regard to race or color. Early in 1870, Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas were read- mitted ; and once again every State was represented in Congress. In 187 1 the claims against the English govern- ment for damage done to American commerce by privateers were heard before an impartial court of arbitration chosen by friendly nations, and England was compelled to pay the United States fifteen and a half million dollars. In 1872 a dispute concerning CHAP. XV.] Grant's Administration. 103 the northwestern boundary hne was decided in favor of the United States. At the election of 1872, Grant was re-elected by a large majority, with Henry Wilson as vice-presi- dent. In the fall of 1872 it became necessary to send troops against the Modoc Indians in Oregon, who had refused to comply with the demands of the gov- ernment for their lands. In the early part of 1873 they were surrounded, and peace was proposed ; but in the midst of the negotiations the savages mur- dered General Canby. Negotiations were aban- doned, and the Indians besieged. In June they sur- rendered. In 1873 rival governors were elected in Louisi- ana ; and the dispute between the factions was car- ried so far that the president was called upon to settle it. But the faction which was ordered to disband revolted in the next year, and troops were sent to put an end to the trouble. In 1873 a disastrous panic occurred, caused by the failure of a large banking house in Philadelphia. Other failures followed, and it was a long time before business recovered from the shock. In 1876, Colorado was admitted into the Union. During this year the centenary of American Inde- pendence was celebrated. A great International Exhibition was held in the city of Philadelphia from April to November. The industries of the world were represented there, and people flocked thither from all parts of the world. By a treaty made in 1867, the Sioux Indians agreed to leave their former reservation, and to settle in the southwestern part of Dakota. But when January, 1876, the time appointed, arrived, the Indians refused to go. The government sent a large force against them, one division of which, under General Custer, made an attack on the 25th of June ; but it was surprised, and not a man 104 Hayes s Election. [chap. xv. survived. During the summer and fall several en- gagements took place in which the Indians were defeated. In the January of the next year a battle was fought in which they were badly beaten. Soon after, Sitting Bull, the Sioux leader, escaped into Canada, and refused to return to the Dakota reser- vation even under promise of pardon. The greatest excitement prevailed throughout the country during the winter of 1876-7, over the results of the presidential election. Rutherford B. Hayes was the Republican, and Samuel J. Tilden the Democratic candidate ; and both par- ties claimed the victory. When the question came up in Congress, in December, they decided to leave the decision to a Joint High Commission chosen from the Senate, House of Representatives, and Supreme Court. This Commission declared Ruth- erford B. Hayes president ; but it was only two days before the 4th of March that the decision was reached. Hayes's Administration, 1877-81.— Hayes's first action was to free South Carolina and Louisi- ana from the military rule w^hich had been estab- lished there during the last administration. He chose a non-partisan cabinet, and avowed him- self a champion of civil service reform, by promis- ing to make no removals from office except for cause. In the summer of 1877 a riot broke out among the employes of some of the great railroads upon a general reduction of wages. A large amount of property was destroyed by the rioters in Pittsburgh, Baltimore, Chicago, and other railroad centres. Troops were called upon to quell the disturb- ance. During the same year General Howard carried on a war with the Nez Perce Indians, which ended in their destruction. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. CHAPTER I. I. — Where did the Northmen live, and what was their character ? 2. — Describe the discoveries of Iceland and Green- land. 3. — Who discovered the American continent in the ninth century, and what name did he give it ? 4. — What places on the coast were explored by the Northmen ? 5. — What was the effect of these discoveries ? CHAPTER II. I. — How many years passed away from the dis- coveries of the Northmen to the great discovery of Columbus ? 2. — What led Columbus to think that he could reach the East Indies by sailing westward ? 3. — Give a brief account of Columbus's life prior to his discovery of America. 4. — To what monarchs did he apply for assist- ance ? 5. — What sovereigns finally furnished him an outfit '^ 6. — Name the three vessels with which he sailed on his perilous voyage. 7.' — When and where did he discover the first land ? 8. — How many voyages did Columbus make to the New World ? 9. — What rank was conferred upon him by the Spanish sovereigns '^ 10. — What treatment did he receive from his country ? 107 io8 Questions for Examination, CHAPTER III. I. — After whom was the New World called Amer- ica? 2. — Describe the voyages of John Cabot and his son Sebastian, 3. — Why were these voyages important to the English ? 