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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 Shelf .._,_(? ^ 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
THE AURORA BOREALIS IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 
 
A 
 
 CATECHISM 
 
 )/ 
 
 OF 
 
 Familiar Things; 
 
 Their History, and the Events which Led to 
 Their Discovery. 
 
 WITH A SHORT EXPLANATION OF SOME OF THB PF.INCIPAL 
 
 NATURAL PHENOMENA. 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 
 
 3BrdKi%zb anfc &*tortr IS&ttum. 
 
 
 
 New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis • 
 BENZIGER BROTHERS 
 
 PRINTERS TO THE HOLY APOSTOLIC SEE, 
 

 Copyright, 1881, by BENZIGER BROTHERS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This book, a reprint of a successful English publication 
 has been so enlarged as to be to all intents and purposes 
 new. It has been carefully revised by a Reverend gentle- 
 man, who for some time filled the chair of Physics and 
 Chemistry in one of our colleges. 
 
 Recent inventions and improvements are described in a 
 simple, popular style, so as to be easily understood by all, and 
 short notices are given of prominent inventors and scientists. 
 The paragraphs relating to doctrinal matters conform in 
 every respect to the teachings of the Church. 
 * A feature which will commend the book to every teacher 
 is the definitions of difficult words and terms, following 
 the paragraphs in which such words occur. 
 
 Technical language is avoided as much as possible, so as to 
 enable young pupils to become familiarly acquainted with the 
 various phenomena of nature, the leading characteristics and 
 general history of the objects of the animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral kingdoms, and the fundamental truths of the arts and 
 sciences. 
 
 The illustrations are of a superior order, and a very com- 
 plete Index, which will be appreciated by every teacher, sup- 
 plements the book. In a word, no pains have been spared 
 
PREFAC E. 
 
 to enhance the value of the work, and render it an important 
 auxiliary in the dissemination of useful and entertaining 
 
 knowledge. 
 
 * 
 
 The publishers beg to acknowledge their obligations to 
 the Sisters of Mercy, Loretto, Pa., to whose kindness they 
 are indebted for many valuable suggestions. 
 
 In the hope that the book may be found suited to the 
 accomplishment of its aim, it is respectfully submitted to 
 schools and instructors of youth, who are the best judges 
 of its merits. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 rfWWWWWWX 
 
 Chapter 
 
 I. Dew, Water, Rain, Snow, Hail, Atmosphere, Wind, Light- 
 ning, Thunder, Electricity, Twilight, and the Aurora 
 
 Borealis Page 13 
 
 II. Corn, Barley, Pearl Barley, Oats, Rye, Potatoes, Tea, 
 
 Coffee, and Chocolate 23 
 
 III. Calico, Cotton, Cloth, Wool, Baize, Linen, Flax, Hemp, 
 
 Diaper, Holland, Canvas, and Flannel 28 
 
 IV. Cocoa, Toddy, Cherries, Bark, Cork, Cochineal, Cloves, 
 
 Cinnamon, and Cassia 34 
 
 V. Bombazine, Crape, Camlet, Cambric, Lace, Silk, Velvet, 
 
 and Mohair 40 
 
 VI. Currants, Raisins, Figs, Rice, Sugar, Sugar Candy, &c, 
 Sago, Millet, Ginger, Nutmeg, Mace, Pimento or All- 
 spice, Pepper, and Cayenne Pepper 4t> 
 
 VII. Glass, Mirrors, Earthenware, Porcelain, Needles, Pins, 
 
 Paper, Printing, Parchment, and Vellum 53 
 
 VIII. Capers, Almonds, Oranges, Lemons, Citrons, Limes, Olives, 
 
 Oils, Melons, Tamarinds, and Dates 61 
 
 IX. Hats, Stockings, Shoes, Gloves, Leather, Furs, and Ink .... 70 
 X. Asbestus, Salt, Coal, Iron, Copper, Brass, Zinc, and Lapis 
 
 Calaminaris 76 
 
 XI. Yams, Mangoes, Bread-Fruit, Shea or Butter Tree, Cow 
 Tree, Water Tree, Licorice, Manna, Opium, Tobacco, 
 and Gum 8() 
 
 XII. Spectacles, Mariner's Compass, Barometer, Thermometer, 
 Watches, Clocks, Telescope, Microscope, Gunpowder, 
 Steam Engine, and Electro-Magnetic Telegraph 94 
 
VI CON T B JST T s . 
 
 Chapter 
 
 XIII. Soap, Candles, Tallow Tree, Spermaceti, Wax, Mahog- 
 any, India Rubber or Caoutchouc, Sponge, Coral, 
 Liine, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Gas, Hydrogen, 
 
 Chalk, and Marble 105 
 
 XIV. Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Platina, Sulphur, Gems or 
 Precious Stones — as Diamonds, Rubies, Emeralds, 
 
 Turquois, Pearls, Mother-of -Pearl, and Ivory 118 
 
 XV. Starch, Arrow-root, Tapioca, Isinglass, Caviare, the 
 Vine, Wine, Gin, Rum, Brandy, Vinegar, Indigo, 
 Gamboge, Logwood, Tar, Pitch, Camphor, Musk, 
 Myrrh, Frankincense, and Turpentine 133 
 
 XVI. Bricks, Mortar, Granite, Slate, Limestone, or Calca- 
 reous Rocks, Steel, Earths, Volcanoes, and Earth- 
 quakes 144 
 
 XVII. Architecture, Sculpture, Use of Money, and Naviga- 
 tion 156 
 
 XVIII. Music, Painting, Poetry, Astronomy, Arts and 
 
 Sciences, Art of Writing, and Chemistry 174 
 
 XIX. Attraction, Tides, Gravity, Artesian Wells, Air, 
 Aneroid Barometer, Ear-Trumpet, Stethoscope, 
 Audiphone, Telephone, Phonograph, Microphone, 
 Megaphone, Tasimeter, Bathometer, Anemometer, 
 Chronometer 201 
 
 XX. Light, Lime Light, Magnesium Light, Electric Light, 
 Rainbow, Prism, Spectrum, Colors, Photography, 
 
 Camera Obscura, Stereoscope, Kaleidoscope 207 
 
 XXI. Electricity, Electric Currents, Electric Battery, Elec- 
 trotyping, Stereotyping, Telegraph, Ocean Cable, 
 Lightning Rod, The Gulf Stream, The Mt. Cenis 
 Tunnel, The Suez Canal, Suspension Bridges, Em- 
 inent Americans 210 
 
A CATECHISM 
 
 OP 
 
 FAMILIAR THINGS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Dew, Water, Rain, Snow, Hail, Atmosphere, Wind, Lightning 
 Thunder, Electricity, Twilight, and the Aurora Borealis. 
 
 What is Dew? 
 
 Moisture collected from the atmosphere by the action of 
 cold. During the day, the powerful heat of the sun causes to 
 arise from the earth and water a moist vapor, which, after the 
 sun sinks below the horizon, is condensed by the cold, and falls 
 in the form of dew. Dews are more copious in the Spring and 
 Autumn than at any other season ; in warm countries than in 
 cold ones : because of the sudden changes of temperature. 
 Egypt abounds in dews all the summer; for the air being too 
 hot to condense the vapors in the day-time, they never gather 
 into clouds and form rain. 
 
 Horizon, the line which bounds the view on all sides, so that the earth 
 and sky appear to meet. A Greek word, from the verb signifying to 
 mark boundaries. Temperature, degree of heat or cold. Condense *e 
 cause the particles of a body to approach or unite more closely. 
 2 (13) 
 
M DEW WATER. 
 
 What are its uses ? 
 It cools and refreshes the vegetable creation, and prevents it 
 from being destroyed by the heat of the sun. All hot countries 
 where there is little or no rain are therefore blessed with this 
 provision by the all-bountiful Creator, to render them luxuriant 
 and inhabitable ; and the dews which fall are so copious, that 
 the earth is as deeply soaked with them during the night as if 
 a heavy rain had fallen. For this reason also it is, that we so 
 often read in the Bible of the "dew of Heaven" being pro- 
 mised to the Israelites as a signal favor. 
 Luxuriant, fertile, flourishing. Signal, remarkable, eminent. 
 
 From what does the vapor originate ? 
 Vapor is water, combined with a still greater quantity of 
 caloric, — that is, an imponderable and subtile form of matter, 
 which causes the sensation of heat ; and which, driving asunder 
 the particles of the water, renders it aeriform. 
 
 Imponderable, without sensible weight. Subtile, thin, not dense, or 
 compact. Particle, a small portion of matter. Aeriform, having the 
 form of air. 
 
 What is Water ? 
 
 The fluid which covers more than three-fifths of the surface 
 of our globe, and which is necessary for the life and health of 
 the animal and vegetable creation ; for without water there would 
 be neither rain nor dew, and everything would perish. It is 
 likewise a necessary beverage for man and the inferior animals. 
 
 Beverage, drink, liquor for drinking. 
 
 In how many states do we find Water ? 
 
 In four: 1st, solid, as in ice, snow, hail, &c; 2d, fluid, as 
 in its common form; 3d, aeriform, as in steam; and 4th, in 
 a state of union with other matter. Its most simple state is 
 that of ice, which is water deprived of a certain portion of its 
 caloric : crystallization then takes place, and the water becomes 
 solid and is called ice. 
 
 Crystallization, the process by which the parts of a solid body, sepa- 
 
WATER. 15 
 
 rated by solution or fusion, are again brought into the solid form. If the 
 process is slow, the figure assumed is regular and bounded by plane and 
 bmooth surfaces. Solution, the diffusion of a solid through some liquid. 
 Fusion, melting, or rendering fluid by heat. 
 
 From what cause is the Water deprived of its caloric ? 
 From the coldness of the atmosphere : underneath the poles 
 of our globe it is mostly solid; there it is similar to the 
 hardest rocks, and may be cut with a chisel, like stone or marble. 
 This great solidity is occasioned by the low temperature of the 
 surrounding air ; and in very cold countries ice may be ground 
 so fine as to be blown away by the wind, and will still be ice. 
 
 Poles, the extremities or ends of tfre axis, an imaginary line, supposea 
 to be drawn through the centre of the earth ; or when applied to the 
 heavens, the two points directly over them. 
 
 Is ice the only instance of Water existing in a state of 
 solidity ? 
 No ; it is found in a solid state in many minerals, as in mar- 
 ble, &c, and is then called water of Crystallization. It is 
 essential, in many cases, to their solidity and transparency. 
 
 Essential, necessary. Transparency, clearness, the power of trans 
 mitting light. 
 
 Does Nature decompose Water in any of her operations ? 
 
 Yes : every living vegetable has the power of decomposing 
 
 water, by a secret process peculiar to itself. Fish, too, and all 
 
 cold-blooded amphibious animals are gifted with the same power. 
 
 Decomposing, separating a mixed body into its several parts. Amphi- 
 bious, able to live both in water and out of it. 
 
 Of what use is this power to vegetables ? 
 The water which they decompose affords them nourishment 
 for the support of their vital juices, and enables them, by com- 
 bining the fluid gases which compose it with those of the air 
 and the soil, to form their different products ; while the super- 
 fluous gas is abundantly given out by their leaves, to refresh 
 the spent air, and render it wholesome for the animals that 
 breathe it. 
 
16 RAIN — SNOW. 
 
 Vital, belonging to life, necessary to existence. Superfluous, unneceft 
 wary, not wanted. 
 
 What is Rain? 
 
 The condensed aqueous vapors raised m the atmosphere 
 by the sun and wind, converted into clouds, which fall in 
 rain, snow, hail, or mist : their falling is occasioned by their 
 own weight in a collision produced by contrary currents of 
 wind, from the clouds passing into a colder part of the air, 
 or by electricity. If the vapors are more copious, and rise a 
 little higher, they form a mist or fog, which is visible to 
 the eye; higher still they produce rain. Hence we may 
 account for the changes of the weather : why a cold summer if 
 always a wet one — a warm, a dry one. 
 
 Aqueous, watery; consisting of water. Collision, sl striking to- 
 gether, a clash, a meeting. Electricity, a natural agent existing in 
 all bodies (see page 18). 
 
 What seasons are more liable to rain than others ? 
 
 The Spring and Autumn are generally the most rainy seasons, 
 
 the vapors rise more plentifully in Spring; and in the Autumn, 
 
 as the sun recedes from us and the cold increases, the vapors, 
 
 which lingered above us during the summer heats, fall more 
 
 Recede, to fall back, to retreat. 
 
 What is Snow ? 
 Rain congealed by cold in the atmosphere, which causes it to 
 fall to the earth in white flakes. Snow fertilizes the ground by 
 defending the roots of plants from the intenser cold of the air 
 and the piercing winds. 
 
 Congealed, turned by the force of cold from a fluid to a solid state; 
 gardened. Fertilize, to render fruitful. Intenser, raised to a higher 
 degree, more powerful. 
 
 What is Hail? 
 Drops of rain frozen in their passage through cold air. 
 
ATMOSPHERE — WIND — THUNDER. 17 
 
 Hail assumes various figures according to the degrees of 
 heat or cold through which it passes, being sometimes round, 
 flat, &c. 
 
 What is the Atmosphere ? 
 The mass of aeriform fluid which encompasses the earth on 
 all sides : it extends about fifty miles above its surface. Air 
 is the elastic fluid of which it is composed. 
 
 Elastic, having the power of springing back, or recovering its for- 
 mer figure after the removal of any external pressure which has 
 altered that figure. When the force which compresses the air is re- 
 moved, it expands and resumes its former state. 
 
 What are the uses of air ? 
 It is necessary to the well-being of man, since without it 
 neither he nor any animal or vegetable could exist. If it were 
 not for atmospheric air, we should be unable to converse with 
 each other ; we should know nothing of sound or smell ; or of 
 the pleasures which arise from the variegated prospects which 
 surround us: it is to the presence of air and carbonic acid that 
 water owes its agreeable taste. Boiling deprives it of the 
 greater part of these, and renders it insipid. 
 
 Variegated, diversified, changed ; adorned with different colors. 
 Insipid, tasteless. 
 
 What is Wind? 
 Air in motion with any degree of velocity. 
 
 What is Lightning ? 
 The effect of electricity in the clouds. A flash of lightning 
 is simply a stream of the electric fluid passing from the clouds 
 to the earth, from the earth to the clouds, or from one cloud to 
 another. Lightning usually strikes the highest and most pointed 
 objects, as high hills, trees, spires, masts of ships, &c. 
 What is Thunder? 
 The report which accompanies the electrical union of the 
 clouds : or the echoes of the report between them and the earth. 
 Thunder is caused by a sudden discharge of electrical matter 
 2* 
 
1 * ELECTRICITY. 
 
 collected in the air, by which vibrations are produced, which 
 give rise to the sound. 
 What is Electricity ? 
 
 One of those agents passing through the earth and all sub- 
 stances, without giving any outward signs of its presence, when 
 at rest ; yet when active, often producing violent and destruc- 
 tive effects. It is supposed to be a highly elastic fluid, capable 
 of moving through matter. Clouds owe their form and exist- 
 ence, probably, to it ; and it passes through all substances, but 
 more easily through metals, water, the human body, &c, which 
 are called conductors, than through air, glass, and silk, which 
 are called non-conductors. When bodies are not surrounded 
 with non-conductors, the electricity escapes quickly into the earth. 
 To what part of bodies is Electricity confined ? 
 
 To their surfaces, as the outside may be electric, and the 
 inside in a state of neutrality. The heat produced by an electric 
 shock is very powerful, but is only accompanied by light when 
 the fluid is obstructed in its passage. The production and con- 
 densation of vapor is a great source of the atmospheric electricity. 
 
 Condensation, the act of making any body dense or compact ; that is, 
 of bringing its parts into closer union. 
 
 In what other sense is the term Electricity employed ? 
 
 This term is also employed to designate that important 
 
 branch of knowledge which relates to the properties shown by 
 
 certain bodies when rubbed against, or otherwise brought in 
 
 contact with, each other, to attract substances, and emit sparks 
 
 of fire. 
 
 Designate, to point out by some particular token. Emit, to send forth, 
 to throw out. 
 
 Whence is the word derived? 
 From electron, the Greek word for amber, a yellow trans- 
 parent substance, remarkable for its electrical power when 
 rubbed : amber is of a resinous nature, and is collected from 
 the sea-shore, or dug from the earth, in many parts of the 
 
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ELECTRICITY. 19 
 
 world. It is employed in the manufacture of beads and other 
 toys, on account of its transparency ; is of some use in medi- 
 cine, and in the making of varnishes. 
 
 Transparent, clear, capable of being seen through. Resinous, con- 
 taining resin, a gummy vegetable juice. 
 
 Name a few substances possessing this remarkable property. 
 Silks of all kinds; the hair and fur of animals, paper, sulphur, 
 and some other minerals; most of the precious stones; the 
 paste of which false gems are made ; and many other sub- 
 stances used by us in the common affairs of life, are suscep- 
 tible of electrical excitement ; among domestic animals the cat 
 furnishes a remarkable instance. When dry and warm, the 
 back of almost any full-grown cat (the darker its color the 
 better) can be excited by rubbing it with the hand in the 
 direction of the hair, a process which is accompanied with a 
 slight snapping noise, and in the dark by flashes of pale blue 
 light. When a piece of glass is rubbed with silk, or a stick 
 of red sealing-wax with woollen cloth, each substance acquires 
 the property of attracting and repelling feathers, straws, threads 
 of cotton, and other light substances; the substances just men- 
 tioned as highly electric are, however, merely specimens. All 
 objects, without exception, most probably are capable of being 
 electrically excited; but some require more complicated con- 
 trivances to produce it than others. 
 
 Electric, having the properties of electricity. Susceptible, disposed to 
 admit easily. Repelling, the act of driving back. Complicated, formed 
 by the union of several parts in one. 
 
 Is there not a machine by which we are enabled to obtain 
 large supplies of electric power at pleasure ? 
 Yes ; the electrical machine. It is made of different forms 
 and sizes : for common purposes those of the simplest form are 
 the best. A common form of the machine consists of a cir- 
 cular plate of glass, which can be turned about a horizon 
 tal axis by means of a suitable handle. This plate turns 
 
20 ELECTRICITY 
 
 between two supports, and near its upper and lower edges 
 are two pahs of cushions, usually made of leather, stuffed 
 with horse-hair and coated with a mixture of zinc, tin, and 
 mercury, called an amalgam. These cushions are the rub- 
 bers for producing friction, and are connected with the earth 
 by means of a metal chain or rod. Two large hollow cylin- 
 ders of brass with globular ends, each supported by two 
 glass pillars, constitute the reseryoir for receiving the elec- 
 tricity. They are called the prime conductors, and are 
 supplied with U-shaped rods of metal, furnished with points 
 along their sides, called combs, for the purpose of receiving 
 the electricity from the glass plate, the arms of the U being 
 held upon either side. The other ends of the conductors are 
 connected by a rod from the middle of which projects 
 another rod terminating in a knob, for delivering the spark. 
 
 On turning the plate, a faint snapping sound is heard, and 
 when the room is darkened, a spark is seen to be thrown 
 out from the knob projecting from the prime conductors. 
 
 Many curious and interesting experiments may be per- 
 formed by means of the machine, illustrating the general, 
 properties of electricity. For instance : a person standing on 
 an insulated bench, that is, a bench with glass legs, or having 
 the legs resting on glass, and having one hand on the con- 
 ductor, can send sparks, with the other hand, to everything 
 and everybody about. This illustrates communication of 
 electricity by contact. A wooden head, covered with long 
 hairs, when placed on the conductor, illustrates electrical 
 repulsion, by the hairs standing on end. 
 
 If the hand is held to the knob, sparks will pass from it 
 in rapid succession, causing in the hand a sensation of pain. 
 This is called an electric shock, and is caused by the electric 
 fluid occasioning a sudden motion by the contraction of the 
 muscles through which it passes. The force of the shock is 
 in proportion to the power of the machine. 
 
MUSCLES — TWILIGHT. 21 
 
 What are the Muscles ? 
 Bundles of thin fleshy fibres, or threads, fastened to the bones 
 of animals, the contraction and expansion of which move the 
 bones or perform the organic functions of life. 
 
 Organic, relating to organs or natural instruments by which some pro- 
 cess is carried on. Functions, employments or offices of any part of the 
 body. Contraction, drawing in or shortening. Expansion, extending or 
 spreading out. 
 
 What is Twilight ? 
 The light from the first dawning of day to the rising of the 
 sun ; and again between its setting and the last remains of day. 
 Without twilight, the sun's light would appear at its rising, 
 and disappear at its setting, instantaneously; and we should 
 experience a sudden transition from the brightest sunshine to 
 the profoundest obscurity. The duration of twilight is different 
 in different climates ) and in the same places it varies at differ- 
 ent periods of *the year. 
 
 Instantaneously, done in an instant, in a moment's time. Obscurity, 
 darkness, want of light. 
 
 How is it produced ? 
 By the sun's refraction — that is, the variation of the rays of 
 light from their direct course, occasioned by the difference of 
 density in the atmosphere. 
 
 Variation, change. Density, closeness of parts, compactness. 
 What is the poetical name for the morning Twilight ? 
 
 Aurora, the goddess of the morning, and harbinger of the 
 rising sun : whom poets and artists represent as drawn by white 
 horses in a rose-colored chariot, unfolding with her rosy fingers 
 the portals of the East, pouring reviving dew upon the earth, 
 and re-animating plants and flowers. 
 
 Harbinger, a forerunner. Portals, gates, doors of entrance. Reani- 
 mating, invigorating with new life. 
 
22 AURORA BOREALIS. 
 
 What remarkable phenomenon is afforded to the inhabi- 
 tants of the polar regions ? 
 
 The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, a luminous appear- 
 ance in the northern parts of the heavens, seen mostly during 
 winter, or in frosty weather, and clear evenings ; it assumes a 
 variety of forms and hues, especially in the polar regions, where 
 it appears in its perfection, and proves a great solace to the 
 inhabitants amidst the gloom of their long winter's night, which 
 lasts from one to six months, while the summer's day which 
 succeeds it lasts in like manner for the same period of time. 
 Of what nature is the Aurora Borealis ? 
 
 It is decidedly an electrical phenomenon which takes place 
 in the higher regions of the atmosphere. It is somehow con- 
 nected with the magnetic poles of the earth; and generally 
 appears in form of a luminous arch, from east to west, but never 
 from north to south. 
 
 Phenomenon, an extraordinary appearance. The word is from a Greek 
 one, signifying, to show or appear. Magnetki belonging to the magnet, 
 or loadstone. Luminous, bright, shining. 
 
 In what country is it seen constantly from October to 
 Christmas ? 
 In Siberia, where it is remarkably bright. On the western 
 coast of Hudson's Bay, the sun no sooner disappears, than the 
 Aurora Borealis diffuses a thousand different lights and colors 
 with such dazzling beauty, that even the full moon cannot 
 eclipse it. 
 
CORN. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 C( rn, Barley, Pearl Barley, Oats, Rye, Potatoes, Tea, Coffee, 
 and Chocolate. 
 
 What is Corn ? 
 Corn signifies a race of plants which produce grain in an ear 
 or head, fit for bread, the food of man ; or the grain or seed of 
 the plant, separated from the ear. 
 
 What is generally meant by Corn ? 
 In this country, maize, or Indian corn, is generally meant; 
 but, in a more comprehensive sense, the term is applied to several 
 other kinds of grain, such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c. 
 Where was Corn first used ? 
 It is uncertain. The Athenians pretend that it was amongst 
 them it was first used; the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians 
 also lay claim to the same. From the accounts in the Bible, 
 we find that its culture engaged a large share of the attention 
 of the ancient Hebrews. 
 Culture, growth, cultivation. Hebrews, the children of Israel, the Jews. 
 
 Who were the Athenians? 
 Inhabitants of Athens, the capital city of Greece. 
 
 Who were the Cretans ? 
 The inhabitants of Crete, an island of the Archipelago. 
 
 Who were the Sicilians ? 
 Inhabitants of Sicily, the largest island of the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea, now a part of Italy, and separated from the main- 
 land by the Strait of Messina. 
 
 Where do the Egyptians dwell ? 
 In Egypt, a country of Africa. It is extremely fertile, pro- 
 ducing great quantities of corn. In ancient times it was called 
 the dry nurse of Rome and Italy, from its furnishing with corn a 
 considerable part of the Roman Empire ; and we are informed, 
 
24 BARLEY — PEARL BARLEY, ETC. 
 
 both from sacred and profane history, that it was anciently the 
 most fertile in corn of all countries of the world. The corn of 
 Syria has always been very superior, and by many classed above 
 that of Egypt. 
 
 For what is Barley generally used ? 
 
 It is very extensively used for making malt ; from which are 
 prepared beer, ale, porter, &c. ; in Scotland it is a common in- 
 gredient in broths, for which reason its consumption is very con- 
 siderable, barley broth being a dish very frequent there. 
 
 Ingredient, a separate part of a body consisting of different materials. 
 What is Pearl Barley ? 
 
 Barley freed from the husk by a mill. 
 What are Oats ? 
 
 A valuable grain, serving as food for horses. Oats are also 
 eaten by the inhabitants of many countries, after being ground 
 into meal and made into oat cakes. Oatmeal also forms a 
 wholesome drink for invalids, by steeping it in boiling water. 
 What are the uses of Rye ? 
 
 In this and some other countries it is much used for bread, 
 either alone or mixed with wheat; in England principally as 
 food for cattle, especially for sheep and lambs, when other food 
 is scarce in winter. Rye yields a strong spirit when distilled. 
 
 Distilled, subjected to distillation — the operation of extracting spirit 
 from a substance by evaporation and condensation. 
 Of what country is the Potato a native ? 
 
 Potatoes grew wild in Peru, a country of South America; 
 whence they were transplanted to other parts of the American 
 continent, and afterwards to Europe. The honor of introducing 
 this useful vegetable into England is divided between Sir Francis 
 Drake, in 1580, and Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1586, some ascribing 
 it to the former, and others to the latter. It is certain they 
 were obtained from Virginia in the time of Raleigh ; they were 
 cultivated only in the gardens of the nobility, and were reckoned 
 a great delicacy. They now constitute a principal article of food 
 
TEA. 25 
 
 in most of the countries of Europe and America ; in Ireland, 
 they have long furnished nearly four-fifths of the entire food of 
 the people. 
 
 What part of the plant is eaten ? 
 
 The root, which, when roasted or boiled, affords a wholesome 
 and agreeable meal. 
 What is Tea? 
 
 The leaves of an evergreen shrub, a native of China and 
 Japan, in which countries alone it is extensively cultivated for 
 use. The tea-plant was at one time introduced into South 
 Carolina, where its culture appears to have been attended 
 with but little success. It may yet become a staple produc- 
 tion of some portions of the United States. 
 
 Evergreen, retaining its leaves fresh and green through all seasons. 
 
 How is it prepared for use ? 
 By carefully gathering the leaves, one by one, while they are 
 yet small, young, and juicy. They are then spread on large 
 flat iron pans, and placed over small furnaces, when they are 
 constantly shifted by the hand till they become too hot to be 
 borne. 
 
 What is next done ? 
 They are then removed with a kind of shovel resembling a 
 fan, and poured on mats, whence they are taken in small quan- 
 tities, and rolled in the palm of the hand always in one direc- 
 tion, until they cool and retain the curl. 
 How often is this operation repeated ? 
 Two or three times, the furnace each time being made less 
 hot. The tea is then placed in the storehouses, or packed in 
 chests, and sent to most of the countries in Europe and America 
 Describe the appearance of the Tea-tree. 
 The Tea-tree when arrived at its full growth, which it does in 
 about seven years, is about a man's height; the green leaves 
 are narrow, and jagged all round ; the flower resembles that of 
 3 
 
26 COFFEE. 
 
 the wild rose, but is smaller. The shrub loves to grow m 
 valleys, at the foot of mountains, and on the banks of rivers 
 where it enjoys a southern exposure to the sun ; though it en- 
 dures considerable variation of heat and cold, as it flourishes in 
 the northern clime of Pekin, where the winter is often severe ; 
 and also about Canton, where the heat is sometimes very great. 
 The best tea, however, grows in a temperate climate, the country 
 about Nankin producing better tea than either Pekin or Canton, 
 between which two places it is situated. 
 
 What produces the difference between Green and Bohea, 
 or Black ? 
 There are varieties of the plant, and the difference of the 
 tea arises from the mode of preparation. 
 
 What nation first introduced it into Europe ? 
 The Dutch in 1610; it was introduced into England in 1650 
 
 What is Coffee ? 
 The berry of the coffee-tree, a native of Arabia. The coffee- 
 tree is an evergreen, and makes a beautiful appearance at all 
 times of the year, but especially when in flower, and when the 
 berries are red, which is usually during the winter. It is also 
 cultivated in Persia, the East Indies, Liberia on the coast of 
 Africa, the West Indies, Brazil and other parts of South America, 
 as well as in most tropical climates. 
 
 Tropical, being within the tropics, that is, in the Torrid Zone. 
 
 Who was the original discoverer of Coffee, for the drink 
 of man ? 
 
 It is not exactly known : the earliest written accounts of 
 the use of Coffee are by Arabian writers in the 1 5th century ; 
 it appears that in the city of Aden it became, in the 
 latter half of that century, a very popular drink, first with 
 lawyers, studious persons, and those whose occupation re- 
 quired wakefulness at night, and soon after, with all classes. 
 Its use gradually extended to other cities, and to those on 
 
CHOCOLATE. 27 
 
 the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. Towards the end 
 of the seventeenth century, it was carried to Batavia where it 
 was soon extensively planted, and at last young trees were 
 sent to the botanical garden at Amsterdam. 
 
 Who introduced it into France and England ? 
 
 Thevenot, the traveller, brought it into France, and a Greek 
 servant named Pasqua (taken to England by Mr. Daniel Ed- 
 wards, a Turkey merchant, in 1652, to make his coffee,) first 
 set up the profession of coffee-man, and introduced the drink 
 among the English. 
 
 How is it prepared ? 
 
 The berries are roasted in a revolving metallic cylinder, 
 till they are of a deep brown color, and then ground to pow- 
 der, and boiled. 
 
 Metallic, consisting of metal. 
 
 What is Chocolate ? 
 A kind of cake or paste, made of the kernel of the cacao-nut. 
 
 Describe the Cacao-nut Tree. 
 It resembles the cherry tree, and grows to the height of fifteen 
 or sixteen feet. The cacao-nut tree bears leaves, flowers, and 
 fruit, all the year through. 
 Where does it grow ? 
 In tropical regions, where it is largely cultivated. 
 
 Of what form is the fruit ? 
 It is somewhat like a cucumber, about three inches round, 
 and of a yellowish red color. It contains from ten to forty 
 seeds, each covered with a little rind, of a violet color ; when 
 this is stripped off, the kernel, of which they make the chocolate, 
 is visible. 
 
 How do they make it into a drink ? 
 By boiling it with water or milk. There are various newly- 
 invented ways of preparing chocolate, so that it may be made 
 in a few minutes, by only pouring boiling water upon it. 
 
28 CALICO — COTTON 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Calico, Cotton, Cloth, Wool, Baize, Linen, Flax, Hemp, Diaper, 
 Holland, Canvas, and Flannel. 
 
 What is Calico ? 
 A kind of printed cotton cloth, of different colors. 
 
 From what place did it take its name ? 
 From Calicut, a city on the coast of Malabar, where it was 
 first made ) much is now manufactured in the United States, 
 England, and many other countries. 
 What is Cotton ? 
 A downy or woolly substance, enclosed in the pod, or seed- 
 vessel, of the cotton-plant. The commercial classification of 
 cotton is determined — 1, by cleanliness or freedom from 
 sand, dry leaf, and other impurities ; 2, by absence of color ; 
 both subject also to character of staple, length, and strength 
 and fineness of fibre. These together determine relative value. 
 There are two general classifications, long-stapled and short- 
 stapled. Of the former the best is the sea island cotton of 
 the United States. The short staple cotton, grows in the mid- 
 dle and upper country ; the long staple is cultivated in the 
 lower country near the sea, and on the islands near the coasts. 
 How is it cultivated ? 
 The seeds are sown in ridges made with the plough or hoe; 
 when the plants are mature, the pods open, and the cotton is 
 picked from them. 
 
 Where did Cotton anciently grow, and for what was ii 
 used ? 
 In Egypt, where it was used by the priests and sacrificers, 
 for a very singular kind of garment worn by them alone. 
 In what manufacture is it now used ? 
 It is woven into muslins, dimities, cloths, calicoes, &c. ; and 
 
cloth — wool. 29 
 
 is also joined with silks and flax, in the composition of other 
 stuffs, and in working with the needle. 
 
 How is the Cotton separated from the seed ? 
 By machines called cotton gins, of which there are two 
 kinds; the roller-gin, and the saw-gin. In the former, the 
 cotton, just as gathered from the plant, is drawn between two 
 rollers, placed so closely together as to permit the passage of 
 the cotton, but not of the seeds, which are consequently left 
 behind. In the saw-gin, the cotton is placed in a receiver, one 
 side of which consists of a grating of parallel wires, about an 
 eighth of an inch apart; circular saws, revolving on a common 
 axis between these wires, entangle in their teeth the cotton, 
 and draw it from the seeds, which are too large to pass between 
 the wires. 
 
 How is it made into Calico, &c. ? 
 The cotton having been separated from the seed, is spun by 
 a machine for the purpose. It is next woven, then dressed, 
 and printed. 
 
 What is Cloth ? 
 The word, in its general sense, includes all kinds of stuffs 
 woven in the loom, whether the threads be of wool, cotton, 
 hemp, or flax. 
 
 To what is it more particularly applied ? 
 To a web or tissue of woollen threads. 
 Web, any thing woven. 
 
 What is Wool? 
 The covering or hair of sheep. To prepare it for the weaver, 
 it is first shorn, washed, and dried, then carded or combed by 
 machinery into fibres or threads: formerly this was always per- 
 formed by the hand, by means of an instrument, called a comb, 
 with several rows of pointed teeth ; this, though not much used 
 now, is still occasionally employed, except in large factories. 
 This combing is repeated two or three times, till it is sufficiently 
 smooth and even for spinning. Spinning or converting wool, 
 3* 
 
80 WOOL. 
 
 or cotton, silk, &c. into thread, was anciently performed by the 
 distaff and spindle : these we find mentioned in sacred history, 
 and they have been used in all ages, and in all countries yet 
 discovered. The natives of India, and of some other parts of 
 the world, still employ this simple invention. 
 What was the next improvement ? 
 
 The invention of the hand-wheel. In 1767, a machine called 
 the spinning-jenny was invented by a weaver named Hargreaves; 
 but the greatest improvement in the art of spinning was effected 
 by Mr. Arkwright, in 1768 : these two inventions were com- 
 bined, and again improved upon in 1776 ; so that by the new 
 plan, the material can be converted into thread in a considerably 
 shorter space of time than in the ancient mode ; leaving to man 
 merely to feed the machine, and join the threads when they 
 break. The sheep, whose wool forms the material for nearly 
 all woollen clothing, came originally from Africa. 
 
 Does weaving differ according to the material used ? 
 
 The principle of weaving is the same in every kind of fabric, 
 and consists in forming any kind of thread into a fbt web, or 
 cloth, by interlacing one thread with another; the various ap- 
 pearances of the manufacture arise as much from the modes in 
 which the threads are interwoven, as from the difference of 
 material. 
 
 Is not the employment of Wool in the manufacture of 
 Clothing of great antiquity ? 
 
 In the earliest records we possess of the arts of mankind, 
 wool is mentioned as forming a chief article in the manufacture 
 of clothing ; it is spoken of in the Bible, as a common material 
 for cloth, as early as the time of Moses. The ancient Greeks 
 and Romans are well known to have possessed this art. At the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century, the manufacture was estab. 
 lished in many parts of Europe, particularly in Spain, from 
 which country it extended itself to France and Italy. There 
 is no doubt that it was introduced into England by its conquer- 
 
WOOL. SI 
 
 ore the Romans, a manufactory being established at Winchester. 
 
 sufficiently large to supply the Roman army. 
 
 Manufactory, a place where things are made or manufactured; derived 
 from the Latin manus, a hand, and the verb /ac?o, to do or make. 
 
 What circumstance contributed to the progress of this 
 
 manufacture among the English ? 
 
 In 1330, the English, being desirous of improving their woollen 
 manufacture, invited over the Flemings, by the offer of various 
 privileges, to establish manufactories there. The skill of these 
 people soon effected a great improvement in the English fabrics, 
 so that there no longer remained any occasion for the exportation 
 of English wool into Flanders, to be manufactured into fine 
 cloth ) and a law was passed by the government to forbid it. 
 Both the cotton and woollen manufactures have, of late years, 
 arisen to great importance in the United States. 
 What country affords the best Wool ? 
 
 The wool of Germany is most esteemed at the present day : 
 that of Spain was formerly the most valuable, but the Spanish 
 breed of sheep, having been introduced into Germany, succeeded 
 better there than in Spain, and increased so rapidly, that the 
 Spanish wool trade has greatly diminished. Australia is one 
 of the principal wool-growing countries in the world, for the 
 breed of sheep sent out to that country and Tasmania has 
 succeeded remarkably well. 
 
 What part of the world is meant by Australia \ 
 
 A British Island in the South Pacific Ocean, comprising 
 the Colonies of Queensland, Xew South Wales, Victoria, 
 South Australia, and Western Australia. It is the principal 
 of the group of large islands, in the Oriental Archipelago. 
 Tasmania is another of the same group, separated from New 
 South Wales by a channel called Bass's Strait, and also 
 belongs to Great Britain. 
 
 What is meant by an Archipelago ? 
 
 A part of a sea studded with numerous islands; but the term 
 
32 CARPETS — BAIZE — LtNEN. 
 
 is more particularly applied to that lying between Europe and 
 Asia, which contains the Greek Islands. The word is a corrup- 
 tion from the Greek, signifying the iEgean Sea. 
 Is the Wool of the sheep all of one quality ? 
 
 No ; it varies according to the species of sheep, the soil on 
 which they are fed, and the part of the animal from which it is 
 taken : the chief distinction is between the long and the short 
 wool ; the long wool is employed in the manufacture of carpets, 
 crapes, blankets, &c. ) and the finer and shorter sorts for hosiery, 
 broadcloths &c. 
 
 Where were Carpets originally made ? 
 
 Carpets are of oriental origin, and are made of different sorts 
 of stuffs; they are woven in a variety of ways Persian and 
 Turkey carpets are most esteemed ; they are woven in a piece, 
 in looms of a very simple construction. Formerly the manu- 
 facture of these carpets was confined to Persia and Turkey ; 
 but they are now successfully made, both in Europe and the 
 United States, &c. Great Britain is the principal seat of the 
 carpet manufacture of the world. Brussels, Wilton, and 
 Kidderminster carpets derive their names from the places 
 where they were invented. 
 
 Is not the art of weaving very ancient ? 
 
 It appears to have been known from a period as early as the 
 time of Abraham and Jacob ; its inventor is not known, but it 
 is possible that men took a lesson from the ingenious spider, 
 which weaves its web after the same manner. The ancient 
 Egyptians appear to have brought it to great perfection, and 
 were even acquainted with the art of interweaving colors after 
 the manner of the Scottish plaid. 
 What is Baize ? 
 
 A coarse, open, woollen stuff, with a long nap. It is chiefly 
 taade in the United States, England, France, &c. 
 What is Linen ? 
 
 There are various kinds of linen, made from cotton, flax, and 
 hemp ; but the term is chiefly applied to that woven with the 
 
FLAX HEMP DIAPER, ETC. 83 
 
 two last mentioned. Linen means cloth of flax ; hence its deri- 
 vation from the Latin word linum, flax. 
 What is Flax ? 
 
 An annual plant, the fibres of which are beaten into threads, 
 spun, and afterwards woven into linen ; it is extensively culti- 
 vated in the United States, Russia, and some other countries 
 of Europe. Hemp is a plant of a similar nature, equally used 
 with flax, in the manufacture of linens. Russian hemp is culti- 
 vated to a larger extent than that of any other country, and is 
 considered the best that is grown. 
 
 How long has the use of Hemp and Flax been known ? 
 
 These plants are said to be natives of Persia, and introduced 
 from some parts of the East into Europe, over which it is now 
 widely distributed : it existed both in a wild and cultivated state, 
 in some parts of Russia, as early as five centuries before Christ 
 These products form a considerable article of exportation, besides 
 the quantity used -in Russia itself; a considerable part is wrought 
 into linens, diapers^ canvas, and other manufactures ; and even 
 the seeds are exported, both in their natural state and as oil. 
 In various parts of Russia, hemp-seed oil and flax-seed (or 
 linseed) oil are prepared in very large quantities. 
 What is Diaper ? 
 
 A sort of linen cloth, woven in flowers, and other figures ; it 
 is said to have received its name from d'Iper, now Ypres, a 
 town of Belgium, situated on a river of the same name, where 
 it was first made. 
 
 What is Holland ? 
 
 A fine, close, even, linen cloth, used for sheets, &c. It ob- 
 tained its name from being principally made in Holland. 
 What is Canvas ? 
 
 A hempen cloth, so loosely woven as to leave interstices 
 between the threads, in little squares. It is used for working 
 in patterns upon it with wools, &c. ; by painters for a ground 
 work on which they draw their pictures; for tents, sails, and 
 
34 DAMASK — FLANNEL — COCOA. 
 
 many other purposes. There are several sorts, varying in the 
 fineness of their texture. 
 What is Damask ? 
 A sort of silken stuff, having some parts raised on its surface 
 to represent flowers or figures. It took its name from Damascus, 
 in Syria, whence it was first brought. 
 
 Is there not another sort of Damask ? 
 Yes, made from linen ; and so called because its large flowers 
 resemble those of damask roses. It was first made in Flanders, 
 and is used for table linen, &c. 
 What is Flannel ? 
 A slight, loose, woollen stuff, used for warm clothing ; it was 
 originally made in Wales, where it still continues to be manu- 
 factured in great perfection. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Cocoa, Toddy, Cherries, Bark, Cork, Cochineal, Cloves, Cinna- 
 mon, and Cassia. 
 
 Of what form is the tree which bears those large nuts, 
 called Cocoa nuts ? 
 It is tall and straight, without branches, and generally about 
 thirty or forty feet high ; at the top are twelve leaves, ten feet 
 long, and half a foot broad; above the leaves, grows a large 
 excrescence in the form of a cabbage, excellent to eat, but taking 
 it off kills the tree. The cocoa is a species of Palm. 
 
 Is not the Indian liquor called Toddy, produced from the 
 Cocoa Tree ? 
 Yes, between the leaves and the top arise several shoots about 
 the thickness of a man's arm, which, when cut, distil a white. 
 
COCOA CHERRIE S — BARK. 35 
 
 sweet, and agreeable liquor ; while this liquor exudes, the tree 
 yields no fruit ; but when the shoots are allowed to grow, it 
 puts out a large cluster or branch, on which the cocoa nuts 
 hang, to the number of ten or twelve. 
 
 Distil, to let fall in drops. Exude, to force or throw out. 
 
 How often does this tree produce nuts ? 
 Three times a year, the nuts being about the size of a man's 
 head, and of an oval form. 
 
 Of what countries is it a native ? 
 Of Asia, the Indies, Africa, Arabia, the Islands of the 
 Southern Pacific, and the hottest parts of America. 
 What are the uses of this Tree ? 
 The leaves of the tree are made into baskets ; they are also 
 used for thatching houses : the fibrous bark of the nut, and the 
 trunk of the tree, are made into cordage, sails, and cloth ; the 
 shell, into drinking bowls and cups ; the kernel affords a whole- 
 some food, and the milk contained in the shell, a cooling liquor. 
 From what country was the Cherry Tree first brought ? 
 From Cerasus, a city of Pontus, in Asia, on the southern 
 borders of the Black Sea; from which place this tree was 
 brought to Rome, in the year of that city 680, by Lucullus ; it 
 was conveyed, a hundred and twenty-eight years after, into 
 Great Britain, A. D. 55. 
 
 What is the meaning of A. D. ? 
 A short way of writing Anno Domini, Latin words for in 
 the year of our Lord. 
 Who was Lucullus? 
 A renowned Roman general. 
 
 Is the wood of the Cherry Tree useful ? 
 It is used in cabinet-making, for boxes, and other articles. 
 
 What is Bark? 
 The exterior part of trees, which serves them as a skin or 
 covering. 
 Exterior, the outside. 
 
36 BARK — CANOES. 
 
 Does it not undergo some change during the year? 
 Each year the bark of a tree divides, and distributes itself 
 two contrary ways, the outer part gives towards the skin, till it 
 becomes skin itself, and at length falls off; the inner part is 
 added to the wood. The bark is to the body of a tree, what 
 the skin of our body is to the flesh. 
 Of what use is Bark ? 
 Bark is useful for many things : of the bark of willows and 
 linden trees, ropes are sometimes made. The Siamese make 
 their cordage of the cocoa tree bark, as do most of the Asiatic 
 and African nations; in the East Indies, they make the bark 
 of a certain tree into a kind of cloth ; some are used in medi- 
 cines, as the Peruvian bark for Quinine; others in dyeing, 
 as that of the alder; others in spicery, as cinnamon, &e. ; the 
 bark of oak, in tanning; that of a kind of birch is used by 
 the Indians for making- canoes. 
 What are Canoes ? 
 Boats used by savages ; they are made chiefly of the trunks 
 of trees dug hollow; and sometimes of pieces of bark fastened 
 together. 
 
 How do the savages guide them ? 
 With paddles, or oars; they seldom carry sails, and the load- 
 ing is laid in the bottom. 
 
 Are not the savages very dexterous in the management 
 of them? 
 Yes, extremely so ; they strike the paddles with such regu- 
 larity, that the canoes seem to fly along the surface of the 
 water ; at the same time balancing the vessels with their bodies, 
 to prevent their overturning^ 
 Dexterous, expert, nimble. 
 
 Do they leave their canoes in the water on their return 
 from a voyage ? 
 No, they draw them ashore, hang them up by the two ends, 
 and leave them to dry; they are generally so light as to be 
 easily carried from place to place. 
 
BARK — CORK. 37 
 
 Were not books once made of Bark ? 
 Yes, the ancients wrote their books on the barks of many 
 trees, as on those of the ash and the lime tree, &c. 
 Which part did they use ? 
 Not the exterior or outer bark, but the inner and finer, which 
 is of so durable a texture, that there are manuscripts written on 
 it which are still extant, though more than a thousand years old. 
 Is it not also used in Manure ? 
 Yes, especially that of the oak; but the best oak bark is 
 used in tanning. 
 
 What is Cork ? 
 The thick, spongy, external bark of the Cork Tree, a species 
 of oak. There are two varieties of this tree, the broad-leaved 
 and the narrow : it is an evergreen, and grows to the height of 
 thirty feet. The Cork Tree attains to a very great age. 
 Where is the Tree found ? 
 In Spain, Italy, France, and many other countries. The true 
 cork is the produce of the broad-leaved tree. 
 What are its uses ? 
 Cork is employed in various ways, but especially for 
 stopping- vessels containing liquids, and, on account of its 
 buoyancy in water, in the construction of life boats. It is 
 also used in the manufacture of life preservers and cork 
 jackets. The greatest quantities are brought from Catalonia, 
 in Spain. The uses of Cork were well known to the ancients. 
 To what particular use did the Egyptians put it ? 
 They made coffins of it, lined with a resinous composition, 
 which preserved the bodies of the dead uneorrupted. 
 What is Cochineal ? 
 A drug used by the dyers, for dyeing crimsons and scarlets ; 
 and for making carmine, a brilliant rsd used in painting, and 
 several of the arts. 
 Is it a plant ? 
 No, it is an insect. The form of the Cochineal is oval ; it 
 4 
 
38 COCHINEAL — CLOVES. 
 
 is about the size of a small pea, and has six legs armed with 
 claws, and a trunk by which it sucks its nourishment. 
 What is its habitation ? 
 
