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Plate I. 
 
 Fig. i. — Cotton x no. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Manilla {A) and Hemp (B) x 130. 
 
 [Frontispiece. 
 
Practical Paper-making 
 
 a MANUAL 
 
 FOR PAPER-MAKERS AND OWNERS AND 
 
 MANAGERS OF PAPER MILLS 
 
 TO WHICH ARE APPENDED 
 
 USEFUL TABLES, CALCULATIONS, DATA, ETC, 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE CLAPPERTON 
 
 PAPER-MAKER 
 
 SHitli JiUusiraiicms ^qn-oonxeb from Jttiaro-^hoiogtaphs 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS 
 
 London : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 
 
 1907 
 
 Qo^y 
 

 By transfer from 
 
 U. S. Tariff Board 
 
 1912 
 
 <t^ tr 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 THE Author is well aware that the subject of 
 Practical Paper-making is one to which a 
 much larger and fuller work than the present might 
 have been devoted. He trusts, however, that this 
 little volume, slight as is the treatment of most por- 
 tions of the subject, will in some measure supply a 
 need which he has himself felt for several years, 
 and more especially during the first years of his 
 apprenticeship — namely, the need of a work on Paper- 
 making which, while not neglecting those teachings 
 of theoretical and practical chemistry, the under- 
 standing of which is necessary for the successful 
 and economic production of paper, should at the 
 same time give due consideration to the practical 
 working of the Paper Mill. 
 
 He is aware, also, that to carry out this plan, even 
 
 on the unambitious scale of the present work, there 
 
 iii 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 is required of an author intimate knowledge of the 
 actual working of the mill, such as can only be 
 obtained by years of practical work in the various 
 departments. His own experience, he is able to say, 
 having been such as should qualify him for the task 
 he has here undertaken, he ventures to hope that 
 many Paper-makers and Millowners will find in these 
 pages knowledge and information of no little value, 
 which has not hitherto been accessible in a similar 
 form. To what extent the work answers his 
 desires, his readers will be best able to judge. 
 
 Special attention may be invited to the illustrations 
 of the Microscopical Examination of Paper and 
 Paper-making Materials, which have been repro- 
 duced from micro-photographs. 
 
 In the Appendix will be found some useful Tables, 
 Data, etc., compiled from various sources. 
 
 Blackburn, Penicuik. 
 March 1894. 
 
 NOTE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 For the present edition, the work has been carefully 
 revised and some additions made (enlarging the volume 
 by about 18 or 20 pages), so as to bring the information 
 fully up to date. 
 
 Sandford-on-Thames, near Oxford. 
 November 1906. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF 
 VARIOUS FIBRES. 
 
 Cellulose : its Composition and Chemical Properties — Effect of 
 Bleach — Of Atmosphere — Oxycellulose — Action of Solvents 
 — Detection — Relation to Plants — Incrusting Substances — 
 Cotton — Compound Celluloses — Pectocellulose — Lignocellu- 
 lose — Adipocellulose — Isolation — Rags and Thread — " Bast " 
 Fibres, Fibro- Vascular Bundles — Physical Features of Cotton, 
 Linen, Hemp, Jute, Manilla, Esparto, Straw, Wood . , 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CUTTING AND BOILING OF RAGS.— JUTE BOILING 
 AND BLEACHING. 
 
 Grading — Cutting Machine — Rationale of Boiling — Caustic Soda 
 
 — Lime — Jute Boiling and Bleaching ..... 8 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 WET PICKING— WASHING, BREAKING, AND BLEACH- 
 ING.— ELECTROLYTIC BLEA CHING.—ANTICHLOR. 
 
 Wet Picking — Washing Drum — Management of Breaker, Plates, 
 and Rolls — Weak Liquor — Bleaching Powder — Rationale of 
 Bleaching — Effect of Steam, Sulphuric Acid, Alum, Acetic 
 V 
 
vi CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acid — Jute, Reaction with Chlorine — Amount of Bleach 
 for Various Qualities— Preparation of Bleaching Liquor- 
 Apparatus — Lime Mud — Electrolytic Bleaching — Ozone 
 Bleach — Hermete's Method — Bleaching and Draining Chests 
 — Antichlor — Hyposulphite of Soda — Sulphite of Soda — 
 Dangers from Excess — Test for Bleach 17 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CELLULOSE FROM WOOD.— MECHANICAL WOOD PULP. 
 
 Composition of Wood — Classification of Processes — Mechanical 
 Treatment — Alkali- Processes — Watt and Burgess's — Effect 
 of Caustic Solutions — Sulphite Processes — Ekman's — 
 Partington's— Mitscherlich's — Sulphate Processes, Dahl's — 
 Method Employed in Scotch Mill — Mechanical Wood-Pre- 
 paration — Properties . . 31 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ESPARTO AND STRAW. 
 
 Percentage Composition — Nature and Combination of Cellulose — 
 Dusting — Sorting — Effect of Caustic Solution, of Pressure, 
 Boiling — Amount of Caustic Required — Concentration ot 
 Boiling Solution — Washing Under Pressure — Steepers — 
 Potchers — Drum Washer — Loss in Washing — Bleaching 
 Effect of Steam — Duration— Straw, Pressure and Strength 
 of Boiling Solutions— Nature of Finished Pulp — Loss in 
 Washing — Yield of Cellulose — Effect on Paper . . . 44 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 BEATING. 
 
 Stuff for Bank, Loan, Chromo, and Litho Papers — Condition and 
 Management of Plates and Rolls — Tempering the Stuff for 
 Various Qualities — Marshall's Perfecting Engine — Interme- 
 diate Engines — Spanish Grass — Wood — Soft-sized Papers — 
 Blottings — Construction of Beater. Forbes' Beater — Rusting 5 2 
 
CONTENTS. vu 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 LOADING.— STARCH,— COLOURING MA TTER. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Legitimate and Necessary Use — Selection of a Loading — China 
 Clay, Preparation for the Engine — Effect on Paper — Loading 
 Chromo and Plate Papers — "Pearl Hardening," Application 
 — Properties — Barium Sulphate — Properties — Retention — 
 Effect on Paper — Barium Chloride — Agalite, Nature and 
 Properties — Retention — Starch, Properties — Application — 
 Colour, Ultramarine — Carnation — Standard Samples — Alum 
 Resisting Power — Fading in Chests and Engines — Amounts 
 Necessary to Counteract Fading — Smalts — Iron — Aniline 
 Colours, Greens 67 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 RESIN SIZE AND SIZING. 
 
 Theories of Sizing — Proportions of Resin and Soda — Recipe for 
 Neutral Sodium Resinate — Preparation — Test for Complete 
 Saponification — Dilution for the Engine — White Size — 
 Preparation — Effect of Beating on Sizing — Alum — Sulphates 
 of Alumina — Solubility — Percentage of Alumina — Effect of 
 Hard Water on Size — Neutralising Hardness in Water — 
 Amount of Alum Consumed by Hard Water — Effect of 
 Machine Drying Cylinders on Sizing — Caseine Sizing , . So 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE FOURDRINIER MACHINE AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Unequal Weight — Chests — Agitators — Knots — Stuff Pump — 
 Sandtrap — Strainers — Working of Revolving Strainers — 
 Strainer Plates — Knots — Breast-box — Deckles — Making 
 Good Edges — Knees — Leathers — Apron — Slices — Wove — 
 Laid — Speed — Dandy "Lifting" — Free and Long Stuff — 
 
vm CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Soft and Fine Stuff — Sticking — Length of Wire — Pitch of 
 Frame — Shake — Breast-roll — Pump Boxes — Slack Edges — 
 Froth — "Bells" — Froth-killers — Cracks and Breaks — Named 
 Dandies — Unequal Shrinkage — Brown's Patent Laid Dandy 
 — " Blowing " — Wet and Dry Felts — " Cockling " — Altering 
 Draws — Unsteady Wires — Making Webs — Breaking at 
 Calenders — Changing Strainers — Putting on and Starting 
 Wire — A Raised Seam — Putting on Coucher Jacket — 
 Starting Calenders „ • 93 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ANIMAL SIZING.— DRYING. 
 
 Extraction of Gelatine — Alum — Soap — Chests — Sizing Tub — 
 Effect of Beating — " Peeling " — Envelope Papers — Use of 
 Steam — Drying — Steam Heat — Fans — "Cockling" — "Spang- 
 ling" — Speed of Drier — Loft Drying 137 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GLAZING AND BURNISHING. 
 
 Smoothing Rolls — Long versus Fine Stuff — Damper — Alkaline 
 Soap — Super-Calender — Effect of Heat — Pressure — Wood and 
 Straw Papers — Coloured Papers — Burnishing — Plate Glazing 146 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CUTTING.— FINISHING. 
 
 Revolving Angle and Square Cutter — Loading — Starting — 
 Overloading — Circulars — Cross-cutting Knives — Feeding- 
 Rolls — Tube-Rolls — Burnished Papers — Creasing — Tissue 
 Papers — Squaring the Sheets — Double Draw — English Cutter 
 — Starting New Knife — Circulars — Feeding-Rolls — "Dancer" 
 — Lined Papers 152 
 
CONTENTS. lx 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF PAPER. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Use of Iodine — Apparatus — Standard Specimens — Objectives- 
 Physical Characteristics — Cotton — Linen — Hemp — Manilla — 
 Jute — Wood —Esparto — Straw — Mechanical Wood — Quan- 
 titative Analysis — Mounting Standard Specimens . . . 163 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS OF PAPER. 
 
 Animal Size — Alum — Starch — Chlorides — Engine Size— Mineral 
 
 Substances . 173 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 RECOVERY OF SODA. 
 
 Incineration — Porion Roaster — Evaporator — Pan — Burning Off 
 — Lixiviation — Tanks — Method of Working — Causticising — 
 Chemical Action — Proportions of Soda and Lime — Plant — 
 Method of Working — Test — Air. Blast — Sodium Sulphide — 
 Aluminate and Silicate — Effect of Sodium Bi-carbonate — 
 Ferric Oxide Causticising Process — "Multiple Effects" 
 Rationale — Yaryan System — Chapman and Fawcett's Eva- 
 porator — Gaunt Evaporator — Scott Evaporator — Warren 
 Rotary Furnace ......... 178 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 TESTING OF CHEMICALS.— TESTING WATER FOR 
 IMPURITIES. 
 
 Caustic and Recovered Soda — Normal Sulphuric Acid — Actual 
 Test — Examples — Grades of Commercial Caustic Soda — 
 Electrolytic Manufacture — Alum — Antichlor — Preparation of 
 Iodine Solution— Actual Test — BleachingPowder — Arsenious 
 Acid Solution— Actual Test — Weak Liquors— Lime Mud- 
 Tables of Percentage of Caustic Soda and Alum — Testing 
 Water 195 
 
X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Equivalent Weights and Sizes of Writing Papers , . .209 
 
 Equivalent Weights and Sizes of Printing Papers . . . 210 
 
 Sizes of Book and Drawing Papers . . . . . .2IO 
 
 Sizes of Cartridge Papers . . . . . . . .211 
 
 Sizes of Lined Papers . . . . . . . . .211 
 
 Various Calculations relating to Weight of Reams and Webs . 211 
 Data for Ascertaining the Number of Gallons of Caustic Liquor 
 required to give the Number of Pounds of Na 2 necessary 
 
 for a Boiling 212 
 
 Table showing the Strength of Bleaching Powder Solutions . 213 
 
 Weights and Measures of the Metric System . . . .214 
 French and English Thermometer Scales . . . ' . -215 
 Useful Data „ • « • 215 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 Plate I. Cotton, Manilla, and Hemp . . . Frontispiece. , 
 
 „ II. Linen and Flax Facing page 6 
 
 „ III. Chemical Wood and Mechanical Wood . ,, 31 
 
 ,, IV. Esparto and Straw » 44 
 
 „ V. Chemical Wood and Esparto. — Cotton, 
 
 Linen, Wood, and Esparto ... ,, 163 
 
 ,, VI. Linen, Cotton, and Esparto. — Manilla 
 
 and Cotton „ 166 
 
 ,, VII. Cotton and Pearl Hardening. — China 
 
 Clay , 171 
 
 „ VIII. Pearl Hardening. — Terra Alba . . „ 172 
 
 Note. — Plates I. to V. represent the various fibres in the state of 
 half-stuff, while the illustrations on Plates VI. to VIII. are from the 
 finished papers. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 77, in line 12, for " like precipitate," read "lake precipitate." 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, 26 ,, "Amamine" ,, " Auramine." 
 
Practical Paper-making. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 OF VARIOUS FIBRES. 
 
 As the chemical and physical characteristics of the 
 materials from which the paper-maker draws his supply 
 determine to a marked degree the quality of the finished 
 product, a thorough grasp of these characteristics is 
 indispensable to all who aim at the production of the 
 best possible results with the minimum of cost. 
 
 The percentage of cellulose — or, to use a term more 
 readily understood by paper-makers, the amount of 
 available paper-making material — varies with the plants 
 from which it is obtained, and the treatment to which 
 it is subjected in the process of freeing it from its 
 combination with the non-cellulose or non-available 
 material with which it is so intimately bound up. 
 
 The chemical formula for cellulose is C 6 H 10 O 5 , which 
 means that 6 equivalents of carbon, io of hydrogen, 
 
 i 
 
2 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 and 5 of oxygen are united together to form the sub- 
 stance known by that name. These proportions are 
 constant, though the physical characteristics may differ 
 very widely, and it is of the first importance that great 
 care be taken, in the different processes through which 
 the raw material must pass, that none of the chemicals 
 employed have the effect of changing its nature by 
 adding to or taking from its constituents, thus giving 
 rise to serious complications. 
 
 Cellulose which has been in contact with bleaching 
 solution for a lengthened period, or even exposed to 
 the action of air and light for any length of time, will 
 be found to have lost much of its original strength and 
 firmness, and in addition to have acquired properties 
 that were wanting in its pure state. This change is 
 due to the action of the atmospheric oxygen in entering 
 into combination with the cellulose molecule to form 
 what is technically known as the oxy-cellulose obtained 
 by the action of a weak oxidising agent on cellulose. 
 
 The oxy-cellulose has the property of extracting 
 basic colouring matters from their solutions and being 
 permanently dyed by them, and further possesses an 
 extraordinary affinity for vanadium compounds, uniting 
 with them from solutions containing infinitesimal pro- 
 portions. 
 
 Pure cellulose is insoluble in all simple solvents. 
 A solution of cupric hydrate in ammonia alone acts 
 on it, first causing it to swell up and finally dissolving 
 it. The reaction with a solution of iodine in potassium 
 
ISOLATION OF CELLULOSE. 3 
 
 iodide is mostly used for its detection ; but in order 
 to render it effective it is necessary to employ a 
 dehydrating agent, such as sulphuric acid, when 
 the characteristic deep blue or violet colour will be 
 produced. 
 
 Before the cellulose can be made available for the 
 manufacture of paper, it must first be freed from its 
 combination with the non-cellulose constituents with 
 which it is united to form the plant structure. 
 
 Plants may be designated as an aggregation of fibres 
 and cells bound together b}r gummy, resinous, and 
 waxy substances, which have a function similar to 
 that performed by lime in cementing and rendering 
 durable the stones or bricks of which a house is built ; 
 and as the stones, in order to be used in the building 
 of another house, would first have to be freed from the 
 lime with which they were bound together in the pre- 
 vious structure, similarly the fibres and cells must be 
 freed from all substances which, though indispensable 
 to their existence in the plant life, would tend to impair 
 their value as paper-making material. 
 
 Cotton differs from the other plants in this, that by 
 the natural process of ripening the fibres are so freed 
 as to yield a pure cellulose, which is available without 
 the preliminary treatment which the compound cellu- 
 loses must undergo. These compound celluloses are 
 classed under the following heads : — 
 
 (1) Pecto- celluloses, so named because they yield 
 pectic acid on the breaking up of their combination. 
 
4 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 The flax plant may be taken as typical of the celluloses 
 comprising this group. 
 
 (2) Ligno-cellaloses, which owe the designation to 
 their yielding non-cellulose or lignine as the result of 
 their disintegration. Jute is the typical cellulose of 
 this group, in which are included all the different forms 
 of woody tissue. 
 
 (3) The third group exist in such a small proportion 
 in paper-making materials, that, as compared with the 
 preceding compound celluloses, they are of little im- 
 portance. They are known by the name adipo-celluloses, 
 and are so termed because on reduction they yield acids 
 analogous to those obtained by the reduction of fats 
 and cork tissue. This group embraces the cuticular 
 tissue of such plants as straw, esparto, and cotton. 
 
 The problem, then, which presents itself to the prac- 
 tical paper-maker for solution is not simply to become 
 acquainted with the physical features of the fibres he 
 desires to use for the production of his paper, but to 
 arrive at the most economical method by which he can 
 best secure the liberation of such fibres in the form 
 most suited to his particular purpose, while preserving 
 as far as possible the original strength. 
 
 Such materials as rags and thread, which have 
 already been subjected to retting, boiling, and bleach- 
 ing by the textile manufacturer, require no very drastic 
 treatment to render them suitable to the needs of the 
 paper-maker, as they are already in a more or less pure 
 state before coming to his hands. 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT STRUCTURES. 5 
 
 It is for this reason, coupled with the physical cha- 
 racteristics of their fibres, that they are so much valued 
 by him. It will be readily understood that it is with 
 such materials as esparto, straw, and wood that the 
 chief difficulties in the way of extracting the available 
 cellulose exist. 
 
 In addition to the fact that esparto and straw have 
 been subjected to no previous disintegration, there is 
 another reason which renders them less valuable as a 
 paper-making material. In the process of the building 
 up of their plant structure the fibro-vascular bundles, 
 from which the available fibres are obtained, are scat- 
 tered irregularly throughout the main mass, and are 
 more closely connected with the non-cellulose con- 
 stituents than are the " bast " fibres of flax, hemp, 
 and jute, the fibre bundles or " filaments " of which 
 form a separate and cohesive tissue, and are thus 
 more easily freed from the surrounding non-available 
 material. 
 
 Before taking up the different processes through 
 which the materials are passed, in order to render 
 them fit for the production of paper, a glance at the 
 physical features of the various fibres will be of 
 material assistance in enabling the paper-maker to 
 obtain a knowledge of the conditions best suited to 
 their successful treatment. 
 
 The ultimate fibres of the cotton plant consist, as 
 before stated, of pure cellulose, and on examination 
 under the microscope will appear as long, flattened 
 
6 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 tubes always more or less twisted upon themselves. 
 The side walls are rough and granulated, which is most 
 easily seen when dry. They are strong and flexible, 
 and suited for the production of the finest qualities 
 of paper, though from the spongy nature of the fibre 
 the finished sheet is less hard than that made from 
 linen. When the tubular form of the fibres is' borne 
 in mind, it will be at once understood why the colouring 
 matter is so difficult to remove from coloured cotton 
 rags. (See Plate I., Frontispiece, fig. I.) 
 
 Linen, the fibre of the flax plant, is, like cotton, 
 tubular, but the side walls are much thicker, the 
 central canal is smaller, arid, consequently, the fibre is 
 harder and less spongy. (See Plate II., figs. 3 and 4.) 
 
 Papers made from linen rags are hard, strong, and 
 firm to handle. The fibres obtained from ropes and 
 bags are mostly hemp, and are somewhat like linen, 
 but much more coarse and harsh ; as they are seldom 
 completely freed from the incrusting matters they 
 require to be boiled with a larger percentage of caustic. 
 
 Jute fibres are strong but very difficult to bleach 
 white, and, indeed, if subjected to such treatment as 
 will dissolve all the extraneous matter, and reduce to 
 ultimate fibres, their original strength is much impaired. 
 
 Manilla hemp yields strong fibres, easily detached, 
 but, like jute, somewhat difficult to bleach white. (See 
 Plate I., Frontispiece, fig. 2.) 
 
 The ultimate fibres of esparto are short, smooth, 
 and tubular, but in some places the central canal is 
 
Plate II. 
 
 Fig. t,. — -Linen x 130. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Flax x 130. 
 
 [To face page 6. 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 7 
 
 completely hidden by the thickening of the side walls. 
 (See Plate IV., fig. 7.) 
 
 Straw fibres are very similar in appearance to esparto, 
 but they are shorter and more highly polished, thus 
 tending to make their felting power much less, and 
 rendering paper made from them very brittle. (See 
 Plate IV., fig. 8.) 
 
 Wood fibres vary with the different species from 
 which they are obtained and the methods used to 
 isolate them. Pine wood is capable of yielding long, 
 soft, transparent, flexible fibres, well suited to the pro- 
 duction of strong well-felted papers. Ash and similar 
 trees yield short, hard fibres, possessed of no great 
 felting properties. (See Plate III., fig. 5.) 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CUTTING AND BOILING OF RAGS—JUTE 
 BOILING AND BLEACHING. 
 
 Grading of Rags. — As the quality of the finished paper 
 is dependent on the successful carrying out of the 
 different processes through which the stock must pass, 
 it is indispensable to the production of a uniform and 
 satisfactory result that the greatest care be taken in 
 each department to ensure the intelligent application 
 of the principles on which each process depends. 
 
 Nowhere would a neglect of the requirement of each 
 particular class be more disastrous than in the rag 
 room, which may not inaptly be termed the birthplace 
 of the varied qualities of beautiful papers which are 
 met with in the market. 
 
 Carelessness in the regulations of the standard of 
 each particular grade of rags cannot fail to lead to 
 mischievous results, as in such circumstances the stock 
 may at one time be above the usual quality intended 
 for the paper made, and, at another, much inferior; 
 and yet with such manifest defects the paper produced 
 
RAG-GRADING AND CUTTING. 9 
 
 is expected "to be equal to last making in every 
 respect." 
 
 The only remedy for such a state of matters, which 
 is not an uncommon one, is that the official in charge 
 of the department should insist that the cutters and 
 sorters give the necessary attention to the strength 
 and cleanliness recognised as the standard of each 
 grade. If this be done consistently and intelligently, 
 it will soon make itself known in the smoothness with 
 which the subsequent processes will go forward, and 
 in uniformity in the purity, strength, and shade of the 
 paper made which will far more than repay the extra 
 time and care involved. 
 
 Rag-cutting. — Though the rag-cutting machine has 
 been much improved of late years, it cannot be said 
 to have superseded cutting by hand, especially for the 
 better qualities of paper. 
 
 As will be readily understood, the rags in being cut 
 by the machine come far less under the supervision of 
 the women whose duty it is to grade the different 
 qualities used in the mill ; and this, together with the 
 fact that in the tearing and cutting on the machine 
 much of the best of the fibres is damaged, presents a 
 serious drawback to its adoption. 
 
 In cutting strong, coarse material, such as canvas and 
 bagging, these defects do not exist to the same extent, 
 and, though they did, would be of less importance ; 
 consequently it is more suited to that class of stock. 
 
io PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 When the rags are run straight from the cutter into 
 the dusting-machine, as is often the case, the carrying 
 felt should be long enough to admit of standing room 
 for sorters on either side, so that any extraneous 
 material, such as wool, silk, etc., which may have 
 escaped detection when feeding in the rags, may be 
 removed, and thus prevented from finding its way into 
 the boilers and, it may be, into the finished paper. 
 
 Rag Boiling. — The object in subjecting rags, or other 
 paper-making material, to the process of boiling is 
 that the reducing action of the water, aided by the 
 temperature and pressure employed, may break up 
 the combination of the cellulose with non-available 
 substances. 
 
 Caustic soda is the chemical usually employed to 
 render this action more thorough, and to ensure the 
 complete removal of all the incrusting substances which 
 by their presence tend to render the subsequent bleach- 
 ing process much less effective, and to otherwise impair 
 the value of the material. 
 
 Rags, which have already been subjected to such a 
 process before coming into the hands of the paper- 
 maker, require to be treated with a much smaller 
 amount of caustic compared with such raw materials 
 as esparto and straw. In the case of rags, the func- 
 tion of the soda is to remove the size, which is often 
 applied to the fabric, together with any dirt which may 
 have become attached to the interstices of the material 
 
RAG-BOILING. II 
 
 in its journey from the textile factory to the rag store, 
 and also to destroy, as far as possible, any colouring 
 matter and render it more susceptible to the action of 
 the bleaching solution. Caustic soda has, in addition, 
 the effect of softening the fibres, thus rendering them 
 more flexible. 
 
 As the feel and look of a paper depend quite as 
 much on the elasticity and complete freedom from all 
 incrusting matters of the original fibres, as upon the 
 treatment they receive in the subsequent operations of 
 breaking and beating, it becomes at once apparent 
 that what at first sight seems a very simple matter — 
 namely, the determination of the amount of caustic 
 soda most suitable for each material — is in reality a 
 somewhat difficult problem, and one which requires 
 much greater consideration than is usually given 
 to it. 
 
 The physical nature and condition of some rags may 
 be such as to render them quite inert, and of little 
 felting power, should they be boiled with the amount 
 of caustic necessary to the production of a good 
 colour when bleached. The wisdom of continuing 
 to use such materials, even though obtained at a 
 comparatively low price, is, to say the least, very 
 questionable. 
 
 Some rags, again, which from the standard of 
 cleanliness may not require a large proportion of soda, 
 will often be found to be greatly improved by using 
 a little extra per hundredweight, especially when the 
 
12 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 fibres are harsh. The softening which is thus ob- 
 tained will make itself apparent in producing a closer 
 and more evenly felted sheet. 
 
 With regard to the economy of using low quality 
 rags for papers in which a good colour is indispens- 
 able, it has been shown, as the result of very exhaustive 
 experiments carried out by Messrs. Wurster and Zugler, 
 that bleached half-stuff from cheap rags is in the end 
 much more costly than that obtained from the better 
 qualities, notwithstanding the great difference in the 
 price. As much as 18 per cent, of loss was found in 
 the boiling and washing of such materials. 
 
 Some paper-makers prefer to boil their stock with 
 lime, in place of caustic soda, and this is especially 
 the case in America. For the better qualities of paper, 
 however, its use is attended with very serious draw- 
 backs. A larger proportion of lime than is actually 
 necessary to reduce the stock must always be used, 
 and as this excess must be properly washed out of the 
 rags before bleaching, both time and water are thus 
 consumed. 
 
 Gritty matters, such as sand and coal-dust, are in- 
 variably present, even in the best qualities of lime, 
 and these are apt to become fixed in the fibres in such 
 a way as to render their complete removal a matter of 
 some difficulty. 
 
 Lime, as is well known, is but sparingly soluble in 
 cold water, and still less so when the water is heated. 
 One part of lime requires seven hundred parts of cold 
 
RAG-BOILING. 13 
 
 water to dissolve it, and fifteen hundred parts when 
 the temperature is raised to boiling point. 
 
 During the boiling process, however, a much larger 
 quantity is dissolved than would appear possible at 
 first sight. As the dissolved lime enters into combi- 
 nation with the non-cellulose portion of the stock, the 
 water becomes capable of dissolving a further quantity, 
 and so the dissolving action is repeated until all the 
 fatty and resinous matters have entered into combi- 
 nation with the lime. 
 
 In preparing coarse, dirty stock, such as jute and 
 the lower grades of flax, in the subsequent application 
 of which a high degree of cleanliness is not of the first 
 importance, lime may be used with advantage, both on 
 account of its cheapness and its reducing qualities. 
 
 In selecting a lime to boil with, it should be borne 
 in mind that grades showing the same percentage of 
 actual lime do not always produce a uniform result in 
 treating the stock. Lime which is light to handle, 
 of a uniformly white colour, and which slacks easily, 
 seems to possess greater reducing power than a dull- 
 coloured, heavy lime, as less of it is required for 
 boiling, and the pulp produced has a softer feel. 
 
 Caustic lime when exposed to the atmosphere quickly 
 absorbs carbonic acid, and the carbonate of lime thus 
 formed, in addition to possessing no boiling power, 
 is very liable to cause serious complications in the sub- 
 sequent operations by adhering to the fibres even after 
 much washing, and is frequently the source of the spots 
 
14 PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 
 
 which at times appear so unaccountably on the machine 
 wire. 
 
 Stationary boilers are very suitable for the finer 
 grades of cotton and linen rags, but for coarse, dirty 
 stock the rotary action of the revolving boiler is of 
 advantage, as the shaking thus given to the stock has 
 the effect of loosening the dirt. For this reason it is 
 usually employed for such materials. It is an addi- 
 tional advantage if the boiler can be fitted with a system 
 of pulleys, which will enable the revolving action to 
 be quickened during the washing which follows the 
 running off of the spent liquor. 
 
 Jute Boiling and Bleaching. — Jute is a material which, 
 on account of its strength and cheapness, would receive 
 much more extensive application in the manufacture 
 of paper were it not for the almost insurmountable 
 difficulties which lie in the way of producing from it, 
 at a reasonable cost, a pulp of sufficient whiteness 
 to be used in the making of fine papers. 
 
 The chief difficulty in bleaching lies in the fact that, 
 unless the boiling process has been conducted so as 
 to ensure that all the incrusting matters have been 
 dissolved, the amount of chlorine consumed before these 
 incrusting substances can be effectively bleached 
 more than counterbalances the low price of the raw 
 material. ' Apart from the cost of bleaching, the use 
 of such a large amount of chlorine tends to impair the 
 strength of the fibres. 
 
JUTE BOILING AND BLEACHING. 15 
 
 The methods of boiling and bleaching jute vary with 
 the particular requirements for the papers to be pro- 
 duced ; but in mills using a considerable quantity, lime 
 is, on account of its cheapness, generally employed to 
 effect the separation of the non-cellulose substances. 
 
 Very good results are said to be obtained by boiling 
 the jute with lime, under pressure, and then allowing 
 it to stand, loosely stacked, in contact with the excess 
 of lime that has been used in boiling. 
 
 After standing for some time the jute is washed and 
 again boiled, this time with soda-ash under atmospheric 
 pressure. The bleaching is conducted in the usual 
 way by means of the bleaching powder solution ; but 
 instead of running in the amount necessary at one 
 time, it is run in in small quantities, and before each 
 supply is added the contents of the engine are tested 
 by potassium iodide and starch papers, to ensure that 
 all the chlorine has acted on the incrusting substances. 
 In this way the fibres are said to be better preserved 
 in their original strength. 
 
 In continental mills, where the old method of gas 
 bleaching is still in vogue, jute is sometimes subjected 
 to a preliminary bleaching by means of chlorine gas, 
 before being bleached by the bleaching powder solu- 
 tion. The following method is said to produce a very 
 satisfactory pulp. 
 
 The jute is boiled with a solution of milk of lime, at 
 a pressure of about twenty-two pounds per square inch, 
 for ten to twelve hours, the weight of lime used being 
 
1 6 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 about 15 per cent., calculated on the raw material. 
 After draining and washing the boiled jute is passed 
 through a centrifugal machine and so freed from 
 moisture as to be readily acted on by the chlorine gas, 
 which is the next feature of the process. 
 
 The chlorine gas is prepared in the usual way from 
 hydrochloric acid and black oxide of manganese, and 
 great care is taken that none of the hydrochloric acid 
 finds its way into the bleaching chamber, otherwise 
 the pulp would be rendered less strong. The jute is 
 stacked in such a way as to be readily permeated by 
 the gaseous chlorine, and is allowed to remain under 
 its influence until the colour of a sample drawn out 
 shows that it is about three-quarters bleached. 
 
 After lifting, the partially bleached jute is washed in 
 the potcher with water containing a I per cent, solu- 
 tion of ammonia soda, which serves to dissolve the 
 yellow chlorine compound that has been formed by the 
 action of the gas on the incrusting substances. This 
 washing completed, the stack is bleached in the usual 
 manner with from 6 to 8 per cent, of bleaching 
 powder solution. The amount of time and handling 
 necessary for such a method as that described would 
 lead to the supposition that it is very doubtful if, in the 
 end, such methods pay. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 WET PICKING. — WASHING, BREAKING, AND 
 BLEACHING. — ELECTROLYTIC BLEACHING. 
 —ANTICHLOR. 
 
 Wet Picking 1 . — It is the practice in most mills to 
 subject the boiled rags to another overhauling, or " wet 
 picking," as it is usually termed. The idea of this is 
 to insure the removal of any buttons, pieces of india- 
 rubber, or other unsuitable materials which may have 
 been overlooked in the rag-house, or have become 
 apparent through the action of the soda, before the 
 treatment in the washing engine renders their detection 
 and removal so difficult as to be almost impossible. 
 
 Washing, Breaking, and Bleaching. — These three 
 operations are usually conducted in the same engine. 
 The washing is generally accomplished by means of 
 a drum washer, which is perhaps the most effective 
 and time-saving method that has as yet been adopted 
 for rags. The clear Water should be run in so that 
 it may mix with the rags before they come under the 
 
 17 2 
 
I 8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 roll, and the drum should be placed so that it may 
 rest on the rags just as they have rounded the end of 
 the midfeather on the return journey. This is not so 
 near the roll as to run the risk of lifting the finest 
 fibres brought to the surface by the agitation, nor yet 
 so far from it as to allow the dirt to settle down on 
 the rags again. 
 
 The way in which the washing is conducted deter- 
 mines, within certain limits, the percentage of loss 
 caused by the finest fibres passing away with the 
 washing water through the meshes of the wire cover- 
 ing of the drum. Until the dirt has been freed from 
 the interstices of the rags the roll should simply brush 
 them, and thus by opening them up assist the water in 
 carrying the dirt away. If the roll be put down to a 
 hard grip before the dirt has been loosened it is almost 
 impossible to wash them clean ; and further, it has the 
 effect of making the stuff short and free, or fast, as 
 some prefer to call it, thus in a large degree impairing 
 the strength. 
 
 There are two conditions indispensable to the pro- 
 duction of strong, flexible, clean half-stuff — namely, 
 dull tackle and plenty of time. To obtain a rag at its 
 full strength, the breaking must not be carried further 
 than is necessary to break up the fabric. When that 
 is accomplished the roll should simply brush out the 
 half-stuff, so that it may be strengthened by the 
 milling, and yet kept as long as possible consistent 
 with being "out of the rag." This can only be ob- 
 
BREAKING IN HALF-STUFF. 1 9 
 
 tained by having blunt plates and rolls. The bars in 
 the plate are usually tapered away to one-eighth 01 
 an inch. 
 
 If the roll or the plate be too sharp, or too quickly 
 brought together, the fibres, instead of being drawn 
 out, will be cut, and rendered so free that they will 
 not soften, even when allowed to mill for five or six 
 hours. Thread and strong rags cut with the rag- 
 cutting machine are very liable to gather into lumps 
 before the roll, and to enable them to travel they 
 have to be gripped more firmly at first than would 
 otherwise be the case. When they have begun to 
 travel the roll should be raised to a pitch which will 
 not reduce them too much. 
 
 When the colour of the water leaving the drum 
 shows that the dirt or colouring matter is well washed 
 out, a good plan is to allow the drainings from the 
 bleaching-house tanks to run on the rags for some 
 time, still keeping the drum in action. When not used 
 for this purpose the drainings may, with advantage, be 
 used to dissolve fresh quantities of bleaching powder. 
 When the dirt or colouring matter has been com- 
 pletely washed out, the drum should be raised and 
 the bleaching solution run in. If it should happen 
 that the bleach is added before the washing is com- 
 pleted, the dirt will become fixed on the fibres in such 
 a way that no subsequent washing will serve to take 
 it out. 
 
 Bleaching powder, or chloride of lime, is made by 
 
20 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 saturating slaked lime with chlorine gas. When the 
 compound thus obtained is dissolved in water, bleach- 
 ing liquor, consisting of chloride and hypochlorite of 
 lime, is formed, while the calcium hydrate is left as 
 the lime mud. Chlorine gas in the dry state possesses 
 no bleaching properties, but in the presence of moisture 
 it decomposes the water, taking up the hydrogen to 
 form hydrochloric acid and liberating the oxygen. 
 
 The oxygen thus set free has powerful oxidising 
 properties, which are rendered the more active from 
 its being in what is technically known as the nascent 
 state. It attacks the vegetable colouring matters, and 
 by destroying them imparts the white shade charac- 
 teristic of bleached stock. 
 
 The old method of gas bleaching depends on this 
 direct action of the chlorine gas when brought into 
 contact with the wet half-stuff. Unless under ex- 
 ceptional circumstances, bleaching powder has quite 
 superseded the gas-bleaching method. 
 
 This is due to the facility with which it can be 
 applied, as well as to the increased yield of pulp ; a 
 much larger proportion being attacked and destroyed 
 by the chlorine gas than is the case when the less 
 drastic action of the hypochlorous acid of the bleaching 
 solution is employed. 
 
 When the materials to be bleached are more than 
 usually dirty or high-coloured, heat is often used to 
 assist the action of the bleach in producing a good 
 colour. Great care must be taken to see that the 
 
BLEACHING RAGS 21 
 
 temperature does not exceed 90 Fahr., otherwise the 
 stuff will be shortened, and the colour obtained will 
 go back, especially if allowed to lie for any length of 
 time before using. 
 
 Another method of obtaining a good colour is to 
 add to the stock, while in contact with the bleaching 
 solution, an agent which will, by decomposing the 
 bleach, render it more effective. Sulphuric acid is 
 often employed to do this, and, within certain limits, 
 it has the desired effect. Its use is, however, attended 
 with the serious drawback that if it be added in excess 
 chlorine will be liberated. This chlorine attacks the 
 fibres and weakens them. When only a small quantity 
 of sulphuric acid acts on the bleaching solution, hypo- 
 chlorous acid is liberated. 
 
 Hypochlorous acid is decomposed and yields its 
 oxygen very easily, and in so doing is reduced to 
 hydrochloric acid, which acts less injuriously on the 
 fibres than chlorine. 
 
 Sulphate of alumina may be used with better results 
 in preserving the strength of the fibres, probably due 
 to the fact that the action being less violent there is 
 less tendency to liberate the chlorine. 
 
 Professor Lunge uses acetic acid to gain the same 
 end, and he claims that there is no impairing of the 
 strength of the fibres as is the case when chlorine is 
 liberated, or even when the hydrochloric acid, which 
 is formed from the decomposed hypochlorous acid, 
 remains in contact with the stock. On adding acetic 
 
22 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 acid to the engine, the bleaching solution is decom- 
 posed with the formation of hypochlorous acid and 
 acetate of lime. 
 
 The hypochlorous acid gives off its oxygen, becoming 
 reduced to hydrochloric acid, which in the presence of 
 the acetate of lime immediately acts on it, regenerating 
 acetic acid and calcium chloride. It will thus be seen 
 that only a very small quantity of acetic acid need be 
 used, owing to its continuous regeneration. 
 
 Another feature of importance is that the hydro- 
 chloric acid does not remain long enough among the 
 stock in the free state to do the fibres any injury. 
 In the case of rags, which have been imperfectly 
 washed and thus retain a large proportion of alkali, 
 it is recommended that a less expensive acid, such as 
 sulphuric, be used to neutralise the alkali before adding 
 the acetic acid. 
 
 In bleaching rags containing even a small proportion 
 of jute, no auxiliary agent which has the effect of 
 liberating chlorine should be used. If jute be treated 
 with chlorine a characteristic yellow compound will be 
 formed, and it is the formation of this yellow body which 
 is the cause of the fading in the colour of jute con- 
 taining stock when such agents as sulphuric acid or 
 sulphate of alumina are used to assist in bringing up 
 the colour. 
 
 Dr. Lunge claims that acetic acid may be added to 
 the engine before the bleach is run in ; but with the 
 other agents the best results are obtained by adding 
 
BLEACHING RAGS. 23 
 
 them to the pulp after the bleaching solution has 
 become somewhat exhausted. 
 
 When using steam it is better to allow the bleach 
 to become thoroughly mixed before heating it. The 
 amount of bleach required to give a good colour varies 
 with the quantity of dirt or colouring matter to be 
 destroyed, and the treatment which the material has 
 received in the boiler. Imperfectly boiled stock always 
 consumes a much larger proportion before coming to 
 a good colour. 
 
 Clean cotton and linen rags will require from I to 
 2 per cent., calculated on the dry bleaching powder, 
 while the coarser grades will require 5 to 6 per cent. 
 The addition of a little alumina or sulphuric acid to 
 the better grades of cotton and linen rags has the 
 effect of killing the black threads often present. 
 
 It is very important that the bleaching solution be 
 maintained at a uniform strength, otherwise the colour 
 will not be regular in shade. A solution which stands 
 6° Twaddle contains about half a pound of bleaching 
 powder to each gallon. Bleaching powder seldom 
 contains more than about 35 per cent, available 
 chlorine, which is equivalent to saying that only 
 35 per cent, of the weight of the powder dissolved 
 has the power of bleaching the stock. 
 
 Owing to the amount of calcium chlorate present in 
 some bleaching powders, the available chlorine does 
 not exceed 25 to 28 per cent. Calcium chlorate pos- 
 sesses no bleaching power, and even in the best grades 
 
24 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 of bleaching powder the lime mud often retains a 
 considerable amount of chlorine. In storing the powder 
 prior to dissolving, it should be kept as cool as pos- 
 sible, as it is very liable to be decomposed with the 
 formation of unavailable calcium chlorate if the sur- 
 rounding atmosphere is heated. 
 
 The most suitable vessel in which to conduct the 
 extraction of the chlorine is a circular iron tank fitted 
 with a mechanical agitator, so as to insure that all the 
 powder may come into contact with the water. As 
 chlorine is so liable to be decomposed by the action 
 of light, the vessels should be fitted with a covering 
 so as to exclude it as much as possible. A con- 
 venient size of mixer is one which will contain about 
 7 cwts. of bleaching powder and 900 gallons of 
 water. 
 
 The agitation should be kept up for at least two 
 hours, and the time allowed for settling should not be 
 less than seven or eight hours, as a muddy solution 
 is much less active than one which is clear, besides 
 leaving a deposit of lime on the fibres, which is liable 
 to cause unevenness in the subsequent sizing opera- 
 tion, and to cause the spots which, at times, are such 
 a nuisance in the machine wire. 
 
 After the first liquor has been run off, the tank 
 should be filled up again with water or weak liquor 
 drained from the bleaching house tanks, and the 
 agitation and settling conducted as with the first 
 extraction. A third liquor may be taken off and used 
 
ELECTROLYTIC BLEACHING. 25 
 
 either for bleaching or for extracting a fresh supply 
 of bleaching powder. A sufficient number of mixers 
 should be used as to admit of running off a first and 
 a second liquor together, and a third also, if it is to 
 be used for bleaching, otherwise the strength of the 
 solution as used at the potcher will not be uniform. 
 
 By draining the lime mud and using the liquor thus 
 extracted, either to dissolve fresh powder or to mix 
 with the bleaching solution, if it be sufficiently clean 
 and of uniform strength, a very considerable amount 
 of bleaching powder may be saved, espec ally in mills 
 where the consumption is a large one. 
 
 Electrolytic Bleaching. — Within the last few years 
 a great many experiments have been tried, with a view 
 to superseding the expensive bleaching powder, by 
 making use of the electric current to set free the 
 oxygen contained in water, and thus make it available 
 for bleaching purposes. It is well known that the 
 oxygen generated from water by electrolysis has the 
 power of decomposing colouring matters. The chief 
 difficulty in the way of using the oxygen thus liberated 
 lies in the fact that, though the incrusting matters are 
 certainly removed from the fibres, they are liable to 
 assume a brown colour on entering into combination 
 with the oxygen. This brown colour can only be 
 removed by using chlorine to decompose and bleach it. 
 
 Another method of bleaching without the use of 
 chlorine, which, however, is still in the experimental 
 
26 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 stage, consists in treating the stock with ozone, or, as 
 it may be termed, "active oxygen." When an electric 
 spark is passed through a jar containing air, it is found 
 that the oxygen present has acquired much stronger 
 oxidising properties. The oxygen which has under- 
 gone this change has been named ozone, and possesses 
 much more effective bleaching power than ordinary 
 oxygen. 
 
 In bleaching with this agent the oxygen, which has 
 been in contact with the electric sparks, and thus 
 contains a larger proportion of ozone, is led by a pipe 
 to the bottom of the vat in which the stock to be 
 bleached is placed. In its upward passage through 
 the stock this ozonised oxygen is said to destroy the 
 colouring matters so effectively that its advocates claim 
 it to be 70 per cent, cheaper than the use of bleaching 
 powder. 
 
 In another class of processes the electric current is 
 made use of to render cheap chlorine compounds, 
 such as chloride of magnesia, available for bleaching 
 purposes by liberating the chlorine contained in them. 
 The process which has, by reason of its practical 
 application, claimed most attention from paper-makers 
 is that of M. Hermite. The bleaching solution used 
 in this method is obtained by decomposing a 5 per 
 cent, solution of magnesium chloride by means of an 
 electric current. 
 
 As the decomposition proceeds, magnesium and 
 hydrogen are given off at the negative pole, while the 
 
HERMITE'S METHOD. 27 
 
 chlorine and oxygen go to the positive. The chlorine 
 takes up the oxygen to form hypochloric acid, which 
 is in turn decomposed with the formation of chlorous 
 and chloric acids. As these acids yield their oxygen 
 to bleach the stock, magnesium chloride is again formed 
 and again decomposed as before, thus making the 
 process continuous. 
 
 The loss in chemicals is made up by the addition 
 of fresh quantities of the magnesium chloride. The 
 bleaching solution prepared in this way is said to 
 possess greater bleaching properties than a solution 
 of bleaching powder containing the same percentage 
 of available chlorine. 
 
 It is the practice in some mills to run the bleached 
 stock into large chests fitted with perforated bottoms, 
 through which the weak liquor is allowed to drain. 
 In mills where a large stock is kept the rags may lie 
 in the bleaching-house for weeks, and while it is quite 
 true that the colour will come up, owing to the action 
 of the sunlight in decomposing the chlorine compounds 
 remaining in the stock, yet, if the exposure be too 
 long, the colour will go back, and in addition the rags 
 will become tender, owing to the formation of the 
 oxy-cellulose by the action of the oxygen of the air 
 in the presence of light. 
 
 This tendering and fading will be more apparent 
 if auxiliary agents, such as sulphuric acid or sulphate 
 of alumina, have been used in bleaching; and stock 
 which has lain for a considerable time, especially if 
 
28 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 sulphuric acid has been used, will often be found to 
 have taken on a pinky tinge. 
 
 These drawbacks to the use of a bleaching-house 
 have led some paper-makers to discard it altogether, 
 and to run the lags straight from the breaking engine, 
 in which the bleaching has been conducted, to the 
 beater. 
 
 When this is done more bleach is required to give 
 the same degree of whiteness, and owing to the 
 presence of an increased amount of bleach in the un- 
 drained rags, a larger quantity of antichlor is rendered 
 necessary to neutralise the chlorine than is the case 
 when they have been allowed to drain in the bleaching 
 house tanks. The ordinary grades of cotton and linen 
 rags will be found to be at their best, both as regards 
 whiteness and strength, after having lain for twenty- 
 four hours in the bleaching house. 
 
 Antichlor. — Whether the stock has lain in the bleach- 
 ing-house or has come direct from the washer, it retains 
 chlorine to such an extent that the latter must be 
 neutralised ; otherwise its presence will act injuriously 
 on the fibres, besides seriously complicating the re- 
 actions on which the sizing process depends for its 
 efficacy. 
 
 The two forms of neutralising agents, or "antichlors," 
 as they are termed, most commonly used are hypo- 
 sulphite of soda and sulphite of soda. When hypo- 
 sulphite of soda is employed, the reaction which 
 
ANTICHLOR. 29 
 
 takes place may be represented by the following 
 equation : — 
 
 2 Ca C1 2 2 + Na 2 S 2 O s + H, O = 2 Ca S0 4 + 2 H CI + 2 Na CI. 
 which shows that the bleaching solution remaining in 
 the pulp is decomposed with the formation of calcium 
 sulphate, sodium chloride, and hydrochloric acid. 
 
 The formation of the last-named constitutes a draw- 
 back to the use of this agent, as, apart from its injurious 
 action on the pulp, the acid tends to eat into the 
 machine wire and so shorten its life. This latter 
 action, however, is not so injurious as is commonly 
 supposed, as the writer knows a machine the wires 
 on which, though carrying nothing but rag stuff treated 
 with the hyposulphite, run for thirteen and even four- 
 teen weeks. 
 
 When using it great care must be taken to avoid an 
 excess, as, though not generally suspected, the reason 
 why so many photographs become stained and spotted, 
 even when not exposed to the action of light and air, 
 is that an excess of hyposulphite of soda has been used 
 in the engine, the presence of which in the cardboard 
 used for mounting has caused the discoloration. 
 
 A glance at the following equation will show that 
 when sulphite of sodium is used none of the resulting 
 compounds will have any injurious effect either on the 
 paper or the wire : — 
 
 Ca O Cl a O + 2 Na 2 S0 3 = Ca S0 4 + Na, SO„ + 2 Na CI. 
 
 Should an excess of sulphite of soda be used in the 
 
30 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 making of photograph mounts, it is asserted that no 
 bad results will ensue, and the same applies to all 
 colouring or toning. These reasons have led many 
 paper-makers to adopt it in preference to the hypo- 
 sulphite. It should be borne in mind, however, that 
 it takes about four parts of the sulphite to do the work 
 done by one part of the hyposulphite. 
 
 When using rags the best plan to ensure the com- 
 plete neutralisation of the chlorine, without using 
 an excess of antichlor, is to supply the beater-man 
 with a bottle of potassium iodide and starch solution, 
 with instructions to put in one-half of the usual amount 
 of antichlor while running in the water, and after the 
 rags are furnished, gradually to add the remaining 
 half until the blue stain produced on the addition of 
 a drop of the testing solution to the pulp has grown 
 faint and finally disappeared. To make this test satis- 
 factory it should be performed before the addition of the 
 alum, otherwise it is not so much to be depended upon. 
 
 No doubt all this attention means extra work for 
 the beater-man, but there are few beater-men who, if 
 the foreman will but spare the time to explain what 
 the neglect of the precautions may lead to, will not 
 gladly give the attention necessary. Such care will 
 not only ensure satisfaction to the purchaser, but will 
 also save the beater-man a considerable amount of 
 trouble, in giving a more uniform shade, and guarding 
 against the unaccountable rises and falls in colour 
 which are of so frequent occurrence in some mills. 
 
Plate III. 
 
 Fig. 5. — Chemical Wood x 130. 
 
 V ~ f ft 
 
 K. &/ A 
 
 ■»g*» ■—. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Mechanical Wood x 130. 
 
 {To face /age 31. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CELLULOSE FROM WOOD.— MECHANICAL WOOD 
 PULP. 
 
 Cellulose from Wood. — Comparatively few paper- 
 makers in this country prepare their own wood pulp, 
 most of the supply being obtained from the Swedish and 
 Norwegian pulp mills. A knowledge of the principles 
 on which the different processes for obtaining the 
 cellulose are based, and the effect of the treatment on 
 the pulp produced, is, however, indispensable to the 
 paper-maker, that he may be able to determine which 
 pulp is most suited to his particular requirements. 
 
 Wood, like jute, belongs to the class of ligno-cellu- 
 loses, and is composed of about two parts of cellulose, 
 intimately bound up with one part of non-cellulose or 
 lignin. The processes employed to break up this 
 combination may be classed under three heads. First, 
 the alkali process, which takes in the methods depend- 
 ing on the use of caustic soda. Second, the acid 
 process, under which may be arranged the various 
 
 3 1 
 
32 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 methods based on the reducing action of sulphurous 
 acid in the gaseous or liquid state. 
 
 Midway between these two classes stand those of 
 Dahl, Blitz, and Cross, the former of which employs 
 a solution of sodium compounds containing a large 
 percentage of sulphate of soda, and is known as the 
 sulphate process. The process patented by Cross, 
 mainly with the idea of rendering the use of lead- 
 lined boilers unnecessary, while depending on the 
 action of neutral solutions of the bisulphites provides 
 for the use of alkalies. The boiling in Blitz's process 
 is conducted by a solution of sodium sulphide, to 
 which is added a very small proportion of vanadate 
 of ammonia. 
 
 Whatever may be the process employed to produce 
 the cellulose, the wood must first undergo a preli- 
 minary mechanical treatment in order that the pulp 
 may be of a uniform character. The trees are first 
 sawn into small logs, which are then stripped of the 
 bark and cut into boards by passing through a slitting 
 machine. The knots are next bored or cut out, and 
 the boards broken into small chips by a breaking 
 machine. The chips are then passed under heavy 
 rollers, which bruise them in such a way as to allow 
 the boiling solution to thoroughly soak them, and 
 finally passed along revolving screens through which 
 the dirt and dust, set free by the crushing, escape, 
 while the clean chips are carried on to the boiler or 
 store house as they may be wanted. 
 
WATT AND BURGESS PROCESS. 33 
 
 The caustic soda process of Watt and Burgess may 
 be taken as the typical alkali method of isolating the 
 wood cellulose. In this process the wood, having been 
 subjected to such a treatment as that described, is 
 digested in a large boiler with a strong solution of 
 caustic soda, under a pressure of about ninety pounds, 
 for ten or twelve hours. It is the necessity for em- 
 ploying such high temperatures and pressures that 
 constitutes the serious drawback to the alkali pro- 
 cesses, as under the conditions of boiling the strong 
 caustic solution acts on the cellulose, impairing the 
 strength and reducing the yield. The reason why 
 such conditions are necessary is, that the soluble acid 
 bodies resolved by the caustic become so oxidised and 
 condensed that they counteract and weaken the reduc- 
 ing action of the soda, and in order to equalise their 
 resistance higher temperatures and pressures have to 
 be employed. 
 
 It is with a view to prevent the oxidisation of these 
 acid bodies that the soluble bisulphide of sodium is 
 used by Dahl. Notwithstanding the presence of this 
 reducing agent, the pressure employed is high. It is 
 in doing away with these counter-influences that the 
 chief advantages of the acid processes lie. By using a 
 solution of a bisulphite, such as lime or magnesia, the 
 acid bodies are removed by entering into combination 
 with the base, at the same time setting free the sul- 
 phurous acid, which acts on the unresolved wood, until 
 all the non-cellulose substances have been removed. 
 