4. — Describe the romantic voyage of Ponce de Leon. 5. — Who discovered the Pacific Ocean ? In what year ? 6. — Who was the first navigator whose ships sailed around the world ? 7. — What important group of islands, still in the possession of Spain, was discovered by this navigator ? 8. — In what year and under what flag did Veraz- zani sail ? 9. — Give a brief account of the voyages of Cartier. 10. — Why were the voyages of Verazzani and Cartier important to France ? II. — Describe the voyage and wanderings of De Soto. 12. — Wliat important discovery did he make ? I CHAPTER IV.— Part I. I. — Describe the efforts of the English to dis- cover the North-west passage to India. 2. — What unsuccessful attempts were made to plant an English colony in North America ? 3. — What navigators sailed under the patronage of Sir Walter Raleigh ? 4. — Who gave Virginia its name ? 5. — Where was the first permanent English settle- ment established ? In what year ? 6. — Who was the first governor, and who was the. leading man ? Questions for Exmnination. 109 7. — What was the character of the first settlers in Virginia ? 8. — With what difficulties did they have to con- tend ? 9. — In what year and by whom was negro slavery introduced ? 10. — What was the cause of Bacon's rebellion \ Give a brief account of it. II. — In what years and by whom were North and South Carolina settled ? CHAPTER IV.— Part II. I. — In what year and by what people was Massa- chusetts founded ? 2. — How did they obtain their peculiar name ? 3. — Describe the troubles of the first settlers. 4. — Who was the first governor ? 5. — When and by whom was Rhode Island set- tled ? 6. — In what year was Connecticut settled ? By whom ? 7.— When and by whom was New Hampshire set- tled ? CHAPTER v.— Part I. I. — When and by whom was the Hudson River discovered ? 2. — When was New York first settled ? By what name was it known ? 3. — What name was given to the country on both sides of the Hudson ? 4. — In what year did New York and New Jersey fall into the hands of the English ? 5. — In what year was New Jersey first settled? 6. — In what year and by whom was Delaware set- tled ? no Questions for Examination. CHAPTER v.— Part II. I. — By whom was Maryland settled ? In what year ? 2. — Who was the first governor ? 3. — Where in the American Colonies was religious liberty first really established ? 4. — When and by whom was Pennsylvania settled ? 5. — In what year was Philadelphia founded ? 6. — In what year, and by whom, was Georgia set- tled ? CHAPTER VI. I. — What was the first war of the English against the Indians ? 2. — Give the cause and date. 3. — What was the cause and what the date of Khig Philifs IVar? 4. — Give a short account of the war. 5. — What was the cause of A7//^ William's War 7 6. — With whom did the Indians ally themselves ? 7. — How long did this war last, and what treaty ended it ? 8. — What was the cause of Queen Anne's War 7 When did it end, and what treaty terminated it ? 9. — State the principal events of this war. 10. — When did King George's War begin, how long did it last, and what treaty ended it ? II. — State the cause of this war, and its principal events. CHAPTER VII. I. — In what respect did the French and Indian War differ in its origin from the preceding war ? 2. — What distinguished man first made his ap- pearance in public life during this war ? Questions for Examination. 1 1 1 3. — Who was governor of Virginia in 1753 ? 4. — What was Washington's first pubHc service ? 5. — State the result of Washington's expedition against the French in 1754? 6. — What British general was sent out in 1754 to command all the forces against the French ? 7. — Describe Braddock's defeat, and the conduct of Washington at the battle of Fort du Quesne. 8. — What generals were sent against Niagara and Crown Point, and with what success ? 9. — State the principal events of 1756. 10. — Describe the massacre of Fort William Henry. II. — What, in general, was the result of the war up to the close of 1757 ? 12, — Who was appointed commander-in-chief of the English forces in 1758? 13. — Who was the French commander? 14. — Who captured Louisburg from the French? 15. — ^Whatwas the result of Abercrombie's attack on Fort Ticonderoga ? 16. — When and by whom was Fort du Quesne taken ? 17. — By what name is Fort du Quesne now known ? After whom named ? 18. — Describe the events of 1759. 19. — What great battle ended the war, and gave the British possession of Canada ? 20. — What treaty terminated the war ? In what year ? What were the terms ? CHAPTER VHI. I. — What were the causes of the Revolutionary War? 2. — What celebrated act was passed by the British parliament in 1765 ? 1 1 2 Questions for Examination. 3. — When and where did the first Colonial Con- gress meet ? 4. — Name the principal events from 1765 to 1775. 5. — What was the Boston Tea Party ? 6. — When and where did the second Colonial Congress meet ? 7. — What was the first battle of the Revolution ? 8. — What forts were captured by Allen and Ar- nold ? 9. — Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. 