VZi 
 
 mg 4 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 
 
 
 * ^3 V 
 
 it £ > J .N ^ 
 
^ : ^zSbJ*** 3R W # ^tt 
 
AMERICAN 
 GRAPE TRAINING 
 
 An account of the leading 
 forms now in use of Train- 
 ing the American Grapes. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 <By Lr H^- 'BAILEY, 
 
 Ma- 
 
 New York: & ^J * * 
 
 The Rural Publishing Compann 
 1893- 
 
~Bj> the same Author, 
 
 Annals Of Horticulture in North America 
 for the year 1889. A witness of passing events 
 and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52 illus- 
 trations. 
 
 Annals for 1890. 312 pages, 82 illustrations. 
 
 Annals for 1891. 416 pages, 77 illustrations. 
 
 Annals for 1892. 
 
 ***A new volume is issued each year, each 
 complete in itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents. 
 
 The Horticulturist's Rule-Book. A com- 
 pendium of useful information for fruit-growers, 
 truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second 
 edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221 
 pages. Cloth, $1 ; paper, 50 cents. 
 
 The Nursery Book. A complete guide to 
 the multiplication and pollination of plants 
 304pa^es, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1; paper, 50c. 
 
 Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing. With a 
 brief bibliography of the subject. 44 pages. 
 Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.) 
 
 Field Notes on Apple Culture. 90 pages, 
 19 illustrations. Cloth, 75 cents. 
 
 Talks Afield : About plants and the science 
 of plants. 173 pages, 100 illustrations. Cloth, $1. 
 
 ^t 
 
 ^ 
 
 COPYRIGHTED 1893, 
 BY L H. BAILEY. 
 
 ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY 
 J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Pages 
 Introduction 9-11 
 
 Pruning 11-24 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Preliminary Preparations for Training — The Trellis — 
 
 Tying 25-33 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System. 
 
 High Renewal. Fan Training) 34~55 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin. 
 Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two- 
 Cane Kniffin or Umbrella System. The Low or 
 One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Over- 
 head, or Arbor Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System. 
 Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System) 56-82 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post 
 
 Training. Arbors. Remodeling Old Vines) . . . 83-92 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 . Grape Shoot 12 
 
 2. The Bearing Wood 13 
 
 3. Diagram 15 
 
 4. Spur 18 
 
 5. Renewal Pruning 19 
 
 6. A Newly Set Vineyard 21 
 
 7. Horizontal Arm Spur Training 35 
 
 8. Horizontal Arm (Diagram) 36 
 
 9. Short Arm Spur Training 38 
 
 10. The Second Season of Upright Training 40 
 
 11. Making the T-Head 42 
 
 12. The Third Season of High Renewal 43 
 
 13. High Renewal, before Pruning 44 
 
 14. High Renewal, Pruned 45 
 
 15. High Renewal, Pruned and Tied 46 
 
 16. High Renewal with Four Canes 47 
 
 1 7. High Renewal Complete 48 
 
 18. A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training 51 
 
 19. Fan Training, after Pruning 55 
 
 20. William Kniffin 57 
 
 21. The True Kniffin Training 59 
 
 22. No. 21 , when Pruned 60 
 
 23. A Poor Type of Kniffin 64 
 
 24. The Y-Trunk Kniffin 65 
 
 25. Umbrella Training 67 
 
 26. A Poor Umbrella System 68 
 
 27. Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram) 70 
 
 28. Overhead Kniffin 71 
 
 29. Overhead Kniffin 72 
 
 30. Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning 73 
 
 31. Cross-Wire Training 75 
 
 32. Cross-Wire Training, Outside View 76 
 
 33. Munson Training. End View 78 
 
 34. Munson Training. Side View 79 
 
 35- Horizontal Training 83 
 
 36. Low Post Training 86 
 
 37. A Yearling Graft 91 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THIS LITTLE book has grown out of an attempt to 
 teach the principles and methods of grape training 
 to college students. I have found such teaching 
 to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is im- 
 possible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. 
 The student must apprehend the principles slowly and by 
 his own effort. He must have time to thoroughly as- 
 similate them before he attempts to apply them. I there- 
 fore cast about for books which I could put before my 
 class, but I at once found that there are very few succinct 
 accounts of the subjects of grape pruning and training, 
 and that none of our books portray the methods which 
 are most largely practised in the large grape regions of 
 the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my 
 own notes into shape for print, and this I have now done. 
 And inasmuch as all grape-growers are students, I hope 
 that the simple account will find a use beyond the class- 
 room. 
 
 This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at 
 first astonished me, but is not strange after all. It must 
 be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is 
 of very recent origin. There are many men who can 
 remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom 
 occurs to the younger generation, which is familiar with 
 
6 Preface . 
 
 the great vineyards in many states, that the Concord is 
 yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape growing in 
 eastern America is yet in an experimental stage. Pro- 
 gress has been so rapid in recent years that the new 
 methods outstrip the books. The old horizontal arm 
 spur system, which is still the chief method in the books, 
 has evolved itself into a high renewal training, which is 
 widely used but which has not found its way into the 
 manuals. The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period 
 of incubation, and is now taking an assured place in vine- 
 yard management. So two great types, opposed in method, 
 are now contending for supremacy, and they will probably 
 form the basis of all future developments. This evolution 
 of American grape training is one of the most unique and 
 signal developments of our modern horticulture, and its 
 very recent departure from the early doubts and trials is 
 a fresh illustration of the youth and virility of all hor- 
 ticultural pursuits in North America. 
 
 This development of our grape training should form the 
 subject of a historical inquiry. I have not attempted 
 such in this little hand-book. I have omitted all reference 
 to the many early methods, which were in most cases 
 transportations or modifications of European practices, 
 for their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion 
 here would only confuse the reader. I have attempted 
 nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in 
 use ; in fact, I am aware that I have not accomplished 
 even this much, for there are various methods which I 
 have not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly 
 of local use or adaptation, and they are usually only modi- 
 fications of the main types here explained. It is impossible 
 to describe all the variations in grape training in a book 
 of pocket size ; neither is it necessary. Nearly every 
 
Preface. 7 
 
 grower who has given grape raising careful attention has 
 introduced into his own vineyard some modifications 
 which he thinks are of special value to him. There are 
 various curious and instructive old books to which the 
 reader can go if he desires to know the history and evo- 
 lution of grape training in America. He will find that we 
 have now passed through the long and costly experiment 
 with European systems. And we have also outgrown the 
 gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close with the 
 expectation of obtaining superior and definite results. 
 
 I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in 
 the preparation of this book. All the manuscript has been 
 read by three persons — by George C. Snow, Penn Yan, 
 N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L. 
 C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment 
 Station. Mr. Snow is a grower in the lake region of 
 western New York, and employs the High Renewal system; 
 Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and 
 practices the Knifrm system ; while Mr. Corbett has been 
 a student of ail the systems and has practiced two or 
 three of them in commercial plantations. These persons 
 have made many suggestions of which I have been glad 
 to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of 
 the book is to be attributed. 
 
 L. H. BAILEY, 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y., Feb. i, i8gj. 
 
JOHN ADLUM, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been 
 the first person to systematically undertake the cultivation 
 and amelioration of the native grapes. His method of train- 
 ing, as described in 1823, is as follows : One shoot is allowed to 
 grow the first year, and this is cut back to two buds the first fall. 
 The second year two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied 
 to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant, about five or 
 six feet high ;" in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four 
 buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are spread apart 
 " so as to make an angle of about forty-five degress with the stem," 
 and are tied to stakes ; this season about two shoots are allowed 
 to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall the 
 outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones 
 to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, 
 and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer 
 canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches 
 upon either side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the 
 stakes, as they grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs 
 are tied to a third stake set near the root of the vine. The outside 
 branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year. 
 This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it is easy to see 
 how the Horizontal Arm and High Renewal systems may have 
 sprung from it. 
 
AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION PRUNING. 
 
 Pruning and training the grape are perplexed 
 questions, even to those who have spent a life- 
 time in grape growing. The perplexity arises from 
 several diverse sources, as the early effort to trans- 
 plant European methods, the fact that many sys- 
 tems present almost equally good results for par- 
 ticular purposes and varieties, and the failure to 
 comprehend the fundamental principles of the 
 operations. 
 
 It is sufficient condemnation of European meth- 
 ods when applied in eastern America, to say that 
 the American grapes are distinct species from the 
 European grapes, and that they are consequently 
 different in habit. This fact does not appear to have 
 been apprehended clearly by the early American 
 grape-growers, even after the native varieties had 
 begun to gain prominence. American viticulture, 
 aside from that upon the Pacific slope which is 
 concerned with the European grape, is an industry 
 of very recent development. It was little more 
 
 (9) 
 
io American Grape Training, 
 
 <5 ' 
 
 than a century ago that the first American variety 
 gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the first 
 definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir 
 on the Cultivation of the Vine in America, " to re- 
 cord the merits of native grapes for purposes of 
 cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given 
 to a discussion of European varieties and prac- 
 tices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit Culturist" men- 
 tioned only six "American hardy varieties," and 
 all of these, save the Catawba, are practically not 
 in cultivation at the present time. The Concord 
 appeared in 1853. American grape training is, 
 therefore, a very recent development, and we are 
 only now outgrowing the influence of the practices 
 early imported from Europe. The first decided 
 epoch in the evolution of our grape training was 
 the appearance of Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in 
 1864; for while the system which he depicted and 
 which yet often bears his name, was but a modifi- 
 cation of some European methods and had been 
 outlined by earlier American writers, it was at that 
 time placed clearly and cogently before the public 
 and became an accepted practice. The funda- 
 mental principles of pruning are alike for both 
 European and American grapes, but the details of 
 pruning and training must be greatly modified for 
 different species. We must understand at the out- 
 set that American species of grapes demand an 
 American system of treatment. 
 
 The great diversity of opinion which exists 
 
Pruning. 1 1 
 
 amongst the best grape growers concerning the ad- 
 vantages of different systems of training is proof 
 that many systems have merit, and that no one 
 system is better than others for all purposes. The 
 grower must recognize the fact that the most im- 
 portant factor in determining the merits of any 
 system of training is the habit of the vine — as its 
 vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and 
 abundance of leaves, and season and character of 
 fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in 
 habit in some particular, and it therefore requires 
 different treatment in some important detail. Varie- 
 ties may thrive equally well upon the same general 
 system of training, but require minor modifications; 
 so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid 
 down, either for any system or any variety. One sys- 
 tem differs from another in some one main principle 
 or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and 
 blend. If two men practice the Kniffin system, 
 therefore, this fact does not indicate that they 
 prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is im- 
 possible to construct rules. for grape training; it is, 
 therefore, important that we understand thoroughly 
 the philosophy of pruning and training, both in 
 general and in the different systems which are now 
 most popular. These points we shall now con- 
 sider. 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 Pruning and training are terms which are often 
 confounded when speaking of the grape, but they 
 
12 
 
 A m erica n Grape Tra i?i ing. 
 
 represent distinct operations. Pruning refers to 
 such removal of branches as shall insure better and 
 larger fruit upon the remaining portions. Train- 
 ing refers to the disposition of the different parts 
 of the vine. It is true that different methods of 
 training demand different styles of pruning, but the 
 modification in pruning is only such as shall adapt 
 it to the external shape and size of the vine, and 
 does not in any way affect the principle upon which 
 it rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, 
 
 there is but one 
 method; training 
 is largely a conven- 
 ience, and there 
 are as many meth- 
 ods as there 
 are fan- 
 cies among 
 grape grow- 
 ers. 
 
 All intelli- 
 
 gent 
 iner 
 
 prun- 
 of the 
 
 growth , 
 
 rape rests upon the fact 
 that the fruit is borne in a 
 few clusters near the base of 
 the growing shoots of the 
 ) season, and which spring 
 from wood of last year' s 
 It may be said here that a growing, leafy 
 
 I. GKAPE SHOOT. 
 
Pruning. 
 