 It breeds in a fruit resembling a pear; the plant which bears 
 it is about five or six feet high ; at the top of the fruit grows a 
 red flower, which when full blown, falls upon it ; the fruit then 
 appears full of little red insects, having very small wings. These 
 are the Cochineals. 
 
 How are they caught ? 
 
 By spreading a cloth under the plant, and shaking it with 
 poles, till the insects quit it and fly about, which they cannot 
 do many minutes, but soon tumble down dead into the cloth ; 
 where they are left till quite dry. 
 
 Does the insect change its color when it is dead ? 
 
 When the insect flies, it is red ; when it is fallen, black ; and 
 when first dried, it is greyish ; it afterwards changes to a pur- 
 plish grey, powdered over with a kind of white dust. 
 From what countries is the Cochineal brought ? 
 
 From the West Indies, Jamaica, Mexico, and other parts of 
 America. 
 
 What are Cloves ? 
 
 The dried flower-buds of the Clove Tree, anciently a native 
 
 of the Moluccas; but afterwards transplanted by the Dutch 
 
 (who traded in them,) to other islands, particularly that of 
 
 Ternate. It is now found in most of the East Indian Islands. 
 
 Describe the Clove Tree. 
 
 It is a large handsome tree of the myrtle kind ; its leaves 
 resemble those of the laurel. Though the Clove Tree is culti- 
 vated to a great extent, yet, so easily does the fruit on falling 
 take root, that it thus multiplies itself, in many instances, without 
 the trouble of culture. The clove when it first begins to appear 
 is white, then green, and at last hard and red ; when dried, it 
 turns yellow, and then dark brown 
 
CINNAMON. 3& 
 
 What are its qualities ? 
 The Clove is the hottest, and most acrid of aromatic sub- 
 stances ; one of our most wholesome spices, and of great use in 
 medicine; it also yields an abundance of oil, which is much 
 used by perfumers, and in medicine. 
 
 Acrid, of a hot, biting taste. Aromatic, fragrant, having an agreeable 
 odor. 
 
 What is Cinnamon ? 
 
 An agreeable, aromatic spice, the bark of a tree of the laurel 
 kind; the Cinnamon tree grows in the Southern parts of India; 
 but most abundantly in the island of Ceylon, where it is exten- 
 sively cultivated ; its flowers are white, resembling those of the 
 lilac in form, and are very fragrant; they are borne in large 
 clusters. The tree sends up numerous shoots the third or fourth 
 year after it has been planted; these shoots are planted out, 
 when nearly an inch in thickness. 
 How is the bafk procured ? 
 
 By stripping it off from these shoots, after they have been 
 cut down ; the trees planted for the purpose of obtaining cinna- 
 mon, throw out a great number of branches, apparently from 
 the same root, and are not allowed to rise higher than ten feet; 
 but in its native uncultivated state, the cinnamon tree usually 
 rises to the height of twenty or thirty feet. 
 How is the Cinnamon Tree cultivated ? 
 
 By seed, sown during the rains ; from shoots cut from large 
 trees; and by transplanting old stumps. The cinnamon tree, 
 in its wild state, is said to be propagated by means of a kind 
 of pigeons, that feed on its fruit; in carrying which to their 
 nests, the seeds fall out, and, dropping in various places, take 
 root, spring up, and become trees. 
 
 Propagated, spread, extended, multiplied. 
 What else is obtained from this tree ? 
 
 The bark, besides being used as a spice, yields an oil highly 
 
40 CASSIA BOMBAZINE — CRAPE. 
 
 .steemed, both as a medicine and as a perfume; the fruit by 
 boiling also produces an oil, used by the natives for burning in 
 lamps ) as soon as it hardens, it becomes a solid substance like 
 wax, and is formed into candles. Camphor is extracted from 
 the root. Cassia is cinnamon of an inferior kind. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Bombazine, Crape, Camlet, Cambric, Lace, Silk, Velvet, and 
 
 Mohair. 
 
 What is Bombazine ? 
 A stuff composed of silk and wool woven together in a loom. 
 It was first made at Milan, and thence sent abroad ; great quan- 
 tities are now made in England and other countries. 
 Where is Milan situated ? 
 In Italy, and is noted for its cathedral. 
 
 For what is Bombazine used ? 
 For dresses. Black bombazine is worn entirely for mourning. 
 The original bombazine has, however, become much less used 
 than formerly, on account of the numerous newly-invented 
 fabrics of finer or coarser qualities, composed of the same mate- 
 rials mixed in various degrees, as Mousselines de laine, Challis, &c. 
 What is Crape ? 
 A light, transparent stuff, resembling gauze, made of raw silk 
 very loosely woven, or of wool ; by raw silk is meant, silk in 
 the state in which it is taken from the silk worm. 
 Where was Crape first made ? 
 At Bologna, a city of Italy. 
 
 "What city of France was long celebrated for its manufac- 
 ture ? 
 Lyons, the second city of France, where there are large silk 
 
CAMLET— CAMBRIC, ETC 41 
 
 manufactories. Great quantities are also made in England, 
 principally in the city of Norwich, which has long been dis- 
 tinguished for the beauty of its crapes. 
 What is Camlet ? 
 
 A stuff made sometimes of wool, sometimes of silk and hair, 
 especially that of goats. The oriental camlet is made of the 
 pure hair of a sort of goat, a native of Angora, a city of Natolia, 
 in Turkey. The European camlets are made of a mixture of 
 woollen thread and hair. 
 
 What countries are most noted for them ? 
 
 England, France, Holland, and Flanders ; the city of Brus- 
 sels, in Belgium, exceeds them all in the beauty and quality of 
 its camlets; those of England are the next. 
 What is Cambric ? 
 
 A species of linen made of flax \ it is very fine and white. 
 From whence did it take its name ? 
 
 From Cambray, a large and celebrated city of French Flan- 
 ders, where it was first made \ it is now made at other places 
 in France ; and also in England, Scotland, Ireland, the United 
 States, &c. 
 
 What is Lace ? 
 
 A work composed of many threads of fine linen or silk, inter- 
 woven one with another according to some particular pattern. 
 Belgium, France, and England are the principal countries in 
 which this manufacture is carried on; vast quantities of the 
 finest laces were formerly made in Flanders. 
 From what is Silk produced ? 
 
 From the silk-worm, an insect not more remarkable for the 
 precious matter it furnishes, than for the many forms it assumes 
 before and after it envelopes itself in the beautiful ball, the 
 silken threads of which form the elegant texture which is so 
 much worn. 
 
 Texture, a web or substance woven. 
 
 4* 
 
42 
 
 STLK . 
 
 What are the habits of this insect, and on what does it 
 feed? 
 
 After bursting from the egg, it becomes a large worm or 
 caterpillar of a yellowish white color, (which is its first state ;) 
 this caterpillar feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree, till, 
 arriving at maturity, it winds itself up in a silken bag or case, 
 called a cocoon, about the size and shape of a pigeon's egg, and 
 becomes a chrysalis; in which state it lies without signs of life; 
 in about ten days it eats its way out of its case, a perfect butter- 
 fly, which lays a number of eggs and then dies. In the warmth 
 of the summer weather, these eggs are hatched, and become 
 worms, as their parents did at first. 
 
 Maturity, ripeness, perfection 
 
 How much silk is each ball said to contain ? 
 
 Each ball consists of a very fine, soft, bright, delicate thread, 
 which being wound off, extends in length six miles 
 What is meant by Chrysalis ? 
 
 The second state into which the insect passes before it comes 
 to be a butterfly. The maggot or worm having ceased to eat, 
 fixes itself in some place till its skin separates, and discovers a 
 horny, oblong body, which is the chrysalis. 
 Where was Silk first made ? 
 
 The culture and manufacture of silk was originally confined 
 to China. The Greeks, under Alexander the Great, brought 
 home, among other Eastern luxuries, wrought silks from Persia, 
 about 323, b. c. It was not long unknown to the Komans, 
 although it was so rare, that it was even sold weight for weight 
 with gold. The Emperor Aurelian, who died in 275, A. c. 
 refused the Empress, his wife, a suit of silk which she solicited 
 with much earnestness, merely on account of its dearness. 
 Heliogabalus, the Emperor, who died half a century before 
 Aurelian, was the first who wore a holosericmn or garment all 
 of silk. 
 
SILK. 13 
 
 Who introduced the Silk Worm itself into Europe ? 
 Two monks, engaged as missionaries in China, obtained a 
 quantity of silk worms ' eggs, which they concealed in a hollow 
 cane, and conveyed in safety to Constantinople in 552; the 
 eggs were hatched in the proper season by the warmth of 
 manure, and the worms fed with the leaves of the wild mul- 
 berry tree These worms in due time spun their silk, and 
 propagated under the care of the monks, who also instructed 
 the Romans in the whole process of manufacturing their pro- 
 duction. From the insects thus produced, proceeded all the 
 silk worms which have since been reared in Europe, and the 
 western parts of Asia. The mulberry tree was then eagerly 
 planted, and on this, their natural food, they were successfully 
 reared in Greece; and the manufacture was established at 
 Thebes, Athens, and Corinth, in particular. The Venetians, 
 soon after this time commencing a trade with the Greeks, sup- 
 plied all the Western parts of Europe with silks for many cen- 
 turies. 
 
 Where were the cities of Thebes and Athens situated ? 
 Thebes was an ancient city of Beotia, in Greece, founded by 
 Cadmus, a Phenician, though of Egyptian parentage. Sailing 
 from the coast of Phenicia, he arrived in Beotia, and built the 
 city, calling it Thebes, from the city of that name in Egypt. 
 To this prince is ascribed the invention of sixteen letters of the 
 Greek Alphabet. Athens was the capital of Attica, founded 
 by Cecrops, an Egyptian. It was the seat of learning and the 
 arts, and has produced some of the most celebrated warriors, 
 statesmen, orators, poets, and sculptors in the world. Since the 
 emancipation of Greece from the cruel bondage of its conquer- 
 ors the Turks, who had oppressed it for three centuries, Athens 
 has been chosen as its capital, and is still a considerable town 
 adorned with splendid ruins of the beautiful buildings it once 
 possessed. Thebes and Corinth, another celebrated city, are 
 now only villages. 
 
14 SILK 
 
 Warrior, a soldier. Statesmen, men versed in the arts of gov irnment. 
 Orator, a public speaker. Poet, one who composes poetry. Sculptor 
 one who cuts figures in stone, marble, or ivory. 
 
 Who were the Venetians ? 
 
 Inhabitants of Venice, a city of Italy. 
 
 Did this manufacture continue to be confined to the Greeks 
 and Venetians ? 
 
 By no means. The rest of Italy, and Spain, by degrees 
 learnt the art from some manufactories in Sicily ; and about the 
 reign of Francis the First, the French became masters of it. 
 It, however, long remained a rarity; their King, Henry the 
 Second, is supposed to have worn the first pair of knit silk 
 stockings. The Fourth Henry encouraged the planting of mul- 
 berry trees ; his successors also did the same, and the produce 
 of silk in France is now very considerable. 
 
 When was the manufacture of silk introduced into -Eng- 
 land ? 
 
 There was a company of silk women in England as early as 
 the year 1455; but they probably were merely employed in 
 needlework of silk and thread, for Italy supplied England with 
 the broad manufacture during the chief part of the fifteenth 
 century. The great advantage this new manufacture afforded, 
 made King James the First very desirous for its introduction 
 into England, particularly in 1608, when it was recommended, 
 in very earnest terms, to plant mulberry trees for the rearing 
 of silk worms; but unhappily without effect. However, towards 
 the latter end of this reign, the broad silk manufacture was 
 introduced, and with great success. The revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes contributed greatly to its promotion, by the number 
 of French workmen who took refuge in England; to them the 
 English are indebted for the art of manufacturing many elegant 
 kinds of silks, satins, velvets, &c, which had formerly been 
 imported from abroad up to the year 1718. The silk manu- 
 
SILK — VELVET. 45 
 
 facture has also been successfully introduced into some portions 
 of the United States. 
 Revocation, act of recalling, repeal. Imported, brought into. 
 
 What was the Edict of Nantes ? 
 
 A law made in favor of the Protestants, the repealing of 
 which drove many of their most skilful workmen to take refuge 
 in England. They were kindly received, and settled in Spital- 
 fields, and many other parts of England as well as Ireland, 
 where they carried on a flourishing and ingenious manufacture. 
 Were the attempts to rear Silk Worms in England suc- 
 cessful ? 
 
 No; after many trials, all of which failed, attention was 
 directed to the establishments for procuring both raw and 
 wrought silks, in the settlements in India belonging to Britain ; 
 this was attended with complete success, the climate being ex- 
 tremely favorable, and the price of labor cheap. Raw silk is 
 imported in quantities from India, China, Italy, &c. 
 How is the Silk taken from the Worm ? 
 
 The people who are employed in the care of these insects 
 collect the golden balls from off* the mulberry trees, (to the 
 leaves of which the insects glue their silk) and put them into 
 warm water, that the threads may unfasten and wind off more 
 easily ; having taken off the coarse woolly part which covers 
 the balls, they take twelve or fourteen threads at a time, and wind 
 them off into skeins. In order to prepare this beautiful mate- 
 rial for the hand of the weaver to be wrought into silks, stuffs, 
 brocades, satins, velvets, ribbons, &c, it is spun, reeled, milled, 
 bleached, and dyed. 
 
 Milled, worked in a kind of mill. Bleached, whitened. 
 
 What is Velvet ? 
 
 A rich kind of stuff, all silk, covered on the outside with a 
 
 close, short, fine, soft shag; the wrong side being very strong 
 
 and close. The principal number, and the best velvets, were 
 
 made in France and Italy; others in Holland; they are now 
 
46 MOHAIR CFRRANTS. 
 
 brought to great perfection in England. An inferior kind is 
 made by mixing cotton with the silk. Velvet has been known 
 in Europe for some centuries, but its manufacture was long 
 confined to some of the chief cities of Italy. From that coun- 
 try the French learned the art, and greatly improved it. 
 Whence is the word Velvet derived ? 
 
 From the Italian word velluto, signifying velvet, which comes 
 from vellus, hair or fleece. 
 What is Mohair ? 
 
 The hair of a kind of goat, common about Angora, in Tur- 
 key. It is used in the manufacture of various kinds of stuffs, 
 shawls, &c. 
 
 Is there not another animal much celebrated for the mate- 
 rial it furnishes in the making of shawls ? 
 
 Yes; the Thibet goat. The wool is sent to Cashmere, 
 where it is spun and dyed. Cashmere is situated in the 
 north-west extremity of India, and has long been celebrated 
 for the beautiful and valuable shawls bearing its name which 
 are manufactured there. The goats are beautiful creatures, 
 with long, fine, wavy hair, reaching nearly to the ground, so as 
 almost to conceal their legs. The material of which the shawls 
 are made is a fine silky down, which grows under the long hair, 
 next to the skin. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Currants, Raisins, Figs, Rice, Sugar, Sugar Candy, &c, Sago, 
 Millet, Ginger, Nutsieg, Mace, Pimento or Allspice, Pepper, 
 and Cayenne Pepper. 
 
 What are Currants ? 
 A kind of small raisins or dried grapes. 
 
 Whence are they brought ? 
 From several islands of the Archipelago, particularly Zante 
 and Cephalonia; and from the Isthmus of Corinth, in Greece. 
 
RAISINS. 47 
 
 Do they grow on bushes like our Currants ? 
 
 No, on vines like other grapes, except that the leaves arc 
 somewhat thicker, and the grapes much smaller : they have no 
 pips, and are of a deep red, or rather black color. 
 
 When are they gathered, and how are they dried ? 
 
 They are gathered in August, and laid on the ground in 
 heaps till dry; they are then cleaned, and put into magazines, 
 from which they are taken and packed in barrels for exporta- 
 tion. 
 
 What do you mean by Exportation ? 
 
 The act of conveying goods for sale from one country to 
 another. 
 
 What are Eaisins ? 
 
 Grapes prepared by drying them in the sun, or by the heat of 
 an oven. Raisins of Damascus, so called from the capital city 
 of Syria, near which they are cultivated, are very large, flat, and 
 wrinkled on the surface; soft and juicy inside, and nearly an 
 inch long. Raisins of the sun, or jar raisins, so called from being 
 imported in jars, are all dried by the heat of the sun; they 
 are of a reddish blue color, and are the produce of Spain, whence 
 the finest and best raisins are brought. There are several other 
 sorts, named either from the place in which they grow, or the 
 kind of grape of which they are made, as those of Malaga, 
 Valencia, &c. 
 
 In what manner are they dried ? 
 
 The common way of drying grapes for raisins, is to tie two or 
 three bunches of them together while yet on the vine, and dip 
 them into a lye made of hot wood-ashes, mixed with a little 
 olive oil. This makes them shrink and wrinkle : after this thej 
 are cut from the branches which supported them, but left on 
 the vine for three or four days, separated on sticks, in an upright 
 position, to dry at leisure. Different modes, however, are 
 adopted, according to the quality of the grape. The commonest 
 kinds are dried in hot ovens, but the best way is that in which 
 
48 FIGS — RICE — SUGAR 
 
 the grapes are cut when fully ripe, and dried by the heat of the 
 
 sun, on a floor of hard earth or stone. 
 
 Lye, a liauormade from wood-ashes; of great use in medicine, bleach- 
 ing, sugar works, &c. 
 
 What are Figs ? 
 A soft, luscious fruit, the produce of the fig-tree. The best 
 figs are brought from Turkey, but they are also imported from 
 Italy, Spain, and the southern part of France. The islands of 
 the Archipelago yield an inferior sort in great abundance. In 
 this country they are sometimes planted in a warm situation in 
 gardens, but, being difficult to ripen, they do not arrive at per- 
 fection. The figs sent from abroad are dried by the heat of the 
 sun, or in furnaces for the purpose. 
 Luscious, sweet to excess, cloying. 
 
 What is Rice ? 
 A useful and nutritious grain, cultivated in immense quanti- 
 ties in India, China, and most eastern countries ; in the West 
 Indies, Central America, and the United States; and in southern 
 Europe. It forms the principal food of the people of eastern 
 and southern Asia, and is more extensively consumed than any 
 other species of grain, not even excepting wheat. 
 Nutritious, wholesome, good for food. 
 
 Does it not require a great deal of moisture ? 
 Yes, it is usually planted in moist soils, and near rivers, where 
 the ground can be overflowed after it is come up. The Chinese 
 water their rice-fields by means of movable mills, placed as oc- 
 casion requires, upon any part of the banks of a river; the 
 water is raised in buckets to a proper height, and afterwards 
 conveyed in channels to the destined places. 
 
 What is Sugar ? 
 
 A sweet, agreeable substance, manufactured chiefly from the 
 
 Sugar Cane,* a native of the East and West Indies, South 
 
 America and the South Sea Islands ) it is much cultivated in all 
 
 tropical countries. The earliest authentic accounts of sugar, are 
 
 * Most of the sugar in Europe is made from beets. 
 
SUGAR — SAGO. 49 
 
 about the time of the Crusades,* when it appears to have been 
 purchased from the Saracens, and imported into Europe. 
 
 Authentic, true, certain. Crusades, holy wars. Saracens, Turks or 
 Arabs. 
 
 How is it prepared ? 
 The canes are crushed between large rollers in a mill, and 
 the juice collected into a large vessel placed to receive it; it is 
 then boiled, and placed in pans to cool, when it becomes imper- 
 fectly crystallized, in which state we use it. This is called raw 
 or soft sugar : loaf sugar, or the hard white sugar, is the raw 
 brown sugar, prepared by refining it till all foreign matter is 
 removed. 
 
 Is the Sugar Cane the only vegetable that produces Sugar? 
 All vegetables contain more or less sugar, but the plant in 
 which it most abounds is the sugar-cane. In the United States, 
 a large quantity of sugar is prepared from the sap of the Sugar 
 Maple Tree. The trees are tapped at the proper season by a 
 cut being made in the bark, and the juice runs into a vessel 
 placed to receive it ; it is then prepared in the same manner as 
 the juice of the sugar cane. 
 
 What is Sugar Candy ? 
 Sugar purified and crystallized. 
 
 What is Barley Sugar ? 
 Sugar boiled till it is brittle, and cast on a stone anointed 
 with oil of sweet almonds, and then formed into twisted sticks. 
 
 What is Sago ? 
 A substance prepared from the pith of the Sago Palm, which 
 grows naturally in various parts of Africa and the Indies. The 
 pith, which is even eatable in its natural state, is taken from 
 the trunk of the tree, and thrown into a vessel placed over a 
 horse-hair sieve ; water is then thrown over the mass, and the 
 finer parts of the pith pass through the sieve ; the liquor thus 
 
 obtained is left to settle. The clear liquor is then drawn off, 
 
 •> 
 
 * See Chapter xvii., article Navigation. 
 
50 MILLET — GINGER — NUTMEGS. 
 
 and what remains is formed into grains by being passed through 
 metal dishes, with numerous small holes ; it is next dried by 
 f .he action of heat, and in this state it is exported. The Sage 
 Palm also produces sugar. 
 
 What is Millet, and in what countries does it grow ? 
 
 Millet is an esculent grain, originally brought from the East- 
 ern countries. It is cultivated in many parts of Europe, but 
 most extensively in Egypt, Syria, China, and Hindostan, whence 
 we are furnished with it, it being rarely cultivated among us, 
 except as a curiosity. 
 
 Esculent, good for food. 
 
 For what is Millet used ? 
 
 It is in great request amongst the Germans for puddings ; for 
 which it is sometimes used amongst us. The Italians make 
 loaves and cakes of it. 
 What is Ginger ? 
 
 The root of a plant cultivated in the East and West Indies, 
 and in America; it is a native of South-eastern Asia and the 
 adjoining islands. 
 
 Describe its nature and use. 
 
 It is a warm aromatic, much used in medicine and cookery. 
 The Indians eat the root when green as a salad, chopping it 
 small with other herbs ; they also make a candy of it with sugar. 
 The ginger sold in the shops here is dried, which is done by 
 placing the roots in the heat of the sun or in ovens, after being 
 dug out of the ground. Quantities not only of the dried root, 
 but also of the candied sugar, are imported. 
 What are Nutmegs ? 
 
 A delicate aromatic fruit or spice, brought from the East 
 Indies. The nutmeg tree greatly resembles our pear tree, and 
 and produces a kind of nut, which bears the same name as the 
 tree. 
 
 What is the appearance of «the Nutmeg ? 
 
 Its form is round, and its smell agreeable. The nutmeg is 
 
ALLSPICE. 51 
 
 inclosed in four different covers ; the first, a thick fleshy coat, 
 (like our walnut,) which opens of itself when ripe ; under this 
 lies a thin reddish network, of an agreeable smell and aromatic 
 taste, called mace ; this wraps up the shell, which opens as the 
 fruit grows. The shell is the third cover, which is hard, thin, 
 and blackish ; under this is a greenish film of no use ; and in 
 the last you find the nutmeg, which is the kernel of the fruit. 
 
 What are its uses ? 
 The nutmeg is much used in our food, and is of excellent 
 virtue as a medicine. It also yields an oil of great fragrance. 
 
 Is the Mace used as a spice ? 
 Yes, it is separated from the shell of the nutmeg, and dried 
 in the sun. It is brought over in flakes of a yellow color, 
 smooth and net-like, as you see it in the shops. Its taste is 
 warm, bitterish, and rather pungent; its smell, aromatic. It is 
 used both in food and medicine, as the nutmeg, and also yields 
 an oil. 
 Pungent, of a hot, biting taste. 
 
 What is Pimento or Allspice ? 
 The dried unripe berry or fruit of a tree growing in great 
 abundance in Jamaica, particularly on the northern side of that 
 island, on hilly spots, near the coast ; it is also a native of both 
 Indies. The Pimento Tree is a West Indian species of Myrtle; 
 it grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet; the leaves are 
 all of a deep, shining green, and the blossom consists of nume- 
 rous branches of small, white, aromatic flowers, which render 
 its appearance very striking ; there is scarcely in the vegetable 
 world any tree more beautiful than a young Pimento about the 
 month of July, when it is in full bloom. 
 
 When is the time to gather the spice ? 
 
 About the month of September, not long after the blossoms 
 
 are fallen, the berries are gathered by the hand ; one laborer 
 
 on the tree, employed in gathering the small branches, will give 
 
 employment to three below (who are generally women and 
 
52 PEP P E II 
 
 children) in picking the berries. They are then spread out 
 
 thinly, and exposed to the sun at its rising and setting for some 
 
 days; when they begin to dry, they are frequently winnowed, 
 
 and laid on cloths to preserve them better from rain and dew ; 
 
 by this management they become wrinkled, and change from 
 
 green to a deep reddish brown color. Great quantities are 
 
 annually imported. 
 
 What are its uses ? 
 
 It forms a pleasant addition to flavor food; it also yields an 
 
 agreeable essential oil, and is accounted the best and mildest of 
 
 common spices. 
 
 Essential, pure ; extracted so as to contain all the virtues of the spice 
 in a very small compass. 
 
 Why is it called Allspice ? 
 Because it has been supposed to combine the flavor of cloves, 
 nutmegs, and cinnamon ; the French call it round clove, from 
 its round shape, and the taste being somewhat like that spice. 
 What is Pepper ? 
 The product of a creeping shrub, growing in several parts of 
 the East Indies, Asia, and America. 
 
 In what manner does Pepper grow, and what part of the 
 shrub is used ? 
 Pepper is the fruit of this shrub, and grows in bunches or 
 clusters, at first green; as it ripens it becomes reddish, until 
 having been exposed for some time to the heat of the sun, (or 
 probably gathered before perfectly ripe,) it becomes black, as 
 in the condition we have it. There are two sorts, the black 
 and the white. 
 
 What is the White Pepper ? 
 The white pepper is merely the black deprived of its outside 
 skin. For this purpose the finest red berries are selected, and 
 put in baskets to steep, either in running water, or in pits dug 
 for the purpose, near the banks of rivers. Sometimes they are 
 only buried in the ground. In any of these situations, they 
 
GLASS. 53 
 
 swell and burst their skins, from which, when dry, they are 
 carefully separated by rubbing between the hands, or fanning. 
 What is Cayenne Pepper ? 
 The dried fruit of a plant called bird pepper, a native of both 
 Indies. It is more pungent than the other sorts. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Glass, Mirrors, Earthenware, Porcelain, Needles, Pins, Paper, 
 Printing, Parchment, and Vellum. 
 
 What is Glass ? 
 
 A transparent, solid, brittle, factitious body, produced by 
 fusing sand with an alkali. The essential ingredients of glass 
 are silex and potash, or soda ; a few other substances are some- 
 times added. Silex is found nearly pure in rock crystal, flint, 
 and other varieties of quartz ; for the manufacture of the better 
 kinds of glass in this country, it is generally obtained from 
 sand, especially the white sand of New Jersey. 
 
 Factitious, made by art, not found in a state of nature. 
 What is Potash ? 
 
 The saline matter obtained from the ashes of wood, by causing 
 water to pass through them ; the water imbibes the salt, which 
 is then obtained from it by evaporation. W 7 hen purified by 
 calcination, it is termed pearlash. In countries where there are 
 vast forests, as in America and Russia, it is manufactured on a 
 very large scale. 
 
 What can you say of the origin of Glass ? 
 
 The period of its invention is quite unknown. Pliny relates 
 that some merchants, driven by a storm to the coast of Phenicia, 
 near the river Belus, made a large fire on the sand to dress 
 5 * 
 
54 MIRRORS. 
 
 some food, using as fuel some of the plant Kali, which grew 
 there in great abundance ; an imperfect glass was thus formed 
 by the melting of the sand and ashes together. This produc- 
 tion was picked up by a Syrian merchant, who, attracted by its 
 great beauty, examined the cause of its origin, and, after many 
 attempts, succeeded in its manufacture. 
 Who was Pliny ? 
 A celebrated Roman naturalist and historian. 
 
 At what place was Glass first made? 
 Some authors mention Sidon in Syria, which became famous 
 for glass and glass-houses ) but others maintain that the first 
 glass-houses noticed in history were built at Tyre ; which, they 
 add, was the only place where glass was made for many ages. 
 It is certain that the art was known to the Egyptians. 
 What is Phenicia ? 
 A sub-division of Syria in Asia. 
 
 What is an author ? 
 A person who writes a book. 
 
 What is signified by a glass-house ? 
 A building erected for the making and working of glass. 
 
 What countries had glass windows first ? 
 Italy, then France and England ; they began to be common 
 about the year 1180. 
 
 In what year, and where, was the making of glass bottles 
 begun ? 
 In 1557, in London. The first glass plates for mirrors and 
 coach-windows were made at Lambeth, in 1673. 
 What is a Mirror ? 
 A body which exhibits the images of objects presented to it 
 by reflection. The word mirror is more peculiarly used to sig- 
 nify a smooth surface of glass, tinned and quicksilvered at the 
 back,* which reflects the images of objects placed before it. 
 
 * See Chapter xii., article Mercury. 
 
MIRRORS EARTHENWARE. 55 
 
 Are they a modern invention ? 
 
 The use of mirrors is very ancient; mention is made of brazen 
 
 mirrors or looking-glasses in Exodus, the 38th chapter and 8th 
 
 verse. Some modern commentators will not admit the mirrors 
 
 themselves to have been of brass, but of glass set or framed in 
 
 brass; but the most learned among the Jewish rabbins say that 
 
 in those times the mirrors made use of by the Hebrew women 
 
 in dressing their heads were of metal, and that the devout women 
 
 mentioned in this passage made presents to Moses of all their 
 
 mirrors to make the brazen laver for the Tabernacle. It might 
 
 likewise be proved that the ancient Greeks made use of brazen 
 
 mirrors, from many passages in the ancient poets. 
 
 Commentators, explainers of passages in the Bible, &c. Rabbins, 
 doctors among the Jews, their learned men or teachers. 
 
 What nation invented the large looking-glass plates now 
 in use? 
 The French. 
 
 What city of Italy excelled all Europe for many years in 
 the making of fine glass ? 
 Venice. The manufacture of fine glass was first introduced 
 into England by Venetian artists in 1078. 
 Of what is Earthenware composed ? 
 Of clay, and those earths which are capable of being kneaded 
 into a paste easily receiving any form, and acquiring solidity by 
 exposure to fire : sand, chalk, and flint are likewise mixed with 
 clay. 
 
 In what manner is it formed into such a variety of shapes? 
 The flint or sand, and soft clay, are mixed together in various 
 proportions for the different kinds of ware ; this paste is after- 
 wards beaten till it becomes fit for being formed at the wheel 
 into plates, dishes, basins, &c. These are then put into a furnace 
 and baked ; after which they are glazed. 
 
 What nation so greatly excelled in the manufacture of a 
 beautiful species of Earthenware ? 
 
56 E A R T Tf E N W A R E . 
 
 The Chinese, — who, as far as can be ascertained, were ite 
 inventors. Porcelain is a fine sort of earthenware, chiefly made 
 in China, whence it was called China or China-ware ; it is also 
 brought from many parts of the East, especially from Japan, 
 Siam, Surat, and Persia. The art of making porcelain was one 
 of those in which Europe had been excelled by oriental nations; 
 but for many years past earthenwares have been made in differ- 
 ent parts of Europe, so like the oriental, that they have acquired 
 the name of porcelain. The first European porcelains were 
 made in Saxony and France, and afterwards in England, Ger- 
 many, and Italy, all of which differed from those of Japan and 
 China, but each possessing its peculiar character. They are 
 now brought to great perfection in Europe, particularly in Eng- 
 land, France and Prussia. 
 
 Before the invention of Earthenware, what supplied its 
 place to the early inhabitants of the world ? 
 
 The more civilized the inhabitants of any country became, 
 the more they would perceive the convenience of possessing 
 vessels of various descriptions for holding or preparing their 
 food; some of the objects which first presented themselves would 
 be the larger kinds of shells; and, in hot climates, the hard 
 coverings of the cocoa-nut or gourd. In some cases the skins 
 of beasts were used, as they still are in the East, where they 
 are sewed together, and formed into a kind of bottle to hold 
 milk, wine, &c. ; but the people of colder climates would not 
 be able to avail themselves of these natural productions, and 
 would be obliged to make use of other substances. 
 What, then, would they employ? 
 
 Clay, which in many countries is found in great abundance, 
 from its adhesive property, and its retaining its form when dry, 
 and becoming insoluble in water after having been baked in the 
 fire, would naturally attract the attention of an improving peo- 
 ple : from this it arises that the early remains of culinary and 
 other vessels which have been discovered have been formed of 
 
NEEDI.BK— PINS PAPER 57 
 
 this material. Among the remains of ancient Egypt, numerous 
 
 vessels have been found formed of common clay baked in the 
 
 tire; and, though of rude workmanship, extremely elegant in 
 
 form. 
 
 Adhesive, sticky; apt or tending to adhere. Insoluble, not capable of 
 being dissolved. Culinary, belonging to cooking or domestic purposes. 
 
 Of what are Needles made ? 
 
 Of steel ; and though exceedingly cheap, they go through a 
 great number of operations before they are brought to perfection. 
 It was in the reign of Queen Elizabeth that the English learnt 
 the art of making needles. 
 Of what are Pins made ? 
 
 Of brass wire, blanched with tin. They are manufactured 
 in England, France, the United States, and other countries. 
 Though there is scarcely any commodity cheaper than pins, 
 there is no other which passes through the hands of a greater 
 number of workmen ; more than twenty persons being succes- 
 sively employed in the manufacture of each, from the drawing 
 of the brass wire to the sticking of the pin in the paper. Pins 
 are supposed to have been made in England about 1543, or even 
 earlier. Before this art was invented, the ladies made use of 
 wooden skewers. 
 
 Blanched, whitened. 
 
 Of what is Paper made ? 
 
 Of linen and cotton rags beaten to a pulp in water; also 
 from straw, wood, and many plants. 
 
 What materials were used for writing, before the invention 
 of Paper? 
 
 Various were the materials on which mankind in different 
 ages and countries contrived to write : stones, bricks, the leaves 
 of herbs and trees, and their rinds or barks ; tablets of wood, 
 wax, and ivory ; plates of lead, silk, linen rolls, &c. At length 
 the Egyptian paper made of the papyrus, was invented; then 
 parchment ; and lastly, paper manufactured of cotton or linen 
 
58 PAPER. 
 
 rags. There are few sorts of plants which have not at some 
 time been used for paper and books. In Ceylon, for instance, 
 the leaves of the talipot ; in India, the leaves of the palm (with 
 which they commonly covered their houses,) were used for 
 books. In the East Indies, the leaves of the plantain tree, dried 
 in the sun, were used for the same purpose. In China, papei 
 is made of the inner bark of the mulberry, the bamboo, the 
 elm, the cotton, and other trees. 
 What is Papyrus ? 
 
 A large rush, chiefly growing in Egypt, on the banks of the 
 Nile. The ancient Egyptians made sails, ropes, mats, blankets, 
 and canvas, of the stalks and fibres of the papyrus. Their 
 priests also wore shoes made of it ; and even sugar was extracted 
 from this plant. Moses, the deliverer raised by God to rescue 
 the Israelites from the bondage of Egypt, was exposed to the 
 Nile in a basket of papyrus. The plant is now, however, 
 exceedingly scarce. 
 
 Where was the first Paper Mill erected in England ? 
 
 At Dartford, by a German named Spilman, in 1588. The 
 only sort made, however, was the coarse brown ) and it was not 
 till 1690, when the French protestant refugees settled in Eng- 
 land, that their own paper-makers began to make white writing 
 and printing paper. The manufacture has been brought to great 
 perfection, both for beauty and substance, in England and the 
 United States. 
 
 Protestant, a name given in Germany to those who adhered to the 
 doctrines of the apostate monk, Martin Luther, because they protested 
 against a decree of Charles V. and applied to a general council. 
 
 Refugee, from refuge, a place of safety from danger ; an asylum. 
 Here it more particularly means those French Protestants who quit 
 their homes and sought other countries, after the revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes, which deprived them of their religious liberty. 
 
 Is it known to whom we are indebted for the invention of 
 Linen Paper? 
 Not exactly. It has long been disputed among the learned 
 
PRINTING PARCHMENT. 59 
 
 when, and by whom, it was invented ) some authors say it was 
 discovered by the Germans, others by the Italians ) others as- 
 cribe it to some refugee Greeks at Basil, who took the idea from 
 the making of cotton paper in their own country : some, that 
 the Arabs first introduced it into Europe. Perhaps the Chinese 
 have the best title to the invention, inasmuch as they have for 
 many ages made paper, and in some provinces of the same mate- 
 rials as are now used by us in its manufacture. 
 
 In what place was the art of Printing first practised ? 
 
 Who were the inventors of Printing, in what city, and in 
 
 what year it was begun, has long been a subject of great dispute. 
 
 Mentz, Harlem, and Strasburg, cities of Germany, all lay claim 
 
 to the invention, but Mentz seems to have the best title to it. 
 
 What was the first Book that was printed from metal types? 
 
 A copy of the Holy Scriptures, which made its appearance 
 between the years 1450 and 1452. 
 
 Who introduced Printing into England ? 
 
 William Caxton, a merchant of London, who had acquired 
 a knowledge of it in his travels abroad. 
 Of what does Printing consist ? 
 
 Of the art of taking impressions with ink, from movable 
 characters and figures made of metal, &c, upon paper or parch- 
 ment. 
 
 What is Parchment ? 
 
 Sheep or goat's skin, prepared after a peculiar manner, which 
 renders it proper for several uses, especially for writing on, and 
 for the covering of books. The ancients seem to have used the 
 skins of animals as a writing material, from a remote period. 
 From what is the word Parchment taken ? 
 
 From Pergamena, the ancient name of this manufacture, 
 which it is said to have taken from the country of Pergamus ; 
 and to Eumenes, king of that country, its invention is usually 
 ascribed, though in reality, that prince appears to have been 
 the improver, rather than the inventor of parchment; since 
 
60 rARCH M E N T . 
 
 some accounts refer its invention to a still earlier period of time. 
 Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, who lived about 450 
 years before Christ, relates that the ancient Ionians made use 
 of sheep and goat-skins in writing, many ages before the time 
 of Eumenes; the Persians of old, too, wrote all their records 
 on skins, and probably such skins were prepared and dressed for 
 that purpose, after a manner not unlike our parchments, though 
 not so artificially. 
 
 Who were the Ionians ? 
 
 The inhabitants of Ionia, an ancient country in the western 
 part of Asia Minor. 
 
 In what manner is Parchment now prepared ? 
 
 The sheep-skins are smeared over with lime* on the fleshy 
 side, folded, laid in heaps, and thus left for some days; they 
 are next stretched very tight on wooden frames, after having 
 been washed, drained, and half dried. The flesh is then care- 
 fully taken off with iron instruments constructed on purpose, 
 and the skin cleansed from the remaining hairs that adhere to 
 it. After having gone through several operations till it is per- 
 fectly clean and smooth, it is fit for writing upon. 
 What are the uses of Parchment ? 
 
 Parchment is of great use for writings which are to be pre- 
 served, on account of its great durability; the writing on it 
 remaining perfect for a great number of years. It is also used 
 for the binding of books, and various other purposes. 
 What is Vellum ? 
 
 A finer sort of parchment than the former, but prepared in 
 the same manner, except that it is not passed through the lime- 
 pit. It is made of the skins of very young calves : there is also a 
 still finer sort made of the skins of sucking lambs, or kids; 
 this is called virgin parchment, and is very thin, fine, and 
 white, and is used for fancy-work, such as ladies' fans, &c. 
 
 * See Chapter xvi., article Lime. 
 
CATERS ALMONDS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 61 
 
 Capers, Almonds, Oranges, Lemons, Citrons, Limes, Olives, Oils, 
 Melons, Tamarinds, and Dates. 
 
 What are Capers ? 
 The full-grown flower-buds of the Caper Tree, a small shrub, 
 generally found growing out of the fissures of rocks, or among 
 rubbish, on old walls and ruins, giving them a gay appearance 
 with its large white flowers. It is a native of Italy: it is 
 also common in the south of France, where it is much 
 cultivated. 
 
 How are they prepared, and for what are they used ? 
 They are gathered, and dried in the shade ; then infused in 
 vinegar, to which salt is added; after which they are put in 
 barrels, to be used as a pickle, chiefly in sauces. 
 What are frequently substituted for Capers ? 
 The buds of broom pickled in the same manner, or the berries 
 of the nasturtium, an American annual plant, with pungent fruit. 
 What are Almonds ? 
 The nut of the Almond Tree, a species of the peach, growing 
 in most of the southern parts of Europe ; there are two kinds, 
 the bitter and the sweet. 
 
 What are their qualities and use ? 
 The sweet almonds are of a soft, grateful taste, and much 
 used by the confectioner in numerous preparations of sweet- 
 meats, cookery, &c. Both sorts yield an oil, and are useful in 
 medicine. 
 
 Of what country is the Orange a native ? 
 It is a native of China, India, and most tropical countries; 
 but has long been produced in great perfection in the warmer 
 parts of Europe and America. Oranges are imported in im- 
 mense quantities every year, from the Azores, Spain, Portugal, 
 G 
 
62 ORANGES — LEMONS. 
 
 Italy, &c. They are brought over in chests and boxes, packet 
 separately in paper to preserve them. The oranges in common 
 use with us are the bitter or Seville, the China or sweet 
 orange, and those from Florida. 
 
 Where are the Azores situated ? 
 
 In the Atlantic Ocean, about 800 miles west of Portugal. 
 These islands are very productive in wine and fruits. 
 Where is Seville ? 
 
 In Spain ; it is an ancient and considerable city, the capital 
 of the province of Andalusia. The flowers of the Seville orange 
 are highly odoriferous, and justly esteemed one of the finest 
 perfumes. Its fruit is larger than the China orange, and rather 
 bitter; the yellow rind or peel is warm and aromatic. The 
 juice of oranges is a grateful and wholesome acid. 
 
 Odoriferous, sweet-scented, fragrant; having a brisk, agreeable smell 
 which may be perceived at a distance. 
 
 Who first introduced the China Orange into Europe ? 
 The Portuguese. It is said that the very tree from which 
 all the European orange trees of this sort were produced, was 
 still preserved some years back, at the house of the Count St. 
 Laurent, in Lisbon. In India, those most esteemed, and which 
 are made presents of as rarities, are no larger than a billiard 
 ball. The Maltese oranges are said by some to be the finest in 
 the world. 
 
 Who are the Maltese ? 
 The inhabitants of Malta, an island of the Mediterranean, 
 situated between Africa and Sicily. 
 Whence are Lemons brought ? 
 The Lemon is a native of Eastern Asia, whence it was brought 
 to Greece, and afterwards to Italy; from Italy it was trans- 
 planted to Spain, Portugal, and the South of France, whence 
 lemons are imported in great plenty. 
 What is the Citron ? 
 The fruit of the Citron Tree, resembling the lemon, but 
 
CITRONS — LIMES — OLIVES. 63 
 
 somewhat larger, and having a finer pulp. The citron was also 
 brought originally from the East of Asia, but has since been 
 produced in the warm paTts of Europe, like the orange and 
 lemon; Genoa especially is the greatest nursery for them. Its 
 rind is principally brought to this country in a candied state, 
 and is applied by confectioners to various purposes. 
 Where is Genoa ? 
 
 A city of Northern Italy, on the Mediterranean, between 
 the rivers Bisagno and Polcevera. 
 What is the Lime ? 
 
 The Lime is by seme thought to be a species of lemon, by 
 others not; it is a smaller fruit, and in the West Indies is 
 greatly preferred to the lemon. It is cultivated in the South 
 of Europe, the West Indies, and the warm parts of America. 
 The agreeable scent called Bergamot is prepared from the rind 
 of a small species of lime. 
 What are Olives? 
 
 The fruit of the Olive Tree, an evei green, now common in 
 the woods of France, Spain, and Italy ; but in the wild state 
 producing a small fruit of no value ; when cultivated, however, 
 (which it is extensively, both for the fruit and the quantity of 
 oil which it yields,) it forms one of the richest productions of 
 Southern Europe. The olive came originally from Asia. Its 
 use is very ancient ; it is frequently spoken of in the Bible, 
 both as in a wild and cultivated state. The promised land of 
 the Israelites was " a land of oil, olive, and honey." From the 
 time that the dove returned to Noah in the Ark with an " olive 
 leaf plucked off," in all ages and countries, wherever this tree 
 is known, down to the present day, has an olive-branch been 
 the favorite emblem of peace. 
 
 What nation holds the olive in great repute ? 
 
 This tree was a great favorite with the ancient Greeks, and 
 scarcely an ancient custom existed in which the olive was not 
 :n some way associated : at their marriages and festivals, all 
 
61 OLIVES. 
 
 parts of their dwellings, especially the doors, were ornamented 
 with them, and the same custom prevails at the present day, 
 both in public and private rejoicings. It was also scarcely less 
 a favorite with the Romans, although it was not held in the 
 same sacred light as amongst the Greeks. The olive-branch 
 has likewise been universally considered the emblem of plenty, 
 and as such, is found on the coins of those countries of which 
 it is not a native. Two centuries after the foundation of Rome, 
 both Italy and Africa were strangers to this useful plant; it 
 afterwards became naturalized in those countries, and at length 
 arrived in Spain, France, &c. Olive trees sometimes attain a 
 great age. 
 
 How are the Olives eaten ? 
 
 The olives while on the tree are intolerably bitter, without 
 any of that peculiar taste which gains them admittance at the 
 richest tables ; to fit them for which they are pickled. Ripe 
 olives are eaten in the Eastern countries, especially amongst the 
 Greeks, as an article of food, particularly in Lent. The oil, 
 which they yield in great quantities, is very highly esteemed ; 
 being that chiefly used for salads, &c, in medicine, and in 
 various manufactures. 
 
 Lent, a time of fasting; the time from Ash-Wednesday to Easter. 
 
 How is the Oil drawn from the Olive ? 
 By presses or mills made for the purpose. The sweetest 
 and best olive oil comes from the South of France, from 
 Naples, Florence, and Lucca; quantities are also brought 
 from Spain and the Ionian Islands. 
 Where is Naples ? 
 In the South cf Italy. 
 
 Where are Florence and Lucca situated ? 
 In Italy. Florence is a very ancient, large, and celebrated 
 city, the capital of Italy; Lucca, formerly a republic, belongs 
 now to the kingdom of Italy. 
 
oils. G5 
 
 Republic, a state in which the supreme power of government is 
 lodged in representatives chosen by the people, instead of being vested 
 in an emperor or king. 
 
 You said that the olive is an Evergreen : to what plant or 
 
 shrub is the term particularly applied ? 
 
 To any shrub or tree whose leaves continue fresh and green 
 
 all the year round, winter and summer, as the laurel, pine, 
 
 cedar, holly, &c, which do not shed their leaves in autumn as 
 
 other trees. 
 
 Is oil a production confined to the Olive alone ? 
 By no means. Oil is a fatty, inflammable matter, drawn 
 from many vegetable and animal bodies. The oils in common 
 use are of three different kinds. The first are mere oily or fatty 
 bodies, extracted either by pressure, or by decoction : of the 
 first kind are those of almonds, nuts, olives, &c. ; and of the 
 other, those of different berries, etc., which are procured by boil- 
 ing the substance in water, which causes the oil to collect on 
 the top. 
 
 Decoction, act of boiling — a chemical term. 
 
 What are the second and third kinds of Oils ? 
 The second are those drawn from vegetables by common 
 distillation in the alembic, with the aid of water ) these contain 
 the oily and volatile part of the plant, and are called essential 
 oils. The third sort are those produced by distillation, but of a 
 different kind in an open vessel, and without the help of water. 
 They are likewise divided into vegetable oils, animal oils, and 
 mineral oils ; which last are those drawn from amber, and a few 
 other substances partaking both of the vegetable and mineral 
 natures, as Petroleum, commonly known as kerosene or coal oil. 
 
