fm> ■ 1' *h • . .■..M.Jw'I'Si'!' !>'■': ?:!^!' lis i|ii! i')^ ' «i!ilihl : ill ' i lis U^ii'iHt ^' .V •^ !- ^ * /• O , ^ * \\^^ . ^- •^oo\* .^:^ ^^. '^ ,a^ ,v *S £> -i - V' o' , <\ ^ « X -^ ' -? 'P ^\ . \^ s ' ' / ^-\ ^> \ ^ ft •/•- ■ « 1 ' '^^ .\^' ^^'' ■^^. ■^b^v ,^V EPITOME OF AI^CIEl^T, MEDIEVAL, AKD MODEEN^ HISTORY BY CARL PLOETZ TRANSLATED AND ENLARGED BY WILLIAM H. TILLINGHAST WITH ADDITIONS COVERING RECENT EVENTS BOSTON, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 1905 OCT 23 r905 ill Pi 5 COPYRIGHT 1883 AND 1905 BY WILLIAM HOPKINS TILLINGHAST ALL RIGHTS RESERVED TWENTY-FOURTH IMPRESSION PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. In the present edition the record of events is brought down from the close of 1882, where it ceased in the original publication (1884), to the close of 1903. This continuation is mainly the work of Mr. David M. Matteson, to whom the editor is likewise indebted for the general supervision of the new issue. The genealogical tables have been brought down to date, and cross references inserted to connect the appendix with the sections of the earlier work. The index to the new material is at the end of the original one. The editor heartily thanks those readers who have notified him of errors in the book. All discovered errors have now been corrected, and it is hoped that any which have escaped detection will be made known by whoever may find them. June, 1905. TABLE OF CONTENTS. #*# Sections marked with an * have been added by the translator ; those marked with a t have been considerably enlarged or changed by the translator. PAQI Introduction. ix t Divisions of universal history 1 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. Hamitic. 1. Egyptians ....^ 2 Semitic. 2. Jews (Hebrews, Israelites) .... • • 7 3. Babylonians and Assyrians . . . • • • .12 4. Phoenicians and Carthaginians ...... 16 5. Xiydians. ^Phrygians 20 Aryan. t 6. Indians 22 7. Bactrians, Medes, Persians 24 Turanian. * 8. Farthiana 29 * 9. Chinese <> . .- 30 * 10. Japanese 32 B. WESTERN PEOPLES. Aryans. * 1. Celts 34 a. Continental Celts. Gauls 34 b. Celts of the British Isles 36 Britain 36 Ireland 38 3. Grecian history . 39 Geographical survey' of ancient Greece 39 * Religion of the Greeks 41 First Period (x— 1104). M\-thical Period .... 43 Second Period (1104-500). To the beginning of the Persian Wars 47 Third Period (500-338). To the battle of Chaeronea . . 56 Fourth Period (338-146). Graeco - Macedonian or Hellenistic Period 73 iv ^^^^^V Table of Contents, PAQX 3. Boman history 81 Geographical survey of ancient Italy 81 * Religion of the ancient Romans ...... 84 Ethnographical sketch of Italj'^ 85 First Period (x — 510). Mythical epoch of the kings . . 87 Second Period (510-264). To the beginning of the Punic Wars . 93 Third Period (264-146). Epoch of the Punic Wars . . 109 Fourth Period (146-31). Epoch of the Civil Wars . . .123 Fifth Period (31 b. C.-476 A. D.). The Roman emperors to the fall of the Western Empire 147 « 4. Teutons 162 * 5. Slavs and Ijithuanians 168 n. MEDIffiVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (375-843.) 1. Migrations of the Northern Tribes 170 * 2. Teutonic kingdoms in Britain (449-828) .... 176 3. The Franks under the Merovingians 181 4. Mohammed and the Caliphate 182 5. The Franks under the Carolingians 183 * 6. New Persian empire of the Sassanidee . . . . . 187 SECOND PERIOD. (843-1096.) 1. Italy and Germany (Carolingian, Saxon, Franconian or Salian em- perors) 193 t 2. France (Carolingians and early Capetians) 201 t 3. England (West Saxon kings) 203 * 4. The North. Denmark 207 Sweden, Norway ....... 208 5. Spanish Peninsula 209 6. The East. Eastern Empire 210 * India 210 * China 211 * Japan 212 THIRD PERIOD. (1096-1270.) 1. Crusades ............ 213 2. Germany and Italy 218 t 3. France 226 t 4. England . 229 * 5. The North. Denmark 235 Sweden 237 Norway . 238 6. Spanish Peninsula 240 7. The East. Eastern Empire. The Mongols 240 * India. * China 241 * Japan 243 Table of Contents, v PAGE FOURTH PERIOD. (1270-1492.) 1. Germany to Maximilian I. 244 Origin of the Swiss Confederacy 245 Leagues of the cities 249 t 2. France to Charles VIH 254 3. Italy 262 t 4. England to Henry VH 263 5. Spanish Peninsula 275 6. The North and East. Scandinavia. Russia .... 276 Poland, Prussia, Hungary . . . 277 Turks, Mongols, Eastern Empire ) o-j. * China. * Japan ) in. MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (1492-1648.) 1. Inventions, discoveries, and colonies 279 * 2. America. Discovery 280 a. English colonies : South Virginia 291 Plymouth Company .... 293 h. Dutch colonies . 298 c. Swedish colonies 298 d. New France and the Arctic region 299 3. Germany to the Thirty Tears' "War. Beformation . . 300 4. Thirty Years' War 308 1. Bohemian Period, 1618-1623 308 2. Danish " 1625-1629 310 3. Swedish *' 1630-1635 311 4. French " 1635-1648 314 t 5. France 318 6. Italy 326 7. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands .... 328 t The Netherlands 328 * 8. England and Scotland . . 333 9. The North and East 351 Sweden, Denmark and Norway, Poland, Russia . , . 352 Turks. * India 353 * China 354 * Japan 355 SECOND PERIOD. (1648-1789.) A. THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. * 1. America. British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies . . . 357 French settlements and discoveries .... 363 t 2. France under Louis XIV 365 3. Germany under Iieopold 1 371 4. The North and East. Sweden . 373 Denmark, Poland, Russia .... 374 ?i Table of Contents, PAQl * 5. England 375 * 6. India 389 * 7. China • . 390 B. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. L The War of the Spanish Succession 390 2. The Northern \^ ar 394 3. Germany to the Kevolution of 1789 397 4. The North. Denmark (Norway), Sweden . . . . . 409 Russia, Poland 410 6. Spain and Portugal 414 6. Italy. Savoy, Genoa, Venice 415 (Tuscany, Papal States) Two Sicilies .... 416 * 7. America. British colonies 417 War of Independence 426 * 8. Great Britain 433 * 9. The East. India . 442 The British in India 443 China 444 Japan 445 t 10. France to the Kevolution of 1789 445 THIRD PERIOD. (1789-1815.) First French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars . . . 447 Causes of the Revolution 448 Constituent assembly 449 Legislative assembly 45I War of the First Coalition. National Convention . , . 452 Directory 457 War of the Second Coalition 460 The Consulate 461 First French Empire . , . 465 War of the Third Coalition 467 (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia 468 Peninsula War 471 (Fifth) War with Austria 47I (Sixth) War with Russia 474 The War of Liberation 475 Congress of Vienna 482 The Hundred Days (War of 1815) 483 FOURTH PERIOD. (1815-x.) 1. Inventions. Steam Engines. Steam Navigation. Railroads. Tele- graph 485 2. Continental Europe 487 War of Grecian Independence ..*.... 488 Revolution in Belgium . 489 Revolution in Poland 490 Eevolt of Mehemet All . 49J Table of Contents. vii PAGE Civil war in Switzerland 492 Confusion in Germany; attempts at union .... 492 Revolt of the Hungarians 494 Crimean War 499 Kingdom of Italy 503 War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark .... 505 Austro-Prussian War 507 Austro-Italian War 510 North German Confederation . . . . . . . 511 Franco-German War 513 German Empire 519 Turco-Russian War 522 Congress of Berlin . . '. 524 t 3. France (1815-1882) . 526 July Revolution of 1830 529 February Revolution of 1848. Second Republic . . . 530 Second Empire 531 Third Republic ..." 532 * 4. Great Britain 1(1783-1882) 535 The British in India (1785-1836) 541 Great Britain (1837-1882) 542 The British in India (1836-1882) 546 * 5. The United States of America 1(1789-1883) . . . .547 War of 1812 551 War with Mexico 554 The Civil War 557 * 6. China (1796-1882) 560 * 7. Vapan (1787-1882) 562 Restoration of the Mikado ........ 563 APPENDIX. (1883— X.) * 8. Great Britain 2 (1883— x) 565 South African War 570 » 9. Continental Europe 2 (1883— x) 573 Armenian Massacres 579 Creton Revolt and Turco-Greek War 581 Dreyfus Affair 582 * 10. United States 2 (1883— x) 586 Spanish War 590 Philippine Insurrection 592 * 11. Asia 2 (1883— x) 594 Chinese-Japanese War 595 Boxer Rising 597 Russo-Japanese Crisis 599 * Index 601 1 Contributed by Edward Channing, Ph. D. ' Contributed in part by D. M. Matteson. INTEODUCTION. Prof. Dr. Carl Ploetz, well known in Germany as a veteran teacher, is the author of a number of educational works having a high reputation, among which none has better approved its usefulness than the " Epitome of Universal History." i The admitted excellence of the book renders an apology for its translation unnecessary, but an extract from the author's preface respecting the nature and purpose of the work may not be out of place. "The present 'Epitome,' which now appears in a seventh edition, enlarged and improved, is intended, in the first place, for use hy the upper classes in higher educational institutions, as a guide or handbook m the historical class- room. The handy arrangement of the book and the elaborate index are in- tended to adapt it for private use, and to facilitate rapid acquisition of informa- tion concerning historical matters which have, for the moment, escaped the memory. " I have endeavored to give everywhere the assured results of recent histor- ical investigation, adding, as far as possible, references to mj' authorities. " The exposition of ancient history is based upon the works of Duncker, Curtius, Mommsen, and Peter. "Mediaeval history, which was treated somewhat too briefly in the earlier editions, has been made proportionately fall since the fourth, and has been, moreover, enlarged, as has modern history, by the addition of a number oi genealogical tables. "In modern history the treaties of peace have been brought into especial prominence, and the principal conditions of the great treaties, through which alone one can get an msight into the historical formation of the present system of European states, have been stated with all possible accuracy. "Recent history has been brought down to the present day. The purpose and the compass of the book alike permitted nothing more than a compressed narrative of facts, as far as possible, free from the expression of personal opin- ion. This limitation of itself excludes the possibility of offending, whether in a religious or a political sense. " All are probably now agreed that it is unadvisable for scholars to write out the lecture of the instructor in full, which, how^ever, should not prevent them from taking notes here and there. No one denies the necessity of a guide as a basis for instruction ; but widely differing ideas prevail concerning the arrange- ment and extent of such a work. " The author of this 'Epitome,' who was for a number of years historical in- structor of the first and second classes in the French Gymnasium at Berlin, holds the opinion that even the best handbook can in no way take the place of an animated lecture, and that any guide which gives a connected narrative in 1 Auszug aus der alten, mittleren und neueren Geschichte von Karl Ploetz. Siebente verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage, Berlin. A. G. Ploetz, 1880. The preparation of this edition was confided to Prof. Dr. O. Meltzer, author of Geschichte der Karihager, i. 1880. X Introduction, some detail necessarily detracts from the value of the teacher's lecture, if in the hands of the pupils in the class-room. " 1 am persuaded that such a work should place before the pupil facts only, in the wider sense of the word, and these grouped in the most comprehensive man- ner. The task of animating these facts by oral exposition ought to be left to the instructor." The translator has enlarged the book in no small degree, with the hope of increasing its general usefulness, and of giving it especial value in this country. Under ancient history an attempt has been made to bring the ethnographical relations of the early peoples into prominence ; but believing that the uncertainty of our knowledge in this respect can hardly be dwelt upon too strongly, the translator has tried to speak guardedly. Even the Indo-European family is far from being satis- factorily understood; the details of the relationship of its constituent groups are not clear ; the theory of a primitive Asiatic home and a wave-like series of westward migrations is but one, though perhaps the best, among many speculations. Recent text-books have delighted us with minutely ramified tables of Indo-European relationships, show- ing, with close approximation, when each group left the parent stock, each tribe the common group ; this, though harmless as speculation, is dangerous if taken for knowledge .^ The speculations in regard to the early inhabitants of the British Isles should be received with like caution. Their provisional accept- ance, however, is so useful as to justify their insertion. The mythical history of England, Ireland, and Scandinavia has been deemed worthy to stand beside that of Greece and Rome. The undoubted historical value of many of these traditions and the part which they play in general literature will explain the presence of even the distinctly fabulous tales. The distinction between myth, a theoretical explanation of myths, and tolerably trustworthy history has been kept constantly in view. The history of certain countries, as China, Japan, Parthia and Per- sia under the Sassanidse, which the stricter limits of the German work had caused the author to omit, has been added ; in the cases of India, the Scandinavian monarchies before 1387, and France, the meagre account in the original has undergone considerable amplifica- tion. The greatest changes, however, will be found in the history of Eng- 1 " We must content ourselves, for the present, with the recognition of a fundamental primitive community of Indo-European languages, and refrain from dividing these languages into groups (except in the case of the Indo-Ira- nian tongues). Especially is this true of the unity of the Greeks and Italians, so often taken for granted. It cannot be said that this unity did not once exist, but neither can it be asserted that its existence is demonstrable. Whether or not the future will succeed in reaching more certain results remains to be seen ; until such results are reached historians will do well to refrain from making use of such groups of languages and of tribes as the Grseco-Italian and the Slavo-Ger- man." (B. Delbriick, Einleitvng in das Sprachstudium^ Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, 1880.) Not all philologists will agree upon this point, — upon what point do all philologists agree ? — and the archaeologists have something to say upon the matter; the words just quoted are, nevertheless, worthy of consid- eration. Introduction. xi land and in that of America, which have been rewritten from the beginning with a fulhiess of detail proportional to that observed by the original in the history of Germany. In the additions nothing more than a compilation from reliable, but easily accessible, sources has been attempted. A few notes have been iaserted and a few dates and facts interpolated in the text of the original, but these changes have been duly attributed to the transla- tor, either directly or by the use of brackets, where they seemed of sufficient importance. Absolute accuracy cannot be looked for in a work dealing with so vast a number of dates and covering so wide a range in time ; the translator, however, in the sections for which he is responsible, has endeavored to verify each date by reference to independent authori- ties. He will be grateful to all who will take the trouble to inform him of errors that have escaped his notice. That the proportion ob- served in the space allotted to different countries and epochs is open to criticism, the translator is well aware ; the fault is due in part to the plan adopted by him of sending the earlier portions of the book to press before the later were finished, in the vain hope of hastening its completion. Except in the case of the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, where much of the minute descriptive detail has been omitted, no attempt has been made to condense the original. Various circumstances have delayed the appearance of the book much beyond the time for which it was announced ; that it is at last ready is due to the kindness of Dr. Edward C banning, of Harvard College, who took upon himself the preparation of those sections which contain the history of Great Britain and her colonies from 1784 to 1883, and that of the United States from 1789 to 1883. The thanks of the translator are also due to Professor H. W. Torrey, of Harvard College, for the loan of material of which free use has been made for English history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and for French history in the nineteenth century ; and to Mr. Justin Winsor, Librarian of the University, for the free use of books. To Dr. R. H. Labberton and to Messrs. E. Claxton & Co. of Phila- delphia, the translator is indebted for courteous permission to use certain genealogical tables in Dr. Labberton's exceedingly useful " Outlines of History." ^ The distinguishing feature of the " Epitome " is the arrangement whereby a brief connected narrative is accompanied by a clear, well- graduated chronology which emphasizes the sequence of events with- out breaking up the story or fatiguing the mind. An attempt has been made, by the use of italics and two sizes of black type, to mark and distinguish events according to their relative importance, and also to relieve the page ; while, with the latter object in view, the use of capitals has been as far as possible dispensed with, although the manner of printing the book has prevented consistency in this 1 Labberton, R. H., Outlines of History, with original tables, chronological, genealogical, and literarv. Thirteenth edition. Philadelphia, E. Claxton & Co., 1883. Text and Historical Atlas. The tables used are II., III., XVI., which appear on pages 2G5, 256, 332, of the present work. xii Introduction. respect. Especial care has been devoted to the index, which has been made very full, in order that the book might serve as a historical dictionary, as well as a chronology. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. A GENERAL VIEW OF ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS. X B. c. — 375 A. D. I. Ancient history, from the begin- ning of historical information to the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes. 375 — 1492. !!• Mediaeval history, from the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes to the discovery of America. 1492 — X. Ill- Modern history, from the discovery of America to the present time. Ancient history, treated ethnographically, falls into two great divi- sions : A. Eastern peoples : Egyptians (Hamitic) ; Jews, Babylonians, As- syrians, PhoBnicians, Lydians (^Semitic) ; Hindus, Bac- trians, Medes, Persians (Aryan) ; Parthians, Chinese, Japanese (Turanian f). B. Western Peoples: Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons (Aryan). Mediaeval history can be divided into four chronological periods: 375-843. 1. From the commencement of the migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Treaty of Verdun. 843-1096. 2. From the Treaty of Verdun to the begimiing of the Crusades. 1096-1270. 3. The epoch of the Crusades. 1270-1492. 4. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of America. Modern history can also be divided iato four periods : 1492-1648. 1. From the discovery of America to the Peace of V7estphalia. 1648-1789. 2. From the Peace of "Westphalia to the outbreak of the first French Revolution. 1789-1815. 3. From the outbreak of the first French Revolution to the Congress of Vienna. 1815-x. 4. From the Congress of Vienna to the present time. 1 Ancient History. b. c. I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. § 1. EGYPTIANS. Hamites. Geography : Egypt ^ (Kern, i. e. " black earth " in old Egyptian) is the valley of the Nile, which extends between two chains of low hiUs for 550 miles, with a breadth, above the Delta, of but a few miles. It is divided into Upper Egypt (Philce, Elephantine, Thebes or Dios- polis, called by Homer ^Kard^i-irvKos, the " hundred gated," a designa- tion which must refer to the entrances of temples and palaces, since the city had neither walls nor gates) and Lower Egypt {Memphis) in the Delta, Tanis, Bubastis, Naucrdtis, Sals ; west of the Delta, Canopus, now Aboukir; on the east, Pelusium; the latter cities stand- ing on what were, in ancient times, the largest mouths of the Nile). These divisions were originally, in all probability, independent coun- tries. They are not to be confounded with the separate principali- ties which became numerous at a later time. This division was com- memorated in the royal title of the kings of the united countries, " lords of the upper and lower country," " lords of the two crowns." Religion : Worship of personified forces of Nature and symbolical animal worship. In Memphis especial reverence paid to Ptah, the highest of the gods, the first creator ; in his temple stood the sacred bull Apis (Egypt. Api), also closely connected with Osiris. Ra,^ wor- shipped particularly in On or Heliopolis, represented the transmitting and preserving power of the godhead embodied in the sun. Khem, was the god of generation and growth. Keverence was also paid to the goddess Ne'ith, whose worship at Sais was considered by the Greeks to be identical with that of Athena, to the goddess Bast or Pacht (at Bubastis), and to the goddess of Buto, on one of the mouths of the Nile. At Thebes, cult of Ammon (Amun), the god of heaven, later united with Ra to form a single divinity. In Upper Egypt worship was paid to Mentu, the rising sun; Turn or Atmu, the setting sun; Chnum or Kneph, god of the overflow, always represented with a ram's head and double horns, and later becoming united with Ammon to form one divinity; and to the goddess Mut (i. e. " mother "). The educated classes recognized the various gods as personified attributes of the one Divinity. ^ See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. ^ According to Rosellini and Lopsius the title of Pharaoh is derived from this name, and means Son of the Sun. Ebers and Brugsch derive it from Fe-ra(o), the " great house." (Compare " Sublime Porte.") B. C. Egyptians. 3 Myth of Osiris, the creative force in Nature, who was killed and thrown into the sea by Set (Typhon), the destructive force in Nature (especially drought) ; sought after by his sorrowing consort Isis (the earth), he was avenged by their son Hows, who slew Set; restored to life, Osiris thenceforward ruled in the lower world (decay and resur- rection of the creative force in nature; immortality of the soul). Con- joined with Horos, the goddess Hathor, considered by the Greeks to be the same as Aphrodite. Highly developed moral code. Civilization : Fertility of the valley of the Nile maintained by the regular overfloTAT of the Nile, beginning at the end of July and last- ing four months. Hieroglyphics, very early in conjunction with the hieratic, and after- wards the demotic, characters (syllabic and phonetic signs), which represented the language of daHy life, the dialect of the common people. Embalming of the dead. (Mummies.) Avoidance of intercourse with foreign peoples and adoption of foreign customs. Strict regulation of the entire life by religious prescriptions. Castes : Priests, warriors, agricultural laborers, artisans, shepherds. These castes, however, were in no wise absolutely separated from one another. Form of Government: Despotic monarchy, with divine attributes, also in possession of the highest spiritual power. Strong influence of the priests, especially after the fourteenth century, but they never controlled the supreme power.^ The Pyramids are gigantic sepulchres of the kings. Over thirty still exist.2 The largest, at Gizeh, was originally 480 feet high, and still measures 450 feet. The Obelisks — of which one is now at Paris, several in Rome, one in London, and one in New York — are cut from single blocks of stone (monoliths), and were offerings to the sun-god Ra; the Sphinxes were symbols of the sun-god. Chronology: The Egyptians filled the space before Mena, the first of the historic line of kings, by the assumption of three dynas- ties of gods, demi-gods, and "the mysterious manes." The list of kings after Mena was given at length by the priest Manetho (about 250 B. c), in his history of Egypt. He arranged them in thirty dy- nasties, a division which is still used. To reconcile the names and dates given by Manetho with the records upon the monuments is a difficult matter, owing in part to the fact that several of the dynasties of Manetho probably reigned contemporaneously in different parts of Egypt, that it was the custom for a king to associate his son with himself durmg the latter part of his reign, and that the son after- wards reckoned his reign from the date of such association. Hence the systems of chronology, drawn up by Egyptologists, vary greatly. There are, in general, two schools: (1.) The long chronology, advo- cated on the continent, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary from 1 See Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 180. 2 Lepsius saw traces and remains of sixty-seven pyramids; Brugsch of Biore than seventy. 4 Ancient History. b. c. 5702 (Boeckh) to 3623 (Bunsen). (2.) The short chronology, advo- cated in England, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary between 2700 and 2440. In the following pages the chronology of Lepsius is followed, with the exception of the date assigned to Mena, which Lepsius gives as 3892 b, c. These dates should be compared with the lists given by Brugsch ^ and by Rawlinson.^ Before 3000. The old empire of the Egyptians, in the lower val- ley of the Nile, founded according to Egyptian tradition by Mena ^ (Menes) . Capital : Memphis. 2800-2700 (?). The kings Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos), the builders of the largest pyramids. IVth dynasty (Memphis) called the " Pyramid dynasty." About 2400. Removal of the centre of government of the empire to Thebes. Of the princes of this line the following deserve mention: Amenem- hat I. (2380-2371), who seems to have extended the power of Egypt up the Nile and over a part of Nubia ; Usurtasen I. (2371-2325) who continued the conquests of his predecessor, and erected obelisks; Ame- nemhat II.; Usurtasen II.; Usurtasen III.; Amenemhat III. (2221- 2179) constructed lake Meri- (i. e. *'lake of inundations "), a large reservoir for regulating the water supply of the Nile, and built S. of this lake the so-called Labyrinth, a large palace for ceremonial acts and sacrifices. These six monarchs belong to the Xllth dynasty (of Thebes). About 2100. Egypt conquered by the Hy ksos, or Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos (derived from Hyk, king, aad Schasu, shepherds, contracted into Sos) were wandermg tribes of Semitic descent. About 1800. Thebes revolted against the rule of the Hyksos. Native rulers maintained themselves in Upper Egypt. After a long contest the Shepherd kings were driven out of Egypt com- pletely under King Aahmes {Amosis), of Thebes (1684-1659).^ Their epoch covers the Xlllth to XVIIth dynasties. 1670 — 525. The new empire (capital at first Thebes), under Thutmes III. (Thutmosis, 1591-1565 ; XVIIIth dynasty) increased rapidly in power and extent. 1524-1488. Under Thutmes and his successors, especially Amen- hotep III. (Amenophis), successful expeditions against the Syrians (Ruthen) and against the Ethiopians in the south. 1 History of Egypt. Appendix. See also I. 37, and xxxii. note 1. 2 History of Egypt, or Manual of History, p. 61, and foil. 3 The royal nomenclature of the Egyptians is as picturesquely varied as their chronology. I have given first some form of the true Egyptian name, as found on the monuments, generally that adopted by Brngsch, and have followed it by the more common name, as given by Manetho, Herodotus, or the Jewish Scrip- tures, in parentheses. [Trans.] 4 Called by the Greeks Mceris (Moipos, Herod. I. 101), and erroneously inter- preted as a royal name. 5 Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 130, and foil. B. c. Egyptians. 5 Erection of magnificent palaces and temples at Thebes. (Ruins near the present villages of Carnac, Luxor, and Medi^ net- Abu; near the latter two sitting colossi, statues of Amen- hotep, one of which the Greeks called the musical Statue of Memnon.) 1438-1388. Similar success in war fell to the lot of Seti I. (Sethos). Expeditions to Ethiopia, Arabia, and to the Euphrates. Tem- ple of Ammon on the left bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes. His son, 1388-1322. Ramessu II., the Great {Sestu-Ra, Ramses), was victorious in the early part of his reign, but could not long maintain his supremacy over Syria (XlXth dy- nasty). In spite of this a peculiar tradition transformed him into that mili- tary hero whom the Greeks knew as Sesostris (Herodotus, II. 102- 110), or Sesoosis (Diod. Sic. I. 53-38), and to whom they ascribed fabulous expeditions to Thrace and India. This tradition seems to have had its origin in the bombastic expressions common to the royal inscriptions of the Egyptians, and in poetic exaltations of his earher victories. In the Greek account we have besides a confusion of recol- lections of the glorious deeds of Thutmes and Amenhotep, of Seti and Ramessu III. During his long reign he covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. Splendid palace known as " the House of Ramses," south of Carnac; temple of Ammon, 400 miles above Syene. Commencement of a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile. Ramessu II. was probably the oppressor of the Hebrews. Under his successor, 1322-1302. Mineptah, i. e. " beloved of Ptah," occurred the exo- dus of the Hebrews from Egypt (see page 8).^ 1269-1244. Ramessu III. (Rhampsinitus, XXth dynasty). Successful resistance offered to the Libyan and Semitic tribes ; expeditions as far as Phoenicia and Syria. (Story of the theft from the treasury, Herodotus, II. 121.) 1244-1091. Decay of the empire under the later kings of the name of Ramses. 1091. A new dynasty (XXI.) came to the throne with King Hirhor (Smendes). The seat of their power was Tanis, in the Delta, whence they are called Tanites. Loss of supremacy over Ethiopia, where the kingdom of iVa- pata or Meroe was founded. 961-9^. Shashang I. (Sesonchis, Shisak), from Buhastis, founded a new dynasty (XXII.) .^ He undertook (949) a successful ex- pedition against Judoea. Jerusalem conquered and plundered. 1 It may have occurred under his successor of the same name ; the date of whose reign, as well as the reigns of the kings immediately preceding, would have to be placed several decades earlier, in agreement with Duncker and Maspero. 2 The opinion of Brugsch, History of Egypt, II. 198, that an Assyrian con- quest of Egypt occurred at this time, and that Shashang I. was the son of the conqueror, Nimrod, king of Assyria, has not found favor among Egyptologists. [Trans.] 6 Ancient History. B. c. 730. The Ethiopians, under Shahak (Sabako), conquered Egypt, which they governed for fifty-eight years under three succes- sive kings. (XXVth dynasty.) 672. An expedition of the Assyrians, under Esarhaddon (p. 15), against Egypt. The king of the Assyrians and his son, Asshur- hanipal (Sardanapalus), put an end to the rule of the Ethi- opians (under Taharak or Tirhakah, the second successor of Shabak}, and entrusted the government of Egypt to twenty governors, most of whom were natives. 653. One of these governors, Psaraethik, in alliance with Gyges, king of Lydia, with the help of Carians, Phoeni- cians, and lonians, made himself independent of Assyria, and sole ruler of Egypt (XXVIth dynasty, of Sdis). The tale of the twelve native princes (the Dodecarchy of Herod- otus and Diodorus), according to which Psammeticus defeated his eleven co-regents at Momemphis, is not historical. The number, 12, is derived from the twelve courts of columns in the Labyrinth, which, according to Herodotus and Diodorus, was built by the twelve princes, whereas this gigantic building had already been standing 1500 years (p. 4). 653-610. Psamethik I., king of Egypt, from the mouths of the Nile to Elephantine, above which place the Ethio- pians held the supremacy. (XXVIth dynasty.) New capital, Sais, in the Delta, where Psamethik buUt a magnifi- cent palace. Egypt opened to foreigners, who were favored in the army and settled at various points. Caste of Interpreters. Greek factory at Naucratis. Dissatisfaction among the military caste; emi- grations upward along the Nile to Ethiopia. Psamethik carried on wars in Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine; they were probably undertaken in the first instance to strengthen his frontier against a new attack by the Assyrians, which he dreaded. These wars led to no lasting conquests. The son of Psamethik, 610-595. Neku {Neeho), revived the plan of Ramses to unite the Nile and the Red Sea by a canal, but did not succeed in carrying it out. By his orders Africa was circumnavigated by Phcenician seamen. He undertook expeditions to Syria where he was at first successful, and defeated the king of Judah in the battle of Megiddo (609), but was afterwards defeated by the Babylonians in the 605. Battle of Carchemish. Loss of all his conquests in Asia. Neku's son, 595-589. Psamethik II. Expedition against Ethiopia without suc- cess. His son, 589-570. Hophra (Apries), fought without lasting success against Nebuchadnezzar, and sent help to the tribes of Libya against Cyrene. His defeated army revolted, and he was defeated at the head of Ionian and Carian mercenaries, captured and strangled. B. c. Jews. 7 570-526. Aahmes {Amasis), an Egyptian of low origin, ascended the throne. Encouragement of foreigners, especially of the Greeks, carried still farther; numerous Grecian temples erected in Naucrdtis. Friendship with Cyrene and Poly crates of Samos. Magnificent buildings, especially in Sais. The son of Amasis, 525. Psamethik III., defeated in the battle of Pelusium by Cambyses. Egypt a Persian province. § 2. JEWS (HEBREWS, ISRAELITES). Semitic. Geography. The land of the Jews is bounded N. by Coelo-Syria; W. by Phcenicia, the Mediterranean, and the land of the Philistines; S. by Arabia Petrcea; E. by the Arabian Desert. The name Canaan,^ i. e. " low land," was originally applied to the region along the coast, but was at an early date extended to the inland country. The names Canaanite and Phoenician have properly the same mean- ing; the first was the Semitic, the second the Grecian name for the inhabitants of the whole land before the Jewish conquest. Palestine was originally the name of the southern coast-land, which was so called after the Semitic tribe of the Philistines (Pelishtim) which had possession of it, but was transferred by Egyptians and Greeks to the land occupied by the Jews. In the Bible the country is called " the promised land," i. e. the land promised by Jehovah to the children of Israel. The river Jordan, which rises in the mountain range of Antilehanon and empties into the Dead Sea (Sodom, Gomorrah}, runs through the middle of the country. After the Jewish conquest the country was divided into the twelve provinces of the twelve tribes ; after the death of Solomon into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel; at the time of Christ mto four districts: 1. Judsea (Jerusalem, Hebr. Jerushalaim; Greek 'Upocr6\vfxa, with the fortress of Zion and the Temple on Mt. Moriah; Bethlehem, Jericho, Joppa, now Jaffa, on the coast) ; 2. Sama- ria {^Samaria, Sichem) ; 3. Galilaea (Nazareth, Capernaum on the sea of Tiberias or Genezareth, Cana) ; east from Jordan 4. Persea. In the country of the Philistines, the coast region between Pales- tine and Egypt: Ashdod, Ascalon, Gaza, Ekron, Gath. Chronology .2 As is the case with the earliest history of all na- tions, the chronology of Jewish history is uncertain. There is a long and a short system, but here the short system found favor on the con- tinent, while the long system prevails in England. 2000 (?). Abraham (Abram), Patriarch of the Hebrews (i. e. "those from the other side," because they immi- grated from Ur in Babylonia), Israelites, or Jews. According to the traditions of the Hebrews, Abraham had two sons: Ishmael by Hagar, the ancestor of the Ishmaelites (Arabians) ; and IsaaCf by his lawful wife Sarah. The son of Isaac by Rebekah, Jacob 1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlas antiquus, Tab. III. 2 Cf. Duncker, History of Antiquity, II. 112, notCo 8 Ancient History, b. c. or Israeli the true tribal ancestor of the Hebrews. Jacob's twelve sons : by Leah — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon; by Rachel — Joseph, Benjamin^ by Bilhah — Dan, Naphtalij by Zilpah — Gad, Asher. 1550 (?)• Joseph. The tribe of the Hebrews migrated to Egypt. They settled in the land of Goshen, on the right bank of the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. It is claimed that the master of Joseph was Apepi, the last of the Shepherd kings of Egypt (see p. 4, where the chronology does not agree with the theory, which, however, is no objection, as it could be easily made to conform.) 1320 (?).^ Moses conducted the Hebrews out of Egypt. Ten coraraandnients at Mt. Sinai. The laws of Moses. About 1250. The Israelites (Joshua) after a long nomadic life in the peninsula of Sinai and on the east of Jordan conquered the Promised Land, but without entirely subjugating the former inhabitants. Theocracy, i. e. the nation was under the immediate guidance of Jehovah. The office of the high priest was hereditary in the family of Aaron, the brother of Moses. The Tabernacle, a portable temple or holy tent. The Ark of the Covenant. To the family of Levi (son of Jacob-Israel) was given the exclusive care and service of the taber- nacle and all things used in the religious ceremonial. The other twelve tribes (named from ten sons of Jacob (see above) and two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh) settled in separate districts, which were more or less cut off from one another by remnants of the former inhabitants, and formed an exceedingly loose union of twelve small states under tribal chiefs, which was at times hard pressed by neighboring tribes. Judges (Shofetim) : men raised up by Jehovah in times of need, especially military leaders in the wars against the Canaanite tribes: Amorites (of whom the Jebusites were a part), Amalekites, Hittites, Hivites, and against the Philistines, Midianites, Ammonites, Moabites. Judges : Ehud ; the heroine Deborah ; Gideon, conqueror of the Mid- ianites; Jephthah, conqueror of the Ammonites; Sampson, the terror of the Philistmes. 1070. The Philistines subjugated the whole country this side Jor- dan. At the demand of the people, Samuel, the last "Judge in Israel,*' anointed a brave man of the tribe of Benjamin, 1055 (?). Saul, as king of the Jews. Victory of Saul over the Moabites, Philistines, Edomites, and Amalek- ites. Samuel, being at variance with Saul, anointed David, from the tribe of Judah, as king, at the command of Jehovah. David fled to the Philistines from the persecution of Saul. Saul defeated by the Philistines, put an end to his life (1033 ?). For seven years David 1 English scholars place the Exodus at 1652 or 1491. 8. o. Jews, 9 was recognized as king by the tribe of Judah only, the other tribes under the influence of the captain, Abner, adhering to Saul's son, Ish- bosheth. After the murder of Abner and Ish-bosheth, all the tribes acknowledged David as king in the assembly at Hebron, 1025 (?)• David. Kingdom of the Jews at the highest point of its power. David wrested Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and m.ade it his residence. He restrained the Philistines within their own borders. His sway extended from the N.E. end of the Red Sea to Damascus. Erection of a royal palace at Zion. Ark of the Covenant placed in Jerusalem. Organization of the army. Religious poetry of the Hebrews at the height of its development. The Psalms. Revolt and death of Absalom (AhithopTiel). David passed over his son Adonijah, by Hag- giih, and other sons, and appointed his son by Bathsheba his successor. 993 (?)• Solomon. Erection of the Temple of Jehovah and a new palace in Jerusalem, with the aid of workmen from Tyre. Magnificent court. Standing army. Extensive com- merce. Defection of Damascus. Foundation of Tadmor in an oasis of the Syrian desert. At the close of Solomon's reign, toleration of foreign idolatry in Jerusalem. After the death • of Solomon, 953 (?)> Division of the kingdom of the Jews.^ The tribe of Judah, the tribe of Simeon, which had become united with Judah, and a part of Benjamin with the Levites, remained true to Rehoboam the son of Solomon, and formed the Kingdom of Judah (capital, Jerusalem); the other tribes, under Jeroboam, formed the Kingdom of Israel farther north (capital at first Sichem, still later Samaria and JezreeT). These two langdoms were frequently at war with one another. Kingdom of IsraeL After the death of the energetic Jeroboam, (953-927), his son Na- dab was murdered by the captain Baa^sha, who ascended the throne (925). His son and successor Elah was slain by Zimri; Tibni and Omri disputed the throne, but Omri prevailed in the end (899). The son of Omri, Ahab, married Jezebel, princess of Tyre, whereby the practice of Phcenician idolatry (Baal and Astarte) was extended in Israel. Contest of the Prophets (Elijah, Elisha, etc.) "with the idola- trous monarchy. Israel and Judah united for a short time. Ahab's son Ahaziah (853-851). The captain Jehu, anointed king by Elisha, slew the brother of Ahaziah, Joram (851-843), and put to death Jezebel and seventy sons and grandsons of Ahab. Jehu (843-815) destroyed the temple of Baal and put to death the priests of that god. Decline of Israel's power, which was only temporarily revived by the 1 About the chronology, cf. Duncker, II. 234, note. The long system afives 975 b. c. 10 Ancient History. B. C. fourth king of the line of Jehu, Jeroboam II. (790-749). After the fall of the house of Jehu, the kingdom of Israel became tributary to the Assyrians. Tiglaih-Pileser conquered the northeastern part of the kingdom. HosJiea, the last king of Israel (734), tried to free hia country from the Assyrian yoke, but was defeated and captured by Shalmaneser IV. After a three years' siege, 722/ Samaria was captured by Sargon, king of the Assyr- ians, the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed, and a part of the people carried away and settled in Assyria and Media. Kingdom of Judah. In the reign of Rehoboam the country was overrun by the Egyptians under the Pharaoh Shashang (^Shishak). Sack of Jerusalem (949). RehoboarrCs grandson Asa (929-873) abolished idolatry, which was prohibited by the law. He was compelled to buy assistance from the king of Damascus against Baasha of Israel. Energetic reign of his son Jehoshaphat (873-848). In the hope of put* ting an end to the war with the Kangdom of Israel, Jehoshaphat mar- ried his son Jehoram (848-844) to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab of Israel and Jezebel. After the son of Athaliah, Ahaziah, was murdered while on a visit to the king of Israel, together with the whole royal family of the Kingdom of Israel as above described (p. 9), Athaliah (843-837) seized the supreme power in Jerusalem, put to death her own grandchildren in order to destroy the tribe of David, Joash alone being miraculously rescued and brought up in the Temple of Jehovah, and introduced the worship of Baal in Jerusalem. Athaliah was over- thrown and put to death by the high priest Jehoiada, and the young Joash raised to the throne. The worship of Baal was abolished. Joash (837-797) was obliged to purchase the retreat of the army from Damascus which was besieging Jerusalem. Murder of Joash. Under his son Amaziah (797-792) Jerusalem was captured by the Israelites; the Temple and palace plundered. Amaziah was murdered; but his son Uzziah (Azariah, 792-740) successfully resisted the mur- derers and raised the kingdom again to a position of power and au- thority. The Prophet Isaiah. Under the successors of Amaziah, the Kingdom of Judah, hard pressed by the Kingdom of Israel and by Damascus, became tributary to the Assyrians. Kmg Hezekiah (728-697) again abolished idolatry, refused to pay tribute to the Assyrians, and allied himself with the Egyptians. The Assyrians under Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in vain, but carried off many of the inhabitants of the open country into captivity. Hezekiah^s son Manasseh (697-642) transformed the Tem- ple of Jehovah into a temple of Astarte, and sacrificed to Baal and Moloch in spite of the opposition of the prophets ; he submitted again to the Assyrians, was carried captive to Babylon, but in the end re- 1 In the date 722, the Hebrew chronology agrees with that of the Assyrian monuments. ^Cf. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften u. das alte Testament, 1%!% 1882j and Menant, Annates des Eais d'Assyrie, 1874. B. c.-A. D. Jews, 11 stored to his throne. Under his grandson Josidh (640-609), the coun- try was ravaged by Scythians. Religious reaction against idolatry (Jeremiah). Reformation of the worship of Jehovah, according to the book of the law of Moses which was rediscovered in the Temple (622). King Josiah fell in the battle of Megiddo (609) against the Egyptian king Necho (Neku) . The Kingdom of Judah subject to the Egyptians, and, after the de- feat of Necho at Carchemish (605), to the Babylonians. Jehoiakim en- deavored to revolt, but was put to death. His son, Jehoiachin, was carried into captivity with many of his subjects by the Babylonians (597). An attempt on the part of the last king, Zedekiah, to regam independence was unsuccessful in spite of Egyptian assistance. Jeru- salem was besieged (588-586) ; an Egyptian army advancing to its relief was defeated and compelled to retreat. 586. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusa- lem. Destruction of the city and burning of the Temple. Many of the Jews were slain ; those who were left were carried into the Babylonian captivity. (The prophet Ezekiel.) 537. The Jews sent back to Palestine by Cyrus. Rebuilding of the Temple (Zerubbabel), which was not completed, however, un- til the tune of Darius I. (516). The Jews subject at first to the Persians (538-332), then to Alexander the Great (332-323), afterwards to the Ptolemies (323-198), finally to the Seleu- cid kings of Syria (198-167). 167-130. Emancipation of the Jews by the Maccabees, or AsmonEeans, after a struggle lasting nearly fourteen years. Leaders : the priest Mattathias, and his five sons, especially Judas Maccabseus, A great-grandson of Mattathias, Aristobulus, assumed the title of king (105). Under his successors, strife between the Pharisees and Sadducees. 63. Pompeius, called in to help the Pharisees, made the Jews tribu- tary to the Romans. 40. Herod (the Great), son of the Idumsean Antipdter, recognized by the Roman Senate as dependent king of Judcea. Birth of Christ (four years before the beginning of our • era?). 6 A. D. After a short reign of the three sons of Herod, Judsea be- came a part of the Roman Province of Syria. (Two Te- trarchies, however, remained independent: Galilcea, until 32 A. D. ; Percea, until 33 a. d.) 41-44. Judaea again a dependent kingdom under Herod Agrippa /., a grandson of Herod the Great; then a Roman province again. Agrippa II. was made king over a small portion in dependence on Rome. 66. Revolt ©f the Jews against the Roman supremacy, ending in the 12 Ancient History. b. o. 70. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, A large part of the Jews assembled in Jerusalem for the observance of the passover perished by starvation and the Roman sword ; many thousands were taken captive to Rome. (The historian Josephus.) 132-135. Another uprisal of the Jews, under Hadrian, on account of the foundation of the colony, y£J/m Capitolina, on the site of Jerusalem, wherein more than half a million perished. Dis- persal of a great part of the survivors ; nevertheless a consid- erable number remained in Palestine. §3. BABYLONIAN'S AND ASSYRIANS. Semitic. Geography : Babylonia,^ called by the Hebrews Shinar, is the country lying between the Euphrates and Tigris, and stretching from the point where these rivers approach one another, about 350 miles from their mouth, to where they empty into the Persian Gulf by sev- eral arms, as Pasitigris (now Shatt-el-Arah). In the neighborhood of the present village of Hillah stood Babylon (in the Babylonian form, Babilu, called by the Hebrews Babel, i. e. gates or dwelling of the god Bel), a huge rectangular city, situated, since the time of Nebu- chadnezzar, on both banks of the Euphrates, about thirty-four miles in circumference (Clitarchus; Herodotus gives about forty-five miles), and surrounded by two brick walls of unusual thickness and height. The city was large enough to afford a refuge to a great number of the inhabitants of the country during incursions of nomadic tribes, and contained fields of considerable extent, woods, and gardens. In Baby- lon: (a.) The temple of Bel (To'wer of Babel), a huge square build- ing of brick, consisting of eight diminishing stories rising in pyramidal form. It is said to have been origmally 600 feet liigh.^ (&.) Two Palaces, the one on the east side of the Euphrates havmg the Hanging Gardens, the construction of which is wrongly ascribed to Semiramis, and which were terraced pleasure grounds. Assyria (Asshur) is bounded on the N. by the highlands of Arme- nia, on the E. by the plateau of Iran, on the S. by the Didla, a branch of the Tigris, and on the W. by the Tigris itself. The smaller region called Assyria by the Greeks lay within this territory, between the Tigris and its branch, the Great Zab, which flows mto the Tigris below the present Mosul. On the Tigris stood Nineveh (Ninua, "the Palace," ^ Nli'os) surrounded with huge walls. The ruins lie opposite the present M6sul. Oldest residence of the kings, Asshur; afterwards founded, Calah; founded by Sargon, Dur-Sarrukin (Khorsahad). Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The religion of the Semitic peoples, with the exception of the Hebrews, was a worship of nature, wherein divinity was conceived as the personified force of ua- 1 See Eiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. II. 2 According to Oppert (Exped. Sclent, en Mesopotamie) the temple of Bel is to be sought in the ruins of Burs-Nimrud (on the site of old Borsippa). Baw- anson ( The Five Great Monarchies of the East) disputes this, because Borsippa was a separate village lying outside the walls of the capital until the reign oi Nebuchadnezzar, and finds the Tower of Babel in a great quadrangular ruin, tailed Babil, by the Arabs, on the east bank of the Euphrates in Babylon. B. c. Babylonians and Assyrians. 13 ture in human form, male and female. Among the gods of the Baby- lonians the oldest was El, among those of the Assyrians, ^ssAwr. The third, Bel {Baal), the " Lord of all," appeared as the creative, but also the destructive force in Nature. The goddess Belit or Baaltis (in Herodotus Mylitta), the queen and mother of the gods, is the fruitful and reproductive principle, the goddess of love, fertility, and birth. Her opposite is Istar, the goddess of war and destruction. Confused with Belit is the goddess who brings alternately life and blessing, death and destruction (like the Ashera-Astarte of the Phce- nicians and Carthaginians). In Babylon there was a complicated sys- tem of star-worship. The Chaldeans, or caste of priests, in Babylon, possessed some astronomical and astrological skUl. This name was properly that of the Semitic population of Babylonia, but western writers applied it chiefly to the priests. Civilization. An exact system of weights and measures, which was used far outside the borders of Babylonia. Cuneiform writing, a system of characters formed by the gradual abbreviation of hiero- glyphics. Magnificent structures of brick. System of canals for the irrigation of the country, and for the regulation of the yearly overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates. Important manufacturing industries and extensive commerce. Chronology. An astronomical system and a mythical history closely resembling the Biblical account of the creation and deluge (epic of Izdhuber). The inscriptions give many names ; but few dates are satisfactorily established before 900 b. c. 4000-731. Old Babylonian (so-called Chaldcean) Em- pire. 4000-3000. Civilization, originating, perhaps, in a non-Semitic people (^Sumir and Accadf), was adopted, with the cuneiform ivriting, by a Semitic people, who came, probably, from the S. Independent, hostile cities : Ur, Erech, Larsam ; Agade (Accad ?), Babylon. Sar- gon, 3800, reached the Mediterranean, Hammurabi united Babylonia.^ 2300-2076. Supremacy of Elam (Elymais, Susiana), a non-Semitic kingdom E. of Babylonia (the second dynasty of Berosus^). Kudurnanchundi ; Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv.). About 2000. Babylonia, after 300 years, again independent. About 1900. Assyria settled by emigrants from Babylonia (Nim- rod f). 1525-1257. Cassite kings of Babylonia (the Arabians of Berosus). 1500-710. Constant wars with Assyria. Final subjugation of Babylonia after the revolts of Merodach-Baladan. 1 DeUtzsch (1884) ;_ Smith (1877) gave 1700 and 1750. 2 Berosus, at the time of Alexander, compiled from Babylonian records a history in which he mentioned the following dynasties (dates from Delitzsch). Antediluvian, ten kings, 432,000 years. Post-diluvian: I. Eighty-six kings, 33,091 years. II. Eight Median tyrants, 224 years (2300-2076). III. Eleven kings. IV. Forty-nine Chaldcean kings, 458 years (1983-1525). V. Nine Ara' ^an kings, 245 years (1525-1257). VI. Forty-five kings, 526 j^ears (1257-731). 14 Ancient History. B. c. 1900-608 (605). Assyrian Empire (p. 12). Colonized, probably, from Babylonia (Gen. x.), Assyria grad- ually grew into a powerful rival of the mother-state. The chronol- ogy falls into five periods.^ I. 1900-1500. II. 1500-1300. Wars with Bahylonia, ending in Babylonian overlordship. III. 1220-930. Assyria again independent. IV. 930-626 (?). Brilliant epoch. V. 626 (?)-608 (605). Fall of the empire. 1900-930. Of the first three periods little is known. Tiglath-Adar I.^ about 1310, conquered Babylonia, but Assyria was soon subju- gated. Tiglath-Pileser I., 1115-1105, conquered from Bagdad and Babylon to the Mediterranean. 930-626 (?). Brilliant epoch of Assyrian history. The inscrip- tions become frequent, full, and exact. It was a time of ex- pansion, conquest, and great activity in architecture, sculpture, and literature. Among the kings raiay be mentioned : 886-858. Asshur-natzir-pal.2 (Sardanapalus). Military expedi- tions to Zagros, Armenia, Babylonia, Syria. Erection of a palace at Calah. His son, 858-823. Shalmaneser II., fought with Ahab in Syria and subju- gated Jehu. 810-781. Ramannirari captured Damascus and made Samaria and Philistia tributary. His wife Sammuramit {S emir amis). A tradition of later growth reported by the Greeks {Diodorus on the authority of Ctesias) connects the establishment of the Assyrian supremacy over almost the whole of western Asia, the buUding of Nineveh and Babylon, mth the names of the king Ninus and his con- sort Semiramis. Both Ninus (son of the god Bel) and Semiramis (daughter of the goddess Mylitta) are mytliical creations, into whose reigns tradition has condensed the deeds of a long series of warlike rulers, so that no achievements were left for their successors, and these from Ninyas down appear as effeminate weaklings. Ninus is unknown to the Assyrian monuments, and Semiramis first appears in the ninth century. On the other hand we know that a goddess answermg to Istar-Belit was worshipped in Syria under the name of Semiramis. Medo-Persian bards seem to have changed the divinities Bel and Istar-Belit into heroes, and have formed the names Ninus and Ninyas from the name of the city Ninua {Nineveh).^ 745-727. Tiglath-Pileser II. (identical with the king Pul men- tioned in the Bible) (see p. 13) made Babylonia, which was at that time divided into several states, western Iran, Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judah and Israel, subject to Assyria. 121-122. Shalmaneser IV. suppressed the revolt of the Phcenician cities and the Kingdom of Israel. 722-705. S argon (Sarrukin) conquered Samaria and destroyed the Kingdom of Israel (see p. 10). He received tribute from Arabia, Egypt, and Cyprus, suppressed revolts in Armenia, Media, and Babylonia, and united the latter with Assyria (710) 1 Delitzsch. 2 Formerl}' called Asshur-idanni-j^al. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies. IT. 246, note 10. 3 Duncker, 11. 17. Schrader, Die Keilinschrifttn, etc. Menant, Annqles, stc. Ijenorm.ant, Lettres Assyriologiques. Smith. Assyrian Discoveries. B. C. Bahylonian,s and Assyrians. 15 Residence : Dur-Sarrukin, now Khorsabad, not far from Nine- veh. His son, 705-681. Sennacherib (Sin-akhi-irib) retained his hold upon Baby- lonia in spite of repeated insurrections, but was unsuccessful in his wars with Egypt and Judah, and lost the supremacy over Syria. Fleet in the Persian Gulf. Foundation of Tarsus. His son, 681-668. Esarhaddon (AssJiur-akli-iddin) suppressed a new revolt of the Babylonians, reconquered Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Ju- dah, and a part of Arabia, and in 672 conquered Egypt from the Ethiopians, entrusting the govermnent to 20 governors, most of whom were natives (see p. 6). Assyria at the height of her power. One of liis sons was made viceroy of Babylonia, the other, 668-626. Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapahis'), defended Egypt, at first with success, against the kings of Ethiopia and native in- surrections, but lost it in 653 by the revolt of Psammeticus (see p. 6). On the other hand he strengthened the Assyrian power in Syria, Arabia, Cilicia, as well as in Babylonia, where his brother had revolted, conquered the Kingdom of Elam, and received tribute from Lydia. Erection of magnificent palaces. Foundation of a library at Nineveh. Highest development of . Assyrian art. About 640 (650). Revolt of the Medes. Of the Medes little is known until they were attacked by the Assyrians about 830 b. c. About 710 their resistance was broken and their country was soon subjected to Assyria, and so continued until about 640. Phraortes (jFravartis), son of Dejoces (Dahydvka), a petty chief among the Medes, revolted but fell in battle. 633. His son Cyaxares {UvakJishatard) continued the struggle, which was, however, soon interrupted by the 632. Irruption of Scythian tribes which had wandered about western Asia, plundering as they went, as far as the bor- ders of Egypt, for 28 years it is said, though 8 is the more prob- able number. After Cyaxares had rid the country of them, he made another attack on Assyria, which had been much weakened by the Scythians. For the purpose of destroying the Assyr- ian kingdom, Cyaxares allied himself with the Chaldean Nabo- polassar (Nabu-habal-usur), Assyrian governor of Babylon since 625, who had made himself independent. Desperate struggle with the Assyrian king Sarakos (Asshur-ebil-ili), 626-608 (625 ?), son of Sardanapalus V. After a long siege, 608 (605 ? 1) Nineveh was taken and destroyed; as the enemy broke into the city, Sarakos set fire to the royal palace and perished in the flames with his wives and treasurer. End of the Kingdom of Assyria. Nabopolassar united with Baby- 1 The date is doubtful, Herodotus implies a date as late as 608-605. Be- rosus (as reported hy Abydenus and Polyhistor) gives 625. The former date is advocated by Clinton and Duncker {History of Antiq., III. 266-292), the latter by G. Kawlinson {Five Great Monarchies, II. 391, note 5), and Xienormant {Lettres Assyriologioues, I. § 12, esp. pp. 84, 85). Delitzsch, 608 16 Ancient History. b. c, Ionia the whole of northern Mesopotamia on the right bank of the Tigris, the rest falling to the share of Cyaxares,^ who had already subjugated Armenia and the Iranian portions of the kingdom of Assyria. The Grecian story of the effemmate Sardanapalus (Ctesias in Dio- dorus, II.) is the counterpart of their tales about the masculine Semi' ramis. According to this story, Sardanapalus, on the fall of the city, burns liimself upon a magnificent bier, 400 feet high, which burns for 15 days. This story seems to be an application of the myth of the god who burned himself and rose from the flames, whom the Semitic peoples associated with Istar {Astarte), and whose nature they con- founded with hers.^ 608 (605)-538. (New) Empire of Babylon. After the Assyrian conquest of Babylonia, about 710 (see p. 14), the latter country continued subject to Assyria, with intervals of rebellion, until the successful combiuation of Nahopolas- sar and Cyaxares destroyed the power of Assyria. Babylon then took the lead among the nations of the East, rivalled by Media alone. 604-561. Nebuchadnezzar {Nabio-kudur-ussur), son of Nar- bopolassar, during the reign of his father defeated Necho, king of Egypt, at Carchemisch on the Euphrates (605), conquered Syria, destroyed Jerusalem (586), and subdued Tyre (585). Enlargement and adornment of Babylon (on the east bank of the Euphrates). Construction of a bridge over the Euphrates, and of a new palace, with the " hanging gardens " which tradi- tion assigns to Semiramis. Erection of the Median wall from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Magnificent water works. The reservoir at Sippara (Sepharvaim). After Nebuchadnezzar, rapid decline of the dynasty, which became extinct in 555. 588. Babylon (last king Nabonetus, or Nahunahid, reigning in conjunction with his son Bel-shar-ussur, the Biblical Belshazzar) taken by Cyrus. Babylon a Persian prov- ince. § 4. PHCENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. Semitic. (Down to the war of the latter with the Romans.) Geography.^ Phoenicia (^o^viKt], Phcenice) is the Grecian name of Canaan (see p. 7), and was derived from the tribal name *otj/t|. In the narrower sense the name denotes the strip of coast, 5-14 miles wide and 150 miles long, which lies N. of the country of the Philistines and the Hebrews and W. of Mt. Leb- anon. This strip was inhabited by three tribes : 1. Sidonians, i. e. " fishers " (cities : Sidon, Zor, called by the Greeks Tyros)) 2. Arvadites (city : Arvad, in Greek Arados); 3. G-iblites (cities : Byhlus or Gebal, and Bei-ytos). Religion of the PhcBnicians. The god Baal (Bel, of the Babylo* 1 For the Median Empire, see p. 25. 2 Duncker, II. chapter i. ; also III. 265. 3 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. B. c. Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 17 nians) and the goddess Ashera (Baaltis, Belit of the Babylo- nians), the divinities of life, birth, and the genial forces of na- ture, were opposed to the god Moloch (i. e. "king," the Babylonian ^c?ar), the devouring and destroying, and yet cleans- ing fire, also god of war, and the maiden goddess Astarte. Human sacrifices: to Moloch, boys and youths ; to Astarte, youths and maidens. Afterwards Baal and Moloch were con- fused into one divinity, who, under the name of Melkart (i. e. " king of the city " ), became the guardian divinity of Tyre. In the same way ^sAera and Astarte were united into one divinity, who when represented as a grim wandering goddess vanishing with the changing light of the moon bears the name Dido, but when represented as a kind and gentle divmity newly restored to the knowledge of mankind that of Anna (i. e. " pleasant "). The Political Constitution of the Phcenician cities was an he- reditary monarchy, but the royal power was checked by the existence of two senates. 1300. Period of Sidon's greatest power. Favored by the sit- uation of their country, and urged by an energetic industry which led to the invention or development of many arts and manufactures, such as purple dye, weaving, glass-making, min- ing, work in metals, and architecture, the Phoenicians estab- lished at an early period, certainly not later than 1500, a car- rying trade by land (to Babylonia, Arabia, Assyria, Armenia) as well as by sea, which time only made more extensive. In close connection with the commerce by sea was the foundation of numerous colonies. Thus in Cyprus were founded Citium, Ama- thus, Paphos, the centre of the worsliip oi Ashera, whence originated the Grecian worship of Aphrodite, that goddess " born of the foam of the sea " (i. e. whose cult came to Greece by sea). Other colonies were founded in Cicilia, Rhodes, Crete, Cythera, as well as on many of the islands of the ^gsean sea, and at points along the coast of Greece; further west, again, colonies were planted in Melite or Malta, in Sicily (on the southern coast Minoa, Gr. Heraklea, on the northern coast Soloeis (sela = " cliff "), Panormus (Machanath ?), at the western end of the island Motye), on Sardinia (Cardlis), on the north coast of Af- rica (two cities of Leptis, Hadrumetum, Utica, the two towns of Hip- po), in the country called Tarsls or Tarshish, i. e. southern Spain, beyond the columns of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), Gadir or Gades, i. e. " walls," " fortress," now Cadiz, founded about 1100. From this point the Phoenicians extended their commercial deal- mgs still further to the western coasts of Africa, and to the Islands of Tin (the Cassiterides), Britain, i and the coasts of the German Ocean, where they bought amber which the native tribes obtained by barter from the Baltic^ Mythical representations of these voyages and settlements of the Phoenicians are contained in a series of well-known Grecian tales. 1 English antiquarians of the present day consider it probable that the Phoe- nicians never set foot either in the Scilly Isles or in Britain, but received what British tin they did obtain, at second or third hand, from the Celts of Gaui iVeneti ?). Tin was found in the river beds of western Gaul. [Trans. \ 2 18 Ancient History. b. o. Story of the rape of Europa (i. e. " the grim "), daughter of Pho&» nix (i. e. " the Phcenician ") from Sidon by Zeus in the form of a bull (whereby is denoted the moon-goddess Dido-Astarte, who flees to- wards the west). Story of Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, the powerful ruler of Crete; his wife is Pasiphae (i. e. " she who shines upon all "). Story of the Minotaur (i. e. Bull of Minos, another con- ception of Baal-Moloch), shut up in the Labyrinth, to whom Athens had to send human offerings. Dcedalus, builder of the Labyrinth in Crete, is the personification of that technical dexterity which the Hel- lenes acquired from the Phoenicians. Cadmus, too, who in search of his sister Europa landed in Thera and Thasos, built the Cadmea in Bceotia, and invented the alphabet, is the mythical representative of Phcenician settlements from which the written alphabet and other elements of eastern civilization were carried to the Greeks. 1100. Tyre, though younger than Sidon, attained the first rank among the Phcenician sea-board towns. 1001-967. Tyre, at the height of its prosperity, under king Hiram, the contemporary of David and Solomon, and the lat- ter's friend. Exploring expedition of the Tyrians, accompanied by the servants of Solomon, through the Red Sea to the coast of India (Ophir). Hiram filled in the space between the island upon wliich stood the temple of Melkart, and New Tyre (which was also situated on an island), and erected buildings on the new land. He also narrowed the strait between New Tyre and Old Tyre on the main land. 917 (?). Ethhaal (Ithahalus), high priest of Astarte, murdered Phales, the last descendant of Hiram, and made himself king. About seventy (?) years later, according to a Grecian authority, a grandson of this Ethhaal decreed in his will that his mmor son Pyg- malion and his daughter Elissa should govern Tyre in common under the guardianship of their uncle, the high priest Sicharbaal, who was to marry Elissa. The democratic party deprived Elissa of her share in the government, and Pygmalion, coming of age, murdered Sichar- baal. In consequence of this mternal strife, and influenced probably by the unfavorable state of the foreign relations (advance of the Assyrian power towards the Mediterranean, see p. 15), a large part of the older families left Tyre with Elissa. On an excellent site, on the north coast of Africa, they founded about 850.^ Carthage ^ (in Punic, Kathada, i. e. " the new city "), between Utica in the W. and the present cape Bon in the E., not far from the present Tunis. Double harbor. Citadel Byrsa. Later the foundress, Elissa, became confused with the goddess, Dido-Astarte, the protectress of the colony.^ ^ According to Timaeus, 814. Concerning the chronology, see Duncker, II. 270. 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VIII. 3 The credibility of this narrative and the interpretations put upon it, both as legards the chronology and the facts, are contested by O. Meltzer, Gesch. d B. c. Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 19 Carthage, so far as it comes within the realm of history, appears to have been an aristocratic republic, with two Sufetes, or judges, fre- quently called "kings," and compared with the Spartan kings, and two senates, a large and small. Only upon occasion of a di£iagree- ment between these branches of the government were the people called upon to give their opuiion. The government tended constantly toward the oligarchical form. 850. Decline of the power of the Phoenician cities, especially of Tyre, wliich was distracted by civil dissension. The Phoenicians fell repeatedly under the rule of the Assyrians, and, for a time, under that of the Egyptians. After the fall of the Assyr- ian empire (625, 606), they became dependent upon the Babylonians, Tyre alone mamtainuig its freedom mitil 573. Favored by the political situation, the Greeks, who had already (about 1000) driven the Phoenicians out of the ^gean Sea, began to extend theu' influence in the eastern Mediterranean, and, especially after the second half of the eighth century, along the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean, and in Lower Italy and Sicily (p. 51). Foundation of Cyrene (p. 49) and Massalia (about 600), attempted settlements upon Corsica, Sardinia, and the shores of Spain. In short, the Phoenician power was threatened with destruction throughout the i)ntire,West. Brought face to face with this danger, Carthage, which had mean- time grown considerably stronger, began about 600 to gather the other Phoenician cities under its control, to subjugate the country around its own commercial stations, and to secure its possession ~hj the establishment of new colonies. The Carthaginians amiexed to their territory the African coast from Hippo in the W. to beyond Leptis in the E., and opposed armed resistance to the advancing power of Cyrene. In the peace wliich was concluded, the altars of the Phi- Iceni, E. of Leptis, were made the boundary. The Carthaginians subjugated Southern Spain and Sardinia, and, with Etruscan aid, drove the Phocceans from Corsica (537 ?). 586-573. Tyre successfully endured a thirteen years' siege, from the land side, by Nebuchadnezzar, but was finally forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of Babylon. 538. After the destruction of the Babylonian monarchy, by Cyrus, Phoenicia became subject to Persia. The Phoenician cities, however, retained their independence and their native kings. The Phoenicians henceforth furnished the principal part of the Persian fleet. An expedition for the conquest of Carthage, proposed by Cambyses, king of Persia, after the con- quest of Egypt, was rendered impossible of execution by the refusal of the Phoenicians to fight against their colony. During the Persian supremacy, Sidon was again the first city of Phoenicia. The Carthaginians, favored by tlie civil dissensions of the Karthager, Bd. I., 1879, who admits the truth of these statements only: that Carthage was a Tyrian colony, and was certainly founded before the ei^th century. 20 Ancient History. B. c Greeks in Sicily, and by the Persian war with Greece, attacked the Greek colonies in Sicily (being secretly in alliance with Xerxes ?) 480. War of the Carthaginians, in alliance with Selinus, against the other Greek cities in Sicily. The Carthaginian army under Hamilcar was utterly defeated and scattered at Himera by the tyrants Gelon of Syracuse (-ZvpaKovaai) and T heron of Agrigentum ('AKpdyas). The Carthaginians purchased peace for 2000 talents, thereby sav-= ing their Sicilian cities, Panormus, Soloeis, Motye. 409-339. Repeated wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks in Sicily. The Carthaginians, called in to assist Segesta (^Eyea-ra) against Seli- nus, after conquering Selinus, Himera, Agrigentum, and Gela, secured the supremacy over the western half of Sicily, a position which they maintained against all attempts of the tyrant Dionysius I. and Timo- leon, who restored republican liberty to the Grecian cities, to dislodge them. 332. Capture of the island city. New Tyre, by Alexander the Great after a seven months' siege. Phoenicia became a part of the great Grseco-Macedonian monarchy, and later a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidee, and for a time of that of the Ptolemies. 317-275. New wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks in Sicily. Agathdcles, tyrant of Syracuse, sought to bring all Sicily under his rule. The Carthaginians despoiled him of his conquests and besieged Syracuse. Agathdcles effected a landing in Africa (310), and overran a large part of the Carthaginian territory, while the Syracusans re- pulsed and annihilated the Carthaginian army under the walls of Syra- cuse. Agathocles returned to Sicily; his army, which he left before Carthage, was destroyed. In the peace with Syracuse the Cartha- ginians regained their former possessions in Sicily (306). After the death of Agathocles, party broils in Syracuse favored the advance of the Carthaginian power. Pyrrhus of Epirus, then in Tarentum, was called to the aid of the Syracusans (278). He was at first successful, but offending most of the Grecian cities by his sever- ity, they took sides with the Carthaginians, and Pyrrhus was forced to leave Sicily. On the voyage back to Italy he was defeated by a Carthaginian fleet (276). § 5. LYDIANS AND PHRYGIANSo Lydians, Semitic, Greography : Lydia, in the strict sense, or Mseonia, was the middle one of the three divisions of Asia Minor lying on the ^gsean Sea, the northern being Mysia, the southern Caria. Rivers: Hermus, Caystrus, B. C. Lydians and Phrygians. 21 Pactolus (golden-sand) in Lydia; Mceander in Caria. Capital of Lydia: Sardes at the base of the Tmolus range. The Lydiajis belonged to the Semitic race, like the Cilicians, and probably the Carians, whereas the other peoples of Asia Minor were in all likelihood Aryans. The kingdom of Lydia at the period of its greatest extent reached to the Halys river (now the Kisil Irmak), and included, beside the countries mentioned above, Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), and the inland country of Phrygia. Religion : Worship of the sun-god Sandon, and the goddesses Bla (Alylitta-jAshera) and Ma (Astarte). The last two became united in one goddess, under the name "the great mother" {Cyhele), who was worshipped in Ephesus as Artemis (Diana). Chronology : Lydia was ruled by two successive mythical dynas- ties, the Attyadce from Attys, son of the god Manes (prior to 1229), and the Sandonidce, who traced their origin to the god Sandon (1229- 724). The Greeks saw in this latter divinity their Heracles, and called this dynasty, therefore, the HeraeMdce. The last king of this line, Candaules, was murdered (689 ^ ) by his favorite Gyges in collu- sion with the king's consort. With Gyges the 689 2-549 (?). Dynasty of the Mermnadae came to the throne. Under these sovereigns the Lydian kingdom, after suffering severely from the Cimmerians, and being at times subject to Assyria, grew in power and extent. Gyges himself extended his sway over Mysia and to the Hellespont. His two succes- sors conquered Phrygia, and carried on an unsuccessful war with the Grecian cities on the sea coast. Alyattes, the fourth of the Mermnadce, warred with Cyaxares, king of Media, with success. 610(?). Indecisive battle between Alyattes and Cyaxares. Eclipse of the sun predicted by Thales of Miletus. In the treaty of peace the Halys was made the boundary between the Lydian and Median kingdoms. The daughter of Alyattes was given in marriage to Astyages, son of Cyaxares. Alyattes sub- dued Bithynia and Paphlagonia in the north, Caria in the south, took Smyrna and Colophon, but failed to subdue the re- maining coast towns. A vast treasure collected in the royal palace at Sardes. Magnificent buildings. Ruins of royal tombs north of Sardes. 563-549 (?). CrcESUS, Son of Alyattes, captured Ephesus, and afterwards subdued all the Grecian cities of the coast, Ionian, ^olian, and Dorian, with the exception of Miletus, with which he formed a league. Active intercourse with European Greece. Solon, of Athens, visited Sardes. After the deposition of his brother-in-law Astyages, of Media, by Cyrus the Persian, Croesus attacked the Persian empire. Following the am- biguous advice of the Delphic oracle he crossed the Halys. Inde- cisive battle between Croesus and Cyrus at Pteria. Croesus returned 1 Eusebius, 699 ; Herodotus, 719. 2 Duncker, Hist, of Antiq., III. 414, note 2. 22 Ancient History. b. c. irresolutely to Sardes, whither he was followed by Cyrus, who de- feated him in a second battle, captured Sardes, and took Croesus prisoner (see p. 26). 549 (?). Fall of the kingdom of Lydia, which was united with the Persian empire. Phrygians. 750, or earlier, an independent monarchy was formed in N. W, Phrygia, having its capital at Gordiceum. Its monarchs, the' dates of whose reigns are uncertain, bore the names of Gordias and Midas alternately. A Midas contemporary with Alyat-* tes (about 600-570), and a Gordias with Croesus (570-560). Phrygia conquered by Lydia about 560. (Rawlinson.) § 6. INDIANS. Aryan. Geography : India, the central peninsula of the tliree which pro- ject from the southern coast of Asia into the Indian Ocean, is a vast triangle, having a base and a height of about 1900 miles, bounded on the N. by the Himalaya Mountains, on the E. by the Bay of Bengal, on the W. by the Gulf of Arabia. It falls into three geo- graphical divisions : I. The region of the Himalayas. The central range forms an almost impassable barrier between India and the Mongol tribes of central Asia (Mt. Everest, 29,000 ft.). On the E. this region is separated from Burmah by the lower ranges of the Ndgd, Patkoi, and Yomas (Aeng Pass), which are pierced by the Brahmaputra. On the W. the Sufed Koh, Suldimdn, and the Hdla^ separate India from Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but are pierced by the Indus River, the Khaihar Pass (3373 ft.), and the Boldn Pass (5800 ft.). This region includes Nepal and Kashmir. II. The fertile valley of the great rivers, which receives the drainage of the northern as well as of the southern slopes of the Hima- layas. River systems: Indus, Sutlej (provinces of Punjab, i. e. the five streams,^ Sind); Ganges (provinces of Bengal, Oudh, Rdjpu- tdna ; cities : Calcutta, Benares, Delhi, Allahabad) ; Bramaputra (province of Assam). Deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. III. The Decoan, or southern plateau, separated from the Ganges valley by the Vindhyd momitains (5000 ft.), and bordered by the East Ghats (1500 ft.) and West Ghats (3000 ft.). Rivers: Goddvari, Krishna, Kdveri, all flowing through the East Ghats into the Bay of Bengal. Provinces : Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc. Religion : The religion of the early Indians, as portrayed in the Vedic hymns, was a worship of Nature : Dyaush-pitar, Father of Heaven; Varuna, the sky; Indra, the rain- vapor; Agni, fire; Maruts, gods of the storm. After the settlement in the Ganges valley, this primitive faith underwent a change. History : The Indians (^Hindus) migrating from the northwest, came at first to the valley of the Indus and the Punjab, and thence slowly pushed their settlements down the valley of the Ganges^ 1 Indus, Ikelum, Chenaub, Ravi, Sutlej (modern names). B. c. Indians. 20 where they were probably established as early as 1500 B. c. The native* tribes whom they found in the country they either enslaved or pushed into the Himalayas on the N., and on to the Deccan in the S. (Dravidians) . At a later date the Hindus spread along the coasts of the Deccan and reached Ceylon. Foundation of numerous despotic kingdoms. In the conquered district strict separation of the Aryan conquerors from the subjugated aborigines. Development of the royal power and of the priestly in- fluence. Four principal castes: Brahmans, priests; Kshattriyas, warriors; Vaisyas, agricultural settlers. These three were of pure Aryan descent. The Sudras, or servile caste, were of aboriginal descent, the Ddsas, "slaves." Transformation of the ancient faith into the religion of Brahma : Brahma, the creator ; Vishnu, the pre- server; Siva, the destroyer and restorer. Spiritual tyranny of the Brahmans, accompanied by a high development of philosophy, gram- mar, etc., by the Brahmans, in connection with the explanation of the Vedas ("revelations"), or services for the various religious cere- monials : Rig- Veda, the simplest form ; Sama- Veda ; Yayur- Veda (black and white), Atharva-Veda. To these were in time attached prose treatises composed by the priests and called the Brahmanas, one being attached to each Veda. A second series of additions were the Sutras ("sacred traditions"). Poetry, the epics: Maha-hhdrata, Ramdyana. Regulation of the entire thought and life in accord- ance with strict prescriptions, which were afterwards (about 600 ?) gathered together into the book of the laws of Mann, being, as it was claimed, a divine revelation to him, the tribal ancestor of the whole race. Complicated system of rites and ceremonies. Pre- scriptions concerning cleanliness. Terrors of the doctrine of the second birth. Magnificent monuments of Indian architecture, especially the Cliff Temples, which were excavated in the rock, both upon and be- low the surface of the earth. Later, Pagodas. In the sixth century, appearance of the reformer Buddha, i. e. "the enlightened" (623 to 543), properly Gautama, afterwards Sid- dhartha (i. e. " he who has fulfilled his end "), son of prince Sud- dhodana. Buddhism, called after its founder, was originally a pliilosophical system, without creed or rites, having for its object the attainment of moral perfection. Through its doctrine of the essen- tial equality of all men, it was directly opposed to Brahmanism. The progress of Buddhism produced, along with certain changes in the old system, a strong Brahinanistic reaction. The war of the re- ligions ended with the expulsion of Buddhism from India. It main- tained itself in Kashmir and Ceylon only, but the loss was offset by great gains in central and eastern Asia, where it has to-day over 300,000,000 devotees in Thibet, China, Japan, etc. 327. Invasion of the Punjab by Alexander the Great (p. 75). 317-291. Formation of great empires of short duration (empire of Magadha, under Chandra-gupta (Greek, Sandra-kottos), and his grandson, 263-226 (?). Acoka, the friend of Buddhism. After the reign of A90- ka the Punjab fell under the supremacy of the Grseco-Bactrian 24 Ancient History. B. c. empire in central Asia, and thus some tincture of Greek civ- ilization was imparted to this part of India. The Bactrian rulers were finally expelled by Scythian invaders, several dy- nasties of whom appear to have reigned in the Punjab and along the Ganges. Wars of the native prince Vikramaditya against the Scythians (57 B.C. ?). Kanishka, Gr. Kanerke, was the founder of the last dynasty of Scythian kings, who were succeeded by an unknown people, the Guptas. Another branch of the Indo-Scythians making their way down the Indus came into conflict with the Guptas, and with a general league of the Hindus of the south. In the 78 A. D. (?) Battle of Kahror the invaders were utterly defeated and are henceforward not mentioned. The Guptas reigned in Oudh and northern India until they were overthrown by foreign invaders (Tatars ?) in the latter half of the fifth century A. D. § 7. BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS. Aryan. Geography: The Bactrians, Medes, and Persians inliabited the plateau of Iran,^ between the Suldimdn range on the E. and the val- ley of the Euphrates and Tigris on the W., between the Caspian Sea on the N., and the Erythroean Sea (Indian Ocean) on the S. On the western border of this highland: Media (Ecbatana, Med. Hangma- tana, i. e. " place of assemblies ") ; on the southern border along the Persian Gulf, Persis (PasargddcB, Persepolis), Carmania; on the Ery- thrsean sea, Gedrosia; on the eastern border, Arachosia, the land of the ParopanisadcB, at the foot of the Paropanisus {Hindu KoosJi) ; ^ on the northern border, Baotria or Bactriana (Baktra), Parthia and Hyr- cania on the Caspian Sea; in the centre, ^na and Drangiana; between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, Sogdiana (Maracanda). East of the lower course of the Tigris, in the lowlands: Susiana (the ancient Elam) with Susa, the principal residence of the Persian kings. Within this broad plateau, a widely accepted theory locates the primeval home of the Aryan or Indo-European or Japhetic race, from which in prehistoric times successive colonies wandered away to the south and west. About 1000 (?)• Zoroaster (Zarathustra) whose doc- trine, a spiritual reform of the old Iranic superstitions, was contained in the 21 (?) books of the Avesta, of which one only has come down to us: the Vendidad, i. e. "delivered against the Daeva" the bad spirits. The pith of the doctrine as set forth in the Avesta ^ is the conception of a continuous war- fare of the good spirits, whose leader was the good god Ahura- mazda or Auramazda (in modern Persian Ormuzd), and the evil spirits, or Daeva, whose leader was Angromainyu, in mod- ern Persian Ahriman), over the life and death, welfare or in- 1 Kiepert, Atlas Anti(juus, Tab. II. 2 Kiepert, Manual oj Ancient Geography, p. 39. •3 Avesta is the law itself, Zend the later commentary on the law; hence ZendU uvesta, and the expressions Zend-language, Zend-people. B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 25 jury, of man and his soul after death. In this new doctrine Mithra the sun-god, originally the highest of the Iranian gods, appeared as a creature of the creator Ahuramazda^ but never- theless the equal of the latter in dignity and divinity. Worship of fire, whose blaze scared away the evil spirits of the night ; reverence paid to water, and the fertile earth, the daughter of Aliuramazda. The priests, called Athrava (from athao, fire), by the Bactrians, and Magians (Maghush) by the Medes, formed a distinct hereditary class ; an institution which was copied by the ancient priestly families of Persia, after the general acceptance in that country of the reformed faith, which came to them from Bactria, through Media. About 1100. Formation of a powerful Empire in Bac- tria, mythical reminiscences of the deeds of whose kings are perhaps contained in the Shahnameh of the poet Firdusi (about 1000 a. d.). As early as the ninth century, the Assyrians undertook expedi- tions against the plateau of Iran, and in the middle of the eighth century, the western portion of this plateau. Media, and Persia, be- came permanently subject to Assyria. 640. Revolt of the Medes from the Assyrians. 640-558. Median Empire. The first prince of a Median dynasty mentioned was 708-655. Dejoces (ATjio/cTjs, old Pers. Dahyauka), to whom is as- cribed the foundation of the capital Ecbatdna. He does not appear, however, to have reigned over the whole of Media, or to have been independent, but rather to have continued to pay tribute to the Assyrians. His son, 655-633. Phraortes (paopT775, Pers. Fravartis) , was the first who united the whole country under one ruler and established the independence of Media. He made the Persians tributary, although their native ruler Achcemenes (^HakJiamanis), who was raised to the throne after the revolt of the Persians from As- syria, retained his crown under Median supremacy, and be- queathed it to his descendants. After Phraortes had fallen fighting against the Assyrians (p. 15} his son, 633-593. Cyaxares (Kva^dpris, Pers. Uvahksathra) succeeded him and continued the war with Assyria successfully. Inroad of the Scythians. After their departure (about 626 ? see p. 15), Cyaxares subjugated Armenia. War with Alyattes king of Lydia (p. 21). 606 (625?). Cyaxares, in alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylonia, captured Nineveh and destroyed the Empire of Assyria (p. 15), whose territory on the left shore of the Tigris fell to the Medians. He also conquered eastern Iran. Media at the death of Cyaxares was the most powerful monarchy of Asia. His son, 593-558. Astyages CAa-rvdyris), last king of the Medes. Cyrus, of 26 Ancient History. b. c. the family of the Achcemenidce in the Persian tribe of the Pa- sargadce, which reigned in Persia under Median supremacy, t deposed Astydges. The supremacy passed (558) from the Medes to the Persians. Herodotus (I. 107, etc.) reports a tradition of the Median descenf; of Cyrus through his mother Manddne, daughter of Astydges, which is adorned after the Oriental manner, with the dream of Astydges, the interpretation of the Magi, the exposure, miraculous rescue and rec- ognition of the boy Cyrus, the cruel punishment of Harpagus, his treachery, etc. This story is evidently an invention of the Medes, who would not admit that they we-re conquered by a stranger. According to Ctesias, the daughter of Astydges was named Amy- tis, and was the wife of a Mede, Spitamas. After the deposition of Astydges and execution of Spitamas, Cyrus made her his consort. 558-330. Persian Empire founded by 558-529. Cyrus (Kvpo. Artabanus III. (Arsaces XXX.), last king of Par- thia. In his reign Parthia suffered severely at the hands of Caracalla, but, after his death and the defeat of Macrinus, had regained its former power, when the empire was brought to an end by the success of an insurrection of the Persians under Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, who defeated and slew the Parthian monarch. The Tatar empire was replaced by the Aryan king- dom of the Sassanidse, or the New Persian Empire (226- 652 A. D. (p. 187). § 9. CHINESE. Turanian. Geography: China in the broad sense, or the Chinese Empire, embracing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as China proper, is bounded N. by Asiatic' Russia, E. by the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, and the Sea of China, S. and S. W. by the Sea of China, Cochin China, Burmah, W. by Kashmir and East Turkestan. China (land of the Seres among the ancients, Cathay in the Middle Age), comprises less than half of the Chinese empire, being about 1474 miles long by 1355 wide. Vast alluvial plain and delta in the N. E. Mountainous and hilly in south. Rivers: Hwang-ho (Yellow River); Tsm^-tsTQ- Keang; Se-keang. Provinces: 1, Chih-li (or Pe-chih-li), with Peking^, B. c. Chtnese. 31 the capital of the empire ; 2, Keang-soo, the most populous and best watered of the provinces, with the cities, Nan-king, Shang-hai; 3, Gan- Jiwuyj 4, Keang-se; 5, Che-keang, with the city Ning-po; 6, Fuh-keen, comprising the island of Formosa ( Taitvan) ; 7, Hoo-pih; 8, Hoo-nan; 9, Ho-nan- 10, Shan-tung with the Tai-shan mountain; 11, Shan-se; 12, Shen-se; 13, Kan-suh; 14, Sze-chuen- 15, Kioang-tung, with the cities, Canton, Macao, Hong-Kong (properly Hiang-kiang) ; 16, Kwang- se; 17, Yun-nan; 18, Kwei-chow; 19, Shing-king. Beligion: Uncertamty concerning the oldest religion of the Chi- nese. By some writers it is considered little liigher than fetichisnx, while others see a monotheistic belief in the worship di Ti. Their religion embraced a worship of ancestors, of deified rulers, and of spirits generally, classed in antitheses of opposing qualities (yang and yin^, heaven and earth, male and female, from whose interaction all created beings sprang. Ideas of future life indistinct, no system of rewards and punisliments. System of offerings; never human sac- rifices. In the fifth century b. c. appeared the philosopher Con- fucius {K'ung-foo-tsze, 551-478), who taught no new theology, and did not remodel the old religion, but whose ethical code and personal influence secured for him an enthusiastic following. It was a revi- val, rather than a reformation, of the ancient faith. Enunciation of the Golden Rule.^ Contemporary with Confucius was Lao-tsze, the author of a system of ethical philosophy, Taoism, the " way or method of living which men should cultivate as the highest and purest devel- opment of their nature" (Legge). At a later time there grew up a system of gross and mystical superstition, which took the name of Taoism, deified Ldo-tsze, and became one of the recognized religions of the empire. Buddhism introduced into China about A. D. 65, where it has degenerated into a low superstition, but still numbers many dev- otees and has deeply affected the older religions. Begging priests. Mohammedanism has also its adherents. The common religion of the lower classes is the old ancestor and spirit worship, complicated by the introduction of elements from all the sects above mentioned. No state religion; toleration of all faiths. Chronology. The Chinese regard themselves as aborigines. For- eign scholars derive them from wandering bands of Tatars, or from the peoples of Tibet and Farther India, It is probable that the first settlements were made in the valley of the Hwang-Tio. The Chinese possess an intricate system of chronology which ear- lier writers trusted almost implicitly, but which modern scholars have severely criticised. The dates assigned before 800 b. c. are probably wholly untrustworthy. Chinese annalists place the creation between two and three millions of years before Confucius, and divide the inter- vening space into ten epochs. In the eighth of these are placed the fa- mous emperors Yeiv-chaou She (" nest builder "), Suy-jin She, the dis- coverer of fire, Fuhi, Chin-nung, inventor of the plough, and Yaou, who first drained the valley of Hioang-ho. These sovereigns are to be regarded as largely mvthical, as are the dynasties of Hia (2205-1766) and Shang (1766-1123). 1 Legge, Religions of China, 137-139. 32 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d. 1123-255. Chow Dynasty. During the time o£ this dynasty we reach historic ground. Development of a feudal system. The imperial domain lay in the middle of the empire, whence the name applied to the empire, " Middle Kingdom." Un- der Sing-wang, birth of Confucius, 551 B. c. 255-206. Dynasty of Tsin, famous for the energetic monarch Che-ioang-te (246-210), who extended the empire to the sea, defeated the Mongols, built the Chinese Wall (1400 miles long, 15-30 feet high, 15-25 feet broad); 213, Che- wang-te ordered the destruction of many thousand historical and philosophical books. 206 B. C.-221 A. D. Dynasties of East and West Han. Brilliant period of Chinese history. The power of the feudal lords limited, the empire consolidated and strength- ened, and extended westward to Russian Turkestan. Conquest of northern Corea (109 A. d.). Annexation of Hainan. This period was succeeded by one of great confusion. 221-265 A. D. Epoch of the Three Kingdoms: Wei, in the north; Wu, in the east; and Shuh, in the west. Wuti, 265 A. d., re- united a large part of the empire and founded the dynasty of Tsin, but the country soon relapsed into a divided state, which continued until 590 A. D. Yang-Kian, prince of Suy, in the northern king- dom of Wei, extending his conquests southward, united the whole empire under his sceptre and founded the dynasty of Suy. § 10. JAPANESE. Turanian. Geography: The Japanese ^ empire, Dai Nippon, is a chain of isl- ands which skirts the eastern coast of Asia opposite Corea, Man- churia, and Amur. It comprises four large islands: Kiushiu; Shiko- ^wyHondo,^ or Honshiu, the principal island; Yezo; and some three thousand small islands.^ Nature of the country, rocky, mountainous, volcanic. Highest mountain, Fusiyama (12,000 ft.), in the centre of the east coast of Hondo. Rivers numerous but small; among the largest: Tone-gawa, Shinano-gawa, Kiod-gavja, Ti-gawa. Lake Biioa in Hondo. Principal cities: Kioto, Yedo, or Tokio, Yokohama, Osaka. Religion: The most ancient religion of Japan bears the native name of Kami-no-michi, " the way of the gods," but is better known abroad by the Chinese term Shinto. It consisted of a theology which comprised the gods of heaven, the mikados, many deified mortals, ani- 1 Japan {Zipangu in the Middle Age) is a name given to the empire by foreigners. It is probably of Chinese origin. 2 This is the name recently applied to the main island by the Japanese gov- ernment; previously the Japanese had no name for this island. Nippon^ the name frequently given it by foreigners, is the name of the whole empire. 3 Saghalin was given to Russia in 1875 in exchange for the Kui'ile islandjs. B„ c.-A. D. Japanese. 33 mals, plants, and natural objects, and of a ritual for the worship of these deities. The chief command of the religion was implicit obedi- ence to the gods, especially to the mikado. It had no moral code. It was emphatically a state religion, and was often used as a political engine. In 552 a. d. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, where it spread rapidly. Development of a score or more of sects. (Among others Shin-shu, which teaches salvation by faith in Buddha.) Bud- dhism for a time overshadowed ihe older religion, but the present government has fully remstated the Shinto faith. Chronology: The origin of the Japanese is uncertain. They in- vaded the islands from Asia, and conquered them from the savage Ainos, whom they found there. The present Japanese are certainly a mixed race, containing Turanian and Malay elements. While the mythical history of Japan comprises a dynasty of gods, followed by a dynasty of rulers descended from the sun-goddess, and who are sometimes assigned reigns of hundreds of thousands of years each, the earliest date of what is believed in Japan to be authentic history is 660 b. c; the dates are probably untrustworthy until much later. 660-585 B. c. Jimniu Tenno,^ the first Mikado,^ being the 5th in descent from the sun-goddess. He was leader of the invasion, and conquered Kiushiu, Shihoku, and a part of the main island. Jimmii is regarded by many foreign scholars as a mythical character. He was the founder of an unbroken dynasty, of which the reigning mikado, Mutsu-Hito, is the 122d (123d counting Jingu) sovereign. The 10th mikado, Sujin (97-30 B. c.) introduced reforms, reorganized the administra- tion of the empire and generally advanced the civilization of the people. Intercourse opened with Corea. Succeeding em- perors continued the war with the native Ainos, who were pushed further and further to the north. Especially famous is the reign of the 12th mikado, 71-130 A. D, Keiko, whose more famous son, Yamato-Dake, " the warlike," conquered the great eastern plain, the Koanto. The 14th mikado, Cliinai, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his wife the renowned 201-269 A. D. Jingu-Kogo, sometimes called the 15th mikado, al- though never formally crowned. She suppressed a rebellion in Kiushiu, and herself led an army to Corea, which she re- duced to submission. Diplomatic relations with China. Her son and successor, 270-310 A. D. Ojin, was a great warrior, and is still worshipped as ^ His true name was Kan-yamato-iware-liiho-no-milcoto. After the introduc- tion of Chinese characters, the long native names of gods and emperors were transcribed into the shorter Chinese equivalents. It also became customary for the mikados to receive after death a different name from that which they had borne while living. The first mikado received the name Jimmti, " spirit of war," to which was joined one of the official titles of the mikado, Tenno, " lord of heaven." 2 Mikado, the most general title of the emperors, is derived either from M% "honorable," and Kado, "gate" (compare " Sublime Porte," and "Pharaoh'^ p. 1, note 3), or from Mika, "great," and to, "place." 34 Aiicient History. b. c. the god of war. Introduction of Chinese literature and civil- ization, which at this date was far in advance of the Japanese. From this time to the sixth century the annals of Japan are marked by no great events. B. WESTERN PEOPLES. § 1. CELTS. Aryan. Celts, or Kelts, is the name given to that race which, at the dawn of authentic history, occupied the extreme west of Europe. They be- longed to the Indo-European family, and, if the Asiatic origin of that family be accepted,^ were the first branch to enter upon the westward migration. a. Continental Celts. Gauls. Geography: At the time of the Roman conquest (59-51), Gaul, or that part of Europe occupied by the Celts (KsXroi) or Gauls (rdAAoi), was divided among three great groups of tribes: Belgians, dwelling between the lower Rhine, the forest of Ardennes, the Marne, and Seine. This people have been claimed as Teutons, but the weight of evidence assigns them to the Celts.^ Tribes : Remi, Suessiones, Nervii,^ Menapii. Gauls,* dwelling between the Seine, Marne, middle Rhine, Rhone, and Garonne. Tribes : In the valley of the Seine (Sequana): Parisii (with the city Lutetia Parisi- orum, now Paris), S endues ; in the valley of the Loire {Liger) : Namnetes, Turones, Carnutes, Boii, jEdui, Averni; W. of the Seine : Treviri ; in the valley of the Saone said Rhone : Sequani, AUohroges. The Aquitanians, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were not Celts, but Iberians. In Switzerland: Helvetii, Vindelici. Religion : Soon after the conquest the theology of the Gauls was largely superseded and corrupted by the introduction of the Roman gods. Little is therefore known of the pure Celtic religion, whose nature has consequently become a favorite subject for dispute. It was a pantheism, which had its cycle of great gods, its local divin- ities, its deifications of forests, rivers, and fountains. Among the great gods are the following, with their Roman equivalents : Bormo, Grannus (Apollo), with his companion the goddess Damona ; Segomo, Cannulus (Mars), with the goddess Nemetonia; Belisama (Minerva ?); Taramicus (Jupiter). Complicated and imposing ceremonial, con- ducted by the Druids, or priests, who were accorded at least equal honors with the nobles. They did not form an hereditary class, but were recruited from the people. Exemption from military service 1 See Introduction. 2 The Belgians are also claimed as 'non-Aryans, of the same race as the Aquitanians. 3 Dahn, Urr/esch. d. Germ. III. 26, note 9. 4 In spite of CiBsar's statement that the Gauls were called Celts in their own language, the two names are not considered synonymous. It is probable that the Gallic tribes formed a division distinct from the Celtic tribes (using Celt in the narrow sense of inhabitant of Gaul). The attempt has ^en been made to dravf the geographical boundary between them. B. c. Celts. 35 and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of juris- diction. Human sacrifices. Civilization : That the Celts of Gaul had reached quite an ad« vanced stage of civilization ^ is clear from the readiness with which they accepted the higher civilization of Rome, and from the fact that their social state as depicted by Ceesar exhibits a degeneracy which was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neus- trian state under the Merowingians, in the fifth and sixth centuries a. d. Chronology: Before the conquest the history of the Celts of Gaul is the history of their collisions with the southern nations. The Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, where many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. According to some writers the Celts immigrated in two bands, the Goidelic or Gadlielic Celts being the more northerly, and the Bry- thonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly ; this is but a surmise. Not earlier than 2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their principal settlements were made in central France. They here attained their highest culture, and from this point detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were four principal emigrations. 1. To the British Isles. Date unknown. See p. 36. 2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants and formed the Celtiherians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodo- tus in the fifth century b. c. 3. To Northern Italy. The legendary history of Rome places this event in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about 600 b. c. Tribe followed tribe until the whole of northern Italy was occupied (^Gallia Cisalpina). Tribes : Bituriges (Milan), Cenomani (Brescia and Verona), Boii (Bologna), iSenones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. military leader. 283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans ; defeat of the Boii on the Vadimonian lake. 238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina. In the second Punic War, Hannibal induced the Gauls to take up arms, but in the 193= Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 4. To Greece and Asia Minor. In 278 a band of Gauls under a Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. - The stage of development in civilization attained by ancient peoples must be largely determined by the degree of complexity found in their social and political systems. In our day, when material comforts and conveniences form a so much larger part of the popular idea of civilization than they ever did before, it is well to remember this in judging the civilizations that are gone. { 36 Ancient History. B. c. Of the Celts of Gaul little is known until the Roman conquest. Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of tiie Teutonic migration had made itself felt in the west, but the details of the conflicts are unknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there interspersed, but in general the Rhine was the boundary. About 125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a province (^Gallia JSfarbonensis) . While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri may not be admitted without question, it is certain that Gallic tribes played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (113-101). 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar (p. 138), after which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Rome. b. Celts of the British Isles. BRITAIN. Geography : The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and is bomided E. by the German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English Channel, W. by St. George's Channel, the Irish Sea, North Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith of Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numer- ous small lakes (Loch Ness, Loch Tag, Loch Lomond), and sharply cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion : hilly in the N. and W. ; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. Eastern rivers : Humber (Ouse, Trent), Witham, Welland, Nen, Ouse, running through a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western rivers : Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, of which scanty traces remain. The Andredsweald covered a large part of the counties of Surrey and Sussex ; north of the Thames a huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hain- ault forests formed a part. The fens about the Wash were much more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. Religion and Civilization : The Celts of Britain were ruder than their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civiliza- tion, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in cus- toms and religion. Druids. Bards. History, a. Mythical : Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertile im- agination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history en- abled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samothes. Meschish ruled Gaul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 (a. m.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventh, Lucius, 2211 A. M., Britain was wrested from his rule by Albion, a descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain B. c.-A. D. Celts. 37 until 2896 a. m. or 1108 b. c, when the line of Japhet recovered the island in the person of Brute, great-grandson of yEneas of Troy. Brute built Troynouant, afterwards Lud^s Town, London. He was followed by his descendants, among whom we may mention Bladud, founder of Bath, Leir (841-791), Ferrex and Porrex (496-491), with whom his line expired. Britain for a time divided into five king- doms, was finally reunited under Malmucius Dunwall, the son of Cloten king of Cornwall (441-401), whose son Brennus left liis island home to sack Rome, assault Delphi, and found the kingdom of Galatia.^ Among the successors of Malmucius were Coill (160-140). Pyrrhus (66-64), and Lud (who in some mysterious manner began to reign in 69) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Csesar), Cymbeline (19 B. C.-16 A. D.), Caractacus, Vortigern (445-455 (485) a. d.). Arthur (508-542). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the kings and princes of Wales. b. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or northern branch. From the testimony of sepulcliral monuments it is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain : a small, dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many cen- turies, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time it was the Brythonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stock, who crossed the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Csesar, and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion of the island. Tribes : Cantii, the most civilized, Attrebatii, Belgce, Damnonii, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigantes, etc. The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from Pytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century B. c. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the rivers of Gaul, or from the Gallic tribes who imported it from Britain. With 55-54 B. c. The two expeditions of Caesar, the actual history of Britain begins. The effect of the invasions was transitory. 43 A. D. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and his generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn, 58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni ; her defeat. 78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas covered its soil in profusion. 121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In 1 Brennus killed himself after the repulse from £>eiphi ; his army settled in Galatia. 38 Ancient History. b. c. 139. Antoninus strengthened the wall of Agricola. In 210 Severus added new defenses to that of Hadrian. 180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to Christianity, after which the new religion spread through- out the country, a church was organized and bishoprics founded at Canterbury and York (?). With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. During the third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the Saxon Shore,^ the officer in charge of the coast between the Wash and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. From 286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed himself emperor of Britain. 360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. 410. Honorius renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The with- drawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. A period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign inroads fol- lowed, broken by the 411. " Alleluia Victory " of the Britons accompanied by St. Ger- manus, over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii, Vortigern (Guorthigen'), either by usurpation or election, ob- tained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquer- ors (p. 176). IRELAND. Geography : Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel ; on all other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It is a low plain, fringed with hilly tracks upon the coast ; abounding in lakes (Lough Corrib, L. Mask, L. Erne, L. Neagh, Lakes of KiUarney, L. Dearg, L. Ree^, and rivers (Boyne, Liffey, Barrow, Blackwater, Shannon^. Religion and Civilization: In Ireland as in Britain we find Celtic inhabitants, Celtic religion, and Celtic culture, but both in a still more primitive form than in England ; so much so, indeed, that it may be, the Celts of Ireland were the best representatives of primitive Aryan civilization. Druids. Bards. History: Again the historian is confronted with a vast mass of very valuable tradition mingled with a great amount of priestly in- vention. The Irish historical books speak of five invasions of Ire- land. I. Partholan led a force from central Greece, which ruled 1 Comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam. An attempt has been made (Lap- penberg, Kemble) to show that this name indicates the settlement of Saxons upon this shore long before the Teutonic conquest. What people, it has been asked, would name a portion of their country after its worst enemies ? A ref« erence to our "Indian Frontier," by which is meant land held by the whites but molested by Indians, might dispel this objection. The argument from coinage is stronger, but on the whole the assumption does not seem to be , proved. B. C. Greeks. 39 Ireland 300 years, and ^,hen died of the plague, and were succeeded by II. Nemed, from Scythia, who also died of the plague. III. Fir- bolgs, who came under five chiefs and settled in various parts of the island. IV. The Tuatha De Danann, of the race of Nemed, who defeated and nearly exterminated the Firholgs. V. Milesians or Scots, who under Galam, son of Breogan, came from Spain, and conquering the Tuatha De Danann, divided Ireland among the sons and other relatives of Galam. The ancestry of Galam goes back to Noah. The historical interpretation of these legends seems at present to be that Ireland at the commencement of the Christian era was occupied in the north by Goidelic Celts (Cruithni, Picts) ; in the east and centre by British and Belgic tribes (Cymric}, and in the southwest (Munster) by a people of southern extraction (Ibe- rians?). Between the numerous petty kingdoms thus established incessant war prevailed, with the details of which the legendary his- tory is filled. Tuathal (died 160 a. d.), a powerful king who reigned over Leinster and Meath, and warred with the rival kingdom or kingdoms in Munster, is probably historic. Irish Invasions of Brit- ain : Settlements in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall, and especially in the north. Ireland was never conquered, or even invaded, by the Romans, though Agricola had planned an Irish expedition. The Irish were converted to Christianity in the fifth century. Palladius, sent to Ireland, 431 A. d., died soon after. St. Patrick (Succath or Maun), took up the work and brought it to a successful conclusion. Establishment of numerous monasteries, which in the next cen- tury attained wide renown for the learning of their members. § 2. GRECIAN HISTORY. Aryan. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT GREECE. See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. V and VI. The peninsula of Greece (Hellas, ^ 'eaaos) bounded N. by Mace- donia and Illyria, and on all other sides by the sea (E. mare JEgcBum, S. mare Myrtoum and mare Creticum, W. mare Ionium), is divided into four principal regions : Peloponnesus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus. A. Peloponnesus (^ Tle\oiT6uvr)(Tos, Island of Pelops), connected with the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, washed on the N. by the waters of the Corinthian Gulf, is divided into nine dis- tricts : 1. Achaia, formerly inhabited by lonians, in twelve com- munities, or cantons. yEgmm, capital of the confederacy, Patrce. 2. Elis or Eleia, in ^olic dialect, Valis, drained by the Alpheus and Peneus. It is subdivided into Elis Proper, or Hollow Elis : Elis and its harbor Cyllene, Pisatis : Olympia, not a city but a temple of Zeus, in a walled grove ("AXtls), with places for games, altars, and va- rious buildmgs, and Triphylia. 3. Messenia : Pylos, the home of Nestor, opposite the island of Sphacteria, Messene, built in 369 b. c, the hill fortresses of Ithome and Ira. 4. Laconia (AaKcoviK-fi), with the mountain range of Taygetus, ending in the promontory TsenSrus : Sparta (^irdpTr]), on the right bank of the Eurotas ; north of Sparta, Sellasia ; on the coast Helos, and Gythium the harbor of Sparta, 40 Ancient History. b. c. 5. Argolis (t5 "Apyos, rj ^Apyeta) comprised many cantons, politicall}! independent of one another : Argos, with its harbor Nauplia, on the gulf of Argolis, near by Tiryns, with Cyclopean walls, Hermidnef Troezen, Epidaurus, on the Saronicus sinus; inland, Mycence with Cyclopean structures. The Lion Gate, the so-called Treasure House of Atreus. 6. Phliasia : Phlius. 7. Corinthia : Corinth, formerly Ephyra with its citadel Acrocorinthus. 8. Sicyonia: Sicyon (Si/cuwv). 9. Arcadia, the mountainous region in the interior, with the ranges Cyllene and Erymanthus on the borders of Achaia; Mantinea, Tegea^ Megalopolis, the latter founded in 370. B. Central G-reece,^ also divided into nine districts: 1. Megaris, since the Dorian conquest, belonging ethnographically and politi- cally to Peloponnesus : Megdra, and its harbor Niscea. 2. Attica QAttikt]) with the mountains Parnes, Brllissus {Pentelicus), HymettuSt and the promontory of Sunium, the rivulets Cephissus and Ilissus. Athens ('AdrjuaL) with the Acropolis (Propylwa, Parthenon, Erech^ theion), the fortified harbor of Pirceus (Ueipai^vs), connected with the city by the Long Walls (ra ^laKpa relxv ; t" o-KeAri), the two unimportant harbors Munychia and Zea and the open bay of Phaleron, which served as a roadstead. Attic demes : Eleusis, Marathon, Decelea, Phyle, etc. 3. Bceotia, with Mts. Helicon, and Cithceron, Lake Copals, traversed by the Cephissus; Thebes (eTrTcCiruAos), with its citadel the Cadmea; ThespioB ; Leuctra ; Platceoe, which separated itself very early from the Bceotian league and allied itself with Athens ; Haliartus, Coronea, Orchomenos. On the coast ; Aulis, Delium, and, not far distant, Tan- agra. 4. Phocis: At the base of Mt. Parnassus, Delphi (AeXcpoi), with the oracle of the Pythian Apollo, Crissa, with its harbor, Cirrha ; Elatea. 5. Eastern Locris : (Ao/cpoi r/dJoi), for a time di- vided by a part of Phocis into the southern region of the Opuntian Locrians with the town Opus, and the northern of the Epicne- midian Locrians (i. e. they who dwell on the mountain of Cnemis) with the town Thronium. 6. 'Western Locris (AoKpoi ^airepioL, called by the other Grecians AoKpol 6(6\ai, "the stinking"). Amphissa, JSfaupactus. 7. Doris {Aoapis), between the mountains (Eta and Par~ nassus, the country of a small body of Dorians, who at the time of the Dorian invasion remained in the north, called from its four unim- portant villages, the Tetrapolis. 8. iEtolia, Calydon, Pleuron, and Thermum (afterwards the place where the assembly met at the time of the ^tolian league). 9. Acarnania, with the promontory Actium; Stratus, near the river Achelous, ('AxeAo5os) which separates Acarna- nia from jEtolia. C. Thessaly, watered by the Peneus (valley of Tempe), with the mountain range of Pindus in the W. on the border of Epirus; in the S. Othrys; in the E. Pelion, Ossa; in the N. Olympus and the Camhu- nian mountains.2 Five divisions from S. to N. : 1. Phthiotis, in the most southern part. Malls, on the Sinus Maliacus was the Pass of Thermopylae, i. e. " gate of the warm springs ; " Lamia. 2. Thessa- liotis, Pharsdlus. 3. Pelasgiotis, Pherce, Crannon, Larissa on the 1 The expression Hellas propria first appears in the Roman period ; the Greeks never used Hellas for the name of this j)ai-ticular part of the country. 2 But see Kiepert, Lehrb. d. a. Geoyr., § 210, note 1. B. c. Greeks. 41 Peneus. 4. Hestiaeotis. 5. The eastern coast land, Magnesia, lolcos, on the Sinus Pagasceus, Demetrias. D. Epirus. In historic times inhabited by lUyrian tribes not of pure Grecian blood. Principal tribes: Molossians, in whose terri- tory was Ambracia, not far from the Ambracian gulf, and Dodona (oracle of Zeus); Thesprotians, Pandosia on the Acheron, Chao- nians. In Macedonia, which lay north from Thessaly, the following places are to be noted: Pydna, Pella, the royal residence since the reign of Ai'chelaus (formerly jEgae or Edessa enjoyed this distinc- tion). On the peninsula Chalcidice : Olynthus, Potidcea, Stagirus. In Thrace: Amphipolis near the mouth of t\\e Strymon, Philippce, Abdera, Perinthus (Heraclea), Byzantium. In the Thracian Chersonese: Sestos, opposite Abydos in Asia Minor. Most important islands : In the ^gean sea : 1, Crete (Kpi^TTj, eKarS/jLTToXLs) : Cnosus (Gnossus), and Gortyn (a) ; 2, Thera, a colony of Sparta, itself mother city of Cyrene in Africa (p. 49), Melos; 3, the 12 Cyclades: Paros, Naxos, to the north the small De- los (Mt. Cynthus, sanctuary of Apollo), Cythnos, Ceos, Andros, Tenos, etc. In the Saronic gulf: 4, JSgina {A'tytfo); 5, Salamis. In the sea of Euboea; 6, Eubcea with the promontory of Artemisium in the north, Chalets, Eretria. In the Thracian sea: 7, Lemnos; 8, Samo- thrace; 9, Thasos. On the coast of Asia Minor from N. to S. : 10, Tenedos, not far from Ilium or Troy, in the district of Troas; 11, Lesbos: Mitylene, Methymna; 12, Chios; 13, >Samos opposite the prom- ontory of Mycale; 14, Cos; 15, Rhodes. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean the island of Cyprus, (YLiirpos), cities (originally Phoenician, afterwards Greek): Salamis (Schalem), Paphos and Amathus, centre of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia). In the Ionian sea from S. to N. : 1, Cythera, south of Laconia, with temple of Aphrodite; 2, Zacynthos; 3, Cephallenia, called by Homer Samos; 4, Ithaca; 5, Leucas; 6, Corcyra (Kep/cypa), perhaps the Scheria of Homer. RELIGION OF THE GREEKS. ^ The religion of the early Greeks was a pantheistic nature-worship, distinguished among others by the multiplicity of its deities, and their intricate gradation, as well as by the wealth of biographical detail which the imagination of the poets provided for them. The great gods, Olympic deities, were 12 in number. Male divinities: Zeus "the God," lord of the sky, and ruler of all other gods as well as of men; Poseidon, god of the sea; Apollo, probably originally the highest god of some local district, the divinity of wisdom, of healing, of music and poetry, but not until later the sun-god; Ares, god of war; Hephcestus, god of fire, and of work accomplished by the application of fire, set apart from the other gods by his lameness; Hermes, god of invention, commercial skill, cunning, bravery. Female divinities: Hera, con- 1 Kawlinson. Religions of the Ancient World. Also Grote, Hist, of Greece, vol. I.; Curtius, Griech. Gesch. I. 543-60; 456-549 passim. 42 Ancient History. b. Co sort of Zens; Athena, the maiden goddess sprung from the head of Zeus, the embodiment of wisdom and of housewifery; Artemis, god- dess of hunting, afterwards connected with the moon, as her brother Phcebus Apollo, with the sun ; Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love, prob= ably introduced from the East; Hestia, goddess of fire, especially of the hearth-fire ; Demeter, " earth-mother," presiding over agriculture. In the lower rank of gods may be mentioned: Dionysius, god of wine and drunkenness; Hades, god of the lower world, the Graces, the Muses, the Fates, the Furies, etc. The fields and forests, the ocean and the rivers were crowded with Nymphs and Hamadryads, Naiads and Nereids, while creatures of a lower order, Satyrs (among whom Pan rose to the level of a god of the second rank) and monsters {Cyclopes, Gorgons, Centaurs, etc.) abounded. Reverence was also paid to the heroes, ideal representations of fa- mous men, real or imaginary. Such were Cadmus (Thebes), Theseus (Athens), and Heracles, the mostly widely known of all (see p. 45). The gods were worshipped by invocation, and by sacrifices offered in accordance with a rigid ritual at altars which could be im- provised anywhere. There were, however, permanent altars for all divinities, in temples where the statue of the divinity was also en- shrined. These temples were frequently erected on lofty and com- manding sites, and upon th-eir construction and decoration was lav- ished the highest skill in architecture and sculpture. Brilliant coloring was also employed upon the temples. Each family, tribe and race, each city, district and country had its recurring fes- tivals of special honor to the gods (Panathenma at Athens). Re- ligious festivals of all Greece: Olympian (Zeus) every fifth year, in July or August, at Olympia in Elis; Pythian (Apollo), every fifth (9th) year, at Delphi; Isthmian (Neptune), every five years on the Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean, every third year, at Nemea in Argolis. These festivals were the centre of Grecian national life. Amphyctio- nic Council, the most important of the Amphyctionies (p. 51), a reli- gious conference which met at Delphi, and represented the political side of the Pan-Hellenic religion. Consultation of oracles, for obtain- ing the counsel of the gods, especially at Delphi. Mysteries, or rites of secret religious societies, the most renowned at Eleusis. No hierarchy of priests ; yet those who had charge of the sacrifices, and more espe- cially of the oracles, often attained great influence. Ideas of future life vague and unsatisfactory. The more advanced minds among the Greeks undoubtedly attained to the idea of the es- sential oneness of divinity. GRECIAN HISTORY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR EPOCHS. ^-1104 (?). I. Mythical period down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration. 1104 (?)-500. II. Formation of the Hellenic states. Period of con- stitutional struggles down to the Persian wars. 500-338. III. Persian wars and internecine strife for the hegemony down to the loss of independence at the battle of Charonea. 333-146. IV. Grseco-Macedonian or Hellenistic period down to the subjugation of Greece by the Romans. Destruction of Corinth, B. c. Greeks. ' 43 FIEST PERIOD. Mythical time, down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration (x-1104?).! TheGreeks,^ or as they called themselves the Hellenes ("EAATjyes), belong to the Indo-European or Aryan family. The Greeks state that the original inhabitants of their country were the Pelasgians. The meaning of this name is much disputedo According to some scholars it denotes the band which afterwards divided into the Italians and Hellenes. Another view regards the Pelasgians and Hellenes as the same people, but holds that the latter name is applied to those tribes which, " endowed with peculiar abil- ities and inspired with peculiar energy, distinguished themselves above the mass of a great people, while they extended their power within the same by force of arms," ^ so that their name became in historic times the one generally accepted. Others, again, regard the name Pelasgian as Semitic, and so applied originally to the Phcenician in- habitants of the coast, especially to the Minyce of Orchomenos, and afterwards erroneously transferred to the Illyrian aborigines of Epirus, Acadia, etc. Do dona, in Epirus, with the oracle of Zeus, the god of the sky, was the oldest centre of the Pelasgian life and religion. Remains of Pelasgian buildings, called by the Greeks Cyclopean, are found in Tiryns in Argolis, and in Orchomenos in Bceotia. Our earliest historical information shows the Hellenes divided into various tribes. Of these the Achaeans were most prominent during the heroic times, and their name was therefore used by Homer to denote the entire race. In historic times, on the contrary, the Dorians and lonians occupy the foreground; the other tribes are then classed together under the name ^olian, and the dialects which were neither Dorian nor Ionian are known as ^olian. The following mythical genealogy seems to have been invented at a very late period, and to have originated at Delphi. Hellen (son of Deucalion) / — ^ * , .^olus (i. e. the many-colored) Dorus Xuthus (i. e. the exile) Ion Achseus. We have no authentic information about the manner of the Hel- lenic migration into Greece. According to one well-founded theory, a part of the immigrants, and among them the ancestors of the Do- rians, forced their way over the Hellespont into the mountainous region of northern Greece, where they established themselves as shepherds and tillers of the land. Other bands, among whom were the ancestors of the lonians, having descended from the highlands of Phry- ^ According to Duncker, Jffist. of Antiq., 100 years later. 2 Grdken (Grseci, TpatKoi) was the name given to the Greeks by the people oi^ Italy; it was the name of a tribe in Epirus, or the Illyrian name for the Hellenes \a general. 3 Curtius, Griechische Geschichte, I. 29; Hist, of Greece, N. Y. 1876, I. 41. 44 Ancient History. b. c» gia, by way of the valleys, to the coast of Asia Minor, were there transformed into a race of seamen, and gradually spread themselves over the islands of the Archipelago to the mainland of Greece.^ (The former formed the western, the latter, the eastern Greeks). Remembrance of the fact that western Greece received its civiliza- tion from the East gave rise, at a later period, to stories about un- authentic immigrations.^ Cecrops (KeKpo^'), according to the original story autochthonus king of Attica, and builder of the Cecropia (Acropolis of Athens), was afterwards, in consequence of that identification of Grecian and Egyptian mythology which is illustrated by the conception of Neith, goddess of Sais, as Pallas Athena (p. 2), falsely represented as an Egyptian immigrant from Sais. The truth seems to be that the cliffs by the Ilissus, which were called the Cecropia, formed the first fortress of the inhabitants of the region, upon which their altars and sanctuaries found protec- tion, and around which the first beginnings of political life in Attica grouped themselves. Afterwards the Cecropia was per- sonified under the name Cecrops. According to the legend Cecrops was succeeded by Erichthonios, the latter by Erechtheus, the two becoming soon united into one person, in whom the Erechtheion, the temple of Poseidon Erechtheus, on the Acropolis, is personified. The legend makes Erechtheus the founder of the festival of Pan- athencea and conqueror of Eumolpus (i. e. sweet singer) of Eleusis, the centre of the worship of Demeter (story of her daughter Core, in the lower world Proserpina; the Eleusinian mysteries^. Eleusis was united with Athens into one community. Erechtheus, according to the legend, was succeeded by (Eneus, the latter by jEgeus, the father of Theseus, the national hero of the lonians (p. 45). A later legend tells how Danaus, brother of ^gyptus, came from Upper Egypt to Argos. He, too, with his fifty daughters, the Dan- aides, who, with the exception of Hypermnestra, murdered their hus- bands, the sons of ^gyptus, and were for this crime condemned to fill the bottomless tub, belongs to the native mythology. The Dan- aides are the springs of Argos, which, in the summer time, exert themselves in vain to satisfy the soil ; the water which gushes from them being dried up in the chalky earth. According to the legend the descendants of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ruled in Argos. On the other hand the legend of the migration of the Pelopidae from Lydia to Greece seems to have a historical foundation. Pelops, son of king Tantalus, who ruled the country about the Sipylus, came to Elis in Peloponnesus. His sons Atreus and Thyestes, with the help of Achceans from Phthiotis, made themselves masters of Tiryns and Mycence, which had been founded by Perseus. Of the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon reigned over the whole of Argolis, while Menelaus became king of Sparta and Messina. The buildings and sculptures in Mycense, which are ascribed to the Atridce, resemble Assyrian art, and Assyrian art could have come to Greece earliest by way of Lydia. 1 Curtius, I,, Griech. Gesch., I. 29 sqq. ; Hist, of Greece, I. 41. 2 Cf. Duncker, Gesch. des Alth., III. (2 Auflage), 1 Kap. 4-6. Curtius, Griech. Gesch., I. 58; Hist, of Greece, I. 73. B. c. Greeks. 45 Cadmus, the mythical founder of the Theban state, is the per- sonification of Phoenician colonization, or at least of that civilization which Hellas had received from Phoenicia (p. 18). The national heroes of Grecian legend. The myth of Heracles ('Hpa/cATjs, Hercules), son of Zeus and Alc- mena, grew up out of the union of various religious, historical, and ethical elements. Heracles was in the beginning an actual divinity whom tradition, in the course of time, degraded to a demi-god. In him are united the Phoenician Melkart (p. 17) and Sandon, the sun- god of Asia Minor, and his heroic deeds are for the most part adapta- tions of the deeds ascribed to these two divinities. Heracles is at the same time the popular symbol brought by the Phoenicians to the eastern Greeks, and from them to the western Greeks, of the pioneer activity of the ancient settlements. A portion of the mass of legends connected with Heracles after his transformation into a Greek is ex- plained by later historical relations. The Dorians adopted him as their tribal hero. Their kings called themselves his descendants, Heraclidee ; from him they derived their rights to the Peloponnesus. Hence his rights, in the legends, not only over Mycence, in opposition to Eurystheus, but also over other parts of the peninsula (Augias in Elis, Tyndareos in Sparta). The poetry of a later time, regarding Heracles as an ethical conception, presented him as the model of heroism, moral force, and renunciation, especially of willing obedi- ence (the 12 labors at the behest of Eurystheus; the choice of Her- cules). Theseus (0T7o-eus), son of ^geus, the descendant of Cecrops, is the family hero of the lonians, and of the Athenians in particular. He cleared the road from Troezen, where, according to the legend, he was born, to Athens (especially the isthmus), of robbers {PeripheteSy Sinnis, Sciron, Damastes or Procrustes), so that the lonians of the Peloponnesus and of Attica thenceforward could assemble on the isthmus at the sacrifices to Poseidon. Theseus put to death the Minotaur in Crete, and rescued the Athenian youths and maidens sent as a sacrifice to him. He conquered at Marathon the wild bull which is said to have likewise come from Crete. He repulsed the Amazons who made an attack upon Athens for the purpose of avenging the rape of Antiape. These three myths express the historical fact of the liberation of Attica from the tribute which it owed to the Phoenicians of Crete and the smaller islands, who offered human sacrifices to their god Moloch. The origin of the story of the Amazons is to be found in the virgin servants of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, who, at the religious ceremonies, executed dances in armor. The legend, moreover, ascribes to Theseus the union of the inhabitants of Attica into one state, and the separation of the people into the three orders: EupatridcE (nobles), Geomori (peasants), and Demiurgi (artizans), whereas the arrangement of the four ancient classes (Phyloe) : Geleontes (nobles), Hoplltes (warriors), Argadeis (artizans), JEgicoreis (shepherds) was referred by the Athenians to the mythical tribal ancestor of the Ionian tribe, Ion (p. 43). 46 Ancient History. B. c. The Grecian legends adopted Minos (mivus), also originally of Phoenician origin, and transformed him into a Hero of the Dorians who dwelt in Crete since 1000, and a wise legislator and suppressor of piracy. Advanced civilization existed in Crete before 1500. Concerted enterprises of the heroic time. Expedition of the Argonauts. The golden fleece. Phrixos, son of the king of the Minyse, Athdmas of lolcos, in Thessaly, whom his father was about to sacrifice to Zeus in order to obtain rain, fled with his sister Helle, on the ram with the golden fleece, who was given them by their mother Nephele. Helle during the journey fell into the sea, which is now called Hellespont (" sea of Helle "), near Abydos. Phrixos reached Colchis, on the Pontus Euxinus, and king JEetes. The ram was sacrificed, the golden fleece preserved in a grove of the god Ares, guarded by a dragon. Jason, from loleos, in- cited by his uncle Pelias, sailed in the ship Argo to Colchis at the head of a band of heroes consisting, according to the original myth, of Minyse alone, but according to the later legends accompanied by Heracles, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, etc. They gained pos- session of the fleece by the aid of the enchantress Medea, daughter of ^etes. Return to lolcos. Pelias murdered at the instigation of Medea. According to a later continuation of the legend, flight of Jason and Medea to Corinth, where Jason fell in love with Glauca, the daughter of the king. Medea poisoned Glauca, and killed her own children. Medea went to Athens and became the consort of JEgeus. This myth seems to have been originally purely symbolical. The golden ram, which Nephele, that is, the " cloud," sends, is a repre- sentation of the fertilizing power of rain-clouds. The cloud-ram de- parts to liis home, the land of the sun-god. His fleece, a pledge of blessing, is brought back by Jason (the " healer," the " bringer of blessings "), with the help of the daughter of the son of the sun, jSiCtes, who is learned in magic. This myth was afterwards expanded and localized in a manner which hints at the early voyages of the Pelasgic (p. 43) Minyae. The principal site of the wealth and power of the Minyse was Orchomenos in Boeotia; but the gulf of Pagasce, on which lolcos is situated, is the scene of their early inter- course by sea. War of the Seven against Thebes. The story of (Edipus appears in its simplest form in Homer, and was expanded by the Attic tragic poets. CUdipus (olShovs), son of Jocasta, and Ldios king of Thebes, a great-grandson of Cadmus, is exposed, in infancy, in consequence of an oracle which prophesied injury to his parents. He was rescued and brought up by Polyhos in Corinth. At Delphi he kills his father, without recognizing him, solves the riddle of the Sphinx (What creature is there which goes on 4, 2, and 3 feet ? Man, in childhood, in manhood, in old age), becomes king of Thebes, and marries his own, mother. When his crime is made known to him, he puts out his eyes. His daughters Antigone and Ismene. Quarrels of his sons Eteocles ('Et€o/cA.^s} and B. c. Greeks. 47 Polymces (UoKweiKrjs). Polynices attacks Thebes with his allies : Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, Parthenopceus. The hostile brothers fall iii personal contest; of the other princes all perish but Creon, the uncle of the brothers, who becomes king of Thebes. "War of the Epigoni. Ten years later, expedition of the Epigoni (sons ,of the Seren). Thebes captured and plundered. Thersander, son of PolynlceSy made kin^of Thebes. 1193-1184. Trojan War. Priam was king of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; his consort was Hecuba (Hecabe). Of his fifty sons the following appear in the legend : Hector ("E/cTcop), whose wife is Andromache, and Paris (Alexandros). The latter abducts Helena ('EAcVtj), wife of Menelaus, of Sparta. The noblest princes of Greece unite to bring her back. Agamemnon of Mycen^, brother of Menelaus, and leader of the Greeks; Sthenelus of Tiryns ; Nestor of Pylos ; Achilles ('AxtAAet^s), king of the Myrmidons from Phthia in Thessaly, son of Peleus and the Nereid Thetis; Patroclusj Ajax {Mas), and Teucer, sons of Tela- mon of Salamis; the younger Ajax, son of Oileus, leader of the Locrians; Diomedes of Argos, son of Tydeus; Odysseus of Ithaca, son of Laertes; Idomeneus, of Crete, grandson of Minos, etc. Among the allies of the Trojans from Asia Minor are : Sarpedon and Glaucus, leaders of the Lycians, troops from Mysia, Mceonia (in Lydia), Paphlagonia, and Phrygia, also Thracians and Pceones from the other side of the strait. The historical kernel of this great Grecian legend is, perhaps, the fact of a military expedition of Grecian tribes against the Trojans and the conquest of Troy; everything else in the story is mythical. Perchance the -3!lolian colonization of historic times (p. 49) and the ensuing contests with the native population gave rise to the romance of the Trojan war, which tradition then removed to the time before the Dorian migration. The prehistoric existence of a powerful city in the neighborhood of Troy, and its name 'Tpoiv and "lAto;/, is certain. Connected with the tale of the Trojan war, are the stories of the return of the Grecian princes. The murder of Agamemnon by his wife Clytemnestra and her paramour, and the vengeance of his children Orestes and Electra. The ten years wandering of Odysseus and his many adventures (Polyphemus, Lastrygones, Circe, Calypso, the Phseacians, etc.). SECOND PERIOD. From the Thessalian and Dorian Migration to the beginning of the Persian Wars, (1104 (?)-500.) Migration of the Thessalians from Epirus to the valley of the Peneus, thenceforward called Thessaly. Of the former inhabitants, kalians, part became serfs (Treveo-rat), part fled the country. A por* 48 Ancient History. b- c. tion of the latter conquered Boeotia. The previous inhabitants of BcEotia, probably Pelasgians, as for instance the Minyse in Orchome- nos, and the Cadmeans in Thebes, were partly subdued, partly scat- tered in various settlements. Their name is henceforward im- known to history. The Dorians were likewise driven away by the Thessalians. They had inhabited the country about the Otlirys and (Eta, and the small mountainous region where they maintained themselves after the in- vasion, and which was known as Doris. That portion of them which emigrated also took the southern way. Strengthened by ^tSlian bands, they crossed to the Pelopomiesus between Naupactus, where they constructed vessels, and the promontory of Rhion. This is the so-called 1104 (?).^ Dorian migration, or the conquest of Pelo- ponnesus by the Dorians and ^tolians, according to the story, under the leadership of the Heraclidae (Teme- nus, Cresphontes, Aristodemus, descendants of Heracles. The conquerors crossed the northern portion of the Peloponnesus without making a settlement, and turned towards the countries on the western coast. The inhabitants of these regions, the Epei, being subdued, the ^tolians established themselves here, and founded a new commonwealth, called Elis. Out of the mixture of the JEtolians and Epei, sprang the new tribe of the Elei. The Dorians passed through southern Arcadia, probably up the valley of the Alpheus, and estab- lished themselves in the south and east of Peloponnesus. The native population, consisting of Achseans and ^olians, were in part expelled, in part placed in subjection; while in some regions they gave up certain territories to the new-comers by treaty. The last was the case in Laconia, where the native chiefs made treaties with the invaders and thereby received for a time recognition of their princely rights and support in their supremacy. So arose in Peloponnesus, one after another, but slowly and after much fighting and many revolutions, the following Dorian communi- ties: 1. Messenia (Cresphontes) ; 2. Sparta (JProcles and Eurysthenes, sons of Aristodemus) ; 3. Argos (Temenus), at first the most powerful state, at the head of a league, to which Epidaurus and Troezen^ under their own rulers, belonged; 4. Phlius; 5. Sicyon; 6. Corinth, these three containing many of the old inhabitants, who lived among the new inhabitants under the same laws. Outside of Peloponnesus: 7. Megara; and 8. the island ^gina {KXyiva). The remains of the old population, the Achaeans, who were driven from their homes, expelled or subjugated the JEgialian lonians, who inhabited the northern coast of Peloponnesus. The whole region was henceforward called Achaia. 1068 (?). Codrus (KSSpos), the last king of Athens, fell a vol- untary sacrifice in battle against the Dorians. According to the legend, Codrus was the son of the Nestorian Melanthus, who had fled from Pylos to Athens. 1 See p. 43, note 1. / B. C. Greeks. 49 The immediate consequence of these migrations and conquests was the practice of colonization, on a great scale, which at first was car- ried on by the tribes wMch had been expelled from their homes, but in which the conquering Dorians soon took active part. The Pelasgic population, driven from Thessaly, settled partly on the peninsula CJialcidice, partly in Crete^ and partly on the coast of Mysia ; the Minyce from lolcos, and Orchomenos occupied Lemnos^ Imbros, Samothrace. More important were the 1000-900 (?) ^olian, Ionian, Dorian colonies which settled along the coast of Asia Minor and its islands. .SJolian and Achaean colonies: Mitylene and Methymna on the island of Lesbos; Cyme and Smyrna on the mainland of Asia Minor {Smyrna afterwards became Ionian). The lonians, who were driven away by the Achseans, fled first to Attica, but finally founded along the coast of Lydia 12 cities with a common sanctuary at Panionium on Mycale, the most important of which were: Miletus, mother-city of more than 80 colonies, Ephesus, Phoccea (p. 26), Colophon^ and occupied the islands of Samos and Chios. Dorian colonies, along the coast of Caria: Halicarnassus and Cni- dus. Dorians and Ach(Eans founded settlements in Crete, Rhodes, where they gradually drove out the Phoenicians, in Melos and in Thyra, whence in 631 the colony of Cyrene was sent out to the north coast of Africa. 1000 (?).^ Homer and his successors (Homeridse). Iliad and Odyssey. Constitution of society and government. During the heroic period, and at the beginning of historic times, we find everywhere a patriarchal monarchy, the hereditary property of families who derived their descent from the gods. In the historic times gradual formation in all states of a republican constitution, partly through the extinction, partly through the expulsion, of the old dynasties. This republican constitution was at first aristocratic; later, in most states, democratic, frequently reaching the latter state through the intervening suprem- acy of a Tyrant (Tvpawos), a name applied to every one who attained supreme power in an illegal manner, and originally not conveying the idea of an ai;bitrary or cruel government. The democracy of antiquity was not, however, a form of govern- ment in which the majority of the inhabitants, but in which the major- ity of the citizens, took part in the conduct of the commonwealth. In most of the Greek states, the majority of the population consisted, not of citizens, but of slaves.^ Democracies in the modern sense were almost unknown in ancient times. In Doric Sparta the population consisted of three classes, strictly distinct from one another: 1. Spartiatoe (j^irapTiaTai, comprising '6fioioi, 1 The Grecian statements concerning the epoch of Homer differ almost five hundred years from one another. 2 Cf. Becker, Charicles (trans.), 361; and Schoemann, Antiquities of Greece, I. 100 foil. 4 50 Ancient History. b. c. i. e. those having full rights, and virojxdov^s i- e. those of less means, who could not furnish the required contribution to the Syssites) di- vided into three Phylse, each composed of 10 Obse (w^a/) ; these were the Dorian conquerors, who occupied the fertile portions of the La- conian territory, the valley of the Eurotas, and the lowlands extending to the sea; 2. Lacedcemonians or Perioeci (ireploiKoi, i. e. they who dwell romid about), descendants of those Achseans who had submitted to the conquerors by treaties. They were free, but payed dues, as trib- utary property-holders and small land-owners, and were without political rights, but were, however, bound to military service; S. Helots (from eUoores, "prisoners"?), serfs of the state. They were divided among the Spartiatse by lot, and tilled their lands, paying to their lords a fixed portion of the harvest. The number of the Periceci was almost four times that of the Spartiatce, while the number of the Helots was, perhaps, from 2 to 3 times as great as that of the Pe- riceci. 820 (?)• Constitution and Laws of Lycurgus. Lycurgus (^\vKovpyos), according to tradition of royal descent, and guardian of the young king Charilaus, arranged the relation of the three classes, as described above, according to settled principles. His code of laws was for the Spartiatse alone. The form of government was an aristocratic republic, in spite of the two hereditary kings (generals, high priests, judges). Both kings must be of the Heraclid race, one a member of the Agidce (from Agis, son of Eurystheus), the other of the Eurypontidoe (from Eurypon, grandson of Procles; see p. 48). The Council of Elders {yepovaia^lS Gerontes, at least 60 years of age, elected for life) under the two kings as presiding officers had: 1. the previous discussion of everything that was to be laid before the popular assembly; 2. jurisdiction over capital crimes. The popular assembly {axia), consisting of all Spartiatse over thirty years of age, who had not lost their political rights, had no right of initiation, and decided without debate. At a later period the five Ephors, i. e. in- spectors (for the 5 wards) who had probably existed before Lycurgus, acquired great power (p. 56). Assignment of an hereditary landed estate to every Spartan family, which had lost its possessions since the conquest; equal division of the Helots, or slaves of the state, for the purpose of tilling these lands. No new division of all landed property.^ (Tradition makes Lycurgus divide the land into 9000 (4500 ?) lots for the Spartiatse, and 30,000 for the Perioeci.) Establishment of social unions or com- pulsory clubs (^(TK-rjual), whose members ate together, even in time of peace : Phiditia or Syssitia. Children were brought up in common, and the young men of the Spartan warrior-nobles dwelt together. The Crypteia (KpvirTeia), an organized guard over the Helots by young Spartans. No actual hunting of the Helots.^ 776. First Olympiad, that is, the first year in whicli 1 Grote, Hist, of Greece (Boston, 1851), II, 393 foil. 2 Schoemanu, Antiq. of Greece, 1. 195. B. c. Greeks. 51 the name of the Olympian victor was recorded. (The first was Coroibus.) Olympian games (raised to greater importance since 820, by the par- ticipation of Sparta ?) ; Nemean games since 573, in honor of Zeus, Isthmean games (Poseidon, since 582), and Pythian games (Apollo, en- larged after 590), Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, founded, accordmg to tradition, at the command of the god, by Cretans (i. e. Dorians) from Cnosus. Amphiotyonies, societies for common worship (per- formance of sacrifices), the most important of which was the Delphic. 734. Foundation of Syracuse ^ by the Corinthian Archias. 743-724. (?) First Messenian war. Aristodemus king of the Mes- senians. Defence of Ithome. Those Messenians that did not emigrate became tributary. A part of the land was confis- cated as conquered territory. 708. Foundation of Tarentum by the Spartan Phalanthus. 645-628. 2 Second Messenian war. Aristomenes. Defence of Ira (EJpa), for nine years. The Athenian bard Tyrtseus accom- panied the Spartans. After the fall of Ira the greater part of the Messenians fled to Sicily; Zanole, also, was occupied by them, but does not appear to have received the name Messana before the fifth century.^ The remaining Messenians became Helots. In Athens government of the nobles (Eupatridce) since the death of Codrus (1068 ?). The chief officers of state were the Archons, at first (1067-753) chosen for life, from the family of Codrus ex- clusively, afterwards (752-683) elected for ten years, the first four only being of the family of Codrus, the rest taken from the Eupa- tridce in general. From 682 on there were nine archons chosen every year, and serving only one year, taken from the Eupatridce alone, and chosen by them alone. These were: 1. Archon Eponymus (i. e. he from whom the year is named), the presiding officer. 2. Basileus, \, e. king of the sacrifices, high priest. 3. Polemarchus, at first leader of the army, afterwards, when the military command was entrusted to Strateges by turn, only superintendent of military affairs; the other six were Thesmothetce, judges, heads of the department of justice.. Cir. 621. Laws of the Archon Draco. No alteration of the consti- tution, only reform of the criminal law, and the law relating to debts, introducing great severity, frequent use of the death penalty, and heavy fines. Hence later known as the " Law of Draco, written with blood." 624? Insurrection of Cylon, who, with the assistance of his father-in-law Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, seized the Acropo- lis. Cylon was driven into banishment by the Archon Megacles, of the family of the Alcmceonidce, and his followers were put to 1 Concerning the date of the foundation, see Holm, Gesch. Sicilien*, L S81 nqq. 2 According to Duncker, Gesch. des AUherth., and Curtius, I. 240. Ac- cording to the older but very doubtful assumption, 685-668. 3 Holm, Gesch. Siciliens, I. 200. 52 Ancient Histwy. b. c. death while clinging for protection to the altars. On account of this sacrilege the Archons for the year were banished. Ke- ligions purification of Athens by Epimemdes of Cnossus. Solon, of the family of the Nelidse, gained great influence by the recapture of Salamis, which had been taken by the Megarseans, and through liis share in the 600-590. 1 First sacred war against Crisa and Cirrha, whose in- habitants had robbed the temple of Apollo in Delphi. The Amphyctyonies destroyed both cities after a long contest ; the inhabitants were enslaved and their land consecrated to the Pythian Apollo. Growing dissatisfaction in Athens with the government of the nobility, and internal disorders. The citizens were divided into three parties: 1. The great land-owners of the plain (o: ere rod -n-eStou), the Supatridce, 2. The peasants of the mountainous districts (5mKptoi). 3. The inhabitants of the coast (7rctpa\ot), a well-to-do middle class. 594. Solon, while Archon Eponymus, being authorized by a special enactment to negotiate between the aristoc- racy and the people, proposed and carried out at first the Seisachtheia (i. e. the removal of burdens), whereby debts secured by mortgage were reduced about 27% by the intro- duction of a new standard of coinage; the Attic or Euhcean talent ($1078.87) instead of the Aginetan talent ($1630.50) ; personal security for debts was abolished, and all money fines as yet unpaid were remitted. Amnesty for all who had been deprived of their political rights (pLriiioi). Return of the Alcmaeonidge. The Constitution and Laws of Solon were established for the citizens (TroXlTai) only. Excluded from all political rights were: 1. The metceci (fieroiKoi, foreigners not citizens, but living in Athens under protection of the goverimient), who were regarded in law as minors, and required to be represented by a patron (Trpoo-TOTTjs) who was a citizen, in all legal transactions. 2. The slaves (SovXol). The two latter classes formed the great majority of the inhabitants. In her most prosperous days the citizens of Athens may be estimated at 90,000, the metoeci at 45,000, the slaves at 360,000. So that in the period of most extreme democracy the sovereign people formed a small minority of the population. ^ Division of all citizens, for purposes of military service and the exercise of political rights, into classes, according to income received from property in land, no regard being paid to movable property of any kind. The unit of measure was the medimnus (52.53 liter), for grain and vegetables; the metretes (39.39 liter), for wine and olive oil. The following four classes were formed: — 1. Pentakosiomedimni, men whose estates brought in a minimum of 600 medimni and metretes. 1 According to Curtius, Hist, of Greece, I. 281. The date formerly ao cepted was 596-586. 2 Cf . Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 348, 353. B. c. Greeks. 53 2. Knights (tTTTrets), yield of estates 300-500 medimm. 3. Zeugitce (i. e. they who work their land with one span of mules), yield of estates at least 150 medimni. 4. Thetes, comprising all who owned land yielding less than 150 medimni, or possessed no land, but were either day laborers in the country, or artisans, sailors, tradesmen in the city. Taxation consisted in the duty of the citizens, as arranged in these four classes, to systematically supply ships, horses, and arms for mili- tary service. The members of the first three classes served as hoplites (oirXtTai), heavy armed foot-soldiers; members of iihe first two classes served also in case of need as cavalry, furnishing their own horses s while members of the^ra^ class furnished ships for the fleet at their own expense, for which purpose they were enrolled in 48 naucrariss; the thetes were to be called upon to serve as light-armed foot, or upon the fleet, only to defend the country from invasion. There was no other regular taxation of citizens; state officials served without pay, and the other expenses of the commonwealth were covered by the yield of the mines, which were state property, by fines, by a poll- tax laid on the metoeci, and by the harbor dues. When extraordinary taxes were necessary, they were adjusted on the basis of the classes described above, the fourth class, however, being exempt. After the time of Solon, the nine archons were taken from the first class; every citizen had a vote in their election. The council (jSovAtj) of 400, formerly chosen from the Eupatridce alone, was henceforward open to all citizens of the^rs^ three classes over thirty years old. The popular assembly (iKK\7]cria) consisted of all citizens over twenty years old. The Areopagus (from "Apeios irdyos,^ Hill of Ares, or Mars), the an- cient court which had jurisdiction over murder and arson, and a general supervision over the entire administration of the state, was, after this time, composed of archons who had retired from office. Legal mat- ters were adjusted by the heliasts (-^Atao-Tot, so called from the halls, ilAiala, where they sat), bodies having something of the nature of both judge and jury, and consisting of citizens over thirty years old, chosen by the thesmothetse, out of a list of 6000 citizens which was formed by lot. This timocratic constitution of Solon paved the way from aristocracy to democracy. In itself it was essentially conservative, since the larger landed estates were nearly all in the hands of the nobles. Solon also established a code of laws for regulating the entire civil life, which was not completed until later. Solon left Athens for ten years. Travels in eastern Asia, Crete, and Egypt. New party divisions in Athens. The nobles were led by Lycurgus; the middle class by the Alcmseonid Megacles; the poorer classes by Pisistratus, who, in spite of the opposition of Solon, who had returned to Athens and was now an old man, constantly gained new supporters, and finally made himself master of the Acropolis. 1 The hill only was so called by the ancients. The court was known as ^ ep 54 Ancient History. b. c. 560-527. Pisistratus (neto-to-Tparo?), tyrant of Athens. Emigration of Athenian nobles, under Miltiades the elder, to the Thracian Chersonese. Solon left Athens again and went to Asia Minor. Conversation with Croesus in Sardes (see p. 26). He died (559) at Soli^ in Cyprus (?). Pisistratus ruled in Athens under the forms of the Solonian consti- tution, which he did not revoke. He managed that the people should always choose archons who suited him. Driven out by a coalition of the nobles and the moderates, 569, he returned five years later (554). A second time exiled in 652, he again regained his power after eleven years absence, and ruled without further interrup- tion from 541 to 627. New emigration of noble families, particu- larly that of the Alcmceonidce. Pisistratus conducted his government until his death, with mildness and wisdom, and bequeathed it to his son, 627-510. Hippias (^linrlas), under whom 519. Platcece seceded from the Bceotian League and entered into alliance with Athens. The Boeotians were defeated by the Athenians. Hippias conducted the government after the man- ner of his father, until his brother, Hipparchus, was murdered by Harmodius ('Ap/A(J5tos) and Aristogiton CApia-royelTcop) in 514. (See Thucydides, VI. 54-69, where he criticises the traditional tale of Harmodius and Aristogiton.) Hippias took a cruel revenge, was driven out of the city by the exiled nobles (Clis- thenes at the head of the Alcmceonidce) in connection with a Spartan army under Cleomenes. He took refuge with Darius, king of Persia. 509. Reforms of Clisthenes (KXctor^eV^y?), son of Mega- cles, grandson of Clisthenes, of Sicyon. Tliis was not only a change in the constitution, but a social reform as well. The constitution of Solon was not, however, repealed, but only further developed in a democratic manner, without as yet intro- ducing equal political rights of all citizens. The Solonian arrange- ment of classes for purposes of taxation remained; the archonship was as before restricted to the first class, and membership of the council to the first three classes. With the consent of the Delphic oracle, now indebted to the Alc- mseonidse, for the erection of a new temple, the four old Athenian tribes ( between Bithynia, Phrygia, Lycaonia and Cappadocia, founded by Gallic tribes, who, during the wars of the Diodochi, had ravaged Macedonia and Greece, crossed the Hellespont and in 278 settled in Asia Minor. They consisted of the three tribes of Trocmi, Tectdsages and Tolistoboii (each under four Tetrarchs) with the three capitals Tavia, Ancyra and Pessinus. In the first century before Christ, Deiotarus became king of all Galatia, which Augustus made a Roman province. 250. b. The Parthians (p. 29) who under the Arsacidge (250 B. c. to 226 A. D.) conquered all lands between the Euphrates and the Indus, and formed a dam, in the east, first against the Hellenistic and afterwards against the Roman power. 167. c. The Jews under the Maccabees (p. 11). The two following countries were never dependent on the empire of the Seleucidse. a. Pontus, which had, it is true, submitted to Alexander the Great, but was recognized as independent under its own kings of Persian descent (of the Achfemenidse it was claimed, p. 25), by the victors at Ipsus (p. 77). The last kings were Mitliridates VI. the Great, and his son Pharnaces (see Roman History, Fourth Period, p. 129). b. Armenia, although kings of Armenia first appear after the battle of Magnesia, (190). 3. The kingdom of Pergamon under the Attalidse, Capi- tal, Pergamus in Mysia. Founded by Pliiletcerus (283-263) who had been appointed gov- ernor by Lysimachus. Eumenes I. (263-241). Attdlus I. (241-197). Eumenes II. (197-159), founder of the library of Pergamus. Atta- ins II. (159-138). Attdlus III. (138-133), who bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 4. Bithynia. Capital, Nicoraedia. Founded by Nicomedes I. (277-250 ?). Zeilas (250-228?). Pru- sias I. (228-183), with whom Hamiibal took refuge. Prusias II. (183-149). Nicomedes II. (149-91). Nicomedes III. (91-75), who bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. 5. Macedonia under the descendants of Demetrius Poli- orcetes. Capital, Pella. Antigonus Gonatas (277-239). Demetrius II. (239-229). Antigonus Doson (229-220). Philip V. (Ill), (221-179) defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalce (197). Perseus (179-168). After the battle of Pydna (168) Macedonia became a dependency of Rome, in 146 it was made a Roman province (p. 122). 6. The island of Rhodes (ToSos), since the battle of Ipsus (301) an independent state ; since the sec- B. c. Greeks. 79 ond century (b. c.,) dependent ally of the Romans ; made a province by the Emperor Vespasian, 71 A. d. 7. The Greek cantons, under the lead of Athens, made a futile attempt, immediately after the death of Alexander the Great, to throw off the Macedonian yoke. From the city of Lamia in Thessaly, in the neighborhood of which the war was principally waged, it was known as the 323-322. Lamian War. The Greeks were at first successful under Leosthenes, and defeated Leonncttus, but were defeated by Antipater and Craterus at Crannon, south of the Peneus. The cantons submitted one after another. The Athenians were compelled to receive a Macedonian garrison in Munychia and to give up their democratic constitution. {Phocion and Demddes, the political leaders). Citizenship was regulated by a property census. Demosthenes fled and took poison on the island of Calauria (Argolis). During the war between Cassander and Polys- 'perchon (p. 76) the democratic party regained its supremacy in Athens, and Phocion was executed ; later, however, Demetrius of PhaleroUf the political companion of Phocion, became under Macedonian su- premacy, the ruler of the Athenian commonwealth (317-307). In the course of the wars of the Diadochi Demetrius Poliorcetes gained possession of Athens several times and made the Acropolis the scene of the greatest debauchery (307-295). The last attempt to throw off the Macedonian yoke and regain its old importance in Greece was made by Athens under Glaucon and Chremonides in 263 B. c. but it was defeated after a three years' war and continued to be tributary to the Macedonians. Thenceforward Athens had no ■political influence in Greece ; it retained, however, its autonomy as regarded its municipal administration, and continued to be the seat of culture and learning. Thessaly, during this period, was a Macedonian province ; Epirus was for a time a separate state, afterwards it was allied with Mace- donia. Most of the cantons of central Greece and Peloponnesus became allies, more or less dependent, of the Macedonian sovereigns. The complete subjugation of Greece by Macedonia was prevented by the 280. uastolian League founded about 280, and the Ach^an League which was renewed at the same time. The latter grew to considerable power and acquired the hegemony in Peloponnesus after it was joined by Sicyon (251) which was freed from its tyrants by Aratus, and by Corinth (243), which Ard- tus had freed from the Macedonian garrison. Jealous of tliis hegemony the ^tolian League and Sparta, which had completely lost her ancient simplicity of life, and was in the hands of a wealthy oligarchy, joined forces against the Achaean League. The young king Agis IV. paid with his life for liis attempt to induce a reform of the Spartan state (241 ?). A similar at- tempt made by King Cleomenes III. had better success, though for a time only : he caused the ephors to be surprised and put to death. 80 Ancient History. B. C. banished eighty oligarchs, and established a reformed constitution. Cleomenes conquered Argos and Mantinea, and waged successful war against the Achaean League. Ardtus sought aid against Sparta from the Macedonian king Antigonus Doson^ and delivered the Acropolis of Corinth into his hands. The Spartans were defeated in the 221. Battle of Sellasia (in Laeonia). Cleomenes escaped by flight and died in Egypt (220). The Macedonians entered Sparta, restored the oligarchy and forced upon the Spartans an alliance with the Achsean League, now under Mace- donian Supremacy. The latter was immediately afterwards in- volved in a war with the ^tolian League, during which the Spartans took sides against the Achseans, and Peloponnesus was horribly rav- aged (220-217). About this time the jEtolian League formed an alliance with the Romans against Philip V. (III.), of Macedonia, who was allied with Hannibal. {First Macedonian war, see Roman history, third Period, p. 116). Philopcemen, who has been called " the last of the Greeks," be- came Strategus of the Achaean League in 207, and defeated the Spartans under their tyrant, Machanidas, in the 206. Battle of Mantinea, and slew the tyrant. Li the second Macedonian war (see Roman history, p. 118). the Achcean League likewise joined the Romans against Philip V. (III.), who, after the battle of Cynoscephaloe (197), was forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece. The Romans proclaimed the freedom of all the Grecian cantons, but they gave support everywhere to that party which devoted itself to the advance- ment of Roman interests, and caused themselves to be fre- quently appealed to as arbitrators. After the death of a second Tyrant of Sparta, the cruel Nahis, Philoposmen humbled the Spartans again, and forced them to reenter the Achsean League, but was soon after taken prisoner and put to death in a war against the Messinians, who had revolted at the in- stance of Deinocrdtes (183). After the death of Philopcemen, decline of the power of the Achcean League, which made a final exertion in the so-called Aclisean war against the Romans, which ended with the Defeat of the Greeks at Leucopetra, on the isthmus, and the 146. Capture and destruction of Corinth, The Corinthians were sold as slaves; a part of their land was given to Sicyon- the rest became the property of the Roman state. The remaining Greek cantons were treated with kind- ness, and for the most part retained their own administration and jurisdiction, but were subject to the Roman governor of Macedonia. It was not until later (27) that Peloponnesus and Central Greece seem to have become a Ropian province under the name of Achaia. B. c. Roman History. 81 §S. ROMAN HISTORY. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT ITALY. (See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VII., VIII., and IX.) Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of the peninsula, which is traversed by the Apennines and extended to the Macra and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before Christ; as applied to the ivhole peninsula, as far as the Alps, Italia was first employed in scientific usage by Polybius (about 150) ; it was not used officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Au- gustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and Lo-wer Italy. I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Fadus (Po), and the Athesis or Atdgis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Ver- hdnus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larius (L. di Como), and Lacus Bena- cus (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, before Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, Vercellce (Vercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, Turin), Genoa (Geneva); 2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called togata, in distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was known as Gallia bra- cata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Co- mum (Como) ; Medioldnum (Milano, Milan) ; Ticmum (Pavia), on the Ticlnus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, the birthplace of Virgil; Verona, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispa- dana: Placentia CPiacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the Padus, Mutina, (Modena), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in ancient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavium (Padua), birthplace of Livius, Aquileia. II. Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and Rubicon in the N., Sildrus and Frento in the S., was usually divided into six districts : Etruria, Latium, Campania, on the Mare Tyrrhe- num, or Inferum; Umbria, Picenum, Samnium, on the Mare Ad- riaticum or Superum. The Tiber, running from N. to S., divided Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. The name of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern inland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were related to the Samiutes and Picentes, formed geographically a sepa- rate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marrucini and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the uiland districts of the Sabines, Pceligni, and Marsi. 1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a con- federacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: Pisce, Volaterrce, Arretium (Arezzo), Cortona, Perusia (Perugia, west of -vi^hich Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusium (Chiusi), Voliinii, Tarquinii, Falerii, Ccere, Veil. 6 82 Ancient History. ^ b. c. 2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini : Roma, on the left bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trastevere and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of the city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on seven liills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Ccelius, Esquilinus; coUes : Viminalis, Quirinalis). ^ On the southern summit of the Mons Capitolinus the Capitolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitol- inus, and the Tarpeian Rock ; on the northern summit, separated from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple of Juno Moneta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Rom&num (the market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitium^ with the speakers' platform {Rostra, named from the prows of the ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the republic the forum was surrounded by temples and basilicas (e. g. Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the palaces of the emperors; E. of tliis, the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to the Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martins, during the republic an open field used for military practice, athletic sports, and political gatherings, after Csesar and during the imperial period covered with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urhs proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiculus, par- tially on the Mons Vaticanus, where the Vatican and the church of St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angelo now stands. Finally must be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads ran from Rome in various directions : Via Appia and Via Latina to the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurelia to the W., etc. Ostia, the harbor of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed at the time of the kings ; under the emperors a second harbor, Partus, on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suessa Pometia, Aricia (on the Via Appia), Velitrce not far distant. Alba Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania, Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the Anio, a branch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the brook Allia, In the land of the JEqui, Prceneste (afterwards a Latin city again. In the land of the Hernicoe, Anagnia. In the land of the Volscii, Fregellce, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, Antium and Tarracina (Anxur), south of the Pomptine marshes. In the land of the Aruncii : Formice, Minturnce, on the Liris (Gari- gliano) ; Suessa {Aurunca), near the Mons Massicus and the Ager Falernus (famous wines). 1 The expression " seven-hilled city " applies properly to old Rome, the pala- tine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republican Kome is the result of a later misunderstandnig. The description of the cit}'' of the time of Con- stantine, leaves out the two calks, Quirinalis and Viminalis, and increases the number of montes to 7 by adding the Vaticanus and the Janiculus, which lay outside of the city proper. See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 116, note. B. c. Roman History. 83 3. Campania, traversed by the Voltumus (Volturno), with the mountams Gaurus and Vesuvius near Naples. Two bays separated from one another by a rocky isthmus: Sinus Cumanus (Bay of Naples), and Sinus Pcestanus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coast: Liternum; Cumce (Ku^tj, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Eubcea in 1050 ?) ; Misenum near the promontory of similar name ; Puteoli (Puzzuoli) ; Baice near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering place ; Parthenope or PalcEopolis, the oldest part of Neapolis (NeaTroAis, Napoli, Naples); Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried in 79 A. D. by lava and ashes from Vesuvius; Salernum on the Sinus Psestanus, the chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore), with an immense amphitheatre; Nola. 4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentinum, Iguvium, Spoletium. 5. Picenum. Ancona on the coast; Asculum Picenum. 6. Samnium (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the Sahini : Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust ; Cures, Reate. In the land of the Pceligni : Corjinium ; Sulmo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium proper: Bovianum; ^sernia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Mal- ventum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudine Pass (Furculce Caudince). III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna Grseca ('EAAas 7} ix^ydkri), was divided into four districts : Apulia, Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium ^ in the west. 1. Apulia : Luceria, A(u)sculum Apulum, Cannes, Venusia, birth- place of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. 2. Calabria : Brundisium (Brindisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Tapas, see p. 51). 3. Lucania: Pcestum (Posidonia, UoaeLSwuia), vsdth notable ruins of temples; Metapontum; Heraclea ('Hpa/cAeta). 4. Bruttium: Syhdris {'S.vfiapi.s), destroyed in 510, by the Crotonians ; Thurii afterwards built in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton (KpSrwu), not far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (AoKpol 'E'jnC€(pvpioi)', Rhegium CPrjyiou, i, e. rent, from ^-hyvvfjn^ the present Reggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento). Italian Islands. Sicilia (2t/ceAfa), separated from Italy by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, with its three capes, or promontories : Pelorum in the north, Pachynum in the south, and Lilyhceum in the west. On the eastern coast from north to south : Messana (formerly Zancle, p. 51), Tauromenium (Taormina), Catdna (Catania) at the base of -SJtna, Syracusae (2vpdKov(rai, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent comprising five cities: Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also called Nasos, which now forms the whole city, with the spring of Arethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipolce, at first a suburb. 1 This form (instead of Bruttii, Bruttius Ager) has, however, no ancient authority. The Byzantines after the tenth century, A. d., gave Bruttium the name Calabria, after the Normans had dispossessed them of Calabria proper, and the eastern peninsula was known after that time as Apulia. 84 Ancient History. b. c. On the south coast; Camarina, Gela, Agrigentum CAKpdyas, now Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomos, not far from the mouth of the (southern) river Himera / Selinus (SeAtj/oCs). On the west coast: Libybceum, Drepdnum, Eryx. On the north coast: Panormus (Udvopixos, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himera, Myloe. In the interior of the island: Henna. Sardinia (2ap5c«)): Caralis (Cagliari). Corsica (yivpvos): Alalia, later the Roman colony of Aleria. Of the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, now Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insulce Agates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybseum. 3. The Insulce JSolice (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipara, north of Sicily. 4. Caprece, now Capri, and jEnaria, now Ischia, at the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Pontia, Pandataria. 6. llva, now Elba. RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS.^ The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct from that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italians, though probably early receivmg Etruscan and Grecian elements. In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece was imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state re- ligion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all forms of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital. The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deifica- tion of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human as was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspect, the practical side of religion was more natural to them than the poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wove few fancies about them. The great gods were : Jupiter, god of the sky, " father of gods and men; " Juno, his wife, goddess of maternity; Minerva, goddess of mtellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the most representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of war; Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national hearth, where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and god of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; Her- cules, god of gain, presiding over the sanctity of contracts; Mer- curius, god of traffic; Neptunus, god of the sea. Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinities. She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identified with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods there were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the state, and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellus, Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and end, represented with a double face. (Gate of Janus in the comiturm, open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penates, presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc. 1 Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII. Mommseiv Uid. oj Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, Hist, of Rome, chap. IV. B. c. Roman History. 85 Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of ceremonies, — prayers, sacrifices, games, — of strictly prescribed form, with the object of securing the good-will, averting the anger or ascertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life these ceremonies were performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the paterfamilias; in matters affecting the whole people, the state, which was a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king presided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrificulus was appointed to perform those religious acts which were formerly the exclusive right and duty of the king. The state maintained at public cost : 1. " Colleges of sacred lore " having general supervision over religion and all matters connected therewith. The most important were: The college of Pontifioes, four in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious power in the state. With them rested the decision as to which days were suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and which not {dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, whereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the hands of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the ac- tion made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex maximus, who appointed the rex sacrificulus, the fiamines and vestales. College of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who con- sulted the will of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation of the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College of Fetiales, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations be- tween the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conclu- sion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of de- claration of war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile territory.! Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sibylline books. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of the gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims. They were an Etruscan institution. 2. Colleges of officiating priests: Fiamines, who presided in va- rious temples with chapters of assisting priests. Salii, or dancing priests, of Quirinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred shields of Mars (ancillce). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred fire of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virginity. Lu- perci, Fratres Arvales, etc. Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the priests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercalia, (Feb. 15th), Ferice Latince, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others. ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY.^ At the extreme south the lapygians. Their descent is not certainly established, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European family and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the rem- nants of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true Italici, in process of rapid Hellenization. 1 When the growth of the Roman dominion had made this a matter of diffi' culty, a plot of ground in Rome was set apart to represent hostile territory, and into this the spear was hurled. 2 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. chap. 2. 86 Ancient History. B. c. To the Indo-European family belonged likewise the inhabitants of central Italy, the Italic! proper, who were divided into the Latin and the Umbro-Sabellian (Oskan), tribes. They were the next of kin of the Hellenes. The Italici entered Italy by land. The Latini occupied the western lowlands {Latium, connected with Idtus),^ the Umbro-Sabellian tribes spread themselves over the eastern part of Central Italy (UmbrianSy Picentes, Sabines, Mar si, Hernici, Volscii). A main division of this group, the Samnites, occupied the mountain region which was named after them, and drove back the lapygians. From the Samnites several tribes branched off; so the Campanians, called after the plain (Campus) which they settled along the Tyr- rhine sea. Peculiarly distinct from the Latin and Sabellian Italici, in language, religion and customs were the Etruscans (in their own language, Rasenna). Up to the present time all attempts to establish their ethnographical position, have failed to reach settled conclusions. The attempt recently made, to prove them members of the Indo- European family and the Etruscan language closely related to the Latin, must, it would seem, be regarded as a failure.^ Perhaps the Etruscan people were formed by the union of two dif- ferent tribes, one of which came to Italy over the Rsetian Alps, while the other came by sea. Before the invasion of the Celts, Etruscans dwelt north of the Apennines, on both sides of the Po, between the territory of the Veneti (as far as the Adige), and the Ligurians. The whole of Upper Italy was occupied by Celtic tribes (about 500 B. c.?), which gradually forced the Etruscans and Umbrians south- ward. Besides all these migrations into Italy from the north by land, colonization of no mean extent began very early on the part of the Hellenes, in Sicily and Lower Italy, by sea. (The Dorians, Chalcid- ians (i. e. lonians), and ^olians were principally engaged therein). Roman History can be divided into five periods. 753(?)-510(?) I. Mythical time of the kings. 510-264. II. Development of the constitution by struggles between Patricians and Plebeians. Subjugation of Italy proper (Cen- tral and Lower Italy), down to the beginning of the Punic wars. 264-146. III. Epoch of the Punic loars, and beginning of the univer- sal rule of Rome, down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 146-31. IV. Firm establishment of the universal supremacy of Rome, by the conquest of the East, Spain, and Gaul. Epoch of the civil wars, down to the beginning of the absolute rule of Octavian, in consequence of the battle of Actium. 1 The Ausonii {Aurunci, in Campania) probably belonged to the Latin race, as well ; also, perhaps the Italici in the narrovjer sense, who dwelt originally in the western part of lower Italy, and the Siculi. 2 "W. Corssen, Ueher die Spi-ache der Etrusher, 1874. W. Deecke, EtrusJcische Forschungen, is of the contrary opinion, as is K. O. Muller, Die Etrusker, ed. by W. Deecke, 2 vols., 1877. ,._- B. c. Roman History. 87 31 B. C.-476 A. D. V. Sway of the Roman Ccesars, down to tlie fall of the Roman Empire of the west. The last period extends into Mediaeval History. FIRST PERIOD. Mythical Epoch of the Kings (753 1-510). Foundation of Rome according to the Roman legendSo King Numitor of Alba Longa, the descendant of ^neas, who had settled in Latium with some Trojan refugees, was deprived of his throne by liis brother Amulius, who put his son to death, and caused his daughter Rea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, in order that the line of Numitor should perish. The twins, Romulus and Remus^ the sons of Rea Silvia and Mars, the god of war, were, by command of the king, thrown into the Tiber, then overflowing its banks. Their cradle being caught by the roots of a fig-tree, the children were rescued from drowning, were suckled by a she-wolf, and brought up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. As they grew up, Romulus and Remus led other shepherds on the hunt and in forays for booty. At the festival of the Lupercalia, they were surprised by robbers ; Romulus was taken prisoner, brought before Numitor, and accused of having plundered his fields. Numitor recognized his grandsons. The latter thereupon attacked the usurper Amulius at the head of their band, slew him, and placed the rightful king, their grandfather Numitor, again on the throne of Alba Longa. With the king's per- mission, the twins founded a city on that place on the bank of the Tiber where they had been exposed. (Festival of Palilia or Parilia, April 21, celebrated as the anniversary of the foundation.) In a quarrel as to who should give his name to the city, Remus was killed. Romulus, being now the only king, called the city after himself, Roma.^ Surmises about the real origin of Rome. The results of mod- ern scientific investigations leave not the least doubt that the Ro- man story of the foundation of the city is not historical, but an invention, having not the slightest basis of fact. It is perfectly clear that in reality Rome and the Romans did not derive their name from the founder of the city, but that, on the contrary, the name Romulus was formed by the inventors of the legend from the name of the city and the people.^ All tribal heroes are of divine origin ; that those of the Romans should be sons of Mars, the god of agriculture and of war, needs no explanation. The legend of the exposure of the twins and of their miraculous preservation and recog- nition bears a striking resemblance to the story of the youth of Cyrus (p. 26). The fabulous descent from the Trojan iEneas as- cribed to the family of the founder of Rome was an invention of 1 According to Varro's era 753,* according to Cato's 751 ; but to change years of the city into years before Christ, 754 or 752 must be used as the minu- end. Both dates belong to the conventional chronology. See pp. 88 and 89. 2 Livius, I. 1-7. 3 Compare besides Mommsen, Schwegler, Bom. Gesch., and Peter, Eonk Gesch., I. 56. 88 Ancient History, b. c. Grecian writers (^Stesichorus in the sixth century, TimcBus in the third century, b. c). The tale of the building of Rome by emigrants from Alba, under guidance of two princes of divine birth, was a naive attempt to explain the growth of a city in the barren and unhealthy Roman Campagna by coimectiug it with the common metropolis of Latium. Nothing can be considered historical except that Rome was, as regards the greater part of its population, a Latin settlement. The city was founded, or rather gradually arose, at a wholly unknown time and under w^holly unknown circumstances. The settlement was formed very near the border of Latium, and just at the head of navigation (for small vessels) of the Tiber, the natural highway of commerce for Latium, without regard to the sterile char- acter of the immediate neighborhood. This gives probability to the supposition that Rome in its earliest days " was a border trading-post of the Latins." ^ Not that Rome was ever a mercantile city, after the manner of Corinth and Carthage ; it was merely a trading village, where the imports and exports of Latium, which was essentially an agricultural district, were exchanged. The opinion that the Roman people was a mixed race cannot be "maintained, when it is considered that the development of the Roman language, political institutions, and religion, was free and individual to a degree seldom equalled. Of the tliree tribes or townships {Gauen) which seem to have united to form Rome (the Ramnes (identical with Romani), the Titi(ens)es, and the Luceres), the first was certainly, the third^ in all probability, Latin ; the second was, it is true, Sabine, but it was soon completely blended with the Latin ele- ments, as the Roman language shows. The Royal Epoch, according to the Roman Legend.