10. — Who was appointed commander-in-chief of the American armies ? II. — Describe the expedition against Canada at the close of 1775. 12. — What general was killed at the battle of Que- bec ? 13.— What was the most important event of 1776 ? 14. — Who wrote the Declaration of Independ- ence ? 15. — Describe the British attack on Fort Moultrie. 16. — Give the date, and describe the battle of Long Island. 17. — Give a brief account of the retreat of Wash- ington from Long Island. 18. — What two important victories occurred at the end of this, and the beginning of the next year ? 19. — What two campaigns were proposed by the British for this year ? 20. — State the object of Burgoyne's campaign. 21. — In what two great battles was he defeated ? 22. — Describe the route of Burgoyne's army from Canada to Stillwater. 23. — What American citizen procured aid for his country from the French ? 24. — What two great battles were fought near Philadelphia ? Give the date and result of each. 25. — Where were Washington's winter quarters after the battle of Germantown ? Questions for Examination, 1 1 3 CHAPTER IX. I. — With what European country did America form an alUance in 1778 ? 2. — What celebrated Europeans were serving in the American army ? 3. — Describe the battle of Monmouth. 4. — Why did the British evacuate Philadelphia? 5. — Describe the movements of General Sullivan and Count d'Estaing at Rhode Island. 6. — What two massacres took place in this year ? 7. — What important event took place in the South at the close of 1778 ? 8. — What towns were plundered or destroyed in March, 1779 ? By whom ? 9. — Describe the capture of Stony Point. 10. — What small battles, and what siege, occurred in the South in this year ? II. — Describe Paul Jones' great naval victory. 12. — What was the condition of the American army and treasury at the close of this, the fifth year of the war ? 13. — When did the greater part of the action of 1780 take place ? 14. — What important city of the South fell into the hands of the British in May ? Who was the American commander? 15. — What is said of the treatment of the Southern patriots by the British ? 16. — Name some of the partisan officers who maintained the independence of their States, and who were a continual source of annoyance to the British. 17. — Who succeeded General Lincoln in com- mand of the American army in the South ? 18. — What disastrous battle was fought by General Gates ? 19. — What foreign officer was killed in this battle ? 114 Questions for Examination. 20. — What was the result of the battle of King's Mountain ? 21. — What celebrated American general became a traitor to his country ? 22. — Give the particulars of his treason. 23. — Describe the mutiny of the American sol- diers in 1781. 24. — What American citizen came to the relief of Congress, financially ? 25. — To whom was the command of the Southern army given after Gates' defeat ? 26. — Describe the battle of Cowpens, and give the date. 27.— Name the battles fought this year by General Greene. 28. — What, on the whole, was the result of these battles ? 29. — What was the last battle of the war ? 30. — Describe the surrender of Cornwallis. 31. — Who were the commanders of the French army and navy that assisted Washington in his oper- ations against Cornwallis ? 32. — In what year was the treaty signed by which the United States was recognized as an independ- ent nation ? ?>Z- — What was the date of the evacuation of New York ? CHAPTER X. I. — When did the colonies become States ? 2. — Under what form of government did Congress wage war against the king of England ? 3. — What led to the adoption of the Federal Con- stitution ? 4. — The votes of hpw many States were required before the Constitution could become the supreme law of the republic ? 5. — Which two States were the last to adopt the Constitution ? Questions for Examination. 1 1 5 6. — Who were the first president and vice-presi- dent? 7. — What celebrated grant of territory was made to the United States in 1787? Under what conditions? 8. — When and where was Washington inaugurated president ? 9. — Name his secretaries, since called cabinet offi- cers. 10.— What city was selected as the seat of gov- ernment ? II. — What remarkable man restored the finances of the country ? 12. — In what year was the Bank of the United States established ? 13. — What Indian troubles occurred during Wash- ington's administration ? 14. — What States were admitted into the Union during this administration ? 15. — Describe the difficulties with France. 16. — Into what two great parties was the country divided toward the close of Washington's first ad- ministration ? 17. — What was the Whisky RebeUion ? 18. — Who succeeded Washington as president? 19. — What put an end to the trouble with France ? 20. — In what year did Washington die ? 21. — What laws of Adams' administration were extremely unpopular ? 22. — Who was chosen president to succeed Adams ? 23. — What were the first acts of his administra- tion ? 24. — What State was admitted in 1802 ? 25. — What great purchase was made, and for what sum of money ? 26. — Give the boundaries of this territory. 27. — Under whom and for what purpose was a naval force sent to the Mediterranean in 1803 ? 