 Alembic, a chemical vessel used in distilling. It consists of a vessel 
 placed over afire, containing the substance to be distilled; the upper 
 part, which receives and condenses the steam, is called the head; the 
 beak of this is fitted to a vessel called a receiver. Volatile, easily es- 
 caping, quickly flying off. 
 
 Whence is the word Oil derived ? 
 6* 
 
66 oils. 
 
 From the Latin oleum, formed from olea, olive-tree, the fruit 
 of which abounds in oil. 
 
 What immense fish is it that furnishes us with a quantity 
 of animal oil ? 
 The Whale, the largest and noblest inhabitant of the waters. 
 It is protected from the cold by a case or coating of blubber, 
 that is, a thick oily fat from which the oil is made ; numbers 
 of them are caught for the sake of that. Ambergris, highly 
 prized in perfumery, is a product of the the sperm whale. 
 In what seas are they found ? 
 Chiefly in the Northern Seas : extensive whale fisheries are 
 carried on by the Americans, English, Dutch, &c, and numbers 
 of vessels are sent out for the purpose of taking the fish : they 
 usually sail in the latter end of March, and begin fishing about 
 May. The whale fishery continues generally from that time 
 till the latter end of June or July. There are also other fishes 
 and animals which afford us oils of different kinds, which are 
 used for various purposes in medicine and the arts. 
 
 Is the oil called castor, which is so much used in medicine, 
 the product of an animal or a plant ? 
 Castor oil is expressed from a West Indian shrub, called 
 Palma Christi ; and especially from the ripe seeds, which are 
 full of this oil. It is prepared by collecting these ripe seeds, 
 and freeing them from the husks; then bruising and beating 
 them into a paste ; they are next boiJ.e-i in water, when the oil 
 rising to the surface is skimmed off as it continues to appear. 
 The Castor-oil plant is found growing abundantly in Sumatra, 
 particularly near the sea-shore. 
 Where is Sumatra situated ? 
 In the Oriental Archipelago, off the south eastern part of the 
 continent of Asia. 
 
 In what other countries is this plant found? 
 In some parts of Africa, Syria, and Egypt. It was anciently 
 cultivated in the two last-mentioned countries in large quantities, 
 
BEAVERS BUILDING THEIR HUTS. 
 
MELONS TAMARINDS. 67 
 
 fche seeds being used for the oil they yielded, whicn was burnt 
 in lamps. 
 
 Is not the Palraa Christi much affected by soil and situa- 
 tion? 
 Greatly so. In some places it attains the stature of a tree, 
 and is not a biennial plant, but endures for many years, as in 
 the warm plains of Irak, Arabia, and some parts of Africa. 
 Biennial, lasting for the space of two years only. 
 
 What are Melons ? 
 A species of the Gucumis, a genus of plants to which the 
 cucumber belongs. There are great varieties of this fruit culti- 
 vated in different parts of the world ; that sort called the Can- 
 taleup (so named from being cultivated at a place of that name 
 in the neighborhood of Rome, whither it was brought from 
 Armenia,) is a species of musk-melon; the mature fruit is juicy, 
 and delicately flavored. 
 
 Where is Armenia situated ? 
 Armenia is a large country situated in Asiatic Turkey, to the 
 west of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 What species of Melon is that which almost makes up for 
 a scarcity of good water in hot countries ? 
 The water-melon, which affords a cool, refreshing juice, and 
 quenches the thirst produced by the excessive heats. It requires 
 a dry, sandy soil, and a warm climate ; the pulp of the fruit is 
 remarkably rich and delicious. 
 What are Tamarinds ? 
 The fruit of the Tamarind Tree, a native of both the Indies, 
 Asia, Africa, &c. It is of a roundish form, and composed of 
 two pods inclosed one within the other, between which is a soft 
 pulpy substance, of a tart but agreeable taste; the inner pod 
 contains the seeds or stones. 
 Tart, sharp, acid. 
 
 For what are they used ? 
 We use them only as medicine ; but the Africans, and many 
 
68 DATES. 
 
 of the Oriental nations, with whom they are common, make 
 them into a kind of preserve with sugar, which they eat as a 
 delicacy, and which cools them in the violent heats of their cli- 
 mate. 
 
 From what nation was the knowledge of their use in medi- 
 cine obtained ? 
 
 From the Arabians. 
 
 What does the word Oriental signify ? 
 
 Belonging to the East ; therefore those countries of the globe 
 situated in the East are called Oriental, those in the West, 
 Occidental, from Oriens, signifying East, and Occidens, West. 
 What are Dates? 
 
 The fruit of the Palm, a beautiful and graceful tree, peculiar 
 to the warmer regions of the globe ; the growth of the palm is 
 extremely singular, for although some species attain to the height 
 of the largest forest trees, their structure differs materially from 
 that of a tree, properly so called. The leaves of the young plant 
 arise directly from the surface of the ground, and there is no 
 appearance of any stem for several years ; this stem once formed, 
 never increases in size, the growth of the plant being always 
 upward, so that the stem itself is formed by the prior growth 
 of the green portions of the palm. 
 
 Structure, the manner of formation. 
 
 How often does this tree cast its circle of leaves ? 
 
 Every year ; so that the number of years a palm has existed 
 is known by the scars which are left by their falling off. The 
 palm is an evergreen. 
 
 What are the uses of this Tree ? 
 
 The Palm is of the utmost importance to the inhabitants of 
 the tropical regions; the fruit and sap providing them with 
 food, the fibrous parts with clothing, and the leaves forming the 
 greater part of their slightly-constructed huts; the leaves of 
 some species are formed into fans, hats, and parasols; others are 
 written on, in the same manner that we write on paper ; arti- 
 
DATES. 60 
 
 ficial flowers are made of the pith of some ; the light and supple 
 rattan walking-cane is the slender shoot of another kind ; and 
 solid and useful utensils are made of the shell of the cocoa-nut. 
 The fibres of the Date Palm are formed into ropes and twine ; 
 a liquor is drawn from the trunk, called palm wine ; the trunks 
 of the old trees furnish a hard and durable wood ; and even the 
 nuts or stones of the fruit are useful for feeding cattle ; a whole- 
 some flour is also made of the fruit, when dried and reduced to 
 powder. 
 
 Constructed, put together. 
 
 Whence is its name derived ? 
 
 From the Latin word palma, a hand, given to these produc- 
 tions of the vegetable world, from the supposed resemblance of 
 their broad leaves to the human hand. The Date, the fruit of 
 the Date Palm, derives its name from the Greek dactylus, a 
 finger, from its mode of growing in clusters spreading out like 
 the fingers of the hand. The Palm sometimes forms impene- 
 trable forests; but more frequently is found in small groups 
 of two or three, or even singly, beside springs and fountains 
 of water, affording a kindly shade to the thirsty traveller. 
 Impenetrable, not easily penetrated or got through. 
 From what countries are Dates brought? 
 
 From Egypt, Syria, Persia, Africa, and the Indies. Among 
 the Egyptians and Africans, they make a principal article of 
 food. Dates, when ripe, are of a bright coral red, of an oblong 
 form, and possess a sharp biting taste : they are usually gathered 
 in autumn, before being perfectly ripe. 
 
70 HATS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Hats, Stockings, Shoes, Gloves, Leather, Furs, and In^l. 
 
 Of what are Hats made ? 
 
 Of felt and wool. Dress hats for men's wear, were formerly 
 made of beaver-fur, but the increasing scarcity of this article 
 led to the introduction of silk plush as a substitute, and the 
 result is that beaver is entirely superseded, and plush is used 
 altogether. They possess many advantages over the beaver 
 hat, as they are light, glossy, and durable. Hats are also 
 made of straw, plaited and sewed together. 
 When did Hats come into general use ? 
 
 The first mention made of hats is about the time of the 
 Saxons, but they were not worn except by the rich. Hats for 
 men were invented at Paris, by a Swiss, in 1404. About the 
 year 1510, they were first manufactured in London, by Spaniards. 
 Before that time both men and women in England commonly 
 wore close, knitted, woollen caps. They appear to have become 
 more common in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It is related, 
 that when Charles the Second made his public entry into Rouen, 
 in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, surmounted with 
 a plume or tuft of feathers ; from which entry, or at least during 
 his reign, the use of hats and caps is to be dated; and from 
 that time they took the place of chaperons and hoods, that had 
 been worn before in France. 
 Where is Rouen ? 
 
 In the province of Lower Seine, in France ; it was formerly 
 the capital of Normandy. 
 
 Describe the Castor, or Beaver, and its habits. 
 
 The Beaver has a broad, flat tail, covered with scales, serving 
 as a rudder to direct its motion in the water; the toes of its 
 hind feet are furnished with membranes, after the manner of 
 water-fowl; the fore feet supply the place of hands, like those 
 
STOCKINGS. 71 
 
 of the squirrel. The Beaver has two kinds of hair, of a light 
 
 brown color, one long and coarse, the other short and silky. The 
 
 teeth resemble those of a rat or squirrel, but are longer, and 
 
 admirably adapted for cutting timber or stripping off the bark 
 
 from trees. 
 
 Membranes, thin, flexible, expanded skins, connecting the toes cf 
 water-fowl and amphibious animals, and thus enabling them to swim 
 with greater ease. 
 
 Where do Beavers usually fix their habitations ? 
 
 Their houses are always situated in the water; they are 
 composed of clay, which they make into a kind of mortar with 
 their paws : these huts are of an oval figure, divided into three 
 apartments raised one above the other, and erected on piles 
 driven into the mud. Each beaver has his peculiar cell assigned 
 him, the floor of which he strews with leaves or small branches 
 of the pine tree. The whole building is generally capable of 
 containing eight or ten inhabitants. 
 On what does the Beaver feed ? 
 
 Its food consists of fruit and plants; and in winter, of the 
 wood of the ash and other trees. The hunters and trappers 
 in America formerly killed vast numbers for their skins, 
 which were in great demand, as they were used in making 
 hats, but as the only use they are now put to is for trimming, 
 and for mens gloves and collars, the demand has fallen off. 
 Of what are stockings made 1 
 
 Of cotton, silk, or wool, woven or knitted. Anciently, the 
 only stockings in use were made of cloth, or stuff sewed toge- 
 ther; but since the invention of knitting and weaving stockings 
 of silk, &c.j the use of cloth has been discontinued. 
 
 From what country is it supposed that the invention of 
 silk knitted stockings originally came ? 
 
 From Spain, in 1589. The art of weaving stockings in a 
 frame was invented by William Lee, M.A., of St. John's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, England. 
 
72 SHOES LEATHER. 
 
 Explain the signification of M.A. 
 Master of Arts, a degree of honor conferred by the Univer- 
 sities. 
 
 What are Shoes ? 
 A covering for the foot, now usually made of leather. In 
 different ages and countries, shoes have been made of various 
 materials, as raw skins, rushes, broom, paper, silk, wool, iron, 
 silver, and gold. 
 
 What nation wore Shoes made of the bark of the papyrus? 
 The Egyptians. The Turks always take off their shoes, and 
 leave them at the door, when they enter Mosques or dwelling- 
 houses. The same custom also prevails in other Eastern nations. 
 What is a Mosque ? 
 A Mahomedan church or temple. 
 
 What is meant by Mahomedan ? 
 Belonging to the religion of Mahomed, the warrior and 
 prophet of Arabia and Turkey, who was its founder. He was 
 born at Mecca, a city of Arabia, in 571 ; and died in 631, at 
 Medina, a city situated between Arabia Felix and Arabia De- 
 serta. His creed maintains that there is but one God, and that 
 Mahomed is his Prophet; it enjoins the observance of prayers, 
 washings, almsgiving, fasting, sobriety, pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. 
 What do the appellations of Felix and Deserta signify ? 
 Arabia, a country of Asia, lying on the borders of the Red 
 Sea, is divided into Petraea, Deserta, and Felix ; Petraea, signi- 
 fying the Stony ) Deserta, the Desert ; and Felix, the fortunate 
 or fruitful. 
 
 What is Leather ? 
 The skins of various animals, as oxen, cows, calves, &c., 
 dressed and prepared for use. 
 
 How is the Leather prepared ? 
 By tanning ; that is, steeping the skins, in an infusion of tan, 
 by which they are rendered firm, durable, and, in a great degree, 
 impervious to water. 
 
GLOVES FURS. 78 
 
 Infusion, a liquor made by steeping anything in water, or other liquids, 
 without boiling. 
 
 What is Tan ? 
 The bark of the oak-tree, &c., ground by a mill into a coarse 
 powder. 
 
 What is Lime ? * 
 A white, soft, friable, earthy substance, prepared from marble, 
 chalk, and other lime-stones, or from shells, by burning in a kiln. 
 Friable, easily powdered. 
 
 For what is it used ? 
 Its greatest use is in the composition of mortar for building ; 
 it is also much used by tanners, skinners, &c, in the preparation 
 of leather; by soap-boilers in the manufacture of soap; and 
 by sugar-bakers for refining sugar. 
 What is a Kiln ? 
 A fabric of brick or stone, formed for admitting heat in order 
 to dry or burn materials placed in it. 
 Of what are Gloves made ? 
 Of leather, silk, thread, cotton, worsted, &c. 
 
 What skins are generally used for Gloves ? 
 Those of the chamois, kid, lamb, dog, doe, and many other 
 animals. 
 
 What are Furs, and how are they prepared ? 
 Furs are the skins of wild animals, dressed with the hair on, 
 and used as apparel, either for warmth, ornament, or distinction 
 of rank or dignity. 
 
 Name a few of the principal furs in use. 
 The fur of the ermine, an animal inhabiting the cold regions 
 of Europe and America, is highly valued, and much used for 
 ornamental purposes. In summer, the upper part of the body 
 is of a yellowish-brown color; the under parts white, slightly 
 tinged with yellow. It is then called a stoat. In winter, the 
 
 * For a further account of it, see Chapters xiii. & xvi. 
 
 7 
 
74 ALUM — INK. 
 
 fur is closer and finer, and is of a snowy white color; the tip 
 of the tail is black throughout the year. In Europe the fur is 
 much used for ornamenting the state robes of sovereigns and 
 nobles. The sable is another animal much prized for its rich 
 fur; it is a native of Northern Europe and America. The skins 
 of the marten, found in North America, as well as in Northern 
 Asia and the mountains of Kamtschatka; and also of the bear, 
 fox, raccoon, badger, lynx, musk-rat, rabbit, hare, and squirrel, 
 which are all procured in North America, are valuable. One 
 of the most valuable descriptions of fur is that of the seal. 
 
 How is it procured ? 
 By hunting the animals, which is the employment both of 
 natives and settlers from other countries ; the hunters sell the 
 skins for money, to a company established for the purpose of 
 trading in furs, or more frequently exchange them for clothes, 
 arms, and other articles. The Alaska Commercial Company 
 of San Francisco is granted by the United States Govern- 
 ment the exclusive privilege of catching the fur seal. 
 
 What is Alum ? 
 A kind of mineral, of a strong, sharp taste. It dissolves both 
 in cold and boiling water, but best in the latter. It is of some 
 use in medicine ; a principal ingredient in dyeing and coloring, 
 neither of which can be well performed without it, as it sets 
 and brightens the colors, and prevents them from washing out. 
 It is also extremely useful in many arts and manufactures. 
 
 Are there not different sorts of this material ? 
 The principal kinds are native alums : viz. those prepared 
 and perfected underground by the spontaneous operations of 
 nature ; as the roch, commonly called rock alum, from Rocha, 
 in Syria, whence it is brought. 
 
 Spontaneous, unassisted by art. Orientals, inhabitants of the Eastern 
 parts of the world. 
 
 What is Ink ? 
 A liquor used in writing on paper or parchment, made of 
 
INK. 75 
 
 copperas, galls, and guru arabic* mixed together. There are 
 likewise several plants that may serve for the making of ink, as 
 oak-bark, red roses, log-wood, &c. It is also made from an in- 
 fusion of oak galls and iron filings : there are also many other 
 ways, as well as materials, employed in the making of this 
 useful article. Ink is the name applied to all liquids used in 
 writing, of whatever color they may be, as red, blue, &c, though 
 black is the most used for common purposes. The ink of the 
 ancients seems to have been of a thick, oily nature, unlike the 
 modern ink ; it consisted of nothing more than a species of soot, 
 or ivory black, mixed with one fourth of gum. 
 What is Copperas ? 
 
 A kind of vitriol. Copperas is the name given to green 
 vitriol, which is a preparation from iron. The blue vitriol is a 
 sulphate of copper, and the white vitriol a sulphate of zinc. 
 For what is Vitriol used ? 
 
 In the making of glass, to color it; in many arts and manu- 
 factures; and in medicine. 
 What are Galls ? 
 
 Excrescences formed on a kind of oak tree in certain warm 
 climates; perforations are made by an insect into the bark of 
 the tree, whence issues a liquid which hardens by exposure. 
 They are used in dyeing, making ink, and other compositions. 
 There are two sorts of oak galls in our shops, brought from the 
 Levant, and the southern parts of Europe. 
 What does the word Levant signify ? 
 
 A country to the eastward. It is applied to the countries of 
 Turkey, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, &c, which are 
 washed by the eastern part of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Is the Ink used in Printing the same as writing Ink ? 
 
 No; it is more of the nature of paint, being thicker and 
 more glutinous : it chiefly consists of a mixture of oil and lamp- 
 
 * See Chapter xi. 
 
76 
 
 A S B E S T U S . 
 
 black, or some other ingredient, according to the color required; 
 and is remarkable for the ease with which it adheres to paper 
 that is moistened. 
 
 Glutinous, gummy, resembling glue. 
 What is Indian, or Chinese Ink : 
 
 An admirable composition, not liquid like our ink, but solid, 
 and made into cakes somewhat like the mineral colors we use 
 in painting. It is made into all sorts of figures, usually long, 
 and about an inch thick ; sometimes gilt with the figures of 
 birds, flowers, &c. To use this ink, it must be rubbed with 
 water, on stone or earthenware, till it produces a beautiful, 
 liquid, shining black. It is used in drawing, &c, and is brought 
 from China. It is composed of lamp-black and size, or animal 
 glue, or gum, to which perfumes and other substances are some- 
 times added. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Asbestus, Salt, Coal, Iron, Copper, Brass, Zinc, and Lapis Cala- 
 
 minaris. 
 
 What is the name of the remarkable stone of which a 
 cloth has been made, that resists the action of fire ? 
 
 The Asbestus, a mineral substance of a whitish or silver color. 
 There are several species of this mineral, which are distinguished 
 by different names, according to the appearance of each, as fibrous 
 asbestus, hard asbestus, and woody asbestus; it is the fibrous 
 sort which is most noted for its uses in the arts. It is usually 
 found inclosed within very hard stones ; sometimes growing on 
 ♦heir outside, and sometimes detached from them. 
 
 Fibrous, full of fibres or threads. 
 
ASBESTUS. 77 
 
 What are its qualities ? 
 
 It is insipid ; will not dissolve in water ; and exposed to the 
 tire, it neither consumes nor calcines. The industry of mankind 
 has found a method of working upon this untoward mineral 
 and employing it in making cloth and paper; the process is, 
 however, difficult. 
 
 Insipid, without taste. 
 
 Was not this curious mineral better known to the ancients 
 than it is at present ? 
 
 The linen made from it was highly esteemed by them ; it 
 was not only better known, but more common, than among us, 
 being equally valuable with the richest pearls ; but the supe- 
 riority of all other cloths to this in every respect, except the 
 resistance to fire, has caused incombustible cloth to be regarded 
 in modern times merely as a curiosity, but it is still employed 
 in chemical preparations. 
 
 Incombustible, remaining undestroyed in fire. 
 To what use did they put it ? 
 
 In royal funerals, it formed the shroud to wrap the body in, 
 that its ashes might be prevented from mingling with the wood, 
 &c, that composed the pile. Some of the ancients niade them- 
 selves clothes of it, particularly the Brahmins among the Hin- 
 doos; it formed wicks for their perpetual lamps; thread, ropes, 
 nets, and paper were also made of it. Pliny, the Roman natu- 
 ralist, says he has seen napkins of asbestus taken soiled from 
 the table after a feast, which were thrown into the fire, and by 
 that means better scoured than if they had been washed with 
 
 water. 
 
 Naturalist, a person who studies nature, especially in what relates to 
 minerals, vegetables, and animals. Brahmins, Hindoo priests. 
 Where is the Asbestus found ? 
 This mineral is found in the greatest quantity in the silver 
 mines of Saxony ; at Bleyburg, in Carinthia ; in Sweden, Cor- 
 sica, and sometimes in France, England, and the United States ; 
 also in Tartary and Siberia. 
 7* 
 
78 SALT. 
 
 What method is used in preparing the Asbestus ? 
 
 The stone is laid in warm water to soak, then opened and 
 divided by the hands, that the earthy matter may be washed 
 out. This washing is several times repeated, and the flax-like 
 filaments collected and dried; these are easily spun with the 
 addition of flax. The cloth when woven is best preserved by 
 oil from breaking or wasting; on exposure to the fire, the flax 
 and the oil burn out, and the cloth remains of a pure white. 
 The shorter threads, which separate on washing the stone, may 
 be made into paper in the usual manner. 
 What is Salt ? 
 
 A saline crystallization of a sharp, pungent taste, and cleans- 
 ing quality, used to season flesh, fish, butter, &c, and other 
 things that are to be kept. It is distinguished, with reference 
 to the general sources from which it is most plentifully derived, 
 into three different sorts, namely, fossil, or rock salt; sea, or 
 marine salt ; and spring salt, or that drawn from briny springs 
 and wells. 
 
 Marine, belonging to the sea. Saline, consisting of salt. Briny, 
 consisting of brine; which means water tasting of salt; it is used to 
 signify the waters of the sea, or any salt water. 
 What is Fossil or Rock Salt ? 
 
 That which is found in large beds in the bowels of the earth, 
 and which has not undergone any artificial preparation ; it is 
 sometimes colorless, but more frequently red, yellow, or blue, 
 and mixed with earthy impurities; this salt was entirely un- 
 known to the ancients, who by rock salt meant that which 
 adheres to the rocks above high-water mark, being lodged there 
 by the spray of the sea, which is evaporated by the heat of the 
 sun ; this is the purest salt, and is to be found on the rocks of 
 Sicily, and several islands of the West Indies. 
 
 Artificial, produced by art, and the labor of man. Evaporated, con- 
 verted into vapor and dissipated. 
 What is Marine Salt ? 
 
 That which is made from sea-water, concentrated by repeated 
 evaporations, and at length crystallized. 
 
SALT. 79 
 
 What is Spring Salt ? 
 
 That salt which is not made from sea-water, but from the 
 water of salt wells or springs ; large quantities of this salt are 
 made in the United States, in some parts of which saline springs 
 are numerous. 
 
 In what manner is it obtained ? 
 
 The means employed for extracting the salt from the water 
 vary according to circumstances. In hot countries, the water is 
 merely exposed to the action of the sun, until the water is 
 evaporated ; the salt procured in this manner is considered the 
 best. 
 
 What method is usually employed in countries where the 
 sun's heat is not sufficiently powerful ? 
 
 In climates where the rays of the sun do not afford sufficient 
 heat, the water, which has been partly evaporated in large shal- 
 low reservoirs formed in the earth, called salt-pans, is poured 
 into enormous coppers and boiled for four or five hours : when 
 the contents of the copper are wasted to half the quantity, the 
 liquid begins to be crystallized; the vessel is again filled up, 
 and the brine again boiled and purified : this is repeated three 
 or four times. After the last purifying the fire is kept very low 
 for twelve or fourteen hours, and when the moisture is nearly 
 evaporated the salt is removed, and, after the remaining brine 
 has drained off, is placed in the storehouses. 
 
 In what countries is Salt generally found ? 
 
 This substance, so necessary to the comfort of mankind,, is 
 widely distributed over the face of the earth, and nothing, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, the air we breathe, is more easily placed within 
 our reach. The ocean is an exhaustless storehouse of this 
 valuable article. Those nations of the earth which are placed 
 at a distance from the sea, find themselves provided with maga- 
 zines of salt, either in solid masses, or dissolved in the waters 
 of inland lakes, or issuing from the solid rocks in springs of 
 brine. At Salina, Syracuse, and other places in Onondaga Co., 
 
80 SALT. 
 
 New York, salt springs are remarkably abundant, and yield 
 annually several millions of bushels; immense quantities are 
 also obtained from the salt-wells on the Great and Little Ka- 
 nawha, and other places in Western Virginia ; it is also exten- 
 sively manufactured in the western part of Pennsylvania, and 
 throughout the Western States. 
 
 Name the countries most noted for mines of Salt. 
 Poland, Upper Hungary, and the mountains of Catalonia, 
 have extensive salt mines; those in the village of Wieliczca, in 
 Poland, about five leagues from Cracow, are of a surprising 
 depth and size. In the interior of Hindostan, there is a remark- 
 able salt lake ; and in several parts of the globe there are spots 
 of ground impregnated entirely with this substance : an island 
 of the East Indies contains a singular kind of fossil, or native 
 dry salt ; the soil there is in general very fruitful, but in certain 
 parts of the island, there are spots of ground entirely barren, 
 without the appearance of anything vegetable upon them; these 
 spots taste very much of salt, and abound with it in such 
 quantities, as to supply not only the whole island, but the greater 
 part of the adjacent continent. In Utah Territory, especially 
 in the neighborhood of the Mormon city, at the Great Salt 
 Lake, are found extensive plains thus impregnated with salt, 
 which is procured in great abundance. 
 
 Fossil, the remains of minerals or shells dug from the earth. Impreg- 
 nated, filled, saturated. Catalonia, a considerable province of Spain, 
 situated to the north-east. Adjacent, adjoining, lying near, or contiguous. 
 
 To what use did the ancient inhabitants of Africa and 
 Arabia put this substance ? 
 The large slabs of rock salt, with which their country abounds, 
 were employed by them instead of stones, in building their 
 dwellings, the pieces being easily cemented together by sprink- 
 ling the joints with water, which, melting the parts of the twc 
 surfaces that opposed each other, formed the whole, when dry, 
 into one solid block. 
 
COAL. 81 
 
 Does Rock Salt undergo any preparation before it is used ? 
 
 Yes ) when taken from the earth it is dissolved in cold water, 
 and afterwards drawn off into salt-pans, and refined in the same 
 manner as the sea salt. 
 What is Coal ? 
 
 A hard, black, sulphurous and inflammable substance, dug 
 out of the earth, serving in many countries as fuel. It is com- 
 mon in most of the countries of Europe and America. In some 
 parts of the United States, it is found in beds having an area 
 of several thousand square miles. 
 
 From what is Coal supposed to have originated ? 
 
 Its origin is supposed to be derived from gigantic trees which 
 flourished in the swamps and forests of the primeval earth. 
 These having been torn away from their native bed, by storms 
 and inundations, were transported into some adjacent lake, river, 
 or sea. Here they floated on the waters until, saturated with 
 them, they sank to the bottom, and being buried in the lower 
 soil of adjacent lands, became transformed into a new state 
 among the members of the mineral kingdom. A long inter- 
 ment followed, during which a course of chemical changes, and 
 new combinations of their vegetable elements, converted them 
 to the mineral condition of coal. 
 
 Primeval, original, existing before the flood. Gigantic, extremely 
 large, greater than the usual size. Interment, burial under the ground. 
 Elements, the several parts or principles of which bodies are composed. 
 
 What is a Coal Mine ? 
 A subterraneous excavation, from which coal is obtained. 
 
 Do the terms Coal and Charcoal signify the same substance? 
 No ) Charcoal is an artificial fuel, made in imitation of coal, 
 by burning wood covered with earth so as partially to exclude 
 the air. It is used for various purposes, as the making of gun- 
 powder,* polishing brass and copper, &c, and when a clear and 
 
 * Si 
 
 See Chapter xii. 
 
82 IRON 
 
 bright fire is required, as it burns with little or no smoke ; it is 
 
 dangerous, however, for one to remain many hours in a close 
 
 room with a charcoal fire, as the fumes it throws out are hurtful, 
 
 and would destroy life. Charcoal, in fact, is the coaly residuum 
 
 ^f any vegetables burnt in close vessels; but the common 
 
 charcoal is that prepared from wood, and is generally black, 
 
 v r ery brittle, light ; and destitute of taste or smell. It is a 
 
 powerful antiseptic, unalterable and indestructible. 
 
 Residuum, the remaining part, that which is left. Antiseptic, that 
 v/hich prevents putrefaction. 
 
 What is Iron ? 
 
 One of the most useful and abundant metals; being found 
 in all mineral earths, and stones ; in plants, and animal fluids ; 
 and is the chief cause of the varieties of color in all. Iron is 
 found in great masses, in various states, in the bowels of the 
 earth; it is usually, however, compounded with stone, from 
 which it is separated by the action of fire. In some parts of 
 the world, whole mountains are formed of iron; among these 
 may be mentioned the Pilot Knob and the Iron Mountain, in 
 Missouri, being unsurpassed by anything of the kind found 
 elsewhere. 
 
 What are its characteristics ? 
 
 It is hard, fusible, not very malleable, but extremely ductile, 
 and very tenacious ; it is of a greyish color, and nearly eight 
 times heavier than water. Without iron, society could make 
 no progress in the cultivation of the ground, in mechanical arts 
 or trades, in architecture or navigation ; it is therefore of the 
 greatest use to man. Iron tools have been used in all European 
 countries as long as their histories have existed; this metal 
 appears likewise to have been known and used by the inhabi- 
 tants of the world in the earliest ages, being frequently men- 
 tioned in the Holy Scriptures. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, 
 Tubalcain is spoken of as " a hammerer and artificer in every 
 work of brass and iron," and thus their existence was 
 evidently known at that early period of the world. 
 
THE SALT MINES OF WIELICZCA. 
 
COPPER. 
 
 8* 
 
 Artificer, one who works or makes. Fusible, capable of being melted 
 by fire. 
 
 "What do you mean by Metals ? 
 Useful substances dug from the bowels of the earth, being 
 sometimes found pure, but mostly combined with other matter. 
 They are distinguished by their weight, tenacity, hardness, 
 opacity, color, and peculiar lustre, known as the metallic lustre; 
 they are fusible by heat, and good conductors of heat and elec- 
 tricity; many of them are malleable, and some extremely duc- 
 tile. Those which were first known are gold, silver, iron, 
 copper, mercury, lead, and tin. 
 
 Tenacity, the firmness with which one part adheres to another. 
 Opacity, want of Transparency or clearness. 
 
 What are Metals called in their natural state ? 
 Ores ; so named because the metal contained in them is either 
 mixed with other metals, or with mineral earths, from which 
 they are separated and purified by various means : such as wash- 
 ing, roasting, &c, but the method is always regulated by the 
 nature of the ore. 
 
 What is Copper ? 
 
 A hard, heavy, ductile metal, found native, and in many 
 ores ; of these the most important is copper pyrites, which is a 
 sulphuret of copper. Next to gold, silver, and platinum, copper 
 is the most malleable and ductile of metals; it may be drawn into 
 wires as fine as hair, or beaten into leaves as thin as those of 
 silver. The rust of copper is very poisonous. Copper, mixed 
 with a certain quantity of tin, forms bell-metal. With a 
 smaller proportion, it forms bronze, a substance used in sculp- 
 ture for casting figures and statues. It is an abundant metal, 
 and is found in various parts of the world. Native oxides of 
 copper are found in Cornwall, Siberia, and in North and South 
 America. 
 
 Oxide, a substance combined with Oxygen,* in a proportion not suffi- 
 cient to produce acidity. Sulphuret, a combination of sulphur with a base. 
 
 * See Chapter xiii., article Oxygen. 
 
84 BRASS — ZINC. 
 
 What are the uses of Copper ? 
 
 They are too various to be enumerated. In sheets it is much 
 used to sheathe the bottoms of ships, for boilers, and other 
 utensils. Copper coin was the only money used by the Romans 
 till the 485th year of their city, when silver began to be coined. 
 In Sweden, houses are covered with this metal. 
 What is a Mine ? 
 
 A cavity under ground, formed for the purpose of obtaining 
 metals, &c. ; mines are often very deep and extensive. The 
 descent into them is by a pit, called a shaft; the clues by which 
 mines are discovered, are, mineral springs, the discoloration of 
 vegetables, the appearance of pieces of ore, &c. 
 
 Clues, signs or means by which things hidden are brought to light. 
 
 What is Brass ? 
 A factitious metal, consisting of copper and zinc. Brass is 
 lighter and harder than pure copper, and less subject to rust; 
 owing to these properties, together with its beautiful color, it 
 is extremely useful in the manufacture of many utensils. 
 
 Factitious, made by art, not found in a natural state. 
 
 What is Zinc ? 
 A metal of a brilliant bluish white color. Its name was 
 unknown to the ancient Greeks and Arabians. It is mixed 
 with other substances in the ore, from which it is obtained by 
 smelting in the furnace. It has never yet been found native or 
 pure. 
 
 For what is Zinc used ? 
 
 From its readiness to dissolve in all acids, and unite with 
 
 other metals, it is used in alloy with them in the composition 
 
 of brass, &c. Thin sheets of zinc are also used to cover roofs 
 
 of houses, and in the manufacture of various household utensils. 
 
 What is Lapis Calaminaris ? 
 
 Lapis Calaminaris, or calamine stone, is a native carbonate 
 
 of zinc, of some use in medicine, but chiefly in founding. It 
 
YAMS — MANGOES. 85 
 
 is sometimes brownish, as that found in Germany and England, 
 or red, as that of France. It is dug out of mines, usually in 
 small pieces; generally out of those of lead. Calamine is 
 mostly found in barren, rocky soils. 
 Founding, the art of casting metals. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Yams, Mangoes, Bread-fruit, Shea or Butter Tree, Cow Tree, 
 Water Tree, Licorice, Manna, Opium, Tobacco, and Gum. 
 
 What are Yams ? 
 The roots of a climbing plant growing in tropical climates. 
 The root of the yam is wholesome and well-flavored j nearly as 
 large as a man's leg, and of an irregular form. Yams are much 
 used for food in those countries where they grow ; the natives 
 either roast or boil them, and the white people grind them into 
 flour, of which they make bread and puddings. The yam is 
 of a dirty brown color outside, but white and mealy within. 
 
 What are Mangoes ? 
 The fruit of the Mango Tree, a native of India and the south- 
 western parts of Asia ; it also grows abundantly in the West 
 Indies and Brazil. It was introduced into Jamaica in 1782 ; 
 where it attains the height of thirty or forty feet, with thick and 
 wide-extended branches. The varieties of the mango are very 
 numerous, — upwards of eighty are cultivated; and the quality 
 of these varies according to the countries and situations in which 
 they grow. The mangoes of Asia are said to be much bettei 
 than those of America. 
 
 Describe the appearance of the Mango Tree. 
 The flowers of this tree are small and whitish, formed in 
 8 
 
86 BREAD-FRUIT. 
 
 pyramidal clusters. The fruit has some resemblance to a short 
 thick cucumber, about the size of a goose's egg; its taste is 
 delicious and cooling; it has a stone in the centre, like that of 
 a peach. At first this fruit is of a fine green color, and some 
 varieties continue so, while others change to a fine golden or 
 orange color. The mango tree is an evergreen, bearing fruit 
 once or twice a year, from six or seven years old to a hundred. 
 Pyramidal, resembling a pyramid. 
 
 How is this fruit eaten ? 
 When ripe, it is eaten by the natives either in its natural 
 state, or bruised in wine. It is brought to us either candied or 
 pickled, as the ripe fruit is very perishable ; in the latter case, 
 they are opened with a knife, and the middle filled up with fresh 
 ginger, garlic, mustard, salt, and oil or vinegar. The fruit of 
 the largest variety weighs two pounds or upwards. The several 
 parts of this tree are all applied to some use by the Hindoos : 
 the wood is consecrated to the service of the dead ; from the 
 flour of the dried kernels different kinds of food are prepared ; 
 the leaves, flowers, and bark, are medicinal. 
 
 Medicinal, fit for medicine, possessing medical properties. Conse- 
 crated, separated from a common to a sacred use. 
 
 Is there not a tree which bears a fruit that may be used 
 for bread ? 
 Yes; the Bread-fruit Tree, originally found in the south- 
 eastern parts of Asia and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, 
 though introduced into the tropical parts* of America. It is one 
 of the most interesting, as well as singular productions of the 
 vegetable kingdom, being no less beautiful than it is useful 
 This tree is large and shady ; its leaves are broad and indented, 
 like those of the fig tree — from twelve to eighteen inches long, 
 rather fleshy, and of a dark green. The fruit, when full-grown, 
 is from six to nine inches round, and of an oval form — when 
 ripe, of a rich, yellow tinge ; it generally hangs in clusters of 
 two or three, on a small thick stalk; the pulp is white, partly 
 
BREAD-FRUIT AND BUTTER TREES. 8/ 
 
 farinaceous, and partly fibrous, but when ripe, becomes yellow 
 and juicy. 
 
 Indented, toothed like the edge of a saw. Farinaceous, mealy, con- 
 sisting of meal or flour; hom farina, flour. 
 
 How is the Bread-Fruit eaten ? 
 
 It is roasted until the outside is of a brown color and crisp ; 
 the pulp has then the consistency of bread, which the taste 
 greatly resembles ; and thus it forms a nourishing food : it is 
 also prepared in many different ways, besides that just men- 
 tioned. The tree produces three, sometimes four crops in a 
 year, and continues bearing for fifty years, so that two or three 
 trees are enough for a inan's yearly supply. Its timber, which 
 at first is of a rich yellow, but afterwards assumes the color of 
 mahogany, is used in the building of houses and canoes; the 
 flowers, when dried, serve as tinder ; the sap or j uice serves fo? 
 glue ; the inner bark is made, by the natives of some of the 
 islands of the Pacific Ocean, into a kind of cloth ; and the 
 leaves are useful for many purposes. One species of the bread- 
 fruit, called the Jaca tree, grows chiefly on the mainland of Asia. 
 
 Mainland, the continent. 
 Describe the Jaca Tree. 
 
 This kind grows to the same, if not a larger size than the 
 bread fruit of the islands, but is neither so palatable nor so 
 nutritious ; the fruit often weighs thirty pounds, and contains 
 two or three hundred seeds, each four times as large as an almond. 
 December is the time when the fruit ripens ; it is then eaten, 
 but not much relished ; the seeds are also eaten when roasted. 
 There are also other trees in different parts of the world, mostly 
 of the palm species, which yield bread of a similar kind. 
 
 Is there not a tree which produces a substance resembling 
 the Butter which we make from the milk of the cow ? 
 
 The Shea, or Butter Tree, a native of Africa : it is similar 
 in appearance to the American oak, and the fruit, (from the 
 kernel of which the butter is prepared,) is somewhat like an 
 
88 COW AND W ATER TREES. 
 
 olive in form. The kernel is inclosed in a. sweet pulp, under a 
 thin, green rind. 
 
 How is the Butter extracted ? 
 
 The kernel, being taken out and dried in the sun, is boiled 
 in water; by which process a white, firm, and rich-flavored 
 butter is produced, which will keep for a whole year without 
 salt. The growth and preparation of this commodity is one of 
 the first objects of African industry, and forms a principal article 
 of their trade with one another. 
 
 You have given me an account of a useful Butter prepared 
 from a plant ; is there not also a tree which can supply 
 the want of a cow ? 
 
 In South America there is a tree, the juice of which is a 
 nourishing milk; it is called the Cow Tree. This tree is very 
 fine ; the leaves are broad, and some of them ten inches long ; 
 the fruit is rather fleshy, and contains one or two nuts or kernels. 
 The milk is very abundant, and is procured by incisions made 
 in the trunk of the tree ; it is tolerably thick, and of a glutinous 
 quality, a pleasant taste, and agreeable smell. The negroes and 
 people at work on the farms drink it, dipping into it their bread 
 made of maize. 
 
 Glutinous, having the quality of glue, — an adhesive, gummy sub- 
 stance, prepared from the skins of animals: it. is used in joining wood, 
 &c, and for many other purposes. 
 
 What time of the day is the best for drawing the juice ? 
 Sunrise; the blacks and natives then hasten from all quarters 
 with large bowls to receive the milk; some drink it on the spot, 
 others carry it home to their families. 
 
 What island possesses a remarkable substitute for the want 
 
 of springs of Water ? 
 
 Ferro, one of the Canary Isles, situated in the Atlantic* 
 
 Ocean. In this island there is no water, except on a part of 
 
 the beach which is nearly inaccessible ; to supply the place of a 
 
 fountain, Nature has bestowed on the island a particular kind 
 
LICORICE MANNA. 89 
 
 of tree, unknown in other parts of the world. It is of a mode- 
 rate size, with straight, long, evergreen leaves; on its top a 
 small cloud continually rests, which so drenches the leaves with 
 moisture, that it perpetually distils upon the ground a stream 
 of clear water. To these trees, as to perennial springs, the 
 inhabitants of Ferro repair, and are supplied with abundance 
 of water for themselves and cattle. 
 
 Perennial, lasting through the year, perpetual. 
 
 What is Licorice ? 
 A plant, the juice of which is squeezed from the roo ; :s, and 
 then boiled with sugar, and used as a remedy for coughs, &c. 
 Great quantities are exported from Spain, Italy, <kc. The 
 dried root is of great use in medicine, and makes an excel- 
 lent drink for colds and other affections of the kings by 
 boiling it with linseed. 
 
 What are the Lungs? 
 
 The organs of respiration in man and many other animals. 
 There are two of these organs, one on each side cf the chest. 
 
 Respiration, breathing; the act of inhaling air into the lungs, an ' 
 again expelling it, by which animal life is supported. 
 
 What is Manna ? 
 
 A sweet, white juice, oozing from the branches and leaves 
 of a kind of ash tree, growing chiefly in the southern parts of 
 Italy, during the heats of summer. When dry, it is very 
 light, easily crumbled, and of a whitish, or pale yellow color, 
 not unlike hardened honey. 
 
 Is Manna peculiar to the Ash Tree of Southern Italy ? 
 
 No. Manna is nothing more than the nutritious juices of 
 the tree, which exude during the summer heats; and what con- 
 firms this is, that the very hot summers are always those which 
 are most productive of manna. Several different species of trees 
 produce a kind of manna ; the best and most used is, however, 
 that of Calabria, in Italy. 
 
90 MANNA. 
 
 What are its uses ? 
 
 It was much esteemed formerly in medicine, but it has now 
 gone nearly into disuse. The peasants of Mount Libanus eat 
 it as others do honey. The Bedouin Arabs consume great 
 quantities, considering it the greatest dainty their country affords. 
 In Mexico, they are said to have a manna which they eat as we 
 do cheese. At Briangon, in France, they collect it from all 
 sorts of trees that grow there, and the inhabitants observe, that 
 such summers as produce the greatest quantities of manna are 
 very fatal to the trees, many of them perishing in the winter. 
 Is there not another tree which produces Manna ? 
 
 Yes : the Tamarisk, a tree peculiar to Palestine and parts of 
 Arabia. This remarkable substance is produced by several 
 trees, and in various countries of the East. On Mount Sinai 
 there is a different species of Tamarisk that yields it. It is 
 found on the branches of the tree, and falls on the ground 
 during the heat of the day. 
 
 Where is Mount Libanus ? 
 
 Mount Libanus, or Lebanon, is situated in Asiatic Turkey; 
 ic was anciently famous for its large and beautiful cedar trees. 
 The "Cedars of Lebanon" are frequently mentioned in Holy 
 Writ. There are now scarcely any remaining of superior 
 size and antiquity, but they vary from the largest size down to 
 mere saplings ; and their numbers seem to increase rather than 
 diminish, there being many young trees springing up. 
 How is Manna gathered ? 
 
 From August to September, the Italians collect it in the 
 following manner, viz. : by making an incision at the foot of 
 the tree, each day over that of the preceding, about four inches 
 from one another : these cuts, or incisions, are nearly two inches 
 long, and half an inch deep. When the cut is made, the manna 
 directly begins to flow, at first like clear water, but congealing 
 as it flows, it soon becomes firm : this they collect in baskets. 
 Manna has been found to consist of two distinct substances ; 
 
OPIUM — TOBACCO. 01 
 
 one nearly resembling sugar, the other similar to a sum or 
 mucilage. 
 
 What nation was fed with a kind of Manna ? 
 
 The Children of Israel, when wandering in the desert wilder- 
 ness, where no food was to be procured, were fed by a miraculous 
 supply of manna, showered down from Heaven every morning 
 on the ground in such quantities as to afford sufficient food for 
 the whole host. 
 
 What is Opium ? 
 
 A narcotic, gummy, resinous juice, drawn from the head of 
 the white poppy, and afterwards thickened ; it is brought over 
 in dark, reddish brown lumps, which, when powdered, become 
 yellow. 
 
 Narcotic, producing sleep and drowsiness. 
 In what countries is it cultivated ? 
 
 In many parts of Asia, India, and even the southern parts 
 of Europe, whence it is exported into other countries. The 
 Turks, and other Eastern nations, chew it. With us it is 
 chiefly used in medicine. The juice is obtained from incisions 
 made in the seed-vessels of the plant ; it is collected in earthen 
 pots, and allowed to become sufficiently hard to be formed into 
 roundish masses of about four pounds weight. In Europe the 
 poppy is cultivated mostly for the seeds. Morphia and 
 laudanum are medicinal preparations of opium. 
 What is Tobacco ? 
 
 An herbaceous plant which flourishes in many temperate 
 climates, particularly in North America; it is supposed to have 
 received its name from Tabaco, a province of Mexico; it is 
 cultivated in the West Indies, the Levant, on the coast of Greece, 
 in the Archipelago, Malta, Italy, France, Ceylon, &c. It was 
 not known in Europe till the discovery of America by the Span- 
 iards; and was carried to England about the time of Queen 
 Elizabeth, either by Sir Francis Drake or Sir Walter Kaleigh. 
 Tobacco is either taken as snuff, smoked in pipes or in the form 
 
92 TOBACCO. 
 
 of cigars j or chewed in the mouth like opium. There are manj 
 different species of this plant, most of them natives of America, 
 some of the Cape of Good Hope and China. Tobacco con- 
 tains a powerful pois ealloned nicotine. 
 
 Herbaceous, like an herb or plant, not a shrub or tree. 
 
 What part of the plant is used ? 
 
 The leaves, which are stripped from the plant, and after 
 being moistened with water, are twisted up into rolls; these 
 are cut up by the tobacconist, and variously prepared for sale, 
 or reduced into a scented powder called snuff. 
 Who was Sir Francis Drake ? 
 
 Sir Francis Drake was a distinguished naval officer, who 
 flourished in the reign of Elizabeth. He made his name im- 
 mortal by a voyage into the South Seas, through the Straits of 
 Magellan; which, at that time, no Englishman had ever 
 attempted. He died on board his own ship in the West Indies, 
 1595. 
 
 Who was Sir Walter Raleigh ? 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh was also an illustrious English navigator 
 and historian, born in 1552. He performed great services for 
 Queen Elizabeth, particularly in the discovery of Virginia, and 
 in the defeat of the Spanish Armada; he lived in honor and 
 prosperity during her reign, but on the accession of James the 
 First, was stripped of his favor at court, unaccountably accused 
 of high treason, tried, and condemned to die; being reprieved, 
 however, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London many 
 years, during which time he devoted himself to writing and 
 study. Receiving, at last, a commission to go and explore the 
 srold mines at Guiana, he embarked ; but his design having 
 Deen betrayed to the Spaniards, he was defeated : and on his 
 return to England, in July, 1618, was arrested and beheaded, 
 (by order of the King, on his former attainder,) October 29, 
 suffering his fate with great magnanimity. 
 