^ 753-716. Romulus, warrior king. Establishment of a retreat on the Capitolinus. Ap- pointment of 100 Senatores or Patres (fathers), whose descendants are called Patricians. The three centuries of knights : Ramnes, Titi(ens)eSy and Luceres. Rape of the Sabine women; war with the Sabines fol- lowing, their king, Titus Tatius, seized the fortress on the Capitol through the treachery of Tarpeia. Battle between the Romans and Sabines interrupted by the Sabine women, who had been carried oif. Union of the Romans and Sabines in one double state under the common rule of Romulus and Tatius, until the latter's death. War of Romulus with Fidenoi and Veii. Romulus is translated during a thunder-storm, and henceforward worshipped as the god Quirinus. 715-673. Numa Pompilius of Cures, elected, after a year's interregnum, by the Romans from among the Sabines, Peaceful king; arranges the religious services of the Romans according to the advice of the Camcenas (prophetess) Egeria, liis consort. Temple of Janus. Appointment of the five PontificeSf the first of whom is the Pontifex Maximus, the Flawines, 1 Moininsen> Hist, of Rome^ Book I. Chaps. 2 and 4. 2 Livius, I. 8 loll. B. c. Roman History. 89 Fetiales, the four Augures, the four vestal virgins, afterwards increased to six. 673-641. Tullus Hostilius, warlike king. War with Alba Longa; contest of the Horatii and Curatii decides in favor of Rome, to which Alba is obliged to STibmit. War with Veii and Fidence; treachery of the dictator of Alba, Mettius Fuffetius, who is torn in pieces. Destruction of Alba Longa; the in- habitants are transferred to Rome. 641-616, Ancus Marcius, grandson of Numa, at the same time peaceful and warlike (" et Numse et Romuli memor "). Development of the institution of the Fetiales. Successful war with four Latin towns, the inhabitants of which are settled on the Aventine. For this reason Ancus Marcius is represented in the traditional story of the kings of Rome, as the founder of the class of the plebeians.^ Fortification of Janiculum, con- struction of a bridge of piles (^pons sublicius) over the Tiber. Foundation of the harbor of Ostia. 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus, who with his wife Tanaquil emigrated from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, and for whonv Grecian descent from the Bacchiadce of Cor- inth was afterwards invented. He became guardian of Ancus' son, and was elected to the throne. Commencement of the construction of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. Construction of the cloacce. The Senate increased to 300 members ; the number of equites doubled. Circus Maximus. Successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etrus- cans. After the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Ancus, 578-534. Servius TuUius becomes king through the cunning of Tanaquil. He was the son of the slave woman Ocrisia and a god, was educated like a prince by Tanaquil in consequence of the utterance of an oracle, and became the son-in-law of Tarquinius. Wars with Veii. Rome joins the Latin league. Construction of the wall of Rome. Establishment of the census and the division of the centuries (p 92). Servius TuUius murdered by his son-in-law, 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, represented by tradition as a cruel despot. Tarquinius Superbus (i. e. the haughty) subjugates the Latin league, conquers Suessa Po- netia, completes the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gains posses- ion of the city of Gabii by the deceit and treachery of his son Sextus. Tradition ascribes to him the acquisition of the Sibylline books. Embassy of Titus and Aruns Tarquinius, the king's sons, to the oracle at Delphi. They are accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius Brutus, who represents himself as feeble-minded, in order to protect his life against the cruelty of the king; a story which was invented to explain the name of Brutus. Siege of Ardea. The rape of Lucretia, wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus (i. e. from Collatia),hj the king's son, Sextus, leads to the expulsion of the Tarquins and the abolition of monarchy. The insurrection is headed by L. Junius Brutus, whom the legend makes Tribunus Celerum, although he was commonly considered an imbecile. Over the body of Lucretia, who died by her own hand, he 1 Peter, Rd7,^. Gesch., 1.3 33, Compare, on the other hand, p. 90. 90 Ancient History. B. c. called the people to arms, and incited the army against the king, who found the city gates closed upon him, and went into exile (Livius, I., 57-60). Historical Facts of the Epoch of the Kings.^ There is no doubt that the constitution of the oldest Roman state was a patriarchal monarchy ; and that, after the new settlemeni^ had become an independent community, the highest power in Rome was exercised by a line of sovereigns elected for life (rex, from the same stem as regere, to govern). But neither the number nor all the names of the traditional kings, nor yet the deeds ascribed to the reign of each, still less the chro- nology of their reigns, can be considered historically authentic. The artificiality of the first four reigns, which are alternately warlike and peaceable, is self-evident. Doubtless the extension of the Roman ter- ritory and Rome's hegemony over the Latin league was not acquired without severe contests and brilliant deeds of arms; but the story has come down to us in a fabulous form and has been arbitrarily revised. The destruction of Alba, the ancient metropolis of Latium, is an his- torical fact ; the contest of three Roman against three Alban broth- ers, their cousins, is probably only a personified designation of a war between two closely related towns, with similar political divis- ions. As regards the last three reigns, it can be considered historical that the royal family of the Tarquins was of Etruscan origin ; that under its rule Rome made an important advance in power and civilization ; that the division of the people into classes, the erection of the so-called Servian wall, portions of which are still in existence, and the construc- tion of the first cloacae date from their reigns. At the commencement of the actual history of Rome there is found to exist a sharp division of the population into Patricians, or citizens ■with full political rights, and Plebeians, or free inhabitants without political rights (like the Lacedaemonian Periceci and the Athenian Metoeci; see pp. 50 and 52). The traditional legend gives no explanation of this important fact, but only two hints at one, and those contradictory. 2 The citizens having full rights are evidently the de- scendants of the original settlers, the victors and later conquerors. Since, according to Roman usage, marriages of equals in rank con- ferred the rights of citizenship on the children, those having such rights called themselves Patricii, i. e. "Children of the fathers." The people who were not included in these families, but stood under their protection, who were compelled to have a protector (Patronus), were distinguished by the name Clientes (from cluere). Their de- scendants, increased by the former citizens of Latin towns conquered in war, formed gradually a second Roman community, whose mem- bers were not citizens. These were called the Plebeians, the Plebs (or 1 See Mommsen, Hist, of Eome, Book I. chap. 4. Peter, Rom. Gesch. F 54-56) likewise ascribes but a limited historical value to the traditional history of the kings. 2 See page 88 the reign of Romulus, and p. 89, that of Ancus Marcius. Compk Moramaen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 5. B. c. Roman History. 91 plebes, connected with pleo, plenus) ; i. e. the masses, the great mob. As the majority of the population of conquered cities were compelled to enter the plebeian class, whether tliey were settled in or near Rome or remained in their old homes, it is incorrect to imagine the plebs composed of poor people entirely; there were from the begimimg many wealthy and respected families among them. Under the oldest constitution of Rome, which is commonly called, from the legend, the Constitution of Romulus, the Patricians alone formed the municipality and the military force, the populus (con- nected with populari, to ravage), since they alone performed military service. They were divided into curiee, districts, at first 10 in num- ber, after the union of the Tities and Luceres with the Ramnes 30 (p. 88), each curia being divided into ten families or gentes. The assembly (populus) of the citizens or patricians, called by the king when he had an announcement or an inquiry to make, formed the comitia curiata. To this body citizens under sentence had the right of appeal for pardon (provocatio) ; only, however, with the consent of the king. The comitia elected the king, who, after elec- tion, exercised absolute power, having to consult the commmiity only when changes of the existing law or the commencement of an offen- sive war were in question. The Senate (council of the elders, seniores, senatores) was an advisatory body, named by the king, but representing the gentes after a manner. This oldest form of the community was essentially altered by a reform conducted during the reign of the last dynasty, and which tradition has coupled with the name of Servius Tullius. Military service and payment of the tributum was thereby made obligatory on all land-owners, whether they were citizens or merely inhabitants of the class of metceci. Every freeholder between seventeen and sixty years of age was now liable to service. The cavalry, composed of citizens, continued as before, but there was added to it a force of double its strength, which consisted wholly, or in great part, of ple- beians. The wealthiest land-owners were drawn upon to furnish the cavalry. No regard at all was paid to political or class differences in making up the infantry, but the kind of armor to be furnished by the warriors was regulated in accordance with a property classifica- tion. This is the Servian classification/ for military service and taxation, of Patricians and Plebeians according to their property (Cen- sus). A. Cavalry (Equites). 6 pure (?) patrician, 12 plebeian (and patrician) centuries ; in al) 1800 horse, all of the first class. 1 The census was not expressed in money until the time of Appius Claudius »B. c. 312). Leighton, Hist, of Rome, p. 22, n. 5. [Trans.] 92 Ancient History. b. c. B. Foot-Soldiers (Pedites). Glass. Number of Centuries. Property in Asses. i Armor. Weapon* '80C. with20 jugera 100,000 galea, clipeus, oc- reae, lorica 20 C. with I as much 75,000 galea, scutum, ocreae \ m 20 C. with i as much 50,000 galea, scutum -^ 20 C. with I as much 25,000 scutum % 28 C. with \ (1-10) as 12,000 J ^ . much fund as It appears from the number of centuries (i. e. companies) in the different classes, that the division of the land at that time was such that more than half the farms contained 20 jugera or more, and a farm of that size was considered the standard. In the five classes : 168 centuries of foot-soldiers, each of 100 men = 16,800 men ; i. e. 4 legions of 4200 men each, 2 legions Juniores (first levy, 17-4:6 years old, for service in the field) and 2 legions seniores (second levy, 47-60 years old, for garrison service). To be added are 3 centuries of fabri (pioneers), tubidnes and cornucines (musicians), 2 centuries accensi velati (unarmed substitutes), 2 centuries prole- tarii and capite censi, making, with the cavalry, 193 centuries. As the population increased the number of centuries was not enlarged, but the separate divisions were strengthened by the addition of new recruits, without doing away entirely with the standard number. This new military body, arranged in classes and centuries, was henceforward consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars as the army had been when divided into curiae. This was at first the only privilege which the new citizens shared ; all other rights were reserved to the comitia curiata, which consisted exclusively of patricians. It was not until later (at the beginning of the Republic) that the new arrangement of the community acquired political importance, and that a new popular assembly, the comitia centuriata, de- veloped out of the new military organization. The reform ascribed to Servius had originally a purely military character. It gave the Plebeians at first scarcely any rights, but only burdens ; it opened the way, however, whereby they became true citizens. The inhabitants who were not land-owners, be they clientes or foreign metoeci, were henceforward distinct from the land-owning plebs. The inhabitants who owned no land were called, after the money which they had to pay for protection, serarii.^ For purposes of conscription the city and township were divided into four wards (Tribus), so that each legion contained the same number of recruits from each ward. Every 4, later every 5 years a new census was taken, which closed with a sacrifice for purificatiou (lustrum), whence in later times lustrum denoted a space of five years. 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 6. Ijivius, I., 42 and foil. 2 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 6. B. c. Roman History. 93 SECOND PERIOD. Struggles between Patricians and Plebeians, Subjugation of Italy Proper, to the Beginning of the Punic "Wars (510-264). 510 (?) . Expulsion of the Tarquins, Rome a RepubliCo According to Roman tradition, the consuls for the first year of the republic were 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius CoUatinus. The latter, it is said, being related to the exiled royal family, soon fell under suspicion, and was replaced by L. Valerius Popli- cola, the first Consul suffectus, to whom tradition ascribes the lex Valeria de provocatione (Ne quis magistratus civem Romanum adversus provocationem (p. 91) neceret neve verberaret). On the same authority, the first dictator (p. 94) was Titus Lartius (501, against the Sabines). The Grecian historian Polybius calls the consuls of the first year 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius.i We know absolutely nothing which is historically authenticated about the details of this revolution. This alone is certain, that the arbitrary rule of the last king brought about his expulsion and the banishment of the whole gens Tarquinia. (The family sepulchre has been discovered in Ccere, in Etruria). The fear lest the common- wealth should be transformed into a tyranny seems to have united the patricians and plebeians for a short time. We are better informed about the nature of the constitutional change, smce on this point inferences can be drawn from the institu- tions which we find in existence in historic times. The chang-e in the constitution was, as far as this is possible in a revolution, conservative in character. The sovereign reigning during life was replaced by two rulers holding office for a year, taken from the patricians. They were called at first Prae to res, Judices, or Consules; later, the lattei name only was applied to them.^ They exercised, generally, regal power: Imperium (i. e. sovereignty in war and peace); auspicia publica (i. e. supplication of the gods m behalf of the state) ; convening the popular assembly and the senate ; taking the census ; appointment of senators and the two patrician qucestors. The latter, whose office was established during the time of the kings, exercised the functions of criminal police, and soon acquired the administration of the state treasury under the supervision of the consuls. The consuls were assigned 12 Uctores as a public indication of their official power. i Polybius, III. 22. The statement of Polybius, that the first treaty be- tween Rome and Carthage fell in the first year of the Republic, is disputed by Mommsen (i^om. Chronologie bis auf Ccesar, 2 Ed. p. 320), but is strongly defended by Kissen [Jahrbiicher fiir Philologie, 1867), and others. 2 The derivation of consul and pr(Btor is doubtful. Consul denotes either " administrator of the state " {qui consulit reijyubliccB), or merely colleague. Proe'^ tor denotes "general" (qui prceit exercitui, like the German Hefzng)^ or one who presides over the state {qui praeit, praeest reiptublicae). See Marquardl^ Mommsen, Rom. Alterthumer^ II. p. 71 f . 94 Ancient History, B. c. According to the lex Valeria de provocatione ^ (509), all citizens had right of appeal from sentences of death pronounced by the con- suls, which were not delivered according to military law, to the peo- ple, even against the will of the consuls; and this appeal was not to the old " populus," composed of patricians, but to the comiti^ centuriata, the assembly of the new military and political com- munity founded by the Servian constitution (p. 92). The comitia centuriata acquired, moreover, in consequence of the violent alteration of the constitution, the right to elect the consuls, or rather, according to old Koman interpretation, the right of design nating them to the consul who presided over the election, who there- upon appointed them (creare). The comitia centuriata acquired also the right of accepting or rejecting bills laid before it, but the six patrician centuries of equites retained the important right of voting first on any proposed measures. The Senate, formerly consisting of patricians exclusively, was now enlarged, or rather brought up to its legal number, by the ad- mission of plebeians from the equites, i. e. the wealthy. Hence the formula: Patres [et] conscripti. The nature of the changes which the comitia curiata (p. 91) underwent in consequence of the revolution is much disputed; it is certain only that it soon sank into complete insignificance. According to the view which is most commonly received, it retained at first the right of approving the elections or resolves of the comitia centuriata^ a privilege expressed by the formula patres (i. e. patricii) auc- tores fiunt.2 Others understand the expression patres to apply to the senatores, and claim the right of approval mentioned above for the Senate.^ At a time of special danger the consuls were replaced by an ex- traordmary official, the dictator, or magister populi, who was not elected, but appointed by one of the consuls (dictatorem dicere) without the participation of the citizens. (Practically, however, the Senate commonly played an important part in the selection.) As soon as danger was over the dictator resigned his office (dictatura se abdicare), which he could not hold longer than six months in any event. The dictator appointed his magister equitum (master of the horse) ; the sign of his power, which was thoroughly royal, was 24 (?) lictors. Appeal from his decisions was allowed only in cases where it had been permitted against the king (p. 91). 1 "The habeas corpus act of the Romans." Leighton, ffist. of Eome, p. 53. [Trans.] 2 Becker, Eom. Alth. II. 3, p. 183, u. Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. II. 160. 3 According to Monim.sen {Hist, of Rome, I. 264), all new citizens, that is, nil kind-owning plebeians were in consequence of the revolution (510) admitted to the comitia curiata, and the old body of citizens, or the patricians, thereby lost the right of debating and deciding iov jyolitical purposes, in an assembly apart from the rest of the citizens. This opinion is opposed by other scholars, who main- tain that plebeians were first admitted to the comitia curiata toward the end of the Republic. Mommsen thinks that the right of approval belonged to the smaller,, "purely patrician senate, while the larger senate, increased by the addition oi plebeian conscripti, was, during the first years of the Republic, an advisorif wuncil for the consuls. B. c. Roman History. 95 509. According to the Roman legend a conspiracy of young pa- tricians was discovered in Rome, which purposed the restora- tion of the monarchy. Execution of Brutus' son. 508. Unsuccessful war of the Romans against the Etruscan king Porsena of Clusium. The Romans were defeated, and com- pelled to purchase peace by a surrender of territory and com- plete disarming. Roman story of Horatius Codes, the brave defender of the bridge over the Tiber, of the heroic courage of Mucins Sccevola (i. e. left-handed ; the well-known story is probably only an attempt to explain the name), and Cloelia, in Livius II. 9-13. When the Etruscans advanced further into Latium they were defeated by the Latins and their allies from lower Italy before Aricia, and could not maintain themselves (On the left bank of the Tiber. In consequence of this Etrus- can defeat, Rome seems to have freed itself from the dis- graceful peace imposed upon it, and to have gradually re- gained its former powerful position. 496 (?). Tradition of a great victory of the Romans over the Latins by the small lake Regillus, near Tusculum, won by the dictator, Aulus Postumius, with the aid of the Dioscuri (Livius II. 19). The inner history of the Roman community for this period deals with two contests, one political and one social. 1. Contest of the patricians, who gradually developed into an hereditary nobility, against the new citizens, or plebeians. The latter, who could, it is true, become senators (conscripti), but were excluded from the offices of state and from the priesthood, aimed at complete political equality. Since the offices of state in Rome, as among the ancients generally, were administered without pay (hence, honores, officers of honor), it was essentially the wealthier plebeian families alone who were inter- ested in this contest. II. The social contest between the well- to-do property-ovrners and the owners or renters of small farms, who were growing poorer, or had been deprived of their pos- sessions. The use of the ager publicus, i. e. the public land, acquired by conquest (comprising both cultivated land and pasture), belonged legally to the patricians only. In fact the senate made exceptions in favor of the rich plebeian houses which had become members; the small plebeian land-owners and renters were strictly excluded from the privilege. Very seldom, on occasion of new conquests, a dis- tribution of land was made among the poor plebeians, but the greater part of the state domain was leased to the patrician land-owners for a moderate rent, which was, probably, hardly ever regvilarly collected, and these estates were soon treated as private property. Gradually the tillage of the large farms was given over to slaves, and the ple- i6eian tenants were thereby driven from their holdings. The plebeian owners of small peasant holdings sank into a condition of the great- est misery, through frequent military service, taxation, excessive in- terest on loans, and the cruel Roman law of debt, which placed the person and property of the debtor in the creditor's hands. In conse- qtience of this there were repeated uprisings and refusals to perform military service, which, in 495, was overcome only by the appointmen'' 96 Ancient History. b. c. of a dictator. Finally, when the patricians refused to grant the prom- ised alleviations, and continued their ill treatment of those who be- came their slaves through debt (nexi), the plebeian soldiers in the victorious army, as they were returning home, turned aside, under the leadership of plebeian military tribunes, to a small hill on the Anio (later called Mons Sacer), and tlii*eatened to found a plebeian city in that fertile region (three miles from Rome). This is the so-called 494 (?).^ Secession of the Plebeians to the Sacred Mount (secessio plebis in montem sacrum), which compelled the patricians {Menenius Agrippa, fable of the belly and the members) to make sincere concessions. After abrogation of the oppressive debts, 494 (?)• Creation of the tribunate (tribuni plebis) and the plebeian sediles. The tribunes of the people (at first 2 (?), then 5, finally 10), were always chosen from the plebs.^ They were inviolable (sacro- sancti). They had the right of protection (jus auxilii) for every plebeian against injustice on the part of an official. This privilege developed into an extensive right of intercession (Jus intercessionis) against every administrative or judicial act, with the exception of the imperium militare, — that is to say, against the dictator and against the consul when he was more than a mile from the city. From the first the tribunes of the people exercised judicial functions, convened the assemblies of the plebeians, and proposed criminal sentences for their consideration. Later (448), the tribunes were admitted to the senate, where, by their veto, they could deprive any resolution of the senate (senatus consultus) of its legislative force, and reduce it to a mere ex- pression of opinion {senatus auctoritas). The two aediles of the people (cediles plebis) assisted the tribunes, and superintended the business of the markets. Their name was probably derived from the temple (cedes) of Ceres, where they preserved the official docu- ment which decreed the establishment of the plebeian magistracy. During this time (according to some authorities, not until later) occurred the establishment of the important couiitia tributa. In this assembly the citizens voted according to wards or tribus; not, however, the four wards of the Servian constitution (p. 92), but ac- cording to a later (perhaps 495) division into 20 tribus, to which was added the Crustuminian tribus (494), making 21, and the num- ber gradually rose to 35. It is probable that, down to the time of the legislation of the decemvirs, plebeians only, after that time, however, the whole body of land-owning inhabitants, both patri- cians and plebeians, voted in the comitia tributa.^ In this comitia 1 Cf. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 279. 2 It is commonly assumed as probable that up to :he lex Publilia (472) the tribunes were elected in the comitia centuriata, and approved by the comitia curiata. According to the testimony of Dionysius (IX. 41) and Cicero (pro Corn.), they were chosen by the curiata; according to Moramsen's view (p. 94, note), this denotes that they were at first elected by the plebeians assembled hj curice. 3 See the different opinions iu Becker, Bom. Alther., II. 1, p. 175 and 398. B. c. Roman History. • 97 each trihus had one vote, which was decided by the majority of voters in the tribus. Compared with the comitia centuriata, therefore, the ascendency of the wealthy was done away with, as was also the privi- lege, enjoyed by the nobility, of throwing their votes first. 493. In the consulate of Spurius Cassius, renewal of the eternal alliance between Rome and the Latin league on a basis of equality. Only gradually did Rome acquire again the he- gemony over the Latins. Continual disputes with Etruscans, Sabines, jEqui, Volscians. Continuation of the contests be- tween patricians and plebeians ; the institution of the tribu- nate proving to be the organization of civil strife and anarchy„ An attempt was soon made to abolish the tribunate by the patrician 491. Cn. (C. ?) Marcius, called Coriolanus (from the storm of Corioli), who, during a famine, proposed to grant the plebeians grain at the expense of the state, only on condition that they gave up the tribunate. When summoned by the tribunes be- fore the comitia tributa, Coriolanus declined to appear; being banished in his absence, he went to the Volscians, and, accord- ing to the story, led their troops against Rome, but, at the rebuke of his mother, Veturia, and the entreaties of his wife, Volumnia, gave up the war against his native city (Livius, II. 40). 487. The Hernici invaded the Roman territory. Being defeated by the consul Aquillius, and, in the next year, by the consul Spu- rius Cassius, the 486. Hernici joined the Latin league. 486. Spurius Cassius Viscellinus ( Vecellinus ?), consul for the third time, brought forward the fiiast agrarian law. He pro- posed to divide a part of the public lands among needy plebeians and Latins ; the rest to be actually leased for the profit of the public treasury. The patricians and wealthy plebeians joined forces against Spurius Cassius ; the lower classes were dissat- isfied that the Latins should also receive land and abandoned him. After the close of his term of office he was sentenced and executed. Withdrawal of the gens Fahia and their destruction by the Etruscans at the brook Cremera. Murder of the tribune of the people, Gnceus Genucius, who had ventured to call two consuls to account. Law carried by the tribune of the people, Volero Publilius, to the effect that the plebeian magistrates should, in future, be elected by the comitia tributa (lex publilia: ut magistratus plebei comitiis tributis creentur, p. 96), Plague in Rome and throughout Italy. Motion of the tribune of the people, C. Terentilius Arsa, for the appointment of a body of ten men to reduce the laws to a written code. Violent opposition of the patricians. 30. Surprise of the Capitol by Herdonius at the head of some polit- ical refugees (Livius III. 15). Renewal of civil discord. In order to satisfy the plebeians, the num- 7 98 Ancient History. b. c. ber of tribunes of the people was raised from 5 to 10 (457) ; in the following year the Mons Aventinus was divided into building lots, which were distributed among the poor citizens. Dictatorship of L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, who rescued an army wliich had been sur- rounded by the ^qui (Livius III. 26). A compromise was reached in regard to the codification of the laws, whereby three ambassadors were sent to Greece to bring back copies of the Solonian laws and others (454). After their return 4:51. Decemvirs, a body of ten men, were chosen from the patricians {Decemviri consulari imperio legihus scribundis), and the consulate, tribunate, and right of appeal were for the tune suspended. The code of laws drawn up by the decemvirs was accepted by the people, engraved on copper tables, and set up in the forum. As an appendix seemed necessary, 450. Decemvirs were appointed again, three being plebeians, who added two more tables. Henceforward the law of the city and county of Rome, according to which the consuls were to ex- ercise their judicial functions, was known as the laws of the twelve tables (Leges duodecim tabularum). By their exposure the patrician administration was henceforth sub- jected to the control of public judgment. Instead of giving place to the regular magistrates after the completion of the two supplementary tables the decemvirs remained in office during the succeeding year (449). An attempt of the mod- erate aristocracy, headed by the Valerii and Horatii, to compel the abdication of the decemvirs, was unsuccessful. The latter, under Appius Claudius, the head of the extreme party of the nobles, acquired the preponderance in the state. At first the people submitted and acquiesced in a levy for the war against the Sabines and Volscians. The oppression of the decemvirs, especially of Appius Claudius: murder of the former tribune of the people, Siccius Dentatus, and the attack on the liberty and honor of the betrothed of the former tribune L. Icilius, Virginia, whom her own father Virginius stabbed in the forum, brought about an uprising (Liv. III. 44 foil.). The plebeian soldiers occupied the Aventine and the Sacred Mount. Valerius and Horatius managed a compromise, ac- cording to which the decemvirs abdicated. Appius Claudius and Spurius Oppius disembowelled themselves in prison, the others were sent into exile. It is impossible to decide what part of this romantic story is historical. It seems certain that the consulate and tribunate were reestablished. The power of the nobility was further weakened by the Laws of the consuls Valerius and Horatius (leges Horatice): 1. The resolves (plebiscUa) of the comitia tributa were given equal force with those of the comitia centuriata (ut quod tribu- tim plebs Jussisset populum tenerei). 2. Every magistrate, in- cluding therefore, the dictator, was obliged, in future, to allow appeals from his decision (ne quis ullum magistratum sine provo^ catione crearet, qui creasset,eumjusfasqueessetoccldi). 3. Recog- B. C. Roman History. 99 nition of the inviolability of the tribunes of the people, and ex- tension of the same privilege to the aediles (ut qui tribunis plebis, cedilibus nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset). About the same time (447) two quaestors were appointed whose pe- culiar charge was the military treasury (making in all 4 qusest- ors, see p. 93) ; they were patricians, but were appointed by the comitia tributa, wherein both patricians and plebeians voted henceforward, if not before (p. 96). In 421 the qusestorship was opened to the plebeians. Moreover, the tribunes of the people acquired the right of taking auspices, and were admitted to the senate, though at first required to occupy a bench near the door. 445. Law of the tribune Canuleius legalizing marriage between patricians and plebeians (lex Canuleia de conubio : ut conubia ple- bei cum patribus essent). The children inherit the rank of the father. The motion brought forward by this tribune that the consuls might be chosen from the plebeians (ut papula patestas esset, seu de plebe seu de patribus vellet, consules faciendi), was vio^ lently opposed by the nobility. A compromise was effected, and it was decreed that instead of consuls 444, military tribunes (6) with consular power (tri' buni militum consulari potestate) should be appointed, and that to this office plebeians could be elected. At the same time creation of a new patrician office, that of censor. The two censors were elected in the comitia centuriata, at first for 5 (4 ?) years, after 434 for 18 months, but every fifth year only, so that the office was vacant 3^ years out of every five. Functions of the censors : 1. Taking the census every 5 (4 ?) years (after every lustrum), and compiling the lists of citizens and taxes; appointment of senators (lectio senatus) and the equites (recognitio equitum). 2. Preparation and publication of the budget, management of the state prop- erty, farming the indirect taxes (veciigalia), superintendence of the public buildings. 3. Supervision of the public morality (^regimen morum). The duties and privileges included under the latter head gave the office great moral and political im- portance in the next century (Natalia censaria). 439. Spurius Modius, a rich plebeian, who, during a famine, distrib- uted grain at a low price, was accused of aiming at royal power, and was slain by C. Servilius Ahala, the master of the horse of the octogenarian dictator, L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 405-396. Siege of Veii, the history of which, like that of the previous wars with the Etruscans, has been much ornamented by tradition. The long contimiance and obstinacy of the war with Veii is proved by the fact that then for the first time the campaigns were not interrupted during the winter. The result was, that the citi- zens who served in the army now for the first time received pay froni the public treasury (i. e. out of the taxes on the public lands). 1 Capture and destruction of Veii by the 1 Iieightou, Hist, of Rome, p. 70, note 1. [Trans. 100 Ancient History. b. c. dictator, M. Furius Camillus. The fall of Yeii marks the beginning of the decline of the Etruscan power, which was hard pressed at the same time by the Latins in the south, Celts (^Gauls) from beyond the Alps in the north, and from the sea by the Sicilian and Italian Greeks, especially the Syracusans^ whose attacks had endured upward of a century. 391. Camillus went into exile in consequence of a complaint of in- justice in the division of the booty from Veil. Latium invaded by the Gauls in consequence of Roman ambas- sadors having taken part, in the war of the Etruscans of Clusium, against the Gauls. The Gauls demanded that the ambassadors (the three Fahii) should be delivered to them, to which the senate agreed. The proposal was, however, rejected by the citizens. 390 (July 18). Battle of the Allia, a brook, which falls into the Tiber eleven miles north of Rome. Utter defeat and rout of the Romans on the right bank of the Tiber, whereby the city was left defenceless. Abandoned by the citizens (the Mons Capitolinus alone contin- ued to be occupied), Rome was taken, plundered, and burnt by the Gauls under their Brennus, i. e. military ruler. Slaughter of the senators. Unsuccessful attempt to surprise the Capitol. The geese of Juno. M. Manlius Capitolinus. After a seven months' siege of the fortress, the withdrawal of the Gauls was purchased with gold. Legend (a later invention) of an expul- sion of the enemy by a victory of Camillus, who surprised the haughty Brennus ( Vce victis !) in the forum, while the gold was being weighed (!). Return of the inhabitants. The plan of emigrating to Veii broken up by Camillus. Hasty, but irregu- lar, reconstruction of the city, which soon regamed its old power, after the ^qui, the Volscians, and the Etruscans, who had taken up arms again, had been defeated by Camillus. Equalization of the old orders. Origin of tlie new nobility. Recommencement of the civil contests against the patricians: 1, by the plebeian aristocracy to get admission to the consulate; 2, by the poor, indebted plebeians to obtain a reform of the laws of debtor and creditor, and a share of the public lands. The exertions of those tribunes who were friendly to the poorer classes were often neutral- ized by the opposition of their colleagues who represented the inter- ests of the plebeian aristocracy. The patrician M. Manlius Capi- tolinus, who had released plebeian debtors at his own expense, was i accused of aiming at royal power, declared guilty of high treason, I and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (384). A compromise was finally j agreed npon between the plebeian aristocracy and the plebeian com- mons, whose results were seen in the 376. Laws proposed by C. Licinius and Lucius Sextius, trib- unes of the people (rogationes Licinice}. The first two were designed to secure the poorer classes a material alleviation; the third to give the plebeian aristocracy the long-wished-foi equality with the patricians. B. C. Roman History, 101 I. Relief of the debtors by the deduction of interest already paid from the principal; the rest to be paid within three years in three installments (ut, deducto eo de capite quod usuris pernumeratum esset, id quod superesset triennio cequis portionibus persolveretur). II. No one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public lands (ne quis plus quam quingenta jugera agri publici^ possideret). III. Abolition of the trihuni militum consulari potestate. One, at least, of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians (ne tribunorum militum comitia Jierent consulumque utique alter ex plebe crea- retur). After a long contest, and after the appointment of Camillus to the dictatorship had failed to accomplish anything, 367. The Licinian la-ws -were passed. 366. L. Sextius Lateranus, colleague of the tribune Licinius, first plebeian consul. At the same time one of the three great colleges of priests (decemviri [formerly c?MomW] sacris faciundis) was opened to the plebeians. In order to retain at least the administration of the judicial de- partment in the hands of their order, the patricians procured the establishment of a new patrician magistracy, the praetorship. The preetor (since 243, one praetor urbanus, and one prsetor inter cives et peregrinos; since 221, four- since 197, six praetors) had the jurisdiction (dare sc. judicium, dicere, sc. sententiam, addicere^ sc. rem), and was the vicegerent of the consuls during their absence. At the same time a new cedile was appointed, called, to distinguish him from the plebeian officer of that name, the curule aedile ; this office was, however, soon (probably since 364; certainly since 304) made accessible to the ple- beians, and patrician and plebeian curule sediles were elected for alternate years. The duties of the two aediles curules were: 1. to manage the ludi Romani ; 2. to supervise the markets and the street- police, and to preside in the police courts connected therewith. Although after the passage of the Licinian laws the patricians contin- ued their opposition to the political equalization of the orders, and even succeeded several times in electing two patrician consuls in open violation of the third Licinian law, all public offices were, neverthe- less, opened to all Roman citizens, in rapid succession : the dictatorship 356 (the office of magister equitum before the adoption of the Lici- nian laws 368), the censorship actually 351, legally 338, the prcetorship 337, the colleges of pontifices and augures (the number of members in each being increased to nine) 300, by the lex Ogulnia. The patrician order thereupon ceased to exist as a legally privileged caste, and con= tinned only as a social order or rank. A new nobility (optimates, nobiles) was gradually developed in political life, composed of those patrician and plebeian families which had for the longest time retained possession of the chief public offices (summi honores^. These families regarded every citizen who obtained office, but did not belong to their set, as an upstart (homo novus}. The 1 The word puMici is lacking in the text of Livius (VI. 35). But it is clear that the law could have referred to public land onVy. Cf. Niebuhr, Hist, of Borne III. 11; and Mommsen, Hist, of Borne, I. 304 foil. 102 Ancient History. B. a new nobility conld not, however, separate itself so sharply from the common people as the patrician order had done, but increased its ranks constantly from the most promising portion of the lower classes. Through the equalization of the plebeian aristocracy with the pa- tricians, the office of tribune, which was generally in the hands of the most distinguished plebeian families, lost, for a time at least, its revolutionary and anarchic character. The tribunes of the people soon obtained not only seats and votes in the senate, but also the right to convene it. Growing importance of the senate, which from this time on was the principal executive body governing the state. Since the establishment of the republic the senators had represented both orders (p. 94). They acquired their membership neither by the accident of birth, nor by the direct choice of the people. The censors (p. 99) filled vacancies in the senate principally from the numbers of those citizens which had occupied the office of quaestor (p. 99) or a higher office. Their age was at least 30 years ; prob- ably a property qualification was soon required. Being appointed for life, but subiected every four (5) years to a new lectio of the censors, who could expel unworthy members, the Roman senators were independent of a fickle public opinion. To the wise and ener- getic conduct of the senate Rome chiefly owed the great growth of her power which took place in the near future. As formerly, the comitice exercised the rights of sovereignty proper, especially the comitia centuriata and the comitia tributa, in which all citizens, patricians and plebeians alike, were included (p. 96) , while the right of approval vested in the patrician comitia curiata (or the narrower patrician senate, p. 94) became an empty form. Here belong two of the tliree laws of the plebeian dictator, Pub- lilius Philo (leges Publilice), of the year 338 : 1. A vote of the comitia tributa shall have the force of law without having been ap- proved by the comitia curiata (ut plebiscita omnes Quirites tenerent). 2. Laws presented to the centuries shall be approved beforehand (ut legum, quce comitiis centuriatis ferrentur, patres ante initum suffragium auctores ferent). 3. One censor must be a plebeian (ut alter ubique ex plebe censor crearetur). The same Publilius Pliilo became the iirst plebeian praetor in 337. In the year 312 the censor Appius Claudius included the inhab- itants of Rome who were not freeholders in the tribes which they pre- ferred, and in the centuries according to their property. This far- reaching and actually revolutionary change in the comitia centuriata and tributa was altered in a conservative sense by the censor Q. Fa- hius Rullianus (Maximus) in the year 304. As regards the comitia tributa, those freemen who were not freeholders, and those freed- men (libertini) whose property in land was valued at less than 30,000 sestertes (about $1500J, were divided among the four city wards (tribus urbance), which now became the last in rank instead of the first. The country wards (tribus rusticce), the number of which had by the year 241 risen from 17 to 31 (making the whole number of the tribes 35, p. 96), were reserved for freemen who were freeholders, and for freedmen having larger landed properties. In the comitia B. c. Roman History. 103 centuriata, where the wealthy members had already acquired many privileges, equality of the freemen who were and those who were not freeholders was secured ; but the freedmen, with excep- tion of those of the first two classes, were entirely shut out from the centuries.^ The Licinian laws had naturally only ameliorated, not radically cured, the desperate condition of the poor and indebted plebeians. The law of the consul Poetelius (lex Poetelid), passed in 326 or 313, secured to every insolvent debtor who should transfer his prop- erty to the creditor his personal freedom (ne quis ceris alieni causa nectatur, utique bona tantummodo obnoxia sint). By these and other ameliorations, and by the ever-increasing foundation of colonies of citizens and division of public lands among the poor, in consequence of successful wars, the social question was for a short time forced into the background. At this time occurred the alteration in the Servian constitution of the army.2 Division of the new legion into 30 maniples, each con- taining 3 centuries. Arrangement in order of battle in three lines (hastati, principes, triarii). The assignment of arms according to property classification was abolished. Long lances (Jiasta) were re- served for the third line, the first and second line receiving in their stead the pilum, a short spear, adapted both for thrusting and hurl- ing. A short cut and thrust sword was used by all. 367-349. Four wars with the Gauls who had permanently settled in upper Italy (henceforward known as Gallia Cisalpina), and thence made frequent inroads into central Italy. In the Jirst war single combat between T. Manlius Torquatus and a gi- gantic Gaul ; in the second, the first triumph of a plebeian consul. The fourth war was ended by a great defeat inflicted upon the Gauls in the Pomptine region by the consul M. Fu- rius Camillus, the younger. Single combat of M. Valerius Corvus with a Gaul. 362. Story of a chasm opened in the forum closed by the sacrifice of M. Curtius. 362-358. War with the Hernici and the revolted Latin cities (especially Tibur), ending in the renewal of the old league between Rome on the one part and the Latins and Hernici on the other; whereby both people were more strictly subjected to the Romans than before. 358-351. Wars with the Etruscan cities Tarquinii, Caere, and Falerii (victory of C. Marcius Rutilius, the first plebeian dicta- tor, 356), which led to the reduction of the whole of south- ern Etruria under Roman supremacy. 348. (First ?) treaty of commerce between Rome and Carthage,^ the text of which has been preserved by Polybius (III. 22). 350-345. War with the Volscii, who were defeated in 346 at Satri- cum, and the Aurunci. The power of both peoples was com- pletely broken. The Roman legions forced their way soutl> 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book II. chap. 3. 2 Mommsen, JTist. oj Rome, Book II. chap. 8, and Peter, I.^ 222 foU. 3 See p. 93, note 1. 104 Ancient History. b. c. ward without stay. This great development of Rome's power brought about the 343-266. wars with the Samnites, the other Italians, and the Greek cities of Italy. Result : Subjugation of all Italy to the Rubicon and Macra, under the supremacy of Rome. 343-341. First war with the Samnites. Cause : The Sidici in Teanum and the Campanians in Capua, both Samnite tribes who had emigrated from their home, asked aid of the Romans against their relatives, the Samnites of the mountains, who had formed a confederacy in Samnium proper, whence they con- tinually ravaged the plain (Campania), with new swarms. According to the Roman tradition,^ their armies gained three vic- tories in Campania over the Samnites : victory of M. Valerius Cor- vus on Mount Gaurus (near Cumse) ; victory of A. Cornelius Cossus, after his army had been rescued by P. Decius Mus, a military trib- une ; finally, victory of both Roman armies at Suessula. The war was ended by a treaty, whereby Rome received Capua, the Samnites Teanum. The Samnites were induced to conclude this treaty by a war with Tarentum, the Romans by the 340-338. Great Latin ^War. The Latins rebelled against the hegemony of Rome and demanded complete equality with the Romans. One consul and half the senate were to be Latins. Capua (in spite of the opposition of the optimates^ and the Volscii were allied with the Latins. Victory of the {Roman and Samnite f) armies over the Latins and Campanians in the neighborhood of Vesuvius under the consul T. Manlius Imperiosus. Execution of the young son of the consul, who against his father's command had fought with the Latin commander and defeated him. P. Decius Mus sacrificed his life for the safety of his army. Decisive battle at Trifanum (between Minturnce and Suessa^ ; victory of the consul Manlius over the Latins and Campa- nians. Dissolution of the Latin League, which became a mere relig- ious association for the celebration of festivals. Isolation of the Latin cities from one another. Commercium and connubium between them were prohibited. Most of the cities received Roman citizen- ship without suffrage, i. e. they became subjects. Several were obliged to cede land, which was divided among Roman citizens ; others were converted into Roman colonies (p. 109), e. g. Antium. The orator's stand in the forum Romanum was ornamented with the bows of the old ships of this city (hence rostra^. The Roman power in the territories of the Volscii and in Campania was strengthened by the settlement of colonies of Roman citizens. Capua and other cities became dependent Roman communities (p. 109). 1 Livius, VII. 29 foil. See this tradition criticised by Mommsen, Hist, oj Rome^ I. 365, note. B. c. Roman History. 105 326-304. Second war with the Samnites and the other Italians. Cause : Encroachments of the Romans on the Liris, especially the transformation of Fregellce into a Roman colony, and the capture of PalcBopolis (twin city of Neopolis), by Q. Publilius Philo, the first pro-consul. Alhance of the Romans with the Apulians and Lucanians and, in the course of the war, with the Sabellian cities south of the Volturnus (Nola, Nuceria, Herculaneum, Pompeii), who at first sided with the Samnites. The Romans had the advantage in the first years of the war, and crossed Samnium to Apulia, plundering as they went ; but in 321 the consuls Sp. Postumius and T. Veturius, hastening from Campania to the assistance of the Apulian city Luceria, were surrounded by the Samnites under Gavius Pontius in the Caudine Pass (furculce CaudincB), near the present Arpaia, and compelled to capitulate, swear to a treaty of peace, and give 600 Roman equites as hostages. The whole Roman army was sent under the yoke. The Roman senate refused to approve the treaty, and delivered the consuls to the Samnites, who refused to receive them. The Samnites conquered Luceria m Apulia and Fregellce on the Liris. By desperate exertions the Romans got the upper hand again. In 319 the Roman consul L. Papirius Cursor reconquered Luceria, released the Roman hostages, and sent the Samnite garrison under the yoke. The war went on during the succeeding years with chang- ing fortune ; nevertheless, the Romans subdued their revolted allies and subjects, and punished the leaders in the revolt with death. They defeated the Samnites at Capua, drove them out of Campania com- pletely, and reconquered Fregellce. Settlement of new colonies (p. 109). Construction of a great military road from Rome to Capua, through the Pomptine marshes, the Via Appia, part of which still remains. (Begun under the censor Appius Claudius, 312). After 312, when the 40 years' peace with the Etruscans expired, the Etruscan cities took part in the war against Rome. Soon the whole of Etruria, which was still independent, was in arms against the destroyer of Italian liberty. Siege of the Roman border fortress, Sutrium. The victorious advance of the consul Q. Fabius Rullianus through the Cimuiian forest, and his victory at the Vadimonian lake (310) caused the powerful cities of Perusia, Cortona, Arretium, to withdraw from the coalition against Rome, and effected after 308 a provisional truce throughout Etruria. The Umbrians, Pi- centini, Marsians, Frentanians, Pcelignians, who had joined the Ital- ian coalition, continued the war, and were ultimately joined by the Hernicans. The fortune of war for a short time favored the Sam- nites and their allies, but the Romans soon acquired a decided ascen- dency. L. Papirius Cursor defeated the Samnites in a great battle (309). Nuceria, the last Campanian town in alliance with the Sam- nites, was attacked by the Romans by land and sea, and forced to surrender. First appearance of a Roman war fleet. The con- sul L. Postumius invaded Samnium from the Adriatic Sea ; another 106 Ancient History. B. C. Roman army advanced from Campania. A decisive victory of the Romans and the capture of Bovianum (305), the capital of the Samiiite league, ended the war. The Samnites begged for peace, and with their Sabellian allies obtained a renewal of the old treaties and equality with Rome. Foundation of numerous Roman colonies and several military roads ; the Hernican league was dissolved ; the Volscians and ^quians were obliged to receive Roman citizenship without suffrage. Construction of two great military roads from Rome : the northern (later called Via Flaminid) extended to Narnia (Nequinum) ; the southern (later Via Valeria^ extended by way of Carsioli to Alba Fucentia (i. e. on lake Fucinus), the key to the territory of the Mar si. 298-290. Third war against the Saranites and the other Italians. Cause : The Samnites succeeded in bringing men of their party into power throughout Lucania, and concluded a league with the Lucanians in order to risk a final struggle for the independence of Italy. New rising among the Etruscans. The consul L. Cornelius Scipio (whose sarcophagus, with an old Latin inscription,^ discovered m 1780, is still to be seen in the Vati- can Museum) forced the Lucanians to abjure their alliance with Sam- nium. 297, victory of Rullianus at Tifernumj victory of P. Decius Mus at Maluentum. In 296 the desperate exertions of the Samnites en- abled them to place three armies in the field : one to defend.their own country, one for Campania, wliile the third was conducted by its commander Gellius Egnatius through the Marsian and Umbrian lands to Etruria. This prevented the Etruscans from concludmg the peace which they had negotiated with Rome and conjured up the old coali- tion of the Italians, which was now joined by Gallic tribes. Great prep- parations in Rome. The consuls Q. Fahius Rullianus and P. Decius Mus advanced to Umbria with 60,000 men, where in 295 the deci- sive battle of Sentinum was fought, and by the devotion of P. De- cius Mus (Livius, X. 28) after a long contest ended in favor of the Romans. Dissolution of the army of the coalition, the Gauls scat- tered, the Samnites returned to Samnium, the Umbrians submitted, the Etruscans asked for peace in the next year (294). The war lasted in Samnium four years longer with varying fortune. In 293 the Sam- nites suffered a severe defeat at Aquilonia from L. Papirius Cursor and Spurius Carvilius. In 292 the Samnites gained their last victory under the command of Gavius Pontius the younger. Finally the Samnites concluded peace with the consul M\ Curium Dentatus, as it seems, without ceding territory ; but the Romans 1 This inscription, which it is conjectured from linguistic reasons, was en-- graved some time after the death of Scipio, was : — Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbdtus Gnaivod pati-e progndtus fortis vir sapiensque quoius forma virtutei patHsuma ( parissima) fuit consol censor aidilis quel fuit apiid vos Taurdsid Cisauna Sdmnio cepit aubigit omne Loucdnam qpsidesque abdoucit. B. C. Rommi History. 107 thereby gained a chance to strengthen their power in tlie rest of Italy. This was accomplished by the foundation of new colonies which should serve as checks on the Italians, especially Minturnce and Sin- uessa in the territory of the Auruuoans, Hatria in Picenum, Venusia ill Apulia. The Sabines were obliged to become subject to Rome, after a short and feeble resistance. At this time, after the Samnite wars, the 286 (?). Hortensian law (lex Hortensia) was passed. Thereby it was settled that all decrees of the comitia tributa should be binding on all citizens. This was accomplished by the dictator Hortensius after a dangerous uprising of the plebeians, who had been unable to come to terms with the opposite party in regard to a reduction of debts, and had withdrawn to the Janiculus (last secessio plehis). About this time questions of peace and alliance began to be submitted to the comitia tri- buta. By the lex Maenia the second Publilian law (that the curiae, or the narrow patrician senate, should assent beforehand to the resolves, see p. 102) was extended to the elections which took place in the comitia ceiituriata. Nevertheless, the real importance of the public assemblies was declining ; they became more and more instruments in the hands of the presiding officers. After a short truce in Italy, in consequence. of the peace with the Samnites, there broke out a 285-282. -war between Rome and a new Italian coalition. Cause : The inhabitants of Thurii being attacked by the Lucanians and Bruttians, sought help from the Romans. Alliance of the Lucan- ians and Bruttians with the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls of north- ern Italy. The annihilation of a Roman army at Arretium by Senonian mercenaries of the Etruscans was terribly avenged by the Romans. The Gallic tribe of the Senones was in part slaughtered, in part driven from its home in Umbria. A victory of the Romans over the fiorth Italians and their Gallic allies by Lake Vadimonium (283), and another at Populonia (282), inclined the Gauls to peace. After a victory of the consul C. Fabricius over the Lucanians at Thurii the non-Dorian Greek cities joined the Romans. Locri, Croton, and Thurii received Roman garrisons. This advance of the Romans led to the 282-272. War with Tarentum. Special cause: Old treaties with Tarentum prohibited Roman ships of war from passing the promontory of Lacinium. A Roman war fleet on its way to the tJmbrian coast anchored in the harbor of Tarentum. The people, incited by demagogues in the assembly, at- tacked the vessels, and captured five, whose crews were either put to death or sold into slavery. A Roman embassy which demanded rep- aration in Tarentum was insulted. A Roman army advanced into the Tarentine territory. The Taren- tines called to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a renowned general and leader of mercenaries, who had long meditated the plan of conquering for himself and the Hellenic nation a new empire in the 108 Ancient History. b. c. west. Pyrrhus at first sent Milon with 3000 Epirotes to Tarentum (281) ; he himself landed in Italy, the following year, with an army of 25,000 men (Epirotes, Macedonians, Greeks, etc.) and twenty ele- phants. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans was a contest of an army of mercenaries against militia, of a military monarchy against the government of a senate. Strict discipline maintained by the king in Tarentum ; the theatres were closed, the death penalty imposed on evasion of military service. Great preparations at Rome ; even the proletarii, generally free from military service, were enrolled. One Roman army was sent to Etruria, the main army to lower Italy. In the 280. Battle of Heraclea, near the Siris, the Romans were defeated, after a struggle whose result was long doubtful, by the phalanx and the elephants. Great losses of Pyrrhus. The BruttianSf Lucanians, and Samnites joined the king. The offer of peace made by Pyrrhus to the Romans through Cineas was haughtily rejected by the senate. Speech of the blind consular Ap- pius Claudius. Pyrrhus advanced as far as Atiagnia in Campania, but there halted and returned to lower Italy, as two Roman armies took the field against him, and the allies of the Romans remained faithful. Roman embassy (C. Fabricius) sent to Pyrrhus to treat for an ex- change of prisoners. In the following year the two armies, each numbering with the allied troops 70,000 men, met in the bloody 279. Battle of A(u)sculum, in Apulia, which lasted two days, and in which Pyrrhus was victor, but again suffered enormous loss. The Syracusans, who, since the death of Agathocles (289) p. 20), had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, called for aid upon Pyrrhus, who gladly gave heed to the request, but left a garrison in Tarentum. Offensive and defensive alliance of Rome and Car- thage (279) ; a Carthaginian fleet appeared off the coast of Italy, but soon returned to Sicily. The Roman's conduct of the war in Italy was at first feeble, owing to their great losses, but they soon captured all the cities on the south coast excepting Tarentum and Rhegium. After two years' absence (p. 20), Pyrrhus again landed in Italy. He started to assist the Samnites, who were hard pressed by the Romans, but was completely defeated in the 275. Battle of Beneventum. 1300 prisoners and 4 elephants fell into the hands of the victors. Despairing of success against Rome, Pyrrhus re- turned to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum. Not until after the death of Pyrrhus, which took place in 272 at Argos, did Milon surrender the city and fortress of Tarentum to the Romans, on condition of free departure. The Taren- tines were obliged to deliver up their arms and ships, and destroy their walls, but retained their own municipal admin- istration. After the fall of Tarentum, subjugation of the Lucanians, Sam- nites, and Bruttians. All were compelled to cede portions of their ter- ritories and to receive colonies (see below). In 270 capture of Rhe< B. Co Roman History. 10^ gium^ which had been for ten years in the hands of Campanian muti- neers, who were now punished with death. In 268 the Picentini were defeated and a large number of them transferred to Campania. The subjugation of Italy to the Rubicon and Macra was completed by the defeat of the Sallentini in Calabria, 266. As regards the relation of the conquered towns to Rome we must distinguish: I. Municipal cities (municipia), i. e. communities having Roman citizenship without suffrage and with no claim to a public office at Rome (sine suffragio etjure honorum). They had the burdens but not the privileges of Roman citizens. Some places were permitted to keep the administration of their municipal affairs under officials of their own choosmg ; in others the municipal constitution was entirely abolished. II. Colonies (colonice), i. e. Roman strongholds and fortresses. Many conquered towns had to cede a part of their land, which was then divided among poor Roman citizens, who retained all their rights of citizenship, and thenceforward formed the ruling class in the col- onies, like the patricians, while the old population was reduced to inhabitants having no political rights. The Latin colonies are to be dis- tinguished from the Roman colonies; the former owed their establish- ment to the Latin League, but had been further developed after its dissolution, in that the senate distributed lands among Latin or Roman citizens, who renounced their jus suffragiiet honorum. In the municipalities, as in the colonies, the jurisdiction was in the hands of a prefect (prcefectus iuri dicundo) appointed by the prcetor urbanus (p. 101). III. Allies (socii, civitates foederatm), whose relation to Rome was regulated by treaty, who had for the most part their own administra- tion and jurisdiction, and were freed from service in the legion, but were obliged to furnish auxiliary troops or ships. THIRD PERIOD. Punic "Wars. From the Beginning of Rome's universal Em- pire, to the Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. (264-146). 264-241- First Punic War. Contest over Sicily. For the earlier history of the Punic people (Carthaginians) see p. 16, etc. Cause of the war: The ill-feeling which had long existed between Rome, the first land power, and Carthage, the first sea power, of the west, and which had only been waived for a moment during the at- tack of Pyrrhus, who represented the Hellenic states which were hostile to both powers (pp. 76 and 108). Since 311 the Romans had endeavored to form a fleet of war. About tliis time establishment at Rome of two commanders of the fleet (duumviri navales), later (267) of 4 qucestors of the fleet (qucestores classici). Special cause : The Mamertines, i. e. men of Mars, formerly Campanian mercenaries in the pay of Agathocles (p. 20), had seized the city of Messana and put the male population to death. They were 110 Ancient History. b. c. besieged by king Hiero II. of Syracuse. Part of their number sought aid from the Carthaginians, another part from the Romans. The Roman senate hesitated ; the assemblies resolved to grant the assist- ance asked (265). A Roman fleet, consisting principally of the ships of the south Italian allies, and the advance guard of the army, arrived in Rhegium. Meanwliile the Mamertines had admitted Carthagin- ian ships to the harbor and received a Carthaginian garrison in the citadel. The Roman advance guard crossed the strait, occupied Mes- sana, and drove the garrison from the citadel. The Carthaguiians declared war. 264. A Carthaginian fleet besieged the Romans in Messana. The consul Appius Claudius Caudex crossed the strait with the main body of the army and relieved Messana. Unsuccessful attempt to take Syracuse. The consul returned to Italy, leaving a garrison in Messana. 263. Two Roman armies crossed to Sicily. Victory of the consul M. Valerius Maximus, called Messalla, over the Carthaginians and Syracusans. Hiero, kmg of Syracuse, deserted the Cartha- ginians and joined the Romans, who advanced to the south coast of Sicily. 262. Agrigentum captured by the Romans, after defeat of a Carthaginian army under Hanno, advancing to its relief. The Romans resolved to construct a large fleet. They built the first five-decker 1 (penteris) after the model of a stranded Carthaginian ship. 260. First naval expedition of the Romans against Lipara, with 17 ships, had an unfortunate end, the whole squadron with the consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio being captured by the Carthagin- ians, Immediately afterwards, however, 260. First naval victory of the Romans under C. Duilius at MylsB, west of Messana. Boarding bridges. Special hon- ors paid to Duilius. Columna rostrata in the Forum. The war was continued in the following years with changing fortune ; the Carthaginians under Hamilcar maintained themselves in the western portion of the island. 257. Drawn battle at sea, off the promontory of Tyndaris. The Roman senate decided to attempt a landing in Africa. A fleet of 330 ships under the consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Man- lius Volso sailed for the southern coast of Sicily, where, at the mouth of the Himera, the troops were taken on board. A Carthaginian fleet of 350 vessels attempted to stop the expedition, but in the great 256. Naval battle of Ecnomus (south coast of Sicily) it was completely defeated. What was left of the Carthagin- ian fleet took up position before Carthage to protect the city. The Roman consuls landed to the east of the city at Clupea and laid waste the Carthaginian territory. Manlius returned to Italy with half the army; Regulus remained with 15,000 men. The Carthaginians being defeated sued for peace. Regulus demanded the cession of Sicily and Sardinia, surrender of prisoners and all vessels of war except one, 1 Not the first ship of war ; the Romans had long had vessels of war and three-deckers, see pp, 105, 107, 109. B. C. Roman History. Ill and acknowledgment of Rome's supremacy. Stimg by these inso- lent demands, the Carthaginians resolved upon most energetic prepa- rations, and levied troops in Greece, whence numerous bands of mer- cenaries, and among them the Spartan Xanthippus, went to Africa. The Carthaginian army being thus greatly strengthened (the ele- phants numbered 100), 255. Regulus was defeated at Tunes and captured. A part of the Roman army escaped to Clupea. The senate at once sent a fleet to Africa, which, after gaming a naval victory over the Carthaginians at the promontory of Hermes, took on board the Roman army, which was surrounded at Clupea ; but on the return voyage three fourths of the ships were lost in a storm. The Carthaginians reopened the war in Sicily, landing in Lilybseum under Hasdrubal, son of Hanno. The Romans built a new fleet. 254. Capture of Panormus by the Romans. In the following year (253) the Roman fleet crossed to Africa and laid waste the coast. On the return voyage from Sicily to Italy it was almost annihilated by a storm. The Roman senate declined to continue the naval warfare. On land the Romans gained the 251. Victory of Panormus over Hasdrubal under the consul Caecilius Metellus, who at liis triumph in Rome exhibited over 100 elephants. The story of the embassy of Regulus to Rome falls in the period subsequent to this victory. It is, like the story of the cruelties inflicted upon him by the Carthaginians, probably an invention of a later time. The Romans renewed the naval war. They besieged LilyhcEum in vain. The consul P. Claudius Pulcher in the 249. Sea-fight at Drepanum defeated by the Carthaginians. Capture of a great number of Roman ships. After two more Roman fleets had been destroyed by storms on the south coast of Sicily, the Romans, for the second time, abandoned naval warfare. 248-242. Campaign by land on the south side of Sicily. The Car- thaginian general Hamilcar, called Barak or Barcas (i. e. lightning) not only defended himself for 6 years successfully against the Romans, first on Mt. Eircte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), then on Eryx, but also annoyed the Italian coasts by privateers. Through the contributions of rich patriots at Rome, a new fleet was finally built entirely at private cost. With this fleet the consul C. Lutatius Catulus won the decisive 241. Victory at the ^gatian Islands (opposite Lilybseum), over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno. Peace: I. The Carthaginians gave up all claims to Sicily. II. They paid 3200 talents (-'$4,000,000) war indemnity in ten years. The larger western part of Sicily became the first Roman prov- ince ; the smaller eastern i part continued under the supremacy of Syracuse, which was allied with Rome. - The tei-ritory of Syracuse, Acrce, Leontini, Megdra. Helorum, Netum, Tauromenium. Comp. Marquardt-Mommsen, Eom. Alth., IV. 91. 112 Ancient History. B. c. 241 (?). In this period, probably, occurred the democratic reform of the constitution of the centuries, concerning the de- tails of which but little is known with certainty. Only this is clear : that the right of first vote was taken from the centuries of equites and that henceforward the century which should cast the first vote (centuria prcErogativa) was determined by lot. It is probable that the centuries from now on formed a subdivision of the wards (tribus). It is further probable that the number of centuries was increased; per- haps an equal number of centuries (i. e. voting bodies) was estab- lished for each class (p. 92), and in this manner the preponderance of the first class was abolished.^ 238. The Romans made use of an insurrection of the mercenaries and Libyan subjects against Carthage to extort from the Car- thaginians the cession of Sardinia. This island was at a later time united with the island of Corsica (formerly Etruscan, afterwards conquered by the Romans) to form one province. For the present the Romans were satisfied with the occupation of the coasts. 229-228. 'War with the Illyrians of Scodra, brought about by the piracies and acts of violence committed by these tribes, and their refusal to make the reparation demanded by the senate. A Roman fleet of 200 ships soon brought the Illyrian pirates to terms, and compelled the queen Teuta, the guardian of her son, to accept the following conditions : release of all Grecian cities from her sway, abandonment of piracy, limitation of navigation, and payment of a tribute. The Greeks attested their gratitude to the senate by admit- ting all Romans to the Isthmian games and the Eleusinian mysteries (p. 44). The lasting result of the war was the firm establishment of Roman superiority in the Adriatic Sea and supremacy over Corey ra, ApoUonia, Epidamnus, and some neighboring tribes. In 219 the re- newal of the war led to the subjugation of a part of lUyria by L. JEmilius Paullus. 225-222. Subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul brought about by a dangerous invasion of the Gallic tribes inhabiting the plains of the Po (except the Cenomani) joined by numerous bands of transalpine Gauls. The Celts entered Etruria 70,000 strong and advanced upon Rome. The Romans sent two consular armies against them, which were reinforced by a third. Surrounded by these forces the Gauls were defeated and annihilated in the 225. Battle of Telamon, south of the mouth of the Umbro. The consul C. Atilius Regulus fell, 10,000 Gauls and one of their military leaders were captured, nearly all the rest fell or killed themselves. The Romans entered GaUia Cispadana, and the inhabitants, the Boii, submitted. The Romans crossed the Po, with severe losses (223), and defeated the Insuhres. After two more victories in the following year (222) the consul Cn. Scipio captured Mediolanum, the capital of the In- suhres, and Comum. To strengthen their power the Romans founded the fortresses of Placentia, Cremona, and Mutina. The military 1 Becker, Rom. Alterth. II.3, p. 9, foil. B. c. Roman History. 113 road tci Spoletium was extended across the Apennines to the Adri- atic Sea> and along the coast to Ariminum (Via Flaminia) . Further measures for the firmer establishment of their power in Cisalpine Gaul were interrupted by the 218-201. Second Punic War.^ Causes : Envy of the Romans, excited by the new prosperity of Carthage, springing from her recent acquisitions ui Spain, and the efforts of the party of the Barcse to take revenge on Rome. Special causes : The conquests of Hamilcar Barcas in south- ern and western Spain (236-228) being successfully pursued after his death by his son-in-law Hasdruhal, the Romans concluded a treaty with the Grecian cities Zacynthus or Saguntum, north of Valencia, and Emporice, now Ampurias, at the foot of the Pyrenees, and com- pelled the Carthaginians to promise to neither attack these cities nor cross the Ebro with the purpose of making further conquests. After the murder of Hasdrubal (221) the army chose the son of Hamilcar Barcas, Hannibal, then 28 years old, for their general. In order to make war unavoidable even against the will of the Carthaginian government, Hannibal conquered and destroyed Sagun- tum (219) after a brave resistance of the inhabitants for eight months. A refusal to deliver up Hannibal as demanded by a Roman embassy in Carthage was followed by a declaration of war on the part of the Romans. The plan of the Romans to land their main army in Africa, while a second army should engage the Carthaginian troops in Spain, was thwarted by 218. Hannibal's daring expedition to Italy by land.^ Leaving a sufficient number of troops in Spain, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees with 50,000 foot, 9000 horse, and 37 elephants, traversed Gaul not far from the coast by way of Narho (Narbonne) and Nemausus (Nimes). The Roman consul P. Cor- nelius Scipio^ who had stopped at Massilia on the voyage to Spain, heard of Hannibal's march, but his attempt to prevent the Cartha- ginians from crossing the Rhodanus (Rhone) with a division of his army came too late ; the Carthaginian army had already passed the river above ^Ivem'o (Avignon). Cavalry skirmish. The Roman consul sent his brother Cn. Scipio with the main part of the army to Spain, while he himself returned with a small force to northern Italy {Pisce). Hannibal marched up the Rhone to Vienna, then turned eastward through the territory of the Allobroges and Centrones, where he forced a way with great loss, crossed the Alps, still fighting, by the pass of the Little St. Bernard, and after indescribable exertions and severe losses reached the valley of the Do7'a Baltea with about 26,000 men and a few elephants. In upper Italy a small Roman army was engaged with the revolted Gauls. Hamiibal defeated the consul Scipio, who had gone on before with the cavalry and light- armed foot soldiers, in the 1 Also called the Hannibalic War {Bellum Hannibalicum'). _ 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Ant. Tab. VII. and X. The topographical ques- tions have been settled by the Englishmen Wickham and Cramer. 8 114 Ancient History, B. c. 218. Cavalry engagement on the Ticimis, a northern branch of Sept. the Po. The wounded consul was rescued by his seventeen- years-old son, the future "Africanus." Reinforced by the Gauls, Hannibal defeated in the 218. Battle of the Trebia, a southern branch of the Po, the other Dec. consul, Tib. Sempronius Longus, who had been hastily recalled from Sicily before the commencement of liis African expedi- tion, and now commanded the united Roman armies ; the remnant of the Roman force threw itself mto the fortresses Placentia and Cremona. In northern Italy Hannibal organized the national insurrection of the Cisalpine Gauls ; over 60,000 joined his army. In Rome two new consular armies were placed in the field for the next campaign. One under Cn. Serviliiis took the Via Flaminia to Ariminum in Um- bria, the other under C. Flaminius the Via Cassia to Arretium in Etruria, to meet a possible attack by the Carthaginians. After Han- nibal had released without ransom all prisoners belonging to the Roman allies, and by their influence had incited all Italy to desert Rome, he crossed the Apennines, and marched, unexpectedly to the Romans, through the swampy regions about the Amo. Severe losses. Hannibal himself lost an eye. By this march he flanked the Roman defensive position. The consul Flaminius followed him in all haste, and allowed himself to be decoyed by Hamiibal into a narrow pass. In the 217. Battle of Lake Trasimene, between Cortona and Perusia, the Roman army was partly slaughtered, partly made pris- oner (in all 30,000 men). Terror at Rome. Preparations for the defence of the city, destruction of the bridges over the Tiber. Ap- pointment of Q. Fabius Maximus as dictator. Hannibal, how- ever, did not march upon Rome, but passed the fortress of Spoletium after an unsuccessful attempt to surprise it, traversed Umbria across the Apennines to Picenum and the Adriatic Sea. There he rested his army, reorganized it after the Italian system, and established com- munication with Carthage by sea. Then he advanced southward. His hope that the Sabellian tribes would join him was not ful- filled ; most of the cities closed their gates upon him. After the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus had united his 2 new legions with the army of Ariminum, he followed, at a discreet distance, the Carthaginian army, which went through Samnium to Apulia^ and passed by Luceria to Arpi, Fabius avoided a pitched battle (hence his nickname Cunctator, delayer), but tried successfully to weaken the Carthagmian army by numerous skirmishes. Hannibal crossed the Apennmes again, and went through Samnium to Capua, which he tried in vain to seduce from Rome. The dictator followed and obstructed the Carthaginian march on the Volturnus, where Hannibal gained the pass by a stratagem only (Livius, XXII. 16). After he had severely harried the Sabellian tribes, Hannibal returned to Apulia. Meantime the military conduct of Fabius Maximus had so dis- pleased the Roman populace that they entrusted one half the army to the independent command of M. Minucius^ master of the horse., B. C. Roman History, 115 who had had a forkinate skirmish with the Carthaginians, as a second dictator.^ The new dictator attacked Hannibal, but was defeated, and only saved from complete annihilation by the first dictator, Fabius Maximus. The consuls for 216 were the veteran general L. ^milius Paul- lus, elected by the optimates, and the incompetent C. Terentius Varro, elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the offensive against Hannibal with an army of 86,000 Romans and allies. On the day when he had the decisive vote in the council of war, Yarro imprudently attacked the Carthaginians, who held an advantageous position. The Romans suffered in the 216. Battle of Cannae (in Apulia, on the Aujidus), the most terri- ble defeat they ever experienced ; 70,000 fell (among them more than eighty men of senatorial rank and the consul L. ^milius Paullus) ; the rest were captured or dispersed. Varro, with a small troop, escaped to Canusium. In the same year the legion which had been sent to Cisalpine Gaul was almost entirely destroyed. The secession of Capua, the Sam- nites, Lucanians, and many cities of lower Italy from the Roman alliance was the immediate consequence of the battle of Cannse. Admirable conduct of the Roman senate. The time of mourning for the families of the fallen was limited to thirty days. Hannibal's ambassadors, who offered to exchange prisoners, were refused entrance to the city. A new army was formed by a levy of the youngest men and all who could bear arms, even slaves; they were armed in part out of the ancient spoils from the temples. M. Claudius Marcel- lus, who had approved himself in the Gallic war, was placed in com- mand of the new army, which joined the remnants of the army of Cannse. A second army was conducted by the dictator M. Junius. The Romans successfully defended Naples, Cumce, and Nola. Carthage formed an alliance with Philip V. (///.) of Macedonia, and Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, of Syracuse. Hamiibal went into winter quarters at Capua. 215. The fortune of war turned in favor of the Romans. Q. Fabius Maximus, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the consuls, and M. Clau- dius Marcellus, pro-consul, led three Roman armies. In the 215. Battle of Nola, Marcellus defeated Hannibal, who retired to Apulia. Hannibal was obliged to assume the defensive, since, with the exception of 4000 men, he received no support from Carthage. The dispatch of rein- forcements from Spain was prevented by the successful 21S-211. War of the Romans against the Carthaginians in Spain. The Romans, under P. Scipio and Cn. Scipio, defeated Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, on the Iberus (Ebro), crossed this river, and pene- trated the Carthagiman territory as far as the Bmtis (Guadalquivir). There they defeated the Carthaginians in two encounters at Illiturgi ^ Established bv an inscription found in 1862. See Mommsen, Iid?n. Geacho^ 1.6, p. 599, note. " 116 Ancient Hi story. b, c. and Intibili, and maintained themselves in southern Spain, until 212, in spite of varying fortune. At the same time they were pressing the Carthaginians in Africa through their ally, Syphax, king of western Numidia. The alliance with Pliilip of Macedon likewise brought no help to Hannibal. The 214-205. First Macedonian war was successfully conducted by the Romans with scanty forces. The irresolute Philip did not dare to fulfil his promise to Hannibal of landing in Italy. In 211 the Romans brought about a league of Gre~ cian states, against Philip, under the lead of the iEitolians, which was joined by Illyrian and Thracian chiefs, and even by King Attains of Pergamus. The war was, on the whole, unfavorable to Philip. In 206 peace was concluded between Philip and the Romans, against the wishes of the latter; but it was, nevertheless, accepted by the senate. The alliance with Syracuse proved also of no use to Hamiibal, as the 214-210. War in Sicily (Siege of Syracuse) was decided by Marcellus in favor of the Romans. After the destruction of the Carthaginian army of relief under Hamilcar, by defeat and disease in the swampy lowlands of the Anapus, 212. Syracuse was captured and plundered, in spite of a brave resistance (A rchimedes) . In Italy Hamiibal gamed possession of Tarentum through treachery (212), and laid siege to the citadel of that city by land and sea. Death of Tib. Sem.pronius Gracchus in Samnium. Hannibal advanced to Campania and compelled the Romans to raise the siege of Capua, after which he defeated two Roman armies in Lucania and Apulia, but retired to Tarentum. The Romans again laid siege to Capua. In Spain the war took an unfavorable turn for Rome in this same year, 212. Both Scipios were defeated and killed by the Cartha- ginians and their ally, Massinissa, son of the king of eastern Nu- midia (king himself in 208). The Romans were driven back over the Ebro. 211. Hannibal attacked the Roman army before Capua. He was repulsed, and in order to force the Romans to raise the siege he marched through Samnium to the territory of the ^qui on the later Via Valeria, past Tibur, across the Anio, directly upon Rome, and encamped a mile from the city (Hannibal ante portas !). Finding the Romans prepared for defence, he retired, after ravaging the neigh- borhood, to lower Italy, without having gained his end. 211. Capua surrendered to the Romans, who visited a terrible punishment upon the city. Fifty-three citi- zens were beheaded, many sold into slavery ; the community was de- prived of the right of self-government. Hannibal's attack on Rhe- gium and on the citadel of Tarentum having miscarried, his Italian allies abandoned him, and tried to make their peace with the Romans. VJ.O. P. Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the brothers who fell in Spain, and now 25 years old, was sent to Spain with procon< sular powers (LiviuSj XXVI. 18), B. c. Romaa History. 117 In Italy Hannibal gained a victory over the proconsul Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea. In Sicily the Romans captured Agrigentum, slaugh- tering the Carthaginian garrison and selling the populace as slaves, and reduced the whole island under their power. In Spain Scipio crossed the Ebro (209) and conquered Neio Carthage. 209. M. Marcellus, having been defeated in an encounter with Han- nibal, gained a victory over him in a second battle on the fol- lowing day. Q. Fahius Maximus captured Tarentum; 30,000 Tarentines were sold as slaves. Hannibal retired to Meta- pontum. 208. Marcellus fell in a cavalry skirmish at Venusia. Great ex- haustion of Rome and its allies in consequence of the war in its own country, now in its tenth year. In Spain Scipio (208) pressed victoriously southward, but fought a drawn battle at Bcecula with Hasdruhal, and was unable to prevent him from crossing the Pyrenees on his way to his brother Haimibal. Arrived in upper Italy (207), Hasdrubal was successful in inciting the Cisalpine Gauls to arms. Great preparations in Rome (23 legions) to prevent his union with Hannibal, who was advancing to meet him through Lucania and Apulia. The consul M. Livius Salinator was sent against Hasdrubal, the consul C. Claudius Nero against Hannibal. Drawn battle at Grumentum in Lucania, between Nero and Hannibal ; the latter broke through the enemy, marched to Apulia, and encamped by Canusium. Nero, who had followed him, left a part of the army to watch Hannibal, while with the rest he joined his colleague by means of forced marches. The two consuls defeated Hasdrubal in the bloody 207. Battle of Sena gallica, not far from the river Metaurus. Death of Hasdrubal. On receipt of the news of this defeat (the Romans threw the head of Hasdrubal among the Cartha- ginian pickets), Hamiibal retired to Bruttium. In Spain victory of Scipio at Bcecula over Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo. 206. After completing the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain by the capture of Gades (Cadiz), and after concluding a secret alliance with Massinissa, P. Cornelius Scipio returned to Rome. For the following year 205. Scipio was elected consul, and made preparations in Sicily for an African expedition. Mago, the youngest brother of Hannibal, landed at Genoa with the remnants of the Spanish army of the Carthaginians, and called the Ligurians to arms. At once, the Romans levied three armies against him. 204. Scipio landed in Africa. Massinissa, who had been driven from his throne by the Carthaginians, and by Syphax, husband of Hasdrubal' s daughter Sophonisbe, now their ally, joined Scipio. 203. Scipio defeated Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, and Syphax by a night attack, and threatened Carthage. Unsuccessful negotiations for peace. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal and Mago from Italy. The latter died on the passage. Hannibal em- barked at Croton, having previously massacred the Italian sol- diers who refused to accompany him. After fruitless personal negotiations between Scipio and Hannibal the 118 Ancient History. b. c. 202. Decisive battle of Zama was fought, wherein the Carthaginian army was defeated and annihilated. Hannibal escaped to Hadrumetum. 201. Seipio granted the Carthaginians peace on the following con- ditions : 1. Surrender of their Spanish possessions and of all Mediterranean islands still under their control. 2. Transfer of the kingdom of Syphax to Massinissa. 3. Payment of a yearly tribute of 200 talents ($250,000) iov fifty years. 4. Surrender and destruc- tion of all ships of war except ten. 5. No war to be midertaken without the permission of Rome. P. Cornelius Seipio, who received the cognomen of Africanus, celebrated his triumj)h in Rome with a splendor never before witnessed (^Syphax). The Italian allies of Hannibal were in part sentenced to cede large portions of their territory, in part reduced to subjects of Rome, de- prived of their independence and their right to bear arms (peregrini dediticii). Foundation of numerous Roman colonies in Lower Italy. In consequence of another general rising of the Cisalpine Gauls and the Ligurians, 200-191. Upper Italy was again subjugated after a severe strug- gle. Although the peoples of Transpadane Gaul retained their tribal constitutions they soon became, with few exceptions, com- pletely Latinized. This took place still more quickly among the Cis- padane Gauls after the leading tribe, the Boii, had been almost exter- minated in war. Numerous colonies were in part founded, in part reorganized. Via -Slmilia from Ariminum to Placentia. Spain was regarded as a Roman province after 205. It was divided into : 1. Hispania citerior, later Tarraconensis ; and 2. Hispa- nia ulterior, or Bcetica and Lusitania. The country was, however, dur- ing this period, and a part of the next, commonly in a state of war. In 195 the consul, M. Porcius Cato, gained a great victory over the Spaniards, and decreed a universal disarmament. The insurrections soon began again. A victory of the praetor L. JEmilius Paullus (189), and another, still more important, gained by the prsetor, C. Calpur- nius, over the Lusitanians (185), induced quiet for a time in Hispania ulterior. The victories of Q. Fulvius Flaccus (181) and Tiberius Grac- chus (179-178) partially subdued the Celtiberians of Hispania citerior. 200-197. Second Macedonian War. Cause: A Macedonian force of mercenaries sent, as the senate maintained, by king Philip, had fought at Zama against the Romans. King Attalus of Pergamus, the inliabitants of Rhodes and Athens be- sought assistance from the Romans against King Philip V. (HI.) of Macedonia, who, in alliance with Antiochus III. was warring with Egypt and also grievously troubling the supplicants. In the autumn of 200 the Romans landed at Apollonia, in lUyria, under P. Sulpicius Galha. The Roman fleet guarded Piraeus and threatened Euboea. Philip was repulsed before Athens, and driven from Central Greece. The Romans, who were joined in 199 by the jEtolians and afterwards by the Achceans, carried on the war witk varying fortune, but without result, until (198) the consul, T. Quinc- B. c. Roman History. 119 tius Flamininus, took command of the army. He subdued Epirus, got into the rear of Philip's strong position, and defeated the king in the 197. Battle of Cynoscephalse (Kwo§ KcoaXat, in Thessaly). Peace : Philip was obliged to give up the hegemony of Greece, and m general all possessions outside of Macedonia proper, and to pay 1000 talents ($1,250,000) in ten years. He was to maintain no more than 5000 soldiers and five ships of war, and not to carry on war beyond his own borders without the consent of Rome. During the Isthmian games, T. Quinc- tius Flamininus proclaimed, under general rejoicing, the de- cree of the Roman senate declaring the Greek states free and independent. The majority joined the Achaean league. The Romans limited, without destroying, the power of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, hoping thus to counterbalance the Achaean league. 195. At Carthage a democratic reform of the constitution was car- ried out by the influence of Hannibal. The oligarchs defamed Hannibal before the Roman senate, which demanded that he be delivered to the Romans. Hannibal fled to the East. 192-189. War with Antiochus III., of Syria. Cause : Interference of the Mng of Syria in Grecian affairs, and of the Romans in Asiatic politics ; reception of Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. Antiochus, deceived by the ^tolians who had fallen out with Rome, and promised to join him with all the Greek cantons as allies, began the war, without listening to the advice of Hannibal, by landing in Thessaly on the Gulf of Pagasse, M^hence he went to Eubcea. Most of the Greeks, especially the Achaean league, remained true to the Ro- mans, who were also joined by Philip of Macedon, Eumenes of Perga- mus, and Rhodes. Antiochus occupied the pass of Thermopylae. Landing of the consul, Manius Acilius Glabrio, in Epirus (191) and march to Thessaly. The former consul, M. Porcius Cato, conqueror of the Spaniards, who served as military tribune in the Roman army, surprised the ^tolians on the mountain path of Ephialtes, while the consul captured the pass itself and scattered the army of Antiochus, who escaped to Chalcis with a few soldiers, and there took sliip for Ephesus. The Romans besieged the ^tolians in Naupactus ; their fleet, under C. Livius, defeated that of Antiochus at Chios. In the following year (190) a fleet from Rhodes defeated a fleet of the king, under the command of Hannibal, at the mouth of the Eurymedon, and somewhat later the Roman fleet, with that of Rhodes, won a naval victory at Myonnesus. A Roman army, nominally under the command of the consul, L. Cornelius Scipio, but really under his brother, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Hel- lespont, and defeated Antiochus in the 190. Battle of Magnesia on the Sipylus, not far from Smyrna, whereupon the king concluded peace in 120 Ancient History. B. c. the following year : 1. Surrender of all European possessions, and of his Asiatic possessions as far as the Taurus. 2. Payment of 15,000 Eubcean talents ($19,125,000) within twelve years. 3. Surrender of Hannibal, who, however, escaped. Tliis peace struck the kingdom of the Seleucidfe from the list of great powers. The Roman senate having resolved, for the present, not to acquire any immediate pos- sessions in Asia, divided the ceded territory among its allies, Eumenes of Pergamus, and Rhodes, and proclaimed itself the protector of the Greek cities of Asia against the Galatians (189, Expedition of Cn. Manlius Volso), and regulator of the political relations of Asia. In Greece the -^tolians were conquered and subjugated, the other can- tons retained, for the present, their independence. Internecine quar- rels continued among the Greeks, and the Roman senate was in all cases appealed to as arbitrator. Philip of Macedonia received but scanty remuneration for his services in the war against Syria. 183 (?). Death of Hannibal. He poisoned himself at the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia, by whom he saw himself betrayed. Death of his conqueror, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, at Linternum, whither he had retii-ed after he and his brother, Lucius, had been ac- cused by M. Porcius Cato of having been bribed by Antiochus. 180. The lex annalis of the tribune, L. Villius, established, besides a military service of ten years, a fixed age for all the curule offices : sediles, 37 years ; prsetor, 40 ; consul, 43. Since the first Punic war the expenses of the great games were no longer borne by the public treasury, but by the sediles, which at once closed the office to all who were not men of property. The higher offices of state, and the position of senator, became more and more decidedly privi- leges of the nobility (p. 102). 171-168. Third Macedonian war. Destruction of the Macedonian monarchy. Cause : The plan of Philip V. (III.), to revenge himself on the Romans, and to regain the old borders of Macedonia, was carried forward by his son and successor, Perseus, the murderer of his brother Demetrius, who favored Rome. King Eumenes of Pergamus informed the senate of the preparations of Perseus. During the first three campaigns, weak and unsuccessful conduct on the part of the Roman generals, combined with injustice and cruelty against the allied Achseans and Epirotes, who were thereby forced to actual desertion. At last L. ^milius Paullus, son of the consul who fell at Cannse (p. 115), obtained the chief command. He restored dis- cipline in the Roman army, drove back the Macedonians, and defeated Perseus in the 168 Battle of Pydna. Sept. 11,000 Macedonians were captured, 20,000 perished. Perseus fell into the power of the Romans (in Samothrace). Splendid triumph of iXjUiilius Paullus. The spoils brought to Rome were so im- mense that henceforward the citizens were relieved from the tributum. Dissolution of the kingdom of Macedonia, which was transformed into 4 confederacies dependent upon Rome, neither the right of emi« B. c. Roman History. 121 gration nor of intermarriage (commercium et connubium) being allowed them. GentJiius, king of Illyria, who had been an ally of Perseus, be- ing soon conquered (168), that country was divided into 3 tributary districts with federal constitutions, Epirus was cruelly punished, 70 towns being plundered and destroyed, 150,000 Epirotes sold as slaves. The Greek cantons, friend and foe alike, were reduced to the condi- tion of subject clients. 1000 Achseans of high standing, a.mong whom was the historian Polyhius, were carried to Rome for examination (167), and detained without trial 16 years in Italian cities under sur- veillance. The old allies of the Romans, Eumenes of Pergamus and Rhodes, who had attempted to hold the position of mediators during the war, were chastised and all the possessions of the latter on the mainland taken away. In a war which broke out between Syria and Egypt the senate interfered as guardian of both powers. The Ro- man ambassador, C. Popillius Lcenas, arrogantly and insultingly or- dered Antiochus IV., king of Syria, to retire from before Alexandria. He drew a line around the king with his staff, and bade him decide before he stepped from the circle. (Polybius, xxix. 27.) 149-146. Third Punic War. Cause : The Carthaginians, whose commerce and maritime power had begun to increase, having been unable to procure from Rome any reparation for several losses of territory which they had sustained at the hands of Massinissa, finally took up arms themselves. The Roman senate, on the instigation of M. Porcius Cato (" Ceterum censeo Carihaginem esse delendam ") declared this a breach of the peace. Two Roman armies landed at Utica. Humble submission of the Carthaginians, who at the command of the consul delivered up their war-ships and weapons. But when ordered to abandon their city and make a new settlement ten miles from the sea, the Carthaginians re- solved on a desperate resistance. With the greatest sacrifices on the part of all the inhabitants of Carthage, without regard to rank, age or sex, new equipments were provided. Weapons were manufac- tured day and night. A new fleet was built in the inner harbor. An attack of the Romans was repulsed. Siege of Carthage. 147. P. Cornelius Scipio jSlmilianus (son of iEmilius PauUus, adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (Major), assumed the command. He shut off the city completely on both the land and sea side. 146. Capture and destruction of Carthage. Street fight lasting six days, and a conflagration which lasted seventeen days. The remaining inhabitants were sold into slavery. The coast land from the river Tusca, opposite the island of Galatha (Galita), to Thence, on the Syrtis mmor, was made a Roman province under the name Africa, with the capital at Utica. The rest of the country fell for the present to the allied kingdom of Numidia. Splendid tri* umph of Scipio, who received the name of Africanus (Minor). 148-146. Fourth Macedonian War, 122 Ancient History. b. c. against Andriscus, who gave himself out as Philippus, brother of Per- seus (Pseudo-Philvppus), and incited the Macedonians to rise against the Roman rule. He was defeated in two battles and captured by Q. Ccecilius Metellus. Macedonia became a Roman province (146). 146. Achaean War. Cause : Return of 300 Aehseans from Italy, after an imprisonment of 16 years (p. 121). The anti-Roman party was thereby strengthened in all cities. Incited by Critolaus and Diceus, the Achaean league be- gan war with Sparta, with whom the Romans took sides. The senate pronounced the dissolution of the League. Victory of Metellus over Critolaus at Scarphea in Locris. Diceus summoned all who could bear arms together on the Isthmus, and armed 12,000 slaves. He was defeated by the consul L. Mummius in the 146. Battle of Leucopetra. Corinth, the chief city of the Achsean league, was occupied by Mummius without a blow. The art treasures were sent to Rome, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. The territory of the city was in part given to Sicyon, in part transformed into Roman public land. Corinth destroyed at the command of the senate. The other Greek cities were, for the most part, mildly treated, and allowed to retain their autonomy (their own administration and juris- diction), but in such a way that they were subordinated to the governor of Macedonia and had to pay tribute to Rome. Not until later (p. 80), it seems, did Greece become a Roman province with the name Achaia. At the close of this epoch Rome possessed eight provinces 1. Sicilia (241). 2. Sardinia (238), with Corsica. 3. Hispania cite- rior (205). 4. Hispania ulterior (205). 5. Gallia Cisalpina (191?), 6. Illyricum (168). 7. Africa (140). 8. Macedonia (146), and Greece {Achaia^. The first four provinces were at first governed by praetors, so that, counting the prcetor urbanus and the prcEtor inter cives et peregri- nos (p. 101) who always stayed in Rome, there were six praetors elected every year. Later, however, it was decreed that all six (after Sulla, 8) praetors should remain in Rome during their year of office, 4 (6) to preside over the standing courts (qucestiones perpetuce). Of these the first, for cases of extortion (de repetundis), was established in 149 by the lex Calpurnia ; to this were added down to the time of Sulla (p. 132) courts having jurisdiction over fraud in obtaining office (de ambitu), over high treason (de maiestate), over embezzle- ment (de peculatu). Sulla created courts for the trial of cases of murder and poisoning (de sicariis et venefciis) of forgery of wills and of counterfeiting (<^e/<2Zso). For the year succeeding their year of office the praetors went as pro-praetors to the provinces which had fallen to them by lot The propraetors received, as a rule, however, only those provinces B. c. Roman History, 123 which were considered quiet, and which could be administered with- out any considerable military force. Those which were still the scene of warfare were assigned to one of the consuls in office, or to a proconsul, the consul of the preceding year having his term of command prolonged for the prosecution of the war (imperium proro- gave) or an ex-consul (yir consularis) or an ex-prsetor (yir prcEtorius) being appointed proconsul. Thus the provinces were at a later period distinguished irvto proconsular a,nd proprcetorial. The organization of a province was commonly entrusted to the gen- eral who had conquered it, and a commission of ten senators. Many cities in the provinces retained their own jurisdiction and municipal government (civitates liberce), in consequence of a treaty concluded with the Roman people (^foedus, hence civitates fcEderatcB), or of a law (lex) or decree of the senate (senatus consuUum). The taxes of the provinces were generally let to tax-farmers (^publicani), mostly Ro- man citizens of the equestrian order (^ordo equester) many of whom also did business in the provinces as bankers (negotiatores).^ In 153 the term of service for the consulate began in January for the first time, and this soon became the rule. Especially noteworthy in this epoch is the practical disappearance of the dictatorship. The last dictator with military power was appointed after the battle of Cannse (216), and the last nominated for municipal business was in 202. After this, in times of peculiar danger, the senate conferred dictatorial power on the consuls, by the formula : " The consuls shall take measures for the public good according to their discretion." (Videant consules ne quid detrimenti respublica capiat), which some- what resembles a modern proclamation of martial law or state of siege. 'FOURTH PERIOD. Firm Establishment of the Universal PoTver of Rome. Pe- riod of the Civil "Wars (146-31). 143-133. Numantiner War. Continuance of hostilities in Spain. War in Lusitania against ViriathuSy 147-139, ended only by the latter's murder. The war in northern Spain centred around the fortified city of Numantia,^ which was vainly besieged by Metellus, and then by several incapable generals, who utterly neglected the discipline of the army. Finally P. Cornelius Scipio ^milianus Africanus (Minor) received the com- mand. He restored discipline, and, after an investment of fifteen months' duration, starved the city into submission. Desperate de- fence. 133. Surrender and destruction of Numantia. Scipio ^milianus received the surname of Numanticus. After the fall of Numantia all Spain, excepting the mountain tribes of the north, was reduced under Roman government. 135-132. First servile war. Insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who were terribly ill- treated, under the Syrian Eunus, who called himself king Antiochu^ 1 Marquardt-Mommsen, Eom. Alt. IV. 338 foil, and 377 foil. 2 The present Gari^ay, an hour's walk north of Soria on the Duero. 124 Ancient History. B. c. and fought a long time successfully against the Roman armies, main- taining himself in Henna and Tauromenium, but was finally captured and executed, together with a great number of the insurgents. 133-121. Civil disturbances under the Gracchi, excited by the political and social reforms urged through revo- lutionary means by the brothers Tiberius Gracchus and Caius Gracchus. Constant increase in the number of great estates worked by slaves (Latifundia). The number of slaves in Italy was immensely increased by the successful wars, and by a most extensive slave trade, especially with eastern Asia. The order of free peasants and renters was thereby greatly reduced, while there was formed m the capital a numerous rabble without property or occupation, who lived on bribes and gifts of grain. Bad goverimaent of the op^mates (p. 101). Fam- ily cliques which took exclusive possession of all public offices and places in the senate. Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (163-133), son of the plebeian con- sul of the same name (tlirough his mother, Cornelia, grandson of the victor of Zama, p. 118), when tribune of the people proposed the reenaetment of the Licinian agrarian law (p. 101) which had long been forgotten, with this alteration, that besides the 500 jugera, 250 jugera of public land should be allowed for every two sons, and that damages should be paid for all buildings erected on land which had to be given up. Opposition of the tribune M. Octavius, who had been gained over by the senate, and whom Tib. Gracchus caused to be deposed by an unconstitutional popular decree. The agrarian law was accepted by the people ; its execution was entrusted to Tib. Gracchus, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother C. Gracchus. 133. Death of Attalus III., king of Pergamus, who left his kingdom and his treasures to the Romans. Tib. Gracchus proposed in the popular assembly, contrary to the common usage, according to which the senate had the disposal of this inheritance, to divide the treasures of Pergamus among the new land- owners, in order that they might procure the necessary equipment. Preparation of further popular laws of political tendency; shorten- ing of the time of military service ; extension of the right of appeal, etc. Tib. Gracchus tried, contrary to the constitution, to secure the election to the tribunate for the following year. The election was forcibly stopped by the senate. Tib. Gracchus and 300 of his followers were killed by the optimates, armed with clubs and chair-legs, and led by the consul, P. Scipio Nasica. 129. After the defeat of Aristonicus, a pretender to the throne of the Attalidse, by Perpcrna, Pergamus became a Roman prov- ince under the name of Asia. 133-129. The division of the public lands was partially carried out as decreed. The struggle between the democracy and the optimates continued. The leader of the latter party, P. Scipio jEmilianuSy husband of Sempronia, the sister of the Gracchi, I B. c. Roman History. 125 who had successfully opposed the proposals of the democratic 129. tribune, C. Carbo, found dead in his bed (murdered?). 125. The democratic consul, M. Fulvius Flaccus, who had unsuc- cessfully proposed to give the right of citizenship to all Ital- ians, was sent by the senate, which wished him out of the way, to assist the Massiliotes against the Gauls, by whom they were hard pressed. He laid the foundation of Roman supremacy in Transalpine Gaul. The immediate purpose of this occupation was the establish- ment of communication by land, between Italy and Spain. In 123 the proconsul, Sextius, founded the colony of Aquce Sextice (Aix). Gallia Narbonensis, so called after the colony Narbo Martins founded in 121, a Roman province. In 123 the Balearic Islands were sub- jected to Rome. 123. Caius Sempronius Gracchus, for two years quaestor in Sardinia, returned to Rome against the will of the senate, and was elected tribune of the people. Surpassing his brother in talent, force of character, and passionate energy, C. Gracchus not only took up again the latter's social reforms, but also brought forward, one after another, a series of proposals looking to a revolutionary alteration of the constitution. Had they been completely adopted, these innovations would perchance have substituted for the existing aristocratic republican government the rule of one man under the form of a democracy. Whether C. Grac- chus desired such a power for himself is, however, very doubtful. By the regular distribution of grain, at the expense of the state, C. Grac- chus attempted to make the proletarii of the capital his willing tool in coercing the comitse. He was able to secure in 122 his election to the tribunate for the second time. The lex judiciaria transferred the jury-duty from the order of senators to that of the equites, and made the preexisting separa- tion between these two parts of the Roman aristocracy still more abrupt. The designation, " ordo equester" which belonged originally to those citizens only who actually did cavalry service, had been gradually extended to all who, in consequence of having property to the amount of at least 400,000 sesterces, were liable to such service. Since 129 the senators were obliged, according to law, on entering the senate, to leave the centuries of equites. Hence " equites " denoted especially the members of the aristocracy of wealth, who were not members of the senate ; yet the young men of senatorial families continued to serve regularly in the centuries of equites. Encroachments of C. Gracchus on the administrative privileges of the senate by means of resolves of the popular assembly. The lex provocatio reenacted. Colonies sent out by decrees of the people in- stead of by decrees of the senate. C. Gracchus himself established the colony of Junonia on the site of Carthage. The absence of the all-powerful tribune from Rome was utilized 6y the senate, to secure him a dangerous opponent in the person of the tribune, M. Livius Drusus. The proposals of this tribune, in the interests of the lower classes, were constantly approved by the senate, with the view of undermining the popularity of Gracchus. 126 Ancient History. B. 122. The motion of C. Gracchus and his colleague, M. Fulvius Flac- cus, to grant the Latins all the rights of citizenship, and the other Italians Latin rights, was defeated by the united opposi- tion of the senate and the lower classes of the capital. C. Grac- chus was not elected tribune for the following (third) year. 121. Civil strife in the city, occasioned by a murder committed by one of the supporters of Gracchus. The democratic party oc- cupied the Aventine, wliich, being poorly defended, was stormed by the optimates. C. Gracchus and M. Fulvius were slain, along with several hundred of their supporters. Of the prisoners about 3000 are said to have been strangled in prison.^ Restoration of the power of the senate, and the former condition of things. After M. Livius Drusus had removed the ground rent, and repealed the law prohibit- ing the alienation of assignments of public land, and thereby given the optimates opportunity to repurchase their confiscated lands, a decree of the people. 111, converted all public lands in possession of citizens into the private property (not subject to taxation) of those who had formerly enjoyed the usufruct. 111-105.^ Jugurthine war. Cause: Micipsa, Massinissa's eldest son, had decreed in his will that after his death his sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, should reign over Numidia in common with his nephew and adopted son, Jugur- tha. Quarrels of the kings. Attempt to actually divide the king- dom. Jugurtha nmrdered Hiempsal and expelled Adherbal, who sought protection in Rome. A commission of the senate, which was bribed by Jugurtha, arranged a division of the kingdom entirely in Jugurtha's favor. The latter attacked Adherbal anew, defeated him, and besieged him in Cirta, his capital. Without heeding the interven- tion of the Roman senate, Jugurtha captured Cirta, and put to death Adherbal and the whole male population of the city, including many Italians. Indignation at Rome, and, finally, at the instance of the tribune, C. Memmius, declaration of war against Jugurtha. Jugurtha bought from the consul, L. Calpurnius Bestia, a peace, which the senate, upon the motion of Memmius, refused to ratify. Invitation of the king to Rome. Jugurtha appeared in the city upon guarantee of safe conduct, and gained partisans for liimself by his money. When, however, he connived at the murder of Massiva, a third grandson of Massinissa, in Rome itself, he was banished from the city, and the war was renewed. 110-109. The war was unsuccessfully conducted by the Romans. Jugurtha defeated a Roman army, sent it under the yoke, and dictated a peace which was repudiated by the senate. 109. Q. Metellus, entrusted with the command, defeated Jugurtha on the river MutJiul. The Romans occupied Numidia with two armies, one under Metellus, the other commanded by his legate C. Marius (son of a day laborer from the vicinity of Arpinum). 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, III. 101-130. 2 Concerning the chronology of this war, see Momrasen, III. p. 153, note. B. c. Roman History, 127 108. After fruitless negotiations, another Roman victory. Jugurtha withdrew to the oases of the desert and induced the nomads of those parts (Gcetulce) to take up arms against the Romans. Pursued into the desert, he joined forces with his father-in- law, Bocchus, king of Mauritania. 107. Marius, in spite of the opposition of the aristocrats, received the consulate and chief command. He conquered the Gsetu- lians, repulsed a combined attack of Jugurtha and Bocchus at Cirta, entered into secret negotiations with Bocchus through 106-105. his qujestor, L. Cornelius Sulla, and secured the deliv- ery of Jugurtha into his hands. The captive king was led in triumph at Rome and died of hunger in prison. Numidia was divided between 5occAms and Gauda,i\\& last living grand- son of Massinissa. 113-101. War against the Cimbri and Teutones. The Germanic, or, according to others, Celtic, tribe of the Cimbri (Chempho, i. e. warriors ?) made their way from the 113. north mto the Alpine regions, defeated at Noreia, in Corinthia, the consul Cn. Papirius Carho, turned afterwards westward towards the Rhine, which they crossed, and defeated a Roman 109. army under M. Junius Silanus, who had hurried to the aid of the Allohroges. Helvetian bauds pressed into Gaul, and 107. defeated the consul L. Cassius Longinus on the Garonne. The Cimbri traversed Gaul in various directions, defeated and an- nihilated two large Roman armies under Q. Servilius Ccepio 105. and Cn. Mallius Maximus at Arausia (Orange) on the Rhone. Terror at Rome. Violent proceedings of the democratic leaders against the incapable generals of the optimates. CcBpio, Maximus, and others condemned. 104-100. Marius elected consul five times in succession. The Cimbri meantime had crossed the Pyrenees and were wan- dering aimlessly about among the Spanish tribes. Defeated by the Celtiberians, they recrossed the Pyrenees, traversed western Gaul, and gave Marius time to reorganize the Roman forces in the Provincia Narbonensis (Provence). Defeated by the Belgians, the Cimbri united with the Germanic tribes of the Teutones and with Helve- tian tribes (Tougenes and Tigorini). These three peoples resolved to enter Italy in two separate bands. The greater part of the Cimbri and the Tigorini were to invade Italy from the north, while the Teutones with the Ambrones, the best among the Cimbri, and the Tougenes were to force their way into Italy tlirough southern Gaul (102). Marius attempted to intercept the latter band. By his posi- tion at the junction of the Isere and the Rhone, he covered the two military roads which at that time alone connected Gaul and Italy {Pass of the Little St. Bernard, and the shore road). Futile attempt of the barbarians to storm the Roman camp. They passed the camp on their way down the Rhone. Marius, following them, defeated and anniliilated their army in the 102. Battle of Aquae Sextise (Aix in Provence, see p. 125). The king of the Teutones, Teutobod, was captured. Thereupon 128 Ancient History. b. c. Marius crossed the Alps to the assistance of his colleague Catulus, whom the Cimbri, having reached Italy by way of the Brenner Pass, had discomfited upon the Adige and driven behind the Po. The two consuls, having joined forces, ad- vanced across the Po and annihilated the Cimbri in the 101. Battle of Vercellae (in campis Raudiis). Triumph of Marius, who was hailed by the multitude, " the third Romulus,^* " the second Camillus.^' At the time of the Cimbrian war occurred the complete abolition of the Servian military organization, according to which military service was principally a tax on property, but which had already been several times altered. This had also long been the principle upon which the military service of the Italian allies was regulated. Hereafter the system of a citizen levy was supplemented by a re- cruiting system, principally of course from the idle and lazy portion of the population, and by a system of reinforcements, whereby cavalry and light-armed troops were drawn henceforward from the con- tingents of subject and vassal princes. A separate military order was formed, which was distinct from the civil order and opposed to it. The organization of the army, the strength and divisions of the legions (henceforward 6000 men in 10 cohorts), also underwent im- portant changes. 103-99. Second servile insurrection (in Sicily) under Tryphon and Athenian, which was put down by the consul, Manius AquiUius,Siiter a hard struggle. 100. Marius, for the sixth time consul, aiming at the royal power, joined the leaders of the people, the prsetor C. Servilius Glaucia and L. Appuleius Saturninus, with the purpose of overthrow- ing the constitution. Saturninus, having gained the tribunate by murder, procured by violent means a division of lands among the veterans of Marius. The consul Q. Metellus went into voluntary banishment. The murder of C. Memmius, who had been nominated consul for the year 99, led to an actual contest in the forum between the optimates and the popular party. Saturninus and Glaucia being betrayed by their accomplice, Marius, were killed, with many of their followers. 99. Q. Metellus recalled to Rome. Marius, hated by both parties on 98. account of his equivocal conduct, went for a time to Asia. 91. Three bills brought forward by the tribune M. Livius Dru- sus : 1. Reform of the judicial department Qex judiciaria), wliich re- stored to the senate the places on the juries which had been taken from it, at the same time enlarging the senate by the addition of 300 equites. 2. A new division of lands (lex agraria). 3. Bestowal of the right of citizenship on the Italians (de civitate sociis dandd). The first two proposals were adopted by the comitise, but declared null and void by the senate ; as he was on the point of bringing the third before the people, Drusus was assassinated. The disappointment of the Italian allies who had fixed their hopes upon Livius caused the revolt of nearly all the Italians excepting the Latins, most of the Etruscans and Umbrians and some southern citieSj and led to the B. c. Roman History, 129 91-88. Marsian or social war. The Italians formed a federal republic under the name Italia, gov- erned by a senate of 500 senators from all Italian tribes. The capital was Corfinium. They appointed two consuls and twelve prsetors. The terrible danger reconciled for the moment the parties at Rome, and caused the adoption of energetic measures : repeated levies of citizens, and enrollment of freedmen in the army. The best generals of both parties oifered to serve under the consuls. 90. At the seat of war in the north, Marius fought against the Marsians and the other Sabellian tribes, for the most part, successfully. The Roman consul, Rutilius, fell; Cn. Pompeius Strabo, defeated at first, was afterwards victorious. At the southern seat of war (^Campania, Samnium, Lucania), the allies got so decidedly the better of the Roman consul, L. Julius Ccesar, in spite of the dashing forays of Sulla, that the Etrus- cans and Umbrians, in the north, who had before remained faithful, were encouraged to revolt. In order to prevent this a law was passed Granting the right of citizenship to the Latins and to all districts among the above peoples which had remained faithful Qex Julia). 89. Successful conclusion of the war in the north. Superiority of the Roman arms in the south, especially under Sulla. By the lex Plautia-Papiria Roman citizenship was given to all Ital- ians who applied for it ; they were, however, included in 8 tribes only which were especially designated. The towns of Cisalpine Gaul which had municipal organizations received Latin rights {lex Pom- peia). 88. By this concession the war in the south was also in the main brought to a close. 88-84. First Mithridatic war. Cause : Mithradates or Mithridates VI., king of Pontus (120- 63), had extended his power over the eastern shore of the Black Sea (Colchis') and along the Cimmerian Bosphorus (Crimea, and southern Russia). Kingdom of the Bosphorus. He had conquered Paphlagonia and Cappadocia and had provoked the interference of the senate by his encroachments on the client cities of Rome in Asia Minor. Already had Sulla, who was then proconsul in Cilicia, in 92, taken arms against him, and reinstated a king in Cappadocia. A second expulsion of this king, and quarrels of Mitliridates with the king of Bithynia, who was supported by the Roman consul M. Aquil- lius, led to war. 88. Mithridates defeated Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, on the Am- nias, a branch of the Halys, defeated the Roman generals, Op- pijs, Cassius, and Aquillius (the latter being cruelly put to death), and droi^e them out of Asia Minor. The Grecian cities of Asia joined him, and upon an order issued from Ephesus, put to death in one day all the Italians within their walls (80,000, or according to others 150,000). 130 Ancient History. b. c. Sulla, the consul for 88, was on the point of starting for Asia to attack Mithridates, when there broke out the 88-82. Civil war between Sulla (optimates) and Ma- rius (democrats). Direct cause : the revolutionary proposals of the tribune P. Sul- picius, which were carried by the most violent means, and particularly designed to secure the division of the new citizens, Italians and f reed- men, among all the 35 tribes (ut novi cives libertinique in omnes tribus distnbuerentur^. 88. The populace under the control of demagogues deprived Sulla of the chief command and gave it to his opponent Marius, with proconsular power. Sulla marched with his army from Nola upon Rome and took the city by storm. Sulpicius and eleven other outlaws were killed upon the flight. Marius escaped by way of Miji- turnce to Africa, Sulla restored the old order of voting in the centuries as it had existed under the Servian constitution, but had been given up in 241 (p. 112), and decreed that in future the popular assemblies should not vote upon any measure which had not previously passed the senate. 87. An optimate, Cn. Octavius, and a democrat, L. Cornelius Cinna, were elected consuls. Sulla, as proconsul, took the command in the Mithridatic war. During Sulla's absence Cinna endeavored to renew the laws of Sulpicius by violence. After a bloody struggle in the forum he was driven out by the optimates. He formed an army in Campania of armed bands of dissatisfied Italians, liberated slaves, etc., and uniting with the aged Marius, who had returned from Africa, with Q. Sertorius and Cn. Papirius Carbo, advanced upon Rome, which was compelled to surrender. Revolutionary reign of terror in the city. Five days' slaughter at Marius' command of all optimates who had not fled (among others L. and C. Ccesar, M. Antonius, P. Cras- sus, Q. Catulus), confiscation of their property, plundering and out- rages of the armed bands. 86. Marius (for the 7th time) and Cinna, consuls ; Sulla deposed in his absence. Death of Marius, over seventy years old. L. Valerius Flaccus was made consul in his stead and appointed by the popular party to the command of the Mithridatic war. 87-84. Tyrannical government of Cinna at Rome, regardless of the newly restored democratic constitution. Meantime the outlawed Sulla was conducting the war against Mithridates. The latter had sent liis general Archelaus with an army and fleet to Greece, where most of the cities joined him at once, par- ticularly Athens under the government of Aristion. 87. Sulla landed with 30,000 men in Epirus, advanced to Boeotia, drove Archelaus and Aristion out of the country and besieged the former in Pirceus, the latter in Athens. He defeated an 86. army of relief from Pontus, and after a tedious siege captured March. Athens. Sulla defeated Archelaus, who had voluntarily evacuated Piraius, gone by sea to Bceotia, and joined the rein- forcements sent by Mithridates, in the B. c. Roman History. 131 86, Battle of Chaeronea and in the next year in the 85. Battle of Orchomenus, after which he went into winter quar- ters ill Thessaly. In the foUowmg year Sulla, supported by a fleet of ships, collected from Asia Minor and Syria by Lucullus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the Helles- pont to Asia, and through the mediation of Archelaus concluded 84. Peace with Mithridates in Dardanos. I. Evacuation of the Roman province of Asia, restoration of all conquests made by Mithridates, and reinstatement of the kings of Bithynia and Cappa- docia. II. Mithridates surrendered 80 ships of war and paid 3000 talents. After the conclusion of peace, Sulla turned his attention to the Roman army of the democratic party which had gone to Asia in 86 under the consul Flaccus, and, after his murder, had fought suc- cessfully under Fimbria (victory over the younger Mithridates at Miletopolis) . A part of the army having gone over to Sulla, Fim- bria committed suicide, whereupon the rest of his army joined Sulla. After leaving these troops behind (milites Flaviani, two legions) under Jjicinius Murena, and inflicting upon the Grecian cities of Asia Minor the immense fine of 20,000 talents ($25,000,000), which Lucullus was to collect, Sulla sailed from Ephesus to Pirceus, went by land to Patroe, and thence by sea to Italy. 83. Sulla landed with 40,000 men in Brundisium. After the death of Cinna (84), during a mutiny in Ancoiia, where he intended to embark against Sulla, his colleagues Carbo, the younger Marius, and Sertorius were the leaders of the democratic party ; never- theless for the year 83 neither of them, but instead two incapable men, L. Scipio and C. Norbanus, were elected consuls. Sulla, who upon landing was joined by the 23-year old Cn. Pompeius with an army of volunteers, formally guaranteed their rights to the Ital- ians and marched against the consuls. He conquered Norbanus on Mt. Tifata and opened negotiations with Scipio, in the course of which the entire army of the latter went over to Sulla. 82. Sulla rested for the winter in Capua, and fought during the fol- lowing year against the younger Marius and Carbo, who had been appointed consuls. At Sacriportus Sulla defeated Marius, who retired to Prceneste, where he was surrounded by a division of the army tnder Q. Ofella. Sulla perceived this, and passed rapidly tlirough Rome to attack the democrats in Etruria, whither also a part of his army under Metellus, Pompeius, and Crassus had already forced its way from Picenum and Umbria and were pressing Carbo hard. On receipt of the news that strong Samnite bands were advancing to the relief of Prseneste, Sulla went back to Latium, prevented the relief of Prseneste, and repulsed an attack of the Samnites upon Rome (Nov. 82). More than 3000 prisoners were slaughtered at Sulla's command. Prseneste surrendered, the younger Marius was put to death by his slaves at his own command. The party of Marius in northern Italy had already been completely defeated at Faventia. Carbo and Sertorius fled. Sulla took terrible vengeance upon the con- quered cities and towns of Italy. The party of Marius in Spain was defeated at a later time by C. Annius and Valerius Flaccus ; in Sicily and Africa it was defeated by Pompeius, whom Sulla allowed to tri- umph, and saluted with the surname of Magnus. 132 Ancient History/. ' B. 82. Sulla had himself appointed dictator in Rome for an un» limited time, for the sake of reorganizing the commonwealth (dictator reipublicoe constituendce, a power analogous to that of the de- cemvirs). Reactionary Reign of Terror. Proscription lists of the evil minded (lex de proscrihendis malis civibus). The number of the out- lawed, on whose death a reward was set, and whose property was confiscated amounted to 4700. Allotments of lands to the veterans of Sulla and establishment of military colonies with full right of citizenship in the territories of cities of the hostile party, whose right of citizenship was abrogated. Liberation of 10,000 slaves be- longing to the proscribed citizens, and bestowal upon them of the right of citizenship (the so-called Cornelians). 83-81. Second Mithridatic War, conducted by the proprsetor Murena (p. 131), who occupied Cappadocia, which Mithridates, in spite of the peace, had not com- pletely evacuated, and invaded Pontus, where he was defeated by Mithridates and obliged to withdraw. The war ended in a treaty which was a renewal of the first peace. Attempt at a conservative aristocratic reform of the government in Rome, by a series of laws originated by Sulla (leges Cornelioe). Reorganization of the senate which had suffered severely from the proscriptions of the civil wars. It was now enlarged in an unprece- dented manner by the addition of 300 members to be chosen by the comitia trihuta. Admission to the senate became a prerogative of the qufestorship. Henceforward 20 qucestors were annually elected by the comitia trihuta. Abolition of the censors' privilege of revising the roll of the senate every five years, and consequently introduction of the irremovability of the senators. Thus the senate, for a short time, was iyidirectly chosen by the people, and acquired a representa- tive character. The places in the juries which C. Gracchus had transferred to the equites (p. 125) were restored to the senate. The privileges of the senate were further increased ; it acquired, m particular, the right of prolonging the term of office of proconsuls and propraetors, and of removing them. The comitice lost the power of electing the priests, which had been given them in 104, the priestly colleges receiving again the right of filling their own vacan- cies. On the other hand Sulla gave up the Servian order of voting, the restoration of wliich had been attempted in 88. Powers of the tribunes of the people reduced, misuse of the right of interpellation punished with heavy fines, the right of the tribunes to initiate roga- tions subjected to the approval of the senate ; it was also decreed that acceptance of the tribunate conveyed incapacity for accepting higher offices. Reorganization of the department of justice, increase of the perpetual courts (qucestiones perpetuai). Henceforward 8 praetors. Criminal legislation (lex de sicariis, defalso, etc.). 81. Sulla permitted the election of consuls, but continued to conduct the government under the title of dictator. For the year 80. He caused himself and his companion m arms, Q. Metellus, to to be elected consuls, and so bridged the way to constitutional government. B, c. Roman History, 133 79. Sulla voluntarily abdicated the dictatorship and retired to private life. 78. Death of Sulla, probably in consequence of a hemorrhage.^ 78-77. Attempt of M. ^milius Lepidus (consul with Q. LutatitM CatuluSf 78) and the Marian M, Junius Brutus, to violently ^overthrow the work of Sulla. Lepidus, on his way from Etruria to Rome at the head of an army, was defeated on the Campus Martins by Catulus ; defeated a second time at Cosa, he fled to Sardinia, where he fell sick and died. Brutus was forced by Pompeius to sur- render at Mutina, and was afterwards put to death. 80-72. War against Sertorius, who in 83 had been allotted Lusitania and Spain as. Ais prov- ince. He had been driven out (82) by Sulla's generals, and, after leading a roving life as an adventurer along the coasts of Spain and Africa, returned to Lusitania. Here this party leader, alike distin- guished as statesman and general, had founded an independent sov- ereignty. Q. Metellus and even Cn. Pompeius waged for a long time unsuccessful war against him. He formed an alliance with Mithri- dates, but was murdered, in 72, by his subordinate Perperna. The latter was defeated and executed by Pompeius. 73-71. War of the Gladiators and (third) Servile War. Bands of gladiators who had escaped from a gladiatorial school at Capua occupied Vesuvius under command of two Gauls and the Thracian Spartacus, and from this vantage-ground plundered and burned throughout the neighborhood. Reuiforced by numerous slaves they grew to an army, and defeated four Roman armies in succession. Spartacus, who wanted to leave Italy, was forced by his companions to remain. He marched upon the capital. Terror in Rome. The praetor M. Licinius Crassus received the chief com- mand. The insurgents refrained from attacking Rome and wandered about Italy ravaging and plundering. Crassus defeated them in two battles, in the second of which, on the Silarus, Spartacus fell, fight- ing valiantly. The remnants of the bands were annihilated by Pom- peius, who was returning from Spain. In 70 the consuls M. Licinius Crassus and Cn. Pompeius Mag- nus restored to the tribunate the privileges whiok it had lost under Sulla (p. 132). The Aurelian law (lex Aurelia), passed during their consulate, repealed the enactment of Sulla that the jurors should be taken exclusively from the senators ; henceforth one third should be senators, two thirds men of the equestrian census (of these one half should be taken from the so-called tribuni-cerarii) . Already, in 72, the privilege of the censors, of revising the roll of the senate, which Sulla had abolished, had been restored (p. 132), and probably five years became again the length of the censors' term of office. 64 senators were expelled from the senate by the censors Gellius and Len- iulus. 1 He did not die of the so-called Phthiriasis. Cf. Mommaen, Hist. ofRovie, III. p. 390. 134: Ancient History. b. c. 78-67. War against the pirates. The result of the neglect of the Roman marine since the destruc- tion of Carthage, and of the oppression of the Roman governors in Asia was a constant increase of piracy. There gradually grew up an organized pirate-community, whose principal seats were Crete and Cilicia. The pirates controlled the entire Mediterranean as far as ' the columns of Hercules, and captured the vessels which were convey- ing grain to Rome. 78. War had been waged with the pirates since 78, at first under the proconsul of Asia, P. Servilius, who destroyed many pirate 75. cities, and in the year 75 took possession of Isauria, Pamphylia, Pisidia, for Rome, under the name of Cilicia, and afterwards 74. under the prsetor M. Antonius, who possessed most extensive powers, but accomplished little, and in 71 died at Crete after being defeated by the Cretans. 68. Metellus after a long contest, subdued Crete (province since 67), whose inhabitants lived for the most part, upon piracy. As piracy still continued, 67. Pompeius received, on the motion of Gabinius (lex Gabinia), for three years unlimited command over the whole Mediterra- nean and its coasts for fifty miles inland ; the public treasuries and resources of all the provinces and client states were placed uncondi- tionally at his disposal. In three months Pompeius, in two short cam- paigns, completedly cleared first the western, then the eastern, Mediterranean of pirates, captured 3000 vessels, put to death 10,000 pirates, destroyed their fortresses, captured 20,000 men, and settled them in the interior of the country. (Construction of Pompeiopolis in Cilicia.) 74-64. Third Mithridatic war. Cause : Strained relations between the Romans on the one side, and Mithridates of Pontus and his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia, on the other. The latter took possession of the kingdoms of Cappadocia and Syria. When Nicomedes III., of Bithynia, likewise son-in-law of Mithridates, bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, and Bithynia was made a Roman province, Mithridates declared war and occupied Bi- thynia. 74. The conduct of the war was entrusted to the two consuls L. Lu- cullus, who was to enter the kingdom of Pontus through Phry- gia, and M. Aurelius Cotta, who sailed with the fleet for the Propontis. Mithridates defeated the latter by land and sea at Chalcedon and laid siege to Cyzicus, which was relieved by Lu- cullus, who hastened from the south. 73. Mithridates was forced to retreat with great loss. Lucullus as proconsul conducted the war successfully at sea ; then took the offensive on land, crossed the Halys (Kisil Irmak), traversed Pontus, defeated Mithridates at Cabira, and drove the king completely out of his kingdom. He took refuge with his son- in-law, Tigranes, while Lucullus, after a tedious siege, cap- 72-70. tured the trading cities Heraclea, Sinope^ Amisus, and occupied Armenia Minor. B. c. Roman History. 135 Without waiting for authority from the senate, LucuUus opened war upon Tigranes, crossed the Euphrates into Armenia proper, de- feated Tigranes m the famous 69. Battle of Tigranocerta, captured that city, and then turned against the two kings who had now joined forces. LucuUus forced the passage of the Euphrates (68) by a second successful encounter with the enemy, crossed the river here in its upper course for the .second time,^ marched through the Armenian plateau toward Artaxata, the residence of Tigranes, but was compelled by a mutiny among his soldiers (P. Clodius, broth- er-in-law of LucuUus) to begin a retreat over the Tigris to Mesopo- tamia, long before he had reached Artaxata.^ LucuUus took Nisibis by storm, but was obliged to cross to the right bank of the Euphrates again to rescue a division of the army which had been cut off (67). Meantime Mithridates returned to Pon- tus and defeated a Roman force under Triarius at Zela (Ziela). New mutinies in the army of LucuUus, who was at the same time in- formed that he was slandered at Rome, that he had been recalled, and the consul M\ Acilius Glabrio appointed in his stead. Glabrio went to Asia, but in consideration of the difficult position of affairs, did not assume command. Lue^Uus conducted the Roman army by a mas- terly retreat back to Asia Minor. Mithridates, having not only reconquered Pontus, but also com- menced to ravage Bithynia and Cappadocia, a law was passed at the instance of the tribune of the people, C. Manilius (Cicero's oration, pro imperio Cn. Pompeii, ov pro lege Manilid), entrusting <56. Cn. Pompeius -with the command in Asia "with unlimited powers. Unfriendly meeting of LucuUus and Pompeius at Danala in Galatia. After concluding a treaty with the Parthians, whom he guaranteed possession of Mesopotamia, Pompeius opened the campaign partly with new troops, drove Mithridates out of Pontus, and defeated him in the 66. Battle by night on the Lycos (Yeshil Irmak), near the future Nicopolis in Armenia minor. Abandoned by Tigranes, Mithri- dates fled to Colchis. Pompeius followed as far as the Phasis, return- ing then to Armenia, where his ally, the king of the Parthians, had meantime made an inroad. At Artaxata Tigranes gave himself up to Pompeius, who permitted him to keep Armenia proper for his own kingdom, but took from him all his conquests, Syria, Phoenicia, Cappadocia, and imposed upon him a fine of 6000 talents. 65. After an expedition northward, where he fought successfully with the Caucasian tribes, Pompeius for the second time aban- doned the pursuit of Mithridates, who had taken refuge in the 7'auric Chersonese (Crimea), and went to Pontus, and thence to Syria. 1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. 2 The second victory of LucuUus was not gained near Artaxata. CL Momnisen, Hist, of^ome, IV. p. 70. 136 Ancient History. b. c. 64r-63. Organization of the Roman possessions in Asia, under Pom- peius. New Provinces : 1. Pontus, comprising Bithynia (already treated as a province since 74), the coast of Paphlagonia, and the western part of Pontus proper, along the coast. The rest of the kingdom of Mithiidates was given to vassal kings. 2. Syria, comprising at first only the coast from the gulf of Issus to Damascus f afterwards considerably enlarged. 3. Cilicia, reorganized by Pom- peius, although it had been a province in name since 75. It included Pamphylia and Isauria (p. 134). These Asiatic provinces were much cut up, and surrounded by: (a) territories of autonomous cities j (&) princely and priestly sovereignties under Roman supremacy. The most distinguished of the vassal kings of Rome in the east were the king of Cappadocia, and Deiotarus, king of Galatia (p. 78). In Palestine, after the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple, Pompeius restored Hyrcanus, who had been driven out by his brother, as high- priest and civil governor, but made him tributary to Rome. 63. Mithridates, who had busied himself with gigantic schemes of a land expedition to Italy, killed himself at Panticapoeum, in the Tauric Chersonese, in consequence of the revolt of his son, Pharnaces. Upon receipt of this news Pompeius returned to Pontus. He confirmed Pharnaces in possession of the kingdom of the Bosphorus. 61. Return of Pompeius to Italy. He dismissed his army at Brun- disium, and entered Rome as a private citizen. Magnificent triumph, lasting two days. 66-62. Conspiracy of Catiline. Union of the democrats and the anarchists. Leaders of the demo- crats: M. Crassus and C. Julius Caesar (born 102?, son-in-law of Cinna, outlawed by Sulla, afterwards pardoned, 67 quaestor in Spain, 65 sedile, 63 pontifex maximus). Leader of the anarchists: L. Ser- gius Catilina, ex-prsetor, one of Sulla's executioners. The demo- crats dreaded the reconciliation of Pompeius, whose military dictator- ship was the work of their own hands, with the optimates. Hence they sought to overthrow the existing government before the return of Pompeius, by a violent revolution, while the anarchists, in part pro- letarians, in part young men of honorable families who were sunk in debt, hoped for plunder and confiscation of property. The j^rs^ conspiracy, in 66, according to which the consuls for 65 were to be murdered, and Crassus made dictator, and Ccesar, master of the horse, failed of execution through the indecision of some partici- pants. At the close of the year 64, it was again renewed for the pur- pose of securing the election of L. Catilina and C. Antonius (also a former follower of Sulla) at the consular elections for 63, by the in- fluence of C(Esar and Crassus, who were to remain in the background. Antonius alone was, however, actually elected; his colleague for 63 was M. TuUius Cicero, a favorite lawyer and orator, belonging to no party unreservedly (born 106, 75 qusestor in Sicily, 70 prosecutor of Verres, 69 sedile, 66 prsetor urbanus). The latter resigned before- hand to Antonius, who was deep in debt, the lucrative governorship of Macedonia^ thereby detaching him from the conspirators. B. 0. Roman History. 137 Formation of an insurgent army in Etruria, under C. Manlius, a comrade of Catiline; at Rome organization of the conspirators, who, at a given signal, were to fire the city, and thereby produce universal confusion. Plan of Catiline to murder his competitors at the con- sular election for 62, and the consul, Cicero, who would preside over the election. Cicero, informed of this by his spies, denounced the conspiracy in the senate, appeared on the day of the election sur- rounded by numerous armed guards, and defeated the election of Catiline. The latter 's plan of having Cicero surprised and murdered in his own house was also betrayed and failed. 63. Nov. 8. First speech of Cicero against Catiline delivered in the senate. Catiline left the city, and betook himself to the army of Manlius in Etruria. Nov. 9. Second speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. The accomplices of Catiline, Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, Statilius, and Cceparius, were taken into custody on the strength of written proofs of guilt obtained by Cicero. Dec. 3. Third speech of Cicero against Catiline, to the people. Dec. 5. Fourth speech of Cicero against Catiline, in the senate. De- cree, of the senate that the traitors be strangled in prison with- out trial and sentence (Ccesar opposed the resolution ; Cato's speech determined the vote), executed by the consul Cicero. Cicero greeted as pater patrice. The consul Antonius was entrusted with the conduct of the war against Catiline. His lieutenant defeated Catiline at Pistoria (62). Catiline and 3000 of his followers fell on the field. 62. Caesar administered the prsetorship in Rome. A part of his large indebtedness having been paid by Crassus, he went for 61. the year to Hispania Ulterior, as propraetor, where he laid the foundation of his military fame, and where he found means to discharge his debts. He returned bearing the honorary title of " imperator," but refused to triumph, in order that he might become a candidate for the consulship. The refusal of the senate to grant the allotment of lands requested by Pompeius for his veterans, led to a complete break between Pompeius and the government, and resulted in the so-called 60. First Triumvirate, a reciprocal agreement of the three statesmen Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus. They secured the election for the next year of 59. Caesar as consul. As his colleague, the optimate M. Bihulus, and the senate op- posed the proposals brought in by Caesar for an agrarian law, espe- cially in the interests of Pompeius' veterans {lex Julia de agro cam- pano : ut ager campanus plehi divideretur^, and the ratification of the organization of Asia, these measures were submitted to the popular assemblies and passed by them, without the approval of the senate. Violence offered Bihulus and M. Porcius Cato. Bibulus did not dare leave his house again during his year of office. Intimate 138 Ancient History. b. c. friendship and close family ties between Caesar and Pompeius. Caesar's daughter, Julia, 23 years old, given to Pompeius in marriage. On the motion of P. Vatinius, tribune of the people, Csesar received by a popular decree the government of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyri- cum for 5 years, with extraordinary powers. At Pompeius' motion the astounded senate added G-allia Narbonensis (p. 126) to Caesar's provmce. A. Gabinius, a friend and military companion of Pompeius, and L. Piso, father-in-law of Caesar, were elected consuls for the following year. The execution of the agrarian law was en- trusted to Pompeius and Crassus. Before Caesar departed for his province, 58. The absence of Cato and Cicero from Rome was procured by P. Clodius, tribune of the people, who had secured this office at the sacrifice of his patrician rank by hasty adoption into a plebeian family. Cato was appointed by a popular vote to take pos- session of the kingdom of Cyprus, which had been left to Rome by will. Cicero was driven to flight by the decree, " Whoever shall have caused the execution of a Roman citizen without legal sentence shall be punished with outlawry " (lex Clodia : ut qui civem Romanum in- demnatum interemisset ei aqua et igni interdiceretur), and then banished by a second lex Clodia to a distance of 400 Roman miles from Rome. Clodius caused Cicero's house on the Palatine to be burned, and his Tusculan and Formean estate to be ravaged. 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar. Results of Caesar's eight years of brilliant warfare, and its meaning in the history of the world. 1. Annihilation of the Celts, as a nation, for whose lasting Romani- zation Caesar opened the way. 2. Creation of a dam which for four centuries protected the Romano-Hellenic civilization against destruction by the German bar- barians. 3. Enlargement of the boundaries of the old world, not only by the immediate conquest, but also through the information obtained by Caesar's expeditions to Britannia and Germania. 4. Acquirement of the means for accomplishing the change, now become necessary, of the Roman republic into a monarchy : the vet- eran legions and troops of the allied states, who had become at- tached to their general and expert in war. 58. Victory of Caesar over the Helvetians, who had invaded Gaul, at Bibracte,! and over the German prince Ariovistus, N. E. of Vesontio (Besan9on) in the vicinity of MUhlhausen in Alsace 2 (Caesar, Bellum Gallicum, I.). 57. Subjugation of the Belgii. Annihilation of the Nervii in Hen- negau by a terrible battle on the Sambre, not far from Bavay (B. Gall. III.). In the southeast, occupation of Octodurus (Martigny), to secure the Alpine pass of the Great St. Bernard. 56. Subjugation of the Veneti in Armorica (Bretagne) by Caesar, 1 On the site of the modern Autun, according to v. Goler ; two miles wart »f Autun according to ]Srapoleon III. {Vie de Cesar.) 2 See Mommseu, Hist, of Rome, IV. p. 244, note. B. c. Roman History. 139 after hard fighting on land and sea, and of the Aquitani by his lieutenant P. Crassus, son of the triumvir. In the north- east, successful war with the Morini and Menapii (B. Gall. Ill)- 55. Csesar drove the Germanic tribes of the Usipetes and Tenchteri back across the Rhine. Passage of the Rhine on a bridge of piles, between Coblence and Andernach. After a stay of fifteen days on the right bank, Csesar recrossed the stream. (B. Gall. IV.) First expedition to Britain with two legions. Departure from two ports, one of which was Itius partus, E. and W. of Cape Grisnez, landing between Dover and Deal, probably at Walmer Castle.'^ (B. Gall. IV.) 54. Second expedition to Britain, with five legions. Cassivelaunus, leader of the British Celts. Csesar crossed the Stour and the Thames (between Kingston and Brentford), while Cassivelau- nus attacked the Roman camp where the ships lay. Retreat and embarkation of Caesar after he had received hostages. {B. Gall. V.) 53. Insurrection of the Ehurones under Amhiorix, and of other tribes. Csesar crossed the Rhine a second time. (5. Gall. VI.) 52. General insurrection of the Gauls under the Arvernian, Vercin- getorix. Siege and capture of Avaricum (Bourges) by Cae- sar, occupation of Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) by Lahienus. Unsuccessful siege of Gergovia, near Clermont in the Auvergne ; Csesar, compelled to retreat, united with Lahienus. Siege of Alesia (Alise Sainte-Reine at Semur in the Dep. C6te d'Or, between Chatillon and Dijon) by Csesar, while the Roman army was in turn surrounded and besieged by the insurgent army of relief ; after a hard fight, complete victory of Csesar. Vercingetorix forced to surrender himself. He was exe- cuted at Rome, five years later (B. Gall. VII.). 51. Completion of the subjugation of Transalpine Gaul (cruel pun- ishment of the insurgents). Ten legions located in detach- ments throughout the country held it in obedience to Csesar. • While these magnificent feats of war were placing the older mili- tary fame of Pompeius in the shade, the latter was trying unsuccess- fully to master the anarchy at Rome. Leader of the ultra-demo- crats, the former tribune, P. Clodius (pp. 135, 138). In opposition to him the recall of M. Tullius Cicero was procured in 57, fey the efforts of the tribune T. Annius Milo. In the same year M. Porcius Cato returned to Rome. The aristocratic reaction opposed the armed bands of Clodius, which patrolled the streets and forum, with the armed bands of Milo. The attempt of the republicans in the senate to free themselves from the influence of the rulers, and the resolution to revise the agrarian law passed during the consulate of Csesar, resulted in a renewal of the alliance of the three statesmen. 1 Compare Heller, Ccesar's Expedition nach Brittanien, in the Zeitschrift fiir allg. Erdlcunde, 1865. According to v. Goler, the first expedition started ".orom Wissant near Cape Grisnez, the second from Calais. 140 Ancient History, b. c. In 56 a meeting of the triumvirs Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus, and their followers (200 senators) took place in Luca. In conse- quence of agreements there concluded, the election of Pompeius and Crassus as consuls for 55 was carried by the use of force. A decree of the people {lex Trebonid) then assigned to Pompeius the govermnent of both Spains for five years, and to Crassus that of Syria, while Caesar's command in Gaul was prolonged for Jive years more, and the payment of those troops which he had recruited on his own authority was assumed by the state. The Roman aristocracy was obliged to submit to these decrees. After the close of his year of office as consul Crassus went to Syria in 54, where he undertook in 53 an expedition against the Par- thians. He suffered a terrible defeat at Carrhae in Mesopotamia, and was shortly after killed by the Parthians during an interview with one of their satraps. Pompeius remained in Rome, and dele- gated the administration of his provinces to his legates. In 52 Clodius and Milo happening to meet on the Via Appia, a fight sprang up between their followers, during which Clodius was wounded, and then, at Milo's command, put to death. Clodius' corpse was carried to the Curia Hastilia, near the forum in Rome, and there burnt, together with the building. To put an end to the disturbances of the mob which followed this event, Pompeius was appointed "consul without a colleague" by the senate, and clothed with dictatorial power. Trial of Milo, who was condemned by the jurors, in spite of Cicero's oration ^ in his defence, to be banished. Cicero proconsul in Cilicia. Breach between Csesar and Pompeius, whose connection had been previously weakened by the death of Julia (54). Pompeius selected his new father-in-law, Metellus Scipio, for his colleague in office, caused his governorship in Spain to be prolonged for five years, and deprived Csesar of two legions, urging the impor- tance of the Parthian war, which a victory had already ended. Pom.peius openly reassumed the leadership of the republican aris- tocracy (lex de vi et ambitu). Caesar remained leader of the democ- racy, which under a constitution without representation led of neces- sity to monarchy. Demand of the senate that Caesar should resign his command before the expiration of the term which had formerly been granted him. Refusal of the senate to permit Caesar to stand for the consulship during his proconsulship, as had been allowed by the citizens. This brought about the 49-46. Civil war between Caesar and Pompeius. The senate declared Caesar a public enemy Qiostis) should he not disband his army within a given time. The tribunes of the peo- ple who favored Caesar fled to him at Ravenna. 49. Caesar, with one legion, crossed the brook Rubicon, the boundary of his province, and thereby opened the civil war. Great con- sternation at Rome. Pompeius, who had only commenced his prepa- rations, and the greater part of the senate, fled to Brundisium. Caesar, 1 Not the one which we have. This was written for the occasion, but the tumult and fear prevented its delivery. B. C. Roman History. 141 reinforced by a second legion which had overtaken him, marched through Umbria, Picenum, where Domitius, at Corfinium, was obliged to surrender, and Apulia to Brundisium, to which he laid siege, after a third legion of veterans had joined him, and he had levied three new legions. Pompeius succeeded in conveying his troops, by two expeditions, to Greece, before the capture of the city. Csesar, unable to follow him from lack of vessels, commenced the construction of a fleet, and went to Rome. There he quieted the apprehensions of a return of the horrors of the first civil war. Magnanimous behavior toward his foes (Csesar, Bell. Civ. 1-33). 49. Caesar went by land to Spain to subdue Pompeius' legates, Spring, leaving Trebonius to besiege Massilia. The legates of Pom- 49. peius, Afranius and Petreius, were compelled to surrender at Aug. Ilerda (Lerida), N. of the Ebro, and their army was dis- banded (Csesar, Bell. Civ. I. 34-87). Varro, who commanded in Hispania ulteriora, threw himself into Gades (Cadiz), but most of the cities joining Csesar, he capitulated. On Caesar's march back to Italy, Massilia, which was suffering from starvation, surrendered on being threatened with a storm (Csesar, Bell. Civ. II. 1-22). Meantime Caesar's legate Curio had reduced Sicily to subjection. He then crossed to Africa, where he was at first victo- rious at Utica, but was afterwards defeated at the Bagradas by Juha, king of Numidia, who had declared for Pompeius, and fell in the battle (Caesar, Bell. Civ. II. 23-44). Csesar, during his absence, was proclaimed dictator at Rome by the praetor M. jEmilius Lepidus (on the authority of a new lex de dictator e creando), but abdicated the office after eleven days, and had himself appointed consul, with P. Servilius, for the year 48. while that part of the senate which had participated in Pom- peius' flight to Greece prolonged the term of office of Pom- peius and all the officials of the previous year. Caesar landed in northern Epirus, at Oricum, not far from the promontory of Acroceraunia, with a part of his army. The trans- ports which returned for the rest of the troops were mostly captured by the fleet of Pompeius; and the coasts of Italy being sharply watched, Caesar was "placed in a situation of great difficulty, as M. Antonius was able to transport the second half of the army only after several months. His army being at last united, Caesar inclosed the army of Pompeius at Dyrrhachium by a long chain of military posts. Daily skirmishes, for the most part favorable for Caesar. At last however, Pompeius broke through Caesar's line. Csesar, defeated and compelled to retreat, went to TTiessaly, whither Pompeius fol- lowed him, leaving Cato in Dyrrhachium. In the Thessalian plain was fought the 48. Decisive battle of Pharsalus. Aug. 9. Csesar, with about 22,000 men, defeated and completely scat- tered the army of Pompeius, which had more than twice that strength; 20,000 men laid down their arms. Pompeius fled to the coast, and took ship for Egypt by way of Lesbos. At the command 142 Ancient History, B. c. of the minister of the young king, Ptolemseus, he was murdered upon landing, Csesar followed Pompeius and landed in Alexandria with 4000 men (Caesar, Bell Civ. III.). Especial honors paid to Csesar in Rome (consulate for five years, tribunate for life, dictatorship for one year). Csesar having taken it upon himself, at Alexandria, to decide between the ten-year old Ptole- mceus and his followers and his sixteen-year old sister Cleopatra, there broke out the so-called 48-47. Alexandrine war, an uprising of the whole population of Alexandria, sup» ported by the Roman army of occupation, which had been in garrison there since the restoration of the king Ptolemceus Auletes (55). Csesar, besieged in the royal palace, was in the greatest danger, from which only his reckless daring rescued him. He caused the Egyptian fleet to be set on fire, whereby the famous library of Alexandria (p. 77) was also burned. Csesar, with the help of an army of relief which arrived from Asia, defeated the Egyptian army on the Nile. The young king Ptolemseus was drowned on the flight. The government was given to Cleopatra and her younger brother, under Roman su- premacy, and a Roman garrison was left in Alexandria. Csesar went to Asia Minor, and in a Jive days' campaign (veni, vidi, vici) ended the 47. War against Pharnaces, son of Mithridates (p. 136), who had occupied Pontus, Arme- yiia Minor, and Cappadocia. Csesar defeated him at Zela and forced him to fly. Pharnaces fell in battle against a revolted governor. Arrangement of the Asiatic relations. Deiotarus, who had fought against Csesar at Pharsalus, lost the greater part of his kingdom. Return of Csesar to Rome. After he had subdued a mutiny of the tenth legion, he undertook the 47-46. "War in Africa against the adherents of Pompeius, Sextus Pompeius, Scipio, Cato, Labienus, Petreius, king Juba. Csesar landed at Hadrumetum, where he was in great danger, since the larger part of his force did not arrive till later in consequence of a storm. After several unim- portant encounters Csesar defeated and annihilated the republican army, which far outnumbered his own, in the 46. Battle of Thapsus, during and after which 50,000 of the enemy were slaughtered by Csesar's embittered soldiers. Scipio killed himself on the flight, Cato committed suicide in Utica, Petreius and Juba agreed to kill one another, in a personal contest. Juba struck Petreius down; and being himself but slightly wounded, had himself killed by one of his slaves. Labienus and Sextus Pompeius escaped to the latter's brother, Cn. Pompeius, in Spain. A part of Numidia was united with the province of Africa by Csesar; the rest was given to Bocchus, king of eastern Mauritania. Return of Csesar to Rome, where he celebrated four triumphs, for B. c. Roman History, 143 Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, Africa. Entertainments for the people, splen- did games, distribution of gold and grain. Csesar was appointed dic- tator for 10 years, and censor without a colleague, under the title prcefectus morum, for 3 years. Correction of the Calendar, by an extraordinary intercalation of 67 days in the year 46; thereafter there was a solar year of 365^ days (a leap-year every four years ivithout exception). 46-45. War against the sons of Pompeius, Cnceus and Sextus, and the rest of the Pompeian party. Al- though repulsed before Corduba by Sextus Pompeius, Caesar by great exertions defeated both brothers in the 45. Battle of Munda, north of Ronda, between Cordova and Gibraltar, in which he was obliged to lead the legions against the enemy in person. Over 30,000 Pompeians were slain, and among them Labienus, Varus, Cn. Pompeius ; Se^us es- caped. After Csesar had returned to Rome he caused the senate to appoint him at first (45) consul for 10 years, afterwards (44) dictator, and censor /or life. Since 48 he had borne the new official title Impera- tor, which denotes the possessor of the imperium, the concept of civil and military official power. ^ This included full control of the finances and the military power of the state, and also the right of coining money with the portrait of the ruler of the state. As prcefectus morum (censor) Caesar had the right of enlarging the senate ; as pontifex maximus he possessed the control of religious affairs ; as possessor since 48 of a power resembling that of the tribunes, he had the ini- tiative in legislation, and was the inviolable (sacrosanctus) protector and representative of the people. Accordingly the position and powers of the new democratic monarch were almost exactly analo- gous to those of the old Roman kings. The people retained, nevertheless, at least in form, a share of the sovereignty, all laws affecting the constitution requiring, as under the republic, to be ratified by the comitiae, which were, however, easily controlled. The senate became again, what it had been under the kings, an advisatory council only. Caesar brought the number of members up to 900 and increased the number of quaestors from 20 to 40. Election to this office, it will be remembered (p. 132), admitted the holder to the senate. The democratic monarch, however, exercised to the utmost his right of appointing senators, and thereby gravely offended the nobility. Ex-centurions, Spaniards, Gauls, sons of freed- men, etc., found through him admission to the senate. The monarch had an extensive right of nomination at the elections of magistrates. Restoration of the old royal jurisdiction exercised by decision of the monarch alone, from whose sentence there was no appeal, — a right which, of course, was but rarely exercised (trial of Ligarius and of Deiotarus). In general the ordinary judicial system was retained. Praetors increased to 16. Reorganization of the military system. Creation of legati legionis 1 Cf, Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, IV. 468, note. 144 Ancient History. b. c. pro prcetore, appointed by the imperator. Reform of the Jinancial ad- ministration. The system of tax-farming was exchanged for the im- position of direct taxes. Allotment of the Italian domains, particu- larly among the veterans. Wide-spread colonization in the provinces with the view at once of Latinizing the provinces, and of diminishing the number of proletarians in the capital. Commencement of mag- nificent buildings in Rome. New system of provincial administration for the protection of the provinces against the extortions of the gov- ernors. Sumptuary laws. Criminal legislation. Arrangement of the relations of debtor and creditor. Project of a war against the Parthians, to revenge the Roman de- feat under Crassus (p. 140) and add to the security of the eastern boundary of the empire. Conspiracy of some 50 republican aristo- crats against Csesar's life (M. Junius Brutus, C. Cassius. Longinus, C. Trebonius, Decimus Brutus, Tillius Cimher, etc.). 44. Assassination of Caesar during a session of the March 15. senate, which on that day was held by chance in a hall in the theatre of Pompeius. Csesar fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at the foot of a statue of Pompeius. For a moment the senate took the reins of government again, and decreed that Caesar's laws should continue in force, and offered an amnesty to his murderers. But the populace of the capital, incited by the funeral oration of M. Antonius, violently assaulted the conspira- tors. The leaders of the conspirators departed for the provinces which the senate had assigned^'them : M. Brutus to Macedonia, Cassius to Syria, Decimus Brutus to Gallia cisalpina. In Rome M. Antonius (consul with Dolabella), having possession of Caesar's papers, assumed an uncontrolled power under pretext of executing the will of the dictator, and caused Macedonia, the prov- ince of M. Brutus, to be assigned to himself with five of the six legions which Csesar had dispatched thither for the Parthian war. Dolabella received Syria, the province of Cassius, while the provinces of Crete and Cyrene wei'e assigned to M. Brutus and Cassius. Anto- nius, moreover, procured from the popular assembly the province of Gallia cisalpina, which the senate had refused him. In the hope of balancing the usurped power of Antonius, the senate entered into negotiations with the eighteen-year-old C. Octavius, Csesar's grand- nephew and adopted son, henceforward known as C. Julius Caesar Octavianus. The latter, who was beloved by his soldiers, took com- mand of two legions. Antonius, endeavoring to eject Decimus Bru- tus from his province of Gallia cisalpina, there broke out the so-called 44-43. "W'ar of Mutina. As was advocated by Cicero in the Philippics, Hirtius and Pansa, consuls for 43, and the young Octavianus as propraetor, were sent against Antonius, who was besieging Decimus Brutus in Mutina (Modena). Pansa died at Bononia of a wound received in the first encounter ; Hirtius fell as victor in the 43, Battle of Mutina against Antonius, who was now declared an enemy of the state B. G. Roman History. 145 (^hostis). While Decimus Brutus followed him to Gallia cisalpina, Octavianus, now sole commander of the army which was originally the army of the senate, marched to Rome, and extorted his appoint- ment to the consulship, the repeal of the amnesty extended to the conspirators, and their sentence (lex Pedia). This accomplished, he took the field, in appearance, agamst Antonius, with whom he already had had secret negotiations. Meantime Decimus Brutus was abandoned by his troops, captured upon his flight, and put to death at Antonius' command. At a meeting near Bononia, 43. The Second Triumvirate was formed Nov. avowedly for the " Organization of the State " (triumviri rei- publicce constituendce) by Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepi- dus, the former magister equitum of Csesar. This new assumption of power was ratified by a decree of the people for a period of five years. New proscriptions ; several hundred senators and 2000 equites outlawed and their property confiscated. Murder of Cicero. The triumvirs began 43-42. War against the republican party and crossed to Greece, where they were opposed by M. Bru- tus, who, despite the senate's decree, had taken possession of his province, and C. Cassius, who had defeated Dolahella in Syria and driven him to commit suicide. In the 42. Battle of Philippi in Thrace, Antonius, who commanded the right wing, de- feated the left wing of the republican army under Cassius, while Brutus with the right wing of the republicans drove back Octavia- nus. Hearing a false report of the defeat of Brutus, Cassius caused one of his slaves to put him to doath. Brutus, being defeated by Antonius in a second battle, killed kimself . Antonius ravaged the provinces of Asia and Syria, and then fol- lowed Cleopatra (p. 142), whom he had ordered to meet him at Tarsus, to Egypt. Meantime Octavianus, in Italy, was carrying out the promised allotments of land among the veterans. Quarrels between himself and the followers of Antonius led to the so-called 41-40. Civil war of Perusia between Octavianus and Lepidus on the one side and Lucius Antonius, the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of the triumvir, on the other. L. Antonius was compelled to surrender in Perusia. Octavia- nus, now supreme ruler of Italy, assumed the administration of Gaul and Spain, while Lepidus was put off with the government of Africa. Another civil war threatened, but was avoided by a compromise, which the death of Fulvia facilitated. Antonius married Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. The administration of the empire was divided between the triumvirs, so that 40. Octavianus received the west, Antonius the east, and Lepi- dus Africa. 89. In the following year, however, the triumvirs were obliged to make terms with Sextus Pompeius, who had created a naval 10 146 Ancient History. b. c. empire, with Sicily as the base, and had cut off the grain supplies from Rome. By the treaty of Misenum Sextus Pompeius received Sicily^ Sardinia, Corsica (J) and Peloponnesus, with the promise of a reim- bursement for the loss of his paternal property. Antonius went to the east, where he lived for the most part with Cleopatra in Egypt. He carried on, however, a war with the Par- thians, at first through his legate Ventidius (39), and afterwards in person (36), but without much success. New quarrels led to the 38-36. Sicilian war between the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius. Octavianus, aban- doned by both his colleagues, was obliged to conduct the war alone at first, and suffered great loss at sea. A difference between Octa- vianus and Antonius was made up at a meeting in Tarentum, and Octavianus gave Antonius two Italian legions for the Parthian war, while Antonius placed 100 ships at the service of Octavianus against Sextus Pompeius. By means of this reinforcement, Octavianus got the upper hand of Sextus, especially since M. Vipsanius Agrippa commanded his fleet. Sextus Pompeius, defeated by Agrippa at Mylce, fled to Asia and died in Miletus. In the mean time, Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily, demanded this island for himself. Aban- doned by his men, he was forced to surrender to Octavianus, who permitted him to retain the dignity of Pontifex Maximus, and sent him to Circeii. The administration of Africa was assumed by Octa- vianus. 35-33. Campaigns of Octavianus against the Alpine tribes, the Dal- matians, and the lUyrians. Antonius defeated Artavasdes, king of Armenia, captured him, and led him in triumph at Alex- andria. New disputes between Octavianus and Antonius. The latter pre- sented Cleopatra with Roman territory, and sent his wife Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, papers of separation. Octavianus procured a popular decree removuig Antonius from his command and declaring war upon Cleopatra. 31-30. "War between Octavian and Antonius, also called Bellum Actiacum. During the long delay of Antonius and Cleopatra in Ephesus, Athens, and at Patrce. in Achaia, Octavianus completed his preparations and transported his army to Epirus. His fleet of 250 ships, under the command of Agrippa, defeated the fleet of Antonius and Cleo- patra, which outnumbered it, in the 31. Battle of Actium, Sept. 2 Cleopatra fled before the battle was entirely decided, and was followed by Antonius. The army of Antonius surrendered to Octavianus without a blow. 30. Octavianus went to Asia, where he entered upon his fourth con- sulship, returned for a short time to Italy by sea to repress a revolt, and then returned to his troops and marched tlirough Syria to Egypt. Antonius, abandoned by his troops, killed himself on hear- Bo C. Roman History. "** 147 ing a false report of Cleopatra's death. The latter, when convinced that Octavian spared her only that she might grace his triumph in Rome, poisoned herself. Octavianus made Egypt a Roman provmce. Octavianus sole ruler, after the manner of Ceesar (p. 143). 29. Octavianus celebrated three triumphs in Rome, and the temple of Janus was closed for the third time in Roman history.^ FIFTH PERIOD. Reigns of the Roman Emperors down to the Fall of the Western Empire.^ 31 (30) B. C.^76 A. D. B. C. A. D. 31-68. The five Julii, or the descendants of Caesar's adopted son, 31-14. Csesar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, the Suhlime), which was given Octavianus by the senate m 27 b. c, is the name by which, as sole ruler of the Roman world, he is most commonly known ; it also became, like Princeps,^ Ccesar, Imperator (p. 143), the title of the Roman sovereigns. In later times Ccesar became a peculiar designa- tion of the appointed successor of a reigning Augustus. Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members and made a high census (one million sesterces) the necessary condition of admission. The consular office was retained in name, but was sometimes held for a series of years by the imperator ; sometimes granted, as a special distinction, to some one else for a short time (two months). The prcefectus urbi, having police and criminal jurisdiction, and the prcefectus prcetorio, commander of the standing body-guard of nine (afterwards ten) praetorian cohorts, became the most important of- ficers. Division of Rome into 14, of Italy into 11, regiones. B. C. 27, new division of the provinces into senatorial, comprising those quiet provinces which could be admuiistered without an army (Africa, Asia, Achaia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Sicilia, Creta, with Cy- renaica, Bithynia, Sardinia, Hispania Boetica}, and imperial, includmg those where an army was maintained, and which were administered by legates in the name of Augustus (Hispania Tarraconensis, Lusi- tania ; the four provinces of Gaul : Narhonensis, Lugdunensis, Aqui- tania, and Belgica ; Germania superior et inferior, Moesia, Syria, Cilicia^ Cyprus, jEgyptus).^ Aerarium and Fiscus. Period of the highest development of Roman literature. Mcece- nas (f B. c. 8), friend of Augustus, patron and protector of the poets : p. Vergilius Maro (70-19 b. c), Q. Horatius Flaccus (65-8 b. c.) ; 1 Once under Numa, and once in 235. [Trans.] 2 Peter, Edm. Gesch. III.3, 1871, and Eom. Gesch. in Mrzerer Fassung, 2d ed. 1878, p. 475 foil. 3 Princeps was, it is true, not an official title. About the meaning of this de- signation and its relation to the dignity of the Princeps senatus, see Mar- quardt-Momiasen, Eom. Alth, II. 2, 2, p. 750 foil. 4 Later many changes were made in this division. All provinces created after 27 b. c. were assigned to the emperor. 148 • Ancient History. b. c. the elegiac poets, C. Valerius Catullus (87-64 b. c), Albius Tihullus (54-19 B. c. ?), S. Propertius (49-15 b. c. ?) ; P. Ovidius Naso (born 43 B. c, 9 A. D. banished to Tomi on the Pontus Euxinusy f 17). The historian T. Livius (59 b. C.-17 A. d.) Family of Augustus. C. Julius Csesar Octavianus Augustus, b. 63 b. c, f 14 a. d. Married : • 1. Claudia. ' 2. Scribonia. 3. Livia. Tiberius and Drusus, Sons of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. Julia, t A. D. 14. Married : 1. Marcellus, 2. M. Vipsanius Agrippa. 3. Tiberius, son of Octavia. f b. c. 12. t B. c. 23. I i III! Gaius Caesar. Lucius Caesar. Agrippina. Julia. Agrippa Postumus. t A. D. 4. t A. D. 2. t A. D. 33. t A. D. 28. f A. D. 14. Julia (the elder) was banished to the island of Pandataria because of her excesses. Gaius Ccesar and Lucius Ccesar were adopted by Augustus B, c. 17, and designated as his successors. Agrippina (the elder) married Germanicus, son of Drusus, and became the mother of the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero (p. 150). Agrippa Postumus, almost an idiot, was adopted, but afterward banished to the island of Planasia. Julia (the younger) was also banished. Tiberius, son of Livia by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, was adopted by Augustus, a. d. 4. 29. Moesia subjugated (made a province in 16 b. c. ?). 27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures, the operations against whom he was obliged, on account of sick- ness, for the most part to leave to his legates. 25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. jEUus Gallus, prefect of Egypt. Subjugation of the Alpine tribe of the Salassi. Foundation of Augusta Prmtoria (Aosta). 23. Augustus caused the senate to confer upon him for life the dig- nity of the tribunate, and the proconsular imperium in general. 22 and 21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, conducted by Pe- tronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt. 20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians, whose king Phra- ates, upon hearing of the arrival of Augustus in Syria restored the Roman standards which had been taken from Crassus. Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia by Tibe- rius. 19. Subjugation of Spain completed by the conquest of the t^antabri and Astu7^es., 15. After the subjugation of the tribes from the northern boundary of Italy to the Danube, Raetia was made a Roman province, along with Vindelicia (Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg) and Noricum. B. c.-A. D. Roman History. 149 12-9. Starting from the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior and Germania inferior, which had been constituted provinces in 27), Drusus undertook four campaigns in Germany proper, and led the Roman armies to the Weser and the Elbe. Drusus died upon the way back. 8-7. Tiberius, the brother of Drusus and his successor in the com- mand, after he had subjugated Pannonia (12-9), compelled a portion of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine to recognize the supremacy of Rome. Birth of Christ (four years before the commencement of our era?). 6-9. An attack made by Tiberius upon the Suevian kingdom of Mar- hod was interrupted by an insurrection of the lUyrian and Pan- nonian tribes, which were reduced to subjection only after a severe contest. 10. Pannonia (the S. W. portion of Hungary) made a Roman prov- ince. 9(?). Three Roman legions under Quintilius Varus annihilated in the Teutoburg forest, by Arminius (Hermann ?), a leader of the Cherusci, and husband of Thusnelda. Lex Papia Poppcea and Lex Julia directed against celibacy. 14. Augustus died at Nola, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus, by whom he had been adopted, a sus- picious despot. The (formal) right of ratifying laws transferred from the comitice to the senate. The law against high treason (de maiestate) was extended to include the most trivial offences offered the sover- eign. Rewards given to informers (delatores). Revolt of the legions on the Rhine, quelled by Germanicus, son of the elder Drusus, and of the legions in Pannonia quelled by the younger Drusus, son of Tiberius (Tacitus, Annates. I. 16^9). 14-16. Three expeditions under Germanicus against the Germans. On the third attempt, which was made by sea, Drusus landed at the mouth of the Ems, and crossed the Weser. Roman victory in the battle on the Campus Idistaviso (according to Grimm, Idisiaviso, " meadow of the elves ") over Arminius, between Minden and Hameln. In spite of the success of the Roman arms the right bank of the Rhine remained free (Tac. Ann. II. 5-26). 17. Germanicus recalled from Germany, through the envy of Tibe- rius, and sent to the East, installed a king in Armenia, made Cappadocia a Roman province, and died (19) in Syria (of poi- son, administered by Piso?). 23-31. Rule of the abandoned Sejanus, Tiberius' favorite. By uniting the prsetorian cohorts in one camp near Rome, Sejanus laid the foundation of the future power of the prcetorians. 23. Sejanus poisoned Drusus, son of Tiberius. 27. Tiberius took up his residence in Caprece (Capri). 29. Banishment of the elder Agrippina (f 33). — Livia-f. 150 Ancient History, A. C- 31. Trial of Sejanus, who was executed in company with many others (accomplices in the conspiracy?). Macro succeeded Sejanus in the favor of Tiberius. 37-41. Caligula (properly, Gaius Ccesar Germanicus), youngest son of Germanicus, called by the soldiers Caligula (bootling), a cruel, half -crazy tyrant (oderint, dum metuant!). Self- adoration. Bridge over the bay of Puteoli. Childish expedition with an immense army to the coast of Gaul (39-40), which ended with the collection of mussels (spolia oceani). After his murder the praetorians proclaimed as imperator his uncle, 41-54. Claudius {Tiberius Claudius Nero), son of Drusus, younger brother of Germanicus, a weak- minded, vacillating prince, ruled by miserable favorites (the freed- men Narcissus and Pallas) and his wives : 1, the shameless Messalina^ and, after he had caused her to be killed, 2, the ambitious Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus (Tacitus, Annales, XI. and XII.). 43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain under the command of A. Plautius and his legate, T. Flavins Vespasianus ; the southern part of Britain became a Roman province (Tacitus, Agricola, 13, 14 ; Ann. XII. 31^0). During Claudius' reign the following provinces were incorporated : in Africa, Mauretania, Tingitana, and Mauretania Ccesariensis (42); in the east Lycia (43), Thracia (46), Judcea, which had been a de- pendent kingdom 4l-^i4, became in 44 a province again. Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt L. Domitius, her son by Cn. Domitius (he took the name of Nero at his adoption), and to appoint him his successor in place of his own son by Messalina, Britannicus, whose sister Octavia was the promised wife of Nero. As Claudius showed signs of repenting of the adoption of Nero, Agrippina poisoned him. 54-68. Nero {Nero Claudius Ccesar Augustus Germanicus), proclaimed imperator by the praetorians, was for the first five years of his reign under the guidance of the prcefectus prceto- rio Burrus and his teacher L. Seneca, who prevented the influence of his mother Agrippina from becoming predominant. Law against informers. With Nero's passion for the freedwoman Acte, and afterwards for Poppcea Sabina, the opposition between himself and his mother grew stronger and stronger, and the list of his crimes began. He poisoned (55) his step-brother Britannicus, whom his mother had threatened to make imperator, had Agrippina put to death (59), drove from him his wife Octavia, whom he afterwards executed (62), and married Poppcea Sabina. Excesses and mad cruelty of Nero. He appeared in public as chariot-driver in the races, actor, and singer. Crawling servility of the senate (Tac. Ann. XIII.-XVI.). 31. Revolt in Britain, suppressed by Suetonius Paulinus. "8-63. War with the Parthians and Armenians. After the capture and destruction of Artaxata, Domitius Corbulo forced King Tiridates of Armenia to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, A. D. Roman History. 151 64. A fire of six days' duration, followed by another lasting three days, destroyed a large part of Rome (set by Nero's conmiand, in order that he might rebuild the city more beau- tifully ?). Nero accused the Jews and the communities of Christians of setting fire to the city. 64. First persecution of the Christians.^ Re-building in Rome, on a large scale. The palace of Nero (domus aurea) occupied the entire Palatine and extended to the Esquiline. 65. Conspiracy of Piso discovered (Seneca f ). 68. Revolt in Gaul (C Julius Vindex) and in Hispania citerior, where the governor Sulpicius Galha, then 73 years of age, was proclaimed and acknowledged imperator. Nero fled and killed himself on the estate of one of his freedmen in the neighbor- hood of Rome. 68-69. Galba (Servius Sulpicius Galha), June- Jan. whose avarice soon gained him the hatred of his soldiers (Tac. Hist. I.), and who became the victim of the revolt of 69. Otho (Marcus Salviics Otho Titianus), Jan.-Apr. once a favorite of Nero's (Tac. Hist. 1. II.) The legions on the Rhine had already proclaimed as imperator 69- Vitellius (Aulus Vitellius), Apr.-Dec. who defeated Otho in the neighborhood of Cremona^ entered Rome and made the city the scene of liis senseless gluttony and extravagance. (Tac. Hist. II., III.) 69-96- The three Flavian emperors. 69-79. Vespasianus (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) proclaimed imperator through the influence of Licinius Muci- anus, governor of Syria, at first in Alexandria, afterwards by his own legions and those of Syria in Palestine, where he was conducting the war against the Jews who had been in revolt since 66. Vespasianus transferred the military command to his son, Titus, and went to Rome, after a long stay at Alexandria, to find that his adherents had already put Vitellius to death. Restoration of discipline in the army and order in the finances. Reorganization of the senate. 69-71. Revolt of the Batavians under Julius (Claudius?) Civilis (Tac. Hist. IV.), one of their leaders of royal descent. The insurgents at first declared that they took up arms not against the Roman empire, but against Vitellius, and for Vespasianus. Thus they gained the assistance of a large part of the Roman soldiers in those parts. Claudius Civilis repeatedly defeated the Romans, and, reinforced by Germans from the other side of the Rliine, thirsting for booty, he advanced far into Gaul. A great part of the Gallic tribes joined 2- But see Orerbeck, Stiidieu z. Gesch. d. alien Kirche, Pt. 1, p. 93 foil. 152 Ancient History, A. d. him, and for a moment he dreamed of founding an independent Gallic Empire. When once Vespasian's power in Rome was secure, however, Cerealis, favored by the quarrels which had broken out between the allied Batavians, Gauls, and Germans, put an end to the revolt, and agam reduced all Gaul under the Roman supremacy. 70. Capture of Jerusalem by Titus (p. 12). Triumi3hal arch of Titus in Rorhe. Erection of the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Col- osseum). 78. Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, made prepara- tions for the complete subjugation of Britain. Vespasianus was succeeded by his son, 79-81. Titus {Titus Flavius Vespasianus), called, because of his admirable qualities, amor et delidce gen- eris Jiumani. Punishment of informers. 79. Eruption of Vesuvius. Herculaneum buried by mud, Pompeii by ashes and mud. Death of the elder Plinius, the leader of the Roman fleet at Misenum. 80. Fire and plague in Rome. Titus was succeeded by his brother, 81-96. Domitianus {Titus Flavius Domitianus), a cowardly, cruel despot. He undertook a campaign against the Chatti (83), but returned without having seen a foe, notwithstand- ing which he celebrated a triumph. During his reign the construc- tion of the Roman boundary wall between the Rhine and the Danube was commenced. It was guarded by soldiers, who were settled upon public land along its course {agri decumates). 81-84. Successful campaigns of Agricola in Britain, whereby the Roman power was extended as far as Scotland. Agricola recalled by Domitian through envy. 86-90. Unsuccessful wars against the Dacians. Domitian bought peace of Decebalus by a yearly tribute. 93. Death of Agricola (poisoned by order of Domitian ?). Cruel persecution of the Jews, Christians, and philosophers. 96. Domitianus murdered by the freedman Stephanus, the empress, who was in fear of her own life, and the prsefectus praetorio, Petronius Secundus, being cognizant of the crime. 96-192. Nerva and his adopted family. 96-98. Nerva {Maraas Cocceius Nerva), a senator 64 years of age, was raised to the throne by the mur- derers of Domitian. He repealed the law of treason, re- called the exiles, and reduced the taxes. He adopted and appointed as his successor 98-117. Trajan {Marcus JJlpius Traianus), governor of the province of Germania inferior, born in the Roman colony of Italica in Spain, the first occupant of the throne of the Caesars who was not an Italian. Excellent ruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome {Forum Traianum) and throughout the empire. A. D. Roman History. 153 101-102. First war against the Dacians, in consequence of Trajan's refusal to pay the tribute promised by Domitian. Trajan crossed the Danube, captured the fortress of the king Deceba- lus and forced him to make peace and cede a portion of his territory. 