 3 
 
34 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 In Ekman's process the wood is digested in a large 
 lead-lined, jacketed boiler, fitted so as to revolve when 
 desired. The solution used is prepared by passing 
 sulphurous acid gas, produced from burning sulphur 
 in a stream of air, up through a tower in which the 
 magnesia, with which it combines to form the bisul- 
 phite, is loosely spread out. A stream of water, 
 running down through the tower, meets the sulphurous 
 fumes in their upward course, and carries them into 
 solution. * 
 
 Care is taken that the sulphurous acid and magnesia 
 are kept at the proportions necessary to produce a 
 double sulphite. The strength of the bisulphite solu- 
 tion thus obtained is about one-and-a-half per cent, of 
 magnesia and four-and-a-half per cent, of sulphurous 
 acid. When the steam is turned on, the pressure in 
 the inner chamber increases with greater rapidity than 
 in the outer, owing to the tension of the sulphurous 
 vapour ; but it is said that the best results are obtained 
 by keeping the difference between the two pressures 
 under thirty pounds. 
 
 As the pressure increases, the blow-off cock is 
 opened that the gases may escape, and thus avoid 
 over-heating and consequent discolouring of the wood. 
 In about seven or eight hours the pressure reaches 
 eighty-five to ninety pounds, and after about three 
 hours' boiling at that pressure the action is stopped, 
 and the wood, after washing and draining, is ready to 
 be bleached. 
 
PARTINGTON AND MITSCITERLICH PROCESSES. 35 
 
 In the Partington process the sulphurous gas is led 
 into tanks containing milk of lime, and a bisulphite of 
 lime solution at once obtained. By this method the 
 boiling can be completed in from sixteen to eighteen 
 hours, though in some cases, when increased pressure 
 is employed, the time required is a little less. 
 
 While the principle underlying the various sulphite 
 processes is the same in each case, they are divided 
 into two classes, owing to the duration, or rather the 
 differences which exist in the duration, of boiling. In 
 what are termed the " quick " processes, the boiling 
 is completed in from twelve to sixteen hours. To 
 accomplish the complete separation of the cellulose and 
 the non-cellulose substances in that time, a strong acid 
 solution, at a high temperature, must be employed. 
 
 In the Mitscherlich process the solution used is 
 much weaker, and contains a greater proportion of 
 base. The result is that the boiling must be extended 
 from forty to sixty hours, and the pressure is also 
 much lower. By this latter treatment it is claimed that 
 a larger percentage yield is obtained than by the quick 
 methods of boiling. It is, however, difficult to see 
 where this increase can come from, unless the incrust- 
 ing substances are imperfectly removed, and so add 
 to the weight of pulp produced. If this is the case it 
 will soon make itself known by the increased amount 
 of bleach necessary to give a good colour. 
 
 Wood and jute show a close analogy in chemical 
 composition, and the difficulty experienced in bleaching 
 
36 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 wood, from which all the incrusting matter has not 
 been removed by the boiling, is due to the formation 
 of a yellow chlorine compound similar to that produced 
 when chlorine acts on jute. This yellow body must 
 first be bleached before the cellulose is brought to a 
 good white colour, and the amount of chlorine neces- 
 sary to do this acts very injuriously on the fibres. 
 
 This weakening is also noticeable in highly bleached 
 sulphite pulps; and though the degree of whiteness 
 obtained, by using a large amount of bleach, makes 
 such pulps suitable for the better qualities of paper, it 
 is obtained at the sacrifice of much of the original 
 strength and elasticity of the fibres. 
 
 Though Dahl's process is generally known by the 
 term "sulphate," the solution employed to digest the 
 wood contains other sodium compounds. It is prin- 
 cipally composed of sodium sulphate, sodium sulphide, 
 and sodium hydrate, and the strength of the recovered 
 solution is maintained by the addition of fresh quan- 
 tities of sodium sulphate. This process is said to 
 possess a slight advantage over the caustic alkali 
 methods in point of economy; but it is the general 
 opinion among paper-makers that the pulp produced is 
 inferior in strength, and less free from incrusting sub- 
 stances, than that obtained from the sulphite processes. 
 Owing to the presence of these incrusting matters 
 sulphate wood is, however, more suitable for the 
 making of papers which are wanted opaque. 
 
 During recent years the demand for " sulphate " 
 
KRAFT BROWN PAPERS. 37 
 
 pulp has increased largely, owing to the development 
 of "Kraft" brown papers, which have entirely super- 
 seded certain classes of browns formerly used for 
 wrapping purposes. The remarkable development of 
 the Kraft brown branch of the trade is due to the 
 fact that the Scandinavian makers were quick to realise 
 the possibilities of pulp specially cooked to give the 
 required characteristics. 
 
 In order to produce a pulp suitable for the Kraft 
 papers, the boiling is conducted so as to ensure that 
 encrustating matters are not fully resolved, with the 
 result that the fibres are not injured, and retain their 
 original strength in a marked degree. 
 
 It is a matter of much discussion among British 
 paper-makers as to whether the characteristics obtained 
 in the finished sheet are the result of the methods of 
 boiling or the manner of beating, but it is probable 
 that they are due to a judicious combination ; and the 
 fact remains that, notwithstanding painstaking ex- 
 periments on the part of British makers, no Kraft 
 yet produced in this country combines the crispness 
 and elasticity which form so distinctive a feature of 
 the Kraft papers produced by the best Scandinavian 
 mills. 
 
 Another theory held to account for the superiority 
 of the Scandinavian product is that the change in 
 physical properties resulting from the action of the 
 hot cylinders of the pulp machines, when the pulp is 
 dried previous to being shipped, constitutes a serious 
 
38 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 drawback to the production of strong, tough paper. 
 With a view to overcoming this defect some British 
 makers have shipped sulphate pulp containing 50 per 
 cent, moisture ; but notwithstanding that this pulp 
 was specially prepared with a view to produce Kraft 
 papers, the results cannot be said to have justified the 
 increased cost incurred. It would seem that, owing 
 to the presence of the by-products in the boiled pulp, 
 the time allowed to elapse between the finish of the 
 cooking and the beating or milling operation must de- 
 termine to a large extent the properties of the finished 
 product. Apart from such considerations as to boiling, 
 the ability of the Scandinavian makers to allow a 
 considerable time for milling the pulp in kollergangs or 
 beaters must always remain a very considerable asset 
 in their favour for the production of a crisp, tough 
 Kraft paper. 
 
 A careful examination of the samples of the best 
 Kraft papers will show that the individual fibres of 
 the Scandinavian papers are much longer than those 
 in the papers produced by British makers, and it is 
 very probable that, even if the home maker could 
 treat his pulp so as to retain the length of the fibres 
 in the like degree, the product would be lacking in 
 firmness and "rattle." 
 
 It would thus seem that the well-known character- 
 istics of the Scandinavian papers are the result of the 
 exceptional conditions under which they are prepared ; 
 and having regard to the practically unlimited supply 
 
SCOTCH WOOD PULP PROCESS. 39 
 
 of power at the command of the manufacturers at a 
 nominal cost, it will be readily understood that the local 
 conditions lend themselves in an exceptional manner 
 to the requirements most desirable in the case. 
 
 In a Scotch mill, making a speciality of its wood pulp 
 papers, the wood is treated with a bisulphite of lime 
 solution, prepared by passing the sulphurous fumes 
 into a tower containing the limestone, through which 
 a stream of water is kept running. With the solution 
 thus obtained a charge of eight tons of wood is boiled 
 in a large rotary boiler, under a pressure of 57 lbs., 
 for seven hours, when the pressure is lowered for a 
 few minutes by opening the blow-off valve and allow- 
 ing the volatile compounds to escape, and again 
 increased, this time to 80 lbs. This pressure is 
 maintained for twelve hours. 
 
 The boiled wood, after washing, is emptied into a 
 large pit beneath the boiler, from which, after draining, 
 it is lifted into boxes, pressed, and taken to the 
 breaker, or washer, as it may more correctly be termed. 
 After washing, by means of a drum, the wood pulp is 
 emptied into a chest, from which it is pumped to flat- 
 bottomed strainers similar to those used in connection 
 with the presse-pdte. The strainer pulp is next run 
 into the potcher in which the bleaching is conducted. 
 
 After the wood has received a preliminary bleaching 
 the washing-drum is let down, and the chlorine com- 
 pounds, formed by the action of the bleach on the 
 imperfectly removed incrusting matters, washed out. 
 
4° 
 
 PR A CTICA L PA PER-MA KING. 
 
 After this washing is completed the amount of bleach 
 necessary to bring to a good colour is run in, and 
 when the colour is up the wood is emptied into the 
 draining-chests, where it lies until wanted. 
 
 The pulp produced by this process is strong, and 
 comes to a good colour when bleached. It has, more- 
 over, one distinct advantage over many of the wood 
 pulps in the market, in that it comes to a soft, greasy 
 condition with comparatively little milling, with the 
 result that the papers made from it, especially the lighter 
 weights, possess a strong yet silky feel. 
 
 At the present time considerable attention is being 
 directed by British makers to the soda process, owing 
 to the introduction and increased use of poplar pulp 
 produced by the soda process. As is well known, 
 American paper-makers have relied on poplar and 
 similar soft woods for the production of papers which in 
 this country are made mostly from esparto grass, and 
 it is somewhat curious that poplar pulp should now 
 be a recognised material for blending with esparto in 
 British mills. 
 
 The methods employed in American and Canadian 
 mills for the isolation of the poplar fibres by means 
 of the soda process differ very little from those 
 originally used by Watt and Burgess, excepting that 
 the tendency is to increase the pressure and shorten 
 the time in boiling. Owing to the very drastic action 
 of the soda solution when employed in conjunction 
 with a pressure of between loo lbs. to 1 10 lbs., the 
 
MECHANICAL WOOD PULP. 41 
 
 time employed on the preliminary processes may be 
 curtailed considerably, the knots being so acted upon 
 as to be easily removed by the strainers on the pulp 
 machine. The freedom from dirt and small chips 
 which the bleached pulp displays when being reeled 
 up at the end of the pulp machine is very striking. 
 
 To produce a good colour on poplar pulp prepared 
 by the soda process it is essential that the washing be 
 sufficient to remove the combinations which have re- 
 sulted by the union of the soda with the acids contained 
 in the wood ; and in order to effect this, the method 
 employed is very similar to that used in the washing 
 of esparto grass, as in each case it is important to 
 ensure that complete removal of the objectionable 
 compounds without unduly reducing the strength of 
 the liquor to be subsequently treated in the recovery 
 process. 
 
 The methods of boiling and bleaching vary slightly 
 in the different mills, but as a rule a well-boiled, well- 
 washed poplar pulp will come to a good colour with 
 about 12 per cent, of bleaching powder. 
 
 Mechanical Wood Pulp. — A large portion of the wood 
 used in paper-making has been subjected to no chemical 
 treatment, and is known as " mechanical wood," to 
 distinguish it from the pulps produced by the various 
 chemical processes. The mechanical wood is obtained 
 by pressing large blocks of wood against revolving 
 grindstones, which tear the fibres from the mass. The 
 
42 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 ground wood is washed from the stones by means of 
 a continuous flow of water, and carried through a 
 series of screens, in which the dirt and small chips 
 are separated from the fibres. 
 
 Though the blocks of wood are placed so that the 
 fibres will be torn laterally, the grinding action of 
 the stone has the effect of making them very short, 
 and this, together with the incrusting matter with 
 which they are surrounded, deprives them of their 
 felting power to a large extent. 
 
 In order to get as long a fibre as possible, the 
 wood is sometimes steamed for ten or twelve hours, 
 previous to grinding, that the fibres may yield more 
 readily to the tearing action of the stone, and thus 
 be torn at a greater length. At best the pulp thus 
 produced is possessed of little felting power, and is 
 not suitable for any but inferior grades of paper 
 such as news or low quality printings. 
 
 Apart from the poor felting properties of the fibres, 
 the lignin contained in the wood is acted on by air 
 and light if exposed for any length of time. It is 
 this oxidising and decomposing action which is the 
 cause of the discoloration of paper containing even 
 a small proportion of mechanical wood pulp. 
 
 Notwithstanding these serious defects, mechanical 
 wood is largely used as a filling material, owing to 
 its low price and opacity. Because of the latter 
 property it is much used to counteract the trans- 
 parency of papers made from sulphite wood. As 
 
MECHANICAL WOOD PULP. 
 
 43 
 
 much as 70 per cent, is often used in the manu- 
 facture of news, and even with no other fibre than 
 30 per cent, of sulphate or sulphite wood a good 
 news is produced. 
 
 Table of Composition of Woods (Muller). 
 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 • 55-52 
 
 • 45-47 
 
 53-09 
 
 • 56-99 
 
 62-77 
 
 Resin . 
 
 . 1-14 
 
 041 
 
 3'93 
 
 0-97 
 
 1-37 
 
 Aqueous extract 
 
 . 2-65 
 
 2-41 
 
 3-56 
 
 1-26 
 
 2-88 
 
 Water . 
 
 . 12-48 
 
 • 12-57 
 
 io-io 
 
 13-87 
 
 I2-IO 
 
 Lignia 
 
 . 2821 
 
 • 39-I4 
 
 29-32 
 
 . 26 91 
 
 20-88 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 ESPARTO AND STRAW. 
 
 Analysis of Air-dried Samples (Muller). 
 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 African. 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 48*25 per cent. . 
 
 . 45-80 
 
 )er cent. 
 
 Fat and Wax 
 
 2 '°7 j> 
 
 2-62 
 
 » 
 
 Aqueous extract . 
 
 10-19 » 
 
 . 9-81 
 
 «» 
 
 Pectous substances 
 
 26-39 ., 
 
 • 29-30 
 
 ,, 
 
 Water . 
 
 938 „ 
 
 . 8-8o 
 
 » 
 
 Ash . 
 
 377 „ 
 
 • 3-67 
 
 » 
 
 A glance at the foregoing analysis will reveal that the 
 amount of cellulose contained in esparto does not quite 
 reach 50 per cent. That means that, given the best 
 working conditions, 20 cwts. of esparto will not produce 
 much more than 9§ cwts. of paper. 
 
 Before this amount can be rendered available for 
 paper-making, the 10 cwts. of non-available materials 
 must be got rid of. Not only do they require to be 
 separated from the cellulose, but they must be re- 
 moved in such a manner as will prevent any recombi- 
 nation which would tend to injure the cellulose. 
 Caustic soda has been found most suitable for this 
 
Fig. 7. —Esparto a 130. 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 8.— Straw x i jo. 
 
 [To face page 44. 
 
RATIONALE OF ESPARTO BOILING. 45 
 
 purpose, both on account of its reducing and com- 
 bining power. 
 
 When esparto is treated with a hot solution of 
 caustic soda, the gummy, resinous, and waxy sub- 
 stances, together with the silica which forms the 
 waterproof coating of the whole, are dissolved — the 
 former as fatty and resinous soaps, the latter as 
 silicate of soda. The percentage turn-out of winter 
 cellulose will be less than of that cut in the summer, 
 for this reason, that the winter cellulose will contain 
 more moisture than the summer. This being so, 
 it will require a smaller quantity of soda to boil 
 with. 
 
 Before purchasing a supply of esparto, or in fact 
 any other paper-making material, a sufficient quantity 
 should always be secured to admit of a practical test 
 being made, so that the paper-maker may know 
 whether the amount of available material contained 
 is in proportion to the money he has to pay for it. 
 A neglect of this precaution, especially in a mill 
 where large quantities are used, may and does often 
 mean the loss of a considerable amount of money 
 in a year. 
 
 After the bales of grass have been freed from the 
 hoops or ropes with which they are held together, 
 the small bundles are fed into the dusting machine, 
 which breaks them up and dusts them at the same 
 time. 
 
 The endless felt which receives the dusted grass 
 
46 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 as it leaves the duster may be extended so as to 
 deliver it right over the boiler mouth, and should 
 be so placed that space enough is left on either 
 side for sorters, should there be any necessity for 
 removing knots and roots, which might become 
 broken up by the action of the soda, and so pass 
 through the strainers of the presse-pdte, and cause 
 black or brown specks to appear in the paper. 
 
 Esparto, owing to its pectous nature, yields with 
 comparatively little resistance to the reducing action 
 of the soda. While it is quite possible to set free 
 the cellulose by boiling under very low pressures, 
 or even in open boilers, it is necessary to use strong 
 solutions, and to extend the treatment over a much 
 longer time than is required when the pressure em- 
 ployed is high. 
 
 As a rule, the higher the pressure employed the 
 less soda is required to do the work ; but this applies 
 only within certain limits, as the use of high pressures 
 is very liable to induce recombinations of the non- 
 cellulose constituents which, in addition to damaging 
 the pulp, hinder the reducing action of the soda. 
 
 If vomiting boilers are used, the work of boiling 
 40 to 50 cwts. of grass can be accomplished in 2\ to 
 3 hours, under a pressure of from 30 to 40 lbs., 
 using 14 to 16 per cent, of 70 per cent, caustic 
 on the raw material. 
 
 The conditions of working vary in nearly every 
 mill, in accordance with the quality of the paper to 
 
ESPARTO BOILING AND DRAINING. 47 
 
 be made, so that no hard-and-fast rule as to tempera- 
 ture, duration of boiling or strength of solution, can 
 be set down. It should, however, be borne in mind 
 that when the grass used is difficult to bleach it is 
 better and more economical to boil with half a pound, 
 or even a pound, more caustic per cwt. than to use 
 extra bleach to give the desired colour. 
 
 The additional caustic will not impair the strength 
 of the grass unless the temperature employed be much 
 higher than usual, while it will have the effect of 
 softening the fibres and rendering them more easily 
 penetrated by the bleach. Extra bleach means extra 
 antichlor, injury to the presse-pdte wire, and, in a marked 
 degree, weakening of the original strength, together 
 with the production of much powdery fibre. 
 
 Whatever be the material treated, concentrated solu- 
 tions of caustic soda perform the work much more 
 expeditiously and effectively than dilute ones ; so that 
 a better result will be obtained by putting in as large 
 a quantity of the material as possible, thus leaving less 
 space to be filled up with water, than by boiling a 
 smaller amount with a more dilute solution. 
 
 After the boiling is completed, the steam from the 
 blow-off should be used to heat the water to be used 
 for washing. 
 
 When all the spent lye has been run to the roaster 
 tanks, assuming that it is to be evaporated and re- 
 covered, the grass should be treated with hot water, 
 the hotter the better, as when hot it frees the fibres 
 
48 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 from the fatty and soapy substances which still cling 
 to them. 
 
 After standing for some time, this first water, as it 
 is usually termed, is also run to the roaster and the 
 boiler filled with clean cold water, which is allowed 
 to remain in contact with the fibres until it is required. 
 When this last water is run off it may be pumped to 
 the blow-off tank, there to be heated by the blow-off 
 steam, and used as a first water for the next 
 boiling. 
 
 In some mills the grass is taken straight from the 
 boiler to the potcher, where it is washed by means 
 of a drum similar to that used for washing rags. 
 Many paper-makers object to this method of washing, 
 as a large proportion of the finest fibres are very 
 liable to pass through the meshes of the wirecloth 
 covering and be carried away with the washing water. 
 
 Very good results, both for cleanliness and yield of 
 fibre, are obtained when the grass is washed in a 
 system of tanks connected together in such a way 
 that the water after rising to the top of the one passes 
 to the other, and so on to the end of the series. The 
 motion of the water is so slow that sufficient time is 
 given to clean the grass without carrying away the 
 finest fibres. 
 
 When the grass in each chest is washed clean, the 
 pipe connecting it with the next one is closed, and 
 the water drained away through the perforated false 
 bottom formed of iron plates. The grass generally lies 
 
ESPARTO WASHING AND BLEACHING. 49 
 
 in the chest for twenty-four hours, but can be washed 
 much quicker when required. 
 
 Another system of washing, said to give very good 
 results, is that of treating the grass in the boiler with 
 cold water under pressure. The pressure is main- 
 tained by a force pump, and the outlet is into a tank 
 above the boiler. This water can be heated and used 
 to wash the next boiling. 
 
 In some mills the grass is washed in the boiler by 
 blowing a blast of air into the water, and thus creating 
 sufficient agitation to free the fibres from the non- 
 cellulose substances which still cling to them. In this 
 way a boiling can be well washed in four hours when 
 the water is changed three or four times. The chief 
 advantage of washing in the boiler lies in the saving 
 of time and labour effected, as compared with the 
 washing in tanks. 
 
 When steam is used to aid in bringing up the 
 colour great care must be taken not to overheat, or 
 the strength will be impaired and the colour go back. 
 Eight cwts. of grass, reckoned on the raw material, 
 should be perfectly bleached in about 2 or 2\ hours 
 with about 8 per cent, of bleach. 
 
 The bleach should be run in with the water while 
 furnishing, and when full the steam should be turned 
 on. When the heat is up, which will be in about 
 twenty minutes, it should be turned off. The steam 
 cocks should be perfectly tight, as if they allow steam 
 to pass when shut the grass will be in danger of being 
 
 4 
 
50 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 overheated, and this is especially so when it is left 
 standing in the potcher for any length of time. The 
 same care must be taken in using the antichlor, as is 
 necessary with rags, that no excess be present. 
 
 It is the practice in some mills to run the grass over 
 the presse-pdte before bleaching, so that the wire may 
 not be damaged by the acid set free when the antichlor 
 decomposes the bleach. Unless the grass has been 
 properly boiled, the roots and hard ends will not yield 
 to the action of the bleaching solution, and owing to 
 the hardness of the fibres they will not go through 
 the plates of the presse-pdte strainer. 
 
 Though the percentage of cellulose contained in straw 
 is nearly as high as that from esparto, the yield of 
 available paper-making material is not so high. Owing 
 to the chemical and physical characteristics of straw, 
 it requires to be boiled with a larger proportion of soda 
 than is necessary for esparto. The compound cellulose, 
 which constitutes the basis of the straw plant, contains 
 a greater proportion of lignin than the esparto cellu- 
 lose, and ligno-cellulose is much less susceptible to the 
 reducing action of the caustic than pecto-cellulose. 
 
 In addition to this, the knots must be so reduced 
 in boiling that the bleaching solution will be able to 
 saturate them without using an excessive quantity. 
 The effect of this extra soda is that the finest fibres 
 are liable to be carried away with the washing water, 
 and thus the yield is often as much as io per cent, 
 less than that from esparto 
 
STRAW BOILING. 51 
 
 Straw is usually boiled in rotary boilers, as by using 
 them the pulp is so reduced as to run through a pipe 
 into the steeping tanks, and thus the lifting from the 
 boilers is saved. The boiling pressure is also higher 
 than for grass, fifty to sixty pounds being often employed. 
 
 The boiled straw may be washed in large cement- 
 covered tanks, and after draining be dug out and taken 
 to the potcher to be bleached in the ordinary way. 
 When it is to be used in the mill it may be run straight 
 to the bleaching house to drain until wanted, but it 
 is usually run over the presse-pdte in the same way 
 as grass. 
 
 Papers made from straw are, owing to the hard 
 nature of the ultimate fibres, very hard and brittle. 
 This want of flexibility is as much owing to the smooth, 
 highly-polished surface of the fibres, as to their short- 
 ness and stiffness. When 5 or 6 per cent, of good, 
 clean straw pulp is used, the paper gets a firmer grip 
 and rattle. 
 
 Straw also helps the sizing, probably owing to the 
 pores of the paper being filled up with the fine fibres, 
 as much as to its hardness, but it is not suitable for 
 papers which are wanted to bulk well. 
 
 Analysis 
 
 of Straw 
 
 (Muller). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winter wheat. 
 
 Winter 
 
 rye. 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 46^60 per cent. 
 
 4769 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Fat and wax . 
 
 1 "49 
 
 . 
 
 1-93 
 
 
 n 
 
 Aqueous extracts . 
 
 8-07 „ 
 
 . 
 
 005 
 
 
 > 
 
 Non-cellulose or lignin . 
 
 2849 ,, 
 
 . 
 
 2675 
 
 
 u 
 
 Water .... 
 
 9^5 -, 
 
 . 
 
 II- 3 8 
 
 
 it 
 
 Ash ... . 
 
 550 
 
 . 
 
 320 
 
 
 n 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 BEATING. 
 
 It is an accepted principle that in order to produce a 
 paper which will have strength and tearing strain 
 the fibres must be kept long in the beater ; and more 
 especially does this apply to such thin papers as banks 
 and loans. While it is quite true that long fibres do 
 give these qualities to the papers made from them, it 
 is also true that the fibres may be kept long and yet 
 the paper produced possess less firmness and tensile 
 strength than if they had been kept finer. 
 
 Whether the fibres be long or short when they 
 reach the machine, the properties of the paper made 
 depend on the treatment they receive during the first 
 hour-and-a-half in the beater. If the roll be put sharply 
 down on the plate at first, the fibres, while still retaining 
 their length, will become weakened, and the sheet will 
 have a raw, soft feeling, which even the addition of 
 more than the usual amount of starch will not over- 
 come. 
 
 Such stuff is generally termed "fast" or "free"; 
 
LONG AND SHORT FIBRES. 53 
 
 and though for certain classes of papers, such as thick 
 chromos and lithos, the thickness of which renders 
 strength and firmness in the ultimate fibres a matter 
 of less importance, free stuff is desirable, yet the 
 beater-man should try to temper the stuff so as to 
 preserve as far as possible the original strength and 
 elasticity of the fibres. 
 
 The rawness referred to is also very noticeable in 
 papers made from esparto, to which have been added 
 I or 2 per cent, of strong rags. In the beating of such 
 stuff, especially if the paper be thin, the idea that 
 length means strength is often so much developed that 
 when the pulp reaches the strainer a large proportion 
 of the rag stuff refuses to go through. 
 
 A little consideration of the subject will show that 
 the behaviour of the fibres under the influence of the 
 shake, as they are carried along the wire, has a great 
 deal to do with whether the sheet be strong or the 
 reverse. If a sheet of thin paper be placed under the 
 microscope, it will at once be seen that there exist 
 between the fibres spaces which seem to be filled with 
 some transparent non-fibrous material. 
 
 The longer the fibres the more apparent do the spaces 
 become, and, however minute, their presence must tend 
 to weaken the sheet. When the fibres are a shade 
 finer, the finest of them will, under the influence of the 
 shake, settle down into these spaces, thus making the 
 sheet more closely felted. 
 
 This is the reason that, when using broke from the 
 
54 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 edgerunner, so large a proportion of the loading is 
 carried in comparison with the amount retained when 
 no broke is used. Edgerunner broke is generally 
 reduced to such a state of fineness consequent on its 
 having been under the action of the roll so often that 
 it floats on the surface when on the wire ; and in 
 addition to the shake, the suction of the pumps tends 
 to draw the very fine fibres which compose it into 
 the spaces referred to. 
 
 In filling up these spaces, not only do the fine fibres 
 greatly assist in making a close and evenly felted sheet, 
 but by their presence they also prevent the loading 
 materials from passing through the meshes of the wire 
 as they would otherwise be very liable to do. 
 
 It is in the making of such papers as banks and 
 loans that the ill effects of keeping the stuff too long 
 become most apparent ; and this is especially the case 
 if the strainer plates used for the ordinary fine stuff are 
 expected to take through the long rag stuff equally 
 well. 
 
 The rubbing of the plates which is essential in such 
 circumstances, in order to keep them from clogging up 
 altogether, has the effect of completely spoiling what 
 would under other conditions be a clean, strong sheet, 
 by peppering it with dirt and knots. Only those who 
 have had the working of such stuff can fully appreciate 
 the improvement which a finer engine will make in 
 regard to the appearance and strength of the sheet. 
 
 It will be more mellow, strong, and clean, and not 
 
FREE AND SOFT STUFF. 55 
 
 least of the advantages derived will be the giving of 
 more time to the machine-man to run steady weight, 
 unhampered by the flooding and thinning which are 
 unavoidable in such a case. 
 
 In preparing stuff for thick papers, such as chromo 
 and litho printing, the roll must be put down from 
 the first, that the stuff may be fine and free, and so 
 part with the water easily and give a close, evenly 
 felted sheet. To insure that the stuff will not be too 
 soft, it should not run more than three or three-and- 
 a-half hours in the beater. 
 
 Stock intended for thin, strong papers must be 
 drawn out and milled in the washer for at least six 
 hours, and in the beater for ten or twelve hours. 
 Blunt plates and rolls are necessary for the milling 
 of such stuff, as a sharp plate or roll would cut 
 it up too much, and, making it free, prevent it from 
 softening properly. 
 
 In preparing long greasy stuff, intermediate beaters 
 possess this advantage : that by having blunt plates 
 and rolls in the first engine, the stuff is milled in such 
 a way as to render the fibres long and flexible, and 
 capable of imparting a soft, silky feel to the papers 
 made from them ; while in the second engine they can 
 be reduced to the required length when they are in 
 such a condition owing to the first treatment that the 
 cutting action of the sharper tackle will not impair 
 their strength. 
 
 Several engines having the same end in view are used 
 
56 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 in American paper-mills ; and one of these beaters, or 
 " perfecting engines," as they are termed, is becoming 
 pretty well known to paper-makers in this country 
 under the name of Marshall's perfecting engine. The 
 author was running the machine to which it was 
 attached when first tried in the mill where he served 
 his apprenticeship, and had therefore a good oppor- 
 tunity of judging its merits. 
 
 The engine consists of a conical cylinder, the inside 
 of which is fitted with steel bars in much the same 
 manner as the bed-plate of the beating engine. 
 Inside this cylinder a conical roll, also fitted with steel 
 knives, revolves at a high speed, and as the stuff 
 passes between the roll and the bars on the inside 
 of the cylinder, it may be reduced to any degree of 
 fineness. On reaching the end of the shell the stuff 
 is made to pass between a revolving and a stationary 
 disc, both of which are fitted with knives. 
 
 The action of this disc or brush, as it is called, 
 serves to rub out all knots and chips in much the 
 same way as does the rubbing of the roll in the 
 ordinary beater. This beater possesses all the advan- 
 tages of the intermediate system, while requiring much 
 less space and driving power compared with it. 
 
 In the preliminary treatment necessary in the ordi- 
 nary beater, before passing the stuff through the 
 perfecting engine, the roll should be let down to a 
 little more than a rub — just sufficient to mill the stuff 
 is all that is required. When emptying to the chest, 
 
MARSHALL'S PERFECTING ENGINE 57 
 
 from which the perfecting engine is supplied, much 
 less water must be put down than is usual when 
 emptying to the machine chests ; the reason for this 
 being that the thicker the stuff is in its passage through 
 the engine the better does it accomplish its work. 
 
 As the pulp after passing through the engine flows 
 into the machine chests in a continuous stream, the 
 weight is more constant ; and when it does alter one 
 way or another it does so very gradually, thus insuring 
 that the machine-man will notice and correct it before 
 it can have much effect on the sheet. If the pulp 
 contains a large proportion of grass, it should be 
 diluted by running in a stream of water as it leaves 
 the perfecting engine, and thus prevented from running 
 into knots in the chest. 
 
 When the stock consists of materials which are not 
 fitted to bear the same beating strain, it is better to 
 beat them in separate engines. Of course it is not 
 always convenient to do this, especially when the pro- 
 portion of strong or weak stock is small. To treat 
 such a small proportion separately would keep back 
 the other engines too long, in addition to changing 
 the proportions in the finished sheet. 
 
 In order to reduce good Spanish grass to fine stuff, 
 it requires a firmer treatment with the roll than most 
 of the rags which are mixed with it would get if treated 
 in a separate engine, and this should be taken into 
 account when selecting the rags to be used along with 
 it. When the stock consists wholly or in large pro- 
 
58 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 portion of chemical wood, the engines must not be 
 heavily loaded nor allowed to run long in the mill, as 
 the wood is reduced very easily and soon becomes 
 greasy. 
 
 For medium weights of all wood-papers three hours 
 is quite sufficient, and for the lightest weights eight 
 hours. When it is especially desired that the paper 
 should not crack when folded the time may be ex- 
 tended to six hours ; but in that case the machine will 
 have to go slower in order to allow of the water being 
 taken out. Some wood pulps, however, are much 
 more difficult to soften than others, and even after 
 milling for a considerable length of time still tend to 
 be free. This is in all probability due to the treatment 
 in boiling or bleaching, or perhaps in both, having 
 been too drastic, with the result that the natural 
 elasticity of the fibres has been impaired. 
 
 When making unsized papers it will be noticed that 
 the sheet tears much better than a sized sheet from 
 fibres of a similar fineness will do. This affords con- 
 clusive evidence that, within certain limits, it is the 
 flexibility and softness of the fibres, more than their 
 length, that give tearing strain to a sheet. 
 
 The unsized fibres are not coated with the resinate 
 of alumina used to size with, and therefore retain their 
 natural elasticity and tensile strength. When under 
 the action of the shake the unsized fibres are more 
 closely felted than would be possible were they 
 stiffened by the size-coating, and this is more notice- 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF BEATER. 59 
 
 able if the sheet be torn across the wire instead of 
 down its length. 
 
 When a sheet of paper is torn the fibres are not 
 broken, they are simply pulled asunder, and it is for 
 this reason that it always " skins " better when torn 
 down the wire than across its length. Stuff for 
 blotting-papers must be cut up as quickly as possible 
 in the beater, and run not longer than an hour and 
 a half in the mill. The beater must be light loaded, 
 and the stuff kept constantly travelling, otherwise it 
 will not have a uniform absorbing-power. 
 
 Soft cotton rags are generally the stock from which 
 blottings are prepared. Manilla hemp, owing to its 
 soft, lustrous nature, and the width of the central canal, 
 should, with proper treatment, be possessed of good 
 absorbing qualities. 
 
 Whatever be the shape or size of a beater, it must 
 be so constructed that no stuff will lodge in any part 
 of it, and for all-round work it must have a roll heavy 
 enough to thoroughly soften the pulp and keep it in 
 constant motion. If a beater of large capacity is 
 desired, Forbes's patent double-roll beater possesses 
 all the requirements, with the exception that the rolls 
 are not heavy enough ; but with heavier rolls, and the 
 speed of the lifter no faster than is necessary to ensure 
 good travelling, the pulp produced will be of a very 
 uniform character. 
 
 It is the practice in some mills to wash the inside 
 of the beating engines with soda ash, and even caustic 
 
60 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 lye, when changing colours, with the result that the 
 smooth skin, which coats the sides, is rendered quite 
 rough. This roughness retards the passage of the 
 pulp in a way that is almost incredible to those who 
 have not witnessed its effects. Not only does such 
 washing interfere with the travelling, but it is the 
 worst thing possible for causing rust spots to appear 
 in the paper. 
 
 Under none but the most exceptional circumstances 
 should the rolls or sides of the beaters be subjected 
 to any washing or scraping which will tend to break 
 up the enamel-like surface which, if let alone, the 
 continual contact with the moving stuff, and the 
 chemicals contained in it, will impart to them. Under 
 the ordinary conditions of working, beater-rolls should 
 run from eighteen to twenty months after filling, and 
 bed-plates from ten to twelve weeks. 
 
 Should the plates be worked for a longer period 
 than that, the roll has to be put so firmly down, in 
 order to make fine stuff, that the driving power is 
 taxed to the uttermost, and, in addition, the stuff, from 
 having to be kept a much longer time in the engine 
 before it can be made fine, is very liable to become 
 too soft. 
 
 As a result of the increased demand for the cheaper 
 grades of paper, consisting wholly or in large part 
 of wood pulp, the tendency in beater construction has 
 been towards the production of beaters of larger 
 capacity ; and no doubt, when it is possible to arrange 
 
HIBBERT BEATER. 6 1 
 
 for long runs on one grade of paper, these large 
 engines possess several distinct advantages. 
 
 The colouring of a larger body of pulp at one time 
 tends to regularity and the prevention of shades, while 
 the pulp is much less apt to become too greasy, owing 
 to the fact that it has much further to travel between 
 each contact with roll and plate. The necessity for 
 the production of free stuff which will allow of quick 
 driving and a close even sheet has led several paper- 
 making engineers to design beaters in which the roll 
 is placed so as to be quite clear of the pulp, the latter 
 being supplied in some instances by means of a screw, 
 and in others by a circulating pump. Perhaps the 
 most popular of these new types is that known as 
 the " Hibbert " beater, which also combines the beating 
 and refining, and has been largely adopted in mills 
 making long runs on wood pulp papers. 
 
 It must not, however, be assumed that, because for 
 certain grades of wood pulp or esparto papers the 
 newer type of beating engines offer advantages, the 
 Hollander type has been rendered obsolete. The fact is 
 that the tendency to specialise is becoming much more 
 noticeable, with the result that makers, having proved 
 that a certain type of beater suits the special papers 
 to which they are turning their attention, are installing 
 the particular beater when opportunity offers. 
 
 The problem which confronts the paper-maker when 
 called on to decide on the type of beater to adopt 
 must depend for its solution on the special require- 
 
62 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 ments of the paper he desires to produce, and the 
 power at his disposal for beating purposes, together 
 with the physical properties of the raw materials to be 
 employed. In order to produce from, say, esparto, a 
 pulp which would be capable of settling down quickly 
 on the machine wire, and making, under the influence 
 of a medium shake, a close, mellow paper — which, in 
 view of economical production, must be turned out at a 
 quick speed — the roll and bed-plate bars would require 
 to be somewhat sharp, in order to shorten the fibres 
 sufficiently without rendering them so greasy as to 
 retain the water too long on the wire. The circulation 
 must also be well maintained, and for the preparation 
 of such papers the new type of beater offers distinct 
 advantages, as, with the independent circulation, it is 
 possible to arrest the flow of the pulp when it is fully 
 prepared, and thus avoid getting it too greasy. 
 
 Most practical paper-makers will be ready to admit, 
 however, that a beater which is eminently fitted for 
 the production of fine, free stuff, will not of necessity 
 produce as good results, even under skilful manipula- 
 tion, when working on, say, chemical wood pulp for 
 the production of a paper such as the thin Kraft 
 papers, in which the indispensable requirements are 
 toughness and flexibility, together with the mellow 
 appearance characteristic of well-milled greasy stuffs 
 from the Hollander type. 
 
 Notwithstanding the degree of nicety with which 
 the roll can be raised or lowered, and the means 
 
LIGHT AND HEAVY BEATER ROLLS. 6$ 
 
 thus at hand for regulating the superficial pressure 
 exerted on the ultimate fibres as they pass between 
 the bars of the roll and the bed-plate, the pulp produced 
 with sharp bars is invariably weaker, and (though the 
 ultimate fibres may be a fair length) lacks the greasy 
 well-milled feel which is indispensable for the pro- 
 duction of thin, tough papers. This inferiority is all 
 the more noticeable should the stock consist of strong 
 rags and wood pulp, as the already disintegrated wood 
 fibres are too much cut up by the treatment necessary 
 to open out the fibre bundles of the rags. It is well 
 known that a light beater roll will draw out the fibres 
 much better than a heavy one, but that, in order to 
 produce equal results in the reduction of the fibres, 
 the light roll will take longer time. The whole 
 question really lies in the superficial pressure exerted 
 by the roll, and with sharp bars the pressure is 
 increased in proportion as the area of the bearing 
 and cutting surface is reduced. 
 
 For the production of the higher grades of writing 
 and printing papers, in which the appearance is so 
 important a factor, the best results will be obtained 
 with bars about one-sixteenth of an inch on the face. 
 This will be found to hold good whether the half-stuff 
 consists of rags, esparto, or wood ; and as the demand 
 for cheap, smart-looking papers seems to become more 
 pronounced, such conditions are likely to govern the 
 type of whatever innovations may appear in beater 
 construction. It will be generally admitted that for 
 
64 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 good all-round work the medium size of beating engine, 
 carrying from 500 to 700 lbs. of stuff, is undoubtedly 
 the best, although, as mentioned above, beaters of 
 larger capacity possess certain advantages for long 
 runs on one quality of pulp. 
 
 While no hard-and-fast rule as to the conditions 
 of the bars can with any safety be promulgated, it 
 will be of material assistance to paper-makers who 
 wish to determine the most suitable conditions of roll 
 and bed-plate bars, for the treatment of any particular 
 half-stuff, if they will set to work and find out the 
 exact relationship which exists between the state of 
 the bars and the amount of superficial pressure exerted 
 between them when in contact with the stuff. To state 
 the matter crudely, the smaller the area of the points of 
 contact, the greater the pressure exerted on the fibres, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 With a view to testing the difference produced on 
 wood pulp papers by beating the fibres under a low 
 superficial pressure, the writer has substituted a solid 
 block of granite for the usual bed-plate of steel bars, 
 with excellent results. The experiment was first tried 
 with a beater of the usual Hollander type, carrying 
 from 450 to 500 lbs. of pulp, having a roll 42 inches 
 on the face, with 72 bars drawn out to one-eighth of an 
 inch on the face. The plate contained 26 bars, also 
 one-eighth of an inch wide on the face. The granite 
 block gave a bearing surface of 42 inches by 8 inches, 
 and was hollowed out to suit the sweep of the roll, 
 
GRANITE AS BED-PLATE. 65 
 
 with the result that the ultimate fibres were drawn 
 out, as they were swept across the granite face by 
 the action of the roll bars. 
 
 By substituting the solid block the superficial 
 pressure is thus reduced to about one-third, while the 
 number of cuts per revolution of the roll is now 72, 
 as against 1872 with the steel plate. 
 
 The advantage gained in beating half-stuff, which 
 already contains a sufficient number of short fibres 
 to impart the desired firmness to the finished sheet, 
 without the necessity of further shortening them, is 
 very considerable. After a trial extending over a 
 period of eighteen months, the net results of preparing 
 stock, which is wanted long and tough, under the 
 lower superficial pressure, and with the cutting power 
 so much reduced, showed an increase of 30 per cent, 
 in the strength and firmness of the papers produced, 
 together with a very considerable increase in the turn 
 out, due to being able to get the stuff out in a shorter 
 time. Originally intended to draw out sulphite wood 
 without cutting it, the method was tried experimentally 
 on strong rag stuff, and with such good results that 
 it was adopted for beating fibrous materials, such as 
 strong cotton and linen rags, hemp, and jute. The 
 increase of strength is most noticeable when the furnish 
 consists of a mixture of fibres which present a variety 
 of characteristics as to length and resistance to the 
 knives, as the weaker fibres are not rendered too 
 short before the stronger ones are sufficiently drawn 
 
 5 
 
66 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 out. This increase in the strength of the finished sheet 
 was so marked in one instance, that when the machine 
 started up with the stuff prepared under the new con- 
 ditions the paper was considered so much above the 
 usual quality that an additional quantity of loading 
 was added to bring it to the desired standard. 
 
 Not the least advantage in working the solid block is 
 that the stuff from strong materials can be cleared much 
 better; and though the individual fibres retain their 
 original length in a much larger degree, this freedom 
 from knots has the result of making them pass 
 through the screens much more readily than fibres 
 which have been cut short without being sufficiently 
 drawn out and set free from the fibre bundles, as is 
 often the case when long stuff is prepared with even 
 moderately sharp tackle. When the block is made to 
 fit the " den " exactly, it becomes a very simple matter 
 to substitute a block for a plate, or vice versa, should 
 the particular requirements of the paper it is desirable 
 to produce render it advisable. Should the blocks 
 become worn smooth, as they do in time, it is well 
 to have them picked on the surface, as in this way 
 they retain the stuff better, and the beating can be 
 accomplished in shorter time. 
 
 When tried against steel plates, the writer found 
 that with rough blocks a better quality of paper could 
 be produced in six hours than could be obtained in 
 eight hours from steel plates. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LOADING.— STARCH.— COLOURING MA TTER. 
 
 Loading. — It is not an uncommon idea with a great 
 many people that, in adding loading materials to the 
 paper in the process of manufacture, the paper-maker 
 is actuated by a motive akin to that which prompts 
 the dairyman to water the milk. 
 
 Though, the percentage of loading in some papers 
 would seem to justify such an opinion, yet, as a rule, 
 the loading is added with a distinct view to making the 
 paper more suitable for the particular purpose to which 
 it is applied. In the case of printing papers especially, 
 the addition of 15 or 16 per cent, of loading, by 
 making them more absorbent, enables them to print 
 much better, and lessens in a considerable degree the 
 friction when in contact with the types. 
 
 The first thing that the paper-maker must take into 
 consideration when selecting a loading material is that 
 its chemical nature is such that when in contact with 
 the free acids or chlorine compounds, liable to be 
 
 present in the pulp, no chemical or physical change 
 
 67 
 
68 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 will result. When that has been satisfactorily settled, 
 the next requirement to be looked to is freedom from 
 sand or coarse particles, which would tend to impair 
 the value of the paper ; and lastly, the colour should 
 be bright enough to blend with the shades of paper 
 for which it is intended. 
 
 Kaolin, or china clay, as it is usually termed, is 
 the loading usually employed in the making of news, 
 printings, and the lower qualities of writings. The 
 clay is made into a thin cream with water, generally 
 in a chest fitted with a revolving agitator, so that 
 when furnished to the engine it will always be of 
 the same consistency. Some paper-makers mix it 
 with resin size, the idea being that in this way it is 
 more firmly held by the fibres, and less liable to 
 pass through the meshes of the machine wire. 
 
 Before running into the beater it should be carefully 
 strained, so that any sand or unground particles may 
 be kept back. The sieves used for this purpose should 
 be very fine, as even the best grades of clay contain 
 a considerable proportion of extraneous matter. 
 
 China clay, in addition to enabling the paper loaded 
 with it to take up the printing ink more rapidly, helps 
 materially in bringing up the surface when calendering, 
 though from its power of absorbing moisture the high 
 finish thus obtained is liable to go back if exposed 
 in a damp atmosphere. Should an excessive amount 
 be added, or if it has been imperfectly strained, 
 the pressure of the calender rolls will have the effect 
 
CHINA CLAY.— PEARL HARDENING. 69 
 
 of squeezing the coarser particles out and leaving 
 the sheet pierced with innumerable very minute 
 holes. 
 
 The sizing and feel of clay-loaded papers are never 
 so good as with papers loaded with such materials as 
 pearl hardening or barium sulphate, nor do they bulk 
 so well. Heavy chromo and plate papers often contain 
 as much as 35 to 40 per cent, of clay; and though 
 such a large amount is very apt to cause " dusting " 
 in cutting and printing, the impression obtained is 
 much more clear, and the colours are absorbed more 
 rapidly, than would be possible with a smaller pro- 
 portion of loading. 
 
 For the better qualities of writing papers, the 
 materials used are calcium sulphate, sulphate of barium, 
 barium chloride, and agalite. 
 
 Calcium sulphate — or pearl hardening, as it is usually 
 named — is generally clean enough to be added to the 
 engine without straining, and is added in the dry state, 
 and owing to its firmer nature the sizing is much less 
 impaired than with clay. In addition to its hardening 
 properties, it imparts a purity of shade to the paper, 
 which makes it very valuable as a loading for the 
 finer qualities of writings, in which look is of the first 
 importance. This brilliancy is also possessed by 
 barium sulphate, but as it is not usually so free from 
 dirt it is not so suitable for high-class papers. 
 
 Barium sulphate, owing to its high specific gravity, 
 is not carried so well by the stuff, and when diluted 
 
7° 
 
 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 to the consistency usual in the sandtrap, a large pro- 
 portion settles out and adheres to the bottom of the 
 spouts. This, together with the amount which passes 
 through the wire and is deposited on the bottom of 
 the save-all, reduces the percentage carried to about 
 30 per cent, of the amount actually added. It should 
 be mixed with water and strained before being put into 
 the engine, otherwise a large amount of dirt will be 
 carried into the paper. 
 
 A paper, weighing equal to about 4olbs. demy, when 
 loaded with clay to show 19 to 20 per cent, on 
 burning, will carry as much as 85 per cent, of that 
 added to the beater. Should such a paper consist of 
 a large proportion of edgerunner broke, the amount 
 carried will in some cases be as much as 90 to 95 
 per cent. 
 
 It must be borne in mind, however, that when 
 edgerunner broke is used, the amount added to the 
 engine will contain as much as 15 to 18 per 
 cent, of clay firmly fixed on the fibres by the 
 previous sizing and drying, so that the percentage 
 of that added as clay, which is carried in the paper, 
 is not so high as it at first appears. Heavy chromo 
 papers burning 35 to 40 per cent, of clay will not 
 carry more than 50 per cent, of the amount 
 added. 
 
 This is owing to the beating of the stuff, which is 
 cut up very quickly and thus rendered very free, 
 coupled with the fact that the machine wire in 
 
A GALITE.— STARCH. 7 1 
 
 travelling so slowly gives more time for the loading 
 to be shaken through the meshes. The percentage 
 of barium sulphate carried will seldom exceed 35 
 per cent., while pearl hardening will usually turn 
 out 50 per cent. It is claimed that by using 
 chloride of barium, and adding a slight excess of 
 alum or alumina, sulphate of barium will be pre- 
 cipitated on the fibres in such a way as to enable 
 them to retain it much better, and so increase the 
 turn out. 
 
 Agalite is the only loading material apart from 
 ground wood which can claim to be more than a 
 loading, on account of its fibrous nature. 
 
 Agalite is prepared from asbestos, and retains the 
 fibrous nature of that substance. Owing to this 
 the loss in passing over the wire is much less, and 
 indeed it is claimed that in ordinary circumstances 
 as much as 99 per cent, is actually carried. By 
 using agalite the surface is much improved, owing 
 to its soapy nature, and the sizing is not impaired 
 as with china clay. 
 
 It has the drawback, however, of making the paper 
 loaded with it very greasy, owing to the size having 
 become fixed in the pores, and retaining the water 
 very obstinately. 
 
 Starch. — This is applied to papers in the process 
 'of manufacture for the same reason as it is used by 
 the housewife in preparing collars and cuffs for ironing 
 
72 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 and glazing — namely, for hardening, and enabling 
 them to resist the effects of moisture, as well as 
 for imparting a high polish in the subsequent glazing 
 process. 
 
 In some mills it is the custom to boil the starch 
 with the resinate of soda solution before adding it 
 to the pulp, as in this way a larger percentage is 
 retained by the paper. When applied in this way, 
 the paper, though taking on quite as good a surface, 
 has not the firmness and rattle obtained when the 
 starch is added to the pulp in the dry state, 
 or merely dissolved in cold water, that the impurities 
 liable to be contained in it may be kept back by 
 putting it through a fine wire-cloth sieve. 
 
 Colouring Matter. — Notwithstanding the purity of 
 colour that can be obtained by a judicious use of the 
 bleaching solution, very few even of the finest qualities 
 of white papers are made a "self-colour." The colours 
 used for brightening or enriching the majority of 
 cream coloured papers are ultramarine and carnation. 
 In order to ensure uniformity of shade, a certain 
 standard should be fixed for each of these colours ; 
 and thus, by comparison, the colouring power of 
 new brands which may from time to time be brought 
 in can be at once determined. The standard sample 
 may either be prepared by mixing a known quantity 
 of the colour, decided upon as the standard, with a 
 measured quantity of fine starch or pearl hardening ; 
 
ULTRAMARINE. 73 
 
 or by dissolving a small portion in hot water, and 
 saturating narrow strips of white blotting paper 
 with the resulting colour. 
 
 By treating equal weights of the new samples in 
 exactly the same manner, taking care always to 
 preserve the same proportions when dissolving, an 
 accurate idea of the relative colouring power can at 
 once be obtained, and a short calculation, based on 
 the amount of pulp coloured by the standard, will 
 enable the papermaker to determine whether the 
 colouring power of the new sample is in proportion 
 to its cost. 
 
 The behaviour of ultramarine — or, to use the best- 
 known name, blue — with the alum solution used in 
 the mill, should also be ascertained, by allowing a drop 
 to remain in contact with a diluted solution of alum 
 or sulphate of alumina for a sufficient length of time 
 to show whether the colour would be affected during 
 the contact necessary in the beaters, machine chests, 
 and sizing tub. 
 
 Blue should always be dissolved in hot water and 
 carefully strained before adding to the pulp, so that 
 no insoluble particles may be fixed on the fibres, 
 and appear as blue specks on the under side of the 
 sheet. To ensure that the colour will be uniformly 
 distributed, when a considerable quantity is being 
 used, half of the amount necessary should be put in 
 just after furnishing, so that it may be thoroughly 
 mixed, while the remaining half should be added as 
 
74 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 soon as it has been ascertained whether any altera- 
 tion is to be made. 
 
 Pulp which has been left standing in the machine 
 chests for any length of time will generally be found to 
 have gone back in the colour when blue is the colour- 
 ing matter used. This fading will be greater in pro- 
 portion to the amount of acid contained in the pulp, the 
 exposure to light to which it has been subjected, and 
 the amount of iron impurities contained in the water or 
 communicated from the rolls and sides of the beaters. 
 
 In some mills the amount added, in order to counter- 
 act this fading, when the pulp has been standing from 
 Saturday night until Monday morning, is equal to a 
 third of the colour used to give the desired shade, 
 while in others a sixth is found to be sufficient. When 
 making papers coloured with smalts, which is unacted 
 on by acids, the fading is very slight, about a half- 
 pound for every twelve pounds left in the chest being 
 quite sufficient. With inferior grades of smalts the 
 liability to fading is, however, much greater. 
 
 When making delicate colours the alum should be 
 kept out until just before drawing the valve, so that 
 the contact with the colour may be as limited as 
 possible. A very suitable way in which to use coch- 
 ineal is to dissolve it in a dilute solution of ammonia, 
 to which a little cream of tartar has been added. The 
 cochineal paste is sometimes dissolved, with the cream 
 of tartar, in the water before the ammonia is added. 
 Used in this way there is no danger that the colour 
 
ANILINE COLOURS. 75 
 
 will spot the underside of the paper, as is often the 
 case when the dry carnation powder is used. 
 
 Not unfrequently when making toned papers the 
 iron used to give the shade makes the resulting colour 
 too bright. In such a case a glass or two of bark 
 liquor added to the engine or the chests will deaden 
 the colour to the desired shade. 
 
 When making greens, which colours are usually pro- 
 duced by combination of bichromate of potash and 
 nitrate of lead with Paris blue — or paste blue, as it is 
 often termed — the two first mentioned should always 
 be put into the engine and allowed to become mixed 
 with the pulp before the blue is added, and alum 
 should be kept out until just before drawing the valve. 
 Before adding the nitrate of lead to the engine care 
 should be taken that there are no traces of chlorine 
 compounds in the pulp, as the presence of such would 
 cause the yellow colour produced on the addition of 
 the bichromate to take on a dull orange tint. 
 