GUM. 93 
 
 High Treason, in England, means an offence committed against the 
 sovereign. In the United States it consists in levying war against the 
 government, adhering to its enemies, and giving them aid and comfort 
 Reprieved, respited from sentence of death. Magnanimity, greatness 
 of mind, bravery. 
 
 What is Gum ? 
 A mucilaginous juice, exuding from the bark of certain trees 
 or plants, drawn thence by the warmth of the sun in the form 
 of a glutinous matter; and afterwards by the same cause ren- 
 dered firm and tenacious. There are many different gums, 
 named after the particular tree or plant from which they are 
 produced. 
 
 Mucilaginous , consisting of mucilage. Tenacious, adhering closely. 
 
 What is the character of Gum ? 
 Gum is capable of being dissolved in water, and forming with 
 it a viscid transparent fluid ; but not in vinous spirits or oil ; it 
 burns in the fire to a black coal, without melting or catching 
 fire ; and does not dissolve in water at boiling heat. The name 
 of gum has been inaccurately given to several species of gum- 
 resins, which consist of resin and various other substances, 
 flowing from many kinds of trees, and becoming hard by exposure 
 to the air. These are soluble in dilute alcohol. Gum is origi- 
 nally a milky liquor, having a greater quantity of water mixed 
 with its oily parts, and for that reason it dissolves in either 
 water or oil. Another sort is not oily, and therefore dissolves 
 in water only, as gum Arabic, the gum of the cherry-tree, &c. 
 
 Viscid, thick, ropy. Vinous, having the qualities of wine. 
 Are the last-mentioned sorts properly called Gums? 
 
 No, though commonly called gums, they are only dried muci- 
 lages, which were nothing else than the mucilaginous lymph 
 issuing from the vessels of the tree, in the same manner as it 
 does from mallows, comfrey, and even from the cucumber ; the 
 vessels of which being cut across, yield a lymph which is plainly 
 mucilaginous, and if well dried, at length becomes a kind of 
 gum, or rather, a hardened mucilage. 
 
 Lymph, transparent fluid. 
 
91 GUM ARABIC SPECTACLES. 
 
 What is Gum Arabic ? 
 The juice of a small tree of the Acacia tribe, growing in 
 Egypt, Arabia Petrsea, Palestine, and in different parts of 
 America. 
 
 Are there other plants or trees which produce Gum, besides 
 those already mentioned ? 
 A great number, though not all commonly in use. The 
 leaves of rhubarb, the common plum, and even the sloe and 
 the laurel, produce a clear, tasteless gum ; there are also a 
 number of different gums, brought from foreign countries, of 
 great use in medicine and the arts. Most of the Acacias pro- 
 duce gums, though the quality of all is not equally good. 
 What is Rhubarb ? 
 A valuable root growing in China, Turkey, and Russian 
 Tartary. Quantities of it are imported from other parts of the 
 world : that from Turkey is esteemed the best. Rhubarb is 
 also cultivated in our gardens, and the stalks of the leaves 
 are often used in tarts \ but the root, from the difference of cli- 
 mate, does not possess any medicinal virtue. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Spectacles, Mariner's Compass, Barometer, Thermometer, 
 Watches, Clocks, Telescope, Microscope, Gunpowder, Steam 
 Engine, and Electro-Magnetic Telegraph. 
 
 When were Spectacles invented, and who was their in- 
 ventor ? 
 It is supposed that they were first known about the thirteenth 
 century, and invented by a monk of Pisa, in Italy, named 
 
mariner's compass. 95 
 
 Alexander de Spina. Spectacles are composed of two circular 
 pieces of glass set in a frame. 
 
 What are these glasses called ? 
 Lenses. They are either convex or concave, according to the 
 kind of sight requiring them. Old people, and those who can 
 only see things at a distance, from the flatness of the eye, which 
 prevents the rays of light converging so as to meet in the centre, 
 require convex lenses. People who can only distinguish objects 
 when viewed closely, from the eye being too convex, require 
 concave lenses to counteract it by spreading the rays, and ;;hus 
 rendering vision distinct. 
 
 Convex, rising outwardly in a circular form ; opposite to concave. 
 Concave, hollow ; round, but hollow, as the inner curve of an arch, &,c. 
 Converging, tending to one point from different parts. Vision, the faculty 
 of seeing. 
 
 What is the Mariner's Compass? 
 
 A most useful and important instrument, by the aid of w T hich 
 the navigator guides his ship on the sea, and steers his way to 
 the place of his destination. The inventor of the Mariner's 
 Compass is not known, nor the exact time of its introduction ; 
 it was employed in Europe in navigation about the middle of 
 the thirteenth century, and has been in use more than five hun- 
 dred years. The Chinese are said to have been acquainted with 
 it much earlier, but no reliance can be placed on their dates. 
 The power of the loadstone to attract iron was known to the 
 ancient Egyptians, but it was not applied to any practical pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Navigator, one who guides a ship. Steer, to direct or guide a vessel 
 in its course. Destination, the place to which a person is bound. Prac- 
 tical, capable of practice, not merely speculative. 
 What is the Loadstone ? 
 
 An ore of iron which possesses the peculiar property of 
 attracting iron, namely, of drawing it in contact with its own 
 mass, and holdiug it firmly attached by its own power of attrac- 
 tion. A piece of loadstone drawn several times along a needle, 
 
96 BAROMETER. 
 
 or a small piece of iron, converts it into an artificial magnet ; 
 if this magnetized needle is carefully balanced, it will turn 
 round of itself, till its end points towards the North. The 
 magnetized needle also possesses the power of attracting iron, 
 and of communicating this power to another piece of iron or 
 steel, similar to that of the loadstone itself. 
 
 Ccntaet, touch. Magnetized, rendered magnetic. 
 Describe the Mariner's Compass. 
 
 The Mariner's Compass consists of a circular box, enclosing 
 a magnetized bar of steel, called the needle, carefully balanced 
 on an upright steel pivot, and having that end which points tc 
 the North shaped like the head of an arrow ; attached to this 
 needle, and taming with it, is a card on which are printed the 
 divisions of North, South, East, and West; called the points 
 of the compass. By simply looking at the position of the 
 needle, the mariner can see the direction in which his vessel is 
 sailing, and regulate his helm accordingly. 
 
 Helm, the instrument by which a ship is steered, consisting of a rudder 
 and tiller. 
 
 What is a Barometer ? 
 
 An instrument for measuring the weight of the atmosphere, 
 which enables us to determine the changes of the weather, the 
 height of mountains, &c. It consists of a glass tube hermeti- 
 cally sealed at one end, filled with mercury, and inverted in a 
 basin of mercury; according to the weight of the atmosphere, 
 this mercury rises or falls. 
 
 How is the Hermetic seal formed ? 
 
 By heating the edges of a vessel, till they are just ready 
 to melt, and then twisting them closely together with hot pin- 
 cers, so that the air may be totally excluded. The word is 
 taken from Hermes, the Greek name for Mercury, the heathen 
 god of arts and learning, and the supposed inventor of chemis- 
 try,* which is sometimes called the hermetical art; or perhaps 
 
 * See Chapter xviii., article Chemistry. 
 
MERCURY — THERMOMETER. 97 
 
 rrora Hermes, an ancient king of Egypt, who was either its 
 inventor, or excelled in it. 
 What is Mercury? 
 Quicksilver, or mercury, is a white fluid metal, the heaviest 
 exeep't platina and gold j it readily combines with nearly all 
 other metals, and is used in the manufacture of looking-glasses, 
 barometers, thermometers, &c. ; in some of the arts, and in 
 tiie preparation of several powerful medicines. It is found 
 in California. Hungary, Sweden, Spain, China, and Peru. 
 The quicksilver mine of Guanca Velica, in Peru, is one hun- 
 dred and seventy fathoms in circumference, and four hundred 
 and eighty deep. In this profound abyss are seen streets, 
 squares, and a chapel, where religious worship is performed. 
 The quicksilver mines of Idria, a town of Lower Austria, have 
 continually been wrought for more than 300 years. The vapor 
 which is continually arising from the mercury is very hurtful to 
 the miners, who seldom survive many years. 
 
 Abyss, a gulf, a depth without bottom. 
 
 In what state is Mercury usually found ? 
 Either native, or in the form of ore ; it is often found mixed 
 with silver, but more frequently with sulphur in the form of 
 sulphuret, which is decomposed by distillation. Running mer- 
 cury is found in globules, in America, and is collected from the 
 clefts of the rocks. Mercury has the appearance of melted 
 silver; it is neither ductile nor malleable in this state; it is a 
 substance so volatile, when heated, that it may be evaporated 
 like water ; it is always seen in a fluid state, even in temperate 
 climates, as a very small portion of heat is sufficient to preserve 
 its fluidity. It is used to separate gold and silver from the 
 foreign matter found with those metals. Calomel, a valuable 
 medicine, and vermilion, a color, are both preparations of 
 mercury. 
 
 Globules, sraali particles of matter having the form of a ball or sphere 
 What is a Thermometer? 
 9 
 
98 WATCHES — CLOCKS. 
 
 Aii instrument for measuring temperature. It consists of 
 a fine glass tube, terminated at one end m a bulb, usually 
 filled with mercury, which expands or contracts according to 
 the degree of heat or cold. On the scale of the Fahrenheit 
 thermometer, the freezing point of water is marked 32* and 
 the boiling point at 212°. In both the Centigrade and 
 the Reaumur scales the freezing point is at 0, and the boil- 
 ing point at 100° m the Centigrade and at 80° in Reaumur's. 
 The invention of this instrument dates from about the close 
 of the sixteenth century ; but it is not known by whom it 
 was first brought into use. 
 
 Terminated, finished, ended. 
 
 When and by whom were Watches and Clocks invented ? 
 
 Watches were invented about the year 1500, but who was 
 the inventor is disputed. They were, however, of little value 
 as time-keepers, before the application of the spiral spring as a 
 regulator to the balance ; the glory of this excellent invention 
 lies between Dr. Hooke and M. Huygens; the English ascrib- 
 ing it to the former, the Dutch, French, &c, to the latter. 
 Some assert that pocket-watches were first made about 1477, at 
 Nuremberg, in Germany. The most ancient clock of which 
 we possess any certain account, was made in 1634 by Henry de 
 Wycke, a German artist; it was erected in a tower of the palace 
 of Charles V., king of France. The pendulum was applied by 
 Huygens, in 1656. 
 
 What is a Pendulum ? 
 
 A weight so suspended from a fixed point that it may easily 
 swing backward and forward; its oscillations are always per- 
 formed in equal times, provided the length of the pendulum 
 and the gravity remain the same. It is said that the idea of 
 employing the pendulum for the measurement of time, was first 
 conceived by Galileo, while a young man, upon his observing 
 attentively the regular oscillations of a lamp suspended from 
 the roof of a church in Pisa. It was not, however, till the 
 time of Huygens that a method was devised of continuing its 
 motions, and registering the number of its oscillations. 
 
CHARCOAL BURNING. 
 
 GOLD MINERS WASHING ORE. 
 
GUNPOWDER. 99 
 
 Oscillation, a swinging backward and forward. Gravity, the tendency 
 srf a body toward the centre of the earth. Registering, recording. 
 
 To whom is the invention of Gunpowder ascribed ? 
 Most authors suppose it was invented by Bartholdus Schwartz, 
 a monk of Goslar, a town of Brunswick, in Germany, about 
 the year 1320 ; it appears, however, that it was known much 
 earlier in many parts of the world, and that the famous Roger 
 Bacon, who died in 1292, knew its properties ) but it is not 
 certain that he was acquainted with its application to fire- 
 arms. 
 
 Who was Roger Bacon ? 
 A learned Franciscan, born at Uchester, England, in 1214. 
 He studied at Oxford, and afterwards became professor at 
 that great University. He was familiar with every branch 
 of human knowledge, but was especially distinguished for 
 his extraordinary proficiency in the natural sciences. To him 
 we owe the invention of the telescope ; that of gunpowder 
 is ascribed to him, as stated above, although we have no 
 evidence to show T whether he discovered its ingredients him- 
 self, or whether he derived the knowledge from some ancient 
 manuscripts. Bacon suffered some from the ignorance of the 
 age in which he lived, many of his experiments being looked 
 upon as magic. He died at Oxford in the year 1294. 
 What is understood by Magic 7 
 Magic is a term used to signify an unlawful and wicked kind 
 of science, depending, as was pretended, on the assistance of 
 superhuman beings and of departed souls. The term was an- 
 ciently applied to all kinds of learning, and in particular to the 
 science of the Magi or Wise Men of Persia, from whom it was 
 called magic. Natural magic is no more than the application 
 of natural active causes to passive things or subjects, to produce 
 effects apparently supernatural. 
 
 Supernatural, beyond the powers of nature ; miraculous. 
 
1 00 SALTPETRE. 
 
 Of what is Gunpowder composed ? 
 Of saltpetre,* sulphur, and charcoal, mixed together and 
 powdered; its explosive force when fired, is owing to the in- 
 stantaneous and abundant liberation of gaseous matter by the 
 intense heat resulting from the action of the combustibles upon 
 the saltpetre. It is not known by whom it was first applied to 
 the purposes of war, but it is certain that it was used early in 
 the fourteenth century. Cannons were used at the battle of 
 Cressy, in 1346; small guns, or muskets, were introduced into 
 the Spanish army in 1521. 
 
 Explosive, bursting out with violence and noise. Liberation, a setting 
 at liberty. 
 
 Is not Gunpowder highly combustible ? 
 So combustible is gunpowder, that a single spark of fire, 
 lighting upon any of it, will cause it to explode with immense 
 force ; and instances have occurred, when any store or magazine 
 of it has taken fire, that have been attended with the most fatal 
 effects. It is useful to the miner and engineer as a ready means 
 of overcoming the obstacles which are presented in their search 
 for mineral treasures, and in procuring materials for building. 
 From many passages in the ancient authors, there is reason to 
 suppose that gunpowder, or a composition extremely like it, was 
 known to them; but it does not appear to have been in 
 general use, and the invention of fire-arms is comparatively 
 modern. Dynamite, a recent invention* has a still greater 
 explosive force than gunpowder. 
 
 Engineer, one who works or directs an engine. Obstacles, hinder- 
 ances, obstructions. 
 
 What is Saltpetre ? 
 
 A bitter kind of salt, called by the ancients nitre, but more 
 
 commonly among us saltpetre. It is composed of nitric acid 
 
 and potassa.f It is found in earthy substances; sometimes 
 
 native or pure, in the form of a shapeless salt. Vast quantities 
 
 * See Chapter xiii. 
 
 <t See Potash, Chapter vii.. article Glass. 
 
THE TELESCOPE. 101 
 
 are found in several of the marly earths of the East Indies, 
 China, Persia, and also in South America. In India it is found 
 naturally crystallized, and forming thin crusts upon the surface 
 of the earth. It is especially abundant in the United States, 
 being found in immense quantities in the limestone caves in the 
 south-western States. 
 
 What do you mean by Marly ? 
 
 Consisting of marl, a kind of earth composed of different 
 proportions of clay and carbonate of lime ; it is much used for 
 manure. There are several different-colored marls, each pos- 
 sessing different qualities. The most common are the red and 
 the white, though there are grey, brown, blue, and yellow colored 
 marls. 
 
 What is a Telescope ? 
 
 An optical instrument, which serves for discovering and 
 viewing distant objects," either directly by glasses, or by reflec- 
 tion. The invention of the telescope is one of the noblest and 
 most useful of which modern ages can boast, since by means of 
 this instrument the wonderful motions of the planets and fixed 
 stars, and all the heavenly bodies, are revealed to us. The 
 honor of the invention is much disputed ; it is certain, however, 
 that the celebrated Galileo was the first who improved the tele- 
 scope so as to answer astronomical purposes. The name is 
 formed from two Greek words, one signifying far, the other to 
 observe. 
 
 Optical, relating to Optics, the science of vision. Astronomical, re- 
 lating to Astronomy. 
 
 Who was Galileo ? 
 A most eminent astronomer and mathematician, born at 
 Florence, in Italy. His inventions and discoveries in Astro- 
 nomy, Geometry, and Mechanics, contributed much to the ad- 
 vancement of those sciences. He died in 1642. 
 
 Astronomer, one versed in Astronomy. Mathematician, one versed in 
 Mathematics ; a science which treats of magnitude and number. 
 
 9* 
 
1 02 ASTRO N OMY GEOMETRY, ETC. 
 
 What is Astronomy ? * 
 That science which teaches the knowledge of the heavenly 
 bodies, with the nature and causes of their various phenomena. 
 What is Geometry ? 
 An % ancient, perfect, and beautiful science, which treats of the 
 relations and properties of lines, surfaces, and solids. 
 What is meant by Mechanics ? 
 The science which investigates the laws of forces and powers, 
 and their action on bodies, either directly or by machinery. 
 When the term mechanic is applied to a person, it means one 
 skilled in mechanics, accustomed to manual labor. 
 
 Investigate, to search, to inquire into. Manual, performed by the 
 hand. 
 
 What is a Microscope ? 
 An optical instrument, by means of which very minute ob- 
 jects are represented exceedingly large, and viewed very dis- 
 tinctly according to the laws of refraction or reflection. Nothing 
 certain is known respecting the inventor of microscopes, or the 
 exact time of their invention, but that they were first used in 
 Germany, about 1621. 
 
 Minute, small, diminutive. Refraction, a change in the direction ot 
 a ray of light, when it passes through transparent substances of diffe- 
 rent densities. Reflection, a turning back of a ray of light after striking 
 upon any surface. 
 
 What is the Steam Engine ? 
 A machine that derives its moving power from the force of 
 the steam produced from boiling water, which is very great, 
 especially when, as in the steam engine, it is confined within a 
 limited compass : this useful machine is one of the most valu- 
 able presents that the arts of life have received from the philo- 
 sopher, and is of the greatest importance in working mines; 
 supplying cities with water; in working metals; in many me- 
 chanical arts; and in navigation. By the aid of steam, vessel* 
 
 * See Chapter xviii. 
 
5? T E V M ENGINE. 
 
 108 
 
 are propelled with greater swiftness than those which are 
 wholly dependent on the winds and tides ; and thus trade is 
 facilitated, and we are enabled to communicate with distant 
 lands in a much shorter space of time than was formerly con- 
 sumed. On land, railroads are constructed, on which steam 
 carriages run with astonishing rapidity, so that a journey which 
 by coach and horses formerly required two or more days, may 
 now be performed in four or five hours. 
 
 Mechanical, belonging to Mechanics. 
 
 To whom are we indebted for its invention ? 
 
 Its invention is by most writers ascribed to the Marquis of 
 Worcester, an Englishman, about 1663 \ but it does not appear 
 that the inventor could ever interest the public in favor of this, 
 or his other discoveries. The steam engine of Captain Savery, 
 also an Englishman, is the first of which any definite description 
 has been preserved. It was invented in 1698. Since that 
 period it has been successively improved by various persons, 
 but it is to Mr. Watt and Mr. Boulton, of England, that it is 
 indebted for much of its present state of perfection. 
 
 By whom was the Steam Engine first applied to the pur- 
 poses of Navigation ? 
 
 By John Fitch, of Pennsylvania. From papers in the his- 
 torical collections of Pennsylvania, it appears that the first 
 successful experiments were made at Philadelphia, in 1785, 
 three years before the attempts at Falkirk, and on the Clyde, 
 in Scotland. The boat made several trips on the Delaware and 
 Schuylkill rivers, but owing to repeated accidents to her ma- 
 chinery, and the want of funds and competent mechanics for 
 the necessary repairs, she was abandoned. In 1807, Robert 
 Fulton, also of Pennsylvania,' made his first experimental trip 
 on the Hudson River, with complete success. To this distin- 
 guished and ingenious American justly belongs the honor of 
 having brought navigation by steam to a state of perfection. 
 In 1819, the first steamship crossed the Atlantic from Savannah 
 
104 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 fco Liverpool; and in 1838, a regular communication by steam- 
 ship was established between Great Britain and the United 
 States. Since that period, ocean navigation by steam-vessels 
 has made rapid progress, and, at the present time, numbers of 
 steamers connect our various seaports with those of other 
 nations, and with each other. 
 
 What is the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph ? 
 An instrument, or apparatus, by means of which intelligent 
 is conveyed to any distance with the velocity of lightning. The 
 electric fluid, when an excess has accumulated in one place, 
 always seeks to transfer itself to another, until an equilibrium 
 of its distribution is fully restored. Consequently, when two 
 places are connected by means of a good conductor of electricity, 
 as, for instance, the telegraphic wire ; the fluid generated by a 
 galvanic battery, if the communication be rendered complete, 
 instantaneously traverses the whole extent of the wire, and 
 charges, at the distant station, an electro-magnet; this attracts 
 one end of a lever, and draws it downward, while the other 
 extremity is thrown up, and, by means of a style, marks a slip 
 of paper, which is steadily wound off from a roller by the aid 
 of clock-work. If the communication is immediately broken, 
 only one wave of electricity passes over, and a dot is made upon 
 the paper; if kept up, a line is marked. These dots and lines 
 are made to represent the letters of the alphabet, so that an 
 operator employed for the purpose can easily read the message 
 which is transmitted. — The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph was 
 first introduced upon a line between Baltimore and Washington, 
 by Professor Morse, in 1844 ; at the present time, it is in suc- 
 cessful operation between nearly all the important cities and 
 towns of the United States and of Europe. 
 
 An Electro-Magnet is a piece of soft iron, rendered temporarily 
 magnetic by being placed within a coil of wire through which a cur- 
 rent of electricity is |)assing. 
 
SOAP — SODA. 105 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Soap, Candles, Tallow Tree, Spermaceti, Wax, Mahooany, Indian 
 Rubber or Caoutchouc, Sponge, Coral, Lime, Carbon, Oxygen, 
 Nitrogen, Gas, Hydrogen, Chalk, and Marble. 
 
 Of what is Soap composed ? 
 
 Of soda or potash, and various oily substances ; it is so useful 
 for domestic and other purposes, that it may be regarded as one 
 of the necessaries of life; immense quantities of it are consumed 
 in all civilized countries. Soft soap is generally made of a lye 
 of wood-ashes and quicklime, boiled up with tallow or oil; 
 common household soap of soda and tallow, or of potash and 
 tallow ; when potash is used, a large portion of common salt, 
 which contains soda, is added to harden it. The finest white 
 soaps are made of olive oil and a lye consisting of soda and 
 quicklime; perfumes are sometimes added, or various coloring 
 matters stirred in to give the soap a variegated appearance. The 
 ancient Greeks and Hebrews appear to have been acquainted 
 with the art of making soap, or a composition very similar to 
 it; and also the ancient Gauls and Germans. A soap-boiler's 
 shop, with soap in it, was found in the city of Pompeii, iD 
 Italy, which was overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesu 
 vius, a. D. 79. 
 
 What is Soda? 
 
 Soda, or barilla, is obtained from the ashes of marine plants, 
 and by the decomposition of common salt ; its great depository 
 is the ocean, soda being the basis of salt. The marine plants 
 from which the soda is obtained, are endowed with the property 
 of decomposing the sea-salt which they imbibe, and of absorb 
 ing the soda which it contains. It is found native in Egypt, 
 and is there called natron ; a name similar to that which it bore 
 among the Jews and Greeks. 
 
106 CANDLES. 
 
 Depository, store-house, place where anything is lodged. Imbibe, to 
 drink in, to absorb. 
 
 Of what are Candles made ? 
 
 Of Tallow, which means animal fat melted and clarified, that 
 is, cleansed or purified from filth. Tallow is procured from 
 many animals, but the most esteemed, and the most used, is that 
 made from oxen, sheep, swine, goats, deer, bears, &c. ; some 
 of which tallows or fats are used in medicine, some in making 
 soap, and dressing leather; others in the manufacture of can- 
 dles, &c. For the last-mentioned article, that of sheep and 
 oxen is most used; candles of a better -sort are likewise made 
 of wax and spermaceti. Candles are kept burning by means 
 of a wick of cotton or rush, placed in the centre of the tallow, 
 which is moulded into a cylindrical form. 
 
 Cylindrical, having the form of a cylinder. 
 
 Is there not a tree which yields a vegetable Tallow ? 
 
 Yes ; China possesses a tree producing a substance like our 
 tallow, of which the Chinese make their candles; this tallow 
 is extracted from the stone of the fruit, the tallow being a white 
 pulp which surrounds it. In America, likewise, there is a 
 shrub, a native of the temperate parts, especially towards the 
 sea-side, the seeds of which contain a waxy substance used 
 for the same purpose, and which is extracted by boiling; 
 this shrub is a species of myrtle, and does not attain to any 
 great size. 
 
 Extracted, drawn from. 
 What is Spermaceti ? 
 
 A whitish, flaky, unctuous substance, prepared from an oil 
 of the same name, drawn from a particular kind of whale, dis- 
 tinguished from the common whale by having teeth, and a 
 hunch on its back. 
 
 Flaky, having the nature of flakes. 
 What is Wax ? 
 
 A soft, yellow, concrete matter, collected from vegetables by 
 
MAHOGANY. 107 
 
 the bee, of which this industrious and useful insect constructs 
 its cell. Wax forms a considerable article of trade ; it is of 
 two kinds, the yellow and the white ; the yellow is the native 
 wax as it is taken from the hive, and the white is the same 
 washed, purified, and exposed to the air. 
 Concrete, grown together, solid. 
 
 What Tree produces the beautiful and well-known wood 
 so much used in making the various articles of house- 
 hold furniture ? 
 The Mahogany Tree, growing in America, and the East and 
 West Indies ; it frequently grows in the crevices of rocks, and 
 other places of the same description. This wood was not used 
 for making furniture till near the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. A London physician had a brother, the captain of a 
 West India ship, who, on his return to England, having on 
 board several logs of mahogany for the purpose of ballast, made 
 him a present of the wood, he being engaged in a building pro- 
 ject; his carpenter, however, threw it aside, observing that it 
 was too hard to be wrought. Some time after, the lady of the 
 physician being in want of a box to hold candles, the cabinet- 
 maker was directed to make it of this wood; he also made the 
 same objection, and declared that it spoiled his tools. Being 
 urged, however, to make another trial, he at length succeeded; 
 when the box was polished, the beautiful color of the wood was 
 so novel, that it became an object of great curiosity. Before 
 this time, mahogany had been used partially in the West Indies 
 for ship-building, but this new discovery of its beauty soon 
 brought it into general use for making furniture. 
 
 Crevice, a rent, a crack. Ballast, the heavy matter placed in the hold 
 of a vessel to keep it steady. 
 
 What is India Rubber or Caoutchouc ? 
 An elastic, resinous substance, produced from a tree, growing 
 abundantly at Cayenne, Quito, and other parts of South Ame- 
 rica ; and also in some parts of the Indies. The tree which 
 
108 INDIAN RUBBER — SPONGE. 
 
 produces it is large, straight, and about sixty feet high. There 
 is, however, a small species found in Sumatra and Java, and 
 some of the neighboring islands. 
 
 How is the Caoutchouc obtained from the Tree ? 
 
 By making incisions in the trunk of the tree, from which the 
 fluid resin issues in great abundance, appearing of a milky 
 whiteness at first, but gradually becoming of a dark reddish 
 color, soft and elastic to the touch. 
 
 To what use is this substance put ? 
 
 The Indians make of it boots, shoes, bottles, flambeaux, and 
 a species of cloth. Amongst us it is combined with sulphur, 
 forming the vulcanized rubber of commerce, which is used 
 for many purposes. A greater proportion of sulphur, pro- 
 duces vulcanite, a hard black substance, resembling jet. 
 
 Flambeaux, torches burnt to give light. 
 What is Sponge ? 
 
 A mnrine substance, found adhering to rocks and shells under 
 the sea- water, or on the sides of rocks near the shore. Sponge 
 was formerly imagined by some naturalists to be a vegetable 
 production ; by others, a mineral, or a collection of sea-mud, 
 but it has since been discovered to be the fabric and habitation 
 of a species of worm, or polypus. 
 
 What do you mean by Polypus ? 
 
 A species of animals, called Zoophytes, by which are meant 
 beings having such an admixture of the characteristics of both 
 plants and animals, ao to render it difficult to decide to which 
 division they properly belong. They are animal in substance, 
 possessed indeed of a stomach, but without the other animal 
 characteristics of blood-vessels, bones, or organs of sense; these 
 creatures live chiefly in water, and are mostly incapable of motion: 
 they increase by buds or excrescences from the parent zoophyte, 
 and if cut off will grow again and multiply; each part becom- 
 ing a perfect animal. Myriads of the different species of 
 zoophytes reside in small cells of coral, sponge, &c, or in forms 
 
CORAL. 109 
 
 fike plants, and multiply in such numbers as to create rocks 
 and whole islands in many seas, by their untiring industry. 
 Polypus signifies having many feet, or roots ; it is derived from 
 the Greek. 
 
 Myriads, countless numbers. 
 
 Whence are the best and greatest number of Sponge.- 
 brought ? 
 
 From the Mediterranean, especially from Nicaria, an island 
 near the coast of Asia : the collection of sponges forms, in 
 some of these islands, the principal support of their inhabitants. 
 They are procured by diving under water, an exercise in 
 which both men, women, and children are skilled from their 
 earliest years. The fine, small sponges are esteemed the best, 
 and usually come from Constantinople; the larger and coarser 
 sorts are brought from Tunis and Algiers, on the coast of Africa, 
 Sponge is very useful in the arts, as well as for domestic pur- 
 poses. 
 
 What is Coral ? 
 
 A substance which, like sponge, was considered as a vege- 
 table production, until about the year 1720, when a French 
 gentleman of Marseilles commenced (and continued for thirty 
 years,) a series of observations, and ascertained that the coral 
 was a living animal of the Polypus tribe. The general name 
 of zoophytes, or plant animals, has since been applied to them. 
 These animals are furnished with minute glands, secreting a 
 milky juice ; this juice, when exuded from the animal, becomes 
 fixed and hard. 
 
 Series, a course or continued succession. Glands, vessels. TZxuded, 
 from exude, to flow out. 
 
 Is this substance considered by naturalists as the habitation 
 
 of the Insect? 
 
 Not merely as the habitation, but as a part of the animal 
 
 itself, in the same manner that the shell of a snail or an oyster 
 
 is of those animals, and without which they cannot long exist. 
 
 10 
 
110 CORAL. 
 
 By means of this juice or secretion, the coral insects, at a vast 
 but unknown depth below the surface of the sea, attach them- 
 selves to the points and ridges of rocks, which form the bottom 
 of the ocean ; upon which foundation the little architects labor, 
 building up, by the aid of the above-mentioned secretion, pile 
 upon pile of their rocky habitations, until at length the work 
 rises above the sea, and is continued to such a height as to leave 
 it almost dry, when the insects leave building on that part, and 
 begin afresh in another direction under the water. Huge masses 
 of rocky substances are thus raised by this wonderful little 
 insect, capable of resisting the tremendous power of the ocean 
 when agitated to the highest pitch by winds or tempests. 
 
 Architect, one who builds. 
 
 How do these Coral Rocks become Islands ? 
 After the formation of this solid, rocky base, sea-shells, frag- 
 ments of coral, and sea-sand, thrown up by each returning tide, 
 are broken and mixed together by the action of the waves; 
 these, in time, become a sort of stone, and thus raise the surface 
 higher and higher; meanwhile, the ever-active surf continues 
 to throw up the shells of marine animals and other substances, 
 which fill up the crevices between the stones ; the undisturbed 
 sand on its surface offers to the seeds of trees and plants cast 
 upon it by the waves, a soil upon which they rapidly grow and 
 overshadow the dazzling whiteness of the new-formed land. 
 Trunks of trees, washed into the sea by the rivers from other 
 countries and islands, here find a resting-place, and with these 
 come some small animals, chiefly of the lizard and insect tribe. 
 Even before the trees form a wood, the sea-birds nestle among 
 their branches, and the stray land-bird soon takes refuge in the 
 bushes. At last, man arrives and builds his hut upon the fruit- 
 ful soil formed by the corruption of the vegetation, and calls 
 himself lord and master of this new creation. 
 
 Sutf, the white spray or froth of the sea waves. 
 
CORAL. Ill 
 
 Where is the Coral Insect found ? 
 In nearly all great seas; but particularly in the Medi- 
 terranean, where it produces Corallines of the most beautiful 
 forms and colors : it is in the Pacific Ocean, however, where 
 these tiny workmen are effecting those mighty changes, which 
 exceed the most wonderful works of man. 
 
 What is that part of the Pacific called, where the Coral 
 Rocks are most abundant ? 
 The Coral Sea, from the number of coral reefs and sunken 
 islands, with which it abounds ; it includes a region of many 
 miles in extent, the whole of which is studded with numberless 
 reefs, rocks, islands, and columns of coral, continually joining 
 and advancing towards each other. All navigators who have 
 visited these seas, state that no charts or maps are of any service 
 after a few years, owing to the number of fresh rocks and reefs 
 which are continually rising to the surface. The wonderful 
 instinct of these animals leads them to continue working without 
 ceasing, until their labors are finished, or their lives extinct. 
 
 Reef, a chain or line of rocks lying near the surface of the water. 
 Extinct, at an end, dead. 
 
 What are the names of the principal islands of Coral 
 formation ? 
 The New Hebrides, the Friendly Isles, the Navigator's Isles, 
 the Society Islands, the Marquesas, the Gambier group, and 
 others. These groups are separated from each other by chan- 
 nels or seas, wider than those which divide the individual islands 
 which form the respective groups; but all these waters abound 
 with shoals and minor islets, which point out the existence of a 
 common base, and show that the work by which they will after- 
 wards be united above the level of the sea is continually going 
 forward. 
 
 Shoals, shallows; places where the water is of little depth. Minor, 
 less, smaller than others. Existence, being. 
 
 What is a singular characteristic of the Coral Islands ? 
 On all of them a plentiful supply of sweet and fresh water 
 
112 CORAL — LIME. 
 
 may be obtained by digging three or four feet into the coral ; 
 and even within one yard of high-water mark such a supply is 
 to be found. They are mostly covered with a deep rich soil, 
 and well wooded with trees and evergreens of different kinds. 
 These islands vary in extent, as well as in the degree of finish 
 to which they have arrived ; some of the largest being about 30 
 miles in diameter, and the smallest something less than a mile ; 
 — all of various shapes, and all formed of living coral. 
 
 Diameter, a straight line through the middle of a circle. 
 Is Coral put to any use by man ? 
 
 White Coral, which is nowhere so abundant as. about the 
 shores of Ceylon, and others of the neighboring Indian coasts, 
 is employed as lime by the inhabitants of that part of the world, 
 for building houses, &c, by burning it after the manner of our 
 lime. This coral lies in vast banks, which are uncovered at low 
 water. Coral, particularly the beautiful red sort, is likewise 
 made into various ornaments, as necklaces, &c. 
 Of what is our Lime composed ? 
 
 Of a useful earth, which absorbs moisture and carbonic acid, 
 and exists as limestone, or in marble and chalk, which, when 
 burnt, become lime : in its native state it is called carbonate of 
 lime, and is burnt to disengage the carbonic acid; when made 
 into a paste, with one part water and three parts lime,* and 
 mixed with some other mineral or metallic substances, it forms 
 plastic cements and mortars ; and afterwards, imbibing carbonic 
 acid from the atmosphere, it becomes again carbonate of lime, 
 as hard as at first ) and hence its use in building. 
 
 Plastic, yielding, capable of being spread out or moulded. 
 What do you mean by Carbon ? 
 
 A simple substance, whose most common form is purified 
 charcoal : it is, in fact, the base of charcoal, divested of all 
 impurities ; combined with oxygen, it forms carbonic acid gas, 
 
 * See Chapter *vi., article Lime. 
 
OXYGEN — NITROGEN. 113 
 
 formerly called fixed air. It is diffused through all animal and 
 vegetable bodies ; and may be obtained by exposing them to a 
 red heat. In its pure, crystallized state, it constitutes the 
 diamond, and as graphite, is used in making the so-called 
 lead-pencils. 
 
 What is Oxygen ? 
 Air, mentioned in the first chapter of this work as the 
 gaseous substance which composes the atmosphere, is formed 
 by a mixture of two distinct elements, one called Nitrogen, 
 or Azote, the other Oxygen. Oxygen is, therefore, an ele- 
 ment or simple substance diffused generally through nature, 
 and its different combinations are essential to animal life and 
 combustion. It is, in fact, the most active agent in nature, 
 and the principle of acidity and combustion. So whole- 
 some and necessary is oxygen to life, that it is often called 
 vital air. 
 
 Agent, an actor: a person or thing possessing the faculty of action. 
 Essential, necessary. 
 
 What are the properties of Nitrogen or Azote? 
 Nitrogen is a substance also generally diffused through nature, 
 and particularly in animal bodies, and causes great changes in 
 those absorbing or exposed to it. This gas, combined with 
 oxygen and hydrogen, produces neither light, heat, nor com- 
 bustion, but serves to dilute the others : of itself, it is hurtful 
 to animal life. Nitrogen makes the principal part of the salt 
 we call nitre. 
 
 What is meant by Combustion ? 
 
 The decomposition of bodies by the action of fire ; the union 
 of combustible bodies with the oxygen of the atmosphere. The 
 greater access the air has to a burning body, the more rapid and 
 complete is the process. 
 
 Combustible, capable of taking fire. Access, the means or liberty o< 
 approach to anything. 
 
 •See Chapter xiv., article Diamond. 
 
 10* 
 
114 GAS HYDROGEN. 
 
 Are all bodies equally combustible ? 
 No; some are more so than others, and burn with a bright 
 flame; as wood, dry vegetables, resins, oils, fats, &c; others 
 with difficulty, and without any sensible flame, as soot, coal, the 
 ashes of plants, &c. There are bodies, also, which are incom- 
 bustible — that is, incapable of taking fire, as some alkalies, 
 earths, &c. 
 
 What is Caloric ? 
 
 Caloric is that invisible agent which produces the sensa- 
 tion of heat. It exists in all bodies; it is a force we are 
 ever in want of, and thus it is hid in everything around us, 
 and penetrates all matter, however different may be its 
 nature or properties. 
 
 What is meant by Gas ? 
 All highly elastic fluids are called gases. Some are salutary, 
 out many extremely noxious, especially such as those arising 
 from the putrefaction of animal bodies ; the burning of char- 
 coal; corrupted air at the bottom of mines, cellars, &c. The 
 inflammable gas, which lights our streets, churches, shops, &c, 
 is procured chiefly from coal, burnt in furnaces for the purpose 
 the gas being passed through metal pipes, conveyed under- 
 ground to the places where the light is required : escaping at 
 the orifice prepared for it, it is lighted when wanted, and burns 
 with a brilliant flame. This gas consists of hydrogen and 
 carbon; and the oxygen of the air, combined with the hydro- 
 gen, causes light as long as hydrogen and oxygen exist and 
 combine. 
 
 Salutary, wholesome, healthful. Noxious, hurtful, unwholesome. 
 Putrefaction, decay. Orifice, opening, hole. 
 
 What is Hydrogen ? 
 
 One of the most abundant principles in nature ; one part of 
 
 it, and eight of oxygen, form water. It is only met with in a 
 
g 
 
 5 
 
 I— i 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 < 
 
 i— i 
 H 
 
 r — 
 
 & 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
CHALK. 115 
 
 gaseous form ; it is also very inflammable, and is the gas called 
 the fire-damp, so often fatal to miners ; it is the chief consti- 
 tuent of oils, fats, spirits, &c. ; and is produced by the decom- 
 position of water. 
 
 Constituent, that which forms an essential part of anything. 
 
 What is Chalk ? 
 
 A white fossil substance, by some reckoned a stone, but of a 
 friable kind, which cannot, therefore, be polished as marble ; by 
 others, more properly ranked among the earths. It is of two 
 sorts, one a hard dry chalk, used for making lime ; the other a 
 soft, unctuous kind, used in manuring land, &c. Chalk always 
 contains quantities of flint-stone, and the fossil remains of shells, 
 coral, animal bones, marine plants, &c. ; from which circum- 
 stance there can be no doubt that chalk is the deposited, mud 
 of a former ocean. The chemical name of chalk is carbonate 
 of lime. It effervesces strongly with an acid. 
 
 Effervesce, to froth or foam up. Deposited, placed on anything. 
 Where is Chalk found ? 
 
 In large beds or strata in the earth. Chalk, on account of 
 its abundance in England, forms an important feature in the 
 scenery and geology of that country ; it causes the whiteness 
 of its sea-cliffs. Scotland and Wales are entirely without chalk. 
 The white chalk is found, with interruptions, over a space above 
 eleven hundred miles long, extending from the north of Ireland, 
 through England, France, Belgium, Germany, Poland, and 
 Southern Russia, to the Crimea, with a breadth of more than 
 eight hundred miles. The Island of Crete, now called Candia, 
 situated in the Mediterranean, was formerly noted for its chalk. 
 This substance is very useful in many of the arts and manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Where is the Crimea? 
 
 The peninsula of the Crimea is a part of Russia, lying on 
 the f *lack Sea, by which it is bounded on the west and south 
 
116 MARBLE, 
 
 Are there any other kinds of this earth besides the common 
 white chalk ? 
 
 Yes ; there are various kinds of chalk, distinguished by their 
 different colors, as white, black, red, &c, found in various parts 
 of the world, of great use to the painter, both in oil and water 
 colors, and for drawing on paper, &c. 
 What is Marble ? 
 
 A kind of stone remarkable for its hardness and firm grain, 
 and for being susceptible of the finest polish. It is dug in great 
 masses from pits or quarries ) and . is much used in ornamental 
 buildings, and for statues, altars, tombs, chimney-pieces, &c. 
 The word is derived from the French marbre, marble. Marble 
 is supposed to be formed, deep within the bowels of the earth, 
 from a loose and porous carbonate of lime, subjected to enor- 
 mous heat and pressure. 
 
 Susceptible, easily admitting anything additional. Porous, full of 
 holes, or interstices. 
 
 Are there different sorts of this Stone ? 
 
 Marbles are of many different kinds, usually named either 
 from their color or country ; some of one simple color, as white, 
 or black; others streaked or variegated with different colors. 
 They are classified as ancient and modern : the ancient are 
 those found in quarries now lost or inaccessible to us, and of 
 which there are only some wrought pieces remaining; — the 
 modern, those from quarries still open, and out of which blocks 
 of marble continue to be taken. 
 
 In what countries is Marble found ? 
 
 The United States, Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, 
 Africa, Egypt, and many other countries, produce marbles of 
 different colors and qualities ; some more beautiful, valuable, 
 and more highly esteemed than others, as those of Egypt, 
 Italy, &c. Those, also, of different places in the same country 
 frequently differ from each other in quality and appearance 
 Of the European narbles, that of Italy is the most /aluable. 
 
MARBLE. 117 
 
 What kind appears to have been held in the greatest esteem 
 by the ancients? 
 A beautiful white marble, called the Parian; of which the 
 Grecian statues were mostly made. By some, it is supposed to 
 have taken its name from the Isle of Paros, in the Mediterra- 
 nean ; but by others from Parius, a famous statuary, who made 
 it celebrated by cutting in it a statue of Venus. Parian marble 
 is often mentioned by ancient authors. 
 
 Statues, figures of men, animals, &c., cut in stone or marble. Statu- 
 ary, one who makes statues. 
 
 Who was Venus ? 
 The goddess of love and beauty, who was an object of adora- 
 tion in the idolatrous ages, when men ignorantly knelt down 
 and worshipped stocks and stones, which their own hands had 
 fashioned after the likeness of things on the earth, or imaginary 
 creations of their fancy ; — or, again, the sun, moon, and stars, 
 instead of the one and only true God. In those times, every 
 nation had its peculiar deities, to whom were paid divine rites 
 and honors, and to whose names costly temples were dedicated : 
 these deities were divided into two classes, superior and inferior. 
 Venus was one of the Grecian goddesses, supposed by them to 
 have sprung from the froth of the sea. Kings and celebrated 
 warriors, and sages too, after death, frequently received divine 
 honors; as Confucius, the founder of the Chinese empire, who, 
 after death, was worshipped by that people as a god. Romulus, 
 the first king of Rome, likewise, was thus adored by the Ro- 
 mans; and many similar instances of the same species of idola- 
 try amongst other nations might be recorded. 
 
 Deities, fabulous gods or goddesses. Idolatrous, given to the worship 
 at idols. Superior, higher in rank. Inferior, of a lower rank. Sage, 
 > -vise man. 
 
1 18 GOLD. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Platina, Sulphur, Gems or Precious 
 Stones, as Diamonds, Rubies, Emeralds, Turquois, Pearls, 
 Mother-of-Pearls, and Ivory. 
 
 What is Gold ? 
 
 The purest and most precious of metals : it is sometimes 
 found in solid masses, as in California, Peru, Hungary, &c. ; in 
 a shape resembling the branches of plants; in thin plates cover- 
 ing other bodies, as in Siberia; sometimes in a crystal form. 
 It, however, generally occurs in a metallic state, and most com- 
 monly in the form of grains. 
 
 What is it called when found in a perfect metallic form ? 
 
 Native gold : it is, however, seldom met with perfectly pure, 
 being frequently alloyed with silver, copper, iron, or platina ; 
 sometimes concealed in other minerals ; from which, if suffi- 
 ciently abundant, it is extracted by art. 
 
 Where and in what manner is Gold generally found ? 
 
 All parts of the earth afford gold ; though with great differ- 
 ence in point of purity and abundance. It is chiefly obtained 
 from mines. Many rivers contain gold in their sands, especially 
 those of California and Guinea. Gold mines are of rare occur- 
 rence in Europe, but the metal is found in some of its rivers ; 
 among its mines, those of Upper Hungary are the most consi- 
 siderable. China and Japan are rich in this metal; many 
 parts of Asia also possess it. Australia produces quantities 
 of the metal. It is also found in the eastern parts and interior 
 of Africa, where gold dust is collected in great quantities from 
 earth deposited by the rivers. But it is in America that gold is 
 found in the greatest abundance, particularly in the State of 
 California, and in some parts of South America, as Brazil, Peru, 
 Chili, &c. 
 
 Guinea, a country of Western Africa 
 
SILVER. 119 
 
 What are the uses of Gold ? 
 
 It is used for money, jewelry, plate, &c. It is also employed 
 in various ways in the arts. 
 
 What is the character of Gold ? 
 
 Gold is so ductile and malleable, that an ounce of it may be 
 drawn into a thread of 73 leagues in length ) or beaten into 
 160 leaves of 9 inches square, and thin enough to be carried 
 away by the slightest wind. It readily assumes any form that 
 human art can bestow upon it : its color is unalterable, and the 
 beautiful polish of which it is susceptible, renders it the best 
 of all metals for ornamental purposes. It is indestructible by 
 air, water, or fire. Gold is the heaviest of all metals, except 
 platina ; it is neither very elastic, nor very hard. 
 
 League, a measure of length containing three miles. Indestructible, 
 incapable of being destroyed. 
 
 Is not the use of Gold quite ancient ? 
 
 Yes; it appears to have been very early known to the inhabi- 
 tants of the world. In the 13th Chapter of Genesis, Abram 
 is spoken of as very rich in silver and gold ; and in the 2d 
 Chapter of the same book, the "land of Hevilath" (now in the 
 eastern part of Arabia Felix,) is pointed out as having gold. 
 Arabia was famed for the fineness and quality of its gold. In 
 the time of Solomon, the gold of Ophir seems to have been 
 much esteemed, as it is recorded that the gold used in the build- 
 ing of the Temple was brought from that place by the merchant- 
 vessels of Hiram, King of Tyre. Ophir is supposed to have 
 been situated somewhere in the East Indies. 
 What is Silver ? 
 
 A beautiful white shining metal, next to gold in value, and, 
 like that precious substance, of great antiquity. It is found in 
 Sweden, Norway, and the polar latitudes : when it occurs in 
 hot climates, it is generally amidst mountains, covered with per- 
 petual snow. 
 