 13 
 
 branch of the grape vine is called a. shoot ; a ripened 
 shoot is called a cane ; a branch or trunk two or 
 more years old is called an arm. Fig. 1 is a 
 shoot as it appears in the northern states in June. 
 The whole shoot has grown within a month, from 
 a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and 
 these are to bear the grapes. Flowering is now 
 
 2. THE BEARING WOOD. 
 
 over, but the shoot will continue to grow, perhaps 
 to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking 
 time, therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower 
 end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in fig. 2. 
 Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a 
 
14 American Ga?'pe Training. 
 
 new cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves. 
 At the close of the season, this long ripened shoot 
 or cane has produced a bud every foot or less, from 
 which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next 
 year. But if all these buds were allowed to re- 
 main, the vine would be overtaxed with fruit the 
 coming year and the crop would be a failure. The 
 cane is, therefore, cut off until it bears only as many 
 buds as experience has taught us the vine should 
 carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten 
 buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be re- 
 moved, or "rubbed off," next spring if the young 
 growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant is 
 weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two 
 or three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clus- 
 ters. From one to six of the old canes, each bear- 
 ing from five to ten buds, are left each spring. 
 The number of clusters which a vine can carry 
 well depends upon the variety, the age and size of 
 the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and 
 cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A 
 strong vine of Concord, which is a prolific, variety, 
 trained upon any of the ordinary systems and set 
 nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry 
 from thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will 
 weigh from a fourth to a half pound each. Twelve 
 or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or 
 average crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty- 
 five pounds is a very heavy crop. 
 
 The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is 
 
Pruning. 
 
 15 
 
 essentially a thinning process. In the winter prun- 
 ing, all the canes of the last season's growth are cut 
 away except from two to six, which are left to make 
 the fruit and wood of the next year ; and each of 
 these remaining canes is headed back to from three 
 to ten buds. The number and length of the canes 
 which are left after the pruning depend upon the 
 style of training which is practiced. A vine which 
 
 Bio B9B8B7B6 B5 B4 B3B2B1C 
 
 DA1A2A3 A4A5 A6A7A8A9A10 
 
 3. DIAGR • M. 
 
 may completely cover a trellis in the fall, will be 
 cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the 
 plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind 
 the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear and 
 peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in the fall, 
 but buds which produce both fruit and wood the 
 following season. 
 
 Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have 
 pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes, 
 
1 6 American Grape Training. 
 
 each bearing ten buds. We will call these canes 
 A and B, respectively. (Fig. 3.) In 1892, there- 
 fore, twenty shoots grow from them, and each of 
 these shoots or new canes branches, or produces 
 laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892, 
 A 1, A 2, A3, B 1, B 2, and so on. Each of the 
 new canes bears at the base about two clusters of 
 grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters. 
 These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as seen 
 in fig. 1. In the axil of each leaf a bud is formed 
 which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in 
 1893. If each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc., 
 produce ten buds — which is a moderate number — 
 the vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with 
 200 buds for the next year's growth and crop; but 
 these buds should be reduced to about twenty, as 
 they were in the fall of 1891. That is, every year 
 we go back again to the same number of buds, and 
 the top of the vine gets no larger from year to year. 
 We must, therefore, cut back again to two canes. 
 We cut back each of the original canes, A and B, 
 to one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1 , 
 cutting off A^, A3, etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This 
 brings the vine back to very nearly its condition in 
 the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1, 
 which are now to become the main canes by being 
 bent down horizontally, were borne at some dis- 
 tance — say three or four inches — from the base of 
 the original canes, A and B, so that the permanent 
 part of the vine is constantly lengthening itself. 
 
Pruning. i y 
 
 This annually lengthening portion is called a spur. 
 Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact posi- 
 tion, however, although this diagrammatic sketch 
 illustrates clearly the method of their formation. 
 The common method of spurring is that connected 
 with the horizontal arm system of training, in which 
 the canes A and B are allowed to become perma- 
 nent arms, and the upright canes, A i, A 2, B 1, B 2, 
 B3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds 
 of the arms each year. The cane A 1, for in- 
 stance, is cut back in the fall of 1892 to two or 
 three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will 
 grow from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one 
 cane is left after the pruning, and this one is cut 
 back to two or three buds ; and so on. So the spur 
 grows higher every year, although every effort is 
 made to keep it short, both by reducing the num- 
 ber of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to 
 bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few 
 years. Fig. 4 shows a short spur of two years' 
 standing. The horizontal portion shows the per- 
 manent arm. The first upright portion is the re- 
 mains of the first-year cane and the upper portion 
 is the second-year cane after it is cut back in the 
 fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one 
 fruiting bud, b, the small buds, a a, being rubbed 
 out. There are serious objections to spurs in any 
 position. They become hard and comparatively 
 lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace 
 them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing por- 
 
American Grape Training. 
 
 tion of the vine is constantly receding from the 
 main trunk. The bearing wood should spring from 
 near the central portions of the vine, or be kept 
 " near the head," as the grape-growers say. In 
 order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes 
 to grow out each year back of the canes A i and B i , 
 or from the head of the vine ; these canes may be 
 
 designated C and D. (Fig. 
 3.) These canes, C and D, 
 are grown during 1892 — 
 when they may bear fruit 
 like other canes — for the 
 sole purpose of forming the 
 basis of the bearing top in 
 1893, while all the old top, 
 A and B, with the second- 
 ary canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, 
 B 2, B 3, etc. , is cut entirely 
 awav. Here, then, are two 
 distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the 
 succeeding year : either from spurs, which are the 
 remains of the previous top ; or from renewals, 
 which are taken each year from the old wood near 
 the head of the vine, or even from the ground. Re- 
 newals from the ground are now little used, how- 
 ever, for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless 
 they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to 
 bear the second year. It should be borne in mind 
 that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to 
 pruning, not to training, for either one can be used 
 
Pru 
 
 
 in any system of train:: _. 5 ir pruning, how- 
 eve: g savoi amongst commercial 
 grape-growers, and the renev more .or 
 . in all - ms of tr: 
 Fig. 5 il . . . 
 graving shows the head of a v. 
 
 and upon which two canes are allowed to remain 
 after each annual prunin^ 7 c v r: : 
 
 from b to f and d is the 
 
 base of the beari: lg e of 
 
 : : In : :er of 
 
 this ca fl 
 
 ::d the new ca:. 
 \ wood ■: : 18 ] Another c 
 but it was too weak to leave for :: It was 
 
 therefore, cutaway. The . . ' .be 
 
 cut awav a year hen: 
 
 the meantime, i renewal ca:: have grown 
 
 from the stub - left : : r :hat purv ase, 
 
 the old ca: e cut or. be- 
 
 tween € and /. In this way. the 
 kep to the head of the vine. The i a 
 
20 Amcricafi Grape Training. 
 
 shows where an old stub was cut away this winter, 
 1892-3, while b shows where one was cut off the 
 previous winter. A scar upon the back of the 
 head, which does not show in the illustration, 
 marks the spot where a stub was cut away two 
 years ago, in the winter of 1 890-1. This method 
 of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and 
 if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the 
 head will not enlarge out of proportion to the 
 growth of the stock or trunk. 
 
 Pruning Young Vines. — The time required after 
 planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis 
 varies with the strength of the vine when set, the 
 variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of 
 training; but, as a rule, the training begins the 
 second or third year, previous to which time the 
 vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines 
 are most popular for planting, although in the 
 strong varieties, like Concord and Niagara, well- 
 grown yearling vines are probably as good, if not 
 better. The strong-growing kinds are commonly 
 set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, and the 
 rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and 
 other small vines may be set closer, although eight 
 feet is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back 
 to two or three buds. During the first year, the 
 voung canes are usually allowed to lie upon the 
 ground at will, as seen in fig. 6. In the fall or 
 winter, all the canes but one are cut off, and this 
 one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is, 
 
Pruning. 
 
 21 
 
 therefore, no larger at the expiration of a year's 
 growth than it was when planted ; but in the mean- 
 time the plant has become thoroughly established 
 the soil, and the second year's growth 
 
 in 
 
 should be strong enough to form the basis for the 
 
 6. A NEWLY SEt VINEYARD. 
 
 permanent trunk or arm. If. however, the second 
 year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, 
 and the third season's growth used for the trunk. 
 On the other hand, the growth of the first year is 
 sometimes carried onto the wires to form the per- 
 manent trunk and arms, but it is only with extra 
 strong vines in good soil that this practice is ad- 
 
22 American Grape Training. 
 
 missible. From this point, the treatment of the 
 vine is discussed under training. 
 
 When to Prune. — Grape vines may be pruned at 
 any time during the winter. It is the practice 
 among most grape-growers in the north to prune 
 as time permits from November to late in February, 
 or even early March. The sap flows very freely 
 from cuts made in spring and early summer, caus- 
 ing the phenomenon known as "•bleeding," or in 
 Europe as "weeping," and in order to prevent 
 this loss, pruning is stopped six weeks or more be- 
 fore the time at which the buds usually swell. It 
 is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, 
 but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine 
 is cut off an inch or two beyond the last bud which 
 it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to 
 the bud from the drying out of the end of the cane. 
 
 The pruning is done with small hand pruning- 
 shears. The canes are often allowed to remain 
 tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished, 
 although it is the practice with most growers who 
 use the Knimn system to cut the strings before 
 pruning. The removal of the severed canes is 
 known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the 
 pruner sometimes leaves the stripping to boys or 
 other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at 
 any time after the pruning is performed until 
 spring. It must be done before the growth starts 
 on the remaining portions of the vine, however, to 
 
Pruning. 23 
 
 '<s 
 
 avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the 
 vines off the trellis. 
 
 Summer Pruning. — There is much discussion as 
 to the advisability of summer pruning. It is essen- 
 tial to the understanding of the question that the 
 grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is 
 of two kinds— the removal or " breaking out ' of 
 the superfluous shoots, and heading-in or "stop- 
 ping " the main canes to keep them within limits. 
 The superfluous shoots are such as spring from 
 small, weak buds or those which break from the old 
 arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start from 
 the very base of the old cane are usually weak and 
 should be removed. Buds in this position are 
 shown at a a, in fig. 4. The secondary or axillary 
 branches, which often start from the base of the 
 season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. 
 These superfluous shoots are pulled off from time 
 to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed 
 off before the shoots begin to grow. 
 
 The heading-in of the main canes, while desir- 
 able for the purpose of keeping the vine within 
 bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which 
 choke up the vine and which do not mature, and 
 in those styles of training in which very little wood 
 is allowed to grow, the practice may prevent the 
 development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface 
 to properly sustain the vine. Vines are often 
 weakened by summer pruning. These dangers can 
 be overcome by careful attention, however, espe- 
 
24 American Grape Training. 
 
 cially by heading-in very lightly and by doing it as 
 late, in the season as possible, when new lateral 
 growth does not start readily. The necessity of 
 much heading-in has been largely obviated in late 
 years by the adoption of high or drooping systems 
 of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The 
 strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and Ni- 
 agara, should be set ten feet apart in the row, 
 especially if grown upon the Kniffin system. Ca- 
 tawba, being a very upright grower and especially 
 well adapted to upright training, may be set eight 
 feet apart, and Dslawares are often set as close as 
 six or eight feet. It is doubtful, however, if any 
 variety should be set less than eight feet apart for 
 trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where 
 the growth is large because of the long seasons, 
 vines are often set more than ten feet apart. In 
 the South, the rows should run north and south, 
 that the fruit ma\ r be shaded from midday sun. 
 The only summer heading-in now generally recom- 
 mended is the clipping of the tips when they fall 
 over and begin to touch the ground. This clip- 
 ping is often done with a sickle or sharp corn-cutter. 
 
 Objects of Pruning. — The objects of pruning the 
 grape, as of other fruits, are five : 
 
 i. To produce larger and better fruit. 
 
 2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine. 
 
 3. To keep the vine within manageable limits, 
 
 4. To facilitate cultivation. 
 
 5. To facilitate spraying. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING THE 
 
 TRELLIS TYING. 
 