105-107. In the second war against the Dacians Trajan built a stone bridge across the Danube (at Turnu Severinu), crossed the stream, defeated and subdued the Dacians. Decebalus killed hunself . Magnificent games at Rome, wherein 10,000 gladiators are said to have appeared. Dacia, that is Wallachia, Moldau, Eastern Hungary, and TransyU vania {Siebenbiirgen), made a Roman province. Settlement of nu- merous colonists in Dacia, from whom the present Roumanians de- rive their descent. It would be more correct to say their language only, the Roumanian or Daco -Romanic, which prevails in Wal- lachia, Moldau and a part of Transylvania. The column of Trajan at Rome completed in 113. The governor of Syria took possession (105) of the region E. and S. of Damascus and of Judcea to the northern end of the Red Sea, as the Roman province of Arabia. ^ 114-116. Wars of Trajan with the Parthians. Chosroes, nephew of the Partliian king, driven from Armenia. Armenia, Meso- potamia, Assyria, including Babylonia, made Roman provinces. Trajan, favored, as it seems, by internal troubles in the Parthian monarchy, conquered Seleucia and Ctesiphon on the Tigris, and sailed down the river to the Persian Gulf. Trajan, having appointed a king over the Partliians, started upon his return, but died at Selinus (Trajanopolis) in Cilicia. 117-138. Hadrian (Fublius jEUus Hadrianus)^ adopted by Trajan (?). A lover of peace, an excellent ad- ministrator, learned and vain. Hadrian abandoned the new provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, so that the Euphrates formed the eastern boundary of the Roman empire. He restored quiet in Moesia, and strengthened his power by the execution of those who conspired against him. 121. Hadrian began his progress through all the provinces of the em- pire, with a visit to Gaul. Magnificent buildings : in Rome the Moles Hadriani, on the site of the present Castle of St. Angelo, and the double temple of Venus and the goddess Roma, and the Athenceum ; in Athens, the city of Hadrian (the Olympieum completed). Magnificent villa at Tibur (Tivoli). In Britain a wall of defence was built against the Picts and Scots. Collection of the edicts of the praetors (edictum perpetuum) com= menced by the jurist Salvius Jidianus. 132-135. Revolt of the Jews on account of the foundation of the colony of ^Elia Capitolina (p. 12). Hadrian had adopted, during a fit of sickness, L. jEUus Verus, and 1 That is, Arabia Petrcea, so called from its capital, Fetra, not the whole peninsula of Arabia. Kiepert, Atlas. Ant. Tab. XII. 154 Ancient History. A. D. appointed him Ccesar (p. 147) ; but as Verus died before him he adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus under the condition that the latter should adopt in place of a son his nephew, the young M. Annius Verus, under the name of Marcus Aurelius, and L. Commodus Verus, the son of the deceased Csesar, ^lius Verus. 138-161. Antoninus Pius {Titus Aurelius Antoninus J^ius) . Peaceable reign, during which the borders were, however, vigorously defended against the attacks of the barbarians. Antoninus had his adopted son, M. Aurelius, educated by phil- osophers of the Stoic school. 161-180. Marcus 4-urelius (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), a wise and active sovereign, highly educated (pupil of Corne- lius Fronto), a Stoic philosopher. Until 169 he reigned in common with his brother by adoption, the dissipated Lucius Verus. 162-165. War against the Parthians under the command of L. Verus, who, however, soon gave himself up to dissipation in Antiochia, while his legatees carried on the war with success, conquered Artaxata, appointed a king in Armenia, and burned Seleucia and Ctesiphon. A part of Mesopotamia was again made a Roman province. 166. Plague and famine in Italy. 166-180. War with the Marcommani and Quadi. Marcus Aurelius fought with various fortune against the barbarians, who con- stantly made new attacks. During a short peace with the bar- barians, conquest of the rebel Avidius Cassius in Syria, 175. Triumph in Rome, 176. The senate erected an equestrian statue in his honor, which still adorns the Capitol. Before he had succeeded in making the boundaries of the empire along the Danube secure, he died in Vindobona (Vienna). He was succeeded by his degenerate son 180-192. Commodus, who bought peace of the Germans at the price of a tribute, entrusted the government for the most part to the prsef ectus prsetorio, abandoned himself to his inclination for dissipation and cruelty, and was finally murdered by his intimates. 193-284. Imperators for the most part appointed by the soldiers. 193. Pertinax, strict and economical, murdered after three months by the praetorians, who placed on the throne in his stead 193. Didius Julianus, who, among all competitors, promised them the largest present. The lUyrian legions proclaimed 193-211. Septimius Severus, who was recognized by the senate and maintained himself A. D. Roman History. 155 against the other pretenders (Pescennius Niger in the East, Clodius Alhinus in QsiViY). Successful campaigns in Mesopotamia. Improve- ments in the administration of justice through the jurist Papinianus. In 208 expedition to Britain against the Scots. Restoration of the Roman wall, which had been partially destroyed. Septimius Sev- erus died in Eboracum (York). His son, 211-217. Caracalla (Antoninus Bassianus) murdered his half-brother and co-regent Geta along with thousands of his adherents, among whom was Papinianus. By the Constitutio Antoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all inhabitants of the provinces, for the sake of the higher taxation which could then be imposed. Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessful wars against the Goths (Avrongly called Getce) in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabit- ants of Alexandria, Plundering expedition against the Parthians. Murder of Caracalla. His successor, 217. Macrinus, purchased peace from the Parthians. The soldiers proclaimed as imperator the fourteen-year-old 218-222. Elagabalus (the form Heliogahalus is a corruption), priest of the sun at Emesa in Syria, who was put forward as the son of Caracalla. He gave himself up to the most infamous de- bauchery ; the government was conducted by his mother and grandmother. He adopted his cousin, the young Bassianus Alexianus, who succeeded to the throne after the murder of Elagabalus by the praetorians, under the name of «^22-235. Severus Alexander. Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and Julius Paullus. His strictness with the soldiers led to several mutinies, in one of which Ulpianus was murdered. 226. In consequence of the dissolution of the Parthian monarchy of the Arsacidse and the foundation of the ne'w Persian em- pire of the Sassanidae by Artakshatr (Artaxares, corrupted into «lrtaxerz:es, new Persian, Ardeshir), a descendant of Sassan, a new war broke out in the East, which Severus Alexander carried on, ac- cording to the Roman historian Lampridius, with success ; according to the Grecian Herodian, unsuccessfully. At all events there seems to have been an armistice in 233. After the murder of Severus Alex- ander on the Rhine the soldiers raised to the throne 235-238. Maximinus Thrax, a Thracian of extraordinary size and strength. Expedition across the Rhine ; German townships laid waste. Meanwhile the legions in Africa proclaimed the senator, 5/37. Gordianus I., then eighty years old, imperator. He appointed his son, Gor- dianus II., co-regent. They were both defeated by the prsefect of Mauretania: the son fell in the battle, the father put himself to death. 156 Ancient History. a. d. The senate at Eome, which had already taken sides against Maximi- nus Thrax, elected the senators Pupienus Maximus and Cselius Bal- binus, Augusti, to whom was added, at the people's demand, the thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordia?ius I. Maximinus Thrax was killed by his own soldiers at the siege of A quileia. The praetorians at Rome murdered the two imperators appointed by the senate, Pu- pienus and Balbinus, so that the young 238-244. Gordianus III. was left sole imperator. A new war with the Persians (241). The young imperator married the daughter of the veteran Misiiheus {Timesitheus) J whoia he made prsefectus prsetorio, and whose guidance he followed. After the death of liis father-in-law Gordianus was murdered by the new prsefectus prsetorio, 244-249. Philippus Arabs, whom he had been obliged to accept as co-regent in 243 at the demand of the soldiers. Peace with Persia. Philippus returned to Rome (became a Christian in secret ?). 248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of Rome. Revolt of the Mcesian and Pannonian legions, which proclaimed one of their officers imperator. 249-251. Decius, whom Philippus sent to quell the mutiny, was compelled by the legions to assume the title of imperator. He defeated and killed Philippus in the battle of Verona. 250. General persecution of the Christians. Martyrdom of Fabianus, bishop of Rome. Decius defeated the Goths, who were plundering Thrace, but fell in battle after he had followed them across the Danube. The legions elected 251-253. Oallus, who soon had his co-regent, Hostilianus, son of Decius, put to death. Destructive pestilence in almost all parts of the em- pire. Gallus was deposed by the conqueror of the Goths, 253. -^milianus, who after four months was killed by the soldiers. He was succeeded by • 253-260. Valerianus, the general of the legions in Gaul and Germania. He ap- •pointed his son, Gallienus, co-regent, and both carried on the war with the German bands, who were constantly making new inroads, espe- cially the Franks in Gaul, the Alamanni, who invaded northern Italy but were driven back at Mediolanum, and the Goths on the Danube. Unsuccessful expedition of Valerianus against the Persians ; defeated at Edessa, he was captured, and at the age of seventy carried about as the slave of Eong Artaxerxes. His reign and that of his son, A. D. Roman History. 157 200-268. Gallienus, was disturbed by the appearance of a great number of pretend- ers to the throne, and by the invasions of the barbarians, particularly of the Goths, who came in ships from the Black Sea. Confusion throughout the empire ; the so-called "time of the thirty tyrants," Two pretenders only maintained themselves for any length of time, Tetricus m Gaul and Spain, and Odenathus (of Palmyra) in Syria. The latter wrested Mesopotamia from Persia, and was recognized by Gallienus as co-regent for the East. After the murder of Odenathus (267) his consort, Zenobia, ruled in Palmyra. Gallienus laid siege to Mediolanum, which had been occupied by the pretender Aureolus, and was there murdered by contrivance of the latter. Aureolus was put to death by 268-270. Claudius II., whom the soldiers raised to the throne. He defeated the Ala- manni and the Goths, and was succeeded by 270-275. Aurelianus. He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of the province of Dacia. The Danube was henceforward the boimdary of the empire ; the greater part of the Roman colonists were transported to Moesia, a part of which was now called Dacia (Aureliana). Aure- lian repulsed the Alamanni and Marcomanni, who had made an inroad into Italy (victory on the Metaurus), and began the erection of a new wall around Rome, wliich included the enlarged imperial city (271, completed in 276). He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, cap- tured Zenobia, and reconquered Egypt (273). Having thus subdued the East, he turned against Tetricus in Gaul, whom he defeated and captured at Chalons (274). Aurelian, rightly called "Restorer of the universal Empire " (Restitutor Orbis), was murdered on an expedition against the Persians. At the request of the army the senate elected the senator 275. Tacitus imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia Minor, but died after three months. His brother Florianus, who attempted to secure the succession, was defeated by 276-282. Probus, who drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Van- dals, entered Germany, and strengthened the wall between the Rliine and Danube (p. 152). He enrolled a large number of Germans as mercenaries in the Roman army, and employed the soldiers in drain- ing swamps and building canals and roads, for which reason he was murdered by them. The prsefectus prsetorio, 282-283. Carus, succeeded. He appointed his sons Carinus and Numerianus Caesars, and afterwards Augusti, conquered the Sarmatians, and per- 158 Ancient History. A. d. ished (struck by lightning ?) on an expedition against the Persians, after having captured Ctesiphon. 284. Numerianus, who had accompanied liis father to the East, was murdered by his father-in-law. 284. Carinus, who had remained in the West, fought at first with success against 284-305. Diocletianus, who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. Carinus was ultimately murdered by his own troops. Diocletian, who created an oriental court at Nicomedia in Biihynia, and thence ruled the East, entrusted the administration of affairs in the 285. West to the brave Maximianus, as his co-regent or Augustus ^ who took up his residence for the most part in Mediolanum (Milan). 292. Diocletian appointed two more Ccesars : 1. Constantius Chlorus, who was obliged to divorce his wife Helena and marry the step-daughter of Maximianus, received the government of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and dwelt commonly in Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), while Maximianus was appointed to the government of Italy and Africa. 2. Galerius, who became Diocletian's son-in-law, and received the government of Illyri- cum, including Macedonia and Greece. 296. Diocletian subdued the revolt of Egypt. Constantius sup- pressed a revolt in Britain. Galerius fought against the Persians, unsuccessfully in the first year, but in the second (297) he gained an important victory, and extended the frontiers to the Tigris again. Maximianus suppressed an insurrection in Africa. Con-, stantius defeated the Alamanni. 303. General persecution of the Christians, which Constantius discouraged in liis province. 305. Diocletian abdicated and retired to Salonce in Dalmatia, after he had obliged Maximianus also to resign his dignity. Constantius and Galerius were raised to Augusti. At the desire of Galerius, the claims of Constantinus, son of Constantius, and of Maxentius, son of Maximianus, being passed over. Sever us and Maximinus were appointed Csesars, the first receiv- ing Italy and Africa, the second Syria and Egypt. 306. After the death of Constantius in Britain, his son (by Helena'), Constantine, assumed the administration of his father's prov- inces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the title of Csesar. He fought successfully with the Franks and Bructeri. Meanwhile the praetorians at Rome chose Maxentius imperator, where- upon his father, Maximianus, reassumed the dignity he had unwillingly resigned. The empire had thus six rulers, three Augusti and three Csesars. 307. The Csesar Severus, having been created Augustus by Gale- rius, went to Italy to attack Maxentius, but was deserted by his soldiers and put to death at Ravenna. Galerius appointed Licin* A. D. Roman History. 159 ius co-regent and Augustus in his stead, and Constantine therefore assumed the same title, so that there were now six Augusti in the empire. 310. In the struggle that followed, the aged Maximianus was cap- tured in Massilia and put to death by command of Constantine. Galerius died of disease (311). War between Maxentius and Constantine. The latter issued edicts in favor of the Christians. Maxentius was defeated at Turin 312. and at Saxa rubra, four miles from Rome, by Constantine (Hoc signo vinces !), and perished by drowning as he attempted to cross the Tiber. Constantine became the protector of the Christians, but re- mained up to liis death a catechumen. 313. Alliance between Constantine and Licinius, who married Con'stantine's sister. Constantine took the field against the Franks, Licinius against Maximinus, who was defeated, and killed himself in Tarsus ; so that now 313-323. Constantine and Licinius were the only rulers in the empire, the former in the West, the latter in the East. In 314, however, they were embroiled in conflict. Licinius, defeated in two encounters, was obliged to cede Illyricum, Macedonia, and AcJiaia to Constantine. 323. Second war between Constantine and Licinius. The latter, de- feated at Adrianople and Chalcedon, surrendered in Nicomedia, and was executed (324) by Constantine's command. 323-337. Constantine (the Great) sole ruler. Christianity recognized by the State and favored at the expense of paganism. 325. First general (cecumenic) Council of the Church at Nicaea, in Bithynia. Arianism, i. e. the doctrine of Arius ("Apeios), formerly a presbyter in Alexandria, according to which Christ was not of the same nature, but of like nature only (ojuoioucrtos), with God the Father, was rejected, and the doctrine of Athanasius of Alexandria, according to which Christ was of the same nature (dfjLooiaios, consuh- stantialis) with God the Father, was declared a dogma of the Church by the Symbolum Niccenum. 330. Constantine selected Byzantium (Nova Roma, Constantino- polis) for the capital. The empire was redistricted. The four great prefectures, Oriens, lllyricum orientale, Italia, Gallia, were ' divided into 13 dioceses, these into 116 provinces.^ New hierarchy of officials, 7 superior court offices. Council of state (consistorium prin- cipis). New arrangement of the taxes. Cruelty of Constantine in his family. His eldest son, Crispus, and one of his nephews executed through the plots of his wife, Fausta, who was herself put to death. Constantine, before his death, divided the administration of the empire among his three sons as Augusti, and two nephews as Ccesars. After his death, in Bithynia, the two Caesars were put to death by Constantius. The three sons of Constantine redivided the empire at Constantinople. 1 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. XII. 160 Andeyit History. A. D, 337-340. Constantinus II. received the West (the prefec- tures of Italia, Gallia, and a part of Africa). 337-361. Constantius received the East, the prefecture Oriens. 337-350. Constans received the prefectures of Illyricum orientate and a part of Africa. Constantius carried on a long and indecisive war with the Persians. Constantinus II. attacked his brother Constans, and fell at Aquileia. In 350 Constans also died, so that Constantius, after the conquest of the usurper Magnentius (353), again united the whole empire. Julianus, a cousin of the emperor, who was appointed Csesar, fought success- fully with the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks, and assigned the Salian Franks lands in northern Gaul. Constantius died on an expe- dition against 361-363. Julianus, who had been proclaimed Augustus by the legions. He is known as the apostate (apostata), because he was an adherent of the heathen philosophy and abandoned Christianity, hoping to bring about a reaction in favor of the heathen cult, which he wished restored in a purified form. Julianus defeated the Alamanni and the Franks, re- stored the fortresses which had been erected against them along the frontier, and defeated the Persians at Ctesiphon, but died of a wound on his return. The soldiers raised the Christian 363-364. Jovianus, to the throne. He ceded the greater part of Mesopotamia to the Persians. Christianity reinstated in the privileges which Con- stantino had granted. After the sudden death of Jovianus the legions raised 364-375. Valentinianus I. to the throne. He appointed as co-regent first his brother, 364-378. Valens, an Arian, who governed the East from Constantinople, and afterwards, for the West, his son, 367-383. Gratianus, who, upon his father's death, acknowledged as co-regent for the administration of the West his four-year-old half-brother, 375-392. Valentinian II., who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. 375- Beginning of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes (p. 170). 378. After the death of Valens at Adrianople in battle against the West Goths, Gratianus created the heathen A. D. Roman History. 161 379-395. Theodosius co-regent, and entrusted him with the administration of the East. Theodosius became a Christian after his recovery from a severe ilhiess, fought successfully against the West Goths, but was obliged to accept them as allies (foederati) in their abodes in Mcesia and Thrace. Gratianus fell in battle against the imperator proclaimed by the legions in Britain, 383-388. Clemens Maximus, whom Theodosius recognized as co-regent under the condition that he should leave Italy in the hands of the young Valentinian II. In 387 Maximus drove Valentinian from Italy. He fled to Theodo- sius, who, returning with him, captured Clemens Maximus at Aqui- leia, and executed him. 390. Insurrection in Thessalonica, cruelly punished by Theodosius (7000 executions). On this account bishop Ambrosius of Milan, eight months later, excluded the emperor from Christian com- munion, until he had done penance. 392. After the murder of Valentinian 11. by Arbogastes, and after the new imperator, Eugenius, whom Arbogastes set up, had 394. fallen at Aquileia in battle with Theodosius, and Arbogastes had put himself to death, the ■whole empire was, for the last time, reunited under 394-395. Theodosius. After his death the division of administration into an eastern and a western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became a permanent division of the empire. 395-1453. Arcadius received the Eastern empire, also called the Byzantine or Grecian empire. Imperial vicar, Rufinus. Capital Byzantium or Constantinople. The 395-476. Western empire, capital Rome, Ravenna im- perial residence after 402, under 395-423. Honorius. Guardian and chancellor, the Vandal StilichOf murdered in 408 by command of Honorius to whom he had been defamed. After the death of Honorius the usurper 424. Joannes reigned for a short time, but was finally over- thrown with the assistance of the Eastern empire and the six- year-old 425-455. Valentinian III. made imperator, the government being conducted at first by his mother Placida, sister of Honorius, in his name. Valen- tinian was murdered by 455. Petronius Maximus, who married Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, but was killed shortly before the capture of Rome by the Vandals (p. 173). 11 162 Ancient History. a. d. The throne was usurped by 455-556. Avitus who was soon deposed by Recimir, a military leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army. Recimir placed upon the throne 457-461. Majorianus, whom he afterwards deposed in favor of 461-465. Libius Severus, after whose deposition (?) 465-467. Recimir conducted the government without the pretence of an imperial figure-head until 467 when he placed 467-472. Anthemius upon the throne, who was succeeded by 472. Olybrius. Recimir and his sovereign dying this year, the Eastern court interposed and placed 473. Glycerius on the throne of the West, who was succeeded by 473-475. Julius Nepos, also by appointment of the emperor of the East. In 475 Orestes, a leader among the mercenaries, placed his son 475-476. Romulus Augustulus upon the throne, who, combining in his name that of Rome's first king and first emperor, became the last of the imperial line in the West, being deposed by 476. Odovaker (Odoacer), military leader of the Heruli and Rugii, who made himself ruler (not king) of Italy, and was recognized by the Eastern emperor Zeno as patricius of Rome and prefect of Italy (p. 173). § 4. TEUTONS. Aryan. Geography: The Teutonic race has occupied three regions in Europe. I. Germany comprises Central Europe, the slope from the Alps N. to the sea. It may be roughly bounded as follows : N. German Ocean, Baltic • E. a vague line indicated by the Vistula, and the Car- pathian Mts. ; S. the Alps ; W. the Rhine. This region falls into three physical divisions : 1. The broad and lofty chain of the Alps divided into the Swiss Alps on the W. and the Tyrolese Alps on the E., whose deep valleys fostered the rise of small independent communities (p. 245 ). Mont Blanc (14,748 ft.), Monte Rosa, Jungfrau, etc.. Lake Geneva, hake Constance, Lake of Lucerne {Vierwaldstattesee), etc. 2, A broad upland extending two thirds of the way from the Alps to the sea, and embracing the present Wiirternherg, Bavaria, Bohemia^ Sax- n. c.-A. D. Teutons. 163 ony, Saxon duchies, Hesse, etc. 3. A low plain reaching to the sea, and including the present Holland, Hanover, Prussia, etc. Modern Germany comprises 2 and 3. The peninsula of Denmark has belonged, in historic times, politically to Scandinavia and Germany. Through the middle of Germany a range of low mountains extends from S.E. to N.W. from the Jura in France to the Carpathians in Hungary. This range, known to the Romans as Hercynia silva, in- cludes the /itra, Vosges, Schwarzivald (BlsiGkYoTest) Taunus, Thuringer Wald, Erz Gehirge, Riesen Gebirge, Sudetes, and forms an arc whose convex side is turned toward the W. and N. The valley of the Dan- ube S. of this range, and the depression on its northern base extend- ing from the Lahn to the middle Elbe (the old commercial route be- tween Frankfort o. M. and Leipsic), are the two natural roads which give the East access to western Europe. Other mountain groups : Bohemian Forest, forming the S.E. border of Bohemia, Harz, N. of the Frankfort road. Rivers : S. the Danube, flowing into the Black Sea ; N. the Rhine, with its branches Neckar, Main, etc.. Ems, Weser, Elbe, flowing into the German Ocean ; Oder, Vistula flowing into the Baltic. The Roman provinces Rcetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, occu- pied the Alps and the southern bank of the Danube. Germania superior and inferior were Gallic provinces on the left bank of the Upper and Lower Rhine. To Germany proper, which was never a province of the empire, the Romans applied the name, Germania magna. II. Scandinavia, the great peninsula jutting W. and S. from the north of Europe. It falls into two divisions : 1. A rugged, moun- tainous region on the W., with deeply indented coasts (Norway). 2. On the E. a less mountainous region with numerous rivers flowing into the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia (Sweden). The southern part of Scandinavia was known to the Romans under the name Scandia, and was thought to be an island. III. The British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. Ethnology : I. According to the theory of the Asiatic origin of the Aryans, the Teutonic migration followed the Celtic and preceded that of the Slavs. The Teutons, or Germans, appear to have taken the northern route and to have first settled along the coast, on the plain, and in the northern portion of the plateau. The valley of the Danube and Bohemia were early occupied by Celtic tribes, and it was only gradually that these were dispossessed by the invading Ger- mans. Whether the Teutons entered Germany in two bands, is not clear ; certain it is that from a very early time a radical difference has existed in language and customs among the Germans, whereby they are divided into High Germans, inhabiting the inland plateau, and Low Germans, dwelling on the coast. The Romans divided the Germans (Germaniy either into two sec- tions, the Suevi and the non-Suevi (Csesar), or into three branches which were named after the sons of " Mannus, the son of the earth-born god Tuisco," Istcevones, Ingcevones, Herminones. The former division 1 The oriprin of this name is doubtful. See the disputed passage in Tacitus, Germania, 2. 164 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. is thought to correspond to that of High (Suevi) and Low Germans ; the latter answers territorially to the fusions of tribes which later formed the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians. Of the separate tribes may be mentioned: I. Non-Suevi: Istsevones, Uhii, Usipii, Tencteni, Sugamhri, Marsi, on the right bank of the Rhine where we find later the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks ; Ingsevones, Batavians, Fri- sians, Saxons, Chauci, Cimhri, along the coast from the Rhine to the right bank of the Elbe. II. Suevi, Chatti, in Hessen, Cherusci on the Upper Weser, Hermunduri in Thuringia, extending as far as the Danube (these three were included under the Herminones), Marc- omanni in Bohemia (see below), Quadi on the Danube, Semnones, the centre of what seems to have been a very loose political organization of the Suevi, between the Elbe and Oder, Langohardi, Rugii in the northeast toward the Vistula, Burgundiones on the Oder, Guttones (later Goths) extending beyond the Vistula, Vandali, Alani (?). In Denmark dwelt the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, until the fifth century A. d., when a large part of these tribes migrated to England, and their place was taken by Danes from the islands on the E. II. Scandinavia was occupied by Finnish tribes (Sitones), from the N., and by invading Germans from the S. at an unknown time : Gautce (Goths), Sueones (Swedes) in Sweden ; Northmen in Norway. III. British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176. Religion : The religion of the Teutonic race was a pantheistic nature worship. I. Germans : Beyond the unsatisfactory passages in Csesar {Bell. Gall. VI. 21) and Tacitus (Germania 9, 10, etc.), all our knowledge of the ancient religion of the Germans before the introduction of Roman civilization and of Christianity is derived by inference from later sources, or from the younger but much fuller mythology of Scandinavia. Among the great gods {Ases) of the Germans were: Woden (Odin in the north), the "all-father"; Donar (Thor), his son, at once the storm-god, and the god of agri- culture ; Zio or Thiu (Tyr) also a son of Woden, god of war ; Fro (Freyr), god of love ; Paltar (Baldur), god of justice ; Nerthus or Hertha (Frau Bertha), the earth ; Frau^wa (Freya), sister of Fro ; Friga {Fria), wife of Woden ; Helia (Hel) goddess of the lower regions. Below the Ases were the Giants, the Names or fates, the Walkyres or messengers of the gods. In the realm of lower mythology the German imagination was remarkably fertile. Fairies, coholds, elves, nixes, abounded, and still live in childrens' tales, and the many popular fancies which the modern study of folk lore has revealed. The Germans had no corporation of priests like that of the Druids, though the priests and priestesses of certain divinities stood in high honor. Their worship consisted in the repetition of formal invocations, and in the offering of sacrifices, prisoners being often immolated to 2he gods. Woods and trees were held in special reverence and often devoted to the performance of worship beneath their branches. Cer- tain days were set apart for the worship of certain deities, whose names have come down to us in the names of the days of the week. Tuesday (Thiu'sdag), Wednesday (Woden'sdag), Thursday (Thor's- dag, Donnerstag), Friday (Freya'sdag). Some of the customs of B. c.-A. D. Teutons, 165 these recurring festivities were afterwards impressed into the service of Christianity. Such was the decoration of trees with flower- wreaths and candles, now a part of Christmas rites,^ and such the colored eggs in a " hare's nest," now an Easter custom, but originally an offering to some heathen divinity. Divinations by flight of birds, neighing of horses, throwing sticks, etc. II. Scandinavia : The faith of the northern Teutons was one of the most remarkable of the heathen religions, and one of the last in Europe to yield to Christianity. After being long transmitted by hearsay the northern mythology was first committed to writing in the poem of the Elder Edda in the twelfth, or as some scholars hold, in the thirteenth century. The poem is supplemented by the com- mentary known as the Younger Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241). In the beginning existed the All-Father. In chaos {Ginungagap} he created two worlds, Ni/lheim, the ice-world, in the north, and Muspelheim, the fire-world, where sat Surt with the flaming sword, in the south. Midway of the two their opposing influences produced the giant Ymer, who became the progenitor of the evil race of frost- giants (Hrymthurses). Ymer was fed by the milk of the cow Aud- humbra, who licked the ice-blocks and set free the god Bure, to whom a giant's daughter bore three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three slew Ymer, in the deluge of whose blood perished all the frost-giants, save two, who became the ancestors of a new race of frost-giants. Of the body of Ymer the gods formed the universe, the earth, the sky and the stars. Dwarfs were the earliest inhabitants of the earth. After- wards the first man and woman were created from two trees. The universe thus formed comprised nine worlds. Of these the highest was Muspelheim, in whose highest part was Gimle, the abode of the blest. Below Muspelheim was Asaheim, or Godheim, where dwelt the great gods (Asa) in their capital, As gar d, with its lofty halls, the fairest of which was Valhal, the hall of Odin. Below Godheim was Mannaheim, or Midgard, the earth, a disk of land sur- rounded by the ocean and held together by the Midgard-serpent which lay at the bottom of the ocean, its tail between its jaws. Across the ocean was Jotunheim, the world of the giants, whose one purpose was the annoyance of mankind, on which account they were perpetually at war with man's defenders, the gods of Godheim. Be- low the earth was Helheim, the world of the dead, and, lowest of all, Nijlheim, with the fountain Hvergelmer. Bif roust, the bridge between Godheim and Mannaheim. Gjallar-hridge between Helheim, Jotun- heim and the worlds above. These worlds were, in the fancy of the north, surrounded and united by a mighty ash-tree, Yggdrasil, with three roots reaching to Godheim, J&tunheim, and Nijlheim. The great gods were Odin and his sons : Thor, Vali, Haimdall, Vidar, Baldur, Braga, Tyr, Hodur, besides Aller, Forsete, and NJord, 1 In Germany the tree is simply decort^d, the presents to be exchanged are piled around the support of the tree or placed on an adjacent table. The ex- change of gifts was not a part of the old German custom, but is perhaps a sur- Tival of a practice observed by the Romans during the Saturnalia (p. 85). 166 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d. Freyr, sea gods, and Loke. Of the goddesses the chief were Frigga, wife of Odin, Freyja, goddess of love, Saga, goddess of history. Above all the gods were the Nornes, or fates. Below the gods were elves, trolls, witches, etc. Exploits of the gods. Especially famous were the dealings of Thor with the giants. After the creation fol- lowed a golden age when all was well in Godheim, but after a time evil crept in personified as Loke. Death of Baldur, killed tlrrough the contrivance of Loke by his brother Hodur with a sprig of mistle- toe, Frigga having bound all other created tilings not to hurt Baldur. Lokeh cliildren were the Fenris-wolf, chamed until the coming of Ragnarok, the Midgard-serpent, and Hel. Binding of Loke. Finally comes the end of the world, Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods. Battle of the Asa-gods with the Midgard-serpent, Loke, and the Fenris-wolf, who have broken their chains. The good and the bad alike perish in the combat. Surt consumes Yggdrasil and the whole world in flames. Vidar, Vale, Hbdur, Baldur, and the sons of Thor survive. A new earth and a new heaven are created. According to the belief of the Northmen, all good men and all who died in battle crossed over the bridge Bifroust (the rainbow) to Valhal, where they spent their days feasting and fighting, until Ragnarok when they passed to Gimle. Cowards and evil-doers were punished in Helheim, and after Ragnarok in Naostrand.^ Civilization : It is probable that the Germans had not completed the transition from a pastoral to an agricultural people, when they arrived in central Europe. They were certainly in a low stage of civilization when they became known to the Romans, a stage not un- like that reached by the most advanced of the American Indians, the Iroquois. Cities were unknown to them ; they seem to have settled for the most part each individual apart, each tribe separated from the other by a broad strip of mark-land.^ Orders : 1. Nobles, who derived their descent from the gods, but were entitled to no political privileges because of their nobility. 2. Freemen, that is, land-owners, men born to arms, the work upon whose land was done by their bondmen; out of this class developed later the lower nobility. 3. Freedmen (liti, lassen), or half-freemen, renters bound to military service, but excluded from the ownership of land, from the popular assembly, and from the courts. 4. Servants or bondmen, in part serfs bound to the soil (glebce adscripti), in part actual slaves. Th^ latter two classes formed the majority of the population. Custom of comradeship (gasindi leudes), out of which the feudal system developed after the occupation of the Roman provinces and the division of land among the faithful (f deles}, and under the in- fluence of the Cliristian religion. Feudal superior (suzerain). Vas- sen, vassals, or men; fief (feudum or benefcium), held on tenure of service, distinct from allodium, property in fee simple. 1 The relation of these myths to Christianity, th<; extent to which they have been influenced by acquaintance with the Scriptures, is a subject of active in- quiry, but nothing can as yet be said to be definitely determined. See Bugge, Entstehung der Nordischen Gotter. 2 Whoever desires to become involved in that most hopeless of all historical questions, the social and political organization of the ancient Germans, is re. ferred to "Waltz, VeifassungsgescMchte, where references will be found. B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 167 History : I. The date of thfe first arrival of Teutons in Europe is wholly unknown. Pytheas of Massalia, who visited the amber coasts of the Baltic about 350 b. c, met with German tribes. From that time on only the bare introduction of the word Germani in the Roman annals for 225 b. c. hints at any knowledge of the Teutons until the close of the second century b. c, when the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones left their homes at the base of the Danish peninsula (driven from them by a flood?) and, after humiliating the Roman arms in Gaul, found their death on the fields of Aquse Sextise and Vercellse (102, 101, B. c, p. 127). The terrors of the invasion died away, but the Romans did not come again into contact with the Germans until Csesar's invasion of Gaul brought on a contest with the Suevian prince Ariovistus which ended in the latter 's defeat (58 b. c). Sub- jugation of the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine. Csesar's two expeditions across the Rhine (58, 55, p. 139). Under Augustus, systematic attempt to subjugate Germania magna. Conquest of Rmtia and Noricum by Drusus (15), of Pannonia and Vindelicia. Expeditions of Drusus from the Rhine : 1. With the fleet on the Ems (12) ; 2. Against the Cherusci on the Weser, foun- dation of the citadel AKso (11) ; 3. Along the Main to. the Werra and Elbe (9). Legend of the " white woman." Death of Drusus. His successor Tiberius, reduced all the tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe to submission and began the active construction of fortresses and colonies. The folly of Tiberius' successor. Varus, alienated the Germans and led to revolt. Under Arminius, one of the nobles of the Cherusci, three Roman legions were annihilated in the three days' battle in the Teutoburg Forest ^ (9 a. d. ?). Augustus gave up the hope of subjugating the Germans, and later emperors did not revive it. Expeditions of Germanicus in revenge for the Teutoburg massacre, 14, 15, 16. Thenceforward the Romans were contented with maintain- ing their borders against the free tribes, and with colonizing the land south of the Mam and the Danube. Line of fortifications from Aschaffenburg, on the Main, to Regensburg, on the Danube (Pfahl- graben, Teufelsmauer). Along this line Roman soldiers were settled on land for the rent of which they paid a tenth of the produce, hence agri decumates. Foundation of colonies : Curia Rcetorum (Clmr) in Rsetia ; Juvenum (Salsburg) in Noricum ; Vindobonum (Vienna) in Pannonia ; Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), Castra regina (Re- gensburg) in Vindelicia. Active intercourse between Rome and Ger- many. Germans served both as privates and as officers in the Roman army (so Arminius^. Traffic in amber. Of the internal affairs of the free Germans we are but scantily informed. In the first century b. c. a portion of the Hermunduri, the Marcomanni^ had invaded Bohemia, driven out the Celtic Boii (wh«^ took refuge ia Pannonia, where they were gradually exterminated by the Roman arms) and established a state which, under Marbo'J (Maroboduus^, grew to formidable proportions. Intended expedi- tion of Tiberius against Marbod frustrated by the Pannonian revolt (8). Feuds between the German tribes fostered by the Romans. Arminius expelled Marbod from his kingdom, but was himself mur- 1 The locatUty has not been satisfactorily made out. 168 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. dered under suspicion of aiming at supreme power. The Cherusci^ Hermunduri and Bructeri were nearly exterminated in internecine strife. Revolt of the Batavians under Civilis (p. 151). War of Marcus Aurelius with the Marcomanni (p. 154). In process of time a change came over the political organization of the Germans. The multitude of small tribes disappeared and we find in their stead a smaller number of more extensive tribes. At the same time the Slavs began to press upon the eastern Germans and urge them westward. The Germans increased in power and popula- tion, and became better and better trained in the arts of war and political intrigue as they came more and more into intimate connec- tion with Rome. The provincial armies were largely German ; Ger- man officers rose to high distinction and great influence in Rome. So Rome grew weaker and her foes stronger until at last the im- pulse of the invading Huns in the east set all the tribes in motion. II. Scandinavia : Northern annalists present an historical Odin, probably no less mythical than Odin the god. According to these tales (which, like some other mythical history, may have greater his- torical value than the present credits them with), Odin was the leader of the Asas who dwelt in Asia between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Attracted to the falling fortunes of Mithridates, he was driven from his kingdom by Pompeius. He conducted the Asas westward to Scandinavia where he subdued Denmark, Sweden and Norway, and gave these countries to his sons ; Denmark to Skjoldy Sweden to Yngave, Norway to Seeming. Odin ended liis days in Sweden. The history of Scandinavia as far as ascertained belongs to the next period, and will be found on page 207. III. British Isles. For the history of the Teutonic invasion of England see p. 176. § 5. SLAVS AND LITHUANIANS. Aryan. These closely related peoples belong to the northern branch of the European Aryans, and their westward migration followed that of the Teutons. The Slavs were known to the late Roman geographers under the name Venedce (hence Wends) as inhabiting the region beyond the Vistula, which bore the general name of Sarmatia, from the nomadic Sarmatians who inhabited it, interspersed with the Slavs, from whom they differed in language and descent. In the fifth century a. d. the Slavs occupied the country between the Baltic and the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Don. They dwelt in the steppes of Russia as far north as Novgorod on the Volga, and their westernmost limit lay between the Vistula and the Oder. In the sixth century the Slavs began to extend them- selves south and west, a movement which resulted in the permanent occupation of Bohemia and of the Balkan peninsula, while their settlement extended east to Tyrol. In 623 a. d. temporary formation of a Slavic monarchy of great extent under Samo in Bohemia, which endured thirty-five years. The conquests of the Slavs came to an end with the seventh century, and the separate kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia, Russia, were gradually formed. A. D. Slavs and Lithuanians. 169 Of the religion of the Slavs little is known with certainty, owing to the diversity of nomenclature among the various divisions of this wide-spread people, and to the lack of trustworthy authorities. Among the Slavs of the Baltic, who had a class of priests and built temples, occur the names Svatovit or Svantovit, god of light or of the air, with a temple at Arkona ; Triglath, the three-headed god, worshipped in Pomerania (Stettin) ; Radigost, Rugevit or Ranovit (in Riigen), Jarovit, all gods of war ; Zcerneboh, " the black god," an evil deity. The Russians worshipped Khors, Volos, or Veles, god of the herds (St. Blaise) ; Koupalo, god of the harvest ; Jarylo, god of generation ; Stribog, god of the winds ; Lada, goddess of love and passion. The gods were worshipped by offerings of fruit and animals, seldom by human sacrifices. The Slavs were a pastoral and agricultural people. All inhab- itants of the same district were kinsmen, bearing a common name, liv- ing under the rule of an elected elder, and lioldmg property in com- mon. A union of such districts formed a tribe ; a union of tribes formed a people. The Lithuanians play no part in history before the thirteenth century. In the wider sense the name includes the Letts and the ancient Prussians, who were known to the Romans as jEstui. In the narrower sense it is limited to the inhabitants of the region between the Memel and the Finnish Esthonians. 11. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN TRIBES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN ^ (375-843). §1. MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN PEOPLES. Habitations of the Germanic tribes in the fourth century a. d, Alani, whose German descent is, however, not certain, on the lower Volga ; East Goths in southern Russia ; West Goths in Dacia (eastern Hungary, Roumania) ; Vandals in Pannonia {southwestern Hungary) ; Suevi in Moravia, Bohemia, and Bavaria; Burgundians on the Neckar and the Rhine, with Worms as their capital (compare p. 164); Ala- manni (or Alemanni) on the Rhine, between the Main and the Alps, partly along the Roman boundary wall (agri decumates) ; Ripuarian Franks on both sides of the lower Rhine (capital at Colonia Agrip- pina) ; Salic Franks on the mouths of the Rhine (in Meergau, " dis- trict on the sea," the Meruwe, hence Merowingians ;) ^ Saxons from the Elbe almost to the Rhine ; Thuringians south of the Saxons ; Lan- gohards on the lower Elbe. The peoples wliich appear in the so-called migrations of the peoples were generally heterogeneous armed bands under the command of a leader or king chosen for his military prowess (Heerkonig'). 375. Beginning of the migration of the Teutonio tribes. Period of migrations and invasions. The Huns, a Mongolian race, crossed the Volga. The Huns, joined by the Alani, whom they had defeated, fell upon the East Goths (king Ermanaric or Hermanric, of the family of the Amaii), and, in union with these, upon the West Goths. That part of the West Gothic race which had remained heathen took refuge in the Carpathians ; the Cliristians,^ and those who 1 Assmann, Geschichte des Ifittelalters, 2d edition, by E. Meyer. 2 According to other scholars the name was a patronymic. 8 A Gothic bishop (Theophilus) took part in the council of Nicasa (325). "Wulfila (Ulfilas), bishop of the West Goths (348-381), translator of the Biblej cf. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen, VI. 41. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples, 171 were just on the point of accepting Christianity (in the form of Arianism), were allotted habitations in Moesia by the em- peror Valens. Disputes with the Roman officials at the pas- sage of the Danube (Fridigern, leader of the West Goths) led to war, and the Goths advanced, ravaging as they went. 378. Battle of Adrianople. Valens defeated and slain. His successor, Theodosius, made peace with the West Goths, who, for pay and the gift of a dwelling-place, were to protect the frontiers of the Roman Empire as foederati. Alaric, leader of the West Goths, belonging to the family of the Balthi (i. e. "bold ") enraged at not receiving pay from Arcadius, laid waste Macedonia, Illyria, and Greece (395), and advanced into Pelo- ponnesus. Stilicho, magister utriusque militice of the Western Empire (p. 161), came to the assistance of the Eastern court. Landing with an army at Corinth he surrounded the West Goths, but allowed them to escape. Alaric went to Illyria, and compelled the court at Byzan- tium to recognize him as dux in lUyricum orientale. 401. Alaric's first invasion of Italy. After a victory at Aquileia he crossed the Po. Stilicho hastened from Raetia to meet him. 402. Drawn battle at PoUentia. Alaric made another attempt to advance southward, but was compelled to return to Illyria by disease, hunger, and desertion. 404-406. German bands under Radagais invaded Italy, but were defeated by Stilicho at Fcesulce, and annihilated by continued fighting and by hunger. 406-409. Bands of Vandals, Suevi, and Alani left the regions along the Danube, crossed the Rhine, sustained great loss in contests with the Franks, and finally (409) invaded Spain. Foundation of Teutonic monarchies in Roman territory. The Salian Pranks gradually occupied northern Gaul. The Burgundians settled (406-413) on the middle Rhine ( Worms). 408. Stilicho murdered by the command of the emperor Honorius (p. 161). Alaric's second invasion of Italy. He besieged Rome, but retired on receipt of a ransom. The court at Ravenna refusing to grant Alaric's request that the Goths should be assigned lands for a per- manent settlement in northern Italy, Alaric again advanced upon Rome, and forced the senate to appoint Attains, prefect of the city, emperor. Alaric besieged Honorius in Ravenna without success, quarrelled with Attains, whom he deposed, and advanced for the third time upon Rome. 410* Capture and sack of Rome by Alaric. Alaric went to Lower Italy with the intention of crossing to Sicily, and thence to Africa, but died at the close of 410, at Cosenza, and was buried beneath the Busento. 410-415. Athaulf, brother of Alaric's wife, led the West Goths to Gaul, though whether in fulfilment of a treaty with Honorius 172 Mediceval History. A. d. to resist the Romans, who had forced their way into the province, or of his own accord, is uncertain. He carried with him the sister of Honorius, who was detained as a hostage in the Gothic camp, and mar- ried her in Narbonne (414). The proposed treaty with the imperial court was not, however, concluded. Athaulf, hard pressed by the im- perial general Constantius, went to Spain, conquered Barcelona, and was murdered (415). After the murder of his successor, Sigric, 415^19. Walja became king of the West Goths. He concluded a treaty with Honorius, and fought for Rome against Vandals, Alani, and Suevi. He received a grant of southern Gaul under Roman supremacy. WalJa was the founder of the 415-507. ^West Gothic (Visigothic) kingdom of To- losa, with its capital at Tolosa (Toulouse), which soon became independent.^ 429. King Gens eric (Geiseric) conducted the Vandals and a portion of the Alani to Africa, at the invitation, as the story goes,^ of the Roman governor Bonifacius. The latter was slandered at court by Aetius, and accused of treason, but, making his peace with Placidia, the mother and guardian of the Emperor Valen- tinian III., he fought unsuccessfully against Genseric, who, after a short peace with the Romans (435), conquered Car- thage (439). 429-534. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. Capital, Carthage (S. Augustinus, bishop of Hippo Regius 1430). 440. The Vandals, having created a great naval power, plundered the coasts of Sicily and lower Italy, by their fleets. 443. The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhone and on the Saone ; the Alamanni extended themselves over the Roman province of Germania superior (hence called Alsace), and also occupied a part of Switzerland, east of the Burgundian territory. 449. The Angles and Saxons, long known as pirates along the coasts of the German Ocean, and having settlements on the coast of Flanders (litus Saxonicum ^), were called in by the Brit- ons, after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britain, to assist them in repelling the robber tribes of the north- ern mountains, the Picts and Scots. The Saxons and Angles crossed to Britain (according to tradition, the first bands were led by Hengist and Horsa), and founded in the course of time 8 states : Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia, Deira, Bernicia. The last two were later united to form NortTiumbria (north of the Humber); hence the number of states was then 7 (heptarchy). The Britons for the most part migrated to Wale^ and to Ar^ mon'ca in Gaul, which was hence called Bretagne (Brittany). For the details of the settlements, see p. 176. 1 Cf. Dabn, Die Konige der Germanen, Pt. V. 2 This is denied by the more recent authorities. ^ See, however, p. 38. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples, 173 451. Attila (Etzel, " Scourge of God "), king of the Huns (in his train armed bands of Germanic peoples, whom he had sub- jected, East Goths, Gepidm, etc.), invaded and ravaged Gaul. He besieged Orleans in vain. Battle on the Catalaunian fields (near Chdlons-sur-Marne: the battle-field itself ^as at Troyes). Attila defeated by Aetius, the Roman governor of the small district around Lutetia, which alone remained in possession of the Romans, and the West Goths (with the aid of auxiliaries from the Franks, Burgundians, etc.). Theodoric I., king of the West Goths, fell in the battle. 452. Attila went to Italy, destroyed Aquileia. Venice founded by Italian fugitives. Rome saved by Bishop Leo (?). After the death of Attila (453) the monarchy of the Huns fell asunder. Not only the German tribes wliich had been subjugated by the Huns became free (the Gepidce were the first to shake off the yoke) ; the Slavic peoples also regained their liberty. During the following centuries these latter tribes extended themselves throughout the east- ern parts of Germany. 455. Rome, after the murder of Valentinian III., by Maximus, plundered for 14 days by the Vandals, who had been called in by Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian. The Vandals controlled the entire northern coast of Africa as far as Gyrene, and the islands of the western Mediterranean. 476. Odovakar (Odoaeer), leader of Herulian and other German bands in the pay of Rome, became ruler in Italy, after the deposition of the last emperor of the West (p. 162). There was no conquest of the western empire by Odovakar, but the line of Emperors in the West came to an end in consequence of domestic revolution, and thereby the last bond was broken which had united the provinces, long since occupied by the barbarians, who, however, had usually nominally recognized the supremacy of the Imperator or Augustus in Ravenna. 486. Battle of Soissons. The Merowingian Chlodwig (Chlodowech, Clovis, 481-511), leader of the Salic Franks, defeated the Roman governor Syagrius, the successor of Aetius. Kingdom of the Franks in northern Gaul. Chlodwig by cruelty and deceit made himself sole ruler of all the Franks. 496. Victory of Chlodwig over the Alamanni (not at Tolbiacum or Ziilpich).^ Conversion of Clilodwig and the Franks to Catholic Christianity. Chlodwig baptized by RemigiuSj ^ Assmanu, 1. 53. 174 MedicBval History. A.-©. bishop of Rheims (Mitis depone colla Sigamher, adora quod incendisti, incende quod adorasti). 493. Theodoric the Great (493-526), after having de- feated Odovakar, with whom he had been at war since 489, founded the 493-555. Kingdom of the Bast Goths (Ostrogoths) in Italy. Kesidenee Ravenna, at times Verona, hence in tiie hero romances : Dietrich von Bern. Cassiodorus, historian. Boethius (de con solatione philosophice), and Symmachus, executed (525).. 500. Chlodwig, king of the Franks, attacked the Burgundians, to revenge himself on Gundohad, the uncle of his wife Chlotilde, for the murder of her father, defeated them at Dijon, and made them tributary to the Franks. 507. Chlodwig defeated the West Goths at Vouille, or Voulon,i on the Clain, a branch of the Vienne, in the vicinity of Poitiers. The West Goths, assisted by the East Goths, defeated the Franks at Aries, and maintained their control of Septimania (the coast be- tween the Rhone and Pyrenees). Theodoric the Great united a part of southern Gaul to the king- dom of the East Goths, and undertook the government of that part which the West Goths retained, as well as of the Spanish possessions of that people, as the guardian of their king, his grandson Ama- laric, a minor (son of Alaric II.), and retained it till his death (526), which first severed the connection of the two Gothic kingdoms. 507 (526)-711. "West Gothic (Yisigothic) Kingdom in Spain, with its capital at Toledo. 626. After the death of Theodoric, his daughter Amalasuntha be- came regent in the East Gothic kingdom for her son Athalaric. The latter died young (534), and his mother associated with herself as co-regent her cousin Theodahad (Theodat), who murdered her, thereby causing 535-555. War between the East Goths and the Eastern Empire. 533-534. Belisarius, general of Justinian, Emperor of the East (527-565), destroyed the Vandal power in Africa. Decay of the kingdom of the Yandals after the death of Genseric (477). Hilderic deposed by Gelimer, whom Beli- sarius captured. Brilliant campaign of Belisarius against Vitiges, king of the 540. East Goths, whom he carried captive to Constantinople. Belisarius, after he had declined the Italian crown, offered him by the East Goths, was dispatched by Justinian against the Persians. During his absence the East Goths, under their new king Totila, reconquered the greater part of Italy. 1 Dahn, Die Konige d. Germ. V. 109. ) A.. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 175 544-549. Belisarius, sent again to Italy, fought with varying suc- cess, but with increasing fame, against Totila. He recaptured Rome. After Belisarius had been again recalled, Rome was a second time taken by Totila. 652. Narses, the successor of Belisarius, defeated Totila at Tagince or Busta Gallorum, Totila fell on the field. 553. The last king of the East Goths, Teja,ie)lm the battle of Mans lactarius (near Vesuviusy 555. Narses destroyed the kingdom of the East Goths. Ex- archate. 568-774. Kingdom of the Langobards (Lombards) in Italy. Alboin. Alboin, with the help of the Avars (on the lower Danube), de- stroyed the kingdom of the Gepidce and married Rosamunda, the daughter of the king of the Gepidse. At the head of his Lango- bards, with the aid of Saxons and Slavs, he conquered Italy as far south as the Tiber. Capital of the kingdom of the Langobards, Pavia (Papia). The Langobards conquered almost the entire Ex- archate of the Byzantines, who retained only Venice, Ravenna, Naples, and Calabria. Rome (ducatus Romce) became gradually indepen- dent under its bishops. (Patrimonium Petri.) After Alboin had been murdered by Rosamund, because, as the story goes, he attempted, during a caroijse, to force her to drink from her father's skull, his successor Cleph pushed his conquests to lower Italy, where independent Langobardian duchies, like Bene- ventum, were established. After an interregnum of ten years his son Authari was recognized as king. Through the influence of his wife, Theodelinde, a Bavarian princess, the conversion of the Lango- bards to Christianity was begun. Among the successors of Authari the following deserve mention : Rothari, in whose reign the famous code of laws of the Langobards appeared (644) ; Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, who violently usurped the throne and completed the conversion of the Langobards ; Liutprand (717-744), who made further additions to the code of the Langobards; and Aistulf (750-756), whose attempt to conquer Rome was frustrated by Pipin, king of the Franks (p. 184). 685. Kingdom of the Suevi in Spain united with that of the West Goths, who, like all the barbarians that had adopted Arianism, were converted to the Roman Catholic church (587). 590-604. Gregory I, (the Great), bishop of Rome. Beginning of the Papacy (Papa, Udirwas, i. e. father, formerly the title of every Christian bishop, soon applied exclusively to the succes- sor of >S'^. Peter). 176 MedicBval History. A. D. § 2. TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN BRITAIN. From the first invasions to the supremacy of Ecgberht 449 (?)-82a Roman Britain. Political divisions: 1. Britannia prima, S. of the Thames and the Severn (Cantii, Regni, BelgsB, Atrebates, Durotriges, Duninonii). 2. Britannia secwnrfa, Wales (Silures, Demetse, Ordovices). 3. Flavia Ccesariensis, between the Thames, Severn, and Humber (Trinobantes, Caytieuchlani, Iceni, Dobuni, Coritavi, Cornavii). 4. Maxima Ccesa- riensis, between the Humber and the Tyne (Parish, Brigantes). 5. Valentia, between the Tyne and the Forth (Otadeni, Gadeni, Selgovaj, Novantse). Fortifications : In the N. wall of Agricola (81) or LoUius Urbi- cus, between the Friths of Forth and Clyde ; wall of Hadrian (122) between the Solway Frith and a point on the opposite coast near New- castle-on-Tyne (replaced in the third century by the wall of Severus). In the S. the strongholds Burgh Castle, Beculver, Richborough, Lym- ne, Pevensey, along the Saxon shore. (Compare the Cinque Ports.) Towns : Caniulodunum (Colchester), Glevum (Gloucester), Lin- dum (Lincoln), Deva (Chester), Eburacum (York), Loudinium (London). . Roads : Watling Street from Kent to the Forth, Hermin Street from Sussex coast to Humber, Foss Way from Cornwall to Lincoln, Ikenild Street from Caistor to Dorchester.^ The Teutonic Invaders. After the withdrawal of the Roman legions (about 410) the Brit- ons suffered severely from the ravages of the Scots (Irish) on the W. and the Picts (Gaels) on the N., which they resisted unaided for several decades. About the middle of the fifth century the Britons were overwhelmed from another quarter. Bands of Low Germans from the coast of Europe, west of the Baltic, whose piratical expedi- tions had long been the terror of southeastern Britain, began to set- tle in the island and conquer themselves homes and kingdoms. That they came at first to aid the Britons against their ®ther foes is not impossible ; but little faith, however, can be placed in the story of Vortigern and Rowena. The invaders came principally from three Teutonic tribes : Jutes, inhabiting the northern part of Denmark (Jutland) ; Angles or En- gle from modern Schleswig, south of the Jutes; Saxons, a more nu- merous people, living south of Schleswig along the Elbe and westward on the coast. Of the Jutes and Saxons only a portion emigrated; the Angles seem to have gone en masse. Religion : The new settlers were pagans, sharing the faith of the 1 Green. The more usual but incorrect routes assigned these roads are: Watling, Kent to Cardigan Bay; Hermin, St. Davids to Southampton; Foss, Cornwall to Lincoln; Ikenild, St. Davids to Tynemouth. See Scarth, Roman Britain, p. 116. A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 177 continental Germans (p. 164). Each man was priest in his household, and political rulers exercised also priestly functions for the regions under their control. Civilization : The invaders were rude warriors, cultivators of the soil, but fond of the hunt and still more fond of war. They settled in villages, the dwellers in each village being kinsmen, who often gave their family name to the place of their abode. In each village all were united by a bond of mutual protection and responsibility. Around the house-lots and garden-plots, which were for the most part practi- cally private property, extended the common land, the " mark," com- prising tilled land, pasture and woodland, which also served to isolate one village from another. The people were divided into four orders: athel, nobles ; ceorl, free landowners ; laets, tenants owing service to their landlords ; slaves, generally captives taken in war. Whether either of the invadmg tribes were under kings at home is unknown ; their leaders during the invasion were war-chiefs, ealdormen, whose power was frequently prolonged and concentrated by the military ne- cessities of their new conditions, until it became royal and they took the title of king. Each village had its governor and its council, the latter composed of all freemen in the village ; each aggregate of vil- lages (the hundred) had its governor and council ; the aggregate of hundreds which made up the tribe had its kuig and its great council (ivitan), which elected the king, generally out of some one noble fam- ily, and was consulted by him. The witan was in theorj'^ composed of all freemen in the tribe, but it soon became practically limited to the more wealthy and powerful among them. Each ealdorman, perhaps every man of note, had a personal following of companions (thegns), who had devoted themselves to his service and were supported by him. The development of monarchy caused a corresponding develop- ment of this institution. Powerful men were proud to be thegns of the king, and thus the number and power of the king's military house- hold constantly increased. Jutes (Kent). 449 (?).i Landing of the chiefs Hengist and Horsa in Thanet (then an island). Gradual conquest of the country between the Thames and the Andredsweald (p. 36). East and West Kent. South Saxons (Sussex). 477. ^lle, a Saxon ealderman, with his sons Cymen, Wlencing, and Cissa, landed at Cissanceaster and conquered the region S. of the Andredsweald. 491. Storm of Anderida. Massacre of the inhabitants. 1 The date is variously given, but 449 is the year most commonly accepted. I have followed throughout the conservative scholars. The ultra-skepticism which would limit our knowledge of the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain to what can be guessed from the condition of things there in the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries seems to me to be based on hypercriticism. 12 17S Mediceval History, A. D. West Saxons (Wessex). A more important settlement was that begun by the Saxons, under the ealdormen 495. Cerdic and Cynric, on the southern coast, W. of the Andreds- weald. The formation of the country directed their line of extension W. and N., thus bringing them into contact with the great body of western Cymry. 517. Cerdic and Cynric assumed the royal title. At the beginning of the second decade of the sixth century the Saxon advance was so sternly checked that fifty years elapsed before it was again resumed. Battle of Mons Badonicus (520). The Cym- ric traditions of Arthur,^ king of the Silures, to whom this repulse of the pagan invaders is attributed, are probably founded in truth. yT/nric (534-556) conquered modern Berksliire. Ceawlin (556- 691 [3]) raised Wessex to such power that later years entitled him the second Bretwalda of Britain (the first being jElle). The meaning of this title is not clear. By the 577. Battle of Deorham Ceawlin extended his power to the Severn and separated the Cymry of Cornwall {Devraini) from those of West Wales. East Saxons (Essex). During the latter half of the fifth century Saxons settled north of the Thames. Sack of Camulodunum. Establishment of a small kingdom under the shadow of the great forest which then reached to the Wash (Ercenwin, 527?). Middle Saxons {Middlesex). A small division of the East Saxons, dwelling about London. East Angles (JEast Anglid). While the East Saxons were making their settlements, Angles were occupying the region to the N., between the sea, the great fens about the Wash (UfPa, 575 ?), and the forest. Norfolk, Suffolk. North Angles {Northumhria). Deira. Early in the sixth century settlements of Angles north of the Humber. Conquest of central Yorkshire. Bernicia. At the same time other Angles were settling along the Frith of Forth, where they may have found a Jutish colony already 647. established. Under Ida, " the flame bearer," as the Cymry called liim, the Angles pushed their conquests to the Esk.2 Bernicia thus comprised the Lowlands of Scotland, a region which still contains the purest type of the Teutonic con- querors of Britain. Saxon and Gael. 1 The northern Cymry seem also to have had traditions of an Arthur. Later fugitives to Bretagfne carried the memory of Arthur with them; there his name was connected with the French legend of the Holy Grail, and woven into the romances which make up the Arthurian cycle. 2 The stubborn resistance of the Cymry here as well as in the south has beea attributed to Arthur. Ao D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain* 179 Middle Angles (Merdd). Early in the sixth century scattered bands of Angles occupied the present counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, Warwick, and Northampton. The small kingdoms and lordships thus founded (^Lindesfaras, Gainas, Magescetas, Hwiccas) were at a later time united in the great kingdom of Mercia (Cridda, 582 ?). Thus Britain south of the Firth at the close of the third quarter of the sixth century was divided between Cymry and Teutons by a line drawn nearly N. and S. midway of the breadth of the land. Teuton and Celt, pagan and Christian, faced one another throughout the length of the island. As far as it went, the conquest was thorough. Not that the Cymry were exterminated ; many remained within the Saxon lines, and traces of Celtic, and of still older blood, are not in- frequent in the most Teutonic parts of England to-day. Though the subjugated Cymry, however, might retain their Celtic blood, in all else they were soon assimilated with the conquerors. Temporary halt in the work of conquest. "Wars of the invaders among themselves. 588. Formation of the kingdom of Northumbria by the enforced union of Bernicia and Deira under -3Sthelric, king of Bernicia. 590-616. Supremacy of iEthelbert, king of Kent, afterwards called the third Bretwalda, over Essex, East Anglia, Middle Britain. His wife was the Catholic Christian princess Bertha, daughter of Charibert, king of the Franks. 597. Arrival of Augustine, legate of Pope Gregory the Great. Conversion of Kent. Quarrel between the British church and Augustine (date of Easter, form of the tonsure). Conversion of the East Saxons. Laws of ^thelbert. An attempt to convert the East Angles led to the revolt and About 610-617. Supremacy of Rcedwald, of East Anglia, over Middle Britain. He was afterwards called the fourth Bret- walda. In the N. jEthelfrith of Northumbria defeated the Cymry of Strathclyde in the great 607. Battle of Chester, and extended his realm to the sea, cutting off Strathclyde from Wales, as Wales had been severed from Cornwall by the battle of Deorham (p. 178). ^thelfrith defeated and slain in the battle of the Idle by Rcedwald, who had taken up the claims of Eadwine, son of jElla, formerly king of Deira. 617-633. Supremacy of Eadwine of Northumbria, called the fifth Bretwalda. His overlordship was more comprehensive than that of any of his predecessors, since, after the conquest of Wessex (526), it included all Teutonic Britain except Kent. Conver- sion of Northumbria (627). Eevolt of the Mercians imder Penda (627-655), who, in alliance with Cadwallon of Wales, de- feated Eadwine in the battle of Heathfield (633). Death of Ead- wine. 633-655. Supremacy of Penda of Mercia over Middle Britain, Essex, and East Anglia. 180 MedicBval History. A. D. 635. Defeat of Cadwallon by Oswald of Bernieia, in the battle of the Hevenfeld. Conquest of Deira. 635-642. Supremacy of Oswald of Northumbria, afterwards called the sixth Bretwalda, over Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent. Conversion of Northumbria (where many people had relapsed into paganism) by Irish (not Roman) missionaries. Conversion of Wes- sex. In the contest over East Anglia Oswald was defeated by Penda, and slain in the 642. Battle of the Maserfeld. Penda's sovereignty extended over Wessex, East Anglia, Deira. 655. Battle of the Winwaed. Penda defeated by Oswiu, brother of Oswald, and his successor in Bernieia, and slain. 655-659. Supremacy of Oswiu of Northumbria, called the sev- enth Bretwalda, over all Teutonic Britain except Wessex, Kent, and Sussex. 659. Revolt of Mercia under Wulfhere. Henceforward the kings of Northumbria were sovereigns of merely local power. Rivalry between the Irish missionaries and Rome. A council com vened by Oswiu, decided in favor of Rome. Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury (609), undertook the organization of the English church. 688-726. Ine, king of Wessex. Conquest of Kent (694). Wars with the Cymry of Cornwall (710). Laws of Ine, the oldest West Saxon code. Abdication of Ine (726). Willibrod, missionary to the Frisians. Boniface (Winfrith), apostle of the Germans. Wilfrith, bishop of York. Cuthbert, of Lindisfarne. Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth. Caed- mon. Baeda (672-735) ; Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. 733-752. Supremacy of .Slthelbald of Mercia over all England S. of the Humber. 752. Battle of Burford (Oxfordshire). Defeat of ^thelbald of Mercia by the West Saxon, Cuthred. Henceforward Teutonic Britain remained divided between the three great kingdoms, Northumbria, "Wessex, Mercia. 756. Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria by Eadberht. 755-794. Offa, king of Mercia. Conquest of Oxfordshire from Wessex (777 ?). Conquest of the Welsh kingdom of Powys, W. of the Severn. Offals Dyke from the mouth of the Wye to that of the Dee. Friendship between Offa and Charles the Great. Laws of Offa. 789. First recorded landing of Northmen in Britaui on the coast of Devonshire. 802-837. Bcgberht, king of Wessex, being elected to suc- ceed Beorhtric after thirteen years' exile spent in the kingdom of the West Franks. Cornwall made tributary. Defeat of Beornwulfoi Mercia, at the battle of Ellandune (825). Sub- mission of all England S. of the Thames, and of Essex Ecgherht overlord of Mercia and Northumbria (828). Submis- sion of Wales (828). A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Merowingians, 181 All England south of the Forth, with the possible exception of Strathclyde, united under Ecgberht. 834. The Northmen ravaged Sheppey. Ecgherht defeated hy the Danes (825). 836. Battle of Hengestesdun. Victory of Ecgherht over Welsh and Danes. Death of ^c^rJerAi (837). (^Seep.203.) § 3. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROWIN- GIANS. {Seep. 173.) 611. After the death of Chlodwig the Jirst division of the kingdom of the Franks. According to this division, which was not strictly territorial, the four sons of Chlodwig, Theoderic I. (Thierry, 511-533). CUodomer (Chlodomir, 511-524), CUU debert I. (511-558), CUotar I. (Clotaire, 511-^61) ruled the kingdom from the four court-camps of Mete, OrUanSj Paris and Soisso?is. 530-532. The kingdom of the Thuringians conquered by the eldest of the brothers (Theoderic). The two younger brothers sub- jugated the Burgundians. The northern part of Thuringia, as far south as the Unstrut, fell to the Faxons, the allies of the Franks in the war. The southern part (to the Danube) became Frankish territory, but the name of Franco- nia was given to the region south of the Thuringian forest; the dis- trict between the Unstrut, the Thuringian forest, and the Saale con- tinued to be called Thuringia. Acquisition of Provence (536) and the supremacy over Swabia and Bavaria on the fall of the kingdom of the East Goths. 558-561. The whole Frankish kingdom again united under Chlo- tar I., who outlived his three brothers. After his death 561. A second division of the kingdom among the grandsons of Chlodwig, Guntram (561-593), Charibert I. (561-567), Sigi- bert I. (561-575), and Chilperic I. (561-584), into four, later (567) into three parts : Austrasia, with the capital at Rheims, and a population chiefly German ; Neustria, with the capital at Soissons ; Burgundy, with Orleans as capital ; in both of which later divisions the mass of the population was Romano- Celtic or Romance.^ Family divisions and wars full of horrors. Feud of Brunhilde (Brunichildis) of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, kmg of the Visigoths, and Fredegunde (Fredegundis) of Neustria (f 597), slave, and afterwards wife, of Chilperic I. 613. Second union of the entire kingdom of the Franks under Chlotar II. of Neustria, great-grandson of Chlodwig. Brunhilde captured, tortured, and dragged to death by a wild horse. Origin of the power of the majores domus (Hausmeier, mayors of 1 Charibert received the territory around Paris, but after his earh'- death this was equally divided among his brothers, and the triple division alone was hence* forth of importance. [Trans.] 182 MedicEval History. A. d. the palace), who were at first superintendents of the royal household, afterwards leaders of the feudal retainers (leudes). The race of the Pipins (afterwards called Carolingians), of pure German blood, ^ ac- quired an hereditary claim to the office of major domus, in Austrasia first, and afterwards in Neustria. 622-678. Third division of the kingdom of the Franks (interrupted, however, by several temporary unions) into the two parts into which it had meanwhile separated : 1. Austrasia (principally German), separated by the Schelde from 2. Neustria (Romance, northern France to the Loire, not reck- oning Bretagne which was independent) and Burgundy. The duchies of Aquitania and Vasconia (Guyenne and Gascogne), between the Loire and the Pyrenees, were almost independent. {See p. 183.) § 4. MOHAMMED (MAHOMET) AND THE CALIPHATE. 622. Mohammed's flight (Hegira) from Mecca to Medina. 16 July. Mohammed (i. e. he who is greatly praised), born at Mecca, 571, of the family of Hashem, a merchant, husband of the wealthy Chadija, acquainted from his journeys with the Jewish and the Christian religions, proclaimed himself a prophet among the tribe of the Koreishites. Islam (i. e. a submission to the will of God conse- quent on belief). One God (Allah) and Mohammed his prophet. Moslems (the believers). Victories of Mohammed in Arabia (629) ; preparation for conquests in Syria. Mohammed died 632. Caliphs (i. e. successors) : 632-634. Ahu-hehr, father-in-law of the prophet. Collection of the Koran (Quran), later enlarged by the transcription of an oral tradition, the Soona. Separation of the believers into Soonees, who recognized this addition, and Sheeah, who rejected it, and regarded Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, as his only right- ful successor. Wars with the Eastern Empire and the Persians. 634-644. Omar, founder of the Arabian supremacy in the East. He assumed the title of Emir-al-Mumenin (" Prince of the faithful"), which was afterwards borne by all the caliphs. Conquest of Syria (Damascus 635), Palestine, Phcenicia. De- struction of the empire of the Sassanidce (the New Persians) by the battle of Nehavend (641). Conquest of Egypt by Omar's general Amroo. Capture of Alexandria. 644-656. Otbmann (Osman). Conquest of northern Africa. Cap- ture of Rhodes. Murder of Othman during an insurrection. 656-661. Ali, husband of Fatima, Mohammed's daughter, not uni- versally recognized. Muawwiyah proclaims himself caliph in Syria. After bloody civil wars and after the murder of Ali, the Sooneite 661-750. Ommiads obtained the caliphate. 661-680. Muawwiyah I., great-grandson of Omeyyah. He trans- ferred the residence of the caliphs from Medina to Damascus, 1 Bouuell, Die Anfdnge des Karolingischen Hauses, 1866. A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Carolingians. 183 The caliphate was made hereditary. About 700 the governor Musa completed the conquest of Byzantine Africa as far as the Atlantic Ocean. The Berbers, who ac- cepted Islam, together with the inhabitants of Punic, Greek, and Roman descent, became amalgamated with the Arabians under the name of Moors. Tarik,^ one of Musa's generals, crossed from northern Africa to Spam, and in the 711. Battle of Xeres de la Prontera (plains of the Guadal- quivirj destroyed the kingdom of the Visigoths. From this time on there coexisted in Spam: 1. the province of the caliphate, which became, at a later date (756), the separate caliphate of Cordova; 2. the Christian kingdom of Asturia, founded by Pelagius, afterwards the kingdom of Leon. The Arabians penetrated the passes in the country of the Basques and invaded Gaul. Here a limit was set to their conquests by the 732. Battle between Tours and Pcfetiers, where they were defeated by Charles Martel. Under the last of the Ommiads the caliphate reached its greatest extent, embracing southwestern Asia from the Gulf of Arabia and the Indus to the Mediterranean and the Caucasus, the entire northern coast of Africa, a great part of the Spanish peninsula, and in southern France the county of Narhona, besides Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. In the caliphate declining vigor; constant wars with the followers of Ali. Ahul Abbas, great-grandson of an uncle of the prophet, over- threw the last Ommiad caliph, Merwan II. 750-1258. Rule of the Abbasides. Residence at Bagdad. Treacherous murder of all the Ommiad princes (90). One only, Abd-er-Rahman, escaped to Spain, and founded there the 756. caliphate of Cordova. (Seep. 209.) §5. KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE CAROLINGIANS. {Seep. 182.) 687. Pipin of Heristal, major domus (mayor of the palace) of Austrasia, became by the victory of Testri (not far from St. Quentin) over the major domus of Soissons (Neustria) sole major domus of the whole kingdom of the Franks, and called himself in future dux et princeps Francorum. Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, defeated by the Arabian invaders, sought help from Charles, the son and successor of the major domus Pipin of Heristal. 732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers. Victory of 1 From him comes the name Gihel or Jebel-al-Tarik (Gibraltar), i. e. moun- tain of Tarik, near which he landed. It would appear that the story of Tarik's having been summoned by the Visigothic count Julian, is mythical. Cf . Datm. Kim. d. Germ. V. 227. 184 Mediceval History. A. d. Charles Martel (major domus 714-741) over the Arabs. 751.^ With Pipin the Short (741-768), Charles Martel's son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks.. The last king of the Merc win gian line (les rois faineants), Childe~ ric III., was deposed with the consent of Pope Zacharias and placed in a monastery. Pipin was raised upon the shield on the field of Mars at Soissons, as king of the Franks. In 754 Pope Stephen III., who had come to France to seek help, anointed Pipin and his sons Charles and Karlmann as kings of the Franks. For the future Pipin styled himself ^^king hy the grace of God." In requital of this service Pipin drove back Aistud, king of the Langobards, who was threatening the Pope (p. 175). Gift of the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis (^Ancona, Sinigaglia, Fano, Pesaro, Rimini), the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, to the Pope, and thereby the first foundation of the Papal States. Pipin patricius of Rome, that city not being included in the gift to the Pope.^ Bonifacius (the Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk Winfried, named Bonifacius by Pope Gregory II.), the apostle of the Germans (about 680-754). He preached Christianity in the country of the East Franks, in Thuringia, Hesse, and Friesland. Bishop since 722, archbishop since 732 without a settled bishopric, he brought all newly founded bishoprics and monasteries into strict dependence upon the Papal chair. In 742 Concilium Germanicum, recognition of the Pope as head of the Church. In 748 Bonifacius became the first archbishop of Mainz ; in 754 he was killed by the heathen Friesians. 768-814. Charles the Great {Charlemagne), since the death of his brother Karlmann (771), sole ruler. Karl- mann's sons took refuge with Desiderius, king of the Lango- bards, whose daughter Charles had married, but afterwards rejected. 773-774:. Destruction of the kingdom of the Langobards. The Pope having refused to crown the sons of Karlmann, Desi- derius occupied the Pentapolis and threatened Rome. Charles came to the assistance of the Pope, ex officio, as patricius of Rome. Capture of Pavia after a six months' siege, during which Charles had visited Rome and renewed his alliance with the Pope. Desiderius placed in a monastery. Charles, king of Italy, by which is meant the kingdom of the Langobards, northern and central Italy. The larger part of southern Italy remained in the possession of the Eastern Empire. 772-804. War with the Saxons. The country of the Saxons was divided as follows. "West- phalia, on the Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe, and on both sides of the Ems ; 1 See the proof in Q. Richter, Annalen d. deutschen Geschichte im Mittelal- ter, I. p. 216. 2 See, however, Oelsner, Jahrb. d. frank. Reichs unter Konig Pippin, Chap. IX. p. 129 foil. A. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Garolingians. 185 Engern, on both sides of the Weser as far as the Leine ; Eastphalia, as far as the Elbe; Northalbingia, N. of the lower Elbe to the Eider. The Saxon war was resolved upon m the assembly (May-field) at Worms (772). 772. Capture of the Eresburg, destruction of the Irminsul. 775o Capture of Sigiburg. Subjug^ation of the Saxons W. of the Elbe. The Saxons destroyed the Eresburg, but were subjugated anew, 776-777. First May-field in the land of the Saxons, at Paderborn. New insurrection of the Saxons upon receipt of the news of Charles's defeat in the Pyrenees, 778 ; subdued by the army of the east Franks and Alamanni. 779, Charles gained a victory at Bocholt on the Aa. 780, Submission of the Saxons ; acceptance of Christianity. After a new and general revolt headed by Widukind or Witte- kind, and a defeat of the FranMsh army, Charles took the field in person with success. 782, Slaughter of 4500 Saxons on the Aller. 783, A new and terrible uprising, the result of this massacre. Charles victorious first at Detmold, then on the Hase. 785, After a two years' resistance Wittekind submitted and became a Christian. 778. Wars of Charles in Spain. Conquest of Saragossa. Return by Roncevaux, and defeat of the Prankish rearguard. Death of the hero Roland, margrave of the Breton coast, a pretended nephew of Charles, whose deeds are celebrated in a series of romances. The Spanish mark ^ was of later foundation, and was strengthened by Lud- wig, son of Charles (801). 788. Abolition of the duchy of the Bajuvariae (Bavarians), after the second revolt of duke Tassilo. Wars with the Northmen (the common name of the Germans of the Scandinavian north), and with the Slavs. Charles de- feated the Wiltzi and advanced to the Peene (789). 791-799. War with the Avars (who had aided Tassilo, duke of Ba- varia) conducted principally by Charles' son Pipin. 796. Storm of the Kingh Ring (the chief camp of the Avars) between the Danube and the Theiss. The country between the Ems and the Radb was annexed to the Frankish empire and occupied by German colonists, especially by Bavarians. (Soon after, complete ruin of the kingdom of the Avars.^ 800. Charles revived the office of Emperor of the West. Pope Leo III., ill-treated by the relatives of his predecessor in an insurrection, and expelled from the city (799), sought Charles' camp at Paderborn. Restored by Charles to Rome, he crowned him emperor on Christmas-day, 800. 793-804. New revolts among the Saxons particularly in the N., led to a war with the Danes, with whom the Saxons had taken ref- uge. Gottfried, king of Denmark, invaded the Frankish mark; his ships harassed the coasts of the German Ocean. 1 Mark : a strip of land on the border of a country, where the military power was especially well kept up, under a Markgraf (border-count), who was responsible for the safety of the border. — Trans. 186 Mediceval History, A. d. 808. The Danes, defeated by Charles, the eldest son of the emperor, retired beyond the Eider. 810. The emperor was obliged to take the field against Gottfried in person. The Danish king was murdered by his own servants. Peace with his successors. Saxony north of the Elbe remained a part of the Frankish kingdom. Boundaries of the kingdom : Ehro, Raab, Eider, Garigliano. • The Wends were again subjugated. Charles resided in Aachen in Austrasia (Aix-la-Chapelle) prin- cipally on account of its warm springs, or in the County Palatine on the Rhine, at Ingelheim, or in Nymwegen. Capitularii, imperial re- scripts. Assemblies composed of all men of rank, both churchmen and laymen (" in quo placito generalitas universorum maiorum, tam clericorum quam laicorum conveniebat "). Levy of troops (Heer- ban). Governors of counties (Gaugrafen), counts of the border dis- j^^tricts (comites marchice, Markgrafen), imperial messengers (missi regis, Sendgrafen), who made periodical circuits in different parts of the empire, heard complaints and reported the same with other observa- tions and suggestions to the emperor. The Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin, the Langobard Paul, son of Warnefrid (Paulus Diaconus), called to the imperial court, where intellectual pursuits were favored and shared by the emperor. Schools for the education of the clergy, at Tours and Paris. Einhard (Eginhard), the favorite secretary of Charles (author of the Vita Caroli Imperatoris). Charles the Great became the centre of the most important series of romances of the Middle Age. 786-809. In the East Charles found a friend and admirer in Har- oun-al-Rashid, Caliph of Bagdad. His reign and that of his son Mamun cover the most fruitful period of science, art, and manufactures among the Arabs. The elder sons of Charles the Great, Charles and Pipin, dying before their father, he was succeeded by his youngest son, 814-840. Ludwig the Pious. (Louis le Debonnaire). Ludwig's nephew, Bernhard, Pipin's son, according to Charles' decree,^ king of Italy under the supremacy of his uncle, re- belled against the latter, was defeated, captured, and killed. Luawig had 4 sons : Lothar, Pipin, Ludwig, Charles the Bald (the latter by Judith, his second wife, of the noble Alamannian family of the Welfs). In 829 Ludwig substituted a new division of the empire, whereby his youngest son, Karl, received Alamannia and the royal title for the division made in 817, under which Lothar held the larger part of the empire and the imperial crown, Pipin had Aquitania, and Ludwig, Bavaria. The three elder sons at once revolted, and civil war broke out. On the Field of Lies, near Colmar in Alsace, Ludwig, the father, was deserted by his troops (833). He was taken prisoner (public penance in the church at Soissons), but soon released by his repentant son Ludwig, and replaced upon the throne (834). Pipin died in 838, and his share of the empire was divided between Lothar and Charles, which caused a new rebellion on the part of Ludwig. In 840 Ludwig the Pious died on an island in the Rhine, near Ingelheim. Ludwig and Charles in alliance defeated Lothar at Fontanetum (Fon^ tenaille or Fontenay f) in 841. Bi-lingual oath of Strassburg (842). A. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 187 843. Treaty of Verdun. Division of the empire among Aug. the brothers as follows : 1. Lothar : Centre of the Frankish lands, i. e. Austrasia, Fries- land, the Alamannian lands on the left bank of the Rhine, the greater part of Burgundy, Proveyice, a part of Languedoc; in general, a region bounded by the Schelde, Meuse, Saone, Rhone^ in the west, by the Rhine and Alps in the east, and Frankish Italy. 2. Ludwig the German : The eastern part of the Frankish lands, i. e. all those parts of the empire lying on the right bank of the Rhine, except Friesland ; the diocese of Mainz, Worms, and Speier on the left bank (in general a region lying between the Rhine and the Elbe). 3. Charles the Bald : The western part of the Frankish lands, i. e. Neustria, Aquitania, the northern part of Burgundy, Septi- mania, the Spanish Mark. Lothar retained the imperial dignity which his father had given him. His kingdom, which lacked natural boundaries and comprised various nationalities, contained within itself the germ of rapid disso- lution. The Treaty of Verdun was originally meTelj a family contract, made without regard to national differences. In Ludmg's kingdom, how- ever, the German element was in the majority ; in that of Charles the Romance element prevailed. Thus there developed, in the course of the following centuries, from the East Frankish element the German, from the West Frankish the French nationality. The East Franks called their language, in contrast to the Latin used by the educated clergy, the deutsche, i. e. the language of the people, and gradually (since Henry I. ?) those who spoke Deutsche came to be called Deutsche.^ (See pp. 193, Wl.) § 6. NEW PERSIAN EMPIRE OF THE SASSANIDiE.2 Aryan. 226-641. (Seep. 15S.) 226-240. Artaxerxes I. (Artahshatr), son, not of Sasan, but of Papak, probably king of Persia proper, revolted against Artabanus, the last king of Par- thia (p. 30), whom he defeated and slew in the battle of Hormuz. Contest of Artaxerxes with the Arsacid kings of Bactria and Arme- nia. The claim preferred by Artaxerxes to all Asia as far as the ^gean involved him in a war with Rome. Defeat of Alexander Severus, followed by peace. Subjugation of Armenia. Restoration of the religion of Zoroaster. Collection of the text of the Zend Avesta. Artaxerxes was succeeded by his son, 240-271. Sapor I. (Shahpuhri). Wars with Rome. I. (241-244.) The Romans were sue- 1 V. Giesebrectit, Gesch. d. deuischen Kaiserzeit, I. 4th ed. p. 149. 2 Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy. 188 MedicBval History. A. d. cessful under Gordianus, but his successor, Philippus, concluded peace with Sapor, leaving Armenia in Ms hands, but retaining Mesopotamia. II. (258-260.) A glorious war for Persia. Nisihis, Edessa, Antioch fell into their hands, and the Roman emperor Valerianus was cap- tured and remained a prisoner until his death (265 or 266). Defeat of Persians by Odenathus of Palmyra (p. 157). Erection of many buildings and engineering works in Persia. Mani, or Manes, a teacher of a new form of religion compounded of Christianity and Zoroasterianism (Manicheism), expelled from Persia. Sapor was succeeded by his son, Hormisdas I. (^Auhrmazdi), who reigned one year and ten days (271-272) and was followed by his brother, Varahran I. (272-275). Execution of Mani. Aid sent to Zenobia (p. 157). The murder oiAurelianus (275) put an end to his expedition against Varahran, who was succeeded in the same year by his son Varahran II. (275-292?). His reign is marked chiefly by the war with Rome (283), which was closed by the mysterious death of Cams (283-284). Revolt of Tiridates of Armenia, aided by Rome- Varahran III., son of Varahran II., reigned four months, and was followed by his brother, 292-301. Narses, who after defeating his brother and rival, Hormisdas, drove Tiridates from Armenia (296). War with Rome. Galerius, at first unsuccessful in Mesopotamia, finally defeated Narses. Peace (297) : 1. Persia ceded five provinces beyond the Tigris to Rome. 2. The Tigris recognized as the general boundary between Persia and Rome.^ 3. Cession of a large part of Media to Armenia. 4. Persia surrendered to Rome her supremacy over Iberia (Georgia). Abdication of Narses and accession of his son, Hormisdas II. (301-309), whose reign covers little of importance. At his death the nobles set aside his son Hormisdas, and conferred the crown upon his unborn child. A boy was born, who received the name 309-379 (?). Sapor II. During his minority the country suffered from invasions of the Arabs, but on arriving at his seventeenth year Sapor assumed the government, and inflicted a terrible punishment on Arabia. Persecu- tion of Christians (about 325). First war with Rome (337-350). Defeat of Constantius at Singara (348). Nisibis in Mesopotamia thrice besieged by Sapor in vain (338, 340, 350). War of Sapor with Tatar tribes in the E. (351-359) and extension of Persian power in this direction. Armenia went over to Rome. Second war with Rome (359-363). Invasion of Syria. Capture of Amida after a desperate resistance. Julianus, emperor of Rome, invaded Persia, and defeated the Persians before Ctesiphon (362), but immediately began a retreat, in the course of which he died. His successor, Jovian, concluded peace with Sapor for thirty years (363) : 1. Restoration of the five provinces ceded by Narses. 2. Surrender of Nisibis and Singara to Persia. 3. Rome to give up all connection with Armenia. Conquest of Armenia by Sapor. Third war with Rome (371-376), carried on without energy and concluded by an obscure peace. 1 Rawlinson, Seventh Monarchy, 128 foil., discusses the conditions. A-. D. New Persian Empire of the SassanidcB. 189 The brilliant reign of Sapor was followed by a time of quiet. Artaxerxes II. (379-383.) Sapor III. (383-388.) Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome, — Persia receiving the larger part. Varahran IV. (388-399) deposed Chosroes, king of Persian Armenia, and placed his own brother on the throne (391). Varaliran was murdered during a mutiny, and succeeded by his son Isdigerd I. (Izdikerti) (399-419 [420]), whose peaceful reign is remarkable for little, except a persecution of the Christians in Persia and Armenia. He was succeeded by his son, 419 (420)-440. Varahran V., who, having put down Chosroes, a pretender to the throne, re- newed the persecution of the Christians, and began war mth Rome. Meeting with no success, he concluded peace (422), and agreed to stop the persecution. (Charity of Acacius, bishop of Amida, who ransomed 7000 Persian captives.) Beginning of Persia's wars with the Ephthi- alites (Pers. Haithal), a people dwelling beyond the Oxus, and prob- ably of " Thibetic or Turkish stock " (not Huns). Surprise, defeat, and death of the invading Khan. The Persians crossed the Oxus and chastised the Tatars in their own territory. Varahran was succeeded by his son, 440-457. Isdigerd II., who at once declared war upon Rome, but as hastily concluded peace. Niae years' war with the Epthialites, ending with their defeat in their own country. The attempt of Isdigerd to convert Armenia to Zoroastrianism brought on a religious war, wherein the Christians were defeated (455 or 456). Forcible conversion of Armenia. To- ward the close of his reign Isdigerd was defeated by the Ephthialites. After his death civil war between his sons Perozes and Hormisdas, ending in the victory of 459-483 (?). Perozes. Great famine in the seventh year of his reign (?). Unsuccess- ful war and disgraceful peace with the Ephthialites (464-465). Re- volt of Armenia under Vahan, which was still unsubdued when Pero- zes again attacked the Ephthialites, at whose hands he suffered a severe defeat, falling in the battle. He was succeeded by his brother (?) 483(?)-487. Balas (Pers. Valakhesh or Volgases), under whom Persia probably paid tribute to Khush-newaz, the Ephthialite Khan. Pacification of Armenia. Edict of toleration. Destruction of fire-altars. Balas was succeeded by 487(?)-498. Kobad, (first reign) son of Perozes, who had been in hiding among the Ephthi- alites. Successful war with the Khazars, a people of uncertain race (Turkish or Caucasian?), dwelling between the Volga and the Don. Communistic and ascetic doctrines of Mazdak, a high priest of Zoro- aster, to which many converts were made, the king being of the number. Consequent disturbances in Persia and Armenia resulting in the deposition of Kobad and the accession of his brother, 498-501. Zama^p. Kobad, however, soon escaped to the Ephthialites and returned 190 Mediaeval History, A. d. at the head of an army, whereupon Zamasp voluntarily resigned the crown. 601-531. Kobad (second reign). Withdrawal of support from Masdak. The refusal of the Eastern Empire to fulfil its agreement to contribute to the defence of the pass of Derhend in the Caucasus, which was the usual route of the nomadic tribes in their invasions of Persia or the Eastern Empire, caused Kobad to declare war. Sack of Amida (502). An Ephthi- alite invasion induced peace in 507. Erection of the fortress of Daras, twelve miles from Nisibis by Anastasius, emperor of the East. Second war with the Eastern Empire (524-531), wherein the Per- sians, at first successful, were defeated by Belisarius in the battle of Daras (528). Kobad was succeeded by his son, 531-579. Chosroes I. Anushirwan (" The Just ") per= haps the greatest of the Sassanid kings. Peace with Rome (533) : 1. Rome paid 11,000 lbs. of gold toward the fortification of the Caucasus. 2. Daras retained its fortifica- tions, but was not to be the Roman headquarters. 3. Reciprocal sur- render of recent conquests. 4. Eternal friendship and alhance, whence this peace is known as the " endless peace." It endured for seven years, at the end of which time Chosroes, jealous of the great victo- ries of Justinian in the West, listened to the prayers of the East Goths and declared war. 540. Capture of Antioch. Chosroes extorted ransom from the principal cities of west- ern Asia Minor ; returned home. A truce, concluded in 545, was broken in 549 by Rome, who sent assistance to the Lazi (inhabitants of ancient Colchis) in their war with Persia. 651. Capture of Petra by the Romans and Lazi. 563. Definite peace between Persia and Rome. 1. Lazica ceded to Rome. 2. Rome to make a yearly pay- ment to Persia. 3. Exercise of their faith secured to the Christians in Persia. 4. Commercial mtercourse between the empires restricted to certain roads and marts. 5. Free diplomatic mtercourse. 6. Daras to retain its fortifications. 7. Disputes to be settled by arbi- tration. 8. Allies of either party included in the peace. 9. Persia undertook the maintenance of the Caspian Gates alone. 10. The peace was concluded for fifty years. Successful wars with the Ephthialites and Khazars. 562. Expedition of Chosroes to Arabia, against the Christian king- dom founded there by Abyssinians early in the sixth century. Chosroes expelled the Abyssinians and left the country under the control of Saif, leader of the native Homerites ; after his murder Arabia was made a Persian province. The expedition to India ascribed to Chosroes is doubtful. Dezabul, Khan of the Turks, who had recently subjugated the Ephthialites and entered into alliance with the Eastern Empire, invaded Persia, but met with no success. 572. Justin, Emperor of the East, declared war on Persia. Chos- roes ravaged Syria. Fall of Daras (573). A.. D. New Persian Empire of the Sassanidce. 191 Chosro5s died, 579, in Mesopotamia. Improved administration in Persia under Chosroes. Empire di* vided into four governments : East, Khorassan, Seistan, Kirman ; North, Armenia, Azerbizan, Ghilan, Koum^ Isfahan; South, Fars, Ahwaz ; West, Irak, or Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia. Frequent progresses of the king. Substitution of a fixed land tax for the for- mer variable tax on produce. Tax collectors placed under the super- vision of the priests. Reform in the army. Improved irrigation. Protection of foreigners. Encouragement of learning. Laws of Artaxerxes revised. Collection of the Shah-na-meh, or Book of the Kings, the basis of Firdusi's epic. Introduction of the Fables of Pilpay, and of the game of chess from India. Toleration extended to Christians. Chosroes was succeeded by his son, 579-589. Hormisdas IV. (Hormazd). At first a wise ruler, afterwards the worst of Persian kings. 579. Invasion of Persia by the Eastern Emperor Maurice. 681. Defeat of the Persians at Constantia. The war continued with alternate defeat and victory until in 589. Persia was invaded by Arabs, Khazars, and above all by the great Khan of the Turks. He was defeated by the Persian general Bahram and fell in the battle. In the same year Hormisdas provoked a war with Rome by invading Lazica. Bahram was de- feated on the Araxes. An insult offered him by the king caused his revolt and the deposition and murder of Hormisdas, who was suc- ceeded by his son, 589-628. Chosroes II., Eherwiz, who was at once involved in war with Bahram, who drove him from the kingdom and assumed the crown. The reign of Bahrain (Varahran VI.) was short (590-591). Chosroes had taken refuge at Constantinople, and a Roman force restored him to his throne. Bahram, defeated, fled to the Turks. The second reign of Chosroes II. was marked by a wonderful in- crease of Persia's power, and by its sudden fall. 603-610. War with Phocas, murderer of Maurice. Capture of Daras. Syria, Armenia, Galatia, Phrygia, ravaged. Sack of Antioch. The accession of Heraclius to the throne of the Eastern Empire did not end the war. 612. Invasion of Cappadocia. 614. Capture of Damascus. 615. Sack of Jerusalem. 616. Capture of Pelusium and Alexandria by the Persian general Shahr-Barz. Submission of Egypt. 617. Fall of Chalcedon. The Persians encamped within a mile of Constantinople. 620. Capture of Ancyra and of Rhodes. Persia restored to the limits virhich it attained under Darius I. So nearly had Chosroes driven Heraclius to despair that he pre- pared to take refuge in Carthage, but his design was prevented by the citizens of Constantinople. Thus driven to bay, the emperor formed the desperate resolve of attacking his enemy in his own country. 192 Mediceval History. A. D. 622. Landing of the Romans in the Gulf of Issus. Defeat of Shahr-Barz. 623. Heraclius sailed to Lazica, and invaded Armenia. Chosroes re- treated, and the Romans wintered in Albania. 625. Battle of the Sarus. Defeat of Shahr-barz. Chosroes al- lied himself with the Avars, and placed two armies in the field: one against Heraclius in Asia Minor, one destined for a direct attack on Constantinople. The latter attempt failed, Constantinople held out, although attacked also by hosts of Bulgarians and other barbarians from the west. Winter campaign of Heraclius. 627. Dec. 12. Battle of Nineveh. Defeat of the Persians. Flight of Chosroes. Heraclius advanced to Ctesiphon, but returned without assaulting the city. Mutiny of the Persian troops at Ctesiphon under two of the king's sons. Seizure and murder of Chosroes. He was succeeded by his son, 628-629 (?). Kobad II. (Siroes), who concluded peace with Rome on a basis of exchange of conquests and captives. Death of Kobad (of the plague ?). Usur- pation of Shahr-barz, who before two months were over was mur- dered by his own troops. Reigns of Purandocht and Azermi- docht, daughters of Chosroes II., followed by a period of anarchy, during which nine or ten nobles held the throne successively. 632-641 (651). Isdigerd, grandson of Chosroes II., last Sassanid king of Persia. His whole reign was a struggle against the growing power of the Caliphs Abu-Bekr and Omar (p. 182). 633. Expedition of Kaled (the " sword of God ") to Hira. Defeat of the Persians. The whole region west of the Euphrates fell into the hands of the Arabs, who, however, sufPered a temporary check by the loss of the " Battle of the Bridge." Their ravages were .soon renewed, and extended throughout Mesopotamia. Great exertions of the Persians. Levy of an army of 120,000 men, which was defeated in the four days' 636. Battle of Cadesia, by Sa'ad Ibu Abi "Wakas. Loss of the Burufsh-kawani, or royal standard of Persia. 637. Invasion of Mesopotamia by Sa'ad. Capture of Ctesiphon. Defeat of the Persians in the battle of Jalula. 639. Invasion of Susiana and Persia proper by the Arabs. Capture of Hormuzan, a Persian general, who, being brought before Omar, asked for a cup of water, which he hesitated to taste until as- sured by the Caliph that he should not be harmed until he had drunk the water, whereupon he dashed the water on the ground before the astonished Caliph, who respected his promise and spared the Persian's life. The recall of Sa'ad emboldened Isdigerd to make a final effort. Collection of an army of 150,000 men, which was totally defeated in the A. D. Italy and Germany. 193 641. Battle of Nehavend ("victory of victories"). Fall of the Sassanid power. Persia henceforward governed by the caliphs. Isdigerd III. lived for ten years a fugitive, and was at last murdered (651). SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CRUSADES (843-1096). § 1. ITALY AND GERMANY. {See p. 187.) 843-875. Carolingians in Italy. After the death of two sons of Lothar I., Ludwig the German and Charles the Bald divided Lothar's inheritance by the treaty of Mersen on the Meuse (870). The German portion (Friesland, Lotha- ringia or Lothringen (Lorraine), so called after Lothar II.) was an- nexed to the kingdom of the East Franks, the Romance portion {Burgundy, Provence) to the kingdom of the West Franks. Boun- dary, the Meuse. After the death of Ludwig II., who was the eldest son of Lothar I. (875), Charles the Bald became Emperor (f 877). 843-911. Carolingians in Germany. 843-876. Ludwig the German. Wars with the Slavs, with Charles the Bald, and especially with the Northmen, i. e. the Scandinavian sea warriors (Vikings), by whose ferocious energy the west of Europe was during this epoch harassed almost beyond belief. In 845 simultaneous attack by the Northmen upon all three of the Frankish kingdoms. Ludwig the German's son, 876-887. Charles the Fat, at first in conjunction with his brothers, Karlmann (f 880) and Ludwig (f 882). Successful resistance to the claims of Charles the Bald on the Rhine (battle of Andernach, 876) and Italy. Charles the Fat became Emperor in 881, and in 884 was elected king of the West Franks. He united once more under one sceptre the Mon- archy of Charles the Great, with the exception of cisjurane Burgundy (Dauphine, Provence, part of Languedoc), which became a separate kingdom under Boso. Charles the Fat was deposed by East and West Franks on account of his cowardice (siege of Paris by the Northmen), abdicated the throne at Tribur (887), and died almost immediately thereafter. The East Franks elected 887-899. Arnulf of Carinthia, grandson of Ludwig the German, illegitimate son of Karlmann. He defeated the Northmen upon the Dyle (at Lowen, 891), and in alliance with the Magyars, a nomadic Finnish tribe, which had gradually made its way from the Ural region towards Europe, and under guidance of 13 194 MedicBval History. A. d. Arpad had invaded Hungary, conquered Svatopluk II. (893), the founder of the kingdom of Moravia. Arnulf went twice to Italy, and was crowned Emperor (896). His son, 899-911. Ludwig the Child (six years old), was completely under the influence of Hatto, archbishop of Mainz. Terrible devastation of Germany by the Magyars. In 908 they traversed Bavaria, Franconia, and penetrated into Thuringia and Saxony. Lewis, defeated in the neighborhood of the Lech (910), was obliged to pay them tribute. Internecine feuds in Franconia : Adalbert of Babenherg against Rudolf, bishop of Wiirzburg, of the family of Conrad of Hesse. Victory of the Conradines. Adalbert executed in front of his castle. Weakness of the young king. The monarchy seemed about to break up into duchies : Saxony, Fran- conia, Bavaria, Swabia, Lotharingia. After Ludwig's death the aged Otto the Illustrious^ duke of Saxony, refused the crown, and se- cured the election of 911-918. Conrad I. of Franconia, by the nobles. Invasions of Danes, Slavs, and Magyars. Conrad was constantly at war with the West Franks and with his own subjects in a vain endeavor to obtam recognition of his sover- eignty, especially from Henry, son of Otto the Illustrious and duke of Saxony, since 912. Lotharingia, with the exception of Alsace, became a part of the kingdom of the West Franks. 919-1024. Kings and Emperors of the Saxon house. In obedience to the wish of Conrad, expressed on his death- bed, and seconded by his brother, Eherhard, the Saxons and Franks elected at Fritzlar on the Eder 919-936. Henry I. the Fowler, founder of the German monarchy. Henry compelled BurTchard, duke of Alamannia (Swabia), and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria, to acknowledge his supremacy. 924. The Magyars (Hungarians) made a new inroad. Henry con- cluded a nine years' truce with them, and secured immunity for Saxony and Thuringia by payment of tribute. 925. Henry regained Lotharingia. Enlargement and better fortification of old fortresses (Merse- hurg) and construction of new ones (Quedlinburg, Goslar), which at a later period became cities. There was no wide-spread founding of cities by Henry himself, but in his reign the Saxons were gradually accustomed to city life and to cavalry service in war. Successful wars with the Wends, against whom a great mark was established along the middle Elbe, out of which at a later time (after the retirement of margrave (Markgraf) Gero, 963) were formed the Altmark or. Northmark, Meissen, and the Ostmark (later Mark Law- sitz), lying between the two. Victory at Lenzen (929). Wars with the Bohemians (recognition of the duty of feudal service), and with the Danes {Gorm the Old). Creation of a mark between the Eid&f and Sley (931), afterwards called Mark Schleswig. A. D. Italy and Germany. 195 Henry refused to pay the promised tribute to the Magyars, who thereupon made a new inroad. 933. Victory of Henry over the Hungarians (on the Un- strut?).^ Henry died in 936. He was succeeded by his eldest son by Mathildej 936-973. Otto I., the Great, who was elected by Saxons and Franks, and crowned at Aachen by the archbishop of Mainz. Homage of the princes of all the German races (Stdmme). First appearance of the four court offices : duke of Lqtharingia, Chamberlain • duke of Franconia, Stew- ard ; duke of Swabia, Cup-bearer ; duke of Bavaria, Marshal. Countless swarms of Hungarians crossed Franconia (937), to in- vade Saxony. Defeated and pursued by Otto, they took a western direction, and ravaged France as far as the Loire. Otto defeated the rebellious duke of Bavaria, and drove him from his duchy, and subdued a revolt of Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and his own half-brother, Thankmar, who fell in the battle on the Eres- burg (938). Henry, Otto's younger brother, rebelled, and was de- feated by Otto along with his ally Giselbert, duke of Lotharingia, at Birthen^ on the Rhine ; the rebels, with whom Eberhard made com- mon cause, called in the assistance of the French. Eberhard fell at Andernach, Giselbert was drowned on his flight, Henry fled to France (939). A murderous assault which Henry made upon his brother after he had received forgiveness failed ; Henry threw him- self upon the king's mercy, received forgiveness a second time (941), and became henceforward, with his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne (since 953), the king's chief reliance. Otto gave Lotha- ringia in 944 to Conrad the Red, the ancestor of the Franco-Salic royal house, who four years afterwards became his son-in-law. Otto made his brother Henry duke of Bavaria (947). Wars with the Wends, conducted by margrave Gero; with the Danes, under Otto himself, who advanced to Jutland (Mark Schleswig given to Hermann Billung) ; with Boleslav, duke of Bohemia (960), who became a vassal of the empire ; and with the Hungarians, princi- pally under the command of Henry. 948. Otto appointed his son Liudolf (by Editha) duke of Swabia. 946-950. Otto interfered in the French wars. He protected King Louis IV. against Hugo, count of France, both of whom were his brothers-in-law. 951. First expedition of Otto's to Italy against Berengar II. of Ivrea. Otto released and married Adelheid, the widow of King Lothar (of the house of Burgundy), and then nineteen years of age. Berengar submitted to Otto as his suzerain (952). 953. Liudolf, Otto's son, and Conrad, duke of Lotharingia, Otto's son- in-law, rebelled against the king. 954. New inroad of the Hungarians, who swept through Germany, ravaging as they went, to France ; the rebels were in alliance 1 Probably not at Merseburg.' See V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. der Deutschen Kaiserzeit, 1.4, 232. 196 Mediaeval History. A. d. with them. After a severe struggle and several fruitless at- tempts at reconciliation, Liudolf and Conrad submitted. They were forgiven, but deprived of their ducliies. Archbishop Bruno received Lotharingia; duke Burkhard, Svjabia. Bavaria^ still in revolt, was subjugated by Otto and his brother Henry. New inroad of the Hungarians. 955. Victory over the Hungarians on the Lechfeld Aug. 10. (Augsburg). Conrad fell in the battle. The Bavarian Ostmark, which was afterwards transformed into the duchy of Austria (Oesterreich), reestablished. Victorious expedition against the Wends, whom Otto defeated on the Rehenitz. 957. Liudolf died in arms against Berengar, who was in rebellion. 981. Second expedition of Otto's to Italy, Pope John XII. having im- plored his assistance against Berengar. Otto hastened to Rome, where he 962. Renewed the imperial office. Holy Roman Em- Feb. pire of the German Nation. While Otto was engaged in the war with Berengar in Lom- bardy, John XII. endeavored to free himself from the impe- 963. rial protection and allied himself with Otto's foes. The em- Nov. peror advanced upon Rome and captured the city ; John fled. The Romans were obliged to promise never to elect another Pope without the consent of the emperor. John was deposed by a synod m Rome, and Leo VIII. elected Pope. 964. A revolt of the Romans quickly suppressed. While Otto Jan. was again absent in northern Italy, where Berengar had, meantime, been obliged to surrender (he died as prisoner in Bamberg), Leo was expelled by the Romans, and John returned, but soon died in consequence of liis dissipation. The Ro- mans choose Benedict Pope. Otto captured Rome the second time, deposed Benedict, and reinstated Leo. 966-967. Third expedition to Italy. Otto's son. Otto II., already crowned as German king, received the imperial crown at Rome. Otto I. died at Memlehen^ near Merseburg. His sepulchre is in the cathedral of the bishopric of Magdeburg, which he had created. 973-983. Otto II., highly gifted, but passionate, husband of the Grecian princess Theophano. 976. Otto's cousin, Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, insti- gated a conspiracy against the emperor, was conquered and deposed. Bavaria given to Otto of Swabia, son of Liudolf. Carinthia separated from Bavaria and made a duchy. Luit- pold of Babenberg received the (Bavarian) Eastmark. 978. Otto surprised by LotJiar, king of France, escaped with diffi- culty, reconquered Lotharingia, invaded France, and besieged Paris, but without success. 980-983. Wars in Italy. The emperor crossed the Alps, to Rome, 981. advanced into southern Italy, defeated the Greeks and Sara- A. D. Italy and Germany, 197 982. cens at Colonne, south of Cotrone, but was afterwards defeated by them further south on the Calahrian coast ^ where his army . was annihilated. 983. Victorious advance of the Danes and Wends ; destruction of the bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg. Otto II. died in Rome. 983-1002. Otto III., three years old. Henry the Quarrelsome's claim to the guardianship, and to the crown itself, was denied, but Bavaria, without Carinthia, was returned to him. Otto's mother, the Grecian Theophano, conducted the regency in Germany, his grandmother, Adelheid, in Italy ; after the death of Theophano (991), Adelheid and Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, conducted the government until the young prince took the reins in 995. From his great intel- lectual endowments known as the " Wonder of the World," he was dreamy and unpractical. Three Roman expeditions. 996. On the first expedition Otto was crowned by Gregory V. 998-999. On the second his teacher Gerhert was elected pope as Sylvester II. Attempt of Crescentius to throw off the German yoke and restore the ancient republic. He was defeated and executed. It was Otto's design to make " golden Rome " the imperial residence and centre of a new universal empire. 1000. Journey through Germany, pilgrimage to the grave of St. Adalbert, foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen. A wide- spread belief that this year would bring the end of the world and the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven led thousands of people to undertake a pilgrimage to Rome. 1001. During his third visit to Italy, revolt of the Romans. Otto died in the castle of Paterno at the foot of Soracte. 1002-1024. Henry II. (the Saint), son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, great-grandson of Henry I., was elected ki»g at Mainz, after his rival, Eckard, margrave of Meissen, had been murdered. Henry II. enforced the acknowl- edgment of his sovereignty, particularly from Hermann, duke of Swabia. 1004. First expedition to Italy against Ardoin of Ivrea ; Henry crowned king of Italy in Pavia. 1004^1018. Wars with Boleslav, king of Poland, who was compelled to give up Bohemia, but retained Lusatia. Foundation of the bishopric of Bamberg (1007). Increase in the power of the church. Reform of the monasteries. Energetic en- forcement of the public peace. 1014. Second expedition to Italy. Henry crowned emperor in Rome. Ardoin gives up his resistance (djed in a monastery, 1015). 1016-1018. Henry went to war to secure his inheritance in Bur- 1 The battlefield is unknown ; it was not at Basentello. See V. Giesebecht, Gesck. d. deutschen Kaistrzeit, lA 597. 198 MedicBval History. A. D. gundy, which had been resigned in his favor by the last king of Burgundy,! i^M^ZoZ////. (1016). 1022. On the third expedition to Italy, Henry fought with the Gre- cians in lower Italy, with the assistance of the Normans who had settled there in 1015. Henry died July 15, 1024. 1024-1125. Franconian or Salian Emperors. Election held at Oppenheim between Mainz and Worms, — the first election in which princes of all the tribes had partici- pated. After hesitating a short time between the two Conrads, cousins, the princes chose the elder, the son of the Frankish count Henry, eldest son of Otto of Carinthia, over the younger, the son of Conrad, younger son of Otto of Carinthia. 1024-1039. Conrad II. (the Salian). 1025-1030. Revolt of the Babenberger, Ernst, duke of Swabia, step- son of Conrad, son of his wife Gisela, resulting from the con- flicting claims of the emperor and of Ernst as the personal heir of Henry II., upon Burgundy (Aries). Ernst fell in bat- tle in 1030. 1026. Expedition to Italy. Conrad crowned king of Italy in Milan, but obliged to bring Pavia and Ravenna to submission by force of arms. Crowned emperor, 1027, in the presence of Cnut the Greatf king of England and Denmark, and Rudolf III. of Burgundy (Aries). The Eider made the boundary between Germany and Denmark, Schleswig, therefore, was abandoned to the Danes. Invasion of Germany by the Poles under Mieczeslav II., where they ravaged the country to the Saale, and carried 10,000 prisoners to Poland. Conrad hastened from the Rhine, and provided defences against a new inroad, but attacked the Hungarians, though without success (1030). In 1031 Conrad attacked the Poles, forced them to surrender their prisoners, and restored Lusatia to the empire. Miec- zeslav became the Emperor's vassal (1032). After the death of Rudolf III. (1032), Burgundy, that is, the kingdom of Aries, which was formed in 933, by the union of cisjur- ane and transjurane Burgundy (p. 193), was, in three campaigns, wrested from the hands of Odo, Count of Champagne, who claimed it as heir of Henry II. and united with the empire. At a later time, however, the Romance portions of Burgundy, the lands along the Rhone, Saone, here, and Durance, fell to France ; the Alamannian por- tions (Franche Comte, Switzerland) remained a part of the empire. In Italy the small fiefs were made legally hereditary, and this became the common custom in Germany. To counterbalance this tendency Conrad seems to have designed doing away with ducal offices, and making the royal supremacy immediate and hereditary throughout all German lands. 1036. On his return from a second expedition to Italy, Conrad 1039. died at Utrecht. His son had been crowned at Aachen in June 4th liis boyhood, and now succeeded to the throne as 1 Otherwise known as the kingdom of Aries. — Trans. A.. D. Italy and Germany, 199 1039-1056. Henry III. (caUed " the Black "). The imperial power at its highest point. King Hein-y was for a time, also, duke of Bavaria, Swahia, and Franconia. The ducal throne in Carinthia was long vacant. 1042-1044. In Hungary the king, Peter, whom Henry had rein- stated at the expense of three campaigns, became a vassal of the empire. Extension of the Bavarian Eastmark to the Leitha. Tedious wars with the unruly Godfrey the Bearded, duke of upper Lotharingia, which was at last (1049) given to the Alsacian count Gerhard, the ancestor of the house of Lorraine.^ Godfrey went to Italy (1054), where he married Beatrix of Tuscany. Henry favored the attempt to introduce the Treuga Dei (p. 203). Proclamation of a general king's peace in the empire. 1046-1047. First expedition to Rome. Henry caused a synod to depose the three rival Popes (^Sylvester III., Benedict IX., Gregory VI.), each of whom was accused of simony, and appointed a German, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, Pope, as Clement II., who crowned him emperor (Christmas, 1046). After Clement, Henry appointed tliree German Popes in succession. He invested Drogo, son of the Norman Tancred of Hauteville, with Apulia. 1055. Second Roman expedition. Henry died at Gozlar, Oct. 28, 1056. He was succeeded by his son, 1056-1106. Henry IV., six years old, who had been crowned king at the age of four. Spoiled in his youth, he grew to manhood passionate but weak. His mother, Agnes of Poitou, the regent, gave Bavaria to the Saxon count Otto of Nor d- heim, Carinthia to Berthold of Zdhringen, Swabia to her son-in-law, Rudolf of Rheinfeld. Abduction of the young king from Kaiserswert to Cologne (1062) by Archbishop Anno, who was soon obliged to share the administration of the empire with Adalbert, the ambitious arch- bishop of Bremen (1065). Conspiracy of the princes against Adal- bert of Bremen. Imperial Diet at Trihur (1066). Adalbert banished from court for three years (f 1072). Otto of Nordheim deposed from the dukedom of Bavaria, wliich was given to his son-in-law, Welf, son of the margrave Azzo of Este. (The house of Welf was extinct in the male line.) Magnus, duke of Saxony, kept in confinement. Revolt of 'the Saxons, whom Henry had displeased by the erection of numerous fortresses in their land. Flight of Henry from the Harzburg (1073), humiliating peace, de- struction of the Harzburg. Henry defeated the Saxons on the Unstrut (1075). Contest with Pope 1073-1085. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), descended from a family having a small estate in southern Tuscany. He was educated at the monastery of Cluny. He had, as 1 In possession of Lorraine down to 1737. See Modern History, Second Period, § 3. 200 MedicBval History, A. D. cardinal-subdeacon, afterwards as archdeacon and chancellor, con- ducted the temporal affairs of the papacy under ^ye Popes. Strict enforcement of the celibacy of the clergy, war against simony (Acts viii. 18), and lay investitures, whereby is meant the investi- ture of clergy with the secular estates and rights of their spiritual benefices by the temporal power, by means of the ring and staff. Gregory in alliance with Robert Guiscard, duke of the Normans, and with the dissatisfied princes in Germany. Henry excommuni- cated (1076) ; suspended from his royal office by the Diet at Tribur (Oct. 1076), and the ultimate decision referred to a Diet to be held at Augsbui'g in February, 1077. A few days before Christmas Henry left Speier in secret with his wife, son, and one attendant; crossing the Alps under great hardship, 1077. Henry humbled himself before the Pope at Ca- Jan. 25-28. nossa, a castle belonging to the Pope's firm friend, the powerful Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany. After three days' delay, passed by Henry in the garb of a penitent in the snow-covered castle court, Gregory admitted him to his presence, and gave him a conditional absolution. Fortune turned in Henry's favor. Rudolf of Swabia, whom the malcontents in Germany had elected king (March, 1077) at Forch- heim, was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle on the Elster (1080). Swabia given to Frederic of Hohenstaufen, Henry's son-in- law (1079). Henry, a second time excommunicated (1080), went to Italy, cap- tured Rome, and was crowned by Clement III., a Pope of his own creation. Gregory VII., besieged in the castle of St. Angelo, was re- leased by the Norman, Robert Guiscard, and died (1085) at Salerno. (Dilexi justitiam et odi iniquitatem, propterea morior in exilio). The influence of Gregory VII. had been felt in all parts of the Christian world. It was under liis auspices, some have claimed at his suggestion, that William of Normandy undertook the conquest of England. Henry was involved in a contest with a new king set up by the Sax- ons, Hermann of Salm, son of the count of Luxemburg. Hermann, however, abdicated in 1088, and died the same year. Submission of the Saxons upon receiving assurance that their ancient privileges should be respected. The church was still hostile. Marriage of Matilda of Tuscany with Welf v., son of duke Welf of Bavaria. 1090-1097. Third expedition to Italy. Henry captured Mantua after a siege of eleven months, but was in general unsuccess- ful. Revolt of his son Conrad (1092). Henry returned to Germany in 1097, in which year the bands of the first cru- saders, under Walter of Perejo and Peter the Hermit, crossed Germany. War with Conrad (died 1101), and afterwards with Henry's other son, Henry, who imprisoned his father. Flight of the emperor to Luttich, where he died Aug. 7, 1106. H© was succeeded by his younger son, A. D. France. 201 1106-1125. Henry V. The king went to Rome, took Pope Paschal II. prisoner, and forced him to perform the coronation and acknowledge the imperial right of investiture (1111). As soon as the emperor had left Italy the Lateran Council declared the concessions invalid as having been extorted by force, and a second council at Viemia excommunicated Henry. Wars with German princes who were in revolt, especially with Lothar of Saxony, and the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne. Vic- tory of the Saxons at Welfesholze, near Mansfeld (1115). The war of the investiture was ended, after a long contest with Calixtus //., by the 1122. Concordat of Worms. Election of bishops and abbots in Germany to take place in the presence of the emperor or his representatives ; investiture by the emperor must precede consecration, but was to be conferred not with the ring and staff, but with the sceptre. In Italy and Burgundy in- vestiture was to follow canonical election and consecration. Ecclesi- astics holding secular benefices were bound to perform the feudal duties. {Seep. 218.) § 2. FRANCE. {Seep. 187.) 843-987. Carolingian kings of the Franks, 843-877. Charles the Bald. His rule was limited to the neighborhood of Laon; Brittany and Septimania were independent ; his supremacy in Aquitania was but nominal. Ravages of the Northmen incessant, daring, terrible. Sack of Saintes, Limoges, Bordeaux, Tours, Rouen, Orleans, Toulouse, Ba- yeux, Evreux, Nantes. Some quarters of Paris, even, were ravaged. Lotharingia divided between France and Germany by the treaty of Meersen (870). OurthCf Meuse, Jura, the boundary between Germany and France. Charles wasted his energy striving for the imperial crown. Fiefs proclaimed hereditary at the diet of Chiersi (877). Charles died on Mont Cenis, returning from an unsuccessful expedition to Italy. Rise of scholasticism. Joannes Scotus Erigena. Hincmar of Bheims. Charles was succeeded by his son, 877-879. Ludwig the Stammerer (Louis II., le Begue). 879-882. Ludwig III. (Louis III.) in the north of France. 879-884. Karlmann in Aquitaine, and over the whole kingdom after 882. The ravages of the Northmen increased in frequency and dura- tion in spite of Ludwig's victory at Saucourt in 881 (Ludwig- slied). Revolt of Boso, duke of cisjurane Burgundy (879). The heir of Ludwig II., Charles, being but five years old, the nobles chose 884-887. Charles the Fat of Germany, king, thus uniting the whole empire once more in one hand. Siege of Paris by the Northmen under Rollo {Hrolf) in 885. Heroic defence by Eudes (Odo), count of Paris. Charles, consent^ ing to buy the retreat of the Northmen, was deposed in 887. (Died in 888 in Germany.) 202 Mediceval History. A. D. The empire of Charles reduced to six clearly distinct states : Italy, Germany, Lorraine, Provence, Transjurane Burgundy (formed by the union of western Switzerland and Franche Comte, under Rudolf I., nephew of Eudes), France. In France the nobles passed over the infant Charles, and elected 888-898. Eudes, count of Paris, son of Eobert the Strong. The opposition party among the nobles advocated the claims of 893-923. Charles III., the Simple, who was not generally acknowl-^ edged until after the death of Eudes. In his reign the 911 (?). Northmen gained a permanent foothold on the Seine (Normandy), under Rolf (Hollo), the first duke of Nor- mandy, with feudal sovereignty over Brittany. Treaty of St. Claire sur Epte, near Ghisors. Baptism of Rollo under the name of Robert. Revolts against Charles. Robert, duke of France, brother of Eudes, proclaimed king, but slain in the battle of Soissons (923). His place was filled by his son-in-law, Rudolf of Burgundy. Charles treacher- ously seized by Herbert of Vermandois and imprisoned (died in 929). His wife, Eadgyfu (Edwina), fled to her brother jEthelstane, king of England, with her three-year-old son Ludwig IV., hence called d' Outre Mer (Beyond Seas). Rudolf dying in 936 without issue, the nobles, Hugh the White, duke of France (f 956), Herbert of Vermandois, and William Longsword of Normandy, recalled 936-954. Lud-wig from Beyond Seas (Louis IV., d' Outremer), in whose reign the country was torn with civil war between the king, Hugh the White, or Great, and Otto, king of Germany (east Franks). Ludwig was succeeded by his son, 954-986. Lothar, who was under the influence of Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Great. An unsuccessful attempt to acquire Lorraine brought on an invasion of France by Otto II. of Germany. Lothar was succeeded by his son, 986-r987. Lud-wig V. (le Faineant), who, after a short and stormy reign, died suddenly (987), without issue. The direct line of Charles the Great was extinct. The only man who had a claim to the succession was the uncle of Ludwig, Charles, duke of Lorraine, a vassal of the emperor. 987-1328. Capetian dynasty, direct line. 987-996. Hugh Capet was chosen king, but was powerless to resist the great feudal nobles, each of whom surpassed the king in military power and ex- tent of territory (dukes of Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Aquitaine; counts of Flanders, Champagne, Vermandois). The royal domain reached from the Somme to the Loire, with Normandy and Anjou on the west and Champagne on the east. Paris in the centre was the capital of the new French monarchy, as Laon had been the capital of the old German kingdom. Capture of Charles the Carolingian. Gerbert, archbishop of Rheims, afterwards Pope Sylvester II. Un- der Hugh's son, A. D. England^ 203 996-1031. Robert, the royal power was wasted to a shadow. The king, pious, weak, and absurd, was involved in domestic trouble and in constant wars with the nobles. Rising of the serfs (997). Famine (1030-1032). The Vexin on the Seine given to Normandy. Robert's son, 1031-1060. Henry I., retained scarcely a trace of power, beyond the nomination of the bishops. Introduction of the "Truce of God" {Treuga Dei) by the clergy (at first [1041] in Guienne), whereby a cessation of all feuds was en- joined by the church during church festivals and from Wednesday evening to Monday morning in every loeek (only 80 days in a year avail- able for warfare). The crown having now become hereditary, Henry was succeeded quietly by his son, 1060-1108. Philip I., whose long reign, distinguished by no deeds of his own, is re- markable for two important events : the conquest of England by the Normans (1066), and the first crusade (1096). (See p. SS6.) § 3. ENGLAND. (Seep. 181.) 828-1066. England under the West Saxon kings. 828-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex (p. 180), ruler of Sussex, Kent, Essex, overlord of Mercia, East Anglia, Northumhria, Wales j and Strathclyde. Ravages of the Northmen. Pouring in swarms from the northern kingdoms of Denmark and Scandinavia, these pirates, the vikings, harassed England and the continent almost beyond belief. The Eng- lish called the Northmen " Danes," although not all their assailants came from that kingdom. The Northmen were still heathens. The epoch of their invasions falls into three divisions : I. (789-866) Period of invasion and ravage without settlement. II. (866-1003) Period of settlement and conquest in various parts of the country. III. (1003-1066) Period of political conquest. The first recorded attack was in 789 (p. 189). In 834 Sheppey was ravaged. Defeat of the Danes at Hengestesdun (836). Ecgberht was succeeded by his son -asthelwulf (837-858). In 851 the Danes took London and Canterbury ; in 855 they wintered for the first time in Sheppey. ^thelwulf married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, king of the West Franks. He was succeeded by his son .ffithelbald (858-860), who married his father's widow. On his death Judith returned to the continent and married Baldwin, after- wards count of Flanders. From this union descended Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, ^thelbald was succeeded by liis brother iEtiielberht (860-866), who was followed by his brother, 866-871. iEthelred I. Settlement of the Danes in Northumbria (romance of Ragnar Lodbrog). The Danes in East Anglia (866), in Mercia (868). 870. East Anglia conquered and settled by the Danes. Martyrdom of St. Edmund, king of the East Angles. 204 Mediceval History. A. D. Sack of Peterborough and Croyland. Danes in Wessex (871). Nine battles were fought with the invaders this year. At jEscesdun the Danes were defeated by jEthelred and Alfred his brother. 871-901. -Alfred the Great. In the earlier years of his reign Wessex was at peace, but the other parts of England still suffered from Danish inroads. In 876 Danes settled in Northumbria, and Guthorm, Danish king in East Anglia, entered Wessex. In 877 lands in Mercia were divided among the Danes. 878. The Danes ravaged Wessex. Alfred took refuge in the forest. Erection of the fortress of Athelney. Defeat of the Danes at Ethandun. Treaty of "Wedmore, between Alfred and Guthorm. The Danes left Wessex, but East Anglia and a part of Mercia were given up to them. London, how- ever, was retained by Alfred. The country of the Danes, Danelaghf as it came to be called, now embraced the larger part of England. 880-893. Peace in Wessex. Alfred was a skilful warrior but no lover of war. His genius was for civil government. Revision of the laws; separation of the judicial from the executive department. Trial by jury was not intro- duced by -Alfred; that institution was of Norman origin, a develop- ment of principles of old Frankish law. Creation of a fleet (882). Submission of several Welsh provinces. Encouragement of learning. Bseda's Ecclesiastical History, Orosius' History, and Boethius' Consola- tion of Philosophy, translated into Anglo-Saxon by -Alfred. Voyages of Othhere and Wulfhere along the northern shores of Europe under- taken at Alfred's request. Asser. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle probably put into shape in this reign. The Danish war broke out again in 893 with an invasion of Kent. Defeat of the Danes at Buttington. In 901 Alfred died. He left five children : two sons, Eadward and JEthelweard, and three daughters, .ffithelflsed the " Lady of the Mercians," wife of jEthelred, ealdorman of West Saxon Mercia, jEthelgifu, abbess of Shaftesbury,. JElfthryth, wife of Baldwin II., count of Flanders, son of Baldwin and Judith (p. 203). From this union descended Matilda, wife of Wil- liam the Conqueror. 901-925. Eadward the Elder. Erection of fortresses along the Mercian frontier by Eadward and uEthelflced. Conquest of the Five Boroughs (Derby, Lincoln, Leices- ter, Stamford, Nottingham^ by ^thelflsed. Annexation of Mercia to Wessex. Conquest of East Anglia and Essex. Submission of Strath- clyde and all the Scots (924). Eadward lord of all Britain. Wes- sex, Kent, Sussex, he ruled by inheritance; Mercia, Essex, East Anglia, by conquest f^^om the Danes; Northumberland, Wales, Scotland, Strath- clydti, as cA^erlord. Eadward died in 925, and was succeeded by his son 925-940. ^thelstan. League of Scots, Welsh, and Danes crushed in 926. Again A. D. England. 205 renewed, it was again broken up by the defeat of tbe allies in the 937. Battle of Brunanburh. ^thelstan was succeeded by his brother Eadmund (940- 946). Revolt of Danes and Scots. Reconquest of the Five Boroughs and the Danelagh. Cumberland given as a fief to Malcolm, king of Scots. Dunstan appointed abbot of Glastonbury. Murder of Ead- mund, who was succeeded by his brother Eadred (946-955). A revolt of the Danes was crushed in 954 ; final submission of the Danelagh. Bad wig (955-959), nephew of Eadred, quarrelled with Dunstan, and drove him from the country. He was succeeded by his brother, 959-975. Eadgar, the under king of Mercia. Dunstan, recalled in 958, arch- bishop of Canterbury 959, was the true ruler. The royal power stood high. Revision of the laws. Secular priests were out of favor, and monks were installed in many of the wealthiest churches. Mainte- nance of a large fleet. Eadgar was followed by his son Eadward (the martyr), murdered 978. 978-1016. -Slthelred II., the Unready,^ son of Eadgar, in whose reign the political conquest of England was under- taken by the Danish sovereigns (p. 203). Danish invasions began, after a long interval, in 980. Death of Dunstan, 988. Battle of Maldon against the Danes (991), when Brihtnoth, ealdorman of the East Saxons, fell. - (Song of Brihtnoth's Death.) In this year (991) the plan of buying off the Danes was adopted, 10,000 pounds being paid, which were raised by a special tax {Danegeld). In 994 Anlaf {Olaf Tryggvesson) and Sioegen (^Svend with the Forked Beard) rav- aged Kent, and were paid 16,000 pounds. Ravages of the Northmen in 997, 998, 999, 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1015. 1002. 24,000 pounds paid to the Northmen. Massacre of all (?) Danes in England, upon one day (Nov. 13, Danish Vespers) by order of JEthelred. Swegen resolves on the conquest of Eng- land. Marriage of JEthelred and Emma, daughter of Richard I., duke of Normandy. In 1007, 36,000 pounds, in 1012, 48,000 pounds, were paid to the Northmen. Death of Swegen (1014) . Election of his son Cnut (Canute) to succeed him. The Danes had now recov- ered all that part of England which they had acquired by the treaty of Wedmore (p. 204) in 878. Upon the death of JEthelred the Danish party in England chose Cnut king, but the English party, wliich centred in London, chose Eadmund Ironside (1016), son of JEthel- red. He made a brave stand, and many battles were fought this year. After the defeat of Eadmund at Assandun peace was con- cluded. Eadmund received Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and Lon- don ; Cnut received Northumberland and Mercia. The nominal over- lordship of England remained with Eadmund. After the death of Eadmund (1016) Cnut became king of England. 1 Such is his conventional title; probably "Despiser of Counsel" would bet- ter convey the meaning of ^^ Kedeless." 206 MedicBval History. A. d. 1016-1042. Danish supremacy over England. 1016-1035. Cnut. England divided into four governments : Wessex, under Cnut; Mercia, East Anglia, Northumberland, under Jarls or Earls. Huscarls, Cnut's personal following. Cnut in Rome (1027). Laws of Cnut (1028). Subjugation of Ma/co/m, king of Scots (1031). Cnut was succeeded by his sons Harold (1035-1040) and Harthacnut (1040-1042). Godwine, earl of Wessex ; Leofric, earl of Mercia ; Siward, earl of Northumberland. On Harthacnufs death the son of ^thelred, 1042-1066. Eadward, the Confessor, was elected king. He had been educated at the Norman court, and during his reign Norman influence was supreme at the court of England. The country was in the hands of the great earls Godwine^ Leofric, Siward. In 1051, Godwine, father-in-law of the king, was ex- iled. Recalled in 1052 he brought about a general banishment of the French. Upon the death of Godwine his power passed to his son Harold (1053). In 1055 Harold's brother Tostig succeeded Siward as earl of Northumberland. In 1057 Harold's brother Gyrth was made earl in Norfolk and Suffolk, and another brother of Harold, Leo/wine, earl of Kent and Essex. Subjugation of Wales by Harold (1063). Revolt of Northumberland (1065). Deposition of jTos^ and election of Morkere, grandson of Leofric of Mercia, and brother of Edwin, then earl of Mercia. On the death of Eadward, 1066. Harold, earl of Wessex, was elected king. A claim to the succession was immediately advanced by Wil- liam, duke of Normandy, upon three grounds. 1. The alleged be- quest of Eadward the Confessor. 2. An oath taken by Harold upon occasion of his having been shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy about 1064, in virtue of which he had become William's vassal, and had promised to marry his daughter and secure him the succession after the death of Eadward. 3. The right of his wife, Matilda (p. 204). The claim being rejected, TFzYZiam at once prepared to assert it by arms. Invasion of Yorkshire by Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of England. Sept. 25. Battle of Stamfordbridge. Defeat and death of the invaders. William had meantime landed at Pevensey. Harold hastened south, but was defeated in the Oct. 14. Battle of Hastings or Senlac, and fell on the field. Eadgar Mtheling^ grandson of Eadmund Iro7isides, was chosen king, but soon submitted, with all the chief men, to the victor. Election of Wil^ Ham. (See p. 229.) A. D. The North. 207 § 4. THE NORTH. {Beep. 168.) Denmark. Northern historians of the Middle Age refer the conquest of the North to the Asas under Odin (p. 168), who gave Denmark to his son. After him came Dan the Famous, who gave a name to the king- dom. Under Frode the Peaceful, who reigned at the beginning of our era, Denmark enjoyed a Golden Age. In the eighth century the famous battle of Bravalla was fought between Harold Hildetand, king of Denmark, and Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, and ended in favor of the Swedes. Thus far all is mythical. The true history of Denmark begins with Gorm the Old. It is clear, however, that the Danes had settled in two bands : one occupying the peninsula, Jutland, Schleswig, and Holstein; the other occupying the eastern islands Zealand, FiXnen, etc. Both divisions, between which there was scanty intercourse, were ruled by numerous petty chiefs (smaa-kongar), among the most famous of whom was the king and high-priest of Lejre in Zealand, who was at the head of a loose confederacy of the islands. When Jutes and Angles in the fifth century migrated to Britain (p. 176), Danes from the islands seem to have taken their place in the penmsula. Godfrey, king of Jutland, was embroiled with Charles the Great, and built a Dannevirk or line of fortresses across the peninsula. Under his successor. Hemming, the Eyder was made the boundary between Denmark and the Frankish empire. In 822 Christianity preached in Denmark by Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims. In 826 Ansgarius, " the Apostle of the North," labored in Denmark, but without lasting results. Gorm the Old (about 860-935), the first king of all Denmark, was a devout heathen, who persecuted the new faith until forced to refrain by Henry I. of Germany. Erection of the great Dannevirke between the Sley and the Eyder. Gorm ruled the peninsula, the islands, and Skaania and Bleking, the southern provinces of Sweden. Harold Blue-tooth (Blaatand), 935-985. War with Norway. Otto II. of Ger- many, in 975, forced Harold to consent to the introduction of Chris- tianity in his kingdom. Svend Forked Beard (Tveskjced), 985-1014. Successful revolt of the tributary Wends. Svend in England (p. 205), Knut the Great (1014-1035), king of Denmark and of England. He passed most of his time in England, which led to an attempt on the part of Ulf-Jarl to make Hardeknut king in Denmark. It failed, and Knut later had Ulf killed. In 1028 Knut was proclaimed king of Norway. Hardeknut (Hathacnut) (1035-1042) succeeded his father in Den- mark. His war with Magnus of Norway ended in an agreement whereby whoever should outlive the other should inherit his kuigdom. Under this treaty Magnus ruled Denmark, 1042-1047. He was suc- ceeded by Svend Estridsen, son of Ulf-Jarl and Estride, sister of Knvt (1047-1074). War for seventeen years with Harold Hardrada of Norway was brought to a close in 1064. War with the Wends. Svend raised Denmark to a position of power, which was lost under 208 MedicBval History. A. i? his five sons who followed him: Harold Heyn (1077-1080), St. Knut (1080-1086), Olaf Hunger (1086-1095), Erik EJegod (1095^ 1103), Niels (1106-1135). (See p. 235.) Sweden. {Seep. 209.) Sweden was the first of the Scandinavian kingdoms to attain power. According to tradition there were two races in the country besides the Finns, the Gota or Gauta ((jioths) and the Svea. The Svea traced their origin to the followers of Odin. Njord, son of Odin, was the first king of Sweden. His son, Frey Yngve, built the temple of Uppsala, and founded the line of the Ynglingar, which ruled the Svea until Ingjald Ill-raada so angered the petty kings by his cruelty that they revolted. The king burned himself and his family, and his son Olaf fled to Norway. Ivar Vidfadme, king of Skaania, which was independent before its conquest by Gorm of Denmark, succeeded Ing- jald. This was in the seventh century. In the eighth (?) century falls the mythical battle of Bravalla, where Sigurd Ring, king of Sweden, defeated Harold Hildetand of Den- mark. Sigurd's son, Ragnar Lodbrog, is even more famous in story than his father. (Tale of his capture by ^Ua of Northumberland, and of his death in a pit of serpents, which his sons avenged by the slaughter of ^lla. See p. 203, where the discrepancy in date is to be noted.) In the ninth century authentic history begins. Mission of Ansga- rius (829-865) to Sweden, where his preaching met with great suc- cess, Erik Emundsson, king of Sweden (died in 885 ?), made im- portant conquests in the East. At the same time bands of Swedes settled around Novgorod, subjugated the Slavs, and laid the foundation of the future empire of Russia (Varinjar, Russ.). Olaf the Lap-king (993-1024) was the first Christian king of Swe- den. War with St. Olaf of Norway. The last king of the Upsala line was Emund Gammle (the Old), who died about 1056. Stenkil (1056-1066). {See p. 237.) Norway. {See p. 209.) According to tradition Norway was first settled by Olaf Trmtelje of the Ynglingar line, who fled from Sweden after the death of his father Ingjald. The country was governed by numerous petty kings, and remained weak and distracted, like Sweden and Denmark, until, as in those countries, a process of consolidation set in in the ninth cen- tury. Halfdan the Black (841-863) reduced many of the petty kings to subjection, and his son, Harald Haarfager (863-932), completed the work of conquest and introduced the feudal system. Defeat of the Jarls at Hafurstfjord, 872. These changes, and the repression of free- booting which followed them, induced a great migration of the Jarls, the most famous of the vikings. Establishment of Northmen under Rolf Ganger (Rollo) in Normandy. Conquest of Dublin by Olauf in 852. Discovery and settlement of Iceland, 861-875, etc. Erik Blodiixe (930-934), Hakon (934-961), Harald Graafell, Hakon Jar] (988-995). Olaf Try ggvasson (996-1000). He disappeared at the A. D. Spanish Peninsula, 209 battle of Svold, where he was defeated by Olaf the Lap-king of Nor- way, Svend Tveskceg of Denmark, and Erik and Svend, sons of Hakon Jarl. The victors divided Norway between them. Discovery and settlement of Greenland by Erik the Red (983). Vinland (America) seen by Bjarne, and visited by Leif and others, 986-1011. See p. 281. Norway was again united under St. Olaf (II.) 1015-1030, in whose reign Christianity was introduced. Magnus the Good, son of Olaf (1035-1047), king of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. The Graagaas, or book of the law. Harald III,, Hardrada, founded Opslo (Chris- tiania), and fell at Stamford Bridge 1066 (p. 206). Magnus II. (1066- 1069), Olaf (1069-1093), Magnus III. Barfod (1095-1103). Con- quest of the Orkneys and Hebrides j of Dublin. Death of Magnus in Ireland. (See p. 2S5.) § 5. SPANISH PENINSULA. {See p. 183.) 755-1031. Caliphate of Cordova, founded by the last Ommiad, Abd-er-Rahman (p. 183). Most brilliant period of the Moorish civilization, in the ninth and tenth centuries. Abd-er-Ralmian III., Hakem II., Almanzor, his general. The populous city of Cordova, the seat of science and arts. 1031. Dissolution of the caliphate of Cordova into a number of small states. The Morabethes or Almoravides (Yussuf), sum- moned from Mauretania, successfully opposed the Christians (1086), but made themselves masters of Mohammedan Spain. Christian Kingdoms. Asturia (Oviedo), since the conquest of the country as far as the Duero by Alfonso III. in the tenth century, called the king- dom of Leon, after the new residence, Leon. Castile, so called from the castles erected against the Arabs, origi- nally a county of Asturia. Navarre, a border state in the Pyrenees : first a county under French supremacy, then independent. Sancho 1. assumed the title King of Navarre (905), and subjugated Aragon, originally a Frankish county north of Navarre. 1000-1035. Sancho III. the Great, king of Navarre, and, by inheritance, king of Castile, divided at his death his king- dom among his three sons. As Leon and Castile were soon united, there existed henceforward three Christian kingdoms in Spain : 1, Castile-Leon ; 2, Navarre ; 3, Aragon. We must also reckon the county of Barcelona, which grew out of the Spanish mark of Charles the Great, and was independent after the time of Charles the Bald. Wars of Ruy Diaz, called by the Arabs Cid, i. e. Lord (died 1099). {See p. 2^0.) 14 210 Mediceval History. A. D. § 6. THE EAST. Eastern Empire. 527-565. Justinian I., emperor of the East. Belisarius. Narses (p. 175). Codification of the law in the form known as the corpus juris civilis {Tribonianus), comprising : 1. Institutiones. 2. Pandectce or Digesta. 3. Codex. 4. Novelloe, later additions. Parties of the circus : Greens, Blues, Reds, and Whites. Bloody contests ("Nika," 532). The church of St. Sophia, built by Con- stantine {Hagia Sophia), burnt and rebuilt with great splendor. Decline of the empire under Justinian's successors (cruelty, mutila- tions). A part of the Asiatic and African provinces conquered by the Persians and afterwards by the Arabs. 726-842. Contest over images. Image-breakers (jlKovoKXaarai, icon- oclasts) and image worshippers (jeIkovo^ovXoC). 717-741. Leo the Isaurian. Image worship prohibited. 780-802. Irene, who out of love of power had her own son blinded, restored image worship. The accession of a woman to the imperial throne served as a pretext to legalize the transfer of the imperial crown from the East to the' West. 842. Theodora fully restored image worship. 867-1057. Eastern emperors of the Macedonian line. The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. The emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, whom Theophano, widow of Romanus II. (died 962), placed on tlie throne, partially reconquered the provinces wliich the Arabs and Bulgarians had torn from the empire. (^See p. 2^0.) Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides (750-1258). Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun (p. 186), the power of the caliphs began to decline. 935. The Emir al Omra (i. e, prince of princes) received all the secular power; the caliph remained only spiritual head of the faithful. 969, Egypt independent under Fatimites. 1058. Seljuk Turks (Togrul Bey, Alp Arslan, MaleJc Shah) at- tained the dignity of Emir al Omra. Seljuk supremacy. 1092. The empire of the Seljuks separated into a number of small sultanates (Iran, Kerman, Aleppo, Damascus,, Iconium ovRoum). India. The early history is exceedingly uncertain, and the most impor- tant events are assigned dates differing from one another by over four centuries. The Guptas, who succeeded in power the Sahs of Surdshha (60 b, C.-235 a. d.), occupied Kanauj from 319 to about 470, when they were overthrown by Tatar invaders (Huns ?), and the Valabhis, who dwelt in Cutch and the northern part of Bombay, were the principal power in India, 480-722. A. D. The East. 211 Actual authentic history begins with the Arabic invasions. Sind was the first province to feel the Mohammedan attack. It was con- quered in 711, but in 750 a general uprising expelled the victors. About 1000-1186. Supremacy of the Sultans of Ghazni. The next great attack was made by a Turk, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, (in Kabul), who invaded India seventeen times, and con- quered the country to the Ganges. The decisive struggle took place at Peshawar, where Mahmud was victorious. In 1024 famous expe- dition to Guzerat. Destruction of the idol pillar filled with jewels. (?) Mahmud was succeeded by fourteen rulers of his house, the last of whom, Bahram, was conquered by Allah-ud-din of Ghor. Bahram's son, Khusru, founded at Lahore the first Mohammedan dynasty in India proper. 1186-1206. Supremacy of the Afghans of Ghor. In 1186, Khusru's son was made captive by Muhammed Ghori,^ after which the predominance exercised by the Turks of Ghazni passed into the hands of the Afghans of Ghor. Muhammed Ghori was killed in 1206. (See p. 2^.) China. {See p. 32.-) 590-618. Dynasty of Suy, under whose energetic sway China was partially rescued from the confusion of the Three Kingdoms (p. 32). 618-907. Dynasty of Tang, founded by the usurper, Le Yuen, who, as emperor, took the name of Kau-tsu. The first part of this period down to 718 was a brilliant time for China, and the Golden Age of literature. The earlier rulers (Tai-tsung, 627-650 ; Kaou-tsung, 650-683; Woo How, 683-705, the wife of Kaou-tsung, who usurped the throne on her hus- band's death) were valiant warriors and wise rulers, who held the Tatars in check, recovered much of the former possessions of China in Central Asia, and raised the empire to a commanding position among other nations ; 643, embassies from Persia and Constantinople in China. From 718 the attacks of the Tatars increased in vehemence. From 763 to 780 their inroads were incessant. Under Woo-tsung (841-847) temples were destroyed, monasteries and nunneries closed, and all foreign priests (Christian, Persian, Bud- dhist) banished. The reaction was, however, short-lived. Inven- tion of printing. 907-960. Five dynasties (Later Leang, Later Tang, Later Tsin, Later Han, Later Chow) occupied the throne within this period, but the power of each was very limited. In Ho-nan, Sze-chuen, and other provinces independent states arose. 960-976. Chaou-k-wang-yin, as emperor, Tai-tsoo, the founder of the dynasty of the Later Sung, fought with success against the Khitan Tatars, who had occupied the whole of Manchuria, estab- lishing there the empire of Hia. Succeeding emperors were less for- tunate, and paid tribute to the Tatars (976-1101). (Seep. 2Jj,l.) 212 Mediceval History. A. D. Japan. 1 From the reign of Ojin (270-310, p. 33) to the close of the sixth century, the history of Japan is a record of quiet progress in civiliza- tion, under the influence of continental intercourse and of increasing wealth. Throughout this period, as before, the Mikados were actual sovereigns and personal commanders. The close of this epoch saw the introduction of Buddhism into Japan and its rapid spread (p. 33). The seventh century is of surpassing mterest in the history of Japan, for then it was that causes long working in silence and un- seen resulted in changes subversive of the entire social and political life of the Japanese, — changes which led to the withdrawal of the Mikado from personal intercourse with his subjects behind a veil of formal etiquette and heightened reverence, and to the predominance of the military over the civil power, until the actual government of the country passed from its legal sovereign, the Mikado, into the hands of an usurping military chieftain, thus creating a long-enduring, much misunderstood system of dual government, — changes whose fuial outcome was a feudal system corresponding to that known to mediaeval Europe, which, with its legitimate offspring, oppression, weakness, anarchy, lasted until 1868. These changes were the following : I. The growth of a numerous court nobility of imperial, and hence of divine, descent. 11. The creation of numerous offices of state which became the property of the court nobility. III. The division of the male population into an agricultural and a military class. IV. The separation of state offices into two sections, the civil and the military, and the continuance of each in the hands of one group of noble families. I. The huge, or court nobility, owed their numbers to the practice of polygamy, which the necessity of providing against the extinction of a divine dynastic line imposed on the Mikados. They comprise at present one hundred and fifty-five families, which form among them- selves larger groups, or clans. Such clans are : the Fuji"wara, the most famous of all the kuge ; the Sugavrara ; the Taira (Heike in Chinese characters) ; the Minamoto (Genji in Chinese charac- ters). II. In 603 the requirements of a more extensive empire caused the establishment of eight great administrative departments, and of a host of smaller offices, which were filled by members of the kuge, and gradually became vested in certain families. III. The demand of the growing empire for increased military efficiency led to the division of the whole male population into two classes : 1. the class of agricultural laborers, comprising all who were unfit for military service ; they were relegated to a life of un- broken toil, and were burdened with the annual payment of a quan- tity of rice sufficient for the support of the 2. military class, the Samurai, wliich included all the bravest and most intellectual men in Japan. Relieved from the necessity of working by the tax received from the first class, and not overburdened with .military duties, these 1 Griffis, The Mikado's Empire. Keed, Japan. Adams, History of Japan. A. D. Crusades. 213 men were free to devote themselves to the pursuit of literature and learning, forming the best element in the nation. IV, The Fujiwara, increasing in power, gradually absorbed all civil offices, while the military offices were filled from the two families of Taira and Minamoto, better known as Hei and Gen. Thus did the Fujiwara become enervated by the luxury of palace life ; thus did the Mikado, while his office gained in respect and reverence by its envi- ronment of titled officials, lose all real power, and smk to a mere pup- pet in the hands of intriguing nobles, to be installed and deposed at will ; thus did, both emperor and court constantly lose ground before the growing influence of those energetic families to whom were given the active duties of military command. The generals, or Shoguns, became the " Mayors of the Palace " of Japan. So originated the dual government, which was not, as foreigners long thought, a con- stitutional institution, whereby the civil and military functions of gov- ernment were vested in the Shogun or temporal emperor (Tycoon), and the religious functions in the Mikado or spiritual emperor, but an un- constitutional innovation, wherein a subordinate officer had usurped that authority which belonged of right to the only emperor, the Mi- kado, and whose position that emperor had never recognized. The natural result of this state of affairs was the evolution of mili- tary feudalism, whose rise is considered in the next period. 794. The capital of the empire, the home of the Mikado and the kuge, permanently fixed at Kioto, near Lake Biwa. 1156. Outbreak of war between the families of Gen and Hei {Mina- moto and Taira), which had previously shared the military offices in peace. {See p. 2J^2.) THIRD PERIOD. EPOCH OF THE CRUSADES (1096-1270). § 1. CRUSADES. Cause : The pilgrimages of the Christians to the Holy Sepulchre, where St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, had built a vault for the Sepulchre and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, were inter- rupted after the Fatimite^, and yet more after the Seljuks came to power ; ill-treatment of the pilgrims. The hermit Peter of Amiens demanded of the Pope Urban II. (1088-1099) assistance in freeing the holy places, and preached the Crusade in Italy (?) and France. ^ Councils of the church at Pia- cenza and Clermont in Auvergne (1095). Address by the Pope ; uni- versal enthusiasm. {It is the will' of God !) The undisciplined bands led by Peter, by the French knight Walter of Pacy, and Ms nephew Walter Senzaveir (the Penniless), and others, were for the most part, annihilated in Hungary and Bulgaria. 1 V. Sybel GescTi. des ersten Kreuzzuns, 1841, has shown on conclusive grounds that the idea of the Crusades originated principally with Pope Urban II. It has recently been made doubtful whether Peter of Amiens had been iu the Holy Land at all before the first Crusade. 214 Medlceval History. A. D. 1096-1099. First Crusade. Kingdom of Jerusalem. Leaders of tlie first Crusade : Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of lower Lotharingia ; his brothers, Baldwin and Eustach ; Robert, duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Robert of Flanders ; Stephen of Blois ; Raymond IV., count of Toulouse ; Hugo of Ver- mandois, brother of Philip I., king of France ; Bohemond of Taren- tum, son of Robert Guiseard ; his nephew Tancred. They led 200,- 000 or 300,000 warriors to the East. Bishop Adhemar of Puy, who was the first to take the Cross at Clermont, went with the expedition as papal legate (died 1098). No king took part personally in this Crusade. The princes went to Constantinople, where all except Raymond did feudal homage to the emperor, Alexius Comnenus. Attack upon the territory of KiliJ Arslan, Sultan of Iconium (or Roum). 1097. Niccea surrendered to the Grecian emperor after a siege of June, several weeks' duration. Victory of the Crusaders at Dory- July 1. loeum over the Sultan Kilij Arslan. Baldwin, separated from the main army, crossed the Euphrates, and conquered a principality for himself in Edessa. 1097-1098. The main army besieged Antiochia on the Orontes for nine months in vain, but finally the city was betrayed to Bohemund of Tarentum by the Armenian renegade, Firuz 1098. (Pyrrhus), Kerboga, the powerful Emir of Mossul, besieged the Crusaders, exhausted through sickness and want, in An- tioch, with an immense army. Victorious sally of the Chris- tians (the holy lance !) ; the Seljuk army defeated and scat- tered. Long rest of the Crusaders in Antioch and quarrels among them. 1099. Expedition along the coast toward Jerusalem. Unsuccessful siege of the fortress of Areas. In May they advanced be- yond Ccesarea. On the 7th of June the Crusaders, now numbering but 21,500 effective men, beheld the Holy City, which the Fatimites had reconquered from the Seljuks in 1098. After a five weeks' siege, 1099. Storm of Jerusalem. July 15. Terrible massacre ; pilgrimage to the Church of the Resurrection. Establishment of a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem, chiefly French, with vassal counties : Edessa, Antiochia, and afterwards Tripolis (Assises du royaume de Jerusalem). Three chief officers : Senechal, Connetable, Marshall. Two patriarchs, at Jerusalem and at Antiochia. Godfrey of Bouillon, Protector of the Holy Sepulchre, defeated the Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon or Gaza. Godfrey died 1100. His brother, Baldwin L, king of Jerusalem. Acre, Trioplis, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, conquered with the aid of Pisa and Genoa. Baldwin I. (died 1118) was succeeded by Baldivin 11. (died 1131), Fulco of Anjou (died 1143), under whom the kingdom of Jerusalem reached its greatest extent, Baldwin III. (died 1162), Amalric (died 1173), Baldwin IV. (died 1184), Baldwin V. (not of age, died 1186), Veil {Guy) of Lusignan. A. D. Crusades. 215 1147-1149. Second Grusade. Without result. Cause : Conquest of Edessa by Emadeddin ('Imad-ed-Deen) Zenki, Emir of Mossul (1144). Second conquest and destruction of the city by his son Noureddin (Noor-ed-Deen) (1146). Bernard, ab- bot of Clairvaux, preached the Crusade. Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France started for Palestine ; the former from Regenshurg (Ratisbon), the latter from MetZy somewhat later. Both armies passed through Hungary to Asia Minor I the German army, being far in advance, entered Phrygia, where it was almost annihilated by want and by the opposition of the Sultan of Iconium, but few regaining Nicsea. With this scanty fol- lowing Conrad joined the expedition of the French army along the coast, but returned from Ephesus to Constantinople, on account of ill health. Louis and the French nobility took ship from Pamphylia for Antiochia. The common soldiery continued by land to Cilicia, and were completely annihilated by hunger and the enemy. Conrad went from Constantmople to the Holy Land by sea (1148), and in conjunction with the French made an unsuccessful attack on Da- mascus. 1189-1192. Third Crusade. Conquest of Acre {St. Jean d'Acre), or Ptolemais. Cause : Capture of Veit (Guy) of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, at Tiberias on the sea of Genezaretk. Conquest of Acre and Jerusa- lem by Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) (1187), the founder of the dynasty of the Ayouhites in Egypt. He treated the Christians magnani- mously. The emperor Frederic I., who in his youth had taken part in the second Crusade, undertook in his old age an expedition from Regens- hurg (Ratisbon) in the spring of 1189, passed through Hungary, spent the winter in Adrianople, crossed (1190) to Asia Minor, con- quered Iconium, and went to Cilicia, where he was drowned in the Calycadnus (Seleph). His son, Frederic of Swabia, led a part of the pilgrims, many having turned back, by way of Tarsus, Antiochia, and Tyrus to Accon (Ptolemais, St. Jean d'Acre). He died (1191) during the siege of this city, which was conducted by the king Guy of Lusignan, who had gained his freedom. Richard the Lion-Hearted (Coeur-de-Lion), king of England, but French in nationality and language, and Philip II., Augustus (French Auguste, a title of respect which was given him later), king of France, went by sea to the Holy Land (1190), — Richard from Mar- seilles, Philip from Genoa ; participation of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. After a long stay in Sicily and many quarrels the two kings reached Acre, which Lusignan had already besieged for nearly two years. The city was now soon forced to surrender (July, 1191). Philip havmg quarrelled with Richard, returned to France (1191). Heroic deeds (and cruelty) of Richard, who, however, was twice obliged to turn back from before Jerusalem. Armistice with Saladin. The strip of coast from Joppa to Acre given to the Christians ; pil- grimages to the holy places permitted. Richard gave Cyprus, wliich 216 Mediceval History » A. d. he had conquered in 1191, as a fief to Veit {Guy) of Lusignan (au- tumn of 1192), who transferred his title of " King of Jerusalem " to Henry of Champagne. Richard on his return suffered a shipwreck at Aquileia, was recog- nized in Vienna, detained by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- mand of the emperor Henry VI., kept a prisoner by the emperor thirteen months in Trifels (near Annweiler in the county Palatine) and in Worms, and released only upon payment of a ransom and ren- dering homage.^ 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. Latin empire (1204-1261). At the instance of Pope Innocent III. (preaching by Fulco of Neuilly) a Crusade directed originally against Egypt was undertaken by powerful French barons, assisted by Baldwin, coimt of Flanders, and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat. The Crusaders undertook the siege of Zara in Dalmatia, which the king of Hungary had seized, for the Venetians (Doge Henry Dandolo), partly in payment for transport. At the urgent request of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor Isaac Angelus, who had been dethroned by his brother, a request strongly supported by Philip of Swabia, the Crusaders went to Constantinople with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured the city, and replaced Alexius and his father on the throne (1203), The emperor was un- able to fulfill his compact with the Crusaders. (Union of the Greek Church with that of Rome ; large payments in money.) Contention, during which the city caught fire. Revolt of the Greek populace. (Isaac died.) After the murder of Alexius by the Greeks, second capture of the city, pillage, new conflagration, which consumed many works of ancient literature. Establishment of the Latin empire (Baldioin, emperor) ; many coast districts and islands fell to the Venetians; the marquis of Mont- ferrat became king of Thessalonica j French dukes in Athens, Achaia, etc. Villehardouin, historian of the expedition. Establishment of a Greek empire at Niccea by Theodore Lascaris, and a second, the empire of Trebizond on the coast of the Pontus Eu- xinus, by a descendant of the Comnenes. Michael Paloeologus, of the Nicsean empire, put an end to the Latin empire in 1261. 1212. The children's Crusade. Thousands of German and French boys started for the Holy Land. Many died on the way, many were sold into slavery. 1217. Crusade of Andrew II., king of Hungary, without result. 1218-1221. Unsuccessful attack upon Egypt under John of BriennCf " king of Jerusalem." 1228-1229. Fifth Crusade. Jerusalem regained for a short time. Frederic II., emperor of the West, who was under the papal ban 1 It is probable that the story of the Austrian banner having been trodden in the filth at Acre by Richard's command is not a fable (cf, Tceche, Kaiser ffeinrich, VI. pp. 256, 558), but the imprisonment of Richard had doubtless higher political motives, and is sufficiently explained by the alliance of Richard with the Welfic party in Germany, see p. 223. k. Do Crusades. 217 for not having fulfilled his promise of undertaking a Crusade, went to Acre by sea, and received Jerusalem (where he crowned himself), Nazareth, and a strip of land reaching to the coast, together with Sido7i, from Sultan Kameel {El Kdmil), on condition of a ten yearg^ armistice. Jerusalem was lost again, and finally, 1244. 1248-1254. Sixth Crusade. Without result. Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), went to Cyprus and passed the winter there. In order to destroy the Saracen power in its stronghold of Egypt, he went in the spring of 1249 to Damietta and captured the city. On the expedition which he undertook in November against Cairo, Louis was defeated by the Ayoubite Sultan Toordn-shdh (Almoadan), cut off from Damietta, and captured with the entire French army (April, 1250). The execution of the treaty of peace, whereby the king was to be liberated on condition of evacu- ating Darmietta and paying a heavy ransom, was delayed by the over- throw of the Ayoubites by the Mamelukes. Louis coasted along Palestine, fortified Acre and other cities of the coast, in the course of a residence of almost four years, and returned to France in 1254. 1268. Antiochia lost to the Mohammedans. 1270. Seventh Crusade. Without result. Louis IX. went to Tunis, where he and the greater part of the army were carried off by sickness. 1291. Acre (Ptolemais) stormed by the Mamelukes ; the Christians abandoned their last possessions in Palestine {Tyre, Berytus, Sidon). The Crusades were the greatest events of the Middle Age. In spite of the excesses and cruelties of many of the Crusaders they lend to the time to which they belong an ideal, a religious character. Results of the Crusades : 1. Increased power and authority of the Church and the Papacy. 2. Increase of the personal power of princes, owing to the reversion of many feudal holdings which became vacant. 3. Rise of mdependent communities, who bought their freedom from their overlords who needed funds for the pilgrimage. 4. Devel- opment of commerce. The Italian republics at the height of their power. 5. Intellectual growth resulting from the new ideas brought back from the East ; especial advance in the knowledge of geography and natural history. 6. Perfection of the institution of knighthood (chivalry) ; the three Religious Orders of Knighthood. 1. Knights of St. John, or Hospitalers; i. e. knights of the hospital of St. John in Jerusalem, founded by merchants from Amalfi, 1070. The brotherhood was enlarged after the first Crusade {Gerhard), and converted into an order of knighthood after the manner of the Templars {Raimund Dupuis). Black mantle, white cross. The order was transferred to Cyprus (1291), to Rhodes (1310), whence they were called Knights of Rhodes. Rhodes lost, 1522 ; in 1526 the order received a gift of Malta from the emperor Charles V., thence called Knights of Malta. 2. Knights of the Temple or Templars (from the temple of Solomon, 218 Mediceval History. A. d. on whose site stood the house of the order in Jerusalem), orig- inating in a union of nine French knights in 1118 {Hugo de Pay ens). White mantle, red cross. In 1291 the order was transferred to Cyprus; in 1312 dissolved by Pope Clement V. at the Council of Vienne. 3. The Order of Teutonic Knights, originally brotherhood of the German hospital founded in 1190, was in 1198 raised to an order of knighthood by Frederic of Sivabia before Acre, dur- ing the third Crusade. White mantle, black cross. Seat of the order at Acre. Under the grand macter Hermann of Salza a band of knights went to Prussia, then occupied by the heathen Wends, in 1226. Hermann of Balk, first Landmeister in Prus- sia, which was subjugated by bloody wars (1226-1283). In 1291 the seat of the grand master was tranferred to Venice, 1309 to Marienburg, 1457 to Konigsberg. The land of the order was secularized in 1525. Those knights who remained Catho- lic maintained possession of the German estates. Residence of the grand master at Mergentheim at Franconia. The or- der was dissolved in 1809. In all three orders, knights, priests.^ brothers in service. §2. GERMANY AND ITALY. {See p. 201.) 1125-1137. Lothar of Saxony, supported by his son-in-law Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, of the house of Welf, whom he later appomted duke of Saxony as well, and Berthold, duke of Zdhringen. Lothar fought (until 1135) against the two powerful Hohenstaufens, Frederic, duke of Swabia, and Conrad, nephew of the last emperor, Henry V. Their father was Frederic of Biiren and Stauf en, son-in-law of the emperor Henry IV. (p. 200). 1132-1133. On his first Roman expedition Lothar was crowned by Pope Innocent II., and accepted the allodial possessions of Matilda of Tuscany as a fief from the Pope. 1136-1137. On liis second Roman expedition Lothar attacked the Norman Roger II., who had assumed the title of king of the two Sicilies, and drove him for a short time to Sicily. On his return Lothar died at Breitenwang in upper Bavaria (Dec. 3-4, 1137). Under Lothar's reign German influence made great advances in the North and East. The Danish king Magnus recognized anew the overlordship of the Emperor ; Bohemia did feudal homage. The Wends were driven back, and in increasing numbers converted to Christianity. Holstein given to Adolf count of Schaumburg, the margravate of Meis- sen to Conrad of Wettin, the Nordmark or Altmark, at the mouth of the Havel and on the left bank of the Elbe, to Albert the Bear, of the house of Ballenstddt or Askania (1134), who had done Lothar im- portant service on the first Roman expedition. Albert crossed the Elbe and conquered almost the entire Mittelmark, which then received the name of Brandenburg, from its chief city. A. D. Germany and Italy. 219 1138-1254. House of Hohenstaufen (Staufer),^ so called from the castle of Staiifen in Swabia. 1138-1152. Conrad III., elected by the party opposed to the Saxon house, without par- ticipation of the Saxons and Bavarians. War of the Ghibellines (Italian corruption of Waiblingen, the name of a castle of the Hohenstaufens) and the "Welfs, or Guelfs (cf. the genealogical table). Conrad put Henry the Proud under the ban, and gave Saxony to Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. 1139. During the changing fortunes of the war Henry the Proud died. The claims of his ten-year-old son Henry (afterwards called the Lion) to Saxony were maintained by the latter's mother and grandmother and their connection. Bavaria was claimed by Welf VI., brother of Henry the Proud. Welf ad- vanced to the relief of the city of Weinsherg, which Conrad besieged. In the 1140. Battle ^ of Weinsherg Conrad conquered, and the city was com- pelled to surrender. (" The Faithful Wives of Weinsherg," poem by Burger.) After the death of Leopold of Austria (Oct. 18, 1141), Bavaria fell to his brother, Henry Jasomirgott,^ who married Gertrude, Henry the Proud's widow (1142). Her son, Henry the Lion, received Saxony. Albert the Bear gave up his claim to Saxony ; the mark of Bran- denburg, which was a fief held directly from the emperor (reichsun- mittelbar), and his other possessions, which his enemies had occupied, were restored to him. Conrad's Crusade (p. 215). Conrad, whose eldest son, Henry, who had already been elected king, died before him, appointed as his suc- cessor not his second son, a minor, but his nephew, Frederic of Swabia, who was unanimously elected by the princes. Conrad died Feb. 11, 1152, at Bamberg. 1152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age. Diet at Merseburg. Frederic settled the disputed succession to the Danish crown. Sven became king of Denmark as a vassal of the empire (1152). Frederic's main object was to make good the imperial authority, and in particular to restore the imperial rights in northern Italy, which had become narrowed by neglect. Hence war with the power- ful republican cities of Lombardy. Six expeditions to Italy. 1154-1155, First expedition. Frederic destroyed some small places which opposed him, and was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, 1 Vo Kaumer, Gesck. der Hohenstaufen u. Hirer Zeit; JafiP^, Gesch. desd. B. unter Konrad III. ; Prutz, GescMchte Friedrichs I. 2 Recent investigators deny that the cry of Hie Welf! Hie Waiblingen ! was heard here for the first time, <* So called from his favorite oath. 220 Mediceval History. A. D. u a o CM c6 -P a o ^-^ 13 lo >£5Lh eg'-' s>. Pl-i- T—I ;-( . c O D 5 ^ S oj .e" Q^^ •^ t/T S .Sii « ^ »^ F « few ^ a iH .sT-i- (D t>.e W 02 o i: E" W' Q .2 IS P< >< . o s 1> t*_i — ! I Ph OS »4 . o -a P4 <{ ©• « - ^.e~ S w"^ . *n Sr-t s-s- ■•2 9 O-t— P4 Ph ^ -'^M '« ^ -I- c3 S O h- 1 c ?^ u 03 5 a> ° b « 2 ^ .« o O 03 . . S 2o 5 2i;=s s^ <» e Q4 $„ ^ .2"^ -b 'rt . £ CO "H'*-^ >1 2: CO S ° > '^ (H (rt eS Cr-t a> CS «r^ -1— J3 c; .9 OQ P-i 2 fl o fl B S eS !2i d •ija 05 c TS 1- J« g (M =3 s ea rHpCS ^Q a a) ~5 II ^< .2 J-* -u s 2 -a be 3 O CS o-t- (-1 O II A. D. Germany and Italy. 221 and emperor at Rome by Hadrian IV., who had appealed to him for aid against the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, scholar of the schoolman Ahelard, a popular preacher, who inveighed against the secular power of the clergy and possession of estates by the church, was condemned and burnt. 1153. Convention of Constance between Frederic and the Papal See. 1156. Henry the Lion received Bavaria again. Austria was sep- arated from Bavaria, and raised to a duchy, hereditary in the female as well as the male line. 1157. Diet at Wurzburg. Nearly all the states of the West did homage to the imperial power (Holy Roman Empire). In Besan^on the Burgundian nobles submitted again to the em- pire. The Bohemian duke Vladislav received from Fred- eric the royal crown. 1158-1162. Second expedition to Italy. The Lombard cities, including Milan itself, submitted. At the diet on the Ron- calian Fields the rights of the emperor were defined as against the cities. Jurisdiction in the cities transferred from the consuls to an officer of the empire, the Podesta. Prohibition of the right of pri- vate war between the cities. The Milanese revolted. Quarrel be- tween the Pope and the emperor. Tedious war with Milan, which surrendered after a two years' siege. At the emperor's command 1162. Milan vras destroyed by the inhabitants of the neighboring cities. 1159-1177. Schism in the Church. Alexander III. elected by the majority of the cardiaals, Victor IV. by the minority (who favored the emperor), and recognized by the council which Frederic convened at Pavia. Alliance between Alex- ander III. and the Lombard cities. 1163. Third Expedition without an army. After the death of Victor IV. (April, 1164), a new anti-pope. Paschal III., was elected by the imperial party. New disturbances in Italy soon broke out. 1166-1168. Fourth Expedition. Paschal III. conducted to Rome by Frederic. 1167. Lombard Leag;ue between the cities of Lombardy (Cremona, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, and Ferrnra) and the cities of the Veronese March (Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso), which had united in 1164. Union of Guelfs with Ghibellines. They rebuilt Milan, built Alessandria (so called after their ally, Pope Alexander III.), and occupied the passes of the Alps. The emperor, whose army was almost annihilated by a plague which broke out in Rome, with difficulty escaped to Germany. In Germany a great feud had been raging since 1166 between Henry the Lion and his enemies, the archbishops of Magdeburg and Bremen, Albert the Bear, Otto of Meissen, etc. The emperor put an end to the strife at the Diet of Bamberg (1168). Henry the Lion undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (1172). 1174-1177. Fifth Expedition. The emperor entered Lombardy over Mont Ceuis. He besieged Alessandria in vain. Henry 222 Mediceval History. A. d. the Lion deserted him and returned to Germany. The em- peror attacked the Lombards, but in spite of his heroic cour- age, at the 1176. Battle of Legnano, was completely defeated. Negotiations and armistice with Alexander III. and the Lombard cities. 1177. Reconciliation between the emperor and the Pope at Venice. 1183. The definitive peace with the Lombard cities was concluded at Constance. The emperor renounced all regal privileges which he had hitherto claimed in the towns ; acknowledged the right of the confederated cities to levy armies, to fortify themselves, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction. By the popular nomination the consuls acquired the rights of imperial vicars. The extension of the confederacy for the purpose of maintaining these rights was authorized. The cities agreed to mamtain all just rights of the emperor, a recognition of the overlordsliip of the emperor, which, how- ever, they were allowed to redeem by an amiual payment. Henry the Lion humbled in Germany. After his neglect to appear at four diets, he was put under the ban of 'the empire and his fiefs declared forfeited (1180). He defended himself bravely and de- feated the archbishop of Cologne. Upon the approach of the em- peror Henry's vassals gradually deserted him. Henry threw himself at the emperor's feet in Erfurt (1181), but was allowed to retain his allodial estates only, Braunschweig {Brunswich) and Lunehurg. Divis- ion of the old duchy of Saxony. Part of Westphalia was given to the archbishopric of Cologne. Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen became in the course of time free cities, owing allegiance to the empire only. The archbishop of Magdeburg and Bremen, the bishops of Halber- stadt, Hildesheim, Lubeck, etc., the counts of Holstein and Oldenburg, etc., became immediate vassals of the empire. Eastern Saxony and the ducal title were given to Bernard of As- kania, son of Albert the Bear. Otto of Wittelsbach received Bavaria. Henry the Lion was obliged to leave the country for three years. He went to the court of Henry 11. of England, his father-in-law. 1184. Brilliant court festival at Mainz. 1184-1186. Sixth expedition to Italy (peaceful). The emperor gave his son Henry, who was now twenty-one, but had long 1186. been king elect of Germany, in marriage to Constance, daughter of Roger LL., aunt and heiress of William II., the last Norman king of Naples and Sicily. 1190. Frederic's crusade and death (p. 215). His son. King Henry, whom he left behind as vicegerent, was obliged to take the field against Henry the Lion, who, upon the emperor's departure, had been sent out of the empire for another three years, but had since re- turned from England. The death of William II. of Sicily in Nov- ember, 1189, led Henry to come to an understanding with Henry the Lion. In the mean time came the news of the emperor's death. 1190-1197. Henry VI., a highly educated statesman, but stern and relentless. 1191. First expedition to Italy. Henry received the imperial crown at A. D. Germany and Italy. 223 Rome, after he had abandoned Tusculum, wliich had ever been true to his father, to the Romans. The city was destroyed ; Frascati grew up near its site. Henry went to Naples to rescue the inher- itance of his wife, Constance, irom. fancred of Lecce, whom, the native party in Palermo had elected king. Unsuccessful siege of Naples for three months. Sickness in the army compelled the emperor to return to Germany. 1192-1194:. New war with Henry the Lion, who had not kept the first treaty. The war ended in a compromise, the conclusion of wliich was assisted by the liberation of the brother-in-law of Henry the Lion, Richard Cmur-de-Lion of England (p. 216), and by a marriage between Agnes, daughter of the emperor's uncle, Conrad^ count palatine of the Rhine, with Henry, son of Henry the Lion. 1194. Second expedition to Italy, where Tancred had died. War with Ms widow and his son William. The emperor subju- gated the kingdom of the two Sicilies, and punished with severity the participants in a conspiracy against himself. 1194. Henry threatened with excommunication for withholding the estates of Matilda (p. 200) from the Pope. 1196. Diet at Wiirzburg. Henry's plan of making Germany (united with the Sicilies) an hereditary monarchy, on condition that all fiefs should become Jiereditary, even in the female line, failed in consequence of the resistance of tke princes and the lesser nobility. 1197. Third expedition to Italy. Henry suppressed a second con- spiracy with cruel severity. In the midst of his great plans (conquest of the Eastern Empire, Crusade), he died suddenly in Messina, thirty-two years old (28 Sept. 1197). Double election in Germany. 1198-1208. Philip of Swabia, youngest son of Frederic Barbarossa. 1198-1215 (1218). Otto IV. of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion. 1198-1215. War for the crown between the house of Hohenstaufen and of Welf. Otto IV., recognized by Pope Innocent III., was defeated by Philip and his power reduced almost to the limits of Brunswick. In the midst of preparations for a last and decisive combat Philip was assassinated at Bamberg by the count palatine Otto of Wittelsbach. Otto IV. was universally recognized and crowned at Rome by Innocent III. (1209), after having abandoned the estates of Matilda to the papal chair and made other concessions. He was soon involved in a quarrel with the Pope, however, and the latter put forward his ward Frederic, son of Henry VL, as anti-emperor (1212). Otto IV., in alliance with England, was defeated at Bouvines (near Lille) by Philip II. Augustus (1214), and returned to his own do- mains. Died at the Harzburg (May 10, 1218). 1212-1250. Frederic 11. also king of the two Sicilies^ a prince of remarkable gifts, but passionate, more Italian than German, having been born in Sicily and educated by his Italian 224 Mediceval History, A. D. mother. He was an energetic opponent of the spiritual supremacy, having indeed but little liking for the church ; in his hereditary estates he favored the Saracens. 