 Latitude, breadth, width ; in Geography, the distance of a place in 
 degrees, north or south, from the Equator. 
 
120 TIN. 
 
 Where are the richest Silver Mines found ? 
 
 In South America, especially among the Andes ; the mines 
 of Mexico, and those of Nevada, also, are rich in this metal. 
 The richest and most important silver mines in Europe are 
 those of Konigsberg, in Norway, and of Andalusia, in Spain. 
 With the exception of gold, silver is the most ductile of all 
 metals: a single grain may be extended into a plate 126 
 inches long, and half an inch broad. It is capable of still 
 further extension, but its tenacity is inferior even to that 
 of iron or copper. A silver wire one-tenth of an inch thick 
 will scarcely bear a weight of 290 pounds, whilst a gold wire 
 of the same thickness will support nearly double that weight. 
 Like some other metals, it is unalterable by air or moisture, 
 but by an intense heat may be volatilized, being sometimes 
 found in the soot of chimneys where large quantities are melted. 
 
 Volatilized, made to fly off by evaporation. 
 
 In what state is Silver usually found ? 
 
 It is rarely found in a state of purity, being generally mixed 
 
 with other metals, as gold, lead, &c. Masses of native silver are of 
 
 no determinate form ; being found sometimes in small branches, 
 
 sometimes in threads, or very frequently in leaves, as in the 
 
 Siberian mines. Native, or pure silver is chiefly found in the 
 
 mines of Potosi. Silver was used as money in commerce 1100 
 
 years before the foundation of Rome. 
 
 Commerce, trade of one nation with another, or different persons, &c. 
 with each other. 
 
 What is Tin ? 
 A white metal, softer than any other excepting lead, more 
 elastic, and more sonorous. Though tin is the lightest of all 
 metals, its ore is, when rich, the heaviest of all metallic ores. 
 It has both smell and taste ; is less ductile than some harder 
 metals, though it may be beaten into very thin leaves ; and it 
 fuses so quickly, that it requires a heat much less than is suffi- 
 cient to make it red-hot. 
 
TIN — LEAD. 121 
 
 Was not the use of Tin very early known ? 
 
 Tin was found in Britain from the earliest ages ; the Pheni 
 cians traded to Cornwall for this metal 600 years before Christ 
 Where are the principal Tin Mines ? 
 
 In Saxony, Cornwall, and Bohemia. Tin is also found in 
 Spain, Sumatra,. Siam, Mexico, and Chili. A few specimen? 
 have been found at Goshen, in Massachusetts. 
 Specimens, samples. 
 
 In what state is Tin generally found ? 
 
 Tin is sometimes found native or pure, but most frequently 
 alloyed with other metals : the working of tin mines is attended 
 with much difficulty, on account of their great depth, and the 
 hard rocks which obstruct the progress of the miners, who are 
 often obliged to cut through them. This metal is very useful 
 m the making of domestic utensils, for coating the inside of 
 copper and iron vessels, and for various other purposes. 
 
 Obstruct, to stand in the way. 
 What is Lead ? 
 
 A coarse, heavy metal, of a bluish grey color : it is so soft 
 and flexible, that it is easily cut with a knife, and rolled out 
 into sheets, &c. ; it is very fusible and inelastic, but less ductile 
 and sonorous, than any other metal. Next to gold, platina, and 
 mercury, it is the heaviest of the metals, being eleven times 
 heavier than an equal bulk of water. This metal loses its 
 malleability in proportion as it is heated : as soon as it melts it 
 calcines, and greyish-colored ashes are formed on its surface; 
 when returning from a fluid to a solid state, it is easily divided 
 into small grains or powder, or formed into shot, &c. Lead 
 was in common use among the ancients. 
 
 Flexible, yielding, easily bent. Sonorous, giving sound when struck. 
 
 Where is Lead found ? 
 In various countries; but it abounds principally in Great 
 Britain and Spain ; the lead mines of Illinois, Wisconsin, and 
 [owa, are among the richest in the world. Lead is a metal of 
 11 
 
122 LEAD — BLACK LEAD. 
 
 great utility ; it easily melts and mixes with gold, silver, and 
 
 copper ; hence it is employed in refining gold and silver, as it 
 
 separates all the dirt and impurities from them ; it is much used 
 
 in building, particularly for covering gutters, pipes, &c. ; lead 
 
 is also used in varnishes and oil-painting, and makes the basis 
 
 of the glazing of all the earthen and pottery wares. 
 
 Refining, cleansing, purifying. Varnishes, preparations for beautify 
 ing and preserving various articles. 
 
 What is peculiar to the ore of Lead ? 
 The ore of this metal is so poisonous, that the steam arising 
 from the furnaces in which it is smelted infects the grass of all 
 the neighboring places, and kills the animals which feed on it : 
 culinary vessels lined with a mixture of tin and lead, are apt to 
 convey pernicious qualities to the food prepared in them. There 
 are various preparations of lead, serving for different purposes. 
 
 Infects, corrupts. Culinary, adapted to the purposes of cooking. 
 Pernicious, hurtful, dangerous. Ore, the mineral soil, earth, or stone 
 dug out of the mines, which contains the metal. 
 
 What is Black Lead ? 
 It is a kind of mineral, of a deep shining black or bluish 
 color, soft and unctuous to the touch ) it is insoluble in acids, 
 and infusible by fire. Black lead has been found in many parts 
 of the world, in a state of greater or less purity, but it is the 
 English black lead which is the most esteemed. 
 
 Insoluble, incapable of dissolving. Infusible, not capable of being 
 melted. 
 
 Is Black Lead a proper term for this mineral ? 
 No ; because, in reality, there is not a particle of lead in it. 
 On the spot where it is procured, it is called by two or three 
 different names, but the most usual is Plumbago. 
 Where is the best Black Lead found ? 
 The best and greatest quantity is found in England, in a mine 
 near Keswick, in Cumberland. It is much used for pencils or 
 crayons, for writing, drawing, &c. ; for this purpose it is sawn 
 
PL ATTN A. 123 
 
 into slips, and fitted into a groove in a strip of soft wood, as 
 cedar, &c., over which another is placed and fastened with glue. 
 What is Platina ? 
 A metallic substance, more recently discovered than the 
 metals already described ; and analogous to the perfect metals, 
 especially gold, — many of whose properties it possesses. 
 Analogous, bearing a resemblance. 
 
 Whence is its name derived? 
 It is the diminutive of plat a, silver, to which it appears very 
 similar ; platina being a silver-colored metal, in small grains. 
 Diminutive, a word lessening the meaning of the original. 
 
 Whence is it obtained ? 
 
 Mostly from Russia, and, also from South America. Its 
 color does not tarnish by exposure to the air, and appears to be 
 equally permanent with that of pure gold ; the metal is inde- 
 structible by fire. Platina is capable of being alloyed with all 
 metals ; is fused with difficulty, but by great labor may be ren- 
 dered malleable : it is also the heaviest metal, being 21 times 
 heavier than water. 
 
 Permanent, lasting. 
 
 Are there any other Metals besides those already men- 
 tioned ? 
 In addition to the metals known and used by the ancients, 
 the chemical science of later ages has, by decomposing other 
 earths, added more than thirty to the number of metals, some 
 of them more curious than useful; several of these are lighter 
 than water. All the metals possess different and distinct pro- 
 perties from each other. They are divided into two classes, the 
 malleable and the brittle metals. These last may be again di- 
 vided into ^two others, — namely, those which are easily, and 
 those which are with difficulty fused. 
 
 What do you mean by Metallurgy ? 
 The art of obtaining metals from their ores, comprising the 
 
124 SULPHUR 
 
 processes of assaying, refining, smelting, &c. By assaying is 
 meant, the particular manner of examining an ore or mixed 
 metal, according to its nature, so as to discover not only what 
 metals and what proportions of metal may be obtained from 
 it, but also what other mineral substances or earths may be 
 contained in it. 
 
 What do the terms Refining and Smelting signify ? 
 
 Refining is the art of rendering the metal free from all im- 
 purities. Smelting means the melting of a metal from its ore 
 in a smelting furnace, in order to separate the metallic parts 
 from the sulphur, arsenic, and the earthy and stony substances 
 with which they may be combined. 
 What is Sulphur ? 
 
 An inflammable, fossil substance, of a dry, solid, friable 
 nature, melting with a small proportion of heat; — when fired 
 in the open air, burning almost entirely away with a blue flame 
 and noxious vapor. It is abundantly diffused in many places, 
 especially where metallic minerals are found ; but more particu- 
 larly in those districts where subterranean fires and volcanoes 
 exist. It is also found combined with many different substances. 
 Describe the nature of Sulphur, and the places where it is 
 mostly found. 
 
 Sulphur almost pure, called native or virgin sulphur, is found 
 
 in volcanoes and grottoes, in the form of transparent crystals ; 
 
 but the greatest quantity which exists naturally is combined 
 
 with metals in ores. Sulphur is both fusible and volatile, — 
 
 which qualities enable us to procure it from those minerals by 
 
 the process of sublimation : it unites easily, in different 
 
 degrees, with all metallic matters, excepting gold, platina, and 
 
 zinc. 
 
 Sublimation, the act of bringing a solid substance into the slate of vapor 
 by heat, and condensing it again by cold. 
 
 Are not its uses very extensive ? 
 Yes, both in the arts and in chemistry : it is well known to 
 
SULPHUR. 125 
 
 be a principal ingredient in the preparation of gunpowder and 
 are-works ; it is also used for whitening wool, straw, silk, &c. ; 
 many other matters exposed to the vapors of sulphur when 
 burning, quickly lose their color, which no other substance had 
 been able to destroy. Sulphur is also frequently found in 
 mineral waters. 
 
 Whence are the greatest quantities of Sulphur brought ? 
 
 The largest quantities are brought from Saxony, in irregular 
 masses, which are afterwards melted and cast into small rolls. 
 There are about four species of sulphur; namely, the yellow 
 native sulphur, which in its purest state is clear, and of a pale 
 straw color, found in the gold mines of Peru ; in Hungary, and 
 some other places : the green native sulphur, which is harder 
 than the other, is found in small crust-like masses; this sort is 
 chiefly confined to Mount Vesuvius : and the grey native sul- 
 phur, common in Iceland and many other places. Native 
 sulphur is also found at the coal mines, near Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia; in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and other parts of the 
 United States. 
 
 Which is the most rare and beautiful of all the kinds ? 
 
 The red native sulphur; it is mostly of a fine glowing red, 
 very bright and transparent; it is found, like the first-mentioned 
 sort, in the gold mines of Peru. Common sulphur, such as is 
 used in trade and the arts, is of a pale yellow color; and pos- 
 sesses a peculiar and disagreeable smell, particularly when heated 
 or rubbed. This is mostly extracted from the metallic sulphur- 
 ets, and is commonly called brimstone. It is the sort employed 
 in making matches. 
 
 Is there not another substance also employed in the manu- 
 facture of matches ? 
 
 Yes: Phosphorus, a peculiar substance, chiefly of animal 
 origin. It is mostly procured by the decomposition of the 
 phosphoric acid which is found in bones. It was accidentally 
 11* 
 
126 PHOSPHORUS — ARSENIC. 
 
 discovered at Hamburgh, in 1669, by an alchemist named 
 Brandt. 
 
 Alchemist, one skilled in Alchemy.* 
 
 What is the nature of Phosphorus ? 
 It is a solid, inflammable substance, which burns when in 
 contact with atmospheric air. It is used in various chemical 
 experiments, and for making matches ; for various kinds of fire- 
 works, &c. It will combine with all metals except .gold and 
 zinc ; and also with some earths. Some animals, as the glow- 
 worm, possess very peculiar phosphorescent qualities. 
 
 Phosphorescent, having a phosphoric property, emitting peculiar light 
 like phosphorus. 
 
 What is Arsenic ? 
 A heavy metallic substance, very volatile, and highly inflam- 
 mable ; so caustic or corrosive to animals, as to become a violent 
 poison in all its states. In its metallic state it is used in several 
 of the arts : it is employed in the manufacture of factitious 
 metals : it is of use to the dyer in forming some of his colors; 
 and for that purpose is generally combined with potassa. It is 
 used in the making of small shot, and also in the manufacture 
 of glass, to which it gives transparency ; in whitening copper ; 
 in calico printing; in the preparation of colors for the painter; 
 and in the working of platina, and some other metals, to render 
 them more easily fusible. 
 
 Caustic, dry, burning. Corrosive, apt to corrode, to eat away, to 
 penetrate. 
 
 How is the white powdered arsenic prepared ? 
 By submitting the ore to a strong heat in a peculiar kind of 
 furnace; this produces a dark grey powder, which is again 
 heated in close iron vessels; this separates it from its impurities, 
 and the arsenic is obtained in thick, solid masses; these, by 
 exposure to the air, fall into a fine, white powder. 
 
 See Chapter xviii., article Chemistry. 
 
GEMS DIAMOND. 127 
 
 From what is the word Arsenic derived ? 
 
 From a Greek word, signifying masculine — powerful (as a 
 poison). Arsenic is dug out of mines in Saxony, near Goslar; 
 in Bohemia; in England, in the Mendip Hills, in great quan- 
 tities. It has so strong a corrosive quality as sometimes to burn 
 the hands and feet of the miners ; it is a deadly poison for all 
 known animals. This poisonous mineral is not found native in 
 its perfect form, being generally united with metallic ores. 
 What do you mean by Gems ? 
 
 The word gem is used as a common name for all precious 
 stones or jewels; they consist of the siliceous earths; and are 
 much valued for their lustre, transparency, color, hardness, and 
 rarity. There are many different kinds of precious stones, each 
 distinguished by its peculiar character. 
 How are they divided ? 
 
 Into the pellucid gems, which are of great lustre, and ex- 
 tremely hard, as the diamond ; the semi-pellucid, those which 
 are not so transparent, but yet of great beauty ; those of one 
 color, as the emerald or turquois ; and those variegated or veined 
 with different colors. Gems are sometimes found of regular 
 shapes, with a natural polish, near the beds of rivers after great 
 rains; these are of the pebble kind. Sometimes they are found 
 of irregular shapes, with a rough coat, in mines and the clefts 
 of rocks. Pearls, though not stones, are also ranked among 
 the number of gems. 
 
 Pellucid, clear as a drop of water. Semi-pellucid, half pellucid. 
 Describe the Diamond. 
 
 The diamond is a precious stone, the first in rank of all the 
 gems, and valued for its beautiful lustre ; it is the hardest of 
 all stones, as well as the most valuable. The most esteemed are 
 colorless. A diamond in its natural state as it comes out of the 
 mine, and before it is cut, is called rough, because it has no 
 brilliancy, but is covered with an earthy crust. The diamond 
 
128 DIAMOND — RUBY. 
 
 is the Adamant of the ancients ; hence the expression " hard 
 as adamant/ ' from its being the hardest substance in nature. 
 The cutting of diamonds is a work of labor, and requires great 
 skill; the polishing is performed by a mill of simple construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Where are they mostly found ? 
 
 In yellow ochreous earths; in mines; and likewise in tor- 
 rents, which have torn them from their beds. In former times, 
 all the diamonds that were known were brought from the famous 
 mines of G-olconda, in Hindostan ; the islands of Molucca and 
 Borneo have also produced many valuable stones. The diamond 
 mines of Golconda are now so exhausted, that they are not 
 thought worth the expense of working; these gems are now 
 brought chiefly from Brazil, in South America. 
 What is meant by Ochreous ? 
 
 Consisting of ochre, a kind of earth with a rough and dusty 
 surface, composed of fine, soft, clayey particles, which readily 
 separate in water. There are various colored ochres, as red, 
 yellow, blue, green, &c. ; they are very useful in many of the 
 arts 
 
 What «term is used to denote the quality of the Diamond? 
 
 In speaking of the value of diamonds, we distinguish them 
 as " diamonds of the first water," meaning those which possess 
 the greatest perfection and purity, which ought to be that of the 
 clearest drop of water : when they fall short of this perfection, 
 they are said to be " of the second or third water," and so on 
 till the stone may be properly called a colored one. 
 What is the Ruby ? 
 
 A beautiful gem of a red color; in its perfect state it is of 
 great value. The ruby is often found perfectly pure and free 
 from all spots or blemishes ; but its value is much more fre- 
 quently lessened by them, especially in the larger stones. It is 
 very hard, being second only to the diamond in this respect; 
 and is often naturally so bright and pure on the surface as to 
 
RUBY— EM ERALD — TURQUOIS. 129 
 
 need no polishing; it is often worn in rings, &c., in its rough 
 or native state. The color of rubies varies from the deepest to 
 the palest red, all having more or less of a purplish tinge, which 
 is more plainly perceived in the deeper colored specimens than 
 in the paler ones. 
 
 Where are Rubies found ? 
 
 They are mostly found in gold mines. We have the true 
 rubies only from the East. The Isle of Ceylon has long been 
 celebrated for these gems ; they are found in a river which de- 
 scends from the mountains; they are brighter and more beauti- 
 ful than those obtained in other parts, but are very rare. Some 
 crystals are frequently found tinged with the true color of the 
 ruby, but these want its lustre and hardness. 
 Describe the Emerald. 
 
 It is a precious stone of a beautiful transparent green color, 
 and, when in a state of perfection, nearly equal to the ruby in 
 hardness. The finest and best are found in America, especially 
 among the mountains of Peru ; they are also obtained from a 
 few places in the East. These gems are often counterfeited, as 
 are most of the precious stones, there being even false diamonds; 
 the genuine may be known by their extreme hardness and 
 brilliancy. 
 
 Counterfeited, imitated with a view to defraud. Genuine, true, real. 
 What is the Turquois ? 
 
 A beautiful blue stone ; it is one of the softest of the gems, 
 and some varieties are often used for seals, as they admit of 
 being engraved upon. The turquois is easily imitated, and that 
 often so perfectly as to render it very difficult to distinguish the 
 counterfeit from the true gem. 
 
 In what countries are they found ? 
 
 The Oriental Turquois comes from Persia, the Indies, and 
 some parts of Turkey; the turquois is also found in various 
 parts of Europe, as Germany, Spain, and France. 
 
130 ENGRAVING. 
 
 What is Engraving ? 
 The art of cutting metals or precious stones, and representing 
 thereon figures, letters, and devices; the term is, however, more 
 particularly applied to the art of producing figures or designs on 
 metal, &c, for the purpose of being subsequently printed on 
 paper. The ancients are well known to have excelled in en- 
 graving on precious stones; many specimens have been pre- 
 served, which surpass anything of the kind produced by the 
 moderns. This art is frequently alluded to in the Bible. En- 
 graving on wood, according to some authors, was introduced into 
 Europe from China by Venetian merchants ; it is certain the 
 art was practised in eastern and northern Italy as early as the 
 thirteenth century. The invention of copper-plate engraving 
 has been ascribed to a goldsmith of Florence, about the year 
 1460. 
 
 Device, that which is formed by design. Design, a representation of 
 a thing by an outline ; a sketch. 
 
 Describe Wood Engraving. 
 
 The subject is drawn on a block of box or pear-tree wood 
 with a black-lead pencil, or with a pen and Indian ink; the 
 wood is then cut away, so as to leave the lines which have been 
 drawn, as raised parts. The ink is next applied, and by press- 
 ing damp paper upon the block, the impressions are obtained. 
 Albert Durer, a celebrated painter of Germany, brought the art 
 of engraving on wood and metal, and taking off impressions on 
 paper, &c, to great perfection. 
 
 How is engraving on copper, steel, &c, performed? 
 
 This sort of engraving is performed with a sharp-pointed 
 instrument called a graver, by means of which figures, land- 
 scapes, &c, are traced upon a flat surface of the metal : the 
 lines are then filled with ink or a similar composition, and the 
 paper pressed on the plate. When taken off, an exact copy of 
 the plate is impressed upon its surface. 
 
COCHINEAL INSECTS AND PLANTS. 
 
LITHOGRAPHY — PEARLS. 131 
 
 What is Lithography ? 
 A species of engraving on stone, from which impressions can 
 be taken much more expeditiously and economically than from 
 metal. The process depends upon the following principles : — 
 First, the facility with which calcareous stones imbibe water; 
 second, the power of oily substances to repel water. When 
 drawings are executed upon the stone with crayons composed of 
 oily materials, and the surface of the stone is washed over with 
 water, the moisture is imbibed by the stone, but repelled from 
 the engraving ; and when the ink, which also contains oily sub- 
 stances, is applied, it adheres only to the drawing, and not to 
 the other portions of the stone. The block is then passed 
 through a press, and the impressions are taken off; as many as 
 70,000 perfect copies have been obtained from a single stone. 
 
 Expeditiously y with celerity or dispatch. Economically, with eco- 
 nomy ; with frugality. 
 
 You describe Pearls as being ranked among the number 
 of Gems, although they are not Stones; what kind of 
 substance are they ? 
 Pearls are excrescences found in the shells of a large species 
 of oyster, which are supposed to be produced by a disease of the 
 fish. The best pearls are generally taken from the most fleshy 
 part of the oyster, near the hinge of the shell, but inferior 
 kinds are found in all parts of the fish, and adhering to the 
 shells. Pearls, from many allusions made to them in the Old 
 Testament, were not only known to the ancients, but were re- 
 garded by them as costly and precious gems. 
 
 How do they get the Oysters which contain them ? 
 By diving under water and picking the oysters from the large 
 6eds at the bottom of the sea ; or the rocks to which they ad- 
 here. The divers cast all the oysters they take into their boats, 
 and carry them ashore, where they deposit them in heaps ; they 
 are then left till they become putrid, this being necessary in 
 order to remove the pearls easily from the rough matter by which 
 they are surrounded. 
 
132 EBONY — IVORY. 
 
 What sea produces the best and greatest number of Pearls ? 
 
 The finest and greatest quantities are obtained off the coast 
 of Ceylon ; the pearl oyster is also found in the seas of the East 
 Indies; in those of America, and in some parts of the European 
 seas ; but these last are much inferior. The Oriental pearls are 
 the finest on account of their size, color, and beauty, being of a 
 silvery white; while the Occidental pearls are smaller, and 
 frequently tinged with a yellow or blackish hue. 
 
 Tinged, slightly colored. 
 
 Does not the Pearl Oyster produce a substance called 
 Mother-of-Pearl ? 
 
 No; the beautiful substance so much used for inlaying boxes, 
 and for ornamental knife-handles, &c, is produced from the 
 shell, not of the pearl oyster, but of another sea-fish of the 
 oyster kind. 
 
 What is Inlaying ? 
 
 The art of ornamenting a plain surface of wood, or other 
 material, with thin slices or leaves of a finer wood, of a different 
 kind; as mahogany inlaid with ebony, &c, or with ivory, and 
 other substances. There are two kinds of inlaying ; one, of the 
 more ordinary sort, which consists only of compartments of 
 different kinds of wood, inlaid with one another; the other, 
 requiring greater skill, represents flowers, birds, and other 
 figures. The thin plates of wood or other substance, being 
 sawed into slips, and cut into the required forms, are carefully 
 joined, and afterwards strongly glued down on the block of 
 wood, &c., intended to be thus ornamented. 
 
 Compartment, a division, a separate part. 
 What is Ebony? 
 
 A hard, black-colored wood, growing in the countries of the 
 Levant, &c. ; there are, however, several black woods of diffe- 
 rent kinds which are also called ebony, 
 What is Ivory ? 
 
 The tooth or tusk of the Elephant, which grows on each side 
 
STARCH. 133 
 
 of his trunk ; it is somewhat like a horn in shape. Ivory is 
 much esteemed for its beautiful white color, polish, and fine 
 grain when wrought. It has been used from the remotest ages 
 of antiquity; in the Scriptures we read of Solomon's ivory 
 throne, and also of "vessels of ivory/' and "beds of ivory ;" 
 by which it appears to have been a chief article of luxury, as 
 well as of trade. 
 
 Remotest, most distant. 
 
 Of what countries is the Elephant an inhabitant ? 
 
 Of many parts of Asia and Africa. The elephant is the 
 largest quadruped now in existence j it is extremely sagacious, 
 docile and friendly : in the countries where they live they are 
 trained to useful labor, and by their great strength are enabled 
 to perform tasks which a man or horse could not accomplish : 
 among the native princes they were, and even still are, used in 
 war : with them the inhabitants are able to hunt and destroy 
 the lion, tiger, and other beasts of prey. With their long trunk, 
 or proboscis, they can perform almost everything which man can 
 with his hands. 
 
 Quadruped, an animal with four feet. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Starch, Arrow-Root, Tapioca, Isinglass, Caviare, the Vine, 
 Wine. Gin, Rum, Brandy, Vinegar, Indigo, Gamboge, Logwood, 
 Tar. Pitch, Camphor, Musk, Myrrh, Frankincense, and Tur- 
 pentine 
 
 What is Starch ? 
 A white, powdery sediment procured from the bottom of 
 vessels in which flour or meal has been steeped in water. Pure 
 starch is of a fine white color, without taste or smell ; it will 
 12 
 
134 ARROW-ROOT, ETC. 
 
 not dissolve in cold water, but with warm forms a jelly, in which . 
 form it is generally used ; it is made by crushing, soaking, and 
 fermenting the grains of the cereals, and then washing in pure 
 water; the water is then evaporated, leaving behind the starch. 
 
 Sediment, matter subsided to the bottom of liquors. 
 
 For what is Starch used ? 
 
 To stiffen linen after washing; to make hair powder; and 
 for other purposes in the arts. 
 
 From what vegetables is Starch obtained ? 
 
 All farinaceous vegetable substances afford it, as the potato, 
 horse-chestnut, &c. Starch being the nutritive part of the vege- 
 table, forms an excellent food for invalids, and constitutes the 
 principal part of arrow-root, tapioca, &c. ; the different flavor 
 of these substances being derived from the mixture of a small 
 portion of foreign matter peculiar to the plants which yield 
 them. Starch is procured from potatoes by crushing them to 
 powder, and then proceeding as in the manufacture of wheat 
 starch. 
 
 What is Arrow-root ? 
 
 The starch obtained from the root of an American plant by 
 pulverization. It is often adulterated with potato starch, and the 
 latter is even sold instead of it, for the two kinds resemble each 
 other so closely that they can hardly be distinguished. 
 
 Pulverization, the act of reducing to powder. Adulterated, corrupted 
 by foreign mixture. 
 
 What is Tapioca ? 
 Tapioca is another kind of starch, obtained frozn the root of 
 the manioc plant, which is cultivated in most hot climates, in 
 Asia, Africa, and America. A flour is also prepared from it, 
 which is used for making bread. It is particularly cultivated 
 in the tropical parts of America, and in the West India islands, 
 where it forms a very important article of food for the Negro 
 population. 
 
ISINGLASS — CAVIARE. 135 
 
 Negro, a name given to the black inhabitants of Africa and their 
 descendants. Population, inhabitants of a place or country. 
 
 What is Isinglass ? 
 
 One of the purest and finest of animal glues. It is the 
 produce of several kinds of fish, but especially of the sturgeon, 
 which inhabits the seas of Northern Europe and America. 
 From what part of the fish is it prepared ? 
 
 From the air-bladder, and certain parts of the entrails ; these 
 are taken out while fresh, cut open, washed, and exposed to the 
 air a short time to stiffen ) the outside skin is then taken off, 
 and the remaining part formed into rolls, fastened together with 
 pegs, and hung up to dry. The isinglass is then separated into 
 threads of different sizes, or formed into flakes. Immense 
 quantities are annually prepared in this manner in Russia. 
 What are its uses ? 
 
 Dissolving readily in water or milk, it yields a mild nutriment 
 for the sick, and enters into the composition of many delicacies 
 for the table, such as jellies, &c. It is mixed with gum to give 
 lustre to silk and satin ; it is also used in making court plaster, 
 and for clarifying* various liquors. Gelatine, now much used 
 on account of its being less expensive, is a similar prepara- 
 tion, but of an inferior quality. 
 
 What else does the Sturgeon supply ? 
 
 Its roe furnishes the delicacy called Caviare, which is in fact 
 merely that part of the fish separated from the membranes and 
 washed in vinegar and white wine, and dried in the air. It is 
 then well salted, and packed up in barrels ready for sale. This 
 is the method of preparing it in Russia, where large quantities 
 of it are consumed. It is largely exported to Italy, where it is 
 highly esteemed. It is unwholesome, and at present the de- 
 mand for it, except in Russia and Italy, is very limited. The 
 best is dry and of a brown color, and is eaten with lemon juice 
 on bread. 
 
 To what other uses is the fruit of the Vine applied besides 
 drying it for raisins, as described in the sixth chapter? 
 
136 WINE — HONEY. 
 
 The well-known plant, called the Vine, has been an object 
 of culture from the earliest ages of the world, for the sake of 
 the fermented liquor obtained from its fruit; soon after the 
 flood, Noe, who appears to have been the first " husbandman," 
 is mentioned as having " planted a vineyard," and drank of the 
 juice of the grape ; in all those countries where it flourishes, it 
 is inseparably connected with their religious rites, and wine, like 
 corn, formed one of the principal articles which they offered on 
 their altars to the gods whom they worshipped. 
 
 Husbandman, one who cultivates the fruits of the earth. Altar, the 
 place where sacrifices were anciently offered to some deity. 
 
 What countries produce the best Wines ? 
 
 The wines of France are generally admitted to be the finest ; 
 the principal ones are Champagne, Burgundy, and Claret. Of 
 each of these, there are several varieties, celebrated for their 
 peculiar flavor ; they are generally named after the places where 
 they are made. Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, Hungary, 
 Sicily, Greece, and California, also produce their various 
 sorts of wine, each esteemed in its kind. 
 
 May Wine be extracted from other vegetable bodies ? 
 
 The word is appropriated in a more particular manner to the 
 fermented juice of the grape ; but nearly all vegetable produc- 
 tions may be made to afford wine. That produced from Apples 
 is called Cider; that from Pears, Perry. A kind of wine, 
 called Mead, is prepared from honey and water. 
 
 Appropriated, applied to. 
 
 What is Honey ? 
 A sweet vegetable juice, collected from the flowers of various 
 plants by the bees. 
 
 What Honey was reckoned by the ancients the best in the 
 world ? 
 The honey of Hybla, on the east coast of Sicily, and of 
 Hymettus, a mountain of Greece, rear Athens. 
 
GIN — MALT, ETC. 137 
 
 What other fluid is drawn from Wine ? 
 Spirits; by this term is understood, a volatile fluid called 
 spirits of wine, or alcohol, obtained by distillation from wine, 
 beer, and all fermented liquors. It is colorless, and of a strong 
 penetrating taste and smell. It is of great use in chemistry; 
 in dyeing to prepare the stuff for receiving colors ; and in many 
 of the arts. 
 
 What is the vessel called which is used in Distilling ? 
 A Still. It is a vessel so formed as to collect the vapor, 
 which is the spirit, or alcohol, separated from the liquid from 
 which it is drawn. This liquid product is itself returned to the 
 still; and the same process is several times repeated, till the 
 alcohol or spirit is sufficiently strong and pure. There are three 
 principal spirits used in this country, as gin, rum, and brandy, 
 Product, thing produced. 
 
 What is Gin ? 
 A spirit procured from raw barley, oats, and malt, mixed 
 together in certain proportions : there are several varieties of 
 this spirit, all obtained from grain. The peculiar flavor of gin 
 is given by infusing a few hops and some of the berries of the 
 juniper fir. 
 
 What is Malt? 
 Malt is barley prepared by being steeped in water and fer- 
 mented, and then dried in a kiln. It is used for making beer, 
 &c. 
 
 Of what are Hops the produce ? 
 Of a graceful climbing plant, the blossoms of which are used 
 in making beer, to preserve it and improve its flavor. 
 What is Hum ? 
 A spirit obtained from molasses, the fluid which drains from 
 sugar while it is crystallizing. 
 What is Brandy ? 
 A spirit distilled from any wine ; but the best is procured 
 from weak French wines, which are unfit for exportation. 
 12* 
 
138 VINEGAR — INDIGO. 
 
 Brandy, from whatever wine it has been obtained, is at first 
 colorless ; different methods are employed to give it the color 
 by which it is distinguished. 
 Exportation, the act of sending articles from one country to another. 
 
 What is Vinegar ? 
 An agreeable, acid, penetrating liquor, prepared from wine, 
 beer, &c. To make vinegar, the wine or beer is made to undergo 
 a second fermentation, called the acid or acetous fermentation ; 
 the first which the vegetable juice had to undergo, in order to 
 convert it into wine or beer, being called the vinous fermenta- 
 tion. Vinegar is of great use in cookery and medicine ; the 
 word is derived from the French for wine, vin, and aigre, sour. 
 The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, which they used as 
 drinks ; but it is most likely that these vinegars were different 
 from that so called among us, and were more probably a kind 
 of wine. 
 
 Acetous, sour. Vinous, wine- like. 
 
 What materials are used for the dyeing and coloring of our 
 manufactures ? 
 There are many mineral and vegetable earths which furnish 
 mankind with different colors for beautifying their various 
 manufactures, and assisting them in the arts, &c. Some species 
 of insects also come to their aid, as for instance, the cochineals ; 
 these insects are killed by the application of heat, and thus form 
 the drug used for giving red colors, especially crimson and scar- 
 let, and for making carmine. The beautiful and permanent 
 blue called Indigo, is the produce of a small shrub, two or three 
 feet in height. 
 
 From what part is the Dye obtained ? 
 From the leaves; the color is produced by soaking them 
 some hours in water, in large vessels constructed for the pur- 
 pose ; the sediment of the blue liquor drawn from them is after- 
 wards dried and sold in the form of small grains. For the 
 painter, they are mixed with oil, or diluted and made up into 
 small cakes with gum water. 
 
INDIGO — GAMBOGE, ETC. 139 
 
 In what countries is Indigo cultivated ? 
 
 It is native in both Indies, and in South America, where its 
 cultivation affords employment to many of the inhabitants. It 
 also grows wild in parts of Palestine, and is much cultivated 
 both in Syria and Egypt. It once formed one of the staples 
 of the Southern States, but has in a great measure given way 
 to the cultivation of cotton. 
 
 Has Indigo been long known '( 
 
 The culture and preparation of indigo were known to the 
 Oriental nations long before it was introduced into Europe. 
 The inhabitants of ancient Britain painted their bodies with the 
 blue dye which they obtained from woad, a plant which grows 
 wild in France and along the shores of the Baltic, and which 
 greatly resembles indigo in all its properties, except its brilliancy 
 of color. 
 
 Brilliancy, brightness. 
 What is Gamboge ? 
 
 The concrete resinous juice of a species of gum-tree, growing 
 in Cambodia, and other parts of the Indies. It is brought over 
 in large cakes or rolls of a yellowish brown color outside, and 
 inside of a deep yellow or orange, which changes to a pale bright 
 yellow on being moistened. 
 
 What are the uses of Gamboge ? 
 
 Dissolved in water, it forms a beautiful and useful color for 
 the painter. It is also used in medicine. Gamboge is soluble 
 in either water or spirits of wine. Mixed with a blue color, it 
 forms green, in various shades according to the different propor- 
 tions of the ingredients. 
 What is Logwood ? 
 
 The wood of a tree which grows in parts of America and the 
 West Indies. It is imported in great quantities, and employed 
 in dyeing purple and the finest blacks. 
 What is Tar? 
 
 A coarse, resinous liquor issuing from the wood and bark of 
 
140 TAR — PITCH — CAMPHOR. 
 
 pine or fir-trees; it is in fact the oily juices of the sap thickened 
 and colorod by the heat of the sun or by age ; it is extracted 
 for use by burning the wood of the trees under a heavy cover- 
 ing of turf or earth; the tar exudes during the slow combustion, 
 and is collected into a cavity dug in the ground for the purpose. 
 Tar is exported in great quantities from Norway, Sweden, and 
 our Southern States. 
 
 What are its uses ? 
 It is applied to the sides of ships and boats and their rigging, 
 to preserve them from the effects of the weather; it is used 
 instead of paint for palings, &c. ; and sometimes also in medi- 
 cine. A kind, called mineral tar, is also drawn from coal by 
 the process of distillation. Mineral tar is also found native in 
 "ome parts of the earth. 
 
 What is Pitch ? 
 A kind of juice or gum, likewise drawn from unctuous woods, 
 chiefly those of the pine and fir ; it is used for nearly the same 
 purposes as tar in shipping, medicine, and various other arts. 
 Pitch is properly a juice of the wild pine, or pitch tree ; it is of 
 a glossy black color, dry brittle, and less bitter and pungent than 
 the liquid tar. 
 
 What is Camphor ? 
 A vegetable substance, chiefly procured from a kind of laurel, 
 (Laurus Camphora,) growing in Borneo, Japan, and many East 
 Indian islands ; it is also produced from other plants and shrubs, 
 chough in very small quantities. 
 
 How, and from what part of the tree is it taken ? 
 All parts of the tree are impregnated with camphor ; but it 
 is principally extracted from the roots and trunk, by distillation ; 
 it is white, and of a crystal form ; its odor is extremely fragrant. 
 In this state it is called rough camphor, and is thus exported. 
 The Greeks and Romans do not appear to have been acquainted 
 with this valuable drug ; and we are indebted to the Arabians 
 for a knowledge of it. 
 
MUSK — MYRRH, 141 
 
 What are the properties and uses of Camphor ? 
 
 It is a firm, dry, crystal matter, with a hot, sharp, aromatic 
 taste. It is highly odorous, and so inflammable as to burn and 
 preserve its flame in water ; it totally vanishes or evaporates in 
 the open air, and in Spirits of Wine it entirely dissolves. Cam- 
 phor has various uses — as in fire- works, &c. ; it is an excellent 
 preservative of animal and vegetable bodies, as it resists worms 
 and other insects. In the courts of Eastern princes it is burnt 
 at night with wax. Its principal use with us is in medicine. 
 
 Preservative, a preventive of decay._ 
 
 What is Musk ? 
 A dry, friable substance of a dark color, taken from a little 
 bag under the belly of a small animal called the Thibet Musk, 
 which is a native of the Indies, Tonquin, and China. It in- 
 habits the woods and forests, where the natives hunt it down. 
 Musk is so strong a perfume as to be agreeable only in the 
 smallest quantities, or when mingled with some other scent ; it 
 is used in perfumery, &c. 
 
 Is there not another Animal which produces a similar 
 scent ? 
 Yes; an animal of Arabian origin produces an odoriferous 
 substance called Civet, from which it takes its name of Civet 
 Cat; there are several species of this animal which produce it, 
 but it is from the Civet Cat that it is most commonly taken. 
 Civets are found in all the warm parts of Asia and Africa, in 
 Madagascar, and the East Indian Islands. It was formerly in 
 high esteem, but is at present very little used, except to increase 
 the power of other perfumes. 
 
 What is Myrrh? 
 A kind of gum-resin, issuing from the trunk of a tree grow- 
 ing in Arabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia ; it flows either naturally, 
 or by incision ; and is sent to us in small lumps of a reddish 
 brown or yellow color. Its smell is strong, but not disagreeable. 
 Our myrrh is the same drug that was used by the ancients under 
 
142 FRANKINCENSE. 
 
 fche above name. Its chief use now is in medicine. The an- 
 cient Egyptians employed it as an ingredient in the embalming 
 of dead bodies. 
 
 Embalming, preserving the bodies of the dead from decaying or putre- 
 fying, by impregnating them with aromatics and other substances which 
 resist putrefaction. 
 
 Where is Abyssinia ? 
 
 Abyssinia is a large kingdom situated in Eastern Africa. 
 What is Frankincense ? 
 
 An odoriferous, aromatic gum-resin, which distils, in the heat 
 of summer, from incisions made in the bark of the tree which 
 produces it : notwithstanding the great use of the gum, both in 
 ancient systems of religious worship and in modern medicine, 
 authors have been much divided in opinion with regard to the 
 kind of tree from which it is obtained ; it is a species of tur- 
 pentine tree belonging to an order of resinous and fragrant trees 
 and shrubs inhabiting the tropical parts of the world. 
 For what was it formerly used ? 
 
 The ancients burnt it in their temples as a perfume, and to 
 
 do honor to the divinities that were worshipped in them : it 
 
 appears to have been applied to the same purposes by people of 
 
 all religions. Myrrh and Frankincense were reckoned by the 
 
 Eastern nations amongst their most costly perfumes. We are 
 
 informed by St. Matthew's G-ospel in the New Testament, that 
 
 the wise men who came to Bethlehem to worship our Saviour 
 
 at his birth, brought gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. 
 
 Many of the primitive Christians were put to death because 
 
 they would not offer incense to idols. In the Catholic Church 
 
 we still retain its use in many ceremonies. 
 
 Primitive, early. Incense, perfumes burnt in religious rites, or as an 
 ^f^ring to some deity. 
 
 What is the appearance of Frankincense ? 
 It is generally imported in white or yellowish pieces, or drops, 
 
TURPENTINE. H3 
 
 which possess a bitter, disagreeable taste ; it is very inflam- 
 mable, and burns with a strong, and pleasant odor. That 
 brought from the Indies is inferior to that from Arabia, and 
 inclines to a reddish color. The common frankincense is softer. 
 more resinous, and possesses less value than the former. 
 What is Turpentine ? 
 
 The resinous juice of many trees, as the pine, larch, fir, &c. ; 
 it is, in fact, the juice that renders them evergreen, and when 
 in an over-abundant quantity, bursts through their bark, and 
 oozes out. Common turpentine is that procured by incisions 
 from the wild pine \ there are several kinds of turpentine pro- 
 cured from various resinous trees ; some are of use in medicine, 
 and most of them in making different kinds of varnishes, for 
 preserving and beautifying boxes, paintings, &c. 
 
 Ooze, to flow gently. 
 
 Is there not a tree more particularly designated the Tur- 
 pentine Tree ? 
 Yes, the Terebinth or Turpentine Tree of Palestine and the 
 East. It is one of the most common forest trees of those regions, 
 and is regarded with respect and distinction similar to that 
 awarded to the oak in England. 
 
 What part of it produces the Gum ? 
 The gum, or rather the resin, distils from the trunk. It is 
 called Cyprus or Chian Turpentine, much of it being brought 
 from the isles of Cyprus and Scio, or Chios, and is procured, 
 by incision, about the month of July. This turpentine, owing 
 to its superior quality, as well as its scarcity, each tree seldom 
 yielding over two or three pounds, is very costly. 
 Incision, a cutting. Costly, expensive. 
 
144 BRICKS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Bricks, Mortar, Granite, Slate, Limestone, or Calcareous 
 Rocks, Steel, Earths, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes. 
 
 Or what are Bricks composed ? 
 
 Of clay, dried by the heat of the sun, or burnt in kilns; 
 their color varies with the different degrees of heat to which 
 they are subjected in burning. In the East, bricks were baked 
 in the sun ; the Romans used them crude, only laying them to 
 dry in the air for a long space of time. 
 
 Crude, in the rough, unbaked state, just as they were formed. 
 
 How long have Bricks been in use for building ? 
 
 Bricks appear to have been in use at a very remote period 
 of antiquity, both from the account of them in the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, and from the remains of them which have been found ; 
 the Tower of Babel and the walls of Babylon were built of 
 them. They were in early use among the Egyptians, as appears 
 from the history of the Jews before their deliverance by Moses. 
 In the book of Exodus, we are told that this captive people 
 were compelled to make bricks for that nation. The Romans, 
 under their first kings, built with massive square stones \ but 
 towards the end of the Republic they began to use brick, bor- 
 rowing the practice from the Greeks ; and the greatest and most 
 durable buildings of the succeeding Emperors were composed 
 of them, as the Pantheon, &c. 
 Massive, bulky and heavy. 
 
 By whom was the Tower of Babel erected, and why ? 
 
 By the descendants of Noe's three sons, Sem, Cham, and 
 Japlieth ; they were extremely numerous, and dwelt in the 
 land of Sennaar ; becoming ambitious of distinguishing them- 
 selves, they set about building a tower whose summit might 
 
BRICKS 115 
 
 reach to heaven. Sennaar was the original name of the coun- 
 try about Babylon. 
 
 Descendants, those descended from a particular person or family. 
 What remarkable event followed their foolish pride ? 
 
 The Almighty suddenly frustrated their purpose by confusing 
 their language and causing them all to express their words by 
 different sounds; hence arose the numbers of different lan- 
 guages spoken by the nations of the earth ; and thus what they 
 imagined would be a monument of glory, was made an awful 
 memento of their pride and folly. 
 
 Frustrated, prevented. Monument, anything by which the memory 
 of persons or things is preserved. Memento, a hint to awaken the me- 
 mory of anything ; that which reminds. 
 
 What good effect did this event produce ? 
 
 God, who at all times can bring good out of evil, by this 
 
 means caused the other parts of the earth to be peopled ; for 
 
 this visitation having effectually broken up their scheme, they 
 
 emigrated in parties, and dispersed themselves over different 
 
 parts of the world. 
 
 Scheme, plan, intention. Emigrated, removed from one country to 
 another. Dispersed, separated. 
 
 Where was Babylon ? 
 This celebrated city, so often mentioned in Holy Writ, (and 
 remarkable for the minuteness with which its destruction was 
 foretold by the Prophets,) was the capital of the Assyrian Em- 
 pire, and situated on the river Euphrates. After the destruction 
 of Mneve, the ancient capital of this empire, Babylon became 
 the most famous city of the East. 
 Minuteness, particularity. 
 
 What is meant by the Assyrian Empire ? 
 The country of Assyria, in Asia. 
 
 For what was this city particularly celebrated ? 
 For its hanging gardens, palaces, temples, and walls, the 
 latter of which are said to have been three hundred and fifty 
 13 
 
1 46 - BRICKS. 
 
 feet high, and so broad that six chariots could go abreast upon 
 them. The city was so strongly fortified, both by nature and 
 art, as to be thought impregnable. 
 
 Fortified, defended. Impreg?iable, incapable of being taken or de- 
 stroyed by an enemy. 
 
 By whom was it destroyed, and when ? 
 
 By Cyrus, 538 years before the birth of Christ, just fifty 
 years after Nabuchodonosor had destroyed the city of Jerusa- 
 lem and its temple. 
 Who was Cyrus ? 
 
 The founder of the Persian Empire. 
 Who was Nabuchodonosor ? 
 
 The King of Babylon. 
 Whut wf» s the Pantheon ? 
 
 A temple of a circular form which was dedicated to all the 
 Gods, or all the Saints. That of all others the most celebrated, 
 is the Pantheon of ancient Rome, and its remains are the most 
 perfect amongst the wonders of that city at the present day. 
 
 Circular, having the form of a circle, round. 
 By whom was it built ? 
 
 By Agrippa, the Consul of Borne, twenty-five years before 
 Christ ; it was dedicated by him to Jupiter : the name Pantheon 
 was given on account of the great number of statues of the 
 Gods ranged in niches all round it ; and because it was built in 
 a circular form to represent heaven, the residence of the Gods. 
 It was afterwards converted into a church by Pope Boniface 
 IV, and dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and all the Martyrs, 
 under the title of " Our Lady of the Rotunda." Agrippa like- 
 wise built the Pantheon at Athens, which was but little inferior 
 to that of Rome. The Greek Christians afterwards converted 
 it into a church, dedicating it to the Blessed Virgin; but the 
 Turks, when they subdued Greece, changed it into a mosque. 
 
 Dedicated, appropriated to a particular person, or to a sacred use. 
 Residence, dwelling, habitation. Martyr, one who is put to death for 
 the cause of religion. Mosque, el Mahommedan temple. 
 

 nil * )s$» 
 
 
 / 
 
 A SLATE QUARRY. 
 