 Training the grape vine is practiced for the pur- 
 pose of keeping the vine in convenient shape and 
 to allow each cluster to receive its full amount of 
 space and light. A well trained vine is easily cul- 
 tivated and sprayed, and the grapes are readily 
 harvested, and it is only upon such vines that the 
 best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some 
 kind of training is essential, for a vine will not often 
 bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground. In 
 essence, there are three general types or styles of 
 training, which may be designated as the upright, 
 drooping and horizontal, these terms designating 
 the direction of the bearing shoots. The upright 
 systems carry two or more canes or arms along a 
 low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across 
 a trellis from below upwards, and the shoots are 
 tied up as they grow to the wires above. The hori- 
 zontal systems carry up a perpendicular cane or 
 arm, or sometimes two or more, from which the 
 shoots are carried out horizontally and are tied to 
 perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping sys- 
 tems, represented in the Kniffin and post-training, 
 carry the canes or arms upon a high horizontal wire 
 
 (25) 
 
26 American Grape Training. 
 
 or trellis and allow the shoots to hang without tying. 
 To one or another of these types all the systems of 
 American grape-training can be referred. 
 
 There is no system of training which is best for 
 all purposes and all varieties. The strong-growing 
 varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high 
 drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although 
 the Delaware is often trained on a comparatively 
 low Kniffin with good effect. The high or droop- 
 ing systems are of comparatively recent date, and 
 their particular advantages are the saving of labor 
 in summer tying, cheapness of the trellis, and the 
 facility with which the ground can be cultivated 
 without endangering the branches of the vine. The 
 upright training distributes the bearing wood more 
 evenly upon the vine and is thought, therefore, to 
 insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near the 
 root, which is sometimes thought to be an advan- 
 tage, and it is better suited to the stature of the small- 
 growing varieties. There is, perhaps, a greater 
 temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping 
 systems than in the others, because the shoots need 
 no tying and do not, therefore, demand frequent at- 
 tention ; while in the upright systems the shoots soon 
 become broken or displaced if not watched. For 
 very large areas, or circumstances in which the best 
 of care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or 
 drooping systems are perhaps always to be recom- 
 mended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from 
 diligence and skill as the other systems ; but it will 
 
The Trellis. 27 
 
 give better results than the others under partial 
 neglect. The strong varieties, especially those 
 making long and drooping canes, are well adapted 
 to the Kniffin styles ; but the smaller sorts, and 
 those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an 
 upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon 
 the upright systems. But the merits of both sys- 
 tems are so various and even so little understood, 
 that it is impossible to recommend either one un- 
 qualifiedly. The advantages in either case are often 
 little more than matters of personal opinion. It 
 should be said, however, that the Kniffin or droop- 
 ing systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are 
 evidently destined to overthrow much of the older 
 upright training. This fact does not indicate, how- 
 ever, that the upright system is to be entirel}' su- 
 perseded, but rather that it must be confined to 
 those varieties and conditions for which it is best 
 adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly sup- 
 plement each other. The horizontal systems are 
 occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are 
 little known. 
 
 Making the Trellis. — The fall or winter following 
 the planting of the vineyard, the trellis is begun if 
 the upright systems are used ; but this operation is 
 usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin sys- 
 tems, and stakes are commonly used, or at least 
 recommended, during the second season. In the 
 South the trellis is made the first year. The style 
 of trellis will depend upon the style of training, 
 
28 American Grape Training. 
 
 but the main features are the same for all. 
 Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar, 
 locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart 
 that two vines can be set between each two. If the 
 vines are set nine feet apart, the posts may be eight- 
 een or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand 
 four or five feet from each post. If the posts in the 
 row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet 
 apart, about 330 posts will be required to the acre. 
 Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are 
 driven with a heavy maul, although many people 
 prefer to set the end posts in holes, thinking that 
 they endure the strain better. In all loose soils, 
 however, posts can be made as firm by driving as 
 by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm 
 as possible, in order to hold up the heavy loads of 
 vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it 
 is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill, 
 for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt 
 down the slope. For the Kniffm systems, espe- 
 cially for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must 
 stand six or six and one-half feet high when set, 
 but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the up- 
 right and horizontal systems. The posts should 
 stand higher at first than is necessary for the sup- 
 port of the wires, for thev will need to be driven 
 down occasionally as they become loose. The end 
 posts of each row should be well braced, as shown 
 in several of the illustrations in this volume. 
 
 The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the 
 
The Trellis. 29 
 
 top wire in the Kniffin training, which is usually 
 No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is then 
 upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but 
 it is heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasion- 
 ally used for the middle and upper rows in the 
 upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The 
 following figures show the sizes and weights of 
 these and similar iron and steel wires : 
 
 <o. 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 inches. 
 
 \\ 
 
 eight 
 
 of 
 
 100 feet. 
 
 Feet 
 
 in 2,000 pounds 
 
 9 
 
 .148 
 
 
 
 5.80 
 
 j 01 
 
 nds. 
 
 
 34,483 
 
 10 
 
 •135 
 
 
 
 4-S3 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 41 ,408 
 
 11 
 
 .120 
 
 
 
 3.82 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 52,35 6 
 
 12 
 
 .105 
 
 
 
 2.92 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 68,493 
 
 13 
 
 .092 
 
 
 
 2.24 
 
 
 
 
 89,286 
 
 H 
 
 .080 
 
 
 
 1.69 
 
 
 
 
 n8,343 
 
 15 
 
 .072 
 
 
 
 i-37 
 
 
 
 
 145,985 
 
 16 
 
 .063 
 
 
 
 1.05 
 
 
 
 
 190,476 
 
 The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents 
 per pound, and the galvanized — which is less used 
 for vineyards — 3^ cents. Of No. 12 wire, about 
 160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on 
 rows eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for 
 three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire per acre, for 
 three runs, therefore, is about $15. 
 
 The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by 
 staples driven in firmly so that the wire will not pull 
 through readily of its own weight, but still loosely 
 enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In 
 other words, the head of the staple should not quite 
 touch the wire. Grape staples are of three lengths, 
 about an inch, inch and a quarter, and an inch and 
 a half respectively. The shortest length is little 
 
30 American Grape Training. 
 
 used. The medium length is used for hard-wood 
 posts and the longest for soft posts, like chestnut 
 and cedar. These staples cost five cents per pound 
 usually, and a pound of the medium length contains 
 from go to ioo of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, 
 for three wires, will therefore require, for this size, 
 about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy 
 regions, the wires should be placed upon the wind- 
 ward side of the posts 
 
 There are various devices for securing the wire 
 to the end posts, but the commonest method is 
 to wind them about the post once and secure them 
 with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon 
 itself, forming a loop. The wires should be drawn 
 taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit 
 and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction 
 of the wires in winter, some growers loosen the 
 wires after harvest and others provide some device 
 which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Pat- 
 ent Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective 
 lever-contrivance attached to each wire, and which 
 is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten 
 them in spring. The end post is sometimes pro- 
 vided upon the back with a square-headed pin 
 which works tightly in an inch and a half augur 
 hole and about which the end of the wire is wound. 
 A square-headed iron wrench operates the pin, 
 while the tension of the wire around the side of the 
 post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is 
 not durable, however. An ingenious man can 
 
Tying. 31 
 
 easily contrive some device for relieving the tension, 
 if he should think it necessary. As a matter of 
 practice, however, the wires soon stretch and sag 
 enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take 
 up the winter contraction, and most growers do not 
 release the wires in fall. It will be found neces- 
 sary, in fact, to tighten the wires and to straighten 
 up the posts from year to year, as they become 
 loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the 
 ground firmly about all the posts every spring. The 
 wires should always be kept tight during the grow- 
 ing season to prevent the whipping of the vines by 
 wind. This is especially important in white grapes, 
 which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and 
 twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it will be 
 necessary to stretch only one w T ire the first winter. 
 
 Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in 
 Fig. 18, but these are always less durable than the 
 wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair ; 
 and in the older portions of the country, where 
 timber is dear, they are also more expensive at the 
 outset. They catch the wind, and, not being held 
 together by continuous strands, are likely to blow 
 down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning 
 the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of 
 the different systems of training. 
 
 Tying. — Probably the best material for tying the 
 canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a 
 bast-like material which comes in skeins and which 
 can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for 
 
3 2 American Grape Training. 
 
 about 20 cents a pound. A pound will suffice to 
 tie a quarter of an acre of upright training through- 
 out the season. Raffia is obtained from the strip- 
 pings of an oriental palm (Raphia Ruffia). Wool- 
 twine is also still largely used for tying, but it is 
 not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually has 
 to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter 
 pruning, while the raffia breaks with a. quick pull of 
 the vine. Some complain that the raffia is not strong 
 enough to hold the vine during the season, but it 
 can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much 
 used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also 
 for summer tying, especially in the nursery regions 
 where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier 
 willows are easily procured. Wild willows are 
 often used if they can be obtained handily. These 
 willows are tied up in a small bundle, which is held 
 upon the back above the hips by a cord passed 
 about the body. The butts project under the right 
 hand, if the person is right-handed, and the strands 
 are pulled out as needed. The butt is first used, 
 the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand 
 is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated 
 in like manner until it is used up. When wool- 
 twine is used, the ball is often held in front of the 
 workman by a cord which is tied about it and then 
 passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from 
 the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end 
 becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the 
 ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, 
 
Tying. 33 
 
 after the manner of carrying seed-corn. Raffia is 
 not so easily carried in the field as the wool-twine 
 or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popu- 
 larity. Green rye-straw, cut directly from the 
 field, is much used for tying the shoots in summer. 
 Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom- 
 wire, is used occasionally for tying up the canes in 
 spring, but it must be used with care or it will in- 
 jure the vine. Corn-husks are also employed for 
 this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark 
 is sometimes used for tying, but in most of the 
 grape regions it is difficult to secure, and it has no 
 advantage over raffia. 
 
 It is very important that the canes be tied up 
 early in spring, for the buds are easily broken after 
 they begin to swell. These canes are tied rather 
 firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the 
 growing shoots, which are tied during the summer, 
 are fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary 
 increase in diameter. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS. 
 
 The upright systems are the oldest and best 
 known of the styles of American grape training. 
 They consist, essentially, in carrying out i"wo 
 horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low 
 wire and training the shoots from them vertically 
 upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper 
 wires as they grow. This type was first clearly 
 and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in 
 his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it became 
 known as the Fuller system, although it was prac- 
 ticed many years previous to this time. 
 
 Horizontal Arm Spur System. — There are two types 
 or styles of this upright system. The older type and 
 the one described in the books, is known as the 
 Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, 
 the two horizontal branches are permanent, or, in 
 other words, they are true arms. The canes are 
 cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms, 
 as explained on page 15 (fig. 4.) Two shoots are 
 often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as 
 shown in fig. 7. These spurs become overgrown 
 and weak after a few years, and they are renewed 
 from new shoots which spring from near their base 
 
 (34) 
 
flf^TT &* 7 
 
3 6 
 
 American Grape Training. 
 
 or from the arm itself. Sometimes the whole arm 
 is renewed from the head of the vine, or even from 
 the ground. 
 
 The number of these upright canes and their dis- 
 tance apart upon these permanent arms depend 
 upon the variety, the strength of the vine and soil 
 and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to 
 
 8. horizontal arm. (Diagram.) 
 
 twenty inches apart upon the arm is the common 
 distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry five 
 canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the 
 canes are distributed at intervals of about twenty 
 inches. Some very strong vines of vigorous 
 varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms 
 
The Upright System. 37 
 
 together, and in this case the canes stand about 
 a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the cane 
 is cut away and the strongest new cane which 
 springs from its base is left for the bearing wood 
 of the following year. This new cane is itself 
 headed in to the height of the trellis ; that is, if 
 the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34 
 inches apart — as they are in the Brocton vineyards 
 of western New York, where this system is largely 
 used — this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches 
 long. Upon this length of cane there will be about 
 seven good buds in the common varieties. 
 
 A modification of this horizontal arm system is 
 shown in fig. 9. It is used about Forestville, 
 in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in 
 this case are very short, and canes are taken out 
 only at two or three places. The picture shows a 
 vine in which two canes are taken from the end of 
 each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of 
 the vine. These canes are cut back to spurs in the 
 fall, as explained in the above paragraph. Some- 
 times one or two other canes are taken out of these 
 arms nearer the main trunk. The advantages 
 urged for this style of training are the stronger 
 growth which is insured by so few canes, and the 
 small amount of old or permanent wood which is 
 left to each vine. 
 