 Aniline Colours. — Though the advantages attending 
 the use of the coal-tar derivatives or aniline dyes — to 
 give them their most familiar name — have been known 
 for many years, it is only within a comparatively recent 
 period that these dyes have been used for colouring 
 any but the cheaper grades of paper. Thanks, how- 
 ever, to the painstaking and elaborate investigations 
 of the German chemists, applied under " up-to-date " 
 commercial conditions, these coal-tar colours have been 
 
76 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 produced in an almost endless series of shades, many 
 of which can compare favourably with the older forms 
 of colouring matter as to stability, while for depth 
 and variety of shade they far surpass them. 
 
 Notwithstanding that from a chemical point of view 
 the various colours are divided into distinctive groups, 
 named respectively acid and basic, their action is not 
 complicated to any extent. As a rule, when using 
 the comparatively small quantities necessary for tinting 
 purposes, it will be found that both the so-called acid 
 and basic colours will give reliable and regular results 
 when fixed with any of the alum compounds in general 
 use ; and this fact alone is sufficient to ensure the 
 adoption of these aniline dyes in most mills. It is 
 when using the larger quantities necessary to produce 
 the deeper shades that regard has to be given to the 
 reaction peculiar to each derivative, inasmuch as a 
 considerable advantage, in point both of economy and 
 of regularity, is gained by taking advantage of these 
 distinctive properties. Thus, when making a deep 
 scarlet, better results are ensured if the pulp be first 
 dyed with a basic colour such as paper scarlet, and 
 subsequently, after allowing time for complete mixing, 
 an acid colour such as cotton scarlet be added. By 
 proceeding thus, the acid colour forms a chemical 
 combination with the basic dye, with the result that 
 a precipitate is formed on the fibres, ensuring a fast 
 colour and more complete exhaustion, with the atten- 
 dant advantages of a much clearer backwater. 
 
ACID AND BASIC COLOURS. 77 
 
 Of the acid group, cotton scarlet is perhaps the 
 best known, and being largely used for the production 
 of deep shades, the question of complete exhaustion 
 and a clear backwater is of the first importance, in 
 view of the avoidance of pollution difficulties. Not- 
 withstanding that a great many experiments have 
 been made in order to determine the conditions most 
 suitable for ensuring a clear backwater when using 
 large quantities of cotton scarlet, the fact remains that 
 it is practically impossible to do so, even when the 
 utmost precautions are taken to ensure the formation 
 of a like precipitate on the fibres. It will be found, 
 however, that by observing certain precautions a great 
 degree of exhaustion may be obtained ; and one of 
 the most important points is to allow sufficient time 
 for complete mixing of the pulp and the dye before 
 adding the sizing solution, care being taken to add 
 about twice the usual amount of sizing. 
 
 Fresh dyes, it will be found, are much more liable to 
 give rise to frothing than if the lids be removed for 
 some time. When using paraffine for froth prevention, 
 care must be taken to avoid an excess, as otherwise 
 small specks of tarry matter will appear in the sheet. 
 
 As a rule the acid colours will be found to have 
 more resistance to light than the basic colours. 
 
 Amamine may be taken as typical of the basic 
 group, and gives excellent results, either used alone 
 or in conjunction with other colours. When using 
 colours belonging to the eosine group, great care must 
 
78 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 be taken to maintain the temperature of the drying 
 cylinders as uniform as possible, as otherwise a con- 
 siderable variation of shade will result. This variation 
 is most noticeable when making delicate shades on 
 the single-cylinder machine. 
 
 Dyeing to Shade. — As a general rule, the dyeing 
 of paper pulp is conducted in a somewhat haphazard 
 manner, with the result that, while in the greater 
 number of instances the methods adopted by the 
 papermaker work out fairly well, it not infrequently 
 happens that much time is lost and paper spoiled 
 through the colours not being right in shade ; especially 
 should the shade be a new one for that particular 
 mill. Given even an elementary knowledge of the 
 nature and properties of the dyes to be used, there 
 is no reason why any great degree of uncertainty 
 should exist as to how the colour will work on the 
 machine, provided that the dyeing be carried out 
 systematically and intelligently. There are two methods 
 by which the "striking" of colours may be carried out 
 much more expeditiously, and with (what is even of 
 greater importance) more certainty, than is possible 
 under the rule of thumb generally adopted. 
 
 To carry out the first of these methods, the apparatus 
 necessary consists of a chemical balance, a graduated 
 burette, three or four beakers, and about half a dozen 
 stoppered bottles. For the second method the balance 
 is all that is absolutely indispensable, though the use 
 
DYEING TO SHADE. 79 
 
 of a small mortar and pestle facilitates matters a great 
 deal. In carrying out the first method, which is re- 
 stricted to dyes as distinguished from pigments, a 
 weighed quantity of each dye of which it is intended 
 to make up a standard solution is dissolved in a known 
 volume of water and labelled in the following manner, 
 according to the proportions of water and dye used : 
 thus, " IOO C.C. = I gramme " would be the label should 
 io grammes be dissolved in one litre of water. In 
 working out this method a certain number of cubic 
 centimetres are added to a known weight of pulp — 
 say sufficient to weigh io grammes when made into 
 paper — and when the requisite dyes are added the 
 pulp is diluted, and tried either in the hand mould 
 or along the machine wire, when the percentage of 
 each dye can be at once ascertained. In working 
 out the second method, the dyes or pigments are 
 weighed off and added to the experimental quantity 
 of pulp in the dry state, a convenient scale being 
 *0i grammes of dye to 10 grammes of paper, being 
 equal to one pound of dye to 1,000 pounds of paper. 
 It is obvious that these experimental trials can be 
 carried out before the time for furnishing the beaters, 
 and so there is no unnecessary delay, in addition to 
 securing a much more satisfactory start than is possible 
 when the beaters have to be dyed up experimentally. 
 
 Of the two methods the writer always uses the latter, 
 which lends itself either to the use of dyes or pigments, 
 and when carefully worked is most reliable. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 RESIN SIZE AND SIZING. 
 
 Of all the materials used in the manufacture of paper, 
 there is none about which there exists such diversity 
 of opinion, both as to its preparation and subsequent 
 action, as that of resin size. 
 
 Dr. Wtirster holds that the degree of sizing is pro- 
 portional to the amount of free resin deposited on the 
 fibres. Other experts, however, claim that the active 
 sizing agent consists of the resinate of alumina, formed 
 when the resin soap is decomposed by the alum ; while 
 it is asserted by some that it is a mixture of both which 
 constitutes the size coating. 
 
 In support of the free resin theory, it is claimed that 
 paper can be sized without the use of alum or alumina 
 by making use of sulphuric acid to decompose the 
 resinate of soda and liberate the resin, Though the 
 majority of paper-makers hold the opinion that the 
 resinate of alumina alone sizes the paper, nearly every 
 mill has a different recipe for the preparation of the 
 size. 
 
 80 
 
RESIN SIZE. 8 1 
 
 While the exact chemical composition of resin is 
 still a matter of some obscurity, chemists and paper- 
 making experts are generally agreed that two parts 
 of crystal soda are required to unite with four parts 
 of resin ; while, if good soda ash be used in place of 
 the crystal form, one part will form a neutral resinate 
 with four of the resin. 
 
 The following recipe will give a reliable size of a 
 light brown colour, which will be as near as possible 
 a neutral resinate of soda : — -Dissolve ninety-eight 
 pounds of good soda ash in thirty-six gallons of 
 boiling water, and then add four hundred and twenty 
 pounds of powdered resin. 
 
 The best form of boiler is a jacketed one, as by 
 using it the increase of water, due to the condensation 
 of the steam used to boil with, is avoided. The resin 
 should be roughly powdered by the hand, as it is 
 asserted that the finely divided resin, prepared by 
 using a grinding mill, is very liable to form clots on 
 being put into the hot soda solution. So long as any 
 of the resin is undissolved, the carbonic acid, evolved 
 as it enters into combination with the soda, will cause 
 the solution to froth up, and, if not carefully watched, 
 so as to check the steam in time, it will come right 
 over the top of the boiler. 
 
 To avoid this as much as possible, the temperature 
 should be kept no higher than is necessary to dissolve 
 the resin in a reasonable time. In addition to pre- 
 venting the frothing, it is said that the carbonic acid, 
 
82 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 when not violently expelled, has the power of forming 
 a bicarbonate with the uncombined soda, which tends 
 to improve the sizing properties of the soap. 
 
 When all the resin has united with the soda, the 
 steam should be shut off, as further heating impairs 
 the strength of the size. To test whether the resin 
 has all gone into combination, a little of the size should 
 be taken out and poured into a pailful of tepid water. 
 If it is right it should dissolve at once, and on putting 
 in the hand there will be no deposit of resin. If, 
 however, the resin has not all gone into solution, the 
 hairs on the back of the hand will be rendered quite 
 sticky by the adhesion of the uncombined particles. 
 
 If a further heating does not serve to combine the 
 resin, it may be inferred that, probably owing to a 
 variation in the strength of the soda, the amount used 
 is insufficient, and more will require to be added until 
 the test shows that there is no more uncombined resin 
 present. The soap should be run through a sieve 
 before being put into the store tanks, that any in- 
 soluble impurities may be removed. 
 
 Size prepared in this way will not yield much lye 
 when kept for a length of time, for this reason, that it 
 does not contain much soda in excess. The lye which 
 separates out contains the colouring matter of the 
 resin and any soluble impurities that may have been 
 introduced while boiling. This lye should be carefully 
 skimmed off, and while most paper-makers make no 
 further use of it, it is recommended by others to be 
 
WHITE SIZE. 2>T, 
 
 used in dissolving the next boiling, as by using it less 
 soda is required. They further assert that the acid 
 which constitutes the colouring matter tends to im- 
 prove the value of the size. 
 
 A size prepared with the proportions given above 
 should yield about ninety-six gallons of undiluted soap, 
 each gallon containing nearly five-and-a-half pounds 
 of resinate of soda. To prepare the solution for the 
 beating engine, eight gallons of this strong size should 
 be diluted with eighty gallons of water, which will be 
 equal to half-a-pound of resinate of soda per gallon 
 as furnished to the engine. After having been brought 
 to boiling point, the size thus diluted should be strained 
 through flannel, laid over a fine sieve, before being 
 run to the beater store tank. 
 
 By using soda-ash and resin, in the proportion of 
 one part of soda to eight parts of resin, a white size 
 containing a considerable amount of free resin will be 
 produced. A suitable way of making this white size 
 is to boil forty pounds of soda-ash with two hundred 
 and seventy pounds of resin in about sixty gallons of 
 water, and when all the resin has been dissolved to 
 add fifty pounds of finely powdered resin. When such 
 a size is diluted for the engine, it should be of a bright 
 white colour, owing to the amount of finely divided 
 free resin which it contains. 
 
 When in contact with the pulp, this resin becomes 
 attached to the fibres in a purely mechanical way, and 
 this, together with the tendency of unprecipitated resin 
 
84 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 to form resin spots in the paper, would lead one to 
 conclude that, whatever the advocates of free resin 
 sizing may think of it, the maker of fine grades will 
 best forward his own interests by seeking to perfect 
 the preparation of a neutral resinate of soda. Apart 
 altogether from the composition of the sizing solution 
 used, whether the paper be well sized or the reverse 
 depends, to a great extent, on the mode of treatment 
 in the beater. 
 
 When the engines are heavily loaded with as much 
 stuff as possible, the ultimate fibres do not come under 
 the cutting action of the knives, owing to the body of 
 stuff between the roll and the plate, and thus, though 
 well hammered out, the original form and elasticity 
 of the fibres are preserved. Stuff prepared in such 
 a manner will size well for two reasons, which will 
 be readily understood. 
 
 When such stuff is carried down the machine wire 
 it retains its water very obstinately, and thus the size 
 coating is well felted among the fibres before the water 
 is drawn out by the pumps. The loss of size with 
 the backwater is therefore very small. The strength 
 and flexibility of the fibres enable them to felt closely 
 when coated with the resinate of alumina, and thus 
 a strong, well-sized paper is produced, with the usual 
 amount of alum and size. 
 
 With light engines the body of stuff between the 
 roll and the plate is much thinner, and thus the 
 cutting action is more drastic. The result is that. 
 
SIZING.— CRYSTAL ALUM. 85 
 
 in addition to being reduced in length, the fibres are 
 burst open, and thus lose much of their felting power, 
 at the same time being rendered very free. Free 
 stuff parts with the water very easily, and thus much 
 of the sizing is lost on the machine, while the 
 weakness, consequent on the treatment of the fibres 
 in the engine, is also a great drawback to making a 
 firm, strong-sized sheet. 
 
 To get the best results in sizing stuff prepared in 
 light engines, the roll must be very carefully put 
 down, or the very life will be knocked out of the 
 fibres, and the stuff will froth and " bell " on the 
 wire, in addition to being poorly sized. 
 
 Until within the last few years potash alum was 
 almost exclusively used in the sizing of superior 
 papers, owing to the difficulty in obtaining sulphate 
 of alumina from which free acid and iron impurities 
 had been completely separated. 
 
 Crystal alum consists of a double sulphate of 
 alumina and potassium, united together with 24 parts 
 of water, as the following formula will show : — 
 
 Al, (S0 4 ) 3 K 2 S 4 + 24 H 2 0. 
 
 It contains only about I0'5 per cent, of sulphate of 
 alumina, and is thus much more expensive than the 
 sulphates of alumina. 
 
 Sulphate of alumina is not a chemical compound 
 of a definite composition, as the alumina varies 
 between 2 and 3 per cent., though that purchased 
 
86 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 from reliable makers generally contains 15 or 16 
 per cent. 
 
 Owing to the improved methods of manufacture now 
 adopted, the aluminium sulphates can be prepared in 
 such a way as only to contain the slightest trace of free 
 acid and iron ; indeed, in some of the best grades no 
 trace can be found. Notwithstanding this, the crystal 
 form is generally employed for the very best qualities. 
 
 Sulphate of alumina is much more soluble than 
 crystal alum, which requires 18 parts of water 
 as against 2 parts required to dissolve I part of 
 the alumina. 
 
 The amount of alum (or alumina) required to 
 decompose the resin soap will depend on the amount 
 of resinate of soda to be acted on. A size which 
 contains a large percentage of free resin, already 
 precipitated by the degree of dilution to which it 
 has been reduced, will require less than one in which 
 the percentage of sodium resinate is greater. 
 
 To ascertain the exact amount necessary to de- 
 compose the size, about 50 ex. should be placed in 
 a glass flask, and the number of ex. of alum 
 necessary to convert all the resinate of soda into 
 resinate of alumina run in from a graduated burette. 
 
 In this way the correct proportions for the solutions 
 employed in each particular mill can be arrived at. 
 Most paper-makers add to the pulp a larger proportion 
 of alum than is required to form the size coating. 
 
 This excess has the effect of hardening the paper 
 
INFLUENCE OF WATER ON SIZING. 87 
 
 and giving to it a better rattle, and also acts as a 
 mordant in helping to fix the colour. 
 
 If the water used in the mill contains magnesium 
 or lime salts, or, in other words, is hard, a much 
 larger quantity of alum will have to be employed 
 to obtain a well-sized paper. 
 
 When size is added to an engine furnished with 
 hard water, it is decomposed as a flaky precipitate, 
 owing to the action of the sulphates of lime and 
 magnesia in forming resinate of lime and resinate of 
 magnesia when brought into contact with the resinate 
 of soda. If, however, sufficient alum be added to 
 precipitate the lime and magnesium salts, before the 
 addition of the size, this decomposition can be pre- 
 vented, and the resinate of alumina formed as usual. 
 
 The best plan is to add the size after the alum used 
 to neutralise the lime and magnesium salts has been 
 thoroughly mixed, and then to run in the amount 
 required to combine with the resin. It is said that, 
 in this way, the precipitate formed by the action of the 
 alum on the salts, which are the cause of the hardness 
 of the water, is not so liable to be decomposed by the 
 excess of alum used, as the presence of the size pre- 
 vents it from remaining in contact with the pulp in 
 the free state, owing to the ease with which the 
 resinate of alumina is formed. 
 
 The exact amount necessary to precipitate the salts 
 contained in the water can easily be determined by 
 treating a small quantity of it with a solution of the 
 
88 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 alum used. The number of c.c. required to give a 
 precipitate can be seen from the markings on the 
 burette, and thus the amount required for the gallons 
 contained in the engine is simply a matter of pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Though the water supply, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, may be sufficiently free from impurities, a 
 sudden flood may change the channel and lay bare 
 lime and magnesium compounds which, when carried 
 into solution, will have a deleterious effect on the 
 sizing. When the water contains carbonic acid the 
 danger of this is much increased, as the acid dis- 
 solves the lime as a carbonate, identical with the 
 carbonate of lime formed by the action of the carbonic 
 acid of the air in the lime left on the fibres by the 
 bleaching solution. 
 
 The extent to which the decomposition of the alum 
 may be carried, owing to the presence of these salts, 
 either in the water or in the pulp, will be easily seen 
 from a glance at the following equation : — 
 
 Al 2 + K 2 4 S0 4 + 24 H 2 + 2 CaC0 3 
 54 + 78 + 128 + 256 + So + 24 + 96 = 
 
 948 + 200 
 
 2 CaS0 4 + A1 2 3 + K 2 S0 4 + 2 C0 2 + SO s + 24 H 2 0. 
 
 It will thus be seen that should the water in the 
 engine contain I lb. of carbonate of lime in solution, 
 almost 5 lbs. of potash alum will be decomposed, and 
 thus rendered ineffective for sizing purposes. 
 
 A consideration of the above facts will show that, 
 
INFLUENCE OF HEAT ON SIZING. 89 
 
 in order to size paper effectively and economically, 
 the greatest vigilance must be exercised to see that 
 the solutions used are kept as near as possible to the 
 proportions which practical experiments, in each mill, 
 have shown to be necessary. 
 
 The contact with the heated cylinders on the 
 machine, and the degree of heat to which the paper 
 is subjected, have a great deal to do with rendering the 
 size coating effective. This is probably due to the 
 resinate of alumina, which has been precipitated on 
 the fibres in the engine, becoming fused, and spread 
 out, over, and into the interstices of the paper in such 
 a way as to greatly increase the water-resisting power. 
 
 That the sizing of paper, dried by the contact with 
 the machine cylinders, is much better than a similar 
 paper dried by hot air, may be tested by taking a 
 piece from the web after it has passed the second 
 press rolls, but before coming into contact with the 
 heated cylinders, and drying it in a hot atmosphere. 
 A piece should be taken from near the same place in 
 the web, but after having been thoroughly dried by 
 passing over the cylinders, and when the first sample 
 is perfectly dry, the relative water-resisting power can 
 easily be determined. 
 
 Wetting with the tongue will show that the paper 
 dried by hot air, without any contact with a heated 
 body, is very poorly sized compared with the piece 
 which passed over the cylinders. An accurate idea of 
 the relative sizing can be obtained by placing a drop 
 
90 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 of a dilute alcoholic solution, coloured with a little 
 carnation in order to render the effect more noticeable, 
 on each of the samples, and observing the time which 
 it takes to penetrate to the other side in each case. 
 
 The initial cost of the hides and piths used in animal 
 size-making, as well as the expense in preparation and 
 application, has led to investigations with a view to 
 finding a substitute which, while being less expensive 
 to begin with, can be applied with satisfactory results 
 to the pulp in the beating engine, thus doing away 
 with the necessity for the expensive drying plant. The 
 substance which has as yet shown the best results as 
 a substitute for animal size is milk caseine. 
 
 Caseine is the name given to that portion of milk 
 which contains albumen. This albumen is analogous 
 to that obtained from eggs and blood, and when a 
 paper is coated with it it becomes capable of resisting 
 the penetrating action of water just as a gelatine-sized 
 paper does. When dry, milk caseine takes the form 
 of a slightly yellow powder, which dissolves somewhat 
 sparingly in water. 
 
 The caseine for sizing is generally dissolved in a 
 very dilute solution of ammonia, and in this state may 
 be added to the pulp in the engine. When used in 
 this way, however, there is a considerable loss owing 
 to the finest of the albuminates precipitated by the 
 alum passing away with the back-water on the machine. 
 
 Dr. Muth, a strong advocate of caseine sizing, pre- 
 pares the ammonium albumen, as the caseine is 
 
CASEINE SIZING. 91 
 
 generally termed, with a solution of ordinary resin 
 size prior to adding it to the pulp ; and in this way 
 he claims that the finest albuminates are fixed by the 
 size, and thus prevented from being carried away with 
 the machine back-water. 
 
 For fine papers Dr. Muth recommends the use of 
 4 to 5 parts of caseine to i| parts of resin, and 3^ 
 parts of sulphate of alumina to precipitate. These 
 proportions can be changed according to the quality 
 of the papers to be sized. 
 
 Among the advantages claimed for milk sizing may 
 be mentioned the greater elasticity of the fibres when 
 compared with resin-sized papers — an increased yield 
 owing to the precipitated albuminates being retained 
 among the fibres. It is also claimed that, owing to the 
 fatty substances present in the caseine, frothing on 
 the machine is much reduced, and a larger percentage 
 of loading carried with less injury to the tear, owing 
 to the union of the caseine with the loading materials. 
 This union is said to entirely prevent dusting when 
 cutting and printing. 
 
 Caseine may also be used for surface sizing, and 
 when dried at a temperature of 266 Fahr. is said to 
 become quite insoluble. When adding to the engine 
 it should be allowed to become thoroughly mixed with 
 the pulp before the alum, which must always be 
 present in excess, is run into it. 
 
 Though it can be readily understood that the gela- 
 tinous precipitate formed on the fibres will resist the 
 
92 PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 
 
 action of water much better than the resinate of 
 alumina resulting from the resin size, it is difficult to 
 understand how the coating thus formed will possess 
 the same resisting power as that from the thick, strong 
 gelatine which composes good animal size. In mills 
 possessing no facilities for surface sizing, it might be 
 used with advantage for the sizing of a better class of 
 papers than the usual engine-sized qualities. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE FOURDRINIER MACHINE AND ITS 
 MANAGEMENT. 
 
 In most mills considerable difficulty is experienced, 
 in preventing the emptying of the beaters from dis- 
 turbing the weight on the machine. As the beaters 
 are usually filled to the lip, there is no room to allow 
 of the water being sufficiently mixed with the pulp 
 before drawing the valve ; and the result is that the 
 thick stuff reaches the chests, and, in spite of the 
 motion of the agitator, sinks to the bottom and is 
 drawn into the pipe supplying the stuff cock-box before 
 the water can be got down. 
 
 When making a large, heavy sheet, a difference of 
 5 or 6 lbs. in the ream may be caused by this thick 
 stuff before the water can equalise it. Several devices 
 have been tried in order to do away with this as much 
 as possible. One of these consists in placing a metal 
 float in a small box through which the stuff is led 
 after it leaves the stuff-cock. 
 
 The float is connected with a water-cock in such a 
 
94 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 way that when it rises, owing to the thickening of the 
 stuff, the water is turned on, and continues to run 
 until the pulp has been reduced by it to the usual 
 thickness, when the float sinks down and closes the 
 cock. 
 
 In some mills a small chest capable of holding about 
 ioo lbs. of pulp, and fitted with an agitator, is used as 
 a stuff-cock box, but with no great advantage ; and 
 when working out, the difference in pressure as the 
 level of the stuff becomes lowered causes light weight, 
 in spite of the attention of the machine-man in gra- 
 dually putting up the stuff-cock. 
 
 The best plan, though not always the most con- 
 venient, is to place a chest, capable of holding the 
 contents of the beater when diluted with water to the 
 usual consistency, in such a position that it can empty 
 into either of the machine chests. When the pulp and 
 water have been thoroughly mixed, it can thus be 
 allowed to flow into whichever chest it is desired to 
 fill, and being always of the same thickness, the weight 
 is not disturbed. 
 
 When no such plan is adopted, the chests should 
 be connected by a pipe fitted with a valve, so that 
 either can be shut off when working out or changing, 
 and the engines should be emptied into the chest, the 
 cock of which is shut, and which communicates with 
 the one out of which the pump is drawing the supply 
 of stuff for the machine by means of the connection 
 pipe. In this way the thick stuff has time to become 
 
STUFF CHESTS.— AGITATORS. 95 
 
 more diluted before it finds its way through the con- 
 necting pipe to the chest supplying the machine. 
 
 If the chests are of iron, the inside should be 
 covered with a coating of cement or some other non- 
 corrosive substance. Chests coated in this way will 
 keep clean longer, and when dirty be much easier 
 washed, than if they were not coated. If the agitators 
 revolve too slowly, a great deal of trouble will arise 
 from bad weight, especially when making thick papers 
 carrying a large percentage of loading. 
 
 Agitators that revolve too quickly are, however, very 
 apt to churn grass stuff into soft knots, which are with 
 difficulty broken up by the strainer. A good speed 
 for all round work is six or seven revolutions in the 
 minute, When the stock used consists of rags, the 
 speed may be quickened to eight or nine revolutions 
 without doing any injury, 
 
 It is most essential that the stuff pump be capable 
 of pumping sufficient stuff to give a good overflow 
 when the machine is working at its full breadth and 
 speed, as a poor stuff pump is a great hindrance to 
 the turning out of a good weight. To ensure that an 
 ordinary pump will work easily, without any undue 
 straining or jarring, the pipe from the chests should 
 not be less than four inches in diameter. 
 
 A new form of stuff pump, which has lately been 
 introduced, works without the rubbers, which are such 
 a nuisance in the older forms. The bottom ball works 
 into the pipe, while the top one works into a cavity in 
 
96 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 the barrel, and against an iron saucer fitted to the top 
 of the cover. The balls may be of metal ; but if so, 
 they are apt to check the stuff and cause white chips 
 to appear when making blue papers, so that rubber 
 ones give most satisfaction. 
 
 When the felts used to cover the sand-trap are 
 nailed down, they should be carried up the sides also, 
 so that no stuff may get in below, otherwise the stuff 
 and dirt which will accumulate underneath will come 
 away at times and cause much broke. If they are 
 simply held down by leads, which is the better plan, 
 a spare set should always be kept, so that they may 
 be washed thoroughly and be ready to put down when 
 the trap is washed out. 
 
 It seems to be a fixed idea with the majority of 
 paper-makers that, in order to get clean paper with a 
 revolving strainer, it must be worked with the plates 
 covered. It is very doubtful, however, if much or even 
 any advantage is gained by this method of working, 
 as the strain on the bellows is much harder, and, the 
 suction being stronger, the dirt is more liable to be 
 drawn through the slits than would be the case if the 
 strainer were drawing a little air and thus working 
 more easily. 
 
 It is often remarked, in recommending this or that 
 special style of strainer, that it can take through a 
 larger amount of stuff in the hour than any other. 
 Those who talk in this way seem to forget that the 
 first requirement in a strainer is to keep back dirt, 
 
REVOLVING STRAINERS. 97 
 
 and not merely to force through a large amount of 
 stuff. A strainer which takes through a more than 
 usually large amount of stuff in an hour will be almost 
 certain to draw through a more than proportionally 
 large amount of dirt, especially if the increased power 
 be due to extra suction. 
 
 It cannot escape notice that, when the flat strainers, 
 which work by suction, fill up and get no air, a much 
 larger amount of dirt will come through than when 
 they are drawing air. The better plan would seem to 
 be to work two strainers at an easy suction, rather 
 than force dirt and stuff through one by shutting 
 out the air and taxing the bellows to the utter- 
 most. 
 
 For straining fine stuff the plates should be of as 
 narrow a cut as will take through the stuff without 
 undue strain. The better qualities of writing papers 
 are, as a rule, made from very fine stuff, and, conse- 
 quently, will work easily through 2| or 3 cut plates, 
 but for banks and loans cut 4 or 4^ is necessary, 
 while the long stuff prepared for cartridge papers 
 should be strained through cut 5 or 5^. 
 
 It is a mistake to work fine cut plates for long stuff, 
 as the rubbing necessary carries more dirt and knots 
 into the sheet than would get through if wider plates 
 were used. Whatever may be the width of the plates, 
 the greatest care should always be paid to having them 
 fit properly down on the frame. If the plates fit badly, 
 dirt and knots will get through in spite of all the care 
 
 7 
 
9 8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 given to the choice of the width of the cut, and the 
 same applies to badly-fitting bolts. 
 
 It often happens that when the original bolts become 
 used up or lost the new ones supplied are a little 
 longer, and do not fit up to the head ; or they may 
 be a little smaller, through the holes having become 
 worn and apt to become slack with the working of the 
 bellows, especially if the plates be worked covered. 
 If the bolts are too long the head will exert no 
 pressure on the plate to keep it down on the frame, 
 and, consequently, the stuff which works down the 
 thread of the bolt will find its way under the plate and 
 into the paper unstrained, and in all likelihood it will 
 have become rolled into a small, hard knot in its 
 passage down the thread. The same thing will occur 
 if any of the bolts work slack, or if the plates do not 
 fit close up to the frame. 
 
 The knots which are caused by these defects are 
 easily recognisable, as they are hard and rounded, and, 
 unlike the knots which are in the stuff, they are raised 
 up on the surface of the sheet. When the packing of 
 the strainer ends has become worn, the knots made 
 by the working of the stuff between the vat and the 
 journal of the strainer are not so round, but more 
 feathery shaped. 
 
 It sometimes happens that long grass stuff becomes 
 churned into soft knots in the chests, and these, 
 especially if the plates are worn wide, are very liable 
 to pass through the slits unbroken and appear in the 
 
ESPARTO KNOTS. 99 
 
 sheet. If such stuff, instead of being run straight 
 from the stuff cock into the sand trap, is led into the 
 box which receives the water from the save-all, and 
 drawn with the water through the pumps, a very large 
 proportion of the knots will be broken up by contact 
 with the sides of the pumps and pressure in passing 
 the rubbers. 
 
 If this arrangement is not a suitable one, another 
 plan is to blow a jet of steam against the stuff in its 
 passage to the strainer. This should never be done 
 if it can possibly be dispensed with, as the steam heats 
 the stuff and renders it very free, and, in addition, 
 takes much of the firmness and rattle from the finished 
 paper. 
 
 If as much as possible of the backwater be run off, 
 and spring water used to make up what is needed, 
 the weakening action will be much lessened, as the 
 cold water will counteract the heating which is the 
 cause of the softening. Even when the amount of 
 steam used is small, the backwater soon becomes 
 heated by coming into contact with it so often. 
 
 Though the small strainer often used as a breast-box 
 does catch strings and blotches, yet if it runs more 
 than twelve hours without cleaning, the blotches which 
 will break away from it will cause a considerable 
 amount of broke. 
 
 This is especially the case when calenders are at- 
 tached to the machine, as the blotches adhere to the 
 rolls, and, in addition to the broke thus made, a 
 
IO o PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 great deal of extra labour is entailed in keeping them 
 clean. A box small enough to secure a sufficient 
 agitation by the rush of the stuff, and at the same 
 time give a steady head of stuff behind the slice, will 
 be found most suitable and will take up less space. 
 For a machine on which there is much changing, and, 
 indeed, for any machine, Holloway's patent deckles and 
 knees are the best. 
 
 With the older forms, even though the change may 
 be merely an inch or two, the tacks have to be taken 
 out and the apron rolled up when putting in the deckles, 
 and vice versa when drawing out. On thick papers 
 a great deal of trouble is often caused by the small 
 knots or rolls of stuff which are formed when the 
 apron refuses to lie properly. These rolls are often 
 carried in by the action of the shake, and with difficulty 
 removed with the cutting. 
 
 These older forms have this advantage, that when 
 making blues there is no white streak on the edge, 
 such as is caused when the stuff works under the 
 leather of the patent knees. When the amount of 
 broke made when changing from a narrow to a broad 
 deckle, or vice versa, is taken into account, the gain 
 in cutting on blue papers seems somewhat insig- 
 nificant. 
 
 Should the apron have been rolled up for any length 
 of time it often refuses to lie flat ; a hand-bowl or two 
 of hot water will soften it, and make it lie quite evenly 
 on to the wire. A thick strip of felt soaked in water 
 
HOLLOW AY'S PATENT DECKLES. ior 
 
 should always be laid along the edge when it has to 
 stand dry for any length of time. The movable knees 
 should be kept up an inch or so, that the apron may 
 lie close into the deckle strap, and so make a good 
 edge. 
 
 By pressing down the knee against the strap it can 
 be pushed out a little, and thus a little more cutting 
 room may be gained. To make a good edge with 
 the patent knees, the rubber pads must be fitted so 
 as to come close up to the leather, and lie down on 
 the apron in such a way as to prevent any stuff leak- 
 ing out. 
 
 The apron should extend just as far under the 
 deckle pulley as is possible without coming in contact 
 with the strap, should it have to be lowered a little 
 with the deckle frame through the leather having be- 
 come worn. The leather should fit easily, so that it 
 may rise and fall with the motion of the tube-roll, 
 and yet keep close enough down to prevent stuff 
 getting under it, while not pressing so hard as to 
 cause knots. 
 
 In order to keep them working in this smooth 
 way they should be taken out, and slides cleaned 
 and rubbed with a little oil whenever the knees are 
 off. Care must, however, be taken that all the surplus 
 oil is washed off, otherwise it may get on the strap, 
 and cause it to grip the pulleys hard, through pre- 
 venting it from carrying enough water to make it 
 slide over them easily. 
 
102 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 The level of stuff behind the slice must not be 
 too high, or it will lap over the strap, and, working 
 between the leather and strap, cause small knots to 
 pass down on the edge. While the apron should 
 lie slightly up to the wire, it must not be raised too 
 much, or the depth of stuff as it leaves the breast-box 
 will be apt to cause currents that will spoil the spread. 
 Neglect of this, trivial as it appears, is often the 
 reason why on some machines the spread gives so 
 much more trouble than on others. The movable 
 slice, by which the spread is regulated, must be 
 worked to suit the different natures of the stuft. 
 When the stuff is fine and carrying the water well, 
 the slice should be kept well down, and this is 
 especially necessary when making wove papers. To 
 make a nice close wove sheet, the stuff must be 
 prepared very fine and not soft. No more water 
 should be worked than is necessary to close the sheet, 
 and just sufficient shake to felt it evenly, while the 
 first pump should be well closed. 
 
 The effect of such working is especially noticeable 
 on blue and yellow woves, as keeping the pump 
 shut as much as possible, and working the water 
 smoothly up with a gentle shake, has the effect of 
 closing a blue sheet very nicely without drawing the 
 colour from the underside ; while the yellow has a 
 clear close look, without the crushed appearance so 
 often seen when much water is worked. 
 
 For such papers in the ordinary weights the speed 
 
FREE STUFF. 103 
 
 should not exceed 70 to 75 feet a minute. When 
 making laid more water will have to be put on, the 
 slices raised a turn or so, the shake put up, and the 
 pump opened. If the slice is not raised when much 
 more water is put on, the depth of stuff behind it 
 causes such a rush that -the stuff is carried a good 
 way towards the pump before it comes under the 
 influence of the shake, and as the shake is most 
 powerful just at the slices, it can less afford to be 
 lost. If the laid dandy begins to " lift," there is too 
 much water in front of it, and to cure it the pump 
 must be opened, and more water and shake put on, 
 if necessary, to close the sheet. 
 
 Bringing up the water by means of the shake, and 
 opening the pump a little, will generally have the 
 effect of curing it. When the stuff is free it rushes 
 out from beneath the slices very violently, and does 
 not settle down quickly. Before settling down, such 
 stuff rolls over on itself, just like a wave, after it 
 has passed the slices, and the more free it becomes 
 the farther will it travel before turning over and 
 settling down. 
 
 A careful look at very free stuff on the wire will 
 show that, even when close to the pump, the finest 
 of the fibres are still in a state of agitation. In 
 addition to causing a rush, the slices when worked 
 very low down catch the ultimate fibres, and, turning 
 them on end, cause the sheet to have a broken un- 
 felted appearance. This is more noticeable when 
 
104 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 working long stuff, and is the cause of the wavy, 
 streaked appearance of thick coloured sheets. The 
 thicker the sheet, the more shake is required to felt 
 it, and when making thick cartridge or envelope 
 papers, for which the stuff has been kept long, the 
 slices will also have to be raised, so that enough 
 water may be worked to assist in closing the long 
 fibres. 
 
 When long stuff is free, it will not stand much 
 shaking, as the edges are apt to be thinned, owing 
 to the ease with which the stuff is lashed back by 
 coming in contact with the deckle straps. To remedy 
 this the shake should be put back, more water put 
 on, and the slices raised. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary, owing to the bad con- 
 struction of the breast-box or apron-board, to stick 
 pieces of paper on the slices, so as to check the 
 rush at some places, before an equal spread can be 
 obtained. This has the same effect on the portion 
 of the sheet which comes under it as having the 
 slices too low. 
 
 It often happens, that after working out or being 
 shut down for some time, the stuff, from being milled 
 so long, will be too soft. Such stuff is the most 
 difficult of all to work, as it lies so dead on the wire 
 that it requires water and an energetic shake to 
 spread it, while it parts with the water so badly that 
 it is seldom enough can be put on to make a good 
 sheet. 
 
FINE STUFF 105 
 
 When stuff is both fine and soft, the paper will 
 have a crushed appearance, especially if working 
 a wove dandy, and will be very likely to stick to 
 the press-roll. In such a case the shake should be 
 put back as much as possible, consistent with closing 
 the sheet, the first pump opened under the same 
 restrictions, and the air-cock on the second pump-box 
 shut, so as to suck the paper as dry as possible. 
 
 The guard-board should be put down, so as to 
 prevent the passage of any water, and the weights 
 on the couch-roll increased. This has the effect of 
 drying the paper still further, and making it less 
 likely to adhere to the press-roll. The press-roll 
 should be put down as lightly as possible, and the 
 wet felt tightened up so as to open the warp, and 
 allow the water to be pressed out more readily. 
 
 Pouring a little turpentine on the coucher or press- 
 roll has the effect of taking away such greasiness 
 for a minute or two, and enabling the web to be 
 taken off the press-roll without any difficulty. When 
 once down, and under the tension of the draw to 
 the second press, or cylinder, the liability to stick 
 again is not so great, so that by the use of a little 
 of this grease-destroying agent much broke may be 
 saved. 
 
 Considerable difference of opinion exists among 
 paper-makers as to which is the most suitable length 
 for the machine wire. The writer has had experience 
 in making paper with 32 feet, 38 feet, 40 feet, and 
 
106 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 45 feet wires, and, from a careful study of the be- 
 haviour of the different kinds of stuff on each, is 
 of the opinion that for making the best qualities, 
 where look is of the first importance, the best results 
 will be obtained from a 38 to 40 feet wire. 
 
 To get a passable sheet on a 45 or 50 ft. wire 
 the stuff must be very free, otherwise it will be so 
 inert before it reaches the dandy that the papers will 
 have a dull, crushed look, especially when making 
 woves. When the stuff is free enough to counteract 
 this deadness, the number of tube-rolls in contact 
 with the wire take away so much of the water that 
 it is often difficult to obtain a clear impression with the 
 dandy, though more water be put on. 
 
 The water, leaving the paper thus, can be much 
 reduced in quantity if a number of the tube-rolls are 
 lowered out of contact. In this way the advantage 
 of a longer time under the influence of the shake is 
 gained, while the amount of water leaving the stuff 
 can be regulated by putting up or letting down the 
 tube-rolls. It should also be borne in mind that 
 the greater the amount of backwater, the less likely 
 is the paper to be sized and loaded up to the expec- 
 tations formed, from the amount of these materials 
 added in the engine. 
 
 The speed at which the machine is to be driven, 
 and the nature of the stock to be worked, must 
 always be taken into consideration in regard to the 
 length of wire to be put in. For the proper working 
 
LONG AND SHORT- WIRES. 107 
 
 of soft greasy stuff at a quick speed, a 50 ft. wire will 
 be an advantage, in giving more time to get the water 
 taken out ; while for fine stuff, not too soft, worked 
 at a moderate speed, a wire 40 ft. in length will be 
 best suited. The speed must also determine the 
 amount of pitch to be given to the wire. 
 
 A 40 ft. wire, travelling up to 100 ft. a minute, will 
 require a pitch of about f of an inch from the breast 
 roll to the first guide-roll, while if driven at a speed 
 of 200 ft. a minute a I5 inch pitch will be necessary. 
 It is the custom with some engineers to put in very 
 heavy breast-rolls, though for what purpose it is 
 difficult to see. 
 
 In addition to the inconvenience of handling a heavy 
 breast-roll, when putting on a wire, the strain on the 
 wire to keep it turning is very great, and tends to wear 
 it out much sooner. A light roll would answer the 
 purpose equally well, and offer much less resistance 
 to the wire when running, as well as being much 
 easier to shake. 
 
 The manner in which the shake is given and the 
 length of the stroke have a great deal to do with the 
 spread and look of the sheet. If the stroke is too 
 long the stuff will be washed back from the deckle 
 strap, thinning the edges, and causing a white mark, 
 similar to that caused by a ridge, to appear about 
 3 inches from the edge on each side. 
 
 Should the brasses which support the shake bars 
 become worn, or the pins which connect the bars with 
 
108 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 the frame be too thin, the double shake, caused by the 
 play of the brasses or pins, will counteract the original 
 shake, and, instead of the smooth push and pull, a 
 jerky disconnected motion, which will be sure to thin 
 the edges, will be given. 
 
 The end of the save-all should not come quite up 
 to the breast-roll, but should be so placed as to ensure 
 that no stuff may become jammed between it and the 
 roll. When too close, any stuff which may pass round 
 the roll will, instead of passing on to the felt-covered 
 guard-stick and being washed away by the water, lie 
 against it and the roll until it becomes hard, when it 
 will act as a serious drag on it when turning. A 
 strong flow of water should always be kept on 
 the guard-stick, which, while being close enough to 
 catch the stuff, should not press too hard on the 
 roll. 
 
 Machines which work strong greasy stuff are some- 
 times fitted with three pump boxes, so that no 
 difficulty may be experienced in taking out the water. 
 The majority, however, have only two, and when the 
 stuff is greasy a great deal of trouble and broke is 
 often caused by the water flooding over the boxes and 
 " worming " in front of the coucher. 
 
 This is more liable to happen when the bars on the 
 pump-box are faced with mahogany than if vulcanite, 
 brass, or glass has been used to face them. Mahogany- 
 faced boxes, though less hard on the wire, are very 
 apt to vibrate when drawing hard, and this prevents 
 
COUCH-ROLLS. 109 
 
 the air-cock from being shut as much as is needful to 
 enable the pumps to draw the water out. 
 
 A strip of vulcanite inserted between two layers of 
 mahogany along the ends and sides of the pump box 
 does away with the vibration to a great extent, but it 
 must be fitted very closely, otherwise it will draw air. 
 
 By working a jacket on the under couch-roll the 
 paper will be less rough on the underside than if it is 
 worked bare, and it will also bulk better. Being less 
 dry, however, the paper is much more apt to stick to 
 the press-roll. 
 
 Another objection, and perhaps the most serious of 
 all, is that the small particles of sand or grit, liable to 
 get into the cover, ridge and score the wire very 
 badly, and if the wire is run bare for any time it 
 is very bad for running into a crease. It will be 
 noticed that when a wire, after running some time, 
 becomes slack on either of the edges, it is generally 
 the backside if the water for the wash-roll enters 
 at the foreside, and vice versa if it enters from the 
 back. 
 
 The reason of this is that the small holes in the 
 water pipe are apt to become choked up at the end 
 farthest from the inflow, and the wire, owing to being 
 much more dry, is strained in its passage over the 
 rolls. Apart from this, a good strong shower should 
 always be kept on the wash-roll, in order that any free 
 acid left in the pulp and liable to become deposited in 
 the meshes may be washed out. 
 
no PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 Attention to this, and also to thoroughly washing the 
 wire when shutting down for any length of time, will 
 keep the meshes clear, lessen the strain of the pumps, 
 and improve the appearance of the sheet, in addition 
 to prolonging the life of the wire. 
 
 When making soft sized papers, the froth is usually 
 much more troublesome than when alum has been 
 added to the pulp. This froth often comes away with 
 the stuff from under the slices, and makes " worms." 
 To cure this, the slices must either be lowered a little 
 or more water put on, so that the level behind the 
 slices may be raised and prevent the froth escaping. 
 
 Care must be taken not to lower them too much, or 
 the rush of stuff underneath will cause the carbonic 
 acid, always more or less liable to be present in the 
 water used in the beaters, to escape, and in doing so 
 to cause " bells," which, when broken by the dandy, 
 leave a mark on the surface of the paper. This 
 frothing and belling is always worse when steam is 
 used to clear knots in the pulp, and should any of 
 the bleaching solution used in the engine remain un- 
 decomposed, the heat will have the effect of liberating 
 the carbonic acid, which is the cause of the froth. 
 
 Sometimes, even when the slices are kept clear of 
 froth, small bubbles will escape on the edge and 
 come down the wire with the deckle strap. These 
 bubbles are often the unsuspected cause of worming 
 at the dandy, especially should the edge be a little 
 thickened and the pump-box end not full out. Under 
 
FROTH-KILLERS. 1 1 1 
 
 these conditions they are not broken by the suction 
 of the pump, and passing along the front of the dandy 
 cause the worms to come away. 
 
 If drawing out the deckle strap a little and also the 
 end of the pump does not cure the trouble, a piece of 
 soft paper should be folded so as to fit in behind the 
 slices close to the knee and along it a little, so as to 
 prevent the bubbles escaping along the edge of the 
 strap. 
 
 The bells which gather on the edge of a laid dandy 
 can be kept away by rubbing a little oil on the 
 dandy just off from the edge of the paper, or, better 
 still, by moistening the cloth used to keep away spots 
 just over the edge with a little sperm oil, which has 
 the same effect. 
 
 The trouble with froth is so bad in some mills that 
 patent froth-killers are resorted to in order to keep it 
 down. These concoctions are very often adulterated 
 with resin, which adulteration is sometimes carried to 
 an extent that causes the paper to stick determinedly 
 to the press-roll, and leaves a deposit of resin among 
 the stuff which gathers on the doctor. 
 
 When the liability to froth is great, special attention 
 should be given to the water used in the engine, as 
 the carbonic acid expelled from the lime salts con- 
 tained in hard water is often one of the sources of 
 its origin. 
 
 The alum solution should be added when furnishing, 
 and if the water be hard an additional quantity of 
 
H2 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING 
 
 alum will require to be put in in order to precipitate 
 the salts contained in it. 
 
 The chlorine compounds must be completely neutra- 
 lised by means of antichlor. 
 
 The following recipe is said to make a very efficient 
 froth-killer, the use of which will lead to no bad 
 results in causing the paper to stick to the press- 
 roll : — One-and-a-half gallons of linseed oil, mixed 
 with one gallon of bleach, and a gill and a-half of 
 turpentine. 
 
 To keep the dandy free from bells when making 
 laid papers at a quick speed, a gentle puff of steam 
 should be blown through it from a perforated iron 
 pipe, hung down in front of it in such a way that the 
 steam will meet the dandy at a slight angle and be 
 blown clear of the stuff. 
 
 For quick driving, the stuff must be quickly pre- 
 pared in the beater, so that it may not be soft, but 
 settle down quickly and part with the water easily. 
 Though the engines must not be made too stiff to 
 prepare such stuff, there is no reason why they should 
 be filled thinner than usual. 
 
 Stuff prepared in an engine filled about the usual 
 consistency, but not heavily, when treated somewhat 
 sharply with the roll at first, and yet not so cut up 
 as to be rendered fine, will felt closely and part with 
 the water easily though made at a quick speed. 
 
 When, however, the engines are filled with a larger 
 proportion of water than usual, lightly loaded (with 
 
STICKING AT THE PRESS-ROLL. 113 
 
 stuff, not clay, or other so-called "loading" material) 
 and cut up quickly, the stuff produced will undoubtedly 
 be free, and most likely fine, at least the finest of the 
 fibres will be very fine, owing to the ease with which 
 they are got at by the roll, with the result that it will 
 " bell," froth, and stick to the press-roll. 
 
 It would seem as if such stuff when once up the 
 press-roll had not enough cohesiveness to stand drawing 
 down, but when once down lacks the power to run 
 up so often as might be expected, from the difficulty 
 experienced in getting it down when it does break ; 
 as it will be noticed that with stuff thus prepared there 
 are fewer breaks at the press-roll than is sometimes 
 the case with stuff which leaves the roll much more 
 easily. 
 
 It sometimes happens when making wove papers, 
 with the pump well shut, that the drawing power of 
 the pump is hampered owing to the cock being so 
 much closed, and when this is the case the back lash 
 from the pump causes the paper, especially if it be 
 thin, to fold over at the edge in an almost imperceptible 
 crease. This crease may give no sign of its presence 
 until the last set of cylinders, or calenders, are reached, 
 but it is almost certain to cause a break there. A little 
 more water, or shake, and the pump box opened a 
 little, will make this disappear entirely. 
 
 Another very frequent source of cracks and breaks 
 between the cylinders and calenders is having the wire 
 too slack. When the wire is too slack it is apt to 
 
114 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 crease the paper when passing under the couch-roll, 
 but in such a way that it is scarcely noticeable, unless 
 the machine-man knows where to look for it. 
 
 This is most liable to happen when making thick 
 paper with a narrow deckle ; and the first thing the 
 machine-man should do, when he is at a loss to account 
 for breaking on such papers, is to hold a light under 
 the web, between the under-coucher and the wet-felt 
 roll, so that he may make sure if the creases are there. 
 If the wire is causing them, they will seem like a small 
 black streak running a little way in from the edge. 
 Tightening up the wire a few turns, and putting more 
 weight on the coucher, will have the effect of curing 
 them. 
 
 When the coucher cover becomes worn on the edges 
 much trouble and worry are often caused by the paper, 
 instead of couching properly, adhering to the jacket, 
 and, if not running up the roll altogether, going far 
 enough up to cause the edge to crack and the web 
 to crease going under the press-roll. 
 
 This may be greatly helped by easing the weights 
 on the coucher and raising the guard-board a little. 
 The guard-board must not be lifted much, just enough 
 to keep the cover moistened with water, so that the 
 suction on the paper may be lessened. Slackening 
 the wire draw will also help it, by allowing the web 
 to go farther down the wire, and thus the risk of its 
 adhering to the coucher is not so great. By fixing a 
 small jet of water so that it will play on the edge 
 
DANDY ROLLS. I15 
 
 of the coucher, which comes in contact with the paper 
 just before it passes under the guard-board, the edge 
 can be kept much cleaner, which also lessens the 
 liability of the web to adhere to it. 
 
 Dandy rolls are usually made half an inch less in 
 circumference and three-quarters of an inch more in 
 breadth between each name, to ensure that the sheet 
 will cut to the size after the shrinkage and expansion 
 caused when the paper is in contact with the hot 
 cylinders and on the driers. Sometimes dandy rolls 
 are wanted to cut above their given size, as when, for 
 instance, a sheet 17 x 27 in. is to be made with the 
 foolscap roll which cuts 13 j X i6|- in. In order to 
 bring the name up to the size it will have to be 
 stretched half an inch. 
 
 With long stuff, which stretches easily, this is, under 
 ordinary circumstances, a matter of no great difficulty ; 
 but when fine stuff is being worked it is sometimes 
 quite impossible to obtain the size without unduly 
 stretching the sheet. The first thing to be done in 
 order to bring up the size, in such a case, is to hang 
 the dandy as much as possible, and so make it revolve 
 more slowly ; then the cloth should be let down on the 
 roll, as much as can be risked without retarding it in 
 such a way as to cause it to streak the paper. 
 
 The wire should be slowered so as to tighten the 
 web between the under-coucher and the wet-felt. The 
 second press should be driven a little harder by taking 
 off a piece of the packing from the driven pulley, or, 
 
Ii6 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 if there be none on, by putting a small piece on the 
 driver, and the draw from the second press to the 
 cylinders tightened up in the same manner. 
 
 It is better always to take off than put on packing, 
 unless the belts are very slack and inclined to slip, as 
 in this way there is less chance of the packing accumu- 
 lating and stretching the belts, besides causing the 
 draws to work with an irregular jerky motion, which 
 is very likely to crack the web at some time when they 
 are tighter than usual. Even when the size is up to 
 the measurement, without any undue straining of the 
 web, the distance between the names must be measured 
 frequently, especially if the nature of the stuff is being 
 altered. 
 
 A fine engine will draw in the sheet as much as 
 one-eighth, and sometimes three-sixteenths, of an inch, 
 while longer stuff will cause it to expand in the same 
 proportion. Not infrequently, when working a broad 
 deckle, the distance between the middle names, 
 measuring across the wire, will be found to be less 
 than that between those in the side sheets, though 
 the usual three-quarters of an inch has been allowed 
 when putting the names on the dandy. 
 
 This is especially liable to occur on a broad machine, 
 and is due to the couch-roll and press-roll yielding in 
 the middle when put down hard at the edges. The 
 middle sheets are thus damper when they come in 
 contact with the hot cylinders, and the suddenness of 
 the reaction makes them shrink more than the side 
 
DANDY ROLLS. 117 
 
 sheets, which are much drier and less affected by the 
 heat. The patent anti-deflection press-rolls, with which 
 some of the most recently built machines are fitted, are 
 said to completely prevent this unequal pressure. 
 
 Dandies for loft-dried papers should have one-eighth 
 more than the usual three-quarters of an inch allowed 
 between the names, owing to the shrinkage while 
 hanging in the drying loft. Dandies for grass papers 
 should not have more than half to five-eighths of an 
 inch allowed, as grass shrinks less than rags. 
 
 When setting a lined dandy it must be placed 
 perfectly parallel, so that the lines come exactly on the 
 top of each other when the sheets are folded. To 
 ensure that it is parallel it should be measured, after 
 having been placed in the brackets, either from the 
 couch-roll or the deckle straps on each side. The 
 simplest way in which to determine whether a named 
 laid dandy is placed so as to have the names equi- 
 distant from the edges is to count the number of bars 
 from the centre of each name to the deckle edge on 
 each side. 
 
 The same holds good when the water-mark consists 
 of a name and a device on each sheet. Should the 
 name extend over an odd number of spaces, such as 
 five or seven, while the device occupies an even 
 number, such as four, the space between the middle 
 bar of the name will require to be taken as the centre, 
 while the centre of the device will consist of the middle 
 bar. 
 