1215. Frederic went to Germany, was crowned German king in Aachen, where he promised to undertake a crusade, and 1217. gave Swabia to liis young son Henry, and 1220. had him elected king of Rome (the title given to the Ger- man king elect). Frederic left Germany for fifteen years. Expe- dition to Rome. After renewing the promises which he had for- merly made to Pope Innocent III. (feudal supremacy of the papal chair over his hereditary domain, which should never be united with Germany, crusade), he was crowned by Honorius III. at Rome. 1222. The emperor's son Henry, solemnly crowned king at Aachen. His chief adviser and chancellor was Engelhert, archbishop of Cologne (murdered 1225). 1225. Frederic took as his second wife, lolanthe, daughter of John of Brienne, titulary king of Jerusalem. Promise of a crusade renewed. 1226. Diet at Cremona ; quarrels with the Lombard cities. 1227. The Crusade which had been commenced was broken up by a contagious disease. The successor of Pope Honorius III., the octogenarian Gregory IX., placed the emperor under the ban. 1227. Battle of Bornhovede. The Danes, who under Waldemar II. had extended their power over the coasts of the Baltic, were decisively defeated. 1228-1229. Crusade of Frederic II. (p. 216). 1229. Frederic drove from his dominions the papal (key) troops, who had invaded them. 1230. Peace with the Pope at S. Germano. Removal of the ban. 1230-1240. Legislation of Frederic in his Sicilian kingdom. Regulation of feudal relations. Representation of the cities. 1234. Revolt of the young king Henry, in alliance with the lower German nobility and the Lombard cities, against his father, sup- pressed by Frederic with the aid of the princes of the empire and the imperial cities. Henry submitted, was kept in strict confinement, then sent to Italy, where he died, 1242. Reconciliation with the Welfs. Erection of a new duchy, Brunswick- Luneburg, for Otio the Child. Third marriage of the emperor at Worms with Isabella, sister of Henry III. of England. Diet at Mainz. Enactment of a public peace {^rst publication of a law in German as well as in Latin). 1236. Victorious campaign against the Lombards. In Germany Frederic the Warlike of Austria, a follower of the rebel Henry, deposed and put under the ban. 1237. Frederic 11. in Vienna, which was proclaimed an imperial city. Afterwards Frederic the Warlike received Austria and Styria again. 1237. Diet at Speier. Election and coronation of Conrad, the sec- ond son of the emperor as German king. 1237. Brilliant victory of Frederic over the Lombards at Corte- Nov. nuova. Frederic's obstinacy in pressing his demands too A. D. Get many and Italy. 225 far, prevented iLhe complete subjugation of Lombardy. Interference of the Pope, who had claims on Sardinia, and was offended at the assumption by Frederic's natural son Enzio (an Italian corruption of Heinz), the husband of Adelisa, heiress of a part of the island, of the title of king of Sardinia. 1239-1250. War of Frederic II. with the Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. 1239. Frederic accused of heresy by Gregory and excommunicated anew. Ancona conquered by Enzio. 1241. Naval victory of Enzio at Elba over the Genoese fleet which was conveying some ecclesiastics to the council at Rome. Death of Gregory. His successor, Innocent IV. (1243-1254), fled to Lyons. Germany threatened with a Mongol invasion (p. 240). Innocent IV. called a council at 1245. Lyons, renewed the ban against the emperor, formally de- posed him, summoned the German princes to a new election, and urged all subjects of the emperor to revolt. In Ger- many the spiritual princes elected 1246-1247. Heinrich Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, who, though at first victorious, was defeated by Conrad, Frederic's son, at Ulm, and died (1247) at the Wartburg. The house of the landgraves of Thuringia ending with Heinrich Raspe, the eastern part of that state was jomed to the margravate of Meissen, while the western part became the landgravate Hessen. 1247-1256. William of Holland, second anti-king, attained no authority in Germany. 1248. Frederic, at first successful in Italy, was repulsed before Padua. His son Enzio was captured by the Bolognese in the 1249. Battle of Fossalta (died after an imprisonment of twenty-two years in a dungeon). Treason (?) of Peter of Vinea (Vineis), Frederic's chancellor. 1250. Frederic died in Fiorentino in the arms of his son Manfred (Dec. 19). He was succeeded by his son. 1250-1254. Conrad IV. (anti-king: William of Holland) fought since 1252 for his hereditary realm only, in Italy. 1256. William of Holland fell in battle with the Frisians (twenty- seven years old). 1256-1273. Interregnum in Germany. Club-law, Faust^ frecht. Ire Richard, Earl of Cornwall, younger son of King John (Lack- land) of England, elected by a part of the princes, and crowned at Aachen, was recognized along the Rhine only (died 1272). Alphonso X. of Castile, grandson of Philip of Hohenstauf en, son of Frederic Barbarossa, elected by the other princes, never came to Germany. In the kingdom of the two Sicilies the brave Manfred, son of Frederic IL, was at first chancellor for the minor king Conradin, son of Conrad IV., afterwards (1258) king. Charles ofAnjou, brother 15 226 Mediceval History. a. d. of Louis IX. of France, to whom the Pope gave the crown, defeated Manfred, who was betrayed by his barons, at Beneventum (1266), and made himself king of Naples and Sicily. Manfred fell on the field. Conradin went to Italy with Frederic of Baden, also called Fred- eric of Austria (being the son of the Babenberg heiress of Austria). He was defeated between Scurcola and Tagliacozzo on Lago di Celano (1268), and executed at Naples. 1282. Sicilian vespers, so called because the conspiracy broke out on Easter Monday at vesper time. Slaughter of all the French in Sicily. John of Procida. Peter of Ar agon, king of Sicily, Charles of Anj'ou limited to the kingdom of Naples. (See pp. 2U, ^<32') § 3. FRANCE.i (Seep. 203.) The royal domain of the Capetians was at first limited to the duchy of France (Isle de France and Orleanais). The great vassals, who were, in the beginning, almost independent, were gradually reduced to submission in this and the following period. 1060-1108. Philip I. Quarrel with Gregory YII. First Crusade. A long reign, in which the king accomplished nothing. 1108-1137. Louis VI., the Fat, an able and good king, who had, moreover, the good sense to avail himself of the talents of Sugar, abbot of St. Denis, whom he made minister. Perceptible growth of the royal power. Marriage of the king's son, Louis ( VIL), with Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitaine, heiress of Poitou, Guyenne, and Gascony. 1137-1180. Louis VII. Second Crusade (p. 215). Louis was a weak king, a favorite with the clergy, whose reign was less disastrous than might have been expected, because of the influence of Suger, who administered the kingdom during Louis' absence in the East. After his return Louis obtained a divorce from Eleanor, who married Henry of Anjou, conveying to this prince, who soon became king of England, Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, for which Henry did homage to Louis. In this transfer lay one germ of the hundred years' war. 1180-1223. Philip IL, Augustus, one of the ablest of the kings of France ; unscrupulous, cold, but of great political sagacity. (Third) Crusade with Richard Cceur- de-Lion. After Philip's return in 1190 he attacked Normandy, but made little headway during the lifetime of Richard. (Erection of the Chateau Gaillard by Richard, on the Seine, above Rouen.) After Richard's death (1199) Philip took up the claims of Arthur, son of Richard's brother Geoffrey, who had been passed over in Nor- mandy in favor of Richard's younger brother John, but he was hin- dered from prosecuting them by his quarrel with Innocent III. in relation to the divorce which Philip had secured from his wife^ Ingeborg of Denmark, in order that he might marry Agnes of Meran. Submission of Philip (1200). After the death of A rthur (1203) Philip moved upon Normandy 1 Kitcliin, Histoiy of France. A. D. France. 227 anewo Rejection of the Pope's claim to arbitrate between the kings. The fall of the Chateau Gaillard was followed by the submission of Normandy (1204). John having refused to obey the summons of Philip to appear for trial on account of the murder of Arthur, Philip declared his fiefs forfeited. Crusade against the Albigenses, Waldenses and Cathari, rationalist sects protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse, and the viscount of Beziers and Carcassotme (1207-1244). Storm of Beziers (1207. " Slay all, God will know his own."). Conquest of the county of Toulouse by Simon of Montfort (1211-1215). Death of Simon at the siege of revolted Toulouse (1218). War in Flanders with the feudal lords, supported by John of Eng- land and Otto of Germany. Philip, assisted by the cities, victorious in the 1214. Battle of Bouvines : Aug. 29. Unsuccessful expedition of Philip's son Louis to England (1216). 1223-1226. Louis VIII. New crusade against the comit of Tou- louse, whose lands had been declared forfeit. 1229. Establishment of the Inquisition as a regular tribunal by Pope Gregory IX., inquisitors having existed since 1203 under In- nocent III. 1226-1270. Louis IX., St. Louis. During the king's minority regency of his mother Blanche, who repressed a revolt of the barons. The war with the Albigenses ended by the extermination of the sect (1244). (Sixth) Crusade of St. Louis (p. 217). Blanche regent during his absence. After the king's re- turn, 1254, wise government. Surrender of Perigord, the Limousin and southern Saintonge to Henry of England, whereupon Henry re- nounced his claim to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, northern Saintonge. Prohibition of wager of battle. Limitation of feudal jurisdiction. Establishment of right of appeal to the king from the feudal courts in all cases. The Pragmatic Sanction attrib- uted to St. Louis is probably a forgery, but Louis' attitude toward Rome was one of assertion of all regal rights. During this reign the domain of the crown received the following additions : The part of the county of Toulouse between the Rhone, the sea and the Pyrenees (1229), Chartres, Blois, Sancerre, ceded by Theobald of Champagne and Navarre (1234) ; Macon, by purchase (1239) ; Perche (1257); Aries, Forcalquier, Foix and Cahors (1262). Second (seventh) Crusade and death of St. Louis (1270). (Seep. 354.) 228 MedicBval History. A. D ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY III. ANGLO-SAXOISr. Ecgberht. 802-837. I Charles the Bald. Emperor. -Ethelwulf = (1) Judith, 'who 837-858. I afterwards m. I (2) ^thelbald. (3); ^thelbald. .fflthelberlit. iEthelred. JElfred 858-860. 860-866. 866-871. 871-901. r Eadward 1 son, 2 dau. the Elder. 901-925. ^Ifthryth = FLANDEKS. NOKMANDY. Rollo. Baldwin I I t 879. : Baldwin If. t 918. I I I .ffithelstan. Eadmund. Eadred. 925-940. 940-946. 946-955. Arnulf I. I t 965. William | Longsword. Baldwin (III.) I t 962. Eadwig. 955-959. Eadgar. 959-975. Richard the Fearless. I Eadward the Martyr, ^thelred n.=2 Emma. Richard 975-978. 978-1016. the Good. 1 I 2 Arnulf II. t 988. I Baldwin IV. t 1036. Godwine Earl of Mercia. Eadmund | | Eadward Robert Baldwin V. Ironsides. Harold. Eadgyth = the Confessor, the Magnificent f 1067. 1016. 1066. > 1042-1066. or the Devil. | Eadward 'Wmiam the Conqueror = Matilda, j 1066-1087. Eadgar ^theling. Margaret = Malcolm I king of Scots. Eadgar king of Scots. Robert. 'William Ruf us. Henry I. Adela 1087-1100. 1100-1135. m.Stephen Matilda^ r \ c. of Blois I I Matilda = Geoffrey of Anjou, Stephen I Plantagenet. 1135-1154. Henry II. 1154-1189. „' I I Henrj'. Richard Geoffrey. Coeur-de-Lion. | 1189-1199. Arthur. t 1203. John Lackland. 1199-1216 I Henry III. 1216-1272. A. D. England, 229 § 4. ENGLAND. {See p. 206.) 1066-1154. Norman kings.^ 1066-1087. William I., the Conqueror, completed the subjection of the Anglo-Saxons, who were robbed of their estates and terribly ill-treated. Two nationalities and two languages existed for a long time side by side m England, English, or Anglo-Saxon, and French. The king and the nobility were French Normans or Frenchmen. The submission of 1066 was partial, Mercia and Northumbria re- maining aloof. 1068. Revolt in the north, incited and aided by a Danish fleet under Swegen. Returning from Normandy William bought off the Danes, and crushed the insurgents by a masterly winter campaign. Northumberland ravaged with fire and sword. 1071. Revolt of the English under Eadioin and MorTcere, which ended with the defeat and death of Eadwin, and the capture of Ely in the fens where Morkere had taken refuge with the outlaw Here- ward. 1075-76. Rebellion of the Norman barons in England easily crushed. Revolt of the conqueror's son Robert in Normandy (1077-1080). Imprisonment of William's brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, for trouble- some and intriguing conduct. A threatened invasion from Norway and Denmark averted, 1085. William met liis death by accident while engaged in a struggle with Philip of France about the Vexin (Sept. 9, 1087). After the revolt of 1071. the four large earldoms were abolished, and the shire became the largest political division. Sheriffs appointed by the king in each shire. William introduced feudalism in its continental form, placing Norman barons over the lands of the English nobility, who gradually sank to the position of a middle class. In 1086 the power of the barons was weakened by the exaction of an oath of fealty from all under tenants to the king direct. The same year saw the completion of the great survey whose results were inscribed in the Domesday Book, an inventory of all lands " burthened with special dues to the crown." The lower local courts were pre- served, but their subordination to the king's court was strongly in- sisted on. William reformed and reorganized the English Church, assisted by Lanfrano, abbot of St. Stephen at Caen, whom he appointed arch- bishop of Canterbury. Homage to the Pope, however, William ex- pressly refused to render. He kept the appointment of bishops in his own hands. No papal letter could be received, no papal synod held in England, no English bishop appeal to Rome without the king's consent. 1 Augustin Thierry, Histoir'e de la conquetede V Angleterre. Qreen, IKS' tory of the English People. 230 Mediceval History. A. D. 1087-1100. William II., the Red, second son of William I. obtained the English crown, while Robert, the eldest son, succeeded in Normandy. A revolt of the Nor- man barons in favor of Robert was suppressed by help of the English in 1090. Death of Lanfranc, 1089. Ascendency of Ranulf Flambard. Extortions of William. Formation of the New Forest. 1093. Anselm, abbot of Bee, appointed archbishop of Canterbury. He was soon involved in a quarrel with the king on the ques- tion of investitures and on other matters. In 1097 Anselm appealed to Rome and left England. 1097. Edgar, son of Margaret (sister of Eadgar Aetheling), ob- tained the Scottish crown, thus closing the civil war in Scotland between the Celtic and English parties. William was found dead in the New Forest, Aug. 2, 1100 (murdered ?). 1100-1135. Henry I., BeaMclerc, on learning of the death of William II., hastened to England and secured the crown in spite of the opposition of those barons who pressed the claim of Robert of Normandy, then returning from the Crusade. Issue of a charter, wherein the exactions and abuses of William the Red were prohibited and the " Law of Edward the Con- fessor " restored. Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling. Recall of Anselm. 1101. Invasion of Robert of Normandy, with the connivance of many of the Norman barons on both sides of the Channel, ended by treaty without a battle. Punishment of the rebel barons. Robert of Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, driven from England. In 1104 Henry invaded Normandy. Robert was defeated at the 1106. Battle of Tinchebrai and kept in captivity until his death (1134). Henry took possession of Normandy. Quarrel with Anselm in regard to investitures, ending, after the exile and return of Anselm, in a compromise (1106). Introduction of the Cistercians in England. Suppression of the great feudatories and substitution of a class of lesser nobles. Death of Henry's son William by the sinking of the " White Ship " m the Channel (1120). Marriage of Henry's daughter Matilda to Geoffrey, son of Fulk the Black, count of Anjou (1128). Normandy and Maine definitely se- cured by Henry. Henry died 1135. 1135-1154. Stephen of Blois, son of Adela, daughter of William I., and the count of Blois, seized the crown in defiance of the rights of Matilda and her son Henry, and was elected at London principally by the citizens. Char- ter of Oxford (1136). (Second) invasion of the Scots repulsed in the 1138. Battle of the Standard, at Cowton Moor in Yorkshire. Arrest of Roger of Salisbury and the bishop of Lincoln (1139). In the same year Matilda landed A. D. England. 231 in England. Stephen defeated and captured at the hattle of Lincoln (1141). Matilda was elected Lady of England by the clergy. Her severe and impolitic government soon alienated her followers. Fin- ally Stephen, having been exchanged, took up the war again, which went on with varying success until 1147 when Robert of Gloucester died and Matilda left England. In 1153 Henry of Anjou landed in Eng- land to make good his claim. Without a battle an under standixig was reached and Henry was recognized as the heir of the crown (Treaty of Wallmgford 1153). The reign of Stephen was one of the darkest periods in English history. His weakness, and the confusion of civil war had given the feudal nobles full liberty. Castles were erected in great num- bers throughout England, and each was the home of oppression and cruelty. Stephen died 1154. 1154-1399. House of Anjou (Plantagenet)^ in the di- rect line. 1154-1189. Henry II. Outside of England Henry possessed : 1. Normandy and the suzerainty over Brittany, as the heir of the Norman kings. 2. Anjou and Maine, inherited from his father. 3. Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, acquired by marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine (1152) ; in all more than half of France. The reign of Henry is the period of full amalgamation of the Eng- lish and the Normans. The accession of Henry (at 21 years of age) was welcomed as the beginning of a better time. Banishment of the mercenaries main- tained by Stephen. Demolition of the castles. Resumption and res- toration of estates, which was attended with difficulty, some of the new nobles requiring to be dislodged by force. 1158. First Welsh war not successful. 1162. Thomas Becket, the chancellor, made archbishop of Canter- bury. Reestablishment of the exchequer^ a bureau for assessing and collecting the taxes. Introduction of scutage, a commutation in money for personal service in the army permitted to the lower ten- ants. 1163. Second Welsh war. As chancellor, Becket had been the king's servant and friend ; as archbishop, he became at once his opponent, resisting his wishes even in financial matters ; an opposition which seems to have led to the abolition of danegeld (p. 205). Becket bitterly opposed the king's reform of the ecclesiastical law relating to the punishment of eccle- siastics for criminal offenses. Henry demanded that after ecclesias- tical punishment had been administered the offender should be handed over to receive the punishment of the civil law. The wishes of the king in this respect and on other points involving church and state were formulated in the 1 So called from the bit of broom (^e«e^) which Geoffrey of Anjou, son of king Fulk of Jerusalem (p. 230), was wont to wear in his helm'. 232 Mediaeval History. A. d. ' 1164. Constitutions of Clarendon. i The jurisdiction of secular courts over clerical offenders was \ affirmed, appeal to Rome in such cases was prohibited, the election of bishops in the presence of royal officers, and with the king's con- sent, was insisted on, as was the investiture of the bishop or abbot elect with his secular lands by the king. At first Becket accepted the constitutions ; but afterwards he withdrew his acceptance and appealed to Rome. Brought to trial and condemned on some mat- ters comiected with his chancellorship, Becket fled to France. 1165. Third Welsh war. 1166. Assize of Clarendon, Re establishment of Frank-pledge, or mutual responsibility of the inhabitants of a village. In eath shire criminals were to be presented by twelve men from the shire and four from each town (grand jury) ; abolition of compurgation (proof of innocence by oath of neighbors) for which tlte ordeal or judgment of God was substituted. 1170. Henry under threat of interdict was reconciled with Becket, who returned to England. He soon became embroiled with the king, and was murdered by four knights of Henry's court, in consequence of Henry's passionate outbreak against him (December 29, 1170). Establishment of itinerant or circuit judges. Court of appeal, afterwards the great and privy council. 1171. Expedition of Henry to Ireland. A bull of Adrian IV. in 1157 had given this country to Henry, but no use had been made of the authority until Dermod, king of Leinster, fled to Henry, did him homage, and sought aid in his wars. Aid was sent in 1169, and in 1171 Henry went in person. Richard of Clare (Strongbow), son-in-law of Dermod, made earl of Leinster. The southeastern part of Ireland submitted to Henry. 1172. Absolution of Henry. Penance at Becket's tomb, 1174. 1173. Rebellion of Henry's eldest son Henry, and general league of French and English lords, Louis VII. and William the Lion of Scotland against the king. Defeat of Louis. Capture of William who was released only after acknowledging Henry as his suzerain (1175). Death of Henry the younger, 1183. 1181. Assize of arms. Restoration of militia service. 1189. Conspiracy of Henry's sons, Richard and John, with Philip of France. Humiliation and death of Henry II. 1189-1199. Richard I., Cceur-de-Lion. His reign was passed almost entirely away from England. Crusade (p. 215). On his return Richard v/as captured by Leopold of Austria, delivered to the emperor, and detained thirteen months in captivity, being released at last for a heavy ransom. During his absence Eleanor, his mother, was regent. Persecution of tho Jews. The intrigues of Philip of France and the king's brother John resulted in war in England, which was quickly suppressed after the return of Richard (1194). For the rest of his reign Richard was in France at war with Philip. Erection of the Chateau Gaillard on tho Seine. Death of Richard before the castle of Chalus-Chabrol (1199), A. D. England. 233 During his absence England was governed by Hubert Walter, and after his resignation in consequence of a refusal of money by the great council, by Geoffrey Fitz Peter. 1199-1216. John Lackland. John was recognized in England without opposition and secured Normandy, but Anjou, Maine and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur son of Geoffrey. 1203. Death of Arthur while in John's power. Philip at once secured the sentence of John and the forfeiture of his fiefs. Nor- mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and a part of Aquitaine were at once lost to John. Henceforward Jolm was restricted to his English king- dom. The death of Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205) was followed by a disputed election. A reference to Rome resulted in the election of Stephen Langton by command of Innocent III. (1207). John refused to receive him and the kingdom was visited with an interdict (1208). Moved by fear of deposition, John finally yielded, received Langton, and accepted his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). John's exactions and misgovernment had embroiled him with the barons since 1199. Refusal of the barons to follow John to France (1213). 1214. Defeat of John at Bouvines in Flanders (p. 227). On John's return negotiations were opened with the barons, but failed, and the confederated lords occupied London. 12] 5- Magna Charta granted by John at Runnymede. June The provisions of this charter applied to the commons 15-23. as well as to the nobles and clergy, and directed that its benefits should reach the lower tenants.^ Principal provisions : 1. Ratification of Henry's charter. 2. Security for personal freedom ; no freeman should " be taken, imprisoned or damaged in person or estate, but by the judgment of his peers " or " by the law of the land" (Art. 39).^ 3. Regulation of feudal dues and obligations. 4. Regulation of national taxation ; limitation of the aid (aux- illum) which could be collected without the consent of the great council to the three ancient and well known cases (ransom of the lord ; knighting of his eldest son ; marriage of his eldest daughter). 5. Specification of members of the great council, and of the cases for which, and manner in which it should be convened. The charter declared null and void by the Pope. Suspension of Langton. War soon broke* out ; the French party among the barons, declaring the crown forfeited, bestowed it upon Louis, son of Philip 1 Stubbs, Early Planta genets, 149. 2 Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisiatur aut utlaghetur aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur, nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum mittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum vel per legem terrse. 234 MedicBval History, A. D. of France, who in 1216 came to England. Death of John (October 19, 1216). 1216-1272. Henry III., of Winchester, son of John. The death of John was fatal to the hopes of Louis. The English party which secured the coronation of the nine-year old Henry, though small at first soon outnumbered the French. The de- feat of the French fleet off Thanet determined Louis to give up the contest and return to France. Regency of William Marshall (1216- 1219). The Magna Charta was twice reissued in a modified form. After the death of William Marshall, England was governed by Peter des Roches, Pandulf, the papal legate, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, and archbishop Langton, who had returned and soon super- seded Pandulf as legate (1221). Second coronation (1220). Third reissue of the charter (1223). Henry's personal government began in 1227, and soon involved the country in difficulties. Heavy taxa- tion necessitated by the demands of the Pope and by the foreign policy of the king. Fall of Hubert de Burgh (1232) ; of Peter des Roches (1234). Marriage of Henry to Eleanor of Provence (1236). Struggle over the money grants in the great council, which hence- forward was called Parliament. Papal exactions of enormous sums of money. Of the French possessions of the Angevines Henry had retained only Aquitaine and Gascony. 1253. Return of Simon, of Montfort, earl of Leicester (son of Simon of Montfort, who had led the crusade against the Albi- genses), to England from the government of Gascony. Simon soon took a prominent part in the parliamentary struggle which now as- sumed formidable proportions. 1258. Parliament of Oxford. The barons presented a list of griev- ances, the Provisions of Oxford, the reforms demanded in which were to be carried out under a commission of twenty-four barons. Permanent council of fifteen barons to meet three times a year. 1263. Outbreak of war between the king and the barons. Arbitra- tion of Louis IX. of France (1264). Provisions of Oxford annulled. This decision resulted in a renewal of the war. The king and his son Edward were defeated in the 1264. Battle of Lewes. May 14. Treaty {Mise of Lewes) between the parties. Native coun- selors presented and a new council arranged by a parlia- ment in which four knights from each shire were added to the clergy and nobility. Council of Nine. 1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort, the first Parliament Jan, 20. to which representatives of the boroughs were called (yet this did not become a legal custom until in the next reign). Edward released. Arms were again taken up. In the 1265. Battle of Evesham, Aug. 4. Earl Simon was defeated and fell on the field. Death of Henry (Nov. 16, 1272). In this reign the begging friars came to England. Revival of A. D. The North. 235 scholasticism. Fame of Oxford. Roger Bacon, author of Opus Magnum, "the encyclopsedia of the thirteenth century." Mathew Paris. Revival of Welsh literature. Mahinogion. Geoffrey of Mon- mouth. Romances of J. rf A wr. (See p. 263.) § 5. THE NORTH. Denmark. (See p. 208.) 1134-1397. The extinction of the direct line of Estridsen (p. 208) was followed by a period of confusion and wars over the succession (Erik Emun, 1134-1137, Erik Lamb, 1137-1147) until, 1157-1182. Waldemar I., the Great, was elected to the throne. Subjugation of the Wends, who had long harassed Denmark. Capture of Ancona on the island of Rilgen. Suppression of a revolt in Skaania, caused by the severity of bishop Ahsalon. Waldemar's son 1182-1202. KnutVI. was even more successful than his father, and refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of the emperor, Frederic Barharossa, as Waldemar had done. Defeat of a naval expedition of the Wends, who received aid from the emperor, by bishop Ahsalon (1184) ; Hither Pommerania submitted, as did a part of Mecklenburg. Knut, " King of the Slavs." Expedition to Esthonia. War with the count of Holstein and other German princes. Conquest of Lubeck and Ham- burg. Capture of Adolf of Holstein. Quarrel with Philip Augustus of France over his treatment of Ingebord (p. 226) c Knut was suc- ceeded by liis brother, 1202-1241. Waldemar II., the Conqueror, the first portion of whose reign forms one of the most bril- liant epochs of Danish history. Adolf of Holstein released on condi- tion of ceding all Holstein to Waldemar, who granted it as a fief to his nephew, Albert of Orlamund. Unsuccessful interference in Nor- way and Sweden. Conquest of Oesel and of a large part of Prussia. In return for his recognition of Frederic II. over his rivals as em- peror, Waldemar obtained a cession of all conquests in Germany, north of the Elbe and the Elde (Holstein, Lauenburg, part of Meck- lenburg). Expedition to Esthonia. The Danneborg, or national standard (1219). Waldemar's power fell more rapidly than it was accjuired. In 1223 the king and his son were treacherously captured by Henry, count of Schwerin, and imprisoned in the castle of Danne- borg, in Hanover, for three years. Waldemar obtained his release by the payment of a heavy ransom, and the renunciation of all his con- quests south of the Elbe, and in the Slavic countries. Holstein ceded to Adolf the Young (1225). This renunciation was annulled by the Pope, and Waldemar tried to regain Holstein, but was defeated in the battle of Bornhceved (1227). The rest of his reign was passed for the most part in peace. He died in 1241. Of all his con- 236 Mediceval History. A. d. quests only Riigen, some places in Mecklenburg, Prussia, Estho- nia, remained to Denmark. Waldemar's code of laws. Waldemar was twice married : 1. Margrete of Bohemia, a well-beloved princess (Dagmar). 2. Berengaria of Portugal, by wliom he had three sons who mounted the throne in succession. Waldemar committed the political blunder of dividing the kingdom among his sons so that the nominal king possessed only a small part of the monarchy ; ScUesioig was conferred on Ahel. This led to disputes, so that the following period was one of civil strife, wars of succession, murder, and exile of kings. ^En^ (1241-1250). ^&eZ (1250-1252). In this reign the towns began to send representatives to the council (Danehof). Christopher (1252-1259). War about Schlesioig, the king claiming that it had been granted to Abel as a personal fief, while the descen- dants of Abel declared that it was an hereditary fief. Conflict with the archbishop Jacob Erlandsen. Erik Glipping (1259-1286). Oc- cupation of Schleswig. Erik Menved (1286-1319). Regency of the queen mother. Miserable condition of Denmark. The larger part of the kingdom granted out to Danish and German nobles. Chris- topher II. (1320-1334). The nobles and clergy extorted from the king certain capitulations, which materially weakened the power of the crown for 340 years. Confirmation of privileges of the clergy. No ecclesiastic could be tried in a secular court, neither could the tenants of ecclesiastical foundations. No bishop could be imprisoned without the consent of the Pope. The property and persons of the clergy were free from all taxation. The nobles could not be com- pelled to follow the king beyond the limits of the kingdom ; if they were captured in war the crown was obliged to ransom them within a year, or lose the right of holdmg them to military service. The king could declare war only with the consent of the nobles and clergy. No person could be imprisoned without having been tried and con- demned in a local court and in the king's court, whence an appeal lay to the national Diet. Laws could be made, repealed, and amended, only upon the motion of the nobles in the annual Diet, and with the consent of the whole nation. Peasants must not be unjustly treated by the king's agents, nor compelled to carry the king's baggage be- yond their own township. Commerce should be free and not bur- dened with extraordinary dues. War with Geert, count of Holstein, who invaded the kingdom, and with the aid of discontented nobles drove Christopher from the kingdom. Election of Waldemar, duke of Schleswig ; soon after, Christopher, by great concessions, acquired the crown again. Eight years of anarchy (1332-1340). Skaania, Hal- land, Bleking attached themselves to Sweden. After the death of Geert, the youngest son of Christopher, • 1340-1375. Waldemar III., Attadag, was made king, and devoted himself to acquiring, by pur- chase or by force, the alienated crown lands, in which he met with success. In 1359 Waldemar regained Skaania, Halland, and Bleking from the Swedish king, Magnus Smek, and affianced his daughter Margaret to Hakon, son of the Swedish king. Denmark restored to her boundaries as they had been under Waldemar I. A, D. The North. 237 This success was followed by a general war with Sweden, Mecklen" hurg, the Hanseatic League, etc., wliich in spite of the sack of Copen= hagen ended disadvantageously for the Hanse towns, 1363. In 1368, however, the Hansa, in alliance with Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Sweden, began war again, and in 1370 obtained from the Danish es- tates a treaty which secured for them the most extensive commercial privileges. In 1372 Waldemar accepted this peace of Stralsund. In 1375 Waldemar died. Passing over the claim of Albert, duke of Mecklenburg, the son of Waldemar's eldest daughter, the estates elected the son of his youngest daughter Olaf, (1376-1387), then six years of age. In 1380 Olaf succeeded his father Hakon as king of Norway, and both lands were well governed by his mother Margaret, the regent, who, after Olafs death, 1387, was elected queen in both countries. In 1388, Sweden revolted against the king, Albert, and Margaret accepted an offer of the crown. In the battle of Falkoe- ping (1389), Albert was defeated and captured. In 1397, the three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar. {See p. 276.') Sweden. '{Seep. 208.) 1066-1397. After the death of Stenkil (p. 208), the country was distracted by wars between the Svea and the Gauta, which lasted, with slight inter- ruptions, for two hundred years ; whereby the people suffered greatly, the free peasants disappeared, and a nobility of warriors arose which was exempt from taxation and possessed its own juris- diction. These nobles acquired supremacy in the Diet, and re- duced the power of the king to a shadow. Under Erik IX., the Saint (1150-1162), Christianity was introduced throughout the king- dom. Establishment of the archbishopric of Upsala (1163). The family of the Bonder, which began with Erik the Saint, became ex- tinct with Erik Eriksson Lmspe (1223-1250). Under this family the power of the clergy had so increased that in 1248 they were forbid- den to take the oath of allegiance to the king. At the same time celibacy was introduced. The Bonder dynasty was succeeded by that of the Folkunger, which came to the throne with Waldemar (1250- 1275), son of Birger Jarl, who continued until his death (1266) the actual ruler of Sweden, as he had been under Erik Lcespe. Founda- tion of Stockholm (1255). Birger assigned his other sons large duchies in Sweden, thereby planting the seeds of future discord. In 1275, Waldemar was imprisoned by his brother Magnus, duke of Sodermanland, and remained a captive until his death (1302). Mag- nus (1279-1290) proved a good ruler and left a prosperous kingdom to his son Birger (1290-1319). The regent Torkel governed wisely until his fall in 1306, when war broke out between Birger and his brothers Erik and Waldemar. In 1317 Birger made his brothers pris- oners and starved them to death. This caused a popular revolt which expelled Birger and placed on the throne the son of Erik, Magnus Smek (1320-1363). During the regency Norioay fell to Magnus, through his maternal grandfather Hakon, and Skaania, 238 Mediceval History. A. Do Halland, and Bleking, which belonged to Denmark, but had been pawned to Holstein, submitted to Magnus, who paid the mortgage. Magnus, after he became of age (1333) made a poor ruler. In 1360, he surrendered Skaania, Halland, Bleking to Waldemar Attadag of Denmark, and betrothed liis son Hakon to Waldemar's daughter Margaret. In 1365 A Ibert of Mecklenburg was proclaimed king, and in the battle of Enkoeping (1365) captured Magnus who was released in 1371 upon making renunciation of the crown of Sweden. Albert (1365-1388) was king in name only, the power being in the hands of the nobles. In 1388 the nobles deposed the king and offered the crown to Margaret of Norway and Denmark, by whom it was ac- cepted. At the battle of Falkceping Albert was made prisoner and, after an imprisonment of six years, renounced the crown. In 1397 Sweden joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Calmar. (See p. 276.) Norway. (Seep. 209.) 1103-1397. After the death of Magnus Barfod in Ireland (p. 209), his three sons Ejsten, Sigurd, and Olaf, reigned in conjunction until the death of Ejsten and Olaf left Sigurd sole ruler. Sigurd made a pilgrim- age to Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Magnus the Blind, who m 1134 was obliged to cede half the kingdom to Harald Gille, who came from Ireland and claimed to be a son of Magnus Barfod. There followed a wretched period of civil war ; strife between the Birkebenerne, or national party, and the Baglerne, or clerical party, in which the former finally got the upper hand. Magnus V. (1161- 1184), Sverre (1177-1202), Hakon HI. (1202-1204\ Guttorm the child (1204), Inge Baardsen (1204-1217). 1217 (1223)-1262. Hakon IV. son of Hakon III., grandson of Sverre. He crushed his rivals, weakened the power of the clergy, restored quiet to the country, and raised Norway once more to an influential position among European nations. Conquest of Iceland (1260) and submission of Greenland. Hakon died in 1262, after suffering a defeat at the hands of the Scots in an expedition which he had undertaken against Scotland. He was followed by his son Magnus Lagaboeter (1262-1280) who ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland. Collection and publication of a new code of laws (1264^1279). Erik Priest-hater (1280-1299). War with Denmark over the dowry of his mother, Ingeborg. War with the Hanse towns, wherein the king was worsted and obliged to grant the towns full privileges in Norway, and to join the league. Death of Margaret (" The Maid of Norway "), daughter of Erik, and granddaughter on her mother's side of Alexander III. of Scot- land, while on her way to claim that crown after the latter's death. Hakon F. (1299-1319). War with Sweden and Denmark. Dying without male issue, he left the crown to his daughter's son, Magnus, king of Sweden, who ascended the throne in 1320. In 1350 Magnus bestowed the crown of Norway on his son Hakon VI. (1350-1380), who in 1362 became co-regent for Sweden. In 1363 Hakon married D. The North. 239 . ^ - re SB • t-'CD J^S' CO --I » 00 jf^ -! s Q O o £15 ■^ ^ ^ M CO to ?^i 09 CD S CO CO § _ • 2. H P p IKi P P! 00 . o CO CO o 00 CO iH H CO •t 00 (M CO fl o •iH OQ . CQ lO 00 O O r-l PI CQ H H H © Ot rd •IH Eh 3 ^ Si 3 P4 r-t>- H o . — § ff« CO T-i 1 CO Til iH CO P4 g — -- !;5 o CD 3 si -Si OS ^ c OS '^ eS '"''fab 1^. s H OQ - CO Blanche. Philip. i o •3 O irgaret. ouis III. i t-i 2 pci M o hi 13 !3 pu n 13 ^ •25 « 6 m 0) -in 1 03 a « .•*:} ft O >^ -i-i -tJ M w « ,s H-l O 3 M ^a O) _a m +j fcJ3 s _C O M j« ^ r^ o o CD 03 £ -O HH pO cS • h-l A. D. France. 257 1328-1498 (1589). House of Valois, a younger line of the Capets, succeeded. Louis Vni., 1223-1226. Iiouis IX., St. Louis, Charles, count of Anjou and Provence, 1226-1270. ancestor of the kings of Naples. I Philip III., le Hardi, Robert (6th son), count of Clermont, 1270-1285. ancestor of the Boiirbous. I Philip IV., le Bel, Charles, count of Valois, Louis, count of Ev- 1285-1314. ancestor of the house of reux. j Valois. I XjOiusX., Philip v., Charles IV., Isabelle | le Hutin. le Long. le Bel. m. Ed- Philip VI., 1314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328. ward II. 1328-1350. I I of England. I daughters, daughter. | | Edward III., John II., " j of England. le Bon, Jeanne, John, 1350-1364. queen of 1316. Navarre. lived seven days. 1328-1350. Philip VI., nephew of Philip IV. Philip was the choice of the feudal barons, who had regaiaed somewhat of their old power since the death of Philip the Fair, but his tyramiy alienated his vassals, while his oppressive exactions ham- pered trade and deprived him of the hearty support of the cities. Quarrel with Edward III. of England, springing out of the claim of the English sovereign to the French crown tlirough his mother, Isa- belle, daughter of Philip IV. (see the genealogy). Alliance with Scotland. Outbreak of the 1339-1453. Hundred years War between France and England. (Froissart 1337-1410 (?), chronicler of the war.) Naval victory of the English and their allies, the Flemish (Jacob van Artevelde}, at Sluys (1340). Contested succession in Brittany ; John de Montfort, one claimant, obtained the aid of Edward, and recognized him as king of France. (Heroism of Marguerite, countess of Montfort.) Landing of Edward in Normandy (1346). 1346. Battle of Crecy, in Picardy. August 26. Victory of the English. Use of cannon (?). Death of the blind king, John of Bohemia, the father of Charles IV.i 1347. Capture of Calais (story of the intercession of Queen Philippd). 1 Recent investigators reject the story that the fifteen-j^ear-old Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), took from the helmet of the fallen king John, the devise "Ichdien." 17 258 Mediceval History. A. d. 1347-1349. Black Death in France. Acquisition of Montpcllier from James of Arragon, and of the Dauphine of Vienne from the last Dauphin, Humbert II. (who went into a monastery) by purchase. Vienne was given to Charles, son of John of Normandy, grandson of Philip. He took the title of Dauphin, and on his accession to the throne decreed that the Dauphine should never be united with the crown. Hence Dauphin became the title of the heir of the French crown. Origin of the practice of selling offices and titles. First imposition of the gahelle, a tax in the form of control of all salt works by the gov- ernment. Death of Philip, Aug. 22, 1350 ; he was followed by his son, 1350-1364. John II., le Bon. Feud with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre ; arrest and im- prisonment of Charles (1356). 1356. Battle of Poitiers (properly Maupertuis). Sept. 19. Victory of the Black Prmce with 10,000 men, over John with 50,000. Capture of John (a prisoner for four years). Meanwhile confusion reigned in France where the young Dau- phin, as regent, was unable to suppress the terrible civil con- flicts. 1357-1358. Insurrection of the bourgeoisie of Paris, led by Etienne Marcel, the provost of the traders {prevot des marchands), who entered into treasonable comiection with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. Meeting of the estates; abolition of abuses. Truce with England for two years. Murder of the marshalls of Champagne and Normandy in the regent's presence, by order of Marcel. The government in the hands of Marcel and a com- mittee of thirty-six. 1358. Peasant war, accompanied by horrible cruelties, known as the Jacquerie, under the lead of Guillaume Caillet, called Jacques Bonhomme, which afterwards became the nickname for the lower class in general, in France. Murder of Marcel in Paris. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (near Chartres). Edward received Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, in full sover- eignty, but renounced his claim to the French crown, and re- nounced also all other fiefs in France. Release of John, for a ransom. 1363. Burgundy occupied by John on the death of the queen and her son by her former marriage, Philip, duke of Burgundy, pass- ing over the claim of Charles of Navarre. The duchy was given to the king's son, Philip the Bold, founder of the Burgun- dian branch line of Valois. By his marriage with the heiress of Flanders, the new duke laid the foundation of the power of the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Return of John to captivity. He died April 8, 1364, and was followed by his son, 1364-1380. Charles V., le Sage, the Wise. In the war between Peter the CrueZ, of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Trastamara, Charles favored the latter, while the for- A. D. France. 259 mer was allied with the Black Prince. Expelled by Bertrand du Guesclin, Pedro was restored by the Black Prince (Battle of Najaray 1367). In 1369 Pedro was killed in personal com- bat with his brother. Reform of the coinage in France. 1369. Charles declared war on Edward. Du Guesclin (1313-1380), constable of France (1370). Most of the English possessions in France were again united with the crown of France. Death of the Black Prmce (1376). Death of Charles, Sept. 16, 1380. He was followed by his son, 1380-1422. Charles VI., then eleven years old. Quarrels of his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, of Burgundy, of Bourbon, and of Berry. 1386. Threatened invasion of England comes to naught. Revolt in Ghent under Philip van Artevelde. Crushed by Charles {De Clisson, constable) at the battle of Roosebec (1382) ; slaughter of the Flemings. Death of Van Artevelde. 1392. Charles being seized with madness, the regency was assumed by the dukes of Burgundy and Berry ^ setting aside the duke of Orleans, the brother of the king. Civil strife between the parties of Burgundy and Orleans (^Armagnacs ^). 1407. The duke of Orleans murdered by order of John, duke of Bur- gundy. Cabochians (from one Cahoche, a butcher) m Paris, overthrown by the Orleanists under the Dauphin. 1415. Henry V. of England, landing at Harfleur, captured that city Oct. 15. (Sept. 22), and in the Battle of Azincourt (Agincourt), he totally defeated a vastly superior French army. Capture of the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. Death of the Dauphin, of the king's second son, John, and of the duke of Berry. The queen, Isa- beau, of 'Bavaria, took refuge with the duke of Burgundy. Massacre of the Armagnacs at Paris, 1418. Rouen captured by the English. John the Fearless, dul^e of Burgundy, murdered at the bridge of Montereau by the followers of the Dauphin {Tanneguy DuchdteT). John's son, Philip, hereupon concluded, with the consent of the queen, the Treaty of Troyes with the English (1420). Henry V. married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and became regent and heir of France. Under John the Fearless (1371-1419) and his son, Philip the Good (1396-1467), the house of Burgundy reached the summit of its power. Philip made himself master of the inheritance of Jacqueline, daughter of William, count of Holland, although the emperor, Sigismund, had declared her lands to be vacant fiefs of the empire. Death of Henry V. of England (at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422), and of Charles VI. of France (Oct. 21, 1422). The latter was succeeded by his son, 1422-1461. Charles VII., who, for the present, was recognized south of the Loire only ; in the north Henry VI., infant king of England, was acknowledged 1 From Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the duke of Orleans, \rho became head of the Orleanists about 1410. 260 Mediceval History. A. d. lord. Duke of Bedford, regent in France, allied with the duke of Burgundy. Siege of Orleans (1428). 1429. Jeanne d'Arc (more properly, Dare), born in Domremy, on the left bank of the Meuse, convinced that she was chosen by Heaven to be the deliverer of France, succeeded in obtaining from the king permission to relieve Orleans, the accomplishment of which feat (April 29-May 8) earned for her the name Maid of Orleans {La Pucelle). The English driven back. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. Intrigues against Jeanne at the French court. Captured by the Bur- gundians at Compiegne (1430), she was delivered to the English, and, after a mock trial, condemned for sorcery, and burnt in Rouen (1431). 1435. The duke of Burgundy recognized Charles VII., on condition of receiving Auxerre, Macon, Peronne, Montdidier, and the towns on the Somme, and being released from feudal homage. Death of the duke of Bedford. 1436-1449. Period of inaction, utilized by Charles VII., for the in- troduction of reforms : establishment of a permanent tax to be levied by the king without the cooperation of the estates ; aboli- tion of the " free companies," and institution of regular companies, the beginning of standing armies (ordinance of Orleans, 1439). 1449-1461. Renewal of the war. After some fluctuations of fortune (Talbot inGuyenne; his death, 1453) the English lost all their possessions in France except Calais. 1453. Fall of Constantinople. End of the Eastern Empire. Introduction of Grecian scholars and Grecian writers into Eu- rope (p. 278). Death of Charles VII., July 22, 1461. He was succeeded by his son, 1461-1483. Louis XL, who by his shrewdness and perfidy annihilated the power of the great barons and laid the foundation of absolute monarchy. Revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. (issued in 1438 by the council of Bourges : declaration of the rights of the Galilean church ; limitation of the power of the papacy in France ; appeals to Rome forbidden). 1462. Acquisition of Roussillon and Cerdagne by mortgage. Re- demption of Amiens, Abbeville and St. Quentin from Bur- gundy. 1464. League of the Public Weal (Ligue du bienpublique), a conspiracy of the dukes of Brittany, Bourbon, Lorraine, Alencon, Berry, and the count of Charolois. Battle of MontVJiery. Louis broke up the league by the concessions of the treaty of Confians (restoration of the towns on the Somme, Normandy granted to the duke of Berry), the execution of which he evaded. Death of Philip of Bur- gundy ; accession of his son Charles the Bold {le Temeraire). Con- flict between the duke and the king. Meeting at Peronne (Oct. 1468). Storm of Liege. X475. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England in alliance with Burgundy. Meeting at Pequigny (near Amietis) between France. 261 262 Medimval History. A. D. Louis and Edward. Betrothal of the Dauphin Charles to Edward's eldest daughter. Peace between France and Burgundy. War of Charles the Bold with the Swiss cantons. Defeat of the duke in the 1476. Battle of G-ranson, in the March 1. June 22. Battle of Murten, (Morat) and in the 1477. Battle of Nancy, where Charles was slain. Jan. 5. The duchy of Burgundy united with the crown of France, as was likewise Anjou, Provence, and Maine through the extinction of the house of Anjou (1480). Annexation of Alent^on, Perche, Guyenne, during this reign. The king's servants : Olivier le Dain, Tristan VHermite. Death of Louis XI., Aug. 30, 1483. He was succeeded by his son, 1483-1498. Charles VIII. Death of the duke of Brittany (1488). The coalition of the emperor, Spain, and England to preserve the independence of the duchy bore no fruit. In 1491 Charles married Anne, daughter of the duke of Brittany. Peace of Senlis with the emperor (1493) ; peace of Etaples with England. Cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne to Spain. 1495. Rapid conquest of the kingdom of Naples which Charles claimed by inheritance through his father from Charles, count of Maine and Provence (see the genealogy), which, however, he was soon forced to abandon in consequence of a league between the Pope, the emperor, the duke of Milan, Venice, and Spain. (See p. 318.) § 3. ITALY. (Seep. 226.) Milan : since the time of the emperor Henry VII. (1308-1313) under the Visconti as imperial viceroys ; since 1395 as dukes. After the extinction of the line of the Visconti (1447) Milan became for a short time a republic. The condottieri Francesco Sforza, hus- band of a daughter of the last Visconti, who served in the pay of Milan, soon seized the power and became duke of Milan (1450). Venice : since 697 one state under a doge (dux) ; from about 1000 A. D., ruler of the Adriatic, increased in power and influence throughout the period of the crusades. Participation in the so-called fourth crusade (p. 216), under the doge Henry Dandolo, then ninety- four years of age. After the crusades and the war with Genoa, which lasted 125 years, Venice was mistress of the Mediterranean and the trade with the East, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Acquisition of Corfu 1387, of Cyprus by gift of Catharine Cornaro, 1489. The republic at the height of its power in the first half of the fifteenth century. Constitution strictly oligarchical. 1172. Establish- ment of the Great Council, with 450-500 members, followed by that of the Small Council (Signoria), which limited the power of the doges still more. 1298. Closing of the Great Council. Golden book of the nobility (1315). Conspiracies — among others that of the doge Marino Faliero (executed in 1355) — led to the creation of the power- ful Council of Ten. Since 1439 the three terrible state inquisitors. A.. D. England. 263 Genoa, since the reestablishment of the Greek empire in the East a powerful state, especially since the final victory over Pisa in Italy (Sardinia and Corsica) ; weakened by the war with Venice and by civil disturbances in the second half of the fifteenth century ; sub- jected now to Milan, now to France. In Florence, after long- civil contests, democracy and tyranny havmg ruled the city in turn since 1282, the family of Medici ac- quired princely rank, about 1400, and brought the city to its highest point of power. Giovanni de^ Medici, a rich banker, founder of the power of his family. His son, Cosimo (Cosmus), the father of his country (died 14G4). Under his grandson, Lorenzo (died 1492), de- velopment of the arts in Florence. Renovation of the sciences, advanced by Grecian scholars, who had fled from the Eastern Empire before the Turks. Dante Alighieri, author of the " Divine Comedy," born 1265, at Florence, where he played an important part in the political complications, banished 1302, died at Ravenna, September 14, 1321. Francesco Petrarca, the " father of the revival of learning " (1304-1374). Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1376), author of the "De- camerone." The Papal States, founded by the presents of Pipin and Charles the Great (p. 184) ; in the twelfth century increased by the bequest of the countess Matilda of Tuscany (p. 200) and other acquisitions ; since Innocent III. completely independent of the empire. Pope Boniface VIII. (1294^1303) at variance with Philip IV. of France (p. 254). His successor, Clement V. (a Frenchman), transferred the papal residence to Avignon. Residence of the Popes at 1309-1376. Avignon. (" Babylonish captivity.") At Rome the visionary tribune Cola di Rienzi (1347, papal senator 1354). Comtat Venaissin in the thirteenth century, Avignon in the fourteenth century, became the property of the papacy. From 1378 on there was one Pope at Rome, elected by the Italian cardinals, and one at Avignon, elected by the French cardinals, to which number the Council of Pisa (1409) added a third, until the Council of Constance restored the unity of the church (p. 251). (Great Schism, 1378-1417). At Naples, the house of Anjou : the elder line until 1382 (death of Queen Joan I.) ; the younger (Durazzo) until 1435 (death of Joan II.). (See the genealogy, p. 261.) Sicily, 1282-1295 united with Aragon ; 1295-1409 under a branch of the house of Aragon ; after 1409 again united vrith Aragon, whose king, Alphonso V. (1416-1458), conquered Naples in 1435. After his death (1458), Naples, hut not Sicily, descended to liis natural son (Ferdinand I.) and his successors ( — 1501). {Seep. 326.) § 4. ENGLAND. (Seep. £35.) 1272-1307. Edward I., Longshanks. The great events of this reign were the annexation of Wales to England and the introduction of financial, legal, and legislative reforms. 264 Mediceval History. A. d. Edward was returning from the (seventh) Crusade, when he heard of his accession at Capua. Devoting a year to Gascony, he reached England and was crowned in 1274. During the barons' wars Wales had become practically independ- ent, and Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, refused even nominal submission to Edward until 1276-1284. Conquest of Wales. 1277. Edward led an army into Wales, and forced the prince to cede the coast district as far as Conway, and do homage for the rest. 1282. Insurrection of Llewelyn and his brother David. After hard fighting, the death of Llewelyn (Dec, 1282) and the cap- ture of David (hanged, drawn, and quartered, Sept. 1283) led to the complete submission of the country. (No "Massacre of the Bards.") 1284. Annexation of Wales to England. After this the title " Prince of Wales " was generally given to the heir of the crown. 1289. Return of the king from a three years' absence in Gascony ; punishment of the oppressive judges. 1290. Expulsion of the Jews from England (over 16,000). 1291. Death of the queen, Eleanor (daughter of Ferdinand III. of Castile). Erection of crosses along the route by which the body was carried from Lincolnshire to London ; those at Northamp- ton and Waltham stUl exist. 1292. Baliol, whom Edward had decided to be the rightful heir to the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief and became king of Scotland. After the death of Alexander III. of Scotland the crown passed to his granddaughter Margaret, the Maid of Norway, to whom Edward had betrothed his son ; but she died on the voyage from Norway (1290), and thirteen claimants for the crown appeared. The Scottish estates being unable to decide between the two strongest claimants, Baliol and Bruce, referred the case to Edward. (See the gene- alogy.) 1293. Hostilities between English sailors from the Cinque Ports {Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, Romney) ^ and French mariners resulted in a naval battle. Philip IV. of France summoned Edward to Paris to answer for the occurrence. As a step in the negotiations the fortresses of Guyenne were temporarily placed in Philip's hands, whereupon he declared Edward contumacious and his fiefs forfeited. 1294. Rebellion of Madoc in Wales suppressed. 1294. War with Prance followed by war with Scotland, which joined France. 1296. Capture of Berwick ; massacre of the inhabitants. Defeat 1 These towns, to which Winchelsea^ Rye, and Seaford were afterwards added, possessed peculiar privileges. They were under the care of the Warden of the Cinque Ports ; their representatives in Parliament were known as barons. The towns were fortified under William I. A. D. England. 265 .aW 4^,S 6 en S o ^ ^ O E3 CO bC ^ a d o .1-1 m m o o o p! •i-i 4^ -P O O H . W -b bc *3 ASTIK f Abe nny. II o u o o <5ffl| >^ '^Z> ¥ pj o aw o ^ Inrl >S5 v0 .S t-s ■ >> Vj T-" • o -IJ cS f- (S w 5-^ •iH o CO > - O <35 OP _^ S o So ^ o w H O eS c3 s- !=i oi W-i 05 eS t> tens 5 — c4 • » ■< as FQ • S CO o 3 H -ls 2o r 5S O H 1— 1 fe S CO ^8- •s-^ • ^ M 266 Mediceval History. A. d. of the Scots at Dunbar. Baliol resigned the crown and was imprisoned. Scotch coronation stone carried to London. Scot- land under an English regent. 1297. Revolt of the Scots under Sir William Wallace. Defeat of the regent. Edward's demands for money from the clergy being refused (bull Clericis laicos, 1296), the recalcitrant clergy were placed under the ban. In 1297 the king summoned the barons to follow him to FlanderSo The resistance of the lords ended with the acquiescence of the king in the 1297. E.e-issue of the Great Charter and the forest charter {Confir- matio chartarum) with additional articles, by which the right of taxation without the consent of Parliament was renounced (1301). 1298. Truce with France enabled Edward to invade Scotland. At the July 22. Battle of Falkirk, the Scots under Wallace were completely defeated. Appeal to the Pope, who laid claim to the suzerainty over Scotland, — ■ a claim which was rejectod by the English lords in 1301. 1303. Peace of Amiens with France. Edward had previously mar- ried Margaret, sister of Philip IV., and betrothed his son Ed- ward to Philip's daughter Isabella. Invasion of Scotland. Submission of Bruce and Comyn. 1305. Execution of Wallace, who had been betrayed to the English. 1306. Opposing claims of Bruce and Comyn ; murder of Comyn, coronation of Robert Bruce (March 27). 1307. July 7. Death of Edward I., on liis way to Scotland. Legal and Legislative reforms under Edward. 1275. First statute of Westminster : a codification of previous stat- utes. Grant of a regular tax on exported wool, and of a fif- teenth of movable property. These forms of taxation, the in- direct customs duties, and the taxation of personal estate were intended to supplement the older land tax, which they grad- ually surpassed in importance. Separation of the old king's court into three tribunals : Court of Exchequer, for cases where the royal revenue was in- volved ; Court of King's Bench, with jurisdiction in all naatters concerning the sovereign, and in criminal cases espe- cially reserved for his decision (" pleas of the crown ") ; Court of Common Pleas, for cases between private individuals. Development of the jurisdiction of: 1. the royal council (later the " Star Chamber ") ; 2. of the Chancellor, in cases where relief could not be obtained by the ordinary or " common " law. This higher jurisdiction emanating directly from the sovereign was known as equity. 1279. Statute of Mortmain (de religiosis), forbidding the aliena- tion of land to religious bodies (whereby it became free from feudal dues) without the permission of the king. A. D. England. 2'67 1285. Statute of "Winchester, regulating the militia and the pre- servation of public order. Conservators of the Peace (later called Justices of the Peace} appointed in every shire to execute the provisions of the statute. Second Statute of Westminster, amending the Statute of Mortmain. 1290. Third Statute of Westminster (Quia emptores), providing that when land was alienated the sub-tenant should hold directly of the overlord, and not of the tenant. 1295. Summons of the first perfect Parliament ; clergy, barons summoned severally by special writ ; commons sum- moned by writ to the sheriffs directing the election of two knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough. 1297. De Tallagio non Concedendo, prohibiting the imposition of taxation without the consent of Parliament. 1307-1327. Edward II„ fourth son of Edward I. Peace with Scotland ; Aymer de Valence, governor. Recall of the king's favorite. Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, who had been banished by Edward I. Marriage of Ed- ward II. with Isabella of France. Gaveston soon incurred the hatred of the barons, and he was banished (1308), soon, however, to be re- called. 1310. Government entrusted to twenty-one ordainers. 1311. Ordinances of the Parliament of 1311 presented by the ordainers. Reform of abuses ; punishment of favorites ; ap- pointment of great officers by and with the consent and approval of the barons ; consent of the barons necessary for declaration of war ; parliaments to be called every year. Execution of Gaveston (1312). The successes of Bruce in Scotland (capture of Linlithgow, 1311; Perth, 1312 ; Edinburgh, 1313 ; siege of Stirling, 1314) produced a temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons. Edward marched to Scotland with 100,000 men, and in the 1314. Battle of Bannockburn, June 24. was totally defeated by 30,000 foot-soldiers under Robert Bruce. The king's new favorites, the two Despensers, father and son, were as displeasing to the nobility as Gaveston had been ; in 1321 Parlia- ment decreed the exile of the favorites. Edward showed unexpected energy ; at the battle of Boroughhridge, the earl of Lancaster, the leader of the barons, was defeated and captured (executed March, 1322). Repeal of the ordinances of 1311. After an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland, 1323. Edward concluded peace for thirteen years with Bruce, whose assumption of the royal title was passed over in silence. Isabella, sent to France in 1325 to treat with Charles IV., concern- ing the English fiefs in France, intrigued with Roger Mortimer and other hostile barons, and in 1326 landed in England. Capture of Bristol J execution of the Despensers ; imprisoinneiit of the king. 268 Mediceval History. A. D. 1327. Deposition of Edward II., in parliament; accession of his son, Edward. Edward, imprisoned in Berkeley Castle, was thjero murdered, Sept. 21, 1327. 1327-1377. Edward III. Council of regency (earl of Lancaster), Edward being but fifteen years of age. The queen and Mortimer the true rulers. 1328. Unsuccessful war with Scotland. James, earl of Douglas. Treaty of Northampton^ Bruce recognized as king, and feu- dal superiority of the English crown renounced. 1330. Edward took the government into his own hands. Execution of Mortimer. Imprisonment of the queen-mother. The death of Robert Bruce (1329) was followed by civil war in Scotland, during which Edward Baliol seized the crown ; Bruce 's infant son, David, fled to France. Baliol did homage to Edward, which induced a revolt of the Scottish nobles; Baliol driven over the border. Edward hastened north; defeat of the Scots in the 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill, near Berwick (henceforward this town belonged to England). Baliol restored to the Scottish throne. Scotland south of the Forth ceded to England, and homage rendered for the remainder. Alliance between the patriotic party in Scotland and France. 1337. War with France (the Hundred Years' War). Edward claimed the French crown in right of liis mother (see p. 257). 1341. Completion of the separation of parliament into an Upper House (Lords), composed of the nobility, and a Lower House (Commons), composed of the representatives of boroughs and the knights of shires. The process of separation had begun as far back as the reign of Edward I. The responsibility of ministers established by act of parliament (revoked by the king in the same year). 1342. David Bruce returned to Scotland and recovered the throne. Scotland henceforvo^ard independent. 1346. Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham ; defeat of the Scots ; capture of David II., who was retained in captivity until 1357. Battle of Creoy, p. 257. 1348-49. Black Death in England; more than a half of the popular tion perished. As the visitations of the plague were especially heavy among the lower classes, a scarcity of labor and rise of wages followed, which led to the passing of the Statute of Laborers, regulatmg wages. In the next year (1350) laborers were forbidden to leave their o^vn parish. 1356. Edward invaded and ravaged Scotland, but won no lasting suc- cess. Battle of Poitiers, p. 258. In 1357 David II. was ransomed. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (p. 258). Renunciation of the French crown and of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine. Cession in full sovereignty to England of Aquitaine (Gascony, Guyenne Poitou, Saintonge, the Limousin, the Angoumois, Perigord, Bi- gorre, Rouergue), Ponthieu, Guisnes, Calais. 1361. Return of the Black Death. Popular discontent. Preaching of John Ball. William Longland, author of PieVs Plovsr- man. A. D. England. 269 1369. Final visitation of the Black Death. 1370. Capture of Limoges by the Black Prince ; massacre of the in- habitants (death of the Black Prince, June 8, 1376). 1371. John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., married the daughter of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, and assumed the title of king of Castile. Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Bordeaux, Calais, and Bayonne. Peace for three years (1374). 1376. The Good Parliament. Opposition of William of Wykeham and Peter de la Mare (Speaker of the Commons) to John of Gaunt. Punishment of favorites, reformation of the arbitrary royal council (^Concilium Ordinariurri) . After the dissolution of the parliament John of Gaunt disregarded its enactments ; to WilHam of Wykeham he opposed John Wiolif (1327-1384), who taught that the property of the clergy was at the disposal of the crown. 1377, June 20. Death of Edward III. During this reign the crime of treason was defined by the Statute of Treason (1351) ; transfer of a suit to foreign courts was pro- hibited (1353, future Statute of Prcemunire) ; Parliament acquired the power of impeachment; trial by jury assumed a more modern form (separation of the old jury into a jury proper, and witnesses) ; a poll- tax was introduced (1377) ; English was directed to be used in courts of law (1361). In Ireland, the Statute of Kilkenny (1367) prohibited intermarriage of the English and Irish, and supplanted the native lan- guage and customs by English. 1377-1399. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, twelve years old. The king was in the hands of Parliament, and his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster (John of Gaunt), York, and Gloucester, were excluded from the re- gency. The war with France and Scotland requiring money, a poll- tax was assessed in 1379, and again in 1380. 1381. Revolt of the peasants under John Ball and Wat Tyler; capture of London ; burnmg of the duke of Lancaster's palace, the Savoy. Wat Tyler killed by Walworth, mayor of London. Suppression of the revolt. Disregard of the charter abolishing serfdom, which Richard had at first granted. Villanage was, however, doomed. Wyclif 's doctrines spread by his " poor preachers." Denial of Transubstantiation (1381). Wiclif's adherents nicknamed Lollards by their opponents. Wiclif's translation of the Bible. 1388. Battle of Chevy Chase (Otterburne), between Lord Henry Percy and the earl of Douglas ; defeat of the English. {Ballad of Chevy Chase). Quarrel between Richard and his favorites, (Robert de Vere, Michael de la Pole), and the parliament. In 1386, Continual Council under the duke of Gloucester, for one year. Defeat of the king ; impeach- ment of Vere and others, before the " Wonderful " Parliament (13883- In 1389 Richard took the government into his own hands. 270 Mediceval History. A. d. 1393. Statute of Praemunire, prohibiting the introduction of papal bulls. 1396. Richard married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and concluded peace for 26 years. 1397. Imprisonment (and death) of the duke of Gloucester. Im- peachment of the earls of Arundel, Warwick, Nottingham, Derby. Arundel was executed ; Warwick imprisoned for life ; Nottingham was made duke of Norfolk ; Derby (Henry Bo- lingbroke, son of John of Gaunt), duke of Hereford. 1398. Quarrel between Hereford and Norfolk. The king forbade their combat, and banished Norfolk for life, Hereford for six years. Richard made an expedition to Ireland, where the isolation of the English who were settled withm the conquered district, the so-called English Pale (Drogheda, Dublin, Wexford, Water- ford, Cork) had rendered them almost independent of England. During his absence 1399. Henry Bolingbroke, since the death of his father, duke of Lancaster, landed in England. Richard returned from Ire- land, only to be captured, deposed, and imprisoned in the castle of Pontefract (murdered?). Geoffrey Chaucer (died 1400), Canterbury Tales. 1399-1461. House of Lancaster, a branch of the house of Plantagenet. 1399-1413. Henry IV., under which name the duke of Lancaster ascended the throne, the claims of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the true heir, being passed over. 1400. Conspiracy of the earls of Rutland, Huntingdon, Salisbury, Kent, and Spencer suppressed. Revolt of Wales under Owen Glendower ; defeat of Sir Edmund Mortimer (1402). 1402. A Scottish inroad under the earl of Douglas defeated at Hom^- ildon Hill. Capture of Douglas. As Henry refused to allow the ransom of Edmund Mortimer (he being the uncle of the young earl of March, the true heir to the crown), a conspiracy was formed against him by Harry Percy (Hot- spur), brother-in-law of Mortimer, to whose family the king was largely indebted for his throne, who induced liis father, the earl of Northum- berland, and his uncle, the earl of Worcester, to join with himself, Glen- dower, and Douglas, and take up arms. In the 1403. Battle of Shrewsbury, July 21. the conspirators were defeated. Harry Percy was killed and Douglas taken. Conspiracy of Mowbray and Scroop, archbishop of York ; execution of the conspirators. 1405. Capture of James, heir of the Scottish throne, while on his way to the court of France (James was the second son of Robert III. of Scotland ; the eldest, duke of Rothsay, had been starved to death by the king's brother, duke of Albany), and detained in Eng- land until 1423. A. D. England. 271 1408. Defeat of the earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolph at Bramham Moor; death of the former. 1413. March 20. Death of Henry IV. 1413-1422. Henry V., Monmouth. While prince, companion of wild rakes ; as king, energetic and brave. Trial and condemnation for heresy of Sir John Oldcastle (Lord Cobham), a friend of the king. Oldcastle escaped from prison, and a rising of the Lollards assumed formidable proportions ; it was, how- ever, easily suppressed. (Oldcastle captured and burned, 1417). 1415. Conspiracy of the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey detected. Execution of the conspirators. 1415-1420. War with France (p. 259). 1415. Oct. 25. Battle of Agincourt. 1417. Second invasion of France. In England, unsuccessful Scottish inroad ("The Foul Raid"). 1420. May 21. Peace of Troyes. Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles VII. of Jb ranee, and was accepted as regent and heir of the crown. 1421. Third invasion of France. Death of Henry at Vincennes, August 31, 1422. Use of English in the House of Commons. Sir Richard Whiiting<- ton, thrice lord mayor of London. 1422-1461. Henry VI.. Windsor. Not quite nine months old at his father's death. Parliament refused to appoint a regency, and named the king's uncle, duke of Gloucester, protector, in the absence of his brother, the duke of Bed- ford, who was regent in France. 1423. Liberation of James I. of Scotland, after the conclusion of an agreement with the English not to assist one another's enemies. 1422-1453. War in France. Expulsion of the English. (Joan of Arc.) See p. 260. 1437. James I. of Scotland murdered by the earl of Athol and Robert Grahame. 1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret, daughter of Rene, titular king of Naples and Jerusalem. Henry promised to re- store to Rene his hereditary lands of Anjou and Maine. This mar- riage was the work of William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk (soon made a duke), whose influence at court surpassed that of the earlier adviser. Cardinal Beaufort (died 1447). Arrest and suspicious death of the duke of Gloucester. The loss of Normandy was followed by the im- peachment of Suffolk, who was banished by Henry, but seized at sea and put to death (1450). 1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade (" Mortimer "). The insurgents occupied London and murdered Lord Say, one of the ministers. The rebellion was soon suppressed, and Cade, while in hiding, was killed by Alexander I den. The government now passed into the hands of Richard, duke of York, grandson of the ffh, son of Edward III., son of Anna Morti' 272 Mediceval History. A. D. mery heiress of the claims of the third liney who rettlrned to England from Ireland ; his power, however, was not enough to oust his rival, the duke of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, and in 1452 he was induced to dismiss his army, and then forced to swear allegiance. 1452. James II. of Scotland murdered William, earl of Douglas ; defection of the Douglases to England. 1453. Battle of Castillon in France. Death of Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury. Surrender of Bordeaux. Of all the English possessions in France Calais alone Tvas left in their hands. 1453. Birth of Prince Edward, son of Henry VI. Insanity of Henry. The duke of York protector. Imprisonment of Somerset. The recovery of the king in 1454 was followed by the restoration of Somerset to power. The duke of York, the earls of Salisbury and "Warwick, now took up arms against Henry and his advisers. 1455-1485. Wars of the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York (see the genealogical table). 1455. Battle of St. Albans. York victorious. Death of Somer- May 22. set ; capture of Henry. A hollow reconciliation (1458) was followed by a new resort to arms. At the battle of Bloreheath (Sept. 23, 1459), the Lancastrians were defeated. The victory was a barren one for York ; defection in his army caused him to abandon the contest and retire to Ireland. Flight of Yorkist leaders. York and his party attainted of treason by the ParHament of Coventry. 1460. Landing of the earls of Salisbury, March (afterwards Ed- ward IV.)f and Warwick, in England, In the 1460. Battle of Northampton, July 10. the Lancastrians were defeated ; capture of Henry ; flight of Margaret and her son to Scotland. The duke of York entered London and preferred his claim to the crown. Parliament decided that he should succeed Henry. 1460. Battle of Wakefield. Dec. 30. Defeat of York by the queen and Prmce Edward. York fell on the field, the earl of Salisbury and the earl of Rutland, son of York, were killed. 1461. Battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford. Defeat of the Feb. 2. Lancastrians by the son of the duke of York, Edward, earl of March (now duke of York). Feb. 17. Second Battle of St. Albans. Defeat of the Yorkists under Warwick. Release of Henry. The earl of March, however, came to the rescue, joined the remnants of Warwick's army with his own, and entered London, where he was proclaimed king by acclamation, March 3, 1461. 1461-1485. House of York (branch line of the house of Plantagenet). 1461-1483. Edward IV. The early part of his reign was disturbed by constant attempts of the Lancastrians to overthrow the new dynasty. England, 273 274 Mediceval History. A. d. 1461, March 27. Battle of Ferry Bridge. Defeat of the Lancas- trians. March 29. Battle of Towton. After a most obstinate fight Ed- ward and Warwick prevailed, and the Lancastrians were totally defeated (said to have lost 28,000 men). Edward was crowned (June 28), and his brothers, George and Richard, were created dukes (Clarence and Gloucester). In 1462 Margaret obtained assistance from France, and made two' attempts to retrieve the Lancastrian cause, but both were unsuccessful. Henry retired to Wales ; Margaret to Lorraine. A final uprising of the Lancastrians was cv\xBh.e6.2Ji, Hedgeley Moor and at Hexham (1464). 1464. Secret marriage of Edward with Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Richard Woodville, baron Rivers, and widow of Sir John Grey, a Lancastrian. This marriage and the advancement conferred on the family of the new queen much exasperated the earl of War- wick and the other Yorkists. The dissatisfaction of Warwick was increased by the marriage of Edward's sister Margaret with the duke of Burgundy, and he intrigued with the duke of Clarence, giving him his daughter in marriage and promising him the crown. Revolt of "William of Rydesdale in 1469. Execution of the queen's father. Earl Rivers. Edward became reconciled with War- wick, but a victory over the insurgents at Stamford (" Loose-coat Field ") (1470) so strengthened the king that he proclaimed War- wick and Clarence traitors, and they fled to France. Reconciliation of Warwick and Margaret. 1470. Warwick landed in England, occupied London, and pro- claimed Henry (who had been imprisoned since 1465) king. Edward fled to Burgundy, but returning with assistance was well received, and joined by Clarence. Re-imprisonment of Henry. 1471, April 4. Battle of Barnet. The Lancastrians under Warwick (the king-maker) totally defeated. May 4. Battle of Tewksbury. Defeat of Margaret, who was captured ; murder of her son Edward. Henry VI. died in the Tower May 22, the day when Edward IV. reentered London. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward, who, in connivance with the duke of Burgundy, claimed the French crown. Subscriptions sup- posed to be voluntary (benevolences), without consent of Parlia- ment, now first introduced to raise money for this invasion. The war was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475). Truce for seven years ; payment of a large amuial sum to England ; ransom of Margaret ; betrothal of the dauphin to Edward's eldest daughter, ElizalDeth. 1478. Trial and condemnation of Clarence for treason. He was exe- cuted in the Tower. (Popular report that he was drowned in a butt of malmsey.) 1480. War with Scotland, which was ended by the Treaty of Fother- ingay, wherein Berwick was surrendered to the English. As Louis XL now refused to consent to the marriage of the dauphin L. D. Spanish Peninsula. 275 ;vith Edward's daughter, as arranged at the treaty of Peqnigny, Edward resolved on war, but died suddenly, April 9, 1483. 1483. April-June. Edward V. Richard, duke of Gloucester, regent for the thirteen-year-old king. The king and his brother, duke of York, confined in the Tower. Richard created protector. Execution of Lord Hastings. Grloucester advanced a claim to the crown, based on the asserted in- v^alidity of Edward IIL's marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. The 3laim being admitted by Parliament, Richard accepted the crown (June 26). 1483-1485. Richard III. The new king began his reign by a progress in the north. Murder of the two princes in the Tower (Tyrell and Dighton). The Duke of Buckingham (to whose services Richard largely owed the crown), headed an insurrection in favor of Henry, earl of Elichmond (great-great-grandson of John of Gaunt). Execution of Buckingham. Return of Richmond to France without landing. 1484. Confirmation of Richard's title by Parliament. The followmg table shows the derivation of Buckingham from Ed- ward III. : — Edward III. I |4 |6 John of Gaunt, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, by his 3d wife. | I Anne = Edmund, Earl of Stafford. John, Earl of Somerset. I I I Edmund, Duke of Somerset. Humphrey, Duke of Buckingham. r I I John Margaret ■ Humphrey, Lord Stafford. Margaret | I Henry, Duke of I Buckingham. Henry VII. In 1485 Richmond made another attempt, landed at Milford Haven, and completely defeated Richard in the 1485. Battle of Bosworth Field, Aug. 22. where Richard was slain. In 1471 William Caxton, printer, established a press at West- minster ; in 1474, he published " The Game and Playe of Chesse," the first book printed in England. (^See p. S33.) §5. SPANISH PENINSULA. {Seep.UO.) Spain. The Moors m Spain were, since 1238, confined to the kingdom of Granada, where agriculture, commerce, and industry flourished- 276 MedicBval History. A. D. Wars with the Christian ktagdoms, occasionally in alliance with Morocco. 1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with Castile. The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon during this period were in- volved in constant wars, ever renewed and of varying fortune, with the Moors and with one another. In both kingdoms bloody wars of succession and civil wars. Of the kings of Castile may be mentioned, in the thirteenth century Sancho 1 F., in the fourteenth Peter the Cruel and Henry the Bastard, the first of whom was aided, in his war with Henry for the throne, by England (victory of the Black Prince at Naj'ara, 1367), the latter by France. Mercenary bands or free companies, under Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369. Peter III. (1276-1285) of Aragon acquired the crown of Sicily, which he bequeathed to his second son, James, while his eldest son, Alphonso III., succeeded him in Aragon. His successor, Peter IV., curbed the excessive power of the nobility of Aragon. In 1410, after the extinction of the royal family of Catalonia, a Castilian prince, Fer- dinand, ascended the throne of Aragon. His grandson, Ferdinand the Catholic (1479-1516), by the marriage which he had made be- fore his elevation to the throne with Isabella, heiress of Castile, laid the foundation for the final union of the two kingdoms. Portugal. The legitimate line of Burgundy became extinct (1383), and was succeeded by the illegitimate Burgundian line. Heroic age of Portu- gal, which now reached its greatest power. Conquests, Ceuta, Tan- giers ; formation of a Christian kingdom of Algarhe on the northern coast of Africa. Voyages and discoveries (p. 279), under the patron- age of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460 ; discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira, 1418-19 ; Cape Verde, 1445 ; Azores, 1447; Cape Verde Isla^ids, 1455). {Seep. S28.^ § 6. THE NORTH AND EAST. Denmark, Norway, Sweden. {See p. 2Jf.O.) Each a united kingdom from about 850 on, converted to Christian- ity about 1000, these three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar (1397). Margaret, queen of Denmark, daughter of Walde- mar IV., married Hakon VI. of Norway, and after the death of Hakon succeeded to the throne, at first for her minor son (f 1387). The crown of Sweden was transferred to her by the estates of that king- dom. The union lasted (interrupted by Sweden) to 1524. {See p. 851.) Russia. From 862 to 1598, under the house of Rurik, converted by Vladimir the Great 988, soon divided into many principalities, which were ir theory subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kiev, but practically were A. D. The North and East. 277 tolerably independent. During the supremacy of the Mongols in Rus- sia, which endured 250 years, there grew up a new grand principal- ity, that of Moscow, which after the devastation of Kiev by the Mongols (1239), and its conquest by the Lithuanians (1320, p. 169), became the national centre of Russia. After a long contest the Mongol supremacy in Russia was overthrown (1480) by Ivan IH., the Great, the founder of the united monarchy. Republic of Nov- gorod subjugated (1478). (Seep. 352.) Poland. Under the Piasts (840-1370, Christian about 1000) involved in war with Germany, with the heathen Prussians (later with the Teu- tonic knights), and with Russia. The last king of tliis house was Casimir the Great. Short union with Hungary under Louis the Great (1370-1382). Louis' younger daughter, Hedwig, married the grand duke of Lithuania, Vladislav II. Jagello, whereby Poland and Lithu- ania -were united under the house of Jagello from 1386 to 1572. Conversion of Lithuania. {See p. 352.) Prussia. Conquered in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic order (p. 218), since 1309 residence of the grand master at Marienburg. The order attained its greatest power under Winrich von Kniprode (1351— 1382) ; beginning of a gradual decline. Defeat of the order by the Poles at Tannenberg (1410). The energy and daring of Henry of Plauen brought about the ad- vantageous first peace of Thorn (1411). The revolt of the Prussian nobles in the country and the cities and their alliance with Poland led to the second peace of Thorn (1466) : West Prussia and Ermeland ceded to Poland ; the order retained East Prussia as a Polish fief. Hungary. Toward the close of the ninth century Hungary was occupied by the Finnish i tribe of Magyars (p. 193) ; until 1301 under the reign- ing house of the Arpads. Introduction of Christianity by the duke Geisa and liis son St. Stephan, the first king of Hungary (crowned 1000). Extensive inmiigration of Germans. Ecclesiastical division of the country into ten bishoprics ; political division into seventy-two counties (Gespanschaften). Formation of a powerful aristocracy (Magnats). The Golden Bull extorted from King Andrew II. (con- temporary of the emperor Frederic II.), after his return from a cru- sade (p. 216), is the foundation of the privileges of tlie Hungarian nobility. After the extinction of the Arpads, Hungary came under the house of Anjou (1308-1382). Period of greatest power under Louis the Great (1342-1382), who in 1370, succeeded to the throne of Poland also. Under Sigismund of the house of Luxemburg (1387-1437), be- 1 Vambery, Ursprung d. Magyaren, endeavors to prove the Turkish origin of this people ; they were, at all eveuts, Turanian. — Trans. 278 Mediceval History. A. d. ginning of the decline of the kingdom. Albert of Austria (1438- 1439), and afterwards, Vladislav III. of Poland, elected king ; the latter fell at Varna (1444) in battle against the Turks, whereupon Albert's minor son, Ladislaus Postumus, succeeded. The chancellor of the kingdom, John Hunyadi, defeated the Turks at Belgrade (1456). After his death and that of Ladislaus, Hunyadi's son, Matthias Cor- vinus, became king (1458-1490). After his brilliant reign Hungary- was united wdth Bohemia under Ladislaus II., of the house of Jagello, and the succession was secured to the archduke Maximilian of Aus- tria. (^Seep. 800.) Turks, Mongols, and the Eastern Empire. (Seep. 2^0.) Supremacy of the Osman (Ottoman) Turks, Turcoman nomads, founded in Asia Minor by Osman I., about 1300. His successors, Urchan, Murad I., and Bajazef I., extended Turkish power during the fourteenth century to the confines of Europe (Adrianople, residence of the sovereigns in 1365). The development of the Osmanic power was temporarily checked by the Mongols under Timur Lenk (i. e. the Lame), commonly called Tamerlane or Timur the Tatar, Bajazet being defeated and cap- tured in 1402 at Angora. One of Bajazet's successors, Muhammed II., destroyed the Eastern Empire, which had been under the rule of the Palceologi since 1261, by the 1453. Conquest of Constantinople. Flight of Grecian scholars to Italy, where they taught in the universities, and gave the impulse to a new study of Grecian literature. (Seep. 353.) China. (Seep. 242.) In 1403 the rebellious prince. Yen, succeeded to the throne under the name Yung-lo (1403-1425), and proved an efficient ruler, carry- ing his arms into Tatary, and annexing Cochin-China and Tonquin to China. Under Seuen-tih (1426-1436) Cochin-China revolted. Chingtung (1436-1465) fell into the hands of the Tatars in 1450, and remained a prisoner until released by a Chinese victory in 1457. The quiet reigns of Ching-hwa (1465-1488) and Hung-che (1488- 1506) were unmarked by important events. ' (See p. 354') Japan. (See p. 243.} Under the domination of the Ashikaga Shoguns (1336-1573), whose founder, Ashikaga-Taka-Uji, set up a rival emperor, Japan was under two dynasties, — the southern (legitimate) at Yoshino, the northern (usurpers) at Kioto; the true sovereigns, meantime, were the Shoguns at Kioto. The period is a dark one, filled with constant wars between the dynasties, and civil wars in Kioto. It is curious to reflect that in the midst of these wretched wars Columbus was sending messengers into the interior of Cuba charged with letters to the sovereign of Japan, whereby he hoped to open communication for Spain with a monarch whose power was as limit- less as his wealth. (See p. 355.) m MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PEACE OF WEST PHALIA (1492-1648). §1. INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, AND COLONIES. Three inventions, whose discovery belongs to the Middle Age, but which came into more common use at the beginning of the modern period, have played a very important part in the total change in society which followed. 1. The magnetic needle, probably early discovered by the Chinese, applied in navigation (compass) in the east in the thirteenth century; in the west at the beginning of the fourteenth (by Flavio Gioja ?). This mvention materially advanced the discoveries of the new era. 2. Gunpowder, probably introduced into Europe from Asia (China, India, Arabia). According to a tradi- tion whose truth can no longer be mamtained, invented by the monk, Berthold Schwarz, at Freiburg in the Breisgau, 1354 (?). It was first used in Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century. The new class of weapons thus introduced were at first in the highest degree imperfect, and of but little value ; but their improvement gradually brought about a complete revolution in military science and art, and thereby led to the destruction of chivalry. Standing armies took the place of the feudal levies, and aided the princes to triumph over the lower order of feudal nobility. 3. Printing (p. 253), which was more widely spread after the conquest of Mainz (1462), had scattered the assistants of Fust to various lands. This invention would, however, have very largely failed of its effect, but for the improvement made at about the same time in the manufacture of Paper. 1492. Discovery of America by Columbus (Colon), For details and the further course of discovery see page 282, etc. 1498. Ocean route to the East Indies discovered by Vasco da Gama. After the Canary Islands^ Madeira, and the Azores had been discov- ered by daring sailors (especially Italians) in the first half of the fourteenth century, but had smce been partially forgotten, the Portu- guese at the instance of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (p. 276), be- 280 Modern History. A. d. gan in 1415 to push southward along the coast of Africa in order to find the way to India. The death of Henry (1460) interrupted the prog- ress of discovery for a considerable time, but in 1486 Bartholomaeus Diaz reached Cabo tormentoso, called by John II., Cabo da buena esperanza (Cape of Good Hope), and in 1498 Vasco da Gaina landed on the coast of Malabar (Calicut, p. 353). (Martin Behaim of Nu- remberg, author of the celebrated globe still preserved in that city, which shows the state of geographical knowledge just before the dis- covery of America (1492), was in the service of the king of Portu- The Eastern trade (in silk, cotton, pearls, spices and other luxuries), had been carried on partly by land through central Asia, and partly across the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, and across Arabia and through the Persian Gulf. The conquests of Islam, and especially the •capture of Constantinople, had greatly diminished the number of prof- itable routes, so that the discovery of a new route became of great importance, especially to the maritime nations of western Europe who had been excluded from trade with the East, wherein the merchant republics of Italy, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, had grown rich and powerful. The Portuguese attempted the eastern route around Africa. Columbus found at the court of Spain patrons willing to try the experiment of a western route, at once (according to the data with which he reck- oned) shorter and simpler. The success of the Portuguese struck a mortal blow at the pros- perity of Alexandria and the great cities of Italy, and secured a monopoly of the Eastern trade to Portugal for one hundred years, after which it passed into the hands of the Dutch and English. The failure of Columbus had a still greater importance in history, disclosing a new world, where immigrants from the old should develop new political constitutions and new social conditions. The Portuguese power in the East Indies was founded by the vice- roy ^Zmeic^a (1504-1509), and especially by Albuquerque (1509-1515 ; see p. 353). 1519-1522. First voyage around the world under Fer- dinand Magalhaes (Magellan), a Portuguese who had entered the Spanish service. Passage to the Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Magalhaes was killed in 1521 on one of the Philippine Islands. §2. AMERICA. It is probable that as early as 1000 the Northmen, who had occu- pied Iceland since 874 and had thence made settlements in Greenland (985), had not only discovered but had tried to colonize the conti- nent of America (Vinland).^ 1 More than a dozen claims to the discovery or attempts at the discovery of America before Columbus have been preferred by various nationalities, a brief list of which is here appended: 1. St Brandan (565) and St. Maclovius ^ » ■ ^ o o g- O -^ pcj i-i p. p; S 2 ^ v/J I-; (-J -I 8» B «M £- o p- o 3 03 a 3 5^ p X JT o -^ & o OB O 9 < o 5' p* f ^1 P P 5 •^g 13-* -8 'TJ — a. S£ I— • CO o • P-t— I ^ <^ CT ^ 53 OQ fi IS* -S-. t3 ^ M I t^ O ?9 o a - p- p ■ i. ^ ^2~kSB • o • o c-" w 3 <1 w N in rt) M C^ M P^I^O H,^ O W ^•feH -l-w CO CO " d O 4^ CO o i-i» o S! CO « CO ^ M 2 c • s «, »*3 P OS • p !^ s o CI !^ CO o *^ !^ so 308 Modern History. a. d. was appointed imperial mathematician by him), but incapable of gov- erning. New quarrels over the ecclesiasticalreservation (p.306). The imperial city of Donamvorth, placed under the ban by the emperor, because a mob had disturbed a Catholic procession, was, in spite of the prohibition of the emperor, retained by Maximilian of Bavaria, who had executed the ban (1607). These troubles led to the forma- tion of a 1608. Protestant Union (leader, Frederic IV., elector Palatine)j which was opposed by the 1609. Catholic League (leader, Maximilian, duke of Bavaria). Both princes were of the house of Wittelsbach. Rudolf, from whom his brother, Matthias, had forced the cession of Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, hoping to conciliate the Bohe- mians gave them the 1609. Royal Charter (Majestdtsbrief), which permitted a free exer- cise of religion to the three estates of loj'ds, knights^ and roi/al cities. 1609. Beginning of the quarrel about the succession of Julich-Cleve on the death of John William, duke of Cleve. The elector of Brandenburg and the prince of Neuburg were the principal claimants. Rudolf, toward the close of his life, was forced by Matthias to ab- dicate the government of Bohemia. 1612-1619. Matthias, being childless, and having obtained the renunciation of his brothers, secured for his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, Carin- thia, and Carniola, who had been educated by the Jesuits in strict Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia and Hungary, in spite of the objections of the Protestant estates. § 4. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War is generally divided into four periods, which were properly as many different wars. The first two, the Bo- hemian and the Danish, had a predominant religious character ; they developed from the revolt in Bohemia to a general attack by Catholic Europe upon Protestant Europe. The latter two, the Sioedish and Sivedish-French, were political wars ; wars against the power of the house of Hapsburg, and wars of conquest on the part of Sweden and France upon German soil. 1. Period of "war in Bohemia and the County Palatine. (1618-1623.) Occasion : Closing of a Utraquist ^ church in the territory of the abbot of Braunau, and destruction of another in a city of the arch- lishop of Prague, that is, in the territory of ecclesiastical estates, whicli 1 Utraquist, that is, favoring communion in both kinds. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years^ War, 309 according to the view of the Protestants ought to be regarded as royal estates^ in accordance with the Bohemian constitution. ^ The irri- tation of the Bohemian Protestants (Utraquists) was increased by the transference of the administration of the country to ten governors, seven of whom were Catholics. Meeting of the defensors, and revolt in Prague, headed by count Matthias of Thurn, The governors, Mar- tinitz and Slawata, and the secretary, Fabricius, thrown from a win- dow in the palace of Prague, seventy feet into the ditch, but escaped with their lives (May 23, 1618). Thirty directors appointed by the rebels. The Protestant Union sent count Mansfeld to the aid of the Bohemians. From Silesia and Lusatia came troops under mar- grave John George of Jdgerndorf. The imperial forces were defeated by Mansfeld and count Thurn. The emperor Matthias died 1619. Count Thurn inarched upon Vienna. The Austrian estates, for the most part Protestants, threatened to join the Bohemians, and made rough demands upon Ferdinand, who, by his courage and the arrival of a few troops, was rescued from a dangerous situation. Thurn, who arrived before Vienna shortly afterwards, was soon obliged to retire by an unfavorable turn of the war in Bohemia. ^ Ferdinand went to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor by the other six electors. 1619-1637. Ferdinand II. Meantime the Bohemians had deposed him from the throne of Bohemia and elected the young Frederic V., elector palatine, the head of the Union and of the German Calvinists, son-in-law of James I., king of England. (" The Winter King ") . Count Thurn, for the second time before Vienna, allied with Beth- len Gabor, prince of Transylvania (Nov. 1619). Cold, want, and an inroad of an imperial partisan in Hungary, caused a retreat. Ferdinand leagued himself with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, head of the Catholic League, the friend of his youth, who helped him sub- due the Austrian estates, with Spain {Spinola invaded the county palatine; treaty of Ulm, July 3, 1620; neutrality of the Union se- cured), and with the Lutheran elector of Saxony, who re-subjugated Lusatia and Silesia. Maximilian of Bavaria, with the army of the League commanded by Tilly, marched to Bohemia and joined the imperial general Buquoy. They were victorious in the 1620, Nov. 8. . Battle on the White Hill over the troops of Frederic V., under the command of Chris- tian of Anhalt. Frederic was put under the ban, and his lands confis- cated ; he himself fled to Holland. Christian of Anhalt and John George of Brandenburg-Jiigerndorf, also put under the ban. Sub- jugation of the Bohemians, destruction of the Royal Charter, ex- ecution of the leading rebels, extirpation of Protestantism in Bohemia. Afterwards, violent anti-reformation in Austria, and, with less vio- lence, in Silesia. Dissolution of the Protestant Union and transfer of the seat of war 1 Cf. Gindely, Gesch. d. dreissigjdhr. Kriegs, vol. i. (1869), chap. 2. 2 Gindely, ii. (1878), chap. 2. 310 Modern History. A. D. to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the ban by Maximilian's general, Tilly (Jan Tzerklas, baron of Tilly, born 1559, in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops under Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mans/eld (April, 1622), de- feated the margrave of Baden-Durlach at Wimpfen (May), and Christian of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke and administra- tor of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Hbchst (June, 1622), and again at Stadtlohn m Westphalia (1623). 1623. Maximilian received the electoral vote belonging to Frederic V. and the Upper Palatinate ; Saxony obtained Lusatia for the present in pledge. 2. Danish Period. Seat of War in Lower Saxony. 1625-1629. Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the head of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. Albert of Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of an utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 1623 prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperial commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provi- sioned by a system of robbery. Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626), pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joined BetJden Gahor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christian of Brunswick had died in June of the same year. Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Barenberge, in Bruns- wick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627). Wallenstein alone conquered Schlesvng and Jutland, drove the dukes of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania to submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens de- fending themselves heroically for ten weeks. 1629. Peace of Ltibeck May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter re- ceived his lands back, but promised not to interfere in German affairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put un- der the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands. 1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution: 1. Agreeably to the ecclesias- tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored. This affected two archbishoprics : Magdeburg and Bremen ; twelve bis- hoprics; Minden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen^ Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the pos- session of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Lebus and Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations. 2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free exercise of religion ; all other " sects " were to be broken up. Be- ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops and those of the League. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War. 311 1630. Electoral Assembly at Regensburg (Ratisbon). The party of Bavaria and the League was hostile to Wallen- stein and took up a position of determined opposition to the too pow- erful general. An excuse was found in the loud and well founded complaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over the terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's army. The emperor consented to decree the dismissal of the general and a large part of the army. 1627-1631. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers and Guastalla. The former, supported by France (Richelieu himself took the field) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco (April 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap- tured Mantua. 3. Swedish Period (1630-1635). 1630. Gustavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on July, the coast of Pomerania. Object and grounds of his interference : protection of the oppressed Protestants ; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives ; the rejection of his mediation at the peace of LUbeck ; anxiety in regard to the maritime plans of the emperor. Political position of Sweden : Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, Livonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus ; Curland was under Swedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of the acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost made the Baltic a Swedish sea. Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty with France {Richelieu). Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania and marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The king went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege to Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. Negotiations with his brother-in-law, 'George William, elector of Bran- denburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. Spandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to the surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to main- tain the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empire, a sort of armed neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), and was with difficulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. Meanwhile 1631. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted May 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he could to check the outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed from one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathe- dral was consumed (Not by Tilly's command). ^ Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities 1 Probably the fire was set by previous agreement of the more determined portion of the defenders (FcUkenberg). Gf. Witticlx, Magdeburg, Gustav Adolf u. Tilly, vol. ii. 1874. » » :/» j 312 Modern History. A. d. and burned them. John George, elector of Saxony, formed an alli- ance with Gustavus Adolphus, who crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg. Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face. 1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld. Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and Franconia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt, Wurzburg, Hanau, Frank- fort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz, Winter quarters. Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Arnim (Boyt- zenhurg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor held fruitless negotiations with the Saxons. At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, and drove the Saxons from Boliemia. Their eagerness for the war and the Swedish alliance was already chilled. 1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He was seventy-tliree years old. Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingol- stadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to the assistance of Maximilian. 1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg. July-Sept. (Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's in- trenchments, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon and Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bands of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bern- hard of Saxe-Weimar in Arnstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenheim from Leipzig to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 Swedes). 1632. Battle of Liitzen. Death of G-ustavus Adol- phus.^ Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle with his cavalry, after three o'clock ; he was mortally wounded. The victory of the Swedes was completed by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. Bernhardt Gustavus Horn, and Baner took command of the Swedish forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assumed by the Swedish 1 The suspicion that the king was murdered bv Francis Albert, duke of Lau- enburg, is totally unfounded. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years^ War. 313 chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna (born 1583, councillor since 1609). League of Heilhronn between the circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper and Lower Rhine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. 1633. Expedition of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar to Franconia. He took Bamberg and Hochstadt, drove back the Bavarians under Aldringer, and joined fieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from the chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Wiirzburg and Bamberg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia, and occupied the upper Palatinate. Feb. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many of his officers in Prague, and had filled their places with new recruits, he marched to Silesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, and Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Nego- tiations with Oxenstierna. Oct. Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-the-Oder. Wallenstein invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and then plundered Lusatia. Nov. Regensburg (Ratisbon) captured by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. Wallenstein found himself unable to go to the assistance of the elector of Bavaria, as the emperor urged, and went into winter quarters in Bohemia. Growing estrangement between Wallenstein and the imperial court. The Spanish party and the league wished him removed from his com- mand. Wallenstein conducted secret negotiations with the Saxons, the Swedes, the French. He intended to create, with the help of the army (declaration of the generals Piccolomini, Gallas, and Aldringer ^ at Pilsen), an independent position for himself, whence he could, with the aid of the two north German electors, liberate the emperor from the control of the Spanish party, and, if necessary, compel him to make peace and reorganize the internal affairs of the empire (on the basis of a religious peace?). He had resolved upon open revolt if the hostile party continued in power. Whether he harbored a wish for the crown of Bohemia, along with other fantastic plans, it is hard to decide. The court of Vienna succeeded in detaching the principal generals (^Piccolomini, Gallas, Aldringer, Marradas, Colloredo^ from his cause. How, Trzka, Kinski, remained faithful. 1634. Imperial proclamation : " Friedland was concerned in a con- Jan. 24. spiracy to rob the emperor of his crown." The chief officers of the army commanded to no longer obey him. Feb. 18. Second proclamation, formally deposing Wallenstein. On the 24th Wallenstein went to Eger, where he was to be met by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and Arnim. There occurred the Feb. 25. Assassination of Wallenstein by captain Devereux, at the instigation of the Irish general, Butler, after his intimate friends had been treacherously massacred. The emperor had not commanded the murder, nor had he definitely desired it ; but he had given rein to the party which he knew wished " to bring in Wallenstein, alive or dead," and, after the deed was done, he rev/arded the murderers with honor and riches. 1634. Victory of the imperialists under Ferdinand, the emperor's son, and Gallas and the Bavarians [John of Werth), over the Swedes at Ndrdlingen. 314 Modern History. A. d. 1635. Peace of Prague, May 30. between the emperor and the elector of Saxony. 1. The elector received Lusatia permanently, and the archbishopric of Magdeburg for his second son, August, for life. 2. Those ecclesiastical estates, not held immediately of the emperor, which had been confis- cated before the convention of Passau (p. 305), should remain to the possessor forever ; all others should remain for forty years (from 1627), and in case no further understanding was reached before the expiration of that period, forever, in the condition in which they were on Nov. 12, 1627. 3. Amnesty, except for participants in the dis- turbances in Bohemia and the Palatinate ; common cause to be made against Sweden. The Lutherans alone to be allowed freedom of wor- ship. Brandenburg and the majority of the other Protestant estates accepted the peace. 4. Swedish-French period (1635-1648). The policy of Sweden was determined by Oxenstiernay that of France by Richelieu (f 1642), and afterwards by Mazarin. France fought at first in the person of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar only, with whom subsidy-treaties had been concluded, and who was trying to conquer himself a new state in Alsace, in place of the duchy of Franconia, which he had lost by the battle of Nordlingen. Capture of Breisach, 1638. After his death (1639) France took control of his army. 1636. Victory of the Swedes under Baner at Wittstook over the imperialists and the Saxons. Death of Ferdinand II. His son, 1637-1657. Ferdinand III., was desirous of peace. The ducal house of Pomerania became extinct (1637). After the death of Baner (1641) Torstenson became commander- in-chief of the Swedes. 1640. Death of George William. Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg. (The great elector, 1640-1688). 1641. Discussion of the preliminaries of peace in Hamburg. A con- gress agreed upon. 1642. Second Battle of Leipzig (Breitenfeld). Torstenson defeated the imperialists under Piccolomini. Torstenson threatened the hereditary estates of the emperor. These Swedish successes aroused the envy of Christian IV. of Denmarko Hence 1643-1645. War between Denmark and Sw^eden. 1643. Torstenson hastened by forced marches through Silesia, Sax- Sept, ony, Brunswick, to the north, conquered Holstein and Schles- wig, and invaded Jutland. Meanwhile the French in South Germany, under Marshall Gu^rianU had penetrated to Rottweil (Wiirtemberg). Guebriant fell in battle. Shortly afterwards the French, under Rantzau, were surprised at Duttlingen by an Austro-Bavarian army under Mercy and Werthf and totally defeated. A.. D. Germany. — Thirty Years* War. 315 1643. Opening of the negotiations for peace in Osnabriick with the Stvedes ; 1644 in Munster with the French. Marshal Turenne and the twenty-one-year-old prince of Bourbon, duke of Enghien, afterwards Prince of Conde, appointed commanders- in-chief of the French troops. They forced the 1644. Bavarians under Mercy to retreat. Conde captured Mann- heim, Speier, and Philippsburg. Turenne took Worms, Oppen- heim, Mainz, and Landau. Meanwhile an imperial army, under Gallas, had been sent to the aid of the Danes, who were hard pressed, both by land and by sea (by the Swedish admiral, Gustavus Wrangel). The im- 1645. perial force was repulsed by Torstenson and Konigsmark, pur- Jan, sued into Germany, and almost annihilated at Magdeburg. March. Brilliant victory of Torstenson over the imperialists at Jan- kau, not far from Tabor, in Bohemia, whereupon, in union with the prince of Transylvania, Rakoczy, he conquered the whole of Moravia, and advanced hard upon Vienna. May. Turenne defeated by John of Werth at Mergentheim, in Fran- conia. Aug. Turenne, at the head of the French and Hessians, defeated the Bavarians at Allersheim. Peace between Sweden and Denmark at Bromsebro (p. 352). After a futile siege of Briinn, the plague having broken out in his army, Torstenson returned to Bohemia. He resigned his command on account of illness, and was succeeded by Wrangel. 1646. Wrangel left Bohemia, united to his own force the Swedish troops under Konigsmark in Westphalia, and joined Turenne at Giessen. Swedes and French invaded Bavaria and forced the elector Maximilian to conclude the 1647. Truce of Ulm, and to renounce his alliance with the emperor, after Turenne had been recalled, from envy at the Swedish successes, and Wrangel had gone to Bohemia, Maximilian broke the truce and joined the imperialists again. 1648. Second invasion of Bavaria by the French and Swedes ; terrible ravages. A flood in the Inn prevented the further advance of the allies, who returned to the upper Palatinate. The Swedish general Konigsmark captured that part of Prague on the right bank of the Moldau (Kleinseite). Terrible condition of Germany. Irreparable losses of men and wealth. Reduction of population ; increase of poverty ; retrograda- tion in all ranks. 1648. Peace of Westphalia. Oct. 24. Negotiations from 1645-1648. Imperial ambassadors, count Trautmannsd orf a.nd Dr. Volmar. French, count d'Avaux and count Servien. Swedish, count Oxenstierna, son of the chancellor, and baron Salvius. France and Sweden, against the will of the emperor, secured the participation of the estates of the empire in the negotia* tions. 316 Modern History. A. d. Conditions of the Peace.^ A. Indemnijications. 1. Sw^eden received as a fief of the empire the whole of hither Pomerania and Riigen with a part of farther Pomerania (Stettin, Garz, Damm, GoUnow, WoUin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar, formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes. 2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty : the bishoprics and cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had been in French hands since 1552 ; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgravate of upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (prsefec- tura provincialis decem civitatum imperialium), with express acknowl- edgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of gar- risoning Philippshurg. 3. Hesse-Cassel : abbey of Hersfeld, Schaumburg, the fiefs of the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars. 4. Brandenburg : as indemnification for Pomerania which be- longed to Brandenburg by the law of inheritance, but of which it re- ceived the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of Halherstadt, Minden, and Camin as secular principalities, the arch- bishopric of Magdehurg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, durmg his life (t 1680). 5. Mecklenburg : the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzehurg as principalities. 6. Brunswick : alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osna- briick, where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate. B. Secular Affairs of the Empire. 1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Witteis- bach, while a new electorate (the eighth) was created for the Ru- dolfian line (Palatinate). 3. The territorial superiority (Landeshoheit) of the whole body of estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another and v/ith foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regenshurg developed the German constitution more in detail.) 4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247). 1 K. F. liichhom, Deutsche Staats- u. EechtsgescMchte, iv. § 522 foil. A. D. GerTnany. — Thirty Years' War. 317 C. Ecclesiastical Affairs {Gravamina ecclesiastica). 1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) were approved and extended so as to include the Calvinists. 2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality in all affairs of the empire. 3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of religion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they were to remain forever ; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Pro- testants in. Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but those evangelical states which had been gained by the anti-reformation during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Wiirtemberg, Baden, etc.) were allowed to resume the exercise of that religion wliich had been theirs in 1618. The jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by fiat the re- ligion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free ex- ercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and Catholics. France and Sweden guaranteed the peace. (See p. 371.) 318 Modern History. ▲. D. §5. FRANCE. {Seep.mS.) 1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and AngonlSme. Branch line of the house of Valois (since 1328, p. 257) whose relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : Charles V. (third king of the house of Valois). 1364-1380. Charles VL 1380-1422. Charles VII. 1422-1461. Xiouis XI. 1461-1483. Louis, duke of Orleans, f 1407. m. Valentine Visconti. ^1 Charles, duke of Orleans, t 1467. iiouis xn. 1498-1515. m. (^) Anna of Brittany, died without male issue. Charles Vm. m. Anna of Brit- tany. 1483-1498. died without male issue. John, count of Angouleme. t 1467. Charles, count of Angouleme. t 1496. m. Louise of Savoy. Claudia (2) Francis L 1515-1547. Henry II. 1547-1559. Catharine of Medici. I Francis II. 1559-1560 m. Mary Stuart. Elizabeth m. Philip II. king of Spain. Charles IX. 1560-1574. Henry III, 1574-1589. duke of Anjou ; king of Poland. Francis, duke of Alen^on and Anjou, t 1584. Margaret m. Henry IV. see p. 323. 1498-1515. Louis XII. obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI,, and married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep this duchy for the crown ; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid claim to Milan, drove out Ludovico Moro, who was imprisoned when he ventured to return to Milan (1500). 1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Ar- agon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up his claims to Naples. 1508. Louis a party in the League of Camhray, p. 300. In 1511 the Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat- A.. D. France, 819 ter, under the young Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, nephew of Louis XII., were at first successful in the war, taking Brescia (1512) by storm (Bayard, " without reproach or fear "), and defeating the united Spanish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 5000 German mercenaries, m the same year ; they were, however, compelled by the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian who had joined in 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 1513. Guinegate, called the " Battle of the Spurs " from the hasty Aug. 17. flight of the French. France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1513), with the emperor, and with Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was succeeded by his cousin, the Count of Angouleme^ who had married Claudia, daughter of Loms XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. As king the count of Angouleme is known as 1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, di&- solute. 1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignano Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva (Nov. 7, 1515) ; treaty of Fribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The lat- ter (la paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. 1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king ; the Pope on the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an cEcumenical council. 1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh- borhood of Calais. " Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. Cultivation of literature and the arts. Rabelais (1483-1553). Perse- cutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was succeeded by his son 1547-1559. Henry IL Growing power of the house of Guise (Frands^ duke of Guise^ and Charles f " Cardinal of Lorraine "). 820 Modern History. A. D. HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND GUISE. Ren^ le Bon, d. of Anjou and titular king of Naples and Sicily, m. Isabella, d. of Lorraine. Margaret, m. Henry VI., k. of England. John 11. , d. of Lor- raine and Bar. Nicolas, d. of Lorraine and Bar t 1473. no male issue. Yolande, d. of Lorraine, m. Ferri II., c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. Ren^ II., d. of Lorraine and Bar, c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. t 1508. I Antoine, d. of Lorraine and Bar. t 1544. Claude I., c. of Aumale, d. of Guise (1527). Francis I., d. of Lorraine and Bar. Francis, d. of Guise, mur- dered 1563. Charles, Card, of Lorraine. Claude, d. of Arnnale. Charles IL, d. of Lorraine and Bar. t 1608. I I Louis, Mary, m. Card, of James V. Guise, of Scot- land. Mary, queen of Scots. Henrj^ d. of Guise. t 1588. Charles, d. of Mayenne. Louis, Cardinal of Guise. t 1588. Henry's mistress, Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, ruled him almost absolutely. Montmorency, constable. Persecution of the Protestants in France ; assistance to German Protestants. 1547. Final union of Brittany with the French crown. DESCENT OF BRITTANY. Francis II. , d. of Brittany. t 1488. Charles Vin. = (i) Anne (2) = Louis XII., k. of France. k. of France. | Claude = Francis I. I Francis the dauphin. t 1536, without male issue. Henry II., k. of Franca A. D. France. 321 1552. War with Charles V. (p. 306.) Seizure of the three bishop- ries, Toul, Metz, Verdun. 1556-1559. War with Philip II. of Spain. The French defeated by the Spaniards with the aid of the English at 1557. St. Quentin (on the Sonune), and by count Egmont at Grave- lines (1558). 1558. Calais and Guines, the last English possessions in France, Jan. captured by Francis^ duke of Guise. 1559. Peace of Cateau-Camhresis : the French restored all their con- April, quests except Calais and the three bishoprics (Metz^ Toul and Verdun). Henry IL, who died of a wound received in a tourney, was succeeded by his three weak sons. 1559-1560. Francis II. (sixteen years old), the first husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, a niece of the Guises. Persecution of the Protestants {chambres ardentes). Cruel executions. The king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, struggled for power and influence against the Bourbon prmces, Anton (king of Na- varre) and Louis of Conde, descended from Louis IX. The Guises, at first rivals of the queen and then in alliance Mdth her, conducted all affairs of state and surpassed in influence their opponents, the Catholic constable Montmorency, and his nephews, the three brothers Chdtillon : Gaspard, admiral de Coligny (1517-1572), Francois d'Andelot, Cardi- nal Chdtillon, afterwards leaders of the Huguenots. De VHopital, chancellor. Conspiracy of Amboise (La Itenaudie) against the Guises defeated (1560). Death of Francis II. 1560-1574. Charles IX., ten years old, under the influence of his mother, Catha- rine de' Medici. 1562-1598. Wars of the Huguenots.^ Cruel persecutions compelled the Huguenots to take up arms. At the same time they became s. political party opposed to the Catho- lic par^y. The wars of the Huguenots were therefore not simply religious wars, but also political, civil wars, in which the leaders of both parties were endeavoring to take advantage of the weakness of the king and get control of the government. The first three wars form properly one war, interrupted by truces called peaces {Amboise, 1563, Longjumeau, 1568, St. Germain, 1570), which were without result. The conditional freedom of religious worship permitted the Hugue- nots was to be guaranteed by the surrender to them for two years, of the four strong towns La Rochelle, Cognac, Montauban, La Charite. 1572. Night of St. Bartholomew. Aug. 23-24. Murder of admiral Coligny and general massacre of Hu- guenots, vinder the conduct of Henry of Guise and Tavannes, on the occasion of the marriage of Henry of Bourbon, king of 1 Huguenots is said to be a nickname derived from King, Hugo, a spectre which, in the belief of the people, nightly haunted the streets of Paris ; whence the Protestants, from their nocturnal gatherings, were called Huguenots. Others derive the name from a corruption ot Eidgenossen, confederates. 21 S22 Modern History. A. D. Kavarre (son of Afiton, king of Navarre) with the sister of Charles IX., Margaret of Valois. Henry of Navarre saved his life by a pre- tended conversion to Catholicism. Over 3,000 Hugnenots were slain in the capital, in the whole of France about 30,000. This bloody deed ■led to the 1572-1573. Fourth Civil War. La Rochelle, besieged by Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., made a brave defense. The election of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Poland brought about a compromise. Edict of Boulogne (July 8, 1573) ended the war favorably to the Huguenots. Charles IX. died May 30, 1574. His brother, who fled from Po- land, became king. 1574-1589. Henry III., a debauched weakling. The fifth civil war, during which Henry of Navarre re-as- sumed the Protestant faith, was concluded (1576) by conditions more favorable to the Huguenots than those of any previous peace. Peace of Chastenoy ( Paix de Monsieur, after the duke of Alen9on) May 6, 1576. Hence dissatisfaction among the Catholics. Origin of the Holy League (1576) which in alliance with Philip II. of Spain purposed the annihilation of the reformed party, and the elevation of the Guises to the throne. The kmg, out of fear of the League pro- claimed himself its head and forbade the exercise of the Protestant religion throughout France. The Protestants and moderate Catho- lics had joined forces in 1575 by the confederation of Milhaud (po- litique-Huguenot) . Sixth Civil War, wherein the Huguenots were defeated, but ob- tained favorable terms at the peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers, Sept. 17, 1577), as the king was unwilling to let the League become too powerful. In spite of the renewal of the treaty of peace, not one of its articles was executed. This caused the Seventh Civil War {La guerre des amoureux) (1580), which was ended in the same year by the treaty of Fleix (near St. Foy), Nov. 26, in which the conditions granted the Huguenots in former treaties were confirmed. The death of Francis, duke of AlenQon (smce the accession of Henry III., duke of Anjou), the younger brother of the king, in 1584 rendered the extinction of the house of Valois certain. As it was the intention of the Leagvie to exclude from the throne Henry of Navarre, who belonged to the reformed religion, and to give the crown to the latter's uncle, the Cardinal of Bourbon, and as the League meantime induced the king to revoke the concessions granted to the Huguenots, there broke out the 1585-1589. Eighth Civil War called the War of the Three Henrys {Henry III. of Valois, Henry of Navarre, Henry of Guise). The Catholic party triumphed in spite of the victory of Coutras (Oct. 20, 1587), gained by Henry of Navarre. Formation of the League of Sixteen at Paris, which purposed the deposition of the weak king. Guise entered Paris, was received with ac- clamation (" King of Paris ") ; the timid resistance of the king was broken by a popular insurrection (day of the Barricades, May 12, A. D. France. 323 I « n -f » crib- 's 2. o o 2.2 2 ^S — ? i-p ;3i g*-sl- lis- P 'I- 1=1 I a — f O ffl o ii. £f- r-M l-'^:3 -<4- E 2 C_<3 ^S.2'3 h3 O -3 C |_.0 t-.!- o 2 &■ a"- - Ml . (» n> ^ 3 3 ST- rD ^ A tag2w o ^a> O -_td §a-S« - (B - • O i. td cd o "A 324 Modern History. A. d. 1588). Henry III. fled to Blois, where he summoned the estates of the kingdom {^tats-Generaux, States General). Finding no sup- port among them against the League, he caused Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis the Cardinal, to be murdered (Dec, 23, 1588). At this news, a revolt of the Cathohc party broke out, headed by the brother of the murdered men, the duke of Mayenne. Henry III. fled to Henry of Navarre in the Huguenot camp, where he was mur- dered before Paris, at St. Cloud, by the monk Jacques Clement (July 31, t Aug. 2). Death of Catharine de* Medici (Jan. 6, 1589). Michael Montaigne, 1533-1592. 1589-1792. (1830.) House of Bourbon descended from St. Louis IX.'s younger son Robert) count of Clermont, husband of Beatrice of Bourbon. 1589-1610. Henry IV. The Catholic party refused to recognize Henry and made the old cardinal of Bourbon king under the name of Charles X. (f 1590). Some wished the duke of Mayenne to be his successor, while others joined themselves to Philip II. of Spain, who laid claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by his third marriage with Eliz- abeth of Valois, sister of Hemy HI. Victory of Henry IV. over the duke of Mayenne at Arques (1589) and at the 1590. Battle of Ivry. March 14. Henry besieged Paris, which was relieved by Mayenne tunS. the duke of Parma. Henry abjured the reformed religion at St. Denis (1593) and was crowned at Chartres (1594). Brissac having thereupon surrendered Paris to him, the power of the League was broken. Not, however, until Henry, after public penance, by his ambassadors at Rome, had been freed from the papal ban, was he generally recognized (by Mayenne too). The civil wars of religion were ended by the 1598. Edict of Nantes, April 15. which gave the Huguenots equal political rights with the Catholics, but by no means secured them entire freedom of religious worship. The edict granted the exercise of the reformed religion to nobles having the right of criminal jurisdiction {seigneurs hauts jus- ticiers), and to the citizens of a certain number of cities and towns, but prohibited it in all episcopal and archiepiscopal cities, at the court of the king, and in Paris, as well as within a circle of twenty miles around the capital. Public offices were opened to the Huguenots and mixed chambers were established in four Parliaments (Paris, Toulouse, Grenoble, Bordeaux). The Huguenots obtained some forti- fied towns, and were recognized, to a certain extent, as an armed po- litical party. The Edict of Nantes was registered by the Parliament only after a long delay. Treaty of Ve7'vins (May 2, 1598) with Spain ; restoration of all conquests to France. Adoption of measures looking to the improvement of the finances A. D. France. 325 and the general prosperity, which had gone to decay, especially by Rosny, afterwards duke of Sully (1560-1641). Fantastic plan of the king's (?) to establish a universal Christian republic in Europe, comprising six hereditary monarchies (France, England, Spain, Den- mark, Sweden, Lombardy), five elective monarchies (the Empire, Papacy, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia), and four republics (Switzer- land, Italy, Venice, Belgium), which probably would have turned out to be a league against the too great power of the house of Haps- burg. Question of Cleves-Jiilich succession. Henry IV. supported the claims of Brandenburg. In the midst of great preparations for war, Henry was assassinated at Paris, 1610 (May 14), by the fanatic (Francois) Ravaillac. He was succeeded by his minor son, 1610-1643. Louis XIIL, nine years old. Regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici (1610-1617). Sully removed from office ; the Italian Concini (^Marechal d'Ancre) was placed in control of aflfairs. Louis XIIL, declared of age in 1614, was in fact all his life under the guidance of others. Summons of the States-General, 1614, being the last before the Revolution of 1789. Arrest and murder of Concini,- the queen mother banished to Blois (1617). The king under the m- fiuence of his favorite, the duke of Luynes. By the mediation of Armand-Jean du Plessis (born 1585, in Poitou, 1607 bishop of Lucon, 1622 cardinal), duke of Richelieu, a treaty was concluded between Luynes and the queen mother (1619). New civil war. Contest of the crown with the nobility and the Huguenots. After the death of Luynes (1621) Mary c?e' Medici and her favorite, Richelieu, obtained control of affairs. The influence of the latter soon became supreme, and the queen-dowager quarreled with him. 1624-1642. Administration of Richelieu, whose influence over the king was henceforward unbroken. Numerous con- spiracies against Richelieu instigated by Gaston of Orleans, the king's brother. 1625. Revolt of the Huguenots under the dukes of Rohan and Sou- bise. 1627-1628. Siege of La Rochelle, under the personal supervision of Richelieu. In spite of the dispatch of three fleets from England to the aid of the Huguenots, the city surrendered Oct. 28, 1628, after a heroic resistance of fourteen months. Defeat of the duke of Rohan, and complete subjugation of the Huguenots, who hereafter were no longer an armed political party, but only a toler- ated sect. War in Italy with Spain ; subjugation of Savoy, Riche- lieu at the head of the army. Treaty of Cherasco (April 6, 1631). France renounced all conquests in Italy, but by a secret treaty with Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, Pignerol was surrendered to France (negotiators of these treaties, Richelieu's confidant. Father Joseph and the Pope's agent, Mazarin). A final attempt of Mary Medici to overthrow the cardinal igno- miniously failed (Nov. 11, 1630, the "Day of Dupes "). Mary died at Cologne, 1642. 326 Modern History. A. d. Conspiracy of Gaston and the duke of Montmorency. 1632, Oct. 30. Defeat of the allies and execution of Montmorency. Foundation of the French Academy (1635). 1631-48. Participation of France in the Thirty Years' War. See p. 314. 1641. Conspiracy of Henri d^Effiat, marquis of Cinq-Mars (" Mon- sieur le Grand "). Secret treaty with Spain. The plot was exposed by Richelieu. 1642. Dec. 4. Death of Richelieu. The effect of Richelieu's administration had been to break the power of the nobles and make the crown independent of the parlia- ments. He restored French influence in Italy, in the Netherlands, in Germany (311), and established it in Sweden. Richelieu laid the foundation of the power of Louis XIV. Louis XIII. died May 14, 1643. (Seep. 365.) § 6. ITALY. {Seep. 263.) The duchy of Milan, since 1556 (p. 306) an appanage of the Spanish crown, was held, nominally, as a fief of the empire. Venice. The discovery of the new route to the Indies struck at the root of the commercial prosperity of Venice, and her power was steadily de- clining during this period. The danger which threatened the repub- lic from the League of Cambray (1508), between the Pope, the emperor Maximilian, Louis XIL, and Ferdinand the Catholic, passed away as the Pope, Julius II. withdrew from the League in 1510, made his peace with the Venetians and induced Ferdmand the Catholic to join the Holy League, which had for its object the expulsion of the French from Italy. On the other hand the Turkish power confined Venice to the coasts of the Mediterranean. In 1570 the Turks at- tacked Cyprus, of which Venice had acquired possession in 1489 (p. 262). The victory of Lepanto, gained by Don John of Austria (p. 330), retarded the progress of the Turks but little. In 1573 Venice was forced to deliver Cyprus to them, and at the close of this period retained of all her possessions in Grecian waters, Candittf Paros, and the Ionian Islands only. Genoa. Genoa freed herself in 1529 from French supremacy, under the doge, Andrea Doria, who gave the republic a new constitution. Unsuccessful conspiracy of Fiesco (Jan. 2, 1547). Gianettino Doria, the nephew of the doge, was murdered, and Andrea Doria was com- pelled to fly. The conspirators had got possession of nearly the whole city, when Fiesco was accidentally drowned. Return of the doge, restoration of the constitution. A. D. Italy. 327 Savoy. The dukes of Savoy, who also possessed Piedmont, were the most powerful of the native dynasties of northern Italy. Nevertheless, during this period, Bern deprived them of the Waadtland, and they got into straits during the war between France and the empire. After the peace of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), Emmanuel Philibert was reinstated in his duchy. Florence. In the year in which Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy (1494), Peter de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, who had concluded a treaty with the king, was driven from the city. The Dominican monk Savonarola (born 1452, prior of San Marco, 1490) was leader of the democratic party in Florence ; asceticism for a short time fashionable in Flor- ence. Savonarola excommmiicated, and executed (May 23, 1498). In 1512 the Medici were restored in consequence of the victory of the Holy League (pp. 300 and 318). In 1527 the Medici were a second time expelled, and the republic for a while restored. In 1530, how- ever, Charles V, appointed Alexander de^ Medici hereditary ruler in Florence, and he soon assumed the ducal title. After his murder by his cousin, Lorenzino, Cosimo (Cosmus)de' Medici hec^ime duke (1537). He incorporated the republic of Siena with his territory, and in 1569 was created grand duke of Tuscany by Pope Pius V. Under Cosi- mo IL, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) taught in Florence, who, in 1633, was forced to abjm^e the Copernican System by the Inquisition at Rome (" It does move though " i). The Papacy. The following popes of this period deserve mention : the debauched and criminal Alexander VI. (1492-1503), of the family of Borgia. His daughter was Lucrezia Borgia; his second son Ccesar Borgia, ruler of the Romagna; the warlike Julius IL (1503-1513); the schol- arly Leo X. (1513-1521) of the family of Medici, a patron of art ; the fanatical Paul IV. {Caraffa, 1555-1559), upon whose advice Paul III. had established the Inquisition in 1542 ; Gregory XIIL (1572-1585), who revised the calendar by striking out leap year at the close of each century, excepting every fourth century ; the wise and severe Sixtus V. (1585-1590), who suppressed the banditti in the Papal States and adorned Rome. (Reerection of obelisks, completion of the dome of St. Peter's ^). Naples, Naples throughout this period was an appanage of Spain (since 1504, see p. 31H). Insurrection of the fisherman, Tommaso AniellOf called Masaniello (1647), soon suppressed (f July 16). Most flourishing period of Italian art. Painters : Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) ; Raphael Santi (erroneously called Sanzio, 1483- 1 This sayinp;, it i'? now claimed, is unauthenticated. — [Trans.] 2 Banke, die rdmischen Papste, 6tli ed., 1878. 328 Modern History. A. D. 1520); Antonio Allegri, called Correggio (1494-1534:); Michael Angela Buonarotti (1475-1564), also sculptor and architect ; Titian (1477- 1576); Paul Veronese (about 1535-1588), Poets: Ariosto (1474- 1533); Tor^wa^o 7 asso (1544-1595). Politician: MacchiavelulliQ^ 1527). {Seep. 415.) § 7. SPANISH PENINSULA AND THE NETHERLANDS. {Seep. 276.) By the marriage of 1479-1516. Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon and Isabella 1474-1504. of Castile (p. 276), which was consummated before the accession of either to the throne, the way was prepared for the future union of the two kingdoms. 1492. Conquest of Grenada, capital of the last Moorish kingdom Jan. 2. in the peninsula. In the same year, discovery of America (p. 282), and consequent acquisitions on the other side of the ocean for the crown of Castile. Conquest of Naples (1501-1504, see p. 327) for the crown of Aragon. Annexation of the grandmaster- ships of the three military orders of Calatrava (1487), Alcantara (1494), and San J ago (1499), to the crown. Support given to the league of the cities {Hermandad) against the robber-nobles; (Spanish) Inquisition. Upon Isabella's death (1504) her daughter, Joanna, wife of Philip, archduke of Austria (p. 301), was the legal heiress of Castile. Her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, however, who had long planned the union of the two kingdoms in one kingdom of Spain, obtained from the Cortes authority to carry on the government in place of his absent daughter. In 1506, Philip and Joanna went to Castile to expel Fer- dinand by force. Meeting of the two princes and treaty of Villafa- Jila, whereby the regency was granted to Philip. Shortly after the treaty Philip died suddenly (of poison ?), and Ferdinand resumed the regency (f 1516). Joanna, who was insane, was kept in strict con- finement for 49 years (f 1555), first by her father, afterwards by her son Charles. 1 Ferdinand was succeeded in both kingdoms (at first as co-regent of his mother, in theory) by the son of Philip and Joanna. Netherlands. Preliminary : These provinces, originally inhabited by Batavians and other German tribes, formed a part of the empire of Charles the Great, and after the treaty of Mersen (870) belonged in great part to Germany, forming a dependence of the duchy of Lotharingia. The decline of the ducal power favored the growth of powerful counties and duchies, such as Brabant, Flanders, Guelders, Holland, Zealand, Hainault, and the bishopric of Utrecht. After 1384, and during the fifteenth century, the provinces were brought under control of the dukes of Burgundy. 1 The view advanced by Bergenroth {Karl V. und Johanna, in V. Sybel's Hist. Zeits., 1868), that Joanna was onlv declared insane from political reasons, has been clearly shown by other scholars (Qachard, Hoesler, Maurenbrecherj to rest on misunderstandings. A.. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 329 Philip II. the Bold, fourtli son of John II., k. of France. In 1363 made duke of Burgundy (the duchy reverted to the crown, 1361, by the extinction of the first ducal line in the person of Philip I.). In 1369 m. Margaret, dan. and heiress of Louis III., c. of Flanders and Artois, f 1404 John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 1404-1419. Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 1419-1467. Acquired Namur, by purchase, in 1425 ; in 1430, Brabant and Limburg, which had been bequeathed by Joanna, dau. of John III., d. of Brabant, to her great-nephew, Antoine, brother of John the Fearless ; in 1433, Holland, Hainault {Hennegau), Zealand, by cession from Jacqueline c. of Hol- land (of the Bavarian line) ; in 1443, Luxemburg, by ces- sion from Elizabeth of Luxemburg, and by purchase ; he also acquired Antwerp and Mechlin. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477. Acquired Gelderland and Zutphen in 1472, by bequest from duke Arnold. Mary, f 1482 = Maximilian, arch- duke of Austria. Joanna, dau. of Ferdi- ■ nand of Arragon, and Isabella of Castile. Philip the Handsome, archduke of Austria, duke of Burgundy. Charles I. (V.) k. of Spain; archduke of Austria, d. of Burgundy, k. of Naples and Sicily, lord of Spanish America, emperor. They descended to the Hapsburg heirs of Charles the Bold, united and having a common states-general. In 1548 Charles V. annexed the seventeen provinces {Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, Gelderland, Flan- ders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, East and West Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel, Crrbningen) to the Bur* gundian circle of the empire. 1516-1556. Charles I. (as emperor, Charles V. p. 302). S30 ' Modern History. A. D. After suppressing a revolt in Castile he founded the absolute mori' archy, the Cort»s henceforth having no importance. In Ainerica con- quest of Mexico, Peru, Chili, New Granada (p. 283, etc.). Upon his abdication the Spanish lands and the colonies, the Netherlands, Franche-Comt^, Naples, and Milan, descended to his son 1556-1598. Philip II., who married four times : 1. Mary of Portugal, niotlie.r of Don Carlos ; 2. Mary the Catholic, of Eng- land (p. 336); 3. Elizabeth of Valois (p. 318) ; 4. Anne, daughter of Maximilian If. War with France (p. 381). Bloody persecution of the Moors and the Protestants in Spain. Inquisition, autos da fe (i. e. acts of the faith). Conflict between the king and his heir, Don Carlos ; the lat- ter was arrested and died in prison (15G8). Don John of Austriay a natural son of Charles I. (V.), gained over the Turks the 1571, Oct. 7. Naval battle of Lepanto (on the Gulf of Corinth). 1568-1648. War of Liberation in the Netherlands. Cause : The provinces of the Netherlands, which fell to Spain after the abdication of Charles I., rejoiced in the possession of ancient and important privileges. The estates (Staaten, elats) granted taxes and troops. The Spanish garrison, the penal edicts against heretics, the dread of the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, led, during the rule of the regent Margaret of Parma (1559-1507), the natural sister of king Philip II., and her adviser, bishop Granvella, to a league of the nobles (the Compromis de Breda), headed by Philip Marnix of St. Aldegonde. Presentation of a petition by 300 nobles (Gueux, Beggars, a party name, originating in the contemptuous exclamation of the count of Barlaimout : Ce n'est qu'un tas de gueux). Insurrection of the lower classes. Destruction of images, and sack of the churches. Tliese disturbances were opposed by Lamoral, count of Egmont (b. 1522, fought under Charles V. in Algiers, Germany, France ; led the cavalry at St. Quentin, and Gravelines, 1558 ; appointed governor of Flanders and Artois by Charles V. ; executed June 5, 1508), and William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the leaders of the higher nobil- ity in the Netherlands, who were soon no longer masters of the move- ment. Separation into a Catholic and a Protestant party. Although quiet was Anally restored Philip sent the 1507. Duke of Alva with 20,000 Spaniards by way of Genoa, Savoy, and Franche Comt(f to the Netherlands. William of Orange and many thousand Netherlanders left their native land. Margaret resigned her regency and left the country. Creation of the " Council of Blood." The counts of Egmont and of Iloorn and many others ". were executed (1508). The estates of those who did not appear be- fore the tribunal were confiscated, including those of William of Orange. The latter and his brother, Louis of Orange, invaded the Netherlands, but were repulsed by Alva. The arbitrary taxes imposed by Alva (the tenth pfennig from the price of every article sold, tlie one hundredth part of every income), produced a new revolt. Capture of Brille, on the mouth of the Meuse by the Water Beggars (1572). Rapid spread of the insurrection, particularly in the northern provmces. A. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 331 1573. Alva recalled at liis own request. His successor, Luis de Re- (jriesens y Zuni.f/n, gained a victory 1574. At Mookcrhcide, where two l)rothers of tlie prince of Orange fell, but could not suppress the revolt, and died (157G). The sack of the cities of Antwerp, Mastricht, Ghent, etc., by the royal troops brought about the 1576. Pacification of Ghent, a treaty between all the provinces, whereby they united, without regard to national or religious differences, to drive the Spanish soldiers from the country. The new governor, Don John of Austria (p. 330), was not recog- nized by the majority of the provinces. In spite of the new disputes which had broken out among them he was unable to quiet the country, and died, 1578. He was succeeded by Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma (1578-1592), a shrewd statesman and an excellent general. He reduced the southern Catholic provinces, whicii form modern Bel- gium, to submission on condition of the restoration of their old politi- cal freedom. The seven northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, Overyssel, con- cluded 1579. The Union of Utrecht, proclaimed their complete independence of Spain (in 1581) and settled the hereditary Statthaltership upon Williani of Orange (the Silent, b. 1533, inherited the principality of Orange, 1544, ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the Netherlands and governor of Hol- land, Zealand and Utrecht, by Charles V., resigned his offices 1507, converted to Protestantism, elected commander-in-chief by tlie rebels, 1572, relieved Leyden, Oct., 1574, murdered by Balthazar Gerard, 10th July, 1584). After his murder at JJelft^ his son, the seventeen- year-old Maurice of Nassau, became the head of the seven provinces. Successful campaign of Alexander of Parma ; capture of Antwerp. The help furnished the Hollanders by the English (Leicester) induced Philip to fit out the Great Armada, which was destroyed by terrible storms and the bravery of the English (1588). After a long contest with changing fortunes, there was concluded under 1598-1621. Philip III. 1609. The twelve years' truce, on the basis of possession at the time. Under the weak king, who was controlled by his fa- vorites, the dukes of Lerma and Uzeda, father and son, the power and the prosperity of Spain declined, exhausted by constant war, the demoralization consequent on the discovery of America .and the intro- duction of American gold, and the expulsion of 800,000 Moors, the most learned and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula. After the expiration of the truce with Holland the war was resumed until under 1621-1665. Philip IV. The Republic of the United Provinces obtained the 1648* recognition of their independence from Spain and the empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 332 Modern History, A. D. Under Philip III. and IV. (minister Olivarez), decline of the Spanish power. Insurrection of the Catalonians, lasting twelve years. Revolt of Portugal. Portugal, under the illegitimate house of Burgundy (1385- 1580), descendants of John the Bastard (f 1433), son of Peter the Cruel, who was a descendant of Robert, duke of Burgundy, grandson of Hugh Capet. John, the Bastard, son of Pedro the Cruel. Sdward. I Ferdinand. f Smanuel. I Isabella m. John III. Lewis. Henry. Edward. Beatrice, in. Charles V. Philip II. = Maria. John. The Prior k. of Spain. I I of Crato. Don Carlos. Sebastian. Charles III. d. of Savoy. i Alfonso. I Fernando. Fernando. 1 James. Emanuel Theodosius. Fhilibert, d. of Savoy. Maria m. Alexander of Parma. Catharine John. Theodosius. I John IV. Ranuccio of Parma. Kings of Portugal in heavy type. Claimants (except Philip II.) In italics. 1495-1521. Emanuel the Great. Golden age. Acquisitions in the East Indies, South America (Brazil), and Northern Africa. Under his successors, decline of the Portuguese power. Sebastian fell in the unfortunate 1578. Battle of Alkassor'm Morocco. After the death of his succes- sor, Henry J 1581-1640. Portugal became a Spanish province. Four (?) false Sebastians.'^ An almost bloodless revolution raised to the throne of Portugal the duke 1640. John of Braganza, as John IV. (descended through his mother from the legitimate, through his father from the illegitimate son of John the Bastard). (See pp. 390, 4H-) 1 After the death of Henry (1580) there were five claimants for the crown o! Portugal. ^, D. England and Scotland. 333 § 8. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. {Seep. 275.) 1485-1603. House of Tudor (pp. 273, 275). 1485-1509. Henry VH. Henry's first act was to imprison the Earl of Warwick, son of the duke of Clarence. The first parliament (1485) secured the crown to Henry and his heirs. Five checks on the crown : 1. imposi- tion of new taxes and 2, the enactment of new laws without the consent of parliament prohibited ; 3. no man could be imprisoned without legal warrant ; 4. trial should be before twelve jurors in the county where the offense was committed, and there should be no ap- peal ; 5. officers of the crown were liable to trial for damages before a jury in case any person were injured by them, and no authority from the king could be pleaded. Violation of these checks. Rees- tablishment of the king's court (Star Chamber ? 1488), which took cognizance of forgery, perjury, fraud, libel, conspiracy, etc., gave sen- tence without the use of a jury, and inflicted fines and mutilations. 1487. The pretended earl of Warwick (Simnel) landed in England, but was defeated at Stoke (16 June, 1487), and became one of the king's scullions. 1488-1499. Attempts of Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming who person- ated the duke of York, to overthrow Henry. Disavowed by Charles VIII. in the peace of Estaples (Nov. 9, 1492) which ended the war in which Henry had engaged on account of the annexation of Brittany by Charles VIII. (1491), Perkin found a warm reception in Flanders from the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. Expelled from Flanders by a provision of the commercial treaty with England (1496 Magnus intercursus), Perkin fled to Scotland, where his claim was recognized. Perkin and James IV. of Scotland in- vaded England in 1496. In 1497 a formidable insurrection broke out in Cornwall on occasion of an imposition of a tax by parliament. It was suppressed by the defeat at Blackheath (June 22, 1497), and the leaders executed (Flammock). Peace with Scotland (Sept. 1497). Warbeck was soon taken and imprisoned in the Tower, where he escaped, but was recaptured. Plotting another escape with the earl of Warwick, both Perkin and Warwick were executed (1499). 1495. Statute of Drogheda (Poyning's law). 1. No Irish parliament should be held without the consent of the king of England. 2. No bill could be brought forward in an Irish parliament without his consent. 3. All recent laws enacted in the Eng- lish parliament should hold in Ireland. 1502. Marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, with James IV., king of Scotland. Henry's distinguishing characteristic was his avarice ; by various extoTtions (Empson, Dudley, "Morton's Fork'') he accumulated a for- tune of nearly £2,000,000. During this reign occurred the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus (1492) and that of North America by the Cabots. 334 Modern History. A, D. 1509-1547. Henry VIIL, of a crviel disposition and variable temperament. He was six times married : 1. Catharine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, mother of Mary the Catholic (married June 3, 1509, divorced March 30, 1533). 2. Anne Boleyn, mother of Elizabeth (married Jan. 25, 1533, beheaded May 19, 1536). 3. Jane Seymour (married May 20, 1536, died after the birth of her son Edward VI., Oct. 24, 1537). 4. Anne of Cleves (married Jan. 6, 1540, divorced June 24, 1540). 5. Catharine Howard (married Aug. 8, 1540, beheaded Feb. 12, 1542) „ 6. Catharine Parr, widow of lord Latimer (married July 10, 1543, outlived the king). Henry united in his person the claim of both Lancaster and York. Execution of Empson and Dudley. 1511. Henry a member of the Holy League (p. 300), received from the Pope the title of " Most Christian King." Henry having laid claim to the French crown sent troops to Spain, which were unsuccessful (1512). In 1513 the king went to France in person and with Maximilian, the emperor, won the bloodless victory of 1513, Aug. 17. Guinegate, the " Battle of the Spurs " (p. 319). 1513, Sept. 9. Battle of Flodden Field. Defeat and death of James IV. of Scotland who was allied with France. 1514, Aug. Peace with France (Tournay ceded to England, after- wards (1518) bought by France for 600,000 crowns) and with Scotland. 1515, Thomas Wolsey, the king's favorite, chancellor (b. 1471, ap- pointed almoner and dean of Lincoln by Henry VIL, member of the council 1510, bishop of Tournay 1513, bishop of Lin- coln and archbishop of York 1514, cardinal and chancellor 1515, papal legate 1517, surrendered the great seal 1529, f Nov. 28, 1530). 1520, June 7. Meeting of Henry VIIL and Francis I. of France near Calais ("Field of the Cloth of Gold "). 1521. Execution of the duke of Buckingham on a charge of high treason. Buckingham was descended from Edward HI. (p. 277). 1521. Henry wrote the " Assertion of the Seven Sacraments " in re- ply to Luther, and received the title of "Defender of the Faith " from Pope Leo X. After the battle of Pavia the relations between Henry and the emperor, which had been weakened by the double failure of the em- peror to secure the promised election of Wolsey as Pope, became so strained that war seemed inevitable, and a forced loan was assessed on the kingdom, which brought in but little. In 1523 an attempt to force a grant from parliament met with no sixccess, but a rebellion was provoked which was suppressed only by abandoning the demand. 1527. Henry, desiring to divorce his wife in order to marry Anne Boleyn, alleged the invalidity of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, and appealed to Rome. The delays of the Pope and the scruples of Wolsey enraged the king, who deprived the latter of A. D. England and Scotland. — Henry VIIL 335 the great seal and gave it to Sir Thomas More (1629). Sentence and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, died in disgrace (1530), At the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to the univer- sities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's favor Henry married Anne Boleyn. Henry also broke with the Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates, followed by the res- ignation of Sir Thomas More (1532). The Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from Catharine, which Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, had pro-= nounced. After the birth of Elizabeth parliament confirmed the divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and se- cured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of the princess. 1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes- sors " Protector and only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded (1535). Thomas Cromwell, a former servant of Wolsey, and his suc- cessor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller (1536), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia- ment. 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that fail, was left to his disposal. 1536. Publication of TyndaWs translation of the Bible, by Coverdale, under authority from the king. 1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert AsTce, aided by Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. 1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy; denial of any of these positions constituted heresy : 1. Transubstantiation ; 2. Communion in one kind for laymen ; 3. Celibacy of the priesthood ; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastit}'- ; 5. Necessity of private masses ; 6. Necessity of auricular confession. 1540. Execution of Cromwell, on a charge of treason. Cromwell had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the king's marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom the king was ill pleased. 1542. Ireland made a kingdom. 1542. War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the • Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss. James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage between his son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary, 336 Modern History. A. d. but the Scottish court preferred an alliance with France, whereupon Henry concluded an alliance with the emperor. 1544. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the cro^vn, in the event of the death of Edward without issue. 1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased ; property of guilds con- fiscated. 1547. Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leavmg a will, wherein the crown was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, in the event of failure of issue by all of his children. 1547-1553. Edward VI., ten years of age ; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. Kepeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doc- trines. 1549. Execution of lord Seymour, brother of the duke of Somerset, who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth. Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament ; introduction of Edward VI.'s first prayer-book (second, 1553). Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord Warwick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550). Exe- cution of Somerset (1552). 1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 1553. Edward assigned the crown to Lady Jane Grey, daughter of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter of Henry VII., to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI , July 6, 1553. 1553-1558. Mary the Catholic. The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumber- land meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor. 1553. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Pliilip was to have the title of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction (" The Spanish marriage ") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir Thomas Carew, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. The sup- pression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an ac- complished scholar (Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession of the emperor. 1554. July 25. Marriage of Mary and Philip. 1555. Cruel persecution of the Protestants (Bonner, bishop of Lou- A. D. England and Scotland, 587 5 p S~ •*^ -<< o : o 3 o W) PO CO Pr/i -H-° ^V p CD ' I p< ^co o 2-— COfa r-U 1^3 (0 • jr'a'< p — >:3 CO fsr" 2.J3 ^ ~fO "< B C 9>- - • SBOg,=! ^1 I2 o o 2*^ G ■-> 2 m 2 '^ c r* p.p'^3 P'° — a 03 Hi. 1:: a »5 CO a'<<3 w OP-"* -5'-3'-m5^ -r^ w H» f^ ISO ei'P o" .?§ -^ irJO' SB it-. 3 P S3 o S- ^3 O CO >-( O O w I— I CO W Q O t2j 03 I I—' O^ O CO 22 338 Modern History. ^ A. d. don). Oct. 16, Ridley and Latimer; March 21, 1556, Cranmer burnt at the stake. About 300 are said to have been burnt during this per- secution. Cardinal Pole, archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate (1556). 1557. England drawn into the Spanish war with France. Defeat of the French at the battle of St. Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557). 1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, which was captured by the duke of Guise. Death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. 1558-1603. Elizabeth. Sir William Cecil (baron Burleigh, 1571), secretary of state. Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord privy seal. Repeal of the Catholic legisla- tion of Mary; reenactment of the laws of Henry VIII. relating to the church ; act of supremacy, act of uniformity. Revision of the prayer- book. 1559. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis with France. Calais to be April 2. ceded to England in eight years. On the accession of Francis II. king of France, Mary, his wife, as- sumed the title of Queen of England and Scotland. Conformity exacted in Scotland. Treaty of Berwick (Jan. 1560), between Eliza- beth and the Scottish reformers. 1560. Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland. July 6. French interference in Scotland withdrawn. Adoption of a Confession of Faith by the Scotch estates. 1561. Return of Mary to Scotland after the death of Francis II., where she was at once involved in conflict with the Calvinists. (John Knox, b. 1505, the friend of Calvin at Geneva, d. 1572.) 1563. Adoption of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in place of the forty- two published by Cranmer. Completion of the establishment of the Anglican Church {^Church of England, Episcopal Church') ; Protestant dogmas, with retention of the Catholic hierarchy and, par-, tially, of the cult. Numerous dissenters or non-conformists (Presbyte- rians, Puritans, Brownists, Separatists, etc.). Parker, archbishop of Canterbury (1559). 1564, Peace of Troyes with France. English claims to Calais re- nounced for 220,000 crowns. In Scotland Mary married her cousin Darnley, who caused her fa- vorite Rizzio to be murdered (1566) and was himself murdered (Feb. 10, 1567) by Bothwell (earl of Hepburn), apparently with the knowl- edge of the queen.i Marriage of Mary and Bothwell May 15, 1567. The nobles under Murray, Mary's natural brother, revolted, defeated Mary at Carbury Hill near Edinburgh, and imprisoned her at Loch- leven Castle. Abdication of Mary in favor of her son, James VI., July 24, 1567. Murray, regent. In May, 1568, Mary escaped from captivity ; defeated at Langside, May 13, she took refuge in England, where, after some delay, she was placed in confinement (1568). 1 Gaedeke, Maria Stuart, 1879. The cause of Mary and Bothwell has been recently defended by John Walts De Peyster. A. D. England and Scotland. — Elizabeth. 339 1575. Elizabeth declined the government of the Netherland prov- inces of Holland and Zealand^ offered her by the confederates, 1577. Alliance of Elizabeth and the Netherlands. 1583-84, Plots against the queen. (^Arden, Parry) ; Spanish plot of Throgmorton ; execution of the earl of Arundel for correspond- ing with Mary. Bond of Association. 1585. Troops sent to the aid of the Dutch republic under the earl of Leicester. Victory of Zutphen (Sept. 22, 1586), death of Sir Philip Sidney. 1586. Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies, sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena : rescue of the Virginia colony (p. 290). 1586. Conspiracy of Savage, Ballard, Babington, etc., discovered by the secretary of state, Walsingham ; execution of the conspirators. The government involved Mary, queen of Scots, in the plot. She was tried at Fothermgay Castle, Oct. 1586, and convicted on the presentation of letters which she alleged to be forged. She was convicted Oct. 25 and executed Feb. 8, 1587. 1588. War with Spain. Construction of an English fleet of war. The Spanish fleet, called the invincible armada (132 vessels, 3,165 cannon), was defeated in the Channel by the English fleet (Howard, Drake, Hawkins), July 21-29, and destroyed by a storm off the Hebrides. 1597. Rebellion of the Irish under Hugh O^Neill, earl of Tyrone ; the failure of the earl of Essex to cope with the insurrection led to his recall, and his successor lord Mountjoy quickly subju- gated the country (1601). Capture of Tyrone, flight of the earl of Desmond. A rebellion of Essex in London was followed by his execution (1601). 1600. Charter of the East India Company. Death of Elizabeth. March 24, 1603. William Shakespeare, 1564-1616 ; Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586; Edmund Spenser, 1553-1599 ; William Tyndale, 1485 ?-1536 j Ben Jonson, 1574-1637. 1603-1649 (1714). The House of Stuart. Personal Union of England and Scotland. 1603-1625. James I., as king of Scotland, James VI., son of Mary Stuart. The Scotch had brought him up in the Protestant faith. He was learned but pedantic, weak, lazy, and incapable of governing a large king- dom. Divine right of kingship, divine right of the bishops (" no bishop, no king "). In this century the after-effects of the Reformation made themselves felt in England as on the continent, and in both places resulted in war. In England, however, owing to the peculiar circumstances of the Reformation these effects were peculiarly condi- tioned ; the religious questions were confused and overshadowed by political and constitutional questions. 1603. James I. was proclaimed king March 24 ; he entered London 340 Modern History. A. D» on the 7th of May, and was crowned July 25. Presentation of the millenary petition immediately after James's arrival in London, signed by 1,000 (800) ministers, asking for the reform of abuses. The Main and the Bye. The " Main " was a plot to dethrone James in favor of Arabella Stuart (see geneal. table, p. 337), con- cocted by lord Cohham, Grey and others. Sir Walter Raleigh was also implicated and imprisoned until 1616 ("History of the World"). The " Bye " or the " Surprising treason " was a plot to imprison the king. Alliance with France, negotiated by Rosny (Sully). 1604. Jan. Hampton Court Conference between the bishops and the Puritans, where James presided. The Puritans failed to obtain any relaxation of the rules and orders of the church. The king issued a proclamation enforcing the act of uniformity (p. 338), and one banisliing Jesuits and seminary priests {^Goodwin and Fortescue). 1604, March 19-1611, Feb. 9. First Parliament of James I. The king's scheme of a real union of England and Scotland unfavorably received. Appointment of a commission to investigate the matter. 1604. Convocation (ecclesiastical court and legislature at first established [Edward I.] as an instrument for ecclesiastical tax- ation ; afterwards convened by archbishops for the settlement of church questions ; since Henry VIII. convened only by writ from the king, and sitting and enacting [canons] only by permission of the king) adopted some new canons which bore so hardly upon the Puri- tans that three hundred clergymen left their livings rather than con- form. Peace with Spain. James proclaimed " King of Great Britain, France and Ireland " (Oct. 24). Punishment of many recusants (under the recusancy laws of Elizabeth, whereby refusing to go to church, saying mass or assisting at mass was severely punished). 1605. Nov. 5. Gunpowder Plot, originating in 1604 with Robert Cateshy, after the edict banish- ing the priests. Other conspirators : Winter, Wright, Percy. Prep- arations for blowing up the houses of Parliament with thirty-six barrels of gunpowder. Disclosure of the plot through an anonymous letter to Lord Monteagle from one of the conspirators, his brother-in-law, Tresham. Arrest of Guy (Guido) Fawkes, in the vaults on Nov. 4, the day before the meeting of parliament. Trial and execution of the conspirators. Parliament met Nov. 9. 1606. Penal laws against papists. Plague in London. Episco- pacy restored in Scotland. James urged the union anew but in vain. Impositions. The grant of customs duties made at the begin- ning of every reign (tonnage and poundage, established by Edward III.) proving insufficient to meet James' expenditure, he had recourse to impositions without parliamentary grant, which Mary and Elizabeth had used to a small extent. Trial of Bates for refusing to pay an imposition on currants. The court of exchequer decided in favor of the king. A. D. England and Scotland. — James I. 341 1607. Settlement of Jamestown (p. 291). 1608. Establishment of new impositions. 1610. The Great Contract ; in return for the surrender of some feudal privileges the king was to receive a yearly income oi £200,000. The agreement was frustrated by a dispute over the impositions. Dissolution of parliament (Feb. 9, 1611). 1611. Plantation of Ulster, wliich was forfeited to the crown by the rebellion of Tyrone. Creation of baronets, an hereditary knighthood ; sale of the patents. 1611. Completion of the translation of the Bible, wliich was authorized by the king and had occupied forty-seven minis- ters since 1604. Imprisomnent of Arabella Stuart. 1613. Robert Carr, the king's favorite (viscount Rochester in 1611), created duke of Somerset, and lord treasurer, on the death of the earl of Salisbury (Robert Cecil). Death of Henry, prince of Wales (Nov. 1612). First English factory at Surat. 1613. Marriage of the princess Elizabeth (" queen of Bohemia ") to the elector Palatine. Death of Sir Thomas Overbury, who was imprisoned in the Tower by the malice of Somerset. Mar° riage of Somerset and the countess of Essex. 1614, Apr. 5-June 7. Second Parliament of James I. Three hundred new members, among whom were John Pym (Somer- setshire), Thomas Wentworth (Yorkshire), John Eliot (St. Ger- mains). The whole session was spent in quarrelling with the king over the impositions, and parliament was dissolved without making an enactment, whence it is called the addled parliament. 1615. Renewal of the negotiation for the marriage of James's son to a Spanish princess (opened in 1611). Imposition of a benevo- lence, which was resisted by Oliver St. John and condemned by the chief justice, Sir Edward Coke, who was afterwards dismissed from office. Death of Arabella Stuart. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to the Great Mogul. 1616. Condemnation of the duke and duchess of Somerset for the poisoning of Overbury. Rise of George Villiers in the king's favor ; viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, duke of Buckingham. 1617. Sir Walter Raleigh, released from the Tower, allowed to sail for the Orinoco, where he hoped to discover a gold mina Failing in this he attacked the Spanish towns on the Orinoco. 1618. Proclamation allowing sports on Sunday after church in Scot- land (Articles of Perth). Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, vis- count of aS'^. Albans, lord chancellor. In this year Sir Wcd~ ter Raleigh, returning from his expedition, was executed under the old sentence, as reparation to Spain. 1619. Commercial treaty with the Dutch respecting the East Indies. 1620. Settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, in New England (p. 294). 1621. Jan. 30-1622, Feb. 8. Third ParUament of James I. The parliament granted a supply for tJie prosecution of the war in 342 Modern History. A. D. the palatinate (p. 310), in which James was half-hearted, and then took up the subject of grievances. Impeachment of Mompesson and Mitchell, who had bought monopolies of inn-licensing and the manu- facture of gold and silver thread; they were degraded, fined, and ban- ished. Impeachment of Francis Bacon, the chancellor, for bribery. Bacon admitted that he had received presents from parties in suits, but denied that they had affected his judgment. He was fined £40,- 000 (which was remitted) and declared incapable of holding office in the future. Petition of the commons against popery and the Spanish marriage. The angry rebuke of the king for meddling in affairs of state (" bring stools for these ambassadors ") drew from the parliament 1621, Dec. 18. The Great Protestation : " That the liberties, fran- chises, privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England, and that the arduous and urgent affairs concerning the king, state, and defense of the realm . . . are proper subjects and matter of council and debate in parliament." The kmg tore the page containing the protestation from the journal of the commons. 1622, Feb. 8. Dissolution of parliament. Imprisonment of Southampton, Coke, Pym, Selden. Earl of Buckingham made duke of Buckingham. 1623, Charles, prince of Wales, and the duke of Buckingham^ went to Spain and negotiated a marriage treaty, the provis- ions of which were so favorable to the Catholics as to excite great dissatisfaction in England; finally, being unable to secure any help from Spain in regard to the palatinate, Charles and Buckingham returned in anger. Massacre of English residents on the island of Amhoyna by the Dutch. 1624, Feb. 12-1625, Mar. 27. Fourth Parliament of James I. The Spanish marriage was broken off, but even the anger of Buckingham could not drive the parliament into a declaration of war with Spain. Supplies voted for defense. Mansfeld raised 1,200 men in England who reached Holland but nearly all perished there from lack of proper provisions. Marriage treaty with France for the marriage of Prince Charles with Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. 1625, March 27, death of James I. at Theobalds. 1625-1649. Charles I. 1625, May 11. Marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. Ships sent to Louis XIII. secretly engaged not to fight against the Huguenots. 1625. First Parliament of Charles I. (Assembled June 18 ; adjourned to Oxford July 11 ; dissolved Aug. 12.) Grant of tonnage and poundage for one year only, and of £140,000 for the war with Spain. Proceedings against Montague Q'appello CcesarerUf'* 1624). Unsuccessful expedition of Wimbledon against Cadiz. A. D. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 343 1626, Feb. 6-June 15. Second Parliament of Charles I. Charles had hoped for a more pliable parliament, as he had appointed several of the leaders of the first parliament sheriffs, and so kept them out of the second. But this parliament, under the lead of Sir John Eliot, was more intractable than the last. Lord Bristol, to whom no writ had been sent by order of the king, received one on the interference of the lords, but was requested not to appear. He took his seat and brought charges against Buckingham, on which that lord was im- peached (May). Imprisonment of Sir John Eliot and Sir Dud- ley Digges, who were set at liberty upon the refusal of parlia- ment to proceed to business without them. War declared against France (1626-1630). 1627, Inglorious expedition of Buckingham to the relief of Rochelle {Isle of Rhe). Exaction of a forced loan to raise money for the French war, and for the subsidy which Charles had agreed to supply to Chris- tian IV. of Denmark. Five persons, who were imprisoned for refusing to contribute, sued out a writ of habeas corpus, but, having been committed by the king's order, though without distinct charge, they were remanded to prison. 1628, March 17-1629, March 10. Third Parliament of Charles I. May. Passage of the Petition of Right : 1. Prohibition of benevo- lences, and all forms of taxation without consent of parliament. 2. Soldiers should not be billeted in private houses. 3. No com- mission should be given to military officers to execute martial law in time of peace. 4. No one should be imprisoned unless upon a specif ed charge. Assent of the king (June 7). Grant of five subsidies. Suppression of the royalistic sermons of Main- ivaring. Charles having, after the first year of his reign, continued to levy tonnage and poundage, the commons drew up a remonstrance against that practice. June 26. Prorogation of parliament. Seizure of goods of merchants who refused to pay tonnage and poundage. Aug. 23. Assassination of Buckingham by Pelton. 1629, Jan. New session of parliament. Oliver Cromwell spoke, for the first time, in this parliament. The commons at once took up the question of tonnage and poundage ; claim of privi- lege in the case of Rolfe, one of the merchants, whose goods had been seized, and who was a member of parliament. Adjournment of the house of commons. March 2. Meeting of parliament. Turbulent scene in the house of commons ; the speaker held in the chair while the resolutions of Eliot were read : Whoever introduced innovations in relig- ion, or opinions disagreeing with those of the true church; whoever advised the levy of tonnage and poundage without grant of parliament ; whoever voluntarily paid such duties, was an enemy of the kingdom. 844 Modern History. A. d. March 5. Arrest of members ; imprisonment of Eliot (f Nov. 1632). March 10. Dissolution of parliament. For eleven years Charles governed without a parliament, raising money by illegal levies of taxes, sale of monopolies, and many other ways. Charles' advisers : William Laud (b. 1573, president of St. John's college, 1611-1621; dean of Gloucester, 1616; in Scotland as James I.'s chaplain, 1617; bishop of St. David's, 1621; chaplain to Buckingham, 1622 ; bishop of Bath and Wells, dean of the chapel royal, 1626 ; privy councillor, 1627; bishop of London, 1628 ; chancellor of Oxford, 1630 ; in Scotland with Charles I., 1633 ; archbishop of Canterbury, 1633 ; commissioner of the treasury, 1634 ; impeached, 1641 ; at- tainted (by bill) and executed, 1645), Thomas Wentworth (b. 1593; \n parliament, 1614, 1621-1625 ; sheriff, 1625 ; imprisoned for refus- ing to comply with the forced loan ; in parliament, 1628 ; baron Went- worth, lord president of the council of the north, viscount Wentworth, 1628 ; privy councillor, 1629 ; lord deputy of Ireland, 1633 ; went to Ireland, 1633 ; earl of Strafford, and lord lieutenant of Ireland, 1639 ; impeached, 1640 ; attainted (by bill) and executed, May, 1641), "Weston, lord treasurer. 1630, April. Peace with France. 1629. First charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (p. 295). 1630, Nov. Peace with Spain. 1632. Predominant influence of Wentworth. 1633. June. Charles crowned at Edmburgh with ceremonies distaste- ful to the Scots. Government of Laud and Wentworth. Energetic enforcement of conformity. The declaration of sports (p. 341) reissued. Inrailment of the communion table. William Prynne, author of Histrio-Mastix, an attack on players, which was thought to reflect on the queen, pilloried and deprived of his ears. Wentworth, governor of Ireland. " Thor- ough." 1634. First writ for ship-money, a war tax levied only on seaboard towns, issued at the suggestion of Noy, attorney-general, and extended over the whole kingdom. 1635. Second writ for ship-money. 1637. Prynne, Bastwick, Burton, pilloried. June 23. An attempt to read the English liturgy in Edinburgh, in compliance with the order of Charles, produced a popular tumult at St. Giles. June. Trial of John Hampden, for refusing to pay his allotment of ship-money (twenty shillings). The court of exchequer de- cided against him, which created a strong popular excitement. Shortly after, Hampden, Pym, Cromivell, were prevented from sailing for America by a royal prohibition of emigration. 1638, Feb. 28. Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant (based on that of 1580), at Greyfriar's church in Edinburgh, for the defense of the reformed religion and resistance to inno- vations. 1638, Nov. 21. General assembly at Glasgow; abolition of episcopacy, the new liturgy, and the canons ; the kirk declared independent of the state. A.. D. England and Scotland. — Charles L 345 1639. The first bishops' war. The Scots seized Edinburgh castle, and raised an army, Charles marched to meet them near Bencick, but an agreement was reached without a battle. 1639, June 18. Pacification of Dunse (or Berwick). The armies were to be disbanded, and differences referred to a new general assembly and parliament. The general assembly at Edin- burgh confirmed the acts of the assembly of Glasgow, and the parlia- ment proved intractable. The king's necessities were now so great that he took the advice of Wentworth, now made earl of Strafford, and summoned 1640, April 13 -May 5. The fourth Parliament of Charles I. (" The Short Parliament ") at Westminster. As no supplies could be obtained without a redress of grievances, the parliament was soon dissolved. Popular tumults ; attack on Laud's palace ; assault upon the court of high commission (created 1559, by Elizabeth, to try offenses against the ecclesiastical supremacy of the crown). 1640. Second bishops' war. Defeat of the royal troops at Newburn on the Tyne (Aug. 28). The king summoned a council of peers at York (Sept.). Treaty of Ripon (Oct. 26). A permanent treaty was set in prospect; meanwhile the Scottish army was to be paid £850 a day by Charles. Acting upon the advice of the peers, Charles now summoned 1640, Nov. 3. The Fifth and last Parliament. The Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640-March 16, 1660). First Session. Nov. 3, 1640-Sept. 8, 1641. The fact that the Scotch army was not to be disbanded until paid, gave the commons an extraordinary power over the king, which they were not slow to use. Lenthall, speaker. Nov. 11. Impeachment of the earl of Strafford, followed by the im- peachment of Laud. Both were committed to the Tower. 1641, Feb. 15. The triennial act passed, enacting that parliament should assemble every three years even without being sum- moned by the king. March 22, Commencement of the trial of Strafford. The result of the impeachment being uncertain, it was dropped and a bill of attainder introduced, which passed both houses (commons, Apr. 21, lords, Apr. 29). Bill to prevent clergymen from holding civil office introduced but thrown out by the lords (June). Introduction of a bill for the abolition of bishops ("root and branch bill "). May 10. Charles with great reluctance signed the bill of attainder against Strafford, and also the bill to prevent the dissolu- tion or proroguing of the present parliament without its own consent. (" Act for the perpetual Parliament,''^^ 846 Modern History. A. Do 1641, May 12. Execution of Strafford. July. Abolition of the Star Chamber and the High Commis- sion. Aug. Treaty of pacification with Scotland. The Scotch and Eng- lish armies were paid with the proceeds of a poll-tax. Charles went to Scotland. First interview of Edward Hyde, lord Clar- endon (1609-1674 ; " History of the Eebellion and Civil Wars in England)," with the king. Sept. 8. Parliament adjourned, but each house appointed a commit- tee to sit during the recess ; Pym chairman of the commons' committee. Attempt of the king to conciliate the " moderates " in parlia- ment by giving offices of state to their leaders (Lucius Gary, lord Falkland). Oct. In Scotland the marquis of Montrose formed a plot for the seizure of the duke of Argyle, the leader of the Presbyterians, in which the king was thought to have a share. The discovery of the plot (" the incident ") threw Charles into the hands of Argyle, and an agreement was concluded whereby Charles gave the state offices to Argyle and his party, and the latter agreed not to interfere in the religious affairs in England. Oct. 20. Parliament assembled. Early in Nov. came news of the Irish massacre in Ulster ; the lowest estimate of the number of Protestants slain was 30,000. Great indignation in England. Yet the parliament was unwilling to trust Charles with an army. 1641, Dec. 1. The grand remonstrance, which had passed the house of commons in November, after a long and exciting de- bate, by a majority of eleven, presented to the king. It was a summary of all the grievances of his reign. On Dec. 14 the remonstrance was ordered to be printed. Several of the bishops having declared their inability to attend parliament on account of the conduct of the mob, and protested against the action of parliament in their absence, they were committed to the Tower for breach of privilege (Dec. 30). The petition of the commons for a guard under the earl of Essex rejected by the king. 1642, Jan. 3. Impeachment of lord Kimbolton, and of Pym, Hampden, Haselrig, Holies, Strode, members of the com- mons, for treasonable correspondence with the Scots in the recent war. As the commons declined to order their arrest Charles resolved to take matters into his own hands. Jan. 4. Attempt to seize the five members. Charles visited the house of commons in person, with five hundred troops, but finding that the five members were absent he withdrew quietly. The accused members, meanwhile, were in London. The commons immediately followed them, and formed themselves into a committee which sat at the Guild- hall, under the protection of the citizens. Jan. 10. Charles left London. The five members returned to par- liament on the following day. Jan. 12, rising at Kingston. A.. D. England and Scotland. 347 The freeholders of Buckinghamshire sent a remonstrance to the king. The commons made sure of several places and hastened to lay before the king a bill excluding the bishops from the house of Lords, which he signed, and a bill securing to the parliament the command of the militia, which he re- fused to sign. Charles at York (March), where he was joined in April by thirty-two peers and sixty-five members of the lower house. The king also obtained the great seal. At- tempt on Hull. Henceforward the parliament at Westminster passed ordinances which were not submitted to the king. By an ordinance passed in May they assumed control of the militia. June 2. Submission of nineteen propositions by parliament to the king, demanding that the king should give his assent to the militia bUl ; that all fortified places should be entrusted to officers appointed by parliament ; that the liturgy and church government should be reformed in accordance with the wishes of parliament ; that parliament should appoint and dismiss all royal ministers, appoint guardians for the king's children, and have the power of excluding from the upper house at will all peers created after that date. The propositions were indig- nantly rejected. July. Appointment of a committee of public safety by parliament. Essex appointed captain-general of an army of 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry. Siege of Portsmouth. Aug. 22. Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham. 1642-1646. The civil war ; the Great Rebellion. Oct. 23. Drawn battle of Edgehill, (Prince Rupert, son of the elector palatme and Elizabeth of England.) The king marched upon London, but being confronted at Brentford by Essex and Nov. 12. the trained bands of London under Skippon^ he retired without fighting. " Affair of Brentford." Dec. The associated counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge^ Hertfordshire, and Huntingdonshire raised a force which was en- trusted to Oliver Cromwell (born April 25, 1599 m Hunting^ don), who made them a model band, " the Ironsides." 1643, Feb.- Apr. Fruitless negotiations at Oxford, followed by a re- newal of the war. In Feb. the queen landed in Yorkshire, bringing assistance from Holland. Apr. 27. Capture of Reading by Essex. May. Royalist rising in Cornwall ; defeat of the parliament at Strat- ton Hill (May 16). Defeat of Waller at Lansdowne Hill, and at Roundway Down (July). June 18. Hampden wounded in a skirmish with Rupert at ChaU grove field, f June 24. July 1. Westminster assembly (continued until 1649), for the settlement of religious and theological matters. July 25. Capture of Bristol (the second city in the kingdom) by Rupert. Discouragement of the supporters of the parliament. Sept. Essex reheved Gloucester^ which was gallantly defended by Mousey. 348 Modern History. A. D. 1643, Sept. 20. First battle of Newbury. Death of lord Falkland. Sept. 25. Signature of the Solemn League and Covenant by twenty-five peers and 288 members of the commons. Parlia- ment thus agreed to make the religions of England, Ireland, and Scotland as nearly uniform as possible, and to reform re- ligion " according to the word of God, and the example of the best reformed churches." All civil and military officers and all beneficed clergymen were compelled to sign the covenant (nearly 2000 clergymen were thus deprived of their livings). Thus the assistance of the Scots was secured. Sept. Charles concluded peace with the Irish insurgents, and took the fatal step of enlisting a force from their numbers for the war in England. Dec. 8. Death of Pym. 1644. Jan. A Scotch army crossed the Tweed. Parliament con- vened at Oxford by the king. Jan. 25. Battle of Nantwich. Defeat of the Irish by Sir Thomas Fairfax. Feb. 15. Joint committee of the two kingdoms. March. Trial of Laud. York besieged by Fairfax and the Scots. Siege of Oxford by Essex and Waller. Siege of Latham House (countess of Derby) raised by Rupert (May). July 2. Battle of Marston Moor. Prince Rupert, who defeated the Scots, was in turn totally de- feated by Cromwell at the head of his picked troops (Ironsides). Hitherto the king had held the west and north of England, while the parliament was supreme in the east. This victory gave the north to parliament. Surrender of York July 16, of Newcastle Oct 20. This success was partially offset in the south by the de- feat of Waller at the June 29. Battle of Copredy Bridge, and by the Sept. Surrender of Essex's infantry in Cornwall to Charles. Es- sex escaped to London by sea. 1644, Aug.-1645, Sept. Campaign of Montrose in Scotland. Montrose entered Scotland in disguise, Aug. 1644. Victory of Tippamuir Sept. 1 ; sack of Aberdeen (Bridge of Dee) Sept. 13 ; capture of Perth ; Montrose retired to Athole (Oct. 4) ; Fyrie castle (Oct. 14) ; Montrose retired to Badenach (Nov. 6) ; harrying of Argyleshire (Dec-Jan. 18) ; march from Loch Ness to Inverlochy at Ben Nevis (Jan. 31-Feb. 1). Battle of Inverlochy, Feb. 2. Surren- der of Elgin, Feb. 19. Montrose at Aberdeen (March 9) ; Stone- haven (March 21). Victory of Auldearn (May 4) ; victory of Alford (July 2) ; of Kilsyth (Aug. 15) ; court at Bothwell (Sept. 3) ; Kelso (Sept. 10) ; Leslie crossed the Tweed (Sept. 6). De- feat of Montrose at Philiphaugh (Sept. 13). 1644, Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbury fought between the king and Essex, Waller, and Manchester. Dec. Promulgation of a directory instead of a liturgy. Christmas! made a fast. 1645. Jan. Attainder and execution (Jan. 10) of Laud. A. D. England and Scotland. 349 1645, Jan -Feb. Truce known as the treaty of Uxbridge ; the pro- posals of the parliament rejected by the king. Dissensions within the parliament, iiise of the sect of indepen- dents (advocates of religious liberty) who formed a growing opposi- tion to the Presbyterians. CroniTvell fast becoming the leading man in England since the victory of Marston Moor. Quarrel with Man- chester. April 3. The Self-denying Ordinance passed by both houses (the commons had passed a similar bill Dec. 1644) preventing mem= bers of either house from holding military command. Estab- lishment of Presbyterianism, with some reservations in favor of the independents. Fairfax superseded Essex as captain-general. Cromwell, lieutenant-general (suspension of the seK-denying ordinance in his case). Introduction of reform in the army after the plans of Crom- well ; the new model. June 14. Battle of Naseby. Complete defeat of the king, followed by the general ruin of his cause. Capture of his private letters. Surrender of Lei- cester (June 18), Bridgewater (July 23), Bristol (Sept. 11), Carlisle^ Winchester, Basing House (Oct.), Latham House (Dec). March 26. Defeat and capture of lord Ashley at Stow-on-the-Wold j last battle of the civil war. 1646, May 5. Charles surrendered himself to the Scots. July 24. Parliamentary propositions submitted to Charles at Newcastle. Parliament to have control of the militia for twenty years ; Charles to take the covenant and support the Presbyterian establishment. Charles rejected the propositions, preferring to await the result of the impending breach between parlia- ment, representing Presbyterianism, and the army, comprising the independents. The independent opposition, the " tolera- tion " party in parliament, grew constantly in strength. 1647, Jan. 30. The Scots surrendered Charles to the parliament on payment of the expenses of their army (£400,000). Charles was brought to Holmby House in Northamptonshire. Contention between parliament and the army. The commons voted the disbandment of all soldiers not needed for garrison purposes or in Ireland. Fairfax appointed commander-in- chief. The self-denying ordinance re-enacted. The new model, however, refused to disband until its claims for arrears were satisfied. May 12. Charles accepted a modified form of the parliamentary propositions. It was too late. June 4. Charles seized at Holmby House by cornet Joyce and carried to the army. On the same day Cromwell, having heard of the intention of the Presbyterians to seize him in parliament, fled to the army at Triptow Heath. Here the army had taken an oath not to disband until liberty of conscience was secure, and 350 Modern History. A. i>. had adopted a new organization ; appointment to a council of adjudicators. 1647, June 10. The Sivraj 2it St. Albans. " Humble representation " addressed to parliament. June 16. The army demanded the exclusion from parliament of eleven members who were peculiarly obnoxious to it (Holies). July 26. The house of commons mobbed by London apprentices on account of a change in the commanders of the London militia wliich the army had requested. The two speakers, fourteen lords, and one hundred commons fled to the army. July 24. Proposals presented to the king by the army. Belief and worship should be free to all ; parliament to control the mili- tary and naval forces for ten years, and to appoint officers of state ; triennial parliament ; reformation of the house of commons, etc., rejected by the king, who was invited to Lon- don by that part of the parliament still sitting at Westmin- ster. Aug. 6. The army entered London and restored the members which had taken refuge with it. Charles removed to Hampton Court. Sept. 7. Parliament again offered Charles a modified form of the nineteen propositions ; on its rejection a new draft was pre- pared, but before its presentation Nov. 11. Charles escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained by the governor of Carisbrooke Castle. Dec. 24. " The four bills " presented to the king by parliament : 1. Parliament to command the army for twenty years ; 2. All declarations and proclamations against the parliament to be recalled ; 3. All peers created since the great seal was sent to Charles to be incapable of sitting in the house ; 4. The two houses should adjourn at pleasure. Charles, who was only playing with the parliament in the hope of securing aid from Scotland, rejected the four bills (Dec. 28), after he had already signed Dec. 26. A secret treaty with the Scots (" The Engagement"). Charles agreed to abolish Episcopacy and restore Presbyte- rianism ; the Scqts, who looked with horror on the rising tide of toleration in England, agreed to restore him by force of arms. 1648. Jan. 15. Parliament renounced allegiance to the king, and voted to have no more communication with him. 1648. Second Civil "War. At once a war between Scotland and England, a war between the Royalists and the Roundheads, and a war between the Presbyterians and the Independents. Committee of safety renewed, sitting at Derby House. March. A meeting of army officers at Windsor resolved that the king must be brought to trial. April 24. Call of the house. 306 members. The Presbyterians having returned to their seats, now regained control, and mani- A. D. The North and East. 351 fested a desire to come to an agreement with the king. Vir- tual repeal of the non-conununication resolution. 1648, May 2. Ordinance for suppression of blasphemies and heresies, aimed at the independents, especially at Cronw^ell, Ireton, etc. July 20-29. Parliament resolved to open negotiations with the king. Aug. 14. Holies resumed his seat. Royalist outbreaks in Wales, Cornwall, Devon, Kent; riots in London. July 25. The duke of Hamilton led a Scotch army into England. Cromwell having suppressed the rising in Wales met the Scots in the Aug. 17-20. Three days' battle at Preston Pans, and annihilated their army. Aug. 28. Surrender of Colchester to Fairfax. End of the second civil war. Sept. 18-Nov. " Treaty of Newport " negotiated between the king and the parliament, without result. Nov. 16. Grand remonstrance of the army. Dec. 1. Charles seized by the army and carried to Hurst Castle. Dec. 4. The army entered London (19 peers, 232 commons). Dec. 5. Parliament voted that the king's propositions formed a basis on wliich an agreement might be reached. This vote was the last straw ; the army took matters into its own hands. Dec. 6-7. Pride's Purge. Colonel Pride, by order of the council of officers, forcibly excluded the Presbyterian members (96) from the parliament. The " Rump " Parliament (some 60 members). Dec. 13. Repeal of the vote to proceed with the treaty. Vote that Charles should be brought to trial. The king conveyed to Windsor (Dec. 23). 1649, Jan. 1. Appointment of a high court of justice (135 members) to try the kuig ; as this was rejected by the lords (Jan. 2) the commons resolved .Tan. 4. That legislative power resided solely with the com- mons. Jan. 6. Passage of the ordinance without the concurrence of the lords. Jan. 20. Agreement of the people, a form of government drawn up by the army. Jan. 20-27. Trial of Charles I. before the high court (67 members present, Bradshaw presiding) ; the king merely denied the jurisdiction of the court. He was sentenced to death. Jan. 30. Execution of Charles I. at Whitehall in London. {Seep. 375.) § 9. THE NORTH AND EAST. {Seep. 27G.) The Union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, weakened by the action of Sweden, since the election of 1448. Christian I. of Oldenburg, as king of the Union, was com- pletely dissolved in consequence of the cruelties of Christian IL 352 Modern History. A, D. 1520. Massacre of Stockholm. Revolt of the Dalecarlians un- der the conduct of Gustavus Vasa (b. 1496, hostage in Den- mark, 1518, fled to Dalecarlia, 1519, concealed himself under dis- guises and worked in the mines). He defeated the Danes, and became first administrator of the kingdom, then king (1523). Sweden. {Seep. 276.) 1523-1654. House of Vasa. 1523-1560. Gustavus I., Vasa. Introduction of the Reformation. The throne made hereditary. Gustavus I. was succeeded by his eldest son Erik XIV., who, being insane, was deposed and mur- dered. His successor was the second son of Ghistavus, John III., whose son Sigismund was Catholic, and king of Poland (1587), and hence displaced in Sweden by his uncle Charles IX. the youngest son of Gustavus I. Charles's son, 1611-1632. Gustavus II. Adolphus, conducted successful wars with Poland and Russia. For his participation in the Thirty Years' War and his death see p. 311. He was followed by his daughter 1632-1654. Christina, who was well educated, but averse to affairs of government. She abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweihrucken, son of a sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Christina became a Catholic and died at Rome, 1689. {See p. 373.) Denmark and Norway. {See p. 276.) These countries remained united. Under Christian II. the Refor- mation began to spread into Denmark. Christian was displaced by his uncle, the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, who ascended the Danish throne as 1523-1533. Frederic I. and favored the Reformation. After his death (1533), the so-called Feuds of the Counts {Jurgen WuUemoever, burghermaster of Lubeck). Frederic's son 1536-1559. Christian III. completed the introduction of the Refor- mation. For the participation of Christian lY. in the Thirty Years' War, see p. 310. After a 1643-1645. War with Sweden, Christian was obliged to surrender the islands of Gottland and Oesel at the Peace of Bromsehro (p. 315). {Seep. 373.) Poland. {See p. 277.) 1386-1572. Jagellons. The kingdom reached its greatest extent {Baltic, Carpathians, Black Sea), but already the germ of de- cay was forming in the privileges of the numerous nobility. 1572-1791. Poland an elective monarchy. Introduction of the liherum veto. Elected kings : Henry of Anjou (p. 322); Ste- phen Bathory of Transylvania, followed by three kings of the house of Vasa ; Sigismund III., Vladislas IV., John Casimir (to 1668J. {Seep. 374.) Russia. {See p. 276.) After the extinction of the house of Rurik (1598), and a war of succession lasting ten years (the false DemetriusJ A. D. The North and East. 353 1613- The house of Romanow succeeded to the throne, which it occupied until 1762. (^See p. SlJf,.) Turlj;s. {See p. 278.) The empire of the Ottoman Turks reached its highest development under Soliman II. (1520-1566), the Magnificent, the contemporary of the emperor Charles V. (p. 303). Under his successors began the decline, caused especially by the influence of the Janizaries. India. {See p. 24I.) 1497. Covilham reached Calicut by land from Portugal. 1498. Portuguese vessels under Vasco da Gama reached Calicut by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. The Muhammedan power which the sultans of Delhi under various dynasties had extended over almost all India, broke up in the latter half of the fourteenth and during the fifteenth century. AVhen the Portuguese gained a foothold m the peninsula, its political constitu- tion was as follows : At Delhi, Muhammedan sultans of the Afghan dynasty with greatly reduced dominion ; in Bengal (1340-1576), Afghan (Muhammedan) kings; in Guzerat (1391-1573) a Muham- medan dynasty had its capital at Ahmeddbdd ; in the Deccan the Muhammedan empire of the Bahmani (1347-1525) had separated into five kingdoms : Bijdpur (1489-1686), Golconda (1512-1687), Ahmednagar (1490-1636), Ellichpur (1484-1572), Bidar (1492- 1609[57]. The southern part of the peninsula was still in the hands of the powerful Hindu kingdom, Vijayanagar (1118-1565). Da Gama was followed in 1500 by Cahral (on the voyage acciden- tal discovery (?) of Brazil) ; in 1502 a papal bull created the king of Portugal " Lord of the navigation, conquests, and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." First Portuguese governor and viceroy of India, Almeida (1505). In 1509 Alfonso c?' Albuquerque was ap- pointed to this office ; capture of Goa (1510), and of Malacca. 1526-1761 (1857). Mughal (Mogul) Empire in India. The founder of the Mughal empire was Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane (1494 king of Ferghana on the Jaxartes, 1497 con- queror of Samarkand, seized Kabul, 1504), who in 1526 invaded the Punjab and defeated the sultan of Delhi in the 1526. Battle of Panipat.i Defeat of the Rajputs of Chittor (1527) . Under Bihar's son Hu- mdyun (1530-56) the Mughals were driven from India by Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bengal; but they returned in 1556 and under Humdyiin's son Akbar (Bairdm the real commander), defeated the Afghans at Panipat (1556). 1556-1605. Akbar the Great whose reign is a long series of conquests. 1 The first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on that same plain ; viz. in 1526, 1556, 1761. (Hunter, Indian Empire, p. 234.) 28 354 Modern History. A. d, 1565. Battle of Talikot. Destruction of the Hindoo empire of Vijayanagar by a union of the Muhammedan kingdoms of the Deecan. Conquests of Akbar : 1561-68, Rajputs of Jaipur, Jodhpur, CJiit- lor ; 1572-73, Guzerat (revolted 1581, reconquered 1593); 1586-92 Kashmir • 1592, Sind ; 1594, Kandahar, Akbar's empire now comprised all India north of the Vindhyar Mts. ; in the Deecan he was not suc- cessful. Akbar organized the administration, reformed the military and financial system, and conciliated the Hindus. Akbar was suc- ceeded by his son Salim, Jahangir (1605-27). His reign was much troubled by rebellions, and his wars in the Deecan were without last- ing success. Shah Jahan (1628-1658). Kandahar, several times lost and recovered between the Mughals and the Persians, was finally lost by the Mughal empire, 1653. 8hah Jahan won some successes in the Deecan ; submission of Bijdpur, Golconda, Ahmednagar. The empire was at the height of its power and magnificence (peacock throne). Shah Jahdn deposed by his son Aurangzeb, and imprisoned (died 1666). From 1500 to 1600 the Portuguese had enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with India ; with the close of the sixteenth century, the Dutch and English appeared as their rivals. The East India Company of London was incorporated in 1660, and various others similar com- panies were established at different times ; but all were ultimately incorporated with the original company. (" The Governor and Com- pany of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies," 1600 ; Courten's Association [" Assador Merchants "] 1635-1650 ; " Com- pany of Merchant Adventurers," 1655-1657 ; " General Society trad- ing to the East Indies " [" English Company "], 1698-1709, united with the original company as " The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies "). The first twelve voyages were separate ventures ; after 1612 voyages were made for the com- pany. Opposition of the Portuguese. Battle of Swally. Defeat of the Portuguese. Establishment of an English factory at Surat, 1614. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir (Great Mogul), 1615. Treaty with the Dutch, 1619, without lasting effect. Massacre of English on the island of Amboyna (1623) followed by the withdrawal of the Eng- lish from the Indian Archipelago (1624). Presidency of Bantam, 1635. Foundation of Madras {Fort St. George), 1639. Dutch East India Company, 1602. French East India Companies 1604, 1611, 1615, 1642 (Richelieu's). (Seep. 389.) China. {See p. 278.) 1506-1522. Ching-tih. Rebellion of the prince of Nmg suppressed after a severe war. About 1522 the Portuguese established themselves at Macao. 1542. Tatar invasion under Yen-ta, in the reign of Kea-tsing. Coast of China ravaged by a Japanese fleet. 1567-1573. Lung-king. His reign was troubled by the Tatars, to relieve the country of whom he resorted to bribery. 1573-1620. Wan-leih. The Tatars continuing their disturbances the emperor gave Yen-ta lands in the province of Shen-se. A.. D. China.-— Japan. 355 1592. Tlie Japanese invaded Corea, but were defeated and compelled to sue for peace. 1597. The Japanese renewed the attack and defeated a Chinese fleet and army, but suddenly evacuated the peninsula. 1603. Ricci, the Jesuit, at the Chinese court ; he preached Christian- ity m China (f 1610). 1604. Dutch in China ; also the Spanish. 1616. Invasion of China by Manchoo Tatars who defeated the Chinese, and returning in 1619, Conquered and settled in the province of Leaou-tung. 1620. Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, tlrrew off the pretense of alle- giance to the Chinese and proclaimed his independence. He established his capital at San-Koo. Wen-leih was succeeded by Tai-chang (1620), who was followed by Teen-ke (1620-1627). In 1627, Tsung-ching, the last sovereign of the Ming (1368-1643) dynasty ascended the throne. Rebellion of Le Tsze-ching and Shang Ko-he. The emperor, being hard pressed, applied for aid to the Manchoo Tatars. These allies defeated the rebels, but refused to abandon the fruits of their victories. Seizing Pekin they raised to the tlirone of China a son of Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, who, as the first of the 1644— X, Ta-tsing or Great Pure dynasty, took the name of 1644. Shun-che. Capture of Nan-king. Period of confusion wherein the lin- gering resistance of the Chinese was gradually crushed out, and the shaved head and pig-tail, signs of Tatar sovereignty, became more and more common. (^See p. 390.) Japan. (See p. 278.) The period of the AsMkaga shoguns (1344-1573) contains few events of importance, especially after the end of the dual dynasties in 1391, by the act of the southern emperor, who resigned his power on the condition that the imperial office should henceforward alternate between the two lines. The violation of this agreement was the cause of much fighting. 1558-1588. Oki-Machi, mikado. This reign saw the fall of the Ashikagas, and the rise of three of the most renowned men of Japan ; Nohunaga, HideyosM, Tokugmoa lyeyasu. Introduction of cannon. The development of feudalism had weakened the power of the shoguns, as they had formerly destroyed that of the mikado. Ota Nohunaga was a feudal lord who acquired fame in a war with the head of another powerful family, Yoshimoto (1560). To him the mikado entrusted the task of pacifying the un- happy country, while his aid was also sought by Yosliiaki, the rightful shogun, who had been dispossessed by Yoshikar/e. By the battle of Anaga-wa (1570), where Tokugawa lyeyasu fought under Nohunaga, Yoshiaki was restored to power, but in 1573 he was deposed by No- hunaga, whom he had plotted to murder. 356 Modern History. A. d. 1573-1682. Government of Nobunaga. Nobunaga appointed no successor but retained the power in his own hands. He was a determined opponent of the over- powerful Buddhist priests, and took Christianity (the Jesuit Xavier at Kioto) under his protection. Slaughter of the Bud- dhist priests and capture of their fortified temples. Death of Nobunaga in a revolt (1582). 1582-1598. Government of Hideyoshi. The rebel was suppressed by the general Hideyoshi, who after considerable fighting reduced the whole country to subjection (1592). War with China; invasion of Corea (p. 355), Hideyo- shi was unfavorable to Christianity. 1588, publication of a de- cree ordering the expulsion of the Jesuits ; this, however, was not obeyed. In 1593 nine missionaries were burned at Naga- saki. Hideyoshi, the Taiko. He was succeeded by an infant son, under the regency of Tokugawa lyeyasu, whose govern- ment was popular but who was involved in political troubles that led to war. 1600. Battle of Sekigahara. lyeyasu defeated his enemies, and in 1603 was made Sei-i-tai-shogun, being the first of the 1603-1868. Tokugawa Shoguns, some of whom subse- quently took the title of Tai-kun (Tycoon) " high prince." The rule of lyeyasu was distinguished by the revival of learning and the growth of foreign intercourse (Dutch, English). lyeyasu re- signed his office in 1605 to his son but retained his power until his death. lyeyasu died 1616, leaving the " Legacy of lyeyasu," a code of laws. Redistribution of land. Those vassals of the crown who re- ceived a revenue of 10,000 measures of rice were called daimios and numbered 245, eighteen of whom were governors of provinces (koku- shiu). Next to the daimios stood the samurai, to whom the daimios leased their farms in return for military service. The shogun (who was the first of the daimios) was surrounded by the hatamoto, " house-carls," from whom he selected his officials. They are said to have numbered 80,000. Below the hatamoto were the gokenin, also attached directly to the shogun as private soldiers, comprising the Tokugawa clan. lyeyasu removed the capital of the shogun from Kamakura to Yedo. The successor of lyeyasu, Hide- tada, sent a messenger to Europe to study Christianity, but his report not being considered favorable, the shogun forbade the introduction of that religion. 1630-1643. Too-Fuku-no-in, daughter of the mikado, Go-mino-o, and the daughter of the shogun, Hidetata, followed the former on the throne as Miosho-Tenno. lyemitsu, whb succeeded to the shogunate in 1653, was an excel- lent ruler, but ordered the vigorous enforcement of laws against the Christians, and closed Japan to all foreigners except the Chinese and the Dutch, who were allowed to trade at Nagasaki, 1637. Revolt of the Christians at Shimabara finally suppressed; A. D. America. 357 massacre of the survivors. Persecution throughout the empire. Extirpation of Christianity. Death of lyemitsu, 1649. (Seep.U'"^-) SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE BEGINiVING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1648-1789. A. The second half of the seventeenth century. § 1. AMERICA. (See p. 300.) British, Dutch, and STvedish Colonies. 1644. Union of Providence and the Rhode Island towns (New- port, Portsmouth) under one charter, obtained by Roger Williams. Union of Sayhrook and Connecticut imder the latter name. The colony contained eight taxable towns ; that of New- Haven numbered six. Separation of the general court of Massachusetts Bay into two houses. April 18. Three hundred colonists massacred by the Indians in Vir- ginia. 1645. Rebellion of Clayborne and Ingle in Maryland ; they seized the government, but were put down in 1646. 1646. In Massachusetts John Eliot commenced his missionary labors among the Indians at Nonantum. (Translation of the Bible into Massachusetts dialect, 1661-63). Act of parliament freeing merchandise for the American colonies from all duty for tliree years, on condition that colonial pro- ductions should be exported only in English vessels. In New Netherlands Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, as governor, who immediately formulated a claim to all the region between Cape Henlopen and Cape Cod. 1648. The petition of Rhode Island ^ to be admitted to the union rejected, as that colony would not submit itself to the jurisdic- tion of Plymouth. 1649. Incorporation in England of the " Society for Propagating the Gospel in New England." Grant of the land between the Rappahannock and Potomac to lord Culpepper and other royalists. Massacre of the Hurons at St. Ignatius by the Iroquois. 1650. Agreement between New^ Netherlands and the United Colonies establisliing the boundary between the Dutch and English at Oyster Bay, on Long Island, and Greenwich Bay^ Connecticut. 1 "Where Rhode Island is mentioned, before the charter of 1663, it is prob- able that the Island only is meant." Holmes' Annals, I. 287, note 2. ^^^ Modern History. A. D. l«ri* ^^^^age of the 'Navigation Act in England (p. 376). Th P^?^^^^^e of Maine joined to Massachusetts. Ine parliPjjjjgjj^ jj^ England assumed control of Maryland, and suspejY(je(i ^he government of Rhode Island, but the latter ^Q 1^^ did not take effect. lDo5. J^payvesant, governor of New Netherlands, seized the Swed- ish forts on the Delaware, and broke up the colony of New Sweden. ^659. Virginia proclaimed Charles 11. king of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Virginia, and restored the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley. Execution of two Quakers in Massachusetts. 1661. Penal laws against Quakers suspended by order of the king. 1662. Charter of Connecticut granted by the king. New Haven refused to accept it. The assembly was composed of the gov- ernor, deputy-governor, twelve assistants, and two deputies from every town. 1662. Lord Baltimore confirmed in the government of Maryland. 1663. Grant of Carolina (all land between 31° N. and 36° N.) to the earl of Clarendon and associates. Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 1664. Grant of New Netherlands, from the Connecticut to the Delaware, to the kuig's brother, James, duke of York and Albany. The grant included the eastern part of Maine, and islands south and west of Cape Cod, The region between the Hudson and the Delaivare (^Nova CcBsarea, or New Jersey) was granted by the duke to lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. Aug. 27. Surrender of New Amsterdam to the English ; name ot the colony changed to New York. Sept. 24. Surrender of Fort Orange, whose name was changed to Albany. 1665. Maine restored to the heirs of Sir Fernando Gwges. Union of Connecticut and New Haven. The royal commissioners empowered to hear complaints in New England, after conferring with the general court of Massachu- setts, left the provinces in anger, as the court would not ac- knowledge their commission. 1666. Depredations of the buccaneers in the West Indies. 1667. Grant of the Bahamas to the proprietors of Carolina. 1667. Treaty of Breda between England and France. Acadia sur- rendered to France ; Antigua, Monserrat, and the French part of St. Christopher surrendered to England. 1668. Massachusetts reassumed the government of Maine. 1669. Adoption of the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina. which were drawn up by John Locke. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. (Governor and company of adventurers of England trading into Hud« son's Bay.) 1670. Foundation of Charlestown in Carolina. A. D. America. 359 Treaty of Madrid between Spain and England, settling the boundaries of their respective territories on the basis of pos- session. 1672. The Spaniards at St. Augustine endeavored to dislodge the settlers in Carolina, but were repulsed. 1673. War having broken out between England and Holland, the Dutch captured New York and received the submission of that colony, of Albany and New Jersey. In the peace of 1674 these places were restored to England. The grant to lord Culpepper was converted to a lease for thirty- one years. 1675. Edmund Andros, governor of New York, attempted to secure the land west of the Connecticut by force of arms, but was foiled by the energy of the colonists. 1675-1676. King Philip's War. This was the most extensive combination which the natives had formed against the foreign invaders. King Philip was the son of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoags. He lived at Mount Hope, near Fall River, Mass. He formed a league comprising nearly all the Indians from Maine to Connecticut. War broke out in June, 1675. and raged with peculiar violence in Massachusetts. Deerjield burnt (Sept. 1). Attack on Hadley (Sept. 1) repulsed by Goffe, one of the judges of Charles L (?). In the fall (Sept.-Oct.) the United Colonies took the war upon themselves and raised 2,000 troops. Capture of the fort of the Narragansetts by Winslotv (Dec. 19). Assaults more or less severe on Warwick, Lancaster, Medjieldy Weymouth, Groton, Rehoboth, Providence, Wrentham, Sudbury, Scituate, Bridgewater, Plymouth, Hatfield, and other towns (1676, Jan.-June). Defeat of the Indians near Deerfield (May 19, Fall Fight). Surprise of Philip by captaui Church ; capture of his wife and son (the latter was sold into slavery), Aug. 2. Philip shot (Aug. 12). 1676. Rebellion of Nathaniel Bacon in Virginia. Jamestown burnt. The rebellion came to an end with the sudden death of Bacon. In the following year royal troops arrived to repress the rebel- lion, but found all quiet. New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey. East Jer- sey was governed by Carteret; "West Jersey was held by the duke of York. (Hence, " the Jerseys.") 1677. The dispute between Massachusetts and the heirs of Sir Fer- nando Gorges over Maine being decided in favor of the latter by the English courts, Massachusetts bought the province of Maine, which henceforward formed a part of that colony. 1680. New Hampshire separated from Massachusetts by royal charter. The king appointed the president and council, and retained the right of annulling all acts of the legislature. Foundation of a new settlement in Carolina, called, like the first, Charlestown (the present Charleston). West Jersey restored to the proprietors, the heirs of lord Berkeley. 1681, March 4. Grant of Pennsylvania (the region between 41 ^ 360 Modern History. a. d. and 43° N. lat. running 5° west from the Delaware River) to ■William Penn. Establishment of a settlement. 1682. Penn brought a colony to Pennsylvania (Aug.). Publication of a frame of government and a body of laws (April-May). Treaty with the Indians. Foundation of Philadelphia. 1683. First legislative assembly in New York ; two houses. Only two sessions are known to have been held before the revolu- tion of 1688. 1684. The troubles between Massachusetts and the crown cul- minated in the forfeiture of the charter. These troubles were of old standing, dating from the restoration of Charles II. The favorable reception of Goffe and Whalley, two " regicides," in Boston, at the opening of that monarch's reign, was no favorable omen ; and almost the first news received from the col- ony brought complamts of ill-treatment from Quakers who had suf- fered under the rigorous laws. In 1661 Charles sent a letter to Mas- sachusetts prohibiting the colony from proceeding further in the prosecution of imprisoned Quakers, and ordering their release ; he subsequently withdrew his protection. Further controversy led to the dispatch of agents to England. The confirmation of the char- ter obtained by them was conditioned in a way peculiarly aggra- vating to the colonists : all laws derogatory to the royal authority should be repealed ; the oath of allegiance should be imposed ac- cording to the directions of the charter ; freedom and liberty of conscience in the use of the Book of Common Prayer should be allowed ; the sacrament should not be denied to any person of good life and conversation ; all freeholders of competent estates and good character, and orthodox in religion, should be admitted to vote. These demands being evasively met, the king, in 1664, appointed commissioners (Nicolls, Carr, Cartwright, Maverick^ to hear com- plaints and appeals in New England, and settle the peace of the country, who, barely touching at Boston, proceeded to the seizure of New Netherlands. Returning to Boston in the spring of 1665 their demand for a recognition of the commission was met by the excuse that the general court would plead his majesty's charter, whereupon the commission returned to England in anger. The court, however, acknowledged the conditional right of freeholders to vote, and agreed to permit the toleration of Quakers and churchmen for a time. A long period of controversy followed, and agents were sent back and forth with very little effect. In 1671 the colony was " almost on the brink of renouncing any dependence on the crown." The original causes of dispute became complicated by the controversy with the heirs of Gorges in regard to Maine, and by the evasion and disregard of the navigation laws practiced by the colony (1663). In 1676 the royal governors were commanded to insist on strict compli- ance with the commercial laws, both the navigation laws, and those imposing duties on intercolonial trade (1672). John Leverett, gov- ernor of Massachusetts, refused compliance, and in 1679 the general court voted " that the acts of navigation are an invasion of the rights and privileges of the subjects of his majesty in this colony, they not being represented in parliament." The agents then in London to d©« A. D. America. 361 fend the colony in the suit of the heirs of Gorges were sent home with the demand that the Maine purchase be undone and new agents sent to answer the complaints against the colony. Edward Randolph was sent over as collector of customs for Boston, where, however, he was sturdily opposed. The new agents giving no satisfaction, a writ of quo warranto was issued against the colony in 1683 ; in 1684 a suit of scire facias was brought and the court of chancery declared the charter forfeited (1684). The king appointed colonel Kirke governor of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and Plymouth, but before he received his commission Charles died, and James II. appointed Joseph Dudley president of New England. He took office in 1686. 1686. Issue of a quo loarranto writ against Connecticut and Carolina. New York deprived of an assembly and other liberties. Appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as president of TSiew England. He arrived at Boston Dec. 20. Randolph was now deputy postmaster iu New England. Andros assumed the government of Rhode Island. Establishment of an Epis- copal society in Boston, for the use of which Andros forcibly seized the Old South Church. 1687. Quo warranto against Maryland. Oct. Sir Edmund Andros assumed the government of Connecticut and attempted to secure the charter, but it was carried off from the hall of assemblv and hidden in the famous Charter Oak. 1688. Tyranny of Andros in Massachusetts. New York and New- Jersey placed under his government. Erection of King^s Chapel, as an Episcopal church, in Boston. 1689. On the receipt of news of the revolution in England, and the landing of William of Orange, Sir Edmund Andros was seized in Boston (April 18) and thrown into prison. Restora- tion of the old government. " Council of safety of the people and conservation of the peace." Assembly of representatives at Boston. Provisional resumption of the charter ; proclama- tion of William and Mary. Re establishment of the former goverimients in Rhode Island and Connecticut. New- York, Virginia and Maryland proclaimed William and Maiy. 1689-1697. " King William's V^ar " with the French, a part of the universal war against Louis XIV. The French were assisted by the Canadian Indians and those of Maine, while the Iroquois took the war path against the French. 1690. Surprise and destruction of Schenectady (Feb. 8), of Salmon Falls (March 18), and of Casco (May 17), by tliree bands of French and Indians. April, Seizure of Port Royal by Sir William Phips, who afterwards made a futile attack upon Quebec, by vote of a congress of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New York. The failure imposed so large a debt on the colonies that Massa- chusetts was obliged to issue paper money for the first time. 1692. New charter for Massachusetts. Sir William Phips ap« 362 Modern History. a. d. pointed governor. Under tliis charter were included the colony of Plymouth, the provinces of Maine, Nova Scotia and all land north to the St. Lawrence j also the Elizabeth Islands, Nantasket, and Martha's Vineyard. The new charter gave the appoint- ment of the governor to the crown, and vested in him the right of calling, proroguing, and dissolving the general court, of appointing military officers and officers of justice (with the consent of the council), of vetoing acts of the legislature and appointments of civil officers made by the legislature. The electoral franchise was extended to all freeholders with a yearly income of forty shillings, and all inhabitants having personal property to the amount of £40. Religious liberty was secured to all except Papists. 1692, Feb. Commencement of the Salem witchcraft frenzy. Be- fore October twenty persons were executed. Construction of Fort William Henry at Pemaquid in Maine by Sir William Phips. Rhode Island and Connecticut were allowed to retain their charters. Charter of the " College of William and Mary " in Vi^^ ginia. Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor of Virginia and Mary^ land. 1693. Government of Pennsylvania taken from Penn by the crown. An English expedition against Canada was planned but failed of execution. 1694. Penn reinstated. Fletcher, governor of New York (and now of Pennsylvania), having been entrusted with the command of the militia of Connecticut, went to Hartford Oct. 26 to assert his authority, but was repulsed by the assembly, and by Wadsworth, senior captain of the militia. French expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois. 1696. Capture of the fort at Pemaquid by the French under Iberville. An expedition of count Frontenac against the Iroquois resulted in little more than the destruction of their harvests. 1697. The Peace of Ryswick (p. 371) prevented the exe- cution of a French attack upon Newfoundland. Restoration of conquests by both combatants. Third expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois, with little effect. 1699. The French settled in Louisiana. The French claimed control of the fisheries on the north coast, and of the territory from the Kennebec eastward. Foundation of a Scotch settlement at Darien in the hope of acquiring great wealth by the command of commercial transit (Paterson). The first expedition (1,200 men, besides women and children) perished from starvation, or returned to Scot- land ; the second was broken up by the Spaniards who con« sidered the settlement a breach of the treaty of Ryswick. 1700. Iberville took possession of the Mississippi for France. 1701= William Penn gave a new charter to Pennsylvania. A.. D. America, 363 1701. Foundation of Yale College at New Haven in Connecticut. 1702. Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts. Quarrel with the general court over the proposed salaries to be paid the governor, lieutenant-governor, etc. An expedition projected by governor Moore of Carolina against St. Augustine resulted in failure. The debt thus in- curred was discharged by an issue of paper money. 1702-1713. " Queen Anne's ^War " with the French. 1703. Pennsylvania province separated from the territories, or lower counties (Delaivare) ; separate assemblies. 1704. Deerjield in Massachusetts destroyed by French and In- dians. This was avenged by an expedition under colonel Church wliich ravaged the French settlements on the east coast of New England. Establishment of the Church of England in Carolina. The complaints of dissenters against some details of ecclesiastical administration led to the issue of a quo loarranto against the colony, but nothing came of the matter. 1706. Invasion of Carolina by the French and Spanish in assertion of the Spanish claims to that country as a part of Florida. They were repulsed and defeated on land and sea with great loss by William Rhett. 1707. New England sent an expedition against Port Royal, which returned without effecting its capture. 1708. Surprise of Haverhill by French and Indians. 1709. An expedition was planned against Canada and Acadia to which the colonies were to contribute 2,700 men. The project was abandoned by the English government after the men had been raised, and Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey were obliged to issue paper money to cancel their debts. 1710. Capture of Port Royal by a fleet from England. Change of the name of the city to Annapolis. 1711. An expedition against Canada numbering 68 sail and 6,463 sol- diers, largely raised by the colonies, met with disaster and was abandoned. 1712. A massacre of colonists in Carolina by the Tuscaroras and other tribes was followed by the dispatch of Barnwell against the Indians. After a difficult march he succeeded in almost anni- hilating the Tuscaroras, many of whom fled to the Iroquois. 1713' Treaty of Utrecht, between Great Britain and France (p. 393). Cession of Hudson Bay and Straits, of Nova Scotia, Neivfoundlandy and St. Christopher (in the West Indies) to England. French settlements and discoveries. In the earlier part of the century the French had established a claim to Canada and Acadia, extending to the Kennebec in Maine, although the English claimed as far as the Penobscot. From this 364 Modern History. Jl. d. vantage ground they extended their discoveries south and west. Jes- uit missionaries labored among the Hurons in the country between lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron, planted the missions of St. Mary (1668) and Michillimachinac, died with their flocks when the undying enmity of the Iroquois annihilated the Hurons {Breboeuf, Lallemont), or sought torture and death at the hands of the Five Nations {Isaac Jogues, 1640-1654). 1656. Acadia and Nova Scotia granted to St. Etienne and others by Cromwell.^ 1656-1658. French colony in western New York, soon broken up. 1659. Francois de Laval, bishop of New France. 1662. The hundred associates of Quebec reconsigned their rights to the king, who soon after granted New France to the French West India Company. 1665. Courcelles, governor of New France. The colony was more than doubled by the transportation of many emigrants from France. 1666. Expedition of Tracy and Courcelles against the Mohawks. 1666. Allouez founded the mission of St. Esprit on the southern shore of lake Superior. 1668. The peace of Breda ended the war between England and France which had broken out in 1666. England restored Aca- dia to France, and obtained from France Antigua, Montser- rat, and St. Christopher. This was followed by a peace between the French and the Five Nations. In this year Foundation of Sault Ste. Marie, at the entrance of lake Superior by Dahlon and Marquette. 1672. Tour of Allouez Sijadi Dahlon in Wisconsin and Illinois. 1673. Discovery of the Mississippi by Marquette and Joliet (June 17) who descended the stream for an uncertain distance. Count Frontenac, governor of Canada, completed a fort at On- tario called after himself. Construction of a fort at Michilli- machinac. > 1678. Robert . Cavalier de La Salle began his career of discovery in the great west. Launching in the Niagara, the Griffin, a ves- sel of forty-five tons, the first ever seen on the great lakes, he sailed Aug. 7, 1679. He passed through lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan, and landed at the extreme southern end of the latter lake in October. He built a fort on the St. Joseph and crossed the portage to the Illinois. Not hearing from the Griffin he returned on foot to Canada. Obtaining fresh sup- plies he retraced his route to the Illinois only to find the fort which he had there erected deserted. Again he returned to Canada ; again he obtained aid, and again undertook his enter- prise. 1680. Discovery of the Mississippi by Hennepin, a priest in the com- pany of La Salle. He ascended the river to 46° N., but the claim which he later advanced that he had explored the Mis- sissippi to the sea is probably false. 1 The southern boundary of Acadia in the grant of Henry IV., 1630, was 40° N. ; the southwestern limit of Nova Scotia in the grant of James I.. 1621, was the river St. Croix. Holmes, Annals, I. 307, note 4. A-. D. America, 365 1682. La Salle, reaching the Mississippi by way of the St. Joseph and the Illinois, descended the great river to the sea and took possession of its valley for Louis XIV., April 9, under the name of Louisiana. 1684. Expedition of De la Barre against the Iroquois, wliich failed of success. La Salle having announced his discovery in France was sent out at the head of four vessels and a number of settlers to estab- lish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Contention be- tween La Salle and the commander of the vessels, who was jealous of the discoverer, resulted in disaster. The squadron missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed at Matagorda Bay (St. Louis), four hundred miles to the west. Here La Salle built a fort, but privation and disease soon greatly re- ducing the numbers of the colony he undertook to go on foot to Canada for relief. On this expedition 1687. La Salle was shot by one of his own men. The settlement of Mar. 19. St. Louis soon perished. 1687. Expedition of De Denonville against the Senecas. At this time there were about 11,000 persons in New France. 1689-1697. War of William and Mary, see p. 361. Expeditions of Frontenac against the Iroquois (1693, 1696, 1697). 1699. The French and the English both attempted to found a col- ony in Louisiana. The French colony was sent out by Louis XIV. under Lemoine (T Iberville, who entered the Mississippi March 2, and also founded a colony at Biloxi. The English attempt was made by Coxe, a claimant of the old grant of Carolana, who entered the Mississippi, but, finding himself an- ticipated, retired (^Detour aux Anglais^. 1700. An expedition from Biloxi ascended to the falls of St. An- thony, in search of gold. Iberville returning from France took possession of Louisiana anew for the crown. Erection of a fort, i^oundation of Kaskaskia in Illinois. Foundation of Cahokia in Illinois. Fort at Detroit (1701). X702-13. Queen Anne's war, see p. 363. Iberville brought new settlers from France and transferred the colony of Biloxi to Mobile in Alabama. Iberville f 1706. 1705. Foundation of Vincetmes in Indiana. 1712. Grant to Sieur Antoine Crozat of the whole commerce of fif- teen years of all the " king's lands in North America lying be- tween Neio France on the north, Carolina on the east, and New Mexico on the west, down to the gulf of Florida ; by the name oi Louisiana.'^ {Seep. 41'^-) §2. FRANCE. {Seep. 326.) 1643-1715. Louis XIV. (five years old), under the guardianship of his mother, Anne, daughter of Philip III., king of Spain, called by the French Anne of Austria, i. e. 366 Modern History. A. D, of Hapsburg. The government, even after Louis' arrival at ma- jority, was conducted by cardinal Mazarin. 1648-1653. Disturbances of the Fronde (cardinal Retz; prince of Conde ; resistance of the parliament of Paris), the last at- tempt of the French nobility to oppose the court by armed resist- ance. Condi, at first loyal, afterwards engaged against the court, fought a battle with the royal troops under (Henri de la Tour d'Au- vergne, vicomte de} Turenne, in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, and took refuge in Spain. The first conspiracy, the old Fronde, ended in 1649, with the second treaty of Ruel ; the second conspiracy, the new Fronde, which involved treasonable correspondence with Spain, failed in 1650. A union of the two was crushed in 1653. ( Gaston of Orleans, and his daughter, "Mademoiselle.") 1648. Acquisitions of France in the Peace of Westphalia, p. 316. The war with Spain, which sprang up during the Tliirty Years' War (victory of Conde' at Rocroy, May 18, 1643 ; alliance with Eng- land, 1657 ; Cromwell sent 8,000 men of his army to the assistance of Turenne) was continued till the 1659o Peace of the Pyrenees: 1. France received a part of Roussillon, Conjians, Cerdagne^ and several towns in Artois and Flanders, Hainault and Luxembourg . 2. The duke of Lorraine, the ally of Spain, was partially reinstated (France received Bar, Clermont, etc., and right of passage for troops) ; the prince of Conde entirely reinstated. 3. Marriage between Louis XIV. and the infant Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, who, however, renounced her claims upon her inheritance for herself and her issue by Louis forever, both for herself before mar- riage and for herself and her husband after marriage, in considera- tion of the payment of a dowry of 500,000 crowns by Spain. 1661. Death of Mazarin, Personal government of Louis XIV. (1661-1715), absolute, arbitrary, without etats generaux, without regard to the remonstrances of the parliament of Paris {LJetat, c'est moi). Colbert, controller general of the finances, from 1662-1683. Reform of the finances ; mercantile system. Con- struction of a fleet of war. Louvois, minister of war, 1666-1691. Quarrel for precedence in rank with Spain. Negotiations with the Pope concerning the privileges of French ambassadors at Rome. The ambition of Louis for fame, and his desire for increase of terri- tory were the causes of the following wars, in which these generals took part : Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg, Catinat, Villars, Vendome, Vauban (inventor of the modern system of military defense). 1667-1668. First war of conquest (war of devolution) on account of the Spanish Netherlands. Cause : After the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, Louis laid claim to. the Spanish possessions in the Belgian provinces (^Brabant, Flanders, etc.), on the ground that, being the personal estates A. D. France. 367 of the royal family of Spain, their descent ought to be regulated by the local " droit de devolutions^ a principle in private law, whereby in the event of a dissolution of a marriage by death, the survivor enjoyed the usufruct only of the property, the ownership being vested in the children, whence it followed that daughters of a first marriage inher- ited before sons of a second marriage.^ The renunciation of her heritage which his wife had made was, Louis claimed, invalid, since the stipulated dowry had never been paid. 1667. Turenne conquered a part of Flanders and Hainault. By the exertions of Jan de Witt, pensioner of Holland, and Sir 1668. William Temple, England, Holland, and Sioeden, concluded the Jan. 23. Triple Alliance, which mduced Louis, after Conde had, with great rapidity, occupied the defenseless free county of Burgundy {Franche Comte) to sign the 1668. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. May 2. Louis restored Franche-Comte (the fortresses having been dismantled) to Spain, in return for which he received twelve fortified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands, among others, Lille, Tournay, and Oudenarde. The question of the succession was not settled, but deferred. 1672-1678. Second war of conquest (against Holland). The course of Holland in these transactions had inflamed the hatred of Louis against her, a hatred made still stronger by the refuge given by the provinces to political writers who amioyed him with their abus- ive publications. To gain his purpose, the destruction or the humilia- tion of Holland, Louis secured the disruption of the Triple Alliance by a 1670. Private treaty with Charles 11. of England (p. 380), and be- 1672. tween France and Sioeden. Subsidy treaties with Cologne and Munster ; 20,000 Germans fought for Louis in the following war. 1672. Passage of the Rhine. Rapid and easy conquest of southern Holland by Turenne, Conde, and the king, at the head of 100,000 men. The brothers De Witt, the leaders of the aristocratic republican party in Holland, were killed during a popular outbreak (Aug. 27), and William III. of Orange was placed at the head of the state. The opening of the sluices saved the province of Holland, and the city of Amsterdam. Alliance of Holland with Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688), afterwards joined by the emperor and by Spain. 1673. Frederic William concluded the separate peace of Vossem (not far from Louvaine), in which he retained his possessions in Cleves, except Wesel and Rees. 1674. Declaration of war by the empire. 1 "Secundam antiqiias Meklin. constitutiones et fere per universam Braban- tiam superstes altero conjugo mortuo usufructuarius redclitur suorum bonarum, eorum proprietate statim ad liberos proximos vel qui ha3redes futuri sunt devo* lUta." Comm. to the customs of Mechlin. Bauke^ Franz. Gesch. III., 226. 368 Modern History. a., d. Peace between England and Holland. Louis XIV. conquered Franche-Comte in person ; Conde fought against Orange (drawn battle at Senef) in the Netherlands. Brilliant campaign of Turenne on the upper Rhine (first ravaging of the palat- inate) against Montecuculi, the imperial general, and the elector of Brandenburg. The latter, recalled by the inroad of the Swedish allies of Louis XIV. into his lands, defeated the Swedes in the 1675. Battle of Fehrbellin. In the same year Turenne fell at June 18. Sasbach, in Baden (July 27). The French retreated across the Rhine. 1676. Naval successes in the Mediterranean against the Dutch and Spanish. Death of De Ruyter. 1677. Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, eldest daughter of the duke of York. 1678. Surprise and capture of Ghent and Ypres by the French. Negotiations with each combatant, which had been for some time in progress, resulted in the 1678-1679. Peace of Nimwegen. Holland and France (Aug. 10, 1678) ; Spain and Fra»ce (Sept. 17, 1678) ; the Emperor, with France and Sweden (Feb. 6, 1679) ; Holland with Sweden (Oct. 12, 1679). At Fontainebleau, France and Denmark (Sept. 2, 1679). At Lund, Denmark and Sweden (Sept. 26, 1679). 1. Holland received its whole territory back, upon condition of preserving neutrality. 2. Spain ceded to France, Franche-Comte, and on the northeast frontier, Valenciennes, Cambray, and the Cam- bresis, Aire, Poperingen, St. Omer, Ypres, Conde, Bouchain, Maubeuge, and other towns ; France ceded to Spain, Charleroi, Binche, Oude- narde, Ath, Courtray, Limburg, Ghent, Waes, etc. ; and in Cata- lonia, Puycerda. 3. The Emperor ceded to France Freiburg in the Breisgau ; France gave up the right of garrison in Philippsburg ; the duke of Lorraine was to be restored to his duchy, but on such con- ditions that he refused to accept them. Louis XIV. forced the elector of Brandenburg to conclude the 1679. Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, whereby he surrendered to Sweden nearly all of his conquests in Pommerania, in return for which he received only the reversion of the principality of East Friesland, which became Prussian in 1744, and a small indemnifica- tion (exclamation of the elector : Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor, Virg. ^n. IV. 625). Louis " the Great " at the height of his power. His boundless am- bition stimulated by the weakness of the empire led him to establish the 1680-1683. Chambers of Reunion at Metz, Breisach, Be- san^'on, and Tournay. These were French courts of claims mth power to investigate and decide what dependencies had at any time belonged to the territories and towns which had been ceded to France by the last four treaties of peace. The king executed with his troops the decisions of his tri- A. D. France. 369 bunals, thus adding to violence in time of peace, the scoff of a legal formality. Saarhriick, Luxembourg, Deuxponts (^Zweihriicken), and many other towns were thus annexed to France. % 1681, Oct. Capture of Strasburg by treachery. 1683. Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, occupation of Luxemhourgf and seizure of Trier (1684). Lorraine permanently occupied by France. To the weakness of the empire, the wars with the Turks, and the general confusion of European relations since the peace of Nimwegen, it is to be attributed that these outrageous aggressions were met by notliing more than empty protests, and that 1684. A truce for twenty years was concluded at Regensburg between Louis and the emperor and the empire, whereby he retained everything he had obtained by reunion up to Aug. 1, 1681, including Strasburg. Louis' mistresses : Louise de la Valliere ; Madame de Montespan y Madame de Maintenon {Francoise d'Aubigne), smaxrow bigot whose influence over the king was boundless. Maria Theresa died 1683. Louis privately married to Madame de Maintenon. War upon heresy. The dragonnades in Languedoc. Wholesale conversions. 1685. Oct. 18. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The exercise of the reformed religion in France was forbid- den, children were to be educated in the Catholic faith, emigration was prohibited. In spite of this more than 50,000 families, including military leaders (Schomberg), men of letters, and the best part of the artificers of France, made their way to foreign countries. Their loss was a blow to the industry of the country, which hastened the approach of the revolution. The exiles found welcome in Holland, England (Spital fields), Brandenburg. The Protestants of Alsace re- tained the freedom of worship which had been secured to them. 1689-1697. Third War. (War concerning the succession of the palatinate.) Cause : After the extinction of the male line of the electors palatine in the person of the elector Charles (f 1685), whose sister was the wife of Louis XIV.'s brother, the duke of Orleans, the king laid claim to the allodial lands of the family, a claim which he soon extended to the greater portion of the country. Another ground for Frederic V. (king of Bohemia), t 1632. J I I Sophia m. Charles Louis, Emest Augustus, t 1680. of Hanover. George I. Charles, Charlotte Elizabeth, •f England. t 1685. m. Philip, duke of without Orleans, brother of male isBue. Louis XIV. 24 370 Modern History. A. D. war was found in the quarrel over the election of the archbishop of Cologne, wliich Louis was resolved to secure for Von Fiirstenburg, bishop of Strasburg, in place of prince Clement of Bavaria (1688). Meantime the unfavorable impression produced throughout Protes- tant Europe by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had contributed to the success of the plans of William of Orange, and 1686. The League of Augsburg, directed against France, was signed July 9. by the Emperor, the kings of Sweden and Spain, the electors of Bavaria, of Saxony, and the palatinate. In 1688 occurred the revolution in England which placed William of Orange on the throne of that country, and added a powerful kingdom to the new foes of Louis. The exiled James 11. took refuge with the French monarch (court at St. Germain, p. 385). 1688. Invasion and frightful devastation of the Palatinate, by Oct. order of Louvois, executed by Melac (Heidelberg, Mannheim, Speier, Worms, and the whole country as far as the borders of Alsace ravaged and burnt). The military successes of the French on the Rhine were unimportant, especially after 1693, when prince Louis of Bavaria assumed the chief command against them. 1689. The Grand Alliance, between the powers who had joined the League of Augsburg and England and Holland (Savoy had joined the league in 1687). The principal scene of war was in the Netherlands. 1690. June 30, Battle of Fleurus, defeat of the prince of Waldeck by Louis' general. Marshal Luxembourg. The French expedition to Ireland in aid of James had but a temporary success. 1690, July 1. Victory of William III. over the adherents of James II. at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland (p. 387). French successes in Piedmont ; Catinat reduced Savoy ; de- feat of Victor Amadeus at Staffarda. 1692, May. Defeat of the French fleet under Tourville by the Eng- lish and Dutch at Cape La Hogue. The mastery of the sea passed from the French to the English. Death of Louvois. 1692, July 24. Battle of Steinkirk (Steenkerken) in Hainault. Victory of Luxembourg over William III. Fall of Namur. (June). 1693, July 29. Battle of Neerwinden. Victory of Luxembourg over William III., who m spite of his many defeats still kept the field. In Italy Marshal Catinat defeated the duke of Savoy at Mar- saglia. Rise of prince Eugene (" Eugenio von Savoye," " the little abbe," son of Maurice of Savoy-Carignan, count of Soissons and Olympia Mancini, niece of Mazarin, b. 1663 at Paris ; refused a commission by Louis XIV., he entered the Austrian service in 1683 ; died April 21, 1736). On June 30, the English fleet was defeated at Lagos Bay by Tourville. Failure of the English attack upon Brest (1694), not by the treachery of Marlborough. Death of Luxem- bourg (Jan. 1696) ; he was succeeded by the incapable Villeroy. A. D. France, 371 1695, Sept. Recapture of Namur by William III. 1696, May 30. Separate Peace with Savoy at Turin. All con- quests were restored to the duke {Pignerol and Casale), and his daughter married Louis' grandson, the duke of Burgundy. Savoy promised to remain neutral. 1697, Peace of Ryswick, a village near the Hague. Treaty Sept. 30. between France, England, Spain, and Holland. 1. Confirmation of the separate peace with Savoy. 2. Restoration of conquests between Prance and England and Holland ; William in. acknowledged as king of England, and Anne, as his successor, Louis promising not to help his enemies. 3. It was agreed that the chief fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands should be garrisoned with Dutch troops as a barrier between France and Holland. 4. France restored to Spain all places which had been " reunited " since the peace of Nimwegen, with the exception of eighty-two places, and all conquests. 5. Holland restored Pondicherri in India to the French East India Company and received commercial privileges in return. 1697, Oct. 30. Treaty between France and the emperor (and em- pire.) 1. France ceded all the "reunions " except Alsace, which hencefor- ward was lost to the empire. 2. Strasburg was ceded to France. 3. Prance ceded Freiburg and Breisach to the emperor, and Phillips- burg to the empire. 4. The duchy of Zweibriicken was restored to the king of Sweden, as count palatine of the Rhine. 5. Lorraine was re- stored to duke Leopold (excepting Saarlouis). 6. The clamis of car- dinal Fiirstenburg to the archbishopric of Cologne were disavowed. 7. The Rhine was made free. Brilliant period of French literature in the age of Louis XIV. Corneille (1606-1684) ; Racine (1639-1699) ; Moiidre (Jean Baptiste Poquelin, 1622-1673) ; La Fontaine (1621-1695) ; Boileau (1636- 1711) ; Bosmet (1627-1704) ; FlecUer (f 1710) ; Fenelon (Francois de ScUignac de Lamothe, 1651-1715). Louis' court at Versailles (after 1680) was the pattern for all the other courts of Europe. Buildings, luxury, mistresses (La Valliere, Montespan, Fontange). After the death of his wife, Maria Theresa of Spain (1683), Louis made a secret marriage with Fran(:oise d'Aubigne, widow of the poet Scarron (1610-1660), whom he made Marquise de Maintenon. (^See pp. 390, U5.) § 3. GERMANY. {Seep. 317.) 1658-1705. Leopold I., son of Ferdinand III. After 1663 permanent diet at Regensburg, consisting of the representatives of the eight electors, the sixty-nine ecclesiastical, the ninety-six secular princes, and the imperial cities. [A miracle of te- dious legislation, often degenerating into a squabble for precedence. " A bladeless knife without a handle."] Corpus Catholicorum and Cor- pus Evangelicorum ; [the corporate organizations of the Catholic and the evangelical estates, the latter being the most important. This or- 372 3fodern History* A. D. ganization of the Protestant estates had existed, in fact, since the latter half of the sixteenth century, but it was legally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia, where it was decreed that in the diet matters relating to religion and the church should not he decided by a majority, but should be settled by conference and agreement between the Cath- olic and Protestant estates, as organized corporations.] 1661-1664. First war with the Turks ; caused by a dispute con- cerning the election of a prince in Transylvania. The Turkish successes at last enabled the emperor to obtain help from the empire and from the French. Victory of the imperial gen eral Montecuculi over the Turks at St. Gotthard on the Raah (1664). A truce for twenty years, favorable to the Turks, was, nevertheless concluded. War of the empire against Louis XIV. (see p. 367). 1666. Settlement of the contested succession of Cleve-Jiilich ; Cleve, Mark, Ravenstein, and half of Ravensberg given to Bran- denburg ; afterwards, the whole of Ravensberg instead of Ra venstein. 1682-1699. Second war with the Turks. Conspiracy of Hun- garian magnates detected and punished. Count Tbkoly ap- pealed to the Turks for aid. Invasion of Hungary by the Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha and 1683. Siege of Vienna. Heroic defense conducted by Rudiger von Stahremberg. Sue cessful relief by a united German and Polish army under Charles oj Lorraine and John Sobieski, king of Poland. Henceforward active participation of the German princes in the war, assisted by Venice. After the victory of Charles of Lorraine over the Turks at Mohacs (pron. Mohatch) Aug. 12, 1687, the diet at Pressburg conferred the hereditary succession to the throne of Hungary upon the male line of Austria. The war continued with varying fortune until Prince Eugene, by the 1697. Victory of Zenta, brought about the 1699, Jan. 26. Peace of Carlowitz : 1. The Porte received the Banat Temesvar ; Austria, the rest of Hungary and Transylvania. 2. Venice received Morea (the Peloponnesus, p. 416). Toward the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, several German princes obtained an elevation in rank. 1692. 1. Hanover became the ninth electorate. 1697. 2. The elector of Saxony (^Augustus II.), after the death of John Sohieski, became king of Poland, and adopted the Cath- olic faith. 3. Frederic III., elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713), son of the Great Elector, assumed, with the consent of the etnperor, the 1701. title of king in Prussia (Frederic I.) and crowned himself at Jan. 18. Konigsberg. {See p. 397.) A. D. The North and East. 373 § 4. THE NORTH AND EAST. Sweden. {Seep. 352.) Sweden, whose possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, was the first power of the North after the Thirty-Years' War. 1654-1718 (1751). Dynasty of the counts palatine of Zweibrucken (p. 352). 1654^1660, Charles X., Gustavus, undertook a war with Poland, because John Casimir (of the house of Vasa) refused to ac- knowledge him. He invaded Livonia and Poland, captured Warsaw and drove John Casimir into Silesia. Frederic William, elector of Bran- denburg, who had come with an army to the defense of East Prussia, was obliged, by the treaty of Konigsberg (1656) to receive his duchy in fee from Sweden, as he had heretofore held it from Poland. He received also the bishopric of Ermeland. Uprising in Poland against the Swedes. Charles Gustavus and the elector Frederic William, who had become a still closer ally by the treaty of Marienburg, gained the 1656. Three days' battle of Warsaw over the Poles. In order to further secure for himself the aid of the elector of Brandenburg, Charles Gustavus granted him, in the treaty of Labiau (1656) the sov- ereignty over East Prussia and Ermeland. Nevertheless, Russia, Den- mark and the emperor, declared war upon Sweden, and they were soon joined by the elector of Brandenburg, who received from Poland in the treaty of Wehlau (1657) recognition of his sovereignty over East Prussia, but not over Ermeland, for which he received compensation elsewhere. The Swedes were soon driven out of Poland, retaining a hold on Polish Prussia only. Charles Gustavus attacked Denmark which he soon conquered (crossing of the frozen Belt, Jan. 1658), and compelled to make important cessions in the peace of Roeskild (1658). In the same year Charles Gustaims invaded Denmark a sec- ond time, purposing the annihilation of the monarchy. Courageous defense of Copenhagen. The Danes received assistance from all sides. Raise of the siege. Sudden death of Charles Gustavus (1660), Under his minor son 1660-1697. Charles XI., the 1660. Peace of Oliva (monastery near Danzig) was con- cluded with Poland. John Casimir abandoned his claims upon the throne of Sweden, as well as upon Livonia and Esthonia. Restoration of the duke of Cur- land. The sovereignty of Prussia ratified by Sweden and Poland. This was followed immediately by the Peace of Copenhagen with Denmark, which surrendered forever the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula, which had been ceded already by the peace of Roeskild, but retained Drontheim and Bornholm. Peace between Sweden and Russia at Kardis (1661) ; reciprocal surrender of conquests. 374 Modern History. A. d. Wat between Sweden, as the ally of France, and Brandenburg ; battle of Fehrbellin, p. 368; peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, p. 368. {See pp. 394, 409.) Denmark. (Seep. 352.) Immediately after the peace (1660) the third estate (burghers), im- patient of the rule of the nobility, and the clergy, conferred upon the king, Frederic III. (1648-1670), an absolutely uncontrolled authority. Lex Regia. In the same way the Swedish estates, weary of the over-great power of the royal council, conferred almost unlimited power upon king Charles XI., who was now of age. fSfe p. ^09.) Poland. (See p. 352 ) In Poland, on the contrary, the royal power had become a mere shadow at this period, and the state was, in fact, a republic of nobles. The diet, composed of the senate (bishops, woiwods, castellanes), and the elected representatives from the country (representatives of the nobility) exercised every function of government. The liherum veto, that is, the right of each individual member of the diet to defeat a resolution by his protest, and thus to break up the diet, led to bribery, violence, and, in the end, to absolute anarchy. After the abdication of John Casimir (1668), there followed a bloody contest for the throne ; then John Sohieski (1674-1696), the liberator of Vienna (p. 372), and finally Augustus II. of Saxony (1697-1733), under whom the war with the Turks was ended by the Peace of Carlovritz (p. 372). (See pp. 397, 410.) Russia. {^Seep. 3b3.) Under the house of Romanow Russia developed in strength and influence. The son of the founder of the dynasty, Alexis, reconquered Little (White) Russia from Poland, and began to introduce European civilization into Russia. After the death of his eldest son, Feodor (1682), his brothers, Ivan and Peter (son of the Czar's second wife, Natalia Narischkin), proclaimed Czars under the guardianship of their elder sister, Sophia, by the Strelitzes, the noble body-guard of the emperor. Peter in Preohaschensk, under the guidance of Lefort, a Swiss. Playing soldiers : origiu of the later guard. His half-sister, Sophia, endeavored to exclude liim from the throne, but was sent to a cloister by Peter (1689). 1689-1725. Peter I., the Great, reigned as sole monarch, his weak minded brother, Ivan, con- tinuing until his death (1696) without the least authority. Peter began his reforms with the assistance of Gordon, a Scot, and Lefort. Conquest of ^2:0^(1696). After cruelly punishing a revolt of the Strelitzes, Peter undertook his frst journey (1697-1698), for his instruction, through Germany to Holland, where he worked as a ship's carpenter in Saardam {Zaandam), and afterwards to England (en- gagement of foreign artisans, artists, and military officers). Peter intended to visit Italy, but was recalled by a new revolt of the A. D. England, 375 Strelitzes (1698). Bloody punishment ; dissolution of the Strelitzes, who were replaced by an army after the European pattern (1699). 1699. Peace with the Turks at Carlowitz. Acquisition of Azoff, {ISeepp. 394, 4^0.) § 5. ENGLAND. (Seep. 351.) 1649-1660. England a republic; the Commonwealth. The government was actually in the hands of the army of inde- pendents under Oliver Cromwell (b. at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599, where he met prince Charles, 1603 ; admitted' to Sidney- Sussex College, 1616 ; death of his father, 1617 ; mar- ried Elizabeth Bourchier, 1620 ; M. P. for Huntingdon, 1628 ; his first speech, Feb. 1629 ; removed to St. Ives, 1631 ; re- moved to Ely, 1636 ; affair of Bedford-Level, 1638 ; M. P. for Cambridge, 1640 ; removed to London ; resided at the Cock- pit [Westminster], 1650 ; at Whitehall, 1654 ; died Sept. 3, 1658. Children : Oliver, Richard, b. 1626 ; abdicated May 25, 1659 ; died, 1712 ; Henry, b. 1628 ; Bridget, married Ireton, 1646 [Fleetwood, 1651] ; Elizabeth, married Mr. Claypole ; died, 1658 ; Frances, married Richard Rich, grandson of War- wick, 1657; ilfary, married lord i^'awconSer^), but theoretically the legislative department was in the hands of the Rump par- liament, consisting of some fifty members of the commons (in- dependents), while the executive was entrusted to a council of state numbering forty-one members (three judges, three mili- tary commanders, five peers, thirty members of the commons^. Abolition of the title and office of king, and of the house of lords. Charles II. proclaimed in Edinburgh (Feb. 5). New great seal. Rising in Ireland in favor of Charles II., under the marquis of Ormond. Expedition of Cromwell to Ireland (Aug. 15). 1649, Sept. 12. Storm of Drogheda ; massacre of the garrison, followed by the storm and massacre of Wexford. Cromwell returned to London, May, 1650, leaving Ireton in Ireland. The "rebellion" was not thoroughly put down until 1652, when three out of four provinces were confiscated. 1650, Montrose landed in Scotland, was defeated at Corbiesdale (April 27), betrayed, captured, and executed at Edinburgh May 21. June 24. Charles II. landed in Scotland, and after taking the cov- enant, was proclaimed king. Cromwell appointed captain-general in place of Fairfax. He led 16,000 men to Scotland, and totally defeated the Scots under Leslie at the Sept. 3. Battle of Dunbar. Surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow. 1651, Jan. 1. Charles II. was crowned at Scone and marched into England (July) at the head of the Scotch army while Crom- well took Perth (Aug, 2). The latter followed the king, and at the Sept. 3, Battle of Worcester totally defeated the royalists. Charles in disguise escaped to France. 376 Modern History. A. d. 1651, Oct. 9. First navigation act, forbidding the importation of goods into England except in English vessels (but goods might be conveyed to England in vessels belonging to the country producing the goods). This measure was aimed at the Dutch, and resulted in the 1652, July 8-1654, April 5. Dutch War. Naval actions in the Chaimel ; English commanders, Blake^ Monk • Dutch, Van Tromp, De Ruyter. English victory in the Downs before the declaration of war, May. Defeat of Van Tromp and De Ruyter, Sept. 28 ; defeat of Blake, Nov. ; de- feat of Van Tromp off Portland, Feb. 18, 1653 ; off the North Foreland, June 2, 3. Death of Ireton (Nov. 1651). Between the army and the Rump there had been growing contention since the death of Charles I. A new parliament was desirable, but the members of the Rump wished to retain their seats in any new parliament. The negotiations for ransom of confiscated royalist estates led to bribery of members. 1652, Feb. Act of indemnity and oblivion. Aug. First act of settlement for Ireland. 1653, April 20. Cromwell turned out the Rump and dissolved the council of state. Establishment of a new council and n&m- ination of July 4. A new parliament (" Barebone's parliament," also called the " Little parliament "), consisting of about 140 members. July 31. Victory of Monk off the Texel ; death of Van Tromp. Sept. Second act of settlement for Ireland. Dec. 12. The Cromwellians in parliament resigned their powers to Cromwell ; an act subsequently approved by the majority. 1653, Dec.-1659, May. Protectorate. 1653, Dec. 16-1658, Sept. 3. Cromwell Lord Protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. " The instrument of goverimient," a written constitution. The executive power was vested in the lord protector, who was pro- vided with a council of twenty-one, which filled its own vacancies. A standing army of 30,000 men established ; parliament was to be triennial, and to consist of 460 members, and when once summoned could not be dissolved inside of five months. Between sessions the Erotector and council could issue ordinances with the force of laws, ut parliament alone could grant supplies and levy taxes. 1654, April 5. Peace with the Dutch. Sept. 3. New parliament. As the course of the assembly did not suit the protector, he ordered an exclusion of members (Sept. 12). After voting that the office of protector should be elec- tive instead of hereditary the 1655, Jan. 22. Parliament was dissolved. April. Blake chastised the deys of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli. March-May. Rising of Penruddock at Salisbury suppressed. Execu- tion of Penruddock. England divided into twelve military districts, each under a A. D. England. 377 major-general, with a force supported by a tax of ten per cent, on royalist estates. May. Penn and VenaUes, sent to make reprisals in the Spanish West Indies, captured Jamaica. 1655, Oct. Pacification of Pinerolo concluded with France. The duke of Savoy to stop the persecution of the Vaudois. Charles to be expelled from France. Nov. Anglican clergymen forbidden to teach or preach. Priests ordered out of the kingdom. Censorship of the press. 1656-1659. War with Spain. Sept. 9. Capture of Spanish treasure ships off Cadiz. 1656, Sept. 17-1658, Feb. 4. Cromwell's third parliament. Another exclusion of members. Oct. Reduction of the power of the major-generals. 1657, Jan. Plot against the protector (" Killing no Murder "). Pun- ishment of Nayler. March-May. Humble petition and advice altering the constitu- tion, adopted by parliament. Establishment of a second house ; the council of state reduced in power ; the protector deprived of the right of excludmg members ; fixed supply for the army and navy ; toleration of all Christians except Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. The title of king was offered to Cromwell but rejected by him (May 8}. April 20. Victory of Blake off Santa Cruz. Death of Blake, Aug. 17. June 26. Second inauguration of Cromwell. 1658, Jan. 20. New session of parliament, including "the other house." Feb. 4. Dissolution of Cromwell's last parliament. May. Siege of Dunkirk by the English and French. A Spanish force advancing: to the relief of the town was defeated m the June 4. Battle of the Dunes, which was followed by the surrender of Dunkirk (June 17). In the peace of the Pyrenees (1659, p. 366), England received this town. Sept. 3. Death of Oliver Cromwell. 1658, Sept. 3-1659, May 25. Richard Cromwell lord pro- tector. 1659, Jan. 27. A new parliament met, and was soon involved in a dispute with the army, which induced Richard to April 22. Dissolve the parliament (" Humble representation and advice of the officers"). May 7. The Rump parliament reassembled under Lenthall as speaker. May 25. Packard Cromwell resigned the protectorate. Aug. Insurrection of Booth crushed at Winnington Bridge (Lam- hert^. Oct. 13. Expulsion of the Rump by the army {Lambert). Appoint- ment of a military committee of safety. This assertion of authority did not meet with approval even within the army. Dec. 26. Restoration of the Rump. Monk, who was in Scotland, led his army to London and assumed control of affairs (Feb. 3, 1660). • Monk captain-general. 378 Modern History. A. d. 1660, Feb. 21. Restoration of members excluded in 1648. Re-estab- lishment of the Long Parliament. March 16. Final dissolution of the Long Parliament. ^ 1660, Apr. 14. Declaration of Breda. Charles proclaimed am- nesty to all not especially excepted by parliament, promised liberty of religious belief, and the settlement of confiscated estates in the hands of the possessors. 1660, Apr. 25-Dec. 29. Convention Parliament ; chosen without restrictions and numbering 556 members. The parliament re- ceived the declaration of Breda favorably and returned a loyal answer to the king (May 1). May 8. Charles proclaimed king ; on May 29 he entered London. 1660-1685. Charles II., extravagant, dissipated, careless of the duties of his position. Charles's restoration was hailed by an outburst of loyalty which en- abled him to neglect many of the promises of the declaration of Breda. The king's brother, James, duke of York, appointed lord high admiral and warden of the Cinque ports ; Monk captain-general ; Sir Edward Hyde (earl of Clarendon) chancellor and prime minister. Abolition of the feudal rights of knight service, worship, and purvey- ance in consideration of a yearly income for the king of £1,200,000. Restoration of the bishops to their sees and to parliament. Act of in- demnity for all political offenses committed between Jan. 1, 1637, and June 24, 1660 ; the regicides were excepted from this act. All acts of the long parliament to which Charles I. had assented were declared in force. The army was disbanded (Oct.), excepting some 5,000 men. Declaration for the settlement of Ireland. 1660, Dec. 29. Dissolution of the Convention parliament. 1661, Jan. Rising of the fifth monarchy men in London (Venner). Bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw, disinterred and treated with indignity. Royalist parliament in Scotland. Abolition of the Covenant. Repeal of all enactments of preceding parliaments for the last twenty-eight years. Apr.-July. Savoy Conference of Episcopalians and Presbyterians. Apr. 23. Coronation of Charles II. 1661, May 8-1679, Jan. 24. New parliament. " Cavalier " or " pen- sion " parliament. Solemn league and covenant burnt. 1661, May 27. Execution of Argyle in Scotland. 1 Recapitulation of the history of the Long Parliament : — 1640, Nov. 3. First assembled. 1648, Dec. 6, 7. Pride's Purge. The Rump. 1653, April 20. The Rump turned out by Cromwell. 1659, May 7. The Rump restored. 1659, Oct. 13. The Rump expelled by the army. 1659, Dec. 26. The Rump restored. 1660, Feb. 21. Members excluded by Pride's Purge, restored. 1660, March 16. The parliament dissolved. A. D. England. 379 Nov. 20. Corporation act : all magistrates and municipal officers obliged to take the sacrament according to the Church of Eng- land, to abjure the covenant, and to take an oath declaring it illegal to bear arms against the king. James Sharpe, created archbishop of St. Andrews, attempted to introduce episcopacy in Scotland. 1662, May 20. Marriage of Charles II. with Catherine of Braganza, daughter of John IV. of Portugal. Aug. 24. The act of uniformity (adopted May 19), went into oper- ation. All clergymen, fellows, and schoolmasters were required to assent to everything in the book of common prayer. Nearly 2,000 (?) non-conformists lost their livings (dissenters). Declaration of indulgence promised. 1662, June 14. Execution of Sir Henry Vane. Nov. Sale of Dunkirk to France for £400,000. Act of settlement for Ireland. 1663, An insurrection of fifth monarchy men in the north was fol- lowed by the passage of the 1664, May. Conventicle act, forbidding the meeting of more than five persons for religious worship, except in the household, or in accordance with the established church. Repeal of the triennial act (1641). Aug. Capture of New Amsterdam in America. 1665, Feb. 22-1667, July 21. "War with Holland. 1665, April. The plague in London. June 3. Naval victory of Lowestoft over the Dutch. Oct. The five mile act : all who had not subscribed to the act of imiformity were ordered to take the oath of non-resistance, to swear never to undertake any alteration in church or state ; and those who refused were prohibited from coming within five miles of any incorporated town, or of any place where they had been settled as ministers. 1666, Jan. 16-1667, July 21. War with Prance. June 1-4. Naval victory of Albermarle (Monk) over the Dutch (Z)e Ruijter^ DeWitt) off the North Foreland. Sept. 2. Great Fire of London ; lasting over a week and burning a region of 450 acres. The Monument. St. PauVs rebuilt by * Sir Christopher Wren. Nov. 28. Battle of Pentland Hills in Scotland. Defeat of the Cov- enanters, who had revolted under their persecutions, by Dalziel. 1667, June. The Dutch fleet burnt Sheerness, entered the Medway, and sailed to within twenty miles of London. July 21. Treaties of Breda between England, Holland, France, Denmark. England received from France, Antigua, Mont- serrat, English St. Christopher's ; France received Acadia. England and Holland adopted the status quo of May 20, 1667; England retaining New Amsterdam, and Holland, Surinam. It was agreed that goods brought down the Rhine might be trans- ported to England in Dutch vessels. Aug. Fall of Clarendon, on whom the most unpopular acts of the 3B0 Modern History. A. d. government were fathered ; he was deprived of the great seal, impeached, and banished for life (died at Rouen, 1674). The chief officers of state, whose councils determined the course of government, began in this reign to be looked upon as a distinct (uncon- stitutional) council, although they did not, for some time to come, stand and fall together. Accession of a new ministry called the " Cabal " ^ (^Clifford, Arling- ton, Buckingham, Ashley, Lauderdale^. 1668, Jan. 13. The triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden negotiated by Sir William Temple and John De Witt as a check upon the aggressions of Louis XIV. (p. 367). 1670, May 22. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and Louis XIV. negotiated by Charles's sister, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans. Charles agreed that he and the duke of York would openly join the Church of Rome as soon as expedient, that he would support Louis in his wars with Spain and Holland. Louis promised Charles £200,000 a year while the war lasted, and the assistance of 6,000 men in case of an insurrection. Louise la Querouaille, Charles's mistress, created duchess of Portsmouth. The duke of York at once professed his be- lief in Rome. 1670. Second Conventicle act, more stringent than the first. 1672. Charles being in want of money closed the exchequer, thus seiz- ing £1,200,000 which had been advanced to the goverimient by bankers. A general panic followed. 1672, March. Declaration of indulgence ; under the pretense of lightening the burden on non-conformists, the proclamation really aimed at securing toleration for papists. Parliament compelled the king to withdraw the indulgence in 1673. 1672, March 17-1674, Feb. 9. "War with Holland. Invasion of Holland by Louis XIV. Revolution in the Nether- lands. Murder of John and Cornelius De Witt. William of Orange stadtholder. May 28. English naval victory at South wold Bay. Nov. Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), lord chancellor. 1673, March. Test act. All persons holding office under government were compelled to take the oaths of allegiance and of supremacy, to abjure tran- substantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the estab- lished church. The duke of York, Shaftesbury, lord Clifford, resigned office, being superseded by prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Osborne (earl of Danby, viscount Latimer, marquis of Carmarthen, duke of Leeds), and Sir Heneage Finch (earl of Nottingham). Buck- ingham out of office. Nov. 21. Marriage of the duke of York with Mary d'Este, princess of Modena. 1674, Feb. 9. Treaty of Westminster. End of the Dutch-Eng- lish war. 1 This word did not originate from the initials of the ministers, although the coincidence of their happening to speK the word gave a zest to its application. A.. D. England. 381 1677, Nov. 4. Marriage of Mary, daughter of the duke of York, with William of Orange (afterwards William III.) . Treaty with Holland ; secret treaty with France. Abolition of the writ de liceretico comburendo. Aug. 10. Peace of Nimegueu. 1678, Sept. The Popish Plot. This famous scare began with the information given by Titus Oates, concerning an alleged plot for the murder of Charles and the establishment of Roman Catholicism m England, devised by Don John of Austria, and the father confessor of Louis XIV., Pere la Chaise. Death of Sir Edmondhury Godfrey. Upon the meeting of parliament five Catholic lords (Fowys, Bellasis, Stafford, Petre, Arundel) were sent to the Tower. Conviction and execution of Coleman^ confessor of the duchess of York. Bedloe swore to the plot, moved by the favors showered on Oates. Passage of the papists disabling act (repealed 1828) excluding Roman Catholics from parliament. Dec. Impeachment of Danby, on a charge of criminal correspond- ence with France. 1679, Jan. 24. Dissolution of the " Pensioned " Parliament. Danby dismissed from the office of lord high treasurer. The duke of York left the kingdom after procuring from Charles a statement that he had never had any other than his present wife (this to dispose of the claims of the duke of Monmouth, natural son of Charles and Lucy Walters^. 1679, March 6-1679, May 27. Third Parliament of Charles II. The impeachment of Danby was resumed ; and he was com- mitted to the Tower, where he lay until 1685. Adoption of the council of thirty, in accordance with the scheme of government sketched by Sir William Temple. Being found cumber- some in practice it was soon superseded by a new cabinet council, com- posed of Sir William Temple ; Savile, viscount Halifax ; Capel, earl of Essex ; Spencer, earl of Sunderland ; Shaftesbury, president, afterwards in opposition. Introduction of a bill to prevent the duke of York from succeeding to the crown, he being a Roman Catholic. (" Exclusion bill " passed to a second reading in the commons, 207 to 128.) 1679, May. The habeas corpus act signed by the king : judges were obliged, on application, to issue to any prisoner a writ of habeas corpus, directing the jailer to produce the body of the prisoner, and show cause for his imprisonment ; prisoners should be indicted in the first term of their commitment, and tried not later than the second ; no person once set free by order of the court could be again imprisoned for the same offense. May 27. Prorogation of parliament (dissolved in July). May-June. Covenanters in Scotland cruelly persecuted by Lauder- dale. Murder of archbishop Sharpe, May 3, 1679. Defeat of Claverhouse by the Covenanters, under Balfour, at Drumclog, June 1. June 22. Battle of Bothwell-Brigg ; defeat of the Covenanters by the duke of Monmouth. Cruelties of the duke of York in Scotland. 382 Modern History. A. d. Oct. 7. The fourth parliament of Charles II., prorogued immediately upon its meeting without the advice of the council : Sir W. Temple, Essex, and Halifax resigned, and were succeeded by Sidney Godolphin, earl of Godolphin, and Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester (son of Clarendon). " Meal tub plot," an alleged papist conspiracy against the king, disclosed by Dangerjield. (Papers in a tub of meal.) Meeting of parliament demanded by the opposition (Shaftesbury). Petitions sent up, asking that parliament be called. The court party retorted by sending addresses expressive of their abhor- rence at this interference witji the king. Hence Petitioners (the opposition) and Abhorrers (the government), afterwards Whigs and Tories. ( Whig, name of a Scotch, Tory, of an Irish faction.) 1680, Oct. 21-1681, Jan. 18. Fourth parliament of Charles II. The exclusion bill, passed by the commons, was thrown out in the lords by the influence of Halifax. 1681, March 21-28. Fifth parliament of Charles II., at Oxford. A new exclusion bill being mtroduced, parliament was dis- solved, March 28. July-Aug. Execution of Plunkett, archbishop of Armagh, for high treason (July 1); of College (Aug. 31). Nov. Shaftesbury, accused of high treason, committed to the Tower. The bill being ignored by the grand jury he escaped to Hol-» land (died 1683). Continued persecution of the Covenanters, Conventiclers, and Came-, ronians (so called after a popular preacher, f July 20, 1680), in Scot- land. Passage of a test act against the Presbyterians, which, however, also caused the resignation of some eighty Episcopal clergymen. Trial and condemnation of the earl of Argyle (Dec); his flight. 1682, William of Orange in England. The duke of York, accom- panied by John Churchill (b. 1650, served under Turenne in France ; general under James II. ; married Sarah Jennings ; baron Churchill, 1685 ; earl of Marlborough, 1689 ; duke of Marlborough, 1702 ; died, June 16, 1722), shipwrecked on tha voyage to Scotland. Monmouth made a progress in the north- west counties, and was arrested and held to bail. Dec. Death of the earl of Nottingham (Finch) ; Sir Francis North made lord keeper. Sunderland, secretary of state (Jan. 1683). 1683, June. Judgment given against the city of London on a quo warranto; forfeiture of the charter, which was ransomed. This process was successfully repeated with other corporations. Confederacy of Monmouth, Essex, Russell, Gray, Howard, Sidney, Hampden, for securing a change in the proceedings of the gov- ernment. This was supplemented by a plot of a different set of persons for the assassination of the king, known as the Rye House plot, from the place where the king was to be shot. Both plots were revealed. Suicide of Essex, execution of Russell and Sidney j Monmouth was pardoned, and retired to Holland. Sept. Jeffries, lord chief justice of the king's bench. The duke of A.. D. England. 383 York was reinstated in ojffice. Danhy liberated ; Oates fined (1684). 1685, Feb. 6. Death of Charles II., who accepted Roman Cathoh- cism on liis death-bed. 1685-1688. James II., a cruel, revengeful, deceitful despot. He was twice married : 1. Anne Hyde, daughter of lord Clarendon (daughters, Mary, mar- ried William of Orange; Anne, married George of Denmark). 2. Mary d'Este (son, James Edward). Halifax, president of the council ; Sunderland, secretary of state ; GodolpUn, chamberlain of the queen, Clarendon, lord privy seal, Rochester, treasurer. 1685, May 19-1687, July 2. Parliament of James II. Trial and condemnation of Richard Baxter. Danby and the popish lords discharged. May. Trial of Oates and Dangerfield, who were sentenced to be whipped. {Dangerfield died from the pmiishment.) 1685. Expedition of Monmouth and Argyle. May. Argyle landed in Scotland, where he was coldly received ; June 17 he was captured, and executed June 30. June 11. Landing of Monmouth in Dorsetshire. He proclaimed himself king, as James II. Gathering a force of some 60,000 men he was defeated in the July 6. Battle of Sedgemoor (the last battle in England). July 15. Execution of Monmouth on Tower Hill. " Kirke's Lambs" quartered on the people in the western counties. Jeffries sent on a circuit in the west to try the rebels and those who had aided them. " The Bloody Assize " (Lady Alice Lisle). Jeffries made lord chancellor. Halifax dismissed from the presidency of the council and super- seded by the earl of Sunderland (who became a Roman Catholic). Parliament met Nov. 9, but as they would not repeal the last act they were prorogued Nov. 27. Arrival of many refugees from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1686, June. Sir Edward Hales, a papist, appointed to office by James under a dispensation. In a suit brought to test the legality of the act judgment was procured in the king's favor, by the" appointment of judges favorable to the court. Catholic worship allowed. Protestant clergymen forbidden to preach doctrinal sermons. Compton, bishop of London, refused to remove the rector of St. Giles who had disobeyed this order. He was therefore tried before a 1686, July. New court of ecclesiastical commission and sus- pended. Camp of 13,000 men at Hounslow Heath. Rochester dis- missed from office. 1687. Clarendon superseded by Tyrconnel (Eichard Talbot) as lord lieutenant of Ireland. The fellows of Magdalen College having refused to accept Farmer, a papist, whom the king had ap- 384 Modern History. A. d. pointed president, were expelled from their college. This was only a part of the attempt made by the king to secure the universities. April. First declaration of liberty of conscience published by the king in England and Scotland, granting liberty of con- science to all denominations. July. Parliament dissolved. Father Petre, the king's confessor and chief adviser, admitted to the privy council. 1688, April 25. Second declaration for liberty of conscience ordered to be read in all churches. Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops Ken, Lake, Lloyd, Turner, Trelawney, White, were committed to the Tower for having petitioned the king not to insist on their reading an illegal order. June 10. Birth of a prince. June 29, 30. Trial of the bishops for having published a false, malicious, and seditious libel. The bishops were acquitted, a verdict which was received with wild enthusiasm throughout the country. On the same day an invitation was dispatched to William of Orange to save England from a Catholic tyranny ; it was signed by the ^^ Seven eminent persons ^^ ov ^^ seven patriots," the earl of Dev- onshire, earl of Shrevjsbury, earl of Danhy, Compton (bishop of London), Henry Sidney, lord Lumley, admiral Russell. James declared his intention to call a parliament. Last meet- ing of the ecclesiastical commission. Sept. 30. Declaration of "Williani to the people of England, ac- cepting the invitation for the purpose of securing the religious and civil rights of Englishmen. Doubts thrown on the birth of the prince. William's army was under Schomberg, his fleet was under admiral Herbert. James's land force was led by Feversham, while Dartmouth commanded the fleet. The declaration frightened James ; he endeavored to retrace his steps and dismissed Sunderland from the council. William sailed from Helvoetsluys Oct. 19, with 14,000 men, but was driven back by a gale. Starting again Nov. 1, 1688, Nov. 5. "William landed at Torbay. Risings occurred in various parts of the kingdom, and William was joined by the duke of Grafton and lord Churchill (Nov. 22). Princess Anne fled from London in company with lady Churchill. James is- sued writs for a new parliament and sent commissioners to treat with William. Dec. 10. Queen and prince sent to France. Dec. 11. Flight of James, who tore up the unissued writs for par- liament and took with him the great seal, which he threw into the Thames. 1688, Dec. 11-1689, Feb. 13. Interregnum. Riots in London. Flight of Sunderland and Father Petre j cap- ture of Jeffries (f in the Tower April 18, 1689). A. D. England. 385 Dec. 12. Provisional government under the presidency of Halifax^ established by the peers in London. Dec. 17. James, who had been stopped at Sheerness, was brought back to London. Dec. 18. James retired to Rochester. Dec. 19. William entered London. Dec. 22. James escaped to France, where he received a pension from Louis XIV. 1689, Jan. 22-1690, Jan. 27. Convention parliament, summoned by the advice of the peers. On Jan. 28 the commons declared : " That king James 11. having endeavored to subvert the constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original contract between king and people, and by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, has abdi- cated the government, and that the throne is vacant." Also : " That it hath been found by experience to be inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a popish prince." The lords objected to the use of the word " abdicated," and to the declaration of the " vacancy " of the throne, but an agreement being reached in a conference of the two houses, the crown was offered to Mary and the regency to William ; this being refused, 1689, Feb. 13. Parliament offered the crown to Williani and Mary jointly, accompanying the offer by the presentation of the Declaration of rights, assertmgthe " true, ancient, and indubitable rights of the people of this realm." 1. That the making or suspend- ing law without consent of parliament is illegal. 2. That the exercise of the dispensing power is illegal. 3. That the ecclesiastical commis- sion court and other such like courts are illegal. 4. That levying money without consent of parliament is illegal. 5. That it is lawful to petition the sovereign. 6. That the maintenance of a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal. 7. That it is law- ful to keep arms. 8. That elections of members of parliament must be free. 9. That there must be freedom of debate in parliament. 10. That excessive bail should never be demanded. 11. That juries should be impaneled and returned in every trial. 12. That grants of estates as forfeited before conviction of the offender are illegal. 13. That parliament should be held frequently. " William and Mary were declared king and queen of England for life, the chief adminis- tration resting with William ; the crown was next settled on William's children by Mary ; in default of such issue, on the princess Anne of Denmark and her children ; and in default of these, on the children of William by any other wife." The crown was accepted by William and Mary, who were on the same day proclaimed king and queen of Great Britain, Ireland, and France. 1689-1702. William III. and Mary (until 1694). Privy councillors : earl of Z^anhy (marquis of Carmarthen), presi- dent ; Nottingham, Shrewsbury, secretaries of state ; marquis of Halifax, privy seal ; Schomberg (duke of Schomberg) master-general 386 Modern History. a. d. of ordnance ; Bentinck (earl of Portland), privy purse and groom of the stole. Burnet^ bishop of Salisbury, author of " History of my own Times." Feb. 22. Convention parliament transformed by act into a regular parliament. Settlement of the coronation oath. March 1. Oaths of allegiance and supremacy taken by the houses, the clergy, etc. A few peers, some members of the lower house refused them. Six bishops and about 400 clergy- men were finally (1691) deprived of their holdings for refus- ing to take the oaths, and became known as non-jurors. March 14. Landing of James at Kinsale in Ireland ; joined by TyX' connel ; entered Dublin March 24. Irish parliament. May 7. Meeting of the estates of Scotland. Reversal of Russell's attainders (later of Sidney's). First mutiny act to punish defection in the army ; this act, which was necessitated by the declaration of rights, was made for a year only, and was henceforward passed annually. April 11. Coronation of William and Mary. William and Mary were offered and accepted the crown of Scotland. April 20-July 30. Siege of Londonderry by James ( Walker) ; raised by Kirke. 1689, May 7-1697, Sept. 20. War with France (p. 361). May 24. Toleration act exempting dissenters (who had taken the oaths of allegiance and supremacy) from penalties for non-at- tendance on the services of the established church. Titus Oates pardoned and pensioned. July. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. Graham of Claverhouse, now viscount Dundee, enlisted High- landers and raised the standard for James. At the July 17. Battle of Killiecrankie he defeated general Mackay, but fell on the field. July 30. Battle of Newtown Butler in Ireland ; defeat of the Catho- lics. Schomherg in Ireland. In voting supplies parliament assumed as a right the practice which had grown up during the reign of Charles II. of requiring estimates and accounts of supplies needed and used, and intro- duced the system of passing appropriations for specified objects from which they could not be diverted. 1689. Dec. 16. Bill of Rights, a parliamentary enactment of the declaration of rights, repeat- ing the provisions of that paper, settling the succession as de- tailed (p. 385), and enacting that no papist could w^ear the crown. 1690, Feb. 6. Dissolution of parliament. 1690, March 20-1695, May 3. Second parliament of William III, Tories in the majority. Act of recognition, affirming the legality of the acts of the convention parliament. Settlement of the civil list. William was offended at not receiving so large an income as had been granted either to Charles II. or James II. A. D. England. 387 1690, May 20. Act of Grace, giving indemnity to all supporters of James II., except those who were in treasonable corres- pondence with him. Resignation of Shrewsbury and Halifax. May 23. Prorogation of parliament. Appointment of a council of nine to advise Mary during the king's absence (four Whigs, five Tories). June 14. William went to Ireland. With 36,000 men he met James at the head of 27,000, and at the July 1. Battle of the Boyne totally defeated him. Death of Schomberg. James fled to France. Capture of Dublin, Waterford, etc. Jime 30. Battle of Beachy Head ; defeat of the English fleet under lord Torrington by the French. Torrington was tried by court martial and acquitted, but dismissed the service. Aug. First siege of Limerick by William repulsed (Sarsjield). Marlborough in Ireland. Capture of Cork and Kinsale. 1691, William went to Holland. Congress at the Hague. Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury. July 12. Battle of Aughrim, in Ireland. Defeat of the French general St. Ruth and the Irish Sarsjieldf by Ginkell (death of St. Ruth). Death of Tyrconnel. Aug.-Oct. Second siege of Limerick ; the town surrendered Oct. 3, under the conditions known as the Oct. 3. Treaty, or pacification, of Limerick. Free transportation of all Irish officers and soldiers desiring it to France. ( The Irish Brigade.) All Irish Catholics to have that religious lib- erty which they had under Charles II. ; to carry arms, exer- cise their professions, and receive full amnesty. The English parliament confirmed the treaty, but the Irish par- liament which met 1695 (consisting entirely of Protestants) refused to ratify it. Enactment of severe laws against the Catholics. 1692, Jan. 10. Marlborough detected in correspondence with James, and disgraced. 1692, Feb. 13. Massacre of Glencoe. Indemnity and pardon having been offered to all Highland clans who took the oath of allegiance before Dec. 31, 1691, that condition was fulfilled by all except the MacDonalds of Glencoe. The chief, Mac /an, however, took the oath on Jan. 6. This fact was suppressed by the foe of the MacDonalds, Dalrymple, secretary of Scotland, and William III. signed pai order for the extirpation of the clan. It was faithfullj^ exe- cuted by captain Campbell j Mac Ian, and some forty others were slain. May 19. English victory of La Hogue ; Russell and Tourville. July 24. Defeat of William at Steinkirk. The "Junto" ministry of Whigs ; Somers, lord keeper; Russell, Shrewsbury, Thomas Wharton, secretaries of state ; Montague, chan- cellor of the exchequer. Sunderland returned to parliament. 1693, Jan. Begiiming of the national debt. £1,000,000 borrowed on annuities at 10 per cent. 388 Modern History. A. d. 1693, July 19. Defeat of William at Neer-winden (Landen). 1694, July 27. Charter of the Governor and company of the Bank of England, a company of merchants who in return for certain privileges loaned the government £1,200,000. Bill for preventing officers of the crown from sitting in the commons (Place Bill). Unsuccessful attack on Brest. (Treachery of Marlborough f) Dec. 22. The triennial bill signed by the king. Dec. 28. Death of queen Mary. Bribery in the parliament ; expulsion of the speaker of the commons. Sir John Trevor. Expiration of the licensing act, wliich was not renewed ; hence abolition of the censorship of the press. 1695, July 2-Sept. 2. William recaptured Namur. Oct. 11. Dissolution of parliament. 1695, Nov. 22-1698, July 5. Third parliament of William III. (first triennial parliament). Whigs in majority. Recoinage act. Isaac Newton master of the mint. 1696, Trials for treason act ; two witnesses required to prove an overt act of treason. Plot for the assassination of William, execution of conspirators. One of these, Fenwick, was condemned by bill of attainder, being the last person so condemned. Formation of a loyal association. Suspension of the habeas corpus act. Sunderland, lord chamberlain ; Somers, lord chancellor. 1697, Sept. 20. Peace of Ryswick (p. 371). Dec. Sunderland retired. William acknowledged by Louis XIV. 1698, Jan. Peter the Great of Russia in England. 1698. Spanish succession, see p. 390. 1698, Dec. 6-1700, Apr. 11. Fourth parliament of William 1X1. 1699, Feb. Disbanding act, reducing the army to 7,000 men, exclusion of the foreign (Dutch) troops ; annoyance of William. Act for the resumption of forfeited Irish estates, aimed at Wil- liam's Dutch favorites ; the bill was fastened to a bill of supply. Act for preventmg the growth of papacy ; all persons refusing to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy forfeited their estates for life. Catholic school-teachers and priests were liable to imprisonment for life (repealed 1778). 1700, March. Miserable end of Darien settlement (founded 1698). 1700, April. Somers dismissed from office. Bombardment of Co- penhagen by Rooke. July. Death of the duke of Gloucester, the last of Anne's children. 1701, Feb. 6-June 24. Fifth parliament of William III. Tories in the majority. Robert Harley, speaker. Portland, Somers, Oxford (Russell), Halifa'X, impeached (April-June). Earl of Marlborough commander-in-chief of the English forces. June 12, 1701. Act of settlement. The crown was settled on Sophia, princess of Hanover, grand- daughter of James L, and her issue. A.. D. India. 389 The sovereigns of Great Britain should be Protestant and not leave the kingdom without consent of parliament ; the country should not be involved in war for the defence of the foreign possessions of the sovereigns ; no foreigner should receive a grant from the crown, or hold office, civil or military ; ministers should be responsible for the acts of their sovereigns ; judges should hold office for life unless guilty of misconduct. 1701, Sept. 7. The grand alliance, p. 391. Sept. 16. Death of James II. James Ed^ward proclaimed king of Great Britain and Ireland by Louis XIV. 1701, Dec. 30-1702, July 2. Sixth parliament of William III. Attainder of the pretended prince of Wales. Oath of abjura= tion. 1702, March 8. Death of "William III. Chief authors of this period : Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) ; John Bunyan (1628-1688); Daniel Defoe (1661-1731); John Dryden (1631-1700) ; Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (1608-1674) ; John Locke (1632-1704); John Milton (1608-1674); Isaac Newton (1643- 1727). {See p. JfSS.) § 6. INDIA. {See j). S54.) 1658-1707. Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor. The first years of Aurangzeb's reign were occupied in subdu- ing and putting to death his brothers. When freed from their ri- valry he took up the conquest of the Deccan. Bidar, Ahmednagar, Ellichpur, he had conquered while, his father reigned. For twenty- five years his generals warred unsuccessfully against Bijapur and Gol- conda, but when Aurangzeb placed himself at the head of his troops those kingdoms quickly fell. Bijapur and Golconda were annexed to the Mughal empire in 1688. It was not with the Muhammedan powers alone that Aurangzeb had to contend ; a new power, the Hin- du kingdom of the Mahrattas, had arisen in the Deccan. It was founded by a union of Hindu tribes of the Deccan under Sivaji (1627-1680), son of a Mahratta soldier of fortune who had fought under the Deccan kingdoms against the Mughals. Sivaji, by alter- nately levying tribute on the Deccan kingdoms and assisting them against the Mughals, raised the Mahratta confederacy to be the ruling power in the Deccan. In 1664 he assumed the title of Baja. He carried on a war with Aurangzeb, who captured and killed his son Samhhaji (1680-1689), and imprisoned his grandson Sahu, until his own death, 1707. Aurangzeb, however, was far from subduing the confederacy, which had driven him almost to despair at the time of his death ; the emperor was not more successful in Assam (1662), nor against the revolted Rajput states in the west (1677-1681) where he ravaged Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Uddipur without subduing them. Aurangzeb's total revenue amounted to eighty million pounds. 1661. Bombay ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza, but it was not delivered until 1665. In 1668 it was granted to the East India Company. 1670. Foundation of the Danish East India Company- 1681 Bengal separated from Madras. 390 Modern History. jl. d. 1686. Foundation of Calcutta. 1687. Seat of western presidency transferred to Bombay. (Seep. 442.) § 7. CHINA. {Seep. S55.) 1661-1721. Kang-he conquered Thibet and Formosa and carried on war with Russia (1684^1689). His reign was renowned for wise administration and for the cultivation of science and literature. French and English set- tled at Canton. (Seep. 4'i4.) B. The eighteenth century to the French Revolution. § 1. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.i 1701-1714. (Seepp.33^,S7S.) The family relations which led to the war will be made clear by the following genealogical table. Philip III., king of Spain, f 1621. Anna, m. Philip IV. Maria Anna. Louis XIII. m. Ferdinand III. Louis XIV. = Maria Theresa. Charles II. Margaret Theresa = Leopold I. I t 1700. I Louis the dauphin. Maria Antoinette, m. I ' Max. Emmanuel of I Bavaria. Philip of Anjou, | as king of Spain, Philip V. Joseph Ferdinand. electoral prince of Bavaria. Leopold I. had, besides his daughter Maria Antoinette, two sons: by his second marriage, Joseph I., emperor from 1705-1711; by his third marriage, Charles VI., emperor from 1711-1740. Charles II., king of Spain, was childless ; the extinction of the Spanish house of Hapsburg in the near future was certain ; hence the question of the Spanish succession formed the chief occupation of all the European cabinets since the Peace of Ryswick. The question had two aspects: a. The legal, according to which there were three claim- ants: 1. Louis XIV., at once as son of the elder daughter of Pliilip III. and husband of the elder daughter of Philip IV. The solemn renun= ciations of both princesses were declared null and void by the parlia- ment of Paris. 2. Leopold I., the representative of the German line of Hapsburg, as son of the ?/own^er daughter of Philip III., and husband of the younger daughter of Pliilip IV. Both princesses had expressly reserved their right of inheritance. 3. The electoral prince of Ba- 1 Schlosser: Geschichte des 18 Jahr hunderts ; Y. Noordeu: Europaische Gesch. im 18 Jahrhundert, vols. I. and II. A. D. War of the Spanish Succession, 391 varia, as great-grandson of Philip IV., and grandson of the younger sister of the present possessor, Charles II. h. The political aspect with regard to the balance of power in Europe ; in consideration of which the naval powers, England and Holland, would not permit the crown of the great Spanish monarchy to be united with the French, or to be worn by the rider of the Austrian lands. On this account Leopold I. claimed the Spanish mheritance for his second son Charles only, while Louis XIV. 's claim was urged in the name of his second grand- son, Philip ofAnjou. 1698. First treaty of partition. Oct. 11. Spain, Indies, and the Netherlands to the electoral prince of Bavaria; Naples and Sicily, seaports in Tuscany, and the prov- ince of Guipuzcoa, to the dauphin ; the duchy of Milan, to arch- duke Charles. The negotiations of the powers in regard to the succession, and the conclusion of a treaty of partition without the participation of Charles IL, provoked that monarch. In order to preserve the unity of the monarchy he made the prince elector of Bavaria, then seven years old, sole heir of the whole inheri- tance ; a settlement to which the naval powers agreed. 1699 (Feb. 6). Sudden death of the prince elector. New intrigues of France (Harcourt ambassador, Cardinal Portocarrero) and Austria at Madrid, while both parties were negotiating a new treaty of partition with the naval powers. 1700. Second treaty of partition. Mar. 13. Spain and the Indies to archduke Charles ; Naples and Sicily and the duchy of Lorraine to the dauphin ; Milan to the duke of Lorraine in exchange. Finally Charles IL, although originally more inclined to the Aus- trian succession, signed a new will, making Louis' grandson, Philip of Anjou, heir. Immediately afterwards 1700. Charles IL died. Nov. 1. Louis XIV. soon decided to follow the will rather than the treaty with England. The duke of Anjou was proclaimed as Philip v., and started for his new kingdom. (" II n'y a pliLS de Pyrenees.''^) Death of James IL, 1701 ; Louis recognized his son as kmg of England. 1701. Grand Alliance of the naval powers with the emperor Sept. 7. Leopold L, for the purpose, at first, of securing the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy for the Austrian house, while France allied herself with the dukes of Savoy and Man- tua, the electors of Bavaria and Cologne. The other estates of the empire, especially Prussia, joined the emperor. Portugal afterwards jomed the grand alliance, and in 1703 Savoy did likewise, deserting France. Three men were at the head of the grand alliance against France : Eugene, prince of Savoy, imperial general; Marlborough, English genera], formerly John Churchill; A. Heinsius, after the death of Wniiam III., 1702, pensionary of Holland. Spain, the real object of the war, had but little importance in the 392 Modern History. A. D. campaigns, the cMef seat of war being Italy, the Netherlands, and Germany. Philip of Anjou was recognized m Spain as king Philip V. His strongest support was in Castile. 1701. Commencement of the war by Eugene's invasion of Italy. Victory over Catinat at Carpi, over Villeroi at Chiari ; the lat- ter was captured at Cremona (1702). Eugene and Vendome fought a drawn battle at Luzzara (1702); after which the French had the advantage in Italy until 1706. 1702. March 8. Death of William III. Anne, queen of England. 1703. The Bavarians invaded Tyrol, but were repulsed. Eugene went to Germany, along the Rhine. Marlborough invaded the Spanish Netherlands. The archduke Charles landed in Portugal, and invaded Catalonia. The English captured Gibraltar (1704). 1703. Victory of the French under Villars at Hochstddt over the Ba- varians. 1704. Battle of Hochstadt and Blindheini (Blenheim), Aug. 13. (between Ulm and Donau worth), Bavarians and French (Tallard) defeated by Eugene and Marlborough. 1705. Leopold I. died. His son, Joseph I., emperor. 1706. Charles conquered Madrid but held it for a short time only. 1706, May 23. Victory of Marlborough at Ramillies over Villeroi. Submission of Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend, etc. Sept. 7. Victory of Eugene at Turin, over Marsin and the duke of Orleans with help of the Prus- sians under Leopold of Dessau. Submission of all Lombardy. Charles HI. proclaimed at Milan. The French permanently excluded from Italy. 1708, July 11. Victory of Marlborough and Eugene at Oudenarde over Vendome and the duke of Burgundy. Siege and surrender of Lille. Severe winter in France. Negotiations for peace. Demands of the allies : surrender of the Spanish monarchy to Charles of Austria, and of the border fortresses of the Netherlands to the Hollanders ; restoration of all matters re- lating to the empire and the emperor to the state prescribed in the peace of Westphalia, i. e. the cession of Strashurg, Brisach, etc. Eng- land insisted on the recognition of Anne and the Protestant succes- sion (p. 388) and the banishment of the Pretender. These terms Louis was willing to accept, but when the demand was added that he should drive his grandson from Spain with French weapons, it was too much. The negotiations were broken off, Louis made a successful appeal to the people of France, and the war was continued. 1709. The French were again humbled by the victory of Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough at Malplaquet over Villars. The bloodiest battle of the war. The allies lost 20,000 men. New approaches on the part of Louis. Capture of Douai, Mons, etc. (1710). In Spain Philip, by the aid of Vendome, had the advantage of Charles. The Spanish people favored A.. D, War of the Spanish Succession, 393 Philip. Renewal of the negotiations at Gertruydenhurg. Louis offered to pay subsidized troops against his grandson. The al- lies demanded that he should send his armies against Philip. Renewal of the war. Victories of Vendome over the English (Brihuega, 1710) and the imperialists (Valla-viciosa, in Spam). 1710. Aug. Fall of the Whig ministry in England, and accession of the enemies of Marlborough. 1711. Death of the Emperor Joseph, whereby Charles became heir of all the Austrian possessions, so that the monarchy of Charles V. would have been restored had the Spanish inheritance also devolved upon him. These events completely altered all the political relations, in favor of Louis XIV. Marlborough removed from command, the Grand Alliance dis- solved, preliminaries of peace between England and France. Death of the dauphin, of Adelaide of Savoy, her husband and their son, the duke of Brittany. 1712. Victory of the French commander Villars at Denain over lord Albermarle. Recapture of Douai, Le Quesnoy, and Bouchain. Opening of the congress at Utrecht. Each of the allies pre- sented his demands separately. Dissensions between the allies caused the conclusion of separate treaties of peace, which are compre- hended under the name of the ' 1713. Peace of Utrecht. AprH 11. 1. England: Recognitionof the Protestant succession in England; confirmation of the permanent separation of the crowns of France and Spain. France ceded to England Newfoundland, Nova Scotia (Acadia), and Hudson Bay territory ; Spain ceded to England Gibraltar, the island of Minorca, and the Asiento, or contract for sup- plying the Spanish colonies with African slaves. 2. Holland : Surrender of the Spanish Netherlands to the republic of Holland, in order that they should be delivered to the Austrians, after the conclusion of a Barrier Treaty, in regard to the fortresses along the French border from Fumes to Namur, which were to be garrisoned by the Dutch. Lille restored to France. Demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk. 3. Savoy received the island of Sicily as a kingdom, and an ad- vantageous change of boundary in Upper Italy, renounced its claims upon Spain, reserving, however, its right of inheritance in case the house of Bourbon should become extinct (p. 397). 4. Prussia received recognition of the royal title, and possession of Neuchatel and the upper quarter of Gueldres. Prussia's claim upon the principality of Orange on the Rhone, was transferred to France. 5. Portugal obtained a correction of boundaries in South America. Philip V. (founder of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons) was recognized as king of Spain and the colonies. Reservations in the peace: 1. for the emperor, the possession of the appanages of the Spanish monarchy, the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Sardinia, but not Sicily ; 2. for the empire the status quo of the peace of Ryswick, only. 394 Modern History. A. d. The emperor and the empire continued the war. Unsuccessful campaign of Eugene, who was wretchedly supported (1713). Lan- dau and Freiburg taken by Villars. After these losses the emperor concluded peace with France, in his own name at Rastadt, in that of the empire at Baden (in Switzerland). 1714. Peace of Rastadt and Baden. March-Sept. Austria took possession of the Spanish Netherlands, after the Barriere for Holland had been agreed upon, and retained Naples, Sardinia, and Milan, which she had already occupied. For the empire : ratification of the peace of Ryswick ; the electors of Bavaria and Cologne who had been placed under the ban of the empire, were rein- stated in their lands and dignities. Landau was left in the hands of France. No peace between Spain and the emperor, who did not recognize the Bourbons in Spain. (See p. j^I^.) § 2. THE NORTHERN WAR. 1700-1721. 1689-1725. Peter I. the Great, Czar of Russia (p. 374). 1697-1718. Charles XII., king of Sweden. In character the two monarchs formed a strong contrast: both were of unusual ability and power, but Peter, though passionate and of irregular life, was, in his political actions, governed by reason and calm reflection. Charles, in his private life passionless and of rigid mor- ality, was under the control of passion and senseless obstinacy in all public relations. The steady purpose of Peter, who civilized his sub- jects by force, made Russia one of the great powers of Europe, Charles' blind obstinacy caused the decline of Sweden's power. The causes of the northern war were : 1, the firm determination of Peter to make Russia a naval power, and to get possession of the harbors of the Baltic ; 2, the attempt of Augustus II., elector of Sax- ony and king of Poland, to unite Livonia with Poland (Patkul) ; 3, the quarrel between Frederic IV., king of Denmark, and the duke of Hol- 2tein-Gottorp, the early friend and brother-in-law of Charles XII. The youthfulness of Charles, who had assumed the care of gov- ernment at the age of fifteen, led all three monarchs to think it an easy task to regain possession of those lands which Sweden had taken from them. Secret alliance of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony against Sweden. The war opened with an invasion of Schleswig by the Danes, while the Saxons attacked Livonia. Unexpected landmg of Charles XIL in Zealand ; he threatened Copenhagen and extorted from the Danes the 1700 (Aug.). Peace of Travendal. 1. Indemnification of the duke of Holstein. 2. Denmark promised to abstain from hostilities against Sweden for the future. Meantime the Saxons were besieging Riga (in Livonia) in vain, A. D. The Northern War. 395 while Peter was besieging Narva (in Ingermannland) with like result. Landing of Charles XII. with 8,000 men and brilliant 1700. Victory of Narva, Nov. 30. over the Russians. Charles's hatred of Augustus led him to neglect his more dangerous opponent, the Czar, and to seek revenge upon the king of Poland. Meeting and closer alliance of Augustus and Peter. Charles crossed the Duna and 1701. defeated the Saxons at Riga. Charles invaded Lithuania. The republic of Poland was drawn into the war ; alliance of the party of the Sapiehas with the Swedes. The city of Warsaw sur- rendered at the first summons. Victory of Charles XII. over the Poles and Saxons at Klissow (1702) and at Pultusk (1703). Charles rejected all overtures of peace, caused Augustus to be deposed by that party among the Poles which had joined him and his adherent, the Woiwod 1704-1709. Stanislaus Lesczinski to be elected king. Meanwhile Peter had founded his capital, St. Petersburg, in the marshes of the Neva (1703), and captured Narva (1704). Continuance of the war in Poland and Lithuania. Victory of Charles at Punitz (1704 Schulenburg's masterly retreat) and of his general Rhenskjbld at Fraustadt (1706). Charles invaded Saxony and compelled Augustus to sign the 1706. Peace of Altranstadt (near Leipzig). 1. Augustus II. abdicated the Polish crown, recognized Stanislaus Lesczinski as king of Poland, and sent him a written expression of good will. 2. Augustus abjured his alliance with the Czar, and delivered the plenipotentiary of the latter, Patkul, to Charles who had him executed with cruelty. 3. Saxony furnished provisions and pay for the Swedish army during the winter. In Sept., 1707, Charles took the field against Peter, who had well employed the interval in making conquests and establishing his power on the Baltic, and in forming a trained and veteran army. The ap- proach to Moscow cut off by devastation of the country. Charles allowed himself to be misled by the Cossack hetman Mazeppa, who had deserted Peter, crossed the Dnieper (1708) into the Ukraine. Futile siege of Pultowa. Peter hastened to raise the siege and by force of numbers completely defeated the Swedes, who were exhausted by long marches and lack of food, in the 1709, July 8. Battle of Pultowa, which established Peter's new creations on a firm basis, and destroyed at one blow the ascendency of Sweden. The Swedish army was completely broken up, and a large part of it captured. Charles took refuge with the Turks. 1709-1714. Charles XII. in Turkey, endeavoring to induce the Porte to declare war against Peter. He was successful in 1711. Peter, allied with the princes of the Moldau, crossed the Dniester, was surrounded on the Pruth, and was obliged to buy the 1711. Peace of the Pruth from the Turks by bribery, upon the advice of his wife Catherine. 396 Modern History. a. d. 1. Azoj^ given back to the Porte. 2. The king of Sweden allowed to return to his realm unmolested. Charles XII., indignant at this peace, refused to depart, and for three years more misused the patience and hospitality of the Turks at Bender, Bessarabia, now belonging to Russia, and in Demotika. Senseless defense of his camp against a whole army, when the at- tempt was made to force liis departure (1713). Meantime his enemies were making good use of the time. Augustus II. drove king Stanis- laus from Poland ; the Danes tried to reconquer the southern prov- inces of Sweden, but were repulsed. Peter the Great occupied all of Livonia, JEsthonia, Ingermannland, Carelia, Finland. The Convention of the Hague (1710), in order to keep the war away from the German boundaries, had established the neutrality of all the German provinces of Sweden, as well as of Schleswig and Jutland. Charles XII., how- ever, having from his retreat in Turkey protested against this treaty, the Danes took Schleswig away from the duke of Holsteia-Grottorp, and conquered the Swedish duchies of Bremen and Verden (1712), which they afterwards (1715) sold to Hanover upon condition that that state should take part in the war against Sweden. The Swedish general Stenbock defeated the Danes and burnt Altona, but was cap- tured by the Russians at Tonningen (1713). The Danes and Poles invaded Pommerania, the Prussians occupied Stettin. 1714. Charles XII. at last returned to his kingdom. Adventurous journey through Hungary and Germany. The king reached Stralsund. Alliance between Prussia, Saxony, Denmark, Hanover, Russia, against Sweden. Stralsund and with it all Pomerania lost (1715), Wismar soon captured also (1716). 1716. Peter I. made a journey to Denmark, Holland, France. Charles XII. negotiated with Peter I. through Baron von Gorz, who, in spite of the hatred borne him by the Swedish nobles, was placed in control of the internal administration of Sweden. Three expeditions of the Swedes to Norway ; on the third, 1718. Charles XII. was shot in front of FriedrichshaU, prob- Dec. 11. ably by an assassin. After limits had been set on the royal power in the interests of the royal council, Charles's nephew was passed over, and his youngest sister, 1719. Ulrica Eleanora, raised to the throne. She soon placed the control of the government in the hands of her husband, 1720-1751. Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. Execution of the Baron von Gorz, Charles's intimate. The north- ern war was ended by a series of treaties concluded at Stockholm and Friedrichshurg. 1. With Hanover (1719), which retained Bremen and Verden, and paid Sweden one million thalers. 2. With Prussia (1720), which received Stettin, western Pomerania as far as the Peene, the islands of Wollin and Usedom, and paid two million thalers. 3. With Den- A. D. Germany, 397 mark, which restored all its conquests. In return Sweden paid 600,000 rix dollars, gave up its freedom from custom duties in the Sound and abandoned the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, whom Denmark deprived of his share of Schleswig. 4. With Poland the truce of 1719 was continued. 1721. Aug. 30. Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia. 1. Sweden ceded to Kussia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, part of Carelia, and a number of islands, among others Oesel, Dago. 2. Russia restored Finland and paid two million rix dollars. (See p, m-) § 3. GERMANY. {Seep. S72.) 1705-1711' Joseph I., son of Leopold. He was succeeded by his brother 1711-1740. Charles VI., War of the Spanish Succession, p. 390. 1713-1740. Frederic William I., son of Frederic I., king of Prus- sia, by wise economy, a military severity, and the establish- ment of a formidable army, laid the foundation of the future power of Prussia. Maintenance of a standing army of 83,000 men, with p, population of two and a half million inhabitants. Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau ("the old Dessauan"). 1714-1718. War of Turks with Venice, and after 1716 with the emperor. Easy conquest of Morea by the Turks ; the Vene- tians, however, kept Corfu. In Hungary the war was brilliantly con- ducted by prince Eugene. Victory of Peterwardein (1716). Victory, siege, and capture of Belgrade (1717). 1718. July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (Posharewatz). 1. Austria received the Banat of Temesvar, a part of Servia, with Belgrade and Little Wallachia. 2. Venice retained her con- quests in Dalmatia, but ceded Morea to the Porte. The seizure of Sardinia (1717) and Sicily (1718) by Spain, where Elizabeth of Parma, the second wife of Philip V., and her favorite the minister and cardinal Alberoni, were planning to regain the Spanish appanages lost by the Peace of Utrecht, brought about the 1718. Quadruple alliance for the maintenance of the Peace of Aug. 2. Utrecht, between France, England, the emperor, and (since 1719) the Republic of Holland. After a short war and the fall of Alberoni, who went to B,ome (f 1752), the agreements of the quadruple alliance were executed in 1720. 1. Spain evacuated Sicily and Sardinia, and made a renuncia- tion of the appanages forever, in return for which the em- peror recognized the Spanish Bourbons. 2. Savoy was obliged to exchange Sicily (p. 393) for Sardinia. After this time the dukes of Savoy called themselves kings of Sardinia. The emperor Charles VI. was without male offspring. His prin- cipal endeavor throughout his whole reign was to secure the various 398 Modern History. A. D. lands which were united under the sceptre of Austria against division after his death. Hence he established an order of succession under the name of the Pragmatic Sanction, which decreed that: 1. The lands belonging to the Austrian empire should be indivisible ; 2. That in case male heirs should fail, they should devolve upon Charles's daughters, the eldest of whom was .Maria Theresa, and their heirs according to the law of primogeni- ture ; 3. In case of the extinction of this line the daughters of Joseph 1. and their descendants were to inherit. To secure the assent of the various powers to this pragmatic sanc- tion was the object of numerous diplomatic negotiations. A special alliance between Austria and Spain (1725), m regard to this measure, produced the alliance of Herrenhausen, in the same year, between England, France, and Prussia in opposition. Prussia soon withdrew from the alliance and joined Austria by the Treaty of Wusterhausen. The alliance between Austria and Spain was also of short duration. 1733-1735. War of the Polish Succession, after the death of Augustus II. Cause : The majority of the Polish nobles, under the influence of Prance, elected Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had become the father- in-law of Louis XV., king, a second time. Russia and Austria in- duced a minority to choose Augustus III., elector of Saxony (son of Augustus II.), and supported the election by the presence of troops in Poland. France, Spain, and Sardinia took up arms for Stanislaus. The seat of war was at first in Italy, where Milan, Naples, and Sicily were conquered, and the Austrians lost everything except Milan, and afterwards on the upper Rhine, where the old prince Eugene fought unsuccessfully, and Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, the future husband of Maria Theresa, alone upheld the honor of the imperial arms. Lorraine occupied by the French. Kehl captured Preliminaries of peace (1735), and, after long negotiations, 1738. Nov. 18. Peace of Vienna. 1. Stanislaus Lesczinski made a renunciation of the Polish throne, receiving as compensation the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which at his death should devolve upon France. Stanislaus died 1766. 2. The duke of Lorraine, Francis Stephen, received an indemnifica- tion in Tuscany, whose ducal throne had become vacant by the ex- tinction of the family of Medici, 1737 (p. 416). 3. Austria ceded Naples and Sicily, the island of Elba and the Stati degli Presidi to Spain as a secundogeniture for Don Carlos, so that these lands could never be united with the crown of Spain, receiving in exchange Parma and Piacenza, which Don Carlos had inherited in 1731 upon the death of the last Farnese, his great-uncle. 4. France guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. 1736-1739. Unsuccessful war with the Turks in alliance with Russia (p. 411). By the Peace of Belgrade Orsowa, Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wallachia were restored to the Turks. 1740, May. Death of Frederic William I. of Prussia. A. D. Germany. 399 m *w gg -iC Co go_ — ^«-i Hs oo H:5 © bsw g 1 f5 (B ;i^5- o a >-! -^3 &^i; Hi n- PS -oog - -*^ §2 e-g. 3 s. s 5"1? sa. s g p p eg 2 «> i a •^ o o i o i o '« 3 ^ M a p. " 9 g, g H ?! I- P^ ^ e. a i|§ « o •-d CO td d w Q S 5" I H H re B P -a- o g 5 -Si 0< — P- , . »• M M "< CO H 3. 400 Modern History, A. D. 1740-1786. Frederic II. the Great (twenty-eight years old). Born in 1712, received a French education under Madame de Rocoulles and Duhan de Jandun • musical (Quanz). After the frus- tration of the projected marriage with a daughter of George II. of England, estrangement between the king and the crown prince. Frederic attempted flight, was captured, and sentenced to Kiistrin as a deserter (execution of Katte) where he found employment in the Chamber of War and of Domain. Marriage with a princess of Bruns- wick-Bevern (1733). Correspondence with Voltaire. Besidence at Rheinsherg and Ruppin until 1740. From his accession to his death he was himself the ruler. 1740, Oct. With the death of Charles VI. the male line of the Hapsburgs was extinct.^ 1740-1780. Maria Theresa, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, archduchess of Austria, etc., married Francis Stephen of the house of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany (co-regent). 1740-1748. "War of the Austrian Succession. Cause : The following claimants for the Austrian inheritance appeared: 1. Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, who had never rec- ognized the Pragmatic Sanction, a descendant of Anna, the eldest daughter of Ferdinand I. He based his claim upon the marriage con- tract of Anna, and will of Ferdinand I., whereby the Austrian inheri- tance was (he claimed) secured to the descendants of Anna, in case the male descendants of her brother should become extinct. (The original will, however, read, in case the legitimate descendants of her brother became extmct.) 2. Philip V,, king of Spain, relying on a treaty between Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand on occasion of the cession of the German lands, and upon a reservation made by Philip III. in his renunciation of the German lands. 3. Augustus III. of Saxony, the husband of the eldest daughter of Joseph I. The claims advanced by Frederic II. to a part of Silesia, and his de- sire to annex the lohole of Silesia to his kingdom, the rejection of the offer which he made at Vienna to take the field in favor of Austria if his claims were recognized, brought about, before the commencement of hostilities by the other claimants, the 1740-1742. First Silesian ^War.^ Legal claims of Prussia to a portion of Silesia : ^ 1. The princi- pality of Jdgerndorf was purchased in 1523 by a younger branch of the electoral Hue of Hohenzollern, and the future acquisition of Ratibor and 1 See the genealogical table, p. 399. 2 A supplement to the Prussian view of the relations of Frederic and the courts of Vienna and Paris will be found in the papers by the Due de Broglie in the Revue des Deux Mondes, published separately as Frederic II. and Maria Theresa. 3 Eichhorn, Dtutsche Staats-und Hechtsc/eschichte, iv. § 583. A. D. Germany, 401 Oppeln secured at the same time, by an hereditary alliance. In 1623 duke John George was placed under the ban by the emperor Ferdi- nand II. (p. 309), as an adherent of Frederic V., the elector palatine, and in spite of the Peace of Westphalia (p. 316, B.) neither he nor his heirs had been reinstated. 2. The elector Joachim II. had made an hereditary alliance in 1537 with the duke of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, which Ferdinand I. had forbidden as king of Bohemia and feu- dal superior of the duke. After the extinction of the ducal house (1675) Austria took possession of the inheritance. In 1686 Frederic William, the Great Elector, renounced the Silesian duchies, in return for the cession of the circle of Schwiehus. The latter, however, was secured to Austria by a secret agreement vntJi the prince elector, and was restored by him, as elector Frederic III., in 1695. 1740. Occupation of Silesia by Frederic's troops. Capture of GlO" gau. 1741, April 10. Victory of Mollwitz (Schwerin). 1741. Secret alliance of Nymphenburg i against Austria concluded May. by France, Bavaria, and Spain, afterwards joined by Saxony, and lastly by Prussia. The allied French (Belle-Isle) and Bavarian army invaded Austria and Bohemia. Prague taken in alliance with the Saxons. Charles Albert caused himself to be proclaimed archduke in Linz, while Frederic II. received homage in Silesia. Charles Albert was elected emperor in Frankfort as 1742-1745. Charles VII. Meantime Maria Theresa had gone to Hungary. Diet at Presburg ; enthusiasm of the Hungarian nobDity ; 2. two armies raised; alliance concluded with England. An Austrian army conquered Ba- varia where Maria Theresa received the homage of Munich; a second besieged the French in Prague. 1742. The victory of Frederic at Czaslau and Chotusitz, and Maria May 17. Theresa's desire to rid herself of a dangerous enemy led to the separate 1742, June and July. Peace of Breslau and Berlin between Aus- tria and Prussia : 1. Frederic withdrew from the alliance against Maria Theresa. 2. Austria ceded to Prussia upper and lower Silesia and the county of Glatz, retaining only the principality of Teschen and the southwestern part of the principalities of Neisse, Troppau, and Jdgerndorf, the Oppa forming the boundary. 3. Prussia assumed the debt upon Silesia held by English and Dutch creditors, to the amount of 1,700,000 rix dollars. Austria prosecuted the war against the allies with success, driving 1 J. G. Droysen, Abhandlungen (zur neueren Geschichte) 1876, claimed that the document which was published as the Traite de Nymphenbourg was a forgery; Schlosser and L. v. Hanke consider It genuine. Be that as it may it is certain that new engagements (according to Flassan, Hist, de la dipL, a, formal Traite d'alliance offensive) were entered into at Nymphenburg by £a- varia and France, and also that a treaty was concluded between France and Spain. 2 The truth of the well-known tale of the exclamation Moriamur prorege nos- tra Maria Theresa is, however, disputed, on good grounds. 26 402 Modern History. A. d. them entirely out of Bohemia, in 1742, and Bavaria (1743) ; the prag^ Tnatic army (English, Hanoverians, Hessians), under king George II., defeated the French in the 1743. Battle of Dettingen. The emperor Charles VII. was a ref- June 27. ugee in Frankfort. These Austrian successes and the treaties with Sardinia and Saxony in 1743 made the king of Prussia anxious about his new ac- quisitions. He concluded a second alliance with Charles VII. and France, and began the 1744-1745. Second Silesian War, by forcing his way through Saxony \Vith 80,000 men (" impe- rial reinforcements "), and invading Bohemia. He took Prague, but, deserted by the French, was soon driven back into Saxony, 1744. 1744. East Friesland, upon the extinction of the reigning house, fell to Prussia (p. 368). 1745. Alliance between Austria, Saxony, England, and Holland Jan. against Prussia. The French and Bavarians took Munich. Charles VII. died (1745, Jan.). His son Maximilian Joseph concluded the 1745, April. Separate Peace of Ftissen, with Austria. 1. Aus- tria restored all conquests to Bavaria. 2. The elector of Bavaria surrendered his pretensions to Austria and f)romised Francis Stephen, the husband of Maria Theresa, his vote at the imperial elec- tion. The French under marshal Maurice of Saxony, son of Augustus II. and the countess Aurora of Konigsmark, defeated the pragmatic army in the 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (Irish Brigade), and began the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. Frederic the Great defeated the Austrians and Saxons under Charles of Lorraine in the 1745, June 4. Battle of Hohenfriedberg, in Silesia, and the Austrians alone m the Sept. 30. Battle of Soor, in northeastern Bohemia. By the election of the husband of Maria Theresa as emperor, the 1745-1806. House of Lorraine-Tuscany (p. 399) ac- ceded to the imperial throne in the person of the emperor, 1745-1765. Francis I. After a victory of the Prussian general, Leopold of Dessau, over the Saxons at Kesseldorf, Dec. 15, the 1745. Dec. 25. Peace of Dresden was concluded between Prussia and Austria (Saxony). 1. Batification of the Peace of Breslau and Berlin in regard to the possession of Silesia. 2. Frederic II. recognized Francis I. as em- peror. 3. Saxony paid Prussia one million rix dollars. After the flower of the English army had been recalled to England, where they were needed in the contest with the pretenders (p. 438), Marshal Saxe obtained at Raucoux (1746) a second victory A. D. Germany. 403 over the allies of Austria and completed the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. At the same time, the naval war between France and England, and the war in Italy between Spain, France, and Austria, were carried on with varying fortune. Sardinia had concluded peace with Austria as early as 1743. At last the empress of Russia, Elizabeth (p. 411), joined the combatants as the ally of Austria and sent an army to the Rhine. Congress, and finally, 1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1. Reciprocal restoration of all conquests. 2. Cession of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to the Spanish Infant, Don Philip, making the second secundogeniture of the Spanish Bourbons in Italy. The following guaranties were given : that Silesia should belong to Prussia ; that the pragmatic sanction should be sustained in Austria; that the house of Hanover should retain the succession in its German states and in Great Britain. Change in the relations of European states induced by the rise of Prussia to the rank of a great power. Envy between Prussia and Austria ; the latter seeing a disgrace in the loss of Silesia to a smaller power, and intriguing for the recovery of the lost province. Tims began the 1756-1763. Third Silesian, or Seven Years' War. Cause : Before the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Maria Theresa had concluded a defensive alliance with Frederic's personal enemy, Elizabeth, empress of Russia (May, 1746). Secret articles of this treaty provided for the reunion of Silesia with Austria under certain specified conditions. In Sept. 1750, George II. of England, moved by anxiety for his principality of Hanover, signed the main treaty, the secret articles being excepted. Saxony (minister, count Brilhl) signed the treaty unconditionally. Prince Kaunitz (until 1753 Aus- trian ambassador in France, then chancellor of the empire in Vienna) succeeded in promoting a reconciliation between the cabinets of Ver- sailles and Vienna, and securing the Marquise de Pompadour in favor of an Austrian alliance. Formation of a party inimical to the Prus- sian alliance at the French court. Maria Theresa and Kaunitz induced England to conclude a new subsidy treaty with Russia in 1755. In June of the same year, how- ever, hostilities broke out between England and France in North America without any declaration of war. Conflict at Newfoundland. Dreading a French attack upon Hanover, George II. concluded, in January, 1756, a treaty of neutrality with Frederic at Westminster, which caused a rupture between England and Russia. Kaunitz made skillful use of the indignation at Versailles over the treaty of West- minster. In May, 1756, conclusion of a defensive alliance between France and Austria. In June, 1756, war broke out between France and England, in Europe. Frederic, well informed concerning the alliances of the powers, and knowing that Russia and France were not in condition to take the of- 404 Modern History. A. D. fensive against him in 1756, decided to take his enemies by surprise.^ 1756. Frederic invaded Saxony with 67,000 men. Capture of Dresden (Aug.). Oct. 1. Victory over the Austrians at Lohositz. Surrender of 18,000 Saxons, who were compelled to serve in the Prussian army (Oct. 16). 1757. War declared upon Frederic in the name of the empire. He was threatened with the ban. Hanover, Hesse, Brunswick, and GotJia, however, continued in alliance with Prussia. Treaty between Austria and Russia (Jan.) concerning the partition of the Prussian monarchy. Offensive treaty between Austria and France (May), also looking to the division of Prussia. Sweden joined the alliance against Frederic upon receiving the province of Pommerania, but her part in the war was unimportant. Alliance between Prussia and England (Jan. 1757) extended into a subsidy treaty (April, 1758). 1757. The Prussians invaded Bohemia in four columns. May 6. Victory of Frederic at Prague over the Austrians. Death of Schwerin. Frederic besieged Prague and attacked Daun, who was coming to the relief. June 18. Defeat of Frederic at Kollin. Evacuation of Bohemia. The French reached the Weser. June 26. Victory of the French at Hastenbeck over Frederic's allies (duke of Cumberland, second son of George II.). Aug. 30. Victory of the Russians (Apraxin) over the Prussians (Lehwald), whom they outnumbered, in the battle of Gross- jagerndorf. The Russians withdrew from Prussia and did not utilize their victory. Sept. 8. Treaty of the Monastery of Zeven (duke of Cumberland and Richelieu), according to which the French occupied Han- over. The treaty was, however, rejected by the English gov- ernment. Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, brother of the ruling duke, re- ceived the command against the French. A second French army under Soubise joined the imperial army with the purpose of liberating Saxony. Nov. 5. Victory of Frederic at Rossbach over the French and the imperial army (Seydlitz). Frederic led his victorious army to Silesia, where the Austrians had defeated and captured the duke of Brunswick-Bevern in the Nov. 22. Battle of Breslau. Dec. 5. Victory of Frederic at Leuthen over the Austrians (^Charles of Lorraine and Daun), 1758. Frederic in Moravia ; unsuccessful siege of Olmiitz. Advance of the Russians under Fermm", to join the Austrians. In the west, Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French back across the Rhine, and defeated them in the 1 Cf. A. Schafer, Gesch. des Siebenjdhrigen Krieges, 2 vols. 1867-1874 Dunckerj in v. Sybels, Hist.-Zeits. 1868, aud JJ. v. Kanke, Der Ursprun^ des siebenjahrigen Krieges, 1871. A. D. Germany, 405 1758. June 23. Battle of Crefeld. After the conquest of Prus- sia as far as the Mark the Russians advanced. Bloody Aug. 25. Victory of Frederic (Seydlitz) at Zoriidorf (not far from Kustrin) over the Russians. Austrians advanced upon Lusatia. The king hastened to the aid of his brother Henry and was defeated in the Oct. 14. Battle of Hochkirch (near Bautzen) by Daun. Never- theless he maintained himself in Saxony and Silesia. 1759. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated by the French (duke of Broglie) April 13. In the skirmish of Bergen near Frankfort-on-the-Main. ' Broglie was joined by a second French army under Contades, but they were both defeated by Ferdinand in the Aug. 1. Battle of Minden. The Russians advanced anew and defeated general Wedell July 23. (appointed dictator by the king) at Kay, The king was unable to prevent their union with the Austrians under Laudon. Severe Aug. 12. Defeat of Frederic at Kunersdorf (Frankfort- on-the-Oder) by the Austrians and Russians, who were at first defeated. Dresden captured by the imperial army. Nov. 20. The Prussian general Fink surrounded by Daun at Ma2:en and captured with 13,000 men. 1760. Fouque defeated and captured in the June 23. Battle of Landshut, by the Austrians. Futile siege of Dresden. Aug. 15. Victory of Frederic at PfafFendorf (Liegnitz) over the Austrians under Laudon. The king prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians. Oct. Berlin surprised and burnt by the Russians ( Tottleben), who retreated upon the approach of the king. Bloody Nov. 3. Victory of Frederic at Torgau (^Ziethen) over the Aus- trians under Daun. 1761. Frederic encamped at Bunzelwitz (near Schweidnitz), op- posite the united Austrians (Laudon) and Russians (Buturlin), who did not venture on a decisive battle. Separation of the united armies. Schweidnitz captured by the Aus- trians, Kolherg by the Russians. Frederic, who was deprived of the English subsidies by the accession of George III. (1760), was in great distress. The 1762. Jan. 5. Death of Elizabeth of Russia was the salvation of Prussia. Her successor Peter III., an admirer of Frederic, concluded March 16. The truce of Stargard with Prussia, and soon after the May 5. Peace of St. Petersburg : Russia restored her conquests ; both parties renounced all hostile alliances. This peace caused the May 22. Peace of Hamburg with Sweden ; status quo ante helium. The alliance between Russia and Prussia was soon broken off 406 Modern History. a. d. by the deposition of Peter III. (July 9). His successor, Catharine II., recalled her troops from Frederic's army ; nevertheless their inactiv- ity upon the field contributed to the 1762. Victory of Frederic at Burkersdorf (Reichenbach) over July 21. the Austrians (Daun). After Prince Henry in the Oct. 29. Battle of Freiberg had defeated the Austrians and the imperial forces, and the preliminaries of the peace at Fontaine- bleau (p. 439) between England and France had made it certain that the French armies would be withdrawn from Germany, Austria and Prussia concluded the 1763. Peace of Hubert (u)sburg. Feb. 15. 1. Ratification of the peace of Breslau and Berlin, and that of Dresden, i. e. Prussia retained Silesia. 2. Prussia promised her vote for the archduke Joseph at the election of the king of Rome. Saxony (restoration to the status quo) and the empire were included in the peace. Frederic's endeavors to heal the wounds inflicted by the war upon his kingdom. Distribution of the magazine stores. Remission of taxes for several provinces. Establishment of district banks, of the Bank (1765) and the Maritime Company (1772) at Berlin. Afterwards, however, introduction of an oppressive financial administration; tobacco and coffee were made government monopolies. Drainage of the marshes along the Oder, Werthe, and Netze. Canal of Plauen, Finow, and Bromberg. Reform of the jurisdiction. Codification of the common law by grand chancellor von Carmer, a part of which was published in 1782. 1765-1790. Joseph II., emperor, for the Austrian lands co-regent only, with his mother Maria Theresa, until 1780, and without much influence. 1778-1779. War of the Bavarian Succession.^ Cause: Extinction of the electoral house of Bavaria with Maximilian Joseph (1777). Charles Theodore, elector palatine, the legal heir of the Bavarian lands, as head of the house of Wittelshach, and in consequence of various treaties, was persuaded by Joseph II. to recognize certain old claims of Austria to lower Bavaria, and a part of the upper Palatinate. Treaty of Vienna (1778, Jan.). Occupation of lower Bavaria by Austrian troops. Charles Theodore was childless; his heir presumptive was Charles Augustus Christian, duke of the pala- tinate of Zweibrticken (Deux-ponts). Frederic II. opened secret ne- gotiations with this wavering and irresolute prince through count Eustachius von Gorz and encouraged him, under promise of assistance, to make a formal declaration of his rights against the Austrian claims. Saxony and Mecklenburg, also incited by Frederic, protested as heirs presumptive of a part of the Bavarian inheritance. As direct nego- tiations between Austria and Prussia were without result, Joseph and Frederic joined their armies, which were already drawn up face to face on the boundary of Bohemia and Silesia. Saxony allied with Prussia. No battle in this short war. Frederic 1 Cf. Mansp, Gesch. d. preuss. Staats seit dem Hubertsb. Fricden. A. D. Germany. 407 and prince Henry invaded Bohemia (July, 1778). Impossibility of farcing Joseph from his strong position along the upper Elbe, or of getting around it. The armies maintained their positions of obser- vation so long that want began to make itself felt. In the autumn prince Henry retired to Saxony, Frederic to Silesia. Unimportant skirmishes along the frontier. A personal correspondence between Maria Theresa and Frederic, commenced by the former, led m the following spring, with the help of Russian and French mediation, to a truce and a congress, and soon after to the 1779, May. Peace of Teschen. 1. The treaty of Vienna with Charles Theodore was abro- gated. Austria retained only the district of the Inn, in Bavaria, i. e. the part of lower Bavaria between the Inn, Salza, and Danube. 2. Austria agreed to the future union of the margravates of Anshach and Baireuth, with the Prussian monarchy. 3. Saxony obtained some hitherto disputed rights of sovereignty and nine million rix dollars ; Mecklenburg the privilegium de non appellando. 1780-1790. Joseph II. Period of his reign alone and of his attempts at reform.^ The peaceable and prudent government of Maria Theresa (f 1780), with its carefully matured scheme of reform, was succeeded by the essentially revolutionary reign of Joseph II., whereby the ancient forms were shaken to their foundations, and their substance, reluctant and stiff from lack of change, forcibly subjected to experiments made in sympathy with the enlightenment of the century. Joseph 11. is the best representative of the contradictions of the eighteenth century, of its philanthropy and its devotion to right, and again of its severity and lack of consideration, where there was question of executing some favorite theory. Filled with dislike of the clergy and the nobility, and entertaining the ideal of a strong, centralized, united state, Joseph pursued his reforms with the purpose of breaking the power of the privileged classes mentioned above, of destroying all provincial inde- pendence, and of establishing unity in the administration (central- ization). Despite of all his failures, despite of the fact that, mth the exception of the abolition of serfdom and the edict of tolerance, not one of his reforms outlived him, Joseph's reign regenerated the Austrian monarchy, lending it mobility and vitality. Edict of tolerance (1781). Within eight years 700 monasteries were closed and 36,000 members of orders released. There still re- mained, however, 1,324 monasteries with 27,000 monks and nuns. For those which remained a new organization was prescribed. The connection of the ecclesiastical order with Rome was weakened, schools were established with the property of the churches, innova- tions in the form of worship were introduced, nor did the interior organization of the church escape alteration. Futile journey of Pope Pius VI. to Vienna (1782) undertaken to prevent these changes. Reform of the jurisdiction. The feudal burdens were reduced to fixed norms, and attempts were made to completely abolish personal servitude among the peasants. 1 Hausser , Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs d. Grossen. 4:08 Modern History. A. D. Disputes between Joseph and the Dutch ; the emperor arbitrarily annulled the barrier treaties (p. 393) (1781). He demanded that the Schelde, which had been closed by the Treaty of Westphalia to the Spanish Netherlands, in favor of the Dutch, should be opened. Finally, after four years of quarreling, French mediation brought about the Peace of Versailles (1785). Joseph withdrew his demands in consideration of ten million florins. Joseph attempted to improve the legal system of the empire. His encroachments in the empire. Violent proceedings in the case of the bishop of Passau (1783). The endeavors of Frederic the Great to conclude a union of German princes (1783), which should resist the encroachments of the emperor, and to strengthen Prussia in her political isolation by a " combination within the empire," were at first but coldly supported by his own min- isters and the German princes. Frederic's plan was not taken into favor until news was received of 1785- Joseph II.'s plan of an exchange of territory, according to which Charles Theodore was to cede the whole of Bavaria to Austria, and accept in exchange the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), excepting Luxemburg and Namur, as the kingdom of Burgundy. France maintained an attitude of indifference. Russia supported the project and endeavored by persuasion and threats to induce the heir of Bavaria, the count palatine of Zweihriicken (Deux- ponts) to consent to the scheme. The latter sought help from Fred-- eric the Great, who, a year before his death (f 1786, Aug. 17), suc- ceeded in forming the 1785, July. League of the German Princes between Prussia, the electorate of Saxony, and Hanover, which was afterward joined by Brunswick, Mainz, Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Meck- lenburg, Anhalt, and the Thuringian lands. Opposition to Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands and in Hungary. The removal of the crown of Hungary to Vienna pro- duced so great a disturbance that the emperor yielded and permitted its return. The revocation of the constitution of Brabant caused a revolt in the Belgian provinces (1789), War with the Turks (p. 414). Death of Joseph II. (1790). 1790-1792. Leopold II., emperor. Joseph's brother and successor. He suppressed the Belgian insur- rection, but restored the old constitution and the old privileges. A conference at Reichenbach prevented a war with Prussia, which (Jan. 31, 1790) had concluded a treaty with the Turks, in order to procure more favorable conditions for the latter from Austria and Russia (p. 414). ^See pp. 447,487.) ^. D. Denmarh, Sweden^ Russia, Poland, 409 § 4. DENMARK, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, POLAND. {See pp. 375, 397.) Denmark (and Nor'way). Since the close of the northern war, Denmark held complete posses- sion of Schleswig and enjoyed under Frederic IV., Christian VI., Frederic V., Christian VII. (count Bernstorff, minister), a long interval of peace at home and abroad. Under the weak Christian VII. revo- lutionary attempts at reform after the manner of Joseph II. by the German Struensee (born in Halle, physician in Altona, traveling companion of the king, instructor of the crown prince, favorite of the queen, Caroline Matilda, first minister, count, who was overthrown in 1772 by a conspiracy (queen dowager Juliatia Maria) and be- headed along with his friend Brandt. The disputes with the line of Holstein-Gottorp were brought to an end in 1773 by the cession of Oldenburg to the younger line in exchange for their share of Holstein, which was in consequence entirely mcorporated with the Danish monarchy. Sweden. Until 1751 Sweden was under the rule of Frederic of Hesse-Cassel (p. 397). Decline of the royal power in the midst of the dissensions of two parties of the nobility, Hiite, " hats ; " (French) and Mutzen " caps ; " (Russian). Unsuccessful war with Russia (1741-1743), ended by the disgraceful 1743. Peace of Abo. 1. The Cymen made the boundary between Sweden and Russia, whereby the position of St. Petersburg was made more secure. 2. The succession to the crown of Sweden was guaranteed to Adolf Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp. 1751-1818- The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden. Under Adolf Frederic (1751-1771) the royal power underwent such reductions at the hands of the royal council that Sweden was rather an aristocracy than a monarchy. Inglorious participation in the Seven Years' War. Adolf Frederic's son, Gustavus III. (1771- 1792), crushed the power of the royal council of nobles by a blood- less revolution (1772), and reduced it in the new constitution from a co-regent to a simple council ; the estates, however, retained the right of veto against an offensive war. 1788-1790. War with Russia. Drawn battle at the island of Ho gland (1788). Gustavus invaded Russian Finland, where the officers of his army refused him further obedience. He found support among the people (Stockholm and Dalecarlia). The estates granted him (against the will of the nobles) the right to declare even an offensive war. In spite of brilliant deeds of arms Gustavus con- cluded the war by a peace (at Werelce) which was without advantage to Sweden. 1792, March. Gustavus III. murdered by James of Ankarstrom. {Seepp.W.W.) 410 Modern History, A. D. RUSSIA AND POLAND. {See pp. 375, 397.) Alexis, t 1676. 1 Feodor TIT. t 1682. Ivan till 1689. Sophia. Peter the Great. t 1725, m. Catharine I, 1 Catharine, duchess of 1 Anna, t 1740. t 1727. Mecklenburg- Schwerin. Anna, duchess of Brunswick. Ivan IV. till 1741, t 1764. Alexis, t 1718. Peter II., t 1730. m. Anna, duchess of Holstein- Oottorp. Peter III., t 1762. Catharine II. t 1796. 1 Elizabeth, 1 1762. The son of Peter the Great (p. 374 and 394), Alexis, who favored the Russian reaction, was condemned to execution by his father, and died in prison (?) 1718. Peter was succeeded, in consequence of a law which he had issued in 1722 (afterwards repealed by Paul I.) which allowed the reigning sovereign to appoint his own successor, by his wife 1725-1727. Catharine I., who was governed by prince Menschikoff, the favorite of Peter I., who had risen from the lowest rank to be the first minister • of state. After the sudden death of the empress there followed, under her will, 1727-1730. Peter II., twelve years old, grandson of Peter I. He was for four months under the influence of Menschikoff, who at the end of that time was overthrown by the family of Dol~ goruky and sent to Siberia, where he died two years later. Upon Peter II.'s early death, 1730-1740. Anna Ivanovna, younger daughter of the elder brother of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. She was ruled by Miinnich, Ostermann, and her favorite Biron (properly Biihren). The latter soon obtained complete control, and took un- bridled vengeance on his enemies, particularly the Dolgoruky, In 1737 he was appointed duke of Curland, at the desire of the em- press, by Augustus III., king of Poland (1733-1763). Russia's in- fluence in Poland established by the war of the Polish succession (p. 398). In the war against the Turks, brilliantly conducted, in combination with Austria (p. 398), by the general Miinnich (1736- 1739), ^20^ was the only acquisition. The empress Aima was ^c- ceeded by her grand-nephew, the minor A. D. Denmark, Sweden^ Russia, Poland. 411 1740-1741. Ivan IV. (or VI.), whose mother, Anna of Bruns- wick, conducted the government for a short time after Mun- nich had accomphshed the fall of Biron, who was sent to Siberia. A military revolution placed upon the throne 1741-1762. Elizabeth, the youngest daughter of Peter the Great. Ivan was imprisoned, the leaders of the preceding government, including Miinnich, were sent to Siberia, Biron returned. Capricious rule of women and favorites ; Lestocq, a friend of Prussia, to whom the empress was chiefly indebted for her throne, was over- thrown by Bestushef, friendly to Austria, and sent to Siberia. War with Sweden, see p. 4lO. Participation of Russia in the Seven Years' War, p. 404. According to Elizabeth's direction she was succeeded by the son of her sister, Peter, duke of Holstein-Gottorp. 1762 — X. House of Holstein-Gottorp in Russia. 1762. Peter III., after a six months' reign, which he began, with the imprudent introduction of reforms, was deposed (July 9) and imprisoned by his wife (princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), the energetic and immoral 1762-1796. Catharine II. The two brothers Orloff caused the emperor to be strangled, whether with the knowledge of Catharine or not, cannot be stated. The fact that she overwhelmed the murderers with rewards tells against the empress. Catharine asked and received from Augustus III., king of Poland, the restoration of Curland, for Biron, who administered the duchy under Russian influence, until 1772, and bequeathed it to his son. After the death of Augustus III. (1763), Catharine, in alliance with Frederic II., procured the election of her protege 1764-1795. Stanislaus Poniatowski (f 1797), as king of Poland. At the request of Russia and Prussia the dissenters, adherents of the Greek church, and protestants received equal rights with catho- lics. In opposition to this change, formation of the Confederacy of Bar (1768), which made an unsuccessful attempt to abduct the king. In the civil war that followed the king was successfully supported by a Russian army against the confederacy. The Turks, allies of the confederacy, declared war upon Russia. Russia's success in this war aroused the envy of Prussia and Austria, which led to an attempt to secure an equal aggrandizement of the three powers by the 1772. First division of Poland. 1. Russia received the region between the Duna, Dnieper, and Drutsch, i. e. the eastern part of Lithuania. 2. Austria : East Gallicia and Lodomeria. 3. Prussia : Polish Prussia ( West Prussia, with the exception of Danzig, Thorn, and Erraeland), which the Teu- tonic order had ceded to Poland in 1466 (p. 277), and the Netze dis- trict. The assent of the Polish nation to this high-handed proceeding was extorted by force. Exertions of the powers who had shared in the 412 Modern History, A. d. division to preserve the Polish constitution, which was another name for anarchy. 1768-1774. Catharine's first war against the Turks was successfully conducted. The Turkish fleet was defeated and burned by the Russians off the island of Chios (Tschesme, 1770). During the war revolt of the Cossack Pugacheff, who gave himself out as Peter III. The success of Romanzoff, who surrounded the Grand Vizier at Shumla, brought about the 1774. July 12. Peace of Kutschouc Kainardji. 1. Russia received Kinhurn ; Yenikale, and Kertch in the Crimea, and their districts; and obtained the right of free navigation in all Turkish waters for trading vessels. 2. The Tatars in the Crimea, and along the Kuban, became " independent." 3. Restoration of con- quests in Moldavia and Wallachia to their princes, whose interests, as opposed to the Porte, were henceforward represented at Constantinople by Russia. ["Permanently important provisions of the treaty of Kutschouc Kainardji : I. The Tatars were released from allegiance to Turkey and brought under Russian influence. II. Russia obtained a firm footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea ; pushing back the Turkish frontier to the river Boug. III. The frontier line between the two powers in Asia was left much as it was before the war. IV. Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constantinople and for certain privileges for Christians in Turkey. V. Russia exacted promises for the better government of the principalities, reserving a right of re- monstrance if these were not kept. VI. Russia obtained a declara- tion of her right of free commercial navigation in Turkish waters. All subsequent controversies between the Porte and Russia may be referred to one of these six heads." — T. E. Holland : Treaty rela- tions of Russia and Turkey from 1774-1853.] Prince Potemkin, Catharine's favorite, soon became all-powerful and conducted all state affairs according to his humor and his arbi- trary will. 1780. Armed neutrality at sea, at first introduced for the protection of commerce during the North American war (p. 428). The subject was broached by Rus- sia, and the idea gradually found support from Denmark, Sweden (1780), Prussia, Austria (1782), Portugal (1783); Spain, and France recognized the principle. England prevented the addition of Holland to the league by a declaration of war. Demands of the Armed Neutrality. 1. Free passage of neutral ships from port to port and along the coasts of combatants. 2. Free- dom of an enemy's goods in neutral ships (le pavilion couvre la marchandise), with the exception of such goods as were contraband of war. 3. Exact definition of a blockaded port ; a merely nominal (" paper ") blockade, that is, one not enforced by a sufficient number of ships of war in the vicinity of the specified harbor, was declared to be inadmissible. Plan of Catharine and Potemkin to drive the Turks out of Europe, A. D. DenmarJc, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 413 and to restore the Greek empire, as a secondogeniture of the 1783. imperial house of Russia, under grand-duke Constantine. The 1787. Crimea (Tauria) incorporated with Russia. Catharine's jour^ ney through southern Russia to Kherson. Shameless represen- tation of a flourishing condition of the country by Potemkin the Taurian ! Meeting with Joseph II. 1787-1792. Catharine's second war with the Turks (^Potemkin and Suvaroff), in alliance with Austria (Laudon and ih.Q prince of Coburg). Potem- kin stormed OtchaTcoff (1788), victory, in union with the Austrians at Fokchany and on the Rimnik, Potemkin conquered Bender (1789), Su- varoff stormed Ismail (1790). Victory at Matchin. Peace between Austria and Turkey at Sistova (1791). Austria received Old- Orsova only. Potemkin died 1791. Between Russia and the Porte 1792. Jan. 9. Peace of Jassy. Russia received Otchakoff and the land between the lower Dnieper, Bug, and Dniester, the latter river becoming the boundary. 1793- Second division of Poland. The Poles had attempted to improve the war of Russia and Austria with the Turks, and the seemingly friendly aspect of Prussia, by putting an end to their dependence upon the neighboring states, and to the anarchical condition of affairs at home. Alliance with Prussia (1790), which promised to help the Poles if foreign nations should attempt to interfere in their internal affairs. The new con- stitution of 1791, drawn up by Ignaz Potocki and his friends, 1. converted the elective monarchy into an hereditary monarchy, appoint- ing the elector of Saxony successor of the king Stanislaus Poniatowski and making the throne hereditary in the house of Saxony ; 2. con- ferred the executive power upon the king and a council of state, the legislative power upon a diet of the kingdom in two houses, with abolition of the liberum veto, and 3. made some concessions to the mid- dle classes and the peasants, permitting, for example, admission to the rank of the nobility, all of whose privileges, however, were con- firmed. In opposition to this constitution there was formed the Confederacy of Targowitz {Felix Potocki^, under the protection of Russia, which had guaranteed the old constitution. A Russian army invaded Poland. Brave, but futile resistance under prince Poniatowski and Kosciuszko, who were defeated at Dubienka. The king joined the confederacy of Targowitz ; the new constitution was repealed. Under pretense of suppressing Jacobinism, Prussian troops entered Poland. Annexa- tion of Danzig (1793). Russia and Prussia issued a common procla- mation which announced to the Poles that Russia and her former allies had already come to an understanding. At the diet of Grodno, the consent of the nation to the new cessions, was extorted. Russia took the larger part of Lithuania, being all that remained, and Volhynia and Podolia ; Prussia took Danzig and Thorn, and the whole of Great Poland (now called South Prussia). Besides all this, 414 Modern History. A. D. Russia enforced a treaty of union, whereby she received : 1. free entrance for her troops into Poland ; 2. the conduct of all future wars ; 3. the right of confirming all treaties made by Poland with foreign powers. 1794. Revolution in Poland, under the lead of Kosciuszko. The Russians in Warsaw, under Igelstrom, were in part massacred, in part driven from the city. The Prussians entered Poland, defeated Kosciuszko at Szczekoziny (pr. Shtchekoziny), took Cracow, but be- sieged Warsaw in vain. The Russians were victorious at Brzesc and at Maciejowice (pr. Matchevitz). Kosciuszko captured.^ Storm of Prague by Suvaroff; massacre in the city. 1795. Third and last partition of Poland. At this partition, the three powers took possession of the fol- lowing parts of Poland : Prussia : Masovia with Warsaw, the region between the Vistula, Bug, and Niemen (New East Prussia), part of Cracow (New Silesia) ; 2. Austria: West Galicia as far as the Bug. 3. Russia : all that remained towards the east. The powers obtained, by the three parti- tions, about the following increase of territory : Russia, 181,000 square miles, with 6,000,000 inhabitants. Austria, 45,000 " " " 3,700,000 « Prussia, 57,000 « " " 2,500,000 « 1795. The annihilation of the kingdom of Poland led to the incor- poration of Curland with Russia. Curland, legally under the overlordship of Poland, had been practically under Russian supremacy since 1737, when the empress Anna (411) had obtained the duch;y for Biron against the claims of the Marshal Saxe. (See pp. 4^7, 4^7.) § 5. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. {Seep. 394.) 1701-1808 (1814-x). The House of Bourbon in Spain. Philip V. (1701-1746). Bloody punishment of the adherents of the archduke Charles of Austria ; particularly in Aragon and Cata- lonia. Suppression of all old constitutions and rights (Fueros) which remained. The quadruple alliance against Spain, see p. 397, the par- ticipation of Spain in the war of the Polish Succession and the estab- lishment of a secundogeniture in Naples, see p. 398. Under PhUip and his successor Ferdinand VI., 1746-1759, par- ticipation in the war of the Austrian succession, see p. 401. Ferdi- nand was succeeded by his half-brother Charles III., 1759-1788, previously king of the Two Sicilies, p. 417. Participation of Spain in the Seven Years* War between Eng- land and France (Peace of Paris), see p. 441, and in the war of American Independence (Peace of Versailles), see p. 433. A popu- lar revolt against Italian favorites of the king, was made the pretext 1 Kosciuszko never made use of the well-known expression " Finis Po- lonice," as he himself openly and with indignation declared. A. D. Portugal. — Italy. 415 for the banisliinent of the Jesuits from Spain (1767), which was exe- cuted by the minister Aran da. Portugal. Since 1640 Portugal was again independent of Spain, had again reached a certain degree of power under the first kings of the house of Braganza, but was then impoverished by a miserable administra- tion, and brought into complete dependence upon England by a com- mercial treaty with that power. In the reign of Joseph I. Emmanuel (1750-1777), his minister Carvalho, marquis of Pombal, endeav- ored to introduce revolutionary reforms, in the spirit of the century, in the same direction as the later attempts of Joseph II. (p. 408). After the terrible 1755. Nov. 1. Earthquake of Lisbon, in which 30,000 people lost their lives, Pombal caused the ruined portion of the capital to be splendidly rebuilt. An unsuccess- ful attempt to assassinate the king (1758) formed a pretext for han- isJiing the Jesuits from Portugal (1759), and a welcome chance for the minister to rid himself of his enemies. The death of the king was followed by the fall of Pombal and the undoing of his reforms. The order of the Jesuits was dissolved in 1773, see p. 416. Pombal sen- tenced to death, but pardoned. {^^ee pp. J^J^l^ 4^7.) § 6. ITALY. (Seep. 328.) Savoy. The dukes of Savoy and Piedmont, kings since the peace of Utrecht, since 1718 kings of Sardinia (p. 397), understood how to increase their territory, in the eighteenth century as well as before, by skillful use of political relations. During the war of the Austrian succession they acquired a considerable extent of land from Milan (p. 400). Genoa. The republic of Genoa was constantly obliged to defend her free- dom and independence against powerful neighbors, who coveted her territory {Savoy, France, Austria'). In 1730 the inhabitants of the island of Corsica, which had been under the supremacy of Genoa, revolted. After a long and fluctuating contest, during which a Ger- man adventurer, Baron Neuhof of Westphalia, appeared for a time as King Theodore I. of Corsica (1736), the Genoese called in the assistance of the French, who after great exertions and bloody bat- tles (particularly against Paoli), succeeded in subjugating the island, which the Genoese ceded to them in 1768. Venice. The republic of Venice, by consequence of its obstinate persis= tence in the old aristocratic forms, politically immired, sank into an irremediable decline. Its last laurels were gained in the seventeenth 416 Modern History. A. D. century in the glorious wars against the Turks. The latter surprised Candia and conquered a part of the island (1645-1647). The Vene- tian fleet under Grimani and Riva repeatedly defeated the much stronger Turkish fleet. Brilliant victory of the admiral Mocenigo, 1651, and Morosini, 1655. Marcello amiihilated the Turkish fleet by the Dardanelles (1656), Mocenigo defeated the Turks at Chios, but was himself defeated in a second combat. New naval victories over the Turks in 1661 and 1662. The Venetians received aid from Germany and France, but were obliged, after courageous fighting, to leave the island of Candia under Turkish supremacy. After an alli- ance between the republic of Venice, the emperor and John Sobieski of Poland (1684), renewal of the war against the Turks. The Vene- tians under Morosini, supported by German mercenaries, began the conquest of the Peloponnesus (Morea) in 1685. Count Konigsmark landed at Patras (1687) and completed the subjugation of the penin- sula. Morosini captured Athens; a Venetian bomb blew up the Par- thenon on the Acropolis. Morosini, who had been elected doge, landed in Negroponte (Eubcea), but the plague in the army (Konigs- mark f ) frustrated the expedition. In the peace of Carlowitz, 1699 (see p. 372), Morea was given to the Venetians, who repopulated the peninsula with Greek colonists, but soon earned the hatred of their new subjects by the rigor of their administration. • Tuscany. Tuscany declined in power after the seventeenth century, as the influence of the clergy steadily increased. In 1737 the family of the Medici became extinct ; the later members of this house, sunken in dissipation, were sadly unworthy of their great ancestors. After 1737, the rulers of Lorraine were dukes of Tuscany (see p. 398) ; Leopold IL, upon his accession in Austria (1790) gave Tuscany to his second son Ferdinand Joseph. Tuscany was an Austrian secundogeniture from 1765-1859. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were secundogenitures for the Spanish Bourbons from 1731-1735, and again 1748-1859. Modena, since 1597, was ruled by an illegitimate branch of the house of Este. Papal States. In the Papal States, prosperity, industry, and intellectual life stead- ily declined. After the sixteenth century the papal chair was occu- pied by Italians only, who were for the most part members of the great families of the nobility. Among the Popes of the eighteenth century Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli) must be mentioned, who in 1773 yielded to the demands of the Catholic courts and dissolved the order of the Jesuits, whose general, Ricci, would not entertain the idea of reform (^sint ut sunt, aut non sint), by the bull Dominus ac redemptor noster. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. After 1738 this kingdom was a secundogeniture of the Spanish Bour- bons, and was given to Ferdinand, third son of Charles III., when the A. D. America: British Colonies. 417 latter ascended the Spanish throne in 1759. Naples and Sicily were governed by this branch of the Bourbon family solely in the interest of their house, and not in that of the people, for whose intellectual and material welfare little or nothing was done. (See pp. I^lff, 1^87.') § 7. AMERICA: BRITISH COLONIES. {See p. 365) 1713. Treaty with the eastern Indians at Portsmouth. Rectification of the boundary between Massachusetts and Connecticut by the cession of over 100,000 acres of land by the former to the latter. 1715. An Indian war in Carolina undertaken by the Yamassees and allied tribes. The Indians were defeated and driven across the Spanish border by governor Craven. 1718. Captain Woods Rogers, appointed governor of New Providence, suppressed the buccaneers in the West Indies ; extirpation of the pirates on the coast of Carolina by the governor of that colony. 1719-1729. Overthrow of proprietary government in Carolina. In 1719 the people of Carolina, having for some time chafed under the arbitrary government of the proprietors, formed an association for the overthrow of the proprietary government. The assembly prov- ing unruly was dissolved by governor Johnson, but refused to obey the proclamation ; they elected a new governor and council, and op- posed the armed demonstration of governor Johnson with an armed defiance. A threatened attack by the Spaniards only served to show more clearly the determined spirit of the colonists. (The Spanish expedition never reached Carolina, being repulsed from New Provi- dence, and overwhelmed by a storm). The late events being reported by the agent for the colony in England, the royal council declared the charter of the proprietors forfeited, and forthwith established a pro- visional royal government ; governor Nicholson (1721). In 1729 an agreement with the proprietors was reached and confirmed by act of parliament. Seven of the proprietors sold their titles and interest in the colony ; the eighth retained his property but not his proprietary power. The crown assumed the right of nominating governors and councils. The province was divided into North and South Carolina. 1720. William Burnet, governor of New York. Prohibition of trade between the Indians and the French. 1722. In New York, governor Burnet continued his efforts to ob- struct the French in their policy of hemming in the English sea-coast colonies on the west. Erection of a trading-house at Oswego ; negotiations with the Six Nations at Albany. (The Tuscaroras had been admitted to the Iroquois confederacy as a sixth nation). 1724. Indian hostilities in New England. War with the Abinakis, who were incensed by the rapid extension of the English settle- ments, and further provoked by the advice of Rasles, a French Jesuit at Norridgewock. Futile attempt of the English to seize Rasles was answered by the destruction of Berwick, whereupon war was declared, Norridgewock burnt and Rasles killed. 418 Modern History. A. D. 1725. The Yamassees, though living under the protection of the Span- iards in Florida, continued their assaults on the English colony in Carolina. Expedition of Palmer to St. Augustine, upon which he chastised the Indians. 1726. The general court of Massachusetts having become involved in a controversy with governor Shute, the latter obtained from the crown an explanatory charter which gave him power to suppress debate, and limited the time for which the house of representatives might adjourn, to two days. Treaty of peace between Massachusetts and the eastern In- dians, which was long kept. In Ne'W York, a treaty with the Senecas, Cayugas, and Onon- dagas added their lands to those of the Mohawks and Oneidas, which were already under English protection. 1728. Burnet governor of Massachusetts. He was at once involved in a wrangle with the legislature over the question of a fixed salary for the governor, which the court refused to grant, " be- cause it is the undoubted right of all Englislmien, by Magna Charta, to raise and dispose of money for the public service, of their own free accord, without compulsion." The boundary between Virginia and North Carolina was sur- veyed and settled, runnmg through the Dismal Swamp. 1729. Division of Carolina into North and South Carolina (p. 417). 1731. Settlement of the disputed boundary between New York and Connecticut. 1733. Settlement of Georgia, the last of the old thir- teen colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- nia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia). It bemg thought desirable that the government should secure for England the western part of Carolina m order to prevent the French or the Spaniards from Louisiana or Florida from laying hold of it, a charter for the lands. between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers ex- tending to the Pacific, under the name of Georgia, was granted to James Oglethorpe and associates, not as proprietors but as trustees (twenty-one in number), for twenty-one years for the crown, at the expiration of which time the colony was to revert to the crown, which should then determine on the manner of its future goverment. Lib- erty of conscience and freedom of worship were secured to all inhab- itants of the colony except papists. James Oglethorpe, the moving spirit in this projected colony, desired to establish within its limits a chance for reformation for English prisoners, and a home for poor and oppressed Protestants of all nations. Oglethorpe brought the first colonists in 1733, and settled at Savannah ; conciliation of the Indians by just purchase of lands and by kuidness. Oglethorpe re- fused to allow the importation either of rum or of slaves into Georgia. Many Scotch Presbyterians as well as Moravians from Austria came to the new colony. One of the first enactments of the trustees de- clared that male issue only could inherit land in the colony. A. D. America: British Colonies^ 419 1734. In New York arrest of Zenger, printer of the Weekly Jour- nalj for libel on the governor (Cosby). Trial and acquittal 1735. 