 The horizontal arm training is less popular than 
 it was twenty years ago r It has serious faults, 
 especially in the persistence of the old spurs, and 
 
The Upright System. 39 
 
 probably will eventually give place to other systems. 
 Aside from the spur pruning, the system is much 
 like the following, which is a modification to allow 
 of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is 
 referred for further details. This modification, 
 which may be called the High Renewal, and which 
 is one of the most serviceable of any of the styles 
 of training, although it has never been fully de- 
 scribed, we shall now consider. 
 
 The High Re?iewal, or upright training which is 
 now very extensively employed in the lake regions 
 of New York and elsewhere, starts the head or 
 branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches 
 from the ground. The ideal height for most varie- 
 ties is probably about two feet to the first wire, 
 although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If 
 the vines are lower than two feet, they are liable to 
 be injured by the plow or cultivator, the earth is 
 dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and if 
 the shoots become loose they strike the ground 
 and the grapes are soon soiled. A single trunk or 
 arm is carried up to the required height, or if good 
 branches happen to form lower down, two main 
 canes are carried from this point up to the required 
 distance to meet the lower wire, so that the trunk be- 
 becomes Y-shaped, as seen in figs. 10, 16 and 17. In 
 fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or 
 crotch a few inches below the lowest wire, to facili- 
 tate the spreading and placing of the canes. The 
 trellis for the upright systems nearly always com- 
 
4-Q American Grape Training. 
 
 prises three wires, although only two are sometimes 
 used for the smaller growing varieties, and very 
 rarely four are used for the strongest kinds, al- 
 though this number is unnecessary. The lowest 
 wire is stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty 
 inches from the ground, and the two upper ones 
 
 I " ". ~~ ~ "~ "~1 
 
 >>j 
 
 10. THE SECOND SEASON OK UPRIGHT TRAINING. 
 
 are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches 
 apart. 
 
 The second season after planting should see the 
 vine tied to the first wire. Fig. 10 is a photograph 
 taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine which was 
 set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the 
 vine. was cut back to three or four buds, and in the 
 spring of 1892 two of these buds were allowed to 
 
The Upright System. 41 
 
 make canes. These two canes are now tied to the 
 wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892. 
 In this case, the branches start near the surface of 
 the ground. Sometimes only a single strong shoot 
 grows, and in order to secure the two branches it 
 is broken over where it passes the wire, and is us- 
 ually tied to a stake to afford support. Fig. 11 
 shows this operation. A bud will develop at the 
 bend or break, from which a cane can be trained 
 in the opposite direction from the original portion, 
 and the T-head is secured. 
 
 The close of the second season after planting, 
 therefore, will usually find the vine with two good 
 canes extending in opposite directions and tied to 
 the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in 
 cutting off the ends of these canes back to firm and 
 strong wood, which will leave them bearing from 
 five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will 
 grow upright from these buds and will be tied to 
 the second wire, which has now been supplied. 
 Late in the third season the vine should have much 
 the appearance of that shown in fig. 12. The 
 third wire is usually added to the trellis at the 
 close of the second season, at the same time that 
 the second wire is put on ; but occasionally this is 
 delayed until the close of the third season. Some 
 of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this 
 third season, but unless the vines are very strong 
 the flower clusters should be removed; and a three- 
 year-old vine should never be allowed to bear 
 
4 2 
 
 American Grape 7 raining. 
 
 heavily. It must be remembered, however, that 
 both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of 
 
 herbage, are to be cut away in 
 the fall or winter of the third 
 year. Some provision must have 
 been made, therefore, for the top 
 for the fourth year. It will be 
 recalled that in discussing the re- 
 newal pruning (page 16, fig. 5), it 
 was found that two or more 
 shoots are allowed to grow each 
 year to form the basis of the top 
 the following year. In fig. 12 
 three or four such shoots can be 
 seen springing from the Y-shaped 
 portion in the center of the vine. 
 These shoots or canes are to be 
 bent down to the lowest wire next 
 spring, and the bearing shoots will 
 arise from them. This process 
 will be seen at a glance from 
 figs. 13, 14 and 15. The first 
 shows a full grown old vine, 
 trained on three wires. Fig. 14 
 shows the same vine when pruned. 
 Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are 
 
 II. MAKING THE 
 T-HEAD. 
 
The Upright System. 
 
 45 
 
 left to form the top of the following year. The 
 two stubs from which the renewal canes are to 
 grow for the second year's top are seen in the cen- 
 ter. In the fall of the next year, therefore, these 
 two outside canes will be cut away to the base of 
 
 14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED. 
 
 these renewal stubs ; and the renewal canes, in the 
 meantime, will have made a year's growth. These 
 renewal stubs in this picture are really spurs, as 
 will be seen; that is, they contain two ages of 
 wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these 
 stubs or spurs every two or three years at most, 
 
The Upright System. 
 
 47 
 
 and to bring new canes directly from the old wood 
 or head. If possible, the renewal cane is brouo-ht 
 from a new place on the old wood every year in 
 order to avoid a spur. Such was the case in the 
 vine shown in fig. 5, page 19. Fig. 15 shows the 
 same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two 
 ties have been made upon each cane. Fig. 16 
 
 shows a vine in 
 have been left to 
 the following year, 
 renewals can be seen 
 customary to leave 
 canes, occasionally, 
 varieties like Con- 
 times four and occa- 
 
 16. HIGH RE 
 
 which four canes 
 form the top for 
 The stubs for the 
 in the Y. It is 
 more than two 
 in strong-growing 
 cord. S o m e- 
 _ sionally six are 
 left. If four canes newal with are left, two may 
 be tied together in FOURCANES - e ach direction 
 upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the two 
 extra ones should be tied along the second wire, 
 parallel with the lowest ones. These extra canes 
 are sometimes tied obliquely across the trellis, but 
 this practice should be discouraged, for the usual 
 tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth 
 at the top, and the lower buds may fail to bear. 
 
 The ideal length of the two canes varies with 
 different varieties and the distance apart at which 
 
The Upright System. 49 
 
 the vines are set. Very strong kinds, like Con- 
 cord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on 
 each cane, especially if the vines are set more than 
 eight feet apart. Fig. 17 shows half of a Concord 
 vine in which about ten buds were left on each 
 cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or 
 fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but when this 
 number is left the canes should be four, as explained 
 in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak- 
 growing varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the 
 vine should be the maximum and only two canes 
 should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes 
 are usually cut to the desired length — four to six feet 
 — even if too great a number of buds is left, but the 
 shoots which spring from these extra buds are 
 broken out soon after they start. A Delaware 
 vine w T hich has made an unusually short or weak 
 growth will require fewer buds to be left for next 
 year's top than a neighboring vine of the same va- 
 riety which has made a strong growth. The Ca- 
 tawba, w T hich is a short but very stiff grower, is usually 
 cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs. 13, 
 14 and 15. The grower soon learns to adjust the 
 pruning to the character of the vine without effort. 
 He has in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes, 
 perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves 
 enough buds to produce this amount, allowing, 
 perhaps, ten per cent, of the buds for accidents 
 and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes 
 should always be cut back to firm, well-ripened 
 
50 American Grape Training. 
 
 wood. It should be said that mere size of cane 
 does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch. 
 Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives 
 better results than the very large and softer canes 
 which are sometimes produced on soils rich in 
 nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown 
 wood is known as a "bull cane." A cane does not 
 attain its full growth the first year, but will increase 
 in diameter during the second season. The tying 
 therefore, should, be sufficiently loose or elastic to 
 allow of growth, although it should be firm enough 
 to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane 
 should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to 
 it, provision being made for the swelling of the 
 wood to twice its diameter 
 
 The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after 
 they pass it, or have attained firmness enough to 
 allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied again 
 to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with 
 equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone over 
 more than twice if the shoots are kept properly 
 tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be 
 all that is necessary for careful summer tying. 
 Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, but this 
 neglect should be discouraged. This tying is 
 mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece 
 of straw about ten inches long is used for each tie, 
 it usually being wrapped but once about the shoot. 
 The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia 
 is used, a common string-knot is made. When the 
 
52 Ajnerican Grape Training. 
 
 shoots reach the top of the trellis, they are usually 
 allowed to take care of themselves. The Catawba 
 shoots stand n3arly erect above the top wire and 
 ordinarily need no attention. The long-growing 
 varieties will be likely to drag the shoots upon the 
 ground before the close of the season. If these 
 tips interfere with the cultivation, they may be 
 clipped off with a sickle or corn-cutter, although 
 this practice should be delayed as long as possible 
 to prevent the growth of laterals (see page 21). It 
 is probably better to avoid cutting entirely. Some 
 growers wind or tie the longest shoots upon the top 
 wire, as seen in fig. 17. It is probably best, as a 
 rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and 
 to clip them only when they seriously interfere with 
 the work of the hoe and cultivator. The treatment 
 for slat trellises, as shown in fig. 18, is the same as 
 on wire trellises, except that longer strings must be 
 used in tying. 
 
 It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit 
 in the High Renewal is borne between the first and 
 second wires, at the bottom of the trellis. If the 
 lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this 
 fruit will hang at the most convenient height for 
 picking. The fruit trays are set upon the ground, 
 and both hands are free. The fruit is also pro- 
 tected from the hot suns and from frost ; and if the 
 shoots are properly tied, the clusters are not shaken 
 roughly by the wind. It is, of course, desirable 
 that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light 
 
The Upright System. 53 
 
 and air, and all superfluous shoots should, there- 
 fore, be pulled off, as already explained (page 21). 
 In rare cases it may also be necessary, for this pur- 
 pose, to prune the canes which droop over from the 
 top of the trellis. 
 
 After a few years, the old top or head of the vine 
 becomes more or less weak and it should be renewed 
 from the root. The thrifty vineyardist anticipates 
 this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty 
 shoot which may spring from the ground to remain. 
 This shoot is treated very much like a young vine, 
 and the head is formed during the second year 
 (page 16, bottom). If it should make a strong growth 
 during the first year and develop stout laterals, it 
 may be cut back only to the lowest wire the 
 first fall ; but in other cases, it should be cut back 
 to two or three buds, from one of which a strong 
 and permanent shoot is taken the second year. 
 When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk 
 is cut off at the surface of the ground, or below if 
 possible. A top will retain its vigor for six or eight 
 years under ordinary treatment, and sometimes 
 much longer. These tops are renewed from time 
 to time as occasion permits or demands, and any 
 vineyard which has been bearing a number of years 
 will nearly always have a few vines in process of 
 renewal. The reader should not receive the im- 
 pression, however, that the life or vitality of a vine 
 is necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear 
 for twenty years or more without renewal ; but the 
 
54 American Grape Training. 
 
 head after a time comes to be large and rough 
 and crooked, and often weakened by scars, and 
 better results are likely to be obtained if a new, 
 clean vine takes its place. 
 
 The High Renewal is extensively used in the 
 lake region of Western New York, for all varieties. 
 It is particularly well adapted to Delaware, Cataw- 
 ba, and other weak or short varieties. When syste- 
 matically pursued, it gives fruit of the highest ex- 
 cellence. This High Renewal training, like all the 
 low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid 
 down easily in winter, which is an important con- 
 sideration in many parts of Canada and in the 
 colder northern states. 
 
 Fan Training. — A system much used a few years 
 ago and still sometimes seen, is one which renews 
 back nearly to the ground each year, and carries 
 the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This 
 system has the advantages of dispensing with 
 much of the old wood, or trunk, and facilitating 
 laying down the vine in winter in cold climates. 
 On the other hand, it has the disadvantages of bear- 
 ing the fruit too low — unless the lower clusters are 
 removed — and making a vine of inconvenient shape 
 for tying. It is little used at present. Fig. 19 
 shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is 
 by no means an ideal vine. This vine has not been 
 properly renewed, but bears long, crooked spurs, 
 from which the canes spring. One of these spurs 
 will be seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The 
 
The Upright System. 55 
 
 spurs should be kept very short, and they should 
 be entirely removed every two or three years, as 
 explained in the above discussion of the High Re- 
 newal training. 
 
 The shoots are allowed to take their natural 
 course, being tied to any wire near which they 
 chance to grow r , finally lopping over the top wire. 
 Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied hori- 
 zontally to the wires, and this is probably the better 
 practice. Two canes may be tied in each direction 
 on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be 
 tied down to the second wire. In either case, the 
 vine is essentially like the High Renewal, except 
 that the trunk is shorter. 
 