Il8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 When setting a named wove dandy, the water-marks 
 on which are placed as on a laid roll, namely, across 
 instead of round the roll, as is usual with the wove 
 dandy, the breadth of the names will have to be 
 measured, and, from the points thus fixed as centres, 
 the breadth outwards to the deckle edge on each side 
 made to agree. Named wove dandies on which the 
 water-marks are placed round, instead of across, should 
 be measured in the same way. 
 
 When the names are placed so that one side of the 
 sheet will be blank, while the water-mark occupies 
 the other, a piece of the web, the full breadth, 
 should be taken off whenever the paper has reached 
 the reel, and after allowing for pairing it should be 
 marked off with a pencil, according to the size of 
 the sheet. 
 
 When this has been done it should be again divided 
 into half or quarter sheets, and then a glance at the 
 sheet held against the light will show if the names are 
 right, and if not, in what direction they will require 
 to be altered. A few years ago Brown's patent laid 
 dandy, which possesses several advantages over the 
 ordinary laid roll, was introduced. 
 
 This dandy may be described as a wove roll round 
 which the laid lines are fixed, while the bars, instead 
 of running round, as is the case with the ordinary 
 form, are placed along its length. One advantage in 
 using this roll is that on 6o-in. machines large and 
 medium post can be made three times 16J in. and 
 
BROWN'S PATENT DANDY ROLL. 119 
 
 17^ in. respectively, instead of twice 2of in. and 22^ in., 
 as is the case with the common laid roll. 
 
 When large orders of these sizes are made a con- 
 siderable increase in the output can thus be effected. 
 It is well known that less colour is required to give 
 the same shade on wove papers than on laid, the 
 reason being that the close pressure of the wove dandy 
 brings the finest of the fibres to the surface ; and thus, 
 by making the surface smoother and more compact, 
 the colour is much better brought out. Owing to the 
 close wove cover underlying the laid lines on Brown's 
 dandy, the same even pressure is given to the surface, 
 with the result that less colour is necessary, and in 
 addition the sheet is much clearer. 
 
 In the making of high-coloured papers, for which 
 20 or 30 lbs. of expensive colouring matters require to 
 be used, this saving is not to be underrated. Though 
 a large amount of water is used with it, it will not 
 " lift " ; at least the tendency is so small that it may 
 be said not to exist, as it is only when there is an- 
 excessive amount of water before it that it shows any 
 signs of lifting. 
 
 Another great advantage is that it does not " bell " 
 when driving hard. It has, however, one very serious 
 drawback by reason of which its adoption has been 
 much restricted. Owing to its weight, as at present 
 made, the laid lines are very liable to leave their 
 impression on the under side, making it rough. 
 
 In order to avoid this, it must be hung on the 
 
120 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 brackets as much as possible, and a large amount of 
 water brought forward. If, instead of the ordinary 
 form of wove roll, the improved skeleton form were 
 used to support the laid lines, the roll when finished 
 would be much lighter, and thus the danger of the 
 impression showing on the underside would be much 
 lessened. 
 
 To prevent " blowing," the felt-roll immediately in 
 front of the press-roll should be raised a few inches 
 above the level of the under press-roll. When making 
 thin papers, the resistance of the air between the 
 web and the felt often causes blowing, even when the 
 draw between the wire and the felt is as tight as it 
 can be run without cracking the edges. In such a 
 case the press-roll must be put hard down, the wet 
 felt tightened up, so that the warp may be opened out 
 and allow the air to escape and the seam kept square. 
 
 When the seam of the felt is off the square the warp 
 lies at the same angle as the seam, and thus by closing 
 the pores retards the escape of the air. A very simple 
 and effectual remedy is to run the paper over a small 
 tube-roll, placed just in front of the press-roll about 
 an inch above the wet-felt. If the edges are uneven 
 the frayed stuff adheres to this roll, and has to be 
 taken off frequently, or it will crack and stretch the 
 edge of the web. 
 
 Another plan is to run a small felt-covered tube-roll 
 on the top of the paper as it passes on to the first 
 felt-roll; but when making named papers the name is 
 
WET- AND DRY-FELTS. 121 
 
 liable to become stretched unequally owing to the 
 irregular speed of this roll. By placing a small pump- 
 box, connected with the vacuum pumps, under the wet- 
 felt close up to the under press-roll, the suction of the 
 pumps will draw all the air through the felt, and thus 
 completely cure blowing. Putting on the felt with the 
 pile lying the wrong way will also tend to keep it 
 away, owing to the pores being kept more open, thus 
 allowing the air to escape more readily. 
 
 When running a broad deckle the wet-felt should be 
 kept tight, as in this way the edges are opened and 
 allow the water to be Detter pressed out, and thus 
 there is less danger of the web sticking to the press- 
 roll. To square the seam either of wet or dry felts, 
 the side that is first must be tightened up. The same 
 rule applies to the wire, and in each case care must 
 be taken to check the run, as both wires and felts will 
 incline to run from the side which has been tightened up. 
 
 There is great diversity of opinion among machine- 
 men as to which side a dry-felt will run to when 
 tightened up. Some hold that it will run to the slack 
 side; others that it will run to the tight side. The 
 direction in which a dry-felt will run depends on which 
 side of the cylinder it has been tightened up. 
 
 To take the instance of a single cylinder felt sup- 
 ported, say, on five rolls. Should the top roll be 
 tightened up at one side the felt will invariably run 
 to the other, and if the seam was straight before 
 tightening it will forge ahead at the slack side. 
 
122 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 Suppose that the foreside top roll has been tightened 
 up in order to square the seam, which has gone so 
 much ahead in front as to threaten to run the felt into 
 a crease, and that the felt is travelling back so quickly 
 as to be in danger of turning over and bursting at the 
 backside edge, though the guide-roll has been changed 
 as much as possible to bring it forward, raising the 
 backside top roll would set it forward again, but would 
 not put away the crease, which is the greatest trouble. 
 
 If, however, the foreside roll, round which the felt 
 turns as it leaves the cylinder to go up over the top 
 roll, be lowered about a quarter of an inch or more if 
 need be, the seam will at once begin to come square, 
 and the felt will come forward, thus running to the 
 tight side. 
 
 Should the roll round which the felt runs to come 
 in contact with the cylinder be lowered, the felt will 
 run to the backside, thus proving that a dry-felt 
 will run to the tight side when tightened at the side 
 at which it leaves the cylinder, and to the slack side 
 when tightened at the side at which it comes in contact 
 with it. 
 
 The seam should always be squared up after start- 
 ing, and carefully watched so that it may not run 
 ahead at either side ; otherwise the felt will become 
 unequally stretched, and give much trouble by moving 
 about when it gets old and worn out. 
 
 The rubbers with which most press-rolls are now 
 fitted are a great boon in saving the felt from being 
 
FIRST AND SECOND PRESS-ROLLS. 123 
 
 cut, should any hard substance pass between the rolls 
 when the press is firm down. No oil should ever be 
 poured down the screw, as it would tend to rot the 
 rubber ; and besides, there is no need for doing so, as 
 the oil on the bottom side is quite sufficient to keep 
 it working smoothly, as from time to time it -passes 
 through the nut which works against the rubber when 
 the roll is raised for turning or putting on a wet-felt. 
 
 When couching and pressing lightly it sometimes 
 happens that the pile on the wet-felt becomes clogged 
 up with the soft stuff, and the paper adhering to it 
 until just under the second press goes up in a crease. 
 A narrow piece of wood — a long foot-rule by pre- 
 ference — placed between the paper and the felt just 
 as it leaves the press-roll, will, by separating the paper 
 from the felt, prevent the creasing caused in this way. 
 The foot-rule should be fixed on to the frame in such 
 a way as to be clear of the felt, otherwise it will gather 
 wet stuff which, passing round on the felt, may cause 
 a break at the press-roll. 
 
 It is the practice in some mills to press very lightly 
 with the first press and keep the second press hard 
 down, the idea being to have as little felt marking on 
 the underside as possible, and also by taking out the 
 wire mark with the pressure applied to the underside, 
 to improve the surface. 
 
 With this method of working the second press felts 
 have to be frequently changed, owing to the passage 
 of so much water pressed from the paper clogging 
 
124 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 them quickly. A dirty second press felt is one of the 
 most frequent causes of the unevenness in drying, 
 termed " cockling," as the paper in contact with the 
 dirty part of the felt is much more damp when it comes 
 in contact with the cylinders, and thus is liable to 
 become blistered from the suddenness of the drying. 
 
 Keeping the dry-felts tight has the effect of prevent- 
 ing cockling by pressing the paper more uniformly 
 against the cylinders. Whether there be any special 
 need to have the paper flat or not, the drying should 
 always be conducted gradually, the heat of the 
 cylinders gradually increasing as the paper nears the 
 dry end. With thin papers, especially those made 
 from strong linen rags, the press must be put hard 
 down, and the heat of the cylinders so regulated as 
 to leave the paper slightly damp when it comes in 
 contact with the last two or three, which should only 
 be sufficiently hot to dry without causing any sudden 
 contraction of the web. 
 
 Unless the seam of the second press felt be per- 
 fectly square it is very liable to crease ; if it should 
 do so the side which is last should be lowered down, 
 as by doing so the creasing is counteracted more 
 quickly than by tightening the side which has run 
 ahead. When passing the second press the draw 
 from the first press to the cylinders must be slackened, 
 and to do so double the amount of packing that would 
 be necessary to slacken the same strain from the 
 second press to the cylinders will be required. 
 
CHANGING THE SPEED. 1 25 
 
 The same rule holds good when passing the smooth- 
 ing rolls, and of course double the amount has to be 
 taken off when putting the paper through again. 
 Though, as a rule, when changing from thick to thin 
 papers the draws will require to be tightened up, very 
 little packing will be necessary should the speed be 
 much faster than that at which the thicker paper was 
 made. This is due to the increased momentum given 
 to the pulleys owing to the quickened speed. 
 
 When making thick paper at a speed of about 18 ft. 
 per minute, the belts will require to be very tight, or 
 they will slip, owing to the strain of driving, unaided 
 by the momentum which a higher speed will give. It 
 sometimes happens that when driving at a slow speed 
 the wire will run to one side, and refuse to respond 
 to the guide. Should this threaten to damage the 
 wire, the speed should be quickened up, as by so 
 doing the wire will answer the guide much better. 
 
 If the machine be fitted with the improved cone 
 driving, quickening the speed is a very simple matter ; 
 but should the difference thus made be insufficient, 
 as much as 20 ft. more per minute can be obtained 
 by tightening up the thumb-screw attached to the 
 governor of the engine. 
 
 This increase of the speed generally has the effect 
 of bringing the wire back, but should it prove inef- 
 fectual the only plan left is to shut down, and, having 
 taken off the couch-roll and slackened the wire a little, 
 to draw it back into its right position. 
 
126 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 It is assumed that everything has been already done, 
 so far as altering and tightening the wire at the side to 
 which it is running can be made to effect any change 
 in its course. When making webs, such as those for 
 use in the Morse telegraph machine, difficulty is often 
 experienced in getting them to bulk equally. This 
 unequal bulk may be caused by a want of uniformity 
 in the spread on the wire, or a difference in the 
 pressure of the couch or press-rolls. Badly ground 
 calender rolls will also cause inequality both of surface 
 and of bulk. 
 
 In this connection it should be remembered that, 
 when paper is passing through the calender rolls, the 
 drier it leaves the press-roll the better will it bulk. 
 Should the pressure on the rolls be very light, or 
 should the paper be finished rough, the less pressure 
 put on the press-roll the bulk will be better. 
 
 Each machine has, owing to differences in fitting up 
 or other causes which exert an influence on the 
 pressure given to the paper, its own peculiarities. 
 Sometimes a softness on the edge may be filled up 
 by hanging or putting down the second press-roll, 
 according as the paper is being glazed or not. When 
 the stuff is free, and thus spreading and filling up the 
 edges well, the webs will be found to bulk more 
 uniformly. 
 
 Should the paper begin to break between the 
 calender rolls from any unaccountable cause, the first 
 thing the machine-nam ought to do, after having 
 
BREAKING AT THE CALENDERS. l ^7 
 
 satisfied himself that it is not too dry, is to see that 
 none of the draws are too tight, especially the draw 
 from the first to the second press-rolls. Should this 
 draw be too tight, the web will be pulled and stretched 
 at the edges, and though no cracks may be visible, the 
 contraction, and consequent strain, as the paper is 
 dried, will cause the weakened edge to break as the 
 draws become tightened towards the dry end. 
 
 Should the draws be all right and the breaking 
 continue, the edges should be closely watched for a 
 turn of the wire, to see that no dirt has become fixed 
 in the meshes, and by hindering the passage of the 
 water and the suction of the pumps is causing a weak 
 spot near the edge of the web. A dirty or raised seam 
 will cause breaking both at the press-roll and the 
 calenders. A little vitriol poured on the dirty part will 
 generally clean it ; but should the dirt still remain, 
 blowing it with a jet of steam will take it out. 
 
 Not unfrequently dirty spots, more than usually 
 difficult to get rid of, will be noticed in the wire after 
 the mechanics or joiners have been fitting up new 
 boxes about the machine. These are generally caused 
 by small pieces of white lead, which have been left 
 lying about the boxes, coming away with the stuff and 
 being pressed into the meshes by the couch-roll. 
 
 When the trouble is caused by a raised seam, the 
 "stent "-roll should be put down a few turns. The 
 wet-felt should next be examined, to see that no dried 
 stuff or other hard substance has adhered to it near 
 
128 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 the edge of the web. Should any such hard material 
 be coming between the paper and the felt as it passes 
 under the press-roll, cracks, only perceptible as small 
 dark marks, will be made. If this is the cause of 
 breaking, the marks will be noticed by examining the 
 end of the web just where it has been severed. 
 
 Breaking at the calenders may also be caused 
 through having the draws too slack, thus causing the 
 paper to fold over at the edge when entering the press- 
 rolls. Should the cylinder draws be too slack, espe- 
 cially near the wet end, the felts, if they are tight, will 
 take up the slack, and in doing so cause very minute 
 folds on the edge, which, through being damp when 
 calendered, will make a weak spot on the edge of 
 the web. 
 
 When making thin papers at a quick speed, the 
 press-roll should be kept well down, while the steam 
 on the first cylinders should be regulated so as to dry 
 very gradually. By keeping the press-roll firmly 
 down, the paper is made more dry, and thus more 
 easily handled when leading it over the machine. 
 
 When starting very heavy papers, at a slow speed, 
 the small plug just behind the apron-board should be 
 drawn out, so that the flooding, so liable when starting 
 such papers, may be prevented. Sometimes it is 
 necessary to change from one revolving strainer to 
 another without shutting, and the strainer to be started 
 is generally furnished from the chest by means of 
 pails. 
 
CHANGING STRAINERS. 129 
 
 If the strainers are in such a position that the flow 
 of the stuff can be made to supply both of the strainers, 
 a much easier and better plan is to put on an inch or so 
 more stuff at the stuff-cock, and when the increase has 
 had time to travel round the sand-trap to the strainers, 
 to allow a little stuff to run into the strainer it is 
 desired to start, at the same time running water into 
 the strainer being worked, to make up for what is 
 passing into the other with the stuff. 
 
 While the strainer is filling up, the weight can be 
 regulated by the amount of stuff allowed to flow into 
 it, and a few minutes before it is full the stuff-cock 
 should be put back to where it was before, that is, if 
 no change is to be made in the weight. When full, all 
 that is required is to open the sluice connecting it with 
 the wire, at the same time shutting off the strainer that 
 has been in use. 
 
 If a jog strainer, or "knotter," as it is often called, 
 be worked in connection with the strainer, the cocks 
 will have to be reversed so as to allow the stuff from 
 the strainer just started to pass through, when the 
 other cock has been shut. 
 
 Though each machine-man has his own method of 
 working when putting on a wire, the following direc- 
 tions will give an idea of how it should be gone about. 
 Before making any preparations to cut off the old wire, 
 the machine-man should see that all the pins which 
 support the carrying-rolls in their brasses are properly 
 secured, otherwise one or other of the rolls may fall 
 
 9 
 
130 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 when the support of the wire is taken from under 
 them. 
 
 Having seen that everything is right, the wire 
 should be cut on the edge, in two places, about an 
 inch apart, close to the coucher, and the clutch put in 
 for a second or two until the cut edge appears just on 
 the under coucher. A quick tear will carry the rent 
 right across to the back side, and the bottom side of 
 the wire will fall down. 
 
 The clutch should then be put in and struck out 
 again until the wire has been rolled up sufficiently to 
 lie between the under coucher and the wet-felt roll, 
 when the wet-felt should be started, and then the wire 
 clutch put in until all the wire has been wound up by 
 the action of the two rolls. The wire clutch should 
 then be struck out, and also the wet-felt. The engine 
 should then be shut down until ready to start again. 
 
 While the machine-man is taking off the slices and 
 folding back the apron, some of the other hands should 
 lift off the couch-roll on to a broad plank placed across 
 the wet-felt frame just in front of the press-roll, care 
 being taken not to let it come sharply against the small 
 bracket to which the arm for moving the doctor is 
 attached. 
 
 The guide-roll should then be lifted out and placed 
 in some place where there will be no danger of its 
 being kicked against or marked in any way. While 
 this is being done the deckle cones may be slacked 
 and then taken out, and after the nuts fixing the deckles 
 
PUTTING ON A WIRE. 131 
 
 to the frame have been taken off and screwed on to the 
 top end of the screw to avoid being lost, the deckles 
 should be lifted. 
 
 Some of the hands should then lower the wash-roll 
 and take out the pump boxes, while others are washing 
 the tube-rolls prior to lifting them out. When taking 
 out the tube-rolls great care must be taken to avoid 
 putting them out of their order, and, if possible, the 
 same one. should always take charge of this, so that the 
 risk of confusion may be lessened. 
 
 The tube-rolls all out, the save-all should be lifted up 
 against the frame at one side, so as to make the water 
 and china clay or other loading material which has 
 adhered to it run off quickly when washing, before 
 lifting it out. After the save-all and the supports are 
 taken out, the carrying-rolls should be let down, and 
 while the breast-roll is being taken out two of the 
 hands should go for the new wire, so that no time may 
 be taken up waiting for it after everything is ready. 
 
 Meanwhile the assistant should see that the pump 
 boxes have been washed, ready for the millwright who 
 is to plane them, that they may be finished in time to 
 be put in after the save-all and tube-rolls have been put 
 in. The new wire having been put carefully on to the 
 under coucher should be unrolled as it is taken up to 
 the breast-roll, which is then put in, care being taken 
 to leave out none of the keys which may have 
 been fixed between the breast-roll brasses and the 
 bracket. 
 
132 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 The brasses need not be tightened up until the 
 coucher has been put on and the wire ready to be 
 squared off. The supports for the save-all having 
 been put in, the save-all is placed in position, and then 
 the tube-rolls, one by one, placed in the brasses. If 
 care has been exercised in lifting them out in their 
 proper order, the numbers on the frame and those on 
 the rolls should correspond without any changing and 
 replacing. 
 
 Care should also be taken to turn all the brasses 
 with the same sides to the front, so that the wire will 
 lie perfectly square. The pump boxes should next be 
 put in and the wash-roll lifted into its place, then the 
 carrying-rolls and guide-roll placed in position, and 
 the wire turned round by the hand, and any dirt that 
 may have become attached to it washed off with the 
 water jet. 
 
 This done, the stent-roll should be held, supported 
 by one at each side, while the coucher is put on, and 
 while the machine-man is getting the apron folded down 
 the deckles should be lowered, and then the knees and 
 slices fixed on. The deckle cones are then lifted into 
 their place, the strap having been put on the outside of 
 the supports so as to be right when they are in. 
 
 Meanwhile the breast-roll brasses should be 
 tightened up, the wire squared off, and the stent-roll 
 put down with little more than its own weight. The 
 breast-roll guard stick and the stick which keeps it in 
 position should then be put in, the guide bar put across 
 
STARTING A NEW WIRE. 133 
 
 and attached to the guide, the wash-roll doctor, and 
 wash-pipe fitted up, and the save-all spout placed in 
 position ready for a start. The water pipe for the 
 breast guard stick should also be put on so that it may 
 not be forgotten, and the breast-roll started dry. 
 
 When starting a new wire the wheels of the guide, 
 which are acted on by the Strieker attached to the 
 journal of the guide-roll, should be placed in the centre 
 of the small bars on which they slide. When in this 
 position the arm to which they are attached, and also 
 the one which moves on the pivot fixed on the frame, 
 will be parallel to the wire, and thus the danger that 
 the wire may run to the side much lessened. 
 
 Should the position of the spades on the guide-bar 
 not allow of this, they should be altered so as to bring 
 the arms parallel. Even when these precautions are 
 taken the wire will sometimes run to the side, and 
 refuse to respond to the action of the guide, thus 
 moving the arms, and the wheels actuated by them, at 
 an angle to the frame. 
 
 When checked by the hand the wire may steady 
 itself in this position for some time, but so long as the 
 wheels are so much off the square it cannot be trusted 
 to remain steady, as it is sure eventually to yield to the 
 guide, and when it does so it will travel back, or 
 forward, as the case may be, with such rapidity, owing 
 to the guide-roll being so much turned in the direction 
 to which it is now running, that unless it is im- 
 mediately checked by the hand it will, in all proba- 
 
134 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 bility, run off to the side and become jammed against 
 the frame- 
 
 Every machine-man knows the trouble and anxiety 
 occasioned by the uncertainty as to when such a wire 
 may run to the side, to which he knows it must come 
 before it can be trusted to regulate itself. A good 
 plan in such a case is to stop the suction of the 
 pumps, either by shutting the cock or by drawing oat 
 the end of the box, as immediately the strain of the 
 suction is removed the wire will answer to the guide 
 and run to the side to which it is checked. 
 
 As the machine-man is at hand expecting the " run," 
 no difficulty is experienced in checking it in time to 
 prevent it being damaged. Such a proceeding means 
 a break, but compared with the constant watchfulness 
 and the liability of the wire to be jammed should the 
 run take place before the machine-man can get it 
 checked, that is a very small matter. 
 
 Whenever the wire has fairly started to run back, 
 the pump should again be put into action, that the 
 speed with which the wire is travelling may be 
 lessened. The spades on the guide-bar should not be 
 pressed hard against the edges of the wire ; but should 
 be clear about a sixteenth of an inch on each side, so 
 as to allow the wire to steady itself without the 
 continual action of the guide, if possible. 
 
 Should the seam of the wire be raised up, it very 
 often causes bells to appear all along its length. This 
 is owing to the air passing round the breast-roll 
 
PUTTING ON A COUCHER JACKET. 135 
 
 beneath the raised seam, and in its escape from under 
 the apron carrying with it the frothy sizing compounds 
 left in the meshes of the wire by the passage of the 
 backwater. 
 
 That it is these frothy matters which cause the 
 bells, and not the presence of the air alone, is readily 
 seen when a shower is placed so as to play on the 
 wire just before it goes up under the breast-roll. 
 Immediately the water is turned on, the bells will 
 disappear, owing to the froth having been washed out 
 of the meshes. The air is still passing round the 
 breast-roll ; but owing to the absence of the froth no 
 bells are made when it escapes through the stuff, as the 
 seam passes from under the apron. 
 
 Before proceeding to draw on a new coucher jacket, 
 which looks like being tight, the roll should have one 
 or two pailfuls of hot water thrown over it, and then 
 should be thoroughly dried. The heat of the water has 
 the effect of causing the roll, if it be an ordinary 
 wooden one, to shrink, thus making the jacket slide on 
 more easily. When starting a new cover, on fine stuffy 
 which is always most liable to adhere to the pile, as 
 little weight should be worked on the roll as possible, 
 and the guard-board should be put firmly down. 
 
 Before starting, one or two handbowls of china, 
 clay should be poured on the cover as the roll is 
 running dry, so that the pile may be flattened down, 
 and the cover made more hard, through the closing 
 of the pores by the clay. 
 
1 36 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 When starting the paper no water should be run 
 on the roll, though a handbowl of clay may be 
 poured on for some time, and when it is turned on 
 the pipe should be turned so that the water will run 
 down the front of the guard-board on to the cover, 
 as if the jets play directly on the cover the pile will 
 be raised, and the liability to picking much increased. 
 Should the paper threaten to lift on the roll, a little 
 turpentine or engine size poured on the cover will 
 cause it to go down. 
 
 Much trouble is often caused, when making coloured 
 papers, especially blues, with a new couch-cover, 
 as the fine fibres which adhere to the pile cause 
 a white mark to appear on the surface. If the guard- 
 board be passing even a little water, it will cause 
 the cover to pick up the stuff just when it runs on 
 to the web. A number of brushes weighted with 
 lead, in order to keep them steady, placed on the roll 
 just in front of the guard-board, will keep the cover 
 clean and prevent the marks from appearing on the 
 sheet. A little turpentine is a very useful thing to 
 have about the machine, as there is nothing better 
 for cleaning the edges of the couch-roll, and prevent- 
 ing sticking at the press-roll. 
 
 When the machine calenders have been " sweating," 
 and are difficult to start, as is often the case on the 
 Monday morning, one or two handbowls of soda lye 
 (soda ash) should be poured over them and allowed to 
 become dry, when they will usually start away all right. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 ANIMAL SIZING.— DRYING. 
 
 Animal Sizing. — Before the extraction of the gelatine 
 can be proceeded with, the hides or horn piths must 
 first be freed from the lime which has been used 
 to preserve them. This may be satisfactorily 
 accomplished by allowing them to lie covered up 
 with cold water for about twenty-four hours, the 
 water being changed twice. In order to ensure that 
 all the lime has been removed, they may be further 
 washed in revolving wire-covered drums for about 
 half an hour before being put into the heater. 
 
 The extraction of the size is usually conducted in 
 copper-lined jacketed heaters, into the bottom of which 
 a wooden frame is fitted so as to allow the size to 
 pass through, while keeping back any slime that 
 would contaminate it. To make this more secure, 
 an openly woven cloth is spread over the wooden 
 frame. After the heater has been filled and the heat 
 brought up to between 165 to 170 Fahr., the charge 
 should stand for 15 to 17 hours before being drawn off. 
 
I3 8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 Just before drawing off the steam should be turned 
 on for a little, so as to make the size run more freely. 
 When all the strong gelatine has been run to the 
 store tanks, the hides should again be treated with 
 water at a temperature of from i8o° to 190 Fahr., and 
 allowed to stand as with the first drawing. 
 
 The third infusion may be heated to about 200° Fahr., 
 while the fourth, if there be a fourth taken off, may 
 be boiled for an hour or so. The amount of water 
 run in to the heaters for the different infusions must 
 be regulated by the strength of the size required. 
 The size should be run through a flannel cloth laid 
 over a fine wirecloth sieve. 
 
 The infusions may be arranged so as to run off 
 a first and fourth together, and a second and third 
 at the same time ; but this, too, depends on the 
 strength of size wanted. About 2\ per cent, of white 
 soap should be added to each drawing, and thoroughly 
 mixed before the alum is put in, otherwise the size 
 will curd. The alum added equals about 30 per cent, 
 of the weight of hides or piths infused. 
 
 The alum is added with the idea of preserving 
 the size, and the soap in order to prevent the sparkling 
 caused by the alum, and to improve the surface when 
 calendering. As the alum is in excess the soap is 
 decomposed, with the result that the fatty oils thus 
 liberated tend to enable the paper to take on a better 
 finish. 
 
 In the bottom of the chests used to hold the size 
 
TUB SIZING. 139 
 
 a lead-covered steam-pipe should be laid, in the form 
 of a coil, so that the size may be heated, and thus 
 made to run more easily before being pumped through 
 the pipes to the sizing tub. If the chests be lead- 
 lined, the inside should be rubbed with lard, so as to 
 prevent the size from adhering to it. 
 
 Some sizing tubs are fitted so as to carry the 
 paper immersed in the size until just under the rolls, 
 which remove the excess taken up ; but the best 
 results are obtained when the web is raised from the 
 size just after passing under the dipping-roll, and 
 exposed to the air in its passage over the spared 
 frame or the carrying-rolls. When the stuff is free, 
 the tub has to be replenished more often than when 
 it is soft, and though a larger amount of size is taken 
 up, the paper is softer to handle and wets much 
 easier. 
 
 This is owing to the mussy nature of the fibres, 
 which from being cut up so quickly in the beater 
 are unable to retain the engine size, and thus, though 
 more absorbent, and more permeated by the gelatine, 
 they lack the firmness to support the size coating 
 in such a way as to produce a grippy paper. This 
 is especially noticeable if steam is being used to clear 
 knots, or render the stuff more workable on the 
 wire. 
 
 When working the Marshall beater the sizer rolls 
 are less apt to "peel" than if the stuff is prepared in 
 the ordinary form of beater. This proves that there 
 
140 PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 
 
 is less powdery stuff made in the passage through 
 the perfecting engine than when the stuff is reduced 
 to a fine state by the repeated action of the roll. 
 
 If this peeling is caused by the use of steam, as is 
 often the case with grass papers, a little extra starch, 
 added either to the stuff in the chests or put down 
 with the next engine, will help to counteract the soft- 
 ness and make the paper less apt to adhere to the 
 rolls. If this does not cure it, a piece of wood covered 
 with felt should be pressed against the top roll in the 
 same way as the guard-board on the coucher. 
 
 When the paper is not run through the second press- 
 rolls, the rough underside will not readily take up the 
 size, and much trouble from streaks on the underside 
 is often caused by this irregular sizing. This can be 
 cured by fixing a narrow piece of wood against the 
 sides of the tub, so that it will be beneath the level 
 of the size near to the dipping-roll. As the web passes 
 between this and the dipping-roll the rubbing against 
 the underside spreads the size equally over it, and the 
 streaking at once disappears. 
 
 To prevent the froth made by the dipping-roll from 
 passing round and being carried away on the web, 
 a narrow piece of felt, or even a piece of thick twine, 
 should be tied to the sides of the tub so as to press 
 against the surface of the dipping-roll along its length. 
 
 When sizing strong rag papers, or, in fact, any thin 
 papers containing rags, the top roll should never be 
 raised in the least, because when raised the knots and 
 
TUB SIZING. 141 
 
 strings liable to be carried away with such papers are 
 not flattened, and in further raising the roll allow the 
 size to pass through and cause sticking when running 
 on to the drier. 
 
 On thick papers made from fine stuff, hanging the top 
 roll a little often saves a great deal of labour in keeping 
 it free from the powdery stuff which is so apt to 
 adhere to it. 
 
 For thick or medium weight papers made from hard 
 stock the size should be heated a little, so that it 
 may penetrate it more readily; but for light weights 
 it should be worked with as little heat as possible, 
 as being so thin the paper is soaked more readily, and 
 is liable to become so softened that it will scarcely 
 bear its own weight going over the carrying-rolls. 
 
 By heating the size a poorer quality may be used, 
 though this is partly equalised by the increased amount 
 taken up by the paper. When paper is reeled at the 
 sizer and allowed to stand for some time before being 
 dried, it will have a much harder rattle and be better 
 sized. 
 
 High-coloured papers are, however, very liable to 
 fade when standing, owing to the action of the alum 
 contained in the size. The edges are also very apt 
 to stick together and tear, through the size having 
 become dry, unless they are washed with hot water 
 once or twice while standing. The drier and cooler 
 the web is when it enters the size the better will the 
 sizing be accomplished. 
 
142 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 When not perfectly dry the paper has a soft, mussy 
 feeling after drying, owing to its having taken up less 
 size through being moist when passing through the 
 tub. 
 
 Drying. — Notwithstanding the common belief that 
 paper dried more by the action of the fans than by 
 steam heat is the better sized, the reverse is the case. 
 If the steam be checked and the fans driven as hard 
 as possible, the paper, though dry, will not have a 
 hard grippy feel. When as many of the fans as 
 possible are stopped and the steam turned on full, 
 the result will be a strong sized paper with a firm 
 hard rattle. 
 
 This would seem to be somewhat at variance with 
 the undoubted fact that loft-dried papers are better 
 sized than similar papers dried on the drier, but it 
 must be borne in mind that the results obtained by 
 exposing paper to the action of dry air for hours 
 cannot be taken as supplying a theory for the treat- 
 ment of papers dried in scarcely half as many minutes. 
 
 In order to obtain the best results on the drier, 
 the fans in the first portion should not be driven too 
 hard, while the steam should be kept up. In the 
 latter portion the speed of the fans should be increased 
 and the steam checked. 
 
 When drying thin paper made wholly or in large 
 proportion from linen rags, it is often a matter of great 
 difficulty to get it to run flat. If the drier is driven 
 
COCKLING. 143 
 
 at the same speed as the machine with such papers, 
 the "cockling," as it is termed, will be worse. 
 
 When thin papers enter the size they are usually 
 very hot and dry, consequently the fibres have become 
 drawn together ; but before the web has reached the 
 size-rolls it will have expanded as much as three- 
 quarters of an inch more than it measured when it 
 entered the tub. This expansion takes place with 
 all papers ; but owing to the size being worked colder 
 on thin papers the reaction is more sudden, and 
 consequently the liability to expand unequally much 
 greater. 
 
 When sizing strong cartridge papers, which are usually 
 finished rough, and therefore wanted as flat as possible, 
 the size should be hot. Running such papers straight 
 on to the drier from the sizer, without reeling, helps to 
 flatten them, and if they are wound against a revolving 
 drum the pressure, as the roll gets larger, also tends to 
 flatten them out. One drawback to running the paper 
 straight on to the drier is that the alum in the size 
 does not get time to penetrate into the pores, and the 
 under side is apt to become covered with glistening 
 specks. 
 
 To cure this the size should be made up with a 
 larger quantity of soap, reduced in strength and heated- 
 It is the practice, in some mills, to run the paper over 
 a hollow drum filled with cold water and kept cool by 
 a stream of water running through it. Paper cooled 
 in this way sizes better and runs flatter ; but with 
 
144 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 particular papers the better plan is to reel them at 
 the machine and allow them to stand till cold before 
 sizing. 
 
 When drying such papers the drier should not be 
 driven harder than about sixty feet a minute, while 
 a good heat should be kept up. Even when standing 
 no longer than it takes to change the speeds, paper 
 made and sized at a hundred feet a minute, when dried 
 at sixty feet with the same steam pressure, but with 
 fewer fans running, will hardly be recognised as the 
 same, it will feel so much firmer and be so much better 
 sized. 
 
 Paper allowed to stand after sizing is always more 
 difficult to dry, owing to the size having penetrated 
 into the pores, and this is more noticeable on damp, 
 wet nights, when the air about the roof of the drying- 
 house is more moist and less able to absorb the 
 steam. 
 
 When drying papers to be finished rough the guiding 
 tapes should be run to the side as soon as the web 
 has fairly started, and only put on again in time to 
 keep the tail from trailing on the wire frame which 
 usually covers the steam pipes used for heating. 
 Formerly it was thought that three or four tapes on 
 top and bottom were necessary, but one from the top 
 and one from beneath are quite sufficient, and there 
 is less risk of marking the paper than when more 
 are used. 
 
 In the drying of loft-dried papers the temperature 
 
LOFT DRYING. 145 
 
 of the loft must be kept as near that of the ordinary 
 summer atmosphere as possible, and as much advan- 
 tage as possible should be taken of the atmospheric air, 
 when sufficiently dry, to be admitted to the loft without 
 risk of making the papers mussy after drying. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GLAZING AND BURNISHING. 
 
 When paper is glazed by the calenders attached to the 
 machine, it is usually damped before being put through 
 the calender rolls. Prior to this, however, it h.as 
 generally passed between what are called the smooth- 
 ing rolls, which are situated just before the last set 
 of drying cylinders. These usually consist of two rolls 
 heated by steam, though not to the same extent as the 
 calender rolls. 
 
 By keeping the paper a little damp as it passes 
 through these smoothing-rolls, and not heating the last 
 cylinders any more than is necessary to prevent damp 
 spots, the surface imparted by the calender-rolls is 
 much improved. When a good surface is wanted the 
 stuff must be kept fine, as long stuff, though taking 
 on a good finish, always rises up in the sheet, causing 
 a roughness, especially on the underside. To quote 
 the remark of a shrewd old paper-maker — " It's just 
 like smoothing sand and smoothing gravel." 
 
 Even papers made from long stuff are very liable to 
 
 lose their surface, owing to this rising of the longer 
 
 146 
 
DAMPING. 147 
 
 fibres, unless the pressure in glazing is sufficient to 
 thoroughly close the sheet. The improvement which 
 can be effected on the surface by finer stuff is greater 
 than is usually supposed. 
 
 The author knew a machine-man who used regularly 
 to get his beater-man to empty a finer engine as soon 
 as possible after his shift came on, with the result that, 
 when the foreman came round, in about an hour and 
 a half, to inspect the surface, the paper then being 
 made was very much higher in finish than that made 
 just before the outgoing shift had dropped off work. 
 
 The form of damper usually employed to moisten 
 the paper before it enters the calenders consists of 
 two hollow copper drums of about 15 or 16 inches 
 diameter, though, of course, they may be of any desired 
 size. These drums are filled with cold water, and kept 
 cold by means of a continuous flow passing through 
 them. 
 
 A copper pipe, perforated with numerous very 
 minute holes, is placed along the front of each of the 
 drums, so that the steam which is blown from the 
 holes will condense in the cold drums. The drums 
 are so placed that when the paper is running over 
 them one will come in contact with the top and the 
 other with the under side of the paper. The moisture 
 deposited on the drums by the condensation of the 
 steam is thus carried away on the paper, and helps 
 greatly to improve the surface when subjected to the 
 pressure and heat of the calender-rolls. 
 
148 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 Owing, however, to the moisture thus applied being 
 merely on the surface, and not having time to penetrate 
 into the paper, the high finish thus obtained is very 
 liable to go back. A little sperm oil should be poured 
 on the drums just at the edges of the web, so that 
 the water may be prevented from passing on to the 
 calender rolls, and so causing rust on the edges. 
 
 Printing papers, on which a very high finish is 
 wanted, are often glazed on the super-calender, after 
 having been given a good machine finish. The contact 
 with the alternating metal and cotton, or paper-covered 
 rolls, has the effect of imparting a velvety feel, un- 
 obtainable by the passage through the machine 
 calenders. 
 
 A little of an alkaline soap, made by dissolving 
 white soap in caustic lye, is often added to the pulp 
 in the engine, in order to improve the surface. 
 
 When paper is damped before glazing on the super- 
 calender, the rolls must be worked at a heat sufficient 
 to dry it. The cooler the paper to be damped is made 
 the greater will be the amount of water absorbed, 
 without causing the rolls to " bag " when winding on 
 the damper, and the more pressure will it bear in 
 passing through the rolls. For this reason both tub- 
 sized and engine-sized papers should be allowed to 
 lie in a cool place for some time before damping. 
 
 To obtain a surface which will not be liable readily 
 to go back, the pressure must not be too heavy, nor 
 must the rolls be worked with too much heat. It is 
 
GLAZING. T49 
 
 much better for the appearance of the paper to put 
 it through twice than to work heavy pressure, and 
 glaze with one passage only. The amount of pressure 
 which can be applied without unduly crushing the 
 paper depends very much on the stock from which 
 it is made. 
 
 Papers largely composed of straw require a good 
 pressure, in order that they may be closed so as to 
 avoid the rising before referred to. This is especially 
 the case when such papers have been damped. 
 
 Owing to the hard nature of their ultimate fibres, 
 wood and straw papers are very liable to become 
 wrinkled when damped, and this will be more notice- 
 able if they have been hot when put through the 
 damper. Should papers consisting wholly, or in large 
 proportion, of wood become too dry on the calender 
 rolls, they will be very apt to break, owing to their 
 hard, brittle nature. 
 
 In glazing highly-finished paper for magazine and 
 illustrated work, in which the surface and not the 
 appearance is of the first importance, the pressure 
 applied in the super-calender is often such as to cause 
 all the sheave and gritty matters to show up. 
 
 In glazing high-coloured papers made from coarse 
 stock which has been kept long in the engine, very 
 heavy pressures are necessary, in order to obtain the 
 degree of finish usually imparted to such papers. 
 Quite a common pressure for that class of papers is 
 about II tons on each end of the calender, while some 
 
150 PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 
 
 of the most recently fitted up calenders are supplied 
 with weights equal to 50 tons. 
 
 At all times, but especially when glazing tinted 
 papers, the greatest care must be exercised to keep 
 the heat of the rolls as uniform as possible, as care- 
 lessness in this respect is very often the unsuspected 
 cause of the appearance of shades. This applies with 
 even greater force to the burnishing calender, as even 
 a slight variation of the heat of the burnishing-roll 
 will cause shades to appear. 
 
 A good plan to prevent the overheating of the 
 burnishing-roll is to let both steam and water into it, 
 so that it may be quickly cooled down should the heat 
 become too strong. 
 
 In friction glazing, as in super-calendering, the best 
 results can be obtained by working with little or no 
 pressure, and putting the paper through more fre- 
 quently. To keep the burnisher working smoothly, the 
 wax should be frequently applied, so that it may not 
 dry and crack the paper. Should the paper be too 
 damp when glazing or burnishing, it will be liable 
 to become blackened. This blackening is sometimes 
 attributed to the want of wax on the burnisher, but 
 neglect to put wax on the roll, though a very frequent 
 cause of cracks, will not, under usual conditions of 
 working, be liable to cause it. 
 
 The surface imparted to paper glazed in a properly 
 constructed plate calender is much more silky than the 
 finish obtained on the super-calender. This is due to 
 
PLATE GLAZING. 151 
 
 the pressure on the plate calender being so much less, 
 and thus the original elasticity of the fibres is pre- 
 served to a much greater extent. 
 
 This has the effect of making plate-glazed papers 
 bulk much better than similar papers finished on the 
 super-calender, and in addition they have a more 
 mellow appearance. Great care must be exercised that 
 the plates used are free from gritty matters, otherwise 
 the papers will be very liable to become indented and 
 rendered rough on the surface. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CUTTING.— FINISHING. 
 
 Cutting. — The first thing to be done when preparing 
 to start a revolving cutter is to place the roll with 
 least breaks — that is, if those to be cut are not free 
 from breaks — in the bottom bracket nearest to the 
 feeding-rolls. 
 
 The reason why a roll without breaks should be 
 put there is that any breaks or cracks on the others 
 may be led over the boards and through the rolls 
 without the risk of catching and tearing, being sup- 
 ported on this under web. As this roll is also the 
 guide when setting the circulars, the one put on 
 should be as evenly wound as possible. When 
 this roll has been put on, and before any of the 
 others are lifted into position, the paper should be 
 torn perfectly square, and, after folding, put carefully 
 into the feeding-rolls. 
 
 The utmost care is necessary that it may not be 
 slanted, even in the slightest degree, as should it 
 be even an eighth of an inch off the square, the 
 
REVOLVING CUTTER. 153 
 
 circulars will be set fully an inch off the line ; and if 
 the brackets cannot be altered to bring the sheets 
 right, there is nothing for it but to shut down and put 
 the circulars into line again. 
 
 The number of rolls which can be cut at one time 
 depends on the condition of the cross-cutting knife ; 
 but even with a sharp knife six rolls of the substance 
 of large post 21 lbs. is a heavy filling. 
 
 Should the filling be too heavy, the under sheet 
 is very liable to be torn in a peculiar manner, very 
 difficult to detect, unless the cutter-man knows where 
 to look for it. This tear is usually of a small semi- 
 circular shape, somewhat irregular, however, and as 
 it is on the under sheet it may run for some time 
 before it is noticed. It is torn off just when the cross- 
 cutting knife is passing the dead knife, and falls down 
 on to the carrying-felt. 
 
 When this tear makes its appearance, which will 
 be either when the filling is too heavy or the knife 
 too blunt, the best plan is to break off one of the 
 rolls, and thus allow the knife to go through the 
 remaining sheets without any shock. 
 
 Great care must be exercised, when setting newly- 
 sharpened circular knives, not to press them against 
 the under knives until the fine wire edge has taken 
 on a skin. To bring up this skin, they should be 
 gently rubbed with a fine file. A good plan is to 
 put a piece of thin copying or tissue paper between 
 the block and the knife when setting for the first 
 
154 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 day or two, and as the edge becomes hardened gradually 
 to bring them closer. 
 
 When new the cross-cutting knife needs little 
 attention; but the parts not cutting the paper should 
 always be kept well oiled, so that there may be no 
 attrition as they come in contact with the dead 
 knife. 
 
 When letting out the spring nearest the front of 
 the cutter, it must be done very cautiously, and 
 after doing so the knife should always be driven 
 through with the hand, to make sure that it is not 
 too far out. Should it be too much sprung it will 
 lock into the dead knife and seriously damage both. 
 Should the cross-cutting knife miss at any point, 
 the portion on each side of it must be rubbed down 
 with a file so as to bring them to the same level 
 as the point which is missing. 
 
 The feeding-rolls must always be kept free from 
 oil, especially the jacket, as should any get on to 
 them they will slip over the paper instead of draw- 
 ing it in regularly, and cause short and long sheets. 
 This may be detected by watching the feed of the 
 paper, as if the rolls are slipping it will be very 
 noticeably irregular. When oil has got on to them 
 a rub with a cloth moistened with turpentine will 
 take it off immediately. 
 
 Should the paper be badly cut, it should be closely 
 watched between the tube-rolls and the cross-cutting 
 knife, and, if any lurch is seen then, the screw of 
 
SHORT AND LONG SHEETS. 155 
 
 the pulley wheel must be looked to, as, if it has 
 become loose, it will cause the paper to be unevenly 
 cut. The screws of the spur-wheels must also be 
 kept tight, or the cutting will be very defective. 
 Should the cutting be bad, owing to a backlash on 
 any of the pinions, a piece of clean leather inserted 
 between the shaft of the cross-cutting knife and the 
 brass at the back of the cutter, and firmly wedged 
 down by means of the collar, will remedy it. 
 Though it is useless unless the shaft heats a little, 
 care must be taken to keep it moistened with oil to 
 prevent undue heating. 
 
 When the length of the sheet being cut is 50 
 inches and upwards, some difficulty may be ex- 
 perienced in keeping the sheets from rushing against 
 the revolving frame, owing to the slow revolution 
 of the cross-cutting knife compared with the speed 
 of the other portions of the cutter. 
 
 To cure this, two of the blade screws should be 
 unscrewed, and a long sheet of paper or clean wrapper 
 screwed between them opposite to the paper. These 
 sheets are allowed to hang like flags, and as they pass 
 round against the paper serve to drive down the 
 sheets on to the carrying felt. 
 
 When cutting a short sheet of perhaps 14 inches, 
 or nearly the length of the fall between the dead 
 knife and the felt, the heaving felt is very liable to 
 come against it just as the cross-cutting knife is going 
 through, and thus both uneven and badly squared 
 
156 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 sheets are the result. A piece of thick twine stretched 
 across the cutter, on the top of the paper, an inch 
 or two back from the dead knife, will generally cure 
 this ; but it is rather dangerous mending a break 
 on the top roll when it is on, as the cutter-man 
 must lift the string with his fingers, to allow the 
 tail of the paper to pass under. In such a case the 
 better plan is to shut and lead it under, when it can 
 be done with perfect safety. 
 
 When cutting friction-glazed paper the feeding-rolls 
 will not take more than three rolls at a time with 
 security, unless the brasses are wedged and firmly 
 pressed down at both ends, when six rolls may be cut 
 at once and nothing go wrong. The high polish on 
 the paper, together with the wax applied at the 
 burnisher, causes the middle sheets to slip so much 
 that they will often be as much as an inch short, while 
 the top and bottom sheets are quite right. 
 
 As there is not usually a guard on the rolls, this 
 pressing is not to be recommended, on account of the 
 danger when mending breaks. Should even a small 
 piece of broke run round the under feeding-roll, the 
 size of the sheet being cut will be instantly raised, 
 though no harm will result should any run round the 
 top roll. 
 
 Should the circular or block knife, running out of 
 gearing between those which are cutting, be left slack, 
 either the one or the other will be sure to slide along 
 the shaft until they nearly meet, making a long straight 
 
CUTTING BURNISHED PAPERS. 157 
 
 line on the paper, which, though not easy to detect, 
 neither plate calenders nor anything else will take out 
 again. 
 
 When the circulars are dull, and the machine cutting 
 friction-glazed or even ordinary papers with a narrow 
 selvage, the knives at the edges will cut the sheets 
 very unevenly, which will soon be noticed, as sheets 
 cut in this way are generally about a quarter of an inch 
 broader than the size. 
 
 The best cure for this is to shut and drive a nail 
 into the board between the feeding-rolls and the knives, 
 and opposite each circular, which is cutting the bad 
 edge, to hang a folded sheet (not more than two plies) 
 on to the nail, and then lead it over and underneath 
 the board, so that when the cutter is started it will run 
 into each circular and hang there, being clasped on the 
 nail. 
 
 Should a break on the top roll run over instead of 
 between the tube-rolls, when cutting square paper, the 
 sheets are liable to be cut off the square, though when 
 cutting angle little or no difference is caused. The 
 belt which runs over the expanding pulley should always 
 be kept tight, as should it be left slack the sheet will rise 
 in size from I inch to 4 inches. In fact, from the drags 
 which hang on the rolls, upwards, everything must be 
 kept tight in order to ensure regular cutting. 
 
 If the feeding-rolls are creasing the paper, the edge 
 where the crease runs out should be eased slightly in 
 order to put the crease away. Should this be in- 
 
1^8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 effectual, easing the tube-rolls will slacken the strain 
 and also help to put the creases away, but when 
 altering the tube-rolls care must be taken that the 
 square is not altered. Tissue and copying papers are 
 most liable to crease, and sometimes the top tube-roll 
 has to be taken out altogether in order to prevent 
 creasing, though, usually, lifting it about one turn of 
 the screw at each side will be sufficient. 
 
 To prevent creasing at the feeding-rolls the top one 
 should be lifted, after all the tails are in, and the size 
 measured ready for a start, and a long strip of soft felt 
 about two inches broad wound round each end and 
 made to adhere by means of resin, so that it may not 
 come off, but press on the paper above the selvage 
 which the end circulars are taking off. Enough felt 
 should be put on to admit of the jacket being raised 
 about one-sixteenth of an inch above the paper. 
 
 The cutter should not be allowed to run longer than 
 two or three minutes without paper if the knives are 
 in gearing, because, should they become heated by 
 friction, they are very difficult to put right again. For 
 the same reason care must be taken that no part of 
 the knife outside the breadth of the paper is left hard 
 pressed. 
 
 Should the knife be blunt and any part of it pressed 
 hard up by means of the springs in order to make it cut, 
 the square is very liable to be altered, and while the 
 back sheet may be all right the front one will some- 
 times be half an inch off the square. This is most 
 
SINGLE AND DOUBLE DRAW. 159 
 
 liable to occur when the centre springs are pressed up, 
 and may be remedied by inserting five or six plies of 
 wrapper underneath the metal plate at the back of the 
 dead knife. This wrapper may either be put in at 
 the front or the back, according to whether the square 
 is off the one way or the other, and the thickness of 
 the plies can be regulated so as to give the distance 
 that the sheet requires. 
 
 The number of inches which the carriage requires 
 to be moved when altering the draw depends on the 
 angle or dip at which the frame is built. When finding 
 the square the sheets must always be taken from the felt 
 in the one direction and folded in the same way, that it 
 may be readily ascertained whether they are over or 
 under, should they require altering. 
 
 When changing from the single to the double draw, 
 the square, though quite right when running the 
 single sheet, will, owing to the slow revolution of the 
 cross-cutting knife, be found to be under the size, the 
 variation depending on the length of the draw. Should 
 the draw have been lengthened the carriage will re- 
 quire to be drawn out a little, and when changing back 
 to the single draw it will have to be put in again. 
 
 In cutting angles the brackets should be drawn as 
 near to the front of the cutter as possible, so that the 
 backside sheet will have a shorter distance to travel 
 over the boards ; and care must always be taken when 
 making, that the papers are not too broad for the cutter, 
 as, if so, the points of the sheets will run straight into 
 
160 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 the frame instead of down the felt. The second tube- 
 rolls, worked when cutting angles which come up to 
 about forty-five degrees, and sometimes over that, must 
 always be perfectly square, or they will draw in the 
 paper unevenly. 
 
 When the tube-rolls are not drawing quick enough 
 to keep the paper tight, a turn or so of paper wound 
 round them will draw it up quite tight. When this 
 paper is put on it should be kept about an inch clear 
 of each edge, otherwise the rolls are very apt to knock 
 small holes or cracks into the sheets. 
 
 If the feeding-rolls have been pressed for burnished 
 paper, the blocks must be taken out before cutting 
 papers such as cartridges, which are usually finished 
 rough, as the hard-pressed jacket would put a glaze 
 on that portion which passed under it. The string 
 across the dead knife should never be used when the 
 draw is fifty inches or upwards, as the slow motion 
 of the knife sends the paper over it, and thus makes 
 it dangerous for the square. 
 
 When starting a new knife on the English cutter, 
 care should be taken to see that it will go through 
 without becoming locked ; and with new or newly- 
 ground circulars the same precautions should be em- 
 ployed as mentioned in connection with the revolving 
 cutter. 
 
 Should the feeding-rolls slip, and thus draw the 
 paper unequally, a piece of thin paper wound round 
 the top roll will make them draw much better. While 
 
FINISHING. l6l 
 
 the " dancer " must not be allowed to fall too far down, 
 the paper must not be drawn so tightly as to raise it 
 against the platform, or it will be sure to cause a 
 break. 
 
 When quickening the speed of the drum by means 
 of the screw attached to the arm, in order to bring 
 up the name, the belt should be put up the cone a 
 little in order to bring up the draw from the reel, 
 and thus prevent the " dancer " becoming too much 
 drawn up. 
 
 When the cross-cutting knife misses it should be 
 raised up a little by means of the screw ; this should 
 be done very carefully, in order to avoid the risk of 
 bringing it too far up, and thus causing it to grip the 
 dead knife. 
 
 When cutting lined paper it may happen that the 
 lines do not come exactly parallel when the sheets are 
 folded, owing to the dandy not having been set 
 perfectly parallel on the machine. 
 
 This may be remedied to a great extent by winding 
 thin strips of paper round the " dancer " at the side 
 where the lines are farthest ahead. This has the 
 effect of drawing the side to which it is put so much 
 back as to bring up the side which is farthest off the 
 parallel. 
 
 Finishing. — The different stages through which the 
 
 paper passes in the salle are entirely dependent on 
 
 the qualities produced in the mill, and thus the degree 
 
 II 
 
162 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 of overhauling to which it is subjected varies with the 
 requirements of each different mill. As a rule, the 
 higher the quality and price of a paper the more 
 closely is it overhauled, and, consequently, the greater 
 is the proportion of retree laid out. 
 
 During the last year or two the engine-sized machine- 
 finished papers have reached to such a degree of per- 
 fection that it would almost seem as if eventually the 
 better qualities of tub-sized papers would be driven out 
 of the market altogether ; and, consequently, the engine- 
 sized papers have to be much more closely overhauled 
 than was thought necessary several years ago. 
 
Plate V. 
 
 Fig. 9.— Chemical Wood and Esparto x 130. 
 
 Fig. 10. — Cotton, Linen, Wood, and Esparto x 122. 
 
 f To face page 1 63 . 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF PAPER. 
 
 Notwithstanding what has been written about the 
 reagents necessary to enable the microscopist to 
 distinguish the various fibres after they have been 
 made into paper, they are of little practical use. The 
 reason of this lies in the fact that the groups into 
 which the fibres can be separated by means of 
 these reagents are those which are most easily dis- 
 tinguished without their use. 
 
 The reagent most commonly used is a solution of 
 iodine in potassium iodide. Cotton, flax, and hemp 
 fibres, when moistened with this reagent, are coloured 
 a dull red violet ; esparto, straw, and chemical wood 
 fibres are nearly colourless, excepting the brownish- 
 yellow tinge of the solution. Unbleached, or imper- 
 fectly bleached, wood and jute show this yellow tinge ; 
 but, owing to the presence of the incrusting substances, 
 it is much more distinct. 
 
 In order to render the colours more distinct, a dilute 
 
 solution of sulphuric acid may be used to moisten the 
 
 163 
 
164 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 fibres, after they have been in contact with the iodine 
 for some time. For the student of paper-making, who 
 merely wishes to become acquainted with the physical 
 characteristics of the various fibres, and thus be able 
 to determine the materials of which the papers which 
 may come under his notice are composed, a very good 
 beginning may be made with a microscope provided 
 with optics magnifying from 80 to IOO times. 
 
 The glass slides and covers used in mounting can 
 be had from any chemical dealer, and cost very little ; 
 while the teasing needles can easily be made by in- 
 serting the thick end of an ordinary needle in a small 
 piece of wood, or the handle of a crochet needle, and 
 bending the point to the desired angle, after having 
 heated it in the gas. 
 
 A small bottle of glycerine, for softening and ren- 
 dering the fibres more transparent, should also be 
 procured, and a pair of small forceps will be required, 
 in order to lift on and off the glass covers. 
 
 Before beginning to examine paper, specimens of the 
 different fibres, after they have been reduced to half- 
 stuff, but before treatment in the beater, should be 
 mounted, so as to be ready to hand for comparison. 
 Suppose the first of these specimens to be prepared 
 is that of esparto grass, a small piece of which has 
 been obtained from the presse-pdte web. As the ulti- 
 mate fibres are not firmly felted together, they yield 
 very readily when drawn apart by the needles. 
 
 A small piece should be placed on the slide to be 
 
MOUNTING STANDARD SPECIMENS. 165 
 
 used, and having been covered with a drop of glycer- 
 ine, should be separated into ultimate fibres by means 
 of the teasing needles. It is much better to examine 
 three or four isolated fibres than a complicated net- 
 work, as by doing so the characteristic structural 
 details, together with the length and the formation of 
 the ends, can be much better seen. 
 
 Papers to be examined should first be boiled for a 
 few minutes in a dilute alcoholic solution, in order to 
 remove the size coating from the fibres. Even when 
 aided by reliable specimens, the work of distinguishing 
 the various fibres is at first attended with difficulties 
 which can only be overcome by much practice. 
 
 By using dilute colouring solutions of carnation or 
 magenta when mounting, the characteristic appearance 
 of the upper skin is more distinctly brought out. 
 When working with a low power objective, the field 
 is enlarged, and thus the whole length of the fibres 
 brought into view, with the result that a much better 
 idea of the comparative proportions of the different 
 fibres is obtained. For this reason, the objective em- 
 ployed for ordinary work should not exceed 100 to 150 
 diameters. 
 
 The advantage of becoming thoroughly accustomed 
 to view the fibres under such a magnification will be 
 much appreciated when a higher power is substituted, 
 in order to render the structural details of any fibre, or 
 group of fibres, more apparent. When changing the 
 objectives from a low to a high power, the proportions, 
 
1 66 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 must always be borne in mind, as fibres which present 
 a similarity of appearance, though differing as to length 
 and diameter, are, at first sight, apt to be confounded. 
 
 For instance, esparto, especially Spanish, may some- 
 times be mistaken for linen, as seen under the lower 
 power, owing to its enlarged appearance. If it is 
 possible to obtain a little of the pulp just after fur- 
 nishing, and before the roll has had time to reduce it, 
 and, again, as it is ready to pass over the machine, a 
 very good idea of the effect of the treatment can be 
 obtained. 
 
 The quickest way to mount such a sample is to 
 dilute it with water until it is thin enough to be viewed 
 by transmitted light, and then pour a little into a small 
 glass live box, when it is immediately ready to be 
 examined. Viewed in this way, the fibres are much 
 less transparent, owing to the absence of the glycerine, 
 and thus the appearance of the external parts is much 
 easier noticed. Examined in this way, cotton fibres 
 will be seen to be quite opaque, while the transparent 
 central canal of linen fibres will be very apparent. 
 
 Cotton fibres consist of opaque, flattened, ribbon-like 
 tubes, frequently twisted upon themselves. The side 
 walls are thin, while the central canal is large. The 
 outer skin is rough and granulated, presenting, when 
 dry, a dark, opaque appearance. When moistened 
 with glycerine or Canada balsam it loses this dulness 
 and becomes transparent. On examining the fibres 
 before beating, one end will be seen to taper away at 
 
Plate VI. 
 
 
 
 JF 
 
 'Jf 
 
 
 Fig. ii. — Linen, Cotton, and Esparto x i-jo. 
 
 Fig. i2. — .Manilla and Cotton x 122. 
 
 I To face page 166. 
 
STRUCTURE OF FIBRES. 167 
 
 a slight angle to a fine point, while the other takes the 
 form of an irregularly flattened knob. 
 
 Linen fibres are long and, like cotton, tubular; but 
 the side walls are much thicker and firmer, while the 
 central canal, though smaller, is easily distinguished 
 by its transparency, even when no glycerine has been 
 used in mounting. They are smaller in diameter than 
 cotton fibres. Sometimes linen fibres, notched like a 
 bamboo-cane, are met with, though usually the side 
 walls are smooth and regular. (See Plate VI., 
 Fig. 11.) 
 
 Hemp fibres are somewhat like cotton in that 
 they are flattened in the same way and have a large 
 diameter; but they are not twisted upon themselves 
 in the manner characteristic of cotton fibres. (See 
 Plate I., Frontispiece, Fig. 2.) 
 
 Manilla fibres have a larger diameter than hemp, 
 and the side walls are well defined, making the central 
 canal, which is large, very easily seen. The side walls 
 are more uniform than those of the cotton fibres, and 
 present a more lustrous appearance when mounted in 
 glycerine. (See Plate VI., Fig. 12.) 
 
 Jute fibres have unequally thickened side walls, 
 which, however, are smooth externally. The fibres 
 are very seldom completely free from incrusting 
 matters, which, when dry, obscure the central canal. 
 
 Wood fibres, especially those from pulp prepared by 
 the sulphite methods, are transparent. They resemble 
 cotton fibres in their flattened, ribbon-like appearance, 
 
1 68 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 but can easily be distinguished from them by their 
 stiff, rigid, wooden-like form. Not infrequently, wood 
 fibres, twisted upon themselves like cotton, are met 
 with. They are long and of large diameter, while 
 those from the pine woods show numerous small 
 vessels or dots. When dry the upper skin is rough 
 and granulated in appearance; and this is especially 
 noticeable in " sulphate " pulp. When mounted in 
 glycerine they become very transparent, and it is only 
 by carefully gauging the focus that the characteristic 
 dots can be brought into view. (See Plate V., Fig. 9.) 
 
 Esparto fibres consist of short, smooth tubes with 
 finely tapered ends. The central canal, though small, 
 owing to the thickness of the walls, is quite apparent. 
 Esparto can easily be detected, though present in a 
 small proportion, in a paper, owing to the characteristic 
 serrated cuticular cells which are so easily recognised. 
 (See Plate V., Fig. 9.) 
 
 The ultimate fibres of straw, though similar in 
 appearance to esparto, are smaller both in length and 
 diameter, and the ends are more pointed. The rigidity 
 and smoothness of the side walls are very apparent. 
 The cuticular cells vary in form with the different 
 kinds of straw from which the pulp has been prepared. 
 
 Straw pulp also contains small oval-shaped cells, 
 which are derived from the soft, pulpy matter of the 
 stem, and, when seen, are a sure indication of the 
 presence of straw. While most of the fibres are 
 smooth and regular, sometimes they will be seen to 
 
DETECTION OF MECHANICAL WOOD. 169 
 
 present a peculiarly jointed appearance, which serves 
 to distinguish them from the smaller esparto fibres. 
 
 The fibres of mechanical wood present a short 
 tangled appearance, and are bound together, by means 
 of the incrusting substances, into small bundles. The 
 presence of these incrusting matters causes them to 
 be dark and opaque ; and it is for this reason that 
 mechanical wood is used to prevent the transparency 
 imparted to papers made from highly bleached sulphite 
 pulp. (See Plate III., Fig. 6.) 
 
 The presence of mechanical wood in a paper may 
 be detected by means of a solution consisting of equal 
 parts of sulphuric and nitric acids, a few drops of 
 which will produce brown stains on paper containing 
 mechanical wood. A solution of aniline sulphate 
 forms a very good reagent for the detection of mecha- 
 nical wood, owing to the deep yellow stain which it 
 produces on paper containing it. 
 
 Though the difficulties in the way of making a 
 quantitative examination of paper are great, yet to 
 the paper-maker who has already become expert in 
 distinguishing the various fibres in the finished paper, 
 such an examination is quite within the range of 
 possibility, providing that he can obtain samples, the 
 authentic composition of which is known, from which 
 to prepare standard specimens. 
 
 The first and chief difficulty lies in the obtaining of 
 such samples ; but should he have access to the beating 
 department of the mill, he can, as the result of some 
 
170 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 little attention and practical knowledge, obtain samples, 
 the percentage composition of which is accurate enough 
 for all practical purposes. 
 
 A very convenient way of preserving these samples 
 is to fill a number of small glass-stoppered bottles with 
 the different samples, the percentage composition of 
 which is known, taken from the machine breast-box, or 
 better, as it settles down between the first and second 
 slice. 
 
 When it is desired to mount such stuff, a small drop 
 of it should be lifted out by means of a glass tube 
 drawn out to a fine point. Before doing so, however, 
 care must be taken to shake the bottle vigorously, in 
 order that the portion examined may represent the true 
 composition of the whole. 
 
 After the drop has been placed on the slide, the 
 excess of water should be removed before putting on 
 the glass cover, in order that the fibres may not be 
 carried out of the field when the cover is pressed down. 
 This may be accomplished by carefully sucking it up 
 by means of a slip of good blotting-paper cut to a fine 
 point, care being taken that none of the fibres are 
 disturbed, or made to adhere to the blotting-paper 
 when so doing. 
 
 A very good plan is to place two specimens of the 
 stuff, or paper, on the same slide, mounting the one in 
 glycerine or dilute alcohol, without the addition of a 
 colouring agent, while the other is coloured with a 
 dilute solution of carnation. If preferred, a drop of 
 
Plate VII. 
 
 Fig. it,. — Cotton and Pearl Hardening x v. 
 
 Fig. 14. — China Clay x 122. 
 
 [ To face page 171 
 
QUANTITATIVE EXAMINATION OF PAPER. 171 
 
 stuff may be mounted alongside a piece of the finished 
 paper, when it will at once be seen whether the action 
 of the shake, or the contraction on the drying cylinders, 
 has had any effect in altering the distribution of the 
 fibres. 
 
 As the knowledge of the composition of the papers 
 examined depends for its accuracy on the results 
 obtained by comparison with the standard samples, it 
 is obvious that, in order to obtain satisfactory results, 
 no care must be spared in order to insure that the 
 standard preparations may be trustworthy. 
 
 When it is considered that the composition of a 
 paper may, through the addition of even a small 
 quantity of " broke," reduced by the edge-runner, or, 
 it may be, furnished to the potcher with the grass, 
 become very complicated, the difficulty of obtaining 
 trustworthy samples will be understood. 
 
 The degree of fineness to which the fibres have 
 been reduced in the beater must also be taken into 
 consideration, as the ultimate fibres of rags and wood 
 are, owing to the length, more liable to become cut 
 up under the action of the roll than those of esparto 
 and straw. The presence of fibres added as " broke " 
 is much more easily recognised in papers made from 
 long stuff, owing to the greater degree of fineness to 
 which they have become reduced, consequent upon 
 their having been in contact with the rolls and plates 
 so much oftener. 
 
 Viewed microscopically, the various forms of load- 
 
172 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 ing are seen to be possessed of features sufficiently 
 characteristic to make their detection a matter of no 
 great difficulty, especially after the microscopist has 
 gained a knowledge of these characteristics. The 
 finely-divided particles of which barium sulphate is 
 composed are seen to differ from those of china clay, 
 in that they are mostly wedge-shaped, while the clay 
 particles are irregularly rounded in form. 
 
 Pearl hardening is composed of minute needle-shaped 
 crystals, the peculiar form of which makes them easily 
 recognisable. (See Plate VII., Figs. 13 and 14, and 
 Plate VIII., Figs. 15 and 16.) 
 
Fig. 15. — Pearl Hardening x 123. 
 
 Fig. 16. — Terra Alba x 135. 
 
 \Toface$agt 172. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS OF PAPER. 
 
 Animal Size. — The presence of animal size in a paper 
 can be detected by means of the reaction with tannic 
 acid. A piece of the paper to be tested is torn into 
 small fragments and placed in a test-tube. A small 
 quantity of distilled water is then poured in, and the 
 tube held over the gas for some time in order that 
 the boiling may extract the gelatine, and at the same 
 time concentrate the solution, so that the reaction may 
 be the more easily noticeable. 
 
 When it is considered that the size has been ex- 
 tracted the boiling should be stopped, and after cooling 
 the tannic acid should be added. If animal size . is 
 present a flocculent milky precipitate will at once be 
 formed, owing to the tannate of gelatine produced 
 by the combination of the gelatine with the tannic 
 acid. 
 
 The consistency of the precipitate depends on the 
 amount of animal size present, papers sized with a 
 strong solution of gelatine yielding a thick gelatinous 
 
174 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 precipitate ; while, should the sizing be weak, a thin 
 milky precipitate will result. 
 
 When the reaction is so weak as to be scarcely 
 discernible, Millon's reagent will require to be em- 
 ployed. This reagent is prepared by dissolving a 
 known weight of quicksilver in an equal weight of 
 fuming nitric acid, and after cooling adding an equal 
 volume of distilled water. 
 
 When paper containing animal size is moistened 
 with this solution and brought to a gentle heat over 
 the gas flame, a red colour will be produced. This 
 colour will vary in intensity according as the sizing of 
 the paper has been strong or the reverse. 
 
 Alum. — To test paper for free sulphate of alumina 
 half a sheet should be torn into small pieces and boiled 
 in hot water until it is reduced to a pulpy state, when 
 the contents of the small flask in which the boiling 
 has been conducted should be poured on to a filter, 
 and the pulpy mass well washed. 
 
 The filtrate should next be boiled for a few minutes 
 with a small quantity of ammonium chloride solution, 
 together with a slight excess of ammonia, when any 
 sulphate of alumina present will be precipitated as a 
 finely divided white precipitate. 
 
 Starch. — Starch can be detected by means of the 
 characteristic blue colour produced when a drop of 
 iodine is placed on a paper to which stanch has been 
 
TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS. 1 75 
 
 added. Before the amount of starch present in a paper 
 can be ascertained, the size coating must first be 
 removed. This is accomplished by boiling the sample 
 to be tested in a strong alcoholic solution, acidulated 
 with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, until the resin 
 has gone into solution. 
 
 The paper is then washed with alcohol, dried, and 
 weighed. It is next boiled with a more dilute alcoholic 
 solution, also acidulated with hydrochloric acid, until 
 all the starch has been dissolved out. The point when 
 this is accomplished is determined by means of a 
 dilute solution of iodine, with which the paper is 
 moistened from time to time, until the characteristic 
 blue colour ceases to be produced. 
 
 After washing and drying, the weight is again 
 determined, when the difference in the two weighings 
 will give the amount of starch present. 
 
 Chlorides. — Should it be suspected that any of the 
 chlorides, resulting from the decomposition of the 
 bleaching powder solutions, are present in the paper, 
 the simplest method of proving their existence is to 
 precipitate them by means of silver nitrate solution, 
 to which a few drops of pure nitric acid have been 
 added. 
 
 To accomplish this the paper to be tested should 
 be boiled with a small quantity of distilled water, and, 
 after filtering, a few drops of the silver solution added 
 to the filtrate. Should chlorides be present a white 
 
176 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 curdy precipitate will at once separate out, which, when 
 exposed to the light, will soon become blackened. 
 
 Engine Size. — The presence of engine size may be 
 ascertained by heating small pieces of the paper to 
 be tested in a strong alcoholic solution, when the 
 resinate of alumina will be partly decomposed. By 
 adding a considerable excess of cold water the dissolved 
 resin will be precipitated, as it is insoluble in a dilute 
 solution of alcohol. 
 
 Schuman's method for the determination of the 
 amount of resin consists in heating the paper in a 
 dilute solution of caustic soda until the resin is dis- 
 solved, and after filtering and washing the paper well, 
 adding to the filtrate a sufficient quantity of sulphuric 
 acid to decompose the resin soap. The precipitated 
 resin is then obtained by pouring the milky solution 
 through a weighed filter. 
 
 After washing and drying, the filter containing the 
 resin is carefully weighed, and after deducting the 
 weight of the filter, as previously determined, the 
 weight of resin is found. 
 
 Mineral Substances. — The amount of mineral matters 
 present in a sample of paper is ascertained by burning 
 a known weight of it in a small platinum crucible, 
 and from the weight of the ash calculating the per- 
 centage contained in it. 
 
 When pearl hardening is suspected — and it can easily 
 
TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS. 177 
 
 be detected, owing to the purity of the ash when com- 
 pared with the dull colour of china clay — the blow-pipe 
 must be used with caution, as it (the ash) is very liable 
 to be fused and blown out of the crucible should it be 
 vigorously fanned. 
 
 Owing to the reducing action of the carbon, the ash 
 from pearl hardening will contain a quantity of its 
 weight as calcium sulphite, and should be moistened 
 with sulphuric acid and again burned in order to 
 convert the sulphite back to sulphate. 
 
 When calculating the percentage of pearl hardening 
 carried by the pulp, it must be borne in mind that, as 
 the hardening when added to the engine contains 2 
 atoms of water, 136 parts of the ash are equal to 172 
 parts of the hardening as furnished with the pulp. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 RECOVERY OF SODA. 
 
 Incineration. — At first a matter of compulsion, owing 
 to the pollution caused by running the spent lye 
 from the boilings into the rivers, the incineration 
 and recovery of the soda has, under the conditions 
 of working made possible by the improved forms of 
 roasters now in use, become a source of profit to the 
 paper-maker. 
 
 The idea in roasting the spent liquor is to burn up 
 the non-cellulose substances which the soda has dis- 
 solved from the raw materials, and which are combined 
 with it. 
 
 The Porion roaster, owing to the simplicity of its 
 construction, and the excellent results that can be 
 obtained when it is properly managed, is the one 
 most used in this country. As usually constructed, 
 it consists of an evaporating chamber, in which the 
 lye is concentrated by the heat from the gases on 
 their way to the chimney ; a combustion chamber, 
 
 which serves the double purpose of retaining the 
 
 178 
 
PORION ROASTER. 179 
 
 heat and consuming ithe smoke ; a pan in which the 
 incineration is conducted ; and a suitable furnace to 
 supply the heat on which the several stages in the 
 recovery depend. With this roaster all liquors from 
 5° Twaddle can be profitably evaporated. 
 
 The lye, as it comes from the boilers or store 
 tanks, enters the evaporating chamber, which is pro- 
 vided with rapidly revolving fans, or splashers, as 
 they are sometimes termed. These splashers dip 
 into the lye, and, as they revolve, throw it up against 
 the roof of the chamber in a very fine spray, through 
 which the hot fumes from the furnace and pan pass 
 on their way to the chimney. This has the effect 
 of greatly increasing the evaporating surface, and 
 thus liquors entering the chamber at 6° or 7 Twaddle, 
 leave it, on their way to the pan, concentrated to 
 35° or 40 . 
 
 The greater the concentration of the lye on enter- 
 ing the pan, the less water remains to be driven off, 
 and thus the roasting can be accomplished with a 
 smaller consumption of coal. 
 
 It is the practice in some mills to draw the charge 
 of soda from the pan once every twelve hours, and 
 where this mode of working is adopted the lye is 
 allowed to run from the evaporating chamber to the 
 pan in a continuous flow for about seven hours, and 
 only shut off about four hours before the time for draw- 
 ing. During the time that the charge is burning off 
 the soda must be well worked in the pan, so that 
 
180 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 it may be perfectly dry, and of a dull red colour 
 when drawn. 
 
 It often happens, especially when much rag lye 
 has to be burned, that the liquor becomes much 
 reduced in strength, and taxes the energies of the 
 roaster-men to the uttermost to get the pan ready 
 in time. When this is the case, the damper should 
 be opened more than usual, and good fires kept up. 
 When, however, the liquor is of the usual strength, 
 the damper should be worked as much shut as 
 possible consistent with complete combustion. In 
 this way the temperature of the combustion and 
 evaporating chambers is kept up, and the concentra- 
 tion of the lye much more easily effected. 
 
 When burning off, special attention must be paid 
 to having the damper well shut, otherwise a con- 
 siderable portion of the finest of the soda will be 
 carried into the combustion chamber and on to the 
 chimney. 
 
 By regulating the roasting so as to draw three 
 charges in twenty-four hours, a better yield of soda in 
 proportion to the coal consumed can be obtained, as 
 by such a method the burning is conducted more 
 rapidly, the proportion of soda carried awa}r by the 
 draught is much less, and thus the yield is increased. 
 Working in this way, 20 cwts. of completely calcined 
 soda, containing 45 per cent, total alkali, can be 
 obtained with a consumption of 25 cwts. of coal. 
 
 The coal used should be as free from sulphur as 
 
LIXIVIATION. 181 
 
 possible, as any sulphur present combines with the 
 soda and reduces the yield of caustic in the subse- 
 quent causticising process. While the cake, which 
 forms on the lye in the process of roasting, must 
 not be allowed to become hard, it should not be 
 broken up too frequently, or greater difficulty will be 
 experienced in keeping up the heat. 
 
 After drawing, the soda should be loosely laid 
 down, in such a way that it may burn out without 
 running together and forming a cake. In about three 
 days it should be turned over, and in about eight 
 or nine days will be ready for the lixiviation tanks. 
 The length of time for which it is allowed to lie 
 generally depends on how soon it is required. 
 
 Lixiviation. — The soda-dissolving tanks are generally 
 three or four in number; and, indeed, to conduct the 
 extraction of the soda in a satisfactory way four or five 
 tanks are necessary. The dissolving is conducted in 
 much the same way as the washing of the grass in the 
 steeper tanks. When the soda has been put in it is 
 covered up with water, which has previously been used 
 as a third water. 
 
 After the soda has been covered with this weak 
 liquor, pumped from the weak liquor tank or allowed to 
 flow from a charge which has been exhausted and is 
 ready to be cleaned out, clean water, generally heated, 
 though some prefer to use cold, is turned on, which, 
 after passing through one, two, or three tanks, ac- 
 
182 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 cording to the number of tanks employed, rises on to 
 the fresh charge, and, passing through it, is run to the 
 store tank as a first liquor. 
 
 This extraction may be continued for twenty-four to 
 thirty hours, or even longer, according to the system 
 adopted and the strength of the recovered soda, and 
 the liquor should stand about J2° Twaddle when first 
 run off. This strength will gradually become weaker, 
 until it reaches 22° Twaddle, when it is turned off, and 
 made to run on to a fresh charge, which has been put 
 into the tank, cleaned out in the interval. 
 
 After running into this fresh charge for some time it 
 is shut off altogether, and steam turned on to boil it 
 for ten to twelve hours, and the liquor, after allowing 
 sufficient time for settling, run to the weak liquor tank, 
 when the mud is lifted out and the fresh charge 
 furnished to the tank. 
 
 Another method of extracting the soda is to cover it 
 with the liquor taken from a third or fourth boiling, and 
 boil it for twelve hours before running off. After 
 running off this strong liquor the tank is again filled 
 up from a charge boiled for the third time, and then 
 boiled for other twelve hours, and the liquor run off to 
 the store tank, where it is mixed with the strong liquor. 
 If the soda is not yet exhausted, another liquor may be 
 taken off before allowing the mud to boil for two or 
 three days. 
 
 This third liquor may be run to the store tank if 
 considered strong enough, and, if not, used to extract a 
 
LIXIVIATION. 183 
 
 fresh charge. When a fourth liquor is taken off it goes 
 to the weak store tank, and is used to cover the fresh 
 charges put in. The strong liquor obtained by this 
 method will stand about 70° Twaddle, the second about 
 1 5 Twaddle. 
 
 A first and second liquor are run off together every 
 day, and the strength of the lye in the store tank is 
 maintained about 40 Twaddle. In some mills the 
 soda is dissolved in circular iron tanks, divided into 
 two compartments by a perforated iron partition. The 
 recovered soda is placed in one of the divisions, and 
 after being covered up with weak liquor is boiled by 
 means of a steam-pipe which reaches almost to the 
 bottom of the tank. The agitation is further increased 
 by a blast of air drawn in with the steam. The charge 
 is boiled until it is quite exhausted, and then another 
 quantity is put in, the tank being cleaned out once or 
 twice during the week. 
 
 After the non-cellulose matters, extracted from the 
 plant substances during the boiling, have been burned 
 up in the roaster, the soda, owing to the oxygen and 
 carbon which it has taken up during the calcination, 
 and prior to that, during the boiling, has become con- 
 verted into sodium carbonate. The action of the water 
 in the lixiviation tanks has simply separated the 
 sodium carbonate from the insoluble impurities ; and 
 before the liquor thus obtained can be substituted for 
 the caustic soda bought from the chemical manufac- 
 turer, it must be converted from the carbonated to the 
 
1 84 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 caustic state. The following equation shows how that 
 chemical change is effected : — 
 
 Carbonate of soda. Lime water. Caustic soda. Carbonate of lime. 
 
 Na 2 C0 3 + CaO + H 3 = 2 NaOH + CaCO s 
 
 46 + 12 + 48 + 40 + 16 + 2 + 16 = 46 + 32 + 2 + 40 + 12 + 48 
 
 106 + 56 + 18 = 80 + 100 
 
 A glance at the figures will show that 56 parts of 
 lime are required to convert 106 parts of carbonate 
 of soda into the caustic state, and that the amount of 
 caustic produced from these quantities does not exceed 
 80 parts. In actual practice the yield of caustic soda 
 is less than the theoretical quantity, owing to propor- 
 tions retained in the lime mud. 
 
 In some mills this causticising process is conducted 
 in circular tanks, or boilers, fitted with agitators, to 
 ensure the thorough contact of the lime with the liquor 
 to be causticised. The liquor from the lixiviation store 
 tanks is run into the boiler and generally reduced to 
 between 20° and 22° Twaddle. This reduction is ren- 
 dered necessary owing to the fact that a strong solution 
 of sodium carbonate would react on the caustic first 
 formed, and so retard the operation. 
 
 The boiler having been filled to the usual height, 
 the steam is turned on, and the lime put into a small 
 cage fitted to the side of the boiler in such a position 
 that the lime is immersed in the liquor. As the 
 reaction proceeds the lime is gradually taken up by 
 the carbonic acid of the carbonate of soda to form the 
 lime carbonate, left as the sediment in the boiler, while 
 
CAUSTICISING. 185 
 
 the soda unites with the oxygen and hydrogen ot the 
 water to form caustic soda. 
 
 To ascertain when the reaction has been completed, 
 and all the soda present as carbonate converted into 
 caustic, a little of the liquor is lifted out, and, after 
 allowing the lime to settle, is treated with a solution 
 of equal parts of sulphuric acid and water. 
 
 If there be any effervescence, due to the escape of 
 carbonic acid still uncombined with the lime, the 
 reaction is not complete. Either the lime added has 
 not been sufficient to combine with all the carbonic 
 acid present in the carbonate of soda, and more must 
 be added, or sufficient time has not been allowed to 
 complete the reaction. Should no effervescence take 
 place on the addition of the testing solution, all the 
 sodium carbonate has been converted into caustic soda. 
 
 When the washing water from the boilers is used 
 to bring the liquor to the desired strength, more lime 
 will require to be added in order to combine with the 
 carbonic acid present in the washings ; and even then 
 the caustic liquor will be apt to froth on being tested, 
 owing to the presence of uncombined carbonic acid. 
 After the reaction is finished the agitator should be 
 shut out and the lime allowed to settle before the lye 
 is drawn off. 
 
 About an hour is required for this ; and, after the 
 lye has been run to the tanks from which the supply 
 for the boiler is drawn, the lime mud is again agitated 
 and boiled for about an hour, when the liquor obtained, 
 
1 86 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 after settling, is also run to the store tank. The weak 
 liquor drained from the lime mud should be used to 
 conduct this second extraction, which should stand 
 about 6° to 8° Twaddle. 
 
 Should a third liquor be taken off it is better not 
 to boil it, but only to bring it to boiling point, and 
 then shut off the steam ; as when boiled for the third 
 time the lime mud becomes pasty, and, in addition to 
 retaining caustic, is difficult to drain. 
 
 By running up a boiler with the drainings from the 
 lime, and allowing it to stand for about twelve to fifteen 
 hours, a caustic solution standing about io° Twaddle 
 can be obtained. Before settling it should be allowed 
 to mix for an hour or so. 
 
 In order to oxidise the sulphur compounds, princi- 
 pally the sodium sulphide, which have been formed 
 by the action of the sulphur contained in the coal, 
 a strong current of air is sometimes blown into the 
 boiler during the causticising. In addition to oxidising 
 the sodium sulphide to sulphate, it has the effect of 
 producing a much more thorough agitation of the lime 
 and the soda. 
 
 When the causticising vessel consists of the egg- 
 shaped boiler, which is preferred by many paper- 
 makers, the agitation is maintained by means of the 
 steam (and air, when the air-blast is employed) issuing 
 from small holes in an iron pipe laid along the bottom 
 of the boiler. Very much better results are said to 
 be obtained when using this form of boiler. 
 
FERRIC OXIDE PROCESS. 187 
 
 Though the aluminate and silicate of soda present 
 in the recovered liquor are, to a large extent, decom- 
 posed during the causticising process, a considerable 
 amount of soda is retained in combination with these 
 compounds, and thus rendered unavailable. 
 
 In causticising liquor obtained from the spent lye 
 in which straw has been boiled the loss arising from 
 this cause is very considerable, owing to the large 
 proportion of silica in combination with the soda. It 
 is claimed that by treating the recovered liquor with 
 bicarbonate of soda, prior to causticising, the aluminate 
 and silicate of soda are decomposed, with the result 
 that practically the whole of the soda held in combi- 
 bination is set free, while the sodium sulphide is also 
 decomposed. 
 
 The soda added as bicarbonate is available, and as 
 much as 1 1 per cent, of alkali can, it is said, be saved 
 by employing this method. The plan recommended 
 by the advocates of this system is to boil the liquor 
 to which the bicarbonate has been added for a quarter 
 or half an hour before adding the usual amount of 
 lime. 
 
 In place of causticising by means of lime, ferric oxide 
 may be used as a causticising agent. This process 
 possesses a distinct advantage over the lime method in 
 that the caustic solution is obtained in a concentrated 
 form direct from the lixiviation tanks. 
 
 The rationale of the process consists in the expulsion 
 of the carbonic acid from the recovered ash when fused 
 
1 88 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 with ferric oxide. The sodium ferrate thus formed is 
 decomposed during the lixiviation with the formation of 
 caustic soda solution and ferric oxide, which is thus 
 available to causticise a second charge of soda ash. It 
 will thus be seen that the ferric oxide, owing to this 
 regeneration, is continuously available. 
 
 This process, notwithstanding its advantages, is more 
 suited to the needs of the chemical manufacturer than 
 to the requirements of the paper-maker. 
 
 Multiple Effects. — During recent years the principle 
 of multiple effects, seen in its simplest form in the 
 evaporator of the Porion type, has been made the 
 basis of several new systems of evaporation. The 
 principle of multiple effects, as applied to evaporation, 
 is dependent on the fact that the boiling point of a 
 liquid is lowered in proportion as the pressure exerted 
 on its surface is diminished. 
 
 This is the reason why the temperature required to 
 boil water at the top of a hill is less than that found 
 necessary at the bottom, where the atmospheric pres- 
 sure exerted on its surface is greater than that to 
 which it is subjected at the greater height. 
 
 Under the normal atmospheric pressure of 147 lbs. 
 per square inch, the temperature at which water boils 
 is 212 Fahr. ; and by lowering the pressure in the 
 chamber in which the evaporation is conducted, by 
 means of a vacuum artificially produced and main- 
 tainedj a corresponding reduction in the number of 
 
MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 189 
 
 degrees of heat necessary to effect the conversion of 
 the liquid into steam can be effected. 
 
 Thus under a vacuum of 5 inches =12 lbs. per 
 square inch of surface pressure, the temperature at 
 which water will boil is 195 Fahr. ; 10 inches vacuum 
 represents 185 Fahr., 15 inches 160 Fahr., and at 
 20 inches the temperature is reduced to 150 Fahr. 
 The efficiency of the multiple effects evaporator is, 
 however, largely dependent on another peculiarity 
 connected with the boiling of liquids — namely, the 
 utilisation of the latent heat contained in the vapour 
 given off when water is converted into steam. 
 
 Each pound of water converted into steam at 
 atmospheric pressure absorbs 1,146 heat units, but 
 about 965 of these units have been absorbed in 
 producing the molecular change from water into steam, 
 and when the steam is again brought into contact with 
 water at a lower temperature, it yields up these latent 
 heat units, with the result that the temperature of the 
 liquid in contact is raised ; and if, as in the case of 
 a vacuum evaporator, the surface pressure be lowered 
 in the proper degree, it becomes possible to raise the 
 temperature of the liquid by means of the latent heat 
 to the boiling-point required under the lowered pressure, 
 and again utilise the latent heat of the vapour thus 
 produced to raise a further quantity of liquor under 
 a still lower pressure to boiling-point. 
 
 In the multiple effects evaporator, the vapour from a 
 liquid boiling under normal pressure is made to boil 
 
190 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 a second portion of the liquid, the pressure upon the 
 surface of which has been diminished by means of a 
 vacuum pump. By further reducing the resistance of 
 the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere a third 
 portion of the liquid may be brought to boiling point. 
 Thus it will be seen that the number of effects is 
 dependent on the vacuum which can be obtained in the 
 evaporators. 
 
 In the system known as the Yaryan, the spent lyes 
 are made to flow through a system of pipes inclosed 
 in an egg-shaped boiler or shell, into which the steam 
 for conducting the evaporation is led. As the liquor 
 flows through the pipes, it is concentrated by the heat 
 from the steam playing round them ; and at the end of 
 each effect it is made to flow into a special chamber, 
 in which the separation of the concentrated lye and 
 the steam produced by the concentration is effected. 
 
 On leaving the separator, the liquor and steam are 
 conducted through separate pipes to the next effect ; in 
 which the former is, through the agency of the latter, 
 still further concentrated. 
 
 In a quadruple-effect evaporator the steam pressure 
 is maintained at 20 lbs. per square inch in the first 
 effect, by means of steam supplied direct from the 
 steam boilers. The steam from the separator of this 
 effect enters the second effect at a pressure of 1 1 lbs. 
 per square inch, and after effecting the concentration 
 passes on to the third effect at a pressure of 5 lbs. 
 To carry out the concentration with this pressure a 
 
YARYAN EVAPORATOR. 191 
 
 vacuum of 17 in., equal to about 8| lbs., is maintained. 
 
 In the fourth effect the vacuum is further increased 
 to about 24 in. With the apparatus described, lyes 
 entering the first effect at from 8° to io° Twaddle are 
 concentrated to between 40 and 44 on issuing from 
 the last effect. 
 
 Apart altogether from the expense connected with 
 the fitting up and upkeep of such a system as the 
 Yaryan, it is very doubtful if it can hold its own when 
 compared with the evaporator of the Porion type. 
 With the latter, liquors standing from 8° to io° Twaddle 
 can, under the ordinary conditions of working, be con- 
 centrated to 40 . 
 
 Another serious drawback connected with the Yaryan 
 is the difficulty experienced in cleaning out the tubes. 
 The deposit which gathers on the inside of the tubes 
 is so extremely hard that it can only be removed by 
 means of long and tedious scraping. 
 
 Very good results are said to be obtained from the 
 Chapman and Fawcett multiple effect evaporator, which 
 is somewhat similar in principle to the Yaryan. It is 
 capable of dealing with liquors at from 2° to 4 
 Twaddle, and of concentrating them to from 44 
 to 46 with economical results. 
 
 In the Gaunt multiple effect evaporator, which is 
 largely used in American mills for the evaporation 
 of soda liquors from wood pulp boiling, the liquors 
 are made to flow over a series of pipes through which 
 the steam is conducted, and the liability to choking up, 
 
192 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 which is such a drawback to the systems in which the 
 concentrated liquors flow through the pipes, is thus 
 obviated. 
 
 The first effect is usually supplied with live steam 
 under pressure, and the steam given off by the liquor 
 in contact with the heated tubes is led to the second 
 effect, and utilised to further concentrate the liquor 
 from which it has been driven off in the first effect. 
 
 As in the Yaryan, the number of effects employed 
 depends on the density and volume of the liquors to 
 be dealt with, and the fact that it becomes difficult 
 to maintain a circulation when the liquor reaches the 
 neighbourhood of 40 Fahr. 
 
 The Scott Multiple Effect. — In principle, the Scott 
 recovery plant varies little from the other well-known 
 types, quadruple effect being the usual form of in- 
 stallation, although other numbers of effects are installed 
 according to the steam supply available and the volume 
 of liquor to be treated. 
 
 The heating surface is arranged in series of 2 in. 
 and 4 in. tubes, a number of 2 in. tubes being placed 
 round each 4 in. tube, so that the latter may draw 
 down from the top of the pan the liquor which has 
 been thrown into it by the 2 in. tubes. The number 
 of 2 in. tubes is generally about fifty to one 4 in. tube, 
 but this varies according to the number of effects. 
 
 The result of this arrangement is that the liquor 
 travels so rapidly over the heating surface — while at 
 
SCOTT MULTIPLE EFFECT. 193 
 
 the same time keeping the tubes full of liquor — that 
 deposition on the tubes is reduced to a minimum, and 
 they require comparatively little cleaning. 
 
 Other things being equal, this freedom from liability 
 to choke up is a very valuable feature, as the 
 cleaning and replacing of choked tubes is a very 
 considerable item in the cost of upkeep of a multiple 
 effect evaporator. 
 
 In comparing the results obtained from different 
 forms of evaporators and roasters, the strength and 
 uniformity of the lyes are too often overlooked, and 
 consequently a false opinion of the merits of the 
 systems compared is obtained. For instance, a roaster 
 working when only the first liquors and washings are 
 evaporated will show much better results than could 
 be obtained from the same form of roaster when two 
 washings have to be burned. 
 
 Again, when a considerable quantity ot rag lye has 
 to be evaporated, especially if it be from the better 
 grades, the amount of coal consumed will be much 
 larger in proportion to the turnout of soda, than would 
 be the case in roasting an equal quantity of lye from 
 esparto or straw. 
 
 The Warren Rotary Furnace. — During recent years 
 the introduction of the Warren rotary furnace has 
 made it possible to effect the incineration of the con- 
 centrated liquors more expeditiously, and with greater 
 economy, than is possible with the furnace or pan of 
 
 13 
 
194 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 the Porion type. Its merits were quickly recognised 
 in American mills, with the result that it has been 
 largely introduced in conjunction with multiple effect 
 evaporators. 
 
 The fire-box, which is of the usual type, is so arranged 
 that it can be drawn forwards to allow of easy access 
 to the furnace proper. 
 
 The furnace consists of a cast iron casing lined 
 with firebricks, similar to the rotary kilns used in 
 cement manufacture, being conical in shape, with the 
 larger end towards the fire-box. The rotary move- 
 ment is obtained by means of worm-and-screw gearing, 
 which drives the wheels into which work two iron 
 rails fixed round the outside of the furnace. 
 
 By a very ingenious arrangement the throat of the 
 furnace is protected by a water-jacket, which, however, 
 is filled with liquor from the feed tank, and by a 
 suitable arrangement of pipes the concentrated liquor 
 is driven upwards on becoming heated, and replaced 
 by a continuous flow of cooler liquor. The liquor 
 already concentrated to about 40 Twaddle is run into 
 the end of the furnace farthest from the fire-box, and, 
 coming into contact with the flames, is at once ignited, 
 and before it has reached the lower end the organic 
 matters are completely burnt up, with the result that 
 the black ash which drops out in a continuous stream 
 from the opening under the protecting jacket is ready 
 for the lixiviator. 
 
CHAPTER XVL 
 
 TESTING OF CHEMICALS.— TESTING WATER FOR 
 IMPURITIES. 
 
 Caustic and Recovered Soda. — The amount of actual 
 soda (Na 2 0) present in caustic and recovered soda is 
 determined by means of the reaction with a solution 
 of standard sulphuric acid. This standard or normal 
 solution of sulphuric acid may be prepared in the 
 following manner. 
 
 Strong sulphuric acid is diluted with water in a 
 porcelain basin until the solution stands about 6° 
 Twaddle. After the acid and water have been 
 thoroughly mixed together, a sufficient quantity is 
 withdrawn to fill a 50 c.c. burette to the zero mark. 
 To ascertain if this solution is normal ro6 grams of 
 pure dried sodium carbonate are dissolved in boiling 
 water in a small flask, and coloured with a few drops 
 of litmus. The acid solution is then allowed to flow into 
 this soda solution until the blue colour is discharged. 
 
 As the acid is being run in, the flask should from 
 time to time be shaken with a circular motion so as to 
 ensure that the point when the reaction is complete 
 
 19s 
 
196 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 may be the more quickly determined. When the 
 solution in the flask begins to take on a slightly purple 
 tinge the flow should be checked until it merely drops 
 slowly, and the flask gently shaken until the appearance 
 of a faint violet colour shows that the soda originally 
 present is neutralised by the acid, when the cock should 
 be shut, and the number of c.c. run off carefully noted. 
 
 To ensure that the discharging of the blue colour is 
 not due to the carbonic acid present in the soda 
 solution, the flask should be placed above a Bunsen 
 burner and the contents boiled for a few minutes, when 
 in all likelihood the blue colour will be restored, owing 
 to the expulsion of carbonic acid. 
 
 More of the acid must then be added, drop by drop, 
 until the red colour is permanent after boiling. If the 
 solution is normal exactly 20 c.c. will be required to do 
 this. Should more be necessary it is too weak, and 
 more of the strong acid will require to be added to the 
 contents of the basin and vigorously stirred before 
 another quantity for testing is withdrawn. 
 
 Should less than 20 c.c. be sufficient to complete the 
 reaction, more water will require to be added to bring it 
 to the desired strength, which may not be arrived at 
 until several testings have been made. For greater 
 accuracy 2*12 grams may be taken, and in that case 
 40 c.c. will be required to turn the litmus red 
 permanently after boiling. 
 
 When the solution has been brought to the exact 
 strength it should be transferred to a large wide- 
 
TESTING RECOVERED SODA. 197 
 
 mouthed, well-stoppered bottle, which should then be 
 labelled " Standard Sulphuric Acid I ex. = 03 1 gram 
 Na 2 0." 
 
 To carry out the actual test a small quantity — about 
 2 grams is a convenient amount — of an average 
 sample of the soda to be tested is accurately weighed 
 out and boiled with water in a flask until all that is 
 soluble is dissolved. When testing recovered soda the 
 sample should be reduced to powder, by passing it 
 through a small coffee grinder, so that the portion 
 weighed out may be as uniform as possible ; and, after 
 boiling, the contents of the flask should be poured on 
 to a filter, and the insoluble portion well washed, the 
 washings being run into the flask containing the filtrate. 
 
 The solution in the flask is then coloured with a 
 few drops of litmus, and treated with the standard 
 sulphuric acid solution, in the same way as when 
 testing the standard acid, until it is turned permanently 
 red after boiling. The number of ex. required to 
 accomplish this is multiplied by '031 ; the result is then 
 multiplied by 100 and divided by the weight of soda 
 taken, in order to give the percentage of total alkali. 
 
 Example. — 2 grams of recovered soda were accurately 
 weighed out and dissolved with water, in a small glass 
 flask, until all the soluble portion was extracted. A 
 few drops of litmus were added to the clear solution, 
 and then the standard acid run in, until the blue colour 
 was discharged. 
 
 The contents of the flask were then boiled and the 
 
198 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 blue colour restored, owing to the expulsion of the 
 carbonic acid. The addition of a small quantity of 
 the acid solution again discharged the blue colour, 
 and the red tint was permanent after boiling for a 
 few minutes. Exactly 29 c.c. of the acid had been run 
 off; accordingly — 
 
 29 x -031 = -899 x 100 = 89-9 -J- 2 = 44-95 per cent. 
 
 By weighing out 3*1 grams of the soda, this calcula- 
 tion may be dispensed with, as the number of c.c. 
 required indicate the percentage. 
 
 When testing caustic soda for total alkali the 
 weighing must be conducted as expeditiously as 
 possible, as the soda in the caustic form is highly 
 deliquescent. A good plan is to place the piece to be 
 weighed in a small glass beaker, the weight of which 
 has already been accurately determined ; the increase 
 represents the weight of soda taken. 
 
 It is better to select an average sample, which will 
 be near the weight usually taken, than to attempt to 
 weigh out a stated quantity, as the time taken before 
 the weight can be brought to the proper amount 
 allows of a considerable absorption, both of moisture 
 and carbonic acid, from the surrounding atmosphere. 
 
 As the caustic burns the fingers when handled, a 
 small pair of brass forceps or tongs should always be 
 used to lift the pieces when weighing. 
 
 Example. — Weight of beaker, 2235 grams; weight 
 of beaker and caustic, 23-80 grams; weight of caustic, 
 
COMMERCIAL CAUSTIC SODA. 199 
 
 1*45 grams. 32*2 c.c. of standard acid were required 
 to neutralise completely. 
 
 •QQS2 X IOO ,„ o , „ » 
 
 32 - 2 x -cm =^^ =6b - b4 per cent. NaX). 
 
 The different grades of caustic soda met with in the 
 market are classed according to the percentage of actual 
 soda — Na 2 — which they contain. The lowest grade 
 is designated by the suggestive name of "bottoms," 
 and usually contains about 55 per cent, total alkali. 
 It is so named, owing to the fact that it is obtained 
 from the residue left at the bottom of the pan in which 
 the concentration has been conducted, and therefore 
 contains a much larger proportion of impurities than 
 the other grades. The impurities consist mainly of 
 iron, and impart to it a brown colour. 
 
 The two forms of 60 per cent, soda are named cream 
 and white respectively, owing to the characteristic 
 cream colour of the former. The white caustic is ob- 
 tained by prolonging the concentration until all the 
 moisture is driven off, and then fusing with nitre, in 
 order to remove the impurities which are the source of 
 the creamy colour. This concentration has the effect 
 of increasing the percentage of soda, and in order to 
 bring it back to the desired strength it is treated with 
 sodium chloride (common salt). 
 
 The grades which present the greatest freedom from 
 impurities, together with the highest percentage of 
 total alkali, are those sold as 70 and 77 per cent. ; but 
 notwithstanding the high degree of purity and conden- 
 
200 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 sation arrived at in those grades, they usually contain 
 a small portion of their bulk in the carbonated state. 
 
 In all probability the cost of caustic soda will, within 
 a comparatively short space of time, be greatly reduced, 
 and with it a corresponding reduction in the price of 
 bleaching powder will doubtless take place. This may 
 be confidently expected, owing to the introduction of 
 the electrolytic manufacture of alkali. 
 
 It has been estimated from the results obtained by 
 the recently fitted-up plant, in connection with Messrs. 
 Holland and Richardson's electrolytic soda process, 
 that, worked on a large scale, I ton of caustic soda and 
 2.\ tons of bleach can be produced at a cost to the 
 consumer of about £15. 
 
 Compared with £g per ton for bleaching powder and 
 about £10 per ton for 70 per cent, caustic, which prices 
 are current and likely to remain so under the old 
 methods of manufacture, the advantage to the con- 
 sumer is enormous. 
 
 Alum. — Before proceeding to determine the amount 
 of alumina contained in a sample of alum, the water of 
 crystallisation with which it is combined must first 
 be driven off. This is accomplished by placing a 
 small quantity of the sample in a porcelain basin, and 
 evaporating over the water-bath until the weight is 
 constant. 
 
 To determine the amount of alumina, about one 
 gram of the sample treated as described is dissolved 
 
TESTING ALUM AND ANTICHLOR. 201 
 
 with hot water in a porcelain dish. A small quantity 
 of ammonium chloride solution, together with a slight 
 excess of ammonia, is now added, and the whole boiled 
 gently until the alumina has been precipitated. The 
 contents of the dish are then poured on to a filter and 
 well washed with hot water, after which the precipitate 
 is placed in a platinum crucible, which has been 
 previously weighed, and heated over the blowpipe 
 flame, in order to expel the water still retained. After 
 cooling the crucible is again weighed ; the increase 
 represents the amount of alumina present in the sample. 
 The presence of iron may be detected by treating a 
 small quantity of the alum to be tested with an excess of 
 pure caustic potash. The alum, or sulphate of alumina, 
 is dissolved in hot water, and when brought to boiling 
 point the caustic potash is added, and the ebullition 
 kept up for a few minutes. Should iron be present it 
 will separate out as a brown flocculent precipitate. 
 
 Antichlor. — The actual amount of hyposulphite of 
 soda present in the commercial article is determined 
 by means of the reaction with a solution of iodine. 
 The iodine solution is prepared by dissolving 
 127 grams of pure iodine in a small quantity of 
 water, in which about 18 grams of potassium iodide 
 have already been dissolved. The water must be cold, 
 and as soon as all the iodine has gone into solution, 
 the flask should be filled to the litre mark. 
 
 As one litre contains 1000 ex., 1 c.c. of a solution 
 
202 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 prepared in this way is equal to "0248 gram of the 
 crystallised hyposulphite of soda, or "0158 gram of 
 the anhydrous salt, and therefore the solution is 
 said to be deci-normal. In order to render the point 
 where the reaction has been completed the more 
 easily determined, a small quantity of starch solution 
 is usually added to the dissolved hyposulphite before 
 running in the iodine solution. The starch solution 
 is prepared by dissolving about I gram of powdered 
 starch in about 200 ex. of water, and decanting 
 into a small stoppered bottle. 
 
 The addition of a small quantity of glycerine to 
 the clear solution thus obtained helps to keep it 
 fresh for a greater length of time ; but as it can be 
 prepared without difficulty, it is better to make a 
 fresh supply each time a test has to be made. 
 
 To carry out the actual testing, 24-8 grams of the 
 crystallised hyposulphite are accurately weighed out, 
 and having been dissolved in hot water, are trans- 
 ferred to a litre flask, which is then filled to the 
 mark. After shaking the flask well, 100 ex. are 
 withdrawn, by means of a pipette, and run into a 
 small flask, to the contents of which a small quantity 
 of the starch solution is then added. From a burette 
 already filled with the iodine solution, the dissolved 
 hyposulphite in the flask is treated until the charac- 
 teristic blue colour, resulting from the action of the 
 iodine on the starch, is no longer discharged. 
 
 When this point is reached the iodine has de- 
 
TESTING BLEACHING POWDER. 203 
 
 composed the whole of the hyposulphite, and is 
 now present in excess. When the final point in 
 the reaction is nearly reached, the cock of the 
 burette should be closed so as to admit of the iodine 
 solution entering the flask drop by drop, otherwise 
 the actual percentage may be over-estimated. The 
 number of c.c. of the iodine required to neutralise the 
 hyposulphite indicate the percentage amount of the 
 latter present in the sample. 
 
 When testing sodium sulphite, 6'3 grams of the 
 anhydrous salt will require to be weighed out, after 
 which the operation is conducted as in the case of 
 the hyposulphite. 
 
 Bleaching Powder. — The amount of available chlorine 
 present in bleaching powder is usually ascertained by 
 means of a deci-normal solution of arsenious acid. 
 The arsenious acid solution is prepared by dissolving 
 4'95 grams of pure sublimed arsenious acid (free from 
 arsenic sulphide), to which about 25 grams recrystallised 
 sodium carbonate (free from sodium sulphide, sulphite 
 or hyposulphite) have been added, by boiling with 
 water in a flask, and then diluting with water to I litre. 
 As 1 equivalent of arsenious acid is equal to 4 equiva- 
 lents of chlorine, I c.c. of this solution is, according to 
 the following calculation, equal to '003 5 5 gram chlorine : — 
 
 As 2 3 : As 2 3 : : CI 
 198 4'95. 35-5 X 4 = 142 = 3-55 grams chlorine. 
 
 Each of the 1000 c.c. contained in the litre thus equals 
 •00355 gram chlorine. 
 
204 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 In order to prevent any alteration in the solution 
 through the action of the atmosphere, it should be 
 poured into small stoppered bottles and kept corked 
 until required. 
 