28. — Give a brief outline of the career of Aaron Burr. ii6 Questions for Examination, 29. — For how many terms was Jefferson president ? 30. — What condition of affairs in Europe at this time interfered with American commerce ? 31. — What right did Great Britain claim in regard to American vessels ? 32. — To what trouble did this assumed claim lead ? ZZ- — What two celebrated acts almost destroyed American commerce ? 34. — Who applied steam successfully to purposes of navigation ? In what year ? CHAPTER XL I. — Who succeeded Jefferson in the presidency ? For how many terms did he hold office ? 2. — State the causes that led to the war of i8i2-'i5. 3. — What portion of the United States was op- posed to this war ? 4. — What State was admitted in 181 2 ? 5. — What military force was ordered to be raised? 6. — Who was appointed commander-in-chief ? ^ — Give a brief account of Hull's expedition against Canada. 8. — What was the general result by land during the first year of the war ? 9. — By what were the defeats on land compen- sated ? 10. — Give a brief account of the naval actions during 181 2 and 1813. II.— What was the result of the expedition under General Winchester ? 12. — Give an account of the several attempts of General Proctor to capture American forts. 13. — Give an account of Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 14. — When and where was Tecumseh killed? Who was he ? Questions for Examination. 1 1 7 15. — What is said of the success of the Americans by sea in the latter part of 1813 ? 16. — What American general destroyed the power of the Creek Indians ? At what battle ? 17. — Give a brief account of the invasion of Can- ada by Generals Scott and Ripley. 18. — What was the most severe of all the battles fought on the Canadian border ? 19. — Who gained a great naval victory at Platts- burg? 20. — Describe the British attack on Baltimore and Washington. 21. — What was the last great battle of the war ? 22. — By what treaty was the war terminated ? 23. — What other war was undertaken at the close of the war with England ? 24. — What was the cause, and what the result of this war ? 25. — What State was admitted in 1816.? CHAPTER XII. I. — Who succeeded Madison as president ? 2. — What States were admitted during this ad- ministration ? Give the dates. 3. — What agitation arose in consequence of the admission of Missouri into the Union ? 4. — What was the Missouri Compromise ? 5. — Explain what is meant by the Monroe Doc- trine. 6. — Who was elected president in 1824 ? 7. — What treaties were made with the Indians during this administration ? 8. — What two distinguished men died in 1826 ? 9. — Who succeeded John Quincy Adams as presi- dent ? 10. — What troubles arose between South Carolina and the Federal government ? II. — State the causes of these troubles. 1 1 8 Questions for Examination. 12. — How did Jackson meet the difficulty ? 13. — Give an account of the troubles which arose in regard to the United States Bank ? 14. — Who were the party leaders in opposition to the president ? 15. — What Indian wars took place in this admin- istration ? 16. — What States were admitted in 1836 and 1837 ? 17. — Who was president next after Jackson ? 18. — What caused great distress at the commence- ment of his administration ? 19. — What was the cause of the trouble ? 20.— In what year did the banks resume specie payments ? 21. — Who was chosen president in the fall of 1840? 22. — How long did he enjoy tiis office ? 23. — Who succeeded him ? 24. — What troubles had Tyler with his party and cabinet ? 25. — Which member of his cabinet did not resign ? 26. — What event stirred and divided the people during this administration ? CHAPTER XIIL I. — Who succeeded to the presidency in 1844? 2. — Upon what question were the two great par- ties opposed ? 3. — In what year was the Morse telegraph estab- lished ? 4. — Give a brief account of the cause and begin- ning of the Mexican War. 5. — What general was sent to the Rio Grande to prevent the Mexicans from trespassing on Texan territory ? 6. — What two battles were fought by General Taylor in the spring of 1846, and with what suc- cess ? Questions for Examination. 119 7. — What three expeditions were fitted out for the invasion of Mexico ? 8. — What city surrendered on the twenty-fourth of September, 1846 ? 9. — Wlio was president of the republic of Mexico ? 10. — Give a brief account of the events in New Mexico and Cahfornia. II. — Describe briefly the battle of Buena Vista, giving date, the names of the commanders, and the numbers engaged. 12. — Describe Scott's march from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico, naming his victories in the order of their occurrence. 13. — When was peace concluded ? State the re- sult of the war. 14. — What territory was ceded to the United States, and what was given in return for it ? 15. — What discovery was made in California in 1848? 16. — What State was admitted into the Union during this administration ? 17. — Who succeeded Polk as president ? 18. — What event led to bitter disputes in the beginning of this administration ? 19.— Why did the admission of California revive the slavery agitation ? 