 19. FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE DROOPING SYSTEMS. 
 
 In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard 
 in the Hudson River Valley. A neighbor, William 
 Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres of land 
 to which he devoted his attention during the leisure 
 seasons of his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to 
 plant a few grapes. He planted the Isabella, and 
 succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation 
 was increased into a respectable vineyard and 
 Kniffin came to be regarded as a local authority 
 upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days 
 in commercial grape growing in North America, 
 and there were no undisputed maxims of cultivation 
 and training. If any system of close training and 
 pruning was employed, it was probably the old hori- 
 zontal arm spur system, or something like it. One 
 day a large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell 
 upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes 
 and crushing the vine into a singular shape. The 
 vine was thought to be ruined, but h was left until 
 the fruit could be gathered. But as the fruit ma- 
 tured, its large size and handsome appearance at- 
 tracted attention. It was the best fruit in the vine- 
 yard ! Mr. Kniffin was an observant man, and he 
 
 (56) 
 
The Drooping Sysle?n. 57 
 
 inquired into the cause of the excellent fruit. He 
 noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the 
 best canes stood out horizontally. From this sug- 
 gestion he developed the four-cane system of train- 
 ing which now bears his name. A year or two later, 
 in 1854, tne system had attracted the attention of 
 those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and 
 
 ~* 
 
 
 20. William Kniffin. 
 
 thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson valley, 
 where it is to-day, with various modifications, 
 the chief method of grape training. Its merits 
 have become known beyond its original valley, and 
 it is now spreading more rapidly than any other 
 system. The ground upon which the old Isabellas 
 
5& American Grape Training. 
 
 grew is now occupied by Concords, which are as 
 vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer 
 soils. William Kniffin died at his home irt Clinton- 
 dale, Ulster county, New York, June 13, 1876, at 
 fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a 
 photograph which was taken two or three years 
 before his death. 
 
 The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System. — Figure 21 
 shows the true Kniffin system, very nearly as 
 practiced by its originator. A single stem or trunk 
 is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are 
 taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr. 
 Kniffin believed in short canes, and cut them 
 back to about six buds on both wires. But most 
 growers now prefer to leave the upper canes 
 longer than the lower ones, as seen in illustration. 
 The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will, 
 os that no summer tying is necessary ; this is the 
 distinguishing mark of the various Kniffin systems. 
 The main trunk is tied to each wire, and the canes 
 are tied to the wires in spring. This system pos- 
 sesses the great advantage, therefore, of requiring 
 little labor during the busy days of the growing 
 season ; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if 
 the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or 
 other bush-fruits can be grown between. The sys- 
 tem is especially adapted to the strong varieties of 
 grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of 
 different systems of training, the reader should con- 
 sult Chapter II. 
 
V 
 
 
 
 •&»** 0g ^> 
 
 *r 
 
 / 
 
 X / 
 
 IS 
 
 ; 
 
6o 
 
 American Grape Training. 
 
 The pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in 
 cutting off all the wood save a single cane from 
 each spur. Fig. 22 
 illustrates the pro- 
 cess. T h i s i s the 
 same vine which is 
 shown with the full 
 amount of wood on 
 i n fig. 2 1. The 
 drooping shoots 
 shown in that illus- 
 tration bore the 
 grapes of 1892; and 
 now, in the winter of 
 1892-93, they are all 
 to be cut away, with 
 the horizontal old 
 canes from which 
 they grew, save only 
 the four canes which 
 hang nearest the main 
 trunk. Fig. 22 shows 
 the vine after it had 
 been pruned. It is 
 not obligatory that 
 the canes which are 
 left after the pruning 
 should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen 
 that these may be weak ; but, other things being 
 equal, these canes are preferable because their 
 
 22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNFD. 
 
The Drooping System. 61 
 
 selection keeps the old spurs short. The careful 
 grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots 
 which start from this point, in order that a strong 
 cane may be obtained. It is desirable that these 
 side spurs be removed entirely every three or four 
 years, a new cane being brought out again from the 
 main body or trunk. There is little expectation, 
 however, that there shall be such a complete re- 
 newal pruning as that practiced in the High Re- 
 newal, which we discussed in the last chapter. 
 
 It will be seen that the drooping canes in fig. 22 
 are shorter than they were originally, as shown 
 in fig. 21. They have been cut back. The length 
 at which these canes shall be left is a moot point. 
 Much depends upon the variety, the distance be- 
 tween the wires, the strength of the soil, and other 
 factors. Nearly all ■ growers now agree that the 
 upper canes should be longer than the lower ones, 
 although equal canes are still used in some places. 
 In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the upper 
 canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower 
 ones five. This gives thirty buds to 'the vine. 
 Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds above and 
 only four below. 
 
 These four pruned canes axe generally allowed to 
 hang during winter, but are tied onto the wires before 
 the buds swell in spring. They are stretched out 
 horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two 
 ties upon each cane. The shoots which spring 
 from these horizontal canes stand upright or 
 
62 American Grape Training, 
 
 oblique at first but they soon fall over with the 
 weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the 
 ground, the ends may be clipped off with a sickle, 
 corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not always 
 done, and is not necessary unless the canes inter- 
 fere with cultivation. There is no summer-pinch- 
 ing nor pruning, although the superfluous shoots 
 should be broken out, as in other systems. (See 
 page 23). 
 
 Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. 
 The end posts are usually set in holes, rather than 
 driven, to render them solid, and they should always 
 be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven, 
 and they usually stand between every alternate vine, 
 or twenty feet apart if the vines are ten feet apart — 
 which is a common distance for the most vigor- 
 ous varieties. For the strong-growing varieties, 
 the top wire is placed from five and one-half to six 
 feet above the ground. Five feet nine inches is a 
 popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to 
 bring the height to six feet, although it is best to 
 ' ' tap ' ' the posts every spring with a maul in order to 
 drive them back and make them firm. The lower 
 wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet. 
 Delawares, if trained Kniffin, should not stand 
 above five feet four inches, or at most five feet six 
 inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto 
 the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner 
 practice, perhaps, to stake them the second season, 
 as already explained (page 27), and put them 
 
The Drooping System. 63 
 
 on the wires the third season. The year following 
 the tying to the trellis,, the vine should bear a 
 partial crop. The vine is usually carried directly to 
 the top wire the first season of training, although 
 it is the practice of some growers, especially out- 
 Side the Hudson valley,, to stop the trunk at the 
 lower wire the first year of permanent training, and 
 to carry it to the top wire the following year. 
 
 Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully 
 as high and perhaps higher than from other species 
 of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange county, New 
 York, has had an annual average of twenty-six 
 pounds of Concords to the vine for nine years, 1, 550 
 vines being considered in the calculation. While 
 the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin 
 system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be 
 trained in this manner with success, as the follow- 
 ing average yields obtained by Mr. Barns from 200 
 vines set in 1881 will show: 
 
 1836 8% pounds to the vine. 
 
 iS3 7 u^ 
 
 1888 3 
 
 lS8 9 9 y 2 
 
 1890 7 
 
 '891 16 
 
 l8 9^ ij 
 
 Modifications of the Four- Cane Kniffin. — Various 
 modifications of this original four-cane Kniffin are 
 in use. The Kniffin idea is often carelessly ap- 
 plied to a rack trellis. .In such cases, several 
 canes were allowed to grow where only two should 
 have been left. Fig. 23 is a common but poor style 
 
The Drooping System. 
 
 65 
 
 of Kniffin used in some of the large new vineyards 
 of western New York. It differs from the type in 
 the training of the young wood. These shoots, 
 instead of being allowed to hang at will, are carried 
 out horizontally and either tied to the wire or 
 
 .__ J 
 
 24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN. 
 
 twisted around it. The advantage urged for this 
 modification is the little injury done by wind, but, 
 as a matter of practice, it affords less protection 
 than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the 
 
66 Ai?ierican Grape Training. 
 
 shoots from the tipper cane soon cling to the lower 
 wire, and the shoots from both tiers of canes pro- 
 tect each other below the lower wire. There are 
 three serious disadvantages to this holding up of 
 the shoots, — it makes unnecessary labor, the canes 
 are likely to make wood or "bull canes" (see 
 page 50) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is 
 bunched together on the vines. 
 
 Another common modification of the four-cane 
 Kniffin is that shown in fig. 24, in which a crotch or Y 
 is made in the trunk. This crotch is used in the belief 
 that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily 
 deflected into the lower arms than by the system 
 of side spurring on a straight or continuous trunk. 
 This is probably a fallacy, and may have arisen 
 from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the 
 lower wire as on the upper one. Nevertheless, this 
 modification is in common use in western New 
 York and elsewhere. 
 
 If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds 
 on both wires, the Double Kniffin will probably be 
 found most satisfactory. Two distinct trunks are 
 brought from the root, each supplying a single wire 
 only. The trunks are tied together to hold them in 
 place. This system, under the name of Improved 
 Kniffin, is just coining into notice in restricted por- 
 tions of the Hudson valley. 
 
 Tlie Two- Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System. — In- 
 asmuch as the greater part of the fruit in the Four- 
 Cane Kniffin is born upon the upper wire, the ques- 
 
The Droopi?ig Syste?n. 
 
 67 
 
 tion arises if it would not be better to dispense with 
 the lower canes and cut the upper ones longer. 
 This is now done to a considerable extent, especi- 
 ally in the Hudson valley. Fig. 25 explains the 
 operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk 
 is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, 
 each bearing from nine to fifteen buds, are left upon 
 the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper 
 wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the 
 
 25. UMBRELLA TRAINING. 
 
 lower wire, where the ends are tied. In some in- 
 stances, the lower wire is dispensed with, but this 
 is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place 
 against the winds and prevents the too violent 
 whipping of the hanging shoots. During the grow- 
 ing season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs 
 in exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Knif- 
 fin. This species of training reduces the amount of 
 leaf-surface to a minimum, and every precaution 
 must be taken to insure a healthy leaf -growth. This 
 
The Drooping System. 69 
 
 system of training will probably not allow of the 
 successful girdling of the vine for the purpose of 
 hastening the maturity and augmenting the size of 
 the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from 
 it, if liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are em- 
 ployed, and the fruit is nearly always first-class. A 
 Concord vine trained in this manner produced in 
 1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weigh- 
 ing forty pounds. 
 
 Another type of Umbrella training is shown in 
 fig. 26, before pruning. Here five main canes were 
 allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in very 
 strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably 
 never so good as the other (fig. 25), if the highest 
 results are desired ; but for the grower who does 
 not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a 
 safer system than the other. 
 
 The Low, or One- Wire Kniffin. — A modification 
 of this Umbrella system is sometimes used, in which 
 the trellis is only three or four feet high and com- 
 prises but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen 
 buds is tied out in each direction, and the shoots are 
 allowed to hang in essentially the same manner as 
 in the True or High Kniffin system. The advan- 
 tages urged for this system are the protection of the 
 grapes from wind, the large size of the fruit due to 
 the small amount of bearing wood, the ease of lay- 
 ing down the vines, the readiness with which the 
 top can be renewed from the root as occasion de- 
 mands, and the cheapness of the trellis. 
 
7o 
 
 American Grape Training. 
 
 The Six- Cane Kniffin. — There are many old vine- 
 yards in eastern New York which are trained upon 
 a six-cane or three-wire system. The general prim- 
 ning and management of these vines do not differ 
 from that of the common Knimn. Very strong va- 
 rieties which can carry an abundance of wood, 
 may be profitable upon this style of training, but 
 it cannot be recommended. A Concord vineyard 
 over thirty years old, comprising 295 vines, trained 
 in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive. 
 Twice it has produced crops of six tons. 
 
 Eight- Cane Kniffin. — Eight and even ten canes 
 are sometimes left upon a single trunk, and are 
 trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely, as 
 
 27. eight-cane kniffin. (Diagram.) 
 
 shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 27). 
 Unless these canes are cut back to four or five buds 
 each, the vine carries too much wood and fruit. 
 
28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN. 
 
72 
 
 American Grape Training. 
 
 This system allows of close planting, but the trellis 
 is too expensive. The trunk soon becomes over- 
 grown with spurs, and it is likely to become prema- 
 turely weak. This style is very rarely used. 
 
 Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin. — A curious modifica- 
 tion of the Kniffin is employed somewhat on the 
 Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at Marl- 
 boro'. The vines are carried up on a kind of over- 
 
 29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN. 
 
 head arbor, as shown in figs. 28, 29 and 30. The 
 trellis is six feet above the ground, and is composed 
 of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane. 
 The central wire runs from post to post, and one 
 upon either side is attached to the end of a three- 
 foot cross-bar, as represented in fig. 28. The rows 
 are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve 
 feet apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced 
 by a connecting-pole, as in fig. 29. The trunk of 
 
74 American Grape Training. 
 
 the vina ends in a T-shaped head, which is well 
 displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the 
 foreground in fig. 30. From this T-head, five canes 
 are carried out from spurs. It was formerly the 
 practice to carry out six canes, one in each direc- 
 tion upon each wire, but this was found to supply 
 too much wood. Now two canes are carried in one 
 direction and three in the other ; and the positions 
 of these sets are alternated each year, if possible. 
 The canes which are left after the winter pruning 
 are tied along the wires in spring, as in the Kniffin, 
 and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief 
 advantage of this training is that it allows of the 
 growing of bush-fruits between the rows, as seen in 
 fig. 29. It is also said that the clusters hang so 
 free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or 
 leaves, and the fruit is protected from sun and frost. 
 Every post must be large and firmly set, however, 
 adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several 
 styles similar to this are in use, one of the best be- 
 ing the Crittenden system, of Michigan. In this 
 system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or five 
 feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two 
 or three feet wide. 
 
 The Cross- Wire System. — Another high Kniffin 
 training, and which is also confined to the vicinity 
 of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire, repre- 
 sented in figs. 31 and 32. Small posts are set eight 
 fe3t apart each way, and a single wire runs from the 
 top of post to post — six and one-half feet from the 
 
The Drooping System. 
 
 75 
 
 ground — in each direction, forming a check-row 
 system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at 
 the foot of the stake, to which the trunk is tied for 
 support. Four canes are taken from spurs on the 
 head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating 
 wires. These canes are cut to three and one-half or 
 four feet in length, and the bearing shoots droop as 
 
 31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. 
 
 they grow. Fig. 31 shows this training as it appears 
 some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in 
 the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, 
 and a person standing at a distance sees an almost 
 impenetrable mass of herbage, as in fig. 32. This 
 system appears to have little merit, and will always 
 remain local in application. It possesses the ad- 
 vantage of economy in construction of the trellis, 
 for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of 
 
The Drooping System. 77 
 
 the rows. The end posts are either braced by a 
 pole or anchored by a wire taken from the top and 
 secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet be- 
 yond, outside the vineyard. 
 
 Renewal Kniffin. — It is an easy matter to adapt 
 the Kniffin principle of free hanging shoots to a 
 true renewal method of pruning. There are a few 
 modifications in use in which the wood is annually 
 renewed to near the ground. The trellises com- 
 prise either two or three wires, and are made in the 
 same manner as for the upright systems, as the 
 High Renewal. At the annual pruning only one 
 cane is left. This comprises twelve or fifteen buds, 
 and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point 
 or end of the cane usually being bent downward 
 somewhat, in order to check the strong growth from 
 the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this 
 cane, and they may be pinched back when they 
 reach the ground. In the meantime a strong shoot 
 is taken out from the opposite side of the head — 
 which usually stands a foot or less from the ground — 
 to make the bearing wood of the next year ; and this 
 new cane will be tied in an opposite direction on the 
 trellis from the present bearing cane, and the next 
 renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of 
 the head, or the side from which the present bear- 
 ing wood sprung ; so that the bearing top of the vine 
 is alternated in either direction upon the trellis. 
 This system, and similar ones, allow of laying down 
 the vines easily in winter, and insure excellent fruit 
 
78 
 
 American Grape Training. 
 
 because the amount of bearing wood is small ; but 
 the crop is not large enough to satisfy most de- 
 mands. 
 
 The Munson System. — An unique system of train- 
 ing, upon the Kniffin principle, has been devised by 
 T. V. Munson, of Denison, 
 Texas, a well-known au- 
 thority upon grapes. Two 
 posts are set in the same 
 hole, their tops diverging. 
 A wire is stretched along the 
 top of these posts and a third 
 one is hung between them 
 on cross-wires. The trunk 
 of the vine, or its head, is 
 secured to this middle lower 
 wire and the shoots lop over 
 the side wires. The growth, 
 therefore, makes a V-shaped 
 or trough-like mass of herb- 
 age. Fig. 33 is an end view 
 of this trellis, showing the 
 short wire connecting the 
 posts and which also holds the 
 middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. Fig. 34 is a 
 side view of the trellis. The bearing canes, two or 
 four, in number, which are left after the annual prun- 
 ing, are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk 
 forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left 
 in fig. 34. A head is formed at this place not unlike 
 
 33- 
 
 MUNSON TRAINING. 
 END VIEW. 
 
**w 
 
 
80 American Grape Training. 
 
 like that which characterizes the High Renewal, for 
 this system also employs renewal pruning. The 
 trellis stands six feet high. The shoots stand up- 
 right at first, but soon fall down and are supported by 
 the side wires. The following account of this system 
 of training is w T ritten for this occasion by Mr. Munson : 
 "After the vines have flowered, the bearing 
 laterals have their tips pinched off, and that is all 
 the summer pruning the vine gets, except to rub off 
 all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. 
 Two to four shoots, according to strength of vine, 
 are started from the forks or crotch and allowed to 
 bear no fruit, but are trained along over the lower cen- 
 tral wire for renewal canes. When pruning time ar- 
 rives, the entire bearing cane of the present year, with 
 all its laterals, is cut away at a point near where the 
 young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots 
 are shortened back, according to strength of vine ; 
 some, such as Herbemont, being able at four years 
 to fill four shoots six or eight feet long with fine 
 fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three 
 or four feet each way of one shoot only. The 
 different varieties are set at various distances apart, 
 according as they are strong or weak growers. 
 
 " Thus the trellis and system of pruning are re- 
 duced to the simplest form. A few cuts to each 
 vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties complete 
 the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work 
 well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the 
 middle lower wire, along which all bearing canes 
 
The Drooping System. 81 
 
 are tied after pruning, and from which the young- 
 laterals which produce the crop are to spring. 
 These laterals strike the two outer wires, soon 
 clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe 
 from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the 
 best possible position for spraying and gathering, 
 and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves. I 
 have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres 
 of mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every 
 
 year. 
 
 ''The following advantages ars secured by this 
 
 system : 
 
 "i. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, 
 which is a canopy to shade the roots and body of 
 vine and the fruit, without smothering. 
 
 "2. New wood, formed by sap which has never 
 passed through bearing wood, is secured for the 
 next crop — a very important matter. 
 
 "3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, 
 allowing free passage in any direction through the 
 vineyard ; circulation of air without danger of break- 
 ing tender shoots ; ease of pruning, spraying, cul- 
 tivation, harvesting. 
 
 "4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop 
 to suit capacity of vine. 
 
 "5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees ex- 
 actly with the nature of. nearly all our American 
 species far better than short spurs. 
 
 "6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine 
 
82 
 
 American Grape 
 
 Training. 
 
 being pruned and not tied, standing away from 
 posts, can be bent down to one side between the 
 rows, and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly 
 raised and tied in position. 
 
 '■J. Cheapness of construction and ease of re- 
 moving trellis material and using it again. 
 
 "8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard. " 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS. 
 
 Horizontal Training. — There are very few types 
 of horizontal shoot training now in use. The best 
 is probably that shown in fig. 35. This particular 
 
 35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING. 
 
 vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well 
 adapted. It will be noticed that this picture rep- 
 
 (83) 
 
84 American Grape Training. 
 
 resents the end of a trellis, and the diagonal stick 
 seen near the ground is a brace for the end post. 
 Two wires run from post to post, one about two 
 and one-half feet above the ground and the other 
 five and one-half feet high. The posts are set at 
 the ordinary distance of 16 or iS feet apart. The 
 vines are set six or eight feet apart, if Delawares. 
 A strong stake is driven in the ground behind each 
 vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis, 
 when set. The permanent trunk or head of th? 
 vine stands about a foot high. The vine is re- 
 newed back to the top of this trunk every year. 
 One cane is left at each pruning, which, when tied 
 up to the stake, is as high as the trellis. From 
 this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are car- 
 ried out horizontally. About six of these shoots are 
 allowed to grow upon either side of the cane. As 
 the shoots grow, they are tied to perpendicular 
 slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats 
 do not touch the ground. Two slats are provided 
 upcn either side, making four to a vine. They stand 
 a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang 
 free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots 
 grow too long, they are pinched in when they have 
 passed the second slat. While these shoots are 
 covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out 
 from the head or trunk of the vine and, without 
 being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the central 
 stake. This shoot is to form the top next year, 
 for all the present vine is to be entirely cut away 
 
Miscellaneous Systems. 85 
 
 at the winter's pruning. So the vine starts every 
 spring with but a single cane. 
 
 Excellent results are obtained from the slender 
 growing varieties by this method of training, but 
 it is too expensive in trellis and in labor of tying to 
 make it generally practicable. Delaware, however, 
 thrives remarkably well when trained in this 
 fashion. 
 
 Post Training. — There are various methods of 
 training to posts, all of which possess two advan- 
 tages — the saving of the expense of trellis and al- 
 lowing of cultivation both ways. But they also 
 have grave disadvantages, especially in the thick- 
 ness of the head of foliage which harbors rot and 
 mildew and prevents successful spraying, and 
 hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening well. 
 These faults are so serious that post training is 
 now little used for the American grapes. The 
 saving in cost of trellis is not great, for more posts 
 are required to the acre than in the trellis systems, 
 and they do not endure long when standing 
 alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown 
 upon them. 
 
 There are various methods of pruning for the 
 stake training, but nearly all of them agree in 
 pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright 
 arm which stands the ■ full height of the vine. 
 There may be one or two sets of these spurs. We 
 might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in fig. 22, 
 to be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trel- 
 
Miscellaneous Systems. 87 
 
 lis ; in that event, the four canes would hang at 
 will, or they might be wrapped about the post, the 
 shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. 
 The post systems are essentially Kniffin in princi- 
 ple, for the shoots hang free. In low styles of 
 post training, the permanent head of the vine may 
 be only three or four feet high. This head will 
 have a ring of spurs on it, and at the annual prun- 
 ing three to five canes with from six to ten buds 
 each are left. Fig. 36 is a view in such a post 
 vineyard. 
 
 The main trunk is usually tied permanently to 
 the post. The canes left after pruning are va- 
 riously disposed. Sometimes they are bent up- 
 wards and tied to the post above the head of the 
 vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely 
 about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two 
 trunks are frequently used to each post, both com- 
 ing from the ground from a common root. These 
 are wound about the post in opposite directions, 
 one outside the other, and if the outside one is se- 
 cured at the top by a small nail driven through it, 
 or by a cord, no other tying will be necessary. 
 Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances 
 of one foot or more apart, and the vines are 
 wrapped about them, but this only arguments the 
 size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and 
 then one sees a careful post training, in which but 
 little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of 
 shoots practiced, which gives excellent results ; 
 
88 American Grape Training. 
 
 but on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The 
 European post and stake systems or modifications 
 of them, are yet occasionally recommended for 
 American vines, but under general conditions, es- 
 pecially in commercial grape growing, they rarely 
 succeed long. One of the latest recommendations 
 of any of these types is that of the single pole sys- 
 tem of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of 
 Iowa, in a little treatise published in 1878. 
 
 Arbors. — Arbors and bowers are usually formed 
 with little reference to pruning and training. The 
 first object is to secure shade and seclusion, and 
 these are conditions which may seriously interfere 
 with the production of fine grapes. As a rule, too 
 much wood must be allowed to grow, and the soil 
 about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair re- 
 sults in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes 
 a diligent use of the pruning shears. It is usually 
 best to carry one main or permanent trunk up to 
 the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk 
 at intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left 
 to which the wood is renewed each year. If the 
 vines stand six feet apart about the arbor — which 
 is a satisfactory distance — one cane three feet long 
 may be left on each spur when the pruning is done. 
 The shoots which spring from these canes will 
 soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the 
 close of the season, this entire cane with its lat- 
 erals is cut away at the spur, and another three- 
 foot cane — which grew during the season — is left 
 
Miscellaneous Systems. 89 
 
 in its place. This pruning is essentially that of 
 the Kniffin vine in fig. 22. Imagine this vine. 
 with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid upon 
 the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to 
 the slats instead of being tied on wires. This same 
 system — running up a long trunk and cutting in to 
 side spurs — will apply equally well to tall walls and 
 fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly 
 a better plan, so far as yield and quality of fruit 
 is concerned, is to renew back nearly to the root, 
 bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or 
 three every vear. and cutting the old ones off; but 
 as the vines are desired for shade one does not 
 care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach 
 and cover the top of the arbor. 
 
 Remodeling Old lines. — Old and neglected tops 
 can rarely be remodeled to advantage. If the vine 
 is still vigorous, it will probably pay to grow an en- 
 tirely new top by taking out a cane from the root. 
 If the old top is cut back severely for a year or 
 two, this new cane will make a vigorous growth, 
 and it can be treated essentially like a new or 
 voting vine. If it is very strong and ripens up 
 well, it can be left long enough the first fall to 
 make the permanent trunk ; but if it is rather 
 weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or 
 winter to two or three buds, from one of which the 
 permanent trunk is to be grown the second season. 
 Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the 
 preceding pages for the various systems, will apply 
 
9° American Grape Training, 
 
 to the new vine. The old trunk should be cut 
 away as soon as the new one is permanently tied 
 to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first 
 or second season of the new trunk. Care must be 
 exercised to rub off all sprouts which spring from 
 the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut 
 back into the ground and covered with earth, bet- 
 ter results may be expected. Old vines treated in 
 this manner often make good plants, but if the 
 vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble 
 will scarcely pay for itself. 
 
 These old vines can be remodeled easily by means 
 of grafting. Cut off the trunk five or six inches 
 below the surface of the ground, leaving an inch or 
 two of straight wood above the roots. Into this 
 stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft-grafting 
 the apple. Cions of two or three buds, of firm 
 wood the side of a lead-pencil, should be inserted. 
 The top bud should stand above the ground. The 
 cleft will need no tying nor wax, although it is well 
 to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material over 
 the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth 
 tightly about it. Fig. 37 shows the first year's 
 growth from two cions of Niagara set in a Red 
 Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any 
 pruning which is done this first year, or the cions 
 may be loosened. If the young shoots are tied to 
 a stake there will bs less danger from wind and 
 careless workmen. In the vine shown in the illus- 
 tration, no pruning nor rubbing out was done, 
 
92 American Grape Training. 
 
 but the vine would have been in better shape for 
 training if only one or two shoots had been allowed 
 to grow. Such a vine as this can be carried onto 
 the trellis next year ; or it may be cut back to three 
 or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the 
 permanent trunk next year, like a two-year set vine. 
 If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will 
 be best to cut back the annual growth heavily at the 
 winter pruning. The amount of wood which shall 
 be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant 
 and the variety, but three or four canes of six to ten 
 buds each may be left at suitable places. During 
 the next season a strong shoot from the base of 
 each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form 
 the wood of the following season, while all the 
 present cane is cut away at the end of the year. 
 So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the 
 regular systems of training. Much skill and ex- 
 perience are often required to properly rejuvenate 
 an old vine • and in very many cases the vine is not 
 worth the trouble. 
 
Index 
 
 Page 
 
 Adlum, quoted i<j 
 
 Arbor Kniffin 72 
 
 Arbors 88 
 
 Arm, defined 13 
 
 Barns, W. D., quoted 5--, 
 
 Bass bark 33 
 
 Bleeding 22 
 
 Breaking-out 23 
 
 Brocton, Training at 37 
 
 Bull cane • 5°, 66 
 
 Cane, defined 13 
 
 Chautauqua County, Training 1:1 37 
 
 Contraction of wires 30 
 
 Cornell, William T • . 56 
 
 Cornhusks, for tying 33 
 
 Crittenden training 74 
 
 Cross-wire training 74 
 
 Crotch Kniffin 66 
 
 Double Kniffin 66 
 
 Drooping systems 56 
 
 Eight-cane Kniffin 70 
 
 Fan training 54 
 
 Forestville, Training at 37 
 
 Four-cane Kniffin 58 
 
 Fuller, quoted 10, 34 
 
 Girdling 69 
 
 Grafting 9° 
 
 Haviland, Sands 7 2 
 
 Heading-in 23 
 
 High Renewal training 39 
 
 Hofer, A. F 88 
 
 Horizontal Arm training 34 
 
 Horizontal training 83 
 
 Husks, for tying 33 
 
 (93) 
 
94 Index. 
 
 Page 
 Improved Kniffin 66 
 
 Kniffin systems 5§ 
 
 Kniffin training, Comparison of 26 
 
 Kniffin, William t ............ s;6 
 
 Low Kniffin . „ . . „ 69 
 
 Marlboro', Training at 72, 74 
 
 Modified Kniffin 63 
 
 Munson training „ . 78 
 
 Munson, T. V 78 
 
 Objects of pruning 24 
 
 Old vines, Remodeling of 89 
 
 One-wire Kniffin 69 
 
 Overhead Kniffin 72 
 
 Planting 20 
 
 Posts 28 
 
 Post training 85 
 
 Pruning n 
 
 Pruning, Objects of 24 
 
 of young vines 20 
 
 Summer 23 
 
 Time for 22 
 
 Raffia 32 
 
 Raphia Ruffia 32 
 
 Reasons for pruning 24 
 
 Remodeling old vines 89 
 
 Renewal, defined 18 
 
 Renewal Kniffin 77 
 
 Rubbing off 14, 23 
 
 Rye straw for tying 33 
 
 Sagging of wires 30 
 
 Setting 20 
 
 Shoot, denned 13 
 
 Six-cane Kniffin 70 
 
 Spur, defined 17 
 
 Spur training 34 
 
 Staples 29 
 
 Stopping 23 
 
 Stripping 22 
 
 Summer pruning 23 
 
 Superfluous shoots 23 
 
Index. 95 
 
 Page 
 
 Systems compared 25 
 
 T-head 41 
 
 Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted % 10 
 
 Tightening wires 31 
 
 Trellis, Making 27 
 
 True Kniffin 58 
 
 Twine for tying 3 2 
 
 Two-cane Kniffin 66 
 
 Tying 31 
 
 Umbrella training 66 
 
 Upright training 34 
 
 Walls, Training on . 89 
 
 Weeping g 22 
 
 Willows, for tying 32 
 
 Wire, for trellis 28 
 
 " for tying 33 
 
 " weights and sizes 29 
 
 Wool-twine 3 2 
 
 Y-trunk Kniffin 66 
 
 Yeoman's patent trellis 30 
 
 Yields of grapes 14, 63, 69, 70 
 
 Young vines, Pruning of 20 
 
J 
 
 THIS ILLUSTRATION was made from a photograph of fair samples of the different grades 
 of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth their natural size. 
 
 We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish strong, fibrous-rooted stock, so 
 well appreciated by intelligent and experienced fruit growers. 
 WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE. 
 
 LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y., 
 
 Grape Vine Specialist and General Nurseryman. 
 
 When writing name this book. 
 
Hardy 
 Native 
 Grapes. 
 
 We desire to call the attention of planters to our 
 large and complete stock of Grape Vines. 
 
 We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty 
 varieties, embracing the popular old sorts as well as the 
 new ones which seem to have merit. Our catalogue 
 contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the different 
 varieties according to color. 
 
 Besides the above we offer an immense collection 
 of all kinds of Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, 
 Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General Catalogue 
 (160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings 
 of the most popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in 
 an illuminated cover, will be mailed free to all who 
 have not received it. 
 
 Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare 
 and Choice Trees, Shrubs, etc., including several 
 valuable novelties and many specialties of superior 
 merit, will also be mailed free. 
 
 ELLWANGER & BARRY, 
 
 Mount Hope Nurseries, 
 53rd v ear. ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
Pleasant Valley Nurseries 
 
 PEAR TREES.— Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka, 
 Japan Golden Russet, Kieffer, LeConte, etc., 
 Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of 
 all sorts. Ornamentals, Eleagnus 
 Longipes, Japanese Wineberry 
 Juneberry, Trifoliate Oran 
 and other valued novel- 
 ties. 
 
 '«*_S> 
 
 ies of rf-S -\ •%!£: 
 
 j$ \\S^ ^ Van Deman > E - p - 
 
 J?*- ■dc$ s < *^* ^ oe > an< * °ther new va- 
 
 ^WC\> j>$? rieties ; all the old standard 
 
 ^^O^ *£r sorts, Gooseberries, Raspberries, 
 
 ^^m$\ *£? Blackberries, Currants, Asparagus 
 
 'y(y\^^ Roots and Grape Vines. 
 
 V J. S. COLLINS & SON, Moorestown, N.J. 
 
 Send for Catalogue. 
 
 jpoc tbe jfarnt an& 1bo«seboIt». 
 
 Any one of these valuable books will be sent, postpaid, direct, on receipt of price 
 Be careful to write name and post office plain, so that there may be no mistake in mail- 
 ing. Address 
 
 The Rural Publishing Co., New York. 
 
 pOPULAR ERRORS ABOUT PLANTS.— By A. A. Crozier. A col- 
 lection of errors and superstitions entertained by farmers, gardeners 
 and others, together with brief scientific refutations. Highly interesting 
 to students and intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural liter- 
 ature, and of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the 
 truth about their work. 
 Price, cloth, $i. 
 
THE NURSERY BOOK.— By L. H. Bailey. A complete handbook of 
 Propagation and Pollination of Plants. Profusely illustrated. This 
 valuable little manual has been compiled with great pains. The author 
 has had unusual facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many 
 experts. The book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has 
 nothing to do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant 
 growth. It simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a 
 seed, makes a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It 
 is entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107, 
 and are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats of all 
 kinds of cultivated plants, fruits vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy 
 herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest treas. 
 
 Contents : 
 I. — Sfedage. On Propagation by Seed. 
 II. — Separation. 
 III. — Layerage. Propagation by Layering. 
 IV. — Cuttage. Propagation by Cuttings. 
 
 V. — Graftage. — Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc. 
 VI.— Nursery List.— This is the great featnre of the book. It is an 
 alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling which 
 of the operations described in the first five chapters are employed in prop- 
 agating them. Over 2,000 entries are made in the list. The following en- 
 tries will give an idea of the method : 
 
 Acer (Maple). Sapindacece. Stocks are grown from stratified seeds, 
 which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as A. dasy- 
 carpum, come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some cultural 
 varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by grafting. Varieties 
 of native species are worked upon common or native stocks. The Japan- 
 ese sorts are winter-worked upon imported A. polvmorphum stocks, either 
 by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also be budded in summer, and 
 they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe and soft wood. 
 
 Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus (Leaf Cactus . Cactecz. 
 Fresh seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained, 
 and apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, re- 
 move to a light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six 
 inches in length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about 
 6o°, and apply oidy sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cut- 
 tings are very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before 
 planting. 
 
 VII. — Pollination. 
 
 Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper 
 narrow margins, 50 cents. 
 
 THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.— By A. A. Cro- 
 zier. An essay on the influence of climate upon size, form, color, 
 
 fruitfulness, etc., with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp. 
 Price, paper, 25 cents. 
 
CRUIT CULTURE, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country 
 Home. — By W. C. Strong, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horti- 
 cultural Society, and Vice-President of the American Pomological So- 
 ciety. Illustrated. New revised edition, with many additions, making it 
 the latest and freshest book on the subiect. 
 
 contents : 
 Rural Homes— Choice of Locality— Treatment -A Good Lawn— The 
 Approach. Fruits— Location of the Fruit Garden— Success in Fruit-Cul- 
 ture—Profit in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees— Quality— How to 
 Plant— Time to Plant— Preparing the Land— Fertilizers— Cutting Back- 
 Distances for Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden— Irrigation— Applica- 
 tion of Fertilizers— Thinning the Fruit— Labels. The Apple— Insects In- 
 jurious to the Apple. The Pear— Dwarf Pears— Situation and Soil— Prun- 
 ing— Ripening the Fruit— Insects Injurious to the Pear— Diseases. The 
 Peach— Injurious Insects and Diseases of the Peach— Nectarines. The 
 Plum— Insects and Diseases of the Plum— Apricots. The Cherry— In- 
 sects Injurious to the Cherry. The Quince— Insects Injurious to the 
 Quince. The Grape— Grape-Houses— Varieties— Insects Injurious to the 
 Grape— Mildew. The Currant— Insects Attacking the Currant— The Goose- 
 berry. The Raspberry— The Blackberry. The Strawberry. The Mulberry 
 —The Fig— Rhubarb— Asparagus. Propagating Fruit-Trees— From the 
 Seed— By Division— By Cuttings— By Layers— By Budding— By Grafting 
 Insecticides— Fungicides— Recipes. Price, in one volume, i6mo., cloth, $i. 
 
 HRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE FOR AMERICA. -By James Mor- 
 ton. An excellent and thorough book ; especially adapted to the 
 culture of Chrysanthemums in America. The contents include Propaga- 
 tion by Grafting. Inarching and Seed. American History. Propagation by 
 Cuttings. Exhibition Plants. Classification. Exhibition Blooms. Soil for 
 Potting. Watering and Liquid Manure. Selection of Plants. Top-Dres- 
 sing. Hints on Exhibitions. List of Synonyms. Staking and Tying 
 General Culture. Insects and Diseases. Standard Chrysanthemums. 
 Sports and Variations. Disbudding and Thinning. Oriental and Euro- 
 pean History. Calendar of Monthly Operations. Chrysanthemum Shows 
 and Organizations. National Chrysanthemum Society. Early and Late- 
 Flowering Varieties. Chrysanthemums as House-Plants— Varieties for 
 Various Purposes. Price, cloth, $i ; paper, 60 cents. 
 
 IMPROVING THE FARM, or Methods of Culture that shall afford a 
 ' profit, and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil.— By Lu- 
 cius D. Davis, of Conanicut Park Farm. The contentstreat exhaustively 
 on renewing run-down farms, and comprise the following chapters: Book- 
 Farming. The Run-Down Farm. Will It Pay to Improve the Farm? 
 How Farms Become Exhausted. Thorough Tillage. Rotation of Crops- 
 Green Manuring. More About Clover. Barn-Yard Manure— How Made, 
 Its Cost and Value. How Prepared and Applied. The Use of Wood-Ashes. 
 Commercial Fertilizers. Special Fertilizers. Complete Manures. Ex- 
 periments with Fertilizers. Stock on the Farm. Providing Food for Stock. 
 Specialties in Farming. Price, cloth, $1, 
 
 C 
 
|_ANDSCAPE-GARDENING.-By Elias A. Long. A practical treatise 
 comprising 32 diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds, with 
 copious explanations. Of the diagrams, all but nine have appeared in the 
 serial, "Taste and Tact in Arranging Ornamental Grounds," which 
 has been so attractive a feature of Popular Gardening and American 
 Gardening during the past year. But in the new form the matter has 
 been entirely rewritten. Printed on heavy plate paper, it is unsurpassed 
 for beauty by any other work on Landscape Gardening. 
 Price, 50 cents. 
 
 *pHE BUSINESS HEN.— Breeding and Feeding Poultry for Profit. The 
 pat title of a unique book is The Business Hen. A condensed and, 
 practical little enclycopedia of profitable poultry-keeping. P. H.Jacobs,' 
 Henry Hale, James Rankin, J. H. Drevenstedt and others equally well 
 known have written chapters on their specialties, the whole being skillfully 
 arranged and carefully edited by H. VV. Collingvvood, managing editor of 
 Hie Rural New- Yorker. Starting with the question, " What is an Egg?" 
 the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions & for 
 developing the egg into a "Business Hen." Incubation, care of chicks 
 treatment of diseases, selection and breeding, feeding and housing, are 
 all discussed in a clear and simple manner. Two successful egg-farms' are 
 described in detail. On one of these farms the owner has succeeded in 
 developing a flock of 600 hens that average over 200 eggs each per year. 
 Price, cloth, 75 cents ; paper, 40 cents. 
 
 piRST LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE. {*nd Edition, Revised and En- 
 larged.)— Ky F. A. Gulley, M. S-, Professor of Agriculture in the Agri- 
 cultural College of Mississippi. This book discusses the more important 
 principles which underlie agriculture in a plain, simple wav, within the 
 comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry 
 botany, and other branches of science related to agriculture. It supplies 
 a much-needed text-book for common schools, and is useful for the practi- 
 cal farmer. Includes all the latestdevelopments in agricultural science as 
 applied to the subject. 
 
 Price, cloth, $r. Special prices for Schools and Colleges. 
 
 JHE NEW POTATO CULTURE.-By Elbert S. Carman. This bock 
 gives the result of 15 years' experiment uork on The Rural ground- 
 It treats particularly of: How to increase the crop without corresponding 
 cost of production. Manures and fertilizers: kinds and methods of ap- 
 plication. The soil, and how to put it in right condition. Depth of 
 planting. How much seed to plant. Methods of culture. The Rural 
 trench system. Varieties, etc., etc. 
 
 Nothing old or worn-out about this book. It treats of new and profit- 
 able methods ; in fact, of The NEW Potato Culture. It is respectfully sub- 
 mitted that these experiments at The Rural grounds have, directly and 
 indirectly, thrown more light upon the various problems involved in suc- 
 cessful potato-culture than any other experiments that have been earned 
 on in America. 
 
 Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents. 
 
UORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK.— By Professor L. H. Bailey. 
 Editor of American Gardening, Horticulturist of the Cornell Ex- 
 periment Station, and Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University- It 
 contains in handy and concise form, a great number of Rules and Recipes 
 required by gardeners! fruit-growers, truckers, florists, farmers, etc. 
 
 Synopsis of Contents : Injurious insects, with preventives and reme- 
 dies. Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant diseases, with preventives and 
 remedies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds, etc., with preventives and 
 remedies. Waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements, 
 paints, etc. Seed Tables : Quantities required for sowing given areas . 
 Weight and size of seeds. Longevity of seeds. Time required for seeds 
 to germinate. Planting Tables : Dates for sowing seeds in different lati- 
 tudes. Tender and hardy vegetables. Distances apart for planting. Ma- 
 turity and Yields : Time required for maturity of vegetables ; for bearing of 
 fruit plants. Average yields of crops. Keeping and storing fruits and vege- 
 tables. Propagation of Plants: Ways of grafting and budding. Meth- 
 ods by which fruits are propagated. Stocks used for fruits. Standard 
 Measures anil Sizes: Standard flower-pots. Standard and legal meas- 
 ures. English measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. Quantities of 
 water held in pipes and tanks. Effect of wind in cooling oft glass roofs. 
 Per cent, of light reflected from glass at various angles of inclination. 
 Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. Amount of various pro- 
 ducts yielded by given quantities of fruit. Labels. Loudon's rules of 
 horticulture. Rules of nomenclature. Rules for exhibition. Weather signs 
 and protection from frost. Collecting and Preserving : How to make 
 an herbarium. Preserving and printing of flowers and other parts of 
 plants. Keeping cut-flowers. How to collect and preserve insects. Chem- 
 ical composition of fruils and vegetables, and seeds fertilizers, soils and 
 vegetables. Names and Histories: Vegetables which have different names 
 in England and America. Derivation of names of various fruits and vege- 
 tables. Names of fruits and vegetables in various languages. Glossary. 
 Calendar. 
 
 Price, cloth, $i ; paper, 60 cents. 
 
 p ROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZING :— The Philosophy of the 
 Crossing of Plants considered with reference to their Cultivation — 
 How to Improve plants by Hybridizing.— By L. H. Bailky. It is the only 
 book accessible to American horticulture which gives the reasons, discour- 
 agements, possibilities and limitations of Cross- Breeding. Every man 
 who owns a plant should have it, if for no other reason than to post him- 
 self upon one of the leading practices of the day. The pamphlet contains 
 also a bibliography of the subject, including over 400 entries. 
 Price, paper, 40 cents. 
 
 pHEMICALS AND CLOVER.— By H. W. Collingwood, Managing Ed- 
 
 itor of The Rural Sew- Yorker. A concise and practical discussion of 
 
 the all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green 
 
 manuring in bringing up worn-out soils, and in general farm practice* 
 
 Price, paper, 20 cents. 
 
ANNALS OF HORTICULTURE, Vol. IV.— Bright, New. (lean and 
 
 " Fresh. These Annals are entirely rewritten every year. They are 
 the only records of the progress in horticulture. Exhaustive lists of all 
 the plants introduced in 1892, with descriptions, directories, full accounts 
 of all new discoveries, new tools, and a wealth of practical matter for Gar- 
 deners, Fruit-Growers, Florists, Vegetable-Gardeners and Landscape- 
 Gardeners, comprise its contents. 
 
 Ready soon. Illustrated. Vol. IV.. cloth $1. Vols. I., II and III. at 
 the same price. 
 
 I NSECTS AND INSECTICIDES.— A practical Manual concerning Nox- 
 ious Insects and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. By Clar- 
 ence M. Weed, Professor of Entomology and Zoology. New Hampshire 
 State College. 
 
 I think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little 
 book.— Dr. C. V. Rilev, U. S. Entomologist. 
 
 It is excellent. I must congratulate you on the skill you have dis- 
 played in putting in the most important insects, and the complete manner 
 in which you have done the work.— James Fletcher, Dominion Ento- 
 mologist. 
 
 I am well pleased with it. There is certainly a demand for just such a 
 work. — Dr. F. M. Hexamer, Editor American Agriculturist. 
 
 Price, cloth, $1.25. 
 
 THE CAULIFLOWER.— By A. A. Crozier. Teacher and Practical 
 
 Origin and History of this increasingly important and always de- 
 licious vegetable. 
 
 The Cauliflower Industry. — In Europe. In the United States. Impor- 
 tation of Cauliflowers. 
 
 Management of the Crop. — Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating, 
 Harvesting Keeping. Marketing. 
 
 The Early Crop. — Caution against planting it largely. Special direc- 
 tions. Buttoning. 
 
 Cauliflower Regions of the United States. — Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake 
 Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast. 
 
 Insect and Fungous Enemies. — Flea-beetle. Cut-worms. Cabbage- 
 maggot. Cabbage-worm. Stem-rot. Damping-ofF. Black-leg. 
 
 Cauliflower Seed. — Importance of careful selection. Where the seed 
 is grown. Influence of climate. American-grown seed. 
 
 Varieties. — Descriptive catalogue. Order of earliness. Variety tests. 
 Best varieties. 
 
 Broccoli. — Difference between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation, 
 , use and varieties of Broccoli. 
 
 Cooking Cauliflower. — Digestibility. Nutritive value. Chemical 
 composition. Recipes. 
 
 Price, cloth, $1. 
 
pRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.— A Practical Handbook of Profitable 
 
 Crop-Feeding, written for Practical Men. By T. Greinkr. 
 
 Part I. The Raw Materials of Plant-Food. 
 
 Part II. The Available Sources of Supply. 
 
 Part III. Principles of Economic Application, or Manuring for Money. 
 
 This work, written in plainest language, is intended to assist the farmer 
 in the selection, purchase and application of plant-foods. If you wish to 
 learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances, and how 
 to make money by their proper use, read this book. If you want your 
 boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding, and become a successful farmer, 
 give him a copy of this book. The cost of the book will be returned a hun- 
 dred-fold to every reader who peruses its pages with care and applies its 
 teachings to practice. 
 
 Price, cloth, $i. 
 
 C PRAYING CROPS.— Why, When and How to Do It.— By Prof. Clar- 
 ence M. Weed. A handy volume of about ioo pages; illustrated. 
 Covers the whole field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which 
 the spray is used. The following topics are discussed in a concise, practi- 
 cal manner: 
 
 Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against 
 Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus. 
 Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used 
 in Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides 
 and Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spray- 
 ing. Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery 
 Stock. Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spray- 
 ing Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals. 
 
 Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents ; flexible cloth, 75 cents.