 To prepare the sample of bleaching powder for test- 
 ing; 3"55 grams are accurately weighed out, rubbed 
 into a thin cream with water in a porcelain mortar, and 
 transferred to a 500 ex. flask, which is then filled to 
 the mark. The flask is then well shaken, and 50 ex. of 
 the turbid solution withdrawn, and run into a small 
 beaker, which is then placed below the burette, already 
 filled to the zero mark with the arsenious acid solution. 
 
 The contents of the beaker are constantly stirred by 
 means of a glass rod, while the arsenious acid is 
 running in, and from time to time a drop from the 
 beaker is lifted out with this rod and placed on a little 
 of the potassium iodide and starch solution, which has 
 been spread over a porcelain slab. 
 
 So long as any of the hypochlorite remains unde- 
 composed by the arsenious acid, a blue stain, owing to 
 the chlorine still present setting free the iodine in the 
 potassium iodide to combine with the starch, will be 
 produced ; but whenever all the oxygen of the hypo- 
 chlorite has been taken up by the arsenious acid, and 
 the chlorine set free to combine with the calcium as 
 calcium chloride, the blue stain will no longer be pro- 
 duced. The number of ex. required to complete the 
 reaction represent the percentage of available chlorine 
 present in the sample, usually about 35 per cent. 
 
TESTING LIME MUD. 
 
 205 
 
 The percentage of available chlorine present in the 
 bleaching liquor, or in the drainings from the bleaching- 
 house presses and tanks, can be determined in the 
 same way, as each c.c. of the arsenious acid used equals 
 •00355 gram of chlorine, as before stated. 
 
 Should it be suspected that the lime mud contains 
 chlorine, a small portion of it should be stirred up with 
 water to a fixed specific gravity, and then tested in the 
 same way as the bleaching powder. In this way the 
 amount of chlorine retained by the mud from different 
 makes can be at once determined by comparison. 
 
 Several useful Tables may be given here : — 
 
 Table showing Percentage Amount of Soda (Na 2 0) in Aqueous 
 Solutions of various Specific Gravities at I5°C. (Tunnerman). 
 
 Sp. gr. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Sp. gr. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Sp. gr. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Sp. gr. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 I-428S 
 
 30-220 
 
 1-3198 
 
 22-363 
 
 I -2392 
 
 I5-IIO 
 
 1-1042 
 
 7-253 
 
 I-4I93 
 
 29-616 
 
 IIHS 
 
 21-894 
 
 I -2280 
 
 14-500 
 
 I -0948 
 
 6-648 
 
 I-4IOI 
 
 29-011 
 
 I-3I25 
 
 21758 
 
 1-2178 
 
 13-901 
 
 1-0855 
 
 6-044 
 
 i "401 1 
 
 28-407 
 
 lm Z°SZ 
 
 21-154 
 
 1-2058 
 
 13-297 
 
 I -0764 
 
 5-440 
 
 I-3923 
 
 27-802 
 
 1 -2982 
 
 20-550 
 
 1-1948 
 
 12-692 
 
 I -0675 
 
 4-835 
 
 1-3836 
 
 27-200 
 
 1-2912 
 
 I9-945 
 
 1-1841 
 
 12-088 
 
 1-0587 
 
 4-231 
 
 I-37SI 
 
 26-594 
 
 1-2843 
 
 19-341 
 
 1*1734 
 
 1 1 -484 
 
 I -0500 
 
 3-626 
 
 1 -3668 
 
 25-989 
 
 1-2775 
 
 18-730 
 
 1-1630 
 
 10-879 
 
 1-0414 
 
 3-022 
 
 1-3586 
 
 25385 
 
 1 -2708 
 
 18-132 
 
 1-1528 
 
 10-275 
 
 1-0330 
 
 2-418 
 
 I-3505 
 
 24-780 
 
 1 -2642 
 
 17-528 
 
 1-1428 
 
 9-670 
 
 I -0246 
 
 I-8l 3 
 
 1-3426 
 
 24-176 
 
 1-2578 
 
 16923 
 
 1-1330 
 
 9-066 
 
 1-0163 
 
 1-209 
 
 1-3349 
 
 23-572 
 
 1-2515 
 
 16-379 
 
 1-1233 
 
 8-462 
 
 i-ooSi 
 
 0-604 
 
 I-3273 
 
 22-967 
 
 1 -2453 
 
 I57H 
 
 1-1137 
 
 7-857 
 
 1 -0040 
 
 0-302 
 
2o6 
 
 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 Table showing Percentage Amount of Caustic Soda in Aqueous 
 Solutions of various Specific Gravities at I5°C. 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 Per cent. NaHO. 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 Per cent. NaHO. 
 
 I -059 
 
 5 
 
 1-437 
 
 40 
 
 1-115 
 
 10 
 
 I 1-488 
 
 45 
 
 1-170 
 
 f 5 
 
 i-54o 
 
 5o 
 
 1-225 
 
 20 
 
 I-59 1 
 
 55 
 
 1-279 
 
 25 
 
 1-643 
 
 60 
 
 1-332 
 
 30 
 
 1-695 
 
 65 
 
 1-384 
 
 35 
 
 1-748 
 
 70 
 
 Table (based on Richter's) showing Percentage Amount of 
 Soda (Na 2 0) in Lyes of various Degrees Twaddle. 
 
 Degrees Twaddle. 
 
 Per cent. Na 2 0. 
 
 Degrees Twaddle. 
 
 Per cent. Na 2 0. 
 
 4 
 
 2'07 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 20-66 
 
 8 
 
 4'02 
 
 48 
 
 22-58 
 
 12 
 
 5-89 
 
 52 
 
 24-47 
 
 16 
 
 7'6 9 
 
 56 
 
 26-33 
 
 20 
 
 9'43 
 
 60 
 
 28-16 
 
 24 
 
 ii-io 
 
 64 
 
 29-96 
 
 28 
 
 12-81 
 
 68 
 
 31-67 
 
 32 
 
 14-73 
 
 70 
 
 32-40 
 
 36 
 
 1673 
 
 72 
 
 33-o8 
 
 40 
 
 18-71 
 
 76 
 
 34-41 
 
TESTING WATER. 
 
 207 
 
 Table showing Strength of Solutions of Alum by Specific 
 Gravity and Degrees Twaddle at I7'5°C. 
 
 Specific Gravity. 
 
 Degrees Twaddle. 
 
 Per cent. 
 K 2 A1 2 (S0 4 )4+24H 2 0. 
 
 I "0065 
 
 1-30 
 
 I 
 
 I'OIIO 
 
 2-20 
 
 2 
 
 roi66 
 
 3jO 
 
 3 
 
 1-0218 
 
 4"3 6 
 
 4 
 
 2-0269 
 
 5-38 
 
 5 
 
 1-0320 
 
 6-40 
 
 6 
 
 To convert degrees Twaddle to specific gravity, 
 multiply by 5, add 1000, and divide by 1000. To 
 convert specific gravity to degrees Twaddle, multiply 
 by 1000, subtract 1000, and divide by 5. 
 
 Testing Water for Impurities. — To detect the presence 
 of the salts which cause water to be hard, a little 
 white soap, dissolved in alcohol, should be added to 
 it. If hard, the water will at once assume a milky 
 appearance, while, if it is soft, no change will be 
 observed. 
 
 Magnesia may be detected by the white precipitate 
 formed when a small quantity of carbonate of ammonia 
 and phosphate of soda are added to a portion of the 
 water which has been brought to the boiling point. 
 
 Soluble sulphates or free sulphuric acid are tested 
 for by adding a small quantity of barium chloride,' as, 
 should either be present, a precipitate of barium sul- 
 phate, insoluble in nitric acid, will at once be formed. 
 
208 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 Carbonic acid may be detected by the white pre- 
 cipitate of carbonate of lime formed when lime water 
 is added to the water containing it. 
 
 To detect sulphur compounds a little mercury should 
 be put into a bottle containing the water and allowed 
 to stand corked up for some time. If there are any 
 such compounds present the mercury will have taken 
 on a dark colour, and on shaking will assume a silver- 
 grey colour. 
 
 The presence of iron in water may be ascertained 
 by pouring a few drops of tincture of nutgalls into a 
 small quantity of the water contained in a glass vessel. 
 Should iron be present a dark grey or black colour 
 will be at once produced. The depth of the coloration 
 depends on the amount of iron present; the greater 
 the quantity contained the more intense is the shade. 
 
 Soluble lime impurities may be detected by the milky 
 turbidity produced on the addition of one or two 
 crystals of oxalic acid to the water. 
 
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 £ 
 
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 6 
 
 
 
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 m N ro •* mo r^.00 ON O m N ro -f invO r^00 
 
 
 
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 14 
 
PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 
 w O P) Tf-VO 00 O N tj-nO 00 O N 'tf-NO 00 O 
 £ rorororOro^'^Ti-i-^tiriioi^in lono 
 
 Double 
 Crown. 
 
 20 x 30 
 
 goo O00 OOO O00 O00 O00 O ON >-< CM-l 
 
 
 ^ N Tf 10 I-^CO O >-" to TfNO t^» On O N roio 
 j3 N tN M (M N rorororor'ltorOTf^'t't 
 
 Double 
 Foolscap. 
 
 17x27 
 
 <n rovO CO O fO"lN tJ-vO On « -^- O tN ""> t^ 
 
 " " " M H 
 
 m r-^00 On O « N ■<*■ ionO r^-00 0>« « ro* 
 
 Double Pott. 
 
 15x25 
 
 ™ h O Uli-Mn 1- O ON00 I^NO Ul^-CON 
 O 
 
 in *3" "-0 u-i\o r^oo WO h n t^Tf u">no r-^00 
 
 "3 
 <A x 
 
 3 
 75 
 
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 Q _ _ „ _ M 
 
 • i/-)NO t^OO On « N to Tj- lOND t^OO ON O « 
 ^ M „«„i-iNNMtMMNNMNrOCO 
 
 Crown. 
 165X21 
 
 ™t0000\0 tOHlON OOO lOtOM ^j- CnI O 
 
 Q W « M H M W M W 
 
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 02 
 
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 PL. 
 
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 tN N cn) 
 
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 N N to 
 
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 NO o tl 
 M N tN 
 
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APPENDIX. 
 
 Sizes of Cartridge Papers. 
 
 Foolscap 
 
 . 14 x i8| 
 
 Super Royal 
 
 • 19^x27 
 
 Demy 
 
 . 174x221 
 
 Imperial . . 
 
 . 21 x 26 
 
 Royal . 
 
 .19 x 24 
 
 Elephant . . 
 
 . 23 x 28 
 
 Sizes of Lined Papers. 
 
 Pinched for 8vo . 
 
 Expansion 
 
 by 14I in. 
 
 Post for Svo 
 
 ,, 
 
 It '54 It 
 
 Large Post for Svo 
 
 >> 
 
 „ I6J „ 
 
 Large Post for 4to 
 
 ,, 
 
 11 20| „ 
 
 Laid Large Post for 4to 
 
 a 
 
 » 161 „ 
 
 Various Calculations relating to Weight of Reams and 
 Webs. 
 
 I. Given sample of paper, to find weight of web 100 yards 
 by 60 inches wide, made to same substance. First find 
 square inches in sample, weigh it, and from result obtained 
 calculate weight of square inches in web. 
 
 Example. — 4'22" x2" = 8 - 44" in sample, which weighs 25-2 grains. 
 Square inches in web = 216,000. 
 
 216,000 x 25-2 644,928 „ ,, 
 
 i 2_ = ^ H '^ = 92-132 lbs. avoir. 
 
 8-44 7000 
 
 II. From sample of paper given find variation in weight ot 
 ream of 20" x 30", 480 sheets of which ought to weigh 30 lbs. 
 
 Proceed as in the previous example, finding the final result 
 from the square inches in ream. 
 
 Example. — 177*2 square inches in sample, which weighs 13575 
 grains, square inches in ream of 20" x 30", 480 sheets, 288,000. 
 
 288.000x13575 39,096,000 „. „,, 
 
 — ! jd-LP = Jyi y ' — = 31-5 lbs. per ream. 
 
 177-2 7000 
 
212 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 III. To find weight of ream 20" X30", 480 sheets, equivalent 
 in substance to 54-inch web, two yards of which weigh 1 lb. 
 
 2 yards x 36" x 54"=3SS8 square inches : 20" x 30" x 4S0 = 288,000 
 square inches in ream ; 
 
 therefore '"' = 74-07 lbs. per ream of 20" x 30", 4S0 sheets 
 3888 
 
 IV. To find number of reams, of a given size, in web of any 
 given number of yards, multiply the yards (in inches) by 
 number of sheets in breadth of web ; divide result by the 
 draw ; then divide number of sheets thus obtained by the 
 number of sheets in the ream. 
 
 Example. — Given web 1900 yards 60 inches broad, to find number 
 of reams of 152" x 20", 4S0 sheets. 
 
 IQ00X36X3X2 o o > „ »Ul 
 
 — 5 — _2 — = 13,238 -i- 480 = 27 rms. II qrs. 7 sheets. 
 
 Data for ascertaining the Number of Gallons of Caustic 
 Liquor required to give the Number of Pounds of Na.,0 
 necessary for a Boiling. 
 
 To find the factor, multiply the number of gallons per inch 
 of tank by -0518 for 60 per cent., '0444 for 70 per cent., and 
 •04036 for yy per cent, caustic. 
 
 To find the number of inches necessary to give the desired 
 amount of soda, multiply the number of c.c. of standard 
 acid required to neutralise 10 c.c. of the soda solution by the 
 factor, and divide the pounds of soda required by the result. 
 
 Example. — Capacity of tank = 100 gallons per inch. 
 
 Amount of soda required = 800 lbs., 70 per cent, caustic (Na.,0). 
 
 100 x "0444 = 4"44 = factor. 
 
 Number of c.c. standard acid required to neutralise 10 c.c. soda 
 solution = 12-5. 
 
 I2"5 x4*44 = 55-5 : Soo-^55'5 = 14*4= number of inches necessary 
 to give 800 lbs. 70 pe cent, caustic. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 213 
 
 Table showing the Strength of Bleaching Powder Solutions, 
 based on Lunge and Bachofen's Sp. Gr. Table. 
 
 Degrees Twaddle 
 at i5°C, 
 
 Available Chlorine 
 in grams per litre. 
 
 Degrees Twaddle 
 at 15 C. 
 
 Available Chlorine 
 in grams per litre. 
 
 23-10 
 
 71-79 
 
 1 2 00 
 
 35-81 
 
 23-00 
 
 71-50 
 
 n-oo 
 
 32-68 
 
 22-IO 
 
 68-40 
 
 IO'OO 
 
 29 60 
 
 22'CO 
 
 6800 
 
 9-00 
 
 26-62 
 
 21-20 
 
 65-33 
 
 8-oo 
 
 23'75 
 
 2 1'-CO 
 
 64-50 
 
 7-00 
 
 2044 
 
 20 -OO 
 
 61-50 
 
 6-co 
 
 17-36 
 
 1 9 CO 
 
 5S- 4 o 
 
 500 
 
 I4H7 
 
 18-00 
 
 S5-i8 
 
 4-00 
 
 11-41 
 
 iyOO 
 
 52^27 
 
 3-00 
 
 8-48 
 
 1 6-oo 
 
 49-96 
 
 2 00 
 
 5-58 
 
 15-00 
 
 <57o 
 
 i-oo 
 
 2-71 
 
 14-00 
 
 42-31 
 
 0-50 
 
 1-40 
 
 1300 
 
 39-10 
 
 000 
 
 tra.ce 
 
 Composition of solution upon which the above table was 
 originally founded : — 
 
 Available chlorine 
 Chlorine as chloride 
 Chlorine as chlorate 
 Lime . 
 
 72-17 grams per litre. 
 6'74 n 11 
 
 0-13 ., .. 
 
 65-53 s. n 
 
214 
 
 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 Weights and Measures of the Metric System. 
 Weights. 
 
 I Milligram = -ooi gram. 
 
 I Centigram = -OI „ 
 
 I Decigram = "I „ 
 
 i Gram = weight of a cubic centimetre of water at 4°C 
 
 i Decagram = ioooo grams. 
 
 i Hectogram = iooooo „ 
 
 I Kilogram = ioocvoco „ 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 
 i Millilitre = I cubic centimetre, or the measure of I gram of water 
 
 I Centilitre = 10 cubic centimetres. 
 
 I Decilitre = ioo ,, „ 
 
 I Litre = iooo „ „ 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 
 i Millimetre = -ooi metre. 
 
 I Centimetre = - oi ,, 
 
 I Decimetre = *i „ 
 
 I Metre = the ten millionth part of a quarter of the earth's 
 
 meridian. 
 I gram = 15-43235 grains; 31-103496 grams = I oz. troy. 
 •453593 kilogram = I lb. avoir; 50-802377 kilograms = I cwt. 
 I cubic inch = 16-386176 cubic cent.; I cubic foot = 28-315312 cubic 
 
 decimetres ; 1 gallon = 4-543458 litres. 
 i inch = 2-539954 centimetres; 1 foot = 3-0479449 decimetres. 
 I yard = 0-9143835 metre ; I mile = 1-6093149 kilometre. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 215 
 
 French and English Thermometer Scales. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 
 Fahrenh 
 
 ;it. Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 (CO 
 
 
 (Fahr 
 
 ) 
 
 (C.) 
 
 (Fahr.) 
 
 o degrees 
 
 equal 
 
 32 degr 
 
 =es. 55 
 
 degrees 
 
 equal 131 degrees. 
 
 5 
 
 ,, 
 
 41 
 
 60 
 
 ,, 
 
 11 14° » 
 
 IO ,, 
 
 „ 
 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 „ 
 
 .> 149 >. 
 
 15 
 
 „ 
 
 59 
 
 70 
 
 „ 
 
 ,, 153 „ 
 
 20 „ 
 
 „ 
 
 68 
 
 75 
 
 ,, 
 
 1, 167 „ 
 
 25 
 
 „ 
 
 77 
 
 So 
 
 „ 
 
 „ 176 „ 
 
 3° 
 
 »» 
 
 80 
 
 S5 
 
 „ 
 
 - 1S5 „ 
 
 35 
 
 >» 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 ,, 
 
 .. 194 
 
 40 
 
 „ 
 
 104 , 
 
 95 
 
 „ 
 
 11 203 
 
 45 
 
 ,, 
 
 113 
 
 100 
 
 >> 
 
 ,, 212 water boils 
 
 5° 
 
 >i 
 
 122 , 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 To convert degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Centigrade, subtract 32, 
 multiply by 5, divide by 9. 
 
 To convert degrees Centigrade into degrees Fahrenheit, multiply 
 by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. 
 
 To convert degrees Reaumur into degrees Centigrade, multiply by 5 
 and divide by 4. 
 
 To convert degrees Reaumur into degrees Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, 
 divide by 4, and add 32. 
 
 To convert degrees Centigrade into degrees Reaumur, multiply by 4 
 and divide by 5. 
 
 To convert degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Reaumur, subtract 32, 
 multiply by 4, and divide by 9. 
 
 Useful Data. 
 
 To find the cubical contents in gallons of any square or 
 rectangular vessel, multiply the length, depth, and breadth 
 in feet together, and the result by 6-2355. Should the measure- 
 ments be taken in inches, the result will require to be multi 
 plied by -003607 in place of 6'2355. 
 
 To find the number of gallons contained in a cylindrical 
 
2l6 
 
 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 
 
 vessel, first square the diameter, then multiply by 3 - l4i6; 
 divide result by 4 and multiply by depth ; after which, proceed 
 as in the case of a square vessel — i.e., multiply by 6 '2355 if in 
 feet, or by '003607 if in inches. 
 
 To reduce inches to metres, multiply by 
 
 
 • -02540 
 
 „ centimetres to inches, mult 
 
 ply by 
 
 • "3937- 
 
 „ inches to centimetres „ 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 • 2-540. 
 
 „ kilograms to pounds „ 
 
 
 „ 
 
 . 2-2046. 
 
 „ gallons to litres „ 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 • 4-543- 
 
 „ litres to gallons „ 
 
 
 >) 
 
 •22. 
 
 ,, pints to cubic centimetres „ 
 
 
 >y 
 
 56y936. 
 
 ,, grams to grains „ 
 
 
 >> 
 
 • I5-432. 
 
 ,, grains to grams ,, 
 
 
 j> 
 
 . -0648. 
 
 ,, ounces to grams ,, 
 
 
 /» 
 
 • 28-349. 
 
 To convert kilograms per square centimetre into pounds per 
 square inch, multiply by I4"2247. 
 
 To convert pounds per square inch into kilograms per 
 square centimetre, multiply by -0703. 
 
 (From Bayley's "Chemist's Pocket-Book.") 
 
 1 pint equals i'25 lbs., or 8750-0 grains of water. 
 
 1 gallon of distilled water equals 10 lbs., and measures 
 2'j'j , 2'j^ cubic inches. 
 
 1 lb. Avoir, equals 7000 grains ; 1 lb. Troy equals 5760 
 grains; 1 oz. Troy equals 460 grains. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ACETIC acid, 21 
 Acetate of lime, 22 
 Acid, arsenious, deci-normal solu- 
 tion of, 203 
 ■ — carbonic, 13 
 
 — colours, 76 
 
 — free, in sulphates of alumina, 
 
 86 
 
 — hydrochloric, 13, 27 
 
 — hypochlorous, 21 
 
 — nitric, 169 
 
 — or bi-sulphite processes, 31 
 
 — oxalic, 208 
 
 — sulphuric, 21, 27 
 
 — sulphurous, 32, 34 
 
 Action of atmosphere on cellu- 
 lose, 2; on mechanical wood 
 in paper, 42 
 
 — of bieach on cellulose, 2; on 
 
 jute, 14, 36 
 
 — of caustic soda on vegetable 
 
 fibres, 10 
 
 — of cupric hydrate on cellulose, 
 
 2 
 Adipo-cellulose, 4 
 African esparto, Muller's analysis 
 
 of, 44 
 Agalite, 71 
 Agitators, 95 
 Air blast, 49 
 Albumen, ammonium, 90 
 Alcohol, dilute, 90, 165 
 Alkali processes, 31, 33 
 
 Alkali testing caustic, 195 
 Alkaline soap, 148 
 Alum, 85 
 
 — crystal, estimation of alumina 
 
 in, 200 
 
 — in sizing, 85, 138 
 Alumina, sulphates of, 86 
 
 — use of, in bleaching, 21, 27 
 
 — in paper, testing for, 174 
 Ammonia, vanadate of, 32 
 
 — soda, 16 
 
 Ammonium albumen, 90 
 Angle cutter, 152 
 Angles, cutting, 159 
 Aniline colours, 75 
 
 — sulphate of, 169 
 
 Animal size, preparation of, 137 
 
 — testing paper for, 173 
 — ■ sizing, 138 
 Antichlor, 28 
 
 Apron, 100, 102 
 Apron-board, 128 
 Arsenious acid, 203 
 Ash-soda, boiling with, 15 
 
 — in engine size making, 81 
 Atmosphere, action of, on cellu- 
 lose, 2 ; on mechanical wood 
 in paper, 42 
 
 BACK-LASH of vacuum pump,, 
 "3 
 Backwater, 106 
 
2l8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Barium chloride, 69 
 
 — sulphate, 69, 172 
 Bark liquor, 75 
 Basic colours, 76 
 Bast fibres, 5 
 
 Beater, construction of, 59 
 
 — choice of, 62 
 
 — Forbes's patent, 59 
 
 — Marshall's patent, 56 
 
 — Hibbert, 61 
 
 — Hollander, 61 
 
 — plates, 55, 60 
 
 — rolls, 55, 60 
 Beaters, intermediate, 55 
 Beating, effect of, on sizing, 84 
 
 — free or fast stuff, 52 
 
 — heavy engines, III 
 
 — light engines, 112 
 
 — long stuff, 52, 53 
 
 — short stuff, 53 
 
 — Spanish esparto, 57 
 
 — stuff for bank and loan papers, 
 
 52 ; for chromo and plate 
 papers, 53 ; for blotting- 
 papers, 59 
 
 — wood, 58 
 Beech, 43 
 Bells, 134 
 
 Bicarbonate of sodium, 187 
 Bichromate of potash, 75 
 Birch, 43 
 
 Bisulphite of lime, 33 
 
 — of magnesium, 33 
 Bisulphite process, Cross's, 32 ; 
 
 Ekman's, 34 ; Mitscherlich's, 
 35 ; Partington's, 35 
 Bleach, effect of, on cellulose, 2 
 
 — mixer, 24 
 
 Bleaching, electrolytic, 25 ; Hor- 
 mite's process, 26 
 
 — esparto, 49 
 
 — gas, 15 
 
 — house, 27 
 
 — jute, 14 
 
 — liquor, preparation of, 24 
 
 — Lunge's method, 21 
 
 — ozone, 25 
 
 — powder, preparation of, 19, 20 
 — ■ rags, 12, 19 
 
 — rationale of, 20, 25 
 
 Bleaching straw, 50, 51 
 
 — use of acetic acid in, 21 ; alum 
 
 in, 21, 27 ; steam in, 26; sul- 
 phuric acid in, 21, 27 
 
 — wood, 39 
 
 Blitz's sulphide wood-pulp pro- 
 cess, 32 
 Blotting papers, 59 
 Blowing, 120 
 Blow-off cock, 34, 39, 47 
 Blue, colouring with, 73 
 
 — Paris, 75 
 
 — smalts, 74 
 
 — standard sample of, 72 
 Blue-wove, making, 102, 136 
 Boilers, revolving, 81 
 
 — stationery, 14 
 Boiling, rationale of, IO 
 
 — esparto, 46 
 
 — jute, 13 
 
 — rags, 10 
 
 — straw, 50, 51 
 
 — with lime, 12, 13 
 Book papers, sizes of, 210 
 Boxes, suction, 108 
 Breaking in half-stuff, 19 
 
 — at press-roll, 105, 1 13 
 
 — at calenders, 126 
 Breast-box, 99 
 
 roll, 107 
 
 Broke, 53, 54 
 
 Brown's patent dandy roll, 118 
 Burnishing, 150 
 
 CALCINED soda, 180 
 Calcium, chloride of, 20 
 — chlorate of, 23 
 
 — hypochlorate of, 20 
 
 — sulphate, 69 
 Calender, plate-glazing, 150 
 
 — super, 146 
 Calenders, machine, 126 
 Canada balsam, 166 
 Carbonate of lime, 13 
 
 — of magnesium, 34 : sodium, 
 
 207 
 Carbonic acid, 13, 88, 185 
 Carnation, 72, 74, 165 
 
INDEX. 
 
 219 
 
 Carrying-rolls, 129 
 Cartridge papers, sizes of, 2IO 
 Caseine sizing, 90 
 Caustic soda, 10, 44, 45 
 
 — estimation of alkali in, 197 
 
 — data for strength of leys, 212 
 
 — table showing strength of 
 
 leys, 206 
 Causticising recovered soda, 1 84 
 
 — test, 185 
 
 Cellulose, action of atmosphere 
 on, 2 ; bleach on, 2 ; solvents 
 on, 2 
 
 — composition and chemical 
 
 formula, I 
 
 — of cotton, 5 ; esparto, 5, 6, 46 ; 
 
 flax, 5 ; hemp, 5 ; jute, 5 ; 
 Manilla hemp, 5, 6 ; straw, 5, 
 7, 50 ; wood (chemical), 5, 6, 
 31 ; wood (mechanical), 5, 6 
 
 Celluloses, compound, 3 
 
 Chapman and Fawcett evaporator, 
 191 
 
 Chemical and physical character- 
 istics of various fibres, 5, 
 
 6,7 
 
 Chemical wood-pulp, 5, 6, 31 
 
 Chemicals, testing, 195 
 
 China clay, 68, 69, 172; action 
 in glazing, 68; action in 
 sizing, 69 ; preparation for 
 the engine, 68 ; properties, 
 68 ; retention of, 70 ; selec- 
 tion of, 68 
 
 Chloric acid, 27 
 
 Chloride of ammonium, 174 ; cal- 
 cium, 20; lime, 20; magne- 
 sium, 26 ; silver, 175 ; sodium, 
 199 
 
 Chlorides, testing paper for, 175 
 
 Chlorine reaction with jute, 16, 36 
 
 — estimation of, in bleaching 
 
 powder, 203 
 
 — gas, bleaching with, 15, 20 
 Chlorus acid, 27 
 
 Circular knives, 153, 160 
 Cockling, 124, 143 
 Colouring, 72 
 Commercial soda, grades of, 199 
 
 — examination of, 197 
 
 Composition of woods, 43 
 
 Cooling-roll, 143 
 
 Cork tissue, 4 
 
 Cotton calender rolls, 148 
 
 — coloured, rags, 6 
 
 — fibres, 3 ; physical character- 
 
 istics of, 3 
 Couch-roll jacket, 135, 136 
 
 — under, 109 
 Cracks, 127 
 
 Cross-cutting knives, 153, 161 
 Cupric ammonia, action on cellu- 
 lose, 2 
 
 Cutter, English, 160 
 
 — revolving angle and square, 
 
 152 
 Cutting, 152 
 
 — burnished papers, 156 
 — ■ cartridge papers, 160 
 
 — machine, rag, 9 
 
 — tissue papers, 13 
 Cylinders, damping, 147 
 
 — drying, 99 
 
 Cuticular tissue of cotton, 4; 
 esparto, 4, 168; straw, 4, 
 168 
 
 DAHL'S sulphate process, 32, 
 33,36 
 Damping rolls, 147 
 Dandy roll, Brown's patent, 1 18 
 
 — rolls, 115 ; named, 1 15 
 Data, useful, 215, 216 
 Deckle strap, 101 
 
 Deckles, Holloway's patent, 100 
 
 — old style of, 1 00 
 Determination of alumina in 
 
 alum, 200 ; available chlorine 
 in bleaching powder, 203 ; 
 percentage of mineral sub- 
 stances in paper, 172, 176 ; 
 total alkali in sodas, 197 
 Draws, changing, 125 
 
 — double and single, 159 
 Double-crown, 210 
 
 — demy, 210 
 
 — elephant, 2IO 
 
 — foolscap, 2IO 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Double-crown post, 209 
 
 — pott, 209 
 Drier, 142 
 
 Drum, washing, iS, 39 
 Drying loft, 145 
 Dusting esparto, 45 
 
 — ra g s > 9 
 Dyeing to shade, 78 
 
 EDGE-RUNNER, 54 
 Ekman's wood-pulp pro- 
 cess, 34 
 Elasticity of fibres, 1 1, 58 
 Electrolytic bleaching, 25 ; Her- 
 mite's process, 26; ozone 
 method, 25 
 
 — manufacture of alkali, 200 ; 
 
 bleaching powder, 200 
 Engine, beating, 59 
 
 — Forbes's patent beater, 59 
 
 — Marshall's perfecting, 56 
 
 — size, 80; preparation of, 81; 
 
 recipe for neutral resin soap, 
 83 ; recipe for white, 83 
 
 — washing and breaking, 17, 18 
 Esparto, available cellulose in, 
 
 44 
 
 — bleaching, 49 
 
 — detection of, in paper, 168 
 
 — dusting, 45 
 
 — isolation of cellulose in, 44 
 
 — Muller's analysis of, 44 
 
 — physical characteristics of, 5 
 
 — rationale of boiling, 45 
 
 — steepers, 48 
 
 — summer, 45 
 
 — washing, 48, 49 
 
 — winter, 45 
 
 Estimation of alumina in alum, 
 200; antichlor, 201 ; chlorine 
 in bleaching powder, 203 ; 
 mineral substances in paper, 
 176 ; sodas, 197 
 
 Evaporator, Porion's, 188 
 
 — Yaryan's, 190 
 Examination, microscopical, of 
 
 paper, 163 
 
 FADING in engines and chests, 
 74 
 Fast driving, 128 
 Fast stuff, 52 
 Feeding-rolls, 154, 160 
 Felt, dry, 122 
 
 — wet, 122 
 Felting, 7, II, 12, 53 
 
 Ferric oxide causticising process, 
 
 187 
 Fibres, cotton, recognition of, by 
 
 microscope, 166 
 
 — elasticity of, 53 
 
 — esparto, 168 
 
 — flax or linen, 167 
 
 — hemp, 167 
 
 — jute, 167 
 
 — Manilla, 167 
 
 — physical characteristics of 
 
 various, 5, 6, 7 
 
 — straw, 168 
 
 — wood, chemical, 167 ; mechani- 
 
 cal, 168 
 Fibro-vascular bundles, 5 
 Filaments, 5 
 Finishing, 161 
 First pump-box, 1 13 
 
 — press-rolls, 123 
 Flax, cellulose of, 4, 5, 6 
 
 — boiling, 13 
 Foolscap, 210 
 
 Forbes's patent beater, 59 
 Fourdrinier machine, 93 
 Free resin, 80 
 
 French and English thermometer 
 scales, 215 
 
 — weights and measures, 214 
 Friction, glazed paper cutting, 
 
 156 
 
 — glazing, 150 
 Froth-killers, III 
 Furnace, incinerating, 178 
 
 — Warren rotary, 193 
 
 GAS, bleaching with chlorine, 
 15, 20 
 Gaunt evaporator, 191 
 Glass covers, 164 
 — slides, 164 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Glazing friction, 1 50 
 
 — plate, 150 
 Glycerine, 164 
 Grass, esparto, 44 
 
 — knots, 98 
 Greens, colouring, 75 
 Ground wood, 41 
 Guide-roll, 130, 133 
 Guiding-tapes, 144 
 
 HALF-STUFF, breaking in, 
 19 
 
 Hard-boiled grass, 47 
 
 ■ — water in sizing, 87 
 
 Hemp fibres, physical character- 
 istics of, 6 
 
 — Manilla, 6, 59 
 
 Hermite's bleaching process, 26 
 
 Hibbert beater, 61 
 
 High pressures, effect of,in boiling, 
 46; in boiling wood, 33 
 
 Hollander beater, 61 
 
 Holloway's deckles, 100 
 
 Hydrate of soda, 10, 44, 45 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, 13, 27 
 
 Hydrometer, Twaddle's, 207 
 
 Hypochlorite of calcium, 20 
 
 Hypochlorous acid, 20 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda, 28 
 
 IMPERIAL, 210 
 Incinerating furnace, 178 
 Iodide of potassium, 30 
 
 — and starch test, 30 
 
 Iodine, deci-normal solution, 201 
 
 — reaction with cellulose, 2, 3, 
 
 163 
 Iron, tree, test for, in alum cake, 
 201 
 
 — use of, in colouring, 75 
 Irregular weight, 93 
 Isolation of cellulose, 3 
 
 JUTE fibres, bleaching, 14, 22 
 — boiling, 13 
 
 — physical characteristics, 4, 6 
 
 — reaction with chlorine, 16, 36 
 
 KAOLIN, 68 
 — preparation for the 
 engine, 68 
 
 — properties of, 68 
 Killing black threads, 23 
 Knife, cross-cutting, 153, 161 
 
 — doctor, in 
 
 Knives, circular, 153, 160 
 Knots, grass, 46, 57 
 
 — strainer, 98 
 Knotter, 129 
 
 Kollergang " broke," 53, 54 
 Kraft brown papers, 37 
 
 LAID paper, 1 13 
 — dandy-rolls, 1 15; Brown's 
 patent, 118 
 Lead, nitrate of, 75 
 Leys, table showing strength of, 
 
 206 
 Lignin, 3 
 
 Ligno-cellulose, 4, 31, 50 
 Lime, boiling with, 12, 13 
 ■ — bisulphite of, 35 
 — ■ carbonate of, 13 
 
 — hypochlorite of, 20 
 
 — hyposulphite of, 201 
 
 — milk of, 15 
 
 — mud, 25 
 
 — removal of, from hides, 137 
 
 — salts from bleaching solution, 
 
 24, 87 
 
 — solutions of, for boiling with, 
 
 13 
 
 — sulphates of, 87 
 Lime tree, 43 
 
 Linen fibres, characteristics of, 6 ; 
 recognition of, by microscope, 
 167 
 
 — rag papers, sizing and drying 
 
 of, 142 
 Liquor, bleaching, preparation of, 
 24; uniformity of, 23 
 
 — spent, recovery of soda from, 
 
 J 7 8 
 Litmus solution, 195 
 
 Lixiviation, 181 
 
 — methods of conducting, 182, 
 
 183 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Lixiviation tanks, 181 
 Loading, 67 
 
 — agalite as, 71 
 
 — barium chloride as, 7 1 
 
 — ■ barium sulphate as, 69, 172 
 
 — China clay as, 68, 69 
 
 — chromo and plate papers, 69 
 
 — mechanical wood as, 42 
 
 — printing papers, 67 
 Long measure, French, 214 
 
 — stuff, S3 
 
 — wires, 105 
 
 Lunge's bleaching process, 21 
 
 MACHINE, centrifugal, 16 
 — cylinders, effect on 
 sizing of, 89 
 
 — English cutting, 160 
 
 — Fourdrinier, management of, 
 
 93 
 
 — presse-pate, 39, 46, 51 
 
 — rag cutting, 9 
 
 — revolving cutting, 152 
 
 — willowing and dusting, 8, 45 
 Machine wire, putting on and 
 
 starting, 129 
 Magnesia, carbonate of, 87 
 
 — sulphate of, 87 
 Magnesium, bi-sulphite of, 33, 34 
 
 — chloride of, 26 
 Making bank papers, 54, 55 
 
 — cartridge papers, 97, 134 
 
 — chromo papers, 55 
 
 — loan papers, 54 
 
 — plate papers, 5 
 
 — web papers, 126 
 
 — yellow wove papers, 102 
 Manganese, peroxide of, 16 
 Manilla, physical characteristics 
 
 of, 5 
 ■ — recognition of, by microscope, 
 
 167 
 Marshall's perfecting engine, 56 
 Mechanical wood-pulp, 41 ; action 
 of atmosphere on, 42 ; load- 
 ing with, 42 ; preparation of, 
 41 ; recognition of, in paper, 
 169 
 
 Method, Hermite's, of bleaching, 
 26 
 
 — Lunge's, of bleaching, 21 
 Metric system of weights and 
 
 measures, 214 
 Microscope, recognition of cotton 
 fibres, by means of, 166; 
 china clay, by means of, 172 ; 
 esparto fibres, by means of, 
 168; flax fibres, by means of, 
 167; hemp fibres, by means 
 of, 167 ; jute fibres, by means 
 of, 167 ; Manilla fibres, by 
 means of, 167; pearl harden- 
 ing, by means of, 172; straw 
 fibres, by means of, 168 ; 
 terra-alba, by means of, 172 ; 
 wood fibres, by means of, 
 167, 1 68 
 
 — suitable objectives for, 164 
 Microscopical examination of 
 
 fibres, 163 
 Mid-feather, 18 
 Milk of lime, 35 
 Milk sizing, 90 
 
 Mitscherlich's "slow" process, 35 
 Multiple effects, 188 
 
 NASCENT oxygen, 20 
 Nitrate of lead, 75 
 Nitric acid, 169 
 Nitro-sulphuric acid, 169 
 Non-cellulose, 3, 14, 22, 35, 44, 4< 
 
 OIL of vitriol, 127 
 — sperm, 148 
 Overhauling, 164 
 Oxidisation, prevention of, 33 
 Oxy-cellulose, 2, 27 
 Ozone bleaching, 25 
 
 PACKING, on pulleys, 124 
 Pan, evaporating, 179 
 Paper, bank, 52 
 
INDEX. 
 
 223 
 
 Paper, blotting, stuff for, 59 
 
 — blue, making, 136 
 
 — broke, 53, 54 
 
 — chromo, stuff for, 53, 55 
 
 — cutting tissue, 157 
 
 — effect of straw fibres in, 5 1 
 
 — glazing coloured, 150; straw, 
 
 149 ; wood, 149 
 
 — green colouring of, 75 
 
 — machine, Fourdrinier, 93 
 
 — plate, stuff for, 55 
 
 — printing, glazing of, 148 
 
 — sizes of, 209, 210 
 
 — soft-sized, 58, no 
 
 — testing, for animal size, 173, 
 
 174; alum, 174; chlorides, 
 175; engine size, 176; 
 mineral substances, 176 
 
 — toned, 75 
 
 — tub-sizing, 139, 140, 141 
 Paris blue, 75 
 
 Partington's wood-pulp process, 
 
 35 • r 
 
 Pearl hardening, 69, 172, 177 
 Pectic acid, 23 
 Pecto-cellulose, 3, 46, 50 
 Perfecting engine, Marshall's, 56, 
 
 139 
 
 Peroxide of manganese, 16 
 Physical characteristics of cellu- 
 lose, I, 2 ; of various fibres, 
 
 5.6,7 
 Picking esparto, 45 
 
 — couch-roll jacket, 136 
 
 — wet rags, 17 
 Pine, 43 
 
 Plant structures, 3 
 Plate glazing, 150 
 Poplar, 43 
 
 — pulp, 4° 
 
 Porion's evaporator, 188 
 
 — roaster, 178 
 Potash caustic, 201 
 Potassium iodide, 23, 30 
 Potcher, 39 
 
 Preliminary treatment of wood, 
 32 ; esparto, 45, 46 
 
 Preparation of animal size, 137 ; 
 bleaching liquor, 24 ; bleach- 
 ing powder, 19 ; breach 
 
 test, 203 ; causticising test, 
 185 ; normal sulphuric acid, 
 
 195 
 
 Presse-pate, 39, 46, 51 
 Press-rolls, breaking at, 105, 1 1 3, 
 
 — first, 123 
 
 — second, 123 
 
 Pressure in boiling, 33 ; glazing, 
 
 149; evaporation, 188 
 Printing paper, glazing of, 148 
 Process, Blitz's, 32 
 
 — acid, bisulphite, for wood,. 
 
 33 
 
 — alkali, for wood, 31, 33 
 
 — chemical, for wood, 32, 33 
 
 — Cross's, 32 
 
 — Dahl's, 32, 33, 36 
 
 — Ekman's, 34 
 
 — Hermite's, 26 
 
 — Lunge's, 21 
 
 — mechanical, for wood, 41, 42 
 
 — Mitscherlich's, 35 
 
 — Partington's, 35 
 
 — sulphate, for wood, 32, 33,. 
 
 36 
 
 — sulphide, for wood, 32 
 
 — sulphite, 33, 34, 35 
 
 — Watt and Burgess's, 33 
 Pulp, wood, 31 
 
 — straw, 50, 5 1 
 
 — sulphate, 32, 33, 36 
 
 — sulphite, 33, 34, 35 
 Pumps, stuff, 95 
 
 — vacuum, 108 
 
 RAG cutting machine, 9 
 Rags, beating, 54 
 
 — bleaching, 19 
 
 — boiling, 10 
 
 — breaking, 18 
 
 — grading and dusting, 8 
 Raised seam, 127, 134 
 Recognition of fibres by the 
 
 microscope, 163, 169 
 Recovery of soda, 178 
 Reeling at the sizer, 141 
 Resinate of alumina, 80, 83 
 Resin, free, theory, 80 
 
224 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Resin size, preparation of, Si ; 
 recipes for, 83 
 
 — soap, 68, 83 
 
 — spots, 84 
 Retting, 4 
 Revolving boilers, 14 
 
 — cutter, 152 
 
 — strainer, 96 
 Roll, beater, 55, 60 
 ■ — breaker, 19 
 
 — breast, 107 
 
 — carrying, 129 
 
 — couch, 136 
 
 — stent, 132 
 Rolls, calender, 148 
 
 — cotton covered, 148 
 
 — dry-felt, 121 
 
 — hard, on edges of web, ioo, 
 
 101 
 
 — wet-felt, 130 
 Ropes, 6 
 Royal, 209, 210 
 Rust spots, 60 
 
 SAND TRAP, 96 
 Save-all, 108 
 Scandinavian mills, produce of, 
 
 37 
 Scotch wood-pulp process, 39 
 Scott multiple effect, 192 
 Screens, 42 
 Second press-felt, 123 
 
 — press-roll, 123 
 
 Setting circular knives, 153, 160 
 Settling of stuff on machine wire, 
 
 53 
 Shake, 58, 107 
 Sheave, 149 
 Size, animal, preparation of, 137 
 
 — engine, 68 
 
 Sizes of book papers, 210; cart- 
 ridge papers, 211 ; printing 
 papers, 210; writing papers, 
 209 
 
 Sizing, animal, or tub, 139 
 
 — caseine, 90 
 
 — engine, 80 
 Smalts, 74 
 
 Smoothing-rolls, 125 
 Soap, in sizing, 138 
 
 — resin, 80, 83 
 
 Soda, aluminate of, 187 
 
 — ash, 59 
 
 — - calcined, 180 
 
 — carbonate of, 207 
 
 — caustic, testing, 197 
 
 — hydrate of, 36 
 
 — hyposulphite of, testing, 201 
 
 — process, 40 
 
 — recovery of, 178 
 
 — silicate of, 187 
 
 — sulphate of, 36 ; testing, 203 
 
 — sulphide of, 36 
 
 — table showing amount of, in 
 
 solutions of various densities, 
 206, 207 
 Sodium chloride, 199 
 
 — resinate, 86 
 Soft-sized papers, 1 10 
 Solvents, action on cellulose, 2 
 Sorting esparto, 46 
 
 — rags, 10 
 
 Spangling or glistening, 143 
 Spanish esparto, analysis of, 44 
 Spent liquors, recovery of, 178 
 Standard microscopical speci- 
 mens, 170; shade of blue, 
 72 ; carnation, 72 
 
 — sulphuric acid, preparation of, 
 
 J 95 
 Starch. 71 
 
 — detection of, in paper, 175 
 
 — paste, 202 
 
 Steam, use of, in bleaching, 20, 
 
 5o 
 Strainer, 96 
 
 — plates, 97 
 
 — revolving, 96 
 Straining china clay, 68 
 
 — pulp, 96, 97 
 
 — starch, 72 
 
 — terra-alba (barium sulphate), 
 
 70 
 
 — ultramarine, 73 
 Straw, bleaching, 51 
 
 — boiling, 50 
 
 — physical characteristics of, 5 
 Structures, plant, 3 
 
INDEX. 
 
 225 
 
 Stuff chests, 95 
 
 — fast, 52, 55 
 
 — free, 52, 53, 103 
 
 — long, 53-ss 
 
 — short, 53 
 
 — soft, 55, 104 
 
 Sulphate of alumina, S6 ; aniline, 
 169 ; lime, 87 ; magnesia, 87 ; 
 soda, 36 
 
 — wood-pulp, 168 ; process, 36 
 Sulphide of soda, 186 
 Sulphite of soda, 29 
 
 — processes, 32 
 
 — pulp, 167 
 
 Sulphur impurities in water, 208 ; 
 
 coal, 180 
 Sulphuric acid, 21 
 Sulphurous acid, 32, 33; gas, 33, 
 
 34 
 Super-calender, 148 
 
 TABLE of French and English 
 thermometer scales, 215 
 
 — showing amount of caustic 
 
 soda in leys of various den- 
 sities, 206 ; amount of soda 
 in leys of various densities, 
 206, 207 ; composition of es- 
 parto, 44 ; composition of 
 straw, 51; equivalent weights 
 and sizes of printing papers, 
 210; equivalent weights and 
 sizes of writing-papers, 209 ; 
 percentage of alum in solu- 
 tions of various specific 
 gravities, 207 ; strength of 
 bleaching-powder solutions, 
 213 
 
 — sand, 96 
 
 Tables of metric system, 214 
 Terra-alba (barium sulphate), 69 
 Testing alum, 200 
 
 — antichlor, 201 
 
 Testing bleaching powder, 203 
 
 — caustic soda, 197 
 
 — hyposulphite of soda, 201 
 
 — paper for alum, 174; animal 
 
 size, 173; chlorides, 175; 
 
 engine size, 176; mechanical 
 wood, 169 ; mineral sub- 
 stances, 176 
 Testing recovered soda, 197 
 
 — sulphite of soda, 203 
 
 — ultramarine, 73 
 
 — water for impurities, 207 ; 
 
 hardness, 207 
 Thermometer scales, French and 
 
 English, 215 
 Thread, 4 
 Toned paper, 75 
 Treatment of esparto, 44 ; jute, 
 
 14; rags, 8, 18; straw, 50; 
 
 wood (chemical), 31 ; wood 
 
 (mechanical), 41 
 Tub sizing, 139 
 Turpentine, 136 
 Twaddle's hydrometer, conversion 
 
 of degrees into specific 
 
 gravity, 207 
 
 ULTRAMARINE, acid-re- 
 sisting power of, 73 
 — colouring power of, 73 
 — ■ fading in engines and chests, 
 
 74 
 — ■ standard shade of, 72 
 Unsized papers, 58 
 
 VACUUM pumps, 108 
 Vanadate of ammonia, 32 
 Vanilline, 2 
 Vitriol, 127 
 Vulcanite, 108 
 
 WARREN rotary furnace, 193 
 Washing drum, 17 
 
 — engine, 17 
 
 — esparto, 48, 49 
 — - rags, 17 
 
 — straw, 51 
 
 — wood, 39 
 Wash-roll, 109 
 
 • 15 
 
226 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Water, hard, 87 ; testing, for 
 
 impurities, 207 
 Water-marking, 1 17 
 Watt and Burgess's process, 33 
 Wax, 150 
 Webs, making, 126 
 Weights and measures of metric 
 
 system, 214 
 Wet picking, 17 
 Wire, length of, 105 
 Wood, acid treatment of, 31 
 
 — fibres, characteristics of, 5, 7 
 
 — lime, 43 
 
 — pulp, chemical, 5, 7, 58; me- 
 
 chanical, 41 
 
 — soda, 33 
 
 — sulphate, 168 
 
 Wood, sulphite, 167 
 Woods, composition of, 43 
 Wurster and Zugler's experi- 
 ments with rags, 12 
 Wurster's theory of sizing, 80 
 
 Y ARYAN evaporator, 190 
 Yellow-wove, making, 102 
 Yield of cellulose from esparto, 
 44; straw, 51 ; wood, 33, 35 
 
 z 
 
 UGLER and Wurster's ex- 
 periments with rags, 12 
 
 Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury. 
 
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 Furnaces for Refuse Fuels. — Destructors, &c. 
 
 Safety- Valves. — Steam Pipes. — Stop- Valves, and Other Mountings 
 for Boilers. — Feed Pumps. — Steam Pumps.- — Feed-Water Consumption. 
 — Injectors. — Incrustation and Corrosion. — Feed-Water Heaters. — 
 Evaporators. — Testing Boilers. — Evaporative Performances of 
 Steam Boilers. Steam-Boiler Explosions, &c. 
 
 PLATING AND BOILER MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Workshop Operations. Bv Joseph G. Hor- 
 ner, A.M.I.M.E. 380 pp. with 338 Illustrations. 12mo cloth. .$3.00 
 Contents: — The Trade. — Tools. — Materials. — Testing Materials. — 
 Limiting Dimensions and Weights of Materials. — Cutting and 
 Straightening Plates, &c. — Bending Plates. — Bending Angles, &c. — 
 Welding. — Flanging. — Punching. — Riveting. — Types of Riveted 
 Joints. — Estimation of Lengths of Material. — The Marking Out of 
 Work. — The Estimation of Weights, &c. — Machines. 
 
 A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By R. Wil- 
 son, C.E. Fifth Edition. 12mo, cloth $2.50 
 
 "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." — En- 
 gineer. 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS. 
 
 Their Draught-Power and Stability. With a chapter on Lightning Con- 
 ductors. By Robert Wilson, A.I.C.E., Author of "A Treatise on 
 Steam Boilers," etc. 12mo, cloth $1.50 
 
 BOILERMAKER'S ASSISTANT 
 
 In Drawing, Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work, etc. By J. 
 Courtney, Practical Boilermaker. Edited by D. K. Clark, C.E. 
 Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth .80 
 
 BOILERMAKER'S READY RECKONER. 
 
 With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating for the Use of 
 Platers, Smiths, and Riveters. Bv John Courtney. Edited by D. 
 K. Clark, M.Inst.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth $1.60 
 
 BOILERMAKER'S READY RECKONER & ASSISTANT. 
 
 With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating for the Use of 
 Platers, Smiths, and Riveters. By John Courtney. Edited by D. K. 
 Clark, M.Inst.C.E. Fifth Edition, 480 pp., with 140 Illustrations. 
 Fcap. Svo, half -bound $3.00 
 
 *** This Work consists of the two previous-mentioned 'volumes, "Boiler- 
 maker's Assistant" and "Boilermaker's Ready Reckoner," bound 
 together in One Volume. 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 5 
 
 STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 Their Construction and Management. By R. Armstrong, C.E. Illus- 
 trated. Crown 8vo, cloth 00 
 
 THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers; Marine, Loco- 
 motive, and Stationary. And containing a large collection of Rules and 
 Practical Data relating to Recent Practice in Designing and Construct- 
 ing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering Work. The 
 wnole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and 
 otter Examinations for Certificates of Competency in Modern Mechan- 
 ical Engineering. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical En- 
 gineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook for Engineers," 
 <fec. With upwards of 420 Illustrations. Sixth edition, Revised and 
 
 Enlarged. Medium 8vo, nearly 560 pp., strongly bound $7.00 
 
 C3F" This Work is designed as a companion to the Author's "Works' 
 Manager's Handbook." It possesses many new and original features, and 
 contains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for 
 publication, but collected by the Author for his own use in the construction of a 
 great variety of Modern Engineering Work. 
 
 The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illus- 
 trated by upwards tf 420 Engravings; and comprises a quantity of tabulated 
 matter of great value io all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for 
 Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering Work. 
 
 TEXTBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 With a Supplement on Gas Engines and Part II. on Heat Engines 
 By T. M. Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at 
 the Royal College of Science, London; Author of "The Principles of 
 Mechanics," "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Fourteenth Edition. 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth $2.00 
 
 "Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will 
 
 bear comparison with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can 
 
 award it no higher praise." — Engineer. 
 
 A HANDBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 With especial Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the 
 Use of Engine Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students, 
 and users of Steam Power. By Herman Haeder, C.E. Translated 
 from the German, with additions and alterations, by H. H. P. Powles, 
 A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised. With nearly 1,100 
 
 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
 Summary of Contents: — Introduction. — Types of Steam Engines. — 
 Details of Steam Engines. — Governors. — Valve Gears. — Condensers, 
 
 alr-pumps, and feed-pumps. examples of engines of continental 
 
 Make, from Actual Practice. — Particulars of Engines by English 
 Makers. — Compound Engines. — Indicator and Indicator Diagrams. — 
 Calculations for Power and Steam Consumption. — Effect of Inertia 
 on Reciprocating Parts of Engines. — Friction Brake Dynamometer — 
 Sundry Details. — Boilers. — Index. 
 
 "There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it 
 to all concerned in the design and construction of the steam engine." — ■ 
 Mechanical World. 
 
 THE PORTABLE ENGINE. 
 
 A Practical Manual on its Construction and Management, for the use 
 of Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By William Dyson 
 
 Wansbrough. 12mo, cloth $1.50 
 
 "This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should 
 
 be read by every one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere." — 
 
 Mark Lane Express. 
 
6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 THE STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, with Rules and Examples 
 for Practical Men. By T. Baker, C.E. 12mo, cloth # (j() 
 
 "Teems with scientific information with reference to the steam-engine." — 
 Design and Work. 
 
 THE STEAM ENGINE. 
 
 For the use of Beginners. By Dr. Lardner. 12mo, cloth. . . # gQ 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVING. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Locomotive Engines. 
 By Michael Reynolds, M.S.E. Twelfth Edition. 12mo, cloth 
 
 boards $2.00 
 
 "We can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical driver, 
 
 but to every one who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive 
 
 engines." — The Engineer. 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 
 
 The Autobiography of an Old Locomotive Engine. By Robert 
 Wbatherbuen, M.I.M.E. With Illustrations and Portraits of George 
 and Robert Stephenson. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway 
 Engines between 1803 and 1903. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E. 
 
 Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 12mo, cloth $2.00 
 
 "Students of railway history and all who are interested in the evolution 
 
 of the modern locomotive will find much to attract and entertain in this 
 
 volume." — The Times. 
 
 THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, 
 
 Fireman, and Engine-Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the 
 Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By Michael Reyn- 
 olds. Second Edition, with Revised Appendix. 12mo, cloth. $2.00 
 "We should be glad to see this book in the possession of every one in the 
 
 kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." — 
 
 Iron. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 
 
 A Rudimentary Treatise on. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. With large 
 Additions treating of the Modern Locomotive, by D. K. Clark, 
 
 M.Inst.C.E. With Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $.120 
 
 "A model of what an elementary technical book should be." — Academy. 
 
 CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United King- 
 dom; their Construction and Performance. By M. Reynolds. 8vo, 
 cloth $3.50 
 
 ENGINE=DRIVING LIFE. 
 
 Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine- 
 Drivers. By Michael Reynolds. Third Edition. 12mo, cloth. # g{) 
 
 STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By 
 Michael Reynolds, M.S.E. Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth boards. 
 
 $2.00 
 THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY 
 
 ENGINES. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Men-in-charge. By C. Hurst. 12mo. .50 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 7 
 
 THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION 
 
 and Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Me- 
 chanics. By Michael Reynolds. With 45 Illustrations and numer- 
 ous Diagrams. Fifth Edition. Royal 18mo, strongly bound for 
 
 Pocket wear $1.50 
 
 "A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the 
 
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 THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. 
 
 Containing Rules for Unprofessional Steam Users. By an Engineer. 
 
 Eighth Edition. Sewed .25 
 
 "If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explo- 
 sions would become sensations by their rarity." — English Mechanic. 
 
 STEAM AND MACHINERY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 A Guide to the Arrangement and Economical Management of Machin- 
 ery, with Hints on Construction and Selection. By M. Powis Bale, 
 M.Inst.M.E. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 GAS AND OIL ENGINE MANAGEMENT. 
 
 A Practical Guide for Users and Attendants, being Notes on Selection, 
 Construction, and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.Inst.C.E., 
 M.I.Mech.E. Author of "Woodworking Machinery," &c. 12mo, 
 cloth $1.50 
 
 ON GAS ENGINES. 
 
 With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Igniter. By 
 T. M. Goodeve, M.A. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S YEAR=B00K FOR 1906. 
 
 Comprising Formula, Rules, Tables, Data, and Memoranda in Civil, 
 Mechanical, Electrical, Marine, and Mine Engineering. By H. R. 
 Kempe, M.Inst.C.E., Principal Staff Engineer, Engineer-in-Chief's 
 Office, General Post Office, London; Author of "A Handbook of Elec- 
 trical Testing," "The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book," &c. With 
 1,000 Illustrations, specially Engraved for the Work. 12mo, 950 pp., 
 leather $3.00 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 
 
 Comprising Tables, Formulae, Rules, and Data: a Handy Book of Ref- 
 erence for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. By D. Kinnear Clark, 
 M.Inst.C.E., Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. By H. H. 
 P. Powles, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Small 8vo, 700 pp., leather. $3.00 
 Summary of Contents: — Mathematical Tables. — Measurement op 
 Surfaces and Solids. — English Weights and Measures. — French 
 Metric Weights and Measures. — Foreign Weights and Measures. — 
 Moneys. — Specific Gravity, Weight, and Volume. — Manufactured 
 Metals. — Steel Pipes. — Bolts and Nuts. — Sundry- Articles in Wrought 
 and Cast Iron, Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin, Zinc. — Strength of Mater- 
 ials. — Strength of Timber. — Strength of Cast Iron. — Strength of 
 Wrought Iron. — Strength of Steel. — Tensile Strength of Copper, 
 Lead, &c. — Resistance of Stones and other Building Materials. — 
 Riveted Joints in Boiler Plates. — Boiler Shells. — Wire Ropes and 
 Hemp Ropes — Chains and Chain Cables. — Framing. — Hardness of 
 Metals, Alloys, and Stones. — Labour of Animals. — Mechanical Prin- 
 ciples. — Gravity and Fall of Bodies. — Accelerating and Retarding 
 Forces. — Mill Gearing, Shafting, &c. — Transmission of Motive Power. 
 — Heat. — Combustion. — Fuels. — Warming, Ventilation, Cooking 
 Stoves. — Steam. — Steam Engines and Boilers. — Railways. — Tram- 
 ways. — Steam Ships. — Pumping Steam Engines and Pumps. — Coal Gas, 
 Gas Engines, &c. — Air in Motion. — Comprkssed Air. — Hot Air Engines. 
 — Water Power. — Speed of Cutting Tools. — Colours. — Electrical 
 Engineering. 
 
8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Comprising a great Variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in 
 Mechanical Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Cal- 
 culated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By William 
 Templeton, Author of "The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c, &c. 
 Eighteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged, 
 by W. S. Htjtton, C.E., Author of "The Works' Manager's Hand- 
 book," &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 
 250 Diagrams, leather $2.50 
 
 ENGINEER'S AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 A Collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. By William Temple- 
 ton. Eighth Edition, with Additions. 18mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR ENGINEERS, 
 
 MECHANICS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, &c. 
 
 Selected and Arranged by Francis Smith. Seventh Edition, Revised, 
 including Electrical Tables, Formulae, and Memoranda. Waist- 
 coat-pocket size, limp leather .60 
 
 THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S COMPANION. 
 
 Of Areas, Circumferences, Decimal Equivalents, in inches and feet, mil- 
 limetres, squares, cubes, roots, &c. ; Strength of Bolts, Weight of Iron, 
 &c; Weights, Measures, and other Data. Also Practical Rules for 
 Engine Proportions. By R. Edwards, M.Inst. C.E. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. 
 
 $1.00 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TERMS. 
 
 (Lockwood's Dictionary of). Embracing those current in the Drawing 
 Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smiths', and Boiler 
 Shops, &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by J. 
 G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. 
 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
 "Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades engaged 
 in mechanical engineering. The practical engineering pupil will find the 
 book of great value in his studies, and every foreman engineer and mechanic 
 should have a copy." 
 
 POCKET GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 English-French, French-English; with Tables suitable for the Archi- 
 tectural, Engineering, Manufacturing, and Nautical Professions. By 
 John James Fletcher. Fourth Edition, 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket 
 size, limp leather t 60 
 
 IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 A Work for the Forge Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, 
 useful, and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stock- 
 takers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills ; Iron and 
 Metal Founders; Iron, Ship, and Bridge Builders; Mechanical, Mining, 
 and Consulting Engineers; Architects, Contractors, Builders, <fec. By 
 Charles Hoare, Author of "The Slide Rule," &c. Ninth Edition. 
 32mo, leather $2.50 
 
 WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. 
 
 By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering Drawing, Royal Naval 
 College, Greenwich. Eighth Edition. 300 Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 12mo, cloth $1.40 
 
 "A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." — En- 
 gineering. 
 
 PATTERN MAKING. 
 
 Embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, and including 
 Gearing, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, 
 Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam 
 and Greensand, Weight of Castings, &c. By J. G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. 
 Third Edition, Enlarged. With 486 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. $3.00 
 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 9 
 
 SMITHY AND FORGE. 
 
 Including the Farrier's Art and Coach Smithing. By W. J. E. Crane. 
 
 ^ 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 "The first modern English book on the subject. Great pains have been 
 
 bestowed by the author upon the book; shoeing-smiths will find it both 
 
 useful and interesting." 
 
 TOOTHED GEARING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Offices and Workshops. By J. Horner, 
 A.M.I.M.E. Second Edition, with a new Chapter on Recent Practice. 
 With 184 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $2.25 
 
 MODERN WORKSHOP PRACTICE, 
 
 As applied to Marine, Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks, 
 Dredging Machines, Bridges, Shipbuilding, <yc. By J. G. Winton. 
 Fourth Edition, Illustrated. 12mo, cloth $1.40 
 
 DETAILS OF MACHINERY. 
 
 Comprising Instructions for the Execution of various Works in Iron in 
 the Fitting Shop, Foundry, and Boiler Yard. By Francis Campin, 
 C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.20 
 
 ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS, AND ACCOUNTS. 
 
 A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous examples of Es- 
 timates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, 
 Steam Engines and Steam Boilers; and a Section on the Preparation 
 of Costs Accounts. By A General Manager. Second Edition. 8vo, 
 cloth $4.50 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 
 
 Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop 
 Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of the Steam En- 
 gine, &c. By Francis Campin, C.E. Third Edition. 12mo, cloth 
 
 $1.00 
 
 LATHE-WORK. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Toole. Appliances, and Processes employed in 
 the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck. Eighth Edition. 12mo, 
 
 cloth $2.00 
 
 "Written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but 
 
 who also knows how to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others." — 
 
 Engineering. 
 
 SCREW=TH READS, 
 
 And Methods of Producing Them. With numerous Tables and com- 
 plete Directions for using Screw-cuttingLathes. ByPAULN. Hasluck, 
 Author of "Lathe-work," &c. Sixth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size. 
 
 .60 
 "Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies, 
 and screwing tools generally are illustrated and their action described." 
 
 CONDENSED MECHANICS. 
 
 A Selection of Formula?, Rules, Tables, and Data for the Use of Engi- 
 neering Students, &c. By W. G. C. Hughes, A. M.I. C.E. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 $1.00 
 
 MECHANICS OF AIR MACHINERY. 
 
 By Dr. J. Weisbach and Prof. G. Herrmann. Authorized Translation 
 with an Appendix on American Practice by A. Trowbridge, Ph.B., 
 Adjunct Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University. 
 Royal 8vo, cloth Net $3.75 
 
io CROSBY LOCKWOOD &° SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 PRACTICAL MECHANISM. 
 
 And Machine Tools. By T. Baker, C.E. With Remarks on Tools and 
 Machinery by J. Nasmyth, C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 MECHANICS. 
 
 Being a concise Exposition of the General Principles of Mechanical 
 Science and their Applications. By C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. 12mo, 
 cloth .60 
 
 FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. 
 
 Their Analysis and Valuation. For the use of Chemists and Engineers. 
 By H. J. Phillips, F.C.S-, formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist 
 to the Great Eastern Railway. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth. . .80 
 "Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical estab- 
 lishment and wherever fuel is used on a large scale." — Chemical News. 
 
 FUEL, ITS COMBUSTION AND ECONOMY. 
 
 Consisting of an Abridgment of "A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal 
 
 and the Prevention of Smoke." By C. W. Williams, A.Inst.C.E. 
 
 With extensive Additions by D. Kinneab Clark, M.Inst. C.E. 
 
 Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.50 
 
 "Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete 
 and satisfactory treatises on the combustion and economy of fuel to be 
 had." — Engineer. 
 
 STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, 
 
 Stationary and Portable. Being an Extension of the Treatise on the 
 Steam Engine of Mr. J. Sewell. By D. K. Clark, C.E. Fourth Edi- 
 tion. 12'mo, cloth $1.40 
 
 "Every essential part of the subject is treated of competently, and in a 
 popular style." 
 
 PUMPS AND PUMPING. 
 
 A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction, 
 and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. 
 
 Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.50 
 
 " Thoroughly practical and clearly written." 
 
 REFRIGERATION, COLD STORAGE, & ICE-MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Art and Science of Refrigeration. By. A. 
 J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of "Refrigerating and Ice- 
 Making Machinery." 600 pp., with 360 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, 
 
 cloth $4.50 
 
 Contents: — Chapter I. Introduction. — II. The Theory and Prac- 
 tice op Refrigeration. — III. The Liquefaction Process. — IV. The 
 Vacuum Process. — V. The Compression Process or System. — VI. The 
 Compression Process {Continued). — VII. The Compression Process {Con- 
 tinued). — VIII. Condensers and Water-Cooling and Saving Apparatus. 
 — IX. The Absorption and Binary Absorption Process or System. — 
 X. The Cold-Air System. — XI. Cocks, Valves and Pipe-Joints and 
 Unions. — XII. Refrigeration and Cold Storage. — XIII. Refrigera- 
 tion and Cold Storage {Continued). — XIV. Refrigeration and Cold 
 Storage {Continued). — XV. Refrigeration and Cold Storage {Con- 
 tinued). — XVI. Marine Refrigeration. — XVII. Manufacturing, In- 
 dustrial and Constructional Applications. — XVIII. Ice-Making. — 
 
 XIX. The Management and Testing of Refrigerating Machinery. — 
 
 XX. Cost of Working. — XXI. The Production of Very Low Temper- 
 atures. — XXII. Useful Tables and Memoranda. — Appendix. — Bibli- 
 ography of Refrigeration. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &°c. II 
 
 THE POCKET BOOK OF REFRIGERATION AND ICE- 
 MAKING. 
 
 By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M. Inst. C.E. Author of "Refrigerating 
 and Ice-making Machinery," &c. Third Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, 
 doth $1.50 
 
 REFRIGERATING & ICE=MAKING MACHINERY. 
 
 A Descriptive Treatise for the Use of Persons Employing Refrigerating 
 and Ice-making Installations, and others. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, 
 
 A.M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
 "May be recommended as a useful description of the machinery, the proc- 
 esses, and of the acts, figures, and tabulated physics of refrigerating." — En- 
 gineer. 
 
 MOTOR VEHICLES FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for those interested in the Transport of Passen- 
 gers and Goods. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. With 134 
 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth [Just 'published.'] $3.50 
 
 MOTOR CARS OR POWER=CARRIAGES FOR COMMON 
 ROADS. 
 
 By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. 
 12mo, cloth $2.00 
 
 AERIAL NAVIGATION. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Construction of Dirigible Balloons, Aero- 
 stats, Aeroplanes, and Aeromotors. By Frederick Walker, C.E., 
 Associate Member of the Aeronautic Institute. With 104 Illustrations. 
 Large 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
 STONE=WORKING MACHINERY. 
 
 A Manual dealing with the Rapid and Economical Conversion of Stone. 
 With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By 
 M. Powis Bale, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. Second Edition, enlarged. 
 
 12mo, cloth $3.50 
 
 "The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stone- 
 work." 
 
 "A handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or ornamental 
 purposes." 
 
 FIRES, FIRE=ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. 
 
 With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage- 
 ment; Foreign Fire Systems; Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c. By C. F. 
 T. Young, C.E. 8vo, cloth $8.00 
 
 CRANES. 
 
 The Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies 
 for the Erection of Buildings, &c. By J. Glynn, F.R.S. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 .60 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. 
 PIONEER IRRIGATION. 
 
 A Manual of Information for Farmers in the Colonies. By E. O. Maw- 
 son, M.Inst.C.E., Executive Engineer, Public Works Department, 
 Bombay. With Additional Chapters on Light Railways by E. R. 
 Calthrop, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Illustrated by numerous Plates 
 
 and Diagrams. Demy 8vo, cloth $4.00 
 
 Summary of Contents : — Value of Irrigation, and Sources of Water 
 Supply. — Dams and Weirs. — Canals. — Underground Water. — Meth- 
 ods of Irrigation. — Sewage Irrigation. — Imperial Automatic Sluice 
 Gates. — The Cultivation of Irrigated Crops, Vegetables, and Fruit 
 Trees. — Light Railways for Heavy Traffic. — Useful Memoranda and 
 Data. 
 
12 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 THE RECLAMATION OF LAND FROM TIDAL WATERS. 
 
 A Handbook for Engineers, Landed Proprietors, and others interested 
 in Works of Reclamation. By A. Beazely, M.Inst.C.E. 8vo, cloth. 
 
 $4.00 
 "The book shows in a concise way what has to be done in reclaiming land 
 from the sea, and the best way of doing it. Contains a great deal of prac- 
 tical and useful information which cannot fail to be of service to engineers 
 entrusted with the enclosure of salt marshes, and to landowners intending 
 to reclaim land from the sea." — The Engineer. 
 
 THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON= 
 STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for the Use of Engineers and Students of Engineer- 
 ing. By W. K. Burton, A. M.Inst.C.E., Consulting Engineer to the 
 Tokyo Water-works. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With 
 numerous Plates and Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, buckram. $9.00 
 I. Introductory. — II. Different Qualities of Water. — III. Quan- 
 tity of Water to be Provided. — IV. On Ascertaining whether a Pro- 
 posed Source of Supply is Sufficient. — V. On Estimating the Storage 
 Capacity Required to be Provided. — VI. Classification of Water- 
 works. — VII. Impounding Reservoirs. — VIII. Earthwork Dams. — IX. 
 Masonry Dams. — X. The Purification of Water. — XI. Settling Res- 
 ervoirs. — XII. Sand Filtration. — XIII. Purification of Water by 
 Action of Iron, Softening of Water by Action of Lime, Natural 
 Filtration. — XIV. Service or Clean Water Reservoirs — Water 
 Towers — Stand Pipes. — XV. The Connection of Settling Reservoirs, 
 Filter Beds and Service Reservoirs. — XVI. Pumping Machinery. — 
 
 XVII. Flow of Water in Conduits — Pipes and Open Channels. — 
 
 XVIII. Distribution Systems. — XIX. Special Provisions for the Ex- 
 tinction of Fire. — XX. Pipes for Water-works. — XXI. Prevention 
 of Waste of Water. — XXII. Various Appliances used in Connection 
 with Water-works. 
 
 Appendix I. By Prof. JOHN MILNE, F.R.S. — Considerations Con- 
 cerning the Probable Effects of Earthquakes on Water-works, and 
 the Special Precautions to be Taken in Earthquake Countries. 
 
 Appendix II. By JOHN DE RIJKE, C.E.— On Sand Dunes and Dune 
 Sand as a Source of Water Supply. 
 
 THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
 By William Humber, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E., Author of 
 "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c, &c. Illustrated 
 with 50 Double Plates, 1 Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and up- 
 wards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pp. of Text. Imp. 4to, 
 
 elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco $45.00 
 
 List of Contents: — I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that 
 have been adopted for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns. — 
 II. Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it. — III. 
 Rainfall and Evaporation. — IV. Springs and the Water-bearing 
 Formations of Various Districts. — V. Measurement and Estimation 
 of the Flow of Water. — VI. On the Selection of the Source of Sup- 
 ply. — VII. Wells. — VIII. Reservoirs. — IX. The Purification of 
 Water. — X Pumps. — XI. Pumping Machinery. — XII. Conduits. — 
 XIII. Distribution of Water. — XIV. Meters, Service Pipes, and 
 House Fittings. — XV. The Law and Economy of Water-works. — XVI. 
 Constant and Intermittent Supply. — XVII. Description of Plates. — 
 Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c, &c, 
 together with Specifications of Several Works Illustrated, among 
 which will be found: aberdeen, bldeford, canterbury, dundee, 
 Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others. 
 
 RURAL WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of 
 Water-works for small Countrv Districts. Bv Allan Greentvell, 
 A.M.Inst.C.E., and W. T. Curry, A.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. With Illus- 
 trations. Second Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth $2.00 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. 13 
 
 WATER ENGINEERING. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and 
 Utilization of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for 
 other Purposes. By Charles Slagg, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. 
 12mo. cloth $3.00 
 
 WATER WORKS, FOR THE SUPPLY OF CITIES AND 
 TOWNS. 
 
 With a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England 
 as influencing Supplies of Water. By Samuel Hughes. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 $1.60 
 
 POWER OF WATER. 
 
 As applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines, and 
 other Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S., &c. New 
 Edition. Illustrated. 12mo, cloth # ^q 
 
 WELLS AND WELL=SINKING. 
 
 By J. G. Swindell, A.R.I.B.A., and G. R. Burnell, C.E. Revised 
 
 Edition. 12mo, cloth _§() 
 
 "Solid practical information, written in a concise and lucid style. The 
 work can be recommended." 
 
 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING. 
 
 A Practical Manual on the Concentration and Transmission of Power 
 by Hydraulic Machinery. By G. Croydon Marks, A. M.Inst. C.E. 
 Second Edition, Enlarged, with about 240 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. $3.50 
 Summary of Contents: — Principles of Hydraulics. — The Flow of 
 Water. — Hydraulic Pressures. — Material. — Test Load. — Packings 
 for Sliding Surfaces. — Pipe Joints. — Controlling Valves. — Platform 
 Lifts. — Workshop and Foundry Cranes. — Warehouse and Dock 
 Cranes. — Hydraulic Accumulators. — Presses for Baling and other 
 Purposes. — Sheet Metal Working and Forging Machinery. — Hy- 
 draulic Riveters. — Hand and Power Pumps. — Steam Pumps. — Tur- 
 bines. — Impulse Turbines. — Reaction Turbines. — Design of Tur- 
 bines in Detail. — Water Wheels. — Hydraulic Engines. — Recent 
 Achievements. — Pressure of Water. — Action of Pumps, &c. 
 
 HYDRAULIC MANUAL. 
 
 Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a 
 Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis 
 DA. Jackson, Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," "Modern Metrol- 
 ogy," &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. 8vo, cloth $6.00 
 
 "The author has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trust- 
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 HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO=EFFICIENTS, & FORMUL/E. 
 
 For Finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, 
 Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formula, Tables, and General Informa- 
 tion on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Sup- 
 ply for Towns and Mill Power. By John Neville, C.E. , M.R.I. A. 
 Third Edition, revised, with additions. Numerous Illustrations. 
 
 12mo, cloth $5.00 
 
 "It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to complete- 
 ness." 
 
 MASONRY DAMS FROM INCEPTION TO COMPLETION. 
 
 Including numerous Formulae, Forms of Specifications and Tender, 
 Pocket Diagram of Forces, &c. For the use of Civil and Mining En- 
 gineers. By C. F. Courtney, M.Inst.C.E. 8vo, cloth $3.50 
 
 "Contains a good deal of valuable data. Many useful suggestions will be 
 
 found in the remarks on site and position, location, of dam, foundations 
 
 and constuctiou." — Building News. 
 
r 4 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 RIVER BARS. 
 
 The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment by "Induced Tidal 
 Scour''; with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method 
 of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Manx, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port 
 
 and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, cloth $3.00 
 
 "We recommend all interested i a harbour works — and, indeed, those con- 
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 DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS, AND BUILDINGS. 
 
 By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. Bevised, with large Additions on Becent 
 Practice in Drainage Engineering by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. 
 Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth. $1.80 
 
 SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS 
 AND SURVEYORS. 
 
 Including the Setting-out of Works for Construction and Surveys 
 Abroad, with many Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Hand- 
 book for use in the Field and the Office, intended also as a Text-book 
 for Stv.dents. By John Whitp;law, Jun., A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of 
 "Points and Crossings." With about 260 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 
 cloth $4.00 
 
 PRACTICAL SURVEYING. 
 
 A Text-book for Students preparing for Examination or for Survey- 
 work in the Colonies. By George W. Usill, A.M.Inst.C.E. Eighth 
 Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, hy Aiex Beazeley, 
 M.Inst. C.E. With 4 Lithographic Plates and 360 Illustrations. 12mo, 
 cloth $3.00 
 
 SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEOMETER. 
 
 A practical Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Sur- 
 veyors, including two series of Tables specially computed for the Re- 
 duction of Readings in Sexagesimal and in Centesimal Degrees. By 
 Neil Kennedy, M.Inst. C.E. With Diagrams and Plates. Second 
 
 Edition. 8vo, cloth $4.00 
 
 "The work is very clearly written, and should remove all difficulties in the 
 way of any surveyor desirous of making use of this useful and rapid instru- 
 ment." — Nature. 
 
 LAND AND ENGINEERING SURVEYING. 
 
 For Students and Practical Use. Py T. Baker, C.E. Twentieth Edi- 
 tion, by F. E. Dixon, A.M.Inst.C.E. With Plates and Diagrams. 
 12mo, cloth 80 
 
 AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE. 
 
 For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out; and in Route 
 Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, 
 and Records. By L. D'A. Jackson, A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition. 
 8vo, cloth $5.00 
 
 LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING. 
 
 In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways ; 
 Canals, Bivers, Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With 
 Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoi.i., 
 C.E. Second Edition, Revised with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth. 
 
 $3.50 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &°c. 15 
 
 ENGINEER'S & MINING SURVEYOR'S FIELD BOOK. 
 
 Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems 
 and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying- and plotting the work 
 with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only; 
 Levelling with the Theodolite, Setting-out Curves with and without the 
 Theodolite, Earthwork Tables, &e. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With 
 numerous Woodcuts. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. I2mo, cloth. $-4. ,50 
 "The book is very handy; the separate tables of sines and tangents to 
 
 every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine 
 
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 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING 
 
 A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. 
 
 For the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, 
 Military Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c, with Esefijl Problems, 
 Formula?, and Tables. By Lieut. -General Froms, R.E. 1'ourth Edi- 
 tion, Revised and partly Re-written by Ma.ior-General Sir Charles 
 Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts. 8vo, 
 doth $6.00 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. 
 
 Showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering 
 in the Construction of Roads; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. 
 By Frederick W. Simms, M.Inst.C.E. Eighth Edition, with Law's 
 Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwine's 
 Field Practice of Laying out Circular Gurves. With 7 Plates and nu- 
 merous Woodcuts. 8vo $2.50 
 
 "The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and col- 
 leges ."- -Engineer. 
 
 "The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, 
 especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of 
 Mr. Simm's useful work." — Engineering. 
 
 TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES. 
 
 For Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By A. BsAZELEY.M.Inst. 
 C.E. 7th Edition. Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the 
 Tables for Measuring up Curves. Printed on 50 Cards, and sold in a 
 
 cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size $1.50 
 
 "Each table is printed on a small card, which, placed on the theodolite, 
 
 leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument — no small advantage 
 
 as regards the rapidity of work." 
 
 "Very handy; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two 
 
 of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest 
 
 behind." 
 
 PIONEER ENGINEERING. 
 
 A treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Settle- 
 ment of Waste Lands in New Countries. By E. Dobson, M.Inst.C.E. 
 
 Second Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.80 
 
 "Mr. Dobson is familiar with the difficulties which have to be overcome 
 
 in this class of work, and much of his advice will be valuable to young 
 
 engineers proceeding to our colonies." — Engineering. 
 
 TUNNELLING. 
 
 A Practical Treatise. By Charles Prelini, C.E. With additions by 
 Charles S. Hill, C.E. With 150 Diagrams and Illustrations. Royal 
 8vo, cloth $3.00 
 
 PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. 
 
 Explaining in detail Setting-out +he Works. Shaft-sinking, and Heading- 
 driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavat- 
 ing, Timbering and the Construction of the Brick ivork of Tunnels. Bv 
 F. W. Simm.-.. M.Inst.C.E. Fourth Edition. Revised and Further Ex- 
 tended, including the most recent (1895) Examples of Sub-aqueous and 
 other Tunnels, bv D. Kinnear Clark, M Inst. C.E With 34 Folding 
 Plates Imperial 8vo, cloth $9.00 
 
16 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 EARTH AND ROCK EXCAVATION. 
 
 A Practical Treatise, by Charles Prelini, C.E. 365 pp., with Tables, 
 many Diagrams and Engravings. Royal 8vo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. $3.00 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. 
 
 By H. Law, C.E., and D. K. Clark, C.E. Sixth Edition, revised, with 
 Additional Chapters by A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A. M.Inst. C.E. 12mo, 
 cloth $2.50 
 
 TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. 
 
 Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive 
 Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse Power, 
 Steam, Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c; a Description of the 
 Varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working 
 Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly Revised, and Including the 
 Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c, &c. By D. 
 Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. With 400 Illustrations. 8vo, 780 pp., 
 buckram $7.50 
 
 HANDY GENERAL EARTH=WORK TABLES. 
 
 Giving the Contents in Cubic Yards of Centre and Slopes of Cuttings 
 and Embankments from 3 inches to 80 feet in Depth or Height, for use 
 with either 66 feet Chain or 100 feet Chain. By J. H. Watson Buck, 
 M.Inst. C.E. On a sheet mounted in cloth case $1.50 
 
 EARTHWORK TABLES. 
 
 Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c, 
 of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. Bv Joseph Broad- 
 bent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. 12mo, cloth! $2.00 
 
 "The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross 
 
 section into three elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is 
 
 ingenious." 
 
 A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. 
 
 By Alex. J. Graham, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edi- 
 tion. 18mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS. 
 
 A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M.Inst. 
 C.E., Resident Engineer, L. and N. W. R. With Folding Plates, 8vo, 
 
 cloth $4.80 
 
 "Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, 
 and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, 
 and the construction of the templates, will be found of considerable use." 
 
 ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES 
 
 (Practical and Theoretical.) With 13 large Plates. By the late George 
 Watson Buck, M.Inst. C.E Fourth Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. 
 Watson Buck, M.Inst C.E ; and with the addition of Description to 
 Diagrams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, by W. 
 H. Barlow, M.Inst. C.E Royal 8vo, cloth $4.80 
 
 CAST & WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 (A Complete and Practical Treatise on), including Iron Foundations. 
 In Three Parts. — Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By Wil- 
 liam Humber, A.M. Inst. C.E , and M.Inst.M.E. Third Edition, revised 
 and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first 
 appear in this edition ), and numerous Additions to the Text In 2 vols., 
 imp. 4to, half-bound in morocco $50.00 
 
 IRON BRIDGES OF MODERATE SPAN: 
 
 Their Construction and Erection By H. W. Pendred With 40 Il- 
 lustrations. 12mo, cloth # §Q 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. 17 
 
 IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS. 
 
 A Practical Treatise upon their Construction. For the use of Engi- 
 neers, Draughtsmen, and Students. By Francis Campin, C.E. 12mo, 
 cloth $1.40 
 
 TUBULAR AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES, 
 
 Describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. With a 
 Sketch of Iron Bridges, &c. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. 12mo, cloth, 
 
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 GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS. 
 
 In Their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, 
 Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring, and Suspension Bridges, Braced 
 Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. Hudson 
 Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With num- 
 erous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially 
 arranged for Class- work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, 
 Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth $6.00 
 
 WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON & STEEL GIRDERS. 
 
 A Graphic Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of 
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 GEOMETRY FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS. 
 
 An Introduction to Pure and Applied Geometry and the Mensuration 
 of Surfaces and Solids, including Problems in Plane Geometry useful in 
 Drawing. By E. H. Sprague, A.M.Inst.C.E. 12mo, cloth. . . .50 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 For the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delin- 
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 THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES. 
 
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 MENSURATION AND MEASURING. 
 
 With the Mensuration and Levelling of Land for the purposes of Modern 
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 HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS 
 
 In Girders and Similar Structures and their Strength. Consisting of 
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 THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK. 
 
 With Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Shields, 
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 CONSTRUCTIONAL IRON AND STEEL WORK, 
 
 As aoplied to Public, Private, and Domestic Buildings. By Francis 
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18 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. ' 
 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
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 "No better exposition of the practical application of the principles of 
 
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 EXPERIMENTS ON THE FLEXURE OF BEAMS. 
 
 Resulting in the Discovery of New Laws of Failure by Buckling. By 
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 TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. 
 
 Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking 
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 Complete Working Drawings. By W. Griffiths, Surveyor. Oblong, 
 
 8vo, cloth $1.80 
 
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 CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS, OF WOOD AND IRON: 
 
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 A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 With Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Sus- 
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 F.R.S. ; to which are added, Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, 
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 ous Woodcuts, cloth $7.00 
 
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 EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. 
 
 By John Keily, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works Department. 
 
 12mo, cloth $1.50 
 
 "The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat 
 upon metallic and other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of 
 physics upon which the engineer or architect can find but little reliable and 
 comprehensive data in books." — Builder. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING. 
 
 By Henry Law, M.Inst. C.E. Including a Treatise on Hydraulic En- 
 gineering by G. R. Burnell, M.Inst. C.E. Seventh Edition, revised, 
 with Large Additions on Recent Practice by D. Kinnear Clark. 
 M.Inst.C.E. 12mo, cloth $2.60 
 
 GAS WORKS, 
 
 Their Construction and Arrangement, and the Manufacture and Distri- 
 bution of Coal Gas. By S. Hughes, C.E. Ninth Edition. Revised, 
 with Notices of Recent Improvements by Henry O'Connor, A.M.Inst. 
 
 C.E. 12mo, cloth $2.40 
 
 "Of infinite service alike to manufacturers, distributors, and consumers." 
 
MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, &c. 19 
 PNEUMATICS, 
 
 Including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind Currents, for the use 
 of Beginners. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. 12mo, cloth . t QQ 
 
 FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS. 
 
 With Practical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, Be'ton, 
 Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. Dobson. 12mo. t QQ 
 
 BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE, 
 
 For Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of 
 Bridges. By Gen. Sir J. Buegoyne, K.C.B. 12mo, cloth. . . . # (J0 
 
 SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. 
 
 A Treatise on Railway Accidents, their Cause and Prevention"; with a 
 Description of Modern Appliances and Systems. By Clement E. 
 
 Stretton, C.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, cloth $1.50 
 
 "A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers; and, in short, all 
 
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 MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING, 
 NAVIGATION, ETC. 
 
 MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS. 
 
 Their Design and Construction. A Handbook for the Use of Students, 
 Engineers, and Naval Constructors. Based on the Work "Berechnung 
 und Konstruktion der Schiffsmaschinen und Kessel," by Dr. G. Bauer, 
 Engineer-in-Chief of the Vulcan Shipbuilding Yard, Stettin. Translated 
 from the Second German Edition by E. M. Donkin, and S. Bryan 
 Donkin, A. M.I. C.E. Edited by Leslie S. Robertson, Secretary to 
 the Engineering Standards Committee, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.N.A., 
 &c. With numerous Illustrations and Tables. Thick 8vo, cloth, 
 
 [Just Published. $9.00 
 Summary of Contents:— PART I.— MAIN ENGINES.— Determina- 
 tion of Cylinder Dimensions. — The Utilisation of Steam in the En- 
 gine. — Stroke of Piston. — Number of Revolutions. — Turning Moment. 
 — Balancing of the Moving Parts. — Arrangement of Main Engines. — 
 Details of Main Engines. — The Cylinder. — Valves. — Various Kinds 
 of Valve Gear. — Piston Rods. — Pistons. — Connecting Rod and Cross- 
 head. — Valve Geak Rods. — Bed Plates. — Engine Columns. — Revers- 
 ing and Turning Gear. PART II. — PUMPS. — Air, Circulating Feed, 
 and Auxiliary Pumps. PART III.— SHAFTING, RESISTANCE OF 
 SHIPS, PROPELLERS.— Thrust Shaft and Thrust Block.— Tunnel- 
 Shafts and Plummer Blocks. — Shaft Couplings. — Stern Tube. — The 
 Screw Propeller. — Construction of the Screw. PART IV. — PIPES 
 AND CONNECTIONS.— General Remarks, Flanges, Valves, &c— 
 Under Water Fittings. — Main Steam, Auxiliary Steam, and Exhaust 
 Piping. — Feed Water, Bilge, Ballast and Circulating Pipes. PART 
 V. — -STEAM BOILERS. — Firing and the Generation of Steam. — 
 Cylindrical Boilers. — Locomotive Boilers. — Water-tube Boilers. — 
 Small Tube Water-Tube Boilers. — Smoke Box. — Funnel and Boiler 
 Lagging. — Forced Draught. — Boiler Fittings and Mountings. 
 PART VI.— MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. PART VII.— VARIOUS 
 DETAILS. — Bolts, Nuts, Screw Threads, <fec. — Platforms, Gratings, 
 Ladders. — Foundations. — Seatings. — Lubrication. — Ventilation of 
 Engine Rooms.— Rules for Spare Gear. PART VIII.— ADDITIONAL 
 TABLES. 
 
2o CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S 
 
 POCKET=BOOK 
 
 Of Formulae, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's 
 Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, M.I.N. A. Eighth 
 Edition, carefully Revised and Enlarged. Fcap, leather. . Net $5.()0 
 Summary of Contents: — Signs and Symbols, Decimal Fractions. — 
 Trigonometry. — Practical Geometry. — Mensuration. — Centres and 
 Moments of Figures. — Moments of Inertia and Radii Gyration. — Al- 
 gebraical Expressions for Simpson's Rules. — Mechanical Principles. 
 — Centre of Gravity. — Laws of Motion. — Displacement, Centre of 
 Buoyancy. — Centre of Gravity of Ships' Hull. — Stability Curves and 
 Metacentres. — Sea and Shallow-water Waves. — Rolling of Ships. — 
 Propulsion and Resistance of Vessels. — Speed Trials. — Sailing, Cen- 
 tre of Effort. — Distances down Rivers, Coast Lines. — Steering and 
 Rudders of Vessels. — Launching Calculations and Velocities. — 
 Weight of Material and Gear. — Gun Particulars and Weight. — 
 Standard Gauges. — Riveted Joints and Riveting. — Strength and 
 Tests of Materials. — Binding and Shearing Stresses. — Strength of 
 Shafting, Pillars, Wheels, &c. — Hydraulic Data, &c. — Conic Sec- 
 tions, Catenarian Curves. — Mechanical Powers, Work. — Board of 
 Trade Regulations for Boilers and Engines. — Board of Trade Reg- 
 ulations for Ships. — Lloyd's Rules for Boilers. — Lloyd's Weight of 
 Chains. — Lloyd's Scantlings for Ships. — Data of Engines and Ves- 
 sels. — Ships' Fittings and Tests. — Seasoning Preserving Timber. — 
 Measurement of Timber. — Alloys, Paints, Varnishes. — Data for Stow- 
 age. — Admiralty Transport Regulations. — Rules for Horse-power, 
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 of Yachts. — Masting and Rigging. — Distances of Foreign Ports. — 
 Tonnage Tables. — -Vocabulary of French and English Terms. — English 
 Weights and Measures. — Foregn Weights and Measures. — Decimal 
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 of Squares and Cubes and Roots of Numbers. — Tables of Logarithms 
 of Numbers. — Tables of Hyberpolic Logarithms. — Tables of Natural 
 Sines, Tangents. — Tables of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, &c. 
 
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 To Board of Trade Examinations for Certificates of Competency. Con- 
 taining all Latest Questions to Date, with Simple, Clear, and Correct 
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 Verbal Questions and Answers; complete Set of Drawings with State- 
 ments completed. By A. C. Wannan, C.E., Consulting Engineer, and 
 E. W. I. Wannan, M.I.M.E., Certificated First Class Marine Engineer. 
 With numerous Engravings. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. 500 pages. 
 8vo, cloth $4.00 
 
 WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 
 
 Containing Latest Board of Trade Rules and Data for Marine Engineers. 
 By A. C. Wannan. Third Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and Brought up 
 to Date. Square 18mo, with thumb Index, leather $2.00 
 
 MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS. 
 
 By R. Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Addi- 
 tions by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E. 12mo, cloth . $1 .80 
 
 ELEMENTARY MARINE ENGINEERING. 
 
 A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. By J. S. 
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 CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. 
 
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MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, &>c 21 
 
 Cables, &c, &c. -By Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., M.Inst.C.E., En- 
 gineer-Surveyor-in-Chief , Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and 
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 THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY OF GERMANY. 
 
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 SHIPS AND BOATS. 
 
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 SHIPS FOR OCEAN AND RIYER SERVICE, 
 
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 AN ATLAS OF ENGRAYINGS 
 
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 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
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 THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. 
 
 By Samuel B. Sadler, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of 
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 SAILS AND SAIL=MAKING. 
 
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 MASTING, MAST=MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. 
 
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 plete. 
 
 SAILOR'S SEA BOOK: 
 
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 With numerous Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. New and Enlarged 
 
 Edition. By W. H. Rosser. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 Is perhaps the best and simplest epitome of navigation ever compiled. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. 
 
 Consisting of the Sailor's Sea Book, by J. Greenwood and W. H. Rosser; 
 together with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the 
 Problems, by H. Law, C.E., and Prof. J. R. Young $2.80 
 
22 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY, 
 
 In Theory and Practice. By Prof. J. R. Young. 12mo, cloth.jjgl.QO 
 "A very complete, thorough, and useful manual for the young navigator." 
 
 MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 
 
 For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations; to 
 which is prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms, by H. Law, C.E. With 
 Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By Prof. J. R. Young. 
 12mo, cloth $1.60 
 
 MINING, METALLURGY, AND 
 COLLIERY WORKING. 
 
 THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN 
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Manage- 
 ment of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petro- 
 leum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid 
 Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Rus- 
 sian Oil Properties. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., late Chief 
 Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian 
 Oil Properties. About 500 pp. With numerous Illustrations and 
 Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany 
 Oil Field. Royal 8vo, cloth Net $ " ( .50 
 
 MECHANICS OF AIR MACHINERY. 
 
 By Dr.-J. Weisbach and Prof. G. Herrmann. Authorized Translation 
 with an Appendix on American Practice by A. Trowbridge, Ph.B., 
 Adjunct Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University. 
 
 Royal 8vo, cloth [Just Published. Net $3,75 
 
 Summary of Contents: — The Movement of Air. — Natural and Arti- 
 ficial, Ventilation. — Blowing-Engines; — Vacuum Pumps; Tuyeres; 
 Hot-air Blast; Work Performed by Blowers; Blast-reservoirs; 
 Piston-blowers. — Compressors. — Rotary Blowers. — Fans- — Recent 
 American Practice, &c. 
 
 MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers 
 of Mines. By E. Henry Da vies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp. With Fold- 
 ing Plates and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth $8.00 
 
 "Deals exhaustively with the many and complex details which go to 
 make up the sum total of machinery and other requirements for the success- 
 ful working of metalliferous mines, and as a book of ready reference is of 
 the highest value to mine managers and directors." — Mining Journal. 
 
 THE DEEP LEVEL MINES OF THE RAND, 
 
 And their Future Development, considered from the Commercial Point 
 of View. By G. A. Denny (of Johannesburg), M.N.E.I.M.E., Con- 
 sulting Engineer to the General Mining and Finance Corporation, Ltd., 
 of London, Berlin, Paris, and Johannesburg. Fully Illustrated with 
 
 Diagrams and Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, buckram $10.00 
 
 "Mr. Denny by confining himself to the consideration of the future of the 
 deep-level mines of the Rand breaks new ground, and by dealing with the 
 subject rather from a commercial standpoint than from a scientific one, 
 appeals to a wide circle of readers. The book cannot fail to prove of very 
 great value to investors in South African mines." — Mining Journal, 
 
MINING, METALLURGY, &* COLLIERY WORKING. 23 
 PROSPECTING FOR GOLD. 
 
 A Handbook of Practical Information and Hints for Prospectors based 
 
 on Personal Experience. By Daniel J. Rankin, F.R.S.G.S., M.R.A.S., 
 
 formerly Manager of the Central African Company, and Leader of 
 
 African Gold Prospecting Expeditions. With Illustrations specially 
 
 Drawn and Engraved for the Work. Fcap. 8vo, leather. .... (t53.0l) 
 
 " This well-compiled book contains a collection of the richest gems of US3- 
 
 f jl knowledge for the prospector's benefit. A special table is given to 
 
 accelerate the spotting at a glance of minerals associated with gold." — Min- 
 
 .ng Journal. 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF GOLD. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing 
 Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. 
 Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With over 300 Illus- 
 trations and numerous Folding Plates. Medium 8vo, cloth. . .$7.50 
 "This book thoroughly deserves its title of a 'Practical Treatise.' The 
 whole process of gold mining, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay 
 of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly narrative and with much 
 fulness of detail." 
 
 THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION, 
 
 And its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields and 
 elsewhere. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. With Diagrams and Work- 
 ing Drawings. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth, 
 
 $3.00 
 
 "This book is just what was needed to acquaint mining men with the 
 actual working of a process which is not only the most popular, but is, as 
 a general rule, the most successful for the extraction of gold from tailings." 
 — Mining Journal. 
 
 DIAMOND DRILLING FOR GOLD & OTHER MINERALS. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Use of Modern Diamond Core Drills in 
 Prospecting and Exploiting Mineral-Bearing Properties, including Par- 
 ticulars of the Costs of Aoparatus and Working. By G. A. Denny, 
 M. N.E.Inst. M.E., M.Inst.M.M. Medium 8vo, 168 pp., with Illustra- 
 tive Diagrams $5.00 
 
 "There is certainly scopo for a work on diamond drilling, and Mr. Denny 
 
 deserves grateful recognition for supplying a decided want." — Mining 
 
 Journal. 
 
 GOLD ASSAYING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook, giving the Modus Operandi for the Accurate 
 Assay of Auriferous Ores and Bullion, and the Chemical Tests required 
 in the Processes of Extraction by Amalgamation, Cyanidation, and 
 Chlorination. With an Appendix of Tables and Statistics. By H. 
 Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S., Assoc Inst.C.E., Author of " Engineer- 
 ing Chemistry," <tec. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. $3.00 
 
 FIELD TESTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 A Practical Manual for Prospectors and Miners. By W. H. Merritt 
 M.N.E.Inst.M.E., A.R.S.M., &c. With Photographic Plates and other 
 
 Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, leather $1.50 
 
 'As an instructor of prospectors' classes Mr. Merritt has the advantage of 
 knowing exactly the information likely to be most valuable to the miner 
 in the field. The contents cover all the details for sampling and testing 
 gold and silver ores. A useful addition to a prospector's kit." — Mining 
 Journal. 
 
24 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SOWS CATALOGUE. 
 THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in search of Metal-Bearing or 
 other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson, M.A.(Camb.), F.R.G.S. 
 
 Tenth Edition. 12mo, cloth jj§;| # 5Q 
 
 "How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they 
 
 are found, are the leading points to which attention is directed." — Mining 
 
 Journal. 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF SILVER. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation 
 of Silver Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver 
 Bullion. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. Fifth Edition. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 $4.00 
 
 "A practical treatise and a technical work which we are convinced will 
 
 supply a long-felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of 
 
 value to students and others indirectly connected with the industries." — 
 
 Mining Journal. 
 
 THE HYDRO=METALLURGY OF COPPER. 
 
 Being an Account of Processes Adopted in the Hydro-Metallurgical 
 Treatment of Cupriferous Ores, Including the Manufacture of Copper 
 Vitriol, with Chapters on the Sources of Supply of Copper and the 
 Roasting of Copper Ores. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. 8vo, cloth, 
 
 $4.50 
 "In this volume the various processes for the extraction of copper by wet 
 methods are fully detailed. Costs are given when available, and a great 
 deal of useful information about the copper industry of the world is pre- 
 sented in an interesting and attractive manner." — Mining Journal. 
 
 THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver- Lead Ores and the Refin- 
 ing of Lead Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Estab- 
 lishments and Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants 
 in Europe and America. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. 12mo, cloth 
 
 $5.00 
 
 "The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively 
 
 treated of, embrace all the stages experienced in the passage of the lead 
 
 from the various natural states to its issue from the refinery as an article 
 
 of commere." — Practical Engineer. 
 
 METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. 
 
 By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much 
 Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp., with 
 
 173 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth Net $5.00 
 
 "Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, interested in mines, 
 can have a better book for his companion and his guide." — Mining Journal. 
 
 EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. 
 
 Bv D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of "Metalliferous Minerals," &c. 
 Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, 
 M.E., F.G.S. With about 100 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $5.00 
 
 BRITISH MINING. 
 
 A Treatise on the Historv, Discovery, Practical Development, and 
 Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingdom. By 
 Robert Hunt, F R.S., late Keeper of Mining Records. Upwards of 
 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 
 8vo, cloth $15.00 
 
 POCKET=BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS. 
 
 Comprising Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Notes for Use in Field and 
 Office Work. By F. Danvers Power, F.G.S., M.E. Second Edition, 
 Corrected. Fcap. 8vo, leather $3.50 
 
MINING, METALLURGY, & COLLIERY WORKING. 25 
 THE MINER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 A Handy Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining 
 Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others in- 
 terested in Mining Matters. Compiled by John Milne, F.R.S., Pro- 
 fessor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan. Third Edition. 
 Fcap. 8vo, leather $3.00 
 
 IRON ORES of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. 
 
 Their Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching 
 for and Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of 
 Spain. By J. D. Kendall, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. 12mo, cloth 
 
 $6.00 
 METALLURGY OF IRON. 
 
 Containing History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analy- 
 ses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By 
 H. Bauerman, F.G.S., A.R.S.M. With numerous Illustrations. Sixth 
 
 Edition, revised and enlarged. 12mo, cloth $2.00 
 
 "Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less 
 
 important points; while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly 
 
 entered into." — Standard. 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE. 
 
 A Complete Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam 
 Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell. Second Edition, Re- 
 written and Enlarged. With 250 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth. 
 
 $10.00 
 HORIZONTAL PUMPING ENGINES.— Rotary and Non-Rotary 
 Horizontal Engines. — Simple and Compound Steam Pumps. — VERTI- 
 CAL PUMPING ENGINES.— Rotary and Non-Rotary Vertical 
 Engines. — Simple and Compound Steam Pumps. — Triple-Expansion 
 Steam Pumps. — Pulsating Steam Pumps. — Pump Valves. — Sinking 
 Pumps, &c, &c. 
 
 ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. 
 
 By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of 
 Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining En- 
 gineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.E.E., A.M.I. 
 M.E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of 
 London, Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire 
 College, Victoria University; and Herbert Perkin, M.I.M.E., Certifi- 
 cated Colliery Manager, Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Department of 
 the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 Illustra- 
 tions. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, cloth. 
 
 [Just Published.] $4.50 
 (For Summary of Contents, see page 28.) 
 
 THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 A Comprehensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, 
 Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the 
 Use of Coal-Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By 
 Caleb Pamely, Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North 
 of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers; and Member 
 of the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers. With over 1,000 
 Diagrams, Plans, and other Illustrations. Fifth Edition, Carefully 
 Revised and Greatly Enlarged. 1,200 pp. Medium 8vo, cloth. $10.00 
 Geology. — Search for Coal. — Mineral Leases and other Holdings. — 
 Shaft Sinking. — Fitting Up the Shaft and Surface Arrangements. — 
 Steam Boilers and their Fittings. — Timbering and Walling. — Narrow 
 Work and Methods of Working. — Underground Conveyance. — Drain- 
 age. — The Gases met with in Mines; Ventilation. — On the Friction of 
 Air in Mines. — The Priestman Oil Engine; Petroleum and Natural 
 Gas. — Surveying and Planning. — Safety Lamps and Firedamp Detect- 
 ors. — Sundry and Incidental Operations and Appliances. — Colliery 
 Explosions. — Miscellaneous Questions and Answers. — Appendix: 
 Summary of Report of H.M. Commissioners on Accidents in Mines. 
 
26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 PRACTICAL COAL=MINING. 
 
 An Elementary Class-Book for the Use of Students attending Classes in 
 Preparation for the Board of Education and County Council Examina- 
 tions, or Qualifying for First or Second Class Colliery Managers' Cer- 
 tificates. By. T. H. Cockin, Member ol the Institution of Mining 
 Engineers, Certificated Colliery Manager, Lecturer on Coal-Mining at 
 Sheffield University College. With Map of the British Coal-fields and 
 over 200 Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for the Work. 
 440 pp., 12mo, cloth S3. 50 
 
 COLLIERY WORKING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrange- 
 ment of Labour and Wages, and the different Systems of Working Coal 
 Seams. By H. F. Bulman and R. A. S. Redmayne. 350 pp., with 
 28 Plates and other Illustrations, including Underground Photographs. 
 Medium 8vo, cloth Net 586.00 
 
 NOTES AND FORMUL/E FOR MINING STUDENTS. 
 
 By John Herman Merivale, M.A., Late Professor of Mining in the 
 Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Fourth Edition, 
 Revised and Enlarged. By H. F. Bulman, A.M. Inst. C.E. 12mo, 
 
 doth $1.00 
 
 "The author has done his work in a creditable manner, and has produced 
 
 a book that will be of service to students and those who are practically 
 
 engaged in mining operations." — Engineer. 
 
 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF MINING. 
 
 An Elementary Class-Book for the use of Students preparing for the 
 Board of Education and County Council Examinations in Mining, or 
 Qualifying for Colliery Managers' Certificates. By T. H. Byrom, 
 Chemist to the Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Ltd., &c. With Illustrations. 
 12mo, cloth [Just Published.] $1.50 
 
 MINING CALCULATIONS. 
 
 For the use of Students Preparing for the Examinations for Colliery 
 Managers' Certificates, comprising Numerous Rules and Examples in 
 Arithmetic, Algebra, and Mensuration. By T. A. O'Donahue, M.E., 
 First-class Certificated Colliery Manager. 12mo, cloth $1.50 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING. 
 
 By the late Sir Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S. Eighth Edition, 
 Revised and Extended by T. Forster Brown, Chief Inspector of the 
 Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. 12mo, cloth. $1.40 
 
 INFLAMMABLE GAS AND YAPOUR IN THE AIR 
 
 (The Detection and Measurement of). By Frank Clowes, D.Sc, 
 Lond., F.I.C. With a Chapter on The Detection and Measurement 
 of Petroleum Vapour, by Boverton Redwood, F.R.S.E. 12mo, 
 
 clotfi $2.50 
 
 "Professor Clowes has given us a volume on a subject of much industrial 
 importance. . . Those interested in these matters may be recommended 
 to study this book, which is easy of comprehension and contains many good 
 things." — The Engineer. 
 
 COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES of the UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields and of the Principal Seams 
 of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses 
 of Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ore 
 in Veins or Seams; Analyses of each Variety; and a History of the 
 Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Meade. 8vo, 
 cloth $10.00 
 
MINING, METALLURGY, & COLLIERY WORKING. 27 
 MINING TOOLS, 
 
 Manual of. By W. Morgans, Lecturer on Mining at the Bristol School 
 
 of Mines. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 Atlas of Engravings to the above, containing 235 Illustrations drawn 
 to Scale. 4to $1.80 
 
 SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING. 
 
 Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Min- 
 ing Engineer, &c. With numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates 
 Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.20 
 
 A FIRST BOOK OF MINING AND QUARRYING. 
 
 By J. H. Collins, F.G.S. Crown 8vo, cloth .60 
 
 ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC. 
 
 Their Properties, Occurrence, and Use. By Robert H. Jones, F.S.A. 
 Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With 
 Ten Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. $6.40 
 
 GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. 
 
 By George F.Harris, F.G.S. With Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. $1.00 
 
 MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S GUIDE. 
 
 Comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valuation 
 of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By W. Lintern, C.E. 
 
 Fourth Edition, enlarged. 12mo, cloth $1.40 
 
 "Contains much valuable information, and is thoroughly trustworthy." — 
 Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 TRAVERSE TABLES. 
 
 For use in Mine Surveying. By William Lintern, C.E. With two 
 plates. Small crown 8vo, cloth .....' Net $1,50 
 
 SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING. 
 
 By T. Fenwick. Also the Method of Conducting Subterraneous Sur- 
 veys without the use of the Magnetic Needle, &c. By T. Baker. 12mo, 
 
 $1.00 
 MINERALOGY, 
 
 Rudiments of. By A. Ramsay, F.G.S. Fourth Edition. Woodcuts 
 and Plates. 12mo, cloth $1.40 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, 
 
 Partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments of Geology." 
 By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth .80 
 
 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY, 
 
 Partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments." By Ralph 
 Tate. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 GEOLOGY, 
 
 Physical and Historical. Consisting of "Physical Geology," which 
 sets forth the Leading Principles of the Science; and "Historical Geol- 
 ogy," which treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth 
 at each successive epoch. By R. Tate. 12mo, cloth $1.80 
 
28 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL 
 ENGINEERING, ETC. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. 
 
 A First Year's Course for Students. _ By Tyson Sewell, A.I.E.E., 
 Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering at the 
 Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. Third Edition, Revised and En- 
 larged, including an Appendix of Questions and Answers. 460 pages, 
 with 274 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. . . .[Just Published.] $3.00 
 Ohm's Law. — Units Employed in Electrical Engineering. — Series, 
 and Parallel Circuits; Current Density and Potential Drop in the. 
 Circuit. — The Heating Effect of the Electric Current. — The Mag- 
 netic Effect of an Electric Current. — The Magnetisation of Iron. — 
 Electro-Chemistry ; Primary Batteries. — Accumulators. — Indicat- 
 ing Instruments; Ammeters, Voltmeters, Ohmmeters. — Electricity 
 Supply Meters. — Measuring Instruments, and the Measurement of 
 Electrical Resistance. — Measurement of Potential Difference 
 Capacity Current Strength, and Permeability. — Arc Lamps. — Incan- 
 descent Lamps, Manufacture and Installation; Photometry. — The 
 Continuous Current Dynamo. — Direct Current Motors. — Alternating 
 Currents. — Transformers, Alternators, Synchronous Motors. — Poly- 
 phase Working. — Appendix of Questions and Answers. 
 
 ELEMENTARY ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 
 
 In Theory and Practice. A Class-book for Junior and Senior Students 
 and Working Electricians. By J. H. Alexander, M.B., A.I.E.E 
 With 181 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth [Just Published. $1,50 
 
 THE ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY. 
 
 A Manual for the Design of Electrical Circuits. By Arthur Vaughan 
 Abbott, C.E., Member American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 
 Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, Member American 
 Society of Civil Engineers, Member American Society of Mechanical 
 Engineers, &c. With Ten Folding Diagrams and Sixteen Full-page 
 Engravings. Fourth Edition, entirely Re-Written and Enlarged. 
 Royal 8vo, cloth Net $5.00 
 
 ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. 
 
 By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst. C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of 
 Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining En- 
 gineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.E.E., A.M.I. 
 M.E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of 
 London, Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire 
 College, Victoria University; and Herbert Perkin, M.I.M.E., Cer- 
 tificated Colliery Manager, Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Depart- 
 ment of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 
 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 
 
 cloth [Just Published. $4.50 
 
 Introductory. — Dynamic Electricity. — Driving of the Dynamo. — 
 The Steam Turbine. — Distribution of Electrical Energy. — Starting 
 and Stopping Electrical Generators and Motors. — Electric Cables. — 
 Central Electrical Plants. — Electricity applied to Pumping and 
 Hauling. — Electricity applied to Coal-cutting. — Typical Electric 
 Plants Recently Erected. — Electric Lighting by Arc and Glow 
 Lamps. — Miscellaneous Applications of Electricity. — Electricity as 
 Compared with other modes of Transmitting Power. — Dangers of 
 Electricity. 
 
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 29 
 CONDUCTORS FOR ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 Their Materials and Manufacture, The Calculation of Circuits, Pole-Line 
 Construction, Underground Working, and other Uses. By F. A. 0. 
 Perrine, A.M., D.Sc; formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering, 
 Leland Stanford, Jr., University; M.Amer.I.E.E. 8vo, cloth. 
 
 Net $3.50 
 Conductor Materials. — Alloyed Conductors. — Manufacture of 
 Wire. — Wire-Finishing. — Wire Insulation — Cables. — Calculation of 
 Circuits. — Kelvin's Law of Economy in Conductors. — Multiple Arc 
 Distribution. — Alternating Current Calculation. — Overhead Lines. 
 — Pole Line. — Line Insulators. — Underground Conductors. 
 
 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY: its CONSTRUC= 
 TION, DESIGN, and OPERATION. 
 
 By Samuel Sheldon, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Physics and Electrical 
 Engineering at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, assisted by H. 
 Mason. B.S. 
 
 In two volumes, sold separately, as follows: — 
 Vol. I.— DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES. Fifth Edition, Revised. 
 
 8vo. 280 pages, with 200 Illustrations Net $2.50 
 
 Vol. II.— ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES. 8vo. 260 pages, 
 
 with 184 Illustrations Net $2.50 
 
 Designed as Text-books for use in Technical Educational Institutions, and 
 by Engineers whose work includes the handling of Direct and Alternating 
 Current Machines respectively, and for Students proficient in mathematics. 
 
 DYNAMO, MOTOR AND SWITCHBOARD CIRCUITS 
 
 FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. 
 
 A Practical Book dealing with the subject of Direct, Alternating and 
 Polyphase Currents. By William R. Bowker, C.E., M.E., E.E., Con- 
 sulting Tramway Engineer. 8vo, cloth $2.25 
 
 "Mr. Bowker's book consists chiefly of diagrams of connections, with short 
 explanatory notes, there are over 100 diagrams, and the cases considered 
 cover all the more important circuits, whether in direct current, single- 
 phase, or polyphase work." — Nature. 
 
 ARMATURE WINDINGS OF DIRECT CURRENT 
 DYNAMOS. 
 
 Extension and Application of a General Winding Rule. By E. Arnold, 
 Translated from the German by F. B. De Grees. 8vo, cloth. $2.00 
 
 POWER TRANSMITTED BY ELECTRICITY, 
 
 And applied by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Con- 
 struction. By P. Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, Fully Re- 
 vised, and New Matter added. With 94 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 $2.00 
 DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 A Practical Handbook for the Use of Engineer-Constructors and Elec- 
 tricians-in-Charge. Embracing Framework Building, Field Magnet and 
 Armature Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. By J. W. Urqu- 
 hart. Second Edition, Enlarged, with 114 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 $3.00 
 HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO. 
 
 A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing Illustrations and De- 
 tailed Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the 
 Electric Light. By Alfred Crofts. Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 .80 
 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY; 
 
 Its Origins, Development, Inventions, and Apparatus. By Charles 
 Henry Sewall. With 85 Diagrams and Illustrations. 8vo, cloth. 
 
 Net $2.00 
 
30 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6* SGW'S CATALOGUE. 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS; 
 
 Their History, Construction, and Working. Founded in part on Wun- 
 schendorff's "Traits de Telegraphie Sous-Marine," and Compiled from 
 Authoritative and Exclusive Sources. By Charles Bright, F.R.S.E. 
 A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E. 780 pp., fully Illustrated, including Maps and 
 Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, cloth $#5.00 
 
 ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CALCULATIONS. 
 
 For the Use of Electrical Engineers and Artisans, Teachers, Students, 
 and all others interested in the Theory and Application of Electricity 
 and Magnetism. By Prof. A. A. Atkinson, Ohio University. 12mo, 
 cl °th $1.50 
 
 "To teachers and those who already possess a fair knowledge of their sub- 
 ject we can recommend this book as being useful to consult when requiring 
 data or formula? which it is neither convenient nor necessary to retain by 
 memory." — The Electrician. 
 
 THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 
 
 Consisting of Rules, Formula, Tables, and Data. By H. R. Kemfe, 
 M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author 
 of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing." Second Edition. 32mo, 
 leather $1.75 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING (ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF). 
 
 By Alan A. Campbell Swinton, M. Inst. C.E. , M.I.E.E. Sixth Edition. 
 With 16 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth ,60 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment 
 of Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric 
 Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth. 
 
 $3.00 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installa- 
 tions, with Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. 
 Knight. - Fourth Edition, Revised. 12mo, boards .50 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING. 
 
 A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical 
 Notes on Installation Management. By J. W. Urquhart. With 
 numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth. $2.00 
 
 ELECTRIC SHIP=LIGHTING. 
 
 A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical 
 Plant. For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, 
 and Seagoing Engineers-in-Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Third 
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 DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 
 
 By Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "Elements of Static 
 Electricity," &c. Crown, 8vo, 417 pp., with 120 Illustrations, cloth 
 
 $2.00 
 
 THE STUDENT'S TEXT=BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. 
 
 By H. M. Noad, F.R.S. 650 pp., with 470 Illustrations. 12mo, 
 cloth $4.00 
 
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &c. 31 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS IN DETAIL. 
 
 By Frank W. Macey, Architect, Author of "Conditions of Contract." 
 Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, containing 644 pp., and 2,000 
 
 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth $8.00 
 
 Summary of Contents: — General Notes (including Points in Speci- 
 fication Writing, The Order of a Specification, and Notes on Items 
 often Omitted »from a Specification). — Form of Outside Cover to a 
 Specification. — Specification of Works and List of General Condi- 
 tions. — Preliminary Items (including Shoring and House Breaker). 
 — Drainage (including Rain-water Wells and Reports). — Excavator 
 (including Concrete Floors, Roofs, Stairs, and Walls). — Pavior. — 
 Bricklayer (including Flintwork, River, and other Walling, Spring- 
 water Wells, Storage Tanks, Fountains, Filters, Terra Cotta and 
 Faience). — Mason. — Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger (including 
 Fencing and Piling). — Smith and Founder (including Heating, Fire 
 Hydrants, Stable and Cow-house Fittings). — Slater (including Slatb 
 Mason). — Tiler. — Stone Tiler. — Shingler. — Thatcher. — Plumber (in- 
 cluding Hot-water Work). — Zincworker. — Coppersmith. — Plasterer. 
 — Gasfitter. — Bellhanger. — Glazier. — Painter. — Paperhanger. — 
 General Repairs and Alterations. — Ventilation. — Road-making. — 
 Electric Light. — Index. 
 
 PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 A Handbook for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book 
 of Reference for Persons Engaged in Building. By John Parnell 
 Allen, Surveyor, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham 
 College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and 
 Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 570 pp., with over 1,000 Illustrations, cloth, 
 
 $3.00 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. Upon 
 the Basis of the Work by A. Bartholomew, Revised, by F. Rogers. 
 8vo, cloth $6.00 
 
 SCIENCE OF BUILDING: 
 
 An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. 
 Wyndham Tarn, M.A.Lond. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth. $1.40 
 
 ART OF BUILDING, 
 
 Rudiments of. General Principles of Construction, Character, Strength, 
 and Use of Materials, Preparation of Specifications and Estimates, <fec. 
 By Edward Dobson, M.Inst.C.E. Fifteenth Edition, revised by J. P. 
 Allen, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of 
 Science. 12mo, cloth .80 
 
 BOOK ON BUILDING, 
 
 Civil and Ecclesiastical. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D. 
 Second Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.80 
 
 BUILDING ESTATES: 
 
 A Treatise on the Development, Sale, Purchase, and Management of 
 Building Land. By F. Maitland. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth, 
 
 .80 
 
 COTTAGE BUILDING. 
 
 By C. Bruce Allen. Twelfth Edition, with Chapter on Economic 
 Cottages for Allotments by E. E. Allen, C.E. 12mo, cloth. . ,80 
 
32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6* SCW'S CATALOGUE. 
 DWELLING=HOUSES, 
 
 Erection of, illustrated by a Perspective View, Plans, Elevations, and 
 Sections of a Pair of Villas, with the Specification, Quantities, and 
 Estimates. By S. H. Brooks. 12mo, cloth «si qq 
 
 FARM BUILDINGS: 
 
 Their Arrangement and Construction, with Plans and Estimates. By 
 Professor J. Scott. 12mo, cloth cq 
 
 SHORING, 
 
 And its Application. By G. H. Blagrove. Crown 8vo, cloth. .60 
 
 ARCHES, PIERS, BUTTRESSES. 
 
 By William Bland. 12mo, cloth fjrv 
 
 PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING. 
 
 General Principles of Bricklaying; Arch Drawing, Cutting, and Setting; 
 Pointing; Paving, Tiling, &c. By Adam Hammond. With 68 Wood- 
 cuts. 12mo, cloth ^qq 
 
 ART OF PRACTICAL BRICK=CUTTING AND SETTING. 
 
 By Adam Hammond. With 90 Engravings. 12mo, cloth. . . . # gQ 
 
 BRICKWORK: 
 
 Embodying the General and Higher Principles of Bricklaying, Cutting, 
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 By F. Walker. 12mo, cloth ^qq 
 
 "Contains all that a student needs to learn from books. — Building News." 
 
 BRICKS AND TILES, 
 
 Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of. Containing an Outline 
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 tions by C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. Illustrated. 12mo, cloth. . . .$1.20 
 
 PRACTICAL BRICK AND TILE BOOK. 
 
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 Hammond. 550 pp. , with 270 Illustrations, strongly half -bound . $2.40 
 
 PRACTICAL MASONRY. 
 
 A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, 
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 Domes, Pendentives, Vaults, Tracery Windows, &c. ; to which are 
 added Supplements relating to Masonry Estimating and Quantity Sur- 
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 For the Use of Students, Masons, and Craftsmen. By W. R. Purchase, 
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 Royal 8vo, 226 pp., with 52 Plates, comprising over 400 Diagrams, 
 doth $3.00 
 
 MASONRY AND STONECUTTING, 
 
 The Principles of Masonic Projection, and their Application to Con- 
 struction. By E. Dobson, M.R.I.B.A. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 MODERN LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 
 
 An Illustrated Supplement to the Report of the Lightning Research 
 Committee of 1905, with Notes as to the Methods of Protection, and 
 Specifications. By Killingworth Hedges, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E., 
 Honorary Secretary to the Lightning Research Committee, Author of 
 "American Street Railways." Medium 8vo, cloth 
 
 [Just Published Net $3.00 
 
 "The illustrations are very interesting and give one a clear idea of what 
 
 is likely to happen when a building is struck by lightning. Mr. Hedges' 
 
 suggestions of possible reasons why certain protected buildings were struck 
 
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &c. 33 
 
 are instructive. He also explains the modern methods of fitting buildings 
 with lightning conductors. To the ordinary reader the book will be of in- 
 terest, and to anyone who has to design a system for protecting a building 
 from lightning strokes it will be helpful " — Builder. 
 
 PLUMBING: 
 
 A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. With 
 Chapters upon House Drainage and Ventilation. By Wm. Paton 
 Buchan. Ninth Edition, with 512 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 
 
 $1.40 
 
 HEATING BY HOT WATER, 
 
 VENTILATION AND HOT WATER SUPPLV. 
 
 By Walter Jones, M.I.M.E. 360 pages, with 140 Illustrations. 
 Medium 8vo, cloth $2.50 
 
 THE PRACTICAL PLASTERER: 
 
 A Compendium of Plain and Ornamental Plaster Work. By W. Kemp. 
 12mo, cloth m gQ 
 
 CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES. 
 
 A Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By 
 G L. Sutcliffe, A.R.I.B.A. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 396 pp., with Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. . . .[Just Published. $3.50 
 
 PORTLAND CEMENT FOR USERS. 
 
 By the late Henry Faija, M.Inst.C.E. Fifth Edition. Revised and 
 Enlarged by D. B. Butler, AM Inst.C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.20 
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, MASTICS, 
 PLASTERING, &c. 
 
 By G. R. Burnell, C.E. Fifteenth Edition. 12mo, cloth.. . . .60 
 
 MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK 
 
 (The Student's Guide to the Practice of). Containing Directions for 
 taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities 
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 Calculation of Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by E. Dobson, 
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 Revised. 12mo, cloth. $3.00 
 
 QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENTS, 
 
 In Bricklayers', Masons', Plasterers', Plumbers', Painters', Paper 
 hangers'. Gilders', Smiths', Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. By A. C 
 
 Beaton, Surveyor. 12mo, cloth .60 
 
 "This book is indispensable to builders and their quantity clerks." — Eng' 
 lish Mechanic. 
 
 TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR. 
 
 For Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for Meas- 
 uring Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for 
 Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an Easy Method of Estimating the 
 parts of a Building collectively. By A. C, Beaton. Tenth Edition. 
 
 Waistcoat-pocket size .60 
 
 "No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his 
 'Beaton.'" — Building News. » 
 
 COMPLETE MEASURER; 
 
 Setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, Timber, and Stone. 
 By R. Horton. Sixth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.60 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a 
 Large House in Linear Perspective. Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. 
 By F. O. Ferguson. Third Edition. 8vo, boards $1 50 
 
34 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 PERSPECTIVE FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 For Students and Amateurs in Architecture, Painting, &c. By G. 
 Pyne. Crown 8vo, cloth .80 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING. 
 
 For the Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By G. Pyne. 4to 
 
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 THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of 
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 ing," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Illustrated with 125 Diagrams. 
 
 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
 ' ' The book is a very useful and helpful manual of architectural mechan- 
 ics." — Builder. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With 
 Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Au- 
 thor of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, half- 
 morocco, gilt edges $12.00 
 
 DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 By Sir William Chambers, F.R.S. With Portrait , Illustrations, Notes, 
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 $8.40 
 
 HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. 
 
 By George Wightwick, Architect, Author of "The Palace of Archi- 
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 son Guillaume, Architect. 12mo, cloth $1.40 
 
 THE ARCHITECTS' GUIDE. 
 
 Being a Text-book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Sur- 
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 $1.40 
 ARCHITECTURE— ORDERS. 
 
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 .60 
 ARCHITECTURE— STYLES. 
 
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 "Orders and Styles of Architecture," in One Vol $1.40 
 
 ARCHITECTURE— DESIGN. 
 
 The Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and 
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 ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, 
 
 The Art of. By T. A. Richardson. 12mo, cloth .60 
 
SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY. 35 
 
 VITRUVIUS-THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS 
 V1TRUVILJS POLLIO. 
 
 In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by J. Gwilt. With 23 
 Plates. 12mo, cloth $2.00 
 
 N.B. — This is the[only Edition of Vitruvius procurable at a moderate price. 
 
 GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in ; with an Historical View 
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 deen .40 
 
 *** The two preceding Works in One handsome Volume, half -bound, entitled 
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 ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS: 
 
 The Laws of Sound as applied to the Arrangement of Buildings. By 
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 LIGHT: 
 
 An Introduction to the Science of Optics. Designed for the. Use of 
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 SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 THE HEALTH OFFICER'S P0CKET=B00K. 
 
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 THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- 
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 THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 
 
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 WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION. 
 
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 RURAL WATER SUPPLY. 
 
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 WATER ENGINEERING. 
 
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36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. 
 
 Being a Brief Account of the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purifica- 
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 SANITARY WORK IN SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 
 
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 VENTILATION: 
 
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 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC. 
 
 PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 
 
 And its Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By Charles E. 
 Curtis, F.S.I., Professor of Forestry, Field Engineering, and General 
 Estate Management, at the College of Agriculture, Downton. Second 
 
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 Prefatory Remarks. — Objects of Planting. — Choice of a Forester. 
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 Distances and Distribution of Trees in Plantations. — Trees and 
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 — Pruning of Forest Trees. — Realization. — Methods of Sale. — 
 Measurement of Timber. — Measurement and Valuation of Larch's 
 Plantation. — Fire Lines. — Cost of Planting. 
 
 WOODWORKING MACHINERY. 
 
 Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. With Hints on the Management 
 of Saw Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated 
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 SAW MILLS. 
 
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CARPENTRY, TIMBER, &c. 37 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the 
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 Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added 
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 of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illustrated. Seventh 
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 THE CARPENTER'S GUIDE. 
 
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 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY— 
 
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 ROOF CARPENTRY: 
 
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 CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 
 
 A practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. 
 By George Collings. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
 HANDRAILING COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS. 
 
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38 CROSBY LOCKWOOD fir* SON'S CATALOGUE. 
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 SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF 
 
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 PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION. 
 
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DECORATIVE ARTS, &°c. 39 
 
 ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT & MEDI/EVAL. 
 
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 MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL. 
 
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 MEDI/EVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS. 
 
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 A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 
 
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 MARBLE DECORATION 
 
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 GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
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 HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND 
 
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 ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. 
 
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40 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED. 
 
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 THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE. 
 
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 MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA : 
 
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 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. 
 
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CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, &c. 41 
 
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 HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEU- 
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 ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. 
 
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 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
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 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, 
 CHEMISTRY, ETC. 
 
 THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN 
 
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. 
 
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 ment of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of 
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 THE ANALYSIS OF OILS AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 
 
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 A HANDYBOOK FOR BREWERS. 
 
 Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing 
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 A P0CKET=B00K OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING. 
 
 Containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, 
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 Second Edition, Revised. ISmo, leather $1.60 
 
42 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 THE GAS ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 
 
 Comprising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture, 
 Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. 
 By H. O'Connor, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised. 470 pp., 
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 LIGHTING BY ACETYLENE 
 
 Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. By William E. Gibbs, 
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 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. 
 
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 Engineering Work, with numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions, 
 By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S. Third Edition, Revised and 
 Enlarged. 12mo, 420 pp., withJPlates and Illustrations, cloth, $4.50 
 
 NITRO=EXPLOSIVES. 
 
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 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN EXPLOSIVES. 
 
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 DANGEROUS GOODS. 
 
 Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With 
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 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE. 
 
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 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings. Second Edition, with 
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 THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Etc. 
 
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 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE=WARES. 
 
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 J. W. Slater. Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. 12mo, 
 
 cloth $3.00 
 
 " There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To 
 
 students preparing for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove 
 
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INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 43 
 
 THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Per- 
 manency, and Adulterations, &c, with Tests of Purity. By H. C. 
 
 Standage. Third Edition. 12mo, cloth SI. 00 
 
 " This work is indeed multum-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, 
 
 recommend it tc all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, 
 
 dealers, or users. — Chemical Review. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND 
 MANUFACTURES. 
 
 THE CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION OF PARA 
 RUBBER. 
 
 By W. H. Johnson, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., Director of Agriculture, Gold 
 Coast Colony, West Africa, Commissioned by Government in 1902 to 
 visit Ceylon to Study the Methods employed there in the Cultivation 
 and Preparation of Para Rubber and other Agricultural Staples for 
 Market, with a view to Introduce them into West Africa. Demy Svo, 
 
 cloth $3.00 
 
 Summary of Contents: — Introductory. — The Para Rubber Tree 
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 Propagation. — Site for Plantation. — Distance Apart to Plant 
 the Trees. — Transplanting. — Cultivation. — Insect Pests and 
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 Employed in Tapping Rubber Trees. — Flow of Latex Increased by 
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 Scrap Rubber. — Yield of Para Rubber from Cultivated Trees: — 
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 Malay Peninsula. — Commercial Value of the Oil in Hevea Seeds. 
 
 RUBBER HAND STAMPS 
 
 And the Manipulation of Rubber. A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
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 PRACTICAL PAPER=MAKING. 
 
 A Manual for Paper-Makers and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. 
 With Tables, Calculations, ifce. By G. Clapperton, Paper-Maker. 
 With Illustrations of Fibres from Micro-Photographs. 12mo, cloth, 
 
 $2.00 
 THE ART OF PAPER=MAKING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, 
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 A TREATISE ON PAPER. 
 
 For Printers and Stationers. With an Outline of Paper Manufacture; 
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 By Richard Parkinson, late of the Manchester Technical School. 
 Demy 8vo, cloth $1.40 
 
44 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 THE ART OF SOAP=MAKINQ. 
 
 A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
 Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many new Processes, and a Chapter on 
 the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander Watt. 
 Sixth Edition, including an Appendix on Modern Candlemaking. 
 
 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
 "A thoroughly practical treatise. We congratulate the author on the 
 
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 THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. 
 
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 ART OF BOOT AND SHOEMAKINQ, 
 
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 with a Description of the most Approved Machinery employed. By 
 
 J. B. Leno. 12mo, cloth .80 
 
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 COTTON MANUFACTURE. 
 
 A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Carding, 
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 WATCH REPAIRING, CLEANING, AND ADJUSTING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook dealing with the Materials and Tools Used and 
 the Methods of Repairing, Cleaning, Altering, and Adjusting all kinds 
 of English and Foreign Watches, Repeaters, Chronographs, and Marine 
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 Chronometers and Deck Watches for the Admiralty. With over 200 
 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $2 .00 
 
 MODERN HOROLOGY, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 
 
 Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the 
 School of Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besancon 
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 Half -calf $18.00 
 
 THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. 
 
 Intended as a Workshop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking 
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 Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Fourth Edition 
 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 45 
 
 CLOCKS, WATCHES, & BELLS for PUBLIC PURPOSES. 
 
 A Rudimentary Treatise. By Edmund Beckett, Lord Grimthorpe, 
 LL.D., K.C., F.R.A.S. Eighth Edition, with new List of Great Bells 
 and an Appendix on Weathercocks. 12mo, cloth $1.80 
 
 HISTORY OF WATCHES & OTHER TIMEKEEPERS. 
 
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 ELECTRO=PLATING & ELECTRO=REFININQ of METALS. 
 
 Being a new edition of Alexander Watt's "Electro-Deposition." 
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 ELECTROPLATING. 
 
 A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, 
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 Fifth Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth $2.00 
 
 ELECTRO=METALLURGY, 
 
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 GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK, 
 
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 SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK, 
 
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 JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN WORKING IN GOLD. 
 
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 12mo $3.00 
 
 HALL=MARKING OF JEWELLERY. 
 
 Comprising an account of all the different Assay Towns of the United 
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 George E. Gee. 12mo, cloth $1.20 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works 
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 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY: 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the Various Kinds of 
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 BRASS FOUNDER'S MANUAL: 
 
 Instructions for Modelling, Pattern Making, Moulding, Turning, &c. 
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46 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE 
 SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Comprising a Selection of Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules 
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 SHEET METAL= WORKER'S GUIDE. 
 
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 GAS FITTING: 
 
 A Practical Handbook. By John Black. Revised Edition With 
 
 130 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $1.00 
 
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 — Plumber and Decorator. 
 
 TEA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES. 
 
 A Descriptive Treatise on the Mechanical Appliances required in the 
 Cultivation of the Tea Plant and the Preparation of Tea for the Market. 
 By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M. Inst. C.E. Medium 8vo, 468 pp. With 
 218 Illustrations $10.00 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Mechanical, Cultivation or Tillage of the Soil. — Plucking or 
 Gathering the Leaf. — Tea Factories. — The Dressing, Manufacture, 
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INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 47 
 
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4 8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
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CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
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AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, &c. 51 
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52 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
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AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, &>c. 53 
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54 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
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MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, &c 55 
 
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56 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6» SON'S CATALOGUE. 
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 SPANISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 In a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By Alfred Elwes. 
 12mo, cloth .60 
 
 SPANISH=ENGLISH AND ENGLISH-SPANISH DIC= 
 TI0NARY. 
 
 Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineer- 
 ing, &c, with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By 
 Alfred Elwes. 12mo, cloth $1.60 
 
 PORTUGUESE GRAMMAR. 
 
 In a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By Alfred 
 Elwes. 12mo, cloth .60 
 
 PORTUGUESE=ENGLISH AND ENGLISH=PORTU= 
 GUESE DICTIONARY. 
 
 Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineer- 
 ing, &c, with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By 
 Alfred Elwes. Fourth Edition, revised. 12mo, cloth $2.00 
 
 ANIMAL PHYSICS, 
 
 Handbook of. By Dionysitjs Lardner, D.C.L. With 520 Illustra- 
 tions. In One Vol. (732 pages). 12mo, cloth $3.00 
 
 MUSIC, 
 
 A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise on. By C. C. Spencer. 12mo, 
 
 $1.00 
 PIANOFORTE, 
 
 The Art of Playing the. With Exercises and Lessons. By C. C. 
 Spencer. 12mo, cloth .60 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 Acetylene Gas, Gibbs, 42 
 
 Acoustics, Smith, 35 
 
 Aerial Navigation, Walker, 11 
 
 Tramways, Tayler, 2 
 
 Agricultural Geology, McCon- 
 nell, 50 
 
 Note Book, McConnell, 52 
 
 Surveying, Scott, 51 
 
 Air Machinery, Weisbach, 9, 22 
 Algebra, Haddon, 54 
 Alkali Trade, Lomas, 42 
 Alphabets, Delamotte, 39 
 Alternating Current Machines, 
 
 Sheldon and Mason, 29 
 Animal Physics, Lardner, 56 
 
 Physiology, Lardner, 41 
 
 Arches, Piers, &c, Bland, 32 
 Architect's Guide, Rogers, 34 
 Architectural Modelling, Rich- 
 ardson, 34 
 Architecture, Ancient, 34 
 
 Civil, Chambers, 34 
 
 Design, Garbelt, 34 
 
 Grecian, Aberdeen, 35 
 
 Mechanics of, Tarn, 34 
 
 Modern, 34 
 
 of Vitruvius, Gwilt, 35 
 
 Orders, Leeds, 34 
 
 Orders and Styles, 34 
 
 Styles, Bury, 34 
 
 Arithmetic, Haddon, 54 
 
 Young, 54 
 
 Equational, Hipsley, 54 
 
 Armature, Windings, Arnold, 29 
 Artists' Pigments, Standage, 43 
 Asbestos, Jones, 27 
 Astronomical Glossary, Gore, 40 
 Astronomy, Lardner, 41 
 Main and Lynn, 40 
 
 Barn Implements, Scott, 51 
 
 Beams, Flexure of, Guy, 18 
 
 Bees, Samson, 53 
 
 Blasting, Burgoyne, 19 
 
 Blowpipe, ifo-rs, 42 
 
 Boiler and Factory Chimneys, 
 
 Wilson, 4 
 Boilers, Armstrong, 5 
 
 Bauer, 20 
 
 Courtney, 3 
 
 Foley, 3 
 
 Homer, 4 
 
 Hutton, 3 
 
 Wilson, 4 
 
 Book-keeping, Haddon, 54 
 Boot and Shoe Making, Lewo, 44 
 Brass Founding, Graham, 45 
 Bread and Biscuit Baker, Wells, 
 
 Breakfast Dishes, Allen, 47 
 Brewing and Malting, Wright, 
 
 Brick and Tile Book, 33 
 
 Making, Dobson, 32 
 
 Brick-cutting, Hammond, 32 
 Bricklaying, Hammond, 32 
 
 57 
 
58 
 
 INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 Brickwork, Walker, 32 
 Bridges, Iron, Humber, 16 
 
 Iron, Pendred, 16 
 
 ■ Oblique, Buck, 16 
 
 Tubular, Dempsey, 17 
 
 Bridges and Viaducts, Campin, 
 
 British Mining, Hunt, 25 
 Builders' Measuring, Beaton, 33 
 
 Quantities, Beaton, 33 
 
 Building, a Book on, Beckett, 31 
 
 Art of, Dobson, 31 
 
 Construction, Allen, 31 
 
 Cottage, Allen, 31 
 
 Dwelling Houses, Brooks, 
 
 32 
 
 Estates, Maitland, 31 
 
 ■ ■ Farm, Scott, 32 
 
 Science of, Tarn, 31 
 
 Cabinet-Making, Bitmead, 37 
 
 Working, Hasluck, 48 
 
 Calculator, O 'Gorman, 56 
 Calculus, Differential, Woolhouse, 
 
 55 
 
 Integral, Cox, 55 
 
 Carpenter's Guide, Nicholson, 
 
 37 
 Carpentry and Joinery, Tredgold 
 
 and Tarn, 37 
 
 Tredgold, 37 
 
 Cattle, Sheep, &c, Burn, 50 
 Cements, &c, Standage, 47 
 Chain Cables, Traill, 20 
 Chemistry of Mining, Byrom, 26 
 Chimneys, Wilson, 4 
 Circular Work, Collings, 37 
 Civil Engineering, Law, 18 
 Clock Jobbing, Hasluck, 48 
 Clocks, Watches, and Bells, 
 
 Beckett, 45 
 Coach-Building, Burgess, 47 
 Coal & Iron Industries, Meade, 
 26 
 
 Mining, Cockin, 26 
 
 Smyth, 26 
 
 Colliery Manager, Pamely, 25 
 
 ■ Working, Bulman and Red- 
 
 mayne, 26 
 
 Colouring, jFVe/d &° Davidson, 
 
 39 
 Colours & Dye Wares, Slater, 
 
 42 
 Commerce, Gambaro, 49 
 Commercial Correspondence, 
 
 Baker, 49 
 Compound Interest, Thoman, 
 
 54 
 Concrete, Sutcliffe, 33 
 Confectioner, Flour, Wells, 47 
 Confectionery, Wells, 46 
 Constructional Ironwork, 
 
 Campin, 17 
 Copper, Metallurgy of, Eissler, 
 
 24 
 Cottage Building, Allen, 31 
 
 Gardening, Hobday, 52 
 
 Cotton Manufacture, Lister, 
 
 44 
 Cranes, Glynn, 11 
 Creation, Records of, Z.e Vaux, 
 
 40 
 Curves, Tables of, Beazeley, 15 
 Cyanide Process, Eissler, 23 
 
 Dairying, British, Sheldon, 50 
 Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry, -Bwr?7, 
 
 Dangerous Goods, Philhps, 42 
 
 Decoration, Facey, 38 
 
 House-Painting, Graining, 
 
 &c, 38 
 Imitation of Woods and 
 
 Marbles, 38 
 
 ■ Marble, Blagrove, 39 
 
 Decorator's Assistant, 39 
 
 Deep Level Mines of the Rand, 
 
 Denny, 22 
 Diamond Drilling, Denny, 23 
 Dictionary of Architecture, 
 
 Weale and Hunt, 56 
 
 Painters, Daryl, 56 
 
 Direct Current Machines, Sheldon 
 
 and Mason, 29 
 Drainage of Lands, Clark, 14 
 
 (Mine), Mich ell, 25 
 
 Draining & Embanking, Scott, 
 5i 
 
INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 59 
 
 Drawing Instruments, Heather, 
 
 55 
 
 Rules on, Pyne, 34 
 
 Dwelling Houses, Brooks, 32 
 Dynamic Electricity, Atkinson, 
 
 3° 
 
 Dynamo Construction, Urquhart, 
 
 29 
 
 How to Make, Crofts, 29 
 
 Motor and Switchboard 
 
 Circuits, Bowker, 29 
 
 Earthwork, Graham, 16 
 Tables, Broadbent 6° Cam- 
 pin, 16 
 
 Tables, Buck, 16 
 
 Earthy Minerals, Davies, 24 
 Electrical Calculations, Atkinson, 
 
 3° 
 
 Conductors, Perrine, 29 
 
 Engineering, Alexander, 28 
 
 Sewell, 28 
 
 Pocket Book, Kempe, 30 
 
 Transmission, Abbott, 28 
 
 Electricity Applied to Mining, 
 Lupton, Parr, &° Per kin, 25, 28 
 
 Lar drier and Foster, 41 
 
 Text-Book, Noad, 30 
 
 Electric Light Fitting, Urquhart, 
 
 3° 
 
 Light, Knight, 30 
 
 Light, Urquhart, 30 
 
 Lighting, Swinton, 30 
 
 Ship-Lighting, Urquhart, 30 
 
 Telegraph, Lardner, 41 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy, Watt, 45 
 
 Plating, Urquhart, 45 
 
 Plating, Watt and Philip, 
 
 45 
 
 Typing, Urquhart, 45 
 
 Embroiderer's Design, Delamotte, 
 
 _ . 39 
 
 Engine-Driving Life, Reynolds, 
 
 6 
 
 Engineering Chemistry, Phillips, 
 
 42 
 
 Drawing, Maxton, 8 
 
 Estimates, 9 
 
 Engineering Tools, Homer, 2 
 
 Engineer's Assistant, Tcmpleton, 
 
 8 
 
 Companion, Edwards, S 
 
 Field Book, Haskoll, 15 
 
 Handbook, Hutton, 5 
 
 Pocket-Book, Clark, 7 
 
 Reference Book, Foley, 3 
 
 Turning, Homer, 2 
 
 Year Book, Kempe, 7 
 
 Engineman's Companion, Reyn- 
 olds, 7 
 Euclid, Law, 54 
 Excavating, Prelini, 16 
 Explosives, Eissler, 42 
 Nitro, San ford, 42 
 
 Factory Accounts, Garcke 6° 
 
 .Fe//s, 49 
 Farm Buildings, 5co^, 32 
 
 Engineering, 5ctW, 5 1 
 
 Management, Burn, 5 1 
 
 Roads, &c, .ScoW, 51 
 
 Farmer's Tables, Francis, 52 
 Farming Economy, Bum, 52 
 
 Outlines, Bum, 51 
 
 Small, Burn, 5 1 
 
 Fertilisers, &c, Dyer, 50 
 Field Fortification, Knollys, 56 
 
 Implements, Sco#, 5 1 
 
 Fields of Gt. Britain, Clements, 
 
 Fires & Fire Engines, Young, 1 1 
 Flour, Kick and Powles, 46 
 Forestry, Curtis, 36 
 Foundations, &c, Dobson, 19 
 French Polishing, Bitmcad, 47 
 Fruit Trees, Z>« Breuil, 53 
 Fuel, Williams arid Clark, 10 
 Fuels, Phillips, 10 
 
 Garden, Forcing, H'ow/, 52 
 
 Receipts, Quia, 52 
 
 Gardening, Good, Wood, 52 
 
 Ladies', Wood, 53 
 
 Multum-in-Parvo, Wood, 
 
 5 2 
 Gas and Oil Engines, Z?<;/r, 7 
 Engines, Goodevc, 7 
 
6o 
 
 INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 Gas Engineer's Pocket Book, 
 
 O'Connor, 42 
 
 Fitting, Black, 47 
 
 Producer Plants, Mathot, 
 
 6 
 
 ■ Works, Hughes, 18 
 
 Geology, Historical, Tate, 27 
 
 Physical, Tate, 27 
 
 Tate, 27 
 
 Geometry, Tarn, 17 
 
 Analytical, Hann, 55 
 
 Descriptive, Heather, 54 
 
 Technical, Sprague, 1 7 
 
 of Compasses, Byrne, 17 
 
 Plane, Heather, 54 
 
 Girders (Iron), .Bmc&, 17 
 
 Glass Staining, Gessert and 
 
 Fromberg, 40 
 Gold Assaying, Phillips, 23 
 
 ■ and Silver, Merritt, 23 
 
 Metallurgy of, Eissler, 23 
 
 ■ Prospecting, Rankin, 23 
 
 Goldsmith's Handbook, Gee, 45 
 
 and Silversmith, Gee, 46 
 
 Grafting and Budding, Ballet, 
 
 53 
 Granites, Harris, 27 
 Grazier, Complete, Fream, 50 
 
 Hall Marking Jewellery, Gee, 
 
 45 
 Handrailing, Collin gs, 37 
 
 Goldthorp, 37 
 
 Hay & Straw Measurer, Steele, 
 
 5 2 
 Health Officer, Willoughby, 35 
 Heat (Expansion by), Keily, 18 
 Heat, Lardner and Loewy, 41 
 Heating by Hot Water, Jones, 
 
 Hints to Architects, Wightwick 
 
 andGuillaume, 34 
 Hoisting Machinery, Homer, 2 
 Hoisting & Conveying Ma- 
 chinery, Zimmer, 2 
 Horology, Saunter, 44 
 Horticulture, N ewsham, 52 
 House Decoration, Facey, 38 
 Painting, Davidson, 39 
 
 Hydraulic Manual, Jackson, 13 
 
 Engineering, Marks, 13 
 
 Tables, Neville, 13 
 
 Hydrostatics, Lardner, 41 
 
 Illumination, Delamotte, 39 
 India Rubber, Johnson, 43, 53 
 Inflammable Gas, Clowes, 26 
 Iron and Steel, Hoare, 8 
 Iron, Metallurgy of, Bauerman, 
 
 25 
 
 Ores, Kendall, 25 
 
 Plate Weight Tables, 
 
 Burlinson and Simpson, 49 
 Irrigation, Maw son, 11 
 
 and Water Supply, Scott, 
 
 5 1 
 
 Jeweller's Assistant, Gee, 45 
 Joints (Builders'), Christy, 37 
 
 Key to Haddon's Algebra, 54 
 
 ■ to Young's Arithmetic, 54 
 
 Kitchen Gardening, Glenny, 52 
 
 Land, Ready Reckoner, Arman, 
 
 5 2 
 
 (Reclamation of), Beaze- 
 
 ley, 12 
 Landed Estates, Burn, 51 
 Lathe Work, Hasluck, 9 
 Laundry, Management, 47 
 Lead (Argentiferous), Eissler, 
 24 
 Leather Manufacture, Watt, 44 
 Letter Painting, Badenoch, 39 
 Levelling, Simnts, 15 
 Light, Tarn, 35 
 Light Railways, Calthrop, 11 
 Lightning Conductors, Hedges, 
 
 3 2 
 Limes, Cements, Burnett, 33 
 Locks, Tomlinson, 47 
 Locomotive Engine, Stretton, 6 
 
 Engine, Weatherburn, 6 
 
 Engine Driving, Reynolds, 6 
 
 Engineer, Reynolds, 6 
 
 Engines, Dempsey, 6 
 
INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 61 
 
 Logarithms, Law, $3 
 
 Machine Shop Tools, 2 
 Machinery, Details, Campin, 9 
 Marble Decoration, Blagrove, 
 
 39 
 
 Marine Engineering, Brewer, 
 
 20 
 
 Engineer, Wannan, 20 
 
 *— — Engineer's Pocket Book, 
 
 Wannan, 20 
 Marine Engines & Boilers, 
 Bauer, Donkin and Robertson, 
 
 19 
 
 Engines, Murray, 20 
 
 Market Gardening, Shaw, 52 
 Masonry, Purchase, 32 
 and Stone-Cutting, Dob- 
 son, 32 
 
 Dams, Courtney, 13 
 
 Masting and Rigging, Kipping, 
 21 
 Materials, Campin, 18 
 
 (Strength of), Barlow, 18 
 
 Handling of, Zimmer, 1 
 
 Mathematical Insts., Heather, 
 
 55 
 
 Heather &* Walmisley, 55 
 
 Tables, Law and Young, 
 
 22, 53 
 Mathematics, Campin, 53 
 Measures, Weights, &c, Wool- 
 house, 56 
 Measuring Builders' Work, 
 Dobson and Tarn, 33 
 
 Timber, &c, Horton, 33 
 
 Meat Production, Ewart, 50 
 Mechanical Dentistry, Hunter, 
 
 45 
 ■ Engineering, Campin, 9 
 
 Handling of Material, 
 
 Zimmer, 1 
 
 Terms, Lockwood, 8 
 
 Mechanics, Hughes, 9 
 
 Lardner and Loewy, 40 
 
 Tomlinson, 10 
 
 of Air Machinery, Weis- 
 
 bach, 9, 22 
 (Tables for), Smith, 8 
 
 Mechanics' Companion, Tem- 
 pleton and Hutton, 8 
 
 Workshop, Hasluck, 4S 
 
 Mechanism, Baker, 10 
 Mensuration & Gauging, Mant, 
 
 41 
 and Measuring, Baker, 
 
 r 7 
 
 Metal Turning, Hasluck, 48 
 
 Metalliferous Minerals, Davies, 
 24 
 
 Mining Machinery, Davies, 
 
 22 
 Metric Tables, Dowling, 49 
 Metrology, Jackson, 49 
 Microscope, Van Heurck, 40 
 Milk, Cheese, &c, Oliver, 50 
 Milling Machines, Horner, 2 
 Mine Drainage, Michell, 25 
 Mines of the Rand, Denny, 22 
 Mineral Surveyor, Lintern, 27 
 Mineralogy, Ramsay, 27 
 Miners' Handbook, Milne, 25 
 
 Pocket Book, Power, 24 
 
 Mining, British, Hunt, 24 
 
 Calculations, O y Donahue, 
 
 26 
 
 Chemistry of, Byrom, 26 
 
 Students, Notes for, Meri- 
 
 vale, 26 
 
 Tools, Morgans, 27 
 
 and Quarrying, Collins, 
 
 27 
 Model Engineer, Hasluck, 48 
 Mollusca, Woodward, 40 
 Motor Cars, Tayler, n, 47 
 
 Vehicles, Tayler, 1 1 
 
 Museum of Science and Art, 
 
 Lardner, 41 
 Music, Spencer, 56 
 
 Natural Philosophy, Tomlinson, 
 
 56 
 for Schools, Lardner, 
 
 41 
 Naval Architect's Pocket Book, 
 Mackrow, 20 
 
 Architecture, Peake, 21 
 
 Navigation, Young, 22 
 
62 
 
 INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 Navigation, Greenwood and 
 
 Rosser, 21 
 Practical, 21 
 
 Oil Fields of Russia, Thompson, 
 22, 41 
 Oils, Analysis of, Wright, 41 
 Optical Instruments, Heather, 
 
 55 
 Optics, Lardner &^ Harding, 41 
 Organ Building, Dickson, 47 
 
 Packing Case Tables, Richard- 
 son, 38 
 Painting, Qullick & Timbs, 40 
 Paper, Parkinson, 43 
 
 Making, Clapperton, 43 
 
 Watt, 43 
 
 Pastrycook's Guide, Wells, 46 
 Patents, Hardingham, 56 
 Pattern Making, Hasluck, 48 
 
 Horner, 8 
 
 Perspective, Ferguson, 33 
 
 Pyne, 34 
 
 Pianoforte, Spencer, 56 
 
 Pioneer Engineering, Dobson, 
 
 15 
 Plastering, Kemp, 33 
 Plating & Boilermaking, iifor- 
 
 «er, 4 
 Plumbing, Buchan, 33 
 Pneumatics, Tomlinson, 19 
 Pocketbook, Agriculturist's, 
 
 Francis, 55 
 
 McConnell, 52 
 
 Builder's, Beaton, 33 
 
 Electrical, Kempe, 30 
 
 Engineer's, Clark, 7 
 
 Edwards, 8 
 
 Fletcher, 8 
 
 ■ Hasluck, 9 
 
 Kempe, 7 
 
 Sra#fc, 8 
 
 Templeton, 8 
 
 Engineman's, Reynolds, 6 
 
 Gas Engineer's, O'Connor, 
 
 43 
 — Health Officer's, Willoughby, 
 
 35 
 
 Pocketbook, Marine Engineer's, 
 
 Mackrow, 20 
 
 Wannan, 20 
 
 of Mensuration and 
 
 Measuring, Mant, 41 
 
 Miner's, Milne, 25 
 
 Power, 24 
 
 Mining Prospector's, 
 
 Anderson, 24 
 
 Merrilt, 24 , 
 
 Rankin, 23 
 
 of Refrigeration, Tayler s 
 
 10 
 Portable Engine, Wansbrough, 
 
 5 
 Portland Cement, Faija and 
 
 Butler, 33 
 Portuguese Dictionary, Elwes, 
 56 
 
 Grammar, Elwes, 56 
 
 Producer-Gas Plants, Mathot, 6 
 Prospector's Handbook, Ander- 
 son, 24 
 Pumps and Pumping, .Ba/e, 10 
 
 Quantities (Builders'), Beaton, 33 
 
 Railway Brakes, Reynolds, 6 
 
 Working, Stretton, 19 
 
 Reclamation of Land, Beazeley, 
 
 12 
 Refrigerating Machinery, Tay- 
 
 ler, 11 
 Refrigeration, Tayler, 10' 
 
 (Pocket Book), Tayler, 11 
 
 River Bars, Mann, 14 
 Roads and Streets, Law, 16 
 Roof Carpentry, Collings, 37 
 Roofs, Construction of, Tarn, 
 
 18 
 Rothamsted Experiments, 
 Tipper, 50 
 
 Sailmaking, Kipping, 21 
 
 Sadler, 21 
 
 Sanitary Work, Slagg, 36 
 Savouries and Sweets, Allen, 
 47 
 
INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 ^3 
 
 Saw Mills, Bale, 36 
 Screw Threads, Hasluck, 9 
 Sea Terms, Pirrie, 2 1 
 Sewage, Irrigation, Bum, 52 
 
 Purification, Barwise, 36 
 
 Sewing Machinery, Urquhart, 
 
 47 
 Sheep (The), Spooner, 50 
 Sheet-Metal Work, Crane, 46 
 
 Work, Warn fir 3 Horner, 
 
 46 
 Shoring, Blagrove, 32 
 Ship Building, Sommerjeldt, 21 
 
 German, Felskowski, 21 
 
 Ships and Boats, Bland, 21 
 Silver, Metallurgy of, Eissler, 24 
 Silversmith's Handbook, Gee, 45 
 Slate Quarrying, Davies, 27 
 Slide Rule, Hoare, 53 
 Smithy and Forge, Crane, 9 
 Soap Making, #aW, 44 
 Soils, Burn, 50 
 Spanish Dictionary, Elwes, 56 
 
 Grammar, Elwes, 56 
 
 Specifications, Bartholomew, 31 
 
 in Detail, Macey, 31 
 
 Star Groups, Gore, 40 
 Statics, Graham, 17 
 
 and Dynamics, Baker, 55 
 
 Stationary Engine Driving, 
 Reynolds, 6 
 
 — Steam Engines, Hurst, 6 
 
 Steam and Machinery Manage- 
 ment, Bale, 7 
 
 and Steam Engine, Clark, 
 
 10 
 Steam Boiler Construction, Hut- 
 ton, 3 
 
 Boilers, Armstrong, 5 
 
 Wilson, 4 
 
 Engine, Baker, 6 
 
 ■ Goodeve, 5 
 
 Haeder and Powles, 5 
 
 Lardner, 6 
 
 Safe Use of, 7 
 
 Stone Working Machinery, 
 
 Bale, 11 
 Strains in Girders, H umber, 17 
 — — on Ironwork, Shields, ij 
 
 Submarine Telegraphs, Bright, 
 
 3° 
 Superficial Measure mnt, 
 
 Hawkings, 38 
 Survey Practice, Jackson, 14 
 Surveying, Baker and Dixon, 14 
 
 Frame and Warren, 15 
 
 Instruments, Heather, 55 
 
 Land & Marine, Haskoll,!^ 
 
 Subterraneous, Fenwick, 27 
 
 Us ill, 14 
 
 Whitelaw, 14 
 
 with Tacheometer, Ken- 
 nedy, 14 
 
 Tea Machinery, Tayler, 46 
 Technical Guide, Beaton, 3$ 
 
 Terms, Fletcher, 8 
 
 Timber Importer, Grandy, 37 
 
 Merchant, Dowsing, 37 
 
 Richardson, 38 
 
 Toothed Gearing, Horner, 9 
 Tramways, Clark, 16 
 Transmission by Electricity, 
 
 Atkinson, 29 
 Traverse Tables, Lintern, 27 
 Tree Planter, IFoo£?, 53 
 
 Pruner, Wood, 53 
 
 Trigonometry, Plane, Hann, 55 
 
 Spherical, Hann, 55 
 
 Trusses, Griffiths, 18 
 Tunnelling, Prelini and Hill, 15 
 
 ■ Simms and Clark, 1 5 
 
 Tunnel Shafts, B«cJfe, 16 
 Turning, Engineers', Horner, 2 
 
 Lathe, Hasluck, 9 
 
 Metal, Hasluck, 48 
 
 ■ Wood, Hasluck, 48 
 
 Ventilation of Buildings, Buchan, 
 36 
 \illa Architecture, Wickes, 34 
 Visible Universe, Gore, 40 
 Vitruvius' Architecture, Gwilt, 
 
 35 
 Watch Jobbing, Hasluck, 48 
 
 Maker, Saunter, 44 
 
 Repairing, Garrard, 44 
 
 Watches, History of, Kendal, 45 
 
64 
 
 INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 Water Purification, Ridcal, 35 
 
 Engineering, Slagg, 13, 35 
 
 Power of, Glynn, 13 
 
 Supply, Humber, 12, 35 
 
 Greenwell and Curry, 
 
 12, 35 
 Supply of Towns, Burton, 
 
 I2 > 35 
 Waterworks, Hughes, 13 
 Well-Sinking, Swindell, 13 
 
 Wireless Telegraphy, Scwall, 
 Wood Carving for Amateurs, 
 
 ■ Engraving, Brown, 47 
 
 Turning, Hasluck, 48 
 
 Woods and Marbles, Imitat. 
 
 of, Van der Burg, 38 
 Woodworking, Hasluck, 48 
 
 Machinery, Bale, 36 
 
 Workshop Practice, Winton, 9 
 Works' Manager, Hutton, 3