20. — What celebrated bill was passed which tided over the difficulty ? Give the date. 21. — How long was Taylor president ? By whom was he succeeded ? 22. — What three great statesmen died during Fill- more's administration ? 23. — What three parties presented candidates fo? the presidency in 1852 ? Who was elected ? 24. — What treaty was made in 1854 ? 25. — What difficulties arose in relation to the organization of Kansas and Nebraska into territo- rial governments ? 26. — How was the trouble finally ended ? I20 Questions for Examination. 27. — Who succeeded Pierce as president ? 28. — Describe the Mormon troubles at the begin- ning of this administration. 29. — In what years were Minnesota and Oregon admitted ? 30. — In what year was the Atlantic Cable laid ? 31. — Describe John Brown's invasion of Virginia. 2^2. — What four candidates were nominated for the presidency in i860 ? Who was elected ? T^2i. — What effect had the election of Abraham Lincoln on the people of the South ? 34, — What opinions did Buchanan hold which seemed to paralyze the Federal government ? 35. — What State set the example of secession ? :^6. — Name, in their order, the States that seceded from the Union ? 37. — Who were chosen president and vice-presi- dent of the Confederate government ? What city was chosen as the capital ? 38. — How was the North prepared to meet this crisis ? CHAPTER XIV. I. — What act of hostility took place immediately after the inauguration of Lincoln ? 2. — What force was called for by the president in order to put do"\\Ti the rebellion ? 3. — What three States now seceded ? 4.— What important forts and arsenals were cap- tured by the Confederates ? 5. — Where was the first blood shed in the war ? 6. — Who was appointed commander-in-chief of the Federal forces ? 7.^-How was the trade of the rebels with other nations prevented ? 8. — Where did the first campaign of the war take place ? Under what general ? With what success ? I Questions for Examination. 1 2 1 9. — What was the first important battle of the war, and what its results ? 10. — Who was appointed to succeed General Scott in command of the army of the East ? II. — What State in the West was the scene of civil war ? 12. — What State remained neutral in the contest? 13. — What event almost caused a war with Great Britain ? 14. — How, and by whom was war prevented ? 15. — Describe the events on the Cumberland River. Under whose direction were they ? 16. — Describe the battle of Pittsburgh Landing, or Shiloh Church, as it is sometimes called. 17. — Who saved Grant's army from defeat ? t8. — What able Confederate general was killed in this battle ? 19. — What places on the Mississippi fell into the hands of the Federal government in the spring and summer of 1862 ? 20. — What important places were captured by General Bumside ? 21. — \Vho captured New Orleans ? 22. — What Confederate general invaded Ken- tucky, and with what result ? 23. — Who fought the battle of luka ? 24. — Describe the battle of Murfreesborough. 25. — Describe the movements of "Stonewall" Jackson in the spring of 1862. 26. — By what route did McClellan undertake the capture of Richmond ? 27. — What Confederate general kept McClellan for a month before Yorktown ? 28. — At what place were the retreating Confeder- ates overtaken ? 29. — What two undecisive battles were fought before Richmond ? 30. — Who became commander-in-chief of the Confederate army after the battle of Fair Oaks ? I-- Questions for Examination. 31. — Name the engagements of the celebrated '' Seven Days' Battle." T^i. — What was the result of the last of these ? T^T^. — What advantage did General Lee take of the raising of the siege of Richmond ? 34. — What disastrous defeat did Pope sustain, and what two Federal officers were killed ? 35. — Describe McClellan's march against Lee, and name his \*ictories. 36. — AMio superseded McClellan in command of the Army of the Potomac ? 37. — Describe the battle of Fredericksburg. 38. — What important proclamation did the presi- dent issue on Januar}- ist, 1S63 ? 39. — What plan did General Grant adopt for the capture of Vicksburg ? 40. — What battles did he fight prior to laying siege to the cit}' ? 41. — What was the result of the capture of Vicks- burg ? 42. — Give a brief account of the battle of Chicka- mauga. Who saved the Federal army from ruin ? 43. — Give a brief account of the battles of Look- out Mountain and Missionar}- Ridge. 44. — What Confederate general made a raid into Indiana and Ohio, and with what result ? 45. — "Who succeeded Bumside in his command .' 46. — "\Miat was the result of the battle of Chan- cellors\-ille ? 47, — What able Confederate was killed in this battle ? 48. — Describe Lee's second Northern invasion. 49. — "\Miat great battle checked it ? 50. — ^^^lat state was organized during the war ? 51. — State the result of General Banks' invasion of Louisiana. 52. — Who was appointed commander-in-chief in 1864, and what two campaigns did he plan ? 53. — Describe Sherman's operations against Johns- ton. Questions far Exc:mination. 123 54. — ^\^lat cin- did Sherman take and bum ? 55. — How did Hood m- to draw Sherman out of Georgia ? 