1738. Foundation of a college at Princeton, in New Jersey. 1739-1748. Grreat Britain at war with Spain. 1740. Unsuccessful expedition of Oglethorpe to Florida at the head of 1,200 men from Georgia, Carolina, and Virguiia. Siege of St. Augustine. Settlement of the boundary dispute between Massachusetts and New Hampshire in favor of the latter colony. Expedition of Vernon with 27,000 men against Cartliagenaf broken up by disease. 1741. The colonies participated in an attack on Cuba. 1742. Expedition of 3,000 Spaniards to Georgia repulsed by Ogle- thorpe by stratagem. In this year Oglethorpe went to England and never returned to America. 1744-1748. War between Great Britain and France, known in the American colonies as King George's "War, in reality a part of the war of the Austrian Succession (p. 400). The strongest French fortification in America outside of Quebec was Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, a part, as the English claimed, of Acadia ; the French, however, had refused to surrender it with that province, asserting that only Nova Scotia was comprised under that name. 1745. Apr. 30-June 16. Siege and capture of Louisburg by 4,000 colonial troops under William Pepperell, aided by a few English vessels. 1746. Projected conquest of Canada, by a united effort of all the colonies preveirted by the arrival of a large French fleet at Nova Scotia under DAnville, which spread consternation throughout the English colonies, but which, by the death of DAnville, the suffering of the troops through pestilence and the loss of vessels by storm, was prevented from accompUshing anything. 1747. Nov. 17. An attempt of the English commander, Knowles, to press men for his vessels in Boston, caused an uprising of the people; the governor withdrew to Castle William, and the dis- turbance was only quieted by the release of most of the men seized. 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between England, France, and Spain. In the reciprocal surrender of conquests. Cape Breton was restored to the French (p. 404). Formation of the Ohio Company under a charter from the Enghsh crown, which gave great offense to the French. 1750. In spite of the confirmation of the cession of Acadia to Eng- land by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, hostilities sprang up be- tween the French and Enghsh there, owing to disputes over the boundaries. 420 Modern History. A. D. 1751. Governor Clinton, of New York, in association with South Carolina, Massachusetts and Connecticut, concluded a peace with the Six Nations. 1752. The trustees of Georgia finding that the colony did not flourish under their care, gave up their charter, and the crown assumed control, and placed Georgia on the same footing with other royal colonies. The English parliament adopted the reformed or Gregorian calendar for England and the colonies (p. 438). 1753. The growth of the British colonies extending more and more westward caused the disputes between England and France to grow to a head. The French claimed the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, and all the region between from the Appalachians to the Spanish settlements in the west, and were intent on securing this re- gion by a line of forts directly back of the English colonies. Accord- ing to the English all French settlements within the territory of the colony of Plymouth (p. 293) were illegal ; they also claimed the whole region occupied by the Iroquois. The settlement of Georgia and the foundation of the Ohio Company were attempts to counter- act the progress of the French, and these moves in their turn were a cause of uneasiness to the French, who seized traders within the limits of the Ohio Company. As the lands of the company were within the territory of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, governor of that colony, dis- patched George Washington to the forts on the Alleghany and the Ohio to remonstrate with the French (Oct. 31-Dec. 12). The com- mander of the Ohio forts promised to lay the remonstrance before the governor of Canada. 1754. Virginia immediately sent a force to the Ohio, two companies of which were under Washington. In the advance upon Fort Du Quesne, at the juncture of the Alleghany and Monongahela, he captured a small French party, but was besieged in Fort Necessity, which he had erected, and forced to capitulate under condition of free withdrawal (July 4). June 19. Conference of colonial delegates at Albany with the Six Nations. By the advice of Benjamin Franklin the conference also drew up a plan of a union of all the colonies under a president appointed by the crown, with a grand council of delegates elected by the colonial assemblies, with a right of legislation subject to the veto of the president and the approval of the crown. Connecticut, object- ing to the veto power, refused to sign the proposal, which was after- wards rejected both by the colonies and the crown. 1755-1763. War between England and Prance, called in the American colonies ** The Old French and In- dian War ; " being a part of the Seven Years' War, in Europe, which was fought in Asia and Africa as well. War was not declared until the following year, but it is reckoned from 1755 (p. 404 and 438). 1755. While a conference of the colonial governors with general Braddock, who was sent from Eni^land to take chief command, A. D. America : British Colonies. 421 decided on three expeditions: 1. against Fort DuQuesne; 2. against the fort at Niagara ; 3. against the French fort at Crown Point in New York; a band of 3,000 Massachusetts troops under Winslow and Monckton captured forts Beausejour and Gaspereaux in the disputed dis- trict in Nova Scotia (June 16-17), and dispersed among the British colonies about 7,000 of the inhabitants who refused to take the oath of allegiance to England (" Evangeline ''). Meantime general Braddock took the offensive at the head of the British regulars against Fort du Quesne, and fell into an ambuscade, in consequence of neglecting the advice of the provincial officers (Washington), and suffered a complete defeat and great loss in the 1755, July 9. Battle of Fort du Quesne or "Braddook's defeat." Death of Braddock. Attack on Crown Point : Construction of Fort Edward on the east of the Hudson (Aug.). Sept. 8. Battle of Lake George ; defeat of the French under Dies- kau (f ), by the provincial troops under Johnson. Construction of Fort William Henry at the south end of Lake George by the English. Fortification of Ticonderoga, between Lake George and Lake Champlain, by the French. The expedition to Niagara was subjected to so many delays that it was for the time abandoned. 1756, Great Britain declared war on France. Earl of Loudoun com- mander-in-chief of forces in America. Aug. Forts Oswego and George captured by the marquis of Mont- calm, commander-in-chief of the French armies in Canada, and destroyed. This disaster occasioned the abandonment of the projected enter- prises against Niagara, Crown Point, Fort du Quesne and Eastern Canada. Fortifications of Georgia and Carolina (Fort Loudoun on the Tennessee river). The French constructed a system of forts in the region of the Illinois. 1757, August 9. Capture of Port ■William Henry by Montcalm, massacre of the garrison, whose retreat to Fort Edward was guaranteed, by the Indians in Montcalm's army. In Massachusetts, controversy between the governor, Lord Lou«» doun and the general court over the quartering of troops. In Pennsylvania, controversy between the governor and the as- sembly over a scheme of taxation ; the governor refusing his assent to the bill, the assembly demanded the assent as their right. 1758, July 8. Repulse of Abercrombie before Ticonderoga. Expedition against Louisburg (May 28-July 26). Cap- ture of the fortress {Amherst and Wolfe, July 26). Aug. 27. Capture of Fort Frontenac by Bradstreet. Nov. 25. Capture of Fort du Quesne by General Forbes. The fort was named Ft. Pitt (Pittsburg). 1759, July 25. Capture of Fort Niagara by Sir William Johnson. July 26. Capture of Ticonderoga by Major-General Amherst. Expedition of Major-General Wolfe from Louisburg against Que- bec. Repulsed at the Montmorency j Wolfe conducted his force by 422 Modern History. ^ A. d. night to the elevated plateau behind Quebec called the Plains of Abraham, where in the 1759, Sept. 13. Battle of the Plains of Abraham the French under Montcalm were completely defeated. Death of Wolfe and Montcalm. Surrender of Quebec (Sept. 18). 1760, Sept. 8. Montreal and all Canada surrendered to the Eng- lish. 1761. The -writs of assistance in Massachusetts. The English government (Board of Trade reestablished 1695) having for some time adhered to a course of commercial restrictions and duties upon the colonies (all molasses charged with duty except that imported from the British West Indies, 1733 ; erection of rolling mills prohib- ited, 1750 ; the slave trade favored in spite of the opposition of the colonial legislatures of Virginia and Carolina, etc.) had roused a spirit of resistance throughout the colonies based on the perception that such duties were a form of taxation without representation. Hence so much evasion was practised that finally the custom house officials in Boston applied to the superior court of judicature {Thomas Hutch- inson, chief justice) for the issue of writs of assistance such as were granted by the exchequer in England. The case was argued for the colonists by Thacher, and especially by James Otis, (1725-1783), who urged the dangerous character of the writ as being servable by any officer against any person for any length of time, and accused the acts of trade as infringements of the charter. The court deferred its decision ; it would seem that the writs were ultimately granted, but that the officers did not venture to use them. 1762. Expedition against Martinique, by the royal and provincial troops ; surrender of this island, of Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and of all the other French West Indies. War between England and Spain (p. 439). July. Storm of Havana, which was surrendered to the English. 1763» Feb. 10. Peace of Paris, between Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal. (Preliminary articles 1762, Nov. 3, at Fontainebleau, p. 439). 1. France ceded to England, Nova Scotia, or Acadia, Canada, Vape Breton, and all other islands in the gulf and river of St. Law- -fence, reserving the right to fish and dry fish on a part of Newfound- land, and of fishing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence three leagues from the shore, and at a distance of fifteen leagues from Cape Breton ; also the river and harbor of Mobile and everything on the left of the mid- dle of the Mississippi, the Iberville, and lakes Maurepas and Ponchar^ train, except New Orleans, the navigation of the Mississippi to be free for both England and France ; also Grenada, St. Vincent, Do- minique, Tobago. In all ceded districts certain civil and religious rights were secured to the French inhabitants. England ceded to France the islands of St. Peter and Miquelon in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations, not to be fortified, and Guadaloupe, Marigalante, Desiradet Martinique, Belleisle, St. Lucia, in the West Indies. A. D. America : British Colonies. 423 2. Spain ceded to England Florida, and all other possessions east of the Mississippi ; Spain also gave up her claims to the Newfound- land fisheries ; England restored Havana to Spain and destroyed all English fortresses in Spanish America ; right to cut and transport dye wood reserved. 3. France ceded to Spain the whole of Louisiana and New Or- leans by a previous treaty of Nov. 3, 1762. The English acquisitions were divided into the four governments of Quebec, East Florida, West Florida and Grenada. The number of inhabitants in the old thirteen colonies at this time was about two millions. 1763. The conspiracy of Pontiac. Pontiac was the chief of the Ottawas, a firm friend of the French ; relying on the vain hope of assistance from whom, he resolved to wrest from the English the border fortresses. To this end he formed an alliance of almost all the tribes of the Algonquin race, with the Wyandots and Senecas. The other nations of the Iroquois were with great difficulty kept quiet by the influence of Sir William Johnson. Pontiac had planned to open the attack by the treacher- ous seizure of the fort at Detroit on May 7. Foiled in this by the coolness of Gladwyn, the English commander, who had been previ- ously informed of the plot, the enraged chief opened the siege of the fort (May 9) and war broke out along the whole line from the Mississippi to Canada. In a short time Fort Pitt, Niagara, and De- troit, of all the border fortresses, alone remained in the hands of the English. In July Boquet forced his way, under severe fighting, to Fort Pitt, which he relieved. Pontiac maintained before Detroit the longest siege which the Indians ever executed, but on September 3, the garrison was relieved by a schooner from Niagara, and with the approach of winter the Indians withdrew. The western tribes were not subdued before 1765, but the danger was over. Pontiac did not long outlive his failure. 1763, Paxton boys in Pennsylvania ; massacre of converted Indians. The peace gave to Great Britain time to enforce more vigorously that system of repression and taxation which the ministers thought the fitting method of dealing with the too independent colonists, while it gave the colonists time to reflect upon and to resent such a pro- cedure. 1763-1765. George Grenville, prime minister. 1764, March. Parliament voted that they had a right to tax the American colonies, though the colonies were not represented. Passage of the sugar act (" it is just and necessary that a reve- nue be raised in America ") and of an act for increasing the effi- ciency of the revenue service. Publication at Boston of " The Rights of the British Colonies as- serted and proved," by James Otis. Adoption of a resolution not to use British manufactures. 1765, March. Passage of the Stamp Act; prescribing the use of stamped paper for legal documents, pamphlets, and news- papers throughout the colonies. (Speech of Colonel Barre.) 424 Modern History, A. D. The news was received in America with the greatest indigna- tion. Resolutions of the house of burgesses in Virginia de- 1765. May 30. nying the right of taxation, introduced by Patrick Henry (1736-1797). Oct. 7. Meeting of a congress of twenty eight delegates from Mas- sachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, South Carolina (Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia were not represented, but were in sympathy with the colonies) at New York in accordance with the proposition of Massa- chusetts. The assembly drew up petitions and memorials to the king and parliament, and adopted a "Declaration of rights and liberties " (Oct. 19). The arrival of stamp officers led to riots in various cities, as in Bos- ton, where the officer (Andrew Oliver) was burnt in effigy, his house and that of lieutenant-governor Hutchinson sacked, in New York, etc. Non-importation and non-consumption agreements. 1765-1766. Rockingham prime minister. 1766. March. Repeal of the Stamp Act, which had brought in no revenue {Pitt, Burke) ; examinaiion of Benjamin Franklin (b. Jan. 17, 1706 ; d. Apr. 17, 1790) ; agent of Pennsylvania, before the commons. The repeal was accompanied by a de- claratory act, asserting that "parliament has power to hind the colonies in all cases whatsoever " (March, 1766). 1766-1770. Duke of Grafton prime minister {Earl of Chatham privy seal). 1767. Duty imposed on glass, paper, painters' colors, and tea introduced into the colonies (this measure followed the defeat of the min- istry on the land tax in England, which cost the revenue a large sum). Out of the revenue thus collected fixed salaries were to be paid royal officials. New York having refused to make provision for troops quar- tered upon the colony, the legislative power of the assembly was suspended by parliament until compliance. Creation of a custom house and board of commissioners for America. 1768. Petition of Massachusetts to the king ; circular letter to the other colonies. The British ministry demanded that the court rescind the circular letter ; the court refused to do so (92 to 17), whereupon governor Bernard dissolved the assembly. Similar proceedings occurred in other colonies. June. The seizure of John Hancock's sloop Liberty, for a false en- try by the custom house officials in Boston, caused a riot, and the officials lied to Castle William. Oct. Arrival of British troops at Boston. The selectmen refused to provide quarters for the men. First settlement made in Tennessee. 1769. Parliament adopted a resolution looking to the trial of acts of treason committed in the colonies in England. Resolutions of the house of burgesses in Virginia denouncing this position. The governor dissolved the assembly. Similar resolutions were adopted in other colonies. A. D. America : British Colonies, 425 The general court of Massachusetts, refusing to do business while a guard was stationed at the state-house, was adjourned to Cambridge. Refusal to provide for the troops. Submission of the assembly in New York. 1770-1782. Lord North prime minister. 1770. The Boston massacre. In a broil between the populace March 5. and the British soldiers in King (State) street, three men were killed and eight wounded. The officer in command (Preston) was brought to trial, but acquitted (defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy). March. Act repealing the duty on paper, glass, and painters' colors, but retaining that on tea. 1771. Insurrection of the " regulators " in North Carolina sup- pressed by governor Tryon. Thomas Hutchinson (formerly lieutenant-governor) governor of Massachusetts (went to England, 1774). 1772. Destruction of the British revenue schooner Gaspee, which June 10. had made itself very obnoxious to the people of Rhode Island, and now ran aground in pursuit of a packet. In spite of a large reward offered, no information concerning the offenders was ever given. Settlement of the boundary between North and South Caro- lina. 1773. The Virginia assembly appointed a committee of correspond- ence for intercourse with the other colonies. The resolution of the colonies having caused a diminution both in the revenue and in the sale of tea, the British government agreed to relieve the East India Company of exportation duty if the company would transport its teas to the American col- onies. Cargoes were therefore sent to New York, Philadel- phia, Charleston, Boston. New York and Philadelphia sent back the ships ; at Charleston the tea was stored in damp cel- lars, where, as there was no demand for it, it soon spoiled. At Boston^ as the return of the ships could not be obtained, 1773, Dec. 16. They were boarded by citizens disguised as Indians, and 342 chests of tea were emptied in the water (Boston Tea Party). Daniel Boon settled in Kentucky, English settlement near the Natchez. X774, Mar. Passage of the Boston Port Bill, closing Boston to the importation and exportation of all goods except food or fuel ; and of "an act for the better regulating the government of Mas- sachusetts,''^ which was a virtual revocation of the charter, giving the governor great increase of power. Another act de- creed that persons accused of murder or any capital crime in aiding government should be tried in England, or in some other colony than that wherein the crime was committed. General Gage, commander-in-chief of the royal forces in North America, was appointed governor of Massachusetts. June 1. The port act went into operation in Boston. County conventions throughout Massachusetts protested against the acts (Aug.-Sept.). 426 Modern History. A. d. Sept. The Suffolk convention resolved : " That no obedience is due from the province to either or any part of the said acts, but that they should be rejected as the attempts of a wicked ad- ministration to enslave America." The project of a congress of the colonies, moved in 1773 by Franklin, was taken up by Rhode Island, Virginia, Mas- sachusetts, and the other colonies (except Georgia). 1774, Sept. 5. Continental Congress at Philadelphia. Peyton Randolph, president. Among the members were : Samuel and John Adams (Massachusetts), John Jay (New York), George Washington, Patrick Henry (Virginia). An address was prepared to the king, memorials to the people of British America, and to the people of Great Britain, to Canada, Florida, Georgia, etc. A declaration of rights was drawn up. The congress also concluded Oct. 20. The American Association ; an agreement to prevent all importation and exportation from and to Great Britam until the acts were repealed. On Oct. 26, the congress separated with a resolve to meet the next year if justice had not by that time been done. In the meantime more British troops had been concentrated at Boston, and the town had been fortified. The town was the recipient of much sympathy and many generous gifts from the other colonies. Oct. The house of representatives in Massachusetts having been dissolved by the governor Sept. 28, met, and voting them- Oct. 26. selves a provincial congress, proceeded to organize the militia (minute-men) and collect stores and ammunition. 1775. Fruitless attempt of the opposition in parliament under lord Chatham to procure the repeal of harsh measures toward the colonies. Acts for restraining the trade of New England and the southern colonies. A " conciliatory " measure introduced by lord North exempting from taxation any colony which would undertake to raise the quota assessed upon it. The act met with no re- sponse. Feb. 26. A British expedition to Salem, to seize some cannon stored there, was opposed by a few militia under colonel Pickering, but finally withdrew without bloodshed. 1775-1783. War of Independence. April 19. Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord. A body of 800 British soldiers, detailed to destroy stores at Concord, fired upon a number of provincials assembled on the green at Lexington, killing eight men ; an ineffectual fire was returned. Proceeding to Concord, the British destroyed the stores, but were obliged to retreat (Jiffht at the bridge) ; the retreat became a rout before they reached Lexington, where lord Percy with fresh troops met them. The further retreat to Boston was much embarrassed by the constantly increasing number of provincials. The British lost 273 men ; the Americans 103. A. D. America : British Colonies. 427 111 Massachusetts a large army was raised and encamped near Boston. May 10. Capture of Ticonderocia by the provincials under Ethan Allen. May 12. Capture of Croivn Point by Seth Warner. May 10. Meeting of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia. May 31. The comity convention of Mecklenburg Co., North Carolina, declared the colonial charter suspended, and the government vested in the provincial and continental congresses. The troops before Boston were adopted as the American continental army ; and George Washington (born Feb. 22, 1732 ; died Dec. 14, 1799) was appointed commander-in-chief of the provincial forces (June 15). June 17. Battle of Bunker's (more properly Breed's) Hill, opposite Boston, where the Americans had thrown up intrenchments. The provincials were finally driven from their intrenchment, after their ammmiition gave out, but not before they had in- flicted a loss of 1054 men on the British, themselves losing about 450 men (Warren f). July 3. Washington took command of the American army at Cam- bridge. 1775, July-March 17, 1776. Siege of Boston. 1775, Aug. Georgia joined the other colonies. An expedition against Canada being resolved upon, general Montgomery took Montreal (Nov. 12), but was defeated and killed before Quebec (Dec. 31), where Benedict Arnold had joined him after an ar- duous march. Fruitless siege of Quebec by Arnold. 1776, March 4. Occupation of Dorchester Heights by Washington. March 17. Evacuation of Boston. 1776, April 23. North Carolina authorized its delegates to join in a declaration of independence. May 15. Congress voted " that the exercise of every kind of authority under the crown should be totally suppressed," and extended to all the colonies its advice that they should set up govern- ments for themselves. Virginia directed its delegates to introduce a resolution an- nouncing the independence of the colonies. June 7. In congress it was moved by Richard Henry Lee of Vir- ginia, and seconded by John Adams of Massachusetts, " That these united colonics are, and of right ought to be, free and indepen- dent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The resolution was referred and a committee appointed to draft a declaration, which accepted one prepared by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. Reported June 28. Debate July 1. The resolution was adopted by all the colonies except New York, whose delegates were not instructed on so grave a matter, July 2. June 18. Evacuation of Canada by the Americans. June 28. Repulse of the British before fort Sullivan (Moultrie) off Charleston^ S. C. 428 Modern History. A. d. 1776, July 4. Adoption of the Declaration of Indepen- dence. (Signed Aug. 2 and later.) To have taken up a position of independence was a moral gain for the colonies, but the act was followed by a period of military disaster. After the surrender of Boston, Washington went to New York, which was soon attacked by the two Howes with some 30,000 men. The British commanders brought offers of peace, but they were not acceptable. Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island ; defeat of general Putnam. Re- treat of the Americans to New York. Sept. 15. Occupation of New York by the British. Washington retreated to the Harlem heights. Sept. 22. Captain Nathan Hale, sent to reconnoitre the British force on Long Island, was captured and immediately executed by order of Sir William Howe ; the attendance of a clergy- man was denied him, and his last letters to his mother and friends were destroyed. Disaster also overtook the colonists in the North. Oct. 11-13. Defeat of Arnold in two naval engagements on Lake Champlain. Occupation of Crown Point by the British. Oct. 28. Battle of White Plains, near New York. Defeat of Washington. Nov. 16. Capture of Fort Washington by the British. Nov. 20. Evacuation of Fort Lee by the Americans. Nov. 28. Washington retreated across New Jersey, and passed into Pennsylvania. Dec. 26. Battle of Trenton ; Washington having crossed the Dela- ware by night, surprised and captured about 1,000 Hessians at Trenton ; two days afterward he occupied the town in force, and defeated the British in 1777, Jan. 3. The Battle of Princeton. The Americans overran New Jersey, and several skirmishes occurred with the enemy during the spring. The army was in a very bad condition, owing largely to lack of money, which congress could supply only by the issue of paper money which soon depreciated largely. Even the ar- rival of the marquis of Lafayette, who was appointed major-general (July 31, 1777) brought only temporary encouragement. Burgoyne's and St. Leger's campaign from C^ada. The summer of 1777 saw a change of fortune. The British had planned to cut the colonies in two by an expedition under general Burgoyne from Canada, which should be met by a northward move- ment of the army in New York. (Capture of forts Clinton and Montgomery, Oct. 6.) Burgoyne took Ticonderoga July 6, and de- feated the Americans at Huhhardton July 7. As Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, Schuyler, who had but half his force, retired to Saratoga. Meantime St. Leger, who was to cooper- ate with Burgoyne from Lake Ontario, besieged Fort Schuyler and de- feated Herkimer (Aug. 6), but returned to Montreal on the approach of Arnold with reinforcements. A.. D. America : British Colonies. 429 Hearing of provisions and stores at Bennington in Vermont (then called New Hampshire Grants) Burgoyne sent colonel Baum to seize them, who was defeated by general Stark in the 1777, Aug. 16. Battle of Bennington. Schuyler succeeded by Gates. Sept. 19. Burgoyne fought the battle of Still-water (first battle of Bemis's Heights, or battle of Freeman's Farm), retaining the field, although he suffered a heavier loss than the Americans. On Oct. 7, a second battle was fought at Stillwater (second battle of Bsmis's Heights or Saratoga), in which the British were defeated. Being now surrounded and finding retreat impracticable, 3.777, Oct. 17. Burgoyne surrendered his entire force (about 6,000 men) to Gates. Howe's Campaign. In the south events were less fortunate. On Aug. 25 general Howe disclosed his purpose of attacking Philadelphia. Washington immediately offered battle, but in the Sept. 11. Battle of the Brandy wine the Americans were defeated, although they retired in good order (general Greene). Sept. 27. Howe occupied Philadelphia. Washington attempted to surprise the camp at Germantown, but was defeated in the Oct. 4. Battle of Germantown. Capture of Fort Mifflin (Nov. 16) ; evacuation of Fort Mercer (Nov. 20) ; loss of the Delaware. Winter. Washington at Valley Forge. Sufferings of the army. Nov. 15. Articles of confederation and perpetual union agreed upon in congress between the states of New Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. The confederacy was to be called "The United States of America." These articles were laid before the legislature of the separate states for ratification. This process proved a long one. June 14. Congress voted " that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. The people of New Hampshire Grants declared themselves an independent state under the name of Vermont (Jan.) 1778. Treaties with France ; recognition of the independence of Jan. 30-Feb. 6. the United States. These treaties were negotiated by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. Feb. Parliament renounced the right of taxing the colonies except for the regulation of trade, and appointed a commission to ne- gotiate for the submission of the colonies. The proposals of the commissioners were rejected by congress (June 17) and by the separate states. June 18. Evacuation of Philadelphia by Sir Henry Clinton. Washington intercepted Clinton's march, and in the 430 Modern History. A. D. 1778, June 28. Battle of Monmouth turned a retreat begun by general {Charles) Lee into a victory. The British decamped by night. Arrival of Count d'Estaing with eighteen vessels and 4,000 troops off Virginia. An attack on Newport having been resolved on, the French fleet sailed to that port. Instead of cooperating in the attack D'Estaing sailed to Boston Aug. 22, to refit (in accordance with his strict orders), and in spite of a victory at Quaker Hill on Rhode Island (Aug. 29) the Americans under Sullivan were obliged to give up the siege and retire from the island before Sir Henry Clinton who brought reinforcements. July 4. Massacre at Wyoming in Pennsylvania by colonel Butler^ a Tory, and Brandt. Sept. 14. Benjamin Franklin minister plenipotentiary to France. Nov. 11. Massacre of Cherry Valley. Dec. 29. Savannah captured by the British under colonel Camp^ hell. 1779, March 3. Defeat of general Ashe at Briar Creek by the British. Loss of Georgia, where the provincial government was re- stored. General Lincoln, being placed in command of the southern army, marched upon Augusta, while the British leader, Provost, threatened Charleston but retired before determined resistance. D'Estaing reaching Savannah with the French fleet, an assault was made on the town (Oct. 9), but repulsed; after which D'Estaing left the dangerous coast (death of Pulaski). May. Coasts of Virginia plundered by an expedition from New York. July 5. Plunder of New Haven in Coimecticut by Tryon ; followed by the sack of other towns. July 16. Storm of Stony Point on the Hudson by the Americans under Anthony Wayne ; destruction of the fortifications. July 19. The Americans fortified West Point. John Paul Jones, who had in 1778 surprised White Haven, sailed this year from a French port, and after a successful cruise in the English seas, fought a most desperate Sept. 23. , Naval battle -with the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough (feonhomme Richard, Jones's vessel), in which he was victorious. 1780, May 12. Capture of Charleston by Sir Henry Clinton. Sub- jugation of South Carolina by Clinton and lord Corn-wallis. The brave resistance of Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion was seconded by the approach of the American army under De Kalh and Gates. But in the Aug. 16. Battle of Camden, Gates, though superior in numbers, was totally defeated by Cornwallis (DeKalb f ). Aug. 18. Sumter's force dispersed by colonel Tarleton. Marion re- treated to North Carolina. July. Arrival of Rochambeau at Newport with 6,000 men. Benedict Arnold having been placed in command of West Point, negotiated with Sir Henry Clinton for its surrender ; his treachery A. D. America: British Colonies. 431 was exposed by the capture (Sept. 23) of the agent, major Andre, by three privates of the New York militia, John Paulding, David "Williams, Isaac Wirt, who, refusing his bribes, detained him and seized his papers. Arnold escaped to the British lines. Andre was declared a spy by a board of 14 officers, on his confession, and by order of Washington 1780, Oct. 2. Andre was hung as a spy. Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain in North Carolina. Defeat of the British under major Fergusson. General Greene appointed commander of the southern army. Adoption of a constitution by Massachusetts, with a bill of rights, which was held by the supreme court to have abolished slavery. Abolition of slavery in Pennsylvania. 1781, Jan. 17. Battle of the Cowpens; defeat of the British cav- alry under Tarleton by Morgan. Cornwallis in pursuit of Greene, was twice prevented from over- taking him by the unexpected rising of the rivers (^CatawbOf Yadkin) . March 15. Battle of Guilford 5 bloody victory of the British. April 25. Battle of Hobkirk's Hill near Camden ; Greene defeated by lord Rawdon. June 5. Capture of Augusta by the Americans. June 19. Greene forced to raise the siege of fort Ninety-six in North Carolina. Sept. 8. Battle of Euta-w ; defeat of Greene followed by the re- treat of the British to Charleston. Meantime British forces under lord Cornwallis, were concentrated in Virginia, where they fortified themselves at Yorktovrn and Gloucester (Aug.). In Sept. Lafayette^ Washington^ and Rochambeau met at Williamsburg, while a French fleet under count de Grasse en- tered the Chesapeake. Sept. 30-Oct. 19. Siege of Yorktown. Expedition of Arnold against Connecticut ; burning of New London. Oct. 19. Surrender of lord Cornwallis witli 7,000 men at Yorkto"wn in Virginia. 1782, Feb. 27. The commons resolved, on motion of general Conway ^ that " the house would consider as enemies to his majesty and the country all those who should advise or attempt the further prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America." 1782, March 20. Resignation of lord North. Ministry of the mar- quis of Rockingham (f July 1 ; succeeded by lord Shel- burne, 1782-1783). July 11. Evacuation of Savannah. Nov. 30. Preliminary articles signed at Paris between Great Britain and the United States. Dec. 14. Evacuation of Charleston. 1783, Jan. 20. Cessation of hostilities between Great Britain and 4:32 Modern History. A. d. the United States. Signature of preliminaries of peace be- tween Great Britain, France, and Spain at Versailles ; between Great Britain and the United States at Paris. April 11. Cessation of arms proclaimed by congress. Independence of the United States recognized by Holland, April 19, 1782 ; Sweden, ^&\). 5, 1783 ; Denmark, Feb. 25 ; Spain, March 24 ; Russia, in July. April 19. Peace proclaimed by the commander of the army. 1783, Sept. 3. Definitive Treaty of Peace between Great Britain and the United States signed at Paris ; be- tween Great Britain, France, and Spain signed at Versailles, (p. 441.) 1. 1. Recognition of the indepejidence of the United States, and establishment of boundaries. (From the intersection of a line due N. from the head of the St. Croix river in Nova Scotia, with the highlands S. of the St. Lawrence ; along the highlands to the head of the Comiecticut ; along that river to 45° N., thence W. to the river Iroquois, thence through lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, Long Lake, and Lake of the Woods ; thence W. to the Mississippi and along that river to 31° N. ; from this point E. to the Apalachicola or Catouche, along this river to the Flint ; thence direct to the head of St. Mary's river, and so to the Atlantic : east, from the mouth of the St. Croix river to its source, and due north to the highlands, includ- ing all islands within twenty leagues of the coast, except such as be- longed to Nova Scotia.) 2. Right of fishery secured to the United States on the Grand Bank and all other Newfoundland banks, and in the gulf of St. Lawrence, as well as on the coast of Newfoundland ; right to cure fish on all unsettled parts of Nova Scotia, Labrador, and Magdalen islands as long as they should remain unsettled. 3. All good debts heretofore contracted should be considered binding. 4. Restitution of confiscated estates to be recommended by co^i- gress to the states. 5. Navigation of the Mississippi to be open to both Great Britain and the United States. II. Great Britain ceded Tobago to France. III. Great Britain ceded Florida to Spain. Establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati by officers of the army. Nov. 2. Washington's farewell address to the army. Nov. 25. Evacuation of New York, Dec. 23. Washington resigned his commission. 1784. Partial abolition of slavery in Connecticut. Erection of a temporary government for the western territory (April). Or- ganization of the state of Franklin or Frankland by the west- ern counties of North Carolina (Dec.) ; it was given up in 1788. 1786. Insurrection in Massachusetts and in New Hampshire, springing from financial complications. 1787, Jan.-Feb. The insurgents in Massachusetts, numbering A. D. America, — Great Britain. 433 about 1,100, under Daniel Shays, met the troops of the state under general Shepherd, but were dispersed by the mere sight of artillery. Three men were killed {Shays' Rebellion). The restricted powers of the congress approving themselves totally insufficient for the proper government of the country (failure to estab- lish a revenue by an impost tax ; infraction of treaties by the states), Virginia proposed a convention for forming a better Constitution (1786). The recommendation meeting with favor, after much delay 1787, May 25. Delegates from seven states met in convention at Phil- adelphia, and elected Washington president. Delegates from other states came in, until all were represented except Rhode Island. The debates were long and warm, and more than one compromise (tacit recognition of slavery ; equal representation of all states in the senate ; in the house representation accord- ing to population) was necessary before the delegates Sept. 1 7. Signed the Constitution of the United States, which was forthwith laid before the separate states. 1787. Ordinance for the government of the territory north- July 13. west of the Ohio, which was ceded, or to be ceded, to the United States by the states, and bought of the Indians. Slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, were forbidden within this region. 1788, Sept. 13. All the states except Rhode Island and North Carolina having accepted the Constitution, congress appointed days for elections under the same. (^See p. 547.) §8. GREAT BRITAIN. {Seep. 389.) 1702-1714. Anne, second daughter of James II., wife of Prince George of Den- mark. In the first part of her reign the queen was under the influ- ence of the Whigs (John Churchill, duke of Marlborough and his wife). 1702, May 4. War declared upon France by the grand alliance, in- cluding England. For the war (of the Spanish Succession) see p. 390. Marlborough was captain-general of all the land forces ; Godolphin, lord high treasurer ; Nottingham, secre- tary of state. Halifax and Somers not in the privy council. July 2. Sixth Parliament of William III. dissolved. The campaign of this year resulted in the capture of Venloo and Liege and the loss of the lower Rhine to France. Sir George Rooke failed to take Cadiz, but seized a number of treasure ships at Vigo Bay (Oct.). 1702, Oct. 20-1705, March 14. First parliament of Anne.^ Harley speaker of the house of commons. Marlborough made a duke. Dee. Bill to prevent occasional conformity passed by the com- mons but rejected by the lords (High church and Low church). 1703. Severe laws in Ireland against Irish Catholics. 1 The dates are those of the actual meeting and separation of the parliaments; not of the ryroclamations summoning and dissolving them. 28 434 Modern History. A. d. 1703, Methuen treaty between England and Portugal. England agreed to admit the heavy wines of Portugal at one third lower rate than the light French wines, while Portugal prom- ised to import all her woolens from*England. Sept. Archduke Charles assumed the title of Charles III. of Spain. Nov. Establishment of Queen Anne's Bounty ; a grant of the first fruits and tithes which Henry VIII, had confiscated for the crown, in trust for increasing the income of small benefices. In this campaign (1703) Marlborough took Bonn and Huy, Limhurg and Guelders. 1704, Mar. Case of AsJiby and White (right of electors to vote). July 24. Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel. Aug. 13. Victory of Blenheim or Hochstddt (p. 392). Naval vic- tory off Malaga ovei the French. Attempt to pass the occasional conformity hill by tacking it to a money bill (lackers). The scheme was defeated in the com- mons. 1705, Oct. 4. Capture of Barcelona by Charles Mordaunt, lord Pe- terborough. 1705, Oct. 25-1708, Apr. 1. Second Parliament of Anne. Whigs in majority. 1706, May 23. Ramillies ; conquest of Brabant (p. 392) ; Turin, Sept. 7; conquest of Italj^ (p. 392). The allies in Madrid. 1707, Apr. 25. Battle of Almanza; defeat of the allies by the duke of Berwick. Spain lost to the allies. 1707> May 1. Union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain went into effect. This measure, which was made necessary by the omission of Scotland from the act of settlement, provided : 1. that Sophia, princess of Hanover and her Protestant heirs should succeed to the crown of the united kingdom. 2. There should be one parliament, to which Scotland should send sixteen elective peers and forty-five members of the commons. No more peers of Scotland to be created. Scotch law and legal administration to be unchanged ; the Episcopal church in England and Presbyte- rian in Scotland to be unchanged. Adoption of the Union Jack (Crosses of St. George and St. Andrew) as the national flag of Great Britain. 1707, Oct. 23. First Parliament of Great Britain.^ The influence of Marlborough and his wife had been gradually weakened by Harley and by the influence of the queen's new favorite, Abigail Hill, now Mrs. Masham. Marlborough, however, was still so strong that a hint at resignation secured the dismissal of Harley and St. John from the cabinet, and the substitution of Boyle and Robert Walpole (secretary-at-war). Last Royal veto. 1 Not a new parliament, but the second parliament of Anne revived by pro. clamation. Henceforward parliaments are numbered without regard to reigns, but here the distinction is retained. The number as a parliament of Great Britain is indicated by a Roman numeral in parenthesis. A. D. Great Britain. 435 1708, March. James Edward {Chevalier de St. George, the Old Pretender) landed in Scotland. A French fleet sent to assist him was repulsed by Admiral Byng, and the Pretender soon returned to France. July 11. Battle of Oudenarde (p. 392). 1708, Nov. 16-1710, Apr. 5. Third Parliament of Anne (II.). , Whig majority. Somers president of the council. Leaders of the whigs (Junto) : Somers, Halifax, Wharton, Oxford, Sunderland. 1709, Sept. 11. Battle of Malplaquet (p. 393). Oct. Townshend's barrier treaty. Copyright act. 1710, Feb.-Mar. Trial of Dr. Saoheverell for preaching sermons of an ultra Tory cast. He was convicted and thereby secured great popularity in the kingdom. Harley chancellor of exchequer. St. John, secretary of state. Sept. Charles III. in Madrid driven out by Vendome. 1710. Nov. 25-1713, July 16. Fourth Parliament of Anne (III.). Tory majority. Dismissal of Godolphin ; resignation of all the Whig ministers. South Sea Company established. 1711. Mrs. Masham superseded the duchess of Marlborough as keeper of the privy purse. The duke retained his office. At- tempted assassination of Harley by the marquis of Guiscard. Harley created earl of Oxford and Mortimer and lord high treasurer. Sept. 13. Marlborough captured the fortress of Bouchain. Oct. Charles III. left Spain ; elected emperor Charles VI. Nov. Philip V. entered Madrid. Passage of the occasional conformity bill. Marlborough, who had returned to England, was accused of peculation (Nov.) and dismissed from all his offices. Duke of Ormond, commander-in-chief. Dec. 30. Qualification act (repealed 1866). 1712. Creation of twelve Tory peers to secure a majority in the lords. July. Henry St. John created viscount Bolinghroke. 1713. Apr. 11. Peace of Utrecht (p. 393). Articles affecting Great Britain. Great Britain and France : Renunciation of the Pretender ; recognition of- the Protestant succession in Great Britain ; crowns of France and Spain not to be united under one head ; fortifications of Dunkirk to be leveled and its harbor filled up ; cession of Hudson's Bay and strait, Nova Scotia (Acadia), Newfoundland, St. Christopher to England; Great Britain and Spain, cession of Gibraltar and i^f^- norca to England; grant of the Assiento {el pacto de el a&iento de nigros), or contract for supplying slaves to Spanish America, to the subjects of Great Britian for thirty years (Royal African Company). 1714. Feb. 16-1714, Aug. 25. Fifth Parliament of Anne (IV.). 1714, May 28. Death of princess Sophia of Hanover. Schism acL July 27. Earl of Oxford dismissed, and succeeded as lord high treasurer by the earl of Shrewsbury (Talbot). 436 Modern History. A. D. Aug. 1. Death of Anne. Alexander Pope, 1688-1744 ; Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745 ; Daniel Defoe, 1661?-1731; Joseph Addison, 1672-1719; Sir Richard Steele, 1671-1729. Periodical literature ; Tatler, 1709, Apr. 12-1711, Jan. 2; Spectator, 1711, Mar. 1-1714, Dec. 20. 1714 — X. House of Hanover or Brunswick. None of Anne^s seventeen children having survived her, the crown, according to the act of succession, descended to the protestant house of Hanover, the catholic line of the Stuarts being excluded. James I. (Stuart) t 1625. 3. Elizabeth 1 5. Charles I. f 1649, m. Frederic V., m. Henrietta Maria, elector palatine. d. of Henry IV. of France. 12. Sophia, 1 1 1 Charles H. Mary James II. m. Ernest t 1685. m. William II. deposed 1688, Augustus el. of Orange. d. 1701. of Hanover. by Anne Hyde by Mary of Este. 1 1 1 George I. 1 1 1 William III. Mary Anne James f 1727. t 1702. t 1694. t 1714. Francis m. Sophia Dorothea, Edward, d. of duke of Brunswick the Old and Zell. Pretender, 1 t 1766. 1 1 I Sophia Dorothea, George II. 1 ! t 1760, m. Frederic Charles Edward Henry, m. Caroline William, elector the young Pretender, cardinal of Anspach. of Brandenburg. without issue. York, 1 1 t 1788. without issue. Frederic Louis, Frederic II., t 1807. t 1751, king of Prussia. m. Augusta, d. of duke of Saxe Coburg. and Gotha. 1 1 George ill. , t 1820, tn. Charlotte of Mecklenburg Strelitz. 1714-1727. George I. 1714, Sept. 18. The king landed in England. George I. favored the Whigs in the formation of the first government ; Lord TownsJiend sec. of state ; Shrewsbury resigned, and Halifax was made first lord of the treasury (Shrewsbury was the last lord high treasurer) ; Sunderland lord lieutenant of Ireland ; lord Camper chancellor : earl of Nottingham president of the council ; Marlborough comman- der-in-chief. A. D. Great Britain. 437 1715, Mar. 17-1722, Mar. 7. First Parliament of George I. (V.). Impeacliment of Bolinghroke, Ormond, Oxford. Flight of Bol- inghroke and Ormond ; Oxford cominitted to the Tower. Jac- obite riots. Riot act. 1715-1716, Sept. Jacobite rising in Scotland under the earl of Mar. Battles of Sheriffmuir and Preston. Arrival of the Pretender in Scotland (Dee.) As his friends dispersed upon the approach of the duke of Argyle, the Pretender abandoned Scotland (Feb. 5, 1716) and returned to France. Barrier treaty (in 1781 Joseph II. dismantled the fortresses). Impeachment of the Jacobite leaders. Execution of Derwent' water and Kenmure (Feb. 24). Act creating septennial instead of triennial parliaments. 1717, Jan. 4. Triple alliance between England, France, and Holland in consequence of the intrigues of the Pretender, Charles XII. of Sweden, and Spain (Alberoni). Feb. 20, 1722-Mar. 7. First Septennial Parliament. Convocation ceased to meet for business (revived under the present reign). 1718, Aug. 2. Quadruple alliance between England, France, the emperor, Holland (p. 397). 1718, Dec. 17-1720. War between England and Spain. 1718, Jan. Repeal of the occasional conformity act and the schism act. 1719, Abortive Spanish expedition to Scotland in favor of the Pre- tender. Nov. 20. Treaty of Stockholm; S-weden ceded Bremen and Ver- den (p. 397) to George I. for 1,000,000 rix dollars. 1720, Jan. Spain joined the quadruple alliance. Bursting of the south sea bubble, from a panic originating in the failure of Law's scheme in France. 1721-1742. Administration of Walpole (1726-1742, administra- tion of Fleury in France). 1722, Oct. 9-1727, July 17. Second parliament of George I. (VI.). 1725, Sept. 3. Treaty of Hanover between England, France and Prussia (alliance of Herrenhausen). 1727, June 11. Death of George I. 1727-1760. George II. Walpole continued in office. The king governed by his wife, Wilhehnina Charlotte Caroline, of Anspach. 1728, Jan. 23-1734, Apr. 16. First Parliament of George U^ (VII.). 1729, Nov. 9. Treaty of Seville with Spain; restoration of con- quest ; confirmation of the assiento. Gibraltar ceded to Eng- land. 1731, Mar. 16. Treaty of Vienna : dissolution of the Ostend East India Co. which had been formed as a rival to the English East India Co. by the emperor. 1735, Jan. 14-1741, Apr. 25. Second Parliament of George IL CVIII.). 438 Modern History. A. D. 1736. Porteous riots in Edinburgh. 1739-1748. War with Spain. 1739, Nov. 22. Capture of Porto Bello in Darien by admiral Vernon. 1740. Futile attack upon Carthagena by Vernon and Wentworth. Disease in the army. 1740, Sept.-1744, June. Voyage of commodore Anson to the coast of Chili and Peru and around the world. 1741, Dec. 1-1747, June 17. Third Parliament of George U. (IX.). Fall of Walpole (succeeded by the earl of Wilmington, Feb. 1742). 1743-1754. Administration of Henry Pelham, who succeeded the earl of Wilmington (f), July 1743, as first lord of the treasury. 1740-1748. War of the Austrian Succession. England took part with Austria (pragmatic army); for her share in the war see p. 400. Nov. Ministry of Pelham, Pitt, Newcastle, Harrington (Stanhope), Bedford. (" Broad Bottom Ministry.") 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (p. 402) ; Saxe defeated Cum- herland. Louisburg taken from the French (p. 421). 1745, Second Jacobite rebellion. The young Pretender, Charles Edward, landed in Scotland (July 25), and proclaimed his father (f 1766) as James VIII. of Scotland and III. of England. Sept. 11. The Pretender entered Edinburgh with some 2,000 mien. Sept. 21. Jacobite victory at Prestonpans. Dec. 4. Pretender at Derby (about 6,000 men). Dec. 18. Jacobite victory at Penrith. 1746, Jan. 17. Jacobite victory at Falkirk Moor, over general Hawley. April 16. Battle of Culloden ; victory of the duke of Cumberland over lord George Murray and the Pretender. Execution of Jacobite lords. Escape of the Pretender to France (Sept. 20). 1747, Nov. 10-1754, Apr. 6. Fourth Parliament of George II. (X.). 1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (p. 403). 1752. Adoption of the reformed (Gregorian) calendar in Eng- land and the colonies. The year was to begin Jan. 1 instead of March 25 ; eleven days were omitted between Sept. 2 and 14. 1754. The duke of Newcastle succeeded his brother, Mr. Pelham (f March), as prime minister. Fox secretary of state. 1754, May 31-1761, Mar. 19. Fifth Parliament of George II. (XL). 1755-1763. Land and naval war between England and France (Seven Years' War), originating in boundary disputes in North America, carried on by land in America (and Ger- many), by sea in all parts of the world. The English had the advantage of the French almost everywhere. (War in Amer* ica, p. 420 ; in Europe, p. 403 ; in India, p. 443.) A. D. Great Britain. 439 1753. Foundation of the Britisli Museum. 1756. Black Hole at Calcutta, (p. 443.) 1757-1761, Oct. 5. Coalition ministry of the duke of Newcastle, first lord of the treasury, and the elder Pitt (William Pitt, b'. 1708; member of the commons 1735; vice-treasurer for Ireland 1746 ; privy councillor and paymaster-general, secretary of state 1756; retired 1761; in opposition 1761-1766 ; privy seal 1766- 1768; earl of Chatham July 29, 1766 ; died May 11, 1778), secretary of state. 1759, Sept. 13. Battle of Quebec, death of Wolfe. 1759, Nov. 20. Naval battle of Quiberon Bay ; defeat of the French by Sir Edward Hawke. 1760, Oct. 25. Death of George II. 1760-1820. George III., first part of his reign, to 1783. 1761, Aug. 15. Bourbon family compact, between France and Spain with the assumption of the accession of Naples and Parma, for reciprocal guarantee of all posses- sions and an offensive and defensive alliance. Pitt, insisting that war ought to be declared upon Spain, resigned (Oct. 5). Lord Bute, the true adviser of the king; " the king's friends; " the " power behind the throne." 1761, Oct. 5-1762, May 29. Ministry of the duke of Newcas- tle. Egremont and Bute, secretaries of state ; George Grenville leader in the commons. 1761, Nov. 3-1768, Mar. 10. First Parliament of George IIL (XIL). 1762, Jan. "War declared against Spain. 1762, May 29-1763, Apr. 1. Ministry of lord Bute ; Grenville, secretary of state. 1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris between Great Britain, France, and Spain. 1. France ceded to England: in North America, Canada, and Cape Breton Island ; the Mississippi was recognized as the boundary between Louisiana and the British colonies ; in the West Indies Granada; in Africa the French possessions on the Senegal. England restored to France Goree in Africa, and all conquests in India. 2. Spain ceded to England Florida, as indemnification for which France had already ceded Louisiana to Spain ; Spain received from England all con- quests in Cuba including Havana. In consequence of this peace and her acquisitions in India (p. 443) Great Britain reached the summit of her extent and power; the North American colonies had gradually developed into states under gover- nors, with liberal constitutions, modeled after that of Great Britain, 1763, April 1-1765, July. Ministry of George Grenville; Halifax and Egremont, secretaries of states ; Fox created lord Holland. No. 45 of the North Briton containing insulting remarks concerning the king by John Wilkes, general warrants for the apprehension of the authors, printers, and publishers, were issued. Wilkes was ar- rested and expelled from the commons. General warrants declared illegal by the chief justice. Wilkes outlawed. 440 Modern History. A. d. 1765, Feb. Stamp act (p. 425). 1765, July-1766, July. Ministry of the marquis of Rockingham ; general Conway secretary of state and leader of the commons. 1766, March. Repeal of stamp act (p. 423). 1766, April 22. General warrants declared illegal by resolution of the commons (a declaratory bill to this effect was thrown out by the lords). Aug. 1767, Dec. Ministry of Chatham; Grafton. 1767, Dec-1770, Jan. Ministry of the duke of Grafton ; Towns- hend chancellor of the exchequer ; general Conioay, lord Shel- burne, secretaries of state. Pitt (earl of Chatham) lord privy seal. Lord Hillsborough first colonial secretary. 1768, May 10-1774, June 22. Second Parliament of George III. (XIII.). Wilkes member for Middlesex. 1769, Feb. Wilkes expelled the house for an alleged libel on lord Weymouth. He was thrice elected and thrice rejected ; at the last election his opponent, colonel Luttrell, who received a small minority, was declared elected. 1769-1772. Letters of Junius, containing bitter attacks upon the duke of Grafton, lord Mansfield {Murray^, and other mem- bers of the government, appeared in the " Daily Advertiser." The author is still unknown, though the letters are attributed by many with great confidence to Sir Philip Francis. 1770, Jan.-1782, March 20. Ministry of lord North (first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer). 1770, May. Remonstrance of the lord mayor and aldermen of London with the king. 1771. Abortive attempt of the commons to prevent the publication of speeches. Complaint of colonel Onslow; arrest of the printers ; commitment of Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, alder- man of London, for granting bail. 1774. Boston Port Bill (p. 425). 1774, Nov. 29-1780, July 8. Third Parliament of George III. (XIV.). Wilkes, lord mayor, and member for Middlesex ; motion to expunge the resolution rejecting him. (On the sixth motion, May 3, 1782, he was successful, and the resolutions were ex- punged " as subversive of the rights of electors.") 1775-1783. War of independence of the British col- onies in North America, see p. 426. 1778-1783. War between Great Britain and France. 1778. Repeal of penal laws against papists in England. 1779-1783. War between Great Britain and Spain. 1779-1782. Gibraltar besieged hj the French and Spanish in vain ; bravely defended by Elliott. 1780. No popery riots, caused by the intended relief of papists in Scotland. Protestant associations; lord George Gordon, president. June 2. Presentation of a no popery petition ; riot in London lasting five daySv Executions. A. D. Great Britain. 441 The armed neutrality (p. 412) formed to resist England's assumption of the right of search. 1780, Oct. 31-1784, Mar. 24. Fourth ParUament of George III. (XV.). 1780, Deo. 30-1783. War between Great Britain and Holland. 1781, Oct. 19. Surrender of Cornwallis (p. 431). In this year the English lost Pensacola, Tobago, St. Eustachius, Demerara, Essequibo, St. Christopher, Nevis, Monserrat, Minorca (1782), 1782, Feb. Motion of general Conway " that the house will consider as enemies to the king and country all who shall advise, or by any means attempt, the further prosecution of offensive war, for the purpose of reducing the revolted colonies to obedience by force." March 15. Motion of Sir J. Rous " that the house could no longer repose confidence in the present ministers," lost by nine votes. On a threat of renewal of the motion lord North resigned. 1782, March 20-July 1. Ministry of the marquis of Rocking- ham (t July 1, 1782) ; lord Shelburne, and Charles James Pox (b, 1749, son of Henry Fox, lord Holland; entered the commons 1768 ; lord of the admiralty 1770, of the treasury 1773; 1774 in opposition ; 1782 in the cabinet ; 1784 in opposition to Pitt; died Sept. 13, 1806), secretaries of state ; lord Thurlow, lord chancellor; Edmund Burke (b, 1729? in Dublin, entered par- liament 1765, paymaster of the forces 1782, in opposition with Fox 1784, until the French revolution; died July 9, 1797), paymaster of the forces ; Richard Brinsley Sheridan (b. 1751 at Dublin, entered parliament 1780, died July 7, 1816), under-secretary of state. April 12. Battle of Martinique, naval victory of Rodney and Hood over De Grasse. Reduction of the pension list ; establishment of the legislative independence of Ireland ; exclusion of contractors and rev- enue officers from parliament. 1782, July 1-1783, Feb. 24. Ministry of lord Shelburne following the death of Rockingham. "William Pitt (b. 1759, entered parliament 1781 ; chancellor of exchequer 1782 ; prime min- ister 1783 ; retired 1801 : returned to office 1804 ; died Jan. 23, 1806), twenty-three years old, chancellor of the exchequer ; Fox, Burke, Sheridan, resigned. Nov. 30. Secret treaty of Paris with America (p. 431). 1783, Jan. 20-Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris (p. 432). 1. Recognition of the independence of the thirteen United States (the Americans retained the Western territory ; the navigation of the Mississippi was in common). 2. England surrendered to France in the West Indies Tobago ; in Africa the region of Senegal. 3. Spain retained Minorca in Europe, and Florida in America. 1783, April 2-Dec. 13. Coalition ministry of the duke of Port- land ; Cavendish, chancellor of exchequer ; lord North and Fox, secretaries of state ; Burke, paymaster. 442 Modern History. A. d. 1757-1784. War of the English in India, see p. 443. In the epoch of the Seven Years' War, the English East India Company (at once sovereigns and merchants) began the foundation of an extensive empire in place of the existing factories. The vic- tories of lord Clive gave the English the upper hand of the French, and secured for them Bengal. War with the Mahrattds, who were allied with the sultan of My- sore, Hyder Ali (f 1782, his son, Tippu Saib), with the Nizam of Golkonda and the French. From the war this company came out vic- torious and with greatly increased strength. Under the ministry of the younger Pitt (1783-1801) the company was subordinated by the East India Bill (1784) in political and military affairs to a royal commission {board of control). 1768-1779. Voyages of James Cook (b. 1728; under Wolfe at Quebec, 1759; d. 1779). 1. Aug. 26, 1768, to June 11, 1771 : discovery of Cookh strait and of the strait between Australia and New Guinea. 2. July 13, 1772, to July 30, 1775: touching at New Zealand, Cook discovered many islands in the Pacific, penetrated to 71° S. latitude and rounded Cape Horn. 3. July 12, 1776, investigation of Behring^s strait ; on the re- turn Cook was killed by the natives on Hawaii, one of the Sandwich islands, Feb. 14, 1779. {See p. 535.) § 9. THE EAST. India. (Seep. 390.) Decline of the Mughal empire of Delhi. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712), Jahandar Shah (1712-1713), son and grandson of Aurangzeb, both under the control of the general Zvl-fikar Khan. Successful revolt of Farrukhsiyyar (1713-1719) ; oppression, revolt, and punishment of the Sikhs in the Punjab. 1715. Rajputana practically independent of the empire. The Say y id chiefs, Husdin Ali awdi Abdulld, placed two boy em- perors on the throne, who were followed, after four months, 1719-1748. Muhammad Shah. 1720-1748. Independence of the Deocan established under the Nizam ul Mulk, or governor. 1732-1743. Practical independence of Oudh. 1739. Invasion of India by Nadir Shah, of Persia ; sack of Delhi. 1748. Death of Muhammad Shah; from this time the emperors were but puppets, with a shadow only of power. 1748-1754. Ahmad Shah. 1748-1761. Five invasions of India by Ahmad Shah Durani, Afghan ruler of Kandahar : 1748 ; 1751-1752 ; 1761 (sack of Delhi) ; 1759 ; 1761. 1754-1759. Alamgir II. ; capture of Delhi by the Mahrattds (1759). 1759-1806. Shah Alam II. 1761. Battle of Panipat ; defeat of the Mahrattds by the Afghans A. D. The East: India. 4.43 under Ahmad Shah Durani. The Mahratta power was following fast in the footsteps of the Mughal emperors. Under Sahu, grand- son of Sivaji (p. 389), the real power fell into the hands of his chief minister, a Brahman with the title of Peshwa ; this man and his successors (Bdlaji, 1718-1720 ; Bdj'i Rao, 1721-1740; Bdlaj'i Bdji Rdo, 1740-1761 ; Madhu Rdo, 1761-1772) built up a confederacy at Poona while the true sovereigns sank into the petty princes of Sd- tdra and Kolhapur (the latter still exists). Under the first three Peshwas their armies prospered, they conquered the Deccan and ex- torted tribute from Bengal (1751). After the defeat of Panipat (1761), the power of the Peshwa of Poona rapidly declined, and the confederacy split up into five divisions : the Peshwas (Poona), Bhonslds (Nagpur), Sindhia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gdekwdrs (Baroda). The British in India. When the eighteenth century opened, the British were established at Bombay, Madras, and in Bengal (Calcutta). The French had a factory at Pondicherri, south of Madras. This eastern coast land, the Karnatic, was under the Nawdh (Nabob) of Arcot, a subordinate of the Nizam of Haidardbdd (Deccan). 1744-1748. War between France and England in Europe ; fol- lowed by war between these powers in India. Dupleix, gov- ernor of Pondicherri. 1746. Capture of Madras by the French ; it was restored in the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1751-1754. War between French and British in India. De- fense of Arcot by Clive (Robert Clive, b. 1725, clerk in Madras 1743, ensign 1744, paymaster 1748 ; in England 1753- 1755 ; governor of Bengal 1758 ; Irish peer, baron Clive of Plassey, 1760 ; governor of Bengal 1765-1767 ; committed suicide Nov. 22, 1774). 1756-1763, Seven Years' War in Europe (p. 403) and Amer- ica (p. 420). War between the British and French in India. 1756, June 29. " Black Hole of Calcutta." The young Nawdh (Nabob) of Bengal, Sirdj-ud-Dauld (Surajah JDowlah), hav- ing quarreled with the English, seized Calcutta and imprisoned 146 persons in the military prison of Fort William, a rooni some eighteen feet square. In the morning but 23 of the 146 were alive. Clive recaptured Calcutta, took the French fac' tory at Chandamagar and defeated a much more numerous force under Surajah Dowlah in the 1757, June 23. Battle of Plassey. Mir Jafar was placed on the (viceregal) throne of Bengal ; Sura- jah Dowlah was soon put to death. 1758, Clive governor of Bengal ; defeat of the Dutch (Nov. 1759). Establishment of British influence as superior to that of the French in the south. 444 Modern History, A. D. 1760, Jan. 22. Battle of Wandewash ; defeat of the French under Lally by colonel (afterwards sir Eyre) Coote, Destruction of the French power in India. The British having deposed Mir Jafar and set up Mir Kosim as Nawab in 1761 were soon involved in a war with the latter (massacre of Patnd, 1763). Sepoy mutiny, 1764. 1764. Battle of Baxar won by major Munro over Shah Alam, the emperor. Conquest of Oudh. 1765. Settlement of Indian relations by Clive, again governor of Bengal (1765-1767). Oudh restored to the Nawab ; Alla- habad and Kora given to the emperor, Shah Alam, the British re- ceived the financial administration of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, and the sovereignty over the Northern Circars. 1771. Shah Alam submitted to the Mahrattds. Famine in Bengal ; bad condition of the company's affairs ; its servants grew rich on extortions and perquisites, but the com- pany was near bankruptcy. Failure of Olive's system of man- agement. 1772-1774. "Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal (b. 1732; clerk in Bengal 1749 ; member of government 1761 ; in England; member of council in Madras 1765; governor of Bengal 1772, of India 1774; recalled 1785, impeached 1788, acquitted 1795, privy counselor 1814, died 1818). 1774-1785. "Warren Hastings, governor-general of India. Coun- cil of five instead of twelve, Hastings having the casting vote. Introduction .of reforms in administration ; acquirement by the British of complete control of the finances of the empire. Opposition of Philip Francis (Junius?). Holding that the emperor had broken the agreement with Clive by joining the Mahrattas, Hastings sold Allahdbdd and Kora to the gov- ernor of Oudh. The resistance of Chait Sinh, the Raja of Benares, to the demands of Hastings was fanned into a rebellion ; Hastings charged the mother of the governor of Oudh (Begam of Oudh) with abetting the rebel, and extorted over £1,000,000 from her. For these acts Hastings was impeached in parliament on his return to England (1788-1795 ; speech of Burke), but acquitted. War with the Mahrattds (1778-1781), and with Haidar Ali of Mysore and his son Tipu (Tippu Saib). {Seep. 541') China. (See p. 390.) 1721-1735. Yung-ching. 1735-1795. Kien-lung. Annexation of Hi. Conquest of East Turkestan. Unsuccess- ful invasion of Cochin China and Burmah. Suppression of a Moham- medan revolt in Kan-sah. Severe persecution of the Christians. Liter- ary labors of the emperor, who was himself a poet; foundation of four libraries. 1792. Conquest of the Gorkhas and the Nepaulese. Unsuccessful at- tempt to suppress a rebellion in Formosa. A. D. Japan. — France, 445 1793. Embassy of earl Macartney. 1795. Abdication of the emperor, who died in 1798. (^See p. 560.^ Japan. {See p. 357.) From 1654 to 1853 the history of this country is marked by few- events of interest. Under the Tokugawa Shoguns, many of whom were famous for their active interest in science and literature, the people progressed in civilization and the diffusion of education. To- ward the close of the second century the country began to feel the evil effects of the long peace : wealth, luxury, enervation. lyetsuna 1650-1681 ; construction of a cooperative history of Japan, the Dai Nihon Shi, under the care of the prince of Mito; department of astronomy; growth of Yedo. Tsunayoski, 1681-1708, the friend of learning. Kaempfer in Japan. Yoshimune, 1717-1744, one of the ablest of the Tokugawas ; revision of the criminal code ; introduction of sugar-cane ; foundation of a free hospital at Yedo ; hygienic in- formation distributed throughout the country (population of Japan in 1744, 26,080,000).! From 1763-1770 an empress sat on the Mikado's throne. 1780-1816. The Mikado Kokaku ; the Shoguns ; lyeharu 1763- 1786 ; lyenori 1787-1837. Reformation of the administra- tion. During this reign the influence of the Dutch increased rapidly, while several attempts of the Russians to open inter- course with Japan were brusquely repulsed. (^See p. SGS.') § 10. FRANCE. {Seep. 371.) 1715-1774. Louis XV., five years old, the great-grandson of Louis XI Y., whose son (the dauphin Louis), and grandson (the duke of Burgundy) died before him. 1715-1723. Philip, duke of Orleans, regent during the minority of Louis XV. He set the country (and the king) an example of the most shameless debauchery. His favorite was cardinal Du- bois (f 1723), a man of low birth and character, but of considerable ability. Abandonment of the policy of Louis XIV. ; alliance with England (1717, p. 349) ; religious tolerance. The quadruple alli- ance, p. 397. War with Spain ; marshal Benvick in Spain ; peace, Feb. 17, 1720 (treaty of London ; the emperor received Sicily, Savoy obtained Sardinia). 1718-1720. Law's Mississippi scheme. In his financial distress the regent grasped at the dazzling plans of the Scotchman, John Law. Royal bank ; company of the west ; grant of Louisiana. Popular infatuation. Enormous infla- tion of the currency ; issue of notes to the amount of 3,000,000,000 francs, based on the land of the kingdom. Sudden collapse of the bank and the company, bringing widespread disaster (1720). See the South Sea Bubble (p. 437). 1723-1726. Administration of the duke of Bourbon. The young king married the daughter of the deposed king of Poland^ 1 Keed. i. p. 236. 446 Modern History. A. D. Stanislaus LesczinsJci, having broken off the projected marriage with the Infanta of Spain and sent back the princess to the great indigna- tion of PhiHp V. Louis was under the influence of his tutor, cardinal Fleury, wlio overthrew the duke of Bourbon and his favorite the mar- quise de Prie, and banished them from court. 1726-1743. Administration of Fleury. ^ Participation of France in the war of the Polish succes- sion, p. 398; in the vrar of the Austrian succession, p. 400; in the Seven Years' War, p. 403; war with England and the peace of Paris, pp. 422, 441. Persecution of the Jansenists. Miracles at the cemetery of St. Medard. Convulsionnaires. Closure of the cemetery, 1732. " De par le Roi, defense k Dieu, De faire miracles en ce lieu." After the death of Fleury (1743), government of mistresses and of ministers whom they placed in office. Senseless expenditure and re- volting arbitrary rule. Marquise de Chateauroux. 1745-1764. Marquise de Pompadour (Lenormant d^Etioles). 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy ; victory , of Marshal Saxe over the allies (p. 402 and 438). Struggle between the church, parliament, and crown. The due de Choiseul, a friend of Pompadour, minister. 1756. Hostilities with England in North America led to war (p. 438). 1757, Jan. 5. Attempted assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens, who was barbarously tortured and torn by four horses. 1768. Death of the queen. 1769. Annexation of Corsica. The immorality and extravagance of the court reached its height when Louis XV., toward the close of his reign, came under the influ- ence of the shameless prostitute Jeanne Vaubernier, by marriage with a superannuated courtier, 1769-1774. Countess DuBarry. Contest with the parliament of Paris, which was abolished in 1771 by the chancellor, Maupeou, and superseded by a Conseil du Roi, without political privileges. The parliament was, however, re- stored under the next reign. Pacte de famine ; a company in which the king was shareholder, which had a monopoly of the corn supply. 1774, May 10. Death of Louis XV. He was succeeded by his grand- son, 1774-1792. Louis XVI., whose moral purity and sincere good-will, neutralized by a total lack of energy, were unable to quiet the approaching storm of the revolution by feeble attempts at reform. Restoration of the parliament. Louis, while dauphin (1770) had married Marie An- toinette, daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. The queen, at first extremely popular, soon incurred the dislike of the people, and became an object of the grossest slanders, particularly in connection with the scandalous aft'air of the diamond necklace (1785 ; given to the A. D. France. 447 queen by cardinal Rohan; countess Lamothe). Her influence was an evil one, being exerted for the maintenance of the system of favorit- ism, and for the resistance of reforms. 1774-1781. Maurepas, the king's favorite minister. 1774-1776, May. Turgot minister of marine and finance. 1777-1781. Necker, minister of finance ; abolition of six hundred superfluous offices. 1778. Alliance between France and the United States of America (p. 429). For the participation of France in the war of American independ- ence, see p. 429, etc. 1781. Publication of the compte rendu by Necker. On the death of Maurepas the Comte de Vergennes succeeded to the favor of the king. 1783-1787. Calonne, a favorite of the queen, minister of finance. Great extravagance of the court ; contraction of an enormous debt. 1787, Feb. 22. Assembly of notables summoned at VersaiQes. Fall of Calonne. De Brienne, minister of finance. Dissolution of the assembly (May 25). Opposition of the parliament of Paris, which re- fused to register the reform. Edicts, allegmg that such changes needed the approval of the states-general. Banishment of the parliament to Troyes. An agree- ment was patched up, but on the recall of the parliament, a still more aggravated quarrel broke out concerning new loans. 1788, Jan. Presentation of grievances. Arrest of the leaders of the parliament. Abolition of that body, the place of which was to be taken by a cour pleniere, nominated by the king. Revolts in the provinces. Summons of a states-general for May 5, 1789. 1788, Aug. De Brienne resigned office. Necker recalled. THIRD PERIOD. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1789-1815). The revolution ran through three stages to the extreme of a demo^ cratic republic, three other periods brought it gradually through a reac- tion back to absolute monarchy, after which came a time of constitutional monarchy, then a republic, then the second empire, then a republic again. 1. States General and Constituent Assembly (Constituante) ; from May 5 (June 17), 1789, to Sept. 30, 1791 (2^ years). A limited (constitutional) monarchy. Influence of the higher middle classes. 2. The Legislative Assembly (Legislatif) ; from Oct. 1. 1791, to Sept. 21, 1792 (almost a year). Monarchy still further limited, then suspended. Increase of the power of the lower classes. 3. The National Convention (Convention Nationale) ; from Sept. 21, 1792, to Oct. 25, 1795 (more than three years); called to frame a 448 Modern History. A. D* new constitution, it first abolished the monarchy and condemned the king to death ; it supported the Reign of Terror, and then overthrew it. It led the resistance to foreign foes. N. B. The left of the constituent was the right of the legisla- tive, and the left of the legislative was (at first) the right of the convention. 4. The Directory (Directoire) : from Oct. 26, 1795, to Nov. 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire, An. VIII.) more than four years. The middle classes recovered their influence. Party divisions. The army. General Bonaparte's coup d'etat. 5. The Consulate (consulai), at first provisional then definitive, from Dec. 25, 1799, to May 20, 1804 (4^ years) ; civil and military rule, virtually of one man ; progress of French arms. 6. The (first) Empire; from May 20, 1804 to (April, 1814) June 22, 1815 (about eleven years). Napoleon I. made France the con- trolling power on the continent, but was finally overthrown.^ General Causes of the Revolution. 1. The spirit of the eighteenth century — a spirit devoted to the destruction or reformation of all existing institutions. Attacks of French writers upon church and state, Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; Voltaire (1694-1778) ; Rousseau (1670-1741) ; the Encyclopedia (1751-1780), the work of the Encyclopedists : Holbach (1723- 1789) ; Helvetius (1715-1771) ; Diderot (1713-1784) ; D'Alem- bert (1717-1783) ; Condillac (1715-1789). 2. The unequal division and miserable cultivation of the land (nearly two thirds of wliich was in the hands of the clergy and the nobles), and the strict control exercised by the guilds, wliich checked the de- velopment of trade and industry. 3. The arbitrary government, the abuses in the administration, the un- equal apportionment of the burdens of taxation. Since 1614, the consti- tutional assembly of the kingdom, the etats-generaux had not been summoned (p. 325). Control of the liberty of the subject by arbitrary warrants of imprisonment (lettres de cachet, Bastille) of their property by arbitrary taxation. In opposition to the right assumed by the parliament of Paris, to refuse the registration of edicts of taxation, the court had recourse to beds of justice (lits de justice, a despotic enforcement of registra- tion), and the banishment of members of parliament. Commissions in the army, places in parliament, and most of the higher offices, were purchasable, but as a rule, onl}^ by the nobles. The privileged classes (nobility and clergy) were allowed many privileges in regard to the direct taxes, although by no means exempt by them. ^ Continu- ation in the country of the oppressive feudal burdens (corvees, enforced labor on the estate of the lord and on public roads without p^y), ex- actions of the feudal lords, who wasted their revenues in the capital and gave the peasants neither protection nor assistance in return. Taille, land and property tax; gabelle, tax on salt. 1 Assmann. ^ Voii. iiiybel, GeschicJite der Eevolutianszeit. A. D. First French Revolution. 449 Special Cause. The immense public debt and the dejicit. The yearly deficit owed its origin to the wars of Louis XIV., to his costly, often senseless buildings ( Versailles with its basins and fountains lying in a district totally without water), and to his extravagant court ; it grew under the profligate expenditure of Louis XV. and the cost of the North American war under Louis XVI. till it amounted to nearly half of the yearly income. As Turgofs (1774-1776) attempts at reforms (removal of internal duties on commerce ; abolition of the corvee, abo- lition of many guilds), Necker's (1776-1781) economical administra- tion, and the assembly of notables summoned upon the advice of Calonne (1787), brought no relief, the king took the advice of Necker, who had reassumed office (1788), and resolved upon the 1789, May 5. Summons of the Etats-Generaux to Ver- sailles, with a double representation of the middle classes, the third estate (tiers etat), nobles 300, clergy 300, commons 600. Dis- pute about the manner of debating and of voting (whether votes should be cast by the orders as such, or by each member individually) which broke out during the verification of the powers of the members. The nobles and the clergy demanded a separate verification, the com- mons wished that it should take place in common. The true question was whether the legislative body should consist of a lower house of commons, and an upper house of nobles and clergy which would check the lower, or of one house in which the commons equaled in number the nobles and clergy together. Upon the motion of the abbe Sieyes (author of the remarkable pamphlet asking. What is the third estate f) the representatives of the third estate assumed the title of the 1789, June 17-1791. National Assembly (constituante) and invited the other orders to join them. 1789. Suspension of the meetings for three days ; the hall June 20. closed to the members, who at last resorted to a neighbor- ing tennis court (jeu de paume) and took an oath not to separate until they had given the realm a constitution. Pres- ident Bailly. Many of the clergy and some nobles joined the assembly. June 23. Fruitless royal sitting ; the king ordered the assembly to meet in three houses. Principal orator of the assembly : Mirabeau (Riquetti, count of Mirabeau, born 1749, of remarkable talent, but dissolute, in debt, at variance with his family, elected in Provence as representative of the third estate). The representatives of the clergy and the nobility join the third estate by re- quest of the kmg. Concentration of troops near Paris. Rumors of a purpose to dissolve the national assembly, and the dis- missal of Necker (July 11) caused the 1789. Storm and destruction of the Bastille in Paris July 14. (murder of Be Launay), Camille Desmoulins. Paris in the 29 450 Moder7i xxisiory. A. d. hands of the mob scarcely controlled by the electors who had chosen the deputies from Paris for the assembly and now sat at the Hotel de Ville as a provisional government. Necker recalled. Lafayette commander of the newly established National Guard. Bailly mayor of Paris. Adoption of the tricolor : blue, red (colors of Paris), white (color of France). Beginning of the emigration of the nobles, headed by the count of Artois, second brother of the king, prince Conde, Polignac. Rising of the peasants against the feudal lords m Dauphine, Pro- vence, and Burgundy. Riots, provisional governments, guards in the provincial cities. Aug. 4. Voluntary surrender by the representatives of the nobles (vicomte de Noailles) of all feudal rights and privileges ; abo- lition of the titles, prohibition of the sale of offices, dissolution of the guilds, etc. Aug. 27. Declaration of the rights of man. Discussion of the veto power. Oct. 5, 6. Outbreak of the mob of Paris, caused by hunger, the bribes of the duke of Orleans, and rumors of an intended reaction. March of a band, consisting prmcipally of women, to Versailles. The royal family, rescued by Lafayette, were obliged to go to Paris, whither the national assembly followed them. 200 members re- signed. Democratic monarchical constitution : one chamber with legisla- tive power and the sole right of initiation. The royal veto was sus- pensive only, delaying the adoption of a measure for two legislative terms. The king could not declare war and conclude peace without the consent of the chamber, ratification by which was necessary for the validity of all foreign treaties. In order to relieve the financial distress the ecclesiastical estates were declared public property. Assignats, notes of the govern- ment, having for security the public lands, the value of which was not to be exceeded by the issue of notes (a check which was inoperar- tive). The state assumed the support of the clergy. 1790, July 14. National federation in Paris ; the Constitu- tion accepted by the king. Abolition of the old provinces and governments; France divided into eighty-three departments, named after rivers and mountains ; these departments being subdivided into 374 districts and cantons. The communes were left unchanged (44,000) ; tax qualification for the exercise of active suffrage in the primary assemblies, which chose electors (j^lecteurs) who then elected the representatives (745) for a legis- lature with a term of two years. The administrative officers of the departments and districts were selected from the electors; the muni" cipal officers and the judges were taken from the great body of voters, the active citizens. Each department and each district had a local assembly. Abolition of the parliaments and the old judicial constitu- tion. Juries. Abolition of hereditary nobility, titles, and coats-of-arms. Dissolution of all ecclesiastical orders, excepting those having educa- tion and the care of the sick for their objects. Civil organization of A. D. First French Revolution. 451 the clergy; the pastors to be chosen by the voters of the districts, the bishops by the voters of the departments. Only one third of the ecclesiastics submitted to the new constitution by taking the required oath, so that henceforward there was a distinction between priests who had taken the oath (pretres assermentes) and priests who had not (refractaires) . Clubs had existed since 1789 ; the Jacobins, named after their place of assembly, which was formerly occupied by Dominican monks from the Rue St. Jacques {Robespierre^, soon the greatest power in the state ; the Cordeliers, who held their meetings in a monastery of Franciscans {Danton, Marat, Camille Desmoulins, Hebert); the Feuillants, moderate monarchists who had separated from the Jaco- bins (Lafayette, Bailly). Reorganization of the municipality (com- mune) of Paris, in forty-eight sections ; 84,000 voters (pop. 800,000) ; general council, executive board (44). Each section had its primary assembly. 1790, Sept. Fall of Necker. Alliance between the court and Mirabeau, who endeavored to stem the revolution and prevent the destruction of the throne. 1791, April 2. Death of Mirabeau. June 20. Flight of the king. Stopped at Varennes, brought back to Paris (June 25). Unprovoked assault on a meeting in the Champs de Mars (July 17, " massacre of the Champs de Mars.") Suspended, reinstated by the moderate party (Sept.), Louis XVI. accepted the constitution as revised and com- pleted. Dissolution of the assembly (Sept. 30) after it had voted that none of its members should be eligible for reelec- tion to the next legislature. 1791, Oct. 1-1792, Sept. Legislative Assembly. 746 representatives, mostly from the middle class. Parties : the right, composed of constitutionalists, royalists, Feuillants, became weaker with every day. The left side, comprising the majority, was divided into : 1. Moderate republicans (the plain, la plaine), contain- ing the group of the Girondists (so called after its leading members from Bordeaux, the department of the Gironde), Guadet, Vergniaud, Brissot, etc., advocates of a federal republic. 2. The Mountain {la montagne, les montagnards), so called from their seats, which were the highest on the left side of the hall, radicals, adherents of a united, indivisible republic (une et indivisible). They were composed of the leaders of the clubs of the Jacobins and the Cordeliers. Petion, mayor of Paris. 1791, Aug. Meeting at Pillnitz between 1786-1797. Frederic William II., king of Prussia {Wollner, Bischofswerder), and 1790-1792. Leopold II., the emperor. Preliminary understanding in regard to Eastern matters, the political relations, and the French disturbances. 452 Modern History. a. D. 1791, Sept. Annexation of Avignon (massacres) and the Venaissin to France. 1792, Feb. Alliance between Austria and Prussia. Leopold was suc- ceeded by 1792-1806. Francis II. (As emperor of Austria, Fran- cis I. until 1835). 1792-1797. War between France and the First Coali- tion. A Girondist ministry {Roland, Dumouriez) took the place of the constitutionalist ministry, whose fall was caused by the declaration of Pillnitz. April 20. Declaration of war against Austria. Three armies in the field. Rochambeau (48,000), between Dunkirk and Philippe- ville; Lafayette (52,000), between Philippe ville and Lauter- bourg ; Luckner (42,000), between Lauterbourg and Basle. The fortune of war was against the French, which increased the revolutionary excitement at Paris. Dismissal of the min- istry of Roland (June 13). June 20. Invasion of the Tuileries by the mob. Calm behavior of the king ; the bonnet rouge. July 11. The Legislative Assembly pronounced the country in dan- ger. Formation of a volunteer army of revolutionists through- out the country. Threatening manifesto of the duke of Bruns- wick. The municipal council of Paris broken up and its place usurped by commissioners from the sections ; the new commune (288 members). Aug. 10. {Tenth of August). Storm of the Tuileries by the mob, in consequence of an order given by the king to the Swiss guards, who were advancing victoriously, to cease firing. Massacre of the Swiss guards. The king took refuge in the hall of the Aug. 13. Assembly, was suspended, and placed in the tower of the temple (the old house of the Knights Templars). Numerous arrests of suspected persons. The Jacobins in power. Gall of a national convention, elected by manhood suffrage, to draw up a constitution for the state. Aug. 20. Lafayette, impeached and proscribed, fled, was captured by the Austrians and imprisoned in Olmutz (till 1796). Verdun taken by the Prussians ; battles at Grandpre and Valmy. Sept. 2-7. Jail delivery at Paris : terrible massacre, lasting five days, of royalists and constitutionalists detained in the prisons, instigated by the city council and by Danton, the minister of justice. ^ Like scenes took place at Versailles, Lyons, Rheims, Meaux and Or- leans. 20 Sept. French (Dumouriez, Kellermann) success at Valmy against the allies (duke of Brunswick). 1792, Sept. 21-1795, Oct. National Convention com- posed entirely of republicans (749 members, 486 new men). Parties, Girondists (right, Vergniaud, Brissot] A. D. First French Revolution. 453 and the Mountain (left ; members for Paris, Robespierre, duke of Orlea?is {Philip Fgalite), Danton, Collot d' Herhois). 1792. Abolition of the monarchy. France declared a Sept. 21. Republic. Sept. 22 was the first day of the year one of the French repub- lic. Citoyen et citoyenne ; decree of perpetual banishment against emigrants; tu et toi. Inglorious retreat of the Prussians through Champagne to Luxembourg and across the Rhine. The French general, Custine, took Speier, Mainz, and Frankfort on the Main. Occupation of Nice and Savoy (Sept.). 1792. Victory of the French general Dumouriez at Jemmapes. He Nov. 6. took Brussels and conquered the Austrian Netherlands. The Prussians retook Frankfort. Nov. 19. Proclamation of the convention offering French assistance to all peoples who wished to throw off their present govern- ment. Savoy and Nice annexed ; the Schelde opened to commerce (p. 408). 1792, Dec.-1793, Jan. Triax o:^ Louis XVI. before the convention. Barrere prosecutor ; Malenherhes, Deseze, Tronchet, for the de- fense. Proposed appeal to the nation rejected. January 15, 683 votes out of 721 declared the king guilty. Jan. 16, 361 votes, exactly a major- ity (among them that of the duke of Orleans (Egalite), were cast unconditionally for death, 360 being cast for imprisonment, banish- ment, or death with respite. 1793, Jan. 21. Execution of Louis XVI. Feb. 1. War declared against Great Britain, Holland, Spain. England, Holland, Spain and the Empire, joined the alliance against France, Sardinia having been at war with the latter power since July, 1792. Annexation of Belgium. The emigrants, under the prince of Conde, proclaimed Louis XVII., who was a prisoner in the temple. Royalistic revolt in the Vendee, upon occasion of a levy of recruits. (JJharette, Stofflet, Cathelineau, La Rochejaquelein). The Austrians under the duke of Cohurg defeated Dumouriez at Neerwinden (March 18), and recaptured Brussels. Dumouriez went over to the Austrians with the duke of Chartres, Louis Philippe, son of Egalite. March 9. Establishment of the revolutionary tribunal. At Paris, in the convention, struggle for life and death, between the Girondists and the Mountain. After the failure of the plan of the Orleanists, belonging to the Mountain, to make the duke of Orleans (Egalite), protector, all power centred in the Committee of General Security and the 1793. Committee of Public Safety (Comite du Salut April 6. Public). Composed of nine (afterwards twelve) members, 454 Modern History, a. d. who exercised dictatorial power. Leaders : Danton (from the first); Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon (these three in July) ; afterwards, Carnot, who managed the military department only, and Collot d'Herbois (Sept.). The third, and in reality the greatest power in the state, was the conmiune of Paris, now reorganized on the basis of manhood suffrage, and acting through its committee, now numbering only twenty, at the Hotel de Ville, under the guidance of Chaumette, and especially of Hebert (editor of Le Pere Duchesne). Financial difficulties. New issues of assignats based on the lands of the emigrants, the sale of which was ordered. At- tempts to check the depreciation of assignats by severe penal- ties. June 2. An uprising of the mob, organized by the commune of Paris, commanded by Henriot, compelled the convention to ar- rest thirty-one Girondists (Brissot, Vergniaud, Petion). The second, fully democratic constitution, as passed by the conven- tion, was sent to the primary assemblies of voters for ratification, but never came to execution. 1793, July 13. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (executed July 15). 1793-1794. Reign of Terror in France. Robespierre at the head of the state. Revolutionary commit- tees throughout the country. Conamissaries of the committee of public safety committed unheard-of atrocities in the large cities of the provinces. Tallien at Bordeaux, Lebon in Arras, Carrier in K^antes, Chattier, Couthon, Fouche', Collot d'Herbois in Lyons. Mainz captured by the Prussians after a siege of three months (July). The allies took the fortresses of Conde and Valenciennes. For this reason Custine was executed at Paris. The English laid siege to Toulon. The troops of the Republic were driven back at almost all points. Revolts in the interior, partially conducted by Girondists who had escaped from Paris. Energetic measures of the committee of public safety (Carnot). 1793, Aug. 23. Levy of the whole male population capable of bear- ing arms. Fourteen armies were soon placed in the field. Caen, Bordeaux, Marseilles, conquered by the republicans. Lyons Oct. captured after a two months' siege and partially destroyed ; Massacre of the inhabitants (^Collot, Fouche ; la commune affran- chie.) Sept. 17. Establishment of a maximum price for a vast number of commodities ; also for wages. The state exacted all its labor and goods at the maximum price and paid in assignats at the face value, the market value being one third of the face. Law authorizing the imprisonment of all persons suspected (loi des suspects) of being unfriendly to the republic. Defeat of the Vendeans at Chollet (Oct. 20) and at Le Mans (Dec. 12). Revolutionary tribunal at Nantes (15,000 persons put to death in the three months of October, November, Decem- ber by Carrier ^ noyq^^s, fusillades, mariages republicains). A. D. First French Revolution. 455 Oct. 16. Execution of the queen, Marie Antoinette. Oct. 31. Execution of the Girondists (21). Reign of the revolu- tionary tribunal and the guillotine {Place de la Revolution, now Place de la Concorde^ ; Fouquier-Tinville, public prosecutor. Sixty executions a month; neglect of legal forms. Execution of Bailly, Egalite (Nov.), Madame Roland. Abolition of the worship of God. Cult of reason (Hehert, Chaumette, Cloots). Profanation of the royal sepulchre at St. Denis. Revolutionary calendar. Beginning of the year one, Sept. 22, 1792. The months : Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire; Nivose, Plu- viose, Ventose ; Germinal, Floreal, Prairial ; Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor ; each month had thirty days, five intercalary days (sans cu- lottides), every tenth day a holiday. Transportation of priests. ]S"ov. 10. Festival of reason in Notre Dame. Abolition of the old army. Creation of a new army. Capture of Conde, Valen- ciennes, Le Quesnoi by the allies (Coburg). Jourdan commander of the French forces. Oct. 11-13. Storm of the French lines at Weissenburg on the Rhine by Austrians and Prussians {Pichegru, commander of the French on the Rhine, HocJie, of the army on the Moselle.) Nov. Defeat of Hoche by the duke of Brunswick at Kaiserslautern. Dec. Pichegru defeated the Austrians under Wurmser. Retreat of the allies across the Rhine. Worms and Speier recaptured. Toulon rescued from the English. First appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte (b. Aug. 15, 1769, at Ajaccio in Corsica ; 1779 at the military school in Brienne ; 1785 lieutenant in Valence, 1793 captain ; at Toulon, colonel j after the cap- ture, brigadier-general ; adherent of the revolutionary movement, in close connection with the Jacobins, particularly with the two Robes- pierres, although he afterward denied it ^). 1794. Robespierre (representing the committee of public safety) crushed both parties which were opposed to him, the ultra-rev- olutionary comniune {Hebertists) and the moderate Dantonists (the Mountain), using one against the other. After an unsuccessful at- tempt at an insurrection March 24. Condemnation and execution of the Hebertists (Chaumette, Hebert, Cloots, etc.). March 29, condemnation of the Dan- tonists. April 6. Execution of Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Herault de Sechelles, etc. April 18. Defeat of the allies by Pichegru at Turcoing. April 19. Treaty of the Hague between England and Prussia ; sub- sidies for 60,000 men. Unhampered rule of the Committee of Public Safety. Robespierre abolished the worship of reason and caused the convention to pass a resolution acknowledging the existence of a supreme being. June 8. Fetes de VEtre supreme ; Robespierre high priest. June 10. Portentous increase of power bestowed on the revolution- ary tribunal. Juries to convict without hearing evidence or 1 P. Lanfrey, Histoire de Napoleon I. 456 Modern History. A. D. argument. Enormous increase of executions, running up to 354 a month. June 25. Capture of Cliarleroi by the French. June 26. Battle of Fleurus, repulse of the allies under Coburg. Evacuation of Belgium. An attempt to exterminate the Vendeans {Turreau) caused a fresh outbreak of the war. Conspiracy of the Mountain and the moderates against Robespierre {Tallien, Freron, Fouche, Vadier, C allot d^Herhois, BiUaud-Varennes). 1794, July 27 (9th Thermidor). FaU of Robespierre, arrest of the two Robespierres, of Couthon and St. Just ; being released they were outlawed, surprised at the Hotel de Ville, and executed, with eighteen others. On the following days over eighty of his party were executed. The commune was nearly extinct. 1794-1795. The National Convention controlled by the mod- erates. Meanwhile the armies of the republic had been fortunate on the bor- ders. The Prussians, victors at Kaiser slautern in May, 1794, after a second battle at the same place in Sept., retired across the Rhine. The duke of Coburg, defeated June 26, 1794, by Jourdan at Fleurus, resigned his command. The Austrians retired across the Rhine (see above). In Paris the power of the commune, of the Jacobins, and of the mob was gradually broken by the Thermidorians, or the supporters of the moderate revolution, and by the violence of the young men of the upper classes (called later the Jeunesse doree). The Jacobin club closed (Nov. 12). Those Girondists who had escaped with their lives were readmitted to their seats in the convention (Dec. 8, 1794, March 8, 1795). Execution of Carrier and Fouquier-Tinville. Public misery. Repeal of the maximum (Dec. 24, 1794). New issues, increased depreciation of assignats ; in May, 1795, they were worth 7 per cent. 1795, April 1 (Germinal 12). Bread riots m Paris ; attack on the convent suppressed ; transportation of Billaud, Collot, Barrere, Vadier. Growing reaction in the capital and the provinces. Return of emigrants. Reactionary terror (The White Terror). May 20 (Prairial 1). Insurrection, or bread riot. Fierce attack upon the convention. Firmness of the president, Boissy d'Anglas. Suppression of the outbreak, May 20. Extermina- tion of the Mountain. Meantime the armies of France were everywhere successful. Pichegru had invaded Holland in the winter of 1794-1795. The hereditary stadthalter fled to England. 1795-1806. Batavian Republic founded, which surrendered Dutch Flanders to France. Tuscany withdrew from the coalition and concluded peace with France. Prussia, whose finances were exhausted and which had quarreled with Austria, concluded with the convention the A. D. First French Revolution. 457 1795, April 5. Peace of Basle (Hardenherg), which Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse-Cassel joined. Open condi- tions : 1. France continued in possession of the Prussian territory on the left bank of the Rliine, until peace should be concluded with the empire. 2. A line of demarkation fixed the neutrality of northern Gerlnany. Secret articles : Prussia consented to the absolute cession of the left baiik of the Rhine to France and received the assurance of a recompense through secularization. After other notable successes of the French, Spain concluded the 1795, July. Peace of Basle. Spanish St. Domingo was ceded to France ; all other conquests were restored (Godoy, the Spanish minister, jonnce of the peace}. In the naval war the English were for the most part in the ascend- ency. 1795, June 8. Death of the ten-year-old dauphin (Louis XVII.) in the temple, where he had been most shamefully abused.^ June 27. English and emigrants land at Quiberon (Brittany) to assist the royalists of that region (Chouans}, but were defeated by Hoche (July 16-21)] and over 700 emigrants executed. Retaliatory massacre of 1,000 republican prisoners by Charette. Conclusion of the war of the Vende'e, defeat of the insurgents by Hoche. Execution of Stoffiet and Charette (latter March 29, 1796). At Paris adoption of a new (third} constitution. Constitution of the year III., or 1795. The executive power was given to a directory of five persons ; the legislative to the council of elders (250), and the council of five hundred, but it was decreed that for the first term, two thirds of the members of both councils should be taken from among the members of the National Convention. Opposition to this limitation of choice at Paris and in the provinces. The royalists in the capital instigated an outbreak of the sections (city districts or wards). On the motion of Barras, general Bona- parte was placed in command of the troops of the convention. Bona- parte crushed the revolt by the bloody victory of the 1795, Oct. 5. 13th Vendemiaire, called the Day of the Sections. Cannonade from the church of St. Roch. The convention dis- solved (Oct. 26) after having voted (Oct. 25, Brumaire 3) that relatives of emigrants could hold no office. 1795-1799- Government of the Directory in France. Substitution of mandats convertible into a specified amount of land for the assignats, of which 145 billion francs had been issued. In the Vendee, after a short truce, a new and bloody war, which spread to Brittany (Chouans). Hoche suppressed the revolt in the Vendee (ended March 5, 1796). By the advice of Carnot the directory undertook a triple attack upon Austria. 1. The army of the Sarnbre and Meuse under Jourdan 1 The death of the dauphin, officially established and evidenced by many witnesses, is beyond doubt. The pretenders who assumed his name later were, one and all, impostors. 458 Modern History. A. d. advanced from the lower Rhine to Franconia ; 2. the army of the Rhine and Moselle under Moreau penetrated from the upper Rhine to Swabia and Bavaria ; 3. the army of Italy under Napoleon Bona- parte was to attack Austria in Italy, and unite with the two former by way of Tyrol. The German campaign opened successfully for the French. J-our- dan and Moreau invaded south Germany. Baden, Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria were compelled to conclude truces. Suddenly fortune changed. 1796. Archduke Charles of Austria (brother of the emperor Francis) took the offensive against Jourdan, defeated him at Amberg (Aug.^, and at Wurzburg (Sept. 3). Jourdan retreated to the Sieg, and resigned his command. The archduke then turned upon Moreau, who retired to the upper Rhine (retreat through the Black Forest). 1796, Mar. 9. Marriage of Bonaparte with Josephine de Beauharnais, 1796. Brilliant campaign of Bonaparte in Italy. Starting from Nice he followed the coast, defeated the Austrians in the April. Battles at Millesimo, the Piedmontese at Mondovi, and compelled the king of Sardinia, Victor Amadeus, to conclude May. A separate peace. 1. Cession of Savoy and Nice to the French republic. 2. The French garrisoned the Piedmontese fortresses. Offensive and defensive alliance between France and Spain, the latter declaring war on England. May 10. Pursuit of the Austrians. Storming of the bridge over the Adda at Lodi ; Napoleon entered Milan (May 15), conquered the whole of Lombardy as far as Mantua. The dukes of Parma and Modena, the Pope and Naples, purchased a truce with money and art treasures. Definite peace with the Pope . at Tolentino in Feb. 1797 ; the Pope ceded the Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara. 1796-1797. Siege of Mantua. Four attempts on the part of July. Feb. the Austrians to relieve the fortress. The Austrians defeated at Castiglione, Roveredo, Bassano, at Nov. 15-19. Arcole, and at 1797, Jan. Rivoli. Mantua surrendered (Feb. 2). 1797 > March- April. Bonaparte crossed the Alps to meet archduke Charles who was advancing from Germany. The inhabitants of the Venetian territory rose against the French ; in Tyrol and Bohemia the people were called to arms. Bonaparte, in danger of being cut off, opened negotiations, which led to the conclu- sion of the 1797. Preliminary peace of Leoben, under the following condi- April 18. tions, which, however, were materially changed in the definite peace of Campo Formio (see below). 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress should mediate for peace with the empire on the basis of the integ- rity of the empire. 3. Austria ceded the region beyond the Ogliot A. D. First French Revolution. 459 receiving in return the Venetian territory between the Oglio, Poy and Adriatic (which she was to conquer for herself), Venetian .Da/- matia and Istria, and the fortresses of Mantua, Peschiera, and Palma Nova. 4. Venice was to be indemnified with the Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic which was to be formed in northern Italy. 1797, May. The French declared war upon Venice, under pretext of an outbreak at Verona. Abolition of the aristocracy and establishment of popular government. Occupation of the republic by French troops ; also of the Venetian islands of Greece (Ionian). Proclamation of the Cisalpine Republic (Milan, Modena, Ferrara, Bologna, Romdgna). Transformation of the republic of Genoa into the Ligurian Republic under French control. 1797, Sept. 4. 18th Fructidor. Coup d'Etat at Paris. Victory of the republican party over the party of reaction, which was represented in the council of five hundred, in the council of ancients, and in the directory. The three republican directors, Barras, Rewbel, and La Revelliere defeated their colleagues, Bar- thelemy and Carnot. The latter escaped by flight ; Barthelemy and many of his adherents, including Pichegru, were transported to Cayen7ie. After lengthy negotiations, France and Austria concluded the Oct. 17. Peace of Campo Formio. Open articles : 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress was convened at Rastadt to discuss peace with the empire. 3. Austria received the territory of Venice as far as the Adige, with the city of Venice, Istria, and Dalmatia. 4. France retained the Ionian islands. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic and indemnified the duke of Modena with the Breisgau. Secret articles : 1. Austria agreed to the cession of the left bank of the Rhine from Basle to Andernach, including Mainz, to France ; the navigation of the Rhine was left open to France and Germany in common ; those princes who lost by the cession were to receive in- demnification in Germany. 2. France was to use her influence to secure to Austria, Salzburg, and that portion of Bavaria which lay between Salzburg, the Tyrol, the Inn, and the Salza. 3. Re- ciprocal guarantee that Prussia should not receive any new acquisi- tion of territory in return for her cessions on the left bank of the Rhine. 1796-1801. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, succeeded his mother Catharine II. (p. 411). 1797-1840. Frederic ^William III., King of Prussia. Wdllner dismissed. Edict of religion revoked. 1797, Dec.-1799, April. Congress of Rastadt. No agreement. 1798. The French occupied Rome. Proclamation of the Feb. Roman Republic. Captivity of the Pope, Pius VI. Disturbances in Switzerland. The French entered the country.. The confederacy transformed into one 460 Modern History. A. D. 1798, April. Helvetian Republic. Geneva annexed to France. 1798-1799. Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition, prepared under the mask of an invasion of England, against whose East Indian Empire this expedition was in truth directed. Army of England at Boulogne. The opposition of the directory being overcome the fleet sailed from Toulon (May 19, 1798), with 35,000 men, accompanied by a large number of scientists. Bonaparte, Ber- thier, Kleber, later, Desaix. Capitulation and occupation of Malta (June 12), disembarkation in Egypt (July 1). Capture of Alexandria (July 2). Battle of the Pyramids won against the Mamelukes (July 21). Capture of Cairo (July 22). Desaix advances toward upper Egypt. The English fleet annihilated the French in the 1798. Battle of the Nile at Aboukir (Nelson), thus cut- Aug. 1. ting off the French army from France. A popular uprising in Cairo suppressed. The Porte having de- clared war upon France, Bonaparte attacked the pasha of Syria, stormed Jaffa (massacre of 1200 prisoners) but was unable to capture St. Jean d'Acre {Akko), the defense of which was supported by the English. Bonaparte victorious over the Turks at Alt. Tabor (April 16). Pestilence in the French army. Retreat to Egypt. Arrival of the Turks at Aboukir, where they were completely defeated by Bonaparte (Murat), 1799, July 25. 1799-1801. War of the second coalition, composed of Russia, Austria, England, Portugal, Naples, the Ottoman Porte, and owing its origin chiefly to Paul I., emperor of Russia, whom the Knights of Malta had elected grand master. Plan of the allies : 1. An English-Russian army (duke of York) was to drive the French from the Netherlands. 2. An Austrian army (arch- duke Charles) should drive them out of Germany and Switzerland, while 3. a Russian-Austrian army expelled them from Italy (Suvaroff and Melas). The war began in the latter part of 1798 by a Neapolitan invasion of the Roman Republic, under the Austrian general Mack. The in- vasion was repulsed, the king of Naples fled to Palermo, the kingdom of Naples was occupied by the French and transformed into the 1799. Parthenopaean Republic. The grand duke of Tuscany was Jan. driven from his domains. The king of Sardinia escaped from Turin and took up his residence in Cagliari in Sardinia; his for- tresses upon the mainland were placed under French control. After 1802 they were annexed to France. The directory opposed to the coalition six armies under as many com- manders. 1. Brune in Holland ; 2. Bernadotte on the middle Rhine; 3. Jourdan on the upper Rhine ; 4. Massena in Switzerland ; 5. Scherer, afterwards Moreau, in upper Italy; 6. Macdonald in Naples. 1799. Jourdan, defeated by archduke Charles at Ostrach and Stock- March, ach, retreated across the Rhine and laid down his command. His army and that of Bernadotte were placed under Massena. April. Scherer defeated by the Austrians at Magnano. His successor, Moreau, defeated by the Austrians (Melas) and Russians (Sw- varoff) at Cassano. Abolition of the Cisalpine Republic. A. D. First French Revolution. 461 1799, April 8. Dissolution of the Congress of Rastadt. Mysterious murder of the French ambassadors, Roherjot and Bonnier {De- hry escaped), on their journey home, by Austrian hussars from Transylvania (Apr. 28). June 4-7. Massena defeated by archduke Charles at Zurich. Mac- donald being called to upper Italy, the king of Naples returned and the Parthenopsean Republic was abolished. Terrible ven- geance, accompanied by massacres. JSfslson, Lady Hamilton. Abolition of the Roman Republic. June 17-19. Macdonald defeated by Suvaroff on the Trehhia. Man- tua taken by the allies. The directory sent Jouhei't to Italy with a new army. He was defeated in the bloody Aug. 15. Battle of Novi by Suvaroff and Melas. Joubert.f Su- varoff crossed the Alps by the pass of St. Gothard in order to unite with the second Russian army under Korsakoff, who had taken the place of archduke Charles when the latter went to the mid- dle Rhine, in Switzerland. His army however had already been defeated at Zurich by MaSf- sena. Suvaroff left Switzerland after a series of terrible battles and marches, and returned to Russia. A Russian-Turkish fleet had wrested the Ionian islands from French control in May, 1799. Erection of the Republic of the Ionian Isl- ands under Turkish protection, and the guarantee of Russia, which occupied the same until 1807. June 18. Revolution of 3d Prairial. Reorganization of the directory under Sieyes j sl revolution which resulted in the return of Bonaparte. 1799j Oct. The duke of York was defeated and capitulated at Alkmar. Oct. 8. Bonaparte, returning unannounced from Egypt, landed at Frejus, and in alliance with the directors, June. Sieyes and Roger-Ducos and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, president of the council of five hundred, overthrew the dii-ec- tory by the Nov. 9, Coup d'Etat of the 18th Brumaire, and broke up the council of five hundred upon the following day. 1799-1804. The Government of the Consulate with Napoleon Bonaparte as regent under the title of ^rst consul for ten years, and two consuls appointed by him, Camhaceres and Lebrun, who had consultative voices only. The new (fourth) constitution (constitution of the year VIII.), ori- ginally devised by Sieyes, but essentially changed by Napoleon, and accepted by direct vote of the whole nation (3,000,000 to 1,567), pre- served the appearance of a republic but in reality established a military monarchy. A senate (80 well paid senators elected for life with but little to do), appointed, from lists of names sent in by the depart- ments, the members of the legislative department, the higher officials and the judges. Legislative power without the initiative: 1. tribunate 462 Modern History. A. D. (100) discussed the proposals of the government without voting, 2- The legislative chamber (300) could only accept or reject these proposals, without debate. The executive power was in the hands of the first consul, who was aided by a council of state. The people voted for notables of the communes, who then elected a tenth of their number as notables of the departments, whence were elected a tenth portion, the notables of France, from which latter list the senate appointed the members of the legislative bodies. Establishment of prefectures (administration of the departments^ and sub-prefectures (administration of the arrondissements), and consequent creation of that centralization which still prevails in France. New system of tax-collection ; receveur-general for each department (abol= ished under the second empire), receveur particulier for each arron- dissement. Code Napoleon commenced. The overtures of peace made by the first consul were rejected. Paul, emperor of Russia, however, was won over by Napoleon's flat- tery, and withdrew from the coalition. Defensive alliance between Russia and Sweden (1799), closer connection between Russia and Prussia. Paul quarreled with England in regard to Malta. Re- newal of the previous (1780) armed neutrality at sea (p. 536). North- ern convention (1800). 1800. Double campaign of the French in Itali/ under Napo- leon Bonaparte, in Upper Germany under Moreau. April. A. In Italy. Massena defeated at Voltri ; Melas advanced to Nice. Obsti- nate defense of Genoa by Massena (and Soult) ; after a terri- June 4. ble famine (15,000 people perished) the city capitulated to May. Ott. Meantime passage of the Great St. Bernard by Bonaparte. (The fortress of Bard, passed by a detour). June 2. Capture of Milan. Restoration of the Cisalpine Republic. General Melas, after a brave contest, and after victory had once been in his hands, defeated by a second attack in the 1800, June 14. Battle of Marengo, by Napoleon. Desaix f . According to the truce concluded with Melas, all fortresses west of the Mincio and south of the Po were sur- rendered by the Austrians to the French. B. In Germany : Moreau crossed the Rhine from Alsace in April, and advanced, winning victories at Engen and Stock- ach, toward Kray (May). Moreau in Munich (July). Truce until November. Recommencement of hostilities. Moreau defeated the archduke John in the 1800, Dec. 3. Battle of Hohenlinden, captured Salzburg and advanced to the Linz. Truce of Steyer. After Brune in Italy had won a battle on the Mincio (Dec.) and had crossed the Adige (Jan. 1, 1801), a truce was conclu- ded in Treviso, which was succeeded by the 1801, Feb. 9. Peace of Luneville, from which the abolition of the old Holy Roman Empire practically dateso A.. Do First French Revolution, 463 Chief conditions : 1. Ratification of the cessions made by Austria and to her in the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459). 2. Cession of the grand duchy of Tuscany (Austrian secundogeniture) to Par- ma, to be indemnified in Germany. 3. The Emperor and Empire consented to the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France, the valley of the Rhine (i. e. the middle of the river), the boundary. The princes who lost by this operation received indemnification in Germany. 4. Recognition of the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics. Germany lost by this peace, taking the Belgic territory into accountj 25,180 square miles with almost 3,500,000 inhabitants. The German princes received an increase of territory. The shameful negotiations over the indemnifications lasted more than two years (p. 465), during which time the ambassadors of German princes haunted the antechambers of the First Consul to beg for better terms, and bribed French ambassadors, secretaries and their mistresses. Tuscany was transformed into the kingdom of Etruria, for the satisfaction of Parma. Besides losing Parma, a Spanish secundogeni- ture, Spain ceded Louisiana to France, which afterwards sold it to the United States (1803). The peace of Luneville was succeeded, after concViision of a truce, by the ISOl, March 18. Peace of Florence with Naples. Conditions : 1. Closure of the harbors to British and Turkish vessels. 2. Cession of the Neapolitan possessions in central Italy and the island of Elba. 3. Reception of French garrisons in several Italian towns. Prussia joined the Northern Convention against England. Occupar- tion of Hanover. 1801, March 23. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, murdered. He was succeeded by his son, 1801-1825. Alexander I. Reconciliation between Russia and England (in 1801 England had attacked Denmark, the ally of Russia, and forced her to withdraw from the Northern Convention). The Northern Convention was now dissolved. 1800. Conspiracies against the life of Bonaparte. Infernal ma- chines. 130 " Terrorists and Jacobins " transported, although the attempts had originated with the royalists. In Egypt the chief command after the departure of Bonaparte had devolved upon Kleher, who defeated the Turks in the battle of Heliqpolis (1800, March). After the murder of Kleber at Cairo (June), Menou became commander-in-chief. He concluded a treaty with the English at Cairo (1801), under which Egypt was to be abandoned and returned to the Ottoman Porte, and the French army transported to France by the English fleet. 1801. Union of Ireland with Great Britain under one parliament. In France restoration of the Catholic worship, and after long negotiations with the papacy, conclusion of a 1801. Concordat (executed in 1802), whereby the (10) French archbishops and (50) bishops were to be appointed and sup- ported by the government, and confirmed by the Pope. Pius VII., elected in 1800 in Venice, was recognized in the possession of the 464 Modern History. A. D. Papal States, without Ferrara, Bologna, and the Romagna. The lib- erties of the Gallican church were strongly asserted. By the new organization of the " Universite," an incorporated body of teachers who had passed a state examination, the entire system of higher education was made dependent upon the government. The institut national was reorganized and divided miofour (later ^ye) academies : 1. academie francaise (1635) ; 2. a. des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1663, 1701) ; 3. a. des sciences (1666) ; 4. a. des beaux arts (1648) ; 5. a. des sciences morales et politiques (1832). After the withdrawal of the younger Pitt from the English cabi- net, and after long negotiations, the 1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens was concluded between England and France. 1. Surrender of all conquests made by England to France and her allies, excepting Trinidad which was ceded by Spain, and Ceylon which was ceded by the Batavian Republic. 2. France recognized the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. Malta must be restored to the order of the Knights of Malta. In consequence of this peace, peace was concluded between France and the Porte. Creation of the order of the Legion of Honor (May 19, 1802). As- sumption of regal state and authority. Napoleon Bonaparte caused himself to be elected by a popular vote {plebiscite, 3^ millions), 1802, August 2. Consul for life, with the right of appointing his successor. New (fifth) constitution. The powers of the senate, which was ruled by the first consul, were enlarged; the importance of the legiS" lative bodies and the tribunate was very decidedly reduced. Napoleon had already become president of the Italian E-epublic, as the Cisalpine Republic was henceforward called. Elba and Pied- mont were annexed to France. Military interference of the French in Switzerland, which was torn with civil dissensions. The act of mediation restored the independence of the separate cantons, but the country remained still so far a single state that it was represented by a landamman and a diet. As regards the internal relations of Germany, the peace of Lune- ville was executed according to a plan of indemnification established by France and Russia by the 1803, Feb. Enactment of the delegates of the empire. (ReichS' deputationshauptschluss) . ^ Of the ecclesiastical estates there were left only : 1. the former elector of Mainz, now electoral archchancellor, with a territory formed out of the remains of the archbishopric of Mainz on the right bank of the Rhine, the bishopric of Regensburg, and the cities of Regensburg and Witzlar. 2. the masters of the order of St. John, and the Teu- tonic "order. 3. Of the 48 free imperial cities which still existed, only 6 were left, the 3 Hanseatic cities : Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, Augsburg, Nuremberg. All other ecclesiastical estates and imperial cities were devoted to indemnifications. The electoral bish- oprics of Trier and Cologne were abolishedo Four new electorates ? desse-Cassel, Baden, Wurtemberg, Salzburg. '^ 'EiGhhovn, Deutsche Staalsu.Rechtsgeschichte, IV. § 606. A. D. First French Revolution. 465 Principal Indemnifications : 1. The grand duchy of Tuscany : Salz- burg, and Berchtesgaden. 2. Duke of Modena : Breisgau (in ex- change for which Austria received the ecclesiastical foundations of Trient and Brixen). 3. Bavaria : bishoprics of Wurzburg, Bamberg, Freising, Augsburg, the majority of the prelacies and imperial cities in Franconia and eastern Swabia, in return for which, 4. Baden received that portion of the Palatinate lying on the right bank of the Rhine (Heidelberg, Mannheim). Baden also received : the portion of the bishoprics of Constance, Basle, Strasburg, Speyer, on the right bank of the Rhine, and many ecclesiastical foundations and imperial cities. 5. Wilrtemberg : many abbeys, monasteries, and imperial cities, especially Reutlingen, Esslingen, Heilbronn, etc. Prussia : the bishoprics of Paderborn, Hildesheim, the part of Thuringia which had belonged to Mainz (JEichfeld and Erfurt), a part of Munster, many abbeys, particularly Quedlinburg, and the imperial cities, Milhlhavr- sen, NQrdhausen, Goslar. 7. Oldenburg : bishopric of Liibeck. 8. Hanover : bishopric of Osnabruck. 9. Hesse (Darmstadt and Cas-- sel) and Nassau divided the portions of the archbishoprics of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, which remained, upon the right bank of the Rhine, 10. Nassau-Orange : bishopric of Fulda, and abbey of Corvey. As a rule the indemnified princes gained considerably in territory and subjects. • 1803. New dissensions between France and England, caused by the refusal to surrender Malta and the quarrels of the journalists. The French occupied Hanover, where they nearly exhausted the resources of the state. The encampment at Boulogne threatened England with an invasion. Conspiracy against the life of the First Consul discovered (1804, Feb.). Pichegru met a mysterious death in prison, George Cadou- dal was executed. Moreau fled to America. The duke of Enghien, a Bourbon prince of the branch line of Conde, was taken by violence from the territory of Baden, condemned by a commission acting in accordance with the wishes and under the order of Napoleon,^ with- out the observation of any of the forms of law, and shot at Vincennes on the night of March 20-21. On the 18th of May the tribunate and senate proclaimed the Consul Bonaparte, 1804-1814 (15) Napoleon I., Hereditary Emperor of the French. The succession was in the male line, the emperor having the privilege of adopting the children of his brothers, in default of which and of direct issue, the crown was to go to Joseph and Louis Bona- parte. The election was ratified by a popular election, by means of lists to which the people signed their names (3,572,329 to 2,569). The emperor was consecrated at Paris by Pius VI I. (Dec. 2), placing the crown upon his own head. (Imitation of Pepin and especially of 1 That no misunderstandings took place, as is asserted b}-- Thiers and others, throughout the whole shameful proceeding, that Napoleon I. afterwards endeav- ored in all ways to conceal the truth, and that the guilt of this premeditated murder rests mainly upon himself, has been proved by Lanfrey, Histoire de Napoleon I. iii. 128, foil. 30 466 Modern History. A* Do tf •,3 O bo '^ rn ^ © &, a> ,00 B "J S s 00- — e V -1 ft Ph a .S J« ^ (B s CJ aj3 s ^ ■tj .s a ^ «^ l-H (C "^ 3 l-H c! 0) eS 5 o /si i ja fo . « s Pui Pi. 000 ^ g .2 .2 w ■ ft9. a ci-g^ ■^^ Oct. 14. Double battle of Jena and Auerst'adt the main army was completely defeated. Dissolution of the army. The reserve under the prince of Wiirtemberg was de- feated and scattered at Halle (Oct. 17). Napoleon in Berlin (Oct. 27). The prince of Hohenlohe with 12,000 men was forced to surrender at Prenzlau (Oct. 28). Bliicher after a brave defence in Lubeck was obliged to surrender his whole corps at Ratkau as prisoners of war (Nov. 7). Incredibly hasty surrender of the fortresses : Erfurt, Spandau, Stettin, Kustrin, Magde- burg, Hameln ; only Kolberg (^Gneisenau, Schill, Nettelbeck) and Grau- denz (Cowr&iere) defended themselves resolutely. The duke of Bruns- wick (f Nov. 10, at Ottensen) and the neutral elector of Hesse were driven out of the country. Coarse behavior of Napoleon toward the royal family (queen Louisa). Robbery of the museums and picture galleries. From his headquarters in Berlin Napoleon proclaimed (Nov. 21) the senseless (paper) blockade of Great Britain and the closure of the continent to British trade, a policy summed up in the title, " Continental System " (" Berlin decree "). The troops of France, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg invaded Silesia. The Poles summoned to revolt. Separate peace and alliance of Napoleon with the elector of Saxony (Dec. 11), who joined the confederacy of the Rhine as king of Saxony. Occupation of Hanover and the Hanseatic cities. 1807. Fall of Breslau, followed by that of the most of the Silesian fortresses. After several bloody engagements in the neigh- borhood of Pultusk, Prussians and Russians fought against the French, without decisive result, in the murderous 1807, Feb. 7, 8. Battle of Eylau, where the Prussians repulsed the right wing of the French under Davout. Winter quarters. Frederic William III. went to Memel. May 26. Danzig captured after a brave defense {Kalckreuih). After several engagements Napoleon was victorious in the June 14. Battle of Friedland, over the Russians. Konigsberg and the country as far as the Niemen occupied by Napoleon. Truce with Russia (June 21), with Prussia (June 25). Meeting of Napoleon^ Alexander ^ and Frederic William on the Niemen. 1807. Peace of Tilsit. July 7. A. Between France and Russia. July 9. B. Between France and Frussia, 470 Modern History. A. d. A. 1. Russia recognized the duchy of Warsaw^ which was formed out of South Prussia, parts of West Prussia, and New East Prussia, under the king of Saxony. 2. Danzig restored to the con- dition of a free city. 3. A part of New East Prussia (^Bialystock) ceded to Russia. 4. Russia recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples, Louis Bonaparte as king of Holland, Jerome Bonaparte as king of Westphalia, a new kingdom yet to be created ; Russia, more- over, recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and accepted the mediation of Napoleon in concluding peace with the Turks, while Napoleon accepted the like good offices from Alexander in regard to England. In a secret article, Alexander agreed to an alliance with France against England, in case the latter refused to accept the prof- fered peace. B. 1. Prussia ceded : (a) to Napoleon for free disposal, all lands between the Rhine and Elbe ; (b) to Saxony, the circle of Cottbus ; (c) all lands taken from Poland since 1772 for the creation of a duchy of TVarsaw, also the city and territory of Danzig. 2. Prussia recognized the sovereignty of the three brothers of Napoleon. 3. All Prussian harbors and lands were closed to British ships and British trade until the conclusion of a peace with England. 4. Prussia was to maintain a standing army of not more than 42,000 men. In regard to the res- toration and evacuation of the Prussian provinces and fortresses, it was settled by the treaty of Konigsberg (July 12), that Prussia should first pay all arrears of war indemnities. These indemnifications, fixed at nineteen million francs by the Prus- sian calculations, were set at 120 millions by the French, which sum was raised to 140 millions in 1808. After 120 millions had been paid the fortresses were evacuated, excepting Stettin, Kustrin, and Glogau. Until this occurred the Prussian state, reduced as it was from 89,120 to 46,032 square miles, was obliged to support 150,000 French troops. 1807, Aug. Foundation of the kingdom of Westphalia (capital, CasseV) by a decree of Napoleon, who reserved for himself half of the domains. High-handed proceeding of the English against Denmark, which had been summoned to join the continental system. An English fleet bombarded (1807, Sept.) Copenhagen, and carried off the Danish fleet. Alliance of Denmark with France. Russia declared war upon England. Stralsund and Riigen occupied by the French. Portugal, which refused to join the continental system, occupied by a French army under Junot (duke of Abrantes) Nov. 1807. The royal family fled to Brazil. Milan decree, Dec. 17, 1807. Spain invaded by 100,000 Frenchmen under the pretext of guard- ing the coasts against the English. Charles IV. (1788-1808) abdi- cated in favor of his son Ferdinand (March, 1808), in consequence of an outbreak which had occurred against his favorite, the prince of the peace, Godoy. Father and son, with Godoy, were enticed by Na- poleon to Bayonne and compelled to renounce the throne (May). Napoleon's brother Joseph became king of Spain, Murat taking the throne of Naples instead of Joseph. General uprising of the Spaniards. A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 471 1808-1814. War between Napoleon and Great Brit- ain in Spain and Portugal. (" Peninsular War.") The English landed in Portugal and forced Junot to surrender Cintra, after which he was obliged to evacuate the country (Sir Arthur Wellesley). The French were soon driven back to the Ebro. Napoleon, secured against Austria by a closer alliance with the em- peror Alexander, since the assembly of princes at Erfurt, where four kings, thirty-f oiu* princes, and other German rulers who had done him homage, hastened in person to Spain with 250,000 men, advanced to Madrid, and with Soult drove the English from Spain (battle of Corunna Jan. 16, 1809, Death of Sir John Moore). After the de- parture of Napoleon hostilities continued in Spain. Guerrilla war- fare. The English returned. Heroic defense of Saragassa (Palafox), which surrendered in Feb. 1809. The English general, Sir Arthur Wellesley (b. 1769; officer in East India 1797-1805 ; M. P. 1806; vis- count Wellington, 1809 ; duke of Wellington, 1814 ; prime minister, 1827-1830 ; d. 1852, Sept. 18), after his victory over Joseph at Tala- vera, July 28, 1809, was created viscount Wellington, and made commander-in-chief of all English troops in the Spanish peninsula. SouCt, duke of Dalmatia, at first victorious against the Spanish and Portuguese, was obliged to evacuate Oporto again. In Prussia, meanwhile, the state was reorganized after the dis- missal of Beymes and Zastrow, by Charles, baron of and in Stein (b. 1757 at Nassau ; since 1780, in Prussian civil service ; 1796 over- president of the chamber of Westphalia ; 1804 minister of finance, d. 1831), and Hardenherg. Regulations for the cities, liberation of industry, abolition of hereditary serfdom, reformation of the adminis- tration of the public finances. Reorganization of the army on the basis of universal military service, by Gneisenau, Grolma7i, Boyen, Clausewitz, Scharnhorst (b. 1755, in Hanover, son of a peasant, offi- cer in the service of Hanover, 1801 lieutenant-colonel in Prussia, taken prisoner at Ratkau with BlUcher, major-general at Eylau; d. 1813). Foundation of the university at Berlin (1810), by Humboldt, Al- tenstein, Niebuhr, Schleiermacher. Fichte's addresses to the German nation. Tugendbund. Gymnastics, John. E. M. Arndt. Preparations for the liberation of Germany and Europe from the French yoke. Futile attempt of Austria to accomplish this liberation alone, by mak- ing use of Napoleon's entanglement in the Spanish war. 1808, July-Nov. English expedition to Walcheren (p. 537). 1809. (Fifth) War with Austria. Archduke Charles, commander of the Austrian army of Ba^ varia, and archduke John, commander of the Austrian forces which were sent to Italy, summoned the German people to take part in the struggle against the French supremacy. Tyrol alone heeded the summons, and took up arms (Andreas Hofer, Speckbacher). Napoleon engaged archduke Charles in Bavaria, with German Apr. 19-23. troops, drove him over the Danube to Bohemia, after five days' fighting at Abensberg, Landshut, Eckmuhl and Re- May 13. gensburg, and captured Viemia for the second time. Na- poleon crossed the island of Lobau, to the left bank of the Dan- ube, where in the bloody 472 Modern History. A. D. 1809, May 21-22. Battle at Aspern and Essling (on the Marchfeld), he was, for the Jirst time, defeated by archduke Charles, and (Lannes f ) forced to recross the Dan- ube (^Massena), where he united with the viceroy Eugene, who had pursued archduke John from northern Italy to Hungary and defeated hun at Raah. With 180,000 men Napoleon crossed the Danube anew, defeated archduke Charles in the murderous 1809, July b-G, Battle of Wagram, and pursued him toward Moravia. Truce of Znaim. Oct. 14. Peace of Vienna between France and Austria, signed in the palace at Schon- hrunn. 1. Austria ceded a territory of 32,000 square miles, containing 3^ million inhabitants, viz. : a. Salzburg and Berchtesgaden, the Inn- viertel, and half of the Hausruckviertel to Bavaria ; b. West Galicia to the duchy of Warsa"w ; c. one district in East Galicia (Tarnopol) to Russia ; d. the lands beyond the Save, the circle of Villach, Istria, Hungarian Dalmatia, and Ragusa to the emperor Napoleon, who created from these cessions and the Ionian Islands, which Russia had surrendered to him in 1807, the new state of the Illyrian provinces un- der Marmont, duke of Ragusa, as governor. 2. Austria joined the continental system, and broke off all connection with England. The Tyrolese, left to themselves, continued the war with heroic cour- age, but were in the end subdued. Hofer captured and shot by the French at Mantua (1810). Southern Tyrol annexed to the king- dom of Italy. Bold attempt of Schill, a Prussian major, to precipitate the war of liberation. With 600 hussars he left Berlin in the spring of 1809, and summoned the people of Germany to take up arms. The news of Napoleon's victories on the Danube frustrated the scheme. Schill fell fighting bravely at Stralsund (May 31). Eleven of his officers were court-martialed and shot in Wesel, the captured soldiers were condemned to hard labor by order of Napoleon, carried to France, and after a half year's imprisonment in the bagno, or prison for galley- slaves, enrolled among the French coast guards. 1809. Bold expedition of the duke of Brunsioick across northern Ger- many. He succeeded in transporting himself and the " Black Legion " to England. Gustavus IV., of Sweden, a bitter opponent of the Revolution and of Napoleon, but ignorant of the true interests of his country, had been since 1808 involved in war with Russia, which had conquered Finland. He fell at last by a military revolution, the victim of his obstinacy. The capital, Stockholm, being threatened by the passage of the Russians under Barclay de Tolly over the frozen gulf of Both- nia, by the capture of Tornea and that of the islands of Aland, a mu- tiny broke out in the Swedish army. The king was arrested on March 13, 1809, by generals Klingspor smdAdlerkreuz, obliged to abdicate, and dismissed from the kingdom with his family. The crown was given to the uncle of the king, Charles XIII. (1809-1818), passing over his A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 473 son. In the peace of Friedrichsham with Bussia, Sept. 17, 1809, Sweden surrendered, to Russia the principality of Finland as far as the river Tornea, together with the islands of Aland. By the media- tion of Russia Svreden concluded the peace of Paris with France, Jan. 6, 1810, whereby Sweden joined the continental system and obtained the restoration of Swedish Pomerania. After the sudden death of prince Christian August of Holstein-Augustenhurg, whom Charles XIII. had adopted and appointed heir to the throne, the French marshal Bernadotte (prince of Pontecorvo} was elected crown prince of Sweden. Rome had been occupied by the French in 1808. Pope Pius VII. steadfastly refusing to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with France, and to close his seaports against England, Napoleon, after the infliction of unheard-of violence for a year, proclaimed from Schonbrunn, May, 1809, that the papal states and the city of Rome were incorporated with France. Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon in June, whereupon he was arrested and taken over Mt. Cenis to Grenoble and thence to Savona. As he still refused to yield to Napoleon's de- mands, Pius VII. was placed on prisoner's allowance, and lived for three years almost entirely upon alms (1812 taken to Fontainebleau.^ In Turkey, after the deposition of Selim HI., war broke out again with Russia (1809-1812). After the bloody battle at Rustchuck, the Russians retired across the Danube, and the Turkish army which pursued them was captured (1811). 1812, May 28. Peace of Bucharest : the Pruth was made the boundary between Russia and Turkey, 1810, April. Napoleon, divorced from Josephine, married Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis I. of Austria. Abdication and flight (July) of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, who had refused to ruin liis country by joining the continental system. Annexation of Holland, as the " alluvial deposit of French rivers," to the French empire. Annexation of the canton of Wallis, and soon after of Oldenburg, a large part of the kingdom of Westphalia, the grand duchy of Berg, East Friesland, the Hanseatic cities, so that the French empire, which now comprised 130 departments, extended on the east as far as the Trave. In Spain strenuous exertions against Napoleon ; French, Italian, and Polish troops, along with those of the confederacy of the Rhine, overran the peninsula. Conquest of Andalusia by Victor and Mortier. Unsuccessful siege of Cadiz, whither the Central Junto had fled from Seville. A special session of the Cortes called at Cadiz assumed the sovereignty and drew up a constitution (completed 1812). In Portugal struggle between Wellington and Massena. Siege and capture of Ciudad Rodrigo by the latter (July 10, 1810). Retreat of Wellington to the lines of Torres Vedras (Oct. 9). Winter quarters. 1811, March ; masterly retreat of Massena. Siege of Almeida and Badajoz by the English. Defeat and retreat of Massena from Portugal. Soult, hastening to the relief of Badajoz, was de- feated in the bloody 1811, May 16. Battle of Albuera. The English returned to Portugal. 1812, capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19) and Badajoz (April 6). 474 Modern History. a. d. 1812, July 22. Battle of Salamanca; victory of Wellington. Cap- ture of Madrid. Loss of southern Spain to the French. 1811, March. Birth of a son to Napoleon, who received the pomp- ous title of king of Rome. Napoleon I. at the summit of his power. In the naval warfare and in the colonies France, like Holland, had met nothing but losses. Cayenne, Martinique, Senegal, St. Domingo, were lost in 1809. Gua- deloupe, Isle Bourbon, and Isle de France in 1810 ; Java (with Batavia) 1811. I 1812-1814. War between England and the United States of North America in consequence of commercial dissensions concluded by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814 (p. 551). 1812. (Sixth) War with Russia. Cause : Napoleon's claim to rule the continent of Europe. The refusal of Russia to carry out strictly the absurd contmental system, which Napoleon himself evaded by salable licenses, and which had ruined Russian commerce, roused the anger of the tyrant. The ad- dition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated ; the deposition of the duke of Oldenburg, his near relative, offended him deeply. Alliance of Napoleon with Austria, which furnished 30,000 men for the Russian expedition, and Prussia, from which he obtained 20,000 men. Denmark, favored by its position, succeeded in main- taining neutrality during the war with Russia. ' Sweden (Berna- dotte), which had been forced by the violent reproaches of Napoleon concerning disregard of the continental system to declare war upon England (1810), seized the opportunity of ihe Russian war, to shake off her dependence upon France, and open for herself the prospect of obtaining Norway, as a recompense for Finland. Occupation of Swedish Pomerania and Rugen by the French, Jan. 1812. Treaty of St. Petersburg between S-weden and Russia, April : Russia promised S^weden the annexation of Norway, with indemnification for Denmark ; Sweden promised Russia to make a diversion in northern Germany in union with a Russian auxiliary force. England concluded peace with Russia and Sweden at Orehro (June). The French army of invasion included Frenchmen, Italians, Swiss, Dutch, Poles, and contingents from all the German princes of the con- federacy of the Rhine , in fact, the smaller part only of the army was^ French. The total number, according to Thiers, was 420,000 men, but reinforcements afterwards swelled it to 553,000. The Aus- trians, under Schwarzenberg, on the right wing, and Prussians, under York, on the left wing, formed separate armies, the latter being under the command of Macdonald. 1812, June. Passage of the Niemen by the great army ; occupation of Wilna. Poland was not restored. The Russians rnxdiex Barclay de Tolly retreated. The main army reached Smolensk without a battle, though suffering from skirmishes and lack of provisions, while the Prussians besieged Riga, and the Austrians penetrated Volhy- A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 475 nia. Storm and destruction of Smolensk (Aug. 17, 18). The Russian general Kutusoff, obtaining the command in cliief, fought the bloody 1812, Sept. 7. Battle at Borodino and Moshaisk on the Moskowa, in which both parties suffered enormous losses (French, 32,000 ; Russian, 47,000), but the Russians were forced to withdraw. Retreat in admirable order through Sept. 14. Moscow. Occupation of the city, which the inhabitants had abandoned, by the French, whose main army had already shrunk to 95,000 men.^ Napoleon in the Kremlin. Sept. 15-19. Burning of Moscow {Rostopschin). Sack of the city in the midst of ashes and ruins. ^ Napoleon proffered a truce, which the Russians rejected by an answer whose delivery was purposely delayed. After remaining five weeks in Moscow, Napoleon commenced his Oct. 19. Retreat from Moscow, at first in a southwesterly direction, afterwards towards Smo^ lensk. The march was disturbed by the Russian main army under Kutusoff, and by countless swarms of Cossacks. Des- perate contest of separate corps of the army at Jaroslavez, Oct. 24, and Vjazma, Nov. 3. Nov. 6. Commencement of the cold weather. Terrible suffer- ing from hunger and frost. Continuous engagements, espe- cially at Krasnoy (Ney, " the bravest of the brave "), and Borissoff. Nov. 26-28. Terrible passage of the Berezina. Ney and Oudinot, with 8,500 men, forced a passage against 25,000. From this point, the disorganization of the remain- ing fragments of the army was complete, and the retreat be- came a wild flight. Dec. 3, Bulletin (No. 29), of Malodeczno. Napoleon left the army and hastened to Paris where he arrived Dec, 18. The army continued its retreat pursued by the Rus- sians until Dec. 13, when the remaining troops (100,000), crossed the Niemen. The Russians made 100,000 prisoners according to their reports. In any case this expedition cost the lives of at least 300,000 able-!)odied young men on the side of the French and their allies. Dec. 30. ITork concluded a treaty of neutrality with the Russian general Diebitch, in the mill of Poscherun near Tauroggen. 1813 and 1814. The Great ^War of Liberation of the allies against Napoleon. 1813, Feb. 3. Appeal of Frederic William III. issued from Breslau, directing the formation of volunteer corps,t whereupon all the young men capable of service flew to arms. Feb. 28. Alliance of Kalish between Russia and Prussia : 1. Offensive and defensive alliance, enumeration of the auxil* ^ Of. V Toll, Denkwurdigkeiten. 476 Modern History. A. d. iary armies to be furnished by either side. 2. Restoration of the Prussian monarchy according to old political relations. 3. Invitation extended to Austria and England to join the alli- ance. 1813, March 3. Treaty between England and Sweden : England paid one million rix dollars in subsidies and promised not to op- pose the union of Norway with Sweden. Sweden furnished the allies an army of 30,000 men under command of the crown prince Bernadotte (the inactive and suspicious conduct of this general afterwards entirely disabled the northern army). March 17. Appeal of Frederic William III. " To my people," and " to my army." Establishment of the Landwehr and the Landsturm. Iron Cross. March. Outbreak in Hamburg. Tettenhorn occupied the city. The dukes of Mecklenburg withdrew from the confederacy of the Rhine. Great preparations on both sides. The Elbe was the boundary be- tween the combatants ; Danzig, Stettin, Kustrin, Glogau, Modlin, and Zamosc, being, however, in the hands of the French. March 27. Occupation of Dresden by Russians and Prussians under Wittgenstein and Blucher, after the withdrawal of marshal Da- vout. Flight of the king of Saxony. The French army and the contingents of the confederacy of the Rhine concentrated in Franconia, Thuringia, and on the Elbe. Napoleon, after the end of April, was at the head of 180,000 men in Germany. He was unexpectedly attacked by the armies of the allies, numbering 85,000 men, and forced to fight the May 2. Battle of Gross-Gorschen or Liitzen. Victory remained with the French, in spite of their losses. The allies withdrew through Dresden to Lusatia. Scharnhorstf severely wounded, died in Prague. Napoleon in Dresden, in close alliance with the king of Saxony, who had returned from Prague. 1813, May 18. Landing of the crown prince Bernadotte with Swedish troops, in Pommerania. May 20 and 21. Battles of Bautzen and "Wurschen. Napoleon attacked the allies at Bautzen, forced them to retreat across the Spree, and completed the victory at Wurschen, with great loss to himself. Duroc f . The allies retreated to Si- lesia. May 30. Hamburg occupied by Davout, after the withdrawal of the Russians, and terribly maltreated. The combatants, exhausted, waited for reiiif orcements and strove to secure the alliance of Austria. June 4-July 26. Armistice of Poischwitz, afterwards prolonged until Aug. 10 (16). June 15. England concluded a subsidy treaty with Prussia and Russia at Reichenbach. July 5 (28)-Aug. 11. Congress at Prague. Austria played the part of mediator, After futile negotiations (Metternich, CaVf A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 477 laincourt, William von Humboldt), the congress was dissolved and 1813, Aug. 12. Austria declared war upon France. The allies, supported by English subsidies, placed three main armies in the field : 1. The great Bohemian army under Schwarzenberg (Kleist, Wittgenstein), with which were the three mon- archs, Alexander, Francis, Frederic William. 2. The Silesian army under Bliicher (York, Sacken, Langeron). 3. The Northern army under the crown prince of Swe- den, Bernadotte {Billow, Tauenzien, Winzing erode). Napoleon opened hostilities with an attack upon Bliicher who re- tired behind the Katzbach. Meanwhile Schwarzenberg advanced against Dresden from Bohemia. Napoleon hastened thither, leaving Macdonald to oppose Bliicher. Before an action occurred at either of these points, Oudinot and Reynier, whose attack upon Berlin was to be supported by Davout from Hamburg, were defeated by Biilow in the Aug. 23. Battle of Grosbeeren, while the crown prince of Saxony looked on inactive. This victory saved Berlin from capture and sack. Directly afterwards Macdonald's army was defeated in the Aug. 26. Battle of the Katzbach near Wahlstatt by Bliicher, a part being captured. Bliicher created Prince of Wahlstatt. Meanwhile the attack of the Bohemian army upon Dresden failed. Napoleon won his last great victory on German soil in the Aug. 26 and 27, Battle of Dresden. Moreau, on the side of the allies, was severely wounded by a cannon-ball, f Sept. 2. Aug. 27. Victorious engagement at Hagelberg. (Landwehr of the electoral mark.) Vandamme, in the attempt to intercept the retreat of the Bohemian army, was defeated in the Aug. 30. Battle at Kulm and Nollendorf near Teplitz, by Ostermann and Kleist, and captured with 10,000 men. Ney, who was to occupy Berlin, was defeated in the Sept. 6. Battle of Dennewitz by Biilow and Tauenzein. Austria having already arranged the prelimmaries of an alliance with Russia and Prussia, dur- ing the armistice, a formal Sept. 9. Alliance was concluded at Teplitz : 1. Firm union and mutual guarantee for their respective terri- tories. 2. Each party to assist the others with at least 60,000 men. 3. No separate peace or armistice to be concluded. Secret 478 Modem History. A. D. articles provided for the restoration of the Austrian and Prus- sian monarchies to the condition of 1805. 1813, Sept. 17. Napoleon repulsed by Schwarzenljerg at Nollendorf. York forced a passage across the Elbe for the army of Silesia hj the Oct. 3. Battle of Wartenburg, against Bertrand. The northern army also crossed the Elbe. Oct. 8. Treaty of Ried between Austria and Bavaria, which with- drew from the confederacy of the Rhine and joined the alli- ance against Napoleon. In return the king of Bavaria was secured in all the possessions which he held at the date of the treaty. As the three main armies of the allies were attempting to unite in Napoleon's rear, the latter left Dresden in order to escape being cut off from France, and concentrated his troops at Leipzig. 1813, Oct. 16, 18, 19. Battle of Leipzig. (''Battle of the Nations "). Oct. 16. On the first day : 1. Indecisive battle between Napoleon and the army of Bo- hemia under Sch-warzenberg at Wachau (south of Leipzig). 2. Victory of Bliicher at Mockern, north of Leipzig, over Marmont. Oct. 17. On the next day the main armies desisted from fighting. Napoleon sent offers of peace to Francis I. which were rejected on account of the extravagance of his demands. Toward even- ing union of the four armies of the allies : the grand army, the northern army, with which the army of Silesia had already united by an extraordinary march of Bliicher, and finally the Russian reserve (100,000) under Bennigsen. The armies of the allies, forming a large half circle, largely outnumbered the French. (300,000 men against 130,000). Oct. 18. On the third day general attack of the allies, ending, after nine hours' fighting, in a complete victory. (Struggle for Probstheide). In the evening the French army was driven back to the gates of Leipzig. The corps of Saxony and Wiir- temberg went over to the allies. Oct. 19. Storm of Leipzig and capture of the king of Saxony. After suffering a loss of more than 30,000 men, the defeated army of Napoleon commenced the retreat. The destruction of the bridge over the Elster before the whole army had crossed caused the drown- ing of many troops in the Elster, among them prince PoniatowsTd, nephew of the last king of Poland. On the retreat engagement on the Unstrut between Napoleon and York^s advanced guard, and at Hanau (Oct. 30, 31) with an Aus- tro-Bavarian army under Wrede. The French were victorious. Immediate consequences of the battle of Leipzig : flight of king Jerome from Cassel ; end of the kingdom of Westphalia, and of the grand duchies of Frankfort and Berg. Restoration of the old rulers in Cassel, Brunswick, Hanover, Oldenburg. The central administra- A. D. Narpoleonic Wars. 479 tive bureau for Germany under baron von Stein, which had been created at the beginning of the war for the government of those dis- tricts wMch should be occupied by the troops of the allies, found its sphere of action limited almost entirely to Saxony. 1813, Nov. Napoleon crossed the Rhine at Mainz. "Wurtemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, and the remaining members of the confederacy of the Kliine joined the allies. The cities occupied by the French fell into the hands of the allies one after another. Dres- den (Nov. 11), Stettin (Nov. 21), Luheck (Dec. 5), Zamosc, Modlin^ Torgau (Dec. 26), Danzig (Dec. 30), Wittenberg (Jan. 12, 1814, by Tauenzien), Kustrin (March 7). Glogau, Magdeburg, Hamburg (Da- vout), Erfurt, Wurzburg, Wesel, Mainz, maintained themselves until the peace. Uprising in Holland (Nov. 15), expulsion of the French officials. A part of the northern army under Billoiu entered Holland, while the crown prince of Sweden, with the main body of the northern army separated completely from the allies, invaded Holstein, in a short winter campaign forced Denmark to conclude the 1814, Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel : 1. Denmark renounced the posses- sion of Norway in favor of Sweden, which guaranteed to the Norwegians the possession of their liberties and rights. 2. Svreden ceded to Denmark western Pomerania and Riigen. At the same time peace between Denmark and England, the latter restoring all conquests except Heligoland ; afterwards peace with Russia and Prus- sia. Meantime the French, after they had already (in 1812) lost the southern part of the country, and Madrid itself for a time, were driven almost entirely out of Spain in 1813. After the French power had been weakened by the departure of Soult with a large number of troops for Germany (Feb. 1813), Well- ington repulsed Soult's successor, Jourdan, and king Joseph, and defeated them in the 1813, June 21. Battle of Vittoria. Joseph fled to France. Siege of Pampeluna by the Spaniards. Soult returning with reinforcements to the relief of Pampeluna was defeated in the Pyrenees (July 28, 29), and withdrew behuid the Bidassoa. At the same time marshal Suchet was driven out of Val- encia into Barcelona. After the conquest of Pampeluna (Oct. 31) by the Spaniards, Wellington crossed the Bidassoa, defeated Soult on French soil, and compelled him to retreat to Bayonne. Napoleon en- deavored to secure peace with Spain by a treaty with the imprisoned king, Ferdinand (whom he liberated from his confinement at Valen- fay), and thus to protect France against invasion from the side of the Pyrenees, but the attempt was a failure. The Cortes did not ratify the treaty, on the ground that the king had not been a free agent, and that they were unwilling to conclude a peace which did not in- clude the English. 1813. The allies on Nov. 8 laid before Napoleon a proposal which secured to France the Alps and Rhine for boundaries, but as Dec. 1. Napoleon did not earnestly entertain it. they adopted the resolution to prosecute the war vigorouslji' and to pass the 480 Modem History, A. D. Rhine. Napoleon obtained from the senate a new levy of 300,000 men ; the corps legislatif, in which words of blame were at last heard, was prorogued sine die. Passage of the allies across the Rhine. 1813, Dec. 21-25. The main army under Schioarzenherg, Wrede, etc., crossed the upper Rhine and traversed Switzerland (Basle), whose treaty of neutrality with Napoleon was disregarded. 1814, Jan. 1. BlUcher with the army of Silesia crossed the middle Rhine, at Mannheim, Caub, and Coblentz. The total strength of the allies on their entrance into French terri- tory was not quite 200,000 men. The main army advanced through Burgundy; Bliicher through Lorraine toward Champagne. To pre- vent their juncture, Napoleon attacked BlUcher at Brienne, and drove Jan. 29. him back ; BlUcher, however, united with a part of the main army (crown prince of WUrtemberg) and defeated the em- peror in the Feb. 1. Battle of La Rothifere, and drove him across the Aube. The impossibility of pro- visioning the united armies, led to their separation. The grand army was to advance upon Paris by way of the Seine, while the army of Silesia followed the Marne toward the same goal. No sooner did Napoleon hear of this separation than, with aston- ishing boldness, leaving a very small body of troops behind to engage the army under Schwarzenberg, he hurled himself suddenly upon the separate divisions of the army of Silesia, defeated them va.four battles Feb. 10-15. at Champaubert (Sacken), Montmirail (York driven across the Marne), Chateau - Thierry, and Vauchamps, and forced BlUcher back to Etoges. Then, turning like a flash upon the main army, he defeated it in the Feb. 17. Engagement at Naiigis (Wittgenstein and Wrede), and in the Feb. 18. Engagement at Montereau (crown prince of WUrtem- berg). Napoleon thus obliged the main army to retreat to Troyes, after which the two armies were for a short time again united on the Aube. Meanwhile ambassadors of the allies had met the envoy of Na- poleon, Caulaincourt, in a Feb. 5-March 19. Congress at Chatillon (on the Seine), where Napoleon was offered the possession of France with the bound- aries of 1792, but the negotiations came to naught by reason of his haughty and dubious conduct. March 1. Closer union between the allied powers at Chaumont. The deposition of Napoleon resolved upoh. The two armies separated again. The main army under Schwarzenberg defeated Oudinot and Macdonald in the Feb. 27. Battle of Bar-sur-Aube. BlUcher reached Meaux, was forced to retire across the Marne and Oise, and joined the army of the north under BUlow and Winzingerode. The united armies defeated Napoleon in the A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 481 1814, March 9, 10. Battle of Laon. Napoleon now turned against the main army, which defeated • him in the March 20, 21. Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. Meanwhile, Wellington had been driving back Soult with equal success. Occupation of Bordeaux (March 12), where the royal ban- ner of the Bourbons was first raised. Napoleon formed the desperate plan of throwing himself in the rear of the allies in Lorraine, summoning the garrisons of the for- tresses to his aid, and calling the entire population to arms. The allies, however, with equal boldness, advanced upon Paris, and de- feated the marshals Marmont and Mortkr in the March 25. Battle of La F^re-Champenoise. Marmont and Mortier threw themselves into the capital. The regent, Maria Louisa^ fled to Blois. After a brave defense and after the March 30. Storm of Montmartre they capitulated under condition of free departure, and left Paris to its fate. March 31. Entrance of the allies into Paris, where the senate, through the influence of Talleyrand^ de- clared that Napoleon and his family had forfeited the throne. Napoleon, hastening to the relief of his capital, came a few hours too late. His marshals having refused to follow him in a foolhardy assault upon Paris, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son (April 6) at Fontainebleau, and, when this reservation was rejected, unconditionally (April 11). Napoleon made a futile attempt to poi- son himself. 1 He received from the allies the island of Elba as a sovereign prin- cipality, and an annual income of two million francs to be paid by France. His wife received the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- tella with sovereign power ; both retained the imperial title. 1814. Wellington defeated Soult in the April 10. Battle of Toulouse. May 4. Arrival of Napoleon at Elba. Return of the Bourbons. Louis XVI.'s brother, the count oj Provence, first appointed his younger brother, the count of Artois as viceregent (lieutenant du royaume), and then returned to France, as 1814-1824. Louis XVIII. where he promulgated a constitution which was an imitation of the English constitution, but with many limitations. (Charte octro- ye'e : chamber of peers and chamber of deputies without the initiative.) He concluded with the allies the May 30. (First) Peace of Paris. 1. France retained, in the main, the boundaries of 1792, which embraced 3,280 square miles more than those of 1790 : Avignon, the 1 According to Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de V Empire, vol. xviii., the truth of this attempted suicide is very doubtful. Cf. V. Helfert, Najp. L Fahrt von Fontainebleau nach Elba, 1874. 31 482 Modern History^ A. D. Venaissin, parts of Savoy, of the German empire, and of Belgium. 2. France recognized the independence of the States of the Netherlands, according to their future enlargement, as well as of all German and Italian states and of Switzerland. 3. England restored the French colonies excepting Tohago, Sta. Lucia, and Isle de France. England retained Malta. 4. The allies remitted all sums which they might have claimed for supplies, advances, etc. 5. France promised Eng- land to abolish the slave trade. After the peace of Paris Pius VII. returned to Rome, the king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, to Turin, the king of Spain, Ferdinand VII., to Madrid. In Spain the rejection of the ultra-liberal constitu- tion proposed by the cortes of 1812, was followed by the immediate out- break of a cruel contest of arbitrary power against the liberal party. Visit of Alexander and Frederic William III. in London (June 7-22, 1814), accompanied by their victorious generals (^Blucher) ; enthusiastic reception by the English nation. For the purpose of restoring and regulating the European relations, and particularly those of Germany, after the overthrow of the military supremacy of the French empire, the 1814, Sept.-1815, June. Congress of Vienna was assembled. The emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wilrtemberg, and a great number of German princes were present in person. Chief negotiators : Austria, Metternich ; Prussia, Hardenberg and W. V. Humboldt ; Russia, Nesselrode and Rasoumoffsky; Great Brit- ain, Wellington and Castlereagh ; France, Talleyrand and Dalberg. (Baron vom Stein, prince of Ligne.') The five powers, which had concluded the peace of Paris, and which, to avoid quarrels about rank, were henceforward named in the order of the French alphabet, Autriche, France, Grande- Bretagne, Prusse, Russie, formed a closer union at the congress of Vienna (hence after- wards called the Pentarchy of the Great Powers). For special cases this union was joined by Spain, Portugal, Sweden. These eight powers, after long negotiations and after the disputes over the Saxon and the Polish questions had for a moment threatened to lead to war (Russia and Prussia against Austria, France, and England), and after Napoleon's return from Elba (p. 483), signed the Act of the Congress of Vienna. Principal articles : 1. Restoration of the Austrian and Prussian monarchies : a. Austria received besides her ancient domain of Milan, Venice, which had been conferred upon her by the treaty of Campo Formio (these were now called the Loinbardo- Venetian king- dom), the Illyrian provinces (the kingdoms of Illyria and Dal- matia), Salzburg, Tyrol (from Bavaria), and Galicia. b. Prus- sia received a part of the grand duchy of Warsaw (Posen) with Danzig J Swedish hither Pomerania with Riigen in re- turn for Lauenburg, which was ceded to Denmark ; its old possessions in Westphalia, somewhat enlarged, as well as Neu- A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 483 chdtel and the grand duchy of the lower Rhine, and the greater part of Saxony as an indemnification for the loss of some former possessions, as Anshach and Baireuth ceded to Bavaria, East Friesland to Hanover, the Polish possessions to Russia. 2. Formation of a kingdom of the Netherlands, comprising the former republic of Holland and Austrian Belgium, under the former hereditary statthalter as King William I. 3. Creation of a German confederacy to take the place of the old empire, comprising 39 (at its dissolution in 1866 only 34) sover- eign states, including the four free cities ; all other princes who were formerly sovereign were mediatized. Act of confederation signed June 8, 1815, supplemented by the final act of Vienna, May 15, 1820. 4. Russia received the greater part of the grand duchy of Warsaw as the kingdom of Poland. Cracow became a free state un- der the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 5. England retained Malta, Heligoland, a portion of the French and Dutch colonies, and the protectorate over the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands (the latter by treaty of 1815, Nov. 5, which was made an integral part of the peace of Vienna. See p. 482. These islands were given to Greece by the treaties of Nov. 14, 1863-Nov. 29, 1864. See p. 605). 6. Sweden retained Norway, which had been ceded to her at the peace of Eael (p. 479), with a constitution of its own ; Den- mark was indemnified with Lauenburg. • 7. The nineteen cantons of Switzerland were increased to twenty- two by the accession of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchdtel (at once canton and Si principality). 8. Restoration of the old dynasties in Spain, in Sardinia, which re- ceived Genoa, in Tuscany, Modena, the Papal States. The Bourbons were not reinstated in Naples until 1815, as Murat had secured possession of that state for the present by his de- sertion of Napoleon. News of the discontent in France with the government of the Bour- bons, and of the discord in the bosom of the congress of Vienna, as well as the invitations of his adherents, encouraged the deposed em- peror to return to France. 1815. Landing of Napoleon at Cannes March 1. with 1,500 men. Forced march upon Paris. All troops sent against him, even Ney with his corps, went over to him. March 13. Proclamation of the ban against Napoleon by the monarchs of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia,. France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. King Louis X VIII. fled to Ghent. March 20. Napoleon entered Paris. The Hundred Days, March 20 to June 29, 1815. Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, concluded a new March 25. Alliance at Vienna against Napoleon, whereby each power engaged to furnish an army of 180»0Q0 men. All Eu- 484 Modern History, A. d. ropean nations were invited to join the alliance. One after another all the states joined it except Sweden, which was occupied in crushing with military power the resistance of Norway to the personal union. The sum of the contingents furnished against Napoleon amounted to over a million men. May. Napoleon found himself obliged to make some apparent con- cessions to the liberal party in France. Champ de Mai : Acte additionel. In Belgium concentration of a Prussian army under Bliicher and an English-German under Wellington, against Napo- leon. Murat, who had declared for Napoleon, defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino (May 3). Naples captured May 22. Murat fled to France. Reinstallation of Ferdinand as king of Naples. June 14. Napoleon crossed the boundary of Belgium. Engagement at Charleroi • the advance guard of the Prussians under Ziethen forced back. June 15, Napoleon defeated Bliicher in the June 16. Battle of Ligny, after a brave resistance (Bliicher in personal danger), and drove him back. Bliicher marched upon Wavre. Ney defeated by the prince of Orange in the June 16. Battle of Quatre-Bras. The duke of Brunswick fell. Meantime concentration of the army of Wellington, consisting of British, Hanoverians, Dutch, and troops from Brunswick and Nassau. Upon this force Napoleon hurled himself with superior numbers. 1815> June 18. Battle of Waterloo and Belle Alliance, called by Napoleon the battle of Mont St. Jean. Napoleon thought he had insured the prevention of the juncture of the Prussians under Bliicher with the English under Wellington, by directing Grouchy to engage the former. By afternoon Wellington's army, though still unyielding, had suffered so heavily that the day was only saved by the arrival of the Prussians under Bliicher. Complete defeat of the French, whose army, pursued by Gneisenau, was entirely scattered. Meanwhile Grouchy, on whose help Napoleon had relied, was engaged at Wavre against Thieleman, whose corps he by some unexplained error took for the whole Prussian army.^ June 22. Abdication of Napoleon in favor of liis son. July 1. Arrival of the allies before Paris. July 7. Second capture of Paris. Entrance of Bliicher and Wellington. Return of Louis XVIII. Arrival of the two emperors, and of the king of Prussia. Meantime Napoleon fled to Rochefort, where, after futile attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself to the British admiral Hotham on the ship-of-the-line Bellerophon, who conveyed him to Eng- land. Thence, by a unanimous resolve of the allies, he was transported as prisoner of war to St. Helena, where he arrived in October (f May 5, 1821). 1 Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de V Empire, xx.; Hopes, Who Lost TPa* Urloo ? — Atlantic Monthly, June, 1881. A. D. Napoleonic Wars. — Modern InventioTts. 485 Sept. 26. Foundation of the Holy Alliance upon the suggestion of Alexander, comprismg at fii-st Russia, Austria, Prussia, theo- retically an intimate union on a basis of morality and religion, but practically soon degenerating into an alliance for the protection of absolute monarchy. JVey made his escape, but was captured, condemned, and executed on Dec. 7, 1815. Murat made a reckless attempt to recover his throne by landing in Calabria ; he was captured, court-martialed, and shot Oct. 13, 1815. Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris. 1. France surrendered the four fortresses Philippeville, Ma- rienburg (also Bouillon to the kingdom of the Netherlands), Saarlouis (and Saarbrucken to Prussia), Landau, which became a fortress of the German confederation, with the surrounding region as far as the Laur- ter (to Bavaria). France ceded to Sardinia that part of Savoy which she had retained in the first peace of Paris. She was therefore brought back, generally speaking, to the boundaries of 1790, instead of to those of 1792, which she had retained in the first peace. 2. Demolition of Hiiningens, a fortress below Basle. 3. Seventeen fortresses on the north and east borders of France were to be garrisoned for five years at the utmost, by troops of the allies at the expense of France. 4. France paid 700 million francs for the expenses of war. Besides this the art treasures which the French had carried away from various cities, partly by treaties, and which had been left in Paris under the first peace, were now reclaimed. The desire of German patriots that at least a portion of the ancient appanages of the old empire, Lorraine, Alsace, and Strashurg, should be taken from France, which would thus be deprived of a point of at- tack against Germany, was not gratified. (^Seej). 526.') FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT DAY- 1815-x. § 1. INVENTIONS. The universal adoption and application of four in- ventions which had been made at an earlier period, and in comparison with whose influence upon the transformation of the world that of all political events, wars, treaties, revolutions, almost disappears, lends the modern world its peculiar character. [A century of material, intellectual, social development of the people follows a century of diplomatic intrigue and misgovern- ment. (Compare with these inventions those of the fifteenth century, p. 279.) ] 1. The first attempts to utilize steam for the production of motion were made \n the seventeenth century. Nothing, however, is cer- 486 Modern History. A. D. taiiily known about either the exact date or place of the invention, or the person of the true discoverer. The French ascribe the invention to Denis Papin, of Blois (1647-1714), the English to the Marquis of Worcester (1663) and Captain Saoery (1698). At all events the first steam engine which deserves the name seems to have been set up in England, and to have been used in mining. This was done by Newcomen, in Devonshire (1705). The man who did the most to improve the steam engine, and whose inventions first made it possi- ble to use these machines in the most various industries, was James Watt (1736-1819), of Greenock, in Scotland. 2. The priority of the idea of applying steam to navigation is disputed between the French, English, and Americans. Tlie French ascribe the invention to the above-named Papin. In 1774 the count of Auxiron, and in 1775 Perier, are said to have sailed the first little steamboat upon the Seine. The experiment was repeated by the marquis of Jouffroy in 1775 on the Douhs, and in 1780 on the Saone at Lyoijs with a vessel of larger dimensions. In England the inven- tion is ascribed to the marquis of Worcester ; it would seem, however, that the first steamboat in Great Britain was built in 1786 by Sym- ington at Edinburgh. To America, however, where experiments with small steamboats had been made upon the Delaware in 1783, 1785, belongs the honor of establishing the first regular steamboat service. This was instituted in 1807 by Fulton, who had already made an experiment with a steamship on the Seine in the presence of the first consul. Napoleon, and had in vain offered to apply steam to the French ships of war (1803). 3. Railroads were without doubt an English invention. In the second half of the seventeenth century wooden railroads were used in the mines at Newcastle on the Tyne, in imitation, it is claimed, of a similar arrangement in the Harz mines. In 1716 the rails were covered with sheet iron, and in 1767 the wood was replaced by cast iron. For a long time the roads were used only for securing an easier draught for horses. The first application of steam to rail- roads was made in 1806 by the engineer Trevithick. Gradual im- provement in the mechanical construction of the engines. George Stephenson in 1814 invented the locomotive and in 1829 an im- proved locomotive, which in 1830 ran upon the first great railroad for passenger traffic between Liverpool and Manchester. The first road of this kind was constructed in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington. First railroad in Germany, Fiirth to Nuremberg (1835), at first a horse railroad ; the first larger line worked by locomotives was constructed between Leipsic and Dresden (1837). First railroad in the United States, 1827, at Quincy, Mass. ; cars drawn by horsas. First roads to use locomotives : South Carolina, Baltimore ^ Ohio. 1830-31. After England and North America were covered with an iron network, Germany, and much later France, began the construc- tion of railroads upon a large scale. [Financial disturbances caused (especially in England) by the withdrawal of capital from other in- dustries to be sunk in construction of railroads, and by stock specula- tion.] 4. Tlie first electric telegraph was invented in 1809 by Sommering, A. D. Continental Europe. 487 a German, in Munich. The invention was offered to Napoleon I., who dismissed it as a " German notion." After the Dane, Orsted, had discovered electro-magnetism in 1819, the Frenchmen Ampere and Ritschie conceived the idea of applying the new discovery to the tele- graph. The first electro-magnetic telegraph which was actually con- structed and used was set up in Gottingen by Gauss and Weber in 1833. Somewhat later an electro-magnetic telegraph was invented in Russia by a German, Schilling. Schilling'' s invention was carried to England by Cooke, an Englishman. There it was improved by Wheatstone, and this perfected telegraph was first practically worked in London, between Euston Square and Camden Town. After the invention had undergone many improvements, especially in Ger- many and America (Morse, 1844), Great Britain, the continent of Europe, and North America were covered with telegraph wires. The first submarine telegraph was laid in 1851 between England and France (Dover to Cape Gris-nez). Submarine cables were then laid from England to Ireland and Belgium (1851, 1853), and hi many other locations. The gigantic undertaking of connecting Europe and America by a cable failed in 1857. A second attempt in 1858 was crowned with success, but only for a time. In 1866 the undertaking was again renewed and brought to a successful close. ( Valencia in Ireland to Newfoundland^ 1,650 English miles.) Since that time, many others have been laid. In 1902 a Pacific cable was laid. §2. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.i 1817-18S2. 1817. Jubilee festival for the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. Festival of the Wartburg. Burning of a number of absolut- ist writings (Ancillon, Schmalz, Haller, etc.). 1818. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. The great powers resolved, at the request of the French minister, the duke of Richelieu, to withdraw the army of occupation from France. 1819. " Demagogic machinations." Murder of the German writer and Russian counselor, Kotzebue (Mar. 23), by the fanatic Sand in Mannheim. Secret organization among German stu- dents (Burschenschq ft). Reaction in Prussia. W. v. Humboldt, Beyme, Boy en, withdrew from the service of the state. Aug. Congress of ministers at Carlsbad controlled by Metternich. Censorship of the press. Supervision of the universities re- solved upon. The congress continued its sittings at Vienna, where the 1820. May. Final Act of Vienna was signed. In Spain rising of the liberals on behalf of the suspended constitution of 1812, which was restored. Oct. Congress at Troppau, ) 1821. Congress at Laybach, | assembled to consult about the revolutionary movements in Naples and Piedmont. 1821. Victorious campaign of the Austrians against the Liberals in ^ For France see p. 526. 488 Modern Hiatory, A. d, Naples {Pepe, Caracosa) and Sardinia (Santa Rosa, battle of Novara). In both countries absolutism in its severest form was restored. 1822. Congress of Verona on account of the Spanish and Grecian disturbances. 1823. French intervention in Spain under the lead of the duke of Angouleme. The French entered Madrid, forced Cadiz to capitulate, and liberated king Ferdinand VII., who had been detained a prisoner there. Cruel reaction, numerous execu- tions (Riego). 1810-1825. Conversion of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central America and South America into independent states. Colombia, a republic since 1819 (Bolivar dictator), was divided, in 1830, into three republics : New Granada (now Colombia in the narrower sense), Venezuela, Ecuador. Peru a free state in 1821; La Plata, too, Uruguay, Chili, and southern Peru, under the name of Bolivia, became independent. In the Jesuit state, Paraguay, Dr. (Joseph Gaspard Roderic de) Francia (and afterwards Lopez) long governed with dictatorial power. Mexico freed from Spanish rule 1821 by Iturhide, who became emperor in 1822, but was obliged to abdicate and leave the country. Mexico a republic 1823 ; Iturbide returned, but was executed 1824. Brazil an independent empire since 1822. 1820-1834. Revolutions and civil wars in Portugal. Don Miguel^ the younger son of king John VI. (f 1826), after a long civil war and unheard-of barbarities, was conquered by his elder brother, Don Pedro (since 1822 emperor of Brazil). Don Pedro (f 1834) delegated the government of Portugal in 1826 to his daughter, Donna Maria ; in 1831 he delegated the crown of Brazil to his son, Pedro II. 1821-1829. "War of Grecian Independence. Secret societies (hetaries). Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, at the head of a Grecian revolt in Moldavia and Wallachia (March- June, 1821), was defeated and fled to Austria, where he was de- tained a prisoner in Munkatsch for six years. Uprising in Morea (Mainots, April, 1821). Turkish attacks upon the Christians in Con- stantinople, Adrianople, etc. ; terrible barbarities in Chios, v/hich had revolted ; over 20,000 Greeks murdered. Canaris burned a part of the Turkish fleet and put 3,000 Turks to death (1822). Lord Byron (t Apr. 24, 1824), Ej/nard from Geneva. William Muller the Ger- man poet. German Philohellenists. [Philo-hellenists in England and America (Dr. Howe)']. Brave defense of Missolonghi (1825, 1826). 1824-1830. Charles X., king of France (p. 527). 1825-1855- Nicholas I., emperor of Russia, his elder brother Constantine having renounced the crown. 1825-1827. Ibrahim Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, ravaged Morea. England, Russia, and France interfered in behalf of the Greeks, who were hard pressed and at variance among themselves. A. D. Continental Europe. 489 1826. Massacre of the Janizaries in Constantinople by Sultan Mah' mud II., after a mutiny. The troop was entirely abolished. 1827. Battle of Navarino. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by Oct. 20. the English, French, and Russian fleets (" untoward event "), and Ibrahim was compelled to retreat from Morea. 1828-1829. Russo-Turkish War. The Russian general, Diebitch, crossed the Balkans (whence his surname, Sabalkanski), and took Adrianople. In Asia Kars and ErzefoUm were captured by Paskevitch, who had captured Erivan in 1827 in a war with Persia, and thereby gained the name of Erivanski. 1829. Peace of Adrianople. Russia restored almost all her conquests to Turkey, the latter power recognizing, in advance, the resolves of the London Conference which aimounced in 1830 the independence of Greece. Provisional administration of the count Capo d^Istria as president, who in 1831 was murdered in Napoli di Romania (Nauplia), the seat of government. The guardian powers, England, France, Russia, raised to the Grecian throne the Bavarian prince, 1832-1862. Otto I., f 1867. 1830. Capture of Algiers by the French (p. 527). 1830, July 27-29. July Revolution at Paris. Abdication of Charles X. ; accession of 1830-1848. Louis Philippe I. For the details see p. 529. This revolution was followed by liberal uprisings throughout Europe. 1830-1837. William IV. (heretofore duke of Clarence) king of England. Whig ministry. 1830. Revolution in Belgium. Cause : The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the congress of Vienna, had been formed by the enforced union of two utterly differ- ent elements, the protestant commercial state of Holland, which was of like nationality with its sovereign, and the catholic manufacturing country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and Walloon nationalities, but was pervaded by French culture. The suc- cess of the July revolution in Paris inflamed the long smouldering dissatisfaction in Brussels. 1830, Aug. 25. Outbreak in Brussels after a performance of the " Masaniello." The mediation of prince William of OrangCf the eldest son of king William I., failed of success. Prince Frederic, the king's second son, who had occupied a part of Brussels with a division of the army, was expelled from the city during the night of Sept. 26-27. On Nov. 18, Declaration of Independence passed by the Belgian congress. Provisional government. The London Conference between the great powers procured a cessa- tion of hostilities between Holland and Belgium and recognized the new state (Jan., 1831), which in February adopted a liberal monarch- 490 Modern History. A. D. ical constitution. After Louis Philippe had declined the honor for his second son, the duke of Nemours , upon whom the first choice fell, 1831-1865. Leopold I., of Saxe-Coburg, was elected king of the Belgians. [A man of ability and excellent disposition, he ap- proved himself an admirable constitutional monarch.] The war with Holland lasted until 1833. Peace was established in 1839. Results of the July Revolution : Revolutionary movements in Germany (in Saxony SiXi^ Hesse-Cassel, alteration of the constitutions) » In Brunsioick duke Charles (f 1873) was expelled ; duke William taking his place, in accordance with a decree of the diet of the con- federacy. Democratic transformation in many of the Swiss cantons. 1830-1832. Revolution in Poland. 1830, Nov. 29. Revolt in Warsaw. The attempted assassination of the grand duke Consiantine foiled. Provisional government : Lubecki (pron. Lubetski), Czartoryski (pron. Tshar — ), Chlopicki (^Klopitzki), regarded with suspicion by the democrats (Lelewel). General Chlopicki dictator until Jan,, 1831, then prince Radzivil com- mander-in-chief. The emperor Nicholas deposed by the diet Jan., 1831. Prince Czartoryski president. The Russians advanced under Diebitoh. Bloody engagement at Grochow (Feb. 19-25, 1831), where the Poles with 45,000 men offered long and victorious resis- tance to the superior force of the Russians (70,000 men with more than twice as many cannon as the Poles possessed), but were at last forced back upon Prague. Skrzynecki commander-in-chief ; defeat of the Russians at Wawar and Demhe Wielski ; the insurrection spread through Lithuania and Podolia. Diehitch defeated the Poles in the bloody 1831, May 26. Battle of Ostrolenka. Diebitch f June 10. Want of harmony among the Poles. Massacres by the Polish demo- crats in Warsaw. Czartoryski escaped and was replaced by the in- efficient Krukowiecki. The new Russian general Paskevitch crossed the Vistula, captured Warsaw (Sept. 6 and 7, 1831). The Polish insurrection suppressed. The Organic Statute of Feb. 26, 1832, deprived Poland of its constitution and reduced it to a province of the Russian empire, although with a separate administration. 1831. Uprisings in Modena, Parma, and Romagna, quickly sup- pressed with the assistance of the Austrians. 1833-1840. After the death of Ferdinand VII., civil war in Spain. Led by Espartero, the constitutional party, which supported the claims of Isabella II., the minor daughter of the king, and her mother Maria Christina, after a bloody contest, defeated the absolutist party {Don Carlos, brother of the king, f 1855 in exile ; leaders of the Carlists : Zumalacarregui, f 1835, Cabrera, Gomez). Espartero overthrown in 1843. Banishment of the queen dowager, Christina. 1833, The Frankfort uprising, wherein two watches were over- powered for a few hours, caused a vigorous reactionary movement throughout Germany. Frankfort received an Austro- Prussian garrison. Establishment of commissions for political inves- tigations, arrests and condemnations. Meeting of the sovereigns of A. D. Continental Europe. 491 Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Munchengratz ; ministerial conference in Teplitz (1833) and Vienna (1834), by whose resolutions the rights of the estates in Germany were still further curtailed. 1833. Foundation of the German Customs Union (Zollverein) (Maassen, Prussian minister of finance), which had been zeal- ously advocated by Prussia since 1818. In 1830 the union already included a population of 25,000,000 and a territory of 80,600 square miles. After 1854 it embraced 98,000 square miles and 35,000,000 inhabitants. 1835-1848. Ferdinand I., emperor of Austria. The chancellor of state, Metternich, was still the actual head of the government and the soul of the conservative reactionary policy throughout Europe. Censorship of the press. Strict system of pass- ports. Police surveillance. 1837. Upon the death of William IV. of England, Hanover, where the salic laiv^ regulated the descent of the throne, became separated from England. Partial repeal of the fundamental statute of 1833 by the king of Hanover, Ernst August, under the pretext that the constitution had been adopted without his consent, he being at the time heir to the throne. The true reason was probably that the constitution had made the domains public property and had established a civil list. Dismissal of seveti professors at Gottingen (Jacob and William Grimm, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Ewald, Albrecht and Weber), for refusal to take the oath of homage. 1837-1901. Victoria, queen of Great Britain and Ireland. 1837. Arrest of the archbishop of Cologne (Droste von Vischering), in consequence of a quarrel with the Prussian government about marriages between persons of different religious beliefs. 1840. Death of Frederic William III. of Prussia. His son and suc- June 7. cessor 1840-1861. Frederic William IV. (see p. 615). Mehemed Ali, viceroy of Egypt, in a previous victorious war (1831-1833) with his over-lord the sultan, threatened Constantinople. He was, however, compelled by the European powers to make peace, and obliged to be content with the investiture of Syria as a fief from the sultan. The attempt of the Porte (1839) to deprive him of Syria, failed. Ibrahim, son of Mehemed Ali, defeated the Turks at Nisib on the Euphrates. Through treachery the Turkish fleet fell into the hands of the viceroy of Egypt. Relying on the support of France, Mehemed Ali demanded from the young sultan Abdul-Medjid (1839- 1861) the hereditary investiture of all lands under his government. To oppose these demands, England (lord Palmerston), Austria, Prussia, and Russia, concluded in 1840 a treaty of alliance, to the ex- clusion of France, which for a moment threatened the peace of Eu- rope. After the fall of the ministry of Thiers, however, and after 1 Cf. p. 255, note. 492 Modern History. A. D. Guizot became president of the ministry in October, France sub- mitted and deserted the viceroy of Egypt. The armed intervention of England and Austria in Syria forced the viceroy to take a lower tone, and he retained only the hereditary rule over Egypt under the over-lordship of the Porte. 1846. Death of Pope Gregory XVI. Attempted reforms of his suc- cessor Pius IX. {Mastai-Ferretti). 1847. Convention of the united legislature (^Landtag) in Prussia. War of the Sonderbund (separate confederacy) in Switzerland, against seven Catholic cantons (Jesuits). General Dufour quickly overpowered Freiburg and Luzerne. Dissolution of the Sonderbund. Transformation of the Swiss confederacy from a close alliance [Staatenbund] of sovereign cantons into a, federal nation [Bundesstaat]. The former diet, in which Zurich, Berne, and Luzerne had in turn been the chief town, was now succeeded by a confederate council which sat in Berne and consisted of 1. a council of estates (representation of the governments of the separate cantons), 2. a national council (representation of the whole Swiss people according to the density of the population). A common system of coinage ; centralized postal service and military organization. 1848. Feb. 24. February Revolution in Paris (p. 530). 1848-1851 (1852). France, for the second time, a republic. In Switzerland, complete victory of the radicals. The can- ton of Neuchdtel tlirew off allegiance to its prince, the king of Prussia. 1848. Revolutionary movements in Germany, in consequence of the French revolution. Feb. 27. Popular assembly at Mannheim under the lead of Itzlein, which demanded a German parliament, jury trials, free press, right of forming organizations, societies, etc. March 11. The elector of Hesse obliged to agree to these demands. March 13-15. Outbreak in "Vienna. Metternich driven from the city, which fell into the hands of the burgher-guard and the students. March 18. Conflicts in the streets of Berlin. The troops, tired but not conquered, left the city by order of the king (March 19- 20). Formation of a poorly disciplined burgher-guard. Lib- eral ministers frequently changed. Anarchy in the capital. Call of a constituent assembly at Berlin. March 20. After disturbances had occurred in Munich as early as March 6, Louis I. (f 1868) abdicated in favor of his son Maximilian II. Disturbances in Saxony, Hanover, Nassau^ Mecklenburg, etc. March 31. Preliminary parliament in Frankfort opened under the presidency of Mittermaier. Four sessions. Resolve adopted to call a national German constituejit assembly, for the purpose of making a constitution for the German empire. April. A republican rising in Baden (Hecker, Struve), supported by the arrival of refugees {Herwegh) and foreign republicans quickly suppressed by the troops of the German confederation. A.. D. Continental Europe. 493 General Frederic von Gagern treacherously shot by the volun- teers (April 20). May 15. Second msurrection in Vienna, which compelled the con- vocation of a constituent diet. The emperor left Vieiuia and went to Innsbruck. The intended dissolution of the legion of students caused a May 26. Third insurrection in Vienna, after which the troops left the city and a committee of public safety (citizens and students) controlled the city. 1848-1849. Grerman National Assembly (Parliament) May 18. in Frankfort (Church of St. Paul) for the purpose of " har- monizing" a constitution for the German empire with the governments of the various states. The national assembly elected archduke John of Austria (QQ years old) administrator of the empire. He entered Frankfort June 11. The confederate council (Bundestag) dissolved itself. First imperial ministry (afterwards made more complete): Schmerling (Austria), foreign affairs, and interior ;PeMcA;er (Prussia), war; Heckscher (Ham- burg), justice. It was soon evident, however, that the newly cre- ated central power had no real authority either as regarded foreign countries or the separate states. « President of the national assembly, Heinrich von Gagern. Par- ties: right (Radowitz, Vincke, prince Lichnowsky), holding to the idea of an imperial constitution in harmony with the separate governments; left (Vogt, Ruge, Robert Blum), proclaiming the principle of the sov- ereignty of the people, and endeavoring to establish a republican confederation (Bundestaat) by revolutionary means; right centre (Gagern, Dahlmann, Gervinus, Arndt, Beseler, Bassermann, J. Grimm), which hoped to persuade the governments to recognize the estab- lishment of a constitutional monarchy for Germany ; left centra (Romer, Fallmerayer, Raveaux, etc.), which insisted upon the uncon- ditional subordination of the separate states to a central monarchy, to be created on the basis of the sovereignty of the people ; it recom- mended, however, that the views of the separate governments and such particular requirements of the states as were well founded should be respected. 1848. In Naples grant of a liberal constitution, followed by a reac- Feb. tion after the victory of the Swiss troops in the conflicts in the streets (May). War with Sicily, which was in revolt, but was subdued by Filangieri with great severity. After the murder of his minister, Rossi, Pius IX. fled to Gaeta (Nov.). Rule of the anarchists and republicans (Mazzini) in Rome. After a two months' siege Rome was captured by the French (July, 1849), and the papal authority was restored. The Pope did not return to Rome, however, until 1850. (French garrison m Rome, 1849-1866.) 1848. Slavonic congress in Prague, June 2. called by the Czechs (Palacki), in order to unite the oppo- sition of the Slavonic people of Austria against the growth of German culture and influence. In order that the representatives of the different Slavonic nationalities might understand one another, 494 Modern History. A. D, the proceedings of this anti-German congress were held in German. June 12-17. Uprising of the Czechs in Prague suppressed by Win- dischgrdtz. Oct. 31. Capture of Vienna by imperial troops ( Windischgratz, Jella- chick). Robert Blum (member of the parliament of Frankfort), Messenhauser (commander of the city), and many others were shot. Nov. 1. Commencement of the reaction in Prussia. Ministry Brandenburg - Manteuffel. General Wrangel entered Berlin without resistance (Nov. 10). Proclamation of a state of siege. The burgher-guard disarmed. Nov. 27. Transference of the national assembly to Brandenburg. As a quorum failed to meet there, Dec. 5. Dissolution of the national assembly and imposition of a constitution with two chambers, the second elected by uni- versal (manhood) and equal suffrage. Dec. 10. Prince Louis Napoleon elected president of the French RepubHc (p. 531). 1848-1849. War between Austria and Sardinia. The Austrians, driven from Milan by a revolt (March, 1848), retired to Verona. An Italian attack at St. Lucia repulsed. Ra- detzki, reinforced by Nugent (engagements at Udine and Belluno), advanced again. The troops of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, victorious at Goito (May), were completely defeated by Badetzki at July 25. Custozza. Milan recaptured by the Austrians. Truce from Aug. 9, 1848, to March 20, 1849. Radetzki, by the vic- tory of Mortara (March 21) and No vara (March 23), compelled the conclusion of peace. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and retired to Portugal (f July, 1849). Capture of Brescia after terrible fighting in the streets. Cruelties exercised upon prisoners (Haynau). In Venice, aiter the withdrawal of the Austrian garrison (March, 1848), a provisional government in the name of the king of Sardinia was succeeded, after the defeat of the Italian army, by a republic (president Manin). Siege and cap- ture of Venice by the Austrians (Aug. 1849). The whole of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom subjected anew to Austria. 1848-1849. Uprising of the Hungarians (Magyars). The Hungarians demanded and received a separate ministry (April, 1848). Count Batthyanyi, president of the ministry; Kossuth (pr. Kdshut), minister of finance. Diet in Pesth under the presidency of the archduke Stephen as palatine. The opposition of the Slavonic population and the appanages of the crown of Hungary (^Croatia, Transylvania) to the supremacy of the Magyars, and their demand for political equality, were supported by the court of Vienna. Jella- chich appointed Ban of Croatia. Kossuth procured from the diet a levy of national troops (Honveds), and the issue of Hungarian paper money. Jellachich invaded Hungary, but was defeated at Velencze. The archduke palatine Stephen resigned his office. Count Lamberg^ created imperial governor of Hungary, murdered at Pesth (Sept.). The emperor dissolved the diet. A. D. Continental Europe. 495 After the abdication of Ferdinand I. (f 1875) his nephew mounted the throne as 1848 — X. Francis Joseph I., emperor of Austria. The Hungarian diet refused to recognize the abdication of Ferdinand I. and the accession of Francis Joseph I. Prince Win- dischgrdtz led an Austrian army into Hungary. Kossuth and the Magyar officials retired to Debreczin. Windischgratz occupied Pesth (Jan., 1849). The Polish general Bern, to whom Kossuth had given a command, defeated the Austrians in a series of engagements. Other troops, under the Pole Dembinski and the Magyar princes Gorgey and Klapka, were successful against the Austrians. Dembinski was appointed commander-in-chief of the Magyar forces, but was de- feated at Kapolna (Feb. 26, 1849) and resigned his command. Meanwhile a bloody struggle was in progress in Transylvania: Bern, defeated by the Austrian general Puchner at Hermanstadt (Feb., 1849), after having received reinforcements, took the offensive against the Austrians and Russians, whom the former had called to their aid, with success ; driving the Russians out of Transylvania. In the west, too, fortune smiled upon the Hungarian arms. Gorgey relieved Ko- morn. Windischgratz was driven back to Pesth, which his successor, Welden, was compelled to evacuate; an Austrian garrison remained in Ofen. In consequence of the 1849. Publication of the general constitution for Austria, March 4. which abolished the ancient Hungarian constitution, the diet, upon Kossuth's motion, pronounced the deposition of the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine. Kossuth placed at the head of the Mag- yar government with the title of governor. Divisions and lack of de- cision among the Hungarians. Instead of marching upon Vienna they laid siege to Ofen, which Gorgey captured May 21. Kossuth and the diet made a pompous entrance into Pesth. Meanwhile at a meet- ing of the emperors of Austria and Russia, Russian intervention was agreed upon, and a common plan of operations adopted for the subjugation of Hungary. Last decisive struggle of the Hungarians. Bern defeated at Her~ mannstadt in Transylvania by the Russians (Liiders), who outnum- bered him three to one. Dembinski forced to retire before the su- perior Russian force under Paskevitch. Gorgey tried in vain to break through the main Austrian army under Haynau, was defeated at Zsigard and Komorn, went to the aid of Dembinski, defeated the Rus- sians under Rudiger at Waitzen, but was obliged to retire to the mountains upon the approach of Paskevitch, escaping the Russians only by a masterly retreat. Kossuth fled with the diet to Szegedin, whither Haynau marched. Dembinski, attacking him, was defeated at Szorek (Aug. 5), and at Temesvar (Aug. 9), where his army was almost entirely scattered. Confusion and discord among the Hun- garians. Kossuth laid down the chief power ; the dictatorship was conferred upon Gorgey. Two days later Gorgey concluded the 1849, Aug. 13. Capitulation of Vilagos, in which about 25,000 men laid down their arms (120 cannon surrendered) before the Russian general Pdidiger. Most of the other 496 Modern History. A. D. corps surrendered unconditionally ; Klapka alone, who defended Ko- morn, made an honorable capitulation. Kossuth, Bern, Dembinskiy found refuge in Turkish territory. Haynau administered terrible punishment to the captured leaders of the insurrection. Numerous executions (count Batthyanyi hanged), imprisonments and confisca- tions. Abolition of the Hungarian constitution. Transylvania and Croatia separated from Hungary. Abolition of the general constitution of Austria, Dec, 31, 1851. 1848-1851. Three wars of Schleswig-Holstein against Denraark. Cause: « Open letter " of the king, Christian VIII. (July 8, 1846), which arbitrarily decreed the continuance of the union of the duchies with Denmark, in spite of the different laws of inheritance in the two states. A revolutionary movement in Copenhagen (Casino party) compelled king Frederic VII. to pronounce the annexation of Schlesw^ig to Denmark (1848). Hence insurrection in the duchies (March, 1848), and formation of 2i, provisional government of the coun- try (Beseler). 1848, First War. Prussian troops and those of the German con- April-Aug. federacy came to the assistance of the duchies, which were obliged to form a new army. General Wrangel defeated the Danes at Schleswig (April 23) and advanced to Jutland. The losses to commerce in the Baltic by the Danish blockade and the in- fluence of England and Russia produced the not very honorable truce of Malmo (26 Aug. 1848-26 March, 1849). Establishment of " com- mon government " for the duchies. Dissatisfaction with the truce throughout Germany. Angry de- bates in the national assembly at Frankfort ; contest in the streets with the populace, who were excited by the democrats. Murder of prince Lichnowsky and general von Auerswald (Sept.). 1849, March-July. Second War. Creation of a governorship {Bese- ler, Reventlow-Preetz) by the central government of Germany. At Eckernforde the ship of the line Christian VIII. was fired by can- nonade and the frigate Gejion captured (April 5). Storm of the re- doubts of Diippel by Bavarian and Saxon troops (April 13). The Prussian general Bonin, at the head of the Schleswig-Holstein army, defeated the Danes at Kolding (April 20). In consequence of the threatening attitude of England, France, and Russia, indifferent con- duct of Prussia and other German troops in the war (general Pritt- luitz). Siege of Fredericia by the Schleswig-Holstein army, wlucn, however, suffered a considerable loss through a successful sortie of the Danes. Truce of Berlin, between Prussia and Denmark (1849, Jvily 10), whereby Schleswig was to be occupied by Swedish troops in the north, in the south by Prussian troops, and received a new adminis- tration. The truce was converted into a peace (in the name of the Ger- man confederation as well). Bonin and all Prussian officers were recalled from the Schleswig-Holstein army. 1850, Jan.-1851, July. Third War, conducted by Schlestvig-Holstein- ers alone without the aid of Germany. General Willisen, for- merly in the Prussian service, assumed command of the army. He A. D. Continental Europe. 497 was defeated at Idstedt (July 24, 25). Schleswig occupied by the Danes. In the engagement at Missunde (Sept. 12) the Schleswig- Holstein troops were again defeated. In the storm of Friedrichstadt (Oct. 4) they were repulsed with great loss. The chief command was transferred from Willisen to general Horst. The German con- federacy having been restored meanwhile (p. 498) enforced under Austrian influence the cessation of hostilities ; Holstein was occupied by Austrian troops with the consent of Prussia, and delivered to the Dftnes upon the vague promise of " respecting the rights of the duchies" (1852). 1849. Completion of the constitution of the German Empire. Diet, composed of a chamber of state, appointed half by the govern- ments, half by the popular representatives of the separate states, and A popular chamber. Monarchical power with only a suspensive veto. Formation of two parties, the great German (Grossdeutsche) party, which wished to retain the German territory of Austria in Germany, and the small German (Kleindeutsche), which wished to exclude Aus- tria and form a narrower confederacy under the hegemony of Prussia. 1849. The oifer of the crown of emperor of the Germans, by a April 3. deputation of the national assembly at Frankfort, was de- clined by the king. Frederic William declared that he could assume the imperial dignity only with the consent of all German gov- ernments. May. Uprising in Dresden (Tzschirner, Heubner, Todt, Bakunin) suppressed by Prussian assistance. Recall and withdrawal of a great number of representatives 1849. from the national assembly at Frankfort. The Rump-Par^ June, liament (president Lowe-Kalbe) in Stuttgart dissolved. The administrator superseded by a central power to be executed by Austria and Prussia alternately, " for the German confederacy " (The interim^. Death of the administrator, Oct. 20, 1849. May. Republican uprising in the county palatine and in the grand duchy of Baden (Struve, Mieroslawski) ; defection of the army. Prussian troops under the prince of Prussia entered Baden, de- feated the insurgents at Waghdusel, besieged and captured Rastadt. The commander Tiedemann and others were shot ; many, among them the poet Kinkel, condemned to imprisonment for life with hard labor {Kinkel, 1850, in Spandau, was rescued by Karl Schurz). 1850, Feb. 6. In Prussia the king and legislature took the oath of allegiance to the revised constitution. Exertions of Prussia to create a German federal state (Bundesstaat), with exclusion of Austria (Radowitz), actively supported by the old party of the hereditary empire in the Frankfort parliament, the Gothas (so called from a meeting in Gotha). The "alliance of the three kings " (Prussia, Hanover, Saxony), concluded May 26, 1849, which was immediately joined by most of the smaller German states, was soon broken up by the withdrawal of Hanover and Saxonyc Nevertheless the 32 498 Modern History. A. D. 1850, March 20. Parliament of Erfurt was opened, which on the 27th April concluded the discussion of a new German Union. May &-16. Congress of princes in Berlin, wherein the dislike of electoral Hesse {Hassenpjiug^ for the union came to light. Creation of a college of princes. Austria opposed the efforts of Prussia by the Sept. 2. Reopening of the Frankfort parliament. Contest over the constitution in the electorate of Hesse. Re- peated dissolution of the assembly of the estates by Hassenpjlug. The whole country was pronounced in a state of war (Sept. 7). Resist- ance of the officials and the courts. The prince elector left the coun- try and invited the intervention of the diet, which had been restored by Austria, but was not recognized by Prussia and her confederates ; Hassenpjiug ambassador to the diet. The diet granted aid to the prince elector, Prussia protesting. General Haynau appointed mili- tary dictator in electoral Hesse (Oct. 2). Almost the entire corps of officers in electoral Hesse received their dismissal. Rupture between Prussia and Austria ; Nicholas of Russia took sides with the latter (two meetings in Warsaw). Meeting of the emperor of Austria and the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg at Bregenz, directed against Prussia. Execution of the decree of the confederacy by Bavarian and Austrian troops. The Prussian gov- ernment sent their troops (general Groben) into electoral Hesse, and seemed for a moment about to oppose the execution of the decree of the confederacy (encounter of the pickets at Bronnzell, Nov. 8), but were finally satisfied with occupying the military roads of Prussia. Dismissal of the minister Radowitz, and thereby complete abandon- ment of the Prussian exertions for union. In the 1850. Conference at Olmiitz (Manteuffel and Schwar- Nov. 29. zenberg) Prussia yielded to all the demands of Austria ; Schleswig-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, the unlimited authority of the elector was restored in electoral Hesse. The ques- tion of the German constitution was settled at the 1850-1851. Conference at Dresden Dec. 23-May 15. after a lengthy discussion, wherein the influence of the emperor of Russia had great weight, by a simple re- turn to the diet of the confederacy. Prussia herself invited the former members of the union to send representatives to that body, so that the 1851. German confederation of 1815 was reestablished in its old form. 1851' First universal industrial exhibition in Lon« don. 1851. In Paris, coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, who be- Dec. 2. came president of the republic for ten years (p. 531). 1852, May 8. Treaty of London (protocol) signed by the five great powersr and Sweden. In order to guarantee the in- tegrity of the Danish monarchy, a successor was appointed for the crown of Denmark and for the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, with- A. D. Continental Europe. 499 out consulting the estates of the duchies. The female line next in succession having renounced its rights, Christian of Sonderburg- Gliicksburg was proclaimed heir of the childless king Frederic VII,, for the entire monarchy. This treaty was recognized by Hanover^ Saxony, and Wurtemherg, but not by the German confederation. 1852, Dec. 1. Napoleon III., emperor of the French (1852- 1870). 1853-1856. War of Russia against Turkey and 1854-1856. "War of the western powers against Russia. Crimean War. Cause : Resuscitation of the old Russian plans of conquest (Catha- rine II. p. 411) against Turkey by Nicholas I. Thinking an alliance between England and France impossible, and believing that he had made sure of Austria and Prussia, he pressed forward with- out hesitation. He developed his views, concealing but little, to the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Seymour : Servia, Bosnia, Bul- garia, and the principalities of the Danube should become independent states under Russian protection. Constantinople should be occupied provisionally, by Russian troops ; the prospect of the acquisition of Crete and Egypt was held out to England. In spite of the unfavor- able attitude of England, the emperor pursued his plans. Demand for a protectorate over all Christians of the Greek church in the Turkish empire, urged in an overbearing manner, by the Russian am- bassador prince Mentchikoff. The Porte refused to listen to the prop- osition. Mentchikoff left Constantinople with threats (May 21, 1853). 1853, A united French and English fleet was placed at the entrance to the Dardanelles, afterwards in the Bosphorus, for purposes of observation. 80,000 Russians crossed the Pruth and occupied the principalities of the Danube (July). Meeting between Nicholas and the empieror of Austria and the king of Prussia in Olmiitz (Sept.), where however, he did not obtain the desired alliance, but only an assur- ance of neutrality under certain conditions. The Porte declared war upon Russia ^(Oct.). Om£r Pacha crossed the Danube and held his ground against the Russians at Oltenitza (Nov. 4). The Russian fleet surprised and defeated a Turkish squadron at Sinope, Nov. 4. Upon the refusal of the emperor to evacuate the principalities of the Danube, 1854, March 12. Alliance of the western powers with Turkey, and March 28. declaration of war by England and France upon Rus- sia. Paskevitch appointed to the chief command of the Russian army which crossed the Danube, but besieged Silistria in vain (June). England and France sent troops to the aid of Turkey, which concen- trated in Gallipoli. Alliance between Prussia and Austria; these states declared the passage of the Balkans by the Russians an act of war, and soon demanded the evacuation of the principalities. The emperor Nicholas ordered the evacuation " for strategic reasons " (July). With the consent of the Porte the principalities were pro- visionally occupied by the Austrians. 500 Modern History. A. d A second French and English fleet {Napier') appeared in the Baltic, but could make no impression upon the fortress of Kronstadt and cap- tured only the small fortress of Bomarsund, upon one of the Aland Islands. At the southern seat of war, the allies landed at Varna, on the Black Sea (June). Marshal St. Arnaud and lord Raglan command- ers-in-chief. The French invasion of the Dobrudsha was followed by great losses through sickness. At Varna the expedition to the Crimea was resolved upon, in order to destroy Sebastopol and an- nihilate the Russian naval power in the Black Sea. The French and English (50,000 men together) and 6,000 Turks landed at Eupatoria, on the west coast of the Crimea, Sept. 14, and defeated the Russians in the 1854, Sept. 20. Battle of the Alma. Marshal St. Arnaud died of the cholera. The command of the French given to Canrobert. After the English had established themselves on the bay of Balaklava, and the French on the bay of Kamiesch, the 1854-1855. Siege of Sebastopol Oct. Nov. began. The city was surrounded by new fortresses by Mentchikoff, under the superintendence of Totleben, and the harbor closed by sunken ships of war. An attack of the allies upon Sebastopol failed (Oct, 17). The Russian general Liprahdi attacked the English at Balaklava (Oct. 25) and inflicted a severe loss upon them (charge of the Light Brigade). Aiiev Mentchikoff hsidi received reinforcements, he attacked the allies anew, but was defeated in the bloody 1854, Nov. 5. Battle of Inkermann. Slow progress of the siege works during the winter. After the emperor of Russia had rejected the conditions of peace which were supported by Prussia and Austria, the latter power joined the alliance of the western powers (Dec. 1854), and placed a consider- able force upon the Russian boundary without, however, commencing actual operations of war. Prussia persisted in her neutral attitude. Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia concluded an alliance with the western powers and sent 15,000 men under La Marmora to the Crimea. A Russian attack upon Eupatoria was repulsed by the Turks. 1855, March 2. Death of Nicholas I. His son 1855-1881. Alexander II. (abolition of serfdom 1858- 1863). Prince Gortchakoff received the chief command in Sebastopol. After fruitless negotiations in Vienna, Austria again assumed an attitude of waiting and withdrew a portion of the troops on the Russian border. Enormous losses among the besiegers, from sickness (Florence Night- ingale). Privations and daily skirmishes. At the request of Canro- bert the command of the French forces was transferred to general Pelissier (May 16). A general storm was repulsed, with great loss to the allies (June 18). Lord Raglan died June 28, and Simpson be- came commander-in-chief of the English army. A. D. Continental Europe. 501 After a continuous bombardment and many bloody engagements 1855. Storm of the Malakoff tower by the French, and of the Sept. 8. Redan by the English, who were, however, soon driven out again by the Russians. Sept. 11. The Russians, by means of a pontoon bridge, withdrew into the northern part of the fortress. Occupation of the city of Sevastopol by the allies. Nov. 28. In Asia, capture of the fortress of Kars by the Russians. At the congress of Paris {France, England, Russia, Turkey, Sar- dinia, Austria, and at the last Prussia), the 1856, March 30. Peace of Paris was agreed upon. 1. Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of Bessarabia on the left bank of the lower Danube. 2. Russia re- nounced the one-sided protectorate over the Christians in Turkey (whose elevation to equality with the Mohammedan population was promised by the Porte), and over the principalities of the Danube, whose relations were to be settled later. 3. Russia restored Kars, and promised not to establish any arsenals upon the Black Sea, nor to maintain there more ships than the Porte. 4. The western powers restored Sevastopol to Russia, after having destroyed the docks, the constructions in the harbor, and the fortifications. [5. Adoption of the four rules : 1. Privateering is and remains abolished. 2. The neutral flag covers an enemy's goods, except contraband of war. 3. Neutral goods, except contraband of war, not liable to capture under an enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, to be binding, must be effective.] 1856-1857. Dispute between the king of Prussia and Switzerland, in consequence of a hasty suppression of a royalistic outbreak in Neuchdtel {Neuenburg), settled by the release of the royalistic pris- oners by the Swiss, and the renunciation of Neuchdtel by the king of Prussia. 1857-1860. French and English expedition against China. Cause : infractions of the treaty with the English (of 1842) by the Chinese led to hostilities in Oct., 1856, between the English and the Chinese officials of Canton. The French government, which purposed an alteration of the commercial treaty with China, joined in supporting the English demands. 1857, Dec. Occupation of Canton by the allies. 1858. Treaty of Tien- Tsin, which opened to European trade and the June, missionaries entrance to the interior of China, and allowed standing embassies to be established in the capital, Pekin. 1859, June. Infraction of the treaty of Tien- Tsin. The English, French, and American ambassadors, who were on their way to Pekin, were tiu^ned back at the mouth of the Pei-ho. The attempt of the English and French to force their passage failed; an attack upon the forts, undertaken with bit few troops, was repulsed with great loss. 1860. Landing of a French (general Montauhan) and English (gen- May, eral Grant) corps at Shang-hai; storm of the fortified camp, while the flotilla of the allies proceeded up the Pei-ho. Negotiations commenced by the Chinese. In consequence of their 502 Modern History. A. D. dubious and faithless conduct the allies made a new advance, defeated a Tatar army of 25,000 men in the 1860. Battle of Palikao, and marched upon PeJcin. Destruction of Sept. 21. the summer palace of the emperor as punishment for the cruel mutilation and execution of several persons whom the Chinese had treacherously captured. In affright prince Kong, the emperor's brother, concluded the 1860. Peace of Pekin, which ratified the treaty of Tien-Tsin and Oct. 24, 25. imposed upon the Chinese the payment of a large in-= demnity. 1857. Illness of Frederic William IV. The prince of Prussia as- Oct. sumed the vice-regency, and later (Oct. 7, 1858) the regency as provided by the constitution of Prussia. The prince re- gent replaced the ministry of Manteuffel by an old liberal ministry (prince of Hohenzollern, Auersicald, Schleinitz, Bonin, Bethmann-Holl- weg, and afterwards count Schwerin). 1859. War of France and Sardinia with Austria. April-July. An Austrian ultimatum having been rejected, field- marshal Gyulay crossed the Ticino, but his inactivity gave the French time to come to the assistance of the Piedmontese. Napoleon III. assumed the chief command. An extensive reconnoitring expedition of Gyulay's led to the May 20. Engagement of Montebello ; the Austrians, after obsti- nate resistance, driven back. Garibaldi and his volunteers in- vaded Lombardy. The allies assuming the offensive, Gyulay retired across the Ticino and was defeated in the June 4. Battle of Magenta (Napoleon III., Canroiert, MacMahon). Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan. The em- peror Francis Joseph took the chief command in person. The Austrian army was defeated by the allies in the June 24. Battle of Solferino. The emperor Francis Joseph in a meeting with Napoleon III. July 11, in Villafranca was induced to accept preliminaries of peace (exchanged July 8) which were ratified and completed in the 1859, Nov. 10. Peace of Zurich. 1. The emperor Francis Joseph ceded Lombardy (with the ex- ception of Mantua and Peschiera) to Napoleon III., who surrendered it to Sardinia. 2. Italy was to form a confederation (Staatenbund) under the honorary presidency of the Pope. 3. The sovereigns of Tuscany and Modena, who had been expelled in April and July, were to be reinstated; the revolted legations (Bologna, etc.), were to be given back to the Pope, but "without foreign intervention." Despite these enactments of the peace of Zurich 1860. Tuscany, Parma (whose sovereigns had likewise been expelled), Spring. Modena, and the papal legations were united with the mon- archy of Victor Emmanuel, who, in return, was obliged to sur^ render Savoy and Nice to France. Descent of Garibaldi with 1,000 volunteers (soon 4,000, May 11) A. D. Continental Europe. 503 upon Sicily. He marched upon Palermo. Bombardment of the city by the Neapolitan general Lanza, whereupon the city capitulated on condition of the free withdrawal of 25,000 Neapolitan troops (June 6). Messina evacuated by the Neapolitans, with the exception of the citadel (June 28). Garibaldi landed on the mainland (Aug. 20). Surrender of Reggio, triumphal progress through the southern half of the peninsula. King Francis II. left his capital, Naples, and retired behind the Volturno with 40,000 men, retreating to the for- tresses of Gaeta and Capua. (Sept.). Meanwhile the Piedmontese troops under Fanti and Cialdini had entered Umbria and the Marches, where the desire for annexation had long since made itself manifest. The French general Lamoriciere, who had entered the papal service, was defeated in the 1860. Engagement at Castelfidardo by Cialdini. The Papal Sept. 18. States (excepting the Patrimonium Petri) were annexed by Victor Emmanuel, who thereupon invaded the Neapolitan terri- tory (Oct.) and joined Garibaldi. The Neapolitan army retreated behind the Garigliano, Capua was taken. Francis II. and his troops retired to Gaeta. 1860-1861. Siege of Gaeta. Francis II. capitulated after a brave Nov. 12-Feb. 13. defence and went to Rome. 1861, March 17. Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. With the exception of Venice and the Patrimonium Petri the whole peninsula was united under one sceptre. Death of Cavour, June 6, 1861. New expedition of Garibaldi, with volunteer bands, to liberate Rome, against the wishes of the government. He was wounded and captured at Aspromonte, the southern point of Italy, Aug. 29, 1862. Treaty between France and Italy (Sept. 15, 1864), whereby the duration of the French occupation of Rome was limited to two years, and the Italian government undertook to protect the Patrimonium Petri against any foreign invasion, Florence nir.de th^ capital of Italy. 1861, Jan 2. Death of Frederic William IV. The prince regent mounted the throne as 1861-1888. William I., king of Prussia. 1861-1867. Mexican Expedition, undertaken, at first, by France, England, and Spain in common. 1861. Treaty of London between these three powers. The purpose Oct. 31. of the expedition was to force the republic of Mexico to fulfill certain treaty obligations towards these nations. 1861, Dec.-1862, Jan. Occupation of La Vera Cruz and the fort of San Juan d' Ulloa by the allies. 1862. Treaty of La Soledad with Juarez, president of Mexico, who Feb. 19. promised to pay the indemnity and the arrears of debt, as required. Juarez did not fulfill the obligations incurred, and demanded the delivery of his opponent, Almonte, who had come to the French camp from Paris. England and Spain withdrew from the expedition. Napoleon III., acting on the expectation that the republic of the United States oj America would be broken up by the war between the North and the 504 Modern History. A. d. South, resolved to create a monarchy in Mexico. Magnificent plan to check the spread of the Anglo-Germanic race by this expedition, and induce a regeneration of the Latin race. 1862. An attack upon Puebla by 5,000 French repulsed. Retreat to May. Orizaba. The emperor sent 25,000 men as reinforcements, fol- lowed by more considerable numbers, to Mexico. After a long and bloody contest 1863. Puebla, bravely defended by Ortega, was captured by the May. French general Forey, who entered Mexico. The French called an assembly of notables, composed of opponents of Juarez, caused the monarchy to be proclaimed by this body, and the imperial crown of Mexico to be offered to the archduke Maximilian, brother of the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. This young and ambitious prince, gifted with excellent abilities, suffered himself to be inveigled by Napoleon III. into accepting the crown. 1864. June. Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. Prolonged contest with the republican armies. The new monarchy constantly in financial difficulties. Impossibility of establishing a settled state of affairs in a land so torn with party feuds. Meanwhile the end of the civil war in the United States had com- pletely altered the political relations. The decisive demand of the United States government that the French troops should be with- drawn from Mexico, put a sudden end to the magnificent plans of the French emperor. He submitted at once to the request of the United States. 1867. Withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico. The emperor Spring. Maximilian, who refused to leave with the French, continued the war alone. After a brave resistance he was surrounded in Queretaro, captured by treachery (Lopez ?), brought to trial before a court-martial at Juarez' command, and shot (June 19, 1867). In Austria, in spite of the vehement opposition of the nobility and the clergy, 1861. Publication of a new, liberal constitution for the united Feb. 26. monarchy with a close diet for the Germano-Slavonic lands, and a wider diet (only projected, however) which by the participation of Hungarian members was to represent the united mon- archy, with the exception of Venice, for which the introduction of a special constitution was promised. Resistance to the February consti- tution, not only by the Hungarians, who demanded the restoration of their separate constitution with a special ministry, but also by the national parties of the other non-Germanic peoples of the empire. 1861. Coronation of the king of Prussia, William I. in Konigsberg; Oct. 18. soon after there broke out a constitutional conflict in conse- quence of a reorganization of the army which the government had carried out. Dissolution of the house of representatives (March, 1862). Res- ignation of the Schwerin ministry. Heydt ministry. The opposi- tion majority returned from the new elections (May) with increased strength {party of progress (Forts chritt), and the left centre}. Von Bismarck ( Otto Edward Leopold, prince of Bismarck-Schon- \ausent born 1815, 1848 member of the united Prussian legislature, A. D. Continental Europe. 505 1851 member of the diet of the confederation at Frankfort, after- wards ambassador at St. Petersburg and at Paris) became president of the ministry. The ministry governed without the passage of a money hill. [Especial care bestowed upon the army, in which, accord- ing to Bismarck, the hope of Prussia and Germany rested (" Blood and Iron ")]. 1862. Revolution in Greece. King Otto (f 1867) compelled to leave the country by an insurrection. Provisional government. After a long search the Greeks found in George of Denmark a prince who accepted their throne (1863). England ceded to Greece the Ionian Islands (p. 483). 1863, Jan. Uprising in Poland and Lithuania suppressed in the spring of 1864. 1863. Congress of German princes at Frankfort o. M., under Aug. the presidency of Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, to con- sider a reorganization of Germany. The meeting was without result, Prussia refusing to take any part in the deliberations. The " Eider-Danes " in Copenhagen having brought about the 1863. Incorporation of Schleswig with Denmark, the patience of March 30. the diet of the German confederation, so well preserved in face of the encroachments of the Danes since 1852, was ex- hausted, and an immediate execution of the decree of the confederation was decreed (Oct. 1). 1863, Nov. 15. Death of Frederic VII., king of Denmark. According to the London Protocol (p. 498), Christian IX. suc- ceeded for the entire monarchy. In spite of this and regardless of his father's renunciation, the hereditary prince of Augustenburg pro- tlaimed himself duke of Schleswig-Holstein as Frederic VIII. Yielding to the pressure of the influential party of the Eider-Danes in Copenhagen, Christian IX. accepted the new Danish constitution which incorporated Schleswig with Denmark. Great excitement in Germany. Public opinion decidedly favored the complete separation of Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark, and demanded of the German confederation at least a preliminary occupation of the duchies. On the motion of Austria and Prussia, however, who were bound by the London Protocol, the confederation undertook nothing but the execu- tion of its decree, and caused Hanoverians and Saxons (general Hahe) to enter the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, which belonged to the confederation. Frederic VIII. proclaimed duke throughout Holstein. 1864, Feb.-Oct. War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark. Cause: Austria and Prussia demanded the repeal of the No- vember constitution as being inconsistent with former agreements. (Denmark in 1852, when the two powers handed over Schlesivig-Hol- stein to her, had promised " to respect the rights of the duchies," which clearly excluded an incorporation of Schleswig.) Refusal of Denmark, Advance of the Austro-Prussian army (Feb. 1, field-mar- shal V. Wrangel, prince Frederic Charles ; Austrian general v. Gab- lenz) into Schleswig. (Holstein continued in possession of the troops of the confederation.) The Austrians advanced upon the Danewerk, 506 Modern History. A. D. under heavy fighting; the Prussians, after an unsuccessful cannonade at Missunde, crossed the Schlei at Amis. The Danish commander De Meza surrendered the Danewerk Feb. 5, 6. He was replaced by gen- eral Gerlach. The Austrians under Gablenz undertook to clear North Schleswig of the Danes. (Brilliant engagement of the Austrian ad- vance at Oversee, Feb. 6.) The Prussians under prince Frederic Charles undertook the difficult operation against the entrenchments of Duppel, which had been transformed to a veritable fortress. 1864. Skirmishes and preliminary operations until the arrival of the Feb. 22-March 12. siege artillery. March 15- April 18. Actual siege of the entrenchments of Duppel. April 18. Brilliant storming of Duppel by the Prussians. Cap- ture of all the entrenchments. The Danes retreated to Alsen, evacuating the fortress of Fredericia. A part of Jutland occu- pied by the allies, as a ransom. May 12-June 26. Truce, and meanwhile peace conference at London. Prussia and Austria seceded from the London Protocol. As no agreement could be reached either in regard to a personal union of the ducliies with the crown of Denmark (Beust objecting as representa- tive of the confederation), or in regard to the division of Schleswig according to nationality, the war broke out anew. The Prussians under prince Frederic Charles (who had received the chief com- mand) accomplished the June 28-29. Passage to the island of Alsen, defeated the Danes at all points, and took a large number of prisoners. All Jiit- land occupied by the allies. At sea a Prussian squadron under Jachmarn had fought success- fully at Jasmund, March 17, while an Austro-Prussian fleet under TegetTioff had won a victory at Heligoland, and after the truce had captured the islands off Friesland. These misfortunes induced Chris- tian IX. to make direct applications for peace, which led to the 1864, Oct. 30. Peace of Vienna. 1. The king of Denmark renounced all his rights to the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenhurg in favor of the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. 2. He agreed to recognize what- ever disposition the monarchs should make of these three states. Upon the motion of the two great powers, the execution against Holstein was declared by the confederation to be completed ; the troops of the confederation (Hanoverians and Saxons) evacuated the country. Prussia and Austria established a common government in the city of Schlesvng. While the question of the succession was zealously discussed in the diet of the confederation, in diplomatic negotiations, and in the press, and the cause of the hereditary prince was agitated in both duchies, the Austrian and Prussian commissioners became involved in a wretched conflict. In order to put an end to this, the final decision in regard to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was postponed and the 1865. Treaty of Gastein was concluded between Prussia and Aus- Aug. 14. tria. A. D. AustrO'Prussian War. 507 1. Both powers retained the sovereignty of both duchies, in com- mon ; Austria assuming the provisional administration of Holstein, Prussia that of Schleswig. 2. Rendsburg to be a fortress of the confederation, Kiel a harbor of the confederation ; the use of this harbor was to be in common, but Prussia received the chief command there; a military road, a tele- graph and postal line tlirough Holstein were guaranteed to Prussia. 3. The emperor of Austria surrendered all his rights to the duchy of Lauenburg to the king of Prussia for two and a half million rix dol- lars. In execution of this treaty Prussia occupied the duchy of Schleswig (governor, v. Manteuffel) and Austria the duchy of Holstein (governor, V. Gablenz) . The duchy of Lauenburg, after the consent of the estates had been obtained, was joined in personal union to the crown of Prus- sia. Deep dissatisfaction with this treaty in the rest of Germany. Be- tween the two great powers new disputes soon broke out. Austria, being determined not to agree, under any circumstances, to a real in- crease of Prussian power, returned to the attitude of the confed- eration upon this point, and entered into agreement with the middle states of Germany. Prussia, regarding the decision of the German question by war as unavoidable, entered into negotiations with Italy. 1866. The Austro-Prussian ^War.^ June 16-July 22. The war proper lasted one month : June 22 to (Aug. 23). July 22. Allies of Prussia : the smaller North German states and Italy. Allies of Austria : Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, Hano- ver, Baden, the two Hesses. Cause of the war : the desire of the German people for greater unity, and the impossibility of reaching a re-organization of Germany with a strong central government as long as two great powers con- fronted one another in the German confederation, one having a pop- ulation largely non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests. Special cause : the quarrel about the future of the North Al- bingian duchies. Austria wished that the crown prince of Augusten- burg should be recognized as duke of Schlesvng-Holstein, and join the confederation as a sovereign prince. Prussia demanded (note of Feb. 22, 1865) that in case a new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was cre- ated : 1. its whole military force should become an integral part of the Prussian army and fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be united with those of Prussia ; 2. that several important military posts (Friedrichsort, Sonderburg, etc.) should be given to Prussia, to enable her to undertake the necessary protection of the new state against Denmark. Reason for the participation of Italy in the war: the favorable op- portunity of acquiring Venice. 1 Der Feldzug von 1866 in Deutschland (by the Prussian General Staff) and Oesterreichs Kampfim Jahre 1866 (by the Austrian General Staff). 508 Modern History. A. d. Arming of the three powers, each claiming to be driven to that step by the preparations of its opponent. The chief command of the Austrian armies in Bohemia and Mo- ravia (northern army) given to general Benedek (240,000 men), who made his headquarters at Olmutz. The command of the army in Venice (southern army) given to archduke Albert. Prussia placed five armies in the field : — 1. First aimy m Lusatia (93,000) under prince Frederic Charles. 2. Second (Silesian) army (115,000) under the crown prince, Frederic William. 3. The army of the Elbe (46,000) in Thuringia under general Herw^arth von Bittenfeld. 4. The reserve army at Berlin under general v. Miilhe (24,000). 5. The army of the Main not formed until later, at first divided into tliree corps, Vogel v. Falckenstein at Minden, Manteuffel at Schles- wig, Beyer at Wetzlar (in all 48,000 men). Commander-in-chief of all forces, king William I. ; chief of the great general staff, gen- eral V. Moltke. The mediation of France, England, and Russia, proffered at Frank- fort, May 27, 28, was frustrated by the demand of Austria that at any peace conference which might be held there should be no refer- ence to an alteration of boundaries. The convocation of the Holstein assembly of estates (June 2) by the Austrian governor, v. Gahlenz, led to an open rupture. Prussia declared that the treaty of Gastein was broken, and general v. Man- teuffel entered Holstein (June 7) ; v. Gahlenz, under protest, retreated to Altona with the Austrian brigade, and thence to Hanoverian terri- tory. On the motion of Austria, which declared the peace of the confed- eration broken by the action of Prussia in Holstein, 1866. The diet decreed the mobilization of the whole army of June 14. the confederation, with exception of the three Prussian corps. Secession of Prussia, and dissolution of the German confederation. June 15. Prussia called upon Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse to disre- gard the resolve of the confederacy, to replace their troops upon a peace footing, and join a new confederation under the lead of Prussia. Upon the rejection of these demands, the Prussians in- vaded Hanover and Electoral Hesse. King George retreated to the south ; the elector, Frederic William, was carried to Stettin a pris- oner. The Prussians invaded Saxony (Herwarth) ; the Saxon army, king, and government retreating to Bohemia. Dresden occupied (June 18) ; all Saxony, excepting Konigstein, in the hands of the Prussians (June 20). Prussia resolved upon an offensive war. The occupation of Saxony opened the way for a strategic march of the army of the Elbe and the first army along the line of Bautzen-Dresden. The concentration of the Austrian power about Olmutz threatened the province of Silesia, but the Austrian army not being completely ready, the Prussians de- termined to forestall the enemy by an invasion of Bohemia. A. D. Austro-Prusstan War. 509 A. Principal Scene of War in Bohemia. June 22-25. Prussian invasion of Bohemia. June 26, 27. Prussian victories (under prince Frederic Carl and the crown prince) at Huhnerioasser, Nachod (June 27) ; victory of the Austrians at Trautenau (June 27). June 28. Prince Frederic Charles at Miinchengratz forced back the Austrians and Saxons. Meantime the Silesian army defeated v. Gablentz at Soor (June 28), and the crown prince occupied Trautenau. Prussian victories of Skalitz (June 28, heavy losses) and Gitschin (June 29). Capture of Koniginhof. The engagement at Schweinschddel completed the purposed ap- proach of the two Prussian armies to one another. They were pur- posely not united, but kept asunder in a manner " which, being without danger strategical!}'^ considered, secured great tactical ad- vantages." Hitherto the chief movements of both armies had been directed by telegraph from Berlin. June 30. King William I. and general Von Moltke, chief of the general staff, left Berlin for the seat of war. On July 2 it was decided to attack the Austrians with the whole force on the next day, they being stationed behmd the Bistritz hrook, with the fortress of Koniggrdtz and the Elbe in their rear. 1866. July 3. Battle of Konigratz or Sado-wa. The first Prussian army, united with that of the Elbe (king William I., prince Frederic Charles, v. Hervmrth), had a severe contest with the northern army of Austria, in an advantageous position, under Benedek; in the afternoon the second (Silesian army), under the crown prince, gained the flank and rear of the Austrians, after a fatiguing march, and in combination with the first army secured the complete vic- tory of the Prussians. Pursuit was stopped by the Elbe and by the exhaustion of the troops. Retreat of the Austrians toward Olmiitz. Francis Joseph appealed to the mediation of France, and ceded Venetia to Napoleon III., but the truce desired by France was re- jected by Prussia and Italy. Two thirds of the Austrian southern army was transferred to the northern seat of war. Occupation of Prague by the Prussians (July 8), of Brunn (July 12). March of the main Prussian army upon Vienna. Benedek advanced to the defence of the capital, but was cut off from the direct way by the rapid advance of prince Frederic Charles, and forced to attempt the circuitous route by way of the Little Carpa- thians. A Prussian corps invaded Hungary. July 22. The engagement of Blumenau was broken off by the an- nouncement of the conclusion of a truce for five days, which was converted into July 26. The truce of Nikolsburg, after the preliminaries of peace had been signed under French mediation (p. 510). B. Western Seat of War. The entire army of the confederation was under the command of prince Charles of Bavaria. 510 Modern History. A. D, 1866. Victory of 16,000 Hanoverians over 8,000 Prussians and June 27. troops of Coburg-Gotha, at Langensalza ; the junction of the Hanoverians with their southern allies was, however, prevented. June 29. Capitulation of the Hanoverians at Lagensalza. July 4-14. Victories of the Prussians at Dermbach (July 4), and in five battles on the Frankish Saale, over the south German troops {Hammelhurg, Kissingen, Friedrichshall, Hansen, Wal- daschach) July 10, thus forcing the passage of the river. July 14. Engagement at Aschaffenburg ; victory over the united Hessian, Austrian, and Darmstadt troops. Occupation of Frank- fort (July 16) and Darmstadt (July 17). Occupation of Wurz^ burg and Nuremberg. Aug. 2. Truce. C. Seat of War in Italy. 1866. Battle of Custozza ; victory of the Austrians (archduke June 24. Albert) over the Italians (king Victor Emmanuel). The Italian army retreated across the Mincio, but after the Aus- trian army was transferred, in large part, to the seat of war in the north, the Italians again advanced. July 20. Naval victory of the Austrians (Tegethoff) at Lissa over the Italians (Persano). 1866. Peace of Prague Aug. 23. between Prussia and Austria. 1. The emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the German confederation, and consented to a reorganization of Germany without Austria, and agreed to the annexations contemplated by Prussia. A special condition secured Saxony (as a member of the new north German confederation) from an alteration of her boundary. 2. Aus- tria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the reservation that the northern districts of Schleswig should be reunited with Denmark, should the inhabitants express a desire for such re- union by a free popular vote (rescinded, 1878). 3. Austria paid twenty million rix dollars ($15,000,000) for the costs of the war. 4. At the request of Prussia Venice was ceded to Italy. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort were definitively incorporated with Prussia, so that by this successful war the extent of the monarchy was in- creased from 111,000 square miles (over nineteen million inhabitants) to 140,000 square miles (twenty-three and a half million inhabitants). Peace between Prussia and Wiirtemberg (Aug. 13), Baden (Aug. 17), Bavaria (Aug. 22), Hesse (Sept. 3), Saxony (Oct. 21). The proposed cessions of territory in the southern states were in the main given up, inasmuch as Napoleon III. showed a desire for a rectification of boundaries as regarded Germany ; conclusion of an offensive and defensive alliance between Prussia and the southern states. Reciprocal guarantee of territorial integrity. The southern states placed their entire military force under the command of the king of Prussia in the event of war. The demand of Napoleon IIL rejected. A. D. AustrO'Prussian War. 511 1866. Peace of Vienna Oct. 3. between Austria and Italy. Austria recognized the king- dom of Italy, with which Venice was united. Prussia hav- ing concluded an alliance with the North German states in August, 1866, elections for a North German diet were prescribed on a basis of manhood and direct suffrage. 1867. First diet of the North German Confederation. Feb. 24. After a short discussion the diet agreed with the govern- ments upon a constitution for the North German Confed- eration : presidency of the league united with the crown of Prussia, which represented the confederation in its international re- lations, declared war, concluded peace and treaties, and accredited ambassadors in its name. The governments were represented in the council of the confederation {Bundesrath) , in which Prussia had seventeen votes, and the other twenty-one members twenty-six votes altogether. Imperial diet (^Reichstag) originating from direct man- hood suffrage. Centralized military system, under the command of the king of Prussia. Universal compulsory military service. United customs, postal, and telegraph service. Count Bismarck, chancellor of the confederation. 1867. In Austria a reorganization of the state in a liberal sense was undertaken, in consequence of the unsuccessful war. The former Saxon minister, von Beust, president of the ministry, after- wards (until 1871) chancellor of the empire. Agreement with Hungary. Kestoration of the Hungarian constitution. Solemn corona- tion of the emperor Francis Joseph in Pesth as king of Hungary. Reunion of the dependent lands {Croatia, Transylvania) with Hun- gary. Establishment of a liberal constitution in that part of the monarchy this side of the Leith (Cisleithania). (The constitution of 1861, p. 504, was suspended in 1865.) Germano-Slavonic Reichstag, 1867. Luxemburg question. Napoleon III. wished to secretly indemnify the French nation for the increased power of Prussia by a new annexation. His nego- tiations with the king of Holland in regard to the purchase of the grand duchy of Luxemburg were broken off in consequence of the objection of Prussia, whereupon Napoleon III. demanded that the Prussian garrison of Luxemburg should evacuate the fortress. Un- der the excitement which the dispute aroused in Germany and France, the outbreak of war seemed unavoidable, when the 1867. London Conference (Italy recognized as the sixth great May 7-11. power) succeeded in establishing the following agree- ments : 1. The neutrality of the grand duchy was guaranteed by the great powers in common. 2. The Prussian garrison evacuated Luxemburg, and the fortifications were razed. 1867. Italian volunteers, with the tacit favor of the Italian govem- Sept.-Nov. ment, made an attack upon the papal territory. Napo- leon III. declared the former treaty (p. 503) broken, and sent assistance to the Pope. The free troops were defeated at Mentana, Rome received a new French garrison. 512 Modern History. A. D, 1868, April. First customs parliament in Germany. 1868. Outbreak of the Spanish Revolution in Cadiz. The royal- Sept, ist troops under Novaliches were defeated by the insurgent troops under Serrano at Alcolea. Queen Isabella fled to France; the whole country declared in favor of the revolution. Provisional government. The Bourbons deposed from the throne. Summons of a constitutional cortes. The majority of the cortes established, m spite of the opposition of the numerous republican members, a new constitutional monarchy. Serrano provisional regent. After many negotiations with foreign princes, conducted by Prim (murdered 1870), without result, the prince of Hohenzollern (1870, p. 513) ac- cepted the Spanish crown. After his withdrawal, during the Franco- Prussian war, the duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, was elected by the cortes, and ascended the throne as 1870-1873. Amadeus I., king of Spain. 1869. In France general election for the corps legislatif ; for the first time during the second empire, strong manifestation of party spirit, and a large number of votes cast. The departments, espe- cially the country population, gave the government a good majority, though weaker than formerly. In Paris and Lyons victory of the ultra radical party, and election of candidates opposed to the govern- ment and the dynasty. 1869> Nov. 16. Formal opening of the Suez Canal, which was completed by the indomitable perseverance of its projec- tor, the Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps. 1869, Dec. 8. Opening of the Vatican Council. Proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility July 18, 1870, by a vote of 547 to 2. Adjournment of the council, Oct. 20, 1870. Vacillating and indecisive conduct of the emperor Napoleon III. in face of the daily increasing dissatisfaction in the country with the arbitrary character of the government, which was no longer offset by any brilliant achievements outside. Dismissal of the " vice emperor " Rouher (July). Formation of a new cabinet, composed of similar re- actionary elements ; then, as the different factions of the opposition ( Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, Gambetta, Rochefort) grew more bold, forma- tion of the 1870, Jan. Ministry of Ollivier from the ranks of the moderate liberals. Dismissal of the prefect of the Seine, Hausmann. The death of a radical journalist at the hands of Pierre Bonaparte, a, cousin of the emperor (self-defence or murder ?), produced an ex- traordinary excitement in Paris. Riots. Condemnation and imprison- ment of Rochefort, in consequence of his incendiary newspaper arti- cles. New riots. Arrest of many radicals. Prince Pierre Bonaparte declared not guilty by the court in Tours. April. A new liberal constitution, introduced by the government, was accepted by a decree of the senate, whereupon a vote of confidence was demanded from the people by a ^^ plebiscite " (May), which resulted, thanks to the application of well-known methods, in a majority of more than seven million yeas to one and a half million nays, the latter being cast in Paris antl the larger cities. In the A. D. Franco-German War. 513 army and the fleet more than 50,000 voted " no." In view of this grave dissatisfaction in the army, and of the constant agitation of the parties, which were in no wise quieted by the liberal concessions wliicn had been made, a diversion, to be induced by involving the country in foreign disputes, such as had often been tried in France, seemed to be the best means of extrication. To the adoption of this means the emperor, who was anxious for the future of his dynasty, was more and more strongly urged by his intimate councillors (the empress, marshal Leboeuf, duke of Gramont, minister of foreign affairs). 1870, July 19-1871, March 3. Franco-Prussian War.^ General Causes : 1. The idea entertained by a great part of the French nation, and kept alive by historians, poets, and the daily press, of the reconquest of the left bank of the Rhine (les frontieres naturelles^). 2. The French, not understanding the long struggle of the German nation for political unity, saw in the consummation of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia, and in the victory of the latter state over Austria an unpermissible encroach- ment upon their own military fame. Special causes : 1. The internal troubles of the government of Napoleon III. (p. 512). 2. The rejection of the " compensation " de- manded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin, for the growth of Prussia in extent and population. 3. News of the approaching in- troduction of an improved weapon for the north German infantry, which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French chassepot. Immediate cause: The election of the prince of HohenzoUern to the throne of Spain (512), which was represented in Paris as a Prus- sian intrigue endangering the safety of France. The request made by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of king William I. in person, that he should forbid the prince of HohenzoUern to accept the Spanish crown, was refused. After the voluntary withdrawal of the prince, the French government looked to the king of Prussia for a distmct announcement " that he would never again permit the candi- dacy of the prince for the Spanish crown." King William refused to discuss the matter, and referred Benedetti to the regular method of commmiication through the ministry at Berlin. This and the tele- graphic announcement of the proceeding was represented by the duke of Gramont as an insult to France. Tremendous excitement in Paris, artificially fermented (cries of "a Berlin / "). In the corps le'gislatif (July 15), opposition of a small minority {Thiers: "because France is not prepared for war ") to the declaration of war, which the imperial government declared was forced upon them by Prussia (" La France accepte la guerre que la Prusse lui offre "). 1 Der deutsch-franz. Krieg 1870-71, edited by the division of the Prus^ siau General Staff on military history. Niemann, Derfranz. Feldzug von 1870-71, 2 vols. An English rendering of the French view of the war will be found in Jerrold's Life of Napoleon III., vol. iv. 2 The first use of this idea, which can be established, was by king Charlet r//.,1444. 514 Modern History. a. d. In Germany quiet but decided attitude of the government and the people. William I. on his return to Berlin enthusiastically received (July 15). The same evening mobilization of the north German army and convention of the Reichstag ordered. July 19. Delivery of the French declaration of war. Opening of the north German Reichstag, which unanimously voted a war credit (July 23). South Germany understood that the French attack, although ap- parently directed against Prussia alone, was in reality an attack upon the German nation, and that Napoleon's purpose was the conquest of German territory and the estabhshment of a new confederation of the Rhine. The patriotic attitude of Louis II. of Bavaria, who on July 16 had declared that the case of war contemplated in the con- federation was at hand, and had ordered the mobilization of the Ba- varian army, had a decisive influence upon Wiirtemberg. Patriotic attitude of Baden. The French cabinet, which had counted on the neutrality of south Germany, at the least, undeceived. Hence a new military plan. The grand army was to be divided into three groups, the two former (250,000) of which were to force neutrality upon the south Germans, and hasten the hoped-for alliance with Austria smd Italy. This should be followed by an attack upon the north German army, while expedi- tions to the coasts of the German ocean should instigate an uprising in Hanover and secure the assistance of Denmark. In reality the strategic advance of the French army took place as follows : — 1. Corps under marshal MacMahon, at Strasburg. 2. Corps under general De Failly at Bitsch. 3. Corps under Marshal Bazaine at Metz. 4. Corps under general Ladrairault at Thionville (Diedenhofefi). The corps of marshal Canrobert at Chalons, of general F. Douay at Bel/art, and the Garde under general Bourbaki at Nancy formed the reserve (320,000). Commander-in-chief, Napoleon III. ; chief of the general staff, marshal Leboeuf. It appearing that most of the corps were not in readiness for war the plan of attack was exchanged for a defensive plan. The German forces moved in three great armies. I. Army, right wing, Steinmetz at Coblentz (60,000). II. Army, centre, prince Frederic Charles, Mainz (134,000, with the reserve 194,000). III. Army, left wing, crown prince Frederic William at Mann- heim (130,000). The total strength of the north German army 750,000 (of which 198,000 were Landwehr) ; of the south German 100,000. Commander- in-chief, king "William I. ; chief of the general staff, general Von Moltke. The strategic movement of the German armies was at first planned for defense simply, but as the enemy's delay gave a chance for an attack an advance of all three armies towards the boundary, from Trier to Landau, began in the latter part of July. Before the Ger- mans could take the offensive the French made an A. D. Franco-German War. 515 09 >. 00.2 3 M (t> p . -" 5'q 2.3, rlotte, . her. axe- ingen. Henry, m. Irene, Princess of Hesee. 3."'!3' 3^ ■ -I (Blow ?i7 S c p. cTs. bci3 ^J a N £&- a- o g tD M P < 5§ -i3^I,g:B ■ ortJ ■• p o o w a H O W O H S'r»B 516 Modern History. A. p. 1870. Attack upon Saarbriicken. The repulse of a single bat- Aug. 2. talion by three divisions was represented in the French re- ports as an important victory. Aug. 4. Engagement at Weissenburg. MacMahon after a most courageous defense defeated in the Aug. 6. Battle of Worth (Reichshofen) by the army of the crown prince, which was numerically greatly his superior. Aug. 6. German victory at Spicheren {Saarbriicken^. In consequence of these defeats the French army commenced its retreat to the Moselle. The crown prince detached a corps to besiege Strashurg and other Alsatian fortresses, and advanced upon Nancy ; the I. army marched upon Metz ; the 11. army upon Pont a Mousson, with the intention of surrounding the main force of the French about Metz and cutting them off from Paris. To prevent this Bazaine, upon whom the emperor had conferred the chief command, resolved, after some indecision, to retreat upon Chdlons-sur-Marne and join there the remnants of MacMahon's com- mand and a newly formed army. To prevent such juncture the ad- vance guard of the I. army attacked Bazaine and in the Aug. 14. Battle of Colombey-Nouilly and the Aug. 16. Battle of Vionville (drawn battle), with g^eat losses, prevented the retreat of the French to Verdun. Upon the arrival of the delayed corps of the I. and 11. army on the next day, the French were again attacked in their excellently chosen and partially strongly fortified positions. In the Aug. 18. iBattle of Gravelotte and St. Privat (Hezon- ville) the Germans under command of king William I. gained an advantageous position after eight hours' hot fighting, in spite of the desperate resistance of the French. Aug. 19. Retreat of the French under the guns of Metz. The result of these three bloody battles near Metz was to separate the French force into two parts, and to surround their main army in and about a fortress which was not provisioned for so large a body of troops. 1870, Aug. 19-Oct. 27. Siege of Metz. Aug. 14-Sept. 27. Siege of Strasburg by general Von Werder. After the battles near Metz, advance upon Chalons. MacMahon evacuated Chalons, but instead of retreating to Paris, as was expected at the German headquarters, he attempted to reach Metz and liberate Bazaine by a circuitous flank march to the northeast. Napoleon III. accompanied the army. On learning of this manoeuvre the Germans made a detour toward the right (north). Bazaine's attempt to break through the German lines and join Mac- Mahon frustrated by the Aug. 31 and Sept. 1. Engagements at Noisse ville. MacMahon saw the impossibility of reaching Metz, and con- centrated his forces at Sedan. The Germans (240,000) far outnum- bering the French (about 100,000) decided to send a part of their A.. D. Franco- German War. 517 troops over the Meuse and surround the French army. This was accomplished by the Sept. 1. Battle of Sedan. MacMahon, wounded in the morning, gave up the command to Ducrot, who afterwards transferred it to the older general Wimpffen. The victorious advance of the Germans on all sides was not checked by the brilliant charges of the French cavalry. At three o'clock the French army was surrounded. Napoleon III. delivered his sword to William I. and acknowledged himself a prisoner. Negotiations between Von Moltke and Wimpffen, and between Napoleon III. and Bismarck, The following forenoon the 1870> Sept. 2. Capitulation of Sedan was signed. The entire French army prisoners of war : 39 generals, 2,300 offi- cers, 83,000 men, 20,000 having been captured during the battle (3,000 escaped to Belgium). Napoleon III. conducted to Wilhelms- hohe. In Paris the news of the first defeats, which had been long con- cealed, produced great excitement and the fall of the ministry of OUivier (Aug. 10). Montauban-Palikao, the minister of war, formed a new ministry composed of ultra-Bonapartists. Falsification of war news. Paris in a state of siege. The receipt of the news of the ca- pitulation of Sedan caused the 1870. Fall of the Empire and Proclamation of the Sept. 4. (third) Republic. Flight of the empress Eugenie to England. Provisional gov- ernment of the " National defense." Trochu (president and gover- nor of Paris), Favre (foreign affairs), Gambetta (interior), Cremieux (justice), Simon (religion and education), Lejlo (war), Fourichon (navy). Sept. 4-16. March of the German armies upon Paris. Defenses of Paris : continuous line of bastions and trenches, sur- rounding the suburbs ; around this on the inside a belt railroad ; six- teen detached forts, two of which, Mont Valerien in the west and St. Denis in the north, were actual fortresses, all connected by continu- ous entrenchments and liberally provided witli heavy artillery and military stores. Including the sailors and garrison, about 72,000 veterans ; with the mobilized guards from the provinces, the guard mobile and national guard of Paris, over 300,000 men. Extensive accumulation of provisions. The negotiations between Bismarck and Favre leading to no result (refusal of any cession of territory), the great city was invested by the IV.i army on the north and east, by the III. army on the S. and W. Headquarters at Versailles. 1870, Sept. 19-1871. Jan. 28. Siege of Paris. After the capitulation of Sedan the whole war was a struggle for Paris. Excepting the conquest of Alsace and German Lorraine, 1 The IV. army was formed, after Gravelotte, from corps of the I. and II. Modern History, A. d. which Germany had regarded as the prize of victory, from the com- mencement of the war, all the military operations of the Germans had the object of preserving the positions and the lines of connection of the armies about Paris, and of preventing any attempt to raise the siege ; the raising of the siege was, on the contrary, the object of all the French operations. 1870. In consequence of the withdrawal of the French garrison Sept. 20. from Rome, capture of that city by the Italian army and abolition of the secular po"wer of the Pope. Sept. 23. Capture of Toul. Sept. 27. Capitulation of Strasburg. The delegation of the French government in Tours, since Oct. 9, under the dictatorship of Gambetta, who had left Paris in a bal- loon, formed ttvo armies for the relief of Paris : a. army of the Loire (not 30,000) ; b. northern army. The former defeated by the Ba- varian general Von der Tann in the 1870, Oct. 10. Engagement at Artenay. Occupation of Orleans. While Gambetta with the greatest energy was strengthening and arming forces for relief, Bazaine, who, as leader of the largest regu- lar army in France, had thought to play a political role, by means of negotiations, was forced, after several unsuccessful sorties, to the 1870, Oct. 27. Capitulation of Metz. (3 marshals, 6,000 officers, 187,000 men, 622 field artillery, 876 fortress cannon). A part of the besieging army was sent to reinforce the armies before Paris ; a part was dispatched under Manteuffel against the French army of the north ; the largest part, under prince Frederic Charles, was sent against the army of the Loire. Nov. 28. Defeat of the army of the Loire at Beaune la Rolande (by prince Frederic Charles), whereby the purpose of the French commander to force his passage to Paris was frus- trated. Nov. 27. Defeat of the army of the north at Amiens by Man- teuffel. Nov. 30. At Paris, sortie under Trochu and Ducrot, in coopera- tion with the intended advance of the Loire army. Storm and capture of Champigny and Brie. Successful defense of Vil- liers and Cceuily by Wurtemberg troops. Further French ad- vance was checked, but they kept Brie. After great losses in the fight and through cold the French troops returned to Paris (Dec. 3). Deco 2-4. Battle of Orleans, the name given to a number of engagements in which the Germans defeated the army of the Loire, with the following results : 1. Capture of the strong French entrenchments on the right bank of the Loire, and re-occupation of Orleans. 2. Sep- aration of the army of the Loire into two parts. Flight of the delegation of the government to Bordeaux (Dec. 9). The larger part of the Loire army driven behind Vendome ,• Frederic Charles, at Orleans, covered the besieging armies be- fore Paris from the south. A. D, Franco- German War. 519 Dec. 27. Opening of the bombardment of the forts of Paris, after the transportation of heavy artillery and munitions had been accomplished with the greatest difficulty. Bombardment of the city, Jan. 8, 1871. 1S71, Jan. 12. Battle of Le Mans. Defeat of Chanzy by Frederic Charles. The French army al- most annihilated. Jan. 6-12. Sortie from Paris against Meudon and Clamart, and one against Le Bourget repulsed. In the south, Bourhaki with 160,000 men forced von Werder, who was besieging Belfort, without giving up the siege, to take up a favor- able position along the Lisaine by a masterly retreat. In the three days Jan. 15-17. Battle of Belfort, Von Werder successfully defended his position, and forced Bourhaki to retreat. Jan. 18. Renewal of the title and office of German Emperor in the palace of Louis XIV. at Versailles, all the sovereign princes and the three free cities having offered the crown to king William I. Jan. 19. Last great sortie from Paris, with 100,000 men, under Trochu, repulsed after severe fighting. On the same day, Jan. 19. Battle of St. Quentin, in which general Von Goben completely defeated and scattered the French army of the north. In the south Manteuffel forced the French to take refuge in the neutral territory of Switzer- land, where they were disarmed. 1871, Jan. 28. Capitulation of Paris by the convention of Versailles : 1. surrender of all the forts with munitions of war, disarmament of the city wall ; 2. all French soldiers in Paris considered as prisoners of war, with exception of 12,000 men, which, with the national guard, preserved order ; the French officials to provision the city ; 3. the city of Paris paid 200 million francs ; 4. truce (excepting the departments of Doubs, Jura, and Cote d'or) for three weeks, for the purpose of allowing a free elec- tion for a national assembly, which was to meet in Bordeaux, and de- cide between peace and war. Gambetta's resistance to this agreement was soon broken ; his resignation (Feb. 6). Elections throughout France (Feb. 8). The national assembly formed in Bordeaux (Feb. 12). Truce prolonged to 24th Feb., and afterwards to March 3. Thiers, elected head of the executive department, conducted the negotiations with Bismarck which resulted in the Feb. 26. Preliminaries of peace at Versailles. 1. France ceded to the German Empire : Alsace (except Belfort and territory) and German Lorraine, with Metz and Die- denhofen {I'hionville), in all 4,700 square miles, with one and a half million inhabitants ; 2. France agreed to pay five milliards of francs for indemnification in three years, which were secured by an occupa- tion of French territory. Modern History^ _ A. D. March 1. Entrance of 30,000 German troops into Paris (addi- tional article), and temporary occupation of a small part of the city ; evacuated again on March 3d. The preliminaries of peace were rati- fied, and the details settled in the definitive 1871, May 10. Peace of Frankfort on Main. The results of the war were : 1. destruction of the military power of France ; 2. acquisition of a secure military boundary for Germany on the west ; 3. the realization of the political unitj of the German nation. March 21-June 15. First imperial Parliament of the new German federal state {Bundestaat), which on April 14 almost unanimously adopted the following constitution for the em- pire : presidency hereditarily connected with the crown of Prussia, whose king bore the title of German emperor, and represented the empire in international relations, declared war and peace (with the consent of the BundesratK), concluded alliances, and had the chief command of the army and navy. The representatives of the 25 gov- ernments formed the federal council (BundesratK) under the pres- idency of the chancellor of the empire (the first : prince Bis- marck). (In all, 58 votes : Prussia 17, Bavaria 6, Saxony and Wiir- temberg each 4, Baden and Hesse each 3, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Brunswick each 2, the rest each 1.) The representatives of the people formed the imperial parliament {Reichstag), consisting of 382 mem- bers, chosen by direct manhood suffrage. Centralized military sys- tem ; universal compulsory service (3 years in standing army, 4 years in reserve, 5 years in the Landwehr), uniform postal and telegraph service, uniform system of coinage, weights and measures. The new German empire comprised 216,770 sq. miles, and more than 41,000,000 inhabitants. 1871, July 1. Rome became seat of the government and capital of Italy, now completely united under the sceptre of Victor Em- manuel (guarantee for the Pope). Sept. Opening of the Mt. Cenis tunnel across the Alps (begun 1859 ; 7.6 miles long). 1872, June 29. New agreement between Germany and France, which fixed the payment of the fourth milliard for March 1, 1874 ; the fifth, March 1, 1875 ; and permitted the substitution of a financial security for this last milliard, for the occupation of French territory. 1873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. in Chiselhurst (England). Feb. Amadeus I. resigned the Spanish crown. Spain a republic. Anarchy. Civil war against the Federalists in Cartagena (cap- tured 1874), and against Don Carlos in the north. July-Sept. The German troops, after an anticipation of* the indem- nity, leave the French territory. In Italy, in Switzerland, and in Prussia, struggle between the state and the Roman catholic hierarchy. In Italy, dissolution of all mon- asteries in Rome and the former papal states (May, 1873). In Swit- zerland, complete rupture with the Roman chair and establishment A. D. Franco- German War. 521 of a catholic clergy elected by the people. In Prussia, in conse- quence of the May laws (afterwards extended), which the catholic clergy openly resisted, numerous arrests and removals of ecclesias- tics. This contest led to the 1874. Introduction of compulsory civil marriage and the civil Oct. 1. registration of births and deaths, which afterwards became an imperial law (Jan. 1, 1876). Oct. International Postal Congress in Bern. The regulations agreed upon went into force July 1, 1875 (for France, Jan. 1, 1876). Dec. 29-31. Military ^' pronunciamientos " for Alfonso, prince of As" turia, son of queen Isabella, led to the 1875, Jan. Restoration of moiiarchy in Spain. 1875-1885. Alfonso XII., king of Spain. In the north, in spite of some successes of the royal troops, the civil war continued against Don Carlos, whom the new king declared to be an usurper. 1875. Kevolt against Turkish government in Herzegovina, sup- July, ported by Montenegro and Servia. March. End of the civil war in Spain. Don Carlos was obliged to leave the country, and went to England. May. The Turks proved unable to suppress the revolt in Herzego- vina. Murder of the German and French consuls in Salonica. The three northern great powers invited the other three to join in making a common representation to the Porte (memo- randum of Berlm). Great Britain refused to join. Before the memorandum could be presented a May 29. Palace Revolution occurred in Constantinople. Deposi- tion of the Sultan Abdul- Aziz, who died shortly afterwards. Murad V. succeeded. 1876, July. Servia (prince Milan) and Montenegro (prince Nikita) declared war upon the Porte. A revolt which had broken out in Bulgaria bloodily suppressed by the Turks. The Turkish troops and the Turkish militia exercised shameful cruelties, which produced the greatest indignation through- out Europe, particularly in Russia, thereby giving the Russian gov- ernment a welcome excuse to proclaim itself the protector of the oppressed Christians, and especially of the Slavonic population in Turkey. Military preparations in Russia. Meanwhile the war was waged unsuccessfully by Servia, in spite of the open Russian assistance, and the presence of Russian volunteers in the Servian army, which obtained a Russian commander m Tsher- najeff, while the Montenegrins were several times victorious. 1876. New, bloodless palace revolution in Constantinople. Murad Aug. v., who suffered from an incurable mental disorder, deposed. He was succeeded by his brotlier, Abdul Hamid II. The Turkish army crossed the Servian frontier, and was prevented from marching further only by an ultimatum of the Russian government. The Porte agreed to a truce for two months at first, and afterward for six months. Russia being unable to induce any other power to join her in an 522 Modern History. A. D. armed interference with Turkey, and feeing herself unprepared for war and hindered by the winter season, diplomatic negotiations were prolonged. Finally a conference of ambassadors of all the great powers was arranged to meet in Constantinople. Dec. 24. Meeting of the conference. Promulgation of a constitU' tion for the whole Ottoman empire, which gave the Christians equal rights with Muhammedans and which the Porte hoped would make unnecessary any special provisions in favor of his Christian sub- jects, to be guaranteed by the powers. 1877. The guarantees which were still demanded by the conference in spite of the Turkish constitution, but which had been grad- ually reduced in extent, were rejected by the Porte, after consulta- tion with an imperial council summoned for the occasion. The am- bassadors of all the great powers left Constantinople. Peace concluded between the Porte and Servia on the basis of the status quo ante helium. Montenegro continued in arms. After further negotiations with the European powers, which had no result, and after completion of its preparations, the Russian govern- ment concluded to take up arms alone against Turkey, making a formal declaration that it had no conquests in view. 1877, April-1878, March. Turco-Russian 'War. A. Seat of war in Europe : A Russian army under the grand duke Nicholas crossed the Pruth, an understanding with Roume- lia having been previously reached, and advanced to the Danube, which was first crossed June 22 by a corps under Zimmermann, which occupied the Dobrudsha ; the main army, which Alexander II. had meanwhile joined, forced the 1877. Passage of the Danube at Shistova. June 27. A flying corps under Gurko crossed the Balkan by an un- guarded pass, and drove the Turkish garrison from the impor- tant Shipka Pass, by an attack from the south (July 17-19), while one division of the main army, under the crown prince, fronted east and by hard fighting, prolonged for months about the rivers Jantra and Lorn, held in check the Turkish army undi&r Ahdul Kerim (after- wards under Mehemed All, and finally under Suleiman^. The other division of the Russian army captured NicopoUs (July 15), but suffered repeated repulses with heavy loss before Plevna (S. W. from Nicopolis), where Osman Pasha had collected Turkish troops and thrown up strong fortifications (July 20 and 30), and was forced to Avait for reinforcements. Meantime Suleiman Pasha attempted in vain to storm the Shipka Pass from the south with superior numbers (Aug. 23, Sept. 17). He was now appointed commander of the Turkish army in the east on the Lorn, where his troops had been sadly missed. Arrival of Roumanian troops and Russian reinforcements before Plevna. After the failure of an attempted storm (Sept. 7-12), a reg- ular siege was undertaken (gen. Totlehen), and Dec. 10. Plevna captured. Osman Pasha, with 44,000 men, obliged to surrender after a futile attempt to break through the Rus- sian lines. Return of the Roumanians to their country, of Alexander A. D. Turco-Russian War, 523 //. to St. Petersburg. Servia (Dec. 14) declared war upon the Porte anew. Dec-Jan. A Russian division under Gurko crossed the western Bal- kans and occupied Sophia ; a second under Radetzki and Sko- beleff poured through the Shipka Pass. Both divisions, in conjunction with the portions of the eastern army which had also crossed the Balkans, advanced by way of PhilippopoUs (victory of Gurko over remnants of the Turkish army, Jan. 16 and 17, 1878) and Adrianople (occupied Jan. 20), close upon Constantinople. B. Seat of war in Asia (Russian commander-in-chief grand duke Michael). While the operations of a Russian division against Batoum, as well as an expedition of the Turkish fleet to the Caucas- ian coasts, were without result, the main column of the Russian army {Loris-Melikoff) forced its way to Kars^ which it invested (May, 1877). Two other divisions occupied Ardaghan and Bajasid. The reverses suffered from Mukhtar Pasha, who advanced to the relief of Kars from Erzeroum (June), compelled the Russians to retreat across the frontier, abandoning almost all their conquests. In October the Russians advanced again, and after the 1877. Storm of Kars Nov. 8. pushed on victoriously to Erzeroum. The success of the Russian arms created lively apprehensions in the west, particularly in England, to whom Turkey appealed for mediation. Angry negotiations between England and Russia. Mean- while the Porte was obliged to ask for peace directly of Russia, which in the 1878. Agreement of Adrianople Jan. 31. granted a preliminary truce, and sketched the plan of a future peace. 1878, Feb. 1. Greece sent her troops into Thessaly, but was induced to withdraw them after a few days. After the Russians had drawn their lines closer and closer about Constantinople and had occupied Erzeroum in Armenia, and a part of the English fleet which was lying before the Dardanelles had entered the Sea of Marmora, the March 3. Peace of San Stefano (near Constantinople) was concluded between Russia and Turkey: 1. Montenegro and Servia received considerable additions from Turkish territory, and were recognized as independent ; likewise, Roumania. 2. Bul- garia, i. e. the larger part of ancient Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia (boundaries : Danube, the Black Sea and jEgean Sea, Albania and Servia) remained tributary to the Porte, but received a Christian prince, separate administration and militia ; a Russian commissary with 50,000 men was to remain two years in the country. 3. The Porte was to introduce certain reforms in the small portion of his European possessions which remained to him. 4. Turkey paid Rus- sia 300 million rubles, and ceded large parts of Armenia in Asia and the Dobrudsha in Europe, Russia agreeing to give the latter to Roumania in return for the part of BessEirabia (p. 501) which she had ceded in 1856. 524 Modern History. A. D. This peace aroused great opposition in the west, especially in Eng- land, which showed herself ready to go to war with Russia in case the latter insisted on the execution of the above conditions. Austria also began to arm. June 4. The Porte concluded a treaty with England (at first secret), wherein the latter undertook to protect Turkey in Asia against Russian conquest. The Porte, however, promised to introduce reforms in these parts, and gave up the island of Cyprus to England (Cyprus occupied July 11). Germany having mediated between Russia and England, to prevent war, and three powers having come to a preliminary understanding, the 1878, June 13-July 13. Congress of Berlin met under the presidency of prince Bismarck. Principal conditions: 1. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became independent, but the cessions to be made to the two former states were somewhat reduced, while the territory which Roumania was to receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged. 2. The principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country between the Danube and the Balkans^ including, however, Sophia and its territory. (An assembly of notables elected prince Alexander of Battenberg (Hesse), a nephew of the Russian emperor, April, 1879.) 3. The southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries considerably nar- rowed toward the south and west, was left under the immediate rule of the sultans, with the title Province of East Roumelia, but received a separate militia, and administration under a Christian governor-gen- eral ; only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turkish troops. 4. The Russian troops were to evacuate East Roumelia and Bulgaria inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year. 5. The Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the military occupation of the Sandshak of Novi Bazar. 6. The Porte was advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thessaly to Greece. 7. Russia received in Asia Batoum (as a free harbor), Kars, Ardaghan, and some border territories. 8. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated from her, there should be political equality of all confessions. 1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy (p. 503). Jan. 9. He was succeeded by his son, Umberto (Humherf) I. Feb. 7. Death of pope Pius IX. He was succeeded by Leo XIII. (Pecci). May 11 and June 2. Attempted assassination of the German em- peror William /., who at the second attempt was somewhat dangerously wounded. In consequence, law against the ex- cesses of the social democrats. 1878. Entrance of the Austrians into Bosnia and Herzego- July 29. Vina, where part of the inhabitants oJBEered armed resist- ance until autumn (1879, occupation of the Lim territory). 1879. In the German empire excited discussion of changes advocated by prince Bismarck in the tariff and economical policy (new tariff, July). Attempted reconciliation with the Pope. The A. D. Turco-Russian War. 525 Prussian minister of religion (Falk since 1872) retired ; his successor, Von Puttkamer (July 14). Russia assuming a hostile attitude, and attempting to form an al- liance with France against Germany, Sept. 21-24. Bismarck visited Vienna, and a defensive alliance was concluded between Prussia and Austria. Oct. 1. The new system of jurisprudence for the entire German em- pire went in force (supreme court in Leipzig). 1880. The boldness of the Nihilists in Russia continuing to increase Feb. ui spite of the severe measures of the government (three des- perate attempts upon the life of Alexander II. inside of ten months), general Loris-Melikoff wsls clothed with a sort of dictatorial power, but endeavored to prevent the imminent dangers by conces- sions. Conflict with the papacy in regard to ecclesiastical orders and new laws relating to education in France, and still more sharply m Bel- gium (liberal ministry of Frere Orban since 1878). In Prussia, all negotiations with the papacy proving vain, certain limitations of the existing laws relating to the church (p. 520) were introduced as an attempt to reach the desired result by political leg- islation. The resolutions of the congress of Berlin had never been com- pletely carried into execution, in part because of the resistance of the Albanian league (secretly aided by the Porte ?) to the cessions made to Montenegro, and also because the negotiations relative to a sur- render of territory to Greece had been without result. Hence the June 16-July 1. Conference of Berlin was called, which delivered to the Porte certain distinct propo- sitions in regard to these questions (Thessaly and Epirus with Janina to be given to Greece), which should eventually be enforced by armed interference. The Porte still delaying, a squadron of vessels of all the great powers assembled at Ragusa (Sept.). This demonstration produced the Nov. Surrender of Dulcigno and territory to Montenegro. 1881. March 13. Alexander II. murdered in St. Petersburg. He was succeeded by his son, 1881-1894. Alexander III. Roumania made a kingdom. March-April. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople. The Porte decided to carry out the surrender of territory to Greece, though to a somewhat smaller extent than was indicated by the Berlin conference. Sept. 8. Meeting of William I. of Germany and Alexander III. of Russia at Danzig. 1882. Disturbances in southern Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. Jan. Dispatch of Austrian troops to these points. Jan. 7. Excitement created in Prussia by the publication of a royal rescript, attacking the theory of responsible ministers, and an- nouncing that all persons in government service were expected to support the government at elections. 526 Modern History . ■ A. d. 1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin de liste ; minority representation in districts returning five or more deputies. Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established in the university of Prague. Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive meas- ures, undaunted activity of the nihilists. March 6. Servia made a kingdom ; prince Milan king as Milan L March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and south- ern Dalmatia by the Austrians. Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag to come to terms with Rome and the clerical party (autumn). Approaching end of the Kulturkampf. April 10. Retirement of Gortschakoflf, minister of foreign affairs in Russia ; he was succeeded by De Criers • this change, regarded as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehen- sions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic uivectives of Skoheleff in Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, f July 7). May 22. Opening of the St. Gothard railroad across the Alps. (Begun 1872, tunnel 9^ miles long.) June 2. Death of Giuseppe Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice ; conspira- tor in 1833 ; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835 ; defense of Rome, 1849 ; in North America, 1854 ; service against Aus- tria, 1859, 1860 ; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 1867 ; participation in the Franco- Prussian war, 1870, 1871 ; member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875). Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in the German Reichstag. 1882, June 21. Expiration of the Storthing in Norway. Violent royal speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. Sept. Anti- Jewish riots, especially at Pressburg (Sept. 27-30). Sept.-Nov. New elections in Nor"way. Return of an increased radical majority. {See p. 573.) § 3. FRANCE. (Seep. 485.) 1815-1882. 1814 (1815)-1824. Louis XVIIL First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal constitution (charte constitutionelle), June 4, 1814 : hereditary mon- archy ; two chambers (peers nominated by the king, lower house elected by the people) ; freedom of the press ; religious liberty ; re- sponsible ministers ; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483. Fall of Napoleon. A: D. France. 527 1815, July 8. Second restoration. 1815, Sept. 25-1818, Dec. 29. Ministry of the duke of Richelieu. Nov. 20. Second peace of Paris (p. 485). An ultra-royalist chamber {chambre introuvable ; compare the *' Cav- alier " parliament of Charles II. of England, p. 378). La terreur _ blanche. Parties : court (^Richelieu), advocating return to the old monarchy ; legitimists (^Decazes); doctrinaires {Guizot), advocates of constitutional monarchy with strong administration ; liberals (inde- pendents, Perier, Lafayette) ; Bonapartists ; republicans. Gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bourgeoisie). Ministry of Dessoles-Decazes (1818, Dec. 29-1819, Nov.) ; of Decazes (1819, Nov. 10-1820, Feb.). 1820, Feb. 13. Murder of the duke of Berry, the second nephew of Louis XVIII., by Louvel. Ultra-royalist ministry. Laws re- stricting freedom of the press and of elections. Sept. 29. Birth of the duke of Bordeaux, posthumous son of the duke of Berry ; " Henry V. ; " " Europe's child." Presenta- tion of the castle of Chambord by national subscription. 1821, May 5. Death of Napoleon I. at St. Helena. 1821, Dec. 13-1828, Jan. 4. Ministry of Villdle (ultra-royalist). 1823, French intervention in Spain ; capture of Madrid and Cadiz ; liberation of Ferdinand VIL, by the duke of Angouleme. Cruel reaction. Numerous executions (Biego). Septennial election law (violation of the charter). New chamber of ul- tra-royalists (chambre retrouve'e, 1824). 1824, Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII. 1824-1830. Charles X. 1825, March. Grant of a miUiard (8200,000,000) to returned refugees as compensation for their confiscated estates.^ Growth of the liberal party : Collaud, Constant, Perier, Broglicy Chateaubriand. Outcry against the Jesuits. 1827, April 30. National guard disbanded. 1828, Jan. Fall of the Villele ministry in consequence of the return of a liberal majority at the election. 1828, Jan. 4-1829, Aug. 8. Martignac ministry (" too liberal for the royalists, too reactionary for the liberals"). 1829, Aug.-1830, July. Polignac ministry ; reactionary, ultra-roy- alist. " No more concessions ! " 1830, March 18. Address of the 221, in reply to the king's speech ; vote of want of confidence. Dissolution May IG. July 5. Capture of Algiers by the French. Reasons for the expedition : 1. An insult offered the French ambassadors by the Dey, Husseyn. 2. The desire of the French gov- ernment to quiet the agitation and dissatisfaction which prevailed in France, by some outside success. Algeria (Afrique Frangaise) subjugated by a tedious war with the Arabs and Kabyls, constantly breaking out anew. Abdel-Kader (1827, captured by Lamoriciere and the duke of Aumale, fourth sou of 1 The ruined cavaliers in England got $3,000,000 in 1661. 528 Modern History, A.II. CO il_i O) o .-y a -C ? &0 H H i=! « 9 fac w ;z; t— c ^ ,_^ CQ t^ ^ tq i-j « o O ^-^ -r-K P5 -t— f^ sT C5 O o pq O o CO Q Q> ^ ^ CD >5^ lord of the treasury. 1810, Oct. and Nov. Lines of Torres Vedras (p. 473). Nov. The king became hopelessly insane, and 1811, Feb. 5. The Prince of Wales was appointed re= gent. Nov. The breaking of machinery by the Luddites became so fre- quent that frame breaking was made a capital offense. 1812, May 11. Assassination of Perceval by Bellingham. 1812, June 8-1827, Apr. 24. Liverpool ministry : Castlereagh, foreign secretary. 1812, June 18. War ivith the United States ended by the treaty of Ghent, 1814, Dec. 24 (p. 551). Nov. 24. Tenth (5th imperial) parliament of George III. 1813, June 21. Vittoria (p. 479). 1814, May 30. Peace of Paris followed by . 1815, March 25. Treaty of Vienna. England gained Cape of 538 Modern History. A. D. Good Hope, Demerara, Essequibo, Malta, Tobago, St. Lucia, and Mauritius. Hanover became a separate kingdom, with George III. first king, and descent to heirs male (p. 491). 1815, June 15. "Waterloo (p. 484). The English national debt had grown from less than 250 mill- ion pounds in 1793 to over 850 millions ; the laboring classes found it difficult to obtain the bare necessaries of life. Consequently riots took place in the agricultural districts, while the Luddites broke out with fresh vehemence. Incited by the Weekly Political Register (^William Cobbett, 1762-1835), the cry oi parliamentary reform was raised, and Hampden clubs were formed throughout the country. 1816, Mar. 3. The habeas corpus act was suspended. Mar. 10. The Blanket meeting at Manchester broken up by the military; lord Sidmouth's (Addington) circular letter. Dec. Acquittal of Hone. 1816, July. Dey of Algiers compelled to abolish christian slavery. 1819, Jan. 14. Eleventh (6th imperial) parliament of George III. 1819, Aug. 16. A meeting of the Radicals at St. Peter's Fields, Man- chester, dispersed by the military with bloodshed ; hence called the Manchester Massacre, or Peterloo. In consequence of these disturbances, the Six Acts, strengthening the hands of government, were passed. 1820, Jan. 29. Death of George III. Chief descendants: — George III. = Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. George IV., William IV. , 1820-1830. 1830-1837. t without issue. t without issue Frederic, Edward, Ernest, d. of York. d. of Kent. d. of Cum- 1 1827, 1 1820. berland ; k. without issue. 1 of Hanover. 1 1837-1851. Albert of =n= Victoria, Saxe-Coburg- 1 tl901. Gotha. tl861. 1 Adolphus, d. of Cambridge. tl850. Victoria, Edward VII. Alice, m. Ger- m. Alexandra m. gr. man Em- d. of k. of d. of peror. Denmark. Hesse, tl901. tl87S. Alfred, Helena, Louise, Arthur, d. of Edin- m. pr. of m. mar- d. of burgh, 1 1900, Schleswig- quis of Con- as d. of Holstein. Lome, naught. Saxe-Coburg- Gotha. Leopold, Beatrice, d. of Al- m. pr. bany, Henry of 1 1884. Batten- berg. } i \ Albert Victor, George, d. of C*arence, Prince of Wales, 1 1892. m. Mary of Teck g. g. d. of George III. Louise, Victoria. Maud, m. d. of m. Charles, Fife. pr. of Den- mark. Edward Albert. Albert. Victoria. Eenry. George. 1820-1830. George IV. (prince regent since 1811). 1820, Apr. 21. First (7th imperial) parliament of George IV. 1820. Cato street conspiracy for assassinating the king's minis- ters discovered. May 1. The leader, Thistlewood, and four accomplices executed. 1820, Aug.-Nov. The king, while prince of Wales, had been, in a manner, forced to marry his cousin. The marriage was an unhappy one, and not long after his accession ministers brought for- A. D. Great Britain. 539 ward a bill of pains and penalties to degrade and divorce the queen on charges of misconduct. In the trial of queen Caroline which followed, Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham and Mr, (afterwards lord) Denman so shook the evidence against her, on the cross-examination (1821, Jnly 18), that the bill was abandoned. She was, however, ex- cluded from the coronation, and not long after died. 1821. May. Bank of England resumed specie payments (p. 535). 1822. Castlereagh (lord Londonderry) committed suicide, and was succeeded at the foreign office by George Canning. Mr. Peel home secretary. 1823. The next year Huskisson became president of the board of trade, and Mr. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich) chancellor of the exchequer. 1825, Commercial panic ; modification of the monopoly of the Bank of England. 1826, Nov. 14. Second (8th imperial) parliament of George IV. 1827, Aug. 8-1828, Jan. 25. Lord Goderich premier. 1827, Oct. 20. Navarino ; "untoward event" (p. 489). 1828, Jan. 26-1830, Nov. 22. Duke of Wellington prime min- ister. Robert Peel, home secretary (b. 1788 ; M. P. 1809 ; colo- nial secretary 1810 ; f 1850). 1828, Feb. 26. Lord John Russell (b. 1792 ; M. P. 1813 ; earl Rus- sell 1861 ; t 1878) moved the repeal of the corporation and test acts (p. 380), which was carried (May). A declaration containing the words " on the true faith of a christian " was substituted for the sacramental test, thus ad- mitting protestant dissenters to office. 1828, July 15. The restrictions on the importation of breadstuffs were modified by the adoption of the sliding scale. The duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel became convinced of the necessity of catholic emancipation. 1829, April 13. The catholic relief act substituted a new form of oath for the oaths of supremacy, allegiance, and abjuration, and there were now no offices from which catholics were excluded, ex- cept those of regent, lord chancellor of England and Ireland, and vice- roy of Ireland. The franchise in Ireland was raised from 40^. to lOZ., and certain regulations were made respecting the exercise of the Roman catholic religion. 1830, June 26. Death of George IV. 1830-1837. William IV. 1830, Sept. 15. Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool rail* way (Rocket locomotive), f of Huskisson. 1830, Oct. 26. First (9th imperial) parliament of William IV. When parliament opened earl Grey declared that, in his opin- ion, the only way to avert political convulsions was by a reform in parliament. The duke of Wellington expressed himself as opposed to reform, and being defeated on a minor question resigned Nov. 16. 1830, Nov. 24-1834, July 18. Earl Grey, prime minister. Lord Althorp, chancellor of exchequer ; lord Brougham, lord chan- cellor; lord John Russell, paymaster-general of the forces ; and lord Melbourne, home secretary. 540 Modern History. A. D. 1831, March 31. Lord John Russell introduced his reform bill. It soon became apparent that there was no prospect of passing Apr. 22. the bill, and parliament was dissolved. June 14. Second (10th imperial) parliament of "William IV. The reform bill again introduced; passed the commons Sept. 21, but was thrown out by the lords, and riots ensued through- out the country. 1832, Mar. 19. The reform bill, with some alterations, was again passed by the commons. In the lords an amendment was car- ried against ministers, who resigned May 7, but resumed office May 18, the king having consented to create a sufficient number of new peers to secure the passage of the bill ; but this proved unnecessary, as many tory peers refrained from voting, and the bill received the royal assent June 7. 1882. By this, the First Reform Act, 143 boroughs lost one or both members, and the seats thus obtained were given to several large towns {Manchester, Birmingham, etc.), to the larger coww- ties, and to new boroughs. At the same time the franchise was ex- tended. The Scotch reform act, July 17; the Irish reform act, Aug. 7. 1833, Jan. 29. Third (11th imperial) parliament of William IV. Apr. 2. The Irish coercion act. In August the bill for the abolition of slavery throughout the British empire was passed. The sum of 20,000,000Z. was voted to the slave-owners. 1833. Renewal of the charter of the Bank of England ; and of the East India Company for twenty years, but the trade with China was thrown open (p. 561). 1834. The question of an extension of the Irish coercion act led to the resignation of earl Grey. 1834, July 16-Nov. 14. Lord Melbourne became premier. Lord Althorp, lord John Russell, and lord Brougham retained their places. 1834. Poor la-w amendment act. Local hoards abolished in favor Aug. of a central board of commissioners. Poor law unions took the place of work-houses, and the system of out-door relief was in a great measure reformed. Nov. The king dismissed the ministry, and the duke of Welling- ton took control of affairs until sir Robert Peel could be summoned from Rome. 1834, Dec. 8-1835, Apr. 18. Peel's first administration. (Wel- lington, foreign secretary.) The majority in the commons 1834, Dec. 30. was against ministers, parliament was dissolved, and Peel issued the Tamworth manifesto. 1835, Feb. 19. Fourth (12th imperial) parliament of William IV. The conservatives, as the supporters of Peel termed them- Apr. selves, being in a minority in the commons, ministers resigned. 1835, Apr. 18-1841, Sept. 3. Second Melbourne ministry. Palmerston, foreign secretary (b. 1784 ; M. P. 1807 ; f Oct. 18, 1865); lord John Russell, home secretary; viscount Howick, secretary of war, — succeeded in 1839 by T. B. Macaulay (b. 1800 ; M. P. 1830 ; raised to the peerage 1857 ; f 1859). A. D. Great Britain. 541 1835, Sept. Reform of municipal corporations act, London not included. 1836, Commutation of tithes act. 1837, June 20. Death of William IV. (See p. 54£.) The British in India. {See p, 444-) 1786-1793. Lord Cornwallis, governor-general. 1792. War with Tipu Sultan, ended by the cession of one half of Mysore to the English and allies. 1793. Capture of Pondicherri, sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth), governor-general, succeeded by 1798-1805. lord Mornington (afterwards marquis of Wellesley). 1799. Tipu Sultan, trusting in the promises of Bonaparte, again took up arms, was killed, and his dominions were divided be- tween the English and the Nizam. 1802. Holkar, one of the Mahrattd chiefs, drove the Peshwa from Poona. By the treaty of Bassein the English agreed to assist the Peshwa provided he would surrender his mdependence, and maintain a body of European troops {the subsidiary policy). Sindhia and the Raja of Nagpur united with Holkar against the English. The latter under sir Arthur Wellesley (after- wards duke of Wellington), brother of the governor-general, 1803. gained the battles of Assaye, Sept. 3, and Argaum, Nov. 29, while another army under general (afterwards lord) Lake won the battle of Laswari, Nov. 1, and captured Delhi. The Raja of Nagpur and Sindhia, by treaties, surrendered much 1804. territory to the English. In the next year Holkar was de- feated by Lake at Furrukabad, and again near Bhartpur 1805, and made peace with the English 1806, Jan. 7. 1805. July-Oct. Lord Corn-wrallis again governor-general; f Oct. ; and was succeeded by 1805-1807. sir G. Barlow. 1806. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Vellore. 1807-1813. Lord Minto, governor-general. 1809. Mutiny of the European officers at Seringapatam. 1813-1823. Lord Moira (afterwards marquis of Hastings), gov- ernor-general. 1814-1815. War with the Gurkhas of Nepal. 1817. Pindari war. 1817-1818. Last Mahratta war. The dominions of the Peshwa were annexed and the Rdjd of Nagpur was put under British guardianship, while the states of Rajputana placed themselves under British protection. 1823-1828. Lord Amherst, governor-general. 1824-1826. First Burmese war, English acquire Assam, etc. 1828-1835. Lord William Bentinck, governor-general. Financial reforms ; abolition of sati (suttee) or widow-burning ; sup- pression of the thagi (thugs) or hereditary assassins. 1833. Company's charter renewed for twenty years, but the trade was thrown open, and Europeans allowed to settle in the coun- 542 Modern History. A. D. try. A legal member added to the govemor^s council, and a commission appointed to revise and codify the laws. Macau- lay, first legal member, and president of the commission. The only annexation of this time was that of Coorg. 1835-1836. Short administration of sir Charles (afterwards lord) Metcalfe, memorable for giving entire freedom to the press. {See p. 5^6.^ Great Britain. {See p. 541.) 1837-1901. Victoria (only child of the late duke of Kent). Separation of Hanover from Great Britain j duke of Cumber- land, the eldest surviving son of George III., became king. 1837, Nov. 15. First (13th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1837. Rebellion in Canada. Burning of the American steamer Car- oline. The rebels finally reduced to obedience in 1839. The two provinces, upper and lower Canada, were united in 1840, and in 1847 responsible government was introduced into the colony. 1838, Aug. Meeting of working people near Birmingham. A na- tional petition or peoples' charter was drawn up. The petitioners or chartists demanded, 1. annual parliaments ; 2. universal (manhood) suffrage ; 3. vote by ballot ; 4. abolition of the property qualification of members of parliament : and 5. payment for their services. To these " five points " a sixth, that of equal electoral districts, was afterwards added. The petition was presented to the commons, 1839, June 14, and its rejection was followed by riots which were easily suppressed. 1838, Sept. The anti-corn law league formed at Manchester under the leadership of John Bright (b. 1811 ; M. P. 1843 ; f 1889) and Richard Cobden (b. 1804 ; M. P. 1847; f 1865). 1839, Opium war with China ended by treaty of Nankin, 1842, Aug. 29 (p. 561). 1840, Jan. Penny postage introduced (sir Rowland Hill). Feb. 10. The queen married her cousin Albert of Saxe-Cobvrq and Gotha. 1841, Aug. 19. Second (14th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1841, Sept. 6-1846, June 29. Peel's second administration. Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office ; earl Ripon, board of trade, succeeded in 1843 by W. E. Gladstone (b. 1809 ; M. P. 1832 ; f 1898). 1842. Second sliding scale adopted ; and the duties on over 700 articles either removed or reduced, the deficiency so created be^ ing made up by an income tax (June 22). 1844. Charter of the Bank of England renewed (Peel act).^ The issue department established, weekly returns to be published ; and circulation limited to 14,000,000?. 1846. Total repeal of the corn laws. The sliding scale abolished ; the duty on wheat imported at or above 53s. per quarter to be 4.s. per quarter until 1849, Feb. 1, after that time to be an uniform Is. per quarter on all kinds of grain im- ported into the United Kingdom ; this Is. duty was repealed in 1869. A. D. Great Britain. 543 1846, June. Settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute with the United States (p. 554). 1846, July 6-1852, Feb. 23. Ministry of lord John Russell ; lord Palmerston, foreign secretary ; Macaulay, paymaster gen- eral. 1846. Failure of the potato crop in Ireland caused a famine 1846 and 1847. Population of Ireland 1841, 8,222,664. 1851, 6,633,982. 1847. Commercial panic in England. 1847, Nov. 18. Third (15th imperial) parliament of Victoria. This distress coupled with the excitement produced by the rev- 1848. olutions of 1848 (p. 492) roused rebellion in Ireland, which was easily suppressed, and its leaders Smith O^Brien and Mit- 1848, April 10. chell transported ; while in England the chartists held a monster meeting on Kennington common, and presented a petition to parliament. 1849, June. Repeal of the navigation laws. Encumbered estates July, act (Ireland). 1850, Sept. 30. Papal bull establishing a Roman catholic hie- rarchy in England. 1851, July. Ecclesiastical titles hill, imposing a fine of lOOZ. on all who should endeavor to carry this papal bull into effect, passed (never executed). 1851. Telegraphic communication between France and Eng- land. 1851. Great exhibition of the industries of all nations in Hyde Park, London. 1852, Feb. 27-Dec. 18. Earl Derby's first ministry, Disraeli, chancellor of exchequer (b. 1805 ; " Vivian Grey " 1825 ; M. P. 1837 ; earl of Beaconsfield, 1876 ; f 1881). Sept. 14. Death of the duke of Wellington. 1852, Nov. 4. Fourth (16th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1852, Dec. 28-1855, Feb. 5. Aberdeen administration. W. E. Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer; lord Palmerston, home secretary ; lord John Russell, foreign secretary. End of Caffir war in South Africa. Oct. 30. The British fleet entered the Bosphorus. 1853-1856. Crimean war (p. 499). 1854, June 5. Reciprocity treaty with the United States concluded (p. 555) ; abrogated 1866. 1855. The mismanagement with regard to the supply of food and clothing for the army in the Crimea and the feeble prosecu- tion of the war rendered the administration unpopular, and 1855, Jan. 30. lord Aberdeen resigned. 1855, Feb. 5-1858, Feb. 22. Palmerston premier. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer, res. Feb. 22. Feb. 19. Bread riots at Liverpool. 1856, Treaty of Paris ended the Crimean war (p. 501). War Mar. 30. with China. Treaty of Tien-tsin, June 26,. 1859. Peace o/PeHn Aug. 24, 1860 (p. 562). 1857, Apr. 30. Fifth (17th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 544 Modern History. A. d. Nov. 12. Great commercial panic. Suspension of the hank charter actofl84A. In consequence of the attempted assassination of Napoleon III. by Orsini, lord Palmerston introduced the conspiracy to murder hill. On its rejection in the commons the ministry resigned, and the 1858, Feb. 22-1859, June 11. Second Derby ministry took ofBce ; Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer. 1858, June. Property qualification of members of parliament abolished. July. Jews admitted to parliament. Act for the better government of India. Aug. 5. The successful laying of the frst Atlantic cable (ceased working Sept. 4). Aug. 26. Treaty with the tycoon (shogun) of Japan (p. 563). 1858. The queen of England proclaimed sovereign of India. The government of the East India company ceased. The ministry, defeated on a reform bill introduced by Disraeliy Apr. 13. dissolved parliament, but being in a minority in the 1859, May 31. Sixth (18th imperial) parliament of Victoria, resigned, and the 1859, June 13-1865, Nov. 6. Second Palmerston ministry came in. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer ; earl Russell (formerly lord John), foreign secretary ; lord Campbell, lord chancellor. 1860, Jan. 23. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and France. July-Oct. The prince of Wales visits the United States and Can- ada. 1861, July 27. Rupture of diplomatic relations with Mexico. Nov. 8. Mason and Slidell taken from the British mail steamer Trent (p. 557). Dec. 23. Death of the prince consort. 1862, Second Exhibition of the industry of all nations opened in May 1. London. L863. The Maori (native) war in New Zealand, ended in 1869. 1864. The Schleswig-Holstein question (p. 505). June. Final cession of the Ionian Islands to Greece (p. 483). July. The Thames embankment begun. 1865, June. Commencement of the Cattle Plague. Oct. Insurrection in Jamaica. Oct. 18. Death of lord Palmerston. 1865, Nov. 6-1866, June 26. Earl Russell premier. 1866, Feb. 1. Seventh (19th imperial) parliament of Victoria. Feb. Habeas corpus act suspended in Ireland. May. Failure of Overend, Gurney and Co. (liabilities over 19,000,- 000^.). Panic in London. July Telegraphic communication with America finally established. 1866, July 6-1868, Feb. 27. Third Derby ministry. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer. 1867, Aug. 15. The second reform act, — "a leap in the dark," — ' which greatly extended the franchise, received the royal as» sent. A. D. Great Britain. 545 1867. The Fenians attempted the seizure of the arsenal at Chester (Feb.). Rising in Ireland, easily suppressed. Attempt to release Fenians confined in Clerkeuwell prison, by exploding gunpowder under the walls. 1867. Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were combined into one Dominion of Canada, with power to take in new provinces. Each province retained its own legislature for local affairs. All British America, with the exception of Newfoundland, now belongs to this confederation. 1867. Abyssinia expedition, Magdala. 1868, Feb. 27-Dec. 3. Lord Derby resigned, and Mr. Disraeli be- came premier. The general elections to the new parliament were so decidedly in favor of the liberals that the ministry re- signed, and 1868, Dec. 9-1874, Feb. 21. Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. 1868, Dec. 10. Eighth (20th imperial) parliament of Victoria. July 26. Disestablishment and disendowment of the Irish church. A portion of the money so obtained given to the Roman catholic college of Maynooth, and another portion ap- plied to educational purposes. The royal assent was at the same time given to the bankruptcy bill, and to a bill abolishing imprisonment for debt. (Debtors' prisons : Fleet, Marshal- sea, etc.) 1868, Oct. 16. Opening of the Suez canal. 1870. Irish land act provided, among other things, for compen- sation to out-going tenants ; for loans to landlords for im- provements, and to tenants desirous of purchasing their hold-" ings (Bright clauses). At the same session a system of 1870. national education was established by law. 1871. Purchase in the army abolished. Treaty of Washington with the United States, by which the Alabama claims were settled by 1872. Arbitration at Geneva and the so-called northwestern boun- dary dispute, decided by the emperor of Germany as arbiter (p. 560). 1872. Vote by ballot introduced. 1873. Ashantee war. Coomassie taken by 1874. the British, commanded by general Wolseley. 1874, Feb. 21.-1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Disraeli (1876, Aug., earl of Beaconsfield), premier ; sir Stafford Northcote^ chancellor of the exchequer. 1874, March 5. Ninth (21st imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1875. Purchase of Suez canal shares from the khedive of Egypt. 1875, 1876. Visit of the Prince of Wales to India. The queen pro- claimed empress of India. Commercial panic. 1878, July 13. Treaty of Berlin. British take possession of Cyprus July 14 (p. 524). 1879. Irish land league, supported by Parnellj Dillon, etc 1879, 1880, famine in Ireland. 1879. War with the Zulus (" Jingoism "). 35 546 • Modern History, A. D. 1880, Feb. 23. Parliament dissolved. Elections in favor of liberals ; resignation of ministers, Apr. 22. 1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Gladstone, prime minister ; marquis of Har- tingtouj secretary for India; W. E. Forster, chief secretary for Ireland, succeeded by lord F. Cavendish, and lie by G. 0. Tre- vellyan. John Bright, chancellor of the duchy. 1880, Apr, 29. Tenth (22d imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1881, March 3. Irish coercion act. Aug. 22. Irish land act provided for a court of commission to try differences between landlords and tenants ; and in a measure granted the " three F's : " 1. free sale ; 2. fair rents ; 3. fx- ity of tenure. 1882, May 6. Murder of lord Frederick Cavendish and an under-secretary in Dublin. July 11. Bombardment of Alexandria (Egypt). Resignation of John Bright. July 14. A new Irish coercion act went into force. Sept. Total defeat of Egyptian rebels by the British, commanded by sir Garnet Wolseley. Capture of Tel-el-KeUr. {Seep. 565.) The British in India. (Seep. 54S.) 1836-1842. Lord Auckland, governor-general. 1839. First Afghan war, occasioned by an attempt to place a ruler in Afghanistan who should be subservient to the British. Kabul was easily occupied. Dost Muhammad taken prisoner, and Shah Shujd installed. In November, 1841, the Afghans rose, and, led by Akhar Khan, drove the British from Kabul. Terrible winter retreat to Jalalabad. 1842-1844. Earl of Ellenborough, governor-general. Two ar- mies sent to Afghanistan. Relief of Kandahar and Jalalabad. Capture of Kabul. The bazar blown up. Dost Muhammad re-« placed, and the British withdrawn. 1844-1848. Sir Henry (afterwards lord) Hardinge, governor- general. 1845. First Sikh war. 1848-1856. Earl of Dalhousie, governor-general. 1848, 1849. Second Sikh war ended in the anne:sation of the Punjab. 1852. Second Burmese war. British Burma annexed. 1856. Annexation of Oudh on the ground of misrule. 1856-1862. Earl Canning, governor-general. 1857. May 10. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Mirath (Meerut). Rising of the Muhammadaiis at Delhi. Massacre at Cawnpore (Nana Sahib), June 27. First relief of Lucknow by Have- lock, Sept. 25 ; final deliverance of the garrison by sir Colin Campbell, Nov. 16. Siege and capture of Delhi, June-Sept. The mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, captured, deposed, and banished to Rangoon ; f 1862. End of the mughal empire. 1858. The government of India transferred to the crown ; gov- ernor-general to be viceroy. A. D. United States. 547 1862-1863. Lord Elgin, viceroy ; 1864-1869, lord Lawrence, viceroy. Famine in Orissa^ 1866 ; in Bundelkhand and Upper Hindustan, 1868, 1869. 1869-1872. Lord Mayo, viceroy. Internal improvements. 1872-1876. Lord Northbrook, viceroy. Dethronement of the Mahrattd Gdekwdr of Baroda. Visit of the prince of Wales to India. 1876-1880. Lord Lytton, viceroy. 1877? Jan. 1. The queen proclaimed empress of India. 1877, 1878. Famine in southern India. 1878-1881. Second Afghan war. Refusal of Sher Alt to admit a British embassy. The Khaihar (Kyber), the Kuram, and the Boldn passes occupied by the British troops, f Sher All. Abdication of his son, Ydkuh Khan. Defeat of a brigade of British troops by Ayuh Khan. Brilliant march of sir F. Roberts from Kabul to Kanda- har, and rout of Ayub Khan, 1880, Sept. 1. Abdurrahman Khan, the eldest male representative of Dost Muhammad, recognized by the British as Amir, and their troops withdrawn from Kabul and Kanda- har. 1880. Marquis of Ripon, viceroy. 1881. Population of all India 252,541,210, an increase in ten years of over twelve millions. {See p. 565) §5. UNITED STATES. » {Seep. 433.) 1789-1882. 1789. First congress met at New York, March 4. 1789. George "Washington (Virginia), president. John Apr. 30. Adams, vice-president. Nov. 1. North Carolina accepted the constitution. 1789. Three executive departments created. Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743, t 1825), secretary of state ; Alexander Hamilton (b. 1757, f 1804), secretary of the treasury ; Henry Knox, sec- retary of war. These with the attorney general formed the cabinet. A national judiciary was also established. John Jay, chief justice of the supreme court. 1789. First ten amendments (in the nature of a bill of rights) to the constitution proposed by congress to the state legislatures, and ratified, in the course of two years, by three fourths of the states. 1790, May 29. Rhode Island accepted the constitution, 1790. The financial affairs of the country were put on a firm basis. The seat of government to be at Philadelphia for ten years, and after that permanently located on the Potomac, where land was ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia (District of Columbia), and the city of Washington laid out. 1790-1795. Indian war. Defeat of Harmar 1790 ; St. Clair 1791 ; and victory of Wayne 1794. 1790. Death of Franklin. Population 3,921,326 (1st census). National debt Jan. 1, 1791, 875,463,476.52. 1791, Aug. George Hammond, minister from Great Britain, received. Vfirmont admitted ri4th stateY 548 Modern History. A. D. A national bank (United States bank) chartered for twenty 1792, Apr. 2. years, and a mint, were established at Philadelphia. 1792. Two parties now came into prominence : the republican, afterwards democratic, led by Jefferson j and the federalist, whose leaders were Hamilton and Adams. 1792. Kentucky admitted (15th state). Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. Washington and Adams reelected. 1793. France declared war against Great Britain, and sent Genet as minister to the United States. He arrived at Charleston in April, and proceeded to fit out privateers, etc. Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality, Apr. 22 ; and the next year (1794) the neutrality act was passed. Genet appealed from the executive to the people, and, upon the demand of the government, was recalled. 1793. Fugitive slave act, substantially a dead letter until revived in 1850. 1794. Whiskey insurrection in "western Pennsylvania. It was caused by an internal revenue law of 1791, which laid an excise on domestic spirits, and was put down by an army com- posed of the militia of Pennsylvania and adjoining states. 1794. Eleventh amendment, securing the non-suability of states, proposed by congress, and declared ratified Jan. 1798. 1794. Peace purchased from Algiers, and from Tripoli and Tunis in the following years. 1794. The treaty of peace (p. 432) had been fully carried out by neither party. Great Britain had not delivered the posts held by her on the northern frontier. And she was accused of inciting the Indians to hostility, of impressing American seamen, and of capturing American trading vessels ; and besides, many slaves had been carried away by the British when they evacuated New York. On the other side, it was alleged that the provisions of the treaty with regard to the collection of debts due to British subjects had not been observed. To settle these differences John Jay was sent to England, and a 1794, Nov. 19. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation (Jay's treaty) was concluded. It provided for the delivery of the posts before June, 1796 ; for a commission to decide what river was the " St. Croix " (p. 432) ; for compensation in certain cases to British subjects and American citizens, to be as- certained by commissioners ; for the regulation of trade between the two countries ; for the extradition of criminals, etc. The treaty met with great opposition; the ratifications were not ex- changed till Oct. 1795 ; and the money necessary to carry it out was not voted till 1796 (speech of Fisher Ames). 1795. Treaty with Spain established the southern boundary of the United States, and secured the free navigation of the MissiS" sippi, with right of deposit at New Orleans. 1796. Tennessee admitted (16th state). Sept. 18. Washington's farewell address. 1797, Mar. 4. John Adams (Massachusetts), federalist, 2d president. A. D. United States. §49 Thomas Jefferson, republican, vice-president. 1797. Special mission to France. Attempt on the part of the French to extort money (X. Y. Z. affair). Pinekney, one of the envoys, replied : " Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute." Hostilities actually began. Provisional army raised ; Washington, lieutenant- general ; navy department organized 1798 ; Constellation captured L'Insurgente 1799 ; but when Bonaparte came mto power more pacific intentions prevailed, and a convention was concluded 1800, Sept. 30. 1797. The language of the French sympathizers became so violent that the alien and sedition laws were passed. They were followed by the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798-1799, in which it was asserted that a state had a right to decide for itself how far the national authority should be considered binding. 1799, Dec. 14. Death of Washington. 1800, Nov. 22. Congress met in Washington for the first time. Population, 5,319,762 (2d census). 1801, John Marshall, chief justice of the supreme court. In the elections of 1800 the republican candidates received a major- ity of the votes, but as they had equal numbers the election went to the house of representatives, which chose 1801. Thomas Jefferson (Virginia) 3d president ; and Aaron Burr, vice-president. James Madison, secretary of state ; Albert Gallatin, secretary of the treasury. 1801-1802. Repeal of the internal revenue taxes, and of many un- popular laws. 1802. Ohio admitted (17th state). 1803, April 30. The Louisiana Purchase, by which the United States acquired : all of its present area between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, north of the then northern boundary of Mexico ; the island on which Neiv Orleans stands ; and a claim to Texas, to west Florida, as that portion of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama south of 31° north latitude was then called, and perhaps even to territory west of the Rocky Mountains (p. 554). The price was fifteen mil- lions of dollars, and the original area of the United States was more than doubled. 1803, Dec. 12. Twelfth amendment, altering the mode of elect- ing president and vice-president, proposed by congress, and de- clared ratified 1804, Sept. 25. 1804-1805. Failure of the impeachment of Chase, a justice of the supreme court. 1804, July. Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. 1801-1805. Tripolitan war. Burning of the frigate Philadelphia (Decatur), which had been captured while aground, 1804. Capture of Derne. Bombardment of Tripoli. Treaty 1805. No more tribute to be paid by the United States. 1805, Thomas Jefferson reelected president ; George Clinton vice-president. 1806, April. The British ship Leander fired on an American trad- ing sloop, killing Joh7i Pierce, the owner. The Leander ordered out of the waters of the United States. 550 Modern History. , A. d. 1806, May 16. The British government issued orders in council, declaring the coast of Europe from the Elbe to Brest to be in a partial state of blockade ; Napoleon replied (Nov. 21) by the Ber- lin decree (p. 469). Great Britain issued other orders in council (Jan. 7 and Nov. 11, 180T), followed (Dec.) by the Milan decree (p. 537), which orders and decrees practically put an end to the most profitable portion of the commerce of the United States. 1807, June 22. The frigate Chesapeake was fired into by the British ship Leopard, and four men claimed as deserters were taken out of her by the British. The president by proclamation ordered all British ships of war to leave the coast ; reparation was demanded of Great Britain, and congress laid an embargo (Jefferson's embargo) on all shipping in the ports of the United States (Dec. 22). 1806. Failure of Miranda's scheme for revolutionizing the Span- ish American colonies. 1807. Trial and acquittal of Aaron Burr, late vice-president, for treason. It is said that he had designed seizing New Orleans, detaching several states from the union, and invading Mexico. 1807. Robert Fulton made the first successful application of steam to navigation, in the steamboat Clermont (engine imported). 1808. The importation of slaves into the United States prohib- ited after Jan. 1, 1808. The embargo policy was designed to compel Great Britain and France to withdraw their orders and decrees. The further history is as follows : — 1808, Supplementary acts : 1. Jan. 8, coasting and fishing ves- sels to give bonds to re-land cargoes in United States. 2. Mar. 12, boats and vessels of all kinds and land-carriages made subject to the embargo [April 17, Bayonne decree directing the seizure of all American vessels then in the ports of France]. 3. Apr. 25, coasting trade forbidden to foreign vessels, and to be exercised by others only under the most stringent rules ; enforcing act of 1809 (Jan. 9), by which eyeTj attempt to avoid the embargo worked the f orfeiture oi ship, boat, or vehicle, and involved Sifine oi four times the value of the mer- chandise, one half to the informer, and the president was authorized to use the army and navy to enforce the embargo. Embargo repealed except as to France and England, to take effect 1809, Mar. 15. No goods to be imported from those countries after May 20. 1809, March 4. James Madison (Virginia), democrat, 4th president. James Monroe, secretary of state. 1810^ Population 7,239,881 (3d census). 1810, March 23. Rambouillet decree, ordering the sale of all American vessels which had been seized for violating the French decrees. 1810, May 1. Act known as Macon's No. 2 provided that in case either Great Britain or France should revoke its edicts the United States would prohibit trade with the other. Napoleon revoked the Berlin and Milan decrees, but not the Rambouillet decree, Aug. 5, to take effect Nov. 1, as to American vessels. This was considered by the president as a sufficient compliance with the condition of A. D. United States. 551 Macon's No. 2, and a proclamation declared the non-importation act revived as to Great Britain after Feb. 2, 1811. 1811, May 16. Engagement between the American frigate Presi- dent and the British ship Little Belt. 1812. Louisiana admitted (18th state). 1812, Apr. 4. Embargo for ninety days. War declared against Great Britain. The orders in council of Jan. and Apr. 1807, revoked (June 23). 1812-1814:. "War with Great Britain. Events of 1812, Unsuccessful invasion of Canada, surrender of Detroit (Aug. 16), defeat at Queenstown (Oct. 13). On the water, however, the American ship Essex (Porter) captured the Alert; the Constitution (Hull), the Guerriere ; the Wasp, the Frolic (both taken by the Poic- tiers, a British 74) ; the United States (Decatur), the Macedonian ; and the Constitution (Bainbridge), the Java. In 1813 the Amer- icans were defeated at Frenchtown (Jan.) ; gained the battle of Lake Erie (Perry) ; but were driven from their posts on the Niagara. The English blockaded the Atlantic seaboard, and June 1 the British frigate Shannon captured the Chesapeake ; the Pelican, the Argus ; but on the other hand the American ship Hornet took the Peacock ; the Enterprise, the Boxer. In 1814 there was another attempt to invade Canada; the Americans captured Fort Erie and won the battles of Chippewa (July 5) and Lundy's Lane (July 15), but these victories led to nothing. Battle of Lake Champlain won by McDonough (Sept. 11). Aug. 24, the British under Ross defeated the Americans at Bladenshurgh ; entered Washington the next day and burnt all the public buildings ; but were repulsed in an at- tempt on Baltimore (Sept. 13) ; and with great loss at New Or- leans (Dec, Jackson). At sea the American ship Essex (Porter), after a successful cruise in the Pacific, was captured by the Phoebe and Cherub ; the Peacock captured the Epervier ; the Wasp, the Reindeer and Avon. In 1815 the Constitution captured the Cyane and Levant ; and the Hornet, the Penguin ; while the President sur- rendered to a British squadron. Peace, however, had been made at Ghent, December 24, 1814, by a treaty by which none of the ques- tions which led to the war were settled, but which provided for com- missions to run the boundaries, as determined in previous treaties. The eastern states had resisted the embargo, and later had taken a very lukewarm interest in the war, and had consequently been left to sliift for themselves. This dissatisfaction led to the summoning of the Hartford convention, 1814, Dec. 15, which adjourned in three weeks without accomplishing anything. 1815. Squadron, under Decatur, sent to the Mediterranean, and a treaty negotiated ivith Algiers. 1816. The second United States bank chartered for twenty years (charter of 1st expired in 1811). Protective tariff. In- diana admitted (19th state). 1817-1825. James Monroe (Virginia), democrat, 5th pres- ident. Era of good feeling. J. Q. Adams, secretary of state ; W. H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury ; and John C. Calhoun, secretary of war (ros. 1817). 552 Modern History. A. d. 1817. Mississippi admitted (20th state). 1817-1818. Seminole -war (Jackson). Invasion of Florida, then a colony of Spain. Execution of two British subjects. 1818. Illinois admitted (21st state). Pensions granted to the survivors of the revolutionary war, in needy circumstances. Convention -with Great Britain as to the fisheries ; the coun- try west of the " Stony [Rocky] Mountains " to be occu- pied by the two po"wers in common for ten years, etc. 1819. Treaty with Spain. She gave up all claim to west Florida, (p. 432) which had been occupied by the United States since 1810, and ceded east Florida. The United States gave up all claim to Texas, and agreed to pay an indemnity of five mill- ions to its own citizens for claims which they had against Spain. 1819. Alabama (22d state). Financial crisis. 1820. Maine (23d state). Population of the United States 9,638,453. 1820. Missouri compromise, by which it was agreed that slavery should he prohibited in the United States west of the Mississippi, north of 36° 30' north latitude, this being the 1821. southern border of Missouri, which was admitted as a slave state (24th state). 1823, Dec. 2. The president in his annual message enunciated the Monroe doctrine : " That the American continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects ior future colonization, by any European power ; " and that the extension of the system of the Holy alliance (p. 485) to America would not be viewed " in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." Neither of the candidates for president receiving a majority of the electoral vote, the house of representatives chose 1825-1829. John Quincy Adams (b. 1767, f 1848) (Massachusetts), democrat, president, although Andrew Jack- son had received a plurality in the electoral college ; John C. Calhoun (b. 1782, f 1850), vice-president ; Henry Clay (b. 1777, t 1852), secretary of state. 1825. The Erie canal was finished ; the first railroad in America (at Quincy, Mass.) was completed in 1827, although steam was not used on such a road in this country until 1829. 1826. Failure of the Panama congress, and 1827 of another ap- pointed to meet near the city of Mexico. These were at- tempts to put the Monroe doctrine into practice. 1828. Tariff of abominations. 1829-1837. Andrew Jackson (b. 1767, f 1845), (Tennes- see), democrat, 7th president; John C. Calhoun, vice-president (res. 1831) ; Martin Van Buren (b. 1782, f 1862), secretary of state. Inauguration of the spoils system ; about 690 office holders removed by the president during the first year of his admin« A. D. United States. 553 istration, in contrast with only seventy-four removals hy all former presidents. The government was now in the hands of those who, according to senator Marcy of New York, saw " nothing wrong in the rule that to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy." 1829. The merchants of Boston protested against the tariff acts, and were followed by the legislatures of South Carolina, Virginia^ Alabama, and North Carolina. 1830. Population 12,866,020 (5th census). 1830, Jan. 27. Speech of Daniel Webster (b. 1782, f 1852), in the senate of the United States in reply to colonel Hayne of South Carolina, who upheld extreme states-rights views. 1831. William Lloyd Garrison established in Boston a paper called the Liberator, advocating the immediate and uncondi- tional emancipation of the negroes. This led to the organization of the abolitionists. 1831. Convention with France, mutual settlement of claims. France to pay the United States 25,000,000 francs, and to be paid 1,300,000 francs, such sums to be distributed to claimants in either comitry. The tariff act of 1832, while containing a reduction of duties, retained the protective principle. A convention held in South Carolina reported 1832. A nullification ordinance (Nov. 1832), which de- clared that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitu- tional " and are null and void, and no law, nor binding upon this state,^* etc. Colonel Hayne was elected governor of South Carolina, and Cal- houn took the seat thus vacated in the senate. Dec. 10 president Jackson issued the nullification proclamation, in which the doc- trine of states-rights was refuted and the national theory set forth ; and he declared his intention of executing the laws of the United States. This was followed by the nullification message, 1833, Jan. 16. This trouble was finally ended by the compromise tariff act, introduced into the senate by Henry Clay, 1833, Feb. 12. Both sides claimed the victory. 1835-1842. War with the Seminole Indians. 1836. Arkansas (25th state). 1837. Michigan (26th state). 1837-1841. Martin Van Buren (New York), democrat, 8th president. 1837. Financial crisis : causes, removal (1833) of deposits from the United States bank to the local banks ; great extension of credit, and over-issue of paper money ; contraction of the vol- ume of the currency by the (1836, July 11) specie circular, which produced a great scarcity of money. 1837. Rebellion in Canada, burning of the American steamer Car- oline by the royalists. McLeod^s case. 1838-1839. The gag resolutions, by which congress declared that petitions praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia or against the inter-state slave trade should be tabled without being debated, referred, or printed. 554 Modern History. A. D. 1840. Independent treasury established ; the national funds to be kept in the treasury at Washington and in the sub-treasuries established in certain cities, subject to the order of the treasurer. 1840. Population 17,069,453 (6th census). After an exciting contest was elected 1841-1845. William Henry Harrison (Ohio), whig, 9th president, f 1841, Apr., succeeded by John Tyler (b. 1790, f 1862) of Virginia, vice-president. Daniel Webster, secretary of state (res. 1843). 1842. The northeastern boundary dispute with Great Britain set- tled by the Ashburton treaty. 1842. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 1844. Experimental telegraph line between Washington and Balti- more built by professor S. F. B, Morse with money appro- priated by congress. 1845. Florida (27th state). In 1821 Mexico had separated from Spain, and in 1836 Texas declared itself independent of Mexico. Houston with eight hundred Texans defeated Santa Anna at the San Jacinto (1836, Apr. 21), and drove the Mexicans across the Bio Grande ; and 1845? March. Texas was annexed to the United States. 1845-1849. James K. Polk (Tennessee), democrat, 11th president ; James Buchanan (b. 1781, f 1868), secretary of state. 1845. Texas (28th state) ; 1846, Iowa (29th state). The United States and Great Britain claimed the territory west of the Rocky Mountains from the northern boundary of Mexico, 42° north latitude, to the southern boundary of Alaska, 54° 40' north latitude. By the 1846. Oregon treaty this tract was divided between them, the 49th parallel forming the boundary, and the southern portion, which fell to the United States, retained the name of Oregon. The annexation of Texas led to a 1846-1848. War with Mexico, which was invaded by an army from the north commanded by Zachary Taylor (b. 1786, f 1850) ; battles of Palo Alto (May 8), Resaca (May 9). Surrender of Monterey (Sept. 24), Buena Vista (1847, Feb. 22 and 23). In March, 1847, another army under general Scott landed near Vera Cruz, which surrendered March 29th. He then set out for the city of Mexico, and won the battles of Cerro Gordo (April 18), Churubusco (Aug. 20), captured the fortress of Chapultepec (Sept. 12 and 13), and en- tered the city of Mexico (Sept. 14). On the Pacific the Amer- icans had been equally successful, and the war was ended by the 1848, Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico gave up all claim to Texas, the Rio Grande to be the boundary, and ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upper California, in all about 522,955 square miles, in consideration of fifteen millions of dollars. A. D. United States. 555 1848. Wisconsin (30th state). In 1846 the "Wilmot proviso, which provided that slavery should not be permitted in whatever territory should be acquired from Mexico, was defeated ; but the agitation it occasioned led to the organ- ization of 1848. The Free soil party, the precursor of the present republican party. 1849-1853. Zachary Taylor (Louisiana), whig, 12th presi- dent, f July 9, 1850 ; succeeded by Millard Fillmore of New York, vice-president. John M. Clayton, secretary of state ; fol- lowed by Daniel Webster 1850, July 20, f 1852 ; who was suc- ceeded by Edward Everett (b. 1794, f 1865). 1850. Population 23,191,876 (7th census). The discovery of gold in California (1848) had led to the rapid population of that territory, and in 1850 it became the 31st state. 1850, Sept. Clay's compromises provided for the admission of Cal- ifornia as a free state ; for the payment to Texas of ten millions for her claim to New Mexico ; for the organization of Utah and New Mexico as territories without any mention of slavery ; for the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia ; and for the rendition of slaves who had escaped to free states, this last known as the 1850. Fugitive Slave Law. 1850, April 19. Clayton-Bulwer treaty with Great Britain settled certain questions with regard to communication between the Atlantic and Pacific ; which, owing to the acquisition of Cali- fornia, had become of importance to the United States. 1853-1857. Franklin Pierce (New Hampshire), demo- crat, 14th president ; William L. Marcy, secretary of state ; Jefferson Davis (b. 1808 ; f 1889), secretary of war. 1853, Dec. 30. Boundary dispute -with Mexico settled by the Gadsden purchase ; by which the boundary was to be the Rio Grande from its mouth to 31° 20"^ north latitude ; thence due west to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich ; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado river twenty miles below the junction of the Gila ; thence up the middle of the Colorado river untU it intersects the boundary of California as determined by the treaty of 1848. The price was ten millions, and the area thus acquired was 45,000 square miles. 1854. Treaty with Japan, which opened that country to commer- cial intercourse with the United States, negotiated by commo- dore Perry (p. 563). 1854. Reciprocity treaty "with Great Britain secured to the Americans the right to the ^^ fisheries ; " and certain articles were to be admitted free of duty into the United States and the British provinces. This treaty was terminated in 1866 by the United States. 1854. Kansas-Nebraska bill passed. It provided for the organ- ization of two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and left the question of slavery to those who should there settle (squatter sov- ereignty)j thus repealing in part the Missouri compromise. A 556 Modern History. A. d, struggle immediately ensued between the slave-holders and the aboli- tionists as to which party should colonize these territories first. Sack of Lawrence by " harder ruffians " (1856, May 21) ; battle of Ossawat- tomie (John Brown). At last the anti-slavery party proved successful. 1856. Rise of " Know-Nothingism,^^ or secret opposition to foreign influence in national legislation. 1857-1861. James Buchanan (Pennsylvania), democrat, 15th president. 1857. In the Dred Scott case the supreme court decided that un- der the constitution neither negro slaves nor their descen- dants, slave or free, could become citizens of the United States ; and added, as a dictum, that the Missouri compromise was unconstitu- tional, and that therefore a slave did not become free by being carried to a territory where slavery had been prohibited under that compro- mise. 1857. Great commercial distress throughout the country. 1858. Minnesota (32d state) ; 1859, Oregon (33d state). 1859. John Brown with a handful of men seized the United Oct. 19. States arsenal at Harper's Ferry ; but, after half his men were killed, was captured, and hanged December 2d of the same year. 1860. Population of the United States 31,443,332 (8th census). 1860, Nov. Abraham Lincoln (b. 1809, f 1865) of Illinois, re- publican, received the electoral votes of all the free states, — New Jersey excepted, — but none from the slave states, and was de- clared president-elect. {New Jersey gave Lincoln 4, Douglas 3 votes.) 1860, Dec. 20. South Carolina seceded from the union, and was followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Lou- isiana, and North Carolina in January, 1861 ; by Texas in Febru- ary ; Virginia in April ; and by Tennessee and Arkansas in May. Missouri and Kentucky declared themselves neutral. Delegates from the seceded states met in convention at Montgomery, Alabama, 1861, Feb. 4 ; and formed a provisional government under the style of the Confederate States of America, Feb. 8. Jefferson Davis was elected president ; Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president. The se- ceding states endeavored to seize all the national property within their borders, and were successful except at Pensacola (Florida) and Charleston (South Carolina). At the latter place the commander of the United States forces withdrew to an unfinished fort, Sumter, on an island in the harbor, Dec. 26, 1860 ; and on the 9th of January, 1861, a steamer, the Star of the West, bringing him supplies, was fired on by the state forces, and forced to return. 1861, Jan. 29. Kansas admitted to the union as d^free (34th) state. 1861. Lincoln reached Washington in safety Feb. 23 ; and was inaugurated (16th) president of the United States on March 4 without disturbance. William H. Seward, secretary of state ; Simon Cameron, succeeded Jan. 1862, by Edwin M. Stan- ton, secretary of war ; Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury. The government of the so-called confederate states attempted to open negotiations^ with the federal authorities, for a peaceful separation} A. D. United States. 557 but the president declined to entertain any such propositions. On the contrary, it was determined to succour the garrison in Charleston harbor. The insurgents fired on fort Sumter 1861, Apr. 12, which surrendered Apr. 14. 1861-1865. The Civil War. Apr. 15, the president issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 volunteers to serve for three months ; and summoned congress to meet July 4. April 18 a few companies of Pennsylvania mili- tia reached Washington ; and on April 19, the anniversary of the bat- tle of Lexington, the si:sth Massachusetts regiment was attacked by a mob while passing through Baltimore. The same day the pres- ident declared the ports of the seceded states to be in a state of blockade. On May 3d he issued a call for 42,000 men to serve for three years or the war. May 13, Great Britain recognized the so-called confederate states as belligerents. June 10 the union troops were repulsed at Big Bethel, and July 21 were routed at Bull Run or Manassas. Nov. 1. George B. McClellan succeeded general Scott in command of the union forces. Nov. 8, Mason and Slidell, commissioners from the confederate states to Great Britain and France, were taken from the British maO steamer Trent by the American steamer San Jacinto. War with Great Britain averted through the prudence and skill of Mr. Seward. The commissioners were given up, and thus was established a principle of inter- national law for which the United States had invariably con- tended. Events of 1862. Feb. 6, capture of Fort Henry (in Ten- nessee) by the union forces. Feb. 16, " unconditional sur- render " of Fort Donelson to general U. S. Grant (b. 1822 ; f 1885). Mar. 9, Monitor and Merrimac. Mar. 14, cap- ture of Newbern. Apr. 6 and 7, battle of Shiloh or Pitts- burgh landing (Grant); retreat of the confederates. Apr. 16, slavery abolished in the District of Columbia. April 24, a fleet under flag-officer (afterwards admiral) David G. Far- ragut ran the forts below New Orleans, and received the surrender of that city the next day. March to July, Peninsular campaign (McClellan). Battle of Fair Oaks May 31 and June 1 ; seven days battles before Rich- mond {Mechanicsville, Gaines's Mill, White Oak swamp, and Malvern Hill July 1) ; withdrawal from the peninsula. The confederate army, now under the eonunand of general Rob- ert E. Lee (b. 1807, f 1870), pressed forward toward Wash- ington. Battle of Cedar Mountain (Aug. 5) ; defeat of the union army under Pope at the second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 30. Lee crossed the Potomac into Maryland, but was de- feated at South Mountain, and after the battle of the Antie- tam (Sept. 17) recrossed the Potomac. McClellan superseded by Burnside, who was repulsed with great loss at Fredericks- burg (Dec. 13), and was succeeded (Jan. 26) by general Hooker. 558 Modern History, A. D. Events of 1863. After the battle of the Antietam the presi- ' dent had issued a proclamation declaring that all slaves in states or parts of states in rebellion Jan. 1, 1863, should then be free ; and on that day he issued the formal emancipation proclamation. The army of the Potomac, under general Hooker, defeated at Chancellorsville (May 3). f Stonewall Jackson (b. 1826). Lee again attempted an invasion of the north, but was de- feated by the army of the Potomac, now commanded by gen- eral George G. Meade (b. 1816, f 1872), at Gettysburg (July 1-3). July 4, Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. These two events were the turning points of the war. Grant assumed command of the military division of the Mississippi, and with force composed of the army of the Cumberland commanded by Thomas (b. 1816, f 1870), and reinforcements from Vicksburg under William T. Sherman (b. 1820 ; f 1891), and from the Potomac under Hooker, fought and won the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge at Chatta- nooga, Tennessee, Nov. 24 and 25. "West Virginia (loyal portion of Virginia) (35th state). Events of 1864. Grant made a lieutenant-general (March 9), and commander-in-chief (Mar. 12) of all the armies of the United States which henceforth operated on a settled plan. May 3, Grant with the army of the Potomac under general Meade crossed the Rapidan, fought the battles of the "Wilderness (May 5 to 12), Spottsylvania (May 12-21), North Anna (May 21-31), Cold Harbor (June 1-3), and sat down before Petersburg, June 19. A confederate force under Early was sent to threaten Washington, and thus to secure the with- drawal of Grant. Early penetrated into Maryland and Penn- sylvania, but was defeated by Sheridan (b. 1831) at Opequan (Sept. 19), Fisher's Hill (Sept. 21), and at Cedar Creek (Oct. 19). The Shenandoah valley was then devastated, and Sheridan rejoined Grant before Petersburg. The western armies under Sherman began a campaign against the confed- erates led by general Joe Johnston (b. 1807) May 6, and after a series of engagements reached Atlanta, which was evacuated by the confederates Sept. 2. A portion of his army was then sent north under Thomas to watch Hood (the suc- cessor of Johnston), who was finally defeated before Nash- ville, Dec. 15 and 16. Meanwhile Sherman, after burning At- lanta, started on the march through Georgia. He reached the sea Dec. 12, and took Savannah Dec. 22. On the water the Kearsarge ( Winslow) sank the confederate steamer Ala- bama oif Cherbourg (Alabama claims, p. 560) ; and a fleet under vice-admiral Farragut ran the forts at Mobile, Aug. 5. 1864, Nov. Nevada (36th state). Nov. 8. Reelection of Abraham Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice- president. 1865. The Thirteenth Amendnient, prohibiting slav- ^. D. United States. 559 ery -w^ithin the United States, was proposed by congress Feb. 1, and was declared ratified Dec. 18th. Events of 1865- Surrender of Fort Fisher to general Terry, Jan. 15. Grant had gradually drawn his lines around Lee's right flank, and on April 1st Sheridan won the battle of Five Forks, which compelled the evacuation of Petersburg April 2, and the surrender of Richmond April 3. Grant, with his whole army, under Meade and Sheridan, pursued Lee, who, being surrounded, capitulated at Appomattox Court House, April 9. Meantime Sherman had set out from Sa- vannah for the north, Feb. 1. On Feb. 17, he compelled the evacuation of Charleston, and on April 26 received the surren- der of the last confederate army, under Johnston. 1865, April 15. Assassination of Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice-president, succeeds. Cost of the war. National debt in 1860, $64,842,287 ; in 1866, $2,773,236,173, which great increase was in addition to the debts incurred by the states and municipalities. 1865, May 22. The southern ports declared open. May 29. Amnesty to all persons engaged in the rebellion, with the exception of fourteen specified classes. 1866, Apr. 9. Civil rights bill passed over the president's veto. June 16. Fourteenth amendment, securing to the freedmen the right of citizenship, declaring the validity of the national debt, and regulating the basis of representation and disqualifi- cation from office, proposed by congress, and declared ratified 1868, July 28. 3866, July 16. Act to continue the freedmen's bureau, which had charge of the loyal and suffering classes, black and white, in the southern states, passed over the president's veto. 1866, July 27. Telegraphic communication finally established •with Great Britain. 1867, March 1. Nebraska (37th state). Mar. 2. Reconstruction act passed over the president's veto. It divided the ten southern states mto five military districts, each commanded by an army officer, who should see to the protection of life and property. The seceded states to be restored to their place in the union, whenever a con- vention of delegates, "elected by the male citizens, ... of whatever race, color, or previous condition," except those dis- franchised for participation in rebellion, etc., should frame a con- stitution, which, being ratified by the people and approved by con- gress, should go into operation, and the legislature thereupon elected should adopt the fourteenth amendment. 1867, Mar. 4. Tenure of office bill passed over the president's veto. 1867, Mar. 30. Alaska purchase. Area 577,340 square miles; price a little over seven million dollars. 1868, Feb. 24-May 26. Impeachment of president An* drew Johnson by the house of representatives. He had op- 560 Modern History, A. d, posed the reconstruction measures of congress ; but the imme- diate cause of the impeachment was an alleged violation of the tenure of office act of 1867, Mar. 4. The senate acquitted him by one vote (35 to 19, the constitution requiring a two thirds majority). 1868, Dec. 25. Amnesty extended. 1869, Feb. 26. Fifteenth amendment, that the right to vote shall not he denied or abridged on account of " race, color, or 'previous condition of servitude^* proposed by congress, and declared ratified, 1870, Mar. 30. 1869, Mar. 4-1877, Mar. 5. Ulysses S. Grant (Illinois), republican, 18th president. 1870, Population 38,555,983 (9th census). 1871, Mar. 3. A clause in the appropriation bill authorized the president to appoint a civil service commission to prescribe rules, etc. 1871, May 8. Treaty of "Washington with Great Britain provided : 1. For the reference to the emperor of Germany of the dispute as to the Oregon boundary (decided in favor of the United States, 1872, Oct. 21). 2. For a partial settlement of the fishery dispute (Halifax award, 1877, gave Great Britain five and one half million dollars) ; this part of the treaty abrogated by act of the United States, 1883. 3. For the settlement of the Alabama claims (^Geneva tribunal of arbitration awarded to the United States over fifteen million dollars). 1873. Commercial crisis. 1875. Colorado (38th state). 1876. Centennial exhibition at Philadelphia. 1876. The national elections of this year were very close, and con- gress appointed an electoral commission (five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the supreme court), which declared the republican candidate elected. 1877, Mar. 5-1881, Mar. 4. Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio), republican, 19th president. 1879, Jan. 1. Resumption of specie payments. 1880, Population 50,155,783 (10th census). 1881, Mar. 4. James A. Garfield (Ohio), republican, 20tb president. July 2, shot and mortally wounded, f Sept. 19. Succeeded by the vice-president, Chester A. Arthur, of New York, republican. 1882, May 6. Immigration of Chinese laborers suspended for ten years, in accordance with a treaty with China, con- cluded 1880, Nov. 7. 1883, Jan. 9. Civil service act (Pendleton bill) introduced the principle of compulsory competitive examination into the civil service of the United States. (^See p. 586.) §6. CHINA. (See p. 445.) 1796-1882. 1796-1820. Kiaking. Frequent insurrections, rampant piracy. Embassy of lord Am- herst (1816). A. D. China, 661 1820-1850. Taukwang. The exclusive privilege of the East India company ceasing in 1834, lord Napier was appointed superintendent of British trade (f 1834). Imperial prohibition of the opium trade. Commissioner Lin sent to Canton with extraordinary powers (1838). Surrender of opium by Capt. Elliot, British commissioner to the Chinese, by whom it was destroyed (over 20,000 chests), 1839, Mar.-June. The con- tinuance of the trade, and the English demands that the loss be made good to their traders, caused the 1840-1842. First war with Great Britain (Opium war). A treaty concluded by Keshin, successor of Lin (Hong-kong ceded to England), was rejected by the emperor. The English cap- tured Amoy (1842, Aug. 27), Ning-po (Oct. 13), Shang-hai (1842, June 19), and stormed Ching-keang (July 21). 1842, Aug. 29. Treaty of Nanking. 1. Canton, Amoy, Fuhchau, Ning-po, Shanghai, opened to British trade. 2. Hong-kong ceded to England. 3. The Chinese paid {$21,000,000. 4. Establishment of a regular tarifip. 5. OfEcial inter- course to be on a basis of equality. 1844, July 3. Treaty with the United States (Caleb Cushing, am- bassador). Treaty with France (Oct. 23). 1850-1860. Hienfung. 1850, Aug. Outbreak of the Tai-ping rebellion (1850-1864). The leader was Hung Sui-tsuen, who called himself Tien-teh (" ce- lestial virtue "), and claimed to have been commissioned by heaven to conduct a political and religious reform of the empire. Promulga- tion of a religious system based on some knowledge of Christianity. 1853. Capture of Nanking (Mar. 19), Shanghai (Sept. 7). Sui- tsuen proclaimed emperor. 1855. Failure of the attack made by the rebels on Peking. 1856, Oct. 8. The lorcha ^ Arrow, owned by a Chinese, but com- manded by an Irishman and flying the British flag, was boarded at Canton by Chinese officers in search of suspected pirates ; twelve natives were carried off and the flag pulled down. 1856, Nov. Three Chinese forts destroyed by the American fleet under commodore Armstrong, the Chinese having fired upon American boats. The attempt of the English government (Palmerston, p. 543) to ob- tain a disavowal of the attack upon the Arrowy or an apology there- for, resulted in the 1857-1860. (Second) war with Great Britain allied with France. Lord Elgin, English envoy. Destruction of the Chinese fleet (1857, May 26, 27). Capture of Canton (Dec. 28, 29). Treaties of Tientsin (June, 1858) with Great Britain, France, the United States. Infraction of the treaty (1859, June), renewal of the war. Repulse of the English attempt to force the passage of the Pei-ho forts (June i Lorcha: a lij^ht Chinese sailing vessf I, carrying guns, built after the Eur(K pe«n model, but rigged like a Chinese junk. — Imperiai. Dictionary. 562 Modern History. A. D. 25). Chinese defeat at Palikao (1860, Sept. 21). Destruction of the summer palace (Oct. 6), surrender of Peking (Oct. 12). 1860, Oct. 24. Treaty of Peking. Ratification of the treaty of Tientsin ; toleration of Chris- tianity ; revised tariif ; payment of an indemnity ; resident ambassa- dors at Peking. 1860-1875. Tungchi, six years old. Palace revolution. Administration of prince Kung. Reor- ganization of the imperial army under general Ward, an American (f 1861), and colonel Gordon, an Englishman. The " ever victorious force." 1862-1864. Suppression of the rebellion. Capture of Nanking (1864, July 19). Suicide of Hung Sui-tsuen. 1866. Successful rebellion of Yakub Beg (f 1877) in KasTigar. 1868. Embassy of Anson Burlingame (and two Chinese envoys) to the treaty powers. (Burlingame f 1870.) 1870, May. Mohammedan rebellion in the northwest (Yun-nan^ Kan-suK). 1871. Russia annexed Kuldja, until the Chinese power should be reestablished in that region. 1873. Settlement of the audience question ; foreign ambassadors re- ceived by the emperor without the ceremony of prostration (kotow). Suppression of the Mohammedan rebellion. 1875 — X. K-wangsii, three years old {Tsai-tien). 1876, June 30. Opening of the first railroad in China {Shanghai to Woosung, eleven miles). 1877-1878. Terrible famine in the north of China. 1877, Dec. Defeat and assassination of Yakub Beg. Capture of Kashgar. 1879, June. Treaty with Russia negotiated by Chung-how : China obtained only a portion of Kuldja and paid an indemnity. Re- jection of the treaty. 1881, Aug. Peace with Russia negotiated by the marquis Tseng. Cession of nearly all of the Kuldja district ; China paid the expenses of Russian occupation. 1882. A threatened war with Japan avoided by Chinese diplomacy. Dispute with the French over Tonquin (p. 535). {See p. 594.) §7. JAPAN. {See p. 445.) 1817-1882. Mikados. Shoguns (Tokugawa family). 1817-1846, Ninko 1787-1838 lyenori. (1838-1853 lyeyoshi. 1846-1866, Komei \ 1853-1859 lyesada. ( 1859-1866 lyemochi. 1867 — X. Mutsuhito 1866-1868 Keiki (Hitotsubashi-yoshi- nobu ; Noriyoshi). Growing dissatisfaction with the usurped power of the shoguns among the samurai ; jealousy of the long possession of the shogunate by the Tokugawa family (1603-1868) among the great daimios. 1853, July 7. Commodore Perry, of the United States navy, en- tered the harbor of Yedo with four vessels, but soon departed ; in Feb. 1854, he returned, and concluded a A. D, Japan. 563 1854, Mar. 21. Treaty between Japan and the United States, which was signed by the shogun, whom Perry took to be the "secular emperor " of Japan, under the newly assumed title of tai- kun (tycoon, "great prince," properly a title of the mikado). Trea- ties with Great Britain (1854, Oct. 14), and Russia (1855, Jan. 26). In 1858 treaties (peace, amity, unrestricted commerce) concluded with the United States (Townshend Harris), Great Britain (Elgin), France, Russia, — all signed by the shogun. 1859. Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate, opened to trade. These unwarranted assumptions of power on the part of the shogun angered the mikado and the Kioto court, where the foreigners were regarded with deep distrust. 1860. First Japanese embassy to the United States sent out by lij prime minister of the shogun (assassinated Mar. 23). 1861-1865. Civil dissensions. Outrages upon foreign representa- tives. Death of an Englishman (Richardson) in a broil with the train of the brother of the prince of Satsuma, avenged by the bombardment of Kagoshima (in Satsuma), and the exaction of $625,000 (1862). 1862. The daimios, released from compulsory residence at YedOf flocked to Kioto. 1863. Some American, Dutch, and French vessels, having anchored in the forbidden roadstead of Shimonoseki after due warning, were fired upon. In reprisal these powers bombarded the batteries, inflicting considerable loss. In spite of this 1864, Sept. 4. Bombardment and destruction of the Shimonoseki batteries by English, French, Dutch, and American vessels. Exaction of an indemnity of $3,000,000, of which the United States received $785,000.1 1865, Nov. 25. Ratification of treaties extorted by the foreign pow- ers. 1867. Nov. 19. Resignation of Keiki, the last shogun. 1868. Restoration of the mikado. End of the dual gov- ernment. The proclamation settmg forth the resumption of government by the mikado (1868, Jan. 3) was followed by the revolt of Keiki and by open war, which, after severe fighting (battles of Fushimi, 1868, Jan. 27-30 ; Wakamatsu, Hakodate), ended in favor of the imperial- ists (June, 1869). 1869. Nov. Residence of the mikado transferred from Kioto to Yedo (Jeddo), the name of the latter place having been previously changed to Tokio (" the eastern capital "). 1870. The mikado, by advice of the leading samurai (Okubo), changed front, and welcomed the foreigners. 1871. Embassy to the United States and Europe. 1871. Abolition of feudalism ; relegation of the daimios to private life ; abolition of the title ; exchange of their rev- enues for pensions. 1 In Feb. 1883, the house of representatives accepted a favorable report upon the Japanese indemnity bill. Repayment of the S785.000 without interest. 564 Modern History, A. D. Assimilation to western civilization. Issue of a code of criminal law (revised 1881) ; establishment of a government post ; introduc- tion of the telegraph ; railroad from Yokohama to Shinogana (1872) ; bureau of education ; adoption of the Gregorian calendar (1874, Jan. 1) ; female normal school (1875) ; university of Tokio (1873); rees- tablishment of the Shinto faith (p. 32) ; new military system. 1874. Expedition to Formosa, avenging the murder of Japanese sail- ors on that island. 1876. Enforcement of a treaty with Corea. 1877. Rebellion in Satsuma {Saigo, Kirimo') suppressed after heavy fighting (Saigo,f Sept. 24). Large issue of inconvertible paper money to defray the expenses. 1878. Establishment of local elective assemblies for regulating local taxation, and with right of petitioning the central government ; franchise secured to all males twenty-one years of age who pay a land tax of S5.00. 1881. Negotiations with the foreign powers relative to the adoption of a higher tariff, and to the abolition of the privilege enjoyed by foreigners of living under the jurisdiction of their native country. Dispute with China over the Loo-Choo islands. 1882, Oct. Imperial decree establishing a new constitution ; promise of a national assembly in 1890 (p. 694). (Seep. 594") APPENDIX (1883— x), §8. GREAT BRITAIN. (See p. 646.) 1883— X. 1883, Jan. 18. France having declined to join in the expedition against Arabiy the dual control^ was abolished by the khedive (Tewjik Pasha), and a British financial agent appointed in place of the controllers. Sir Evelyn Baring (later Lord Cro- mer), British diplomatic agent and consul-general. In the Soudan the mahdi Muhammad Ahmad was conducting a reli- gious revolt. Hicks Pasha's Egyptian army annihilated (Nov. 3-5, 1883) ; (Valentine) Baker Pasha defeated (Feb. 4, 1884). Great Britain insisted on evacuation of the Soudan, and 1884, Feb. 18. Gen. Charles Gordon (" Chinese " Gordon, p. 562) arrived at Khartum to withdraw the garrisons and establish a native government. Feb. 27. By the Convention of London the South African republic, now first so-called, was granted practical inde- pendence in internal affairs, but Great Britain reserved a veto over treaties with other states, except the Orange Free State and native tribes. Draft guaranteeing full independence was rejected by Great Britain; but the new convention made no mention oi preamble of convention of 1881, in which the suzer- ainty of Great Britain was asserted, while it expressly substi- tuted its articles for the articles of 1881. Western boundary established. Nov. 6. Protectorate proclaimed over southeastern New Guinea. Dec. 6. Third reform act received royal assent (pp. 540, 544). Uniform franchise in counties and boroughs, and in the three kingdoms; about 2,500,000 enfranchised. Redistribution of seats act (June 25, 1885) ; counties now have more seats than boroughs have ; single member seats. Total members of par liament, 670. 1885, Jan. 26. Khartum captured by the mahdi ; death of gen. Gordon. A relief expedition which had been demanded by the opposition since March, 1884, had started under lord Wolseley in Sept. After severe fighting {Abu Klea, Jan. 14) 1 Egypt became bankrupt in 1876 in consequence of loans contracted by the khedive Ismail Pasha (deposed, 1879), and the financial affairs Avere under-, taken by the nations representing tlie chief creditors. In 1881 France and Great Britain practicalh' assumed the administration of the country. 566 Modern History. A. d. an advanced guard approached Khartum, Jan. 28, but the ex- pedition was withdrawn. March 30. Russians occupied Penjdeh, driving out Afghan force. Rupture imminent, but an adjustment was finally made and the Russian-Afghan frontier delimited by joint commission (1886), Russia retaining Penjdeh. March-May. Rebellion of Louis Riel in Northwest territory, Canada. Riel surrendered. May 15 ; executed, Nov. 16. June 23. Lord Salisbury (b. 1830 ; M. P., 1854 ; lord, 1868 ; 1 1903), prime minister. Sept. 30. British Bechuanaland made a crown colony ; protectorate over Northern Bechuanaland. 1886. Canadian and Bering sea fisheries (p. 586). Jan. 1. Upper Burma annexed to British India as result of the defeat of king Theehaw. Jan. 12. Eleventh (23d imperial) parliament of Victoria met, Irish nationalists (86) holding balance of power. Bradlaugh, after repeated exclusions because of his religious opinions, was allowed to take the oath. Government defeated, and Feb. 12. Gladstone became premier for the third time ; sir W. Vernon Harcourt (exchequer), lord Rosebery (foreign), John Morley (Ireland), Joseph Chamberlain (local government board). April 8. Gladstone introduced a Home rule bill for Ireland. Separate parliament, and Irish members excluded from the imperial parliament ; lord-lieutenant appointed by the crown with right of veto ; prerogatives of crown untouched; customs and excise under British treasury; Ireland to pay ^-^ of inter- est on national debt. Secession of liberal unionists under lord Hartington and Chamberlain (resigned in March) followed. Land purchase bill for Ireland introduced. Home rule bill was defeated on second reading, June 7 (341-311), and par- liament was dissolved (June 26). The elections gave 316 conservatives, 191 home-rule liberals, 78 liberal unionists, and 85 Irish home-rulers. Gladstone resigned (July 20) and July 21. Lord Salisbury became prime minister ; lord Iddesleigh (sir Stafford Nortlicote) (foreign); lord Randolph Churchill (exchequer and leader of the Commons), succeeded by G. J. Goschen, Jan., 1887; sir M. Hicks Beach (Ireland), succeeded by ^. J. Balfour, March 5, 1887. Aug. 5. Twelfth (24th imperial) parliament of Victoria met. A tenant's relief bill introduced by Parnell failing, the Oct. 17. plan of campaign was put into force in Ireland ; rents offered and refused were formed into a joint fund for the sup- port of evicted tenants. 1887, May. Canadian Pacific railway opened (2905 miles). June 21. Jubilee day in commemoration of the fiftieth anniver- sary of the accession of queen Victoria. July 19. Criminal land amendment (Ireland) act ("Crimes act"); Irish land act, Aug. 23; Sept. 9, disturbances at Mitchels- town, Ireland. A. D. Great Britain. 567 1888, March 27. Conversion of the national debt (Goschen's act), June 11. Lord Stanley appointed governor-general of Canada. Aug. 13. Local government act (England and Wales) received royal assent. County administration (except judicial and licensing powers) transferred from justices of the peace to elective county councils. London county council (p. 570). May-Sept. Protectorate established over North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak. Dec. 10. Lord Lansdowne appointed viceroy of India. 1889, June 14. Samoan treaty (p. 587). Oct. 29. Royal charter granted to British South Africa Company. 1890, Feb. 13. Report of the special (" Parnell ") commission on charges against the Irish leaders. In Feb. R. Pigott con- fessed the forgery of the letter (I'lmes, April 18, 1887) in which Parnell was made to approve the murder of Burke (p. 546). Commission found that the personal charges against Parnell were false; that direct complicity with crime was not proved as to the respondents collectively, but that they " en- tered into a conspiracy to promote, by a system of coercion and intimidation an agrarian agitation for the purpose of impoverishing and expelling the Irish landlords," and did not denounce a system which they knew led to crime. March 17. Convention signed with China on boundary of Thibet and India. July 1. Treaty with Germany signed, fixing boundaries of German East and West Africa and British possessions, with recip- rocal free transit for commerce; Heligoland ceded to Ger- many in exchange for Zanzibar (protectorate proclaimed, Nov. 7). Aug. 5. Convention signed recognizing French protectorate over Madagascar, and French sphere of influence from Algeria to the Niger and lake Chad. Nov. 28-Dec. 6. Division of Irish nationalists following conviction of Parnell of adultery; Justin McCarthy leader of the major- ity. Parnell f Oct. 6, 1891. 1891, Feb. 26. Population of all India, 287,314,671. March 24. Protocol signed with Italy on African spheres of influ- ence ; Abyssinia within Italy^s sphere. .» April 5. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 38,104,975. 1891, June 11. Treaty with Portugal signed, regulating the bound- aries of African possessions. Agreement on spheres of influ- ence. May 31, 1893. Aug. 5. Elementary education act (England and Wales) received royal assent; public grant to denominational and board schools. Assent also given to Aug. 5. Land purchase (Ireland) act; voluntary agreement of sale between landlord and tenant; landlord paid by government bonds. 1892, Jan. 7. f Tewfik Pasha, khedive of Egypt, succeeded by Abbas II. Pasha. Aug. 4. Thirteenth (25th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 568 Modern History. A. d. The government was defeated on a motion of want of confi- dence and resigned, and Aug. 16. Gladstone became (4th time) premier ; sir W. Vernon Harcourt (exchequer), lord Rosehery (foreign), John Morley (Ireland), James Bryce (chancellor of Lancaster), H. Camp- hell Bannerman (war). 1893, Jan. 16-19. Ministerial crisis in Egypt; khedive informed that British advice must be followed. Feb. 13. Home rule bill for Ireland introduced by Gladstone. It was like the earlier bill except that 80 Irish members were to sit in the imperial parliament with (by amendment in com- mittee) right to vote on all matters. The bill passed the Commons on Sept. 1 (301-267) but was Sept. 8. rejected by the House of Lords by vote of 419 to 41. July-Nov. Matabele war, ending in the defeat of chief Lobengula (t Jan. 23, 1894). Aug. 15. Bering sea arbitration award (p. 588). 1894, March 1. Anglo-Chinese agreement (p. 595). March 3. Resignation of Gladstone ; lord Rosebery prime min- ister. March 5. Parish council (England and Wales) act; elective coun- cils to supersede vestries except in church matters. March 20. Sovereignty over Pondoland proclaimed; annexed to Cape Colony (June 7). May 21. Manchester ship canal opened. Aug. 7. Evicted tenants (Ireland) bill passed the Commons, but was rejected by the Lords (Aug. 14). Aug. 27. Treaty with Uganda signed ; protectorate. 1895, Jan. 21. Agreement on Sierra Leone hinterland signed with France. March 5 -April 20. English garrison at Chitral besieged by Afghan freebooters. The government sanctioned permanent occupation of Chitral (Aug. 10), and several punitive expedi- tious against frontier tribes followed (1897). June 22. Rosebery ministry resigned after a defeat on a side issue, and was succeeded by the June 25 third ministry of lord Salisbury (foreign); A. J. Bal- four (treasury and leader of the Commons), sir M. Hicks Beach (exchequer), Joseph Chamberlain (colonies), G. J. Goschen (admiralty), lord Lansdowne (war, after 1900, foreign). Aug. 12. Fourteenth (26th imperial) parliament of Victoria met ; government majority, 152. Dec. Venezuela boundary controversy (p. 590). 1895, Dec. 29. Jameson Raid. Causes : development of gold mines in South African republic (discovery of gold, 1884) by foreigners (uitlanders), who outnumbered the burghers but were allowed no political rights by president Kruger (b. 1825; pres. 1883 ; f 1904) and the Boer oli- garchy, while they were oppressed by the burdens of citizenship, monopolies (especially of dynamite), and maladministration^ growth A. D. Great Britain. 569 of British control north and west of Transvaal ; rejection by the Boers of the British claim of suzerainty over them (p. 565) ; desire of the Cape authorities to place the Dutch states under British control. Cecil Rhodes (b. 1853 ; f 1902), premier of Cape Colony and head of the British South Africa Company, which controlled the region north and west of Transvaal, fostered a conspiracy of uitlanders at Johannesburg and collected a body of troops under L. S. Jameson at Mafeking to aid them. Jameson, without orders or cooperation of the uitlanders, crossed the frontier (Dec. 29) and marched on Johannesburg with 600 horse. He was captured (Jan. 2) and turned over to the British authorities (Jan. 14). Secretary Chamberlain denounced the raid. 1896-1903. Plague in India; also during earlier years, famine. 1896, Jan. Expedition against Ashantee ; king Prempeh deported. Jan. 15. Convention signed with France on China and Siam (p. 596). March-Sept. Advance of British and Egyptians in Soudan under gen. Herbert (later lord) Kitchener ; opposed by Osman Digna. The Egyptians were established near Dongola. 1897, Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty signed with the United States ; but it was rejected by the Senate (May 5). June 22. Jubilee of the sixtieth anniversary of the accession of queen Victoria ; prominent participation of colonies and de- pendencies. Conferences of colonial premiers with secretary Chamberlain. July. Gold discovered at Klondike in Canadian Northwest territories. Aug. 6. Workmen'' s compensation act ; employers made liable for injuries, but "contracting out " allowed. Oct. 1. Chamberlain reasserted British suzerainty over South African republic in answer to Kruger^s demand for for- eign arbitration on the Convention of London (p. 565). Dec. 25. Italians evacuated Kassala, which the Egyptians occupied. 1898, April 8. The Anglo-Egyptian army under Kitchener de- feated the dervishes near Atbara, securing Berber. The advance was continued during the summer and Sept. 2. the forces of the mahdi (Abdullahi) were defeated at Om- durman and Khartum occupied. This was followed by the final defeat and death of the mahdi near Gedid (Nov. 24, 1899), and the capture of Osman Digna (Jan. 19, 1900). 1898, May 19. i Gladstone. June 13. Act of the Canadian parliament approved, giving to Great Britain and some of her colonies a tariff preferential of 25%. This was increased in 1900 to 33^%. Germany retaliated, July 7, 1899, by depriving Canada of the most favored nation treatment. July 25. Lord Minto appointed governor-general of Canada. Aug. 10. George N. (later lord) Curzon appointed viceroy of India. Aug. 12. Local government (Ireland) act received the royal assent ; extension to Ireland of county and district councils (p. 567), but not of parish councils. Sept.-Nov. Fashoda incident. A French expedition under major 570 Modern History. A. d. Marchand declined to comply with Kitchenerh request to with- draw from Fashoda on the White Nile (Sept. 19). Nov. 4 the French government agreed to withdraw the force, and ou March 21, 1899, a convention was signed as to possessions and spheres of influence in central Africa. France renounced any claim to the Nile valley. Nov. 1. Old age pension law enacted in New Zealand. Dec. 25. An imperial penny postage rate went into operation with most of the colonies. Australia included, April 24, 1902. 1899, Feb. Attempt of France to obtain territory at Muscat from sultan of Oman prevented by Great Britain. March 15, Oct. 28. Agreements between Germany and Rhodes for the construction of the Cape to Cairo telegraph through Ger- man East Africa. July 13. London (outside the City) divided into separate horoughSy with powers previously held by the county council (p. 567). Aug. 9. Central hoard of education established. 1899-1902. South African War. Unsuccessful negotiations followed the Jameson raid (p. 568). To the demand of Great Britain for recognition of the rights of the uitlanders, the Transvaal responded with a claim of entire inde- pendence not only in such (internal) affairs but in foreign matters, a request for indemnity, and active military preparation. Violation of London convention (p. 565). March 24, 1899, petition of British citizens at the mines for intervention. Various projects, including an offer (Aug. 19) of the franchise on five years' residence and a quarter representation in the rand, in return for Great Britain's re- nunciation of the claim of suzerainty, were refused by England. Both sides prepared for war, and the Oct. 12. Boers issued an ultimatum, demanding the immediate withdrawal of British troops from the frontier and the removal of all reinforcements from South Africa. When this was refused the forces of the Oct. 12. tw^o Dutch republics (in offensive alliance) invaded Natal and Cape Colony, and also laid siege to Kimberley and Mafeking. The Boers had the advantage of better preparation and more mobility, and besieged sir George White and 12,000 men at Ladysmith. Sir Redvers Buller, marching to relieve the town, was defeated at Dec. 15. Colenso, on the Tugela, at 1900, Jan. 23. Spion Kop, and at Feb. 5. Vaal Krantz ; but finally succeeded in Feb. 28. relieving Ladysmith, Lord Methuen, advancing on Kimberley, was defeated at 1899, Dec. 10, 11. Maagersfontein on the Modder by gen. Cronje; and gen. Gatacre at Dec. 10. Stormberg by the Boers who had invaded Cape Colony. Lord Roberts was sent out as commander-in-chief, with Kitchener as chief of staff. The A. D. South African War. 571 1900, Feb. 15. relief of Kimherley (where Rhodes, the " evil genius of the Boers," was) was accomplished by gen. French^ while Koberts Feb. 17. surrounded Cronje at Paardesburg, and after ten days received his surrender and that of 4000 men. The May 24. annexation of the Orange Free State was proclaimed by lord Roberts, who soon after June 5. occupied Pretoria. This advance had also May 17. raised the siege of Maf eking (held by col. Baden-Powell). The Boers were defeated at June 11. Diamond Hill, and the railroad to the Portuguese frontier having been cleared, the Sept. 1. South African republic was annexed. Kruger retired to Europe, and Roberts left the command to Kitchener. The Boers, under Botha, De Wet, and Delarey, began a guerilla warfare : communications were cut, supplies captured, and isolated garrisons "rushed," while engagements were avoided. The British built lines of blockhouses, connected them by means of entanglements, established concentration camps for noncombatants, and kept an army of 250,000 in the field against a force averaging 45,000. The 1902, May 31. Boers finally submitted, receiving honorable terms, but renouncing independence. British force during the war, 450,000 ; Boer force, about 75,000 ; British loss, 22,000 ; Boer loss, about 5000. Deficiency in organization and administration of the British army (report of royal commission, Aug. 26, 1903) and participation of colonial troops were features of the war. The con- quered states became the crown colonies of Orange River and Transvaal, with appointive legislative councils. 1900, Jan. 10. First train from Cairo to Khartum. July 9. Royal assent given to the act constituting the Common- wealth of Australia. All of Australasia united in one government except New Zealand. Bicameral parliament of des- ignated powers ; an equal number of senators from each colony, pop- ularly elected ; representatives apportioned according to population, and given control of revenue bills ; bills to receive the royal assent direct or through the governor-general. Executive composed of the governor-general and a responsible ministry. Federal judiciary of supreme and lower courts, with regulation of appeal to king in council; appointed justices ; jurisdiction over interstate and state and federal relationships. Special provisions for trade and finances, new states, and amendment. Lord Hopetoun was appointed first gov- ernor-general. The government was inaugurated, Jan. 1, 1901 ; first parliament met. May 9 ; first ministry formed by Edmund Barton. Oct. 31. Union of Free and United Presbyterians in Scotland. Thirty ministers and 100 congregations of the Free church refused to accede to the union, and the House of Lords (Aug. 1, 1904) decided they were the legal holders of all of the property of the Free church. Dec. 3. Fifteenth (27th imperial) parliament of Victoria ; gov- ernment majority, 134. 572 Modern History. A. d. 1901 — X. Expeditions by British and Abyssinians against the Mullah in Somaliland. A force of British, Indians, Boers, and natives, under gen. Manning was in the field in 1902. British defeated, Oct. 6, 1902. Jan. 22. f Queen Victoria ; succeeded by her son as 1901-X. Edward VII. March 15. Population of all India, 294,361,056. April 1. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 41,607,552. July 22. House of Lords decided that trade unions could be sued as corporations (Taff Vale case). Nov. 18. Abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (p. 593). 1902. Renevred trouble in Ireland over rent questions, influ- enced also by pro-Boer demonstrations. Members of parlia- ment convicted for conspiracy under the summary jurisdiction of the crimes act of 1887. Industrial depression in England. Jan. 30. Defensive alliance -with Japan as to the eastern ques- tion (p. 598). May 15. Treaty signed with Abyssinia ; Soudan boundary, railway. March 26. f Rhodes. His will provided for the education of colonial, American, and German students at Oxford (^Rhodes scholar- ships). July 11. Resignation of lord Salisbury. A. J. Balfour, prime minister ; George Wyndham (Ireland). Aug. 9. Coronation of Edward VII. Oct. 31. First message sent over British Pacific cable between Canada and Australia, completing the all British cable round the world. 1902, Nov., 1903, March. Visit of Chamberlain to South Africa on an official tour of investigation and to promote reconciliation and unity. Nov. 21. Lord Tennyson appointed governor-general of Australia. Dec. Coercion of Venezuela (p. 585). Dec. 10. Opening of the Assuan dam on the Nile. Dec. 19. Education act for England and Wales received royal assent. Voluntary (denominational) schools entitled to public support on equal footing with board schools ; local councils to control aided schools in secular matters. Passive resistance by nonconformists. Dec. 21. Wireless telegraphic messages exchanged between England and Canada. 1903. Cape to Cairo railway completed to near the Zambesi. Agitation in South Africa for coolie labor in the mines. Dec. 30, favorable vote by the legislative council of Transvaal, and first Chinese arrived on June 22, 1904. May 5. Declaration by lord Lansdowne, foreign minister, as to British control of Persian gulf. May 15. Secretary Chamberlain began his campaign for imperial unification through a colonial preferential tariff. The ministry divided on the question ; Balfour showed leanings toward a retaliatory tariff. Sept. 9 Chamberlain resigned from the cabinet, as did several free trade members. A. D. Continental Europe. 573 Aug. 8. Lord Northcote appointed governor-general of Australia. Aug. 11. Prohibition of bounty-fed sugar (p. 584). Aug. 14. Irish land purchase act received royal assent. Three methods of non-couipulsory sale to tenants: (1) As under former law (p. 567) ; (2) sale of entire estate to tenants at annuity less than present rent; (3) sale to aland commission for resale to tenants. Landlords paid in cash, the govern- ment issuing British bonds for that purpose. Aug. 22. t Lord Salisbury. July-x. Thibet mission. China and Thibet agreed to send com- missioners to meet the British commissioner, col. F. E. Young- hushand, at Kamba (July) to discuss frontier and trade rela- tions; but failed (as often before) to do so. Preparations were made to advance the mission under military protection to Lhasa, and movement began Dec. 11. Oct. 14. General arbitration treaty with France signed ; phase of a rapprochement shown also in official visits of king Edward to Paris (May 1) and president Loubet to London (July 6). Oct. 20. Alaskan boundary award announced (p. 594). §9. CONTINENTAL EUROPE. {See pp. 626, 535.) 1883— X. 1883, Jan. 16. Manifesto and arrest of prince Napoleon Bon- aparte (Plon-Plon) (released Feb. 9), followed by attempt to expel the princes. Resignation of ministry Duclerc (Jan. 28) and ministry Fallieres (Feb. 21). Ministry Ferry took office (Feb. 21); Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), Tirard (finance). Princes placed in inactivity. Feb. 8-March 10. An international conference at London regulated the navigation of the Danube. March 15. Triple alliance (Dreibund) of Germany, Austria, and Italy, acknowledged in Italy. May-July. Railway convention in France; abandonment of Frey- cinet's policy of state ownership. May 31. German act prescribing the insurance of workmen against illness {Krankenkassengesetz) ; employer to pay ^ of premium. In 1888, 5,400,000 insured. May 2. Consecration of the tzar Alexander III. at Moscow. June 13. French occupied Tamatave in Madagascar; continued resistance of the Hovas. Anti-Semitism in Hungary; accusations of ritual murder; severe persecutions at Pressburg and elsewhere. Aug. 24. f Count of Chambord(" Henry v."). Legitimists acknowl- edged the count of Paris (table, p. 528). Aug. 25. Preliminary peace between France and Anam ; French protectorate. War with Black Flags continued. Sept. 29. Alfonso XII. of Spain insulted by a mob in Paris for hav- ing received the honorary colonelcy of a German regiment stationed at Strasburg. Dec. 17. Visit of the German cro-wn prince to the pope (" sec- 574 Modern History.^ A. d. ond journey to Canossa"). The German government had gradually withdrawn from the position of the May laws, as Bismarck found support of catholics necessary. 1884. In Belgium the extension of the suffrage was followed by a cath- olic reaction; communes allowed to adopt clerical schools. Feb. 11. Annexation of Merv and Sarakhs by Russia, bringing the frontier within 200 miles of Herat. June 20. Under the liberal minister Sverdrup royal assent was given to an act for a responsible ministry in Nor-way. May 11. Treaty of Tientsin between France and China; China to retire from Tonquin and respect French protectorate over Anam. Definitive treaty with Anam, June 6; also with Cam- bodia, June 17. Dispute over construction of Chinese treaty, and direct war. French attacked Formosa (Aug. 3) and Fuchau (Aug. 23). June 27. Workmen's accident insurance act (^Unfallversicherungsge- setz) enacted in Germany. In 1888, 10,340,000 insured. July 28. Earthquake at Ischia; 2000 killed. Aug. Frencli constitution revised; repuhlican form of govern- ment not subject to future proposals of revision, princes not eligible for the presidency. Reform in the organization of the senate (Dec.) ; proportional representation in the electoral con- gress, no more life members to be created. The establishment of the Deutsche Colonialverein in 1882 foreshadowed German imperialism. In Jan. 1884, Bis- marck announced the protectorate over Angra Pequena in southwestern Africa. After a controversy with Great Britain Aug. 13. the protectorate was extended from Cape Frio to Orange River (except Walfish Bay), and over Kamerun and Togoland. BismarcFs policy was to protect mercantile undertakings rather than to inaugurate state colonization. Aug. 18. Vatican library opened to scholars for research. Oct. 28. Elections for the German Reichstag; gains by conserva- tives and socialists. 1885. Hereditary house of peers abolished in Portugal; house of 100 life peers and 50 elective peers substituted. Jan., Feb. Italy, after an understanding with England (Jan. 1, 1884), occupied Assab and Massawa. Unfriendly relations with king John of Abyssinia. Jan., Feb. Earthquakes in Spain, great loss of life; cholera. Feb. 17. Imperial charter granted to German East Africa Company. Feb. 26. General act of Congo conference signed at Berlin. Provisions for freedom of trade, eradication of slave trade, neutrality of the basin, and regulation of future occupations on coast of Africa. March 30. Resignation of ministry Ferry in France in consequence of defeat in Tonquin. Ministry Brisson (justice) formed; Freycinet (foreign), Sadi-Carnot (public works, later, finance). Russia at Penjdeh (p. 566). May. In Germany, increase in agrarian duties. May. Recidivist law in France; transportation of habitual criminals. 1. D. Continental Europe. . 575 June 8. Adoption of the scrutin de liste (note, p. 533) in the election of deputies in France. Tune 9. Franco-Chinese treaty of jieace, recognizing the treaty of Tientsin. A.ug. 25. Germany took possession of the Caroline Islands, but the pope, as referee, upheld Spain's protest (Oct. 22). sept. 13-17. Revolution in East Rumelia ; allegiance offered to Alexander of Bulgaria,^ who accepted the crown under the suzerainty of the Porte. The union was distasteful to the sig- natory powers (except England), but the sultan accepted the personal union in the end. Meanwhile Servia and Greece were arming, and N^ov. 13. Servia declared war and suffered defeat at Slivnitza in Bulgaria (Nov. 14-20). The Bulgarian counter-invasion was stopped by Austria, and an armistice signed, Dec. 27. N^ov. 25. j Alfonso XII. of Spain ; queen Maria Christina regent ; prime minister Canovas, with Campos and Sagasta at inter- vals. Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 46,885,704. Dec. 17. French treaty with Madagascar; protectorate, but not ac- knowledged by the Hovas. Dec. 28. Re-election of president Grevy. Oct. elections showed increase in monarchists. Ministry Brisson resigned, and min- istry Freycinet (foreign) formed (Jan. 7, 1886); Sadi-Carnot (finance), Boulanger (war). L886, March 3. The powers force a treaty of peace between Ser- via and Bulgaria at Constantinople. Greece continued to arm for the occupation of Macedonia until May 10-June 7. the allied fleet blockaded her ports. A.pril 5. Protocol of the powers ; prince of Bulgaria to be governor of East Rumelia. May 31. Population of France, 38,218,903. May 17. Birth of Alfonso XIII. of Spain. June 22. Expulsion of the French princes, A.ug. 22. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria kidnapped by Russian sympathizers. A provisional government under Stamboulojf arrested the revolutionary leaders, and the prince returned Aug. 28 ; but on Sept. 3, in consequence of the displeasure of the tzar, he abdicated. 3ct. 3. Law regulating primary instruction in France. 1887, Jan. 14. German army increased from 427,000 to 468,000 men because of the military activity of France and Russia. A.pril 21. The arrest on a charge of espionage of the French com- missioner Schnabele by Germans but on French soil aroused much excitement (released April 29). May 30. Ministry Rouvier (finance); Ferron (war). The change was due to conservative distrust of the intentions of Boulan- ger, who continued to increase his popularity. June. Renewal of the triple alliance causes increase in Italian army to 252,000 men. ^ Of the house of Battenberg, elected prince of Bulgaria in May, 1879. 576 • Modern History. A. D. July 7. Prince Ferdinand of Coburg elected prince of Bulgaria in spite of Russia's refusal to recognize the election. July 27. Death of the Italian prime minister, Dupretis ; Crispi suc- ceeded him, Rudini and Giolitti at intervals. Oct. A scandal in France over the sale of decorations and other jobbery affecting Grdvy's son-in-law resulted in the fall of the Kouvier ministry and the resignation of Gr^vy (Dec. 1). Dec. 3. Election of Sadi-Carnot as president. Dec. 12, ministry Tirard (finance); Fallieres (justice), Flourens (foreign). 1888, Jan. Papal jubilee. March 9. f "William I. German emperor ; succeeded by his son as 1888, March-June. Frederick III. The emperor, suffering from cancer, f June 15, and was succeeded by his son 1888, June -X. William II. March 19. A period of five years instead of three adopted for the German Reichstag. March 21. Gen. Boulanger on account of political intrigues and disregard of discipline, was removed from the French army. Ministry Tirard succeeded by the ministry Floquet (interior) on April 3; Freycinet (war). Boulanger elected to the Chamber of Deputies by a large majority ; he declared himself in favor of a revision of the constitution. May 27. Completion of the Sarmarkand section of the Transcauca- sian railway. Aug. 14. Von Moltke resigned as chief-of-staff of the German army. The publication in Sept. of extracts from the diary of Frederick III. indicated that the establishment of the empire was due in good part to his initiative. Bismarck declared the ex- tracts had been interpolated, but their genuineness was shown. Oct. 29. Suez canal convention signed at Constantinople ; free navi- gation. Completion of the Eastern railway connecting Constantinople with Calais. Upon the receipt of remonstrances from Austria, Germany, and Russia against asylum to political offenders in Switzerland, that country voted 16,000,000 francs for military supplies. 1889, Jan. 30. Suicide of crown prince Rudolf of Austria. Archduke Carl Ludwig, brother of the emperor, transferred his right of succession to his son archduke Ferdinand. Adoption of the zone railway tariff in Hungary..-,-, Feb. Popularity of Boulanger increased ; he was elected to the assembly from Paris in Jan. by a large majority. Floquet secured a return to the scrutin d'arrondissement (note, p. 533), but was defeated on a proposal for revision. Ministry Tirard (commerce) formed on Feb. 22 ; Rouvier (finance), Constans (interior), Freycinet (war), Thevenet (justice), Fallieres (in- struction). The new government at once took up the repres- sion of the Boulangist movement ; Boulanger, Dillon, and Rochefort fled (April), and while absent were condemned by the senate of an attempt against the security of the state (Aug). A. D. Continental Europe. 577 March 7. Abdication of king Milan of Servia in favor of his son Alexander; queen Natalie banished. May 6. International exposition opened at Paris in commemoration of the revohition of 1789. Eiffel tower, 984 feet. May 24. Aged and indigent workmen^s insurance act adopted in Ger- many. June 14. Samoan treaty (p. 587). July. Electoral reform in France ; plural candidacy abolished. In Sept. and Oct. the elections showed decided republican gainSf and interest in Boulanger visibly declined. Oct, 9. t Dom Luis, king of Portugal ; succeeded by his son Carlos I. 1890-1903. A period throughout Europe of much social unrest, indicated by anarchistic, socialistic, and anti-Semitic agitations which assumed acute phases especially noticed. Strikes were frequent and usually of political significance. In Germany and in Russia (espe- cially under Witte) industrial development was forced, and a policy of naval expansion entered upon. In France, in spite of setbacks, the republican government was strengthened. Foreign interests shifted from the near to the far East, and the political map of Africa was more clearly marked. 1890. March 18. Resignation of Bismarck in consequence of dif- ferences of opinion with the emperor. He was created duke of Lauenburg and retired to Friedrichsruhe. Von Caprivi appointed chancellor. March 15-19. International labor conference at Berlin at sugges- tion of the emperor ; recommendations with regard to labor of women and children, and Sunday labor. July 1. Anglo-German treaty; Heligoland and Africa (p. 567). July. In Russia enforcement of the May laws of 1882 ; Jews forbidden to reside in the rural districts, to own or farm land, to enjoy educational advantages, to practice law or engineer- ing, to act as army doctors, or to hold any government position. Aug. 5. Franco-British African convention (p. 567). Nov. 23. t William III. of the Netherlands ; queen Emma regent for his daughter Wilhelmina. Luxemburg passed to Adolf of Nassau. Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 49,428,470. Dec. 31. Population of Austria-Hungary, 41,231,342. 1891. Radicals gained control in Nor^way, advocating universal suffrage, and separate consuls and foreign office. Through various ministries this agitation has continued. March 17. f Prince Napoleon Bonaparte at Rome. March 24. Anglo-Italian protocol on Africa (p. 567). April 12. Population of France, 38,342,948. June 11. Anglo-Portuguese African convention (p. 567). July, Aug. French fleet at Cronstadt visited by the tzar ; demon-< strations of friendship between Russia and France. Sept. 30. Suicide of Boulanger at Brussels. 1892. Cholera and distress ; activity of anarchists. Jan. 11. French protective tariff ; regular and minimum rates. 578 Modern History. A. d. Feb. 1. New German commercial treaties became operative ; hostile to agrarian interests. Feb. 16. Papal encyclical to French catholics ; republic to be unreservedly recognized. Feb. 28. Change in French ministry on question of associations bills ; ministry Loubet (interior); Freycinet (war), Ribot (foreign). Nov. 22-Dec. 17. International monetary conference at Brussels at invitation of the United States ; no results on bimetallism. Dec. 3. French protectorate over Dahomey. 1892-1893. Panama scandal in France. A French company having secured from Colombia the right to build a ship canal (May 18, 1878), de Lesseps undertook the task. Company declared bankrupt, Feb. 4, 1889 ; of 1,434,000,000 fr. disbursed only 560,000,- 000 fr. had been spent on the canal and much of this misappropri- ated. Exposure of great fraud, blackmail, and bribery, inculpating legislators and former ministers (Nov. 1892) ; ministry reconstructed under Ribot (Dec. 5), and again, Jan. 12, 1893, without Loubet and Freycinet, Dupuy (education). Trials and confessions followed (Jan., March). The company was reorganized, but sold out (p. 593). 1893. Bank scandal in Italy (Panamino), involving premier Gio- litti and ex-premiers Crispi and Rudini. Crispi formed a new ministry (Dec. 14). Financial and monetary disturbances during the year ; deficit, $35,000,000. Socialistic disturb- ances in Sicily. Feb. 19. Episcopal golden jubilee of Leo XIII. April 13. Coup d'dtat in Servia; Alexander deposed bis regents and took personal charge of the government. May 6. German Reichstag, having refused to vote an increase of the army, was dissolved. The New Reichstag, showing increase of socialists, passed the act (promulgated Aug. 3), providing for 479,000 men. Aug. Tariff war between Russia and Germany, ending in a commer- cial treaty (Feb. 10, 1894), reducing duties on German manu- factures and Russian grain ; agrarian opposition in Germany. Sept. 7. Amendments to Belgian constitution sanctioned ; universal male suffrage with system of plural votes ; senate reorgan- ized. Oct. 3. Franco-Siamese treaty of peace (p. 595). 1894, March 15. Franco-German convention ; boundaries of French Congo and Kamerun, spheres of influence about lake Chad. May 28. Ministry Dupuy (interior) formed ; Poincare (finances), Delcasse (colonies), Guerin (justice), Hanotaux (foreign), Faure (marine), Mercier (war). June 21. Compulsory civil marriage in Hungary. June 24. President Sadi-Carnot assassinated by an anarchist at Lyons. June 27. Casimir-P^rier elected president of France. June 29. French law for compulsory insurance of miners • employers to pay \ of premium. Sept. t Count of Paris ; succeeded in his claim by his son the due di' Orleans. A. D. Armenian Massaci'es. 579 Sept. 29. Completion of the North Sea-Baltic (Kiel) ship canal, 61 miles long ; formal opening, June 19-22, 1895. Oct. 15. Capt. Alfred Dreyfus, of the general staff of the French army, an Alsatian Jew, arrested on accusation of sending military secrets to the Germans, as shown by a letter in his handwriting (bordereau). Dreyfus was convicted by a secret court- martial (Dec. 22) on the divided opinion of graphologists, the perjured testimony of major Henry, and the contents of a secret " dossier " pre- pared by the minister of war, Mercier, and -submitted privately to the judges. He was publicly degraded (Jan. 5, 1895) and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment on Devil's Island. The affair became a political matter, involving anti-Semitism and the relation of the army to the republic. Oct. 26. Resignation of chancellor v. Caprivi ; succeeded by prince v. Hohenlohe. Nov. 1. t Tzar Alexander III. of Russia ; succeeded by his son 1894-X. Nicholas II. Dec. 27. Convention deliminating the possessions of Congo and French Congo. 1894-1896. Armenian Massacres. Causes : religious and racial antipathy ; an energetic people under the rule of a quietistic government ; abuses, misrule, and forced conversion to Mohammedanism ; Armenian plots against Turkish rule. In Aug. 1894, Kurds and Turkish soldiers plundered many villages in Sasun and massacred thousands of Armenians. After investigations, England, France, and Russia (under treaty of Berlin) 1895, May ll. presented a project of reform to the Porte, and after much friction an irade was issued (Oct. 17) ordering the reforms proposed. Meanwhile Sept. 30, an Armenian demonstration at Constantinople provoked a riot, and as a result of this Kurds, Circassians, and Turkish soldiers began to massacre the Armenians in the pro- vinces included in the reform irade, which continued through- out the year, and resulted in the murder of over 25,000 and destitution for hundreds of thousands as the result of pillage. Foreign relief expeditions were sent to the desolated districts (1896). Disturbances continued, especially at Van (June) between Mohammedans and revolutionists. 1896, Aug. 26. An attack on the Ottoman bank at Constantinople by Armenians, caused a general attack on Armenians by organized bands of Mussulmans, which continued several days. Wholesale arrests of Armenians at the capital, and many thousands fled. Dec. 22. A general amnesty was issued covering all Mohammedans and most of the Armenians. Reforms put in operation, call- ing for Christian officials and gendarmes, control over the Kurds, and tax reforms ; of little practical effect. A ction of the powers hampered by lack of unity, fear of international compli- cations, and condition of Turkish finances. England's policy checked by the results. 680 Modern History. A. d. 1895. Naval increase in Germany, to protect commercial ex- pansion. Agrarian agitation for state monopoly in foreign cereals. Jan. 14. Resignation of ministry Dupuy; financial scandals. Also Jan. 15. resignation of Casimir-Perier because of hostile criti- cism. Jan. 17. Felix Faure elected president of France. Jan. 21. Anglo-French agreement on Sierra Leone hinterland. Jan. 26. Ministry Rih'ot (finance) formed ; Hanotaux (foreign), Poincare (education). Feb. Revolt in Cuba (p. 590). March 11. Russian and English spheres of influence in the Pamirs deliminated. April 7. Nansen reached 86° 14' ; farthest north. April 12. Interference in Chinese-Japanese treaty (p. 596). May 11. Anti-revolutionary bill ( Umsturzvorlage) against socialists in Germany dropped because open to too general application; continuation of lese-majeste prosecutions. July 15. Stambouloff, anti-Russian leader in Bulgaria (premier, 1887-94), attacked, by assassins; f July 18. Sept. 30. French occupy capital of Madagascar after an advance of several months from the coast. Treaty of peace (Oct. 1); protectorate. Nov. 2. Radical ministry Bourgeois (interior) formed ; Cavaignac (war), Berthelot (foreign), Combes (education). Dec. 2. Population of Germany, 52,279,915. 1896. Agricultural depression throughout Europe. Electoral reform in the Netherlands ; suffrage made dependent on educational or financial tests. Italy, claiming a protectorate over Abyssinia, advanced troops (1895) to annex it to Eritrea. King Menelek surprised them, compelled' the evacuation of Makaleh (Jan. 23, 1896), and de- feated them in the March 1. battle of Adua (Adoiva). Crispi's ministry fell (March 5) and Rudini, the new premier ("peace with honor"), withdrew the forces. At the peace of Addi's Abeda (Oct. 26) Italy acknowledged the full independence of Abyssinia. Jan. 15. Anglo-French agreement on Siam (p. 596). Feb. Austrian Reicbsrath introduced general suffrage for ^ of members of the house; remainder still elected by ^ of the electors. Feb. 14. Baptism of prince Boris, heir apparent of Bulgaria, in the Greek church ; restoration of Russian ascendency. March 29. Population of France, 38,517,957. April 28. Ministry Meline (agriculture), succeeds ministry Bour- geois; Hanotaux (foreign). May 16. Hungariati parliament passed a law recognizing the Jewish faith. May 26. Consecration of Nicholas II. at Moscow; disaster in the crowd (May 30). Aug. 6. Madagascar declared a French colony. A. D. TurcQ-Greek War. 581 Sept. 26. Opening of the Iron Gates of the Danube. Oct. Visit of the tzar to France. 1896-1899. Cretan Revolt and Turco-Greek 'War. In Crete a Christian (Greek) insurrection began in May, 1896, against Turkish rule. The 1897, Feb. 7. insurgents proclaimed union -with Greece, and Greece landed troops, refusing to withdraw at the order of the pow^ers (Feb. 18), who had assumed joint occupation of tiie island and March 2. presented an ultimatum; no annexation to Greece, but Crete to have an effective autonomous government. Greece still refused to withdraw (March 8), and the powers announced the blockade of Crete. Public opinion in Greece forced the government into a war with Turkey, for which she was utterly unprepared. The conflict began on the Thessalonian frontier on April IG, and April 17. Turkey declared "war, her forces, under Edhem PashOy driving the Greeks out of the Milouna pass (April 18), and causing a general retirement, though unsuccessful at Raveni pass (April 19). The Greeks, under the crown prince, seized with panic, April 25. evacuated Larissa and retreated to the Karditsa-Volos line. The Greek ministry was dismissed and Athens almost in revolt. Meanwhile the Greeks had invaded Epirus from Arta (April 20), but were driven back by Osman Pasha (April 28). Karditsa was abandoned on the advance of Edhem Pasha; May 5 the Greeks were driven from Fersala and Velestino, and May 8 the Turks entered Volos. Fighting closed with the further retreat of the Greeks from Domokos to Lamia (May 17). May 10. Greece consented to withdraw from Crete and was ready for mediation, which the powers offered to Turkey. Russia and Austria had ordered the Balkan states to keep out of the war (April 29), and now at a hint from the tzar the May 18. Porte suspended hostilities. Turkey was not allowed to profit by her victories. By the Dec. 4. treaty of peace at Constantinople, the frontier ivas rectified (Turkey gained control of the passes), and Greece paid an indemnity of $17,600,000. A commission of the powers assumed con- trol of Greek revenues sufficient to pay this and the old Greek loans. Meanwhile in Crete the settlement made little progress, though the Christian assembly accepted autonomy (Aug. 26) and the powers increased their zone of occupation. The powers failed to agree among themselves or with Turkey, and Germany and Austria with- drew. Turkey wished to keep troops on the island as a mark of her suzerainty n,nd have the Christian governor her subject ; but the with- drawal of her troops was forced (Nov. 12, 1898) after a Moslem attack on the British troops and Christians at Candia (Sept. 6), and 1898, Dec. 21. Prince George of Greece was made governor- general by the powers. A constitution, drawn up by a native commission, was accepted by the four powers (Russia, Great Britain, 582 Modern History. A. d. Italy, France) and the Cretan assembly (April, 1899). Many desti- tute Mohammedans emigrated. 1897, Feb. 9. Population of Russian empire, 129,004,514. April 5. By ministerial decree in Austria Czech (Bohemian) was placed on an official equality -with German in Bohemia. A race was followed in Bohemia. In the Reichsrath violence and oh- struction by the Germans produced a deadlock which continued during 1898 and 1899 and made necessary legislation by decree under a temporary suspension of the constitution. The Ausgleich was thus renewed as a modus Vivendi. Matters were complicated by socialism and anti-Semitism. In Hungary there was opposition to the renewal of the Ausgleich. The repeal of the language ordinance (July 20, 1900) was followed by obstruction by the young Czechs. July 23. Convention defining the boundary of French Dahomey and German Togoland. Aug. Visit of the president of France to Russia; the tzar toasted the " allied " nation (Aug. 26). Dec. 2. Gold standard adopted in Russia. 1898-1899. Dreyfus affair. An attempt by col. Picquart to re-open the Dreyfus case (p. 679), with proof that the dossier con- tained nothing applicable to him and that the bordereau was written by another officer (Esterhazy), was met by an attempt to discredit Picquart and his evidence hj forgeries made by ^enr?/, acquittal of Esterhazy by court-martial (Jan. 11, 1898), the declaration that the case was une chose jugee, and that the Dreyfusards (including Zola) were trying to dishonor the army. Public opinion, led by the Patriotic League, anti-Semites, army officers, and reactionists, became rabid against the rcAasionists. But Henry confessed to the forgeries and committed suicide (Aug. 31), and the prime minister .(^Brisson) now favored a revision; but while the court of cassation was con- sidering the question, the ministry resigned after a vote virtually accusing them of permitting attacks on the army, and the ministry Dupuy with Freycinet as war minister succeeded (Oct. 30). The court of cassation (June 3, 1899) ordered a new court-martial, declaring the bordereau to be Esterhazy's work and the secr^et dossier without reference to Dreyfus, but the new court-martial renewed the conviction (Sept. 9). Meanwhile the agitation had endangered tlie stability of the republic, and the ministry Dupuy (" trimmers ") was replaced (June 22) by the ministry Waldeck-Rousseau (interior) ; Delcasse (foreign), Gallifet, later Andre (war). This was known as the ministry of republican defense, and it steadily repressed the " affair." Dreyfus was pardoned (Sept. 19), the leaders of militarism transferred and subdued, and an act of amnesty passed (Dec. 24, 1900). 1898, Feb. 20. Referendum in Switzerland voted in favor of state ownership of railways. April-August. Spanish- American war (p. 590). May. Distress in Italy led to strikes and riots, assuming, under socialistic and clerical encouragement, a political character, amounting in Milan (May 6-8) to an insurrection. i. D. Continental Europe, 583 Tune. Elections for German Reichstag showed increase of social democrats ; but little increase of agrarians. June 14. Franco-British convention on spheres of influence about Niger river. July 17. Italian law for pension fund for workpeople ; national sub- vention of members of the fund. July 30. f Bismarck. Aug. 31. Accession of queen Wilhelmina. Sept.-Nov. Fashoda incident (p. 569). Sept. 10. Empress of Austria assassinated by an anarchist. Oct.-Nov. Visit of the German emperor to Constantinople and the Holy Land. 1899, Jan. 25. The speech from the throne to the Finnish diet an- nounced that the military service of Finland would be made uniform with that of the rest of the empire. Feb. 15, an imperial manifesto displayed the intention of using auto- cratic authority over legislation respecting Finland, leav- ing to the diet only the right of consultation. Feb. 16. t President Faure. Feb. 18. Emile Loubet elected president of France. May 18-July 29. Hague peace conference. Aug. 24 and Dec. 30, 1898, the tzar of Russia proposed a conference to consider limitation of armaments, arbitration, and laws of war. The conference was attended by representatives of European nations, United States, Japan, China, Persia, and Siam. No conclusion was reached as to re- duction of armaments, but conventions signed: (1) for a permanent court of international arbitration at the Hague and friendly mediation; (2) on laws and customs of war on land; (3) extending the Geneva convention to maritime warfare ; and also declarations prohibiting the use of special means of destruction. June, July. Socialistic demonstration in Belgium against the govern- ment's electoral bill ; in Brussels fierce rioting. Ministry resigned (Aug. 1) and the new ministry carried through a law ioT proportional representation (Dec. 29). June 30. Spain ceded the Caroline Islands to Germany. Dec. 2. Samoan treaty (p. 592). 1900, March. Successful obstruction by socialists in the Italian cham- ber of deputies of a drastic bill for the public safety, the out- come of the disturbances of 1898. April 14. Paris exposition to commemorate the work of the century opened. June 26. Imperial ukase issued for gradual introduction of Russian as the official language in Finland. June 27. Franco-Spanish convention deliminating possessions in Sahara and on gulf of Guinea. July 29. Assassination of king Humbert of Italy by an anarch- ist, succeeded by his son 1900-X. Victor Emmanuel III. Sept. First election in Nor"way under universal manhood (25 years) sufifrage. 584 Modern History, a, d. Oct. 17. Count von Biilow succeeded prince v. Hohenlohe as chancellor of the German enjpire. Dec. 1. Population of Germany, 56,367,178. 1901. Industrial depression in Germany. « 1901-1902. Attempted Germanization of Prussian Poland through settlement of German proprietors and language de- crees made little progress against opposition. 1901-1903. In Jan., 1901, revolt of students throughout Russia; Bogolepoff, minister of education, assassinated (Feb. 27). Tolstoi excommunicated (Feb. 25). Trouble renewed at the end of year, assisted by workmen and with revolutionary purposes. Sipiagin, minister of the interior, was assassinated, April 15, 1902, and so was his successor, Plehve (July 26, 1904). Labor strikes followed, a novelty in Russia, due to over-stimulation and collapse of manufacturing enterprises. Distress and famine caused agrarian agitation and sacking of large estates (April, 1902). 1901 — X. Macedonian revolt, headed by Bulgarian revolutionists {Boris Sara/of), which, with the conduct of the Turkish troops, produced a reign of terror. Russia and Austria up- held the status quo and presented a scheme of reform to the sultan (Oct. 24, 1903) which he accepted. 1901, Feb. 10. Population of Italy, 32,475,253. March 24. Population of France, 38,961,945. April 19. A liberal constitution decree in Servia, creating a senate. June 25. Army reorganization law in Sweden ; compulsory service. July 1. Associations law in France. Causes : attitude of clergy in Dreyfus affair ; teachings of the regular clergy considered reactionary ; "too many monks in business, and too many monks in politics." All religious associations and their establishments must be authorized by the state; all unauthorized ones after Oct. 1 to be considered dissolved. Many congregations, espe- cially the Jesuits, transferred their property beyond France before that date. The law was construed strictly, especially against associations engaged in teaching and business (Char- treuse). July 11. Imperial edict deprived Finnish army of its national charac- ter j attempt at recruiting at Helsingfors failed (April 17, 1902). Aug^ 26. Rupture of Franco-Turkish diplomatic relations over claims and French religious orders. Nov. 7, naval demonstra- tion. The Porte yielded and also recognized French pro- tection of catholics in the East. 1902, 1903. Famine in Sweden and Finland. 1902, Jan. Completion of the Transsiberian railway. Jan. 16. Turkish irade for a German railway across Asia Minor to Persian gulf. March 5. Brussels sugar convention signed by most European states, abolishing bounties; in effect Sept. 1. Great Britain (Aug. 11) forbade import of bounty-fed sugar. April. A general strike in Belgium against plural suffrage failed. A. D. Continental Europe. 585 April, May. French elections, hearty support oftTie government. May 7. Eruption of Mount Pelee, Martinique ; destruction of St. Pierre. May 17. Accession of Alfonso XIII. of Spain. June 3. Resignation of ministry Waldeck-Rousseau ; succeeded by ministry Combes (interior, worship) on June 7 ; Delcasse (foreign), Andre (war), Rouvier (finance). June 7. German Reichstag assented to the abolition of the dictator paragraph (state of siege) in Alsace-Lorraine. June 28. Triple alliance renewed at Berlin. July. Riots in Brittany and Savoy against the closing of unauthorized religious schools. About 3000 schools closed in France. Sept. 30. Further Russification of Finland. Edicts issued giv- ing governor-general power to appoint officials and remove judges; Russian to be the official language Oct. 1, 1903. Russian espionage and Cossacks employed. Great emigra- tion. Bodrikoff, governor general, assassinated, June 16, 1904. Dec. Coercion of Venezuela. Great Britain, Germany, and Italyt presenting claims, blockaded Venezuela. United States re- fused to interfere so long as no permanent occupation was attempted, but through its good offices the Hague tribunal was asked to decide whether coercing powers should have prefer- ence over other claimants (Feb. 13, 1903), and the blockade was raised. Claims conventions. Dec. 14. Tariff bill passed the German Reichstag; minimum duties on agricultural products raised. 1903. In France an agitation developed for separation of church and state and denunciation of the Concordat (p. 463) ; members of dissolved congregations denied the right to preach in the parishes. The visit of the king of Italy to Paris (Oct. 14), and the Franco-Italian general arbitration treaty (Dec. 25) harmonized with this movement. Feb. 20. Silver jubilee of papacy of Leo XIII. March 5. Bagdad railway convention signed at Constantinople. April. In Servia 'king Alexander, not receiving the support of the radi- cals, suspended the new constitution. June 11 he and queen Draga were murdered by army officers. Peter Kara- georgevitch, the rival claimant, elected to succeed (June 15). April 19, 20. Planned riot against the Jews at Kishinef, Russia, the authorities sympathizing with the rioters. The afPair attracted world-wide attention. Sept. 14, similar riot at Gomel. July 20. t Leo XIII.; Pius X. (Sarto), patriarch of Venice, elected to succeed, Aug. 4. Sept. 14. Emperor Francis-Joseph sharply denounced the demand of the Kossuthites for use of Hungarian in the army. Ministe- rial crisis. Oct. 14. Franco-British general arbitration treaty (p. 573). 586 Modern History. A. d. § 10. UNITED STATES. {See p. 560.) 1883— X. 1883, Beginning of the new steel navy (" white squadron "). March 3. Tariff act; protection principle maintained. May 24. Opening of the New York-Brooklyn suspension bridge. 1884, June 6. Republican convention at Chicago nominated J. G. Blaine for president; protective platform. The democrats nom- inated Grover Cleveland at Chicago, July 11, and advocated tox- ationfor revenue only. Both platforms supported civil service reform. Campaign of much personality. Democrats suc- cessful at election (Nov. 4), carrying the pivotal state of New York by 1047 votes. Electoral vote, 219-182. 1885, Feb. 26. Act forbidding importation of contract laborers. 1885, March 4-1889, March 4. Grover Cleveland (b. 1837) (New York), democrat, 22d president; T. A. Hen- dricks, vice-president (f Nov. 25, 1885) ; T. F. Bayard, sec- retary of state. 1886, Jan. 19. Presidential succession law; members of the cabinet to follow the vice-president in succession. March 6-May 3. General strike on the Gould system of railroads; rioting suppressed by regulars and militia. Knights of Labor controlled the strike. May-July. Seizures made of American fishermen in Canadian waters, reopening old controversy under convention of 1818 (p. 552). Retaliatory legislation. May 1. Strikes and socialistic demonstrations throughout the country for the eight-hour system. May 4. Anarchist riot in Haymarket Square, Chicago. Aug. 31. Earthquake, much havoc wrought at Charleston. 1886, 1887. Seizure of British vessels for pelagic sealing in Bering sea. A diplomatic discussion covering several years followed. 1887, Feb. 3. Act to regulate the counting of the electoral votes ; votes certified by state executives to be counted, unless both houses reject them. Feb. 4. Interstate commerce act ; regulation of interstate rail- road transportation, prevention of discrimination in rates, pool- ing, and other abuses ; commission with administrative and judicial powers to execute the act. Results under the act have been disappointing. Dec. 6. The president's annual message to congress was devoted entirely to surplus revenue and tariff reform (" it is a con- dition which confronts us — not a theory"), making the tariff the issue of the next election. 1888, Feb. 15. A fisheries treaty with Great Britain signed, grant- ing certain rights in Canadian inshore in return for free fish. The senate rejected the treaty (Aug. 21). June 6. Democratic convention renominated Cleveland at St. Louis. The republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison at Chicago, A. D. United States. 587 June 25. Tarijff the issue, and republicans successful (Nov. 6) by 233 electoral votes to 168. June 13. Department of labor created, but without a seat in the cabinet. Oct. 1. Chinese exclusion act made more stringent, after China had refused to ratify a treaty for the same purpose ; former resi- dent laborers not to be allowed to return. 1888-1889. Introduction of the Australian ballot ; gradually adopted by most of the states. 1889, Feb. 9. Department of Agriculture authorized. 1889, March 4-1893, March 4. Benjamin Harrison (b. 1833 ; t 1901) (Indiana), republican, 23d president ; Levi P. Morton, vice-president ; James G. Blaine, secretary of state until June, 1892. April 22. Oklahoma opened to settlement; wild rush of settlers. Territorial government authorized, May 2, 1890. Population (1890), 78,475. April 30. Centenary of Washington's inauguration celebrated at New York. May 31. Destruction of Johnstown, Pa., caused by the bursting of a dam ; 2280 perished. June 14. Treaty on Samoa signed. United States, Great Britain, and Germany united in a declaration recognizing the independ- ence and neutrality of the islands and providing for an autonomous government under their joint control. Oct. 2-1890, April 19. Pan-American Congress of all the Ameri- can states except San Domingo met at Washington. Few positive results ; reciprocity recommended. Bureau of Ameri- can Republics organized (1890) to collect and distribute com- mercial information. 1889, Nov. 2. North Dakota (39th state). Nov. 2. South Dakota (40th state). Nov. 8. Montana (41st state). Nov. 11. Washington (42d state). 1890-1903. Prominent features of this period were : the advent of America as a •world pow^er ; great industrial prosperity following a period of depression ; amalgamation of capital, forming virtual monopolies and " trusts ; " growth of trade-unionism and protracted strikes; corruption in municipal government; development of rural communication by means of electric railroads, telephones, and free delivery of mail. At the South, a slow betterment in the economic condition of the colored race, but constitutional disfran- chisement in six states (" grandfather " clause, " understanding " clause) and lynching. 1890, Feb. 14. New rules in the House of Representatives, enabling the speaker to include in the quorum those present but not voting. June 1. Population, 62,979,766 (11th census). June 19. Force bill reported in the House, providing for federal control of federal elections, and intended to protect negro voters. 588 Modern History. a. d. Passed the House, July 2, but was shelved in the Senate by aid of republican votes, Jan. 1891. June 27. Disability and dependent pension act; pensions to be paid to all Union veterans incapacitated from earning a living by manual labor, and to widows dependent upon their own daily toil. Pensions paid, 1889, §89,132,000 ; 1892, §141,087,000. July 2. Anti- trust (Sherman) law ; all trusts or combinations to restrain or monopolize interstate or foreign trade declared illegal. July 3. Idaho (43d state). July 10. Wyoming (44th state). July 14. Sherman silver purchase law ; fixed amount of silver to be purchased each month and silver Treasury notes issued equal to its bullion value ; notes to be redeemed in coin and reissued. Oct. 1. McKinley tariff law ; reduction in revenue but increase in protection, free raw sugar and bounty on home production, pro- vision for limited reciprocity treaties, several of which were concluded. 1891, March 3. International copyright law. March 14. Lynching in New Orleans of Italians, members of the " Mafia." Italy protested and closed her legation (March 31). April 12, 1892, the United States paid an indemnity. June 15. Modus vi'vendi with Great Britain on Bering sea sealing. Oct. 16. Attack on American sailors in Valparaiso by mob and police, resulting from conditions during a recent civil war in Chile. War imminent, but Chile finally apologized (Jan. 26, 1892), and paid an indemnity. 1892, Feb. 29. Bering sea arbitration convention signed with Great Britain ; right of the United States to protect seals from pelagic fishing in Bering sea referred to a tribunal, which decided (Aug. 15, 1893) against any such right outside the three-mile limit. United States paid damages for seizures made. June-Aug. Strikes and rioting at Coeur d'Alene mines in Idaho (employment of non-union miners) ; at Homestead, Pa. (wages, non-union laborers, private detectives^ ; and in west Tennessee mines (convict labor). Martial law declared, mili- tia and regulars called out. June 10. Republican convention at Minneapolis renominated Har- rison and supported protection and bimetallism. Democrats at Chicago renominated Cleveland and denounced the McKinley tariff, the Force bill, and also upheld bimetallism. A third party (people's party) nominated James B. Weaver (July 5), and declared for labor unions, free silver, no national banks, and national oionership of railroads. Cleveland -was elected (Nov. 8), by 277 electoral votes to 145 for Harrison and 22 for Weaver. Feb. 14. Treaty of annexation with Hawaii signed at Wash- ington. Reform party in Hawaii, aided by the United States minister (Stevens) and marines, had deposed the queen (^Lili- A. D. United States. ^89 uokalani) (Jan. 17). President Cleveland (March 9) with- drew the treaty from the Senate, and after investigation proposed to reinstate the queen under certain conditions. She refused the conditions (Nov. 13) and the independent repub- lican government of Hawaii was recognized (Aug. 7, 1894). 1893, March 4-1897, March 4. Grover Cleveland presi- dent for second time. A. E. Stevenson vice-president ; W. Q. Greshara, later Richard Olney, secretary of state. Democrats controlled the legislative and executive departments for first time since 1858. May-Oct. World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago to com- memorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America. Jrne 27. Disastrous panic, following a heavy export of gold and news that India had suspended the free coinage of silver ; fear of a Auff 7. Extra session of congress to consider financial matters. President advocated repeal of silver purchase law to stop drain on gold reserve ; alternative, sale of bonds to replenish gold reserve continually or payment of obligations m depreciated silver. Repeal passed House, Aug. 28 (239-108), and Senate, Oct. 30 (43-32). Public opinion sharply divided; agitation for free silver. 1894, Feb., Nov. Sale of government bonds to replenish gold reserve^ $100,000,000. . . Feb.-June. Great coal strike afPecting six states, mining trouble in Colorado; disorder, and militia called out. March 17. Treaty with China signed, renewing the exclusion of Chinese laborers. , March 24-May 1. March of " Coxey's army;" demonstration ot unemployed. March 30. Veto of a bill to coin the seigniorage of the purchased sil- ver bullion. June 26-July 19. American Railroad Union strike. Trains were blocked and riots ensued, especially at Chicago. Federal injunction issued against the sinkers to prevent interference with interstate commerce and the mails (July 2) ; later, leaders were arrested for contempt of the injunction (" government by injunction"), and also for conspiracy to block the mails. United States troops sent to Chicago (July 3) and other places. Strike extended to the Pacific coast. Strike failed. Aug. 27. Wilson-Gorman tariff law enacted without president's signature; some reductions in protective schedules, but raw material, except wool, still taxed; tax on sugar; income tax to make revenue; reciprocity repealed. 1895 Jan. 9. Presidential recommendation of national and state bank notes defeated in the House (124-130), also bill for low- rate gold bonds (Feb. 7) (135-162). Coin bonds ($62,000,000) sold to a syndicate to replenish gold reserve ; discussion of legality of issue. Free silver bill in the ^Qu».te prevented (t eb.J by filibustering. 590 Modern History. A. d. Feb. Outbreak of rebellion in Cuba ; carried on by guerrilla warfare, assisted by a junta in the United States, and attended by much devastation and suffering, especially in the reconcentration camps established by the Spanish captain-general ( Weyler). The in- surgents had no real government, and various efforts of congress (1896, 1897) to accord them the right of belligerents, or to recognize their independence, were opposed by the president. Filibustering expeditions were guarded against, but many of them reached Cuba. Diplomatic friction with Spain. Kelief sent to the destitute. May 20. Income tax declared unconstitutional by the supreme court. July-1896, Jan. Venezuela-British Guiana boundary contro- versy. Great Britain refused to submit to arbitration, and secretary Olney considered (July 20) the Monroe doctrine involved, as the United States was " practically sovereign on this con- tinent" and her safety was endangered by Great Britain's attitude (^Olney doctrine^. Dec. 17 Cleveland asked congress to authorize a commission to determine the rights of the controversy; "the duty of the United States to resist . . . the appropriation by Great Britain of any . . . territory which after investigation we have determined of right belongs to Venezuela." Commission authorized and ap- pointed (Jan. 4, 1896), but Great Britain and Venezuela signed an arbitration treaty, Feb. 2, 1897. The award gave most of the dis- puted territory to Great Britain (Oct. 3, 1899). 1896. Rural free delivery of mail began; in 1902 there were 11,650 routes. 1896, Jan. 4. Utah (45th state) ; constitution forbids polygamy. Feb. 5. Popular issue of bonds ($100,000,000), largely oversub- scribed above par. After the election in Nov. the drain of gold for hoarding and export ceased, June 18. Republican convention at St. Louis nominated William McKinley for president and declared for protection and a gold standard. The democrats at Chicago nominated William J. Bryan (July 10) and declared for free silver. The populists supported Bryan. McKinley >vas elected (Nov. 3), by 271 electoral votes to 176. 1897, Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty signed with Great Britain, but rejected by the Senate, May 5. 1897, March 4-1901, Sept. 14. William McKinley (b. 1843; 1 1901) (Ohio), republican, 24th president ; Garret A. Hobart (f Nov. 21, 1899), vice-president ; John Sherman, later John Hay, secretary of state. Republicans regained control of executive and legislative departments. 1897, July 24. Dingley tariff act ; intended to increase the revenue (which had been below the expenditures since 1893) and also increase the protection ; provision for reciprocity treaties. 1898, Jan 1. Inauguration of Greater New York government; New York City, Brooklyn, and vicinity in one municipal govern- ment. Area, 359 square miles ; population (1900), 3,437,202. 1898. Spanish War. Rebellion in Cuba (above) made no progress, nor was Spain A. D. Spanish War. 591 able to end it ; contest became one of famine and annihilation. Ameri- can sympathy was with the Cubans, American interests deeply in- volved, and Spain uniformly refused offers of friendly mediation. A new ministry (Sagasta) announced an autonomous government for Cuba (Oct. 6, 1897), but it satisfied neither party there. Feb. 15. U. S. S. Maine was bloTVii up in Havana harbor, arous- ing national resentment (" remember the Maine ! "). McKin- ley sent to Congress a April 11. "war message, declaring that the intolerable conditions in Cuba must cease, and asking authority for forcible inter- vention. Congress passed April 20. a resolution recognizing the independence of the people of Cuba (but not of the so-called republic), authorizing inter- vention, and disclaiming any intention of annexing Cuba. Spain considered this a declaration of war. Later both nations made April 24, 25. formal declarations of -war. May 1. Battle of Manila Bay. Commodore George Dew^ey with 7 cruisers destroyed the Spanish fleet of 10 inferior vessels and held Manila at his mercy, but with no troops to occupy it. Rein- forcements and an army were sent to him. Admiral Cervera sailed for Cuba from Cape Verde Islands with a Spanish fleet of 4 armored cruisers and 2 destroyers (April 29), and admiral Sampson, searching for him, bombarded San Juan (May 12), and finally blockaded him at Santiago (June 2). An army of 16,000 men under gen. Shafter landed near Santiago (June 22), and in advancing defeated the Spaniards at the July 1. battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill, and demanded the surrender of the city (July 3). Cervera made a dash from the harbor, and in the July 3. naval battle of Santiago his fleet was utterly destroyed. July 17. Santiago surrendered. General Miles landed in Porto Rico (July 25), but his advance on San Juan was stopped by the signing of the Aug. 12. peace protocol. Before this was known the army gathered in the Philippines under gen. Merritt Aug. 13. captured Manila. Dec. 10. The treaty of peace was signed at Paris. Spain retired from Cuba, ceded to the United States Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, receiving $20,000,000 for the last. Pending the organization of its government, Cuba was ruled by the United States war department, and a commission was appointed (Jan. 20, 1899) to study conditions in the Philippines. The administration of the army during the war was sharply criticised. 1898, July 1. Law for a uniform system of bankruptcy. July 7. Annexation of Hawaii by joint resolution ; possession taken, Aug. 12. Territorial government established, April 30, 1900. Aug. 25. Anglo-American commission met at Quebec to consider pending questions with Canada. Reassembled at Washing- 592 Modern History. A. d. ton (Nov. 1), but disagreed on the question of Alaskan bound- ary (Feb. 20, 1899). 1899-1902. Philippine Insurrection. A body of Fili- pinos under Emilia Aguinaldo were in revolt against Spain before the American war, and during it possessed themselves of all of Luzon except the capital. They objected to American sovereignty and made an 1899, Feb. 4. attack on Manila, where the American army was, but were beaten off. Severe fighting continued during the year, the rebels being driven into the mountains. In 1900 the insurgents adopted guerrilla warfare^ bushwhacking, and terrorism, and the American army, averaging over 60,000, was distributed in many posts. 1901, March 23. Aguinaldo was captured by stratagem, and other leaders then surrendered, but the insurrection was not finally suppressed until April, 1902. 1902, July 4. Proclamation of amnesty. 1899, Sept. 6. Open-door policy (p. 597). Oct. 20. Modus vivendi on Alaska; provisional boundary through the passes beyond Lynn Canal. Dec. 2. Disturbances continuing in Samoa under the tridominium (p. 587), a treaty was signed at Washington dividing the islands. United States received Tutuila and Germany the other two islands; England compensated by receiving the Howe Islands from Germany. 1900, Boxer rising (p. 597). March 14. Gold standard act ; all paper money to be redeemed in gold, provision for maintaining gold reserve, increase in national bank notes. March 16. President, as commander-in-chief, appointed a second Philippine commission of five, William H. Taft, president, to continue the establishment of civil government. After Sept. 1, it exercised legislative authority and established courts, local governments, civil service, and schools, and controlled finances. April 12. Civil government for Porto Rico ; the act also provided that temporarily import duties between the island and the states should be 15% of the regular rates, but on July 25, 1901, /ree trade was proclaimed. June 1. Population, 76,303,387, not including Porto Rico or Philip- pines (12th census). June 21. McKinley renominated by the republicans at Philadelphia ; the democrats renominated Bryan at Kansas City, and upheld free silver and anti-imperialism. McKinley elected by 292 electoral votes to 155 (Nov. 6). Sept. 8. Tornado wrecked Galveston, with great loss of life. 1901, Feb. 2. Act to reorganize the army ; maximum of 100,000 men. March 2. Piatt amendment on Cuba ; as conditions of withdrawal from the island, Cuba to grant naval stations 2iudi right of inter- vention to protect life, property, or Cuban independence. A. D United States. 593 These conditions were embodied in the Cuban constitution, June 12. March 2. President authorized (Spooner amendment) to establish such temporary civil government for Philippines as he saw fit. He continued the commission (p. 592), and made its president the civil governor, replacing the military executive (July 4). Sept. 1 three Filipinos were added to the commission and executive departments created, to which members of the commission were assigned. March 4. Second administration of McKinley began ; Theodore Roosevelt, vice-president. May 27. Insular oases decided by the supreme court ; congress has authority to make /br new territory laws (including a tar- iff) different from those applicable to the states (constitution does not follow the flag), but until congress acts goods imported from the territory cannot be taxed as foreign. Sept. 6. President McKinley shot by an anarchist; f Sept. 14. 1901, Sept. 14-x. Theodore Roosevelt (b. 1858 ) (New York) republican, 25th president. 1901, Nov. 18. Treaty signed with Great Britain abrogating the Clay- ton-Bulwer treaty (p. 555) ; isthmian canal to be under the sole jurisdiction of the United States. 1902, Jan. 1. In Cuba, presidential election ; May 20, American occupation ended. Jan. 24. Danish West Indies purchased, but the Rigsdag refused to ratify the cession (Oct. 22). March 8. Imports from the Philippines to pay 75% of usual rates. May 12-Oct. 15. Anthracite coal miners strike, threatening a coal famine in winter. Through the influence of Roosevelt, the matter was referred to a commission appointed by him, and the men returned to work pending the decision. June 17. Act for the reclamation of arid public lands. June 28. Isthmian canal act ; president authorized to construct a canal at Panama, if he could acquire the right of the French company for $40,000,000 and the cession from Colombia of the right and necessary territory ; if not, to construct the Nicaragua canal.^ 1902, July 1. Act for civil government in the Philippines. Civil government established by the president confirmed (pp. 592, 593) ; bill of rights except as to right to bear arms and trial by jury ; provision for future bicameral legislature of commission and an elected house; two resident commis- sioners in the United States. Dec. Coercion of Venezuela (p. 585). Dec. 11. Reciprocity treaty with Cuba signed; in force Dec. 27, 1903. 1903, Jan. 22. Canal treaty signed with Colombia, but Colombian 1 For the French canal, see p. 578. An American company had acquired the Nicaragua right, but the grant had been cancelled. SeA-eral commissions had reported on the canal project, the last (1900) favoring Panama under the conditions named in the act. 594 Modern History. A. d. congress refused to ratify it (Aug. 12). Purchase made from the French company. Jan. 24. Alaskan boundary question referred to a tribunal of six ; award (Oct. 20) sustained the claim of the United States, Canada being barred from the ocean inlets. Feb. 14. Department of commerce and labor created. Feb. 14. General staff authorized for the army. May-July. Postal scandal. July 4. American Pacific cable opened between San Francisco and Manila. Nov. 3. Revolt of Panama ; independence declared. United States troops were landed to prevent hostilities, and the new government was recognized on Nov. 6. Nov. 18. Canal treaty signed with Panama ; United States to have sovereignty over the canal strip and to safeguard inde- pendence of Panama. Dec. Agreement of the Philippine commission with the Roman Catholic authorities for the purchase of the friars^ lands, which had been a cause of disturbance under Spanish rule. §11. ASIA. 1883— X. (See pp. 562, 564.) 1883. Corea opened to western trade.^ 1883-1885. France and China (pp. 573-575). 1883, Aug. 27. Eruption of Krakatua in Java; great loss of life from tidal waves. 1884, Dec. 4. Insurrection in Corea ; Japan and China both sent troops, then signed 1885, April 18. a treaty by which China acknowledged Japan's interest in Corea. Attempt by Russia to gain a protectorate over Corea prevented. Great Britain occupied Port Hamilton (April), but withdrew (Feb. 27, 1887), China guaranteeing Corea's territorial integrity. 1886, July 24. Anglo-Chinese agreement on Burma ; British rule recognized, also China's formal suzerainty. 1887-1889. Floods and famine in China; millions perished. 1888, Oct. Railway between Kaiping (Chili) and Tientsin opened, first permanent line in China.^ 1889, Feb. 11. Constitution of Japan proclaimed. Emperor's powers carefully guarded, including right of peace and war, and power to issue ordinances having force of laws. Bicameral diet ; upper house of peers and representatives of merit and wealth ; lower house elected through limited suffrage ; diet has a restricted control of finances. Bill of rights, religious free- dom. First diet met Nov. 29, 1890. 1 The first treaty was with the United States, signed May 22, 1882. 2 The Shanghai line (p. 562) was abandoned. A portion of the Tientsin line was opened in 1882. In 1881 there was a telegraph line between Shanghai and Tientsin. A. D. Chinese- Japanese War. 595 Feb. Kwangsu, Chinese emperor, assumed the government, em- press dowager retiring. 1890, March 31. Chungking, on upper Yangtze, made a treaty port. 1891. Outbreak of rioting against missionaries in China, incited by a body of literati- ineffectual decree issue against the rioters (June 13). 1893, Oct. 3. French- Siamese treaty of peace signed at Bangkok, after short period of hostilities. France obtained all the territory east of the Mekong and military control of the west bank. 1894, March 1. Anglo-Chinese treaty on Burma boundary; territory east of the Mekong ceded to China on condition of non- alienation. 1894-1895. Chinese-Japanese War. Causes : China's claim of suzerainty in Corea and denial of Japan's equal interest there; conviction in Japan that a military success was necessary to her recognition as a power by the Occident. China sent troops to suppress an insurrection in Corea, and Japan, protesting that Corea was independent, also sent troops (June 9, 1894). Japan proposed reforms to prevent future disturbances (July 3), but Corea, backed by China, refused, upon which 1894, July 23. Japanese troops seized the palace and the king at Seoul. Both nations prepared to pour troops into Corea and July 25. actual war began with a naval victory for Japan. Aug. 1. Both nations declared -war (contrasting declarations). The Japanese under Nodzu Sept. 15. captured Piengyang, the Chinese fleeing across the Yalu River. In the Sept. 17. naval battle of Yalu River (first battle of modern men-of-war), the fleets being of about equal size (12 vessels each), the Japanese under Ito dispersed the enemy's fleet (Ting) and destroyed five of the ships. The Japanese army ( Yamxigata) Oct. 25. forced the Yalu and invaded Manchuria, meeting with little resistance. A second army of 20,000 under Oyama landed on Liaotung peninsula (Oct. 24), and, after capturing Kingchau (Nov. 6) and Talien (Nov. 7), began the Nov. 21. attack on Port Arthur, the strongest port in China, with modern defences. Several forts were stormed during the day, and at night the Chinese garrison of 10,000 abandoned the rest. The Japanese army and navy then 1895, Jan. 30-Feb. 12. besieged and captured Weihaiwei and Tinges fleet there. The feature of the siege was the night attacks by Japanese torpedo boats (Feb. 5, 8). Meanwhile the first army (Yamagata) captured Haicheng (Dec. 13, 1894); Nogi, ad- vancing from Port Arthur, occupied Kaiping (Jan. 10, 1895) ; and the united forces took Niuchuang (March 4) and its port (March 7). The war had shown the rottenness of China's military strength and the impotence of her administration. The burden of it fell on Li Hungchang (b. 1823; f 1901), who was also sent to make peace. By the 596 Modern History, A. d. April 17. treaty of Shimonoseki, China acknowledged the inde- pendence of Corea, ceded Formosa^ the Pescadores, and Liao- tung peninsula (Port Arthur) to Japan, and paid an indemnity of 3158,000,000. But Russia, Prance, and Germany protested against the cession of the peninsula (" integrity of Chinese territory"), and Japan yielded (May 10), receiving an additional indemnity of $22,200,000. Japan began to reform Corea, but queen Min espoused a reaction, and was murdered (Oct. 8) by natives and Japanese partisans (soshi). This destroyed Japan's prestige, but there was a gradual extension of the reforms. 1894, July 16. Japanese treaty of commerce signed with Great Britain. Cessation of the right of exterritoriality in Japan, freedom of trade and residence. Similar treaties were made by Japan with the other maritime powers (1894- 1897), and all of them went into effect (July 17, Aug. 4, 1899) after the new code of civil procedure and commercial law had been tested. 1895, June- Aug. Attack on missionaries in China. June 20. China ceded to France territory acquired from England (p. 595), and concessions and railway rights in southern China (reward for intervention). 1896, Japan entered upon an elaborate policy of military and naval expansion. Jan. 1. Convention between France and Great Britain. Spheres of influence in Siam and independence of that nation. No exclusive privileges to be sought in southern China. Feb. 10. A small Russian force landed and marched to Seoul, and next day the king (Yi Hi) fled to the Russian legation, where he remained until Feb. 20, 1897. While there, he granted to Russians the right to cut timber in the Yalu valley. May 1. Shah of Persia (Nasr-ed-din) assassinated, succeeded by his son, Muzaffar-ed-din. May 14, June 9. Russian- Japanese agreements on Corea signed. June 15. Tidal wave in northern Japan, 30,000 perished. Sept. 8. Chinese-Russian railway convention signed at Peking. Chinese Eastern Railway Company to build the Transsi- berian railway across Manchuria. 1896-1898. Railway concessions granted by China to French, Bel- gian, American, British, Russian, and German companies; also for exploiting mines. 1897, Feb. 20. King of Corea returned to his palace, but Russian ascendency continued. On Nov. 5 a Russian agent was ap- pointed to control the finances, but the British incumbent re- fused to resign, England and Japan sent ships to Chemulpo, and the Russian agent was dismissed (March 15, 1898) after anti-Russian demonstrations. March 29. Japan adopted the gold standard ; ratio, 32-| to 1. Nov. 14, Germany seized Kiaochau, because of the murder of two German missionaries in Shantung. Prince Henry, brother of the emperor, sent to command the German fleet in Chinese A. D. Asia. 597 waters, the emperor speaking of his intention to extend the empire ("mailed fist"). Dec. 18. A Russian fleet entered Port Arthur to winter. 1898. A series of progressive edicts issued by the emperor of China; but a reaction ensued, the empress dovrager ob- tained control, and virtually deposed the emperor (Sept. 21). The reforms were repealed (Sept. 27), and anti-Christian riots ensued. March 6. China leased Kiaochau to Germany for 99 years, with a sphere of influence 30 miles inland, and railway and mining concessions. Kiaochau a treaty port (Sept. 2). March 27, May 7. China leased to Russia for 25 years Port Arthur, Talien-wan, and the territory and waters north to Port Adams, with a neutralized zone beyond, within which conces- sions to other powers were forbidden. Port Arthur to be a closed naval base, but Talien-wan to have an open port. Rus- sia also received the right to connect the leased territory ■with the Transsiberian railway in Manchuria. April 10. China leased to France Kwangchau-wan for 99 years, with railway concessions. Kwangchau a free port (1900). April 25. Russian-Japanese agreement on Corea ; Japanese para- mount interest recognized, Corea temporarily out of Russia's sphere. June 9. Territory on mainland adjoining Hongkong leased to Great Britain, also July 1. Weihaiwei for as long as Russia occupied Port Arthur. 1899. Feb. 28. Italy demanded the lease of Sammun Bay, but China refused. April 29. Agreement between Russia and Great Britain; the former not to seek concessions in the Yangtze valley, and the latter not to seek them north of the Great Wall. July 17. End of exterritoriality in Japan (p. 596). Sept. 1. First Corean railroad opened from Seoul to Chemulpo. Sept. 6. Open-door policy. Secretary Hay of the United States asked assurance from the Powers that there should be no in- terference with free commerce or vested interests within leased territory or spheres of influence in China. Favorable responses were received (1899-1900) from London, Paris, Berlin, Rome, St. Petersburg, and Tokio. 1900. Boxer Rising. Causes : Reaction against drastic reforms; antagonism of foreign exploitation of the country and the efPorts of the missionaries, whose actions sometimes gave an excuse for the false charges made against them. A secret society called the Boxers (" patriotic harmonious fists ") spread throughout China, especially in the northern provinces, committing outrages on missionaries and converts. Countenanced by the government and aided by the army, they cut the communica- tion between Peking and the coast (June 6), and threatened the foreign legations, for whose defense 450 legation guards had been sent by the different nations. 598 Modern History. A. d. June 10. An international relief column of 2000 started from the coast under admiral Seymour^ but it was obliged to retreat. June 17. The Taku forts were bombarded and captured by the allied ships, which increased the rage of the Boxers, and June 20. baron v. Ketteler, the German minister, was slain in the street in Peking. The same day the legations were besieged. The allied nations (Japan, Russia, Great Britain, United States, France) sent a relieving force of 18,000, which, after the July 14. reduction of Tientsin, marched to Peking and Aug. 14. rescued the legations. The empress dowager and em- peror fled to Singan-fu, and the allied forces occupied the Sacred City. Li Hungchang and prince Ching were appointed envoys to negotiate a peace. The joint powers presented an ultimatum (Dec. 22), and 1901, Sept. 7. a protocol was signed embodying these condi- tions : an expiatory mission to Germany and monument to Ketteler; punishment of the chief Boxers (this had already been done); prohibition of the importation of arms; an indemnity of $334,000,000 in gold; the forts between Peking and the sea to be razed; anti-foreign societies to be forbidden, and provincial and local officials made responsible for good order; reform in the foreign office and court ceremonial. 1900, July. Massacre of Chinese at Blagovestchensk by Russian troops, followed by an invasion of Manchuria, which the Russians occupied and held on the plea of protecting the railway and preserving order. The opposition of the other powers especially Japan, prevented China from acquiescing in this. Oct. 16. Germany and Great Britain signed an agreement upholding the territorial integrity of China, the " open door,^* and non-inter- ference in her internal affairs. 1901, July 6. A mission from the Dalai Lama of Lhasa was received by the tzar ; political significance disavowed. Great Britain (Sept. 2) protested against any proceedings tending to disturb existing conditions in Thibet. Oct. 1. t Abdurrahman, ameer of Afghanistan; succeeded by his son, Hahihullah. Nov. 9. Persian-Russian treaty secretly signed, giving Russia in- creased control over Persian trade. 1902, Jan. Transsiberian railway opened. Jan. 30. Anglo-Japanese defensive alliance concluded to main- tain the territorial integrity of China and Corea. Assist- ance to be given if either signatory power in defending this integrity was opposed by two nations. This alliance was answered by the March 16. declaration of " allied " Russia and France. April 8. Russia agreed to restore Manchuria to China; evacu- ation to be completed by Oct. 9, 1903. Sept. 5. Anglo-Chinese commercial treaty signed; uniform coinage in China, abolition of transit dues (likin), improvement in navi- gation, protection of investments, new treaty ports, mission- A. D. Asia. 599 aries, trade marks, copyright, tariff, mining, exterritoriality. Similar treaties with Japan and United States (Oct. 8, 1903). Oct. 7. Siamese-French treaty signed; caused by French encroach- ments. Siam ceded additional territory. 1903. Russian-Japanese Crisis. Russia not withdra^ving from Manchuria as agreed, and showing evidences of settlement and fortification at Yogampo in Corea, Japan remonstrated, considering her own independence in- volved. As a basis of agreement Aug. 12. Japan proposed that the territorial integrity and in- dependence of China and Corea and the " open door " should be recognized, also the preponderating interest of Russia in Manchuria and of Japan in Corea, subject to the first stipulation. Japan to have the exclusive right to aid Corea when necessary, and the right to connect the Corean and Manchurian railway systems. Oct. 3. Russia's reply ignored Manchuria and China, and pro- posed restrictions on Japanese rights in Corea. Nego- tiations continued until Feb. 6, 1904, when Japan, her last note of Jan. 13 not having been answered, severed diplomatic relations and 1904, Feb. 8. began the war. INDEX. Abbreviations : a. = abbot ; adm. = admiral ; b. = bishop ; burgr. = burggrave ; c. = count ; d. = duke; e. = earl; el. = elector; g. d. = grand duke; H. R. E. = Holy Roman Empire; k. = king; landg. = landgrave; margr. = margrave ) pr. = prince; q. = queen; U.S. = United States ol America; vise, ^viscount. Aachen, 186, 195. See Aix-la-Chapelle. Aahmes, kings of Egypt : I., 4; II., 7. Abbasides, rule of the, 183. Abdel-Kader captured by the French, 527. Abd-er-Rahman : I., founded caliphate of Cordova, 183, 209 ; III., 209. Abdul-Aziz, deposition of, 521. Abdul Hamid, II., 521 ; Kerini,522. Abel, k. of Denmark, 236. Aberdeen administration, 543. Abo, Peace of, 409. Abolitionists, organization of the, 553. Aboukir, battle of, 460. Abraham, 7. Absalon, bishop, 235. Abu-Bekr, 192. Abul Abbas, overthrows Ommiads, 183. Abydos, battles of, 68. Abyssinia, Christian kingdom of, 190. Abyssinian expedition, 545. Academic Fran^aise founded, 326. Acadia, explorations in, 290 ; French claims to, 363 ; limits of, 364, n. ; granted to St. Etienne, 364 ; ceded to England, 363, 419 ; dispersion of the French inhabit- ants, 421. Achaean League, 43, 48 ; under Aratos, 79 ; under Philopoemen, 80 ; fall, 80 ; first Macedonian war, 118. Achajan War, 80, 122. Achaemenidae, 25-27. Achaia, 39, 48 ; Roman province, 80, 146 ; duchy of, 216. Achilles, 47. Acilius Glabrio, 119, 135. Acjoka, emp. of Magadha, 23. Acre, conquest of, in 3d crusade, 215 ; taken by Mamelukes, 217 ; repulse of Napoleon, 460. Act for the better government of India, 544; of confederation, 483; of grace, 387; of mediation, 464 ; for perpetual par- liament, 345 ; of settlement, 388 ; of su- premacy under Henry VIII., 335, under Elizabeth, 338 ; of uniformity, 338, en- forced by James I., 340, under Charles II., 379; of Vienna, 482; final act, 483, 487. Actium, Corcyraeans victorious at, 65 ; de- feat of Antonius, 146. Adalbert, archb. of Bremen, 199. Adams, .John, defends Preston, 425 ; mem- ber of Continental Congress, 426, 427 ; negotiates treaty with France, 429 ; vice- pres., 547, 548 ; pres., 548. Adams, John Quincy, sec. of state, 561 ; pres., 552. Adams, Samuel, 426. Addington administration, 536. Addison, Joseph, 436. " Addled " parliament, 341. Adelheid, empress, married Otto I., 196 regent in Italy, 197. Adhemar of Puy, 214. Adherbal, 126. Adlerkreuz, Gen., 472. Adolf of Nassau, elected k. of Germany, 244. Adolf Frederic, k. of Sweden, 409. Adrianople, battle of, 159, 171 ; peace oi, 489 ; agreement of, 523. .^diles, plebeian, 96 ; curule, 101 ; pay for the great games, 120. JEgatian Islands, victory of Catulus, 111. JEgina, Doric community, 63 ; war with Athens, 57 ; tributary to Athens, 63 ; as- signed to Athenian citizens, 65. .SIgospotami, battle of, 69. Alfred the Great, k. of England, 204. MWb. Capitolina, 12, 153. .^lle, leader of the South Saxons, 177. .ffimilianus, 156. ^neas, 87. .apneas Sylvius, 253. See Pius II. iEolian tribes, 43 ; colonies, 49. .ffiqui, wars with Rome, 97, 98, 100 ; receive Roman citizenship, 105. ^rarii, 92. ^scendun, Danes defeated at, 204. iEschines, 72. ^schylus, 64. iEthelflaed, lady of the Mercians, 204. iEthelred, kings of England, I., 203, 204 } II., the Unready, 205. .^thelstan, k. of England, 204. JEthelwulf, k. of England, 203. Aetius, 172 ; defeats Attila, 173. .ffitolian League founded, 79 ; assists Rome, 116. Afghan war, first, 546 ; second, 547. Afghans of Ghor, supremacy in India, 211. Africa, circumnavigated by Egyptians (?), 6 ; by Portuguese, 279, 280 ; Roman province, 121 ; Csesar-s war, 142 ; Octavi- anus administers, 146 ; Vandal king- dom, 172 ; fall of the Vandal power, 174. Agamemnon, 47. Agathocles, k. of Syracuse, 20. Age of Augustus, 147 ; of Louis XIV., 371 ; of Pericles, 64. Agesilaus. k. of Snarta, 70, 71. 602 Index. Agincourt, battle of , 259, 271. Agnes of Meran, 226 ; of Poitou, 199. Agrarian laws, 95, 97 ; Licinian, 101 ; re- forms of the Gracchi, 124, 125 ; of Dru- sus, 128 ; of Sulla, 132 ; of Pompeius, 137. Agricola, in Britain, 37, 152 ; his death, 152 ; his wall in Britain, 176. Agrigentum, 84 ; captured by Carthaginians, 20 ; by Romans, 110. Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 146. Agrippina, the elder, 148 ; the younger, 148, 150. Aguirre, Lope de, 288 Ahmad Shah, emp. of India, 442; Durani, invades India, 442, 443. Ahmednagar, kingdom, 353, 389. Ahuramazda, 24, 25. Ainos, 33. Aistulf , k. of Langobards, 175, 184. Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 1668, 367 ; of 1748, 403, 419, 438 ; congress, 487. See, also, Aachen. Ajax, 47. Akbar the Great, 353, 354. Akkad, 13. Alabama, admitted to the Union, 552. Alabama claims settled, 545, 560. Alamanni, on the Rhine, 170; occupy Germania superior, 172 ; defeated by Chlodwig, 173. Alamgir II., emp. of India, 442. Alani, 170, 171. Alarcjon, explores the Colorado, 287. Alaric, k. of West Goths, 171. Alaska purchase, 559. Ala-ud-ddn, sultan of Delhi, 241. Alba Longa, 87 ; destruction, 89. Albanian league, 525. Albemarle, d. of, 379. See, also. Monk. Alberoni, card., 397. Albert, the Bear, margr. of Brandenburg, 218, 219. Albert I., emp. of H. R. E., of Austria, 245; II., 253. Albert, c. of Holstein, 235. Albert, d. of Mecklenburg, 237, 238. Albert, of Saxe-Coburg, marries Victoria, 542 ; dies, 544. Albertine line, in Saxony, 305. Albigenses, 227. Albinus, Clodius, 155. Albion, 36. Alboin, k. of Langobards, 175. Albuera, battle of, 473. Albuquerque, 280, 355. Alcantara, order of, 240, 328. Alcibiades, 66 ; trial and flight, 68 ; death, 69. Alcolea, battle of, 512. Alcuin, 186. Alembert, 448. Aleppo, sultanate of, 210. Alesia, siege of, 139. Alessandria built, 221. Alexander, prince of Bulgaria, 524. Alexander, the Great, k. of Macedonia, 73 ; expedition to Persia, 20, 29, 73 ; invades India, 23, 75 ; plans to Hellenize the East, 75 ; his death, 76. Alexander, Popes : III., 221 ; V., 251 ; VI. 327. Alexander, tsar of Russia: I., accedeis, 403 ; defeated at Austerlitz, 467 ; in the war of 1813, 477 ; in London, 482, 500 ; II., 500 ; murder, 525 ; III., 525. Alexandria, founded, 74 ; capital of Egypt, 77 ; Vespasian, 151 ; captured by Per- sians, 191 ; captured by Arabs, 182 ; by the French, 460 ; bombarded by the Eng- lish, 546. Alexandrine library founded, 77. Alexandrine war, 142. Alexis, tsar of Russia, 374. Alexius Comnenus, Greek emp., 214. Alfonso III., k. of Aragon, 276. Alfonso X., k. of Castile, 225, 240. Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, 521. Alford, battle of, 348. Algarbe, kingdom of, 276. Algeria, exp. of Charles V., 304 ; French expedition, 489, 527. Ali, 182. Alien bill, 535. Alien and sedition laws in U. S., 549. Alkassor, battle of, 332. Alkmar, battle of, 461. " Alleluia victory," 38. Allen, Ethan, 427. Allersheim, battle of, 315. AUia, battle of the, 100. " Alliance of the three kings," 497- Allouez, in New France, 364. " All the talents' " ministry, 537. Alma, battle of the, 500. Almagro, Diego de, 286, 287. Almanza, battle of, 434, Almanzor 209. Almeida, 280 ; siege of, 473. Almoadan. See Tooran-shah. Almohades, conquer Spain, 240. Almoravides, conquer Spain, 209, 240. Alp Arslan, 210. Alsace, formerly Germania superior, 172; ceded to France, 316 ; protestants in, 369 ; ceded to the German empire, 519. Alsen, island of, 506. Altranstadt, peace of, 395| Alva, duke of, in the Netherlands, 330. Alvarado, 287. Alyattes, k. of Lydia, 21, 25. Amadeus I., k. of Spain, 512, 520. Amagro, 287. Amalaric, k. of West Goths, 174. Amalasuntha, 174. Amalric, k. of Jerusalem, 214. Amasis. See Aahmes. Amazon, discovery of, 284, 288. Amazons, 45. Amberg, battle of, 458. Ambiorix, 139, Amboise, conspiracy of, 321 ; peace of, 321 Amboyna, massacre of, 342, 354. Ambrosius, b. of Milan, 161. Amendments to U. S. Constitution, first ten, 547; 11th, 548; 12tb, 549; 13th, 558 ; 14th, 559 ; 15th, 560. Amcnemhat, kgs. of Egypt : I. , conquers Nubia ; IL, III., built lake Meri, 4 Amenhotep, III., k. of Egypt, war with Syrians, etc., 4; his statue (Memnon), 5. America, alleged discovery, 280 n. ; dis- covery by Northmen, 280 ; by Columbus, 279 ; named, 283 ; conquest of Mexico^ Index. 603 285 ; conquest of Peru, 286 ; Coligny's colonies, 288 ; Virginia explored, 289 ; ■ foundation of Port Royal by French, 290 ; English colonies, 291 ; Dutch and Swed- ish settlements, union of the colonies, 298 ; New France and the Arctic re- gion, 299 ; British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies, 357 ; King Philip's war, 359 ; King William's war, 361 ; Queen Anne's war, 363 ; French settlements and dis- coTeries, 363 ; King George-s war, 419. French and Indian war, 42u ; Stamp act, 423 ; Continental Congress, war of inde- pendence, 426 ; signing the Constitution, 433. See Canada, United States, Spanish colonies. American Association, 426. Amherst, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. y^mherst, gen., 421. Amida, sack of, 188, 190. Amiens, peace of, 18j2, 464, 536 ; battle of, 518. Amnion, 2, 5. Amnias, battle of, 129. Ampfing, battle of, 247. Amphictyonic council, 42 ; first holy war, 51, 52 ; 2d holy war, 72 ; Philip a mem- ber, 72. Amphipolis, battle of, 66. Amroo, conquers Egypt, 182. Amulius, k. of Alba Lcnga, 87. Amyrtaeus, 29. Anabaptists, 304. Anagawa, battle of, 355. Anastasius, Greek emp., 190. Anaxagoras, 64. Ancus Marcius, k. of Rome, 89. Andelot, Franpois d', 321. Andernach, 139 ; battle of 193, 195. Andre, major, 431. Andrew II., k. of Hungary, crusade, 216. Andriscus (Pseudo-Philippus), 122. Andros, Sir Edmund, 361. Angelus, dynasty of, 240. Anglas, Boissy d', 456. Angles, settle in Britain, 172, 176 ; east, north, 178 ; middle, 179. Anglican Church, 338. Anglo-Saxon chronicle, 204. Anglo-Saxons. See Angles, Saxons, Jutes, England. Angora, battle of, 278. Angouleme, c. See Francis I., k. of France. Angouleme, house of, 317. Angromainyu, 24. Anjou, house of, England, 231 ; France, 231 ; Hungary, 277 ; Naples, 225, 263. Ankarstrom, 409. Anna, of Brittany, 262, 318. Anna Ivanovna, of Russia, 410. Anna-Dido, 17. Annam, French in, 535. Anne of Austria, 365. Anne Boleyn, 334, 335 ; of Cleves, 334. Anne, q. of England, as princess deserts James II., 384; acknowledged successor of William III., 371 ; her reign, 433 ; death, 436. Anno, archb. of Cologne, 199. Annus normalis, 317. Auselm, archb. of Canterbury, 230. Ansgarius, 207, 208. Anson, voyage of, 438. Antalcidas, peace of, 70. Anthemius, Roman emp., 162. Anti-corn law league, 542. Anticosti, discovery of, 287. Antietam, battle of, 557. Antigonus, 76, 77 ; Gonatas, 77. Antiochia, 77 ; capture of, 190. Antiochus, III., the Great, k. of Syria, 29, 119. Antipater, 76, 79. Anti-reformation, 306. Antium, 104. Anton, k. of Navarre, 321. Antoninus, emp. of Rome, rebuilds AgTico- la's wall, 38 ; reign, 154. Antonius, C., consul, 136, 137. Antonius, M., war with Pompeius, 141 ; as- sumes control upon Caesar's death, 144 follows Cleopatra, 145 ; second triumvi rate, 145 ; governor of the East, 145 Parthian war, 30, 146 ; defeat and deathj 146. Antwerp, capture of, 331. Anville, d', in America, 419. Apepi, k. of Egypt, 8. Aphrodite, 3, 17. Apis, sacred bull, 2, 27. Apollo, saves Croesus, 26 ; oracle of, 51. Appius Claudius, decemvir, 98 ; the censor, 102, 106 ; csecus, 108 ; caudex, 110. Apries. See Hophra. Apulia, 83, 141. Aquae Sextiae, battle of, 127 ; colony of, 125. Aquillius, 129. Aquilonia, battle of, 106. Aquitania, 34, 182. Arabia, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; invaded by Seti I., 5 ; by Romans, 148 ; Roman province, 153 ; invaded by Chosroes, 190. Arabian dynasty in Chaldea, 13. Arabs, conquest of Africa, 182 ; of Spain, 183 ; Avar with the Greek empire, 210 ; crusades against, 213 ; conquest of Per- sia, 193 ; invasions of India, 211 ; dy- nasties in India, 241 ; capture of Con- stantinople, 260, 278. See Moors. Aragon, united with Catalonia, 240 ; wars with the Moors and with Castile, 276 ; unitfKi with Castile, 328. See Spain. Aranda, 415. Aratus, 79. Arausio, battle of, 127. Arbela, battle of, 74. Arc, Joan of. See Dare. Arcadius, Greek emp., 161. Archelaus, 130. Archidamus, 65. Archons, development, 51 ; elected by all citizens, 63 ; reduction of their power, 55. Arcis-sur-Aube, battle of, 481. Arcole, battle of, 458. Arcot, Nawab of, 443. Ardaghan, 523, 524. Ardoin of Ivrea, 197. Areopagus, 53, 62. Argal, deputy gov. of S. Virginia, 292 ; al- leged submission of Dutch to, 298 ; expe- dition to Mt. Desert, 299. 604 Index, Argaum, battle of, 541. ArginusaB, battle of, 69. Argonauts, expedition of, 46. Argos, chief town in Peloponnesus, 48 ; decline of power, 56 ; allied with. Athene, 62. Argyle, d. of, 346, 437. Argyle, e. of, trial, 882, 383. Arianism, 159. Ariosto, 328. Ariovistus, 138, 167. Aristagoras, 28. Aristion, 130. Aristobulus, k. of the Jews, 11. Aristodemus, 51. Aristogiton, 54. Aristomenes, 51. Aristophanes, 64. Aristotle, 73. Ark of the Covenant, 8. Arkansas admitted to the Union, 553. Aries, kingdom of, 198. Arlington, 380. Armada, Great, 331, 339. Armagnacs, attack Basle, 253 ; massacred, 259. Armed neutrality, 412 ; renewed, 536. Armenia, 12, 78 ; invaded by Asshur-natzir pal I., 14 ; subject to Assyria, 14, to Me- dia, 25, to Cyrus the Persian, 26 ; attacked by the Parthians, 30 ; Koman province, 153 ; conquered by Sapor, 188 ; reduced by M. Aurelius, 193 ; ceded to Russia, 523. Arminius defeats Varus, 149 ; after-history, 167. Armorica, Venetii in, 138 ; Britons emi- grate to, 172. Arnim, 312. Arnold of Brescia, 221. Arnold, Benedict, siege of Quebec, 427 ; defeat on Champlain, 428 ; his treason, 430. Arnulf of Carinthia, 193. Arpads in Hungary, 277. Arques, battle of, 324. Arsaces, founder of the Parthian mon- archy, 29 ; dynastic name of all the Par- thian monarchs (I.-XXX.), 29, 30. Arsacidae, 155. Arses, emp. of Persia, 29. Art in Greece, 64 ; in Italy, 327. ^ Artabanus I., k. of Parthia (Arsaces VIII., 30; III. (Arsaces XXX.), last k. of Parthia, defeated by Artaxerxes, 30, 187. Artaphernes, 57. Artavasdes, k. of Armenia, 146. Artaxata, 135 ; captured, 150, 154. Artaxerxes, k. of Persia, I., 28 ; II., defeats the younger Cyrus, 29; III., 29 ; Artax- erxes I. founds the new Persian empire, 30, 187 ; II., 189. Artemis, 21. Artemisium, battle of, 59. Artenay, battle of, 518. Artevelde, Jacob van, 257. Arthur, k. of the Silures, 37; traditions concerning him in the N. and S., 178; cycle of romances, 235. Arthur, d. of Brittany, 226 ; death, 233. Arthur, Chester A., pres. of the United States, 560. Articles of confederation, 429 : of Perth, 341. Artois, c. of, 450. Arundel, e. of, impeached, 270 ; executed, 339. Aryans, uncertainty concerning, Introd. iv. ; in Asia Minor, 21 ; primitive home, 24; Celts, 34. Aschaffenburg, battle of, 510. Asculum, battle of, 108. Ashantee war, 545. Ashburton treaty, 554. Ashby and White, case of, 434. Ashera, Phoenician goddess, 17. Ashikaga shoguns, 278, 355. Ashley, 380. Asia, Roman province, 124. Aske, Robert, rebellion of, 335 Aspasia, 64. Aspern, battle of, 472. Assam, 389, 541. Assandun, battle of, 205. Assaye, battle of, 541. Asshur, 12, 13. Asshurbanipal, emp. of Assyria, 6, 15. Asshur-ebil-ili, k. of Nineveh, 15. Asshur-natzir-pal I., emp. of Assyria, 14. Assignats, issued, 450 ; decline two thirds, 454 ; total amount issued, 457. See Mandats. Assizes of Clarendon, 232. Associations of nobles, 250. Assyria, geography, religion, 12 ; civiliza- tion, chronology, 13; art, 15; no Assyr- ian conquest of Egypt under Shashang I., 5 n. 2 ; conquest of Egypt by Esar- haddon, 6 ; independent empire, 13 ; height of power, 15 ; fall of the empire, 15, 25 ; attacks Iran, 25 ; northern A. sub- ject to Rome, 30, 153. Astarte, 16, 17. Asturia, kingdom of, 183, 209. Astyages, k. of Media, 21, 25, 26. Atahuallpa, inca of Peru, 287. Athalaric, k. of West Goths, 174. Athanasius, 159. Athaulf, 171, 172. Athena, identified with Ne'ith, 2. Athenion, 128. Athens, ally of the Ionian cities, 28, 40 ; founded, 44 ; old constitution, 51 : re- forms of Solon, 52 ; Pisistratus, reforms of Clisthenes, 54 ; burned by Xerxes, 59 ; hegemony of, 61 ; war with Sparta, 64 ; under Pericles, 64 ; surrender of, 69 ; thirty tyrants, 69 ; Demetrius Po- liorcetes in, 79; captured by Sulla, 130 ; adorned by Hadrian, 153 ; duchy of, 216 ; captured by Venetians, 416. Set GrrGGCG Athos, Mt., 56, 58. Atlanta evacuated, 558. Atlantic cable laid, 487, 544. Atreus, 44. Attains, kings of Pergamus, 78; I. joins ^tolian league, 116 ; implores aid of Rome, 118 ; III. bequeaths Pergamus to Rome, 124. Attalus, appointed emp. of Rome by Ala- ric, 171. Attila in Gaul and Italy, 173. Attyadse, first Lydian dynasty, 21. Index. 605 Auckland, lord, gov. gen. in India, 546. Auerstadt, battle of, 469. Aughrim, battle of, 38?'. Augsburg, founded, 167 ; diet at, 303 ; confession of, 303 ; religious peace of, 3U6 ; peace of, 317 ; league of, 370. Augures, college of, 85. Augustine in Britain, 179. Augustus, Caesar Octavianus, emp. of Rome, his reign, 147 ; family, 148 ; death, 149. Augustus II., elector of Saxony, elected k. of Poland, 374 : part in northern war, 394, .395 ; III., elected k. of Poland, 398 ; claimant for the Austrian succession, 400 ; death, 411. Aurangzeb, emp. of India, deposes his father, 354 ; his reign, 389. Aurelianus, emp. of Rome, 157 ; Persian war, and death, 188. Aurelius, Marcus, Rom. emp., war with Parthia, 30 ; reign, 154. Aurunci, 86, 103. Austerlitz, battle of, 467. Australia, first convicts sent to, 535. Austrasia, 181-183, 187. Austria, Ostmark reestablished, 196 ; made a duchy, 221 ; house of Hapsburg, 244 Hungarian succession secured to, 278 circle of, 300 ; anti-reformation in, 309 peace of Carlowitz, 372 ; war of the Span ish succession, 391 ; peace of Rastadt, 394 ; peace of Passarowitz, 397 ; alliance with Spain, 398; pragmatic sanction, 398 ; war of Austrian succession, 400 ; seven years' war, 403; reforms of Joseph II., 406 ; alliance with Prussia, 452 ; first co- alition against France, 452 ; peace of Campo Formio, 459 ; second coalition, 460 ; peace of Luneville, 462 ; indemnifi- cations, 455 ; third coalition, 467 ; peace of Pressburg, 467 ; Francis I., resigns the crown of the H. R. E., becomes emperor of Austria, 468 ; war with France, 471 ; peace of Vienna, 472 ; alliance with Na- poleon, 474 ; war of liberation, 477 ; con- gress of Vienna, 482 ; influence in Ger- many and Italy, 487 ; Ferdinand I., 491 ; revolutionary movements, 491, 493 ; war with Sardinia, 494 ; Hungarian revolt, 494 ; Francis Joseph I., 495 ; general constitu- tion, 495; abolisiied, 495; German em- pire, 497 ; war with France and Sardinia, loss of Lombardy, 502 ; February consti- tution, 504 ; war with Denmark, 505 ; with Prussia, 507 ; with Italy, 510 ; with- draws from German confederation, 510 ; union of crowns of Austria and Hun- gary, 511 ; occupies Bosnia and Herzego- vina, 524 ; alliance with Prussia, 525 ; disturbances in Bosnia, 525. Austrian succession, war of, 400, 438, 446. Austro-Prussian war, 507. Austro-Sardinian war, 532. Authari, 175. Avars, assist Alboin, 175 ; subjugated by Charles the Great, 185, 192. Avesta, 24. Avignon, Popes at, 263 ; annexed to France, 452. Avitus, Roman emp., 162. Ayllon, Lucus Vasqncz d", 283. ^ymer de Valence, 267. Ayoubites, dynasty of, 215, 217. Ay lib Khan, 547. Azermidocht, reign of, 192. Azoff, gained by Turkey, 376; conquered by Peter the Great, 374 ; finally gained by Russia, 410. Azores, discovery of, 276, 279. Baal, 9, 10, 16, 18. Babar, founds Mughal empire, 353. Babenberg, house of, feud with house of Conrad, 194 ; receives the Eastmark, 196 ; becomes extinct, 244. Babington, conspiracy of, 339. Babylon, capital of Babylonia, 12; centre of the Chaldean empire, 13 ; founded by Ninus (?), 14 ; adorned by Nebuchadnez- zar, 16 ; captured by Cyrus, 26 ; revolt and recapture, 27. Babylonia, geography, 12 ; religion, 12 ; civ- ilization, chronology, 13 ; dependent on Elam, independent (old or Chaldean em- pire), 13 ; subordinate to Assyria, 13, 14 ; revolt under Nabopolassar, 15, 25 ; new empire, the leading Eastern power, 16 ; becomes a Persian province, 16, 26 ; re- volt against Darius, 27 ; subject to Mith- ridates I. of Parthia, 30. Babylonish captivity of the Jews, 11 ; of the papacy, 263. Bacallaos (Newfoundland), 288. Bacon, Francis, lord chan., 341; im- peachment of, 342. Bacon's rebellion, 359. Bacon, Roger, 235. Bactria, geography, 24 ; religion, 24 ; em- pire of, 25 ; subject to Parthia, 30. Badajos, geographical congress, 286; siege, 473. Baden, peace of, 394 ; becomes an electo- rate, 464 ; joined allies, 479. Bsecula, battle of, 117. Bseda, 180. Baffin, voyage of, 299. Bagdad, caliphate of, 183 ; under the Ab- basides, 210 ; destroyed by Mongols, 241. Baglerne, 238. Bagradas, 141. Bahadur Shah, emp. of India, 442, 546. Bahamas, 358. Bahram (Varahran VI.), 191. Bailly, mayor of Paris, 450, 451, 455. Bajasid, 523. Bajazet I., 278. Baji Rao, 443. Balaclava, battle of, 500. B&laji Baji Rao, 443. Balas, emp. of Persia, 189. Balbinus, Caelius, 156. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 284. Baldur, 164, 166. Baldwin, k. of Jerusalem, I., 214, 234 : II to v., 214. Baldwin, of Flanders, 216. Balfour, defeats Claverhouse, 381. Baliol, Edward, k. of Scotland, 264, 268. Ball, John, 268, 269. Ballard, conspiracy of, 339. Baltimore, Lord, 293. Bamberg, diet of, 221. Baner, Swedish general, 312, 314. Bank of England, chartered, 388 ; stopped 606 Index, specie payment, 535 ; resumed, 539 ; charter renewed, 544. Bankruptcy bill in England, 545. Bannockburn, battle of, 267 Bar, confederacy of, 411. Bar, duchy of, 398. Barcelona, county of, 209; united with Aragon, 240. Bardija, 27. Barebone's parliament, 376. Barlow, sir G., gov. gen. in India, 541. Barnet, battle of ,274. Baronets, creation of, 341. Barras, 459. Barrt5, colonel, 423. Barrier treaties, 371, 393. Barry, countess du, 446. Bar-sur-Aube, battle of, 480. Barthelmy, 459. Basentello, battle (?), 197 n. Basle, council of, 319 ; peace of, 457. Bassein, treaty of, 541. Bastidas, de, voyage of, 284. Bastile, destruction of, 449. Batavian republic, founded, 456; trans- formed to kingdom of Holland, 468. Batavians, revolt of, 151. Bates, trial of, 340. Batoum, Russians attack, 523; ceded to Russia, 524. Batthyanyi, count, 494, 496. Batu, 240. Baum, colonel, 429. Bautzen, battle of, 476. Bavaria, Bavarians, duchy established, 185 ; growth of power, 194 ; granted to Otto of Nordheim, then to Well, 199 ; Henry the Proud dispossessed, 219 ; Henry the Lion reinstated, 221; given to Otto of Wit- telsbach, 222; duke Maximilian, 309 ; war of Spanish succession, 390 ; extinc- tion of electoral house, war of Bavarian succession, 406 ; to be exchanged for Netherlands, 408 ; allied with Napoleon, 467 ; with Austria, 478 ; allied with Aus- tria in Austro-Prussian war, 507 ; joins Prussia in the Franco-German war, 514 ; vote in Bundestag, 520. Baxar, battle of, 444. Bayard, chev., 302, 318. Bayonne decree, 550. Bazaine, marshal, at Metz, 514, 516 ; sur- renders Metz, 518 ; trial, 533. Beachy Head, battle of, 387. Beaconsfield, lord (Disraeli), sketch of life, 543; Chan, of exch.,543; premier, 545; raised to peerage, 545. Beaufort, cardinal, 271. Beaune la Rolande, battle of, 518. Beausejour, 421. Becket, Thomas, archb. of Canterbury, 231 ; murdered, 232. Bedford, d. of, 260. Bedford, ministry of, 438. Bedloe, 381. Beheim, Martin, 280. Bel, 12, 13. Belfort, battle of, 519. Belgii, 37 ; subjugation of, 138. Belgium, Belgians, 34 ; annexed to France, 453 ; revolution of 1830, 489 ; conflict with papacy, 625. Belgrade, battle of, 278, 397 ; peace o£ ■ 397, 398. ] Belisarius, 174, 190. Bellona, 84. Belshazzar, 16. Bern, Polish general, 495, 496. Benedetti, at Ems, 513. Benedict, popes, V., 176; IX.. 199; XI., 254 ; XIII., 251 ; deposed, 252. Benedek, general, 508, 509. Beneventum, battle of, 108 ; (Manfred), 1:26. Bengal, 22 ; Muhammedan sultans in, 353 ; British in, 443. Bennington, battle of, 429. Bentinck, earl of Portland, 386. Bentinck, lord William, gov. gen. in India, 541. Berengar II. (of Ivrea), 195. Berezina, passage of the, 475. Berg, grand duchy of, 468, 478. Bergen, 405. Bergerac, peace of, 322. Berkeley, lord, grant in America, 358. Berkeley, sir William, 358. Berlin, in Hanseatic league, 249; univer- sity founded, 471 ; conflicts in the streets, ; 492 ; peace of, 401 ; truce of, 496 ; con- | gress of, 524 ; conference of, 525. | Berlin decree, 537, 550. i Bermudas, 292. \ Bernadotte, on middle Rhine, 460 ; on up- ] per Danube, 467 ; crown prince of Swe- den, 473 ; acts with allies, 476, 477. I Bernard, a. of Clairvaux, 214. Bernard, gov. of Mass., 424. Berne, joins Swiss confederacy, 248 ; ob- tains the Waadtland, 327 ; confederate council in, 492. Bernhard, of Ascania, 222 ; k. of Italy, 186 ; d. of Saxe- Weimar, 312, 313. Bernicia, 178. Bernstorff, c, 409. Berry, d. of, murdered, 527. Berthier, prince of Neuchatel, 468. Berthold of Zahringen, receives Oarinthia, 199 ; aids Lothar, 218. Berwick, English, Ji6b ; capture of, 264, 274; treaty of, 338 ; pacification of, 345. Berwick, marshal, 445. Bessarabia, ceded by Russia, 501 ; taken back in treaty of San Stefano, 623 ; in congress of Berlin, 524. Bessus, the satrap, 29, 74. Bestushef , 411. Bethlen Gabor, pr. of Transylvania, 3( 9, 310. Beust, v., 511. Beziers, storm of, 227. Bhartpur, battle of, 541, Biarni, discovers America, 281. Bible, translated by Luther, 302 ; English translation completed, 341. Bibracte, battle of, 138. Bidar, kingdom of, 353 ; conquered by Au- rangzeb, 389. Bijapur, kingdom, 353 ; annexed to Mughal empire, 389. Bill of Attainder, last used, 388. Bill excluding bishops from House of Lords, 347. Bill of Rights, 386. Index. 607 Bills, the four, presented by parliament to Charles I., 350. Birger Jarl, 237. Birkebeneme, 238. BiroL\,410, 411 ; invested with Curland, 414. Birthen, battle of, 195. Biscop, Benedict, 180. Bismarck, count v., early life, 504; chan. of the confederation, 511 ; negotiations with Favre, 517 ; chan. of the empire, 520 ; at congress of Berlin, 524 ; at Vien- na, 525 ; defeated in Reichstag, 526. Bithynia, subjugated by Alyattesof Lydia, 21 ; kings of, 78 ; war with Mithridates, 129 ; bequeathed to Rome, 134, 136. Bla, Lydian goddess, 21. Black Death, in England, 268, 269 ; in France, 258. Black Hole of Calcutta, 443. Black Prince. See Edward, the. Blackheath, battle of, 333. Bladensburgh, battle of, 551. Bladud, 37. Blake, 376. Blanche, regent, 227. Blanket meeting at Manchester, 5S8. Bleking, joined to Sweden, 236 ; ceded to Denmark, 238. Blenheim, battle of, 392, 434. Block, Adrian, 296, 298. Bloody Assize, 383. Bliicher, surrenders, 469 ; occupies Dres- den, 476 ; in the war of liberation, 477- 484 ; created Prince of Wahlstadt, 477 ; at Waterloo, 484. Blumenau, battle of, 509. Boidicea, revolt of, 37. Bobadilla, 283. Boccaccio, Giovanni, 263. Bocchus, k. of Mauritania, 127. Bocholt, battle of, 185. Bockelsohn, Johann, 304. Bodenstein, 301. Body of Liberties, 298. Boeotia, 40 ; conquered by ^olians, 48 ; submits to Xerxes, 58 ; allied with Sparta, 62 ; aristocracies in, 63 ; war with Sparta, 77, 80. Bohemia, occupied by Boii, 167 ; by Mar- comanni, 167 ; by Slavs, 168 ; war with Henry I., 194 ; does homage to empire, 218 ; dukes created kings, 221 ; Ottokar's war with Rudolph, 244 ; Luxembourg house, 247 ; Charles IV.,emp., 248 ; Hus- sites, 252; united with Hungary, 278; Ferdinand I. elected king, 306 ; in Thirty Years' War, 308, 309 ; in Austro-Prussian wax, 509 ; Bohemian language in Univer- sity of Prague, 526. Bohemond of Tarentum, 214. Bohmisch-Brod, battle of, 252. r.oii, in Gaul, 34, 35; in Bohemia, 167. Boilleau, 371. Boleslav, k. of Poland, 197. Bolingbroke, Henry. See Henry IV. of England, 270. Bolingbroke, vise, St. John created, 436; impeached, 437. Bolivar, 488. Bolivia, independent, 488. Bombay, 271 ; British in, 443. Bonaparte, Jerome, k. of Westphalia, 470. Bonaparte, Joseph, 468; k. of Naples, 470; of Spain, 470; driven from Spain, 479. Bonaparte, Louis, k. of Holland, 468, 470 ; abdication, 473. Bonaparte, Lucien, 461. Bonaparte, Napoleon, first appearance, 455 ; in command for the convention, 457 ; marriage to Josephine, 458 ; crossed the Alps, 458 ; Egyptian exp., 460 ; regent of the consulate, 461 ; campaign in Italy, 462 ; passage of the Gt. St. Bernard, 462 ; consul for life, 464 ; hereditary emp. of the French, 465. See Napoleon I. Bonaparte, Prince Napoleon, marriage, 531. Bonaparte, Pierre, 512. Bonapartists, 527, 530, 534. Bond of association, 339. Bonder, family of, 237. Boniface, apostle of the Germans, 180, 184. Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, 216. Boniface Vlli., pope, 254. Bonifacius, Roman governor, 184. Bonner, b. of London, 336. Boon, Daniel, 425. Bordeaux, d. of, 527, 629, Borgia family, 327. Bornhoeved, battle of, 224, 235. Borodino, battle of, 475. Boroughbridge, battle of, 267. Bosnia, occupied by Austrians, 524 ; dis- turbances, 525. Bosphorus, bridge of boats over, 28 ; king' dom of the, 129. Bossuet, 371. Boston, settlement of, 296; massacre, 425; tea-party, 425 ; port-bill, 425, 440 ; siege and surrender, 427. Bosworth Field, battle of, 275, Bothwell, 338. Bothwell-Brigg, battle of, 381. Bouillon, Godfrey of, 214. Bourbaki, 514, 519. Bourbon, card, of, 322 Bourbon, constable of, defection, 302; death, 303. Bourbon, d. of, 445, 446. Bourbon family compact, 439, Bourbon, house of, contest with Catherine de' Medici, 321 ; descent, 324; in Spain, 414 ; in Naples, 416, 468 ; return to France, 481, 526 ; final expulsion, 529. Bouvines, battle of, 223, 227, 233. Bovianum, capture of, 106. Boyne, battle of the, 370, 387. Braddock's defeat, 421. Bradford, William, 295. Bradstreet, 421. Braganza, house of, in Portugal, 332, 416. Brahma, religion of, 23. Brahmans, caste of, 23. Brandenburg, conquered by Albert the Bear, 218 ; falls to Ludwig the Bavarian, 247 ; an electorate, 248 ; falls to Charles IV. , 249 ; given to Frederic of Nuremberg (HohenzoUem), 252 ; this not a sale, 253 n. ; joins peace of Prague, 314 ; indem- nifications in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; great elector, 368 ; elector becomes king of Prussia. 372 ; East Prussia, secured to^ 377. Brandt, 409. 608 Index. Brandywine, baitle of, 429. Brasidas, 66. Bra valla, battle of, 207. Brazil, discovered, 284 ; independent, 488. Breda, compromise, 330 ; declaration of, 378 ; treaty of, 358, 364, 379. Bremen, free city, 222 ; in league of Rhine cities, 249 ; not ceded to Sweden, 316 ; remains free in 18u3, 464. Bremen, bishopric, ceded to Sweden as a duchy, 316 ; Danes capture and sell to Hanover, 396. Brennus, British prince (?) 37; at Rome, 100. Brentford, affair of, 347. Breogan, 39. Breslau, battle of, 404 ; peace of, 401 ; fall of, 469. Bretigny, peace of, 258, 268. Bretwalda, 178. Brienne, de, 447. Bright, John, 542 ; resignation, 546. Brissot, Girondist, 451, 452, 454. Bristol, captured, 267 ; by Rupert, 347 ; sur- rendered, 349. Britain, geography, religion, mythical his- tory, 36 ; probable history to the year 411, 37; Irish invasion, 39; expedition of Caesar, 139 ; conquest begun, 150 ; de- scription, 163, 164 ; Roman Britain, 176 ; Teutonic conquest, 176. See England. Britannicus, 150. Brithnoth, death of, 205. British Museum founded, 439. Brittany (Bretagne), independent, 182, 201 ; under Henry II. of England, 231 ; con- tested succession, 257 ; final union with Trench crown, S20 ; annexed to France, 333. " Broad Bottom Ministry," 438. Broglie ministry, 527, 529, 533. Bromsebro, peace of, 315, 352. Brook, Lord, grant in Conn., 296. Brougham, lord chancellor, 539. Brown, John, hanged, 556. Bruce, claimant for Scottish crown, 264. Bruce, Robert, coronation, 269; wins Ban- nockburn. 267 ; death, 268. Bruhl, c, 403. Brunanburh, battle of, 205. Brundisium, siege of, 141. Brunhilde, 181. Brunswick, 222, 316, 490. Brunswick, d. of, manifesto, 452 ; com- mands Prussians, 469 ; expedition, 472. Brunswick-Liineburg, duchy of, 224. Brute, 37. Brutus, Decimus, 144, 145. Brutus, L. Junius, 89 ; consul, 93 ; puts his son to death in 509 (accidentally omitted from the first paragraph in page 95). Brutus, M. Junius, 133 ; murder of Caesar, 144 ; death, 145. Brythonic Celts, 37. Buccaneers, 417. Buchanan, James, U. S. sec. of state, 554 ; pres., 556. Bucharest, peace of, 473. Buckingham, d. of: (1) favorite of Richard III., 275 ; (2) d. in the reign of Henry VIII., 334 ; (3) Villiers, favorite of James I., 341 ; assassination, 343 ; (4) favorite ol Charles II., 380. Buddha, 23. Buddhism, its origin, 23 ; introduced into China, 31 ; into Japan, 33, Buena Vista, surrender of, 554. Bulgaria, revolt in, 521 ; principality of, 523, 524. Bull of Alexander VI., dividing the world, 282 ; ausculta fill, 254 ; clericis laicos, 254, 266. Bull, golden, of the H.R. E., 248 ; of Hun- gary, 277. Bull Run, battles of, 557. Bunker's Hill, battle of, 427. Bunyan, John, 389. Bunzelwitz, 405. Burford, battle of, 180. Burghley, baron, 388. Burgoyne, gen., 428 ; surrender of, 429. Burgundians, on the Oder, 164 ; around Worms, 170, 171 ; on the Rhone and Saone, 172 ; subjugated, 181. Burgundy (see Burgundians), part of Frankish kingdom, in the second divis- ion, 181 ; in the third, 182 ; given to Lothar in the treaty of Verdun, 187; after his death, assigned to the wesfc Franks, 193 ; divided into transjurane under Rudolf, 209 ; and cisjurane under Boso, 193, 201 ; these two united into the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries, 198*, which Rudolf III. bequeathed to Henry II., 198 ; and which was united with the empire, 198 ; the duchy of Burgundy re- mained with France, was seized by John II., and given to Philip the Bold, 258 ; growth of its power, strife with kings of France, 259 ; Burgundy and Orle^ans, 259 ; in the Hundred Years' War, 260 ; death of Charles the Bold, the duchy united with France, 262 ; the other Burgundian lands fell to Maximilian of Germany, 253, 301 the duchy claimed by Charles V., 302 these claims renounced by Charles, 305 new kingdom of Burgundy proposed by Joseph II., 408. Burke, Edmund, 441. Burkersdorf, battle of, 406. Burleigh, baron, sec. of state, 338. Burlingame, Anson, 562. Burma, 22, 80 ; invasion of, 444 ; 1st Bur- mese war, 641 ; 2d, 546 ; annexed to In- dia, 546. Burnet, b. of Salisbury, 386. Burnet, William, gov. of New York, 417 ; of Mass., 418. Burnside, gen., 557. Burr, Aaron, vice-pres. of U. S., 549; duel with Hamilton, 549 ; trial, 550. Burs-Nimrud, ruins of, 12 n. 2. Bute, lord, 439. Butler, Irish gen., 313. Button's Bay, discovery of, 299. Buzzard's Bay, discovery of, 290. " Bye " or " Surprising " treason, 340. Bylot, voyage of, 299. BvDg, admiral, 434. Byron, lord, 488. Byzantium, captured, 61, 68 ; Importance t« Athens, 72 ; name changed to Constanti- nople, 159 ; capital of eastern empire, 161« Index. 609 " Cabal " ministry, 380. Cabochians oTerthrown, 259. Cabot, John and Sebastian, discover North America, 283, 333 ; Sebastian, Toyage of, 283 ; alleged Tovage, 285 ; voyage to South Amarica, 286. Cabral, discovers Brazil, 284, 353. Cade, Jack, rebellion of, 271. Cadiz, expedition of Wimbledon, 342 ; siege of, 473 ; capture, 627. See also Gades. Cadmus, 18, 45. Cadoudal, executed, 465. Caedmon, 180. Caesar, C. Julius, leader of the democrats, 136 ; consul, 137 ; triumvir, 137 ; re- ceives Gallia Cisalpina and Narbonen- 6is, 138; conquest of Gaul, visits to Britain, 139; war with Pompeius, 140; Pharsalus, 141 ; in Egypt, 142 ; veni, vidi, vici, 142 ; African war, 142 ; war with sons of Pompeius, 143 ; C. impera- tor, 143 ; reform of the calendar, 143 ; assassination, 144. Ca&sar, G. and L., adopted by Augustus, 148. Caffir war, 543. Cairo captured by the French, 460. Cajetanus. See Vio. Calais, captured by Edward III. of Eng- land, 257 ; only English possession in France, 272; lost, 321, 338. Calatrava, order of, 240, 328. Calcutta, 22, 390. Calendar, reformed by Caesar, 144; by Gregory XIII., 827 ; republican c. in France, 455. Calhoun, John C, U. S. sec. of war, 551 : vice-pres., 552. California, discovered by Cortez, 285, 287 ; by Drake, 289; gold discovered in, 555; 31st State of the Union, 555. Caligula, 150. Caliphate, early history, 182, 183 ; Ilaroun- al-Rashid, 186 ; division into c. of Bag- dad, 183; under Abbasides, 210; de- stroyed, 241 ; and the c of Cordova, founded and broken up, 209. Calixtinians, 252. Calixtus II., Pope, 201. Calmar, union of, 237, 238, 276, 361 Calonne, 197, 447. Calonnes, 449. Calpurnius, C, 118. Calvin, 304. Calvinists, not included in convention of Pai!sau, 305 ; nor in peace of Augsburg, 306 ; included iu peace of Westphalia, 317. Camaret, of Rouen, 284. Camargo, Alonzo de, 287. Cambray, league of, 300, 318, 326 ; peace of, 303. Cambyses, k. of Persia, defeats Psamethik, 7 ; attempted conquest of Carthage, 19 ; conquest of Egypt, slaughter of Apis(?), 27. Camden, battle of, 430. Camillus, M. Furius, 100, 103. Campania, 81, 83, 104. Campbell, lord chan., 544. Campeggio, 302. Camperdown, battle of, 536. Campo Formio, peace of, 468, 459J 463, 46S, Canaan, 7, 8, 16. Canada. See New France, French in, 299", French claims to, 363 ; wars with Iro- quois, 364, 365 ; with British colonies, see King William's war. Queen Anne's war, George's war, old French and Indian war ; in the peace of Ryswick, 362, 371, 888; in the peace of Utrecht, 363, 393, 435 ; in the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 404, 419, 438 ; Seven Years' War, 420 ; peace of Paris, 422, 439 ; ceded to Great Britain receives representative gov., 535 ; divided into upper and lower C, 542 ; dominion of C, 545. Canaris, 488. Canary Islands, discovery of, 279. Candaules, k. of Lydia, 21. Candia. See Crete. Cannae, battle of, 115. Cannibals, 283. Canning, e., gov. gen. in India, 546. Canning, George, home sec, 537 j foreign sec, 539. Canossa, castle of, 200. Canrobert, 500, 502, 514. Cantabri, 148. Canterbury, 38 ; captured by Danes, 203 ; archb. of, see Dunstan, Anselm, Becket, etc. Canton, 81, 561. Canusium (Marcellus defeated at, in 209 B.C., accidentally omitted on p. 117). Canute. See Kuut. Cape Ann, settlement of Puritans at, 295 ; Augustine, discovery of, 284; Cod, dis- covered by Northmen (?), 281 ; by Gos- nold, 290 ; surveyed, 294 ; Florida, 285 ; Good Hope, rounded, 280 ; seized by England, 535, see CafiSi war, Zulu war ; Mendocino, discovered, 288 ; Peregrine, 300 ; Vela, 283 ; Verde, discovery of, 276. Capet, Hugo, 272. Capetian dynasty, 202, 206, 257. Capitolinus, M.Manlius, 100. Capitularii, 186. Capo d'Istria, 489. Cappadocia, conquered by Cyrus, 26 ; occu- pied by Tigranes, 134 ; subject to Rome, 156 ; Roman pro v., 149. Capua, battle of, 105 ; secession of, 115 ; surrender, 116. Caracalla, Roman emp., Parthian esp.,20; reign, 165. Caractacus, 37. Caraffa. See Paul IV. Carbury Hill, battle of, 338. Carchemish, battle of, 6, 11, 16. Carew, sir Thomas, 336. Caria, 20 ; subdued by Alyattes, 21 ; by Harpagus, 26. Caribs, 282. Carinthia, made a duchy, 196; surrendered by Bohemia, 244. Cariuus, 158. Carisbrooke castle, 350. Carlos, don, son of Philip II., revolt and arrest, 330 ; leader of the absolutist* iu Spain, 490 ; Carlists, 520, 521. Carlowitz, peace of, 372, 374, 375, 416. Carlsbad, congress of ministers at, 487. Carlstadt. See Bodeusteiu. 610 Index, Camatic, 443. Carnot, 454, 457, 459. Carolana, 288; granted to Heath, 293; claimed by Coxe, 365. Carolina, Carolana regranted under this name, 293 ; granted to Clarendon, 358 fundamental constitution adopted, 358 inyaded by French and Spanish, 363 Indian war, 417 ; proprietary gov. over- thrown, 417 ; divided into North and South C. (q. v.), 417 ; boundary rectified, 425. Carolina, fort, 288. Caroline, q. of England, 539 Carolingians, Austrasian mayors of the pal- ace, 182 ; kings of the Franks, 184 ; in Italy and Germany, 193 ; in France, 201. Carpi, battle of, 392. Carrhge, battle of, 140. Carteret, Sir George, 358. Carthage, founded, 18 ; Meltzer\«! view con- cerning, 18, n. 1; constitution, 19 ; oppo- sition to Grecian colonization, 19 ; threat- ened by Cambyses, 19, 27 ; wars with Sicilian Greeks, 20 ; defeat at Himera, 20 ; treaty of commerce with Rome, 103 ; allied with Rome, 108 ; war with Rome. See Punic wars ; destroyed, 12 ; occu- pied by Vandals, 172. See Phoenicia. Carthage, New, taken by Scipio, 117. Carthagena, 285 ; sack of, 290 ; sacked by Drake, 339 ; attacked by Vernon, 419, 438. Cartier, Jacques, voyages to America, 287. Cams, Roman emp., 157 Carver, John, gov. of Plymouth, 294. Casco, destruction of, 361- Casimir the Great, k. of Poland, 277. Casimir, John, 373, 374. Cassander, 76. Cassiterides, visited by Phcenicians, 17 n. Cassius, 144, 145. Cassius, Sp. 97. Cassivelaunus, 37, 139, Castelfidardo, battle of, 503. Castes, in Egypt, 3 ; in India, 23. Castile, county, afterwards kingdom of, 209 ; final union with Leon, 240 ; kings of, 276 ; united with Aragon, 328 ; supports Philip of Anjou, 392. Castillon, battle of, 272. Castlereagh, at Vienna, 482; foreign sec, 537 ; suicide, 539. Catalaunian fields, battle of the, 173. Catalonia, 240 ; royal house extinct, 276 ; invaded 392. Cateau-Cambr^sis, treaty of, 321, 327, 338. Catesby, Robert, 340. Cathari, 227. Cathay, 30. Catherine de' Medici, 321, 324. Catherine, emp. of Russia, I., reign, 410 ; II., in seven years' war, 406 : reign, 411 ; war with the Turks, 412, 413. Catholic league, 308. Catholic relief act, 539. Catiline, conspiracy of, 136. Catinat, 370, 392. Cato, M. Porcius, tke elder, in Spain, 118 ; accuses Scipio, 120 ; " Carthaginem esse delendam," 121 ; the younger, absent from Rome, 138; returned, 139; at Dyrra- chium, 141 ; suicide, 142. Cato street conspiracy, 538. Cattle plague, 544. Catullus, C. Valerius, 148. Caudine Pass, 105. Caulaincourt, 477, 480. Causa fidei, reformaiionis, unionis, 251,2&3i " Cavalier " parliament, 378, 381. Cavendish, F., sec. for Ireland, 646. Cavour, c. 503, 531. Cawnpore, massacre at, 546. Caxton, William, 275. Ceawlin, k. of Wessex, 178. Cecil. See Burghley. Cecrops, 44. Celibacy introduced, 200. Celtiberians, 35. Celts, migrations of, 35 ; Goidelic and Bry« thonic, 35 ; Celts of Gaul. See Gauls. Celts of British isles, 36. See also Brit- ain. Celts in Italy, 35, 86; join Hanni- bal, 114 ; annihilated as a nation, 138. Censor, creation of the office, 99 ; one cen- sor plebeian, 102 ; power limited, 132 ; re- stored, 133 ; given to Caesar, 143. Censorship of the press abolished in Eng- land, 388. Census of American colonies, 423 ; of In- dia, 1881, 547 ; of Ireland, 543 ; of Japan, 445 ; of New France, 365 ; Roman c, 92 ; of U. S. 1st, 547 ; 2d, 549 ; 4th, 552 ; 5th, 553 ; 6th, 554 ; 7th, 555 ; 8th, 556 ; 9th and 10th, 560; of Virginia, 292, 293. Ceorl, 177. i Cerausius, emp. of Britain, 38. 1 Cerdic, 178. } Cerealis, 152. t Ceres, 84. Cerro Gordo, battle of, 554. Ceylon, Buddhism in, 23; seized by Eng- lish, 535. Chabrias, 70, 71. Chaeronea, battle of, 73, 131. Chaireddin Barbarossa, 304. Chait Sinh, raja of Benares, 444. * Chalcedon, battle of, 134 ; fail of, 191. Chaldea, 13. , Chaleur Bay, 294. I Chalons, battle of, 173 ; 516. • | Chambers of Reunion, 368. Chambord, c. of. See Bordeaux, d. of, 529. Champigny, storm of, 518. Champlain, Samuel, voyage, 290 ; discoY- ers the lakes, 299 ; death, 300. Chancellors villa, battle at, 558. i Chandra-gupta, 23. | Chanzy, defeat of, 519. J Chapultepec captured, 554. Charge of the Light Brigade, 500. Charibert I., k. of Franks, 181, Charlemagne. See Charles I., emp. Charles of Anjou, 225, 226. Charles, archd. of Austria, 392, 458, 460, 467, 471, 472. Charles of Bavaria, 509. Charles the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 260. Charles I., k. of England, government ia Virginia, 293; in Spain, 342; marriage, 342 ; reign, 342-351 ; surrenders to Scots, 349 ; escapes, 350 ; execution, 351. Charles II., defeat and flight, 375; pro- claimed k., 378 ; marriage, 379 ; treaty of Dover, 380 } death, 883. Index, 611 eiuirles in., k. of France, 202 ; IV., the Fair, 265; V., the Wise, 258 ; VI., 259; VII., 259, 260; VIII., 262; IX., 321; "X.", cardinal of Bourbon, 324 ; X., 488; abdicates, 489, 527. Charles I., emp. of the H. R. E., the Great (Charlemagne), 184, 193 ; II., the Bald, 186, 187, 201; III., the Fat, 193, 201; IV., 248; v., ancestor of the Span- ish line of Hapsburg, 301 ; reign, 302 ; Charles and Luther, 302 ; wars with Francis I., 302, 303, 304 ; with Henry II., 306 ; Schmalkaldic war, 805 ; abdica- tion, 306. See Charles I., of Spain ; VI., claims to Spanish succession, 390 ; reign, 337 ; pragmatic sanction, 398 ; death, 400 ; VII., election, 401 ; exile, death, 402. Charles, card, of Lorraine, 319. Charles, d. of Lorraine, last Carolingian heir to French crown, 202. Charles of Lorraine, Austrian gen., 372, 404. Charles, k. of Navarre, the Bad, 258. Charles, k. of Spain, I., possessions in the Netherlands, 329 ; reign, 330. See, also, Charles, emp. of H.R. E., V. ; II., 390 ; III., 414; IV., abdicates, 470. Charles, k. of Sweden, IX., 352; X., 373; XI., 373; Xn., 394; wars with Peter the Great, 394 ; Varna, 395 ; in Turkey, death, 396; XIII., 472. Charles Albert, e. of Bavaria, claimant for Austrian inheritance, 400. Charles Albert, k. of Sardinia, 494. Charles Edward, young pretender, 438. Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweibriicken, k. of Sweden, 352. Charles Martel, 183, 184. Charles Theodore, 406 ; elector palatine, claimant for the Spanish succession, 406. Charleston, Carolina, foundation of, 358, 359 ; capture by Clinton, 430 ; evacua- tion, 431 i in the civil war, 537 ; evacua- tion, 559. Charter Oak, 361. Chartists, 542. Chase, Salmon P., U. S. sec. of thetreaB.,556. Cha&tenoy, peace of, 322. Chateaubriand, 627. Chatham, e. of, as Wm. Pitt in Broad Bot- tom ministry, 438 ; sec. of state, 439 ; sketch of life, 439 ; prime minister, 424. Chatillon, congress at, 480. Chattanooga, battle of, 558. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 270. Chaumont, alliance of, 480. Chedorlaomer, k. of Babylon, 13. Cheops. See Khufu. Chephren. See Khafra. Cherasco, treaty of, 311, 325. Cherry Valley, massacre of, 430. Cherusci, 1G8. Chester, battle of, 179. Clievy Chase, battle of, 269. Che-wang-te, emp. of China, built the Chinese wall ; destroyed books, 32. Chiari, battle of, 392. Chiersi, dietof, 201. Childebert I., k. of the Franks, 181. Childeric III., k. of the Franks, 184. Chili, invaded by Almagro, 287 ; indepen- dent, 488. Chilperic I,» k. of the Franks, 181. China, geography, 30 ; religion, 31 ; chro- nology, 31 ; origin of Chinese, 31 ; early dynasties, 33 ; brilliant epoch, 32 ; the three kingdoms, 32 ; Buddhism in, 23 ; brilliant period, 211 ; conquered by Mon- gols, 242 ; in the 15th cent., 278 ; Tatar conquest, 354 ; war with Russia, 390 ; French and English exp. against, 601 ; opium war, 542, 561 ; treaties with Franca and U. S., 561; war with Great Britain and France, 561 ; famine, 562 ; treaty with Russia, 562. Chinese emigration to U. S. suspended, 560. Chios, battle of, 412 ; 416 ; revolt, 488. Chippewa, battle of, 551. Chlodwig, k. of the Franks, 173. Chlopicki, 490. Chlotar I., k. of Franks, 181. Choiseul, d. de., 446. Chosroes, k. of Parthia, war with Trajan, 30 ; k. of Armenia, 153 ; deposed, 189. Chosroes, k. of Persia, I., (Anushirwan), reign, 190, 191 ; II., Eberwiz, 191. Chotusitz, battle of, 401. Chow dynasty in China. 32 ; later Chow, 211. Chowaresmians, empire of the, 240. Chremonides, 79. Christ, birth of , 11, 149. Christian of Anhalt, 309; of Brunswick, defeatedby Tilly, 310. Christian, k. of Denmark, I., of Olden- burg, 351 ; II., union of Calmar broken, 351,352; IH., 352; IV., head of lower Saxon circle, in thirty years' war, 310; war with Sweden, 814, 852; VI., VII., 409; VIII., annexes Schleswig-Holstein, 409 ; IX., accepts the constitution, 505, 506. Christiania founded, 209. Christianity, first persecution, 151 ; under Decius, 156 ; under Diocletian, 15o ; made state religion by Constantine, 159 ; aban- doned by Julian, 160; reinstated by Jovi- anus, 160 ; adoption of pagan customs, 165 ; conversion of Goths, 170 ; of the Franks, 173 ; of Langobards, 175 ; begin- ning of the papacy, 175 ; conversion of Britons, 38 ; of the Anglo-Saxons, 179 ; of the Germans, 184 ; Christians persecuted in Persia, 189 ; tolerated in Persia, 190 ; conversion of the North, 207, 208, 209 ; tolerated in China, 211 ; conversion of Po- land, Prussia, Hungary, 277 ; preached in China, 355 ; introduced in Japan, but re- jected, 356 ; Jesuits in Canada, 364 ; per- secution in China, 444; Christians in Turkey, 522, 624 ; toleration secured in China, 562. Christina of Sweden, 352. Christopher II. , k. of Denmark, 236. Chrysanthemums, war of the, 2i43. Church, high and low, 433. Churchill. See Marlborough. Cibola, seven cities of, 287. Cicero, birthplace of, 82 ; sketch of life, 136; speeches against Catiline, 137; banished, 138 ; recalled, 139 ; proconsul, 140 ; murdered, 145. 612 Index. Cid, 209. Cilicia, Semitic, 21 ; under Persia, 26, 27, 134 ; Roman province, 136. Cimbri, invade Italy, 127, 128, 167. Cimon, 57, 61 ; rivalry with Tliemistocles, 62 ; recalled to Athens, death, 63. Cimon, peace of, 63. Cincinnati, society of the, 432. Cincinnatus, L. Quinctius, 98. Cineas, 108. Cinna, 130, 131. Cinq-Mars, marquis of, 326. Cinque Ports, 264. Circles of the H. R. E., 300. Cisalpine republic, founded, 459 ; included in Italian republic, 454. Ciudad Rodrigo, captured, 473. Civil marriage compulsory, 521. Civil rights bill, 559. Civil service act, 560. Civil war, in England (Roses), 272 ; great rebellion, 347, 350 ; in France, 321, 322 ; in Portugal, 488 ; in Rome, 130, 140 ; in Spain, 490, 520 ; in Switzerland, 492 ; in United States, Shays 's rebellion, 433 ; whiskey, 548 ; great rebellion, 557. Civilis, CI., 168. Clarence, d. of, 274. Clarendon, e. of, first interview with the king, 346 ; receives grant of South Caro- lina, 358 ; chancellor, 378 ; fall, 379. Clark, John, settles Rhode Island, 297. Claudia, 148, 319. Claudius, Roman emp., conquest of Brit- ain, 37 ; reign, 157. Claudius Pulcher, 111, Claverhouse, defeat, 381 ; victory and death, 386. Clay, Henry, U. S. sec. of state, 552. Clay's compromises, 555. Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 555. Clemens Maximus, 161. Clement II., pope, 199 ; III., 200 ; V., 254 ; goes to Avignon, 263 ; XIV., 416. Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, 55 ; III., 79. Cleon, 65, 66. Cleopatra placed over Egypt by Caesar, 142 ; meets Antonius, 145 ; fails to charm Octavian, death, 147. Clermont, council of, 214. Cleve-Jiilich, contested succession begun, 308 ; ended, 372. [Geneal. table, 307.] Clientes, 90. Cliff temples in India, 23. Clinton, Sir Henry, 429, 430. Clisthenes, reforms of, 54. Clitus, murder of, 75 Clive , lord, 442 ; sketch of life, 443 ; in India, 443, 444. Clodius, P., 135 ; tribune exiles Cicero, 128 ; ultra democrat, 139 ; death, 140. Cloten, .37. Clovis. See Chlodwig. Cnut. See Knut. Coalition ministry, 441. Cobbet, William, 538. Cobden, Richard, 542. Cochin China, 30 ; annexed to China, 278 ; invasion of, 444. Code Napoleon, 462. Codrus, k. of Athens, 48. Coercion act, 546. Coke, Sir Edward, 341, 342. Colbert, 366. Colchester, taken by Fairfax, 851. Coleman, execution, 381. Coligny, adm. de, attempts to found a Huguenot colony in America, 288 ; mur- dered, 321. Collatinus, 89, 93. College, execution of, 383. Colleges of sacred lore, 85 ; founded, 170. Colmar, 186. Cologne, diet of, 300 ; archbishop of, elec- tor, 248. Colombia, 488. Colonies, Greek, 48, 49 ; Roman and Latin, 109 ; in America : Spanish, 282, etc. ; English, 291; Dutch, Swedish, 298; French, 299, 363. Colosseum, 82, 152. Columbey-Nouilly, battle of, 516. Columbus, Bartholomew, 283 ; Christopher, voyages to America, 282, 283, 284 ; state of Japan at the time of his voyage, 278 ; Diego, 284. Comitia, centuriata, origin, 92 ; growth of power, 94, 102 ; chooses censors, 99 ; de- cline, 107 ; democratic reform of, 112 ; reformed by Sulla, 130 ; further conser- vative changes, 132 ; powers transferred to the senate, 149 : curiata, original con- stitution, 91, 92; changes in the consti- tution, 94 and n. ; constitution in the 4th cent. B. c, 102 : tributa, established, 96 ; summons Coriolanus, 97 ; made equal with centuriata, 98 ; constitution in 4th cent. B. c, 102 ; resolves made univer- sally binding, 107. Commercial panic in England, 539 ; in U. S., 556, 560. Committee of public safety, in England, 347 ; in France, 453, 455. Commodus, Roman emp., 154. Common law, 266. Commune of Paris 451, 454, 455; upris- ing, 532. Comnenes, dynasty, 240 ; house, 240. Compton, b. of London, 383, 384. Compurgation, abolition of, 232. Concilium Germanicum, 184. Concini (Mar^chal d'Ancre), 325. Concord, battle of, 426. Concordat in France, 319, 463. Cond6, 315, 366, 368, 450. Condillac, 448. Confederate States of America, 556 ; recog- nized by Great Britain, 555. Confederation of the Rhine, establishment, 468; dissolution, 479. Confession of faith, 338. Confirmatio chartarum, 266. Conflans, treaty of, 250. Confucius, 32. Congress, Continental, 426, 427 ; of United States, 547. Connecticut, colony of, 296 ; charter, 358 ; united with New Haven, 358 ; govern- ment, 361, 362; slavery partially abol- ished, 432. Conrad, emp. of the H. R. E., I. (of Fran- conia), 194 ; II. (the Salian), 198 ; III, crusade, 215 ; reign, 219 ; IV., 225. Conrad the Red, of Lotharingia, 195. Index. 613 Donradin, 225, 226. Conseil du Roi, 446. Donsistorium principis, 159. Constance, council of, 251 ; peace of, 222. Constance, of Sicily, married Henry VI., 222. Constans, Roman emp., 160. Constant, B., 527. Constantine, Roman emp., I. (the Great), 159: XL, 160. Constantinople, fall of, 260, 278 ; palace, revolution in, 521 ; conference of, 622. See Byzantium. Constantius, Roman emp., 158, 160; Per- sian war, 188. Constantius Chlorus, 158. Constituent assembly in France, 447, 449. Constitutio Antoniana, 155. Constitution of Austria, of 1849, 495 ; Feb- ruary c, 504 ; c. of 1866, 511. Constitution, French, Jirst, accepted by Louis XIV., 450; second (Republican), never executed, 454 ; third (of 1795), 457; fourth, 461; fifth, 464; of the First Empire, 465; c. of Louis XVIII., 565 ; c. of Louis Philippe, 529 ; c. of 1848, 531 ; c. of Louis Napoleon, 531 ; third re- public, 532 ; c. of 1875, 533. Constitution of Germany. See Bull, Gold- en, and diet of Regensburg. End of the H. R. E., 464; German confederation, 483; attempt to frame a new c, 493 ; new c. completed, 497 ; return to the confederation, 498 ; confederation dis- solved, 459 ; North German confedera- tion, 511 ; c. of the German empire, 520. Constitution of Hungary. See Bull, gold- en. Under Joseph II., 408 ; in 1848, 494 ; abrogated, 495; in 1861, 504; restored, 511. Constitution of Naples, 493. Constitution of Poland, old, 374 ; c. of 1791, 413; abrogated, 490. Constitution of Prussia, 497. Constitution of 1812 in Spain formed, 473 ; abrogated, 483 ; restored, 487 ; abrogated, 488. Constitution of United States signed, 433. See Amendments. Constitutions of Clarendon, 232. Consulate, French, 448, 461 ; Roman, es- tablished, 93 ; first plebeian consul, 101 ; age of eligibility, 120 ; treatment under the empire, 147- Conventicle act, 379. Convention parliament, 378, 385. Convocation, 340, 437. Convulsionnaires, 446. Cook, James, voyages of, 442. Coote, Sir Eyre, 444. Copenhagen, capture of, 249; Ist bom- bardment, 470 ; battle of, 536 ; 2d bom- bardment, 537 ; peace of, 373. Corcyra, 64, 66. Corday, Charlotte, 454. Cordeliers, 451. Cordova, Caliphate of, 183, 209. Cordova, Gonsalvo de 818. Corea, conquered by Chinese, 32 ; by Jap- anese, 33; treaty with Japan, 564. Corfinium, capital of Italia, 129. Corinth, origin, 48 ; national assembly at, 37 73 ; joins Achaean league, 79 ; destroyed, 80, 122, Corinthian war, 70. Coriolanus, 97. Com laws repealed, 542. Cornaro, Catherine, 262. Corneille, 371. Cornwallis, lord, in the Southern States, 430 ; surrender of, 431, 441 ; in India, 541. Coroebus, 51. Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, 287. Coronea, battle of, 63, 70. Corporation act, 379, 539. Corpus Catholicorum, 371. Corpus Evangelicorum, 371. Corpus juris civilis, 210. Correggio, 328. Corsica, Phocaeans driven from, 19, 26, 84 ; assigned to Sextus Pompeius 146 ; king- dom of, 415. Cortenuova, battle of, 224. Cortereal, Gaspar and Miguel de, 284. Cortes at Cadiz, 473. Cortez, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 285; discovers Lower California, 287. Corvinus, Matthias, k. of Hungary, 253. Cosa, Juan de la, 284. Council of ten, 262. Council of the church, first oecumenical, 159 ; last, 159, 512. Count of the Saxon Shore, 38. Courcelles, gov. of New France, 364. Court of Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, 266. Courtrai, battle of, 264. Couthon, 454, 456. Covenant. See Solemn League. Covenanters, defeat of, 379. Covilham, 353. Cowpens, battle of, 431. Coxe, 365. Cracow, 414 ; free state of, 483. Cradock, Matthew, gov. of Mass. Bay, 295. Cranmer, archb. of Canterbury, 335 ; burnt 338. Crassus, expedition against Parthia, 30, 133 ; democrat, 136, 137 ; consul, 140. Craterus, 74 ; regent of West, 76 ; in the Lamian war, 79. Craven, gov. of Carolina, 417. Crawford, W. H., U. S. sec. of the treas., 551. Cr^cy, battle of, 248, 257. Crefeld, battle of, 405. Cremona, 35 ; founded, 112 ; battle of, 151 ; diet, 224. Crescentius, 197. Crespy, peace of, 305. Crete, Phoenician settlements in, 17 ; un- der Minos, 18, 41; assigned to Brutus, 144 ; belongs to Venice, 326 ; yielded to Turks, 416. Crimean war, 499, 500, 543 ; end of, 531. Critias slain, 69. Croatia, 511. Croesus, k. of Lydia, conquers Grecian cities, intercourse with Greece, war with Persia, 21, 22; defeated, 22, 26; story of his miraculous rescue, 26. Cromwell, Oliver, sketch of life, 375 ; first speech, 343; " Ironsides," 347 ; Marston 614 Index. Moor, 348 ; lieutenant-general, 349 ; lord protector, 376 ; turns out the rump, 376 ; rejects title of king, 377 ; death, 377. Cromwell, Richard, 375, 377. Cromwell, Thomas, 335. Crown Point, 421, 428. Crozat, sieur Antoine, 365. Crusades, cause, 213; I., 214; II., III., 215; IV., v., 216; VI., VIL, 217; re- sults, 217. Ctesiphon, 153, 192. Cuba discovered, 278, 282 ; circumnavigat- ed, 284 ; conquered, 284 ; attack on, 419. Cuiloden, battle of, 438. Culpepper, lord, grant in America, 357. Cumberland, d. of, became k. of Hanover, 542. Cumberland Straits, discovery of, 289. Cunaxa, battle of, 29. Cunctator. See Fabius. Cup-bearer, 195. Curias, 91. Curio subjugated Sicily, 141. Curius Dentatus, M'., 106. Curland, incorporated with Russia, 414. Curland, d of, restored, 373. Custine, gen. 453, 454. Custozza, battle of, 494, 510. Cyaxares, overthrows Nineveh, 15, 16 ; war with Alyattes, 21, 25. Cybele, Lydian goddess, 21. Cylon, insurrection of, 51. Cymbeline, 37. Cynoscephalae, battle of, 71, 80, 119. Cynric, 178. Cyprus, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; Phoeni- cian colonies in, 17, 41 ; given to Guy of Lusignan, by Richard of England, 215 ; given by Catherine Cornaro to Venice, 262; surrendered to the Turks, 326; given to England, 524 ; British take pos- session, 545. Cyrene in Africa, hostilities with Egypt, 6; founded, 19; submits to Cambyses, 27 ; conquered by Darius, 28 ; assigned to Cassius, 144. Cyrus, emp. of Persia, deposes Astyages, 62 ; defeats Croesus, 21, 26 ; takes Baby- lon, 16, 26 ; death, 27 ; the younger, 29. Cyzicus, battle of, 68, 134. Czartoryski, 490. Czaslau, battle of, 401. Czechs, 493. Dablon, 364. Dacia, war with Rome, 152, 153 ; made a Roman province, 152 ; given up by Au- relian, 157. Daedalus, 18. Dale, Sir Thomas, 292. Dalecarlians, revolt of the, 352. Dalhousie, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. Dalmatia, 525, 526. Dalziel, 379. Damascus, defection from Solomon, 9 ; captured by Ramannarari, 14, 136 ; sul- tanate of, 210. Damiens, 446. Damietta, captured, 217. Dan no ura, battle of, 242. Dan the Famous, k. of Norway, 207. Danaus, 44. Danby, impeachment, 381, 383, 384 ; pres. of privy council, 385. Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, 216, 262. Danegeld, instituted, 205 ; abolished, 231. Danelagh, 204 ; reconquered and lost, 205. Danes. See Denmark, Northmen. In Eng- land ; three epochs of their ravages, 203 ; treaty of Wedmore, 204 ; massacre of Danes, 805 ; political conquest of Eng- land, 206. Dangerfield, 382, 383. Danish vespers, 205. Danneborg, 235. Dannevirke, 207. Dante Alighieri, 263. Danton, member of Cordeliers, 451, 452, 453 ; of the Committee of Public Safety, 454 ; execution, 455. Danzig, annexed to Poland, 413 ; captured by Napoleon, 469. Daras, battle of, 190. Dare, Jeanne, career, 260. Dardanos, peace of, 131. Dare, Virginia, 289. Darien, discovered by Columbus, 284 ; at- tacked by Drake, 289 ; Scotch settlement at, 362. Darius, name of several k.'s of Persia, I. succeeds Bardija, recaptures Babylon, 27 ; war with Scythians, reforms, war with Ionian Greeks, with European Greeks, death, 28 ; II. Nothus, 29 ; III,, Codomannus, defeated by Alexander, death, 29, 74. Damley, murdered, 338. Datis, 57. Daun, marshal, 404, 405. Dauphin, title of the heir to the French crown, 258. Dauphin6 of Vienne, transferred to the crown of France, 258. David, k. of the Jews, 8, 9. David II. , k. of Scotland, capture of, 268. Da Vila, 285. Davis, Jefferson, U. S. sec. of war, 555 ; pres. of the Confederate States, 556. Davis, John, Arctic voyages, 289, 290. Davout, on the Rhine, 467 ; defeated at Eylau, 469 ; in Hamburg, 476, 479. Day of the sections, 457. Decazes, ministry of, 527. Deccan, in India, geographical position, 22 ; arrival of Hindus, 23 ; state of, in 1498,353; independence of, 442; passes under the control of the British, 541. Decebalus, 152, 153. Decelean Avar, 67. Decemvirs, 98. Decius, Roman emp., 156. Decius Mus P., 108.' Declaration of Independence in Belgium, 489 ; in the United States, 428. Declaration of indulgence, 380. Declaration of rights, 385. Declaration of rights and liberties, 424. Deerfield, Indian attack, 363. Defoe, Daniel, 389, 436. Deiotarus, k. of Galatia, 78, 136 ; submits to Caesar, 142. Deira, 178. Dejoces, Median chief, 25. Delaware, lord, gov. of S. Virginia, 292. Index. 615 Delhi, in India, 22; sultans of, 241, 858 ; captured by Lake, 541 ; revolt, 546. Deles, 41, 62. Delphi, adTice to Croesus, 21 ; attacked by Gauls, 35 ; oracle, 51 ; plundered by Krisa, 54 ; by Phocians, 72. Demades, peace of, 73. Demaratus, 55, 58. Demes, 52. Demetrius, the false, 362. Demetrius Poliorcetes, 77 ; in Athens, 79. Democratic party in U. S., 548. Demosthenes, the general, 66, 67. Demosthenes, the orator, opposition to Philip, 72 ; forms alliance with Thebes, 73 ; poisons himself, 79. Denain, battle of, 392. Denmark, people of, 164; early history, 207 ; war with Charles the Great, 185 ; with Otto I., 195 ; with Otto II., 197 ; in- vasion of England, 203, 204 ; conquest of England, 205, 206 ; under Waldemar the conqueror, 235 ; capitulation, 236 ; Union of Calmar, 237, 276 ; share in thirty years' war, 310 ; war with Sweden, 314 ; feuds of the counts in, 352 ; lex regia, 374 ; treaty with Sweden, 397 ; alliance with France, 470 ; receives Lauenberg, 483 ; Schleswig-Holstein, 496 ; incorpora- tion of the duchies, 505 ; war with Aus- tria and Prussia, 505. Dennewitz, battle of, 477. Denys, Jean, 284. Deorham, battle of, 178. Derby, e. of, impeachment, 270. Derby, e., 1st ministry of, 543 ; 2d, 544 ; 3d, 544. Dermod, k. of Leinster, 232. Derwentwater, execution of, 437. Desaix, 460. Desiderius, k. of Langobards, 184. Desmoulins, Camille, at the storm of the Bastile, 449 ; member of Cordeliers, 451 ; executed, 455. Despensers, 267. Dessau, bridge of , battle, 310. Dessoles-Decazes, ministry of, 527. Detmold, battle of, 185. Detroit, besieged by Pontiac,423. Dettingen, battle of, 402. Deutsch-Brod, battle of, 252. Deuxponts. Set ZweibrUcken. Devolution, war of, 366. Diadochi, wars of, 76. Diseus, 122. Diana of Poitiers, 320. Diaz, Bartholomaeus, 280. Dictatorship, established, 93 ; nature, 94 ; opened to plebeians, lOl ; disappearance, 123 ; Sulla assumes the office, 132. Diderot, 448. Didius, Julianus, Roman emp., 154. Dido, 17, 18. Diebitch, 490. Dieskau, 421. Digges, sir Dudley, 343. Dijon, battle of, 1(4, 25^ Dillon, 545. Dinwiddle, Robert, gov. of Virginia, 420. Diocletianus, Roman emp,, 158. Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. Directory, in France, 448 ; government of, 457 ; 18th Fructidor, change within the directory, 459 ; 3d Prairial, reorganized, 18th Brumaire, overthrown, 461. Disraeli. See. Beaconsfield. Dissenters, 379. Dobrudsha, invaded by French, 500 ; occu- pied by Russians, 522 ; ceded to Russia and exchanged for Bessarabia, 523, 524. Dodecarchy in Egypt, 6. Dodona, 43. Doffingen, battle of, 250. Doge of Venice, 262. Dolabella, consul, 144. Dolgoruky, family of, 410. Domitianus, Roman emp., conquest of Brit* ain, 37 ; reign, 152. Donauworth, 308. Doomsday book, 229. Dorea, Andrea, doge of Genoa, 303, 326. Dorians in Asia Minor, subjugated by Croe- sus, 21 ; Dorus, mythical ancestor, 43; migration of, 48 ; Doric communities, 48, 49 ; colonies, 49. Dorr rebellion, 554. Dorylgeum, battle of, 214. Dost Muhammad, 546. Douglas, e. of, 270. Dover, secret treaty of, 380. Draco, 51. Dragonnades, 369. Drake, Francis, voyage around the world, 289 ; New Albion, 289 ; expedition to West Indies, rescues Virginia colony, 290, 339. Dred Scott case, 556. Drepanum, sea-fight at, 111. Dresden, peace of, 402 ; battle of, 477 ; up- rising in, 497 ; conference at, 498. Drogheda, statute of, 333. Drogheda, storm of, 375. Drogo, 199. Druids, 34. Drumclog, battle of, 381. Drusus, M. Livius, 125, 126, 128. Drusus (the younger), son of Tiberiui, campaigns in Germany, 167 ; poisoned, 149. Dry den, John, 389. Dubienka, battle of, 413. Dublin, conquest of, 208, 209. Dubois, card., 445. Ducas, dynasty, 240. Duclerc, ministry, 535. Ducrot, 517, 518. Dudley, Joseph, pres. of New England 361; gov. of Mass., 363. Dufaure, ministry in France, 534. Duilius, C. 110. Dulcigno, ceded to Montenegro, 525. Dumouriez, 452, 453. Dunbar, battle of, 266, 375. Dundee. See Claverhouse, 386. Dunes, battle of the, 377. Dunkirk, siege of, 377 ; sold to Francei 379. Dunse, pacification of, 845. Dunstan, archb. of Canterbury, 205. Dupleix, gov. of Pondicherri, 443. Diippel, storming of, 506. Durazzo, house of, in Naples, 263. Dur-Sarrukin, 12, 15. Dutch in America, 298 ; in India, 354> 616 Index. Dutch war, 376. Dutch West India Company, 298. Duttlingen, battle of, 314. Duumviri eacrorum, 85. Dyaush-pitar, 22. Dyrrhachium, battle of, 141. Eadberht, 180. Eadgar, 205. Eadgar, ^theling, 206. Eadgar, k. of Scotland, 230. Eadmund Ironside, 205. Eadred, 205. Eadward (the elder), k. of England, 204 ; the confessor, 206. Eadwig, 205. Eadwin, earl of Mercia, 206 ; revolt of Eng- lish under, 229 ; k. of Northumbria, 179. Eastern empire, separated from western, 161 ; under Justinian I., 210, 216 ; under Macedonian house, 210 ; under the houses of Ducas, Comnenes, and Angelus, 240; conquest of Constantinople, 278 ; plan to restore, 413. East Goths, in Southern Ritesia, 170 ; king- dom of, in Italy, 174 ; destroyed by Nar- ses, 175. East India bill, 442. East India Company of London, origin, 354 ; charter renewed, 540 ; government of India ceases, 544 ; exclusive trade with China ceases, 561. East Indies, ocean route to, discovered, 279. (See, also, India. Eastphalia, 185. East Roumelia, province of, 524. Eberhard, d. of Franconia, 195 ; d. of Wiirtemberg, wars with Rudolf I., 244 ; der Greiner, wars with cities, 249. Eberwiz. See Ghosroes II. Ecbatana, 24, 25, 26, 28. Ecclesiastical commission, new court of, 383. Ecclesiastical titles bill, 543. Ecgberht, k. of Wessex, lord of England south of the Forth, 180, 181, 203. Eck, 301. Eckmlihl, battle of, 471. Eclipse of the sun, 21. Ecnomus, battle of, 110. Ecuador, republic of, 488. Edda, elder and younger, 165. Edessa, captured, 215. Edgehill, battle of, 347. Edict of Nantes, promulgation, 324 ; revo- cation of, 369 ; of restitution, 3l0 ; of tolerance of Joseph II., 407. Edinburgh, treaty of, 338 ; liturgy in, 344 ; general assembly, 345. Edmund, St., k. of England, 203. Edward I., k. of England, agreement with Philip IV., of Prance, 254 ; reign, 263, 264 ; reforms, 266 ; II., reign, 267 ; III., reign, 268 ; war with France, 257 ; laws in Ireland, 269 ; IV., reign, 272, 274 ; invades France, 260; V., reign, 275; VI., reign, 336. Edward the Black Prince, victorv of Poitiers, 258; aids Peter the Cruel, 276; death, 269. Egmont, at Gravelines, 321 ; sketch of life, execution, 330. Bgremont, sec. of state, 439. li'Syptj geography, religion, 2; ciyilizai< tion, chronology, 3 ; old empire, new empire, 4 ; stories of Sesostris, 5 ; not con- quered by Assyrians 961 B. c, 5 n. 2 ; con- quered by Ethiopians, 6 ; by Assyrians, 6, 14 ; revolt of Psamethik, 6 ; becomes a province of Persia, 7 ; conquered by Cambyses, 27 ; under the Ptolemies, 77 conquered by Caesar, 143 ; Roman proV' ince, 147 ; reconquered by Aurelian, 157 by Muhammedans, 182 ; sixth crusade, 217 ; revolt of Mehemed Ali, 491 ; revolt of Arabi Pasha, 546. Eider-Danes, 505. El, 13. El Dorado, 288. Elagabalus, Roman emp., 155. Elam, empire of, 13. Elba, conferred upon Napoleon, 481. Eldon, lord chan., 536. Eleanor of Poitou, married Louis VII., and afterward Henry of Anjou, 226. Eleanor, wife of Edward I. of England, death of, 264. Electoral reform bill in Italy, 526. Electors of the H. R. E., 248. Electro-magnetism discovered, 487. Elgin, lord, viceroy of India, 546 ; envoy to China, 561. Elijah, 9. Eliot, John, missionary, 357. Eliot, sir John, 341, 343. Elisha, 9. Elissa, founds Carthage, 18. Elizabeth of Bohemia, 341. Elizabeth of Valois, 324, 330. Elizabeth, q. of England, reign, 338, 339. Elizabeth, tsarina of Russia, ally of Aus- tria, 403 ; death relieves Frederic, 405 ; reign, 411. Elizabeth Islands, 290. Ellenborough, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. Ellichpur, kingdom founded, 353; con- quered by Auranzeb, 389. Elster, battle of the, 478. Ely, capture of, 229. Emadeddin Zenki, 215. Emancipation of the serfs in Russia, uOO. Emancipation proclamation, 558. Embargo policy of U. S., 550. Emir-al-Mumenin, 182 ; al Omra, 210. Emmanuel Philibert, d. of Savoy, 326. Emmanuel the Great, k. of Portugal, 332. Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, 536. Emiind Gammle, k. of Sweden, 2^. Enactment of the delegates, 4^. Encumbered estates act, 543. Endicott, John, 295, 296. Enghien, d. of. See Cond6. Enghien, d. of executed, 465. England. See Britain. Teutonic conquest, 176 ; West Saxon kings, 203 ; Danish su- premacy, 206 ; Norman conquest, 206 ; Norman kings, 229 ; house of Plantagenet, large possessions in France, 231 ; conquest of Ireland, 232 ; magna charta, 233 ; par- liament, 234; hundred years' war, 257; loses French possessions, 260 ; annexation of Wales, 264 ; reforms under Edward I. 266 ; first perfect parliament, 267 ; Scot land lost, 268 ; black death, 268 ; peace Index. 617 of Bretigny, 268 ; peasant revolt, 269 ; house of Lancaster, *270 ; wars of the Roses, 272 ; house of York, 272 ; settle- ments in America, 289, 291-298 ; house of Tudor, 333 ; secession from the Ro- man Catholic church, 335 ; house of Stuart, personal union with Scotland, 339 ; long parliament, 345 ; great rebel- lion, 347; execution, of Charles I., 351; British in India, 354 ; commonwealth, 375 ; monarchy restored, 378 ; interreg- num, 384 ; revolution, 385 ; bill of rights, 386 ; war of the Spanish succession, 388, 390 ; protestant succession secured, 3^3 ; union with Scotland, 434 ; peace of Utrecht, 435 ; house of Hanover, 436 ; war with Spain, 419, 437 ; war of the Aus- trian succession, 419, 438 ; peace of Aix- la-Chapelle, 404, 419, 438 ; adoption of new style, 438 ; seven years' war, 404, 420, 438, 445 ; peace of Paris, 422, 439 ; war with the revolted American colonies, 424, 426, 440 ; peace of Versailles, 432, 441 ; armed neutrality, 413, 441 ; British in India, 443 ; war with France, 453, 535 ; with Holland, 535 ; with Spain, 535 ; union with Ireland, 463, 536 ; Peninsula war, 471, 479 ; treaty of Vienna, 482, 537 ; Waterloo, 538 ; war with United States, 474, 551 ; commercial panic, Catholic emancipation, 539 ; reform act, 540 ; ab- olition of slavery, 540 ; India, 541 ; Vic- toria, 542 ; quaen, sovereign of India, 544 ; Irish troubles, 545 ; India, 545. EngUsh Pale, 270. Enkceping, battle of, 238. Enzio, k. of Sardinia, 225. Epaminondas, 71. Ephialtes, law of, 62. Ephialtes, the traitor, 59. Ephthialites, wars with Persia, 189, 190. Epigoni, war of the, 47. Epirus, 41 ; allied with Macedonia, 79 ; sub- dued by Flamininus, 119 ; punished, 121. Episcopacy in England, 338 ; restored in Scotland, 340 ; abolished, 344 ; attempt to introduce, 379 ; abolished 386 ; not introduced at the union, 434. Equity, 266. Eresburg, captured, 185 ; battle of, 195. Eretria, deserts the lonians, 28 ; captured, 57. Erfurt, assembly of princes at, 471. Erfurt, parliament of, 498. Erie canal, 552. Erigena. See Joannes Scotus. Erik, Ejegod, k. of Denmark, 208 ; Glip- ping, k. of Denmark, 236 ; Menved, k. of Denmark, 236. Erik, Blodoxe, k. of Norway, 208 ; Chaa- fell, k. of Norway, 208 ; Priest-hater, k. "of Norway, 238. Erik Edmundsson, k. of Sweden, 208; IX., the saint, k. of Sweden, 237; Eriksson Laispe, k. of Sweden, 237; XIV. of Sweden, 352. Erik the Red, discovery and settlement of Greenland by, 209. Erikson, Leif and Thorwald, 281. Ermanarich, k. of Kast Goths, J 70. Ermeland, bishopric of, 373. Ernestine line in Saxony , 3U5. Ernst, d. of Swabia, revolt of, 198. Ernst August, k. of Hanover, 491. Erskine, lord chan., 537. Eryx, 111. Esarhaddon, k. of Assyria, 6, 15. Espartero, 490. Essex, settled, 178. Essex, e. of, rebellion, 339. Essex, e. of, in cabinet, 381 ; suicide, 382. Essling, battle at, 472. Estaing, c. d', in America, 430. Estaples, peace of, 333. Este map, 284. Esthonia, retained by Denmark, 236; r*» nounced by Poland, 373. Estridsen, dynasty in Denmark, 207; ex- , tinct. of, 235. Etats-G^n6raux, summoned by Louis XIII. the last time before 1789, 324; sum- moned by Louis XVI., 449. Ethandun,' battle of, 204. Ethiopians, attacked by Seti I., 5 ; founda- tion of the kingdom of Napata, 5 ; con- quer Egypt, expelled by Eserhaddon, 6, 15 ; war against, 148. Etruria, kingdom of, 463. Etruscans, expel the Phocaeans from Cor- sica, 19 ; country of, 81 ; ethnography, 86; war with Rome, 95; Veil taken by Rome, 99; all southern Etruria submits to Rome, 103 ; share in second Samnite war, 105 ; in the second, 106 ; peace with Rome, 108. Euboea, 41 ; land given to Athenians, 55 ; Persian ships lost at, 59 ; second division of land, 63. Euclides, laws of, 69. Eudes, c. of Paris, 201, 202. Eugene, pr., sketch of life, 370 ; war with Turks, 372 ; head of grand alliance, 391, 392 : war with Turks, 397, 398. Eugene, viceroy, 472. Eugenie de Montijo, 531. Eugenius, Roman emp., 161. Eugenius IV., pope, 253. Eumenes, k. of Pergamus, 76, 78 ; ally of Rome, 119, 120. Eumolpus, 44. Eupatridae, 45, 51, 54. Euphrates, expedition of Seti I. to, 5 ; Babylon built on, 12 ; diverted by Cy- rus, 26 ; battle of, 135. Euripides, 64. Europa, 18. Eurybiades, 59. Eurymedon, battle of the, 62. Eutaw, battle of, 431. Everett, Edward, U. S. sec. of state, 555. Evesham, battle of, 234. Exarchate, 175 ; given to the papacy, 184. Exchequer, reestablished, 231 ; closed by Charles II., 380. Exodus of the Jews, 8. Eylau, battle of, 469. Ezekiel, 11. Fabii, 97, 100. Kabius Maximus, Q. (Cunctator), 114, 115; Rul]ianu«, Q., I(t8, 105, 106. F.ibricius, C. victory of, 107, 108. Fairfax, sir Thomas, 348, 349 ; superseded by Cromwell, 376. 618 Index. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, 262. Falk, 525. Falkirk, battle of, 266. Falkirk Moor, battle of, 438. Falkland, lord, 346, 348. Falkoeping, battle of, 237, 238. Farmer, pres., of Magdalen college, 383. Farnese, extinction of the family, 398. Fatima, 182. Fatimites, 213, 214. Faust. See Fust. Faventia, battle, 131. Favre, 512, 517. Fawkes, Guy, 840. February revolution, 492. Federalist party, 548. Fehrbellin, battle of, 368, 374. F^nelon, 371. Fenians, 545. Fenwick, condemned, 388. Feodor, tsar of Russia, 374. Ferdinand, archd. of Austria, 467. Ferdinand the Catholic, k. of Aragon, 276, 318 ; marries Isabella of Castile, 328. Ferdinand I., emp. of Austria, 491 ; abdi- cates, 495. Perdinand, d. of Brunswick. See Bruns- wick. Ferdinand emp. of H. R. E., relation to Spain, 301, 303; reign, 306; II., 308, 309; III., 314. Ferdinand VI., k. of Spain, reign, 414 ; VII. , 479, 482, 490. Ferdinand, k. of Naples, expelled by Napo- leon, 468 ; reinstated, 484. Ferdinand, k. of Two Sicilies, 416. Ferdinand Joseph, of Tuscany, 416. Ferrex, 37. Ferry, Jules, ministry of, 534. Ferry Bridge, battle of, 274, Fetiales, college of, 85. Feudal system in China, 32 ; in Europe, 166 ; in Japan, 212 ; in Norway, 208 ; in England, 229. Feuillants, 451. Fidenae, 88. Fiefs declared hereditary, 201. " Field of Lies," 186. Fieschi's infernal machine, 529. Fiesco, conspiracy of, 326. Fillmore, Millard, 555. Fimbria, 131. Financial crisis in U. S., 552, 553. Finch, sir H. , e. of Nottingham, 380. Firbolgs, in Ireland, 39. Firdusi, 25. Fire worship, 25. Fisher's Hill, battle of, 558. Fisheries, in peace of Paris, 432 ; partially settled, 560. Fitz Peter, Geoffrey, 233. Five Forks, battle of, 559. Flaccus, L. Valerius, 130. Flaccus, M. Fulvius, 125. Flambard, Ranulf, 230. Ficimines, 85. Flamininus, T. Quinctius, 119. Flaminius, 114. Flanders, independence recognized, 254 ; acquired by Burgundy, 320 ; ceded to France, 456. Flavian emperors, 141. Fleix, treaty of, 322. Fletcher, gov. of New York, 362. Fleurus, battle of, 370, 456. Fleury, card., 446. Flodden Field, battle of, 334. Florence, under the Medici, 263 ; Savon* rola, 327 ; peace of, 463 ; becomes capi« tal of Italy, 503. Florida discovered, 284 ; ceded by Spain to England in 1768, 437; restored to Spain in 1783, 441 ; sold by Spain to the United States, 552 ; admitted to the Union, 554. Foix, Gaston de, 318. Fokchany, battle at, 413. Folkunger dynasty, 237. Fontainebleau, peace at, 406 ; preliminary articles, 422 ; Napoleon at, 481. Fontanetum, battle of, 186. Fontenoy, battle of, 402, 438, 446. Formosa, island of, 31 ; conquered, 390 ; re- bellion, 444 ; Japanese expedition, 564. Forster, W. E., chief sec. for Ireland, 546. Fort Christiana, 298 ; Donelson surren- dered, 557 ; Du Quesne, 420 ; expedition against, 421 ; Edward, construction, 421 ; Erie, captured, 551 ; Fisher, surrendered, 559 ; George, captured by Montcalm, 421 ; Henry, captured by Union forces, 557 ; Moultrie, see Fort Sullivan ; Ne- cessity, 420 ; Orange, built, 298 ; St. George, built, 294 {see Madras) ; Pitt, 423 ; Sullivan, 427 : Sumter fired upon, 557 ; Washington, 428 ; William Henry, captured by Montcalm, 421. Forum Romanum, 82. Fossalta, battle of, 225. Fotheringay, treaty of, 274. Fouque, 405. Fouquier-Tinville, 455, 456. Fox, voyage of, 300. Fox, Charles James, sketch of life, 441; India bill, libel bill, 535 ; for. sec, 537. Fox, Henry. See lord Holland. France. See Franks. Capetian dynasty of French kingdom, capital at Paris, 202 : royal weakness, 203 ; loss of Poitou, Guyenne, and Gascony , 226 : administra- tion of Suger,226; Philip II., Augustus, crusades, 226 ; Bouvines, St. Louis, growth of royal domain, 227 ; quarrel with Boniface VIII., 254 ; Courtrai, 254 ; Salio law, 255 ; house of Valois, 257 ; hun- dred years' war, Cr^cy, 257 ; black death, Poitiers, 258 ; peace of Bretigny, 258 ; Agincourt, 259 ; Jeanne Dare, English expelled, 260 ; Burgundy united with crown of France, 262 ; houses of Orleans and Angoul&me, 317, 318 ; Francis I., 319; wars with Charles V., 302; house of Lorraine and Guise, 320 ; Brittany united with crown, 320 ; capture of Ca- lais, 321 ; St. Bartholomew, 321 ; wars of the Huguenots 321, 324 ; house of Bour- bon, 324; Henry IV., edict of Nantes, 824 ; last states-general, 325 ; Richelieu, 825; era of Louis XIV., 365; Mazarin, Fronde, 366; France in thirty years' war, 314 ; peace of Pyrenees, 366 ; peace of Nimwegen, 368 ; reunions, 368 ; revo- cation of edict of Nantes, 369 ; peaoa of Ryswick, 371 ; golden age of liter» Index. 619 ture, 371 •, war of Spanish succession , 390 ; partition treaties, 391 , peace of Utrecht 393 ; Fleury 's administration, 446 ; France in Austrian succession, 400 ; seyen years' war, 404, 424 ; peace of Paris, 441 ; Louis XVI., 446; France in war of American independence, 431 ; first French revolution, 448 ; storm of Bas- tile, 449 ; constituent, 449 ; legislative, 451 ; convention, 452 ; first coalition, 452; first republic, 453; directory, 457; second coalition, 460 , consulate, 457 ; third coa- lition, 467 ; first empire, 465 ; wars, 468, 471, 474, 475 ; congress of Vienna, 482 ; hundred days, 483 ; restoration of the Bourbons, Louis XVIII., 529 ; July rev- olution, 529 ; second republic, 530 ; sec- ond empire, 531 ; Crimean war, 499 ; Franco - German, 513 ; third republic, 532; excesses of the socialistic com- mune, 532 ; fall of MacMahon, 534 ; Tonquin, 535. Franche-Comt6, 367, 368. Francis, d. of Alen^on, 322. Francis, d. of Guise, 319, 321. Francis I., emp. of Austria, 468. Francis I., k. of France, reign, 319 ; II., 091 QQg Francis I., emp. of H. R. E., 402 ; II., 452 ; abdicated the crown of the H. R. E., 468. See Francis I., emp. of Austria. Francis II., k. of Two Sicilies, 503. Francis Joseph I., emp. of Austria, 495, 602, 505, 509 ; k. of Hungary, 511. Francis, Philip, 444. Francis Stephen, d. of Lorraine, 398. See Francis I., emp, of H. R. E. Franco-German war, 513, 532. Franconia, duchy of, 181, 194, 313. Franconian or Salian emperors, 198. Frankfort, imperial chamber at, 300 ; grand duchy of, 468, 478 ; uprising, 490 ; pre- liminary parliament, 492 ; parliament re- opened, 498 ; incorporated with Prussia, 510 ; peace of, 520. Frankland, organization of, 432. Franklin, Benjamin, 420; minister to France, 430 ; death, 547. Frank-pledge, 232. Franks, Ripuarian and Salian, 170, 171 ; Chlodwig, ruler of, 173 ; under the Mero- wingians, 181 ; under tke Carolingians, 183; Charles the Great, 184; treaty of Verdun, 187 ; later Carolingians, 201 ; Northmen in France, 209 ; extinction of Carolingians, 209. See France. Fratres arvales, 85. Fredegunde, 181. Frederic, burgr. of Nuremberg, 251. Frederic I., k, of Denmark and Norway, 352 ; IV., 394, 409 ; V., 409 ; VII., 505. Frederic I., Barbarossa, emp. of H. R. E., crusade, 215 ; reign, 219; expeditions to Italy, 219, 221, 222, 235; II., 223, 224; cession to the Danes, 235 ; charter to Schwyz, 245 ; III. (of Austria), 247 ; III. (IV.), reign of, 253. Frederic of Hohenstaufen, 200. Frederic of HohenzoUern, 244. Frederic the Warlike, d. of Austria, 224. Frederi« the Warlike, marg. of Meissen, 251. Frederic the Warlike, d. of Saxony, 252. Frederic V., elector palatine, elected to throne of Bohemia, 309. Frederic I., k. of Prussia, 372; II., the Great, reign, 400 ; first Silesian war, 400 ■, second, 402 ; seven years' war, 403 ; waJ" of Bavarian succession, 406 ; league of princes, death, 408. Frederic VIII., d. of Schleswig-Holstein. 505. Frederic, d. of Swabia, 218, 219. Frederic of Hesse-Cassel, k. of Sweden, 396, 409. Frederic Charles, pr. of Prussia, 505, 506, 508, 509, 514, 518. Frederic William, el. of Brandenburg (the great elector), accession, 314 ; peace of Vossem, 367 ; Fehrbellin, 368 ; Polish affairs, 373 ; Silesian duchies, 401. Frederic William I., k. of Prussia, 397 ; death, 398; II., 451; III., 459; con- quered by Napoleon, 469 ; appeal to the people, 475, 476 ; war of liberation, 477 ; in London, 482; IV., 491; declines the German crown, 497 ; death, 503. Frederic William, crown pr. of Prussia, war with Austria, 508 ; with France, 514. Fredericia, siege of, 496. Fredericksburg, battle of, 557. Free soil party, 555. Freedmen's bureau, 559. Freiburg, battle of, 406 ; treaty of (la paix perpetuelle), 319. French revolution, 448. See, also, France, and Table of Contents, p. vi. French settlements in America, 363. Frey Yngve, k. of Sweden, 208. Freycinet, ministry of, 534, 535. Fribourg. See Freiburg. Fridigern, k. of West Goths, 171. Friedewald, treaty of, 305. Friedland, battle of, 469. Friedrichsburg, peace of, 396. Friedrichshall, siege, 396. Friedrichsham, peace of, 473. Friedrichstadt, storm of, 497. Frobisher, Martin, voyages, 289. Frode the Peaceful, k. of Denmark, 207. Fronde, old and new, 366. Frontenac, gov. of Canada, 362, 364. Frontieres naturelles, 513. Fuca, Juan de la, 290. Fugitive slave act of 1793, 548 ; revived in 1850, 555. Fujiwara, family of, 212, 213, 243. Fulco of Anjou, k. of Jerusalem, 214. Fulton, Robert, 486, 550. Fulvius, M., 126. Fulvius Flaccus, Q., 118. Furrukabad, 541. Fiirstenwalde, treaty of, 249. Fushimi, battle of, 563. Fiissen, separate peace of, 402. Fust, Johann, 253. Gabelle, 258. Gades, Phoenician colony, 17 ; capture by Scipio, 117, 141. Gadsden purchase, 555. Gaekwars, 443. Gaels, 38, 176. , 620 Index, Gaeta. siege of, 503. Gag resolutions, 553. Gage, general, gov. of Massachusetts, 425. Gaillard, Chateau, erection, 226, 232; fall, 227. Galatia, 35, 37, 78. Galba, Sulpicius, Roman emp., 151. Galerius, 158, 159. Galilaea, 7, U. Galileo Galilei, 327. Gallas, 313, 315. Gallatin, Albert, U. S. sec. of treas., 649. Gallia Cisalpina, 81, 144. Gallia Narbonensis, 36; Koman province, 125. Gallienus, 156, 157. Gallus, Roman emp. , 156. Gama, Vasco da, 279, 353. Gambetta, in opposition, 512 ; member of national defense, 517, 518, 519 ; speaker, 534 ; ministry, 534 ; death, 535. Garay, gov. of Jamaica, 285. Gardiner, lord chan., 336. Garfield, James A., pres. TJ. S., 560. Garibaldi, invades Lombardy, Sicily, 502 ; death, sketch of life, 526. Garigliano, battle, 318. Garrison, William Lloyd, 553. Gasca, Pedro de, pres. of Peru, 288. Gascony (Gascogne), 182 ; gained and lost with Eleanor, 226, 231 ; ceded to Eng- land, 258 ; lost by England, 260. Gaspee, destroyed, 425. Gaspereaux, 421. Gast, Pierre du, 290. Gastein, treaty of, 506. Gates, general, succeeds Schuyler; Bur- goyne surrenders to, 429 ; defeated by Oomwallis, 430. Gaugamela, battle of, 29, 74. Gauls, geography, religion, 34 ; civiliza- tion, chronology, emigrations, 35 ; con- quest of Gaul by Caesar, ending 51 b. c, 36, 138 ; in Asia Minor, 78 ; invade La- tium, 100 ; wars with Rome, 103 ; Cisal- pine Gaul subjugated, 118 ; Cispadane and Transpadane Gauls Latinized, 118. Gaurus, battle of, l04. Gauta, 237. Gaveston, Piers, 267. Geert, c. of Holstein, 236. Gelimer, 174. Gellius Egnatius, 106. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. Genealogies. Angouleme, 318. Anjou, 261. Augustus, family of, 148. Bonaparte family, 466. Bourbon, Louis IX., to Henry III., 323 ; Henry IV. to " Henry V.," 528. Brittany, descent of, 320. Brunswick, 436. Buckingham, 275. Burgundy, 261,329. Cleves-JUlich, 307. County Palatine, 369. Denmark, 239. England, sovereigns from Ecgbehrt to Henry III., 228 ; succession in 1553- 1603, 337: descendants of Geo. III., • 538. Flanders, counts of, 228. France, succession in 1328, 256. France, succession from Louis VIII. to Charles VIII., 261. Guise, 320 Hanover or Brunswick, 436. Hapsburg, 301. Hapsburg, German branch, 309. Hohenstaufen, 220. Hohenzollern, since the assumption of the royal title, 515. Lancaster and York, 273. Lorraine, 320. Naples, kings of, 261. Normandy, dukee of, 228. Norway, sovereigns of, 239. Orleans, 318. Portugal, illegitimate house of Burgun« dy, 332. Russia, descendants of Alexis, 410. Scottish succession, 265. Spanish succession, 390. Sweden, sovereigns of, 239. Valois, 257. Welfs, 220. General fundamentals, 297. General warrants, 440. Geneva annexed to France, 460 ; restored to Switzerland, 483; treaty of, 319. Gengis Khan. See Jenghiz Khan. Genji. See Minamoto. Genoa, war with Venice, 262 ; government, 263, 326 ; republic of, 415 ; transformed into Ligurian republic, 459; given to Sardinia, 483. Genseric conquered Carthage, 172. Geoffrey of Anjou, 230 ; of Monmouth, 235. George I. k. of England, 436; death of, 437; IL, 403, 437; III., 439; insanity, 537 ; death, 538 ; IV., 538, 539. George, k. of Greece, 505. George Podiebrad, k. of Bohemia, 253. George William, el. of Brandenburg, 311. Georgia, in America, settlement of, 418, 420 ; Spanish attack upon, 419 ; pro- vincial gov. restored, 430 ; Sherman's march through, 558. Georgia, in Europe. See Iberia. Gepidae, 175. Gerbert, archb, of Rheims, 202. See Syl- vester II. Gergovia, siege of, 139. Germania magna, 163, 167. Germanicus, expeditions, 149, 167. Germantown, battle of, 429. Germany, geography, 162 ; high and low Germans, 163 ; ancient religion, 164 ; civ- ilization, 166 ; early history, 167 ; futile attempt of Rome to subdue, 148 ; habita- tions of the tribes in 4th cent., a. d. 170 ; migrations and settlements, 170-175; Prankish empire under Merowingians, 181 ; under Carolingians, 183 ; Charles the Great, 184 ; renewal of the Roman em- pire, 185 ; treaty of Verdun, separation of French and German nationalities, 187 ; Carolingians in Germany, 193 ; Saxon house, 194; Holy Roman empire, 196; Prankish, or Swabian emperors, 198 ; in- vestiture strife, 199 ; concordat of Worms, 201 ; house of Hohenstaufen, 219 ; Bas Index. 621 barossa, 219 ; Welf and Waiblingen (Ho- lienstaufen), 223 ; interreguum, 225 ; Ru- dolf of Hapsburg, 244 ; Ludwig and Frederic, 247 ; Luxemburg emperors, golden bull, 248 ; city leagues, 249 ; council of Constance, 251 ; house of Hapsburg, 253 ; Max, 300 ; reformation, 301; Charles V., 302; peace of Augs- burg, 306 ; anti-reformation, 306 ; thirty years' war, 308 ; peace of Westphalia, 315 ; Leopold I., 371 ; war of the Span- ish succession, 390 ; pragmatic sanction, 398 ; Polish succession, 398 ; male line of Hapsburg extinct, 400 ; war of Austrian succession, Maria Theresa, and Frederic the Great of Prussia, 400 ; seven years' war, 403 ; Joseph II., 407 ; war with first French republic, 453; peace of Lune- ville, 462 ; enactment of imperial dele- gates, 464 ; end of the Holy Roman em- pire, 468. Confederation of the Rhine, 468 ; war of liberation, 475 ; congress of Vienna, 482 ; establishment of the German confederation, 483 ; reactionary measures in Germany, 487, 490 ; founda- tion of the ZoUverein, 491 ; Gottingen professors expelled, 491 ; revolutionary movements, 492 ; national assembly, 493 ; constitution completed, 497 ; conference at Olmiitz, 498 ; confederation renewed, 498 ; German (Austro-Prussian) war, 5o7 ; North German confederation, 510, 511 ; Franco-German war, 513 ; capture of Paris, 519 ; German empire founded, 519, 520; Kulturkampf, 621, 525; congress of Berlin, 524 ; tobacco monopoly de- feated, 526. Gero, mergr., 194, 195. Gerontes, 50. Gerson, 251. Gertruydenburg, 393. Gessler, 246 Geta, 155. Gettysburg, battle of, 558. Ghazni, supremacy of the sultans of, 211. Ghent, pacification of, 331 ; peace of, 474, 537, 551. Ghibellines, 219. Gibraltar, whence named, 183 n. ; taken bv English, 392, 434 ; ceded to England, 437"; defended by ElUott, 440. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 289. Gilbert, Raleigh, 293. Ginkell, 387. Girondists, party, 451 ; execution of, 455. Giselbert, 195. Glabrio, M. Acilius, 119, 135. Gladiators, war of the, 133. Gladstone, W. E., 542; chancellor of the exchequer, 543, 544 ; Ist administration, 545 ; 2d administration, 546. Glasgow, general assembly at, 344. Glaucia, C. Servilius, prastor, 128. Glencoe, massacre of, 387. Glendower, Owen, revolt of, 270. Gloucester, d. of, protector, 271. Gloucester, d. of , 274 ; becomes king Rich- ard III., 275. Gneisenau, defeats Kolberg, 469 ; reforms the army, 471 ; at Waterloo, 484. Gnesen, archbishopric, 197- Qoa, 353. Goben, gen. von, 519. Go-Daigo, 243. Goderich, lord, premier, 539. Godfrey of Bouillon, 213, 214. Godfrey, k. of Denmark, 207. Godfrey the Bearded, d. of Lotharingia, 199. Godfrey, Sir Edmondbury, 381. Godolphin, e. of, in council, 382; cham« berlain, 383 ; lord high treas.,433; dis- missed, 435. Godoy, 470. Godwine, e. of Wessex, 206. GofEe, 359, 360. Goidelic Celts, 37. Golconda kingdom, 363 ; annexed to Mu- ghal empire, 389 ; Nizam of, 443. Golden bull, of H. R. E., 248 ; of Hungary, 277. Golden rule enunciated bv Confucius, 31. Gollheim, battle of, 245, 246. Gomez, Estevan, voyage of, 286. " Good " parliament, 269, Gordianus 1., II., III., Roman emp., 155; Persian exp., 188. Gordias, kings of Phrygia, 22. Gordon assist? Peter the Great, 374. Gordon, col. (" Chinese"), suppresses Tai- ping rebellion, 562. Gordon, lord George, 440. Gorges, sir Fernando, 295-297. Gorgey, 495. Gorkhas, conquest by Chinese, 444. Gorm the Old, k. of Denmark, 207. GortschakofE, in Sebastopol, 600 ; retires, 526. Gorz, baron von, 396, 406. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 290, 291. Goths, 164 ; location, 170 ; defeated by De- cius, 156 ; Goths in Sweden, 208. See Gauta, East Goths, West Goths. Gourges, Dominique de, 289. Graagaas, 209. Gracchus, Caius, attempts revolutionary reforms, 124 ; tribune, 125 ; death, 126. Gracchus, Tiberius, victory over the Celti- berians, 118. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, attempts revolutionary reforms, 124. Grafton, d. of, 424 ; administration, 424, 440. Granada, kingdom of, 276 ; conquest of, 276. Grand alliance between England, Holland, and others, 370, 391. Grand remonstrance presented to Charles I., 346. Granicus, battle of the, 74. Granson, battle of, 262. Grant, U. S., takes Fort Donelson, 567; Vicksburg, 558; lieut.-gen., 558; Lea capitulates to, 559; president of U. S.. 560. Granvella,b., 330. Grasse, de, 441. Gratianus, Roman emp., 160. Gravamina ecclesiastica, 317. Gravelines, battle of, 321. Gravelotte, battle of, 516. Great Britain. See England. Great contract, 341. Great protestatiouj 842. 622 Index, Great rebellion, in England, 347; in the United States, 557. Great wall of China, 32. Great war of liberation, 475. Greece, geography, 39 ; religion, 41 ; my- thological history, 43 ; Thessalian and Dorean migrations, 47 ; early constitu- tions, 50, 52 ; Persian wars, 28, 56-60 ; hegemony of Sparta, 56 ; hegemony of Athens, 61 ; age of Pericles, 64 ; Pelopon- nesian war, 64-69 ; hegemony of Sparta, 69 ; hegemony of Thebes, 70 ; rise of Macedonia, 71 ; Macedonian supremacy, 73 ; empire of Alexander, 73-76 ; strug- gles of the Diadochi, 76 ; formation of separate kingdoms, 77; Lamian war, 79 ; Achaean and ^tolian leagues, 79 ; de- clared independent, 119 ; Macedonia, Roman province, 122; Achaia, Roman province, 147 ; Morea, conquered by Ven- ice, 372 ; by Turks, 397, 416 ; war of in- dependence, 488; revolution, 505. Greek colonies, 19, 20. Greene, gen., 431. Greenland, discovery of, 209, 280. Gregorian calendar introduced, 327 ; adopted by England, 420, 438. Gregory I., pope, 175 ; VI., 199 ; VII. (ffil- debrand), 199, 200 ; IX., 224 ; XII., 251 ; abdicated. 252 ; XIII., reformed the cal- endar, 327 ; XVI., 492. Grenville, George, prime minister, 423; leader of Commons, 439. Grenville, lord, prime minister, 537. Grenville, sir Richard, 289. Gr^vy, Jules, pres. of the French republic, 534. Grey.e., prime minister, 539 ; resigned, 540. Grey, lady Jane, 336. Grijalva, Juan de, 285, Grimoald, 175. Grochow, battle of, 490. Grodno, diet of, 413. Grosbeeren, battle of, 477. Gross-Gorschen, battle of, 476. Grossjagemdorf , battle of, 404. Grumbach, execution of, 306. Guadaloupe, Hidalgo, treaty of, 554. Guanahani, its identification, 282. GuastaUa, house of, 311, 416. Guatimozin, k. of Mexico, 285. Gu^briant, French marshal, 314. Guelfs. See Welfs. Guesclin, Bertrand du, 259, 276. Gueux, 330. Guilford, battle of, 431. Guinegate, "battle of the spurs," 319, 334. Guines captured from the English, 321. Guise, house of, 319, 321. Guizot, 527 ; ministry of, 497, 529 ; with Soult, 530 Gunpowder first used, 279. Gunpowder plot, 340. Gunther of Schwarzburg, 248. Guntram, 181. Guptas in India, 24, 210. Gurko, 522, 523. Gustavus L, Vasa, k. of Sweden, 352 ; II., Adolphus, reign in Sweden, 352 ; in the thirty years' war, 311; death of, 312; III., 409 ; IV., abdication of, 472. Gutenberg, John, early printer, 263. Guthorm, 204. Guy of Lusignan, k. of Jerusalam , 214, 215, 216. Guyenne, transferred from France to Eng. land, 226, 231 ; ceded to England, 258 : lost, 260. See Aquitania. Guzerat, expedition of Mahmud to, 211; conquest of, 241 : Afghan kings, 353. Gyges, k. of Lydia, 6, 21. Gylippus, 67. Gyulay,502. Habeas corpus act, 381 ; suspended, 388, 535, 536, 538 ; in Ireland, 544. Hadrian, Roman emp., revolt of Jews un- der, 12, 37 ; reign, 153 ; in Britain, 176.. Hafurstfjord, battle of, 208. Hagelberg, battle of, 477. Hague, convention of the, 396. Haidar Ali of Mysore, 442, 444. Haidarabad, nizam of, 443. Hakem II., 209. Hakodate, battle of, 563 Hakon, k. of Norway, 208 ; IV., 238 ; V., 238 ; VII., 237, 238 ; VIII., 238. Hakon Jarl, k. of Norway, 208. Hale, Nathan, 428. Hales, sir Edward, 383. Halfdan the Black, k. of Norway, 208. Haliartus, battle of, 70 Halifax, member of council, 381 : in oppo- sition, 382 ; pres. of council, 383 ; pres. of provisional council, 3S5 ; resigns, 387 ; impeached, 388 ; not in council, 433 ; whig leader, 435 ; first lord of treas. 436. Halifax, e. of, sec. of state, 439. Halland, 236, 238. Halys, 21, 134. Hamburg, free city, 222; conquered by Knut VI., 235 ; alliance with Liibeck, 249 ; Davout in, 476 ; siege of, 479 ; peace of, 405. Hamilcar, 20. Hamilcar Barak or Barcas, 111, 113. Hamilton, Alexander, 547, 549. Hampden, John, refuses to pay ship money, 344 ; impeached, 346 ; death, 347. Hampden clubs, 538. Hampton court conference, 340. Han, dynasty in China, 32 ; later Han, 211. Hanau, battle at, 478. Hancock, Johuj 424. Hanging gardens in Babylon, 12. Hannibal, destroys Saguntum, 113 ; crosses the Alps, 113 ; arouses the Gauls, 35, 114 ; Cannae, 115 ; before the gates of Rome, 110 ; leaves Italy, 117 ; defeated at Zama, 118 ; received by Antiochus, 119 ; death. 120. Hanover, ninth electorate, 372 ; treaty with Sweden, 396 ; allied with Prussia, 404 ; treaty with England, 437 ; receives Osnabriick, 465 ; Prussia receives H., 467 ; Napoleon wishes to take away, 468 ; occupied by French, 469 ; becomes king- dom under Geo. III. of England, 538; separation from Great Britain, 491, 542 : invaded by Prussians, 508 ; incorporated with Prussia, 510. Hanseatic cities annexed to France, 473. Hanseatic league, 237, 249. Hapsburg counts in Switzerland, 245. Index. G23 Hapsburg. house of, 253; male line ex- tinct, 400 ; deposition, 495. Hardeknut. See Harthacnut. Hardenberg, 457, 482. Hardinge, sir Henry, gov. gen. in India, 546. Harley, Robert, speaker, 388, 433; dis- missed from cabinet, 434 ; attempted as- sassination, 435 ; created earl of Oxford and Mortimer, 435. Ilarmodius, 54. Harold Hildetand, k. of Denmark, 207 ; Blue-tooth, k. of Denmark, 207; Heyn, k. of Denmark, 208. Harold I., Harefoot (son of Cnut), k. of England, 206; II. (son of Godwine), 206. Harold Haarfager, k. of Norway, 208 ; Hardrada, k. of Norway, invaded Eng- land, 206; war with Denmark, 207; founds Opsla, 209 ; Gille, k. of Norway, 238. Haroun-al-Rashid, 186, 210. Harpagus, 26. Harrison, Wm. H., pres. of U. S., 554. Hartford convention, 551. Harthacnut, k. of England, 206 ; k. of Den- mark (Hardeknut), 207. Hartington, marquis of, sec. for India, 546. Harvard College, 297. Hasdrubal, in Spain, 113; defeated, 115; death, 117. Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, 117. Hastenbeck, battle of, 404. Hastings, battle of, 206. Hastings, Warren, sketch of life of, gov.- gen. of India, 444. Hatto, archb. of Mainz, 194. Havana, surrendered to- EngUsh, 422 ; re- stored to Spain, 423. Hawaii, 442. Hayes, R. B., pres. of the United States, 560. Haynau, 496, 496, 498. Hayne, colonel, 553. Heathfield, battle of, 179. Ilebert, 451, 454, 455. Hebrides, conquest of, 209. Hector, 47. Hegemony of Argos, 48 ; of Sparta, 56, 69 ; of Athens, 61 ; of Thebes, 70 ; of Mace- donia, 73. Hegira, 182- Hei. iSee Heike. Heidelberger Stallung, 250. Heike. See Taira. Heilbronn, league of, 313. Heinrich Raspe, 225. Heinsius, A., 391. Helena, 47. Heliasts, 53. Heliogabalus. See Elagabalus. Heliopolis, battle of, 4m. Helle, 46. Hellen, 43. Helluland, 281. Helots, 50; revolt, 62. Helsingborg, battle of, 249. Helvetian republic, 460. Helvetius, 448. Helvoetsluys, 384. Hemming, k- of Denmark, 207. Hengestesdun, battle of, 181, 203. Hengist, 177. Hennepin, discovers Mississippi, 364. Henry, d. of Anjou. See Ileury III., k. of France. Henry the Bastard, k. of Castile, 276. Henry the Quarrelsome, d. of Bavaria, 196, 197 ; the Proud, d. of Bavaria, 218, 219 ; Jasomirgott, d. of Bavaria, 219. Henry I., k. of England, reign, 230; IT., Beauclerc, acquired Poitou, Guyenne, and Gascony by marriage, 226 ; reign, 231 ; conquest of Ireland, Becket, 232 ; 111. of England, reign, 234; IV. (d. of Lancaster), reign, 270 ; V., war with France, 259 ; reign, 271 ; VI. in France, 259; reign, 271; captured, 277; put to death, 274 ; VII. (e. of Richmond), 275; reign, 333 ; VIII., alliance with Charles v., 305 ; reign, 334 ; head of church, 335. Henry I. , k. of France, 203 ; II. , treaty with Charles V., 305; reign, 319 ; acquisition of Brittany, 320 ; of Calais, Metz, Toul, and Verdun, 321 ; III., reign, 322 ; k. of Poland, 352; IV. (Navarre), part in the wars of religion, 322 ; reign, 324 ; '' V.," 533. Henry I., k. of Germany, 194, 195 ; II. (the Saint), emp. H. R. E., 197, 198; III. (the Black), 199 ; IV., 199, 200 ; V., 201 ; VI., 222, 223; VII., 245. Henry of Champagne, k. of Jerusalem, 216. Henry of Guise, 321. Henry of Navarre. See Henry IV., k. of France. Henry of Plauen, 277. Henry, k. of Portugal, 240, 332. Henry, pr. of Prussia, 406, 407. Henry, e. of Richmond. See Henry VII. of England. Henry the Lion, d. of Saxony, 219; fiefs forfeited, 222 ; war with Henry VI., 223- Henry the Navigator, 276, 279. Henry, pr. of Wales, death of, 341. Henry, Patrick, 424, 426. Henrys, war of the three, 322. Heraclea, battle of, 108. Heracles, 45. Heraclidae, Lydian dynasty, 21 ; Dorian dynasty, 45 ; conquest of the Pelopon- nesus, 48 ; kings of Sparta, 50. Heraclius, Grecian emp., 191. Herbert, adm.,384. Herbert of Vermandois, 202. Herbois, Collot d', 453, 454, 456. Herculaneum, 83, 152. Hercules. See Heracles. Herdonius, 97. Hereward, 229. Hermandad, 328. Hermann of Balk, 218 ; of Salm, 200 ; of Salza, 218 ; Billung, marg. of Schleswig, 195. Hermann, d. of Swabia, 197. Hermanrich. See Ermanarich, 170. Hermanstadt, battle of, 495. Hermiuones, 1G3, 164. Hermunduri, 1G4, 1G7, 168. Hermus, battle on the, 26. Hernici join Latin league, 97 ; war with Rome, 103 ; Hernician league dissolved, 106. 624 Index. Herod (the Great), k. of Judea, 11. Herod Agrippa, I., k. of Judea, 11. Herrenhausen, alliance of, 398, Herzegovina, revolt, 521 ; given to Aus- tria, 524 ; disturbance in, 525 ; sup- pressed, 526. Hesse, origin, 225, 492. Hesse-Cassel, in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; becomes an electorate, 464 ; not in con- federacy of the Rhine, 468 ; revolution in, 492 ; invaded by Prussians, 504 ; in- corporated with Prussia, 510. Hesse-Darmstadt, joins confederacy of the Rhine, 468 ; joins allies, 479. Hia, dynasty of, in China, 31. Hideyoshi, government of, 355, 356. Hiempsal, 126. Hienfung, 561. Hiero, k. of Syracuse, 110, 115. Hieroglyphics, 3. High Commission, 346. Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. Himera, battle of, 20. Hincmar of Rheims, 201. Hindus. See India. Hipparchus, 54. Hippias, 54, 57. Hippo, 17, 19. Hiram, k. of Tyre, 18. Hirhor, k. of Egypt, 5. Hirtius, 144. Hispania, citerior, 118 ; ulterior, 118, 141. Histiseus of Miletus, 28. Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 431. Hoche, 455, 457 ; expedition to Ireland, 536. Hochelaga. See St. Lawrence. Hochkirch, battle of, 405. Hochst, battle of, 310. Hochstadt, battle of. See Blenheim. Hofer, Andreas, 471, 472. Hohenfriedberg, battle of, 402. Hohenlinden, battle of, 462. Hohenstaufen, house of. See Frederic of H., 219, 220. HohenzoUern. See Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg, 244 ; acquires Brandenburg ; in Prussia, 302 ; in thirty years' war, 311, 312 ; in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; kings of Prussia, 372 ; in the north and east, un- der the great elector, 368, 373, 374 ; gene- alogy, 515 ; emperors of Germany, 619. HohenzoUern, pr. of, 512, 513. Hojeda, Alonzo de, 283, 284. Hojo, family of, 243. Holbach,448. Holkar, 443, 541. Holland, kingdom of, under Louis Bona- parte, 468 ; merged in kingdom of the Netherlands, 483 ; separated, from Bel- gium, 439. See, also, Netherlands. Holland, lord, 439, 441. Holies, impeachment of, 346, 351. Holstein, given to Adolf of Schaumberg, 218 ; Adolf capt. by Knut VI. of Den- mark, cedes H. to Waldemar, II., k. of Denmark, 235 ; ceded to Adolf the young, 235 ; peace of Travendal, 394 ; united with Denmark, 409 ; war with Denmark, 496 ; occupied by the German confedera- tion, 505 ; united with Prussia, 510. flolstein-GoHorp, d. of, 394, 397. Holstein-Gottorp, house of in Sweden, 409; in Russia, 411. Holy alliance, 485 ; Monroe's attitude con- cerning, 552. Holy league against France, 300, 318, 326, 334. Holy league in France, 322. Holy Roman Empire, revival of Roman em- pire under Otto, 196 ; end of, 462, 468. iSee Germany. Holy wars, I., 52 ; II., 71 ; III., 72. Homer, 49. Homildon Hill, battle of, 270. Hone, acquittal of, 538. Honor ius, Roman emp., 38, 161. Honorius III., pope, 224. Hooker, gen., 557, 558. Hoorn, c. von, executed, 330. Hophra, k. of Egypt, 6. Hopital, de 1', 321. Horatii, 89. Horatius, laws of, 98. Horatius, Flaccus, Q., 83, 147. Horatius, Marcus, 93. Horatius Codes, 95. Hormisdas I., emp. of Persia, 188 , II., 188 IV., 191. Hormuz, battle of, 187. Hormuzan, 192. Horn, Gustavus, 312. Horsa, 177. Hortensius, dictator, 107. Hospitalers. 34. Jus auxilii, interce^sionis, 96 ; reformandi, 306, 317. Justinian I., Grecian emp., victories in Italy and Africa, 174 ; war with Persia, 190 ; reign, 210. Jutes, 176. JuTenum, foundation of, 167. Kaempfer in Japan. 445. Kagoshima, bombardment of, 563. Kahror, battle of, 24. Kaisersiautem, battle of, 455, 456. Kalb, de, 430. Kaled, expedition of, 192. Kalish, alliance of, 475. Kamakura, 242, 243. Kameel, sultan, 217. Kandahar, 442. Kanishka, Scythian k. in India, 24. Kansas adjnitted to the Union, 556. Kansas-Nebraska bill, 555. Kapolna, battle of, 495. Kara, Mustapha, 372. Karl Martel, 183, 184. Karlmann, brother of Charles the Great, 184. Karlmann, k. of Aquitaine, 201. Karlsefne, Thorfinn. 281. Kars, storm of, 489, 501, 523. Kashgar, rebellion of Yakub Beg in, 562 ; capture of, ib. Katzbach, battle, 477. Kaunitz, prince. 403. Kay. battle of, 405. Keiki, the last shogun, 563. Kellermann, 452. Kelso, battle of, 348. Kenmure. execution of, 437. Kentucky admitted to the Union, 548. Kentucky and Virginia resolutions ol 1798-1799, 549. Kepler, 306. Kerman, sultanate of, 210. Kertk, Louis, Thomas, and David, 299. Khafra, k. of Egypt, 4. Khanates. 241. Khazars, war with Persia, 189, 190. Khorsabad, 12. Khufu, k. of Eg.vpt, 4. Khusru in India, 211. Kieff, grand prince of, 276. Kieft, gov. of New Netherlands 357. 628 Index. Kiel, peace of, 479. Kiew. See Kietf . Kilij Arslan, sultan of Iconium, 214. Kilkenny, statute, 269. Killiecrankie, battle of, 386. Kilsyth, battle of, 348. Kimbolton, lord, 346. Kin dynasty, in China, fall of, 242. King George's war, 419 ; Philip's war, 359 ; William's war, 361. King's Mountain, battle of, 431. Kinsale captured, 387. Kioto, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the mikado, 213, 242 ; false mikado at, 278 ; capital transferred to Tokio, 563. Kirke, 386 ; appointed gov. of Mass., 361 ; Kirke's lambs, 883 ; raises siege of Lon- donderry, 386. Klapka, 495, 496, K16ber, 463. Klissow, battle of, 395. Knighthood, religious orders of, 217 ; Span- ish orders, 240, 328. Knights at Rome, 3 centuries, 88 ; number doubled, 89 ; in the army, 91 ; farm the taxes, 123 ; change in nature, 125 ; de- prived of jury service, 132 ; which is par- tially restored, 133. Knights in Athens, 53. Kniprode, Winrich von, 277. Knowles in Boston, 419. Knox, Henry, U. S. sec. of war, 547. Knox, John, 304, 338. Knut the Great, k. of England and Den- mark, visit to Rome, 198 ; reign in Eng- land, 205, 206 ; in Denmark, 207. Knut, St., k. of Denmark, 208 ; VI., 235. Kobad I., k. of Persia, first reign, 189 ; second reign, 190; II., 192. Kblhapur, 443. KoUin, battle of, 404. Kong, prince, 502. Koniggratz, battle of, 509. Konigsberg, treaty of, 373, 470. Konigsmark, 315, 416. Koran, the, 182. Kosciuszko, 413, 414. Kossuth, 494, 495, 496. Kotzebue, murder of, 487. Krasnoy, battle of, 475. Kublai Khan in China, 242. Kuldja, disputed between China and Rus- sia, 562. Kulm, battle at, 477. Kulturkampf in Italy, Switzerland, and Prussia, 520 ; in Prussia, France, Bel- gium, 525 ; approaching end, 526. Kunersdorf , battle of, 405. Kurile islands given to Japan by Russia, 32, n. 3. Kusunoki-Masashig^, 243. Kutab-ud-din, sultan of Delhi, 241. Kutschouc Kainardji, peace of, 412. KutusofE, 467, 475. Labiau, treaty of, 373. Labienus, 139, 142, 143. Laborers, statute of, 268. Labrador, discovery of the coast of, 284. Labyrinth, in Egypt, 4, 6 ; in Crete, 18. Lacedemonians, in Sparta, 50. Se& Greece and Sparta. Baconia, name first given to Maine, 295. Lade, battle of, 28. Ladislaus II., k. of Hungary and Bohe. mia, 278, Ladislaus Postumus, k. of Hungary, 278. Lady of England, 231. Lady of the Mercians, 204. Laets, 177. Lafayette, in America, 428 ; commander of national guard, 450 ; proscribed, 452 ; a liberal, 527 ; commander of national guard, 529. La Fere-Champenoise, battle of, 481. Lafitte, ministry of, 529. La Fontaine, 371. Lagidae. See Ptolemies. La Hogue, battle of, 370, 387. Lahore, Muhammedan dynasty at, 211. Lake Erie, battle of, 551 ; George, battle of, 421. Lally, 444. Lamachus, 67. Lamberg, count, 494. Lamian war, 79. Lamoriciere, 503, 527. Lancaster, house of, 270. Lancaster Sound, 299. Land act, 545, 546. Land league in Ireland, 545. Landshut, battle of, 405, 471. Land wehr,-8tunn, established, 476. Lanfranc, archb. of Canterbury, 229. Langensalza, 510. Langobards, location, 170 ; found kingdom in Italy, 175 ; crushed by Charles the Great, 184. Langside, battle of, 338. Langton, Stephen, 233, 234. Lansdowne Hill, battle of, 347. Laon, capital of German kingdom of the Franks, 202 ; battle of, 481. LSotsze, Chinese philosopher, 31. La Plata, discovery of, 286; a free state, 488. La Rochelle, granted to Huguenots, 221; siege of, 325. La Rothiere, battle of, 480. La Salle, discoveries of, 364, 365. Lascaris, Theodore, 216. Las Casas, Bartholom6 de, 285. La Soledad, treaty of, 503. Laswari, battle of, 541. Lateran council, 201. Lateranus, L. Sextus, 101. Latham house, siege of, 348. Latimer, 338. Latin empire, 216, 240. Latin league, Rome's hegemony over, 90 ; dissolution of, 104. Latin war, great, 104. Laud, William, 344, 345 ; execution, 348. Lauderdale, 380, 381. Laudon, 405, 413. Laudonni^re, Ren6, 288. Launay, de, murder of, 449. Lautrec, invaded Naples, 303. Laval, Franpois de, 364. Law's Mississippi scheme, 445. Lawrence, lord, viceroy in India, 546. Law of Edward the Confessor, 230. Laws of Ine, of Offa 180 ; of the twelve tables, 98. Index. 629 Lay bach, congress at, 487. Lazica, ceded to Rome, 190; invaded by Hormisdas, 191 ; Heraclius in, 192. League in France, 322. See Holy league. League of the German princes, 408. League of the public weal, 260. Lear (Leir), 37. Leboeuf , marshal, 513, 514. Le Bourget, battle of, 519. Lechfeld, battle of, 196. Lee, Charles, 430. Lee, Richard Henry, 427. Lee, Robert E., in command of Confederate army, 557; Gettysburg, 658; surrender, 558. Lefort, in Switzerland, 374. •'Legacy of Igeyasu," 356. Leges Corneliae, 132 ; duodecim tabularum, 98 ; Liciniae, 101 ; Publilise, 102 ; Valerias Horatias, 98. Legion, in the Servian constitution, 92; change in the 4th cent., b. C, 103; change under Marius. 128. Legion of honor, created, 464. Legislative assembly in France, 447, 451. Legitimitists, in France, 530. Legnano, battle of, 222. Leipzig, battle of, 312 ; second battle, 314 ; battle of the nations, 478 ; supreme court in, 525 ; university founded, 251. Le Mans, battle of, 519. Lenthall, 345, 377. Lenzen, battle of, 194. Leo the Great, pope, 173 ; X., 327 ; XIII., 524. Leo the Isaurian, Grecian emp., 210. Leoben, peace of, 458. Leofric, e. of Mercia, 206. Leon, name changed from Asturia, 209 ; finally united with Castile, 240. Leonidas, 58. Leopold, IV. (V.) d. of Austria, receives Bavaria, 219 ; V. detains Richard Coeur de Lion, 216. Leopold, archd. of Austria, defeated by the Swiss, 247 ; III., Sempach, 250. Leopold I., k. of the Belgians, 490. Leopold of Dessau, 392, 397, 402. Leopold I., emp of the H. R.E. ; reign of, 371, 372 ; Spanish claimant, 390 ; death, 392 ; II., 408, 416, 451. Ijeotychidas, 60. Lepanto, battle of, 326, 330. Lepidus, M. ^milius, 133, 141. Leptis, 17, 19. Lerma, d. of, 331. Lesbos, 41, 66. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 512. Lestocq, in Russia, 411. Leucopetra, battle of, 80, 122 Leuctra, battle of, 70. Leuthen, battle of, 404. Leverett, John, gov., of Mass. 360. Levites, 8. Lewes, battle of, 234. Lex agraria, 128. See agrarian laws ; an- nalis, 120 ; Aurelia, 133 ; Canuleia de conubio, 99 ; de civitate sociis danda, 128 ; Clodia, 138 ; de falso, 122, 132 ; Ga- binia, 134 ; Hortensia, 107 ; judiciaria, 125, 128 ; Julia de agro campano, 137 ; Julia, 149 ; Msenia 107 ; de maiestate 38 149; Manilla, 135; Papia Poppaea, 149 Pedia, 145 ; Plautia-Papiria, 129 ; Poetilia 103 ; Pompeia, 129 ; de proscribendis 132, provocatio, 91, 93, 94, 98, 125 ; Puh lilia, 97 ; regia, 374 ; de sicariis, 122, 132 Trebonia, 140 ; Valeria de provocatione, 93 ; de vi et ambitu, 140. Lexington, battle of, 426. Liberty of conscience, declarations of, 384. Licensing act, expiration of, 388. Licinian laws passed, 101 ; reenacted, 124. Licinius appointed Augustus, 159' Liegnitz, battle of, 405. Ligny, battle of, 484. Ligue du bien publique, 260. Ligurian republic, founded, 459 ; incorpo- rated with France, 467. Libybaeum, siege of. 111. Lima, occupation of, 287. Limerick, siege of, 387 ; treaty of, 387. Lincoln, Abraham, pres. of the United States, 556 ; reelection, 558 ; assassina- tion, 559. Lincoln, gen. 430. Lincoln, battle of, 231. Lindolf, d. of Swabia, 195. Lisbon, earthquake of, 415. Lissa, battle of, 510. Lithuanians, 169. " Little " parliament. See Barebones. Liudolf, d. of Swabia, 195. Liutprand, 175. Liverpool ministrv, 537. Livia, 148, 149. Livius, T.,81. Livius Salinator, 117. Livonia, 373. Lobositz, battle of, 404. Locke, John, 358, 389. Locomotive invented, 486. Lodbrog, Ragnar, 208. Lode, battle at, 28. Lodi, storming of the bridge at, 458. Lollards, 269. Lombard league, 219, 221, 224. Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, 482, 494,502. Lombards. See Langobards, 175. Lombardy. See Langobards, Italy, Pied- mont, Sardinia. London, founded, 176 ; captured by Danes, 203 ; great fire, plague, 379 ; first indus- trial exhibition, 498 ; peace conference, 506 ; second industrial exhibition, 544 ; financial panic in, ib. London Company, 291 ; conference, 489, 511 ; protocol, 505 ; treaty of, 498. Londonderry, siege of, 386. Long Island, battle of, 428. Longjumeau, peace of, 321. Longland, William. 208. Long parliament, 345-351, 375-378 j reca- pitulation, 378, n. Longobards. See Langobards. Loo-Choo islands, 564. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 558. '' Loose coat field," 274. Loris-Melikoff , 523, 525. Lorraine, German part of Ludwig's share in the treaty of Verdun, 187, 193 ; be- comes a duchy, 194 ; vacillates between East and West Franks 194 ; upper and 630 Index. lower Lorraine, 199 ; occupied by France, 369 ; exchanged to Stanislaus Lesczin- ski for Tuscany, 398 ; house of, 399, 416 ; ceded to the German empire, 519. Lorraine, d. of, partially reinstated, 366, 368 ; transfer of the duchy, 398. Lothar, d. of Saxony, war with Henry V., 201. Lothar, emp. 186 ; treaty of Verdun, 187. Lothar, emp. of the H. K. B., 218. Lothar, k. of West Franks, 202. Louis I., k. of Bayaria, 492 ; II., 514. Louis of Conde, 321. Louis, emp. See Ludwig. Louis VI., k. of France, 226. [For the Car- olingian kings of this name, see Lud- wig k. of France, I.-V.] VII., crusade, 215 ; reign, 226 ; in England, 232 ; VIII., 227 ; as prince, in England, 233 ; IX., St. Louis, reign, 227; arbitration, 234; crusades, 217; X., Le Hutin, 255; XL, of France, 260; XII., 318; XIII., 325 ; XIV., 366-371 ; Spanish succession, 390 ; XV., 445 ; XVI., 446 ; flight and return, 451; trial and execution, 453 ; (XVII.,) of France proclaimed, 453 ; death, 457 ; XVIII., first return, 481; flight, 483; return, 484, 526 ; death, 527. Louis the Great, k. of Poland and Hun- gary, 277. Louis Napoleon, first attempt to be pro- claimed emperor, 529 ; second, 530 ; pres- ident of the republic, 494, 531 ; coup d' ^tat, 498, 531 ; as emperor, see Napo- leon III. Louis Napoleon, pr. of France, imperial birth, 531 ; death, 534. Louis Philippe I., accession, 489, 529 ; ab- dication, 530 ; death. 531. Louisa, q. of Prussia, 469. Louisburg, siege, 419, 421. Louise la Querouaille, 380. Louise of Savoy, 303. Louisiana, discovered by La Salle and set- tled by French, English attempt to colo- nize fails, 362, 365 ; ceded to Spain, 423, 439 ; restored to France, 463 ; bought by the United States, 463, 549 ; admitted to the Union, 551. Louvois, 366, 370. Lowen, battle of, 193. Lowenbund, 250. Lowestoft, battle of, 379. Loyal association, 3o8. Loyola, Ignatius, 304. Llibeck, free city, 222 ; conquered by Knut VI., 235 ; capital of the Hanseatic league, 249 ; peace of, 310. Lubecki, 490. Lucanians, 83 ; wars with B>ome, 106, 107. Lucius, k. of Britain, 36, 38. Lucka, battle of, 245. Lucknow, relief of, 546. Lucretia, 89. LucuUus, L., 131, 134, 135. Lud, k. of Britain, 37. Luddites, 537. Ludwig I., the Pious, le D^bonnaire, emp., 186 ; II., 193 ; of Bavaria, 247. Ludwig, the German, k. of the East Franks, share at the treaty of Verdun,.187 ; reign, 193 J the Child, ] 94 Ludwig II., the Stammerer, k. of the West Franks ; 201 [Ludwig the Pious, emp., is also Ludwig I., k. of the West Franks] ; III., 201 ; IV., d' Outre Mer, 202 ; V., the Faineant (for kings of Frduce, see Louis), 202. Ludwigslied, 201. Lugenfeld, 186. Lumley's Inlet, 290. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 551. Luneville, peace of, 462. Luperci, 85. Luque, Hernando de, 286. Lusatia (Lausitz), origin, 194 ; lower Lu- satia united with Bohemia, 248 ; mort- gaged to Saxony, 310 ; ceded to Saxony, 314. Lusitanians, 118 ; war with Rome, 123. Lustrum, 92. Lutetia Parisiorum, 139. Luther, Martin, 301. Luther am Barenberge, battle of, 310. Liitzen, battle of (Gustavus Adolphus), 312 ; (Napoleon), 476. Luxembourg, marshal, 370. Luxemburg, house of, 245, 248 ; Hungary under, 277. Luxemburg question, 511, 532. Luynes, d. of, 325. Luzzara, battle of, 392. Lycia conquered by Harpagus, 26 ; Roman province, 150. Lycos, battle on the, 135. Lycurgus, constitution of, 50. Lydia, geography, 20 ; religion , chronology. 21 ; under Attyadse, Heraclidse, Mermna- dae, 21 ; conquers Phrygia, 21 ; war with Cvaxares, 21, 25 ; conquered by Cyrus, 22" ; 26. Lyons, council of, 225 ; partially destroyed, 454. Lysander, 68, 69, 70. Lysimachus, 76. Lytton, lord, viceroy of India, 547. Macao, Portuguese at, 354. Macartney, e., embassy of, 445. Macaulay, T. B., sec. of war, 540 ; in In- dia, 5^ ; paymaster gen., 543. Maccabaeus, Judas, 11. Macchiavelli, 328. McClellan, gen., 557. Macdonald, 460, 461, 474, 477, 480. Macedonia, 41 ; rise in power under Philip, 71; Macedonian supremacy, 73; Alexan- der, 73-76 ; under descendants of Deme- trius Poliorcetes, 78 ; wars with Rome, 116, 118, 120, 121 : fall of the monarchy, 120 ; Roman province, 78, 122. Macedonian line, Greek emperors, 210. Maciejowice, battle of, 414. Mack, gen., 460, 467. Mackay, gen., 386. MacMahon, in Italy, 502 ; in Franco-Prus. sian war, 514, 516 ; siege of Paris (com mune), 532 ; pres., 533 ; resigned, 534. Macon's No. 2 act, 550. Macrinus, Roman emp., 30, 155. Macro, 150. Madagascar, French claims