CONSUL— SENATE — P O P E — VIRGIN. 147 
 
 What is understood by a Consul ? 
 The chief magistrate of the Roman republic or common- 
 wealth. After the Romans had expelled their kings, they were 
 governed by two Consuls ; these were established in the year of 
 Rome 245. The Consuls were the head of the senate ; they 
 commanded the armies of the republic, and judged all the 
 differences between the citizens : they held their office for the 
 space of a year; at the end of which time, new ones were 
 elected. Consuls were even continued under the Emperors after 
 the republic was destroyed ; but it was then little more than au 
 honorary title, and at last was totally abolished. 
 
 Expelled, turned out. Abolished, annulled, made void. 
 
 To what is the term Consul applied at the present time ? 
 To an officer established by a commission from a king or 
 state, to reside in foreign countries of any considerable trade, to 
 facilitate and despatch business, protect the merchants of the 
 state, &c. 
 
 Commission, a trust imposed, command, authority. Facilitate, to 
 
 render easy. 
 
 What is meant by a Senate ? 
 An assembly or council of senators, that is, of the principal 
 inhabitants of a state, who have a share in the government. 
 
 What is the government of the United States ? 
 It is one of limited and definite powers, defined by a 
 written constitution. 
 
 How are the legislative powers, granted to the govern- 
 ment, vested? 
 
 In a Congress, consisting of a Senate of two Senators from 
 each state, chosen by the legislature thereof ; and a House of 
 Representatives, consisting of one or more members from 
 each state, elected by the people in equal electoral districts. 
 Legislative, giving or enacting laws. 
 How are our laws made ? 
 
148 GRANITE. 
 
 Bills passed by the House of Representatives and the 
 Senate, on receiving the sanction of the President, become 
 laws ; or, if vetoed by the President, may be passed by two- 
 thirds of both Houses. 
 
 Vetoed, withheld assent to. 
 Who was Jupiter ? 
 
 The principal deity of the Pagan world. 
 
 What is used to cement bricks firmly together ? 
 
 Mortar; a composition of lime, sand, gravel, &c, mixed up 
 with water; the ancients had a kind of mortar so very hard 
 and binding, that, even to this day, it is next to impossible to 
 separate the parts of some of their buildings. 
 What is Granite ? 
 
 A rock which has been formed by the union of three diffe- 
 rent minerals in a state of fusion ; these, on cooling, have crys- 
 tallized and become distinct from each other in the mass. It is 
 remarkable for the beauty of its colors, its hardness and dura- 
 bility. There are granites of many different colors, as red or 
 rose-colored, grey, green, variegated, &c. 
 
 Fusion, a melted state. Mass, a body, a lump. 
 What form does it bear ? 
 
 Granite does not, generally, form one extensive mass, but 
 remains in separate and large fragments, rudely compacted 
 together; besides the three minerals of which it is composed, 
 particles of other stones, or metallic earths, are often acciden- 
 tally mixed with it. It is called granite from its granulous 
 structure. 
 
 Compacted, joined together. Granidous, consisting of small grains. 
 Where is Granite found ? 
 
 Granite occurs in all the larger mountain ranges, and in iso- 
 lated masses in every country; not being a stratified rock, and 
 being excessively hard, it is difficult to get it out in manageable, 
 masses. In Arabia Petraea, the whole country abounds iv 
 masses of different granites. 
 
GRANITE SLATE. 149 
 
 Isolated, alone, separated, detached. Stratified, consisting of strata 
 or beds. • 
 
 What mode is usually employed in this country in obtain 
 ing it? 
 Blasting, or blowing up with gunpowder; the force of which 
 detaches pieces from the rock, which are hewn roughly into 
 forms on the spot by a small pickaxe. Granite is also quarried 
 by cutting a deep line some yards long, and placing strong iron 
 wedges at equal distances along this line; these wedges are 
 struck in succession with heavy hammers, till the mass splits 
 down. Another method of detaching masses of rock, is by 
 driving wooden wedges into a deep artificial or natural crack, or 
 fissure; the wedges are then wet, and, in consequence of 
 swelling, burst the rock asunder. 
 
 Quarried, from to quarry, a term used for the getting of stone from a 
 quarry, or place where stones are dug from the earth, or detached from 
 a large mass of rock. Detach, to separate. 
 
 For what is this Rock used ? 
 On account of its great hardness, it is used for large public 
 structures, as bridges, churches, &c. The ancient temples and 
 other buildings in Egypt, Asia, and Italy, were built of diffe- 
 rent colored granites, especially the beautiful Oriental red gra- 
 nite. 
 
 What is Slate ? 
 The common name for a bluish fossil stone, very soft when 
 dug out of the quarry, and easily cut or split into thin plates, — 
 a property which renders it invaluable for a variety of purposes. 
 Invaluable, extremely valuable. 
 
 For what is it used ? 
 Slate has superseded the use of lead for covering roofs, even 
 of the largest buildings ; being lighter and more durable, it ih 
 preferable to tile : it is also employed for slabs to form cisterns, 
 shelves for dairies, and other purposes, on account of its strength, 
 coolness, and the ease with which it can be cleaned ; the latter 
 13* 
 
150 QUICK-LIME STEEL. 
 
 quality renders it also of great value in the business of educa- 
 tion, as a cheap substitute for paper. The ancients were unac- 
 quainted with the use of slate. 
 
 What other kinds of stone are used in building ? 
 
 Limestone, or the calcareous rocks of the geologist : of these 
 there are many varieties. Those which are easily cut and pol 
 ished are termed marbles, and are used in sculpture and in 
 ornamental architecture. The coarser marbles are used for the 
 common purposes of building. 
 
 Calcareous, partaking of the nature of calx or lime, — a term employed 
 to describe chalk, marble, and all other combinations of lime with car- 
 bonic acid. Geologist, one who studies the science of Geology. 
 
 Of what do Calcareous Earths or Stones consist ? 
 
 Calcareous earths, stones, or rocks consist of lime, or pure 
 calcareous earth, carbonic acid, and water. 
 What is Quick-Lime ? 
 
 Limestone deprived of its carbonic acid and water by being 
 subjected to an intense heat in a kiln. 
 How are these Stones wrought ? 
 
 To whatever purpose the stones are to be applied, the larger 
 blocks obtained from the quarry must be cut into smaller and 
 more manageable pieces by sawing : the saw used is a long blade 
 of steel, without teeth, fixed in a heavy wooden frame. These 
 huge saws are worked by one or two men who sit in boxes to 
 shelter them from the weather ; water is caused to drip constant- 
 ly into the cut, to facilitate the motion of the saw, and keep it 
 cool, so as to prevent it from losing its temper. 
 
 Huge, very large. Temper, hardness ; in speaking of metals it signi- 
 fies the state to which they are reduced, especially with regard to their 
 hardness. 
 
 What is Steel? 
 
 Iron combined with a small portion of carbon ; its chemical 
 
 name is Carburet of Iron. It is not so malleable as iron in its 
 
 ordinary state; but is much harder, more elastic, and susceptible 
 
 of a higher polish. Of this material are manufactured knives, 
 
GEO L O O Y S T R ATA. 151 
 
 swords, and all kinds of cutting instruments and edge tools, used 
 for domestic purposes and in the arts, from the ponderous pit- 
 saw to the finest lancet. Good steel is much more ductile than 
 iron ; and a finer wire may be drawn from it than from any 
 other metal. The excellence of edge-tools depends upon their 
 temper. 
 
 Ponderous, heavy. 
 
 You say that a Geologist is one who studies Geology : what 
 is meant by this term ? 
 
 A science which enables us to read, in the simple language 
 of nature, the changes which have taken place on the surface of 
 the earth, in its structure and mineral constitution. It describes 
 the different materials and the strata of which the crust of the 
 earth is composed, and investigates the causes of its physical 
 features. 
 
 Simple, easily read. 
 What are Strata ? 
 
 Layers of rocks and other substances of which the whole earth 
 seems to be composed. These rocks are found lying one above 
 another in regular order ; beneath them are the unstratified rocks, 
 which seem to form the basis or foundations upon which the 
 others have been deposited. The various layers seem to have 
 been formed during progressive stages of vegetable and animal 
 organization. These rocks and strata are divided into five classes 
 or formations. 
 
 Progressive, moving forwards. Organization, formation or structure 
 of bodies. 
 
 Name them. 
 The Primitive, or lower formations, supposed to have been 
 formed in the chaotic state of the earth, because they have no 
 trace of organized beings or petrifactions ) they are chiefly com- 
 posed of silicious and argillaceous earths, as granite, slate, &c. . 
 — Transition rocks, supposed to have been formed during the 
 transition of the earth into a habitable state ; they differ from 
 
152 STRATA. 
 
 the primitive, in containing the remains of marine animals : — 
 the Secondary rocks, containing the remains of animals and vege- 
 tables, and consequently formed after their creation; — the Ter- 
 tiary formation, composed of layers of clay, sand, gravel, and 
 marl, and containing peculiar organic remains ; — and the Allu- 
 vial formation, constituted of parts of previous rocks separated 
 by water, &c., and deposited in beds. 
 
 Petrifaction, an animal or vegetable substance turned to stone. Silt- 
 cious, consisting of flint. Transition, change from one state to another. 
 Argillaceous, clayey, consisting of clay. Chaotic, resembling chaos, con- 
 fused. Chaos, confusion, a mingled heap; a term used in speaking of 
 the world while yet without form ; a Greek word, signifying a confused 
 mass. Alluvial, deposited from water. 
 
 Of what is this last compounded ? 
 The Alluvial formation is composed of sand, gravel, loam, 
 clay, turf, &c, and contains plants, roots, moss, bones, petrified 
 wood, and skeletons of animals. It is distinguished from the 
 Tertiary formation chiefly by its superior position, and by ex- 
 tending over regions where existing streams or other causes 
 now in action could have produced it. Some geologists mention 
 another formation called the Volcanic, because composed of mine- 
 rals thrown from the crater of a volcano, such as pumice stones, 
 lava, &c. 
 
 Crater, the mouth or opening of a volcano. Petrified, hardened into 
 stone. 
 
 You mentioned Silicious and Argillaceous Earths : is not, 
 
 then, the earthy covering of our globe of one common 
 
 character ? 
 
 No ; by earth is understood a combination of many distinct 
 
 bodies. Chemists, by separating earths from each other, and 
 
 from foreign matters connected with them, have discovered nine 
 
 or ten primitive earths ; all of these, except silex, are compounds 
 
 of oxygen with metallic bases. 
 
 Chemist, one who understands the science of chemistry. 
 
FLINT — LIME. 1 58 
 
 Of which of these Simple or Primitive Earths are the solid 
 portions of the globe principally composed ? 
 
 Of flint or silex, lime or calcareous earth, and clay or argil, 
 in various degrees of combination, the greatest parts of the 
 mountains and plains, and the whole of what we commonly 
 understand by soil, mould, earth, &c. are composed. These, 
 however, though forming nearly all of the solid portions of the 
 world, are constantly mixed with foreign matters, as metals, 
 (particularly iron,) and acids, (as carbonic acid.) 
 What are the properties of Silex ? 
 
 Silex, or pure flint, will not dissolve in water, nor can it be 
 melted by itself in any heat ; but combined with alkalies, as 
 soda or potash, it forms glass. It is the principal ingredient 
 of most of the precious stones. 
 
 What are the chief uses of Silex ? 
 
 It is the most durable article for the formation of roads; a 
 necessary ingredient in earthenware, porcelain, and cements; 
 and the principal material of glass and vitreous substances. The 
 making of pastes or artificial gems is a branch of the art of glass- 
 making ; the basis used is a very hard and pure silex. 
 
 Basis, that part of any mixture which is the ground or base; the 
 first principle or element of a substance. 
 
 Describe the properties of Lime. 
 
 It is of a white color, and possesses a hot, caustic taste. It 
 forms peculiar salts with acids; changes vegetable blues to 
 green ; will not fuse ; gives out a quantity of caloric when 
 united with water; and absorbs carbonic acid when exposed 
 to air. Lime is very useful in the arts and manufactures, in 
 medicine, &c. The farmers use it as manure to fertilize land. 
 
 Caustic, burning, corroding ; a term applied to substances which eai 
 away and burn any thing with which they are brought in contact. 
 
 In what state is Lime found in nature ? 
 
 Never native, but combined with other substances ; — gene* 
 
 rally with an acid, and most plentifully with carbonic acid, as in 
 
1 54 CLAY VOLCANOES. 
 
 chalk, marble, &c. It is also found in vegetables, and is the 
 basis of animal bones; it likewise occurs in the water of the 
 ocean, and in that of all springs and rivers. The method of 
 procuring lime, from chalk, marble, limestone, oyster-shells, &c, 
 has already been described in a former chapter. 
 What are the properties of Clay ? 
 
 Argil, or pure clay, also called alumina, from its being the 
 basis of alum, is soft to the touch, adhesive, and emits a peculiar 
 odor when moistened; — forms a paste with water, and hardens 
 in the fire. Its uses are so various and important, that it would 
 have been almost impossible for man to have attained his present 
 degree of civilization, if it had not been given him by nature 
 in such abundance. Its uses have already been described in the 
 arts of brick-making, pottery, &c. Besides these three principal 
 primitive earths just described, there are seven others, having 
 several properties in common, yet each possessing its different 
 and specific properties, and evidently designed by nature for 
 different purposes of utility. 
 
 Specific, belonging to its particular species. Utility, usefulness. 
 What is a Volcano ? 
 
 An opening in the surface of the earth, or in a mountain, 
 from which are ejected smoke, flames, stones, lava, &c. Beneath 
 the outer crust of the earth inflammable materials appear to 
 exist, which different causes excite into combustion. Volcanoes 
 are supposed to owe their origin to the metals and minerals 
 which form the basis of earths and alkalies ; and which, when 
 ignited, expand, — shake the rocky foundations, — and sometimes, 
 bursting through, produce all the destructive effects of earth- 
 quakes. They break forth under the sea, as well as the land, 
 and throw up mountains which rise above the level of the water. 
 During an eruption of Vesuvius, A. D. 79, three cities, Hercu- 
 laneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, were overwhelmed, and lay buried 
 6eneath the matter ejected from the volcano until within a few 
 yeai -i } when excavations were made and many relics discovered; 
 
VOLCANOES — EARTHQU A K ES. 1 5 "> 
 
 — streets, houses, papyri, (manuscripts,) grain, fruit, bread, 
 medicines, &c. &c, all in a remarkable state of preservation, 
 have been found just as they were left by the terrified inhabi- 
 tants at the time of the eruption ! 
 
 Eruption, an issuing or breaking forth with violence. Ejected, thrown 
 out. 
 
 Are there many Volcanoes ? 
 
 There are upwards of two hundred volcanoes upon the globe ; 
 more than one half of them are in America and Oceanica. 
 The most noted volcanoes in America are Cotopaxi (the highest 
 in the world), near Quito ; Popocatapetl, in Mexico ; Cosiguina, 
 and the Water Volcano, in Guatemala. In France, Spain, 
 Portugal, and many other countries, there are districts which 
 show the former existence of volcanoes, which have long been 
 extinct ; near Naples, in an area of two hundred square miles, 
 there are sixty craters, some of them larger than Vesuvius; in 
 one of these, the town of Cumea has stood for three thousand 
 years. 
 
 What can you say of new islands formed by Volcanic 
 Agency ? 
 
 Many examples of new islands rising out of the sea by vol- 
 canic action are on record. Some of them are permanent, but 
 others, after a time, disappear. Teneriffe, Iceland, Sicily, St. 
 Helena; part of Sumatra, Java, Japan; and the Sandwich 
 Islands, seem to have been upheaved by volcanic agency; Ha- 
 waii, the largest of the last-named group, contains an area of 
 four thousand square miles, and rises eighteen thousand feet 
 above the ocean. 
 
 What are Earthquakes ? 
 
 Shakings or vibrations of the ground ; sometimes accompanied 
 by rents, and rockings or heavings of the surface, so as to over- 
 throw buildings, and swallow up towns and large tracts of coun- 
 try. They are attended with a terrible subterranean noise, like 
 
156 EARTHQUAKES — ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 thunder, and sometimes with an eruption of fire or water, or else 
 of smoke or winds. 
 
 Subterranean, underground. 
 
 What is supposed to cause them ? 
 An electrical action between the atmosphere and some deep 
 sub-strata; or the sudden formation of gaseous matter beneath 
 the surface of the earth by internal volcanic fires. Many hot 
 countries, where much electrical disturbance takes place, are 
 very subject to them : earthquakes almost always precede vol- 
 canic eruptions ; an open volcano, also, probably diminishes the 
 force of earthquakes, by the vent which it affords. Earthquakes, 
 at different times, have been productive of the most terrific ef- 
 fects : towns and cities have been swallowed up, and thousands 
 of people destroyed by them. The island of Jamaica is re- 
 markable for the earthquakes which frequently happen there. 
 
 Precede, to go before. Vent, opening. Terrific, full of terror, dread- 
 ful. 
 
 Where is Jamaica situated ? 
 In the West Indies, — a large group of fertile islands which 
 He between North and South America. Jamaica is the principal 
 one of those which belong to the English. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Architecture, Sculpture, Use of Money, Navigation. 
 
 What is meant by Architecture ? 
 
 The art of building or erecting edifices fit for the habitation 
 of man, to defend him from the weather, and for his domestic 
 comfort and convenience; for devotion, trade, and other pur- 
 poses, and for the use of civilized life in every capacity. 
 
 Capacity, state, condition. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 157 
 
 Is not this an art of great antiquity ? 
 
 It is almost as ancient as human society ; the changes of the 
 seasons first led men to build themselves huts or cabins, into 
 which they might retire for shelter ; in process of time, their 
 manner of building gradually improved, and habitations were 
 constructed of more stately forms and elegant pioportions, and 
 greater skill and variety were displayed in their ornaments 
 Hence arose the Five Orders or manners of building. 
 Of what were the first huts composed ? 
 
 Probably of the branches of trees driven into the ground, 
 and covered with mud and stubble ; at length, as men became 
 more expert, they placed trunks of trees upright, and laid others 
 across them to sustain the outer coverings; from this they took 
 the hint of a more regular architecture, and built edifices of 
 brick and stone; the trunks of trees which supported their 
 dwellings gave them a notion of pillars or columns, which they 
 afterwards erected of more durable materials. Among uncivil- 
 ized tribes at this day, some reside underground, having tbeir 
 dirty dwellings entirely closed during the winter months; in 
 warmer regions, their habitations are built of stakes, leaves, and 
 turf, in the shape of a soldier's tent. In Africa, their kraals 
 or huts are constructed in this manner, but of a circular form, 
 with a hole at the top to let out the smoke. In many of the 
 South Sea Islands, the natives, when first discovered, had pro- 
 gressed still further, having learnt to elevate the roofs on poles, 
 and to fill in the sides of their houses with boughs or rushes, 
 mud or sods. 
 
 Probably, most likely. Edifice, a building. Notion, idea. Durable, 
 lasting. 
 
 What people are represented by the ancient writers as 
 
 having brought the art of Building to a greater state ol 
 
 perfection ? 
 
 The inhabitants of the city of Tyre, to whom Solomon had 
 
 recourse for workmen to build the Temple. Isaias, in his 
 
158 OBELISK — V Y R A M1U. 
 
 twenty-third chapter, speaks of the Tynans and Egyptians, as 
 having brought it to a great degree of magnificence ; as may be 
 drawn from the various accounts handed down to us, and the 
 remains of their obelisks, pyramids, &c. 
 What is an Obelisk ? 
 A very high and slender four-sided pyramid, raised as an 
 ornament in some public place; and frequently covered with 
 inscriptions and hieroglyphics.* This kind of monument ap- 
 pears to be very ancient ; they were first made use of to declare 
 to posterity the principal precepts of philosophy ; to mark the 
 hours of the day by the shadows which they cast on the ground ; 
 and, in after-times, to immortalize the actions of heroes, and 
 perpetuate the memory of persons beloved. 
 
 Inscription, something written or engraved. Hieroglyphics, emblems 
 by which words were implied. They were used before the invention of 
 alphabets. Implied, signified, denoted. Posterity, succeeding genera- 
 tions, descendants. Immortalize, to render immortal, — which means 
 never-dying; to perpetuate the memory of anything. 
 
 What is a Pyramid ? 
 
 A solid, massive edifice, rising from a square, triangular, or 
 other base, gradually diminishing in size till it ends in a point 
 at the top. Like the obelisk, pyramids were sometimes erected 
 to preserve the memory of singular events, or to transmit to 
 future ages the glory and magnificence of princes ; but oftener as 
 funeral monuments and receptacles for the dead, particularly 
 kings. 
 
 Triangular, three-sided, having three angles. Diminishing, growing 
 smaller. Receptacle, the place in which a thing is deposited. 
 
 Is it known who were the erectors of these Buildings ? 
 No ; it is a curious fact that the Egyptian pyramids, so cele- 
 brated for their size and great antiquity, should have the time 
 of their erection and the names of their founders wrapt in such 
 complete mystery. All the different authors who have written 
 
 * See Chapter xiv. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 1 59 
 
 concerning theni, disagree in their accounts of those who built 
 them, and nothing certain is known of their history. 
 
 Founder, one who establishes or erects. Mystery, profound secresy. 
 What other nations excelled in the art of Building ? 
 
 The Greeks and Romans, from whom we derive it, also greatly 
 excelled in this art. Grecian architecture was in its highest 
 glory under Pericles. Among the Romans, it arrived at its 
 greatest perfection under the Emperor Augustus. The five 
 orders of ornamental architecture invented by the ancients, at 
 different times, and on different occasions, are of Grecian and 
 Italian origin. They are the Tuscan, the Doric, the Ionic, the 
 Corinthian, and the Composite ; each possessing its peculiar 
 form and beauty, and found in all the principal buildings of the 
 Christian world. 
 
 Christian, professing the religion of Christ ; the term is applied to 
 those who believe our Lord Jesus Christ to be the only true God and 
 Saviour of the world. 
 
 Who was Pericles ? 
 A celebrated Athenian statesman, orator, and general, who 
 gained several victories over the Lacedemonians and other ene- 
 mies of his country. 
 
 Are all the species of ornamental building confined to 
 those nations already mentioned ? 
 By no means ; besides the Grecian and Roman orders, other 
 civilized nations possess their separate styles ; as the Hindoos, 
 Chinese, Moors, &c; and nothing can be more grand, harmo- 
 nious, and picturesque, than each of these in the beautiful spe- 
 cimens which are to be seen in their several countries. The 
 Saxons, also, had a simple style of architecture, distinguished 
 by semi-circular arches, and massive plain columns; the Nor- 
 mans, too, invented a beautiful kind called the Gothic, distin- 
 guished by its lightness and the number of its ornaments, and 
 by its pointed arches and pillars carved to imitate several com- 
 bined together; the Gothic style is found in many old cathe- 
 drals. 
 
160 SCULPTURE. 
 
 Hindoos, inhabitants of Hindostan, in India. Moors, inhabitants of 
 Morocco, a kingdom of Barbary, in Africa. Harmonious, correspond- 
 ing in all its parts with equal beauty and elegance. Picturesque, like 
 a picture. Saxons, inhabitants of Saxony, a portion of Germany. 
 Semi-circular, only half circular. 
 
 Describe the Five Orders of Architecture. 
 The Tuscan (from Tuscany,) is the most simple and devoid 
 of ornament, and its columns or pillars are plain and massive. 
 The Doric (from the Dorians, in Greece,) is durable and noble 
 in appearance, having its columns plain like the Tuscan, but the 
 upper parts more ornamental. The Ionic, (from Iona, in 
 Greece,) is neither so plain as the Doric, nor so richly elegant 
 as the Corinthian ) but is distinguished from the first two orders 
 by having its columns or pillars fluted instead of plain, and the 
 upper part of them (called the capitals,) adorned by the figures 
 of rams' horns carved on them. The Corinthian is very rich 
 and delicate, with fluted pillars, and the tops beautifully orna- 
 mented with leaves, &c. The invention of this order is ascribed 
 to Callimachus, a Corinthian sculptor. The Composite is com- 
 pounded of the other four; it is very much like the Corinthian, 
 and is also called the Roman or Italian order. 
 Devoid, free from, destitute. 
 
 What is Sculpture ? 
 The art of cutting or carving wood, stone, and other materials ; 
 and forming of them various figures or representations of men, 
 beasts and other objects. The term is mostly limited to carving 
 images or statues in stone. This art is of great antiquity ; the 
 sacred writings inform us of it in many passages, as for instance 
 in those in which are mentioned Laban's images, carried away 
 by Rachel ; the golden calf of the Israelites, &c. Sculpture 
 as an art is probably more ancient than painting. 
 
 What country was the most highly celebrated for its sculp- 
 ture ? 
 Greece, which produced many celebrated sculptors, of whom 
 
SCULPTURE. 161 
 
 the most eminent were Phidias, an Athenian, the great master 
 of this art, who lived in the time of Pericles, 408 years before 
 Christ; Lysippus, a native of Sicyon, near Corinth; and Prax- 
 iteles, a native of Magna Grecia. 
 
 What event proved fatal to this art ? 
 
 The death of Alexander the Great was followed by a visible 
 decline in all the fine arts; but the fatal blow to their existence 
 was given by the success of the conquering Romans, who reduced 
 Greece to a Roman province. 
 
 Was Sculpture always performed in Stone ? 
 
 No ; at first statues and other figures were formed of wood 
 or baked clay, afterwards of stone, marble and metals ; though 
 these last were not brought to any degree of perfection, till 
 about three hundred years before Christ. The Greeks were 
 famous for their works in ivory; the great master of the art 
 of carving statues in it was Phidias. 
 
 What progress did the Romans make in Sculpture ? 
 
 Sculpture, during their early history, existed rather as a 
 plant of foreign growth, partially cultivated by them, than as 
 a native production of their own land. They collected, indeed, 
 some of the most exquisite samples of Grecian sculpture, and 
 invited to their capital the yet remaining sculptors of Greece, 
 by whose labors not only Rome itself was embellished, but also 
 many of the cities of Asia Minor, Spain, and Gaul, then under 
 the Roman dominion ; yet the taste for sculpture does not appear 
 to have been cultivated in any measure corresponding with the 
 advantages thus afforded them in the study of the best models 
 of the art. The best works were produced by Greek artists, 
 and chiefly Athenian, while the attempts of the Romans were 
 unskilfully executed. 
 
 Gaul, the ancient name of France. Model, pattern. 
 Did it always continue thus ? 
 
 No ; from the time of the Emperor Constantine, soufpture, 
 and the rest of the fine arts, gradually revived. While inspired, 
 14* 
 
J 62 SCULPTURE. 
 
 perhaps, with a taste for sculpture by means of the scattered 
 remains of Grecian art, the Roman artists drew, at the same 
 time, from their own resources, and were by no means servile 
 copyists of the sculptors of a former age. The first academy 
 of the art was founded at Florence, in 1350, and at the close of 
 the same century, sculpture was firmly established in Italy, and 
 itinerant sculptors, not unskilful in their art, wandered from 
 thence to Germany, France, and even to England. The most 
 eminent master of the art was Michael Angelo, born in 1474, 
 who was also a painter and architect; from his time, to the latter 
 end of the last century, sculpture again gradually declined, but 
 under Canova, a native of Possagno, in the Venetian Alps, it 
 revived. He was born in 1757. Besides the above mentioned, 
 were a number of others of various degrees of talent, as well 
 as some still living. 
 
 Servile, slavish, mean. Itinerant, wandering. 
 
 When was the knowledge of Sculpture introduced into 
 England ? 
 At the time of its conquest by the Romans; but the art 
 appears to have been very rude and imperfect. From the time 
 of the Norman invasion, and still further in the time of the 
 Crusades, an improvement, however, began to show itself in 
 British sculpture. But it is probable that most of their best 
 architectural and sculptural works were executed by foreigners, 
 members of those societies of wandering sculptors before men- 
 tioned. Under Edward the Third, the art appears to have been 
 much cultivated by Englishmen. It is well known that two 
 Italian sculptors were employed in England during the sixteenth 
 century. John of Padua, a pupil of Michael Angelo, was 
 master of works to Henry the Eighth. In the reign of Charles 
 the First, English sculptors flourished, although their works are 
 of a very low order. 
 
 Invasion, hostile entrance upon the rights or possessions of another. 
 architectural, belong to Architecture. Sculptural, belonging to Sculp- 
 ..ure. 
 
GATHERING TURPENTINE BY SCRAPING. 
 
 DISTILLING TURPENTINE. 
 
SCULPTURE — MONEY. 163 
 
 With #hom may the School of British Sculptors be con- 
 sidered as commencing ? 
 With Banks, born in 1738, and Bacon, born in 1740; these 
 ^ere in every respect English artists. But the most eminent 
 worker in the art which that country has yet produced, was John 
 Flaxman, born in 1755. Our own country also may boast of 
 sculptors of superior talents, and from the beautiful specimens 
 of the art which have appeared, the attainment of a high degree 
 of excellence in it is to be anticipated. 
 
 Attainment, the act of arriving at or reaching. Anticipated, expected, 
 foreseen. 
 
 Give me a short account of this art in Germany, France, 
 and Spain. 
 
 In these countries, as in England and the United States, 
 during their early history, many of the best works were executed 
 by Italians. Germany appears to have made little progress in 
 sculpture before the seventeenth century ; since that period, it 
 has produced sculptors of some eminence, although it is more 
 celebrated for its writers on the art, than for artists of eminence 
 in its practice. In France, sculptors of some talent are men- 
 tioned as early as the sixteenth century. Girardon and Puget 
 were the most celebrated artists of this period. Spanish history 
 gives a long list of native sculptors, from the commencement 
 of the same century, but many of them are but little known 
 beyond their own country. Berruguete, a pupil of Michael 
 Angelo, appears to have founded the first regular school of the 
 art. Paul de Cespides, and in the eighteenth century, Philip 
 de Castro, were the most eminent among them. 
 
 When was the use of Money first introduced ? 
 
 It is not known with certainty : there is, however, reason to 
 believe that both gold and silver were very early used as money 
 in Egypt and Asia : it was afterwards introduced into Carthage 
 and Greece ; whence it was brought to Home ; and from that 
 city spread gradually westward, through all the Roman domin- 
 
164 MONEY. 
 
 ions. Before the use of money was introduced, the only means 
 of trade was by barter, or the exchange of one commodity for 
 another, a custom long retained by uncivilized nations. In time, 
 however, men discovered the necessity of something which would 
 enable them to trade with greater facility; the tirst mention of 
 money is in the time of Abraham, who, we are told in the Bible, 
 paid " four hundred sides of silver of common current 
 money," for a burying place. 
 
 Current, generally received, passing from hand to hand. 
 
 Where was Carthage ? 
 Carthage, now Tunis, was a commercial city, situated on the 
 Northern Coast of Africa, which long contended for the domi- 
 nion of the Mediterranean with the Romans; but, after three 
 wars, it was taken and destroyed by the Roman general, Scipio 
 Africanus, in the year 251 before Christ. 
 
 Commercial, carrying on commerce or trade. 
 
 Of what substances was Money usually made ? 
 Of metals, especially the precious metals, because they pos- 
 sess great value in small bulk ; may be kept for any length of 
 time without loss ; and their value, although not altogether in- 
 variable, yet, generally speaking, changes only by slow degrees, 
 and is less susceptible of fluctuation than that of most other 
 articles. At different times, and amongst various nations, how- 
 ever, other things, in the scarcity of metal, have been substi- 
 tuted for it, as shells, wood, leather, paper, or even pasteboard 
 on extraordinary occasions. 
 Fluctuation, unsteadiness ; a wavering. 
 
 Of what form was money generally made ? 
 The form of money has been more various than its materials ) 
 the ancient Britons used as money, rings or bars of iron or tin ; 
 the Lacedemonians used iron bars quenched with vinegar. The 
 money of most nations usually bore an impression peculiar to 
 themselves, as, for instance, the siele of the Jews was marked 
 
MONEY. 
 
 165 
 
 with the golden pot of manna on one side, and Aaron's rod on 
 the other; other coins with the figures of animals, &c. ; in 
 shape, coins were either round, irregular, or square. 
 
 Have the terms Money and Coin the same signification ? 
 
 Not exactly ; by money is understood any matters, such au 
 metal, wood, leather, glass, horn, paper, fruits, shells, &c, which 
 have currency as a medium in commerce. Coin is a particular 
 species always made of metal, and struck off according to a 
 certain process called coining ; it is not of equal antiquity with 
 money. In fact, the very commodities themselves were the 
 first moneys, that is, were current one for another by way of 
 exchange. Coin is a piece of metal converted into money, by 
 the impression of certain marks or figures thereon. The first 
 coining of silver took place at Rome, two hundred and sixty- 
 nine, and of gold, two hundred and six years before Christ: 
 the Romans, after the commonwealth, stamped their coins with 
 the image of the reigning emperor, which custom was followed 
 by most civilized nations. Coins were, and are, frequently, 
 struck in commemoration of a particular event or celebrated 
 person. 
 
 When was the use of stamped coin introduced into Britain ? 
 
 After the arrival of the Romans in that island, the natives 
 imitated them, coining both gold and silver with the images of 
 their kings stamped upon them ; but the Romans, when they 
 subdued the nation, suppressed also their coins, and obliged 
 them to use their own ; hence the number of Roman coins 
 found among the relics of antiquity in that island. 
 
 Suppressed, put aside, hindered from circulation. Relics, remains. 
 
 What does the first coined money in ancient Britain appear 
 to have been ? 
 Copper money ; but after the arrival of the Saxons in Eng- 
 land, scarcely any copper money was used for many centuries, 
 nor did it become common till 1672 ; it was first used in Scot- 
 land and Ireland in 1340. 
 
166 MINT — NAVIGATION. 
 
 What is a Mint ? 
 
 A place established by public authority for coining money. 
 In the United States, the first mint was in Philadelphia; 
 branches have been established in other parts of the Union. 
 In most countries, the privilege of coining money is regarded 
 as a prerogative of the sovereign power. Formerly, in Great 
 Britain, cities, towns, and even individuals, were allowed to coin 
 money for the convenience of trade ; but now this is forbidden, 
 except at the Mint in the Tower of London. 
 What is meant by Navigation ? 
 
 The science or art by which the mariner is taught to conduct 
 his ship from one place to another. Some, perhaps, will consi- 
 der the formation and use of the Ark, as a first step towards 
 the invention of this art; but it is an erroneous idea, because 
 the direction and means for accomplishing this immense work 
 were aflorded by God, for the preservation of righteous Noe 
 and his family. Besides, nothing is recorded of any means or 
 of any necessity for its occupants navigating it to any particu- 
 lar place, or from one place to another ; no intention of this 
 sort is apparent, the ark being merely a vast shelter, rendered 
 capable of floating on the water. 
 Erroneous, wrong, in error. Apparent, manifest, made to appear. 
 What probably gave the first idea of Navigation ? 
 
 Accident most likely showed that wood always floats ) and on 
 the fallen trunk of a tree, perhaps, some one ventured beyond 
 his depth, away from the land. The trunk of a tree, hollowed 
 out, for a more convenient position of the body, formed the 
 canoe, usually found among uncivilized nations to this day. 
 From this rude beginning, at great intervals of time, and a slow 
 pace of improvement, the art has at length arrived at its present' 
 state of advancement. 
 
 What nation first applied this art to the purposes of Trade ? 
 
 The Phenicians (especially those of Tyre, their capital city, 
 and Sidon,) were the first who adapted it to the purposes of 
 
PHENICIA TYRE — CARTFAGE. 167 
 
 commerce, and constructed vessels fit to make voyages to foreign 
 countries ; the poverty and narrowness of their land, as well as 
 their vicinity to two or three good ports, and their natural genius 
 for traffic, urging them to seek foreign supplies. We hear of 
 them trading to Arabia, India, Persia, Greece, Africa, Spain, 
 and even as far as Britain. 
 
 Vicinity, nearness, neighborhood. Traffic, trade, commerce. 
 
 Who were the Phenicians? 
 
 The inhabitants of Phenicia, a country of Syria, in Asia. 
 Which was the more ancient city, Tyre or Sidon ? 
 
 Sidon, — having been built, as is supposed, soon after the 
 Flood, by Sidon, the eldest son of Chanaan. Tyre, about 25 
 miles to the south, was built about the year 1252 before Christ, 
 by a colony from Sidon. The Phenicians planted numerous 
 colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, 
 and diffused, to a great extent, among their uncivilized neigh- 
 bors the arts and improvements of civilized life. One of their 
 most celebrated colonies was that founded by them on the 
 northern coast of Africa; and it was this colony that built the 
 famous city of Carthage. 
 
 Diffused, spread abroad, scattered. 
 
 Did not Carthage afterwards become as flourishing as the 
 parent city of Tyre ? 
 
 In time, Carthage not only equalled Tyre itself, but surpassed 
 it, — pursuing the course the Phenicians had begun, and sending 
 its merchant fleets through Hercules' Pillars, (now the Straits 
 of Gibraltar,) along the western coast of Africa, and northwards, 
 along the coast of Europe, visiting particularly Spain, Gaul, &c. 
 They even undertook voyages, the sole object of which was to 
 discover new countries and explore unknown seas. The Car- 
 thaginians appear to have been the first who undertook voyages 
 solely for the sake of discoveries. 
 
 Were not both these celebrated cities destroyed ? 
 
 Tyre, whose immense riches and power were the subject of 
 
IBS ALEXANDRIA — THE SARACENS. 
 
 many ancient histories, was destroyed by the Grecian Emperoi 
 Alexander the Great, and its navigation and commerce trans- 
 ferred by him to Alexandria, a new city which he meditated 
 making his capital. Alexandria, in a short time, became the 
 most important commercial city in the world. Thus arose navi- 
 gation among the Egyptians ; it was afterwards so successfully 
 cultivated by them, that Tyre and Carthage (which last, as be- 
 fore mentioned, was subdued by the Romans,) were quite for- 
 gotten. 
 
 Transferred, removed. Capital, chief city or town in a state or king- 
 dom. 
 
 Who was Alexander the Great? 
 
 The son of Philip, King of Macedonia, in Greece ; he was 
 celebrated for his great ambition, and the number of his con- 
 quests; he overturned the Persian empire, and subdued many 
 cities and provinces in the East. 
 
 Did not Alexandria undergo the same fate as Tyre and 
 Carthage ? 
 
 Egypt was at last reduced to a Roman province, after the 
 battle of Actium, and its trade and navigation fell into the 
 hands of the Emperor Augustus, in whose time Alexandria 
 was little inferior to Rome ; and the magazines of the capital 
 of the world were supplied with merchandise from the capital 
 of Egypt. Alexandria, however, at last underwent the fate of 
 Tyre and Carthage, being surprised by the Saracens, who over- 
 ran the northern parts of Africa; and though it continued, for a 
 while, to enjoy a considerable portion of the commerce of the 
 Christian merchants, it afterwards remained in a languishing 
 condition : but still, even at this day, it is a place of considerable 
 trade. 
 
 Who were the Saracens ? 
 
 A Mahommedan nation, occupying a portion of what is now 
 called Arabia. They extended their conquests over a large por- 
 tion of Asia, northern Africa, and Spain. Their name is derived 
 from the word Sara, a desert. 
 
NAVIGATION. 169 
 
 What effect had the Fall of the Roman Empire on Navi- 
 gation ? 
 The fall of the Roman empire not only drew along with it 
 its learning and the polite arts, but also the art of navigation ; 
 the Barbarians, into whose hands the empire fell, contenting 
 themselves with enjoying the spoils of those whom they had 
 conquered, without seeking to follow their example in the culti- 
 vation of those arts and that learning which had rendered Rome 
 and its empire so famous. 
 
 What other people, about this period, distinguished them- 
 selves in the art of Navigation ? 
 The Saracens or Arabians, whose fleets now rode triumphant 
 in the Mediterranean; they had taken possession of Cyprus, 
 Rhodes, and many of the Grecian islands, and extended their 
 commerce and their discoveries in the East, far beyond the 
 utmost knowledge of their ancestors. 
 
 What other circumstance also prevented commercial inter- 
 course from ceasing altogether ? 
 Constantinople, though often threatened by the fierce invaders, 
 who spread desolation over Europe, was so fortunate as to escape 
 their destructive rage. In this city, the knowledge of ancient 
 arts and discoveries was preserved ; and commerce continued to 
 flourish there, when it was almost extinct in every other part of 
 Europe. 
 Desolation, destruction, ruin. 
 
 Did the citizens of Constantinople confine their trade to 
 
 the Islands of the Archipelago, and the adjacent coast 
 
 of Asia ? 
 
 No, they took a wider range ; and, following the course which 
 
 the ancients had marked out, imported the productions of the 
 
 East Indies from Alexandria. When Egypt was torn from the 
 
 Roman Empire by the Arabians, the industry of the Greeks 
 
 discovered a new channel by which the productions of India 
 
 might be conveyed to Constantinople. 
 15 
 
170 FRANKS — GOTHS — LOMBARDS. 
 
 Did not the Barbarians, after a while, turn their attention 
 to Navigation and Commerce ? 
 
 No sooner were the brave among these nations well settled in 
 their new provinces — some in Gaul, as the Franks ; others in 
 Spain, as the Goths; and others in Italy, as the Lombards, — 
 than they began to learn the advantages of these arts, and the 
 proper methods of managing them, from the people they had 
 subdued ; and that with so much success, that they even im- 
 proved upon them, and set on foot new institutions for their 
 advantage. To the Lombards, in particular, is usually ascribed 
 the invention and use of banks, book-keeping, and exchanges. 
 Thus the people of Italy, and particularly those of Venice and 
 Genoa, have the glory of restoring to Europe the advantages 
 that had been destroyed by their own ravages. 
 
 Institutions, laws, regulations. Exchange, a species of mercantile 
 transactions by which the debts due to persons at a distance are paid by 
 order, draft, or bill of exchange, without the transmission either of 
 money or goods. 
 
 Who were the Franks ? 
 A people who settled in Gaul ; from them it took the name 
 of Franconia, or France. 
 Who were the Goths ? 
 An ancient people, who inhabited that part of Sweden called 
 Gothland ; and afterwards spread themselves over great part of 
 Europe. 
 
 Who were the Lombards ? 
 The Lombards, or Longobardi, were, like the Franks, a nation 
 of Germany; who, upon the decline of the Roman Empire, 
 invaded Italy, and, taking the city of Ravenna, erected a king- 
 dom. 
 
 Where is Ravenna? 
 In Central Italy. It is the capital of a province of the same 
 name ; it is an ancient town, and the see of an archbishop. 
 
 See, the seat of episcopal power ; the di6cese of a bishop . Episcopal, 
 belonging to a bishop. 2 1 rch b ish op, the presiding bishop of a province . 
 
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VENICE. 171 
 
 What was the origin of the city of Venice ? 
 In the Adriatic Sea were a great number of marshy islands, 
 separated only by narrow channels, but well screened and almost 
 inaccessible, inhabited by a few fishermen. To these islands 
 the people of Veneti (a part of Italy, situated along the coasts 
 of the gulf,) retired when Alaric, King of the Goths, ravaged 
 Italy. These new Islanders, little imagining that this was to 
 be their fixed residence, did not, at first, think of forming them- 
 selves into one community, but each of the 72 islands continued 
 a long while under its respective masters, and formed a distinct 
 commonwealth. 
 
 Adriatic Sea, a name given to the Gulf of Venice. Commonwealth, a 
 republic, a government in which the supreme power is lodged in the peo- 
 ple. 
 
 What circumstance caused them to unite ? 
 
 Their commerce becoming considerable enough to awaken the 
 jealousy of their neighbors, they united in a body for their 
 mutual protection : this union, first begun in the 6th century 
 and completed in the 8th, laid the foundation of the future 
 grandeur of the state of Venice. From the time of this union, 
 fleets of their merchantmen sailed to all the ports of the Medi- 
 terranean; and afterwards to those of Egypt, particularly to 
 Cairo, a new city, built by the Saracen princes, on the banks of 
 the Nile, where they traded for spices, &c. The Venetians con- 
 tinued to increase their trade by sea and their conquests on land 
 till 1508, when a number of jealous princes conspired against 
 them to their ruin ; which was the more easily effected in con- 
 sequence of their East Indian commerce, of which the Portu- 
 guese and French had each obtained a share. 
 
 Conspired, united together in a plot. 
 
 What is the signification of Mediterranean ? 
 Inclosed within land, or remote from the ocean. It is more 
 particularly used to signify the sea which flows between Europe 
 and Africa. 
 
172 VENICE — GENOA — PISA. 
 
 Had not Venice a formidable rival in a neighboring repub- 
 lic ? 
 Genoa, which had applied itself to navigation at the same 
 time with Venice, and with equal success, was long its dangerous 
 rival, disputed with it the empire of the sea, and shared with 
 it the trade of Egypt, and other parts, both of the East and 
 West. Jealousy soon broke out; and, the two republics coming 
 to blows, there was almost continual war between them for three 
 centuries : at length, towards the end of the 14th century, the 
 strife was ended by the fatal battle of Chioza; the Genoese, 
 who till then had usually the advantage, lost all, and the Vene- 
 tians, almost become desperate, at one decisive blow, beyond all 
 expectation, secured the empire of the sea and their superiority 
 in commerce. 
 
 Decisive, final, conclusive. 
 
 Where is Genoa situated ? 
 In the north-western part of Italy. It was formerly a flou- 
 rishing republic, but belongs now to Italy. 
 
 What event likewise contributed to the more rapid pro- 
 gress and diffusion of Navigation and Commerce ? 
 The Crusades : for the Genoese, Pisans, and Venetians, fur- 
 nished the fleets which carried those vast armies, composed of 
 all the nations of Europe, into Asia, upon this wild undertaking, 
 and also supplied them with provisions and military stores. 
 Other travellers, also, besides those whom religious zeal sent 
 forth to visit Asia, ventured into remote countries, from mo- 
 tives either of commercial advantage, or those of mere curiosity. 
 Zeal, devotion, enthusiasm. 
 
 Who were the Pisans ? 
 Inhabitants of Pisa, an ancient town of Tuscany; it was 
 once a great independent republic, and is still adorned with 
 noble edifices. Pisa has long been celebrated for its remarkable 
 leaning tower. Tuscany is a beautiful and fruitful territory of 
 Italy; its capital, until the year 1859, was Florence. 
 
CRUSADES — NAVIGATION. 173 
 
 What were the Crusades ? 
 
 Holy wars, or expeditions, undertaken by the Christians 
 against the Turks and Saracens, to recover Palestine, between 
 the years 1100 and 1400. 
 
 What causes led to these wars ? 
 
 Many circumstances contributed to give rise to them. 
 They were undertaken, first, with a view to protecting the 
 devout Christian pilgrims, who were in the habit of frequent- 
 ing the venerables places where our Saviour had lived, taught, 
 suffered, and triumphed, from the fury and avarice of the 
 heathens ; secondly, with a view to getting possession of the 
 Holy Land itself, and of annexing it to Christendom ; and 
 thirdly, to break down the power of Mohammedanism, and 
 to elevate the Cross in triumph and victory over Palestine. 
 
 Avarice, an excessive desire of gain. Annexing, adding, join- 
 ing. 
 
 What badge or sign was worn by those who engaged in 
 the Crusades ? 
 They distinguished themselves by crosses of different colors, 
 worn on their clothes; from which they took the name of 
 Croises, or Cross-bearers ; each nation wore different colors : for 
 instance, the English had white crosses, the French red, and 
 so on. 
 
 To what invention is the art of Navigation much indebted? 
 To that of the Mariner's Compass, in the beginning of the 
 14th century; and from this period may be dated the present 
 perfection of this useful art. 
 
 You have given me an account of the restoration of Navi- 
 gation in Southern Europe : did not the inhabitants of 
 the North also turn their attention to it ? 
 Yes : about the same time, a new society of merchants was 
 formed in the northern parts, which not only carried commerce 
 to the greatest perfection of which it was capable, till the dis- 
 15* 
 
174 NAVIGATION — MUSIC. 
 
 covery of the Indies, but also formed new codes of useful lawi 
 
 for its regulation. 
 
 Codes, books or writings setting forth certain laws or rules respecting 
 particular subjects ; books of civil laws. 
 
 Are Navigation and Commerce inseparably connected with 
 each other? 
 It may be considered as a general maxim, that their union is 
 so intimate, that the fall of one inevitably draws after it that of 
 the other ; and that they will always either flourish or decline 
 together may be seen, by examining the reason of their passing 
 successively from the Venetians, Genoese, &c, to the Portu- 
 guese and Spaniards, and from them to the English, Dutch, &c. 
 
 Maxim, rule, an established principle. Intimate, close, hievitably, 
 without possibility of escape, unavoidably. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Music, Painting, Poetry, Astronomy, Arts and Sciences, Art of 
 Writing, and Chemistry. 
 
 What are the earliest accounts of Musical Instruments 
 on record ? 
 The earliest accounts of music which we possess are to be 
 found in the Bible, in which the state of the world before the 
 flood is noticed. Jubal is said to have been " the father of them 
 that play upon the harp and organ ;"but it is not to be supposed 
 that these instruments at all resembled the harp and organ of 
 modern times. Musical instruments, in the times of David 
 and Solomon, were used in religious services; and music was 
 certainly employed by the Jews on many other occasions, as at 
 funerals and weddings, at harvest home, and at festivals of all 
 kinds. 
 
music. 175 
 
 Modern, opposed to ancient, pertaining to the present time, or time 
 
 not long past. Festival, a rejoicing, a feast, a season dedicated to mirth. 
 
 What nation was particularly celebrated for musical talents ? 
 
 The ancient Egyptians; who were so celebrated for their 
 talents in music, that the distinguished philosophers of Greece 
 braved many dangers, in order to study the science in Egypt; 
 and this, at a period when the Egyptians were far from being 
 in the same high state of civilization as their forefathers had 
 been in earlier times. The history and monuments of ancient 
 Egypt have many accounts and representations of musical in- 
 struments, and remains of these have lately been discovered, 
 so that we have ocular demonstration both of their existence 
 and form. 
 
 Civilization, freedom from barbarity, polish, politeness, possession of 
 knowledge and the arts of life. Ocular, known or seen by the eye. 
 Demonstration, the act of proving with certainty. 
 
 In how many divisions may musical instruments be ar- 
 ranged ? 
 There are three kinds, namely, wind instruments, as the 
 trumpet, and the organ; — stringed instruments, as the harp 01 
 lyre, violin, &c. ; and instruments of concussion, in which the 
 sound is produced by striking a sonorous body, as for instance, 
 the drum, bells, &c. 
 
 Which of these three kinds was the first invented ? 
 It is impossible, at the present day, to decide which ; but it 
 is most probable that instruments with strings were the last 
 invented of the three kinds ; and it is most likely, that of those 
 in which sound is produced by the application of wind, the 
 trumpet or horn was first used. This instrument, in its rudest 
 form, was ready fashioned to the hand of man ; the horn of a 
 ram or of an ox, or some of the larger kinds of sea-shells, were 
 soon discovered to possess the power of producing sound, by 
 being blown into through a small hole at the pointed end. 
 
 What improvement in this instrument would naturally 
 follow ? 
 
176 INSTRUMENTAL AND VOCAL MUSIC. 
 
 Mankind having discovered the property possessed by a hol- 
 low tube of producing a certain sound, soon found that the note 
 varied according to the length and capacity of the tube. A 
 much greater improvement soon after took place; it was dis- 
 covered that one tube answered the purpose of many by boring 
 holes in the course of its length, and producing various musical 
 sounds by stopping with the fingers certain of these holes. 
 Most of our modern wind instruments are but improvements 
 on the ancient inventions. 
 
 Tube, a pipe ; a long hollow body. 
 
 Was not Vocal Music used before the invention of Instru- 
 mental ? 
 Vocal music, namely, that produced by the human voice, (so 
 called to distinguish it from instrumental, that produced by in- 
 struments,) was undoubtedly the first: for man had not only 
 the various tones of his own voice to make his observations on, 
 before any art or instrument was found out ; but the various 
 natural strains of birds to give him a lesson in improving it, 
 and in modulating the sounds of which it is capable. 
 Modulating, forming sound to a certain key. 
 
 To what circumstance did an ancient poet ascribe the in- 
 vention of stringed instruments ? 
 To the observation of the winds whistling in the hollow reeds. 
 As for other kinds of instruments, there were so many occasions 
 for cords or strings, that men were not long in observing their 
 various sounds, which might give rise to stringed instruments. 
 Those of concussion, as drums and cymbals, might result from 
 the observation of the naturally hollow noise made by concave 
 bodies when struck. 
 
 What are the most ancient stringed instruments ? 
 The most ancient instruments of this kind, whose form is 
 known, are those of the ancient Egyptians ; among these the 
 harp stands pre-eminent. One of the most celebrated represen- 
 tations of an Egyptian harp was drawn from a painting disco- 
 
SESOSTRIS— TROY — HARP. 177 
 
 vered in one of the caverns in the mountains of Egyptian 
 Thebes, by some travellers : it is called the Theban harp, and 
 has thirteen strings ; its form is extremely elegant. This harp 
 is supposed to be one of the kind in use before and at the time 
 of Sesostris. Remains of Egyptian harps of a more simple 
 construction, with only four strings, have likewise been disco- 
 vered. Among the monuments of ancient Rome, there are 
 representations of stringed instruments resembling the harp, 
 but not equal in beauty of form to the famous Egyptian harp 
 already mentioned. 
 
 Pre-eminent, surpassing others. 
 
 Who was Sesostris ? 
 
 A Kiog of Egypt, who is said to have reigned some ages 
 before the siege of Troy. He appears to have been celebrated 
 for his conquests, and for the number of edifices he erected to 
 perpetuate his fame. 
 
 Perpetuate, to preserve from extinction ; to continue the memory of a 
 person or event. 
 
 Where was Troy ? 
 
 Troy, anciently called Ilium, was the capital of Troas, in 
 Asia. It became famous for the ten years' siege it sustained 
 against the Greeks ; the history of this event is commemorated 
 in the poems of Homer and Virgil. 
 
 Is not the harp an instrument of high antiquity in Great 
 Britain ? 
 
 Yes : it was a favorite instrument with the ancient Saxons in 
 Great Britain. The celebrated Alfred entered the Danish camp 
 disguised as a harper, because the harpers passed through the 
 midst of the enemy unmolested on account of their calling. 
 The same deception was likewise practised by several Danish 
 chiefs, in the camp of Athelstan, the Saxon. The bards, or 
 harpers of old, were the historians of the time ; they handed 
 down from generation to generation the history of remarkable 
 events, and of the deeds and lineage of their celebrated chiefs 
 
178 LYRE — TORTOISE. 
 
 and princes. The harpers of Britain were formerly admitted to 
 
 the banquets of kings and nobles : their employment was to 
 
 sing or recite the achievements of their patrons, accompanying 
 
 themselves on the harp. No nations have been more famous 
 
 for their harps .and harpers than the Welsh and Irish. 
 
 Recite, to repeat or chant in a particular tone or manner. Achieve- 
 ment, a great or heroic deed. Patron, benefactor, one who bestows 
 favors . 
 
 What instrument was famous among the ancient Greeks X 
 The Lyre : the invention, or rather discovery, of this instru- 
 ment is ascribed by them to their most celebrated deities. It 
 is supposed to have originated from the discovery of a dead 
 tortoise, the flesh of which had dried and wasted, so that nothing 
 was left within the shell but sinews and cartilages : these, tight- 
 ened and contracted, on account of their dryness, were rendered 
 sonorous. Some one, Mercury or Apollo, they affirm, in walk- 
 ing along, happening to strike his foot against the tortoise, was 
 greatly pleased with the sound it produced : thus was suggested 
 to him the first idea of a lyre, which he afterwards constructed 
 in the form of a tortoise, and strung with the dried sinews of 
 dead animals. The stringed instruments already described were 
 made to give out musical sounds, by causing a vibratory motion 
 in their strings by means of the fingers. 
 
 Sinew, a tendon ; that which unites a muscle to a bone. Cartilage, a 
 gristly, smooth, solid substance, softer than bone. Vibratory, shaking. 
 
 Who was Mercury ? 
 The heathen god of eloquence, letters, &c, and the messen- 
 ger of the other gods. 
 Who was Apollo ? 
 The god of music, poetry, medicine, and the fine arts. 
 
 What is a Tortoise ? 
 A well-known animal, with a thick shelly covering, belonging 
 to the order of reptiles ) there are two species, the sea and the 
 land tortoise ; the first named is called a turtle, and affords deli- 
 cious food ; land tortoises live to a very great age. It is only 
 
PICKING COTTON. 
 
 GATHERING TEA.. 
 
CATGUT — MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 179 
 
 one sort which furnishes the beautiful shell so much prized. 
 Tortoises are found in many parts of the world. The turtles 
 on the Brazilian shore are said to be so large as to be enough to 
 dine fourscore men : and in the Indian sea, the shells serve the 
 natives for boats. 
 
 Of what are the strings of the Lyre, &c, composed ? 
 
 Sometimes of either brass or silver wire, &c, but most com- 
 monly of catgut. 
 
 What is Catgut ? 
 
 The intestines of sheep or lambs, dried or twisted, either 
 singly or several together. Catgut is also used by watch-makers, 
 cutlers, and other artificers, in their different trades. Great 
 quantities are imported from France and Italy. 
 
 Are there no other kind of Instruments besides those al- 
 ready described ? 
 
 Yes, music and musical instruments have progressively im- 
 proved ; and it would be a needless task to enumerate the num- 
 bers of instruments of each kind now in use; many, as for 
 instance the organ, the piano, musical boxes, &c, are exceed- 
 ingly complex and ingenious in their construction, as well as 
 remarkable for the sweetness of their various sounds ; some, as 
 the two first-named, are played with the fingers, and produce 
 any melody or combination of sound at the will of the performer; 
 others, as the musical-box, barrel-organ, &c, produce a particular 
 melody, or a certain number of melodies, by means of machinery. 
 In the use of the last-named the performer is not at all indebted 
 to his own musical skill, as he has only to turn the handle 
 which sets the machinery in motion, and the musical box, or 
 barrel-organ, will continue playing till it has finished the tunes 
 to which it is set. 
 
 Upon what principle do these last-mentioned instruments 
 perform ? 
 
 The barrel-organ and musical box both play on nearly the 
 same principle, though the former is turned by a handle, and 
 
180 PAINTING. 
 
 the latter only requires a certain spring to be touched, in, ordei 
 to set it off or to stop it. Their machinery consists of a barrel 
 pricked with brass pins; when the barrel revolves, these pins 
 lift a series of steel springs of different lengths and thicknesses, 
 and the vibration of these springs when released, produces the 
 different nates. 
 
 What is Painting ? 
 The art of representing objects in nature, or scenes in human 
 life, with fidelity and expression, either in oil or water colors, &c. 
 
 Fidelity, truth, faithfulness. Oil Colors, those colors which are mixed 
 up with oil, as the others are with water. 
 
 Is not this art of great antiquity ? 
 There is not the slightest doubt of it ; but to name the coun- 
 try where it was first practised, or the circumstances attending 
 its origin, is beyond the power of the historian. About a cen- 
 tury after the call of Abraham, Greek and Egyptian tradition 
 tells us of a colony planted at Sicyon, by an Egyptian, who 
 brought with him the knowledge of painting and sculpture, and 
 founded the earliest and purest school of Greek art. The walls 
 of Babylon were adorned with paintings of different kinds of 
 animals, hunting expeditions, combats, &c. Allusions to this 
 custom of the Babylonians, of decorating their walls with paint- 
 ings, are found in the Bible. 
 
 Tradition, a history or account delivered from mouth to mouth without 
 written memorials ; communication from age to age. Allusion, reference. 
 Decorating, ornamenting. Sicyon, a kingdom of Peloponnesus, in 
 ancient Greece. 
 
 Were the Egyptians acquainted with this art ? 
 It is now little doubted that, although painting and sculpture 
 existed in Egypt, and were probably at their highest condition, 
 eighteen centuries before the Christian era, yet, at a still earlier 
 period, these arts were known in the kingdom of Ethiopia ; and 
 it is considered likely, that the course of civilization descended 
 from Ethiopia to Egypt. There is, however, no record of any 
 
PAINTING JAPANESE. 181 
 
 Egyptian painter in the annals of the art; and it does not 
 appear that it ever flourished in that country, or that other 
 nations were much indebted to Egypt for their knowledge of it. 
 Era, age, period. Ethiopia, the ancient name of the kingdoms of 
 Nubia and Abyssinia, in Africa. Annal, record, history. Exploit, 
 action, achievement, deed of valor. 
 
 Have we any notice of this art among the Hebrews ? 
 
 There is no allusion made to the existence of painting among 
 this people, and no proof that it was cultivated among them : it 
 is supposed that the neglect of this art arose from their not 
 being permitted to represent any object by painting. 
 
 What progress did the generality of the Eastern nations 
 make in this art ? 
 
 The art of painting among the Phenicians, Persians, and 
 other Eastern nations, advanced but slowly. The Chinese 
 appear, until a very recent period, to have contented themselves 
 with only so much knowledge of the art as might enable them 
 to decorate their beautiful porcelain and other wares; their tasto 
 is very peculiar, and though the pencilling of their birds and 
 flowers is delicate, yet their figures of men and animals are dis- 
 torted, and out of proportion ; and of perspective they seem to 
 have but little idea. Latterly, however, a change has taken 
 place in Chinese art, and proofs have been given of an attempt 
 to imitate European skill. The Japanese figures approach more 
 nearly to beauty of style than Chinese productions of a similar 
 kind. 
 
 Distorted, having a bad figure. Perspective, the science by which 
 things are represented in a picture according to their appearance to the 
 eye. 
 
 Who are the Japanese ? 
 The inhabitants of Japan, an empire of Eastern Asia, com- 
 posed of several large islands. They are so similar in feature, 
 and in many of their customs and ceremonies, to the Chinese, 
 as to be regarded by some, as the same race of men. The 
 Japanese language is so very peculiar, that it is rarely under- 
 16 
 
IS2 PAINTING. 
 
 stood by the people of other nations. Their religion is idola- 
 trous ; their government a monarchy, controlled by the priest- 
 hood. The people are very ingenious, and the arts and sciences 
 are held in great esteem by them. In all respects, Japan is an 
 important and interesting empire. 
 
 Monarchy, a government in which the power is vested in a king or 
 emperor. 
 
 By what nations was the art of painting practised with 
 great success ? 
 
 By the Greeks and Romans. Greece produced many distin- 
 guished painters, among whom Apelles was one of the most 
 celebrated; he was a native of Cos, an island in the Archipe- 
 lago, rather north of Rhodes; he flourished in the time of 
 Alexander the Great, and witnessed both the glory and the 
 decay of ancient art : the leading features of his style were 
 beauty and grace. But painting was not at any period so com- 
 pletely national in Greece, as sculpture, its sister art; the names 
 of one hundred and sixty-nine eminent sculptors are recorded, 
 while only fifteen painters are mentioned. Zeuxis, of Heraclea, 
 was another famous Greek painter, who flourished 400 years 
 before Christ. The Romans were not without considerable 
 masters in this art, in the latter times of the republic, and under 
 the first emperors. 
 
 What nation is supposed to have known and practised this 
 art even before the foundation of Rome ? 
 
 The Etruscans, inhabitants of Etruria, whose acquaintance 
 with the arts has excited great astonishment among those who 
 have most deeply searched into their history, and traced their 
 progress by means of the beautiful specimens of their works 
 still extant. Their early works were not superior to those of 
 other nations ; but either from their intercourse with Greece, or 
 the original genius of the people, they had attained considerable 
 eminence in the arts of painting, sculpture, &c, before Rome 
 was founded. Pliny speaks of some beautiful pictures at Ardea 
 
ETRURIA — PAINTIiNG. 18S 
 
 and Lanuvium, which were older than Kome : and another 
 author also says that before Rome was built, sculpture and 
 painting existed among them. 
 
 Where was Etruria situated ? 
 
 In Italy, on the west of the Tiber, which separated it from 
 the territory of ancient Rome, to which it was afterwards an- 
 nexed by conquest, Etruria was the ancient name of Tuscany 
 
 Annexed, united. 
 
 Was not the art greatly obscured for some centuries ? 
 The irruption of Barbarians into Italy and Southern Europe, 
 proved fatal to painting, and almost reduced it to its primitive 
 state ) it was not until after a long period that it was fully re- 
 stored. The first certain signs of its revival took place about 
 the year 1066, when Greek artists were sent for to adorn several 
 of the cities of Italy. Cimabue, a native of Florence, in the 
 thirteenth century, caught the inspiration of the Greek artists, 
 and soon equalled their works. He was both a painter and an 
 architect. 
 
 Irruption, inroad, invasion. 
 
 To what did this revolution in its history give rise ? 
 
 It caused it to be distinguished into ancient and modern. 
 The ancient painting comprehends the Greek and Roman : the 
 modern has formed several schools, each of which has its pecu- 
 liar character and merit. The first masters who revived the art 
 were greatly surpassed by their scholars, who carried it to the 
 greatest state of perfection, and advanced it not only by their 
 own noble works, but also by those of their pupils. 
 
 Who were the principal masters of the Italian school ? 
 
 Raphael and the celebrated Michael Angelo Buonarotti; the 
 former is regarded as the prince of modern painters, and is often 
 styled "the divine Raphael;'" he was born at Urbino, in 1483. 
 Michael Angelo was born at Florence, in 1564, and united the 
 professions of painter, sculptor, architect, poet, and musician. 
 Besides these there were many other illustrious Italian painters, 
 
184 artists' names. 
 
 the principal of whom were Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Cor- 
 reggio, the three Caracci, Guido, Parniegiano, Salvator Rosa, &c. 
 Was not Raphael also reckoned as excellent an architect 
 as he was a painter ? 
 
 He was not only esteemed the best painter in the world, but 
 also the best architect ) he was at least so admired for skill and 
 taste in architecture, that Leo the Tenth charged him with the 
 building of St. Peter's Church at Rome. 
 Who was Leo the Tenth ? 
 
 A great Pope, who was an ardent lover and patron of 
 learning and the arts. He was born at Florence, in 1475, 
 and died in 1521. 
 
 Give me a list of some of the most celebrated painters 
 besides those already mentioned. 
 
 The great painters of the German school were Albert Durer, 
 Holbein, Kneller and Mengs, with several others. 
 
 Of the Dutch school, were Rembrandt, Gerard Dow, Mieris, 
 Ostade, Polemberg, Berghem, and Wouvermans. 
 
 Of the Flemish, Rubens, Teniers, Jordaens, and Vandyck. 
 
 The admired painters of the French school, were Claude, 
 Poussin, Le Brun, and many others. 
 
 The Spaniards also have had their Murillo, Velasquez, &c. 
 
 The English, Hogarth, Wright, Reynolds, Wilson, North- 
 cote, Gainsborough, Morland, Barry, and others. 
 
 The Americans, Washington Allston, Benjamin West, Gil- 
 bert Stuart, John Singleton Copley, John Trumbull, G. Stuart 
 Newton, Thomas Cole, Henry Inman, and a number of others; 
 besides many now living, or but recently deceased. 
 
 Upon what materials did the ancients paint their works ? 
 
 Principally upon wood ; the boards or tables were prepared 
 with a thin ground of chalk and size of some kind. Linen cloth 
 or canvas was also employed, but there is no evidence of its use 
 before the reign of Nero. Parchment, ivory and plaster were 
 the other materials. 
 Evidence, testimony, record. 
 
NERO — POETRY. 185 
 
 Who was Nero ? 
 One of the Roman Emperors, a monster of cruelty, extrava- 
 gance, and debauchery ) he raised a dreadful persecution against 
 the Christian s, in which St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter 
 crucified. At last, being deserted by his army and the senate, 
 he destroyed himself, after a reign of fourteen years. 
 
 Debauchery, wickedness. 
 
 What is Poetry ? 
 The glowing language of impassioned feeling, generally found 
 in measured lines, and often in rhyme. Most ancient people 
 had their poets, 
 
 Glowing, warm, energetic. Impassioned, full of passion, animated. 
 Rhyme, the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last 
 sound or syllable of another. 
 
 Name a few of the ancient poets. 
 David was an inspired poet of the Hebrews : Homer, one of 
 the earliest poets of the Greeks : Ossian, an ancient poet of the 
 Scots : Taliesen, an ancient poet of the Welsh : and Odin, an 
 early poet of the Scandinavians. 
 Who were the Scandinavians ? 
 The inhabitants of Scandinavia, the ancient name of Den- 
 mark, Sweden, and Norway. 
 
 What people are regarded as the Fathers of Poetry ? 
 The Greeks. Homer was the first and the prince of poets ) 
 he celebrated the siege of Troy in the Iliad and Odyssey, two 
 epic poems which have never been surpassed. In the same 
 kind of composition he was followed, nine hundred years after, 
 by Virgil, in the Eneid \ by Tasso, after another fifteen hundred 
 years, in the ' Jerusalem Delivered/ The Greeks also boasted 
 of their Pindar and Anacreon in lyric poetry; and of Aristo- 
 phanes, Euripides, Sophocles, and Eschylus, in dramatic poetry. 
 Did the Romans possess any distinguished Poets ? 
 Yes ; among the epic poets were Ovid and Tibullus ; among 
 16* 
 
186 POETRY. 
 
 dramatists, Plautus and Terence ; of didactic and philosophic 
 poets, Lucretius, Virgil, Horace, and Silius Italicus. All these 
 were so many miracles of human genius ) and their works afford 
 the models of their respective species of composition. Most of 
 the works of the ancients have in sentiment, if not in spirit, 
 been translated into English. 
 
 Miracles, wonders. Genius, natural talent. Respective, particular. 
 Sentiment, thought, meaning. 
 
 Did not the same revolution which undermined the Greek 
 
 and Roman empires, and destroyed learning, the arts 
 
 and sciences, and the taste for elegance and luxury, also 
 
 prove fatal to Poetry ? 
 
 It did; the hordes of barbarians who overran Europe 
 
 wiped out civilization in their progress, and literature, art, 
 
 and science fled before the wild conquerors to find a refuge 
 
 in the monastery and the convent. Here knowledge was 
 
 fostered w r ith the love and ardor which religion alone can 
 
 impart. Finally, when the rude barbarians were converted, 
 
 it was to the religious Orders that the world turned for the 
 
 establishment of schools, and it is to the Church alone, in 
 
 the person of her popes, her bishops, and her monks that 
 
 we are indebted for the preservation of learning, and its 
 
 revival in the fifteenth century. 
 
 What celebrated Poets marked this revival ? 
 In Italy, Dante, Ariosto, Petrarch and Tasso. These were 
 followed, in France, by Racine, Corneille, Boileau, Voltaire, 
 La Fontaine and Delille ; in England, by Chaucer, Spenser, 
 Shakspeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Thomson, Young, Collins, 
 Gray, Byron, Coleridge, <fec; in Scotland, by Sir Walter Scott; 
 in Ireland, by Thomas Moore; in Germany, Klopstock, 
 Goethe and Schiller. 
 
 Name some of the distinguished poets of our own country. 
 
 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, 
 
 James Russell Lowell, John G. Whittier, Fitz-Greene Halleck, 
 
POETRl — ASTRONOMY. 187 
 
 and many others whose meritorious works will be impartially 
 judged by a future age. 
 
 Impartially, justly, without prejudice. 
 
 Name the different kinds of Poetry. 
 Epic, or historical ; dramatic, or representative, — from drama, 
 the name of all compositions adapted to recitation on the stage 
 — in which are displayed, for instruction and amusement, all the 
 passions, feelings, errors, and virtues of the human race in real 
 life ; lyric poetry, or that suited to music, as songs, odes, &c; 
 didactic, or instructive ; elegiac, or sentimental, and affecting ; 
 satirical, or censorious ; epigrammatic, or witty and ludicrous ; 
 and pastoral, or descriptive of country life. 
 
 Historical, relating to history. Lyric, pertaining to a lyre. Didactic, 
 doctrinal ; relating to doctrines or opinions. Elegiac, relating to elegy ; 
 mournful, sorrowful. Elegy, a mournful song : a funeral composition ; a 
 short poem without points or affected elegance. Satirical, severe in 
 language ; relating to satire. Satire, a poem in which wickedness or 
 folly is censured. Epigrammatic, relating to epigram, — a short poem 
 ending in a particular point or meaning, understood but not expressed. 
 Pastoral, from pastor, a shepherd; relating to rural employments and 
 those belonging to shepherds. 
 
 What is Astronomy ? 
 
 The science which treats of the heavenly bodies, their ar- 
 rangement, magnitudes, distances and motions. The term Astro- 
 nomy is derived from two Greek words, signifying the law of 
 the stars; astron being the Greek for star. 
 What can you say of its origin ? 
 
 Its origin has been ascribed to several persons, as well as to 
 different nations and ages. Belus, King of Assyria; Atlas, 
 King of Mauritania; and Uranus, King of the countries situ- 
 ate! on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, are all recorded as 
 the persons to whom the world is indebted for this noble science. 
 Its origin is generally fixed in Chaldea. Some choose, however, 
 to attribute it to the Hebrews ; others to the Egyptians, — from 
 whom, they say, it passed to the Greeks, 
 
188 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 What country is meant by Mauritania ? 
 
 Mauritania is the name formerly given to a country in the 
 northern part of Africa. Chaldea is the ancient name for Baby- 
 lonia, now called Irak Arabi, a district of Asiatic Turkey. 
 
 By whom were the heavenly bodies first divided into Con- 
 stellations or groups ? 
 
 By the ancients. The phenomena of the heavens were 
 studied in very early ages by several nations of the Bast. The 
 Chaldeans, the Indians, the Chinese and the Egyptians have 
 all left evidence of the industry and ingenuity with which their 
 observations were conducted. 
 
 Phenomena, appearances. Ingenuity, skilfulness. 
 What progress did they make in Astronomy ? 
 
 They built observatories, — invented instruments for observing 
 and measuring with correctness, — separated the stars into diffe- 
 rent groups or constellations, for the more easily finding any 
 particular star, — gave particular names to most of the moving 
 stars or planets, and noted the periods which each took to move 
 through its apparent path in the heavens; and in many other 
 ways the ancients helped to lay the foundations of that mass of 
 astronomical knowledge which men of later ages have brought 
 to more maturity. 
 
 Constellation, a cluster of fixed stars ; an assemblage of stars. Obser- 
 vatory, a place so built as to command a view of the heavens. 
 
 Who first taught the true system of the Universe ? 
 Pythagoras, one of the most distinguished philosophers of 
 antiquity. He is thought to have been a native of Samos, an 
 island in the Archipelago ; he flourished about 500 years before 
 Christ, in the time of Tarquin, the last King of Rome. Pytha- 
 goras was the first among the Europeans who taught that the 
 Earth and Planets turn round the Sun, which stands immovable 
 in the centre ; — that the diurnal motion of the Sun and Fixed 
 Stars is not real, but apparent, — arising from the Earth's motion 
 round its own axis, &c. After the time of Pythagoras, Astro- 
 nomy sunk into neglect. 
 
ASTRONOMY. 189 
 
 Philosopher, one who studies philosophy. Philosophy, all knowledge, 
 whether natural or moral. The term is derived from the Greek, philos, 
 lover, and sophia, wisdom. 
 
 By whom was it revived ? 
 By the family of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, who founded 
 a school of astronomy at Alexandria, which produced several 
 eminent astronomers, particularly one named Hipparchus. The 
 Saracens, on their conquest of Egypt, became possessed of the 
 knowledge of Astronomy, which they carried with them out of 
 Africa into Spain ; and thus, after a long exile, it was introduced 
 afresh into Europe. 
 
 Did not Astronomy from this time make great progress ? 
 Yes ; it made considerable advances, being cultivated by the 
 greatest geniuses, and patronized by the greatest princes. The 
 system of the Ptolemies, called the Ptolemaic, had hitherto been 
 used, with some slight alterations ; but Copernicus, an eminent 
 astronomer, born at Thorn, in Polish Prussia, in 1473, adopted 
 the system which had been taught by Pythagoras in Greece, 
 five or six hundred years before the time of Ptolemy. About 
 the same time with Copernicus flourished Tycho Brahe, born in 
 Denmark, 1546. 
 
 Geniuses, men gifted with superior mental faculties. Mental, belong- 
 ing to the mind. Faculties, powers of doing anything, whether mental 
 or bodily ; abilities ; powers of the mind. 
 
 What next greatly forwarded this interesting science ? 
 
 The introduction of telescopes by Galileo, who by their means 
 
 discovered the small stars or satellites which attend the planet 
 
 Jupiter ; the various appearances of Saturn ; the mountains in 
 
 the Moon • the spots on the Sun ; and its revolution on its axis.^ 
 
 Satellites, attendants. 
 
 What celebrated Astronomer arose in England ? 
 
 The immortal Sir Isaac Newton, born in 1642, at Wools- 
 
 thorpe, in Lincolnshire, who has, perhaps, contributed more to 
 
 the advancement of this science than any one who had before 
 
 existed. Dr. William Herschel, a native of Hanover, in Ger- 
 
190 ASTRONOMY — ARTS. 
 
 many, bom in 1738, likewise made many useful discoveries in 
 Astronomy : it was he who first discovered the seventh primary 
 planet, which he named, in honor of King George the Third, 
 the Georgium Sidus. George the Third took him under his 
 especial patronage, and constituted him his astronomer, with a 
 handsome pension. He resided at Slough, near Windsor, where 
 be died, in 1822. 
 
 Patronage, support, favor. Constituted, appointed to any particulai 
 office or rank. Pension, yearly allowance of money. 
 
 What other circumstance contributed to the advancement 
 of Astronomy? 
 
 The increasing perfection of our astronomical instruments, — 
 by means of which, the most important and interesting disco- 
 veries with regard to the heavens have been made. It is now 
 supposed that the myriads of the heavenly bodies are all distinct 
 worlds; it is certain, from observations made by the aid of 
 the telescope, that the moon has its mountains, valleys, and 
 caverns. One of the greatest astronomers of our day was 
 the eminent Father Secci. 
 
 What are generally meant by the Arts ? 
 
 Systems of rules designed to facilitate the performance of 
 certain actions ; in this sense, it stands opposed to science. The 
 terms art and science are often incorrectly used. Science relates 
 to principles, and art to practice. The word art is derived from 
 a Greek word signifying utility, profit. Arts are divided into 
 liberal and mechanical. 
 
 What are the Liberal Arts ? 
 
 The liberal arts are those that are noble and ingenious, or 
 which are worthy of being cultivated without any immediate 
 regard to the pecuniary profit arising from them. They are 
 Poetry, Music, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Grammar, 
 Logic, Rhetoric, Astronomy, and Navigation. The arts which 
 relate more especially to the sight and hearing are also called 
 Fine Arts. 
 
ARTS — WRITING. 191 
 
 Pecuniary, relating to money. Military, belonging to soldiers, or to 
 arms. 
 
 What do the Fine Arts usually include ? 
 All those which are more or less addressed to the sentiment 
 of taste, and whose object is pleasure 5 these are more especial Ij 
 Music, Painting, Sculpture, and Poetry. 
 
 What are the Mechanical Arts ? 
 Those in which the hand and body are more concerned thau 
 the mind, and which are chiefly cultivated for the sake of the 
 profit attending them. To this class belong those which furnish 
 us with the necessaries of life, and which are commonly called 
 trades, as carpentry, weaving, printing, &c. There are also 
 many other arts, as the art of writing, &c. 
 
 When was the art of Writing invented ? 
 It is supposed that the art, was invented before the Deluge : 
 it was certainly practised long before the time of Moses. There 
 were, doubtless, many steps taken in slow succession before the 
 invention of alphabetic writing. Perhaps the earliest method 
 might have been that which is still employed among the untu- 
 tored tribes of North American Indians, who record events by 
 picture-painting of the rudest description. Picture-painting was 
 afterwards gradually converted into the hieroglyph ical system, 
 which is still the only kind of writing among the Chinese. It 
 is not known who invented the alphabetic system of writing. 
 
 Deluge, a flood : the term used in particular to denote that mighty 
 flood of water with which God swept away the first nations of the earth 
 for their wickedness. Alphabetic, from alphabet, the series of written 
 signs of language called letters. The word is formed from alpha, beta, 
 the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. Untutored, 
 ignorant, unlearned. 
 
 Were not the Egyptians quite early acquainted with this 
 art? 
 Yes, they were acquainted with two or three kinds of writing, 
 as well as the one in which symbolical characters were em- 
 ployed, which was not used for common purposes. On the 
 
192 HIEROGLYPHICS. 
 
 contrary, such symbols had something of a sacred character 
 about ihem, being unknown to the common people, and only to 
 be deciphered by the priests. Obelisks and pyramids were the 
 great national records; and on these the hieroglyphics were 
 constantly used, because unintelligible to the people, until ex- 
 pounded by those who had the exclusive office of explaining 
 them. 
 
 Symbolical, having the nature of signs or symbols — that is, representa- 
 tions of different things. Deciphered, read, understood, made out. Un- 
 intelligible, that cannot be understood. Expounded, explained, inter- 
 preted. 
 
 Were Hieroglyphics employed before or after Alphabetic 
 Writing ? 
 
 They were undoubtedly employed at first from necessity, not 
 from choice or refinement; and would never have been thought 
 of, if alphabetical characters had been known. This style of 
 writing must be reckoned as a rude improvement upon picture- 
 writing, which had previously been used. Hieroglyphics were 
 employed by the Egyptian priests in after times, as a kind of 
 sacred writing, peculiar to themselves, and serving to give an 
 air of mystery to their learning and religion, though fallen into 
 disuse for other purposes. 
 
 What materials were employed by ancient nations in Writ- 
 ing? 
 
 The Eastern nations used tables of stone, brass, and wood, 
 so that the characters were engraved instead of being written 
 in the usual manner. The instrument used in writing on wood, 
 was made of metal, and called a style. For stone, brass, &c, a 
 chisel was employed. When the bark and leaves of trees, 
 skins, and other materials of a more pliant nature, superseded 
 the above-named tables, the chisel and the style, or stylus, gave 
 way to the reed and cane, and afterwards to the quill, the hair 
 pencil (as row used by the Chinese,) and the convenient lead 
 pencil. 
 
WRITING SCIENCE — CHEMISTRY. 193 
 
 Engraved, inscribed with the graver, a tool used in engraving on 
 etone, &c. Pliant, yielding, easily bent. 
 
 Have not the various nations among whom this useful art 
 has been cultivated, adopted different ways of arranging 
 their written characters ? 
 Yes. The Hebrews, Chaldeans, Syrians, Arabians, and 
 Egyptians, begin each line on the right side, and write towards 
 the left. The Greeks, Latins, and all European nations, write 
 from left to right. The natives of China, Japan, Cochin 
 China, Corea, &c, write from the top to the bottom of the page. 
 Where are Cochin China, and Corea? 
 Cochin China is a country situated in Eastern Asia. Corea 
 is a peninsula of Asia, subject to China. 
 What is meant by Science ? 
 A clear and certain knowledge of anything founded on self- 
 evident principles, or demoostration. The term is, however, 
 more particularly applied to a systematic arrangement of the 
 principles relating to any branch of knowledge, and is employed 
 in this sense in opposition to art : thus the theoretical know- 
 ledge of chemistry is ranked as a science, but the practical part 
 is called an art ; thus it is sometimes spoken of as a science, 
 sometimes as an art. 
 
 Practical, relating to action, not merely speculative. 
 
 What is Chemistry ? 
 A science which enables us to discover the peculiar properties 
 of natural bodies, either in their simple or compound state, and 
 the elementary or first principles of which they are composed, 
 by the processes of analysis and combination. Chemistry treats 
 of those changes in natural bodies which are not accompanied 
 by sensible motions. 
 
 Compound, mixed. Analysis, a separation of a compound body into 
 the several parts of which it consists. 
 
 Is not the knowledge of Chemistry very ancient ? 
 Chemistry, as far as it regards the separating of metals from 
 17 
 
194 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 foreign matters in the ore, smelting and refining them, is of the 
 highest antiquity ; it is even supposed to have been understood 
 and practised in the antediluvian world. 
 Antediluvian, before the flood. 
 
 What nation appears to have excelled in Chemistry in early 
 times ? 
 The Egyptians were no mean proficients in many chemical 
 operations, especially in the arts of working metals, softening 
 ivory, vitrifying flints, and imitating precious stones. Chemis- 
 try, however, experienced the common fate of all the arts, at 
 the decline of the Eastern empire. 
 Proficients, those who have made great progress in any art or science. 
 
 By whom was it revived ? 
 After having long lain buried, the famous Eoger Bacon revived 
 it ; and from his time to the present day it has gradually pro- 
 gressed to a state of perfection. In former times, the art of 
 chemistry consisted only in the knowledge of working metals, 
 &c; but in latter ages, its bounds have been greatly enlarged. 
 The knowledge of Chemistry leads to many interesting and 
 important discoveries, and the arts and manufactures are greatlj 
 indebted to its aid ; indeed, it is requisite to be a good chemist, 
 in order to attain to perfection in many of them. 
 Requisite, necessary. 
 
 By what other name has Chemistry been known ? 
 It was sometimes called Jllchemy ; by which is properly 
 understood a refined and mysterious species of chemistry, for- 
 merly much practised. 
 
 What were its objects ? 
 The discovery of the art of converting metals into gold, in- 
 cluding the search after the " Philosopher's Stone," by which 
 this change was to be effected ; and the discovery of a panacea 
 or medicine for the cure of all diseases. 
 What was the Philosopher's Stone ? 
 A substance, for numbers of years eagerly sought for, which 
 
III: w% 
 
CHEMISTRY. 195 
 
 was to convert metals, such as lead, copper, &c. into gold. Thia 
 unknown substance was called the Philosopher's Stone, pro 
 bably on account of the number of learned men who engaged 
 in the search after it. 
 
 Was this search sucessful ? 
 No ; but the delusion lasted several centuries, notwithstanding 
 the failures, losses, and disappointments of those engaged in it. 
 [ndeed, so severe and ruinous were these, in many instances, 
 that laws were passed to forbid the study. In Germany, many 
 of the alchemists who had the unfortunate reputation of pos- 
 sessing this wonderful stone were imprisoned and furnished with 
 apparatus till they should purchase their liberty by making an 
 ounce of gold. 
 
 Delusion, an error arising from false views. Apparatus, a complete set 
 of instruments or tools, by which anything is made, or any operation per- 
 formed. 
 
 Was any gold ever produced by this method ? 
 Not a particle ; the story of a stone having the property of 
 converting the baser metals into gold being merely an absurd 
 fable : yet, although the pursuits of Alchemy were the most pre- 
 posterous that can be conceived, the ardor with which they 
 were followed, and the amazing number of experiments made in 
 consequence, led to the discovery of many facts to which Chem- 
 istry is highly indebted. 
 Preposterous, absurd, foolish ; contrary to nature or reason. 
 
 You inform me that Chemistry enables us to discover the 
 properties of bodies by means of analysis and com- 
 bination: what do these terms imply ? 
 If a chemist wishes to examine the properties of a compound 
 body, he proceeds by analysis — that is, by a separation of the 
 substance to be examined into its constituent parts. The chem- 
 ical examination of bodies is generally effected by producing a 
 change in the nature or slate of the body under examination. 
 This change is frequently brought about by the addition of some 
 
196 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 other substance which forms a combination with a part of the 
 substance examined, and leaves the remainder in a detached 
 state. 
 
 By what means do Chemists effect a change in the quali- 
 ties or states of natural bodies ? 
 It is generally effected by means of heat, which has a ten- 
 dency to separate the particles of bodies from each other ; or by 
 the mixture or combination of some other matter with the mat- 
 ter intended to be examined. The mixture of two or more 
 compounds often produces a decomposition by means of chemi- 
 cal affinity, a property which different species of matter have 
 to unite with each other ; and which is sometimes called elective 
 affinity. Thus it may be observed, chemists have not only the 
 power of decomposing natural bodies, but of producing by com- 
 bination various other substances, such as are not found in the 
 kingdom of nature. 
 
 What do you mean by decomposition ? 
 In chemical language, it means the separation of a compound 
 body into its simple elements. 
 Grive me an example. 
 Water may be decomposed, and reduced into oxygen and hy- 
 drogen, — both of them simple substances incapable of furthei 
 decomposition. 
 
 Is not the work of decomposition perpetually going for- 
 ward? 
 Yes ; and combustion is one of the great agents in this work 
 By it animal and vegetable substances are converted into water 
 and carbonic acid, by the union of their hydrogen and carbon 
 with the oxygen of the air. These, in time, are again absorbed 
 by vegetables, and again decomposed to set the oxygen at liberty 
 to produce fresh combustions. 
 
 Of what use are the two remaining substances, Hydrogen 
 and Carbon ? 
 These are appropriated by the vegetative organs to their 
 
CHEMISTRY. 197 
 
 growth and nourishment, while the oxygen with which the car- 
 bon was combined is abundantly given off to purify the air and 
 render it fit for the respiration of animals. 
 
 Give me an idea of the mode in which Chemists ascertain 
 the affinity of bodies, by relating an experiment. 
 Dissolve a tea-spoonful of sugar of lead in water, and pour 
 the clear solution into a decanter or large glass bottle. Then 
 take a small piece of zinc, and twist round it some brass or cop- 
 per wire, so as to let the ends of the wire depend from it in any 
 agreeable form. Suspend the zinc and wire in the solution 
 which has been prepared; in a short time, metallic lead will 
 deposit itself on the zinc and along the wire. This is a beau- 
 tiful illustration of chemical affinity ; the acid, which constitutes 
 a part of the sugar of lead, has a stronger affinity for the zinc 
 than for the lead, and, consequently, will combine with the zinc, 
 and form a compound which remains in solution, while the 
 lead is precipitated on the zinc and wire in the form of a brilliant 
 tree of metal. 
 
 Affinity, in chemistry, that attraction which takes place between the 
 elements of bodies, and forms compounds. 
 
 What does the word Nature signify ? 
 
 In the above sense, the system of the universe ; the creation, 
 the works of God. By the kingdom of nature is meant the 
 world and all things in it : nature is divided into three kingdoms, 
 the animal, vegetable, and mineral. 
 
 What are the different states of natural bodies ? 
 
 All bodies are either solid, liquid, or aeriform. By solid 
 bodies are meant those whose parts unite so firmly as to resist 
 the impression or penetration of other bodies ; by liquid, those 
 substances whose parts do not unite firmly, but have free motion 
 among themselves; by aeriform, fluid substances, having the 
 form or nature of air. Liquid substances are nothing more than 
 solids converted into liquids by heat, a certain increase of which 
 would convert the liquids into vapor. 
 
198 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 What other name is given to Liquids ? 
 
 They are likewise called fluids : we call the air, also, a 
 fluid, because it flows like a fluid, and light substances will float 
 in it. 
 
 What is the cause of bodies floating on liquids ? 
 It is an established law of nature, that air substances which 
 weigh less than an equal bulk of any liquid, will float on the 
 surface of this liquid. Thus a cork will float on water, while a 
 stone sinks to the bottom. The cork will not float in the air, 
 though lighter than water; and the stone is not heavier than 
 the whole of the water, but more so than a portion of water 
 of its own bulk } — and thus it sinks in it. Stones also differ 
 in their weight or gravity : for instance, some of the asbes- 
 tus kind are lighter than water. Iron, brass, indeed, nearly 
 all substances, except gold and platina, will float upon mercury, 
 because they are lighter than this liquid. 
 
 What is the cause of bodies being either solid, liquid, or 
 aeriform ? 
 When the principle of attraction prevails, it causes them to 
 become solid; when caloric prevails, they become, aeriform. 
 Fluidity is, apparently, a medium between the two. 
 
 How is the state of Solidity in bodies accounted for ? 
 The particles of all bodies are subject to two opposite powers^ 
 repulsion and attraction ; between which they remain in equili- 
 brium. While the attractive force remains strongest, the body 
 remains in a state of solidity ; but if heat destroys this force, 
 the particles lose their cohesion, and the body ceases to be solid. 
 
 Cohesion, act of sticking together, union of the constituent parts of a 
 body. 
 
 Which is supposed to be the most natural state of all 
 
 bodies ? 
 
 Solidity ; for by the combination of caloric with them we can 
 
 reduce most substances to the fluid state; while the greatest 
 
 number of liquid substances take a solid form by the loss of 
 
CHEMISTRY. 199 
 
 caloric. Thus, water congeals and forms ice; and even the 
 gases show this disposition to become solid, when they lose their 
 elasticity by forming some combination. 
 
 Explain the terms Repulsion and Attraction. 
 Repulsion is a peculiar property in the particles of matter, 
 which gives them a constant tendency to recede from each other. 
 Attraction is an unknown force, which causes bodies or their 
 particles to approach each other. The particles of all bodies 
 possess this property, which causes them to adhere, and pre- 
 serves the various substances around us from falling in pieces. 
 
 What different' kinds of Attraction can you mention? 
 
 Attraction may be distinguished into that which takes 
 place between bodies at sensible distances, and that which man- 
 ifests itself between the particles of matter at insensible dis- 
 tances. 
 
 Give an example of the first kind of attraction. 
 One of the most familiar instances of attraction at sensible 
 distances is seen in the descent of heavy bodies to the ground. 
 When a stone is lifted up in the hand, the earth's attraction, 
 which previously caused it to remain at its surface, is overcome ; 
 but, as soon as the hand is withdrawn, the stone falls to the 
 earth The force which causes this is called the attraction of 
 gravitation, or simply gravitation. 
 
 How is the second kind of attraction, or that between the 
 particles of bodies, subdivided ? 
 Into the attraction of aggregation, or cohesion ; and chemical 
 attraction, or affinity. The former takes place between particles 
 which are similar, and the latter between those which are dis- 
 similar. All the operations of chemistry are founded upon the 
 force of affinity which Nature has established between the par- 
 ticles of different kinds of matter, and which enables the chemist 
 to produce new compounds differing more or less from the sub- 
 stances by whcse union they were formed. 
 
200 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Is it, then, necessary for chemists to understand the rela- 
 tive nature of all substances ? 
 Yes; because the basis of this science consists in an analyti- 
 cal examination of the works of Nature; an investigation of 
 the properties and uses of all substances we are acquainted with ; 
 and the study of the effects of heat and mixture, in order that 
 we may find out their general and subordinate laws. 
 
 Analytical, relating to analysis. Investigation, act of searching, or 
 tracing out. Subordinate, inferior in nature, dignity or power. 
 
 Relate a few more of the advantages obtained by a know- 
 ledge of Chemistry. 
 
 Many of the wonderful operations of Nature, and the changes 
 which take place in substances around us, are, by its means, 
 revealed to us. In every manufacture, art, or walk of life, the 
 chemist possesses an advantage over his unskilled neighbor. 
 It is necessary to the farmer and gardener, as it explains the 
 growth of plants, the use of manures, and their proper appli- 
 cation : and indispensable to the physician, that he may under- 
 stand the animal economy, and the effects which certain causes 
 chemically produce; and the nature of animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral poisons. The study is, therefore, an invaluable branch 
 in the education of youth : it is useful, not only in the active, 
 but the moral life, by laying the foundation of an ardent and 
 inquiring mind. Even an everyday walk in the fields can be 
 productive of instruction, by a knowledge of it ; — and let us 
 always remember, that " Knowledge is Power." 
 
 Indispensable, necessary, not to be done without. 
 
ATTRACTION TIDES. 201 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Attraction, Tides, Gravity, Artesian Wells, Air, Aneroid 
 Barometer, Ear-Trumpet, Stethoscope, Audiphone, Tel- 
 ephone, Phonograph, Microphone, Megaphone, Tastm- 
 eter, Bathometer, Anemometer, Chronometer. 
 
 What is Attraction? 
 By attraction is meant that property or quality in the par- 
 ticles of bodies which makes them tend toward each other. 
 Are there several kinds of attraction ? 
 -Yes. Attraction Jias received different names, according 
 to the circumstances under which it acts: The force which 
 keeps the particles of matter together to form bodies or 
 masses, is called attraction of cohesion ; that which makes 
 bodies stick together only on their surfaces, is called adhesion; 
 that which inclines different masses toward each other, as 
 the earth and the heavenly bodies, is called gravitation; 
 that which forces the particles of substances of different 
 kinds to unite, is known under the name of chemical attrac- 
 tion ; that which causes the needle of the compass to point 
 constantly toward the poles of the earth, is magnetic attrac- 
 tion ; that which is excited by friction in certain substances, 
 is known as electrical att?*action. 
 
 How do you know that attraction exists through the 
 whole universe? 
 This great universal law was first discovered by Sir Isaac 
 Newton. The sun and planets and other heavenly bodies are 
 only guided in their path by gravitation. 
 
 Do we experience this attraction upon our earth ? 
 Yes; because our earth is carried around the sun by it; 
 and, further, the tides show it very clearly. 
 WTiat are the Tides J 
 The ebbing and flowing of the sea, which regularly takes 
 
202 t I d k s — g k a \ i t y . 
 
 place twice in twenty -four hours. The cause of the tides is 
 the attraction of the sun, but chiefly of the moon, acting on 
 the waters of the ocean. 
 What is Gravity ! 
 Gravity is the attraction between the earth and the bodies 
 on the earth, which makes what we call weight of bodies. 
 What do you understand by specific weight or gravity i 
 It means the weight of a body as compared with the 
 weight of an equal bulk of some other body taken as a stan- 
 dard — commonly water. 
 
 Why do we say that certain metals — as, for example, 
 platina or gold — are heavier than others, say, lead or 
 iron ? 
 Because the former have a greater specific gravity. 
 
 But is not a pound of gold as heavy as a pound of lead ? 
 Yes; but a lump of gold will be heavier than a lump of 
 lead of equal bulk. 
 
 Can we explain by this what we call floating I 
 A body will float in water if its gravity is less than that of 
 water ; for example, wood floats for this reason in water, and 
 a balloon in the air. 
 
 Why does a portion of the floating body sink below the 
 surface of the water ? 
 Because the body in order to float must displace a portion 
 of water equal in weight to the whole floating body. 
 
 But why do iron steamers float — iron being heavier than 
 water? 
 Because the steamer is not a solid piece of iron, but is hollow, 
 and so increased in bulk ; for that reason the weight of the ves- 
 sel and its contents is less than that of an equal bulk of water. 
 How can you ascertain that air has weight ? 
 We can do it by the barometer and by very many experi- 
 ences in daily life. If one end of a straw be dipped into a 
 vessel of water and the other end be sucked, the liquid will 
 
ARTESIAN WELLS A NEROID BAROMETER. 203 
 
 rise to the mouth. There we see the pressure of the outside 
 air forces the liquid through the straw where the air was 
 removed by sucking, 
 
 Can you show the same by another instrument ? 
 
 Yes; the common water pump demonstrates the same as 
 the straw. A tube is placed into the water, the air is sucked 
 out from the tube by the movement of the pump, and the 
 outside air presses the water through the tube. 
 What are Artesian wells ? 
 
 Wells so named because they were made first at Artois, in 
 France. They work on the principle that every liquid seeks 
 its level. Of the rain which falls, a part soaks into the soil 
 of mountains, until, coming to a layer of rocks or clay through 
 which it cannot pass, it will collect and be stored up. If a 
 hole be bored into this reservoir the water will rise in it. 
 Do you know some other properties of air? 
 
 It is the most necessary substance for our life ; it is the 
 vehicle of all odors and smells; it is the medium of all 
 sounds, and brings to our ear and so to our mind an im- 
 mense knowledge of the outside world ; it is the cause of the 
 beauty of the blue firmament or sky, of the aurora and twi- 
 light ; it is the great nurse of the whole vegetable kingdom 
 by clouds, rain, and dew. 
 
 What is an Aneroid Barometer ? 
 
 It is a barometer in the construction of which no quicksil- 
 ver or other liquid is used. It- consists of a metal box, ex- 
 hausted of air, the top of which is of thin metal, so elastic 
 that it readily yields to alterations in the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere. AVhen the pressure increases, the top is pressed 
 inwards ; when, on the contrary, it decreases, the elasticity of 
 the lid, aided by a spring, tends to move it in the opposite 
 direction. These motions are transmitted by delicate levers 
 to an index which moves on a scale. This barometer has the 
 advantage of being portable. 
 
204 SAR-TB V II P E T T EUPHOXE. 
 
 What is the Ear-trumpet ? 
 
 A trumpet-like instrument used to aid deaf persons in 
 hearing. Its form is conical, and the larger end is of a bell 
 shape ; the small en I is placed in the ear, and the person 
 talks in the large end. It acts by concentrating the voice on 
 the listener's ear. 
 
 What is a Stethoscope? 
 
 An instrument used by physicians for ascertaining the ac- 
 tion of the lungs, judging by the sound of their motion 
 whether they are healthy or not. 
 Describe the Audiphone. 
 
 It is a fan-shaped instrument to help deaf people, and is 
 made of flexible carbonized rubber. Fine silk cords attached 
 to the upper edge bend it oyer, and are fastened by a wedge 
 in a handle. The top edge of this fan rests upon the upper 
 teeth, and the sound waves strike its surface; the vibrations 
 are thus conveyed by the teeth and the bones of the face to 
 the acoustic nerve in the ear. 
 Describe the Telephone. 
 
 It is an instrument by which conversation may be carried 
 on at a distance, and is composed of three parts — a thin disk 
 of soft metal, a small coil or bobbin of silk-covered copper 
 wire, and a small bar magnet about four inches long. The 
 bobbin is placed on one pole of the magnet, so that the wire 
 is as it were steeped in the magnetic space round the pole. 
 The metal disk is placed face close to the pole and bobbin, 
 so that when it vibrates in front of the pole a series of wave 
 currents will be set up in the coil of wire on the bobbin. The 
 whole is encased in wood, and a mouth-piece is provided for 
 speaking against the disk. The coil of wire on the bobbin 
 is of course connected by its two ends into the circuit of a 
 telegraph line. 
 
 Who invented the Telephone ? 
 
 It was invented, almost simultaneously, by Alex. Graham 
 
P H O NOGRAPH MICROPHONE. 205 
 
 Bell, a native of Scotland, and Professor of Vocal Physiology 
 in the Boston University, and Elisha Gray, of Chicago. 
 What is a Phonograph ? 
 
 It is an instrument for recording the vibrations of sounds, 
 and consists of a revolving cylinder covered with tin-foil. 
 To this cylinder is attached a mouth-piece, fitted with a thin 
 plate or disk, on the outer side of which, next to the cylin- 
 der, is a needle or point. The cylinder runs on a screw, so 
 that the whole length of it, from end to end, may pass under 
 the point. On speaking into the mouth-piece the voice causes 
 the disk to vibrate, and the point to trace marks corre- 
 sponding to these vibrations on the tin-foil. By turning the 
 cylinder so that the point again passes into the marks in the 
 tin-foil, the sounds that entered at the mouth-piece can be 
 reproduced at any time. 
 
 By whom was the phonograph invented ? 
 
 By Thomas A. Edison, who was born in Ohio in 1847. 
 Mr. Edison is the inventor of many improvements in tele- 
 graphy, which have been adopted into general use, and are 
 to him the source of a large income. To him, also, we are 
 indebted for the megaphone, microphone, tasimeter, an im- 
 provement in the telephone, a system of electric lighting, and 
 many other inventions. 
 
 What is a Microphone ? 
 
 This instrument is a variety of telephone by means of 
 which faint sounds can be heard at a very great distance. It 
 consists of a small battery for generating a weak current of 
 electricity, a telephone for the receiving instrument, and a 
 speaking or transmitting instrument. The last is a small rod 
 of gas carbon with the ends set loosely in blocks of the same 
 material. The blocks are attached to an upright support, 
 glued into a wooden base board. This instrument is con- 
 nected with the battery and the telephone. So wonderfully 
 sensitive is it, that the ticking of a watch, the walking of a 
 
 * 
 
206 M E (f A P It N B BATHOMETER. 
 
 fly across a board, or the brush of a camel's-hair pencil can 
 be heard even though it be hundreds of miles distant. 
 Will you describe the Megaphone \ 
 
 It is a substitute for the ear and speaking trumpet. It 
 consists of three paper funnels placed side by side. The two 
 larger ones are about 6 feet 8 inches lono* and 27^ inches 
 in diameter, and are each provided with a flexible tube, the 
 ends of which are held to the ear. The centre funnel, which 
 is used as a speaking-trumpet, does not differ materially from 
 an ordinary trumpet, except that it is larger and has a larger 
 bell mouth. Two persons, each provided with a megaphone, 
 can, without other apparatus, carry on a conversation at a dis- 
 tance of one and a half or two miles. 
 What is the Tasimeter ? 
 
 It is an instrument, sensitive to the smallest degree of heat, 
 and is mostly used in astronomy. Attached to a telescope 
 it will show the heat coming from the stars. 
 What is a Bathometer ? 
 
 This ingenious instrument, the invention of Prof. Siemens 
 of London, enables those on board of ships to read from an 
 index the depths of the ocean beneath them. It consists of 
 a highly sensitive steel spring to which a heavy piece of metal 
 is attached. The changes in weight to which the latter is 
 subject in consequence of the variations of attractive force 
 (the deeper the ocean the smaller the latter, and vice versa) 
 are registered on a scale by the indicator that is in connec- 
 tion with the steel spring. 
 
 What is an Anemometer? 
 
 An instrument for measuring the velocity and force of the 
 wind, and by which storms, at a distance, can be predicted. 
 What is a Chronometer? 
 
 A time-piece of delicate and exact construction, chiefly em- 
 ployed by astronomers and navigators. It differs only from 
 an ordinary watch in its delicate springs, in not being so much 
 
CHRONOMETER LIGHT. 207 
 
 influenced by heat and cold, and consequently in its accuracy 
 in giving the time. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Light, Lime Light, Magnesium Light, Electric Light, Rain- 
 bow, Prism, Spectrum, Colors, Photography, Camera Ob- 
 scura, Stereoscope, Kaleidoscope. 
 
 Do you know something about the nature of Light? 
 
 Light is a mere form of vibration like sound, and like 
 sound it requires some source to set this vibration going, and 
 some medium to carry this vibration as air carries sound. 
 Is not the air this medium ? 
 
 No, it is supposed that there is an elastic fluid called 
 " ether" which pervades all space and matter, and if the 
 molecules of a body are in motion they have the power of 
 •setting this ether in motion. The movement thus produced 
 will appear either as heat or light according to its velocity. 
 What sources of light do you know ? 
 
 We are told that the principal source of light on earth is 
 the sun, either directly with its own beams or indirectly by 
 supplying us with combustibles to produce light ; for oil, 
 gas, candles, and most of the substances used for producing 
 light and heat when burning are but sending forth in 
 another form the rays of the sun which were stored up 
 in nature's economy. 
 
 Another source of light is the result of chemical action, 
 such as the lime, magnesium, and electric light. A third 
 source of light is phosphorescence, as we see it in the glow- 
 worm and fireflies. 
 
 What is the Drummond or Lime Light ? 
 
 It is one of the most brilliant of artificial lights. When a 
 stream of oxygen and one of hydrogen under pressure are 
 brought together and mixed within a few inches of the end 
 
208 LIGHT RAINBOW PRISM. 
 
 of a blowpipe, tlie mixture on lighting burns with a colorless 
 flame possessing intense heat. If this flame be made to play 
 upon a ball of carbonate of lime, the lime on becoming 
 white hot gives off a powerful incandescence. 
 
 Incandescence, the glowing whiteness of a body caused by intense 
 heat. 
 
 What is a Blowpipe i 
 
 A tube, usually bent near the end, terminated with a flnely- 
 pointed nozzle, for blowing through the flame of a lamp or 
 gas-jet, producing thereby a small conical flame possessing 
 intense heat. It is used in soldering silver, brass, etc. A 
 mixture of oxygen and hydrogen when ignited constitutes the 
 hydrogen blowpipe, invented by Dr. Hare of Philadelphia. 
 What is Magnesium Light ? 
 
 When the metal magnesium is rolled out into a fine ribbon 
 and heated to red heat it burns with a dazzling light. 
 Which is the most powerful artificial light? 
 
 The so-called Electric light. This light, whether produced 
 by a series of galvanic cells or by dynamic power, is the most 
 brilliant and useful. 
 
 What is a Rainbow I 
 
 The rainbow is that beautiful semicircular band or arc of 
 different colors in the clouds during the occurrence of rain 
 in sunshine. When the clouds opposite the sun are very 
 dark and rain is falling from them, the rays of the sun are 
 divided by the raindrops as they would be by a prism. 
 There are often two rainbows at the same time, because the 
 primary bow is again reflected to another layer of clouds. 
 What is a Prism ? 
 
 A triangular solid piece of glass, on which if a ray of light 
 be cast it will be distinctly divided into the seven colors we 
 see in a rainbow. By this fact we see that white light is 
 composed of different rays which have different reflective 
 susceptibilities. 
 
 What is a Spectrum ! 
 
COLORS PHOTOGRAPHY. 209 
 
 It is this beautiful band of seven colors obtained by the 
 refraction of a ray of light through the prism. 
 
 Whence come the colors in the objects we see in nature ? 
 
 They all come from light ; every object has a power to 
 absorb certain rays and to reflect others. A red cloth, for 
 example, absorbs all the other colored rays except red, and 
 this it gives off, thus appearing red. 
 
 Why are the leaves of plants green? 
 
 Because a peculiar chemical substance called chlorophyl, 
 formed within their cells, absorbs all other rays of light, 
 reflecting only blue and yellow — which mixture produces the 
 different green tints. 
 
 What is Photography ? 
 
 The word means " light drawing." It is a mode of fixing 
 on certain substances the lights and shades of any object 
 by means of a lens inserted in a camera obscura. This pro- 
 cess was first called Daguerreotype from the name of the 
 inventor, Daguerre. A plate of copper thinly coated with 
 silver is exposed to the vapor of iodine, then placed in a 
 camera obscura, where an image of the object to be presented 
 through a lens is cast upon it. Ambrotype is the same 
 application to glass. There are now different variations of 
 method in the use of the same agents. Xoav photography 
 consists in taking the images on what is called a negative — 
 that is, a glass coated with a silvered collodion (gun-cotton 
 dissolved in alcohol and ether) film. From this plate another 
 image is taken on silvered paper, which we call the positive 
 image. There are also other chemicals used instead of silver. 
 What is a Camera Obscura ? 
 
 A small box or dark room into which the light is ad- 
 mitted through a lens. 
 
 What is a Stereoscope ? 
 
 It is an instrument exhibiting the effects and advantages of 
 seeing with two eyes. The instrument is so constructed that 
 
210 KALEIDOSCOPE ELECTRICITY. 
 
 from a flat picture we may see the solid body in its reality in 
 nature. 
 
 What is a Kaleidoscope ? 
 An instrument invented by Sir David Brewster, consisting 
 of a tube with slips of reflecting* glass so arranged in the 
 interior that small beads, bits of colored glass, and similar 
 things are, by revolving the tube, thrown into an endless 
 variety of beautiful shapes. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Electricity, Electric Currents, Electric Battery, Elec- 
 trotyping, stereotyplng, telegraph, ocean cable, 
 Lightning Rod, The Gulp Stream, The Mt. Cenis Tun- 
 nel, The Suez Canal, Suspension Bridges, Eminent 
 Americans. 
 
 What is the nature of Electricity ? 
 
 A form of energy into which all other forms can readily 
 be converted. 
 
 What is an Electric current ? 
 
 Electricity manifests itself in a variety of ways, but all may 
 be arranged under two heads, viz., 1, as a charge; 2, as a 
 current. By means of friction, many bodies become electri- 
 fied — that is, have acquired an electrical charge. If this 
 charge is in great quantity we call it high tension. When a 
 body containing an electrical charge is brought in contact 
 with other bodies through which electricity is capable of 
 passing, there ensues a current of electricity. Such bodies 
 are called conductors. 
 
 What are the sources of currents? 
 
 There are currents produced by chemical action called 
 voltaic currents ; by the action of heat, or thermo-electric 
 currents; by the motion of magnets, or magneto-electric cur- 
 rents. 
 
REMOVING THE EARTH FROM THE CANAL BY MEANS 
 OF DROMEDARIES. 
 
 OPENING THE SUEZ CANAL — PROCESSION OF SHIPS, 
 
t, l k c t n 1 C I T V . 211 
 
 What is positive and what negative electricity ? 
 
 No difference in electricity in itself. When a body has 
 more than its natural amount of electricity, it is said to be 
 charged positively ; when it has less than its natural amount 
 it is negatively charged. 
 
 What is a (Jell ; what a Battery I 
 If a piece of zinc and copper joined by a wire be dipped 
 in a liquid — generally weak sulphuric acid — which will act 
 chemically on the metals, a current is produced. Such an 
 arrangement is called a couple, or cell. If many cells are 
 connected, then it is called a battery. 
 
 What is Thermo-electricity I 
 If two bars of any unlike metal — for example, antimony 
 and bismuth — be soldered together at one end, and the other 
 ends be connected by a wire and then the soldered end 
 heated, a current will now. 
 
 What effects are produced by currents? 
 They produce heat, light, decomposition and combination in 
 liquid chemical compounds ; they melt all metals, excite mag- 
 netism, and in the animal body excite movements of the muscles. 
 
 Can you specify these effects I 
 A strong battery produces heat in such a degree that all 
 metals can be melted. Light is produced in flashes, or if the 
 end of the leading wires are connected with two pencils of 
 hard carbon, and brought very near together, then a brilliant 
 light, or arc, called the voltaic arc, is produced. This is the 
 dazzling bright light which we call electric light. The chemi- 
 cal effect of a current in decomposing compound substances 
 is called electrolysis. In this way Avater can be decomposed 
 into its compounds, hydrogen and oxygen; copper sulphate 
 into sulphur and metallic copper, etc. In this way we can 
 deposit strong adherent films of metal on the surface of any 
 conductor ; for if the article to be coated be attached to the 
 negative electrode of a battery, and dipped into a solution of 
 
212 ELECT ROTYPING STEREOTYPING, 
 
 the metal with which we desire to coat the article, say cop- 
 per or silver, and the positive electrode be attached to a plate 
 of copper and also dipped into a liquid, when the current 
 passes, the metal will be decomposed and deposited in a uni- 
 form layer over the article at the negative electrode. This 
 process is called electro-plating. 
 What is Electrotyping ? 
 
 It is the process of copying medals, type, wood-cuts, en- 
 graved copper and steel plates, etc., by means of electrical de- 
 position. It is chiefly used for making, from the ordinary mov- 
 able types, plates of fixed metallic types, for printing books. 
 Describe the process. 
 
 The article to be copied is first covered with black-lead, 
 and then a mould is made of it in wax or gutta-percha. This 
 mould is placed in a solution of sulphate of copper, and at- 
 tache i to the negative pole of the battery, while a plate of 
 copper is hung from the positive pole. The electric current 
 decomposes the copper, which is deposited in a thin film 
 upon the mould. This film is removed and stiffened by be- 
 ing backed with metal. 
 
 What is the difference between Electrotyping and Ste- 
 reotyping ? 
 
 In stereotyping, a plaster of Paris mould is taken from the 
 types, and upon this mould melted type-metal is poured, 
 which, when hardened, makes a solid plate. 
 
 Is there any other method of stereotyping ? 
 
 Yes ; that known as the paper process. A uniform sheet 
 of soft matter is formed by pasting together sheets of thin, 
 tough tissue paper. The types are oiled, and the soft, moist 
 sheet is placed on them and beaten down with a stiff brush 
 until it receives an impression of the type-form. Both are 
 then run through a press, and on being taken out the paper 
 is found to form a perfect mould. Into this mould the type- 
 metal is poured and the plate formed. 
 
TELEGRAPH. 213 
 
 Can you tell me some magnetic effects of the current ? 
 All conductors become magnetic during the passage of a 
 current through them, and thereby acquire all the properties 
 of a magnet. There are bodies which are natural magnets, 
 and they are called permanent magnets. Those which be- 
 come magnets only during the passage of a curren are called 
 electro-magnets. 
 
 Do you know any application of those magnets i 
 They are employed in a great variety of electrical appara- 
 tus, principally in telegraphy. 
 
 "When was the first telegraph established i 
 It was made in 1836, being invented by Prof. Steinheil, of 
 Munich, and adopted by the government of Bavaria. It Avas 
 12 miles long, and the signals were made by small bells. 
 
 Who was the inventor of the telegraph in this country I 
 Samuel F. B. Morse, who was born at Charlestown, Mass., 
 April 27, 1791. He began life as a painter, but did not give 
 his whole attention to ^rt — chemistry and experiments in 
 electricity and galvanism claiming much of his time. He first 
 conceived the idea of the telegraph in 1832, and exhibited 
 his invention to Congress in 1837. He struggled on with 
 scanty means, and was about to give up in despair when 
 Congress appropriated $30,000 for an experimental line, 
 which was opened on May 12, 1844, between Washington 
 and Baltimore. Prof. Morse died in 1872, but not before 
 he had reaped honors and fortune from his invention. 
 
 How rapidly does the electric current travel through the 
 wires I 
 From experiments made it appears to be about 15,400 
 miles in a second. 
 
 Can more than one message be sent at the same time on 
 the same wire ? 
 Yes ; it is possible now to send . several messages at the ' 
 same time. 
 
214 Ocean cable, 
 
 What is a Cable ? 
 
 It is a telegraph wire under water. Prof. Morse, in 1842, 
 laid a wire insulated by a covering of hemp coated with pitch- 
 tar and India-rubber between Governors Island and the Bat- 
 tery, New York. Several attempts were made in other countries. 
 What was the greatest telegraphic undertaking ? 
 
 That of connecting Europe with America by a submarine 
 cable spanning the ocean, which was commenced in 1857 and 
 completed August 5, 1858. 
 
 To whom do we owe this grand undertaking ? 
 
 This honor is entirely due to Mr. Cyrus W. Field. Mr. 
 Field was born at Stockbridge, Mass., on November 30th, 
 1819. In 1853 he became interested in ocean telegraphy, 
 and after many reverses succeeded in laying the first cable in 
 August, 1858. The message sent by Queen Victoria to the 
 President of the United States, consisting of 99 words, occu- 
 pied 67 minutes in transmitting. In September of the same 
 year this cable ceased to work, but the energy of Field re- 
 stored confidence, and another cable was made and laid down 
 in July, 1865, but after 1200 miles were deposited it was 
 lost. In 1866 another was made and successfully laid in 
 July. In August the lost cable was found and spliced, and 
 carried to the western shore. 
 
 What is a Dynamo-electric machine ? 
 
 A machine by which very powerful currents can be ob- 
 tained directly from mechanical power. In these, by means 
 of a steam-engine or other power, a number of coils of wire 
 called the armature are set into rapid revolution between the 
 poles of powerful electro-magnets. All currents are caused to 
 flow from the armature in one direction by means of a con- 
 trivance called the commutator. Very successful machines 
 of this sort are the Gramme machine, the Siemens, and, prin- 
 cipally, the so-called Brush machine. By these the electric 
 light is now generally produced. 
 
LIGHTNING ROD — GULF STREAM. 215 
 
 What is a Lightning Rod I 
 
 It is a rod of iron placed against a building to protect it 
 from lightning. Three or four feet of one end is in the 
 moist ground or in water, while several feet of the other end 
 extend above the highest part of the building. The upper 
 end of the rod is pointed with copper or some other metal 
 which will not easily corrode. 
 By whom was it invented \ 
 
 By Benjamin Franklin, and first announced by him in his 
 "Poor Richard's Almanac" for 1753. Franklin was born at 
 Boston, Mass., in 1706. By his talents, prudence, and hon- 
 esty he rose from humble beginnings to be one of the fore- 
 most men of his time. He was one of the committee of five 
 chosen by Congress to prepare the " Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence" which he with other patriots afterwards signed. 
 Towards the close of the year 1776 lie was sent as ambassa- 
 dor to the French Court, and remained in Europe some time. 
 He returned home in 1785, and died at Philadelphia on the 
 17th of April, 1790. 
 
 What is the Gulf Stream ? 
 
 It is a warm current in the Atlantic Ocean. 
 What is its origin .' 
 
 It may be considered as beginning on the w^est coast of 
 Africa, within the region of the trade winds. These cause a 
 westward flow, known as the equatorial current. On reach- 
 ing the coast of Brazil, the greater portion of this current 
 bends northward, carrying with it the waters of the Amazon 
 and Orinoco, and passes through the Caribbean Sea into the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Here it is further heated, and rushes out 
 through the only outlet, the Straits of Florida. 
 Describe its course. 
 
 Deep and narrow, it runs by Florida with a velocity vary- 
 ing from two to five miles an hour, and pressed by the cold 
 current between it and the shore, flows parallel to the coast 
 
216 GULF STREAM SUEZ CANAL. 
 
 as far as Cape Hatteras. Meeting shoals near this point, the 
 banks of sand extending as far as Newfoundland, it there 
 turns abruptly to the east, and with diminished speed and 
 increased width, rolls onward towards the coast of Europe. 
 Before long it divides into two great branches — the northern 
 and southern. The former extends as far as Spitsbergen ; the 
 latter, sweeping along by the Madeira and Canary Islands, 
 returns to the equator, completing the circuit. 
 
 What influence has the Gulf Stream on the climate of 
 Europe ? 
 
 Various opinions have been expressed as to this. It has 
 been estimated that the amount of heat arising from the 
 stream on a winter's day, is sufficient to raise the atmosphere 
 over the British Isles from the freezing point to a summer 
 temperature. 
 
 How may the Gulf Stream he distinguished \ 
 It can be distinctly traced in the ocean by its dark indigo 
 color, its temperature, and the swiftness of its waters. 
 
 Which is the largest tunnel in the world ? 
 The Mt. Cenis Tunnel, or the tunnel of Col de Frejus, 
 by both of which names it is known. It is the longest 
 subterranean route for commerce and travel yet con- 
 structed, being 7^ miles in length. It is on the crest 
 of the Cottian Alps, about 16 miles south-west of the 
 summit of Mt. Cenis Pass. It was begun in 1857, and 
 finished in 1871. 
 Col, a defile. 
 
 What other great engineering work can you men- 
 tion ? 
 The Suez Canal, a ship canal running across the Isthmus 
 of Suez, and connecting the Mediterranean with the Red 
 Sea. The canal is 100 miles in length, and through it an un- 
 interrupted communication is established whereby large sail- 
 ing vessels and steamers may pass from sea to sea, and thus 
 
SUEZ CANAL SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 21 7 
 
 avoid the long and dangerous voyage around the Cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 To whom is the world indebted for this canal ? 
 This great work owes its inception and completion to the 
 enterprise and indomitable energy of Ferdinand de Lesseps, 
 who was born at A^ersailles, France, on the 19th November, 
 1805. In January, 1856, he obtained a charter from the 
 Egyptian Government for a company to construct the canal, 
 and began work in 1859. Though beset by many difficul- 
 ties, the persistent energy of De Lesseps fought its way to 
 success, and in 1869 he had the satisfaction of seeing the 
 waters of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea mingle in the 
 Bitter Lakes. He has since been engaged in many engi- 
 neering projects, the latest being a canal across the Isthmus 
 of Panama to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 
 
 Inception, beginning. Indomitable, not to be subdued. Persis- 
 tent, inclined to hold firm. 
 
 What is a Suspension Bridge ? 
 
 A bridge supported by wires, ropes, or chains, which 
 usually pass over high piers or columns at each end, and are 
 secured in the ground below. 
 
 Name some of the largest bridges of this kind. 
 
 That at Niagara, those over the Allegheny at Pittsburg and 
 the Ohio at Cincinnati, and the great East River bridge, 
 which connects New York and Brooklyn. 
 Who planned these bridges ? 
 
 John A. Roebling, who was born at Mulhausen, Prussia, 
 June 12, 1806. In 1831 he emigrated to this country, and 
 to his genius we are indebted for the bridges above named. 
 The reports, plans, and specifications of the East River bridge 
 were completed, and the work begun, when Roebling was 
 severely injured in the foot while directing his work. Lock- 
 jaw succeeding amputation, he died in Brooklyn, July 22, 
 1669, 
 
218 EMINENT AMERICANS. 
 
 To what great Civil Engineer has the West given birth? 
 
 James B. Eads. Born at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, May 28, 
 1820, he began life as a clerk on a Mississippi river steam- 
 boat. In 1842 he entered a firm engaged in recovering 
 sunken property, and with such success that he retired with 
 a fortune in 1857. During the civil war he devised a plan 
 for the defence of the Western waters, and constructed sev- 
 eral iron gun-boats with many novel features of his own in- 
 vention. He has since acquired reputation as projecting and 
 constructing engineer of the Illinois and St. Louis bridge, 
 and by building jetties at the South Pass of the Mississippi, 
 by which the depth of the river is increased, and it is made 
 more navigable. These jetties are projecting dikes of brush, 
 fascines, and stone. 
 
 Fascines, bundles of rods or of small sticks of wood, bound at both 
 ends and at intermediate points, used in filling ditches, etc. 
 
 Give the names of some distinguished American in- 
 ventors. 
 
 Eli Whitney, the inventor of the Cotton Gin, born in 
 Westborough, Mass., 1765; died 1825. Jethro Wood, the 
 inventor of the modern cast-iron plow, born at White Creek, 
 N. Y., 1774; died 1834. Cyrus H. McCormick, inventor of 
 the mowing machine, born at Walnut Grove, Virginia, in 1809. 
 
 Who was the inventor of the Sewing Machine ? 
 Elias Howe. He was born at Spencer, Mass., July 9, 1819. 
 When a boy he worked in a cotton mill at Lowell, but after- 
 wards entered a machine shop in Boston. Here he conceived 
 the idea of the sewing machine, and after long days of labor, 
 part of which time he and his family lived on the kindness 
 of a friend, he completed his invention. After many strug- 
 gles, his talent, industry, and perseverance were rewarded, 
 and long before his death, which occurred in October, 1867, 
 he had acquired a large fortune. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abyssinia Page 142 
 
 Adhesion 201 
 
 Affinity, Chemical 197, 199 
 
 Air 17 
 
 , fixed 112 
 
 Albert Durer 130 
 
 Alchemy 194 
 
 Alcohol 137 
 
 Alexander . 161 
 
 Alexandria 168 
 
 Allspice or Pimento 51 
 
 Alluvial formations 152 
 
 Almonds 61 
 
 Alphabet, invention of 43 
 
 Alum 74 
 
 Alumina 154 
 
 Amalgam 20 
 
 Amber ... 18 
 
 Ambergris 66 
 
 Analysis and Combination. 195 
 
 Anemometer 206 
 
 Angelo, Michael 162 
 
 Anno Domini 35 
 
 Apelles 182 
 
 Apollo 178 
 
 Arabic, gum 94 
 
 Arabia, Felix and Deserta. 72 
 
 Archipelago 32 
 
 Architecture 156 
 
 , orders of 159, 160 
 
 Argil 154 
 
 Armenia 67 
 
 Arrow-root 134 
 
 Arsenic 126 
 
 Artesian Wells 203 
 
 Arts 190 
 
 , liberal 190 
 
 , fine 191 
 
 , mechanical 191 
 
 Art of writing 191 
 
 Asbestus 76, 78 
 
 Astronomy, science of . . . , 187 
 
 Athenians 23 
 
 Atmosphere 17 
 
 Attraction 201 
 
 Audiphone 204 
 
 Aurora, the. . . , f . . 21 
 
 Aurora Borealis 22 
 
 Australia 31 
 
 Author 54 
 
 Azores, islands of 62 
 
 Azote gas 113 
 
 Babel, tower of 144 
 
 Babylon 145 
 
 Bacon, Roger 99 
 
 Baize 32 
 
 Barbarians 170, 183 
 
 Barilla or Soda 105 
 
 Bark 35 
 
 , Peruvian 36 
 
 Barley 24 
 
 sugar 49 
 
 Barometer 96 
 
 , Aneroid 203 
 
 Barrel organ 179 
 
 Bathometer 206 
 
 Beaver 70, 71,74 
 
 Bell, A. G 204 
 
 Blacklead 122 
 
 Blowpipe 208 
 
 Bodies, natural. 197 
 
 Bombazine _40 
 
 Books first printed '59 
 
 Books, of what made 37, 57 
 
 Bottles 54 
 
 Box, musical 179 
 
 Brandy 137 
 
 Brass 84 
 
 Bread-fruit 86 
 
 Bricks 144 
 
 Butter, vegetable 87 
 
 tree 87 
 
 Cable 214 
 
 Cacao-nut tree 27 
 
 Cadmus 43 
 
 Calaminaris, Lapis 84 
 
 Calcareous rocks 150 
 
 Calico 28 
 
 Caloric 14, 114 
 
 Calomel 97 
 
 Cam bray 41 
 
 Cambric 41 
 
 Camera Obscura 209 
 
 Camlet 41 
 
 (219) 
 
220 
 
 I^DEX. 
 
 Camphor 140 
 
 Candles 106 
 
 Candy, Sugar 49 
 
 Cannon 100 
 
 Canoe 36 
 
 Cantaleup 67 
 
 Canvas 33 
 
 Caoutchouc 107 
 
 Capers 61 
 
 Carbon 112 
 
 Carbonic acid 112 
 
 Carmine 138 
 
 Carpets 32 
 
 Carthage 164 
 
 Cashmere shawls 46 
 
 Cassia 40 
 
 Castor or beaver 70 
 
 Castor oil 66 
 
 Cat, civet 141 
 
 , domestic, singular 
 
 property of its far 19 
 
 gut 179 
 
 Caviare .... 135 
 
 Cayenne pepper 53 
 
 Chaldea 187 
 
 Chalk 115 
 
 Charcoal 81 
 
 Chemistry .193—200 
 
 Cherry-tree 35 
 
 Chinese or India ink. . ... 76 
 
 China orange 62 
 
 Chocolate 27 i 
 
 Chronometer 206 ; 
 
 Chrysalis 42 j 
 
 Cider 136 
 
 Cinnamon 39 j 
 
 Citrons 62 \ 
 
 Clay or argil 154 j 
 
 Clocks.: 98 i 
 
 Cloth 29 ! 
 
 Cloves 38, 39 ! 
 
 Coal 81 | 
 
 Cochineal 37, 38, 138 j 
 
 Cocoa-nut tree 34 ; 
 
 Coffee.. 26 
 
 Cohesion 201 
 
 Coin 165 
 
 Combustion 113 
 
 Compass, Mariners' 95 
 
 Commerce 170 
 
 Constellations 188 
 
 Consul, Roman 147 
 
 Copernicus 189 
 
 Copper ..... 83 
 
 Copperas 75 
 
 Coral 109—112 
 
 Cork 37 
 
 Corn 23 
 
 Cotton 28 
 
 gins 29 
 
 Cow-tree 88 
 
 Crape 40 
 
 Cretans 23 
 
 Crimson 138 
 
 Crusades.... 172, 173 
 
 Crystallization 14 
 
 Currants 46 
 
 C}'rus 146 
 
 Damask 34 
 
 Dates 68, 69 
 
 Decomposition 196 
 
 Deluge 191 
 
 Dew 13, 14 
 
 Diamond 127 
 
 Diaper 33 
 
 Distillation, process of 137 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis 92 
 
 Dyeing, things used in 138 
 
 Dynamite 100 
 
 Dynamo- electric machine. . 214 
 
 Eads, Jas. B 218 
 
 Earths 151 
 
 , argillaceous. 152 
 
 , calcareous 150 
 
 , silicious 152 
 
 Earthenware 55 
 
 Earthquakes 155 
 
 Ear-trumpet 204 
 
 Ebony 132 
 
 Edison, Thos. A 205 
 
 Egyptian Pyramids 158 
 
 Egyptians.. ( 23 
 
 Electrical machine' 19 
 
 properties in bodies. . 19 
 
 Electricity 18, 210 
 
 Electric Battery 211 
 
 Current... 210 
 
 Electro Magnet 104 
 
 Magnetic Teleg'ph. 104, 213 
 
 Electron 18 
 
IKDEX. 
 
 221 
 
 Electrotyping 212 
 
 Elephant 133 
 
 Emerald , . 129 
 
 Engraving 130 
 
 Ermine 73 
 
 Etruscans 182 
 
 Evergreen 65 
 
 Fermentation, acetous.... 138 
 
 , vinous 138 
 
 Ferro 88 
 
 Field, Cyrus W 214 
 
 Figs 48 
 
 Fine arts 191 
 
 Fitch, John 103 
 
 Flannel 34 
 
 Flax 33 
 
 Flint 153 
 
 Floating 202 
 
 Florence 64 
 
 Fossil or rock salt 78 
 
 Franks 170 
 
 Frankincense , . , 142 
 
 Franklin, Benj 215 
 
 Fulton, Robert 103 
 
 Fur 73 
 
 Galileo 101, 189 
 
 Galls 75 
 
 Gamboge 139 
 
 Gas 114 
 
 , hydrogen 114 
 
 , nitrogen or azote 113 
 
 , oxygen 113 
 
 Gelatine 135 
 
 Gems 127 
 
 Genoa 63, 172 
 
 Geologist 151 
 
 Geology 151 
 
 Geometry 102 
 
 Gin 137 
 
 Ginger 50 
 
 Glass 53 
 
 house 54 
 
 windows 54 
 
 , looking. . . . 55 
 
 Gloves 73 
 
 Goat, Angora 41 
 
 Gold 118 
 
 Goths 170 
 
 Granite 148, 149 
 
 Gravitation 201 
 
 Gravity 202 
 
 Gray, Elisha 205 
 
 Gulf Stream 215 
 
 Gum 93 
 
 arabic 94 
 
 Gunpowder 99, 100 
 
 Guns 100 
 
 Hail 16 
 
 Harp 176 
 
 Hats 70 
 
 Hemp 33 
 
 Herculaneum 154 
 
 Hermetic Seal 96 
 
 Herschel, Sir William. .... 190 
 
 Hieroglyphics 191 
 
 Holland 33 
 
 Honey 136 
 
 Hops 137 
 
 Howe, Elias. 218 
 
 Hybla 136 
 
 Hydrogen 114 
 
 Hymettus 136 
 
 Ice 15 
 
 Idria, quicksilver mines of 97 
 
 India rubber 107 
 
 or Chinese ink 76 
 
 Indigo 138 
 
 Ink 74 
 
 used by the ancients. . 75 
 
 Inlaying 132 
 
 Insect, coral 109 — 111 
 
 Ionians 60 
 
 Iron 82 
 
 Isinglass 132 
 
 Islands, Volcanic 155 
 
 Ivory , 135 
 
 Jaca tree 87 
 
 Japanese 181 
 
 Jetties of the Mississippi. . 218 
 
 Jupiter 148 
 
 Kaleidoscope 210 
 
 Kiln 73 
 
 Lace 41 
 
 Lapis calaminaris 84 
 
 Laudanum 91 
 
 Laws, How made 148 
 
 Lead 121 
 
 , black 122 
 
 Leather 72 
 
 Legislative Powers 147 
 
222 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lemon 62 
 
 Lenses 95 
 
 Leo the Tenth 184 
 
 Lesseps, Ferd. de 217 
 
 Levant 75 
 
 Libanus, Mount 90 
 
 Licorice 89 
 
 Light - 207 
 
 : , Drummond 207 
 
 , Electric 208, 211 
 
 , Lime 207 
 
 , Magnesium 208 
 
 Lightning 17 
 
 Rod 215 
 
 Lime, a fruit 63 
 
 Lime, an earth ... 73, 112 
 
 , quick. . . 150 
 
 Linen 32 
 
 Liquids 197, 198 
 
 Lithography 131 
 
 Loadstone. 95 
 
 Logwood 139 
 
 Lombards 170 
 
 Lucca 64 
 
 Lucullus 35 
 
 Lungs 89 
 
 Lyre 178 
 
 McCormick, Cyrus IT 218 
 
 Mace 51 
 
 Magic , 99 
 
 Mahogany 107 
 
 Malt.. 137 
 
 Maltese orange 62 
 
 Mangoes 85 
 
 Manioc plant 134 
 
 Manna ,89, 90 
 
 Marble 116 
 
 , Parian 117 
 
 Mariners' compass 95 
 
 Marine salt 78 
 
 Marl 101 
 
 Mathematics 101 
 
 Mead 136 
 
 Mechanics 102 
 
 Mediterranean 171 
 
 Megaphone 206 
 
 Melons 67 
 
 Mercury 97 
 
 , the god 178 
 
 Metals, primitive 83 
 
 Metallurgy 123 
 
 Microphone 205 
 
 Microscope 102 
 
 Milan 40 
 
 Millet 50 
 
 Mineral oil 65 
 
 tar 140 
 
 Mines 84 
 
 , coal. 81 
 
 Mint 166 
 
 Mirrors 54, 55 
 
 Mohair 46 
 
 Mahomed 72 
 
 Money 163 
 
 Morphia 91 
 
 Mortar 148 
 
 Morse, S. F. B. . . . 213 
 
 Mosque 72 
 
 Mother-of-pearl 132 
 
 Mt. Cenis Tunnel 216 
 
 Muscles 21 
 
 Music, vocal 176 
 
 Musical instruments 174 
 
 boxes 179 
 
 Musk 141 
 
 Myrrh 141 
 
 Nantes, Edict of 45 
 
 Natron 105 
 
 Nature, kingdom of 197 
 
 Navigation. 166—174 
 
 Nabuchodonosor 146 
 
 Needles 57 
 
 Nero 185 
 
 New South Wales 31 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac 189 
 
 Nicotine 92 
 
 Nitre 100 
 
 Nitrogen 113 
 
 Northern Lights 22 
 
 Nutmegs 50 
 
 Oats 24 
 
 Obelisk 158 
 
 Oils 65 
 
 Oil, olive 64 
 
 Oil, castor 66 
 
 , mineral 65 
 
 Olives 63, 64 
 
 Olive branch the emblem 
 
 of Plenty 64 
 
 Opium 91 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 523 
 
 Orange 61 
 
 Ore 83 
 
 Organ, barrel 179 
 
 Oxide ... 83 
 
 Oxygen 1 13 
 
 Painters, celebrated 184 
 
 Painting, art of 180 
 
 Palm 68, 69 
 
 Palma Christi 66, 67 
 
 Pantheon 146 
 
 Paper, invention of 57 
 
 mill.... 58 
 
 , linen 58 
 
 Papyrus 58 
 
 Parchment 59 
 
 Pearls 131 
 
 Pearl oyster 131 
 
 barley 24 
 
 Pendulum 98 
 
 Pepper 52 
 
 , cayenne 53 
 
 Pericles 159 
 
 Perry 136 
 
 Petroleum 65 
 
 Phenicia . 54 
 
 Philosopher's stone. . . 194, 195 
 
 Phonograph 205 
 
 Phosphorus 125 
 
 Photography 209 
 
 Pins 57 
 
 Pimento 51 
 
 Pisa... 172 
 
 Pitch 140 
 
 Platina . 123 
 
 Pliny. ......... 54, 182 
 
 Plumbago 122 
 
 Poetry 185—187 
 
 Poets, celebrated 186 
 
 Polypus 108 
 
 Pompeii 154 
 
 Porcelain 56 
 
 Potash 53 
 
 Potatoes 24 
 
 Primitive Earths 153 
 
 Printing 59 
 
 Prism 208 
 
 Protestant 58 
 
 Ptolemies 189 
 
 Pyramid 158 
 
 Pythagoras 188 
 
 Quicksilver 97 
 
 Rabbins 55 
 
 Rain 16 
 
 Rainbow 208 
 
 Raisins 47 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter 92 
 
 Raphael 183, 184 
 
 Refugee ,58 
 
 Republic 65 
 
 Resin, gum 93 
 
 Rhubarb 94 
 
 Rice ... . 48 
 
 Rock or fossil salt 78 
 
 , calcaroous 150 
 
 — — , transition 151 
 
 Roeblinar, John A. 217 
 
 Rubies 128 
 
 Rum 137 
 
 Rye 24 
 
 Sable 74 
 
 Sago 49 
 
 palm 50 
 
 Salt 78, 79 
 
 , marine 78 
 
 , rock 78 
 
 , spring 79 
 
 Saltpetre 100 
 
 Saracens 168 
 
 Scarlet 138 
 
 Schools of painting 184 
 
 Sciences, Arts and 190 
 
 Sculpture 160 
 
 Seal, an animal. 74 ' 
 
 Senate 147 
 
 Sesostris 177 
 
 Seville orange 62 
 
 Shoes 72 
 
 Sicilians 23 
 
 Sidon 167 
 
 Silex 153 
 
 Silicious earths 152 
 
 Silk 41, 45 
 
 worm 42-43 
 
 Silver... 119 
 
 Slate 149 
 
 Snow 16 
 
 Soap . ... 105 
 
 Soda 105 
 
 Specific Weight 202 
 
 Spectacles 94 
 
224 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Spectrum 208 
 
 Spermaceti 106 
 
 Spinning-jenny 30 
 
 Spirits of wine 137 
 
 Sponge 108 
 
 Starch 133 
 
 Steam engine 102 
 
 navigation 103 
 
 Steel 150 
 
 Stethoscope 204 
 
 Stereoscope 209 
 
 Stereotyping 212 
 
 Still 137 
 
 Stockings 71 
 
 Strata ; 151 
 
 Suez Canal 216 
 
 Sugar 48 
 
 candy 49 
 
 , barley 49 
 
 — — , maple 49 
 
 Sulphur... 124 
 
 Sumatra 66 
 
 Suspension Bridges 217 
 
 Tallow 106 
 
 tree 106 
 
 Tamarinds 67 
 
 Tan 73 
 
 Tapioca , 134 
 
 Tar 139 
 
 Tasimeter 206 
 
 Tasmania 31 
 
 Tea 25 
 
 Telegraph 104, 213 
 
 Telephone 204 
 
 Telescope 101 
 
 Thebes 43 
 
 Thermometer 97 
 
 Thermo Electricity 211 
 
 Thibet Goat 46 
 
 Thunder 17 
 
 Tides 201 
 
 Tin 120 
 
 Tobacco 91 
 
 Toddy 34 
 
 Tortoise 178 
 
 Tower, leaning of Pisa 172 
 
 Troy 177 
 
 Turpentine 143 
 
 Turquois 129 
 
 Tuscans 182 
 
 Twilight 21 
 
 Tyre 167 
 
 United States Government. 147 
 
 Vapor 14 
 
 Vellum 60 
 
 Velvet 45 
 
 Venice 171 
 
 Venus 171 
 
 Vine 136 
 
 Vinegar 138 
 
 Vitriol 75 
 
 Volcanic formations 152 
 
 Volcano 154 
 
 Vulcanite 108 
 
 Watches 98 
 
 Water 14 
 
 melon 67 
 
 , decomposition of by 
 
 vegetables 15 
 
 tree 88 
 
 Wax 106 
 
 Weaving 30-32 
 
 Whale 66 
 
 Whitney, Eli 218 
 
 Wieliczca 80 
 
 Wind 17 
 
 Windows 54 
 
 Wine 136 
 
 Woad. 139 
 
 Wood, Jethro 218 
 
 Wood engraving 130 
 
 Wool 29-31 
 
 Writing, art of 191 
 
 Yams 85 
 
 Zinc 84 
 
 Zoophytes 108 
 
 THE END.