56. — \\lio defeated Hood at Nash-v-ille ? 57. — Describe Sherman's ''March to the Sea," naming the places that he captured. 58. — \\Tiat places were captured by Admiral Far- ragut ? 59. — Give a brief account of the battle between the Kearsage and the Alabama. 60. — What battles did Grant's army fight before commencing the siege of Richmond ? 61. — How did Lee try to force Grant to raise the siege ? 62. — "Whom did Grant send into the Shenandoah Valley, and with what result ? 63. — "^Miat was the date of the capmre of Rich- mond ? 64. — "When and where did Lee surrender - ^^llat were the conditions ? 65. — ^^llat sad event occurred about a week after Lee's surrender ? I CHAPTER XV. I. — ^\'llo succeeded to the presidency upon Lin- coln's death ? 2. — ^\"hat serious ditSculty did the president find himself forced to meet ? 3. — ^^'hat was the result of the difficulty ? 4. — "SMiat States were readmitted into the L'nion during Johnson's administrarion ? 5. — What trial took place in 1S68 ? 6. — ^Miat was the result ? 7. — ^Mlo was the successful candidate for the presidency in 186S ? 8. — ^^^lat two amendments to the Constitution were made pre\'iou5 to Grant's administration : 1 24 Questions for Examination. 9. — What two decisions were made against Eng- land and in favor of the United States ? 10. — What difficulties with the Indians occurred in 1872 and 1876 ? II. — What State was admitted in 1876 ? 12. — What was the result of the presidential elec- tion in 1876 ? How was the difficulty settled ? 13. — Who was declared to have been elected ? DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED, JULY 4, I 7 76. When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces- sary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to afifect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes : and, accord- ingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more dis- posed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right them- selves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing in- variably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The his- tory of the present King of Great Britain is a history of re- peated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate 125 126 Declaration of Independence. and pressing importanc«, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the acccmmodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legislature — a right inesti- mable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their pub- lic record, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into com- pliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for op- posing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, in- capable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the state remaining, in the meantime, ex- posed to all the danger of invasion from without, and convul- sions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropri- ations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their sub- stance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without the consent of our Legislature. He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: Declaration of Independence. 127 For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pre- tended offences : For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neigh- boring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the powers of our govern- ments : For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring them- selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases what- soever. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and per- fidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally- unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall them- selves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection against us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these- oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of at- tempts made by their Legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circum- stances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war, in peace, friends. 128 Declaration of Independence. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our inten- tions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good peo- ple of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- pendent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the sup- port of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. John Hancock. New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Mat- thew Thornton. Massachtisetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. Co7inectictit . — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott, N'ew York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey. — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Fran- cis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. Delaware. — Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland. — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. Virginia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina, — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr , Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS