TOPICAL SURVEY UNITED STATES HISTORY CORNMAN Glass JLlU .1 BookJL&L_ GopightN?__LlOi COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 102 Longitude West R..D. Servoss, Bng'r, JiJC, A BRIEF TOPICAL SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY BY OLIVER P. CORNMAN, Ph.D. PRINCIPAL NORTHWEST SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. AND OSCAR GERSON, Ph.D. PRINCIPAL LOCUST STREET GRAMMAR SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. ' » • , , , BOSTON, U.S.A. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 1901 L .1 ,c 190/ THE LfBRARY OF CONGRESS, Two Copies Received AUG. 12 1901 Copyright entry JUa. jy, Ml CLASS./ XXc. N». cop/b. Copyright, 1901, By D. C. Heath & Co. Plimpton ^rrss H. M. PLIMPTON A CO., PRINTERS & BINDERS, NORWOOD, MASS.. U.S.A. PREFACE This little work has been prepared in response to a general demand for a text-book which could be employed in teaching United States history by means of topical reviews. The topical outlines found in many of our best text-books have proved .unsatisfactory as a means of review, since their use does not result in much more than a mere restudy of the original text. In order to present the historical review from new and interesting points of view, many teachers have found it necessary to prepare outlines or syllabi of lectures that their classes may be furnished with definite material for study. The present work is an outgrowth of a series of such notes prepared by the authors for use in their respective schools. The necessity for review is universally admitted. Almost all courses of study call for topical reviews in the various subjects of instruction, especially in history. Sound psychological and pedagogi- cal considerations demand that this review should not consist of mere repetition, but should, as far as possible, be presented in fresh guise, and aid the pupil in organizing the knowledge which he has already acquired. The various elements of the matter to be reviewed should be closely interrelated, essential features emphasized, and a broader range of view disclosed, so that the knowledge as a whole may form an apperceptive system to which future acquisitions may be readily related. In the present w r ork the attempt has been made to furnish a text for such a method of reviewing United States history. In adding this book to the large number of text-books on United States history already published, the authors feel that a further word of apology or justification is demanded. Many text-books attempt to steer a middle course between a reading book and study book. This attempt seems a rather unfortunate one, as neither end is attained, the result being a book not interesting enough to constitute a good reading book, nor yet concise enough for purposes of study. The present work is frankly a book to be studied. The elimination of all unnecessary detail has made possible the preparation of a brief, yet iii iv PREFACE comprehensive, review. Of course, the book assumes a previous detailed study of the facts of United States history, being intended for the use of pupils who have completed the study of one of the ordinary school histories. It is, therefore, especially adapted for use in higher grammar grades or in high schools. For certain practical reasons, a comprehensive review of United States history by pupils of the upper grammar grades is very desir- able. A large majority of such pupils do not enter the high school, and it is therefore important that they should not go dut into the world with their knowledge of history an inchoate mass of details, but that they should have, as far as possible, a broad knowledge of the history of their country and an intelligent attitude toward its institutions. Acknowledgments are due to Professor Franklin Spencer Edmonds, of the Central High School, Philadelphia, who kindly read the manu- script of the work and made several valuable suggestions. The authors are also greatly indebted to Professor William MacDonald, of Brown University, for valuable assistance in the revision of the proof sheets. 0. P. C. 0. G. Philadelphia, Pa., June, 1901. CONTENTS PART I ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC CHAPTER PAGE I. Discoveries and Explorations 2 II. Colonization of America — Establishment of English Supremacy 14 III. The War for Independence 30 IV. The Adoption of a New Form of Government . . 40 V. Establishment of the New Government ... 52 PART II TROUBLES AT HOME AND ABROAD VI. Troubles with Foreign Countries 64 VII. Indian Wars— Slavery and the Civil War ... 76 PART III FINANCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY VIII. Financial History 06 IX. History of Political Parties 108 v VI CONTENTS PART IV GROWTH AND PROGRESS CHAPTER X. Growth in Territort and Population . XL Progress in Science and the Useful Arts XII. Progress in Education .... XIII. Growth of American Literature . XIV. Problems of To-day and the Near Future PAGE 124 138 154 166 178 APPENDICES A. The Constitution of the United States B. Glossary of Terms 1 43 LIST OF MAPS The United States and its Possessions (double page, colored) Frontispiece PAGE Map of Early Voyages 9 Map to illustrate the French Explorations (in text) . . . .11 Map of the Spanish Claim (in text) 12 Map of the English Claim (in text) 12 Map of the French Claim (in text) 13 Map of the Dutch Claim (in text) 13 Central North America, 1755, at the Beginning of the French and Indian War (colored) 28 Central North America, 1763, after the French and Indian War (colored) 28 Reference Map for the Revolution. Northern and Middle States (colored) . . • 34 Reference Map for the Revolution. Southern States (colored) . 38 Lewis and Clark's Route (in text) 60 Route of the National Road (in text) 61 Reference Maps for the War of 1812 67 Map of the Mexican War (in text) . . . . .. . .71 Territory acquired from Mexico as the Result of the Mexican War (colored) 72 The United States in 1820, showing the Missouri Compromise . . 83 Reference Map for the Civil War, 1861-1865 (double page, colored) 90 Campaigns in Virginia (in text) 92 Territorial Growth of the United States, 1783-1867 (double page, colored) 128 The Centre of Population, from 1790 to 1900 (in text) . . . 132 The Westward Movement of Population (in text) .... 133 Chart showing how the Number of Immigrants has varied . . 135 Map of the Erie Canal 146 vii A WORD TO THE TEACHER This book is not a digest or chronology to be committed to memory by the pupils. It should rather be looked upon as notes taken in advance, as it were, for the pupils, to be utilized by them for purposes of home study, in order that the essentials of the instruction may be fixed and retained. The study of each part and chapter should sup- plement, not precede, the careful presentation of the topic by the teacher. The teacher, in his presentation of the subject, should have recourse to such works as would invest it with a real and live interest. For this purpose original sources should be employed as far as possible. A very suggestive treatment of such sources for younger pupils will be found in " Studies in American History " by Mary S. and Earl Barnes. For more extensive work of this character Hart's " Ameri- can History told by Contemporaries " w T ill be found very useful. The teacher will also find in John Fiske's series of histories and in John Bach McM aster's great work, " The History of the People of the United States," many topics presented so clearly and graphically as to be well within the range of comprehension of pupils of the higher grammar grades. Appropriate selections from these and other works should be read and discussed in class, and the pupils should be encouraged to make use of the great standard histories for collateral reading and for the preparation of essays upon special topics. Many of the historical articles of current literature may be similarly utilized, and the pupils' reading of fiction may also be directed along historical lines. Channing and Hart's " Guide to the Study of American History " will be found an invaluable reference book for the teacher of history. PAKT I ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC CHAPTER I The Period of Discovery and Exploration The Renascence and its Consequences Spanish Discoveries and Explorations English Discoveries and Explorations French Discoveries and Explorations Dutch Discoveries and Explorations . Conflict of Claims .... CHAPTER II Colonisation of America and Establishment of English Supremacy Period of Colonization The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast The New England Colonies ...... The Middle Colonies The Southern Colonies ....... Government of the Colonies ..... The French in America The Establishment of English Supremacy Consolidation of Colonies . Early Plans for General Union . Steps leading to the Constitution Articles of Confederation . Formation of the Constitution . 15 16 16 is 20 21 2-~> 26 CHAPTER III The War for Independence Causes of the Revolutionary War 31 Principal Events of the War ........ 34 First Period (1775-70, principally in New England and Canada) .'54 Second Period (177(1-78, principally in the Middle States) . . 37 Third Period (1778-81, principally in the Southern States) . 39 CHAPTER IV The Adoption of a New Form of Government 41 43 44 46 48 CHAPTER V Establishment of the New Government Domestic Affairs Foreign Complications Growth and Development 53 56 59 CHAPTER I THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION The Renascence and its Consequences. — 1. The Renascence. 2. The New Spirit shown in Geography. 3. The Trade with India. 4. New Geographical Ideas — Christopher Columbus. 5. Search for a Passage through the New Continent. G. Motives of Early Explorations. Spanish Discoveries and Explorations. — 7. Superiority of the Span- ish Claim. 8. Discovery and Exploration of Florida. 9. Discovery of the Mississippi. 10. First Permanent Settlement in America. 11. The Spanish Claim. English Discoveries and Explorations. — 12. Voyages of the Cabots. 13. Other English Explorers. 14. First Attempts at Colonization. 15. The English Claim. French Discoveries and Explorations. — 16. Early French Explor- ers. 17. Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. 18. The French Claim. Dutch Discoveries and Explorations. — 19. Henry Hudson. 20. The Dutch Claim. Conflict of Claims. —21. Dutch and French Possessions secured by the English. CHAPTER I THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION I. The Renascence and its Consequences 1. The Renascence. — For about a thousand years after the fall of Rome (476 a.d.) civilization declined. Very little attention was given to learning; ignorance and superstition prevailed. This period is often termed the Dark Ages. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, however, Europe awoke, as it were, from its long intellectual slumber. This period of awakening is known as the Renascence. Various causes helped to produce it. One of the important events of the period was the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. Hundreds of Greek scholars fled before the conquering Mohammedans, and carried learning and a zeal for study with them to Italy and other parts of Western Europe. Numerous books were thus brought to the notice of eager students in Italy, Germany, England, France, and Spain, and libraries were formed. There was increased activity of thought in all fields, but especially in science, with the result that numerous inventions were made. Among these were the printing press, which helped to spread the newly acquired learning; gunpowder, which, taking the place of the crude weapons of earlier times (spears, lances, etc.), made the foot-soldier the match of the mounted knight ; and the astrolabe and compass, which rendered possible the exten- sive voyages of this period. 2. The New Spirit shown in Geography. — Geography was one of the sciences which received especial attention. The old ideas in regard to the shape and size of the earth were ques- tioned. Crusaders who had travelled over Europe and Asia into Palestine to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the Moham- 3 4 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY medans, came back with much interesting and wonderful infor- mation about the countries and peoples they had visited. As a result of these accounts, many were impelled to travel and make geographical discoveries from mere love of adventure. Many of the descriptions of foreign countries were nothing but glowing exaggerations of imaginative writers, e.g. those of Marco Polo. These stories, however, were widely read, and did much to create a longing to visit the strange lands and also to obtain a share of the great wealth which they were reputed to possess. 3. The Trade with India. — There had long been a consider- able trade carried on between India and various Mediterranean ports. Venice and Genoa especially were centres of this com- merce, importing large quantities of spices, silks, and precious stones. The pirates who infested the Mediterranean, and the brigands of the deserts who plundered the caravans on their overland routes to the Indies, made the commerce particularly dangerous. Another route to India was therefore eagerly sought. One of the first plans to suggest itself was that of sailing around the southern point of Africa and thence north- east to India. This attempt was successfully made by the Portuguese, whose excellent geographical position gave them a great advantage. In 1487 a Portuguese navigator, Bartolomeo Diaz, discovered the Cape of Good Hope, and ten years later (five years after America had been discovered) Vasco da Gama succeeded in reaching India by sailing around the coast of Africa. 4. New Geographical Ideas — Christopher Columbus. — At the same time that these discoveries were being made, the writings of the ancients which had now found their way into Western Europe were being eagerly read by large numbers of students. In many respects the people of Europe had retro- graded during the Middle or Dark Ages. Superstition and ignorance characterized many of their beliefs. This was especially true of geography. Most of the people of that day believed the earth to be flat, although some of the ancient writers and geographers had reached the conclusion that it DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 5 was round. Among those who were bold enough to adopt the ancient belief was the Genoese sailor, Christopher Columbus. So sure was he in regard to the true shape of the earth that he wished to make the attempt to reach India by sailing west. With the aid of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain he finally succeeded in fitting out three small vessels. After a discouraging voyage of seventy days the island of San Salva- dor, one of the Bahama Islands, was sighted (1492). He also discovered Cuba and other islands of the West Indies, taking possession of all the land in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. He made three other voyages, in one of which, 1498, he touched the mainland of America at the mouth of the Orinoco River. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent, but thought that the land was India. Many others made this error, which was natural enough since they were ignorant as to the real size of the earth, thinking it much smaller than it really is, and had no suspicion of the existence of a large continent between Europe and Asia. 5. Search for a Passage through the New Continent. — It soon became known, however, that the newly discovered land was really a new continent, and not merely a portion of Asia. Numerous attempts were then made to find a way through or around it. Nunez de Balboa, a Spaniard, while searching for gold in Central America, discovered the Pacific Ocean (1513). This led to the belief that the whole continent was very narrow, and explorers became anxious to find a water route through it, so that they could reach the coveted shores of India. Magellan, a Portuguese, in command of a Spanish fleet, by sailing through the straits which bear his name, in 1520 discovered the first and only practicable water route which has been discovered through America. One of the vessels of the fleet succeeded in circumnavigating the globe, thus definitely proving the earth to be round. 6. Motives of Early Explorations. — As soon as it became known that a new continent had been discovered, various nations of Europe hastened to claim its territory. Spain, Eng- 6 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY land, France, and Holland were most active, and all sent out explorers to take possession of the land in the name of their respective sovereigns. In addition to these expeditions, how- ever, there were many who sailed to the New World from other motives, — to acquire riches, to Christianize the natives, and some merely to seek adventure. A knowledge of these early discoveries and explorations is important, as the different nations of Europe based their claims to land in the New World upon them. II. Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 7. Superiority of the Spanish Claim. — Of the various nations Spain had probably the best right to claim the newly dis- covered land. It was in Spain that Columbus had secured the assistance which enabled him to make the 'famous voyage of discovery, and he had taken possession of the land in the name of the Spanish king and queen. Spain's formal claim to the New World was based upon an edict of Pope Alexander VI (1493), who had divided the " Heathen Lands" between Spain and Portugal, the line of demarcation leaving for Portugal, however, but a small portion of what is now known as Brazil. There were two other important Spanish explorers who helped to justify Spain's claim. These were Ponce de Leon and Ferdinand de Soto. 8. Discovery and Exploration of Florida. — Ponce de Leon had been governor of Porto Rico, but on being removed from that office he determined to make explorations to the north- ward. Two important motives led him to take this step. These were the hope of discovering gold and of finding the " Fountain of Youth " which was reported to exist in that region. He was disappointed in both of these expectations, but he took possession of the southern portion of North America (1513). He named the country Florida on account of having landed on Easter Sunday, called in Spanish Pascua Florida. He later made an unsuccessful attempt to colonize the country that he had discovered. DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 7 9. Discovery of the Mississippi. — In 1539 De Soto undertook to subdue Florida. He set out from Cuba with a large force of men and horses, determined to find treasures of gold and to conquer the Indians. The expedition was one of the most cruel recorded in history, and the disappointment of their hopes in regard to gold was richly deserved. Only half of the number who started out reached the Spanish settlements in Mexico, and these were in a most miserable and wretched plight. They had wandered for two years through the region which now comprises the states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. They finally discovered the Mississippi River, in whose waters De Soto himself was buried. 10. First Permanent Settlement in America. — Menendez, who was sent out to conduct an expedition against some French intruders in Florida, succeeded in driving them out and in founding St. Augustine (1565) — the first permanent settle- ment in America. 11. The Spanish Claim. — As a result of these discoveries and explorations by De Leon and De Soto, as well as the orig- inal discovery of America by Columbus, Spain laid claim to a large portion of North America. Florida was the name given to this region. It stretched northward without any definite limit, embracing a large part of the territory now occupied by the United States. III. English Discoveries and Explorations 12. Voyages of the Cabots. — John Cabot, a Venetian, living in Bristol, England, was possibly the first to discover the con- tinent of America (1497). Henry VII, who was then king of England, encouraged him to voyage westward, as Columbus had done, in order to find a " northwestern passage " to India and China, and thus secure the trade of that region for Eng- land. He failed in this, but seems to have discovered the mainland of America, landing somewhere in the region about the mouth of the St. Lawrence. He took possession of the land in the name of the king of England. Sebastian Cabot, a 8 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY son of John Cabot, in 1498 explored the coast of North America from Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras, also taking possession of this land in the name of Henry VII. 13. Other English Explorers. — It was not until nearly eighty years after the voyages of the Cabots that the English attempted to make explorations in the West. Since the Portuguese had discovered the route around southern Africa (see § 3), they had controlled the commerce of the Indies. In 1576 Sir Martin Frobisher set out to find a northwestern passage to India, but accomplished nothing of any moment. Captain John Davis later made a similar attempt, but also failed. In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a half brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, secured a charter from Queen Elizabeth, granting him any lands he might discover in America. His first expedition failed, but in 1583 he made another attempt and landed at Newfoundland, taking possession of it for the queen. On his homeward voyage Gilbert, together with the crew of his small vessel, were lost in a storm. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake started on a plundering expedi- tion against the Spaniards in South America. He reached the Pacific by way of Magellan Strait and then sailed northward, expecting to find a passage through to the Atlantic which might be used as a route for trading with the Indies. He took possession of the western coast of North America and called it New Albion. He returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, being thus the first Englishman to circumnavi- gate the globe. 14. First Attempt at Colonization. — The purpose of most of the previous explorations was to find a way through the new continent to India. Sir Walter Raleigh, however, believed that America might be a valuable land to settle and colonize. The grant of land which he received from Queen Elizabeth extended from Maine to Georgia, and was named Virginia in honor of the queen. Although his attempts at colonization proved failures, they were important because they were the first serious efforts to plant an English nation in America. M ,,* ' ^ " f^-x r^r—, ^r~, V ; GREENLAND V \ A * \ \ ' ■ ■V. Davis ," p ^ ,M "^ ?X [J \ ATLANTIC •'§? t '- j. LABRADOR jM, A ME R : l#C .AS^Sr-Tsr-i^ ^..-iNew Albion 7 ^ 1 , '•*.-. X -V, „,-i- ca Rtier" , "V535"^°>^7°" 5 M^ ce V 1 i'i 1 ■'- ••'f~'> 1 '" ^.o-XsON 'T607 ' 1 J . \> y V^" ^s "^ AZORES-'. / L P <^? S „\\ L. i/ \ l V <■-*-*_*-*-*-*-" VERRAZANA 1523-4 //.-^ V-W :> — \i V - v i i S V U ,'-: U "' NE - CANARY IS. A;^ 'K^yO ^^^•:v-- 5 KCBbiT"^^ 3 ^)/j AFRICA """^Q •-•'SSLj * C E H| 1 Balboa 1513^0 f^^^X^^ to/.* ^ *•■•■ ■'-'( J^S^^ $ ■ ' T^Tp^U T H ~~~N /*/ PACIFIC \\ j //'.£> ••\.^ A MERICA ff/f /If ( *0?[y ocean //• /--' ,/;<;;- **&.. 1 )^ ^ 5 ^o *♦»..... ,'7 ;.-;:•' ^*\/fl i"'" Map of tf >] EARLY VOYAGES \% y & Strait of MagellarT'*"—^ - Cape Horn 10 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 15. The English Claim. — As a result of these discoveries and explorations, especially those of the Cabots, England laid claim to all the land from Florida to Labrador on the Atlantic coast, and westward to the Pacific. IV. French Discoveries and Explorations 16. Early French Explorers. — No attempt was made by the French to obtain possessions in the New World until 1523, when an exploring expedition under Verrazzani was sent out by Francis I. He explored the coast of North America from North Carolina to Newfoundland in 1524, discovering New York and Narragansett bays. Cartier was the next Frenchman to explore the New World. In 1535 he discovered the St. Lawrence River and sailed up to what is now the city of Montreal. He later made an unsuc- cessful attempt to plant a colony in Canada. In 1608 Champlain, a famous French explorer, sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec, establishing the first permanent French colony in America. He later set out on an exploring expedition, getting as far south as the lake which bears his name, and claiming the country for France. 17. Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. — The main pur- pose of the French Jesuit missionaries, members of a Roman Catholic order, in coming to America was to convert the heathen to the Catholic faith. These missionaries were fired with reli- gious zeal, and spared themselves no pain or privation to secure their ends. They accomplished a great work in the conversion of the Indians, living in the regions which they explored, at the same time taking possession of the land in the name of France. In 1673 Joliet, a French explorer and trader, together with Father Marquette, a Jesuit priest, started on an expedition from Canada to find the Mississippi River. They made their way in canoes until they finally reached the river and were borne by the current to the region which De Soto had explored over a hundred years before. They feared to go farther south on account of the unfriendliness of the Indians. They then DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 11 had to paddle up the river against the current to their starting- place. Six years later (1679) an attempt was made by La Salle to Map to illustrate French Explorations complete the work begun by Joliet and Marquette. He went down the Mississippi, building forts on his way, and, after suffering great hardship, succeeded in reaching the Gulf of 12 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Mexico. He had previously explored the Ohio. To this entire region he gave the name of Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV, then king of France. Chicago, Mobile, and New Orleans were indirectly the result of these explorations. 18. The French Claim. — New France embraced the region from New York to Labrador on the Atlantic, and included Acadia (Nova Scotia), Canada, and the basin of the Great PACIFIC OCEAN Spanish Claim English Claim Lakes and the Mississippi River. The claim to it was founded chiefly on the discoveries of Verrazzani, Cartier, and La Salle. V. Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 19. Henry Hudson. — The motive which prompted the first Dutch exploration was to find a passage through the continent to India and China. This work was intrusted to Captain Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the employ of Holland. He reached the east coast of Greenland and explored the surrounding region. Later, in 1609, he set out in the service of the Dutch East India Company. He reached Nova Scotia, then sailed southward, exploring the coast as far as Chesapeake Bay. He then explored the river named for him, ascending it as far as the spot where Albany now stands. In 1614 Holland, finding from Hudson's report that a valuable fur trade could be carried on with the Indians, took possession of the valley of DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 13 the Hudson River, naming it New Netherland. In 1623 the Dutch built a fort on the upper Hudson, which they named Fort Orange. They also made a treaty with the Iroquois Indians, which the latter kept faithfully. 20. The Dutch Claim. — N ew Netherland extended from Cape May to Nova Scotia and indefinitely westward, the claim to it being founded upon Hudson's discoveries and explorations. French Claim Dutch Claim VI. Conflict of Claims 21. Dutch and French Possessions secured by the English. — It will be seen from the accompanying maps how the claims of these nations conflicted. This overlapping of claims, how- ever, did not lead to serious trouble until the country became more thickly settled. In 1664 the English, under Nicolls, took possession of New Netherland and changed its name to New York. England thus had control of the Atlantic coast of North America, while the French held Canada and the Mississippi Valley, and the Spanish, Florida and Mexico. The dispute over conflicting claims was ended by the French and Indian War. The battle of Quebec, one of the decisive bat- tles of the world, settled the question of supremacy in North America. France retained two small islands off the coast of Newfoundland. Spain lost Florida, and England finally ob- tained control of North America east of the Mississippi. CHAPTER II > COLONIZATION OF AMERICA AND ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH SUPREMACY Period of Colonization. — 22. The Seventeenth Century. 23. The Most Successful Nations. 24. Length of the Colonizing Period. The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast. — 25. Causes of Difference in the Characteristics of the Colonies. 2G. The Three Zones. The New England Colonies. — 27. The Puritans in New England. 28. Growth and Prosperity. The Middle Colonies. — 29. Motives of the Settlers. 30. New Nether- land. 31. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. 32. Lord Bal- timore and Maryland. 33. Growth and Prosperity of the Middle Colonies. The Southern Colonies. — 34. Virginia. 35. Character of Settlers and Early Difficulties. 36. The Colony firmly Established. 37. The Caro- linas and Georgia. 38. Character and Mode of Life. Government of the Colonies. — 39. The Three Forms of Colonial Gov- ernment. 40. Charter Government. 41. Proprietary Government. 42. Royal or Provincial Government. 43. Common Features of these Three Forms. 44. Differences. 45. Effects upon the Rights of the People. 46. Special Local Features of Government. 47. The Town System of New England. 48. The County System of Virginia. The French in America. — 49. Attempts at Colonization. 50. Work of the Missionaries. 51. Efforts to establish an Empire. Establishment of English Supremacy. — 52. Origin of the Conflict. 53. Intercolonial Wars. 54. The French and Indian War. 55. Im- portant Strategic Points. 56. First Important United Action of the Colonies. 57. Success of the English. 58. The Treaty of Peace. 59. Effects of the French and Indian War. 14 CHAPTER II THE COLONIZATION OF AMERICA AND ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH SUPREMACY I. Period of Colonization 22. The Seventeenth Century. — The history of America for about one hundred years after its discovery by Columbus is one of further discoveries, explorations, and occasional attempts at settlement. It was not until the seventeenth century that the true colonizing spirit developed and settlements were made by those who really wished to establish for themselves and their descendants permanent homes in the New World. 23. The Most Successful Nations. — England and Trance were the nations which were most successful in conducting these colonizing enterprises. The Spanish, it is true, had made the first permanent settlement (St. Augustine, 1565) and had triumphed over the Trench in securing possession of the southern part of North America. The Dutch also had attempted to develop New Netherland. The latter, however, were soon swallowed up by the greater power of their rivals, the English, who needed the Hudson River for both commer- cial and military reasons. The main motives of the Spanish — love of gold and conquest — were not the foundation on which to build prosperous colonies. Absence of worthy motives for colonizing, lack of industry and defects of government, pre- vented the growth of Spanish power in America, although at one time it had looked as if Spain might control the whole continent. Spain made a brilliant beginning and then stood still, while England and France, who failed at first, were suc- 15 16 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY cessfully developing a New England and a New France in the New World. 24. Length of the Colonizing Period. — The colonizing period extended over about one hundred and fifty years, dur- ing the last half of which the English and French were disput- ing for the supremacy in a series of wars in which the English colonists finally triumphed (Quebec, 1759). II. The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast 25. Causes of Differences in the Characteristics of the Colonies. — In reviewing the history of the thirteen original colonies it is important to note certain great differences in the characteristics of the settlers and of the colonies which they established. While all the colonies were English (Delaware,' settled by the Swedes, New York and New Jersey by the* Dutch, were soon afterward acquired by the English), and nearly all the people spoke the same language and pro- fessed the same religion, yet quite different classes of people, actuated by different motives, had settled the country along the Atlantic. Differences of soil, climate, products, etc., of the regions settled also produced marked contrasts in the gen- eral character of the several colonies. The Puritans of New England were decidedly different in habits, manners, and cus- toms from the slave-holding settlers of Virginia. The Quakers and Dutch of the Middle colonies also gave a distinctive char- acter to that region. 26. The Three Zones. — The colonies may be conveniently studied in three groups : — 1. The New England colonies, or northern group. 2. Colonies of the middle zone. 3. Virginia and the far South. III. The New England Colonies 27. The Puritans in New England. — The Puritans did not believe in all the forms and ceremonies of the Established Church of England. Some of them who believed in separat- COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 17 ing entirely from the English church (Separatists), being unable to secure the liberty to worship as they pleased, fled to Hol- land, where they enjoyed full religious freedom. On account of their wanderings, they were afterward known as Pilgrims. But though the Puritans were willing to exile themselves from their native land for the sake of their beliefs, their love of country was so strong that they could not content themselves in the midst of a foreign, though friendly people, and at the risk of their descendants ceasing to be English. Facing great difficulties, they determined to secure religious and civil liberty on English soil — the soil of the New World. They were compelled to live in a rude, primitive way in the new country, engage in the arduous labors of reclaiming its wilderness, face the rigors of a severe climate, and fight a savage foe — the Indians. They endured all this with great fortitude; led simple, fearless, upright lives, and governed themselves well and justly, though their laws were harsh and severe. They had great respect for learning, and early established schools and colleges. They were also deeply religious and worshipped in I lie plain manner that seemed best to them. Yet they refused to allow others the religious liberty which they themselves so highly prized, but persecuted those who disagreed with them. Their banishment of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson and their persecution of the Quakers are the most notable instances of this intolerance. The great hardships which the Puritans were willing to undergo for the sake of their ideas o£ right and liberty, their courage and determination in overcoming these hardships, and their intolerance of opinions and practices different from their own, show the strong and peculiar character of the people who first settled New England. 28. Growth and Prosperity. — The soil being poor, the peo- ple engaged in shipbuilding and commerce, and many found employment in the great cod fisheries. Thousands of emigrants from England sought the shores of New England, and the colonies grew and prospered. 18 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY IV. The Middle Colonies 29. Motives of the Settlers. — Just as the Puritans had founded a New England, the Dutch attempted to found a New Netherland and the Swedes a New Sweden. The latter attempt was short-lived, the settlement being conquered by the Dutch and absorbed into New Netherland. The Quakers under Penn and the Catholics under Lord Baltimore settled Pennsylvania and Maryland respectively in order to secure religious liberty. The motives which led to the settlement of the Middle colonies were thus similar in some respects to those of the New Ed glanders. There were such great differ- ences, however, in the character both of the people and of the country in which they settled, that the Middle colonies were quite unlike those of New England. 30. New Netherland. — The Dutch, after Hudson's discov- eries, were attracted to the valley of the Hudson by the opportunities for profitable fur-trading with the Indians which that region offered. They soon became interested in farming also, which they developed by means of the patroon system. They were a thrifty, peace-loving people, and with few excep- tions allowed full religious liberty to every one. So mauy people of different nationalities came to New Amsterdam that it became very cosmopolitan, a characteristic which it retains to this day. The people of New Netherland were not warlike enough to hold their own against the English and became an English colony, prosperous under English as it had been under Dutch rule. Though the Dutch were conquered, the influence of their simple manners and customs is felt to the present day, especially in the valley of the Hudson. 31. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. — New Jersey was sold to Quakers and settled by them. This led to the founding of Pennsylvania by William Penn as an asylum for the persecuted Quakers and the oppressed of other creeds. The tolerant spirit of the Quakers was in marked contrast to the narrow religious views of the Puritans. Penn called the COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 19 colony his " Holy Experiment," and endeavored to base it upon the Golden Rule, which he rightfully thought the red man would be able to understand and appreciate. The success of the undertaking, and especially the friendly relations which he established and maintained with the Indians, were due to Penn's wisdom and his great ability as a governor. He after- ward became proprietor of Delaware. 32. Lord Baltimore and Maryland. — Lord Baltimore, another wise and good proprietor, founded in Maryland a colony for persecuted Catholics. More religious freedom was allowed here than in any other colony. It accordingly became a refuge not only for Catholics, but for the oppressed of all creeds. This religious liberty prevailed however only while Lord Balti- more was governor. His enemies, unfortunately, triumphed over him for a time, and Catholic worship was prohibited until Lord Baltimore regained the power which he had employed in such a liberal spirit. 33. Growth and Prosperity of the Middle Colonies. — New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore became important commer- cial centres; but the people of the Middle colonies generally engaged in farming to a much greater extent than did those of New England. Maryland, however, with its large planta- tions and few towns, bore a greater resemblance to the Vir- ginia colony than it did to those of the middle and northern sections. The Middle colonies maintained much more friendly rela- tions with the Indians than did those of New England. The most remarkable example of this was the success of Penn in securing the friendship of the Indians for the peaceable Quakers. The Dutch and Quakers of this whole section were kindly, simple-minded people. They lived plainly and had quaint customs, but they were not harsh and severe like the Puritans. Both Penn and Lord Baltimore endeavored to rule in a broad, liberal spirit, and granted to the colonists a degree of civil and religious liberty unknown to the other colonies, and indeed to all the rest of the world. 20 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY V. The Southern Colonies 34. Virginia. — The Virginia colony was the first permanent English settlement in the New World. Raleigh had spent nearly $1,000,000 in attempts " to plant an English nation in America," which, though unsuccessful, kept up an interest in the New World and set an example for later and more per- manent settlements. It happened about 1600 that hundreds of Englishmen were out of employment. Emigration was sug- gested, and Virginia was declared to be "a door which God had opened for England." Hence companies were formed and chartered by the king (London and Plymouth companies). The settlement of Jamestown (1607) was the result of the efforts of the London Company. 35. Character of Settlers and Early Difficulties. — Many of the first emigrants were " gentlemen " unused to work, and filled with the idea of getting rich quickly and returning to England. They were not persevering and industrious like the northern colonists, but were fond of gayety and luxurious living. The original plan of colonial life (communism) tended to encourage them in their idleness and to discourage the few who were industrious. Trouble with the Indians added to their difficulties, and it is no wonder that the settlement almost failed. The energy of John Smith saved it from extinction. 36. Colony firmly Established. — The arrival of men and supplies and the wise though harsh rule of Governor Dale, who abolished the foolish communistic plan and forced each man to work for his own living, gave the colony a new lease of life. The discovery of the value of tobacco firmly estab- lished the colony. It also led to important results by the encouragement which it gave to negro slavery. 37. The Carolinas and Georgia. — The other Southern colonies were settled much later and by various peoples. French Hugue- nots, Germans, and Scotch Highlanders joined the original English settlers. In the Carolinas the English settlers were COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 21 emigrants from England, Virginia, and Barbados who had become dissatisfied with life in these places. In Georgia they were poor people who had been released from debtors' prisons in England through the philanthropy of Oglethorpe. The cul- tivation of rice and indigo was almost as important for this region as tobacco had been for Virginia. 38. Character and Mode of Life. — The Southern colonists lacked both the simplicity of character and the patient in- dustry which characterized the Puritans of New England and the Dutch and Quakers of the Middle colonies. They were not so deeply religious and were not troubled by religious controversies to the same extent as were the people of some of the other colonies. Plantation life did not favor the growth of large cities, and this, together with the institution of slavery, tended to divide society into classes, — (a) the wealthy plantation owners, and (b) the slaves and poor whites. Labor was looked upon as degrading. The aristocratic landowner or gentleman of the South thus formed a marked contrast to the thrifty, industri- ous farmer and mechanic of the North. VI. Government of the Colonies 39. The Three Forms of Colonial Government. — Though the English colonies were all under the control of the same mother country, they had three distinct forms of colonial government, known as the Charter, the Proprietary, and the Royal or Provincial. 40. Charter Government. — To some of the colonies the king granted charters which conferred the power of government upon the people. The charters were somewhat similar to our present state constitutions. They defined the powers of government and secured many valuable rights to the people. The people elected their own governor and the members of both houses of the legislative assembly. The king had so little to do with the government of the charter colonies that they really resembled small independent republics. Massachu- 22 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY setts, Khode Island, and Connecticut had the charter form of government, although Massachusetts under its second charter lost the privilege of electing its own governor. The charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island were so liberal that they were retained without change as state constitutions until 1818 and 1842 respectively. 41. Proprietary Government. — Some of the colonies were under the control of a proprietor, to whom the king had granted both the land and the power to rule it. The pro- prietor either ruled it himself or appointed a governor. He also appointed a council ; but the people elected representa- tives to the assembly. The powers granted the proprietor Facsimile of Part of the Royal Deed given to Penn were so great that he was in effect a sort of local prince, and the proprietary colony resembled, in its form of government, a limited monarchy : limited, because the people elected the lower house of the assembly. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware had proprietary forms of government. New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia were under the pro- prietary form of government for a time. The plan proving unsatisfactory, they later became royal provinces. 42. Royal or Provincial Government. — In most of the colo- nies the king neither granted a charter to the people nor conferred the power of government upon a proprietor, but appointed a governor himself. He also appointed the gov- ernor's council, although the people were allowed to elect the lower house of the assembly. The colonies ruled in this way were under the royal or provincial form of government, and COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 23 were called Royal Provinces. At the beginning of the Revo- lution, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, the Carolina*, and Georgia were royal provinces. 43. Common Features of these Three Forms. — The three forms of colonial government were alike in four important respects : — 1. In each form there were two houses constituting the assem- bly or law-making body, and also a governor. This was like the government of England. The plan of having an executive officer and two houses is exemplified to-day in our national, state, and many city governments. In the nation we have the President and Congress, consist- ing of the Senate and House of Representatives ; in each state there is a governor and a legislature, also con- sisting of two houses, named as are the two houses of Congress ; in many cities we have the mayor and coun- cils, consisting of two houses, often called aldermen and common council. 2. In each form of colonial government the lower house was elected by the people. 3. In all the colonies the governor had absolute veto power upon any act of the legislature. 4. No colony was permitted to pass any law contrary to the laws of England. 44. Differences. — The colonies differed as to the manner of appointment of the governor. In the royal colonies the gov- ernor was appointed by the king ; in the proprietary, by the proprietor when he himself did not act as governor ; in the charter colonies he was elected by the people. In the royal colonies the council was appointed by the king ; in the pro- prietary, by the proprietor; in the charter the council was elected by the people. 45. Effects upon the Rights of the People. — By the nature of their government the provincial colonies were most depend- ent on the king and Parliament. The people of these colonies 24 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY consequently had fewest political rights. The proprietary colonies were dependent on a local ruler, the proprietor. They had greater privileges and rights than the provincial colonies, though this was due, not to the nature of the government, but to the fact that they chanced to have good proprietors. The charter colonies were the least dependent on the king and Par- liament, and had greatest political freedom. In exercising the rights granted them by their charters they learned how to govern themselves, and the political institutions which resulted were often superior to those of the other colonies. 46. Special Local Features of Government. — As there were great differences in the character and mode of life of the colonists of the Northern, Middle, and Southern sections, so they developed certain distinct features in local government. The most important of these w r ere the Town System and the County System of government. 47. The Town System of New England. — The New Eng- land colonies had a system of local government called the Town System. It was a pure democracy. The surface of the country was laid out in districts called towns. The gov- ernment of the town was vested in a Town Meeting held once a year, at which every male citizen was expected to be present and was at liberty to address the meeting and vote on any sub- ject that might come up. This was democratic because each person was taking part in the government himself, and not by a representative. The spirit of independence was kept alive by the discussions which arose at these meetings, and the ulti- mate revolt of the colonies was due in some measure to the uniform opposition which the New England towns displayed to the unjust enactments of Parliament. 48. The County System of Virginia. — Plantation life, and the tendency to aristocracy which this life developed, did not encourage anything like a town meeting. A body of leading men attended to the government of each county. They had the power of filling vacancies in their own body, so the people had little to do with choosing them. COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 25 Other systems of local government, which resembled in some particulars each of the above, and which may therefore be called Mixed Township-county Systems, were developed by the colonists of the Middle region. VII. The French in America 49. Attempts at Colonization. — While the English were firmly establishing themselves along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia, the French were making extensive explora- tions in Canada and the Mississippi Valley. They were en- deavoring to found a great French empire in the New World. Their first successful attempt to plant a colony in Canada was the founding of Quebec by Cham plain in 1608, a year after the settlement of Jamestown by the English. 50. Work of the Missionaries. — The French explorations and settlements were not made for commercial and patriotic reasons only, but sprang also from the efforts of the Jesuit mis- sionaries to convert the Indians to Christianity. The mission- aries led lives of great self-sacrifice, bravely penetrating the wilderness and enduring fearful hardships. They established numerous missions and trading-posts. (See map, page 11.) As a result of their labors, the French gained such great influ- ence over the Indians of the Northwest that the latter served as allies of the French in their wars against the English. 51. Efforts to establish an Empire. — The French turned their attention chiefly to the fisheries and the fur trade with the Indians. They were not successful farmers, and as a con- sequence failed to develop thriving settlements like those of the English colonies. They endeavored, however, to strengthen and defend their claim to the vast region which they called New France by building a chain of forts from the Great Lakes to the mouth of the Mississippi. The strength of the French was due to (1) their military training; (2) the despotic form of government, which assured united action ; (3) their ability to control the Indians and secure them for their allies. Their main element of weakness consisted in the fewness of their 26 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY numbers. Their communities did not increase rapidly on account of the absence of agricultural interests, the rigorous climate of Canada, and a faulty system of government. VIII. Establishment of English Supremacy 52. Origin of the Conflict. — We have seen how the French and English settlers in America came to lay claim to differ- ent regions of the continent. France had control of the immense regions bordering on the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, the Mississippi and its tributaries. The work of build- ing forts throughout this vast domain was energetically begun by La Salle and continued by his successors. It was very evi- dent that the French regarded America, not as a temporary possession, but rather as the possibility of a future empire, which would make France a power in the New World. All this time the English colonists had been prospering and living contentedly in the narrow strip of land bordering on the Atlantic Ocean. The Alleghanies stood as an effective barrier to their western migration. It was inevitable, however, that a conflict should arise between the French and the English, not so much on account of their differences in religion and customs, but because of the enmity of the mother countries, France and England. It was the long war between these two nations in Europe which really first brought the English and French colonists into conflict. They were, however, the more ready to take up the quarrel of the mother country because of their own quarrels over fisheries, fur-trading, and territorial boundaries. The question to be decided was " which should be the ruling nationality in North America — French or English ? " and it required a long series of wars to answer it. In these wars the French were generally assisted by the Indians, with the exception of the Iroquois of New York, who faithfully kept a treaty of friendship with the English and assisted them in their battles. 53. Intercolonial Wars. — It is customary to divide the con- flicts which thus took place from 1689 to 1763 into four wars, COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 27 the first three being named after the monarchs then reigning in England. It was, however, but one war with long intermis- sions. The first three wars made little change in the territorial possessions of France and England. The treaties of peace generally restored to their original owners King William's places which had been captured. This was War (1689-97), not the case with Acadia, however, which Queen Anne's War remained in possession of the English at the * ~ , w close of Queen Anne's War, its name being (1744-48), changed to Nova Scotia. Perhaps the most French and Indian important event of these wars was the taking War C 1754 " 63 ). of the strongly fortified fortress of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, by Colonel Pepperrell of Maine with a small force of American or " Yankee " soldiers. There were two important results of this victory : (1) it stopped the French piracy among the fisheries ; (2) it inspired the colonists with confidence. The latter was perhaps the greatest effect, and had, in con- nection with the additional encouragement given by the French and Indian War, far-reaching consequences. 54. The French and Indian War (1754-63). — The French and Indian War was the last of the intercolonial wars. The English had been practically inactive while the French had been fastening their hold on the entire Mississippi Valley as far east as the Alleghanies. Fearing at last, however, that this part of the country might be entirely lost to them, the English decided to plant a colony near the Ohio River. As all this re- gion was claimed by the French, they stoutly resisted the en- croachments of the English intruders. To protect their rights, they built a new line of forts from Erie to where Pittsburg now stands. Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia sent George Wash- ington, then a young man of twenty-one, with a message to the French commander of one of the new forts ; but as an unsat- isfactory answer was received, it became apparent that force would be necessary to settle the dispute. 55. Important Strategic Points. — The most important points, when we consider their strategic importance, were: (1) Fort 28 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Duquesne, the present site of Pittsburg, which commanded the entrance to the Ohio, and hence the Mississippi River, and was thus the key to the region west of the Alleghanies ; (2) Acadia and Louisburg, which protected the French fisheries and, on account of their nearness, menaced New England ; (3) Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which protected the internal route to Canada ; (4) Quebec, which was the strongest strategic position in North America, having an excellent situation on a high bluff overlooking the St. Lawrence, thus being the key to Canada. 56. First Important United Action of the Colonies. — During the first three intercolonial wars, the New England colonies, and especially Massachusetts, had borne the brunt of the fighting, assisted to some extent by New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. In the French and Indian War, however, the colonies had not been drawn into a conflict on account of European disputes between France and England, but on their own account to gain possession of the Ohio Valley. All the colonies became interested in this war and acted together for the first time. They were advised by the British government to unite for the common defence. Delegates were sent to a colonial congress at Albany from New Hampshire, Massachu- setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan of union which was unsatisfactory, both to England and to the colonies, but which was nevertheless very important as being the first attempt of a large number of the colonies at union. 57. Success of the English. — The war was stubbornly con- tested by the British soldiers and the colonists on the one side, and the French and Indians on the other. After several reverses, due partly to the ignorance of the British generals in regard to Indian methods of warfare and their unwilling- ness to profit by the advice of George Washington and other Americans, the English finally succeeded in gaining possession of the important points above enumerated. The success of the war was due largely to the wisdom and energy of CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1755 AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1763 AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. (ACCORDING TO PEACE OF PARI8) COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 20 Sir William Pitt, who, when he came to have charge of affairs in England, sent over many troops to right for the colonists. The war was practically ended by the fall of Quebec, " The Gibraltar of America," in 1759. The town was bravely defended by General Montcalm, but was captured after a siege by a daring assault by the British and colonial forces under General Wolfe. Both the commanding generals, Wolfe and Montcalm, lost their lives in this battle, which has been properly classed as one of the decisive battles of the world. It settled once for all the question of supremacy. 58. The Treaty of Peace (1763). — Shortly after the fall of Quebec all Canada succumbed to British rule. In 1763 the treaty of peace was made. It completely changed the political map of North America. Florida, which had belonged to Spain, was ceded to Great Britain. France gave up New Orleans and the vast Louisiana territory to Spain, and ceded Canada to Great Britain. All that France retained of her vast possessions in North America were two small islands near Newfoundland. The English possessions thus included the entire eastern part of North America, from the Arctic Ocean to Florida, and westward to the Mississippi. 59. Effects of the French and Indian War. — Next to the establishment of English supremacy, the most far-reaching result of the French and Indian War was the fostering of the spirit of union among the English colonists. Fighting shoulder to shoulder during the war, they had learned to know and respect each other. The sectional feeling and animosity which tended to keep the colonists apart had been partially wiped out. The way was prepared for the real union which was to come, — a union of independence which was to cement the hitherto rival colonies into a brotherhood, and be known to the world as the United States of America. The French and Indian War in another way indirectly led to the independence of the American colonies, as it was the adoption by England shortly after of a new colonial policy that prompted their first acts of resistance. CHAPTER III THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE Causes of the War. — 60. Interference with Commerce. 61. Taxation without Representation. 62. British Army in America. 63. First Continental Congress. Principal Events of the War. — First Period (1775-76, princi- pally in New England and Canada). 64. Operations about Boston. 65. Second Continental Congress. 66. Bunker Hill and the Evacua- • tion of Boston. 67. Expedition to Canada. 68. Growth of the Idea of Independence. 69 The Declaration of Independence. Second Period (1776-78, principally in the Middle States). 70. Oper- ations around New York and New Jersey. 71. Capture of Philadel- phia : Valley Forge. 72. Burgoyne Surrenders : Aid of France Secured. Third Period (1778-81, principally in the Southern States). 73. The Surrender of Comwallis : End of the War. 74. The Treaty of Peace. 80 CHAPTER III THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE I. Causes of the War 60. Interference with Commerce. — England regarded her colonies merely as sources of gain. Dutch vessels had been carrying the commerce of America to a great extent, and it was determined that England should acquire a monopoly of this profitable trade. As early as 1651 the Parliament of England had begun to pass certain laws known as Navigation Acts, which bore very heavily on American trade. The Navigation Acts provided that only English or colonial vessels might carry products to the colonies, and that all goods imported by the colonists must come from some English port. In order to evade these discriminating laws, smuggling was resorted to. The laws were poorly enforced, the revenue officers them- selves being sometimes guilty of smuggling. After the French and Indian War, however, when George III ascended the throne, it was decided that these navigation laws should be rigidly enforced. Writs of Assistance were issued, giving cus- toms officers the right to enter any man's house and search for smuggled goods. The enforcement of the Navigation Acts bore most heavily upon the New England colonies, which had been carrying on a profitable trade with the Spanish and French West Indies. The activity of the customs-house officers served to embitter the colonists, and did much to arouse the spirit of opposition to British rule, which afterward became the demand for independence. 61. Taxation without Representation. — Perhaps a still more fruitful source of bad feeling was the attempt to raise money 31 32 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY by levying taxes on the Americans without their consent. The colonists were not represented in Parliament, and they believed that their rights as English subjects were assailed by being thus taxed. The passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, requiring the colonists to use stamps on all important docu- ments, pamphlets, and newspapers, was greeted with a storm of protest and indignation. The reason given for the passage of the act was that the Americans should help pay for the support of a British standing army in America. The colonists contended, however, that no standing army was necessary, as the war was not likely to be renewed. They also vigor- ously opposed the idea of a standing army, feeling that it would be a menace to the degree of self-government they already enjoyed. Patrick Henry, the famous orator of Vir- ginia, voiced the sentiments of the people and aroused them to a great pitch of excitement by his fiery eloquence and — as the British called them — treasonable utterances. James Otis of Massachusetts was particularly emphatic in denouncing the injustice of Great Brit- ain's treatment of the colonies, and gave expression to the ideas of the colonists in the assertion that " Taxation without repre- sentation is tyranny." Samuel Adams, the " Father of the Revolution," also denounced Sta.mp used in 1765 the ac t ni strong terms. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but England still claimed the right to tax the colonists. In 1767 another tax was ordered, requiring a duty to be paid on all imported glass, paper, paints, and tea. This tax likewise met with stubborn resistance, and Parliament decided to remove all the taxes except a very low tax on tea. But the colonists were now opposed to the principle of taxation without representation, and the shiploads of tea sent over to America were either sent back or destroyed. In Boston, the contents of the vessel were thrown overboard (Boston Tea Party). THE WAR FOR IN IMPENDENCE 33 62. British Army in America. — The idea of maintaining a British standing army in America was bitterly opposed by the colonists. The support of the British soldiery was one of the reasons assigned for the obnoxious taxes. The acts of opposi- tion on the part of the colonists enraged the King and Parlia- ment of England, and a law was passed closing the port of Boston until reparation should be made for the destruction of the tea, and proper respect shown to the king. Moreover, the people of Massachusetts were no longer to be allowed to govern themselves, but were to be under the military rule of General Gage, who was ordered to Boston with several regi- ments of soldiers. There were frecpaent quarrels be- tween these soldiers and inhabitants of Boston. In one of these conflicts (1770) the British soldiers fired upon a mob which had been insulting them, and five per- sons were killed and four dangerously wounded. This was known as the Boston Massacre and served to add fuel to the rage of the colonies. In 1772 the Gaspee, a British war vessel which had run aground in Xarragansett Bay, was captured and burned by residents of Providence. Some historians regard this affair as the real beginning of the Revolution. 63. The First Continental Congress. — The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1774, and petitioned Eng- land for a redress of grievances. All the colonies except Georgia were represented in this congress. There was no talk of independence yet. England, however, gave a deaf ear to the calm, respectful, yet firm demands of the American colonies. 0PP05ITE THIS SPOT WAS SHED THE FIRST BLOOD OF THE AAER1CAN REVOLUTION AARCH 5 th 1770 Tablet commemorating the Boston Massacre In State Street, Boston 34 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY II. Principal Events of the "War First Period — 1775-76 principally in new england and canada 64. Operations about Boston. — As the most violent opposi- tion to England came from Massachusetts, and troops had been sent over to force these colonists into submission, it was natural that the first military operations of the war should occur there. The Boston Massacre and the destruc- tion of the Gaspee were but a preface. The first real fighting occurred April 19, 1775, when the British made an attempt to destroy some military stores at Concord, about twenty miles from Boston. On the way they stopped at Lexington to arrest the "arch rebels,"' Samuel Adams and John Hancock. A con- flict occurred here between the British soldiers and some "minute men," i.e. men ready to fight at a minute's notice, and seven Americans were killed. At Concord the British destroyed the military stores. Meanwhile the farmers and other inhabitants had been aroused, and many of the British were killed on their retreat to Lexington and thence to Boston. 65. Second Continental Congress. — In the meantime the Sec- ond Continental Congress had met at Philadelphia (May 10, 1775). While it still recognized George III as the rightful sovereign of the colonies, it prepared for the war which had already begun. Measures were also taken to defray the ex- penses of the war, and George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental army. 66. Bunker Hill and the Evacuation of Boston. — The first really important battle of the war, known as the battle of Bunker Hill, resulted from an attempt by the British to dislodge the American army from a strong position they had taken on a hill overlooking Boston. The Americans were under command of Prescott, Putnam, and Warren, and numbered about fifteen hundred. The British were twice repulsed; but the third time, owing to lack of ammunition and the disparity of numbers, the Americans were driven Cherry Valley . N E Tr \.y J Albany< Newtafrg, . />t<)MytPointA T arry> v b{^ Morris *-> town V}' 3 ''/, Moiiriioutli. N Philadelphia /Jjjj? ^ ilmington ^|__ ^ ^ iinore/^ : p m^ -A. f=" -^ O Caiiipn ignis in MI DDLE ST ATES _^^^c U_ > York^ nX- W^ ------ REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION NORTHERN AND MIDDLE STATES. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 35 back. The loss was heavy on both sides; but though com- pelled to retreat, the colonists had won a moral victory, as their bravery and determination to tight for their rights had been definitely proved. During the winter of 1775-76 the siege of Boston was con- tinued by the American forces under Washington. In March, 1776, Washington succeeded in planting his cannon in such favorable positions that the English were forced to with- draw, leaving Boston and sail- ing to Canada. The American army then entered the city of Boston, which the British never recaptured. 67. Expedition to Canada. — While these operations around Boston were in progress, Gen- erals Montgomery and Arnold made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada. Montgomery took Montreal, and was later joined by Arnold with a wretched army, sadly diminished by disease and desertion during their heroic march through the wilderness of Maine. The attack on Quebec was a dismal failure; Montgomery was killed, Arnold badly wounded. Shortly after, all the Americans were driven out of Canada. 68. Growth of the Idea of Independence. — All this time the Americans had been fighting, not for independence, but merely for their rights as British subjects. The conduct of England, however, was hastening the time when nothing short of independence would satisfy them. In reply to the colonists' plea for justice and redress of grievances, King George called for troops to put down the rebellion. Early in Bunker Hill Monument 36 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 1776 a pamphlet was published by Thomas Paine, a noted free-thinker, in which it was boldly asserted that the time had come when the Americans must fight for their independence. The pamphlet was entitled " Common Sense." It had an im- mense sale, and served to excite the people, who saw in it the frank expression of what they themselves really thought, but were afraid to express. The last straw was the news that England had hired Hessian soldiers to fight the Americans. 69. The Declaration of Independence. — In June, 1776, a resolution was offered in the Continental Congress by Richard ««stfM, <^m^ ft*, pwyn 4. It sustained Massachusetts in her resistance, and issued a protest against standing armies being kept in the coun- try without the consent of the people. 5. It recommended the holding of another Congress the next year. 83. The Second Continental Congress (1775). — Shortly after the beginning of the Revolution the Second Continental Con- gress met in Philadelphia, May 11, 1775. This Congress con- tinued in session (with occasional adjournments) until the adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 1. It assumed control of the military operations of the colo- nies and proceeded to raise the "American Continental Army." 2. It took measures to defray the expenses of the war. 3. It organized a general post-office. 4. It suggested that each colony should organize a state gov- ernment (eleven colonies did this by framing their first state constitutions ; Rhode Island and Connecticut con- tinued under their old charters). 5. It issued the Declaration of Independence. 84. The Declaration of Independence. — This famous Declara- tion, adopted July 4, 1776, definitely marked the birth of the American nation. Its purpose was to proclaim formally to the world the independence of the colonies that they might be regarded as a nation waging war with Great Britain, and not merely as her rebellious subjects. We may briefly outline its contents as follows : — 1. Preamble. 2. A statement of the rights of men. 3. The reason for establishing governments and a statement of the circumstances under which they may be changed. 46 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 4. A statement of the tyrannical acts of the king. 5. An account of the colonists' effort to obtain redress. 6. The declaration, " that these United Colonies are, and of Eight ought to be, Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown ; and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." IV. The Articles of Confederation 85. Difficulties of carrying on the Revolution. — The colo- nies met many difficulties in carrying on the Revolution, owing to the absence of a strong union or general government of the states. War time, more than any other, needs a strong government with power to take charge of everything and abil- ity strictly to enforce its orders. The colonies had no such strong general government. Their Congress took charge of affairs as best it could, but it could merely advise measures, having very little power to enforce them. Out of the neces- sities of the case grew the plan known as the Articles of Confederation. 86. The Articles of Confederation. — At the same time that the committee was appointed to prepare the Declaration of In- dependence, another committee was chosen to draft "The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union." Congress, after much discussion, adopted the Articles, 1777, and imme- diately sent them to the states to be approved and ratified. The new government constituted by these Articles was not to go into operation until the consent of every state should be obtained. As it was almost five years before all the states rati- fied them, Congress did not assemble under the Articles of Confederation until 1781. Meanwhile the Revolution continued, and the states, held together by their common danger, but having no written bond of union, were loosely governed by the Continental Congress. ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 47 87. Principal Features of the Articles of Confederation. — 1. The Confederation was declared to be a firm league of friendship between the several states. 2. Congress consisted of but one house, to be composed of not less than two, nor more than seven delegates from each state. 3. Each state had but one vote in the Congress. 4. No provision was made for a president, but executive power was vested in a " Committee of the States," which consisted of one delegate from each state. 5. There was no national judiciary. 6. All matters pertaining to war, finances, intercourse with other nations, disputes between the states, were to be under the control of Congress, but no power was given to Congress to enforce these rights. 7. The Articles could not be amended without the consent of all the states. 88. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. — The Articles of Confederation never proved satisfactory as a plan of union or constitution for the United States. Under them the real powers of Congress were few. Congress could not punish offenders against its own laws, could not compel the raising of a Federal army, the collection of Federal taxes, the regulation of duties on imports, obedience to its own decrees, etc. 89. The Useful Functions performed by the Articles. — Although the Articles were so imperfect, yet they were cer- tainly better than no constitution at all. They accustomed the states to Federal government, and their very defects showed the necessity of and led up to "a more perfect union." For it was the attempt to revise and improve these Articles of Confederation which led to the adoption of the present Constitution of the United States. 90. State of the Country at the End of the War. — The defects of the Articles of Confederation, evident enough during the war, became still more glaring after independence had been gained. The states quarrelled over boundaries and commercial 48 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY regulations. Several states issued paper money, and financial confusion and distress increased. Congress was powerless to correct these evils, and it fell into general disrepute as weak and inefficient. There was serious danger of general disunion or disruption of the Confederation, or that England might reconquer piecemeal the nation, which she had been unable to conquer as a whole. V. Formation of the Constitution 91. Constitutional Convention. — The situation finally became so bad that a general convention of the states, for the purpose of revising the Articles of Con- federation, was recommended by Congress. The convention met, May 14, 1787, at the State House in Philadelphia, and continued in session until September 17, 17S7. Washington was unanimously elected President. There were great differences of opinion among the members. The most important question was that of representation in Congress. The members from the small states favored equal representation of states in Congress, those from the larger states contended for a proportional representation, based upon the population of the several states. Slavery was another troublesome question to deal with. 92. Different Plans Submitted. — Many plans were suggested the most important being : — (a) The New Jersey Plan. — This was the plan of the delegates from the small states. It proposed a mere revision of the Articles of Confederation, which should retain the one- house Congress, but provide for an executive officer and a judiciary. George Washington ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 49 (b) The Virginia Plan. — This was the plan favored by the large states. It proposed to replace the Articles of Con- federation by an entirely new constitution. It was set forth in a series of resolutions which favored proportional represen- tation in both houses of Congress, an executive chosen by both houses, and a judiciary chosen by the Senate. All during- the summer months these plans were debated by the convention. The disagreements were many and at times became very bitter. It frequently seemed as if the attempt to devise a satisfactory scheme of government would end in total failure. George Washington, who was the leading spirit in calling together the convention, presided ably over its stormy sessions. Benjamin Franklin's great common sense was of the first importance in bringing about compromises without which the Constitution could not have been adopted. 93. The Most Important Compromises Effected. — The most difficult question before the convention was that of represen- tation. The delegates from the large states contended that representation in Congress should be according to population. This was opposed by the small states, who feared that the plan would confer dangerous powers upon the most populous states. They contended that the new government should be a " federation of states," in which each state should have equal representation. This dispute was finally compromised by pro- viding for a Congress of two houses, the large states conceding equality in the Senate while the small states conceded propor- tional representation in the House of Representatives. The question of slavery occasioned bitter disputes between the Northern and Southern states. The delegates from the Northern states, where there were but few slaves, contended that the slaves should not be counted in the enumeration of the population on which representation was to be based. The Southern states held that they should be included in this enu- meration. The matter was finally settled by a compromise according to which three-fifths of the slaves should be counted. The Northern and Southern states were also divided in regard 50 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY to the importation of slaves. It was finally agreed that the slave trade should not be interfered with prior to 1808. 94. The Constitution Adopted. — The Constitution was finally completed and adopted by the convention, September 17, 1787. It was then submitted to Congress, which sent it to the differ- ent states to be ratified. It was to go into effect when ratified by nine states. It was ratified — 1787 1788 by Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. by Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York. 1789 — by North Carolina. 1790 — by Rhode Island. 95. Leading Members of the Constitutional Convention. — Alexander Hamilton, although he strongly opposed in the convention some of the fea- tures of the new Constitution, perhaps did more than any one else to bring about its ratifica- tion. Together with James Madison and John Jay he wrote the essays published as The Federalist, which did much to convince the people of the wisdom of adopting the new Constitution. Madison had taken a leading part in fram- ing the Constitution. He took notes of the discussions, which proved to be a very valuable report of the meeting. His concluding paragraph is the following characteristic story of Franklin: "Whilst the last members were signing, Dr. Franklin, looking toward the President's chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a 3^m -sL. Benjamin Franklin ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 51 rising from a setting sun. < I have/ said lie, < often and often in the course of this session, and in the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting ; but now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun.' " On April 30, 1789, the new Constitution, with George Wash- ington as the first President of the United States, went into operation. Congress Hall, Philadelphia National Capital, 1790-1800 CHAPTER V ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT Domestic Affairs. — 96. Difficulties confronting the New Government 97. Political Parties. 98. Finances. 99. The Whisky Rebellion. 100. Organization of New Territory. Foreign Complications. — 101. Washington's Attitude. 102. Early Difficulties with England. 103. France seeks an Alliance : the Genet Affair. 104. Trouble with France. 105. "Second War for Independence." 106. The Monroe Doctrine. Growth and Development. — 107. Promotion of Industries. 108. De- velopment of the Nation. 109. Development of Democratic Ideas. CHAPTER V ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT I. Domestic Affairs 96. Difficulties confronting the New Government. — Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had practically no power to enforce its laws, and the states obeyed or not as they saw fit. Taxes conld not be levied by the general government, and lack of money, therefore, still further crippled the power of Congress. The regulation of commerce was left to the states themselves, and this led to jealousies and rivalries. The foreign commerce was almost destroyed for want of a uniform system. Moreover, the Revolution had left the country deeply in debt to France and other countries, to our own soldiers and to those who had lent money to the government, while some of the states wanted to be helped to pay their debts also. These were but some of the difficulties that faced the new government. The Constitution, it was hoped, would remedy these evils. The preamble set forth its objects as follows : to (1) form a more perfect union; (2) establish justice; (3) insure domestic tran- quillity ; (4) provide for the common defence ; (5) promote the general welfare ; (6) secure the blessings of liberty. All of these objects were to be attained by provisions of the Consti- tution. The people anxiously awaited the improvements which it was believed that the new government would effect. But, as William Penn had long ago observed, " Good laws need good men to interpret and enforce them." Happily for the United States of America, good men were not wanting at this critical time. 54 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 97. Political Parties (See Part III, Chap. IX). — At first there were two political parties, known as Federalists and Anti-Federalists. The former were in favor of a strong na- tional government; the latter opposed this view, and wished the separate states to retain as much power as possible. They feared that a strong central government would make the United States too much like a monarchy, and thus endanger the lib- erties of the people. The early difference of opinion in regard to the power that should be granted to the nation and to the states continued to be the real basis of political parties for many years. Washington hi mself was a Federalist, but he showed great tact and wisdom when he chose representatives of both political views to help and advise him in his duties as President. Alexander Ham- ilton, the most prominent of the Federalist party, was made Secretary of the Treasury, and Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, and a strong Anti-Federal- ist, became Secretary of State. 98. Finances. — The new nation was deeply in debt, and money was also needed to carry on the work of the govern- ment. Hamilton therefore proposed a plan for raising revenue, according to which a duty or tax was to be laid on all foreign ships entering American ports, and many articles of import were likewise taxed. In 1789 a bill having this end in view was passed by Congress, and custom-house officers were ap- pointed to collect the duties. Hamilton next seized the oppor- tunity to establish our national credit and place the United States on a firm, financial basis. By sound reasoning and per- sistent personal effort, he induced Congress to provide for the ESTABLISHMENT OE THE NEW GOVERNMENT 55 payment of the national debt. Not only were the debts paid which we owed to France and other countries, and to our own soldiers, and to the men who had lent us money during the Revolution, but the debts of the states were also assumed. The Anti-Federalists opposed this, as they thought it was giving too much power to the central government. Hamilton is deserving of the highest praise for his wisdom and patriotism in establish- ing the finances of the new government upon a foundation of honesty. The United States Government has never swerved from the sound and honest financial policy thus inaugurated. 99. The Whisky Rebellion. — In 1794 it was decided that a tax should be laid on the manufacture of whisky, in order to raise more money for the government. Although the Consti- tution expressly stated that Congress had the power to lay and collect excises, as well as taxes, the people of western Pennsylvania determined to resist the tax. They maltreated the collectors who were sent, and stubbornly refused to pay, taking up arms to oppose what they considered an unjust law. Not only did the Constitution give Congress the power to make laws, but it also required the President to see that the laws are faithfully executed, and made him commander-in-chief of the army. Washington, in the exercise of these constitutional powers, sent an army of fifteen thousand men to enforce the law. There was no fighting, as the mob dispersed upon the approach of the soldiers. Had Washington been a weak or vacillating char- acter, the whisky rebellion might have been a very serious mat- ter. The nation could not have been well established so long as the people believed that they could disobey the laws with impu- nity. The Constitution, unlike the Articles of Confederation, provided for a President, and gave him powers which had to be respected. 100. Organization of New Territory. — Many states quar- relled in regard to the possession of unsettled territory. Dif- ferent states laid claim to the same land, e.g. New York and New Hampshire both claimed what is now the state of Ver- mont. As early as 1779 the Continental Congress urged all 56 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the states not to sell any of their western lands until the close of the war. New York was the first state to surrender its land (between the sources of the Great Lakes and the Cumberland Mountains) to the general government. Shortly after, Virginia gave up its claim to western land, and other states made similar cessions. By the middle of 1787 the United States was in ^possession of almost two hundred million acres of public land. This territory had to be organized and prepared for statehood. The Constitution expressly gives Congress the power to make all needful rules and regulations for the government of terri- tory. The government of the Northwest territory was pro- vided for by the Ordinance of 1787, which became the model for territorial government. Congress appointed a governor, secretary, and three judges to manage the territory. Slavery was prohibited. It was provided that new states should be formed in the Northwest territory as soon as the population was large enough. The prosperous states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin have been formed out of this region. (See map between pp. 128-129.) II. Foreign Complications 101. Washington's Attitude. — In the establishment of the new government not only was it necessary to meet the domes- tic difficulties, such as the payment of debts, the raising of revenue, enforcement of laws, etc., but there were foreign complications as well. The United States was now an inde- pendent nation, and the question arose as to what should be its attitude toward other nations. Washington with his great foresight believed that the new republic was not ready to mingle with the affairs of other nations, especially as it was far from being strongly established itself. He saw the dangers likely to arise from foreign entanglements or alliances, and therefore carefully avoided them. 102. Early Difficulties with England. — In spite of the pro- visions of the treaty of peace, British troops were still in possession of forts in the neighborhood of Lake Erie. England ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 57 contended that the United States had not fulfilled all its obligations under the treaty, and she refused to withdraw her troops. In addition to the irritation thus caused, much feeling was aroused, especially in New England, by British interference with our commerce. Many leading statesmen were in favor of declaring war against England. In spite of the popular outcry, Washington made the best peaceable adjustment of the diffi- culty that he could. Chief Justice Jay went as special envoy to England and secured a treaty (1794) which, while not entirely satisfactory, was accepted by Washington as the best that could be had. The forts were given up, our honor was maintained, and a war was averted. Washington was violently attacked for agreeing to the treaty, but it was prob- ably one of the wisest acts of his administration. 103. France seeks an Alliance : the Genet Affair. — Similar wisdom and sagacity were shown by Washington in his treat- ment of " Citizen " Genet, a minister sent to this country dur- ing the French Revolution who sought to secure our aid for France, which was then at war with Great Britain. Washing- ton's firmness and determination in this case were all the more praiseworthy as there was great popular clamor and enthusiasm for the cause of France. The French had aided us during the Revolution, and it seemed but proper gratitude that we should accede to her request. Washington felt that a war with England at this time would be disastrous to the nation, so he steadfastly refused to consider Genet's request. Instead, he issued a proclamation stating that the United States was neutral and would not interfere in any quarrels between Euro- pean nations. Genet then appealed directly to the people to assist France in spite of the commands of the President, and he succeeded in arousing much popular excitement. Wash- ington, however, demanded his recall, and France promptly obeyed. 104. Trouble with France. — Later, in John Adams's ad- ministration, the country was nearly involved in a war with France. She was angered because the United States did not 58 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY take up her quarrel and help her against England. American merchant vessels were captured, and our envoys insulted. War was threatened unless we should give the French considerable money. This bid for a bribe was greeted with scorn. To the French demands Pinckney made the famous reply, " Millions for defence ; not one cent for tribute." This sentiment is as marked a characteristic of American ways as was the prudent non-interference of Washington. While the United States has always been unwilling to interfere in foreign quarrels, it has not been reluctant or tardy in maintaining its rights. Pinck- ney's words of defiance aroused the country. War broke out, and several French vessels were captured. When Napoleon came into power, however, hostilities ceased. (See § 110.) 105. " Second War for Independence. " — As war continued between France and England, the interference with American commerce became more and more unbearable. The frequent impressment of American seamen by England made the feeling still more bitter. At last, in Madison's administration, war was declared against England. (See Part II, Chap. VI.) This war was of such importance in connection with the establish- ment of the new nation that it is sometimes called the Second War for Independence. In the first place, it gained for us the respect of foreign nations. The United States was henceforth regarded as a power that could not be insulted with impunity. We had shown our readiness and ability to maintain our rights, and England especially, which had boasted the title of " mistress of the seas," more than once had to lower her colors before the courage and skill of the American navy. In gaining the respect of other nations, we were ourselves inspired with confidence. By the end of the War of 1812 the republic had passed through its experimental stage. The " period of weakness " was over. The feeling of confidence and security showed itself in many ways. Literature, science, and arts began to flourish, and the impulse was given to a century of national progress which has not been exceeded, if it has been equalled, by any other country in any other age. The period following ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 59 the war (Monroe's administration) presented such a pleasant contrast to the previous troublous times that it was known as the " Era of Good Feeling." In addition to this important result of the war, home industry, especially manufacturing, was greatly encouraged. Owing to our imports being cut off for several years, factories were started, especially cotton and woollen mills, to supply us with goods which, under other circumstances, we would have purchased from abroad. The foundation was thus laid for a manufacturing industry which to-day makes the United States one of the most prosperous manufacturing countries of the world. 106. The Monroe Doctrine. — The Monroe Doctrine may also be viewed as indirectly a result of the self-confidence inspired by the War of 1812. It expressed in positive terms the attitude of the United States toward other nations of the world. Mexico and the South American republics had declared themselves independent of Spain and established republican governments. It was feared that some European nation would try to help Spain regain her possessions. Presi- dent Monroe declared in a message to Congress that while we would not interfere with European quarrels, we should also resist any European interference in this continent. Europe has respected the Monroe Doctrine, and to-day almost the entire American continent is formed of self-governing republics. III. Growth and Development 107. Promotion of Industries. — In addition to the impetus given to manufacturing by the cutting off of our imports during the War of 1812, home production was further encour- aged by a system of protective tariff. The purpose of the tariff was to lay such a duty on imports that it would be cheaper to buy home products. Opinions were divided as to the wisdom of this policy. The protective tariff, or "American system," as it was called, certainly had the effect of greatly increasing our manufacturing, especially in the North. The Constitution provides that Congress shall have power to 60 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY " promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited time, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries." In pursuance of this power Congress passed laws concerning copyrights and patents. As a result, inventors have been encouraged and the century just passed has been a most remarkable one for the number and importance of its inventions. (See Part IV, Chap. XL) 108. Development of the Nation. — The rapid development of the resources of the country was assured as soon as order Lewis and Clark's Route was established and a stable currency provided. (See Part III, Chap. VIII.) The expedition under Lewis and Clark, sent out during Jefferson's administration to explore the Louisiana territory, which had recently been purchased, was exceedingly important. It furnished knowledge of the vast resources of the far West, which later aroused a desire for emigration. The government encouraged emigration and settlement of the new territory west of the Alleghanies by making free grants of land, in some cases exempting the settlers from taxation. The cause of free education was furthered by land grants. Under this stimulus the territories increased in population and prospered. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 61 Western emigration was further encouraged by the construc- tion of a great national road. This work was pushed forward during Monroe's administration. The road eventually extended almost to the Mississippi. The breaking of the power of the Indians, who were a constant menace in the Northwest terri- tory, also encouraged emigration to that region. Cincinnati was founded in 1788. Shortly after, the first western news- paper was published. One by one new states were admitted to the Union. The beginning was made in Washington's administration, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee being added to the thirteen original states. Ohio was the first of the states formed out of the Northwest territory to be admitted to the Union. Route of the National Road. 109. Development of Democratic Ideas. — While the nation was thus becoming firmly established, the fundamental ideas of the Declaration of Independence were deeply influencing the people. The notion of the equality of all men had also found expression in a clause of the Constitution forbidding Congress to grant any title of nobility. Everything of a monarchical character or tendency was looked upon with mingled suspicion and contempt. This idea of equality had roused the people of France to revolution. During the " Reign of Terror" the king and queen had been beheaded, and the streets of Paris ran red with the blood of the nobility. This was during Washington's administration, at the time that Genet was endeavoring to obtain our assistance for France. Many of the Americans sympathized with the French, and were deepl} 7 stirred by their democratic enthusiasm. In imita- 62 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY tion of the French they called each other " citizen," and in every way possible showed their disapproval of everything that savored of royalty. This feeling was manifested espe- cially by the anti-Federalists, who always feared that the rights of the people were in danger of being encroached upon. It was due to their efforts that the first ten amendments to the Constitution, known as the " Bill of Rights," were passed, all of which were intended carefully to insure the rights and guard the personal liberty of the people. When Thomas Jefferson, the most prominent of the anti- Federalists and author of the Declaration of Independence, became President, the princi- ples of equality and democracy were strongly emphasized. In his dress and manner he set an example of "republican simplicity." He mingled with the people as one of them. Washington and Adams, both somewhat influenced by mo- narchical customs, stood more apart from the people. They addressed the Congress in per- son. Jefferson, on the con- trary, merely sent a written message. His example has been followed by all subse- quent presidents. The Declaration of Independence, the en- thusiastic sympathy aroused by the French Revolution, and Jefferson's personal example all gave expression to the liberty- loving instincts of the American people. America stands to-day as the country of equality and liberty. It is most fitting that the first object to greet the eye of the foreigner approaching New York harbor should be the statue of Liberty, a gift of the French republic. Statue of Liberty In New York Harbor PART II TROUBLES AT HOME AND ABROAD CHAPTER VI Foreign Wars 65 War of 1812 66 Oregon Boundary Dispute .... 69 War with Mexico 70 Spanish-American War .... 73 CHAPTER VII Indian Wars. Slavery and the Civil War Troubles with the Indians .77 History of Slavery . 80 National Progress and the Slavery Question . • . . .80 Early History of Slavery 81 Increased Importance of the Slavery Question .... 82 Anti-slavery Agitation 84 The Question settled 86 The Civil War 89 Causes of the War 89 Events of the War 90 Effects and Consequences of the War ( .>:i 63 CHAPTER VI TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES Foreign Wars. — 110. Troubles with France and Tripoli. War of 1812. — 111. Causes of the War. 112. Declaration of War. 113. The War on Land. 114. Naval Success. 115. Effects of the War. Oregon Boundary Dispute. — 116. Conflicting Claims. 117. "54° 40' or fight." 118. Settlement by Treaty. War with Mexico. — 119. Events leading to the War. 120. Immediate Cause of War. 121. Campaign Plans. 122. Success of United States. 123. Result of the War. 124. Justice of the War. Spanish- American War. — 125. Causes of the War. 126. Destruction of the Maine. 127. Success of the United States Army and Navy. 128. Treaty of Peace. 129. Government of the Islands. 130. Prob- lems for the Future. 64 CHAPTER VI TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES I. Foreign Wars 110. Troubles with France and Tripoli. — For nearly the first century of its national life the United States had comparatively little trouble with foreign nations. In its intercourse with other nations difficulties and disagreements have frequently arisen, but it has generally been possible to settle these ami- cably by treaty. The Oregon boundary question is an instance of this. There have been several occasions upon which diffi- culties with foreign nations led to open hostilities, though not to serious wars. The first was the difficulty with France in John Adams's administration. It was due to French inter- ference with American commerce and the dishonorable attempt to extort money from the envoys as the price of peace. This aroused such indignation that preparations were made for war (1798), and some French vessels were captured. When Napo- leon came into power (1799), he speedily made peace, receiving the American envoys with the respect due to the representa- tives of an independent nation. The war with Tripoli (1801) was merely a naval expedition against the pirates of the Bar- bary states of North Africa, who had been exacting tribute from the nations of Europe as well as of America. The United States deserves the credit of having first brought the ruler of Tripoli to terms and of securing the freedom of the Mediter- ranean for merchant vessels. These two conflicts proved to the world that although the United States was a young and struggling nation, it was determined nevertheless to maintain its rights. On three other occasions, however, the international 65 66 SURVEY OF UNITED 1 STATES HISTORY differences were of a more serious nature and were settled by wars of a more extensive character. The early years of the nineteenth century were marked by the War of 1812 with England; the middle of the century saw the Mexican War (1846-48) ; and near its close occurred the Spanish War (1898), fortunately of but a few months' duration. II. War of 1812 111. Causes of the War. — The war between England and France had proved very disastrous to American commerce. Each of the warring nations issued orders forbidding ships of neutral nations to enter the other's ports. Ships that attempted to disobey these orders were liable to be captured by the foreign warships. The Embargo Act (1807) and Non- intercourse Act (1809) were passed by Congress in the attempt to remedy the matter. The one forbade any American vessel to leave port, the other prohibited commercial intercourse with England and France. It was expected that these laws would compel England and France to revoke their orders ; but they proved to be unwise pieces of legislation, and worked serious injury to America. The commercial distress that they occa- sioned inflamed the people against the primary cause of all the trouble. The other and principal cause of the war was the right which England claimed to search American ships, and take from them sailors suspected to be British subjects. This was known as the " right of search." The claim itself was unjust enough, and the high-handed manner in which the commanders of British warships exercised the " right " raised America's anger to the highest pitch. The people demanded the right to send their ships where they pleased, and protection for their sailors against such seizures. These demands found voice in the battle cry of the war party : " Free Trade and Sailor's Bights." 112. Declaration of War (1812). — Other less important events had helped to fan the ill will of the people against England. England had been suspected of encouraging Indian THE WAR IN THE SOUTH Reference Maps for the War of 1812 68 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY outbreaks, and of endeavoring to persuade New England to se- cede from the Union and to join Canada. Madison, however, was a peace-loving man and delayed final action as long as possible ; but public indignation against Great Britain's acts forced Con- gress to declare war in the summer of 1812. In view of the great damage to commerce and the impressment of several thousand men by the British navy, it is surprising that war was not declared sooner. There was good cause for war against France also, but she was the traditional friend of the United States, and her offences had not been so grave as Great Brit- ain's. Moreover, the country was not well prepared for war against one, to say nothing of fighting two powerful enemies. 113. The War on Land. — The campaign on land soon demon- strated the utter lack of preparation of the Americans for the conflict. The British Canadian possessions were the object of attack, but the American generals, principally Revolutionary officers too old for such active service, managed the invasion poorly, and the result was failure. General Hull, who was in command of the American forces at Detroit, surrendered that city and all Michigan to the British without firing a gun in its defence. It now began to appear that instead of conquering Canada, the Americans might lose the entire Northwest terri- tory. Later some successes were achieved by younger and more competent generals. These operations were all on the Canadian border around the Great Lakes. English warships plundered and burned some Atlantic ports and succeeded in keeping the seaboard in a state of terror. The burning of Washington by the invaders was a disgrace- ful incident of the war. The repulse of the British at New Orleans was a brilliant victory for the Americans, who were under the command of General Jackson. The Americans lost about seventy against two thousand killed, wounded, and mis- sing of the enemy. 114. Naval Success. — In striking contrast to the reverses of the army were the brilliant successes of the navy. The disparity of naval forces was very great, England having by TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 69 far the greater number of vessels. Yet such was the superiority of discipline and marksmanship of the American sailor that an almost unbroken succession of naval victories was gained. The frigate Constitution (Old Ironsides) made an especially brilliant record. Perry's celebrated victory on Lake Erie, with ships built from the green wood of the Michigan forests, saved the Northwest territory. Macdonough's victory on Lake Ohamplain prevented invasion of New York. Privateers of both nations scoured the seas, but each nation suffered heavily in this kind of warfare. 115. Effects of the War. — The treaty of peace which ended the war apparently left things as they were before, strangely enough saying nothing at all about the British claim of " right of search," the primary cause of the trouble. Nevertheless our great naval victories had banished all fear of any future attempt on the part of Great Britain to press such' a claim. The remarkable battle of New Orleans had proved the ability of the army to repel invasion. The war, therefore, bad not been fought in vain. It convinced the world that no European nation could hope to gain a foothold on the territory of the United States. One important effect of the war was to give a great impulse to manufacturing in the United States. The destruction of commerce had compelled the home manufacture of goods for which we had formerly depended upon other countries. The war has fitly been called " The Second War for Inde- pendence." Its conclusion marked the end of the first quarter century of national life — " The Period of Weakness." This was now followed by the growth of a strong feeling of nation- ality. It was the dawn of a new era in America, remarkable for internal improvements and increased prosperity. III. Oregon Boundary Dispute 116. Conflicting Claims. — The territory between upper Cal- ifornia and the southern boundary of Alaska (54° 40') was claimed by both the United States and England. The United 70 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY States based its claim upon the discovery of the Columbia Elver by Robert Gray (1792), the exploration by Lewis and Clark (1805) (see § 108), and the establishment of a trading- post, Astoria, by John Jacob Astor (1811). England's claims were based upon still earlier discovery and settlement. A treaty granting joint occupancy was made (1818), and the question did not assume importance for many years. 117. "54° 40' or Fight." — Astor sold out to an English fur- trading company and it looked at one time as if the English would gain control. Dr. Marcus Whitman, an American mis- sionary, made great efforts (1842-43), however, to secure the Oregon country for the United States by inducing immigra- tion. He successfully organized a large emigrant train and piloted it to the Columbia River. The Americans were soon in the majority and organized a local government. The demand for the whole territory became very strong, one of the campaign cries of 1844 being " 54° 40' or fight." 118. Settlement by Treaty. — Fortunately temperate and wise councils prevailed, and the matter was settled by a compromise treaty, according to the terms of which the Oregon territory was divided, England securing that portion north of the 49th parallel, the United States the portion south. Thus there was added to the United States a vast territory whose ownership had been in dispute. It was a great triumph for the principle of peaceful diplomatic settlement of international disagree- ments, as against the unwise and costly appeal to the barbari- ties of war. (See map between pages 128-129.) IV. War with Mexico 119. Events leading to the War. — Texas was originally a part of Mexican territory. Emigrants from the United States in large numbers settled a portion of the territory, and becom- ' ing dissatisfied with Mexican rule, set up a government of their own. The attempt of Mexico to quell this revolt was defeated ; and Texas became an independent republic (1836), and was treated as such by the United States and other nations. Mex- TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 71 ico, however, did not formally relinquish her claim over the country. In 1837 Texas, the " Lone Star State," applied for ad- mission to the Union, but was not formally annexed until 1845. Its annexation had been strongly urged by the South, as it would mean an extension of slave territory and increased in- Map of the Mexican War fluence in favor of slavery in both houses of Congress. On this account some historians regard slavery as the real cause of the Mexican War. 120. Immediate Cause of the War. — The immediate cause of the war was a boundary dispute between Texas and Mexico. 72 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The former claimed to the Rio Grande, the latter to the Nueces River. The United States supported the claim of Texas, and sent troops to the disputed territory. Some encounters took place with Mexican soldiers, and Congress shortly afterward declared war. 121. Campaign Plans. — Armies to invade Mexico and cap- ture its capital were sent by way of the Rio Grande and Vera Cruz. Another army was sent against the Mexican territory of New Mexico, and a fleet on the Pacific attacked California. 122. Success of the United States. — The United States troops had to force their way for great distances through a very diffi- cult and hostile country, and were invariably greatly outnum- bered by the opposing armies. The Mexicans, however, were poorly armed and disciplined, and though they did not lack in courage, were defeated in every engagement. The war ended with General Scott in possession of the City of Mexico, and United States troops occupying New Mexico and California. 123. Result of the War. — The treaty of peace, which was concluded in 1848, was very favorable to the United States. The Texas boundary claim was acknowledged, and upper California and New Mexico, as then constituted, were ceded to the United States for $15,000,000. Thus was acquired a ter- ritory larger than the United States at the close of the Revo- lution. The assumption by the United States of certain Mexican debts raised the cost of this new territory to over $25,000,000. This was thought by many at the time to be an expensive bargain, but subsequent events have proved its enor- mous value. 124. Justice of the War. — Opinion differed greatly as to the justice of this war. On the one hand it was held that the Mexican government was so unstable that arrangements satis- factorily guaranteeing the rights of Americans could not have been made without recourse to war. On the other hand, it was argued, that all the events immediate and remote leading up to the war made the latter an unjustifiable war of conquest, waged by a strong nation against a feeble neighbor. Longitude West TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 73 V. The Spanish-American War 125. Causes of the War. — In the early years of the nine- teenth century, Spanish misrule in Florida was a source of trouble to the United States. This difficulty, fortunately, was amicably settled (1819) by the Florida purchase. The United States did not, however, thus entirely get rid of its trouble- some neighbors. Spain still held Cuba, an island so near the shores of the United States that the latter could not avoid being interested in its welfare and progress. Spain, unfortu- nately, seemed incapable of governing the Cubans. The island was in a state of chronic rebellion. The severe measures taken by Spain to put down the rebellion enlisted the sym- pathy of Americans for the Cubans in their struggle for inde- pendence. Unsuccessful attempts were made to have Congress formally recognize the Cuban republic. Filibustering expedi- tions were fitted out which succeeded in carrying aid to the Cubans in spite of the efforts of the United States govern- ment to prevent it. Although the United States government thus attempted to maintain a friendly or neutral attitude to Spain, there was much resentment felt by the Spanish against the attempted American interference. The excessively cruel " Reconcentrado " policy of the Spanish governor-gen- eral Weyler, aroused the American people to a high pitch of indignation, and it soon became evident that interference of some kind must take place. 126. The Destruction of the " Maine " (February 15, 1898). — The mysterious blowing up of the Maine in Havana harbor while on a friendly visit to Cuba undoubtedly hastened American in- tervention. Congress declared war April 21, 1898, avowing its purpose to restore peace to Cuba and give its people an oppor- tunity to establish for themselves a stable form of government. 127. Success of United States Army and Navy. — Fortu- nately the war was a very brief one, the United States army and navy being uniformly successful. Admiral Dewey com- pletely destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay without the 74 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY loss of a single sailor. Another American fleet under Admirals Sampson and Schley won a similar victory (July 3) over the Spanish fleet under Cervera as the latter attempted to escape from Santiago harbor, where it had been blockaded by the American vessels. The land battles took place near Santiago de Cuba, which was captured by the Americans. 128. Treaty of Peace. — Hostilities were suspended (August 12) while negotiations for peace were in progress in Paris. By the terms of the treaty, Spain gave up her claim to Cuba, and ceded Porto Rico and her other West India islands to the United States, thus withdrawing from the Western Hemi- sphere. Spain also gave up the Philippines, receiving in exchange $20,000,000. 129. Government of the Islands. — The United States has established a civil government in Cuba, pending the establish- ment of a government by the Cubans themselves. Porto Rico has been made a territory. The rebellion of the Fili- pinos against the Spanish government, which existed during the Spanish-American War, later became a rebellion against the United States authority. The government is still en- deavoring (1901) to quell that rebellion and establish order in the islands. The recent capture of Aguinaldo, the leader of the insurrection, by General Funston has done much to bring about a cessation of hostilities. 130. Problems for the Future. — Just what the ultimate dis- position of our new possessions will be is impossible to proph- esy. W 7 ill Cuba be able to govern itself ? Is annexation to the United States a probable event? Is such annexation de- sirable? Is it or is it not right? are questions that receive different answers from both Cubans and Americans. Shall Porto Rico be ruled as other territories are, with ad- mission to statehood at some future date as a possibility ? Or must it be treated in some different way ? Should the Fili- pinos be given their independence ? If not, shall our treat- ment of the Asiatic archipelago be similar to our treatment of Porto Rico? Must the United States develop a colonial TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 75 policy ? etc. This array of questions indicates the serious nature of the problems now confronting the United States. Much depends upon the decisions that are made. Faith in her past achievements leads us to confidently hope that she will so solve them that the Spanish War will prove to have been what it was originally declared to be — a war for humanity. A Native Market in Manila From a photograph CHAPTER VII INDIAN WARS. SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR Troubles with the Indians. — 131. Characteristics of the Indians. 132. Relations between the Whites and Indians. 133. Conflicts be- fore the Revolution. 134. Since the Revolution. 135. Treatment of the Indians since the Civil War. History of Slavery. — Introductory — 136. National Progress and the Slavery Question. Early History of Slavery. — 137. Beginnings of Slavery in the North and South. 138. Slavery abolished in the North. 139. Laws against Importation of Slaves. 140. Congress asked to abolish Slavery. Increased Importance of the Slavery Question. — 141. Effect of In- vention of the Cotton Gin. 142. Slavery becomes a Political Question. 143. The Missouri Compromise. Anti-slavery Agitation. — 144. Abolition. 145. Annexation of Texas. 146. Wilmot Proviso. 147. Omnibus Bill. 148. Anti-slavery Feeling Intensified. 149. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 150. Debates of Lincoln and Douglas. 151. Dred Scott Decision. 152. John Brown's Raid. The Question Settled. — 153. Election of Lincoln. 154. South Caro- lina Secedes. 155. Emancipation Proclamation. 156. Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments. The Civil War. — Causes of the War. — 157. Growth of Slavery in the South. 158. Effects of Slavery on the South. 159. Effects of Free- dom on the North. 160. The Doctrine of State Rights. 161. Effect of the Election of Lincoln. 162. The Question at Issue. Events of the W ar. — 163. Beginning of the War. 164. The South on the Defensive. 165. The Union Plan, and how it was carried out. Effects and Consequences of the War. — 166. Results of the War. 167. The Problem of Reconstruction. 168. How the Problem was Solved. 169. The Alabama Claims. 70 CHAPTER VII INDIAN WARS. SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR I. Troubles -with the Indians 131. Characteristics of the Indians. — The original inhabit- ants of America, the Indians, as they were misnamed by Columbus, were not very numerous. It is estimated that there were only about 250,000 east of the Mississippi. They were divided into many tribes, and were scattered over a great extent of territory. They did a little rude farming, but main- tained themselves principally by hunting and fishing. They moved so frequently from place to place that they could hardly be said to " possess " the land of which they made so little use. Disease and bitter wars between the tribes kept their numbers from growing. The tribal feuds also prevented the Indians from uniting successfully against the white in- vaders of their hunting grounds. They were patient, brave, and tireless hunters, with remarkable knowledge of woodcraft. Believing in the duty of " blood revenge," they became the savage and relentless foes of any who treated them badly. In warfare they were exceedingly treacherous and cruel. They were capable, however, of appreciating good treatment, and would repay kindness with kindness. 132. Relations between the Whites and the Indians. — The French treated the Indians well. The missionaries made great sacrifices to convert them to Christianity, while the fur- traders did everything to gain their good will, treating them as equals and even intermarrying with them. The Iroquois, against whom the French had once fought, were the only Indians of the region claimed by France who were not her 77 78 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY strong allies. Most of the trouble that the English had with the Indians can be traced to unwise or unjust treatment of them. The settlers of the Middle colonies treated the Indians fairly, and thus established friendly relations with them, which were maintained for many years. The Virginians, profiting by the wise control of John Smith, had comparatively little trouble with the red men. New England, however, was the scene of cruel wars, largely because the settlers of that region regarded the Indians as a " nest of serpents " to be " rooted out of the world." The Indians complained that " the English made them drunk and then cheated them in bargains." It should be borne in mind, however, that the Indians of New England were fiercer and more warlike than those of the Middle and Southern colonies. 133. Conflicts before the Revolution. — There were frequent conflicts between the early white settlers and the Indians. One of the most important of these was known as the Pequot War (1637). It was waged by the inhabitants of the towns in the Connecticut Valley against the Pequot Indians, who had been plotting against the whites. The war was carried into the Indians' country, and resulted in the practical extermination of the tribe. The next important Indian war occurred in Massachusetts in 1675, and was known as King Philip's War, because it was led by a celebrated Indian chief of that name. It lasted two years, and ended with the death of King Philip and the complete destruction of the power of the Indian league. During the intercolonial wars, the Indians, with the exception of the powerful Iroquois tribe of New York, assisted the French. The last attempt of the Indians to resist the colonists occurred shortly after the close of the French and Indian War. It was known as Pontiac's conspiracy. The Indians under Pontiac were decisively defeated. 134. Since the Revolution. — During the Eevolution, the British instigated the Indians to attack the Americans. Hor- rible massacres took place in western Pennsylvania and New York. In Washington's administration there were Indian INDIAN WARS 79 troubles on the western frontier. The Indians were at first successful, but were afterward badly beaten by General Anthony Wayne. The next serious difficulty occurred with the Creeks of the Southwest territory, during the War of 1812. General Andrew Jackson defeated them, securing this terri- tory for the United States. He later (1818) conquered the Seminoles of Florida. Jackson's success indirectly led to our obtaining this territory from Spain. (See § 224.) The. Black Hawk War (1832) resulted from the opposition of the Indians to the westward movement of the Americans. They were finally driven beyond the Mississippi River. The Seminoles, who had meanwhile broken out again, were also forced west of the Mississippi. In 1872 the Modocs, and in 1876 the Sioux, of the extreme West were compelled to occupy reservations in the Indian Territory, but not without serious wars. In the Sioux War General Custer and his entire command were destroyed. 135. Treatment of the Indians since the Civil War. — The United States government has for a long time pursued the policy of restricting -the various Ind- ian tribes to certain districts called reservations, where it has also aided them by distributing allowances of ammunition, food, etc. Unfortu- nately, cattle-kings and gold-hunters have frequently invaded the Indian reservations, utterly disregarding the rights supposed to be secured to the red men by treaties between them and the United States government. The government agents have also been corrupt in their dealings with the Indians. These acts of injustice have been the cause of most of the Indian uprisings. General Grant attempted to improve matters by his "Quaker policy " (1869), by which he gave the manage- A Kiowa Chief From a photograph 80 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ment of the reservations into the hands of members of the Society of Friends. The government has further attempted to civilize the Indians by giving them independent ownership of farm- land, thus inducing them to become self-supporting. Efforts have also been successfully made to civilize the Indians by establishing schools for the education of their youth. The prevalent notion that the Indians are dying out seems to be erroneous. It is estimated that they are about as numerous to-day as they were when the continent was first discovered. History of Slavery I. Introductory 136. National Progress and the Slavery Question. —The problem of government which confronted the United States at the close of the Revolution was satisfactorily settled by the adoption of the Constitution and the wise administration of Washington and his successors. " The Second War for Inde- pendence " (1812) won the " Free Trade and Sailor's Rights " for which it had been fought, and firmly established the United States as a nation. Acquisition of territory both by pur- chase and conquest extended the country's domain to the Pacific. Great tides of immigration flowed into the new land and developed its resources. Manufacturing, mining, and com- merce increased at such an unexampled rate that the internal development of the country more than kept pace with its great increase in area and its growth of population. This peaceful prosperity, however, was seriously disturbed by the great social and industrial question of slavery. Should the land west of the Mississippi be free or slave soil ? The Missouri Com- promise was passed (1820), and many believed that it had settled the question forever. It proved to be only a tempor- ary answer to the question. The struggle between those for and those against . slavery continued, which finally became so bitter that it involved the country in the most terrible civil HISTOKY OF SLAVERY 81 war of history (1861-65). It took many years for the nation to recover from the effects of this disastrous war. Its great cost in life and treasure can only be justified by what it accom- plished for human freedom. II. Early History of Slavery 137. Beginnings of Slavery in the North and South. — The history of slavery in the United States is a long story, extend- ing back to colonial times. Beginning with the importation of a few negroes into Virginia (1619), the practice of slave-holding gradually extended until by 1776 slavery existed in every one of the colonies. By 1790 there were over 600,000 slaves in the South, and about 40,000 in the North. This difference was due to the fact that slave labor never proved profitable in the North. The slaves were employed there generally as house servants. In the South, however, the institution flourished because the slaves seemed well adapted for labor in the rice fields and on the tobacco and indigo plantations. Later they were of great service in the cotton fields. 138. Slavery abolished in the North. — Opposition to slave- holding was soon manifested. Even in the South there were many who objected to the custom. Some Quakers of Pennsyl- vania held a meeting as early as 1688 to protest against slavery, but it was not until 1780 that Pennsylvania provided by law for its gradual abolition. The Northern states one after the other abolished slavery, so that by 1810 there were no slaves north of Mason and Dixon's line. 139. Laws against the Importation of Slaves. — Many of the colonies showed their opposition to slavery by passing laws against the importation of slaves, but the slaves were forced upon them by Great Britain. The Continental Congress also tried (1775) to prohibit their importation, and further showed its opposition to slavery by a provision in the Ordinance of 1787, making the Northwest territory free soil. One of the compromises agreed to in forming the Constitution was the 82 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY guarantee of non-interference with the slave trade until after 1807 (see § 93). 140. Congress asked to abolish Slavery. — Congress was pe- titioned (1790) to provide by law for the gradual extinction of slavery. This measure was endorsed by Franklin, and the policy was favored by Washington and Jefferson, though both the latter were slave-holders. Congress, however, decided that this was a matter to be left to the discretion of the several states. III. Increased Importance of the Slavery Question 141. Effect of Invention of the Cotton-gin. — This simple invention of Eli Whitney's (see § 246) had a wonderful effect upon the growth of slavery. Cotton-raising became a great Southern industry, and the negroes could be used to great advantage in the cotton fields. What opposition had existed in the South died out, and the slavery system flourished as it never before had done. Even in the North it found an advo- cate in the manufacturer, whose success with his cotton mills depended upon the Southern cotton crop. 142. Slavery becomes a Political Question. — So far the opposition to slavery had been based upon moral grounds, but about this time (early in the nineteenth century) another dif- ference arose between the North and South that added com- plications to the slavery question. The South wished to buy its manufactured goods from European countries, where it could get them cheapest. The North wanted a tariff on foreign goods so that the Northern manufacturers could compete more successfully with the European. This would make the price of manufactured goods higher, and encourage the Northern industries. Both parties therefore wished to get more power in Congress : the North to limit slavery and make tariff laws, the South to extend slavery and legislate for free trade. 143. The Missouri Compromise. — Mason and Dixon's Line and the Ohio River formed the boundary between free and HISTORY OF SLAVERY 83 84 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY slave soil, east of the Mississippi. The question of the admis- sion of Missouri, a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803, as a free or a slave state, was stubbornly and angrily debated. It was finally settled by a compromise (1820), which admitted Missouri as a slave state, but at the same time admitted Maine as a free state. This kept the power between the North and South evenly balanced in the Senate. Slavery north of the southern boundary of Missouri was prohibited forever as a part of the agreement, and it was thought by many that the dispute over slavery was now satisfactorily settled. IV. Anti-slavery Agitation 144. Abolition. — The moral sentiment against slavery, how- ever, grew rapidly in the North.' William Lloyd Garrison's paper, The Liberator (1831), demanded the " immediate and unconditional emancipation of every slave in the United States." The Southerners thought him insane, and many of the Northerners did not sympathize with such extreme de- mands. Garrison organized an abolition society (1832) ; others followed. There was violent opposition to these for several years, even in the North, yet their influence grew. A large number of societies were formed, and Congress was petitioned almost daily. 145. Annexation of Texas. — The next great event in the slavery controversy was the annexation of Texas. The South wanted Texas admitted as a slave state, and were successful. Slavery, on this account, has been said to be the real, if indirect, cause of the Mexican War. 146. The Wilmot Proviso. — David Wilmot of Pennsylvania offered in Congress (1848) ;a motion forbidding slavery in any territory which should be acquired from Mexico. This motion was lost, but produced great excitement. 147. The Omnibus Bill (Fillmore's Administration). — The Omnibus Bill was another compromise originated by Henry Clay, in 1850, which attempted to settle the difficulties growing HISTORY OF SLAVERY 85 out of the admission of California and New Mexico as states. It proposed : — 1. California should come in as a free state. 2. The territories of Utah and New Mexico should be formed without any provision in regard to slavery. 3. Texas should be paid $10,000,000 to give up its claim on New Mexico. 4. The slave trade should be prohibited in the District of Columbia. 5. A fugitive slave law should be passed providing more effec- tively for the return of runaway slaves to their owners. This compromise measure did not achieve the peaceful solu- tion of the question which its friends had anticipated. The Fugitive Slave Law was systematically violated by anti-slavery agitators of the North, who secretly assisted escaping slaves. This kind of help became known as the " Underground Rail- road." 148. Anti-slavery Feeling Intensified. — The violent anti- slavery feeling of the time found expression in literature, both poetry and prose. John Greenleaf Whittier wrote many stirring poems which appealed strongly to the sympathies of the North. In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe published " Uncle Tom's Cabin," a vivid story of the miseries of slave life. It had a wonderful influence. More than half a million copies were sold within five years. The country was stirred as it had never been before. Congress became a scene of a great war of words between famous leaders from the North and South. 149. Kansas and Nebraska Bill (1854, Pierce's Administra- tion). — The Compromise of 1850 only produced a lull in the excitement. Stephen A. Douglas introduced a bill in Congress to organize Kansas and Nebraska as territories, allowing the inhabitants of each to decide for themselves whether it should be admitted as a free or a slave state. This was called " squatter sovereignty." Although it violated the Missouri Compromise, it became a law. Kansas and Nebraska then 86 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY became the scene of a small civil war between the free state settlers and those in favor of slavery; this struggle lasted about five years (1854-59). " Bleeding Kansas" was the sadly appropriate term applied to the state. 150. Debates of Lincoln and Douglas (1858). — Lincoln and Douglas, who were rival candidates for the Senate, engaged in joint debate. Lincoln insisted that the country could not be half slave and half free, but had to be wholly one or the other. Douglas held to the opposite view. This was one of the most famous political discussions ever held in the United States. 151. Dred Scott Decision (1857, Buchanan's Administra- tion). — The supreme court of the United States, through Chief Justice Taney, declared that slave owners could carry their slaves with them into any state or territory, because slaves had no rights, and were like any other property that a man possessed. This was called the Dred Scott Decision, because it was given in the case of a negro of that name. The decision practically legalized slavery all over the country. It had the effect of uniting the North more firmly than ever in its efforts to abolish the system. 152. John Brown's Raid (1859, Buchanan's Administration). — John Brown, who had been a prominent " Free State " man in the Kansas struggle, with the help of a company of men seized Harper's Ferry in Virginia, and undertook to liberate the slaves. He was soon overcome, tried, and hanged. Though responsibility for the act was disavowed by the North, the raid created great excitement because it was such a direct assault on slavery. The South thought that the North was trying to arm the slaves and induce them to revolt against their masters. V. The Question Settled 153. Election of Lincoln (1860). — The election of Lincoln was thought to mean that the North would attempt to liberate the slaves, although his party was pledged merely against the HISTORY OF SLAVERY 87 extension of slavery. As the South had now a minority in Congress, secession seemed to be the only hope of maintaining the rights in which it believed. 154. South Carolina secedes (1860, Buchanan's Administra- tion). — South Carolina seceded before Lincoln was inaugu- t&Ob a£ok*J+±A &£*» ^MJ Ljxiij frfa CKX7 A<~au^ ZeJUe^^o & &^ 0+, -i < 5 1 ! 3 I © C 2 B O O 5 < ' 8 m o w c 00 C5 o o 00 00 00 c. How the Number of Immigrants has Varied from Year to Year head the list. Eecent years have seen great changes in the character of the immigration. That from Ireland and Germany has decreased while a rapid increase has taken place in the immigration of Swedes, Norwegians, Hungarians, Poles, Rus- sians, and Italians. 238. Character of Early Immigrants. — Until comparatively recent years the tide of immigration furnished in the main a really desirable class of people, who wished to make homes for themselves in this country and become its citizens. Most of them were farmers or skilled laborers. They were thrifty, industrious, and ambitious to make the most of the opportuni- ties offered in the New World, and they contributed in turn to its growth and prosperity. They learned to understand and appreciate the institutions of their adopted country, and be- came loyal and useful citizens. Their tendency was to settle 136 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY in the West. Hence we find the Western states having a large proportion (about one-quarter) of their total population foreign born. In some districts this proportion is very great, North Dakota, for example, having about forty-five per cent, or nearly half, of its population of foreign birth. The South, on the other hand, has been called the home of the native American, because of its freedom from the admixture of the foreign element. Foreign Immigrants (from Life) irish swede german italian russian chinaman From Sheldon's "Studies in American History" 239. Later Immigrants. — In proportion as immigration in- creased in quantity, it decreased in quality. Instead of thrifty farmers and industrious and skilled artisans, thousands of unskilled laborers, to say nothing of the pauper and criminal classes, sought the shores of the United States. These did not push to the West, but as a rule remained in the great cities, adding a very undesirable and even dangerous element to the nation's population. 240. Problems of Immigration. — Owing to the change in the character of the immigration, the problem of its restriction and regulation has arisen. The flocking of Chinese to the Pacific states led to the passage of Chinese Exclusion Laws. The importation of cheap labor from abroad under contract to GROWTH OF TERRITORY AND POPULATION 137 American employers has resulted in the passage by Congress of a Contract Labor Law, prohibiting the practice. Paupers and criminals, so far as possible, are sent back to the coun- try from which they came. It is thought by many that the immigration laws should be stricter than they are, that some educational qualification, for example, should be demanded of all immigrants, and that all who do not intend to become citi- zens should be excluded. The framing of wise immigration laws and their proper enforcement are questions not easily solved. The public schools accomplish a great deal toward making the children of foreign descent good citizens of the country adopted by their parents. The study of United States history helps to acquaint them with the nature and spirit of our republican institutions. The exclusive use of the English language in our public schools furnishes an important bond of union for the diverse nationalities which constitute so large .a part of our population. CHAPTER XI PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS American Enterprise and Inventiveness. — 241. Patents. Labor-saving Machinery. — 242. Steam, Electricity, Factories, Division of Labor. Heating. — 243. Open Fireplace, Franklin Stove, Hot-air Furnace, Gas Range, Wood, Coal, Hot Water, Steam, Electricity. Lighting. — 244. Open Fireplace, Candles, Whale Oil, Flint and Tinder, Matches, Gas, Petroleum, Electricity. Manufacturing. — 245. Hand Work of Colonial Days. Steam and Elec- trical Machinery of To-day. Agriculture. — 240. Hand Farming and Crude Implements of Colonial Days, Improved Machinery of To-day — Whitney's Cotton Gin, McCormick's Reaping Machine, Grain Elevator, Canning and Pre- serving, Hothouse Cultivation, Cold Storage. Travel and Transportation. — 247. Horseback, Stage Coach, Canal Boat, Sailing Vessels of Colonial Days. Locomotive, Trolley, Bicycle, Automobile, Steamship, Aerial Navigation of To-day. Communication. — 248. Slow Mails, Special Couriers of Colonial Days. Fast Postal Service, Telegraph, Submarine Cable, Telephone, Wire- less Telegraphy of To-day. Warfare. — 249. Primitive Weapons, Wooden Battleships of Colonial Days. Improved Guns, Ammunition, Steel-clad Battleships of To-day. Printing. — 250. Hand Press of Colonial Days. Improved Steam Press of To-day. Cheapening of Literature. Medicine and Surgery. — 251. Primitive Methods of Colonial Times: Bleeding. Modern Improvements and Discoveries : Anaesthetics, Antiseptics, X-rays. Industrial Expositions. — 252. Centennial Exposition, 1870 ; Colum- bian Exposition, 1893 ; Pan-American Exposition, 1901. 138 CHAPTER XI PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 241. American Enterprise and Inventiveness. — One of the most striking characteristics of the American people is "inventiveness." Not only has the American mind been fer- tile in devising new methods and instruments, it has also been quick to adopt and improve upon the inventions of other nations. We live to-day in a world of conveniences, of which the people of a hundred years ago could form no conception. There have been various causes for this marvellous change in addition to the enterprise and ingenuity of Americans. In the new country there were immense resources which had to be developed. The original settlers of the Atlantic coast, and later those who pushed across the Alleghanies, had to make their roads and houses, and build their cities. They were thus thrown on their own resources. "Necessity is the mother of invention." Later, when the Constitution was adopted, Congress gave a great impetus to discovery and invention by securing to the inventors themselves the profits of their labors. "Patents are issued by the Patent Office at Washington, giving the inventor of any new and useful machine, instrument, manu- facture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement of them, the monopoly in their manufacture and sale for the term of seventeen years." More than half a mill- ion patents have been granted within the last sixty years, and the number issued per year is constantly increasing. 242. Labor-saving Machinery. — The most important result of this inventive activity has been the substitution of 139 140 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY machinery run by steam or electricity for manual labor. Such machinery enables one man to accomplish the work of hundreds of hand laborers. This machine work is conducted upon an extensive scale, and has given rise to factories, employ- ing thousands of men. Division of labor is thus rendered pos- sible, and the work is done more economically. This lessens the cost of the articles manufactured, thus bringing them within the reach of the poorer classes. The laboring man of to-day enjoys luxuries which were not obtainable even by the rich of colonial days. We will obtain a clearer idea of this progress by comparing some of the methods and instruments of colonial days with those of to-day. 243. Heating. — In colonial days, stoves were rarely or never seen. The Franklin stove, invented by Benjamin Franklin, was one of the earliest. In most houses there was a large open fireplace, which, while it was cheerful and pictur- esque, was really an unsatisfactory means of heating. Cooking was performed over these fireplaces. Wood was used almost exclusively for fuel. Later, soft and hard coal were used, the latter, known as anthracite, having been discovered in Penn- sylvania in 1790. The first load was brought to Philadelphia in 1803. For a while it was considered too hard to burn, but it has since become our principal article of fuel. The houses of to-day show great improvements in means of heating. Modern improved stoves, burning coal, have taken the place of the old fireplace, though the latter is sometimes used for its quaint and picturesque effect. Many houses are heated by furnaces, placed in the basement, sending hot air through asbestos-covered pipes to all parts of the building. The cook- ing is no longer done by means of stoves, which also heat the house, but separate cooking-stoves or ranges have been invented. The modern ones contain ovens and other conven- ient appurtenances, such as boilers supplying hot water to various parts of the house. Oil and gas are largely used to-day for both heating and cooking, as they are found to be economi- cal and satisfactory. Large buildings, such as schools, churches PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 141 and theatres are generally heated by steam or hot water, cir- culated in pipes through the various parts of the building. Electricity has also been used recently for heating purposes,, particularly in electrically propelled or trolley cars. Electrical cooking ranges are employed in some large establishments. 244. Lighting. — When we consider that gas and electricity — our two chief means of lighting to-day — were unknown in colo- nial days, Ave can easily imagine how dark the streets and houses must have been at night. The blazing logs in the open fireplace supplied most of the light on winter nights. Candles, and lamps burning whale oil, were also used. There were no matches, and fire was obtained by striking flint against . steel, and igniting some combustible material with the spark. The petroleum oils, which are so largely used to-day for light- ing, heating, and oiling machinery, were unknown in colonial days. t^ . , ,. , . -,om Tinder Box, Flint, and Steel Petroleum was discovered in lbob, in northwest Pennsylvania. Numerous wells have since been opened in Pennsylvania and neighboring states, so that the output of oil to-day amounts to thousands of barrels daily. The manufacture and use of gas was a* European discovery, but it rapidly became a popular necessity in America, where it was introduced early in the nineteenth century. Modern improvements, such as portable gas lamps, incandescent burners, etc., have added greatly to its value. Many old people living to-day can remember the time before gas lamps were used to light the streets, while the men and women of the next generation will probably find it hard to remember street gas lamps, so completely has electricity taken the place of gas for street illumination. There have been such wonder- ful improvements in the employment of electricity for illumi- nating purposes that the electric light to-day is fast becoming universal. The arc lights are generally used in streets or large 142 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Hargreave's Spinning Jenny halls, while the smaller and softer incandescent lights are employed in houses, railway cars, ocean steamships, etc. 245. Manufacturing. — The use of steam and electricity as motive power may be said to have revolutionized all forms of manufacturing. In colonial days spinning and weaving were done by hand. The people wore clothes made of stout home- spun material, and the spin- ning-wheel was a necessary article in every household. Spinning and sewing were important feminine accom- plishments. To-day spin- ning and weaving are per- formed by machinery, steam or electricity supplying the power. Large mills have been built which give em- ployment to hundreds of "hands." These improvements began as early as 1764 with the invention of Hargreave's spinning-jenny. In colonial days sewing was done entirely by hand. So greatly have the sewing-machines (invented by Elias Howe in 1845) been improved and cheapened, that to-day almost every household contains one. In factories, sewing-machines are driven by steam or electric motors. 246. Agriculture. — Farming has also been greatly im- proved by numerous inventions. In colonial days agricul- ture was a laborious occupation. The farming implements were rough and clumsy. Iron being scarce, they were, for the most part, made of wood. Wooden ploughs, e.g., covered by plates of iron were used. Baking, sowing, reaping, gathering, and threshing were all done by hand. Extensive farming, such as is now carried on in the Central and Western states, would have been impossible under those primitive conditions. One of the earliest and most important inventions was Whitney's cotton gin (1793). Previous to this invention there had been PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 143 Whitney's Cotton Gin After the original model ' but little cotton raised in the South, as no practicable method had been devised for separating the cotton wool or fibre from the seeds. So much labor was required for this opera- (^%. tion that cotton was a very ^ expensive article used only by the rich. By means of Whitney's invention, one man was enabled to do what before would have required a thousand. Cot- ton-growing immediately became a most important industry of the South. Many cotton mills were established in the North, and our ex- port trade increased. Some ten years before this, the grain elevator had been invented and various improvements were made in milling flour. One of the most important agricultural inventions made in America was McCormick's reaping machine, patented in 1834. It was operated by horse power, and marked a great improvement over the laborious methods of reaping previously employed. It was improved later so that in addition to reaping, it also bound the grain in sheaves. Its influence has been felt especially in the West, where it has made possible farming on a most extensive scale. Great changes have also been wrought through the invention of numerous harrowing, sowing, baling machines, first driven by horse power and more recently by steam. No greater con- trast can be imagined than that between the hand farming of colonial days and the machine farming of to-day. The farmer in 1800 ploughed his land with wooden ploughs, sowed the grain broadcast by hand, and when it was ripe cut it with a scythe and threshed it on the barn floor with a flail. The enormous crops of to-day have been made possible by agricul- tural machinery. 144 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY By the invention of canning and preserving processes, the husbandman's market has been greatly enlarged. He has, moreover, learned how to create an artificial climate under glass and to grow vegetables and fruits all winter. Cold storage keeps over for the winter the summer's surplus, and renders practicable the transportation of many perishable prod- ucts over great distances. 247. Travel and Transportation. — If we imagine what would be our condition to-day without the use of steam and electricity and machine-made vehicles and vessels, we can form a pretty accurate picture of conditions a hundred years ago. Travel was slow and dangerous. The horse was of the greatest service, whether carrying a rider or pulling a coach. The roads were poor, and horseback was the best mode of travel. Out- side of the towns but few wheeled wagons were seen. To go from New York to Philadelphia in three days was considered fast travelling. Travelling by water was particularly uncertain, since steamboats were unknown, and the variable wind was the only power which could be used. Sailing vessels were frequently wrecked by storms or seriously delayed by unfavorable winds. The trip across the Atlantic Ocean re- quired as many weeks as it now takes days. In 1807 the first steamboat was successfully operated by Robert Fulton. The Clermont, as it was named, steamed up the Hudson as far as Albany, to the wonder and terror of the people along its banks. This invention completely revolutionized water travel. Shortly after Fulton's successful experiment, numerous steamships plied the principal rivers and the lakes, and thus encouraged the further settlement of the West. The first steamship to cross the ocean was the Savannah, which in 1819 started from Georgia. Great improvements have been made in steamships since that day, Ericsson's invention of the screw The "Clermont" From liergart's " Life of Fulton ' PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 145 propeller being one of the most important. The passenger vessels of to-day may be fittingly called floating palaces, so great are their conveniences and luxuries. They make the trip to Europe in a little over five days, and it is possible that the time will be further shortened in the near future. Iron has largely superseded wood in the construction of vessels. After the battle of the Monitor and Merrimac, during the Civil War, war vessels were protected by iron, and now most large passen- ger and freight ships are made of iron or steel. Travelling on land ]#as been completely transformed by the use of steam and electricity. The steam locomotive was in- vented in England, and was at first a very crude affair, running at the rate of about ten miles an hour. Meanwhile experi- ments were being made in America, and in 1828 Charles Carroll of .Maryland broke ground for the first passenger railroad in America, from Baltimore west. The first train ran over the road in 1830. Baltimore and Ohio Rail- In the course of the next ten years road, 1830 nearly three thousand miles of From an old print railroad were built in the different states. To-day there are nearly two hundred thousand miles of railroads in the United States, carrying each year a billion tons of freight and five hundred and fifty millions of passengers. The growth of rail- roads was a more powerful influence than the steamboat in developing the West. Numerous improvements have been made, so that to-day a very high rate of speed, sometimes as much as seventy miles an hour, has been reached by the handsomely equipped passenger trains. Eor street and suburban traffic electricity has lately been extensively used. The modern well-furnished, brilliantly lighted trolley car in our principal cities seems to approach the ideal of smooth, clean, and comfortable travelling. The twentieth century will probably witness electricity superseding steam for passenger and freight transportation. 146 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Among recent popular means of travel may be mentioned the bicycle and automobile. The former is extensively used as a means of healthful and pleasurable exercise, and also as a business convenience. The automobile is a recent invention in which electricity or other motive power is employed instead of horses for vehicles of all kinds. It will undoubtedly be improved and cheapened, and may in the course of time entirely supplant the horse. The building of canals has also served to facilitate commerce and develop the resources of the country. They furnish a Map of the Erie Canal cheap mode of transportation, especially for bulky goods of a non-perishable nature, as canal traffic is comparatively slow. The first great canal projected in this country was the Erie Canal, which was completed in 1825, connecting Buffalo and Albany, and thus furnishing a water outlet from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic by way of the Hudson River. Great quantities of grain are carried to the East and various manufactures to the West by means of this canal. Thus all sections of the country profit by it. Numerous other canals have been con- structed in various parts of the United States. Millions of PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 147 dollars have been spent by a French company in the attempt to construct a canal through the Isthmus of Panama, and the construction of a similar canal across Nicaragua by the United States has recently been strongly agitated. The inventive mind of Americans as well as of Europeans has also been turned seriously to the problem of aerial navi- gation. Balloons have long been in use, and are frequently employed for making observations in warfare. The construc- tion of an airship which can be guided safely and with cer- tainty is a problem of great difficulty, which to-day seems far from accomplishment. There is no telling, however, what may be done in this direction. 248. Communication. — Being without the means of rapid travel employed to-day, the people of colonial times suffered great inconvenience from the slowness and uncer- tainty of communication. The lumbering stage coaches brought news some days or weeks after the events had occurred. In urgent cases couriers were employed to take messages, but as many days were consumed for the delivery of such messages as it now takes hours or even minutes. News from abroad was, of course, delayed .by the slowness of the sailing vessels. The great battle of New Orleans in the War of 1812 was fought after peace was actually declared, be- cause the news could not be sent quickly enough to the generals of the opposing armies. Mails in the colonial days were slow and expensive. Consequently comparatively few letters were written, and the postage was generally not prepaid. The rail- road and steamboat have changed all this. For two cents, a letter carried by the fastest trains or vessels will now be delivered to any part of the United States. Even more important for communication than the rail- An Old Time Stage Coach 148 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY road and steamship have been the electrical inventions, the telegraph and telephone. In 1844 Professor S. F. B. Morse, having received an appropriation of $ 30,000 from Congress, established the first system of telegraph wires, from Baltimore to Washington. The first message sent was, " What hath God wrought!" — an appropriate Biblical quotation, for what could have seemed more miraculous than that a message should be sent a distance of forty miles in a few seconds? By 1860 there were one hundred thousand miles of line in operation in the world, and in 1900, one million miles. About one, million messages are sent by wire every day in the year. As early as 1843 Morse had said that telegraphic communica- tion across the Atlantic Ocean was possible. His prediction was fulfilled in 1858. Cyrus Field deserves the credit for the success of the venture. The cable operated successfully for a few weeks, and then stopped. Field was not discouraged by this failure, but in 1866 succeeded in laying a submarine cable from the United States to Ireland by way of Newfoundland, by which permanent communication was established between Europe and America. Since then many other cables have been successfully laid, bring- ing all parts of the world in closer contact and harmony. There are now almost two hundred thousand miles of submarine cable, and the number of messages sent is nearly six million a year. By means of these telegraphic inventions we receive news of the important events from all parts of the world very shortly after their occurrence. How the world is benefited by means of these improvements, can be shown by a single instance. When some time ago a horrible famine existed in far-away Russia, the news was telegraphed and cabled to various parts of the world. In a short time fast-going steamships were hur- riedly crossing the Atlantic, carrying for the relief of the stricken people large cargoes of grain raised by farming ma- chinery in the West, and transported by railroads to the ocean ports. A hundred years ago the famine-stricken people might have starved before even the news of their condition had reached distant countries. PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEEUL ARTS 149 A recent and wonderful invention is the method of telegraphy without the use of wires. It is still in the experimental stage, but competent authorities assert that this means of communi- cation may be expected to take the place of both land and sub- marine wires. Wireless telegraphy enables moving ships to communicate with each other and with the land. Another form of communication which, except for great dis- tances, is more valuable than the telegraph, is the telephone, in- vented by Bell. By means of this instrument conversations can be held between persons hundreds of miles distant. All large modern cities have extensive telephone systems. Many busi- ness offices and homes are furnished with telephones. So thoroughly accustomed have we become to these electrical con- veniences that it is hard for us to imagine how people ever got along without them. 249. Warfare. — Wonderful improvements have also been made since colonial days in instruments and methods of war- faro. In early days iron breastplates and helmets were worn. Flint-lock Match-lock The first guns were heavy and clumsy match-locks, so called because a long slow-match was carried with which to ignite the powder. Their weight was so great that they could not be held in the ordinary way and had to be rested on forked sticks. These guns were succeeded by flint-locks, in which sparks were made by flint striking steel. Since that time great changes have taken place. Self-cocking and repeating guns and revolv- ers, rapid-fire cannon of immense range and terrible destruc- tive power, bullets of high penetrating power, lyddite shells and smokeless powder, have largely revolutionized modern warfare. 150 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY In naval equipment the progress has been still more marvel- lous. The old wooden sailing vessels, armed with short-range smooth-bore cannon, have been superseded by iron-clad steam battleships, monitors, and torpedo boats employing rapid-fire guns with smokeless powder, which send shells with terrific penetrating power to great distances. War vessels are also equipped with powerful search-lights. The United States army and navy have grown greatly, espe- cially in recent years. The army in 1800 comprised 4118 men and 318 officers. At the head of the organization was a brigadier general. To-day our army consists of 100,000 men. In 1800 the navy of the United States comprised 17 frigates, 3 brigs, and 2 schooners, without counting 8 revenue cutters which were heavily armed. The two largest frigates, United States and Constitution, each carried 42 guns. One of our unpro- tected cruisers of to-day could have sunk this primi- tive navy in a short time. 250. Printing. — The art of printing has been practi- cally revolutionized since colonial days. The hand-press of early days has been superseded by the steam-press invented by Hoe. The consequent decrease in the price of books brings them within the reach of all. The opportunity for reading thus afforded has been of the greatest advantage to the world, since books are the principal means of education and enlightenment for the masses. (See § 274.) To-day there is scarcely a house- hold too poor to own its little library. Not only is the printing itself done more cheaply, but lithographic, photo-chemical, and The Launched in 1 Constitution " 7 ; now in the Boston Navy Yard PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 151 other processes of illustration have made books beautiful as well as interesting and instructive. Books for children, neatly bound and beautifully illustrated in colors, are now plentiful and cheap, whereas a hundred years ago they would have been an expensive luxury possible only to the wealthy. The binding as well as the press work is now done by machinery. The greatest advance in modern methods of printing is seen in the newspapers of to-day. Newspapers of sixteen or more pages can be bought for a cent or two. These papers con- tain the most important news of the world together with much other enter- taining and instructive matter. It is interesting to watch the process of making a great modern newspaper. The type is set, the paper is cut, printed, folded, fastened, counted, and wrapped in bundles, all by ingenious machinery. 251. Medicine and Surgery. — When we consider the meth- ods employed by physicians and surgeons in the colonial and even later times, we should feel grateful that we enjoy the benefits of the wonderful progress of medical science. Per- haps the greatest boon to humanity in this field was the dis- covery of anaesthetics by Dr. W. T. G. Morton of Boston, in 1846. He found that artificial sleep could be induced by certain gases, making the patient insensible to the pain of surgical operations. Prior to this discovery patients who had to be operated upon suffered the most terrible agony, while death from shock was very frequent. To-day, even such a trivial operation as having a tooth extracted is rendered pain- less by the inhalation of nitrous oxide gas. For more serious operations, ether is now generally employed. Bleeding was formerly employed as a universal remedy, often with fatal re- Franklin Printing Press In the custody of the Smithsonian Institution 152 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY suits, as is said to have been the case with Washington. To-day it is seldom used, being considered unwise and dangerous. Pathology, or the science of diseases, has been revolutionized by the discovery that most diseases are caused by germs or microbes. The causes of contagion and infection being more perfectly understood, diseases are more easily prevented as well as cured, and epidemics are frequently averted. Many diseases which were considered incurable are now successfully treated by modern methods. Antiseptics which prevent putre- faction and blood-poisoning have also been discovered and ren- der surgical operations much safer than they were formerly. The discovery of the Roentgen or X-rays has been of inestimable service to surgery. Court of Honor, Columbian Exposition 252. Industrial Expositions. — There have been various ex- positions and fairs, which have shown the progress of the sciences and arts. The three most important held in this country were the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876, the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893, and the Pan- American at Buffalo in 1901. The Philadelphia Exposition showed how completely steam machinery had taken the place of the hand labor of Washington's day, and suggested the beginning of the era of electricity. The wonderful progress which the latter has made was shown at the Chicago Exposition. We seem to be living in an electrical age. Although this PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 153 mysterious force is so extensively used to-day, new applica- tions of it are constantly being made. Electricity will possi- bly accomplish more changes in the twentieth century than steam did in the nineteenth. The Pan-American Exposition was a representative exhibit of the commercial, industrial, and educational progress of the entire Western continent. These industrial expositions accelerate the march of progress by educating the millions of people who visit them, showing them what has been accomplished and stimulating them to further thought and activity. Furthermore, the different sec- tions of a country, and, in fact, the different nations of the world, acquire a fuller knowledge of each other's progress in the arts and sciences. This knowledge in itself tends to pro- duce a greater harmony in their commercial and hence in their political interests. CHAPTER XII PROGRESS IN EDUCATION Popular Education. — 253. Popular Education in the United States and Other Nations. 254. Relation to General Progress. Education in the Colonial Period. — 255. Differences in the Colonies as regards Education. 256. Early Education in New England. 257. Higher Education. 258. Grammar Schools and Seminaries. 259. Early Education in the Middle Colonies. 260. Early Education in the South. 261. Character of the Elementary Education. 262. Influ- ence of the Little Red Schoolhouse. 263. Character of the Higher Education. Other Means of Education in the Colonial Period. — 264. Experi- ence. 265. Newspapers. 266. Books. 267. Sermons. Education in the Republic. — 268. Effect of Independence. 269. Establishment of the Public School System. 270. Labors of Great Leaders. 271. Growth of the Public School System. 272. Improve- ments of the System. 273. Higher Education. 274. Other Means of Education. 275. Summary. 154 CHAPTER XII PROGRESS IN EDUCATION Money spent Per Capita for Proportion for War Army Education United States $ .39 1 $1.35 1 to 4 Austria 1.36 .62 2 to 1 Prussia 2.04 .50 4tol France 4.00 .70 5 to 1 England 3.72 .62 6 to 1 Russia 2.04 .03 68 to 1 I. Popular Education 253. Popular Education in the United States and Other Nations. — That popular education receives very great atten- tion in the United States at the present day is shown by a comparison of the relative expenditures of money for that purpose by the United States and other great nations. The above table shows that the United States is far ahead of the other nations in the provision that it makes for education. 254. Relation to General Progress. — The great advance that the United States has made, however, has been from such humble beginnings that the story of its progress in educa- tion is just as remarkable as that of its growth in territory and population, and of its progress in the sciences and useful arts. One has kept pace with the other. In fact, these several lines of progress are so interwoven and interdependent that 1 Based on appropriation before Spanish War. 155 156 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY one could not well have been made without the other. Really permanent material growth and prosperity depend largely upon a far-sighted devotion to education, and as the country grows in wealth, it in turn provides more liberally for public education. II. Education in the Colonial Period 255. Differences in the Colonies in Regard to Education. — Although the struggle for existence in the early part of the colonial period was often very severe, yet many of the colonists appreciated so highly the necessity and advantages of educa- tion that they made strenuous efforts to provide schools and render education as nearly universal as possible. There were great differences in the attention given to education in the several groups of colonies. Democratic New England made by far the greatest and most successful efforts to establish schools and promote free public education. In aristocratic Virginia there was opposition to the idea of public educa- tion. The Middle colonies encouraged education, but it did not secure there the generous support that it was given by the Puritans. 256. Early Education in New England. — Hardly had the Puritans built their homes and founded their churches before they sought to establish schools. They regarded it as the duty of the government to contribute to the education of its future citizens. As early as 1647 laws were passed requiring every town to establish a free school, and every town of one hundred families a grammar school. Compulsory education laws, requir- ing the attendance of all children of school age, were passed in every colony except Rhode Island. The crudely built log schoolhouses became a prominent feature of the New England landscape. 257. Higher Education. — Not only did the Puritans estab- lish a free public school system, but they also founded the first institution for higher education in the country. In 1636 money was voted to found a college at Cambridge, which was PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 157 afterward (1638) named Harvard College, in honor of Rev. John Harvard, who bequeathed his library and half his estate to the college. The respect for learning felt by the people of New England was at one time shown by almost every family contributing something toward the support of the college. Yale College had an even more humble beginning than Har- vard. Two ministers made the first contribution — a number of books — in 1700. It was formally founded in 1701 at Say- brook, Connecticut, being afterward removed to New Haven. Harvard College in the Eighteenth Century After a picture entitled " A Prospect of the Colledges in Cambridge in New England " in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society 258. Grammar Schools and Seminaries. —There were schools intermediate between the common schools and colleges, where young men were prepared for entrance into college. They were known as grammar schools and seminaries, and were generally conducted by ministers. 259. Early Education in the Middle Colonies. — The Dutch of New Netherland seemed almost as eager as the Puritans to secure education for their children, and established some free schools (the first in 1633). Unfortunately these schools were not encouraged by the English when New Netherland 158 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY came under their rule. The Quakers of Pennsylvania were active in the cause of education, establishing free schools and academies. The University of Pennsylvania (1745) at Phila- delphia, founded largely through the efforts of Benjamin Franklin, Princeton College (1746) in New Jersey, and Colum- bia College (1754) in New York were results of early attempts to provide higher education, and are now to be numbered among the greatest colleges and universities in the country. They were supported almost entirely by private means and endowments. In the Middle colonies there was, in fact, very little public money devoted to education. Even the element- ary schools, which were rather numerous, were for the most part private schools. 260. Early Education in the South. — Public education was neglected more in the South than in any other part of the coun- try. It was actually opposed by Governor Berkeley of Vir- ginia, who wrote, " I thank God there are no free schools nor printing." Education was regarded as the duty of the family, and not a matter to be undertaken by the government. Tutors were employed by the planters to educate their children, or children were sent abroad for that purpose. Yet some peo- ple battled against these ideas, and a few free schools were established. Higher education, how r ever, was not neglected. William and Mary College (1693), tho second oldest college in America, was, before the Revolution, one of the most impor- tant institutions of learning in the country. 261. Character of the Elementary Education. — The difficul- ties under which education was carried on were numerous. Although many schoolhouses dotted the country, a large num- ber of the pupils had long distances to go, often through sec- tions of a country without roads and beset with many dangers. The schoolhouse itself w r as generally but a one-room log cabin furnished with rough boards for seats and desks. Both pens and ink were home-made. Maps, charts, libraries, and other helpful apparatus so familiar to the modern schoolboy were entirely absent, but the all-important symbol of the peda- PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 159 absurd caricatures. Hymn books and catechisms were often utilized, not only for religious instr also as a means for the reading, spelling, etc. The teachers gogue's office — the birch rod or stout hickory stick — was always conspicuously present and was frequently employed. The text-books were the primer and spelling-book, badly printed. The pictures which some of them contained seem to-day like kfe&S^s^k??*^^.^^ id& the m m whole m action, but ^ BOOKE ^ ALMBS @ fjL TRANSLATED m. ENGLISH \~6* i teaching or gS **««. gg * J Wnereunro ij prefixed idifcourfcdc- v .r; , daring not only the Uwfullncs, but ilfbcjjtj .... > the ncceffiry of tSc heavenly Ordinance QL | incScriDCurePfalmMio J~j£ J , of finging Sciipn the Churches of £r*ctmje*r Coll. hi. Vfe word of God dwell flenteciflj im Cjfp tltwif ^i?; ••♦• J*j Reduced Facsimile of the Title-page of the First Book printed in America were poorly paid. Many were not very learned, some were intemperate. The best of them taught school only temporarily, to support themselves while they prepared for some other more profitable work or profession. The three It's — Readin', 'Ritin', and 'Rithmetic — were the subjects taught, — the barest rudiments of an educa- tion. The girls generally received even less instruction than the boys. Needle work was regarded as better for them than writing. In some localities the boys went to school in winter and the girls in summer. The discipline was harsh and even brutal. The continual flogging was bad enough, but other cruel and degrad- ing forms of punishment were employed. 262. Influence of the Little Red Schoolhouse. — Yet in spite of all the defects of this early education, the " little red school- house " (many were painted that color) became deservedly famous for its work in educating the children of the colonists. It kept alive the spirit of education, and paved the way for the development of the great free public school system of which the United States is to-day so justly proud. 263. Character of the Higher Education. — The higher edu- cation of colonial days was also very simple and crude as 160 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY compared with that of to-day. A grammar school meant a school for Latin and Greek grammar, which were taught to the neglect of the mother tongue. In fact, little else than Latin, Greek, and mathematics was taught at all. The semi- naries w r ere boarding schools, each containing but a few pupils. The fare was poor and coarse, the discipline brutal. The col- leges were small affairs as compared with the great institu- tions of to-day. The average age of their pupils was nearer that of the pupils of the modern grammar or high school. The course of instruction usually included little besides the dead languages and mathematics. Nevertheless, these institu- tions were the fruitful beginnings of the great system of pre- paratory schools, colleges, and universities that now offer such splendid opportunities for higher education in every part of the United States. III. Other Means of Education in the Colonial Period 264. Experience. — School and college do not afford the only means by which people are educated. The wdiole of one's surroundings, everything one sees and does, helps or hinders his education. " Experience is the best teacher." The very difficulties the colonists had to overcome, the hardships they had to endure to secure an education, and the hard struggle for life in the early period developed their characters, making them frugal, thrifty, industrious, fearless, and self-reliant, and implanting that spirit of independence which sustained them in their rebellion against oppression. 265. Newspapers. — The press is to-day one of the great educational forces of the world. The colonists did not have a newspaper until 1700, and at the beginning of the Eevolution there were only thirty-seven in circulation. Most of these were published in the New England and the Middle states, New England having fourteen, and New York and Pennsylvania together thirteen papers. They bore little resemblance to the great papers of to-day. They were little sheets, poorly printed, PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 161 and from a modern standpoint absurdly illustrated. As they had few facilities for getting information from different parts of the country, their news was principally local. They would sometimes publish letters received by the townspeople from friends abroad or in other colonies. These letters were long and contained matters that are seldom found in a modern let- Num. to& ^AMERICAN WEEKLY MERCURY From Thurfday October 2, to Thurfday Odoberq* 1 740. Reduced Facsimile of the Heading of an Eakly Issue of the First Newspaper in Philadelphia ter, since the daily newspaper supplies such information in more than abundant measure. 266. Books. — Few books were written and published in the colonies, and not very many were brought from abroad. The best of the colleges had only what would now be regarded as insignificant libraries. The books to be found in the homes were largely theological works. (See §§ 278, 279.) Benjamin Franklin's " Poor Richard's Almanac " was full of a homely wit and practical wisdom well suited to the conditions of a people struggling to establish themselves in a new world. 267. Sermons. — The clergy, especially those of New Eng- land, formed an educated class. They were held in great re- spect by every one on account of their learning and profession. The Sunday sermon, two, three, or even more hours in length, gave the people subject for thought, and was an educational influence of no mean importance. 162 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY IV. Education in the Republic 268. Effect of Independence. — The attainment of indepen- dence aroused a new interest in education. The instruction of its children was felt to be a patriotic duty that each state owed to the republic. The early fathers of the nation be- lieved this strongly, and exerted great influence for the cause. Washington said, " In proportion as the structure of a govern- ment gives force to public opinion, it is necessary that public opinion be enlightened." Jefferson combated the aristocratic ideas of Governor Berkeley, and introduced a bill into the General Assembly of Virginia for the establishment of schools " for the free training of all free children, male or female." Benjamin Franklin expressed his belief as follows, " A Bible and a newspaper in every house, a free school in every dis- trict, all studied and appreciated as they merit, are the princi- pal supports of Virtue, Morality and Civil Liberty." 269. Establishment of the Public School System. — The peo- ple in general were willing to put in practice these wise suggestions for universal education, but it proved to be a matter beset with difficulties. How to raise the money was one important question, on which all did not agree. What religion, if any, should be taught in the schools, was another problem. At first only poor children received free education. The public schools then suffered from being called " Pauper Schools." Though the free common schools of the New Eng- land and the Middle colonies furnished the beginnings, there was a period of fifty years (1790-1840) of struggle for free and universal education before a truly great and extensive system of free public schools became firmly established. 270. Labors of Great Leaders. — Horace Mann of Massachu- setts and Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania labored zealously in the cause of the free public schools, and were not only suc- cessful in the practical work of organizing the school systems of their own states, but also in arousing great interest in public education throughout the country. PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 163 271. Growth of the Public School System. — The latter half of the nineteenth century saw a wonderful extension and im- provement of the free public school system. The Federal gov- ernment encouraged education by grants of land (See § 108). Nearly eighty million acres of public lands have been thus devoted to education. Western emigrants carried Eastern ideas of education with them, and the schools of the West compare favorably to-day with any in the country. Little progress was made in the South until after the Civil War. Much attention is now being devoted to the problem of educating the negro population of the Southern states. Census returns for schools give some idea of the growth of the public school system. Public schools enroll in all about fifteen million pupils or nearly one-fifth of the entire population of the United States. Nearly half a million teachers are employed, and the expenses for the maintenance of the system amount to nearly $ 200,000,000 annually. 272. Improvement of the System. — The public school system has not only grown in extent, but the greatest improve- ment has taken place in the character of the education afforded. A few little backwoods schools exist that remind one of the primitive schools of our forefathers ; but even in poor coun- try districts we find well-built schools with good desks, books, maps, and other needful apparatus, while the school- houses of the great cities are marvels of fine architecture, well lighted, heated, and ventilated. They are furnished with everything that will help to make study interesting and fruit- ful. Teaching has become a profession, for which young men and women prepare by special study, just as lawyers and physi- cians prepare for their work. The instruction is thus in the hands of competent persons, and is as much superior to that of colonial times as is the modern school building to its little forerunner of that period. Corporal punishment has been largely abolished ; in some places by legislation, in others by custom. To the " three R's " of the log schoolhouse, other sub- jects have been gradually added until the modern course of 164 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY study also embraces history, geography, nature study, science lessons, music, and drawing. Attention is given to the pupil's body as well as to his mind by means of manual training and physical exercises. 273. Higher Education. — High schools, manual training schools, and normal schools have become important features of the public school system, and those of to-day are far supe- rior even to the colleges of the past. Colleges and universities have shared in the general advance in educational work. At present there are one or more in every state in the Union, Carnegie Library, Pittsburg, Pa. nearly five hundred in all. They have about one hundred and fifty thousand students, about thirty thousand of whom are preparing for professional life in legal, medical, and theological schools. 274. Other Means of Education. — Just as schools and col- leges have improved, so have other agencies which contribute to the education of the people. The daily newspaper brings to the home an account of the events in all parts of the world. Enormous quantities of books of all sorts are printed, so that reading matter may be cheaply purchased. Great free libraries, some founded by the generosity of rich philanthropists, such PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 165 as Andrew Carnegie, others supported by public taxation, are important influences for popular education. Even small towns boast of their free libraries. Travelling libraries have also been successfully employed. Public lectures by distinguished scientists, writers, and trav- ellers have always been popular, and have contributed not a little to the education of the people. In some places, notably in New England, this kind of public education became a well- developed lyceum system. University extension is a develop- ment of the lyceum plan. Universities now give courses of afternoon and evening lectures at various local centres, and direct to some extent the collateral reading of their audi- tors. Effective work has been done in this way, and the movement is a growing one. A still more recent plan for popular adult instruction is that of giving free evening lectures in the schoolhouses, the system being under the control of boards of public education. The Sunday school is another educative influence that has been growing in importance. The Sunday schools of to-day have nearly as large an enrollment as the public schools. 275. Summary. — The great public school system, embracing elementary (primary and grammar) and high schools, the colleges and universities, free libraries, church and Sunday schools, university extension and other popular systems, afford such splendid opportunities for both child and adult that a high grade of intelligence characterizes the American people. Moreover, the daily newspapers offer such valuable daily in- struction that the poorest workingman may be well informed on the questions of the day, and able to think for himself and intelligently exercise the right of suffrage as a citizen of the great republic. CHAPTER XIII GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE Origin and Growth of American Literature. — 276. Progress in Lit- erature. 277. American Literature is English. 278. The First Printing Press. The Colonial Period (1607-1765). — 270. Character of Colonial Writ- ings. 280. Colonial Writers. The Revolutionary Period (1765-1812). —281. Character of the Period. 282. Thomas Paine. 283. Thomas Jefferson. 284. The Federalist. 285. Other Writers. The Birth of American Literature. — 286. Change beginning in Mon- roe's Administration. 287. Washington Irving. 288. James Feni- more Cooper. 280. William Cullen Bryant. 200. John Greenleaf Whittier. 201. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 202. Oliver Wendell Holmes. 203. Nathaniel Hawthorne. 204. Edgar Allan Poe. 205. Harriet Beecher Stowe. 206. Ralph Waldo Emerson. 207. James Russell Lowell. The Historians. — 208. William Hickling Prescott. 200. George Ban- croft. 300. John Lothrop Motley. 301. Francis Parkman. 166 CHAPTER XIII GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE I. Origin and Growth of American Literature 276. Progress in Literature. — The growth of the nation in population and its progress in education, science, and art has been accompanied by an important development in literature. Starting with practically no literature whatever, the United States now ranks prominently among the literary countries of the world. Its leading writers, poets, historians, and novelists have gained recognition and are now widely read in Europe as well as on this side of the ocean. Literary progress has been encouraged by the granting of copyrights to authors which give them the exclusive right to the publication of their works for a considerable period of years. This power was wisely granted to Congress by the Constitution, and it has been productive of excellent results. Agreements have been made within recent years between the United States and the leading nations of the world, enabling an author to copyright his works in any of these countries. It took years of agitation to secure this international copyright (1891), and its effect upon the growth of literature has been marked. 277. American Literature is English. — We have seen in a previous chapter how England became supreme in America; how, in other words, English ideas and traditions were to be- come prominent factors in American civilization, and especially that the English language was to be the language of the people. How thoroughly this last effect has been produced is very evident to-day. English is the language of our courts, schools, churches, newspapers, and books. This language with its 167 168 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY power and beauty of expression is, next to our love of free- dom, our richest and dearest inheritance from England. No greater hope could have inspired the minds of the founders of this continent than that our literature should be a continua- tion of the literature of England. England has produced some of the greatest dramatists, poets, and novelists that the world has ever known. America can justly be proud that her litera- ture employs a language which has been so effectively used by Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, Byron, Scott, and Thackeray. 278. The First Printing Press. — The first printing press in America was established at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. The following year (1640) the first book ever printed in America was published. It was entitled the " Bay Psalm Book." Al- though this work in itself was of little literary value, consist- ing of psalms in very poor verse, nevertheless a start had been made. Many other books were subsequently printed, and the number has steadily increased until to-day, with the invention of the improved steam press, thousands of volumes are printed daily, and their cost has been much reduced. II. The Colonial Period (1607-1765) 279. Character of Colonial Writings. — During the first cen- tury of English settlement in America, there was little time for literature. Cities were to be built, roads cut through the wilderness, and the Indians were an ever present source of dis- turbance. A certain amount of tranquillity and peace of mind is necessary for the growth of art or literature, and these fac- tors are always absent in a new country beset with savage tribes. The people were too busy for reading, much less for writing. Hence during the colonial period there were but few books. These were chiefly written by ministers, who were about the only persons who had time or inclination for such matters. In thinking of American literature we seldom in- clude this period, and the books of the time may be said to have mainly an historical interest for the student of literature. GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 169 As almost all the American settlers came to this country on account of religious persecution, it was natural that most of their books should be of a religious, or rather theological, char- acter. " Between the years 1706 and 1718 all the publications known to have been printed in America number at least five hundred and fifty. Of these all but eighty-four were on reli- gious topics, and of the eighty -four, forty -nine were almanacs." These almanacs were conspicuous in most households of colo- nial days, and were regarded as indispensable. They con- tained information upon the crops, weather, and roads. " Poor Richard's Almanac" was one of the most famous, and con- tained, in addition to the usual almanac information, many proverbs which have become familiar, such as: "God helps them that help themselves," " Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." The publication of the almanac was begun by Benjamin Franklin in 1732, and the work became very popular ; its maxims have been circulated wherever the English language is spoken. 280. Colonial Writers. — The three most prominent literary men of the colonial period were Cotton Mather (1663-1728), a very learned Puritan clergyman who wrote over four hundred books on religious subjects; Jonathan Edwards (1703-58), also a theological writer of great reasoning powers, his princi- pal work being " Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will " ; and Benjamin Franklin (1706-90). His "Autobiography" is his principal literary work. All his writings are characterized by homely wit and wisdom. His scientific writings and discov- eries also attracted wide attention. He originated the Phila- delphia Library, the University of Pennsylvania, and the American Philosophical Society. III. The Revolutionary Period (1765-1812) 281. Character of the Period. — From the time of the first resistance of the colonists to the rule of Great Britain, up to the establishment of the independent government, in other words during the time that thoughts of liberty stirred 170 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the hearts and minds of the American people, the literature — if it can be called such — took a decided change. During the colonial period the writings were mostly theological and argu- mentative ; in the Revolutionary period they were mainly politi- cal and passionate. They began with the fiery speeches of orators like Patrick Henry and James Otis, and ended during the formation and discussion of the Constitution with the carefully prepared political papers of men like Hamilton and Madison. The Revolution thus produced many great orators and statesmen who have left remarkable writings and state letters. The principal orators of the time were Samuel Adams, James Otis, Josiah Quincy, and Patrick Henry. Many of their speeches have become familiar, and we can easily imagine how their eloquent delivery must have stirred the feelings of the people during those exciting times. 282. Thomas Paine (1737-1809). — Thomas Paine was an important character of the Revolutionary period on account of the effect produced by his political writings. He attempted to justify the principles which were afterwards fought for in the French Revolution, and urged the colonists to achieve com- plete independence. In "The Crisis," which Washington in 1776 ordered to be read to all the troops, and which did much to inspire and encourage them, these stirring words are found : " These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country ; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." 283. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). —Thomas Jefferson de- serves a large place in the history of American writers, if not in the history of American literature, on account of his author- ship of the Declaration of Independence, one of the greatest political documents ever written. 284. The Federalist. — The Federalist was the name given to a series of papers written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison. Its object was to convince the people of New York of the excellence of the Constitution and GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 171 to urge them to ratify it. Fiske says of The Federalist that it is " undoubtedly the most profound and suggestive treatise on government that has ever been written." Hamilton is deserving of the greatest credit for this work, as he originated it and was its largest contributor. 285. Other Writers. — During this period there were other political writers, the most important of whom were Fisher Ames, John Marshall, and William Wirt. The Eevolution also produced some poets, notably John Trumbull, Joel Barloe, and Philip Freneau. They wrote patriotic verses and ballads glorifying the deeds of the Americans, and often directed the weapons of satire and ridicule against the Tories. IV. The Birth of American Literature 286. Change beginning in Monroe's Administration. — After the country had settled down from the exciting times of the Revolutionary struggle, and the War of 1812 had assured national stability, people had leisure for scientific and literary pursuits. The nation had passed through its period of weak- ness, and had taken its place in the family of nations of the world. Times of peace are always encouraging to the arts of peace, — science, fine arts, literature, — and so we find an array of authors, beginning with Washington Irving, who have made it possible to speak of a real American literature. The theology of the colonial period and the politics of the Revolu- tionary period were succeeded by the literature of the newly established republic. A very few only of the large list of names which deserve a place in the history of American liter- ature can be here considered, and of these but very brief accounts can be given. Every student should become familiar with the works of our greatest authors, not by reading mere accounts of them, but by reading the books themselves. 287. Washington Irving (1783-1859). — Washington Irving has been called the " Father of American Literature." His writings, through their undeniable literary value, were the first to become famous in Europe. Up to this time people in Eng- 172 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY land had scorned the idea of any great literary work emanat- ing from America. Irving's style was at once elegant, clear, smooth, and characterized by a delightful humor. His " Sketch Book," containing the well-known -stories " Rip Van Winkle " and " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," should be read by every person who wishes to be entertained and amused by masterful description, genuine emotion, and clean, pure humor. Among his best-known works are "Knickerbocker's History of New York," a delightfully comic history of the early Dutch settlers of New Netherland, " Wolfert's Roost," a collection of stories; and a number of biographical and historical works, the most important of these being, " Life of Columbus," " Conquest of Granada," " Alhambra," and " Life of Washington." 288. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851). — James Feni- more Cooper was the first great American novelist. He has been called the " American Scott," as his tales bear some resem- blance to the works of the famous author of the " Waverley " novels. His writings are principally tales of adventure, the scenes being laid in American forests or upon the sea. Cooper spent his early years on the frontier, and thus learned by actual experience and association the kind of life which he has so well portrayed in his novels. His first successful work was " The Spy," the story of which was based upon an incident of the American Revolution. This book was highly praised in England and France, so that it may properly be said that he was the second writer to show to the world that we were to have a literature of our own. Shortly after " The Spy," Cooper published a series of books known as the " Leather Stocking Tales," dealing with life in the wilderness and giving a vivid description of the Indians. Natty Bumpo (Leather Stocking) is the hero of the stories, and his adventures are narrated in an interesting manner in "The Deerslayer," " The Last of the Mohicans," " The Pathfinder," " The Pio- neers," and " The Prairie." Cooper may be said to have origi- nated the sea story. All who have written sea stories since have merely imitated him. His principal works of this descrip- GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 173 tion are " The Pilot," John Paul Jones being the title charac- ter, "iMie Red Rover," and "The Water Witch." These books will be interesting so long as boys are boys and exciting adventures graphically described have the power to hold the attention. 289. William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878).— William Cullen Bryant was our first great poet. On account of his love of nature and beautiful descriptions of natural scenery, he has been called the "American Wordsworth." He was essentially a poet of nature, and the subjects which he describes most picturesquely are American landscapes and scenery. One of his most famous poems, " Thanatopsis," is in blank, i.e. un- rhymed verse, and deals with the subject of death. This poem is the more worthy of our admiration and wonder when we consider that Bryant was a lad of but seventeen when he wrote it. He later published a scholarly translation of Homer's great epics, the " Iliad" and " Odyssey." The poems in which his love of nature is most manifest are " To a Water- fowl," "Green River," "The Death of the Flowers," and "The Evening Wind." The first stanzas of his lines "To a Waterfowl " well show his power of descriptive imagery : — " Whither, midst falling dew, While glow the heavens with the last steps of day, Far through their rosy depths dost thou pursue Thy solitary way ? " Vainly the fowler's eye Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong, As, darkly painted on the crimson sky, Thy figure floats along. " Seek'st thou the plashy brink Of weedy lake or marge of river wide, Or where the rocking billows rise and sink On the chafed ocean side ? " 290. John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-92). — John Greenleaf Whittier is sometimes known as New England's Quaker Poet. 174 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Although he had not so thorough an education as some of our other writers, his poems breathe a spirit of sincerity, and their sentiments are lofty and noble. He was a great lover of free- dom, and was prominently connected with the anti-slavery movement in the North. His poems did much to stir up the masses against slavery, and contributed largely to bring about the final emancipation of the slave. Like Bryant, Whittier was also a lover of nature, and some of his poems are master- pieces of description of New England scenery. Next to Long- fellow, he is our most popular poet. Some of his poems are "Barbara Freitchie," "Voices of Freedom," "To William Lloyd Garrison," "Skipper Ireson's Kide," "Snow Bound," and "Bare- foot Boy." The opening lines of the last-named poem give a good example of his sincere and hearty style : — " Blessings on thee, little man, Barefoot boy with cheek of tan, With thy turned up pantaloons And thy merry whistled tunes ; With thy red lip redder still Kissed by strawberries on the hill ; With the sunshine on thy face Through thy torn brim's jaunty grace : From my heart I give thee joy, I was once a barefoot boy." 291. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-82). — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote a few prose works, but he is principally known, admired, and loved on account of his poetry. He is the most popular and widely read poet of America. His writings show the effect of foreign travel and study, but many of them are so clear and simple that even children can understand and enjoy them. The first collection of poems which he published was entitled "Voices of the Night." It contained some of his most popular verses, " The Psalm of Life," " The Eeaper and the Flowers," " Footsteps of Angels," and " The Beleaguered City." Somewhat later was published a volume containing the beautiful poem entitled GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 175 "The Building of the Ship," closing with the following mag- nificent lines : — " Thou, too, sail on, O ship of state ! Sail on, O union, strong and great ! Humanity with all its fears, With all its hopes of future years, Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! " Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea, Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee, Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears, Our faith triumphant o 1 er our fears, Are all with thee, — are all with thee !" " Tales of a Wayside Inn " was the title of another famous book of verse. Its best-known poems are " Paul Kevere's Eide " and " King Olaf." " Evangeline," a beautiful poetical story of the expulsion of the Acadians ; " Hiawatha," the epic of the red race of America ; and " The Courtship of Miles Standish," a romance of New England colonial days, give beautiful and interesting descriptions of the people and times to which they relate. 292. Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-94). — Oliver Wendell Holmes was both a poet and a prose writer. Most of his writ- ings contain a delicate humor, and are replete with bright and original thoughts. His best-known prose works are " The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table," " Professor at the Break- fast Table," and " Poet at the Breakfast Table." The first of these is deservedly the most famous. Two novels "Elsie Venner " and " The Guardian Angel," are both stories of a weird character. Holmes's best known poems are " The Chambered Nautilus," " The Deacon's Masterpiece," and "The Last Leaf." 293. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64). —Nathaniel Haw- thorne has been styled the " greatest imaginative writer since Shakespeare." He is probably the most artistic writer that America has yet produced. He wrote numerous short stories. 176 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Some are fanciful and weird, and deal with events and scenes of colonial times. Many contain impressive moral lessons, e.g. "The Great Stone Face." The collections of short stories are entitled "Twice-told Tales," "Mosses from an Old Manse," " Snow Image," " Wonder Book," and " Tanglewood Tales." The latter two contain interesting stories for children. Haw- thorne's principal novels are " The Scarlet Letter," one of the greatest novels ever written, " House of the Seven Gables," and u The Marble Faun." 294. Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49). — Edgar Allan Poe was the author of numerous prose stories and poems. The subjects of his writings are generally weird. He has been compared with Hawthorne, as they both were very imaginative ; but all of Hawthorne's works had moral applications which Poe's commonly lacked. Poe's poetry is charmingly written, the versification being musical and euphonious. " The Raven " and " The Bells " are his two best poems. 295. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812-98). — Harriet Beecher Stowe helped with a novel to bring about what Whittier's poems also partly accomplished, viz., the abolition of slavery. " Uncle Tom's Cabin " will be remembered as long as the Civil War is mentioned in history. It is one of the most popular novels ever written, and became famous in Europe as well as in America. 296. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82). — Ralph W T aldo Emerson was a great thinker, poet, and essayist. His writings are profound, and show great learning and power of original thought. Some of his principal works are " Nature," a philo- sophical and theological study ; " Representative Men," " Con- duct of Life," " Society and Solitude." 297. James Russell Lowell (1819-91). — James Russell Lowell was prominent as critic, essayist, and poet. His prose writings show great literary skill and judgment. Two of his best^known poems are the " Ode to Freedom " and " The Commemoration Ode." The most important works of Lowell are " The Vision of Sir Launfal ; " " The Biglow Papers," a GROWTH OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 177 humorous satire written in Yankee dialect ; and the " Fable for Critics," which is a critical satire on American poets. The following beautiful lines upon Abraham Lincoln are from " The Commemoration Ode : " — "... Standing like a tower, Our children shall behold his fame, The kindly, earnest, brave, foreseeing man, Sagacious, patient, dreading praise not blame, New birth of our new soil, the first American." V. Historians 298. William Hickling Prescott (1796-1859). — William Hickling Prescott was one of our greatest historians. He dealt with Spanish subjects in such an interesting way that his works are as entertaining as romance. His principal works are " Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella," " Conquest of Mexico," and " Conquest of Peru." 299. George Bancroft (1800-91). — George Bancroft is famous for his " History of the United States." While not so interesting as Prescott's work, it is one of the most scholarly and authoritative histories ever written. 300. John Lothrop Motley (1814-77). — John Lothrop Motley is considered by some as the greatest of American his- torians. His writings deal with the history of the Netherlands. They are graphic and scholarly. His principal works are entitled "The Rise and Fall of the Dutch Republic" and " The History of the United Netherlands." 301. Francis Parkman (1823-93). — Francis Parkman is one of the most brilliant and vivid historians. He chose for his subject the French in America. The title of his series *of histories is " France and England in North America, a Series of Historical Narratives." Some of the volumes of this work are " The Jesuits in North America," " La Salle, or the Discovery of the Great West," and " Montcalm and Wolfe." CHAPTEK XIV PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY AND OF THE NEAR FUTURE Retrospect and Prospect. —302. Arbitration. — 303. Hague Peace Conference — Recent Wars. Expansion. — 304. Recent Acquisition of Territory — Imperialism. Great Industrial Problems. — 305. Trusts, Monopolies, Socialism. Labor Troubles. — 30(3. Labor Unions, Strikes, Arbitration. Civil Service Reform. — 307. Rotation in Office — Competitive Exami- nations. City Government. — 308. National and City Politics — City Ownership. Race Problems. — 309. The Negroes — Right of Suffrage — Education — The Indians — Chinese. The Temperance Question. — 310. Prohibition — Education. "Woman Suffrage. — 311. 178 CHAPTER XIV PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY AND OF THE NEAR FUTURE 302. Retrospect and Prospect. — We have seen how the United States of America has, from very small beginnings, developed into the powerful nation of to-day. The principal European nations of four hundred years ago all took active part in the exploration and colonization of the New World. The struggle for supremacy among these nations at last nar- rowed down to a contest between the English and the French, which was finally settled by the battle of Quebec (1759). (See §§ 52-58.) England became supreme, i.e. the English language and traditions were henceforth to dominate North America. Meanwhile an independent spirit had been growing among the English colonists. This spirit and the idea of union were encouraged by the intercolonial wars, and finally led to com- plete separation from England (1776) and the establishment of a republican government (1789). The success of the new nation was assured by the " Second War for Independence " (the War of 1812). Meanwhile, in spite of several serious foreign complications, and a great civil war which threatened the integrity of the nation, the United States has grown in area and population ; popular education has been extended ; an important literature developed ; and marvellous progress has been made in science and the useful arts. Many of the difficult problems which the nation had to face have been satisfactorily settled, e.g. slavery. There remain many questions, however, which are to-day pressing for solution, and upon which there are various and conflicting opinions. These questions require careful study in order that they may be dealt with fairly, honestly, and wisely. 179 180 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY . 303. Arbitration. — One of the great questions in which the whole world, as well as the United States, is interested is the substitution of the method of arbitration for that of war in the settlement of disputes between nations. The settlement of the Oregon boundary, the Alabama claims, and the Bering Sea controversy are notable instances in the history of our own country of the benefits of this method. The whole Christian world tends to look upon war as a revolting and barbarous spec- tacle, It is argued that, as individuals no longer use brute force to settle disputes, but appeal to law and reason, nations should act likewise. A permanent tribunal to which all matters in dispute could be referred for settlement has been suggested. At the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, an important begin- ning was made, in May, 1899, at the Hague, where repre- sentatives from all the great powers of the world met in a congress known as the " Hague Peace Conference." Numerous suggestions were made tending to lessen the horrors of war- fare and to encourage arbitration. It was found impracticable, however, to bring about the much wished for condition of uni- versal peace. Nevertheless, the mere holding of such a conven- tion marked a great advance in national morality, and inspired the hope that in some not too distant future the immense sums devoted to actual or prospective slaughter of our fellow-men may be more wisely used in encouraging the arts of peace. It was unfortunate that the South African War and the trouble between China and the Powers should have occurred so soon after the Peace Conference. These wars disclosed such a sharp contrast between the peace professions of the nations and their actual practice, that they shook the confidence of many in the possibility of substituting arbitration for war, and tended to bring the Hague Conference into ridicule. The United States, by virtue of its geographical position and freedom from foreign entanglements, has been able to exert a great influence in favor of arbitration. 304. Expansion. — The Spanish- American War has made expansion one of the greatest questions to-day before the PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 181 American people. During the progress of the war, Hawaii was annexed, and by our treaty of peace with Spain we acquired Porto Rico and the great Philippine archipelago. The inhab- itants of these islands are of such a different degree of civiliza- tion as to render it a doubtful question whether it would be wise or expedient to make them United States citizens. There are many who believe them to be incapable of self-government, and think that the United States should retain these islands as dependencies to be governed somewhat in the same way as England governs her colonies. Others maintain that the fact that these islands are now United States territory makes their inhabitants virtually United States citizens, and that they ought not to be denied any of the privileges of citizenship. Moreover, it is contended that governing other people without their con- sent is contrary to the principles of our government. It is said that such expansion necessitates military rule, and hence a large standing army. The President, as Commander-in-Chief, would thus exercise a large measure of power over the people of the islands. This has been termed imperialism. On the other hand, it is said that the United States would be shirking a great duty to refuse to undertake the government of its new possessions, that its withdrawal would result in con- fusion and anarchy, and that, in the case of the Philippines, whose native population has not yet ceased to resist our authority, military rule is absolutely necessary. Moreover, it is said that the United States can no longer hold aloof from other nations, but that political and commercial considerations demand that it should have possessions in various portions of the globe. Against this it is argued that a persistence in the policy of expansion would necessitate important modifications in our republican form of government, and would be a violation of the principle contained in Washington's Farewell Address and in the Monroe Doctrine — a principle which has guided the United States in its prosperous career as a nation. The ques- tion is a most momentous one, and time alone can show what the outcome will be. 182 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 305. Great Industrial Problems. — During the last few years great changes have taken place in the methods of conducting business enterprises. Large combinations of capital are formed for the purpose of controlling the manufacture and sale of im- portant products. These combinations, known as trusts, are able to administer business affairs more economically than the great number of small concerns which they replace. Just as the invention of machinery has benefited the world by cheapening goods, so improved business methods might be expected to pro- duce a similar result. Unfortunately, many of the so-called trusts have endeavored to secure monopolies and to use their power to raise prices instead of lowering them, thus benefiting the few in control at the expense of the multitude who are forced to purchase their products. This undoubted evil has caused a widespread fear of the power of trusts, and created great opposition to such combinations of capital. Many state legislatures have framed laws for the purpose of limiting the power of trusts or of preventing their formation. The question of the regulation of trusts by the national government has become an important one. Many think that the govern- ment should exercise a very strict control over trusts, while others believe that such control is neither possible nor desir- able. They regard such combinations when honestly con- ducted as legitimate forms of business enterprise. The question is a perplexing one. Some are of the opinion that ordinary legislation cannot solve the problem, but that a number of large business or industrial enterprises, especially those called "natural monopolies," such as telegraphs, rail- roads, telephones, gas, and water supply, should not be private enterprises at all, but should be owned and operated by the government itself. There are some who would carry the principle of govern- ment ownership to an extreme, making it embrace many other forms of business enterprise. Those who advocate this principle are known as socialists. In some sections of the country these ideas have become quite prevalent, becoming PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 183 political issues or even giving rise to distinct political parties. 306. Labor Troubles. — Just as capitalists have found it to their advantage to form combinations, so the laboring classes have also formed unions for the protection of their interests. The industrial world is thus divided into classes, often spoken of as labor and capital, though each is dependent upon the other. The labor unions have frequently made demands upon their em- ployers for higher wages, shorter hours, etc. These demands coming from large organizations of laborers, sometimes num- bering thousands of members, frequently have sufficient weight with the capitalists to lead them to accede to the demands. When the demands are not acceded to, strikes are apt to result, causing great business inconvenience. Sometimes the strikers resort to violence in order to intimidate their employers, or to prevent other workmen from taking their places. It has been necessary, on some occasions, for troops to be called out to quell such disturbances. It is unfortunate that capital and labor should be regarded as naturally antagonistic, as this view hinders the amicable adjustment of difficulties between them. On account of the great annoyance and riotous con- duct attendant on strikes, many are of the opinion that labor unions should be discouraged. It is thought by others, how- ever, that the laboring classes are much in need of such organizations for their own protection. Boards of arbitration have been proposed to mediate between laborers and employers in case of disagreement. Socialism has also been suggested as a remedy. 307. Civil Service Reform. — The government finds it nec- essary to employ a great many persons to carry on its work. With the exception of those who serve in the army and navy, these officials, clerks, etc., constitute the civil service. When Jefferson entered office, his political friends clamored for posi- tions in the civil service. Jefferson was of the opinion that it was neither just nor in his power to remove office-holders to make places for others, except for incompetency or neglect of duty. 184 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY He depended upon the creation of vacancies through death or resignation ; but, as he tersely said in speaking of the office- holders, " Few die and none resign." It was not until Jackson's administration that a wholesale discharge of United States officials took place. He instituted the practice known as " ro- tation in office," displacing his political opponents to create places for his political friends. The same justification was urged for this method as had been given by the ancient Romans when they sacked a conquered town, " To the victors belong the spoils." Political positions thus came to be regarded as rewards for political work, and it became the custom with every change of administration to turn out incumbents to make places for the party workers. In opposition to the spoils sys- tem, it is believed by many that the government's business affairs should be conducted in a business-like manner. Faith- ful and competent servants should be retained, regardless of their political opinions ; while incompetent persons should not be appointed to positions. Moreover, it is argued that the fre- quent changes make the service both inefficient and expensive. Again it is contended that the rewarding of party service by appointment to government positions is only a form of bribery. The various attempts that have been made to remedy these evils are known as civil service reform. The first great step in this direction was made in 1883, when an act was passed by Congress making appointments to certain positions dependent upon the results of competitive examinations. A commission was appointed to supervise this work. Those who believe in civil service reform have endeavored to increase as much as possible the list of offices to be thus filled. They have been opposed by those politicians who fear a loss of power through such interference with their power of distributing positions. 308. City Government. — As the United States has grown in population, there has been an increasing tendency to the massing of large numbers of people in great cities. (See § 233.) A number of cities have populations of over a million. This condition has given rise to many difficult problems in PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 185 government. The tendency has been for national politics to determine the election of city officers. It is generally admitted that city government should be entirely disentangled from national politics, since the proper regulation of city affairs has little or nothing to do with the issues which divide the great parties. The political management of city affairs has often resulted in inefficient, extravagant, and corrupt administration. It is maintained that the questions which city authorities have to decide are very different from those which face the state or nation. They are simply business problems on a large scale, and should be dealt with in a business-like manner ; e.g. the streets must be kept clean and lighted, transportation facilities furnished, schools built and maintained, good water supply secured, police regulations enforced, etc. The use of the spoils system in city government — since the latter is in effect a busi- ness corporation — has been attended with great evils. Private corporations sometimes secure from city officials valuable fran- chises, such as gas and water supply, street railways, etc., through corrupt political means. City ownership has been sug- gested as a remedy for these evils. Others, however, maintain that under our present political administration of city affairs such municipal control would only multiply the evils it is meant to cure. Some city charters have been drawn up which hope to get the cities under good business management by the creation of a few great departments, the heads of which can be held strictly responsible. 309. Race Problems. — Since the adoption of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution, the treatment of the negroes of the South has been a most serious problem. In some sections of the South the colored inhab- itants outnumber the whites, and the latter have feared that legislation might be controlled by the negroes. This fear has increased the hatred caused by natural race prejudice and the events of the Civil War. Race riots have sometimes occurred, and the negroes have frequently been subjected to inhuman treatment. Bribery and intimidation have prevented the negro 186 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY from freely exercising the right of suffrage. This has been justified on the grounds that the negro is too ignorant to vote intelligently. Attempts have been made in some states re- cently to debar the illiterate negro by law from voting by demanding certain educational qualifications. Such restriction of the ballot would be at the risk of a reduction in the state's representation in Congress, in proportion to the number of votes thus excluded. (See Amendment XIV, Section 2.) Education of the negro is the remedy most frequently ad- vanced for the solution of this important problem. The treat- ment of the Indians (see § 135) and Chinese are two other race problems which are not as yet quite satisfactorily settled. 310. The Temperance Question. — The evils of intemperance have been so great that many favor the prohibition of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors. Others, on the con- trary, regard such legislation as directly opposed to personal liberty and as impossible of enforcement. They consider this work as not the business of the government at all, but an end to be attained rather by moral education. They look to the growing influence of religious and temperance societies, tem- perance literature, and temperance instruction in the public schools to bring about the desired result. Nevertheless, the Prohibitionists are numerous enough to have formed a political party, which nominates national, state, and city officers. They have succeeded in securing prohibition legislation in some states. 311. Woman Suffrage. — Women have greater privileges in the United States than in any other part of the world. For many years there have been societies organized for the purpose of securing for women the right of suffrage. The experiment has actually been made in some of the Western states, but opinion is still divided as to its wisdom. APPENDICES THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. (1) We, the people of the United States, in order to form £ more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- quillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION I. (2) All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION II. (3) The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the sev- eral States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. (4) No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven .years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. (5) Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 1 2 CONSTITUTION OF among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and ex- cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative ; and until such enu- meration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary- land six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. (6) When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. (7) The House of Representatives shall choose their Speak- er and other officers, and shall have the sole power of im- peachment. SECTION III. (8) The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature there- of, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. (9) Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if UNITED STATES. 3 vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. (10) No person shall be a Senator who shall not have at- tained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. (11) The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. (12) The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. (13) The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im- peachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. (14) Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punish- ment, according to law. SECTION IV. (15) The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Kepresentatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. (16) The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, 4 CONSTITUTION OF and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. section v. (17) Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller num- ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. (18) Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. (19) Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. (20) Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. (21) The Senators and Representatives shall receive a com- pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace be privi- leged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. (22) No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased UNITED STATES. during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall 1 continuance in office. United States shall be a member of either house during his SECTION VJI. (23) All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. (24) Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two- thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjourn- ment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. (25) Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur- rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre- sented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. CONSTITUTION OF SECTION VIII. (26) The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and pro- vide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; (27) To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; (28) To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; (29; To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; (30) To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for- eign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; (31) To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; (32) To establish post-offices and post-roads ; (33) To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclu- sive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; (34) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; (35) To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and offences against the law of nations ; (36) To declare war, grant letters of marque ai.d reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; (37) To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; (38) To provide and maintain a navy ; (39) To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; (40) To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel inva- sions ; (41) To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining UNITED STATES. 7 the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving- to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the disci- pline prescribed by Congress ; (42) To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso- ever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and (43) To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX. (44) The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thou- sand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im- posed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person* (45) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. (46) No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. (47) No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. (48) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 8 CONSTITUTION OF (49) No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. (50) No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. (51) No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind, what- ever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. SECTION X. (52) No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. (53) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. (54) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. UNITED STATES. V) ARTICLE II. SECTION I. (55) The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : (56) Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legis- lature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of eleetors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the 10 CONSTITUTION OF President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] 1 (57) The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. (58) No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Consti- tution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. (59) In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or the President shall be elected. (60) The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he may have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States or any of them. (61) Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully exe- cute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Con* s±itution of the United States." This clause of the Constitution has been amended. See twelfth article of the amendments. UNITED STATES. 11 SECTION II. (62) The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases 01 impeach- ment. (53) He shall have power, by and with the advice and con- sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. (64) The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III. (65) He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor- mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement be« tween them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take 12 CONSTITUTION OF care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall coinmis« sion all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV. (66) The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeach- ment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. SECTION I. (67) The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. SECTION II. (68) The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; be- tween a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State claim- ing lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. (69) In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public min- isters and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a UNITED STATES. 13 party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. (70) The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III. (71) Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giv- ing them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. (72) The Congress shall have power to declare the punish- ment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work cor- ruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. SECTION I. (73) Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II. (74) The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi- leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. (75) A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another 14 CONSTITUTION OF State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. (76) No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION III. (77) New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. (78) The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular State. SECTION" IV. (79) The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall pro- tect each of them against invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. (80) The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two- thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro- UNITED STATES. 15 posing amendments, which in either case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when rati- fied by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress, provided that no amendments which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. (81) All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the confederation. (82) This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- withstanding. (83) The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. (84) The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 16 CONSTITUTION OF Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. Massachusetts — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. New York — Alexander Hamilton. New Jersey — William Livingston, David Brearly, William Patterson, Jonathan Dayton. Pennsylvania — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Inger- soll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. Delaware — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dick- inson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. Maryland — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, • Daniel Carroll. Virginia — John Blair, James Madison, Jr. North Carolina — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. South Carolina — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinck- ney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. Georgia — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. Attest : William Jackson, Secretary. UNITED STATES. 17 AMENDMENTS. ARTICLE I. (85) Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the gov- ernment for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. (86) A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. (87) No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the' consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. (88) The right of the people to be' secure in 'their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the per- son or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. (89) No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indict- ment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or 18 CONSTITUTION OF naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. (90) In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been com- mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII. (91) In suits at common law, where the value in contro- versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be other- wise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII. (92) Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines Imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. * ARTICLE IX. (93) The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. UNITED STATES. i9 ARTICLE X. (94) The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively or to the people. ARTICLE XL (95) The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. ARTICLE XII. (96) The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- bers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose imme- diately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the Presi- dent the votes shall be taken by States, the representation 20 CONSTITUTION OF from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. (97) The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the* Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally in- eligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. AETICLE XIII. (98) Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction. (99) Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. (100) Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citi- zens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, UNITED STATES. 21 or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. (101) Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective num- bers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabit- ants of such State, being twenty -one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par- ticipation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representa- tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. (102) Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Repre- sentative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-Presi- dent, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an ex- ecutive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Consti- tution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. (103) Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties fdr services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- 22 CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. cipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. (104) Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV. (105) Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State -on account of race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude. (106) Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. NOTES TO THE TEACHER. 1. The figures in bold-faced type in the Analyses refer to paragraphs of the Constitution. « 2. The light-faced figures that follow questions, refer to pages in Dole's The American Citizen. 3. Additional sources of information and suggestions are found in : a. Wilson's State and Federal Governments of the United States. Cloth, 50 cents. [Contains the historical development of our government, a comparison of State constitutions, and an analysis of the national Constitution.] b. Allen's History Topics. Paper, 25 cents. [Valuable for its topical outlines, its lists of historical novels, and other books for collateral reading.] c. Thomas's History of the United States. Half leather, illus- trated, .$1.10. [Especially helpful in its treatment of the political and economic development of the country.] d. Sheldon's Studies in American History. Half leather, illus- trated, $1.25. [Unique in its methods of teaching and studying history, and for the large number of quiz-exercises and copies of original documents.] e. Dole's The American Citizen. Cloth, $1. [A good presenta- tion for young readers.] /. Bancroft's History of the Formation of the Constitution. Cloth, $2.50. [Invaluable for a study of this period.] g. Von Hoist's Constitutional Law, 82. h. Boutwell's The Constitution at the End of the First Century. Cloth, 430 pages, $3.50. [Contains the organic laws of the United States with historical notes and references to de- cisions.] 4. It will be found exceedingly interesting and helpful occasionally to prepare a series of questions leading to a comprehensive view of 23 24 NOTES TO THE TEACHER. various public matters. Refer the pupils to books and journals giving information and inciting to investigation. 5. At all times, so far as practicable, the reasons for the existence of various parts of the machinery of our government should be devel- oped in the recitation. In assigning the lesson, look to the moral and ethical principles involved and ask questions that shall develop these. 6. As many teachers may wish to have a brief but valuable and helpful Reference Library for the use of classes in Civil Government, we have made arrangements to furnish the one below for $15, or, express prepaid, for $15.75. REFERENCE LIBRARY. Mailing- Price. 1. Woodrow Wilson's The State $2.00 2. Bancroft's History of the Formation of the Constitution 2.50 3. Sheldon's Studies in American History 1.25 4. Boutwell's The Constitution at the End of the First Century. . . 3.50 5. Thomas's United States History 1. 10 6. Von Hoist's Constitutional Law 2.00 7. Wenzel's Comparative View of Governments . 15 8. Dole's The American Citizen 1.00 9. Allen's History Topics and References. 25 10. Bryce's American Commonwealth . .... „ 4.00 $17.75 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 25 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Parties to the Com- pact. Purposes. Thing Done. I. PREAMBLE. " We the people of the United States." 1. To form a more perfect union. 2. To establish justice. 3. To insure domestic tranquillity. 4. To provide for the common defence. 5. To promote the general welfare. 6. To secure the blessings of liberty : a. For themselves. b. For posterity. " Do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." QUERIES. 1. What form of government preceded that under the Constitution ? 2. Why was the change made ? 65. 3. When and where made ? 66. (Bancroft.) 4. By whom made — the States or the people ? 5. What prominent men took part in the meeting to form the Constitu- tion ? 6. How long did the discussion last ? 7. To whom was the Constitution reported ? 8. By whom and how ratified ? 9. Were the people unanimously for it ? 10. What are the purposes of a government ? References. — Sheldon's Studies in American History, pp. 203, 207, 211; Wilson's State and Federal Governments, pp. 21, 23, ^4, 35; O. S. Leaflets, Nos. 3, 6, 19. II. PARTS OF OUR GOVERNMENT. 1. The Law-Making Power. 1. 2. The Law-Interpreting Power. 67. 3. The Law-Executing' Power. 55. 26 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. THE LAW-MAKING POWER. III. CONGRESS. (p. 60, 65), composed of 1. House of Representatives. 2. 2. Seriate. 2. QUERIES. 1. Why have three departments to the government ? 2. Does Russia have the same three parts ? 3. What are these parts called in England ? 4. Should public officers be paid ? Why ? 5. Why have a national judiciary ? 41, 83. 6. Why have a national legislature ? 7. Which is the Upper House ? Why so called ? 8. Which the Lower House ? 9. What does each House represent ? 67. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 1. Composed of citizens. 4. ( 1. Age ? J 2. Citizen how long ? 3. Citizen where ? 4. 4. How disqualified ? 22. 5. Loyalty? 102. 1. When? 3. 2. By whom ? 3. Electors ? 3. How ? 15. 1. How happen ? 18, 100. 2. How filled ? 17. ( 1. Includes whom ? 5. ' 2. When made ? 5. Upon what basis ? 101. Conditions? 100. f With Senate 2. I Exclusive. 3. 2. Of impeachment. 7. Electoral. { ^ 9 " 2, 93. 2. Qualifications. 3. Elected. 4. Vacancies. 5. Apportionment u. ■ 1 6. Powers. 1. Legislative. 3. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 2? SENATE. 1. Composed of whom ? 8. ' 1. Age? 2. Qualifications. 3. Elected. 4. Vacancy. 5. Powers. 6. Presided over 10. 2. A citizen, nine years. 3. Inhabitant of? 4. Office-holder? 22. 5. Chosen or appointed ? [6. Loyal? 102. 1. By whom ? 8. . 2. For how long? 8. 3. How? 9. 4. When? 5. Into what classes ? V, How happen ? 9. How filled ? »y { 1. To vote. 19. 2. Legislative. 2. 3. Elective. { 0fficers ' 12 ' C Vice-President. 4. Of impeachment. 13. f Treaties. I Appointment. 63. Vice-President U.S. 11. President pro tern. 12. 5. Executive. QUERIES. 1. Why should a senator be older than a representative ? 2. Why should Congressmen be citizens ? 3. Why should senators hold office longer than representatives ? 71. 4. Why have more than one House ? 68. 5. What exclusive power given the House of Eepresentatives ? Why ? 6. What exclusive functions of the Senate ? Why ? 7. On what basis is representation allowed ? 8. What other basis could you suggest ? 9. What change in the basis of apportionment ? Why ? Why is the term " slavery " not mentioned in the Constitution ? 10. Who is responsible for legislation ? 64, 131. Refekences. — State and Federal Governments, pp. 98, 100, 102, 31 ; Sheldon's History, pp. 204, 205. 28 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. THE EXECUTIVE, I. THE PRESIDENT. Supreme Executive. Term. r 55. By Electors. 3. Election. < 3y House of Represent- atives. 1. How appointed ? 56. 2. How many in each State ? 3. Process. Meet where ? How vote ? Make lists. Sign lists. Certify lists. 96. 4. Before Congress. 1. When? 2. From whom ? 3. By ballot. 4. By States. 5. Quorum. 6. Non-election. 58 6. Transmit lists. 7. Direct lists. 1. Lists opened by ? 2. In presence of ? 3. Counted by ? 4. Election. 5. Non-election. 96. i Qualifications. 5. Salary. 60. 6. Removable. 66. 1. Citizenship. 2. Age. 3. Residence. 4. Oath of office. 61. References. — Dawes' How we are Governed, pp. 167-8; Macy's Civil Government. CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES. 29 7. Powers and Duties. 1. Military. 2. Civil. 1. Over army and navy. 62. 2. Over militia, conditional. 1. Executive departments. 62. 2. Reprieves and pardons. 3. Make treaties, conditional. 63. 1. 4. Appoint 64. 65. 5. Fill vacancies. 6. Send messages. 7. Convene Congress. 8. Adjourn Congress. 9. Receive ambassadors. 10. Have laws executed. 11. May veto laws. 24. ^ 12. Must grant commissions. 65. 1 . How elected. II. VICE-PRESIDENT. 1. By Electors. 2. By Congress. 3. By Senate. 97. 2. Qualifications. { L Eli § ible to Residency. 97. 1 2. Oath of office. 83. 3. Term. 4. Powers and Duties. V, President of Senate. 11. Acting President of the United States. 59. QUERIES. 1. Why have hut one President ? 77. (Bancroft.) (Wilson, p. 113.) 2. What does the President owe the people ? 32. 3. Why not limit the Presidency to rich or highly educated men ? 47. 4. Why limit the power of the President ? 5. Why should he be a native of the United States ? 6. Why not elected by direct vote? (Wilson, p. 114.) 7. Who counts the electoral vote ? 8. What important contest raised this question ? 9. In case of non-election by votes of electors, why should the House rather than the Senate choose a President ? 0. Why not elect a President for one year ? For six years ? For ten years ? 30 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. Composed of 67. Judges. Functions. THE JUDICIARY. f Chief Justice. Supreme Court. Subordinate Courts. Associate Justices. 1. Circuit Courts. 2. District Courts. {1. President and 2. Senate. 63. Removable { By impeachment. I For what ? 66. Tenure of office. 67. Compensation. /How fixed? I When changed ? Oath of office. 83. Judicial power extends to what ? 68. Original Jurisdiction. 69. Appellate Jurisdiction. 69. QUERIES. 1. Why make the judges permanent office-holders ? 86. 2. Why give them larger salaries than to Congressmen ? 3. Why have a national judiciary ? 83. 4. Why not allow all judges to hold office during life or good be- havior ? 85. 5. Why heed the courts' decisions ? 6. What are the chief purposes of judges ? 87. 7. What is a jury ? 89. 8. Difference in purpose of the judge and the jury ? 9. What is meant by the " common law " ? By " statute law " ? 10. What is meant by " equity " ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 31 PROVISIONS COMMON TO SENATE AND HOUSE. 1. Membership. (Composed of. 17. I Decided by. 2. Oath, of office. 83. 3. Quorum. f Composed of. 17. I How secured ? 4. Salary. f How determined ? 21. J I How paid ? 5. Rules. 18. 6. Journal. \ Ke ^ 19 " I Published. 7. Yeas and Nays. 19. f Adjournment. How long ? 20. Where ? 8. Thmgs prohibited. J Holdiug ^ office< 22 I Certain emoluments. 9. Penalties. (Punishment. 18. I Expulsion. QUERIES. 1. Why should each house decide as to qualifications of its members ? 2. What is a " quorum " of the House ? Of the Senate ? 3. When is a quorum present ? (See discussion over Speaker Reed's decision.) 4. Why should less than a quorum adjourn ? 5. What powers ought less than a quorum to have ? Why ? 6. Why keep a journal ? 7. Why publish a journal ? 8. What is the use of " Yeas and Nays " ? 9. Why not let one house adjourn permanently without the other ? 10. Why should each member vote ? 122, 65. References. — Any good book on Rules of Order; Bancroft's Forma- tion of Constitution ; Congressional Record. 32 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. BILLS, LAWS r Bills and Laws. < Orders, etc. RESOLUTIONS, ETC. ( 1. With executive approval. Courses. 2. With executive veto. 3. Without executive action. II. First Course. III. Second Course. IV. Third Course. 1. Bill passes Congress. 24. 2. Sent to the President. 3. President approves. 1. Bill passes Congress. 24. 2. Sent to the President. 3. President returns with objeo tions. 4. Objections entered on journal. 5. Bill reconsidered. 6. Approved by two-thirds. 7. Vote taken. 8. Votes recorded. 1. Bill passes Congress. 24. 2. Presented to President. 3. Not returned in ten days. 4. Effect, Congress not adjourn- ing. 1. Passed by Congress. 25. 2. Exception. 3. Presented to President. J 4. Approved or disapproved. ^ 5. Treated as a bill. QUERIES. 1. What are the parts of a bill ? 2. Write a bill forbidding the smoking of cigarettes. ' 3. Offer an amendment to this bill. 4. What difference between a bill and a law ? 5. What steps in the passage of a bill ? 6. In what ways may a bill be defeated ? 7. How does the President approve a bill ? 8. How express his disapproval ? 78. 9. Write, as President, your approval of the bill mentioned in (2) = 10. Veto the bill in (2). CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 33 POWERS AND DUTIES OF CONGRESS. L AS TO REVENUES. {1. Taxes, duties, imposts, excises. 26. 2. Borrowed money. 27. 3. Sale of lands. 78. 4. Sale of other property. {1. To pay debts of the United States. 26. 2. To provide for common defence. 3. To promote public welfare. QUERIES. 1. Why should people pay taxes ? 94, 101. 2. What difference between a direct and an indirect tax ? Give exam- ples. 3. What part of the time of Congress is taken up in raising and spend- ing money ? 143. 4. In what ways can Congress borrow money ? 147. 5. Where and how does the government get its title to lands ? d. What is a tariff ? Where collected ? 99. 7. Why not raise all taxes on real estate or land ? On personal prop- erty ? On large incomes ? 8. What is a poll tax ? A license tax ? Internal revenue ? 9. For what ought the public money to be expended ? 145. 10. What principles should govern a legislative body in raising taxes ? 11. Should the government lend money to its citizens ? 208, 212. II. AS TO TRADE. f 1. Domestic. 28. 1. Kinds of Traffic. < 2. Foreign. I 3. With Indians. 2. Means of Traffic. 1. Coining money. 30. 2. Regulating value of money. 3. Fixing standard weights, etc. 30. 4. Regulating bankruptcies. 29. 5. Establishing post-offices. 32. Hindrances re- f h Punishing counterfeiting. 31. moved by ) 2 " Punishm S P irac y and felony. 35. l» 3. Protecting inventors, etc. 33. 34 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. QUERIES. 1. What is the purpose of trade ? Who is benefited ? 237- 2. Is all profitable trade justifiable ? Illustrate. 3. What usually controls the price of an article ? 252. 4. Do not tariffs and other taxes raise the prices ? Why allow this ? 5. Why limit the coining and valuation of money to the general govern ment alone ? Can you coin paper money ? 6. Why protect inventors ? 303. III. AS TO WAR. 1. Congress may declare. 2. May grant letters of marque and reprisal. 3. May regulate captures. 4 May raise and support armies. Limitation. 5. May provide and maintain a navy. 6. May establish rules for army and navy. ( 1. To execute the laws. 7. May call out militia s 2. To suppress insurrections. v 3. To repel invasions. r 1. Organization. 8. May regulate militia J 2. Equipment. as to j 3. Discipline. I 4. Government. QUERIES. 1. Why do wars occur? 257, 262, 297, 309. 2. How best prevented ? 3. What are marque and reprisal ? 4. What is it to declare war ? 5. Why by Congress ? 6. Who are the militia ? 7. Why have militia ? 8. What trouble did President Lincoln meet about the militia ? 9. Why not keep a large standing army ? 10. Should all able-bodied male citizens receive military training ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 65 IV. AS TO COURTS AND PENALTIES. 1. Courts. 2. Penalties for ri- ll Congress may constitute inferior tribunals, 34. May define and punish international offences. 35. May fix place of certain trials. 70. May restrict jurisdiction. 69. Crimes on the seas. 35. Offences against laws of nations. Counterfeiting. 31. Treason, with limitations. 72. Violations of laws of special territory. 70. QUERIES. 1. What is the chief court of the United States ? 2. Which are three of the subordinate courts ? 3. What are international offences ? 4. Why should Congress fix a place of trial ? 5. Why have other than State courts ? 6. Why have other than the supreme national court ? 7. How many circuit courts ? How constituted ? Territory T 8. Is it better to punish wrong-doing or to prevent »t ? 9. How can courts become instruments of wrong ? 89. 10. What is treason ? How defined fully ? 11. What is the purpose of punishment ? 264. 12. What is an indeterminate sentence ? Is it wise ? 13. How can schools make a smaller number of courts necessary ? 14. What are international rights ? 303. V. AS TO STATES AND SPECIAL TERRITORY. 1. Congress may regulate election of its own mem« bers. 15. 2. It may determine certain things as to electors. 57. 3. State imposts may be restricted. 53. 4. Proof of State records prescribed. 73. 5. Effect of proofs fixed how ? As to States. ■{ As to Territory and Property. r 1. Exclusive legislation for seat of government. 42 i 2. Authority over purchased territory. May admit new States conditionally. May dispose of territory, etc. 77. 36 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. QUERIES. 1. Why should not Congress regulate all elections ? 2. Who are electors ? 3. What difference between a discretionary power and a mandatory one ? 4. Can a state prevent the election of Congressmen ? 5. What is a state impost ? Of what value ? 6. Why state what constitutes proof ? 7. What is "eminent domain"? Upon what principle does it rest? 196. What rights imply ? 8. How does any man acquire property in land ? Upon what do all deeds rest ? Why ? 197. 9. Why should Congress control the seat of government > LO. Who makes laws for all territory not part of a State ? Why ? MISCELLANEOUS POWERS, Etc. r How often ? 16. 1. Meetings. 1 When? I How changed ? 2. Naturalization. Must be uniform. 29. {Purpose. 33. Secure what ? For whose benefit ? 4. Making of general laws. 43. 5. The slave trade. {Recognized. 44. I Abolished. 98. 6. Legislation as to executive vacancy. 59. 1. 61. 7. Inferior appointments. -J 2. 3. 1. Original. 80. 8. Propose constitutional amendments. ■{ 2. By convention. it Limitation. QUERIES. t. Why must Congress meet yearly ? How long can it remain in sion ? Where must it meet ? 2. Can one house prevent the assembling of Congress ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 37 3. What is the purpose of naturalization ? Should immigration be re- stricted ? 313. 4. What is a patent ? A copyright ? How secured ? What is an inter- national copyright ? Do you favor these ? 182. 5. Was the slave trade ever directly legalized by the Constitution ? Why abolish it ? Its history. 8„ Why not limit law-making power to particular subjects or objects ? 7. Can Congress alter or amend the Constitution ? Why provide for amendments ? 8. Is there any part of the Constitution which cannot be amended ? 0. What is the constitutional definition of an inferior officer ? What danger in controlling his appointment? 109, 110. 10. What is the civil service law ? Its purpose ? Its value ? 108. OFFICE-HOLDERS. r 1. Upon Congressmen. 22. I 2. Upon office-holders. Restrictions. \ 3. As to presidential electors. 56. 4. As to disloyal persons. 102. I 5. As to favors from foreign powers. 51. Term of Office. { Salaries. Impeachment. 1. Of senators. 8. 2. Of representatives. 3. 3. Of the President. 55. 4. Of the Supreme Court. 5. Of the Cabinet. 67. r 1. Amount. 21. \ 2. From what paid ? f 1. Extent of judgment in. 66. J 2. Any further liability. 1 3. Who are liable to ? v 4. On what ground ? 70. QUERIES. 1. Why require public officers to be loyal ? 138. 2. Why not allow a Congressman to hold another office ? Why restrict presidential electors ? 159. 3. Who are office-seekers? Is it wrong to seek office? 110. 4. Who are politicians ? What are " rings " ? Caucuses ? 38 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 5. Why not let every office-holder remain during life or good behavior ? Ill, 162. 6. How did the term "rotation in office" arise? 113. What is meant by the expression, " To the victors belong the spoils " ? What idea dnderlies this ? 7. How large should salaries be ? What obligations do salaries imply ? 8. Why provide for impeachment ? On what grounds ? 9. Why limit the punishment ? 1. To restrict slave trade. THE UNITED STATES ARE FORBIDDEN 1. Limitations. 44. 2. When abolished ? 98. 2. To suspend habeas corpus— (Exceptions?) 45. {1. Bill of attainder. 46. 2. Attainder of treason. 72. 3. Ex post facto law. 46. 4. To lay direct tax (unless ?) 47. „ m . , A . f 1. On domestic exports. 48. 5. To levy duties 1 r 12. On interstate commerce. 49. 6. To give preference in trading to any State. r 1. For armies beyond two years. 37. 2. Without appropriation. 50. 3. Without published statements. I 4. For rebellion, etc. {■1. Territorial claims. 81. 2. Contracts. 3. Public debt. 103. 9. To grant title of nobility. 51. Religious. 7. To pay public money 10. To prohibit freedom. Civil. Tests. 83. Kind. 85. Exercise. (Speech. 85. Press. 85. Public assembly. j Petition v Bearing arms. 86. 1. What is the pended ? QUERIES. habeas corpus"? Why so important? Why sus- CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 39 2. Define a writ. An attorney. A court. Bail. 90, 01. 3. Give the correct basis and principle of taxation. 04, 98, 101. 4. What are duties ? For what purposes levied ? Why restricted ? 153. 5. What principles should govern in expending public money ? G. Should it be spent for internal improvements ? Without limit ? 7. Why limit war appropriations to two years ? 8. What is repudiation ? Why forbidden ? Is repudiation not recog- nized as right in bankrupt laws ? 0. What objection to titles of nobility ? Principle ? 10. Reasons for civil and religious freedom ? Are freedom and license identical ? THE STATES ARE FORBIDDEN ( 1 To make alliances, etc. 52. 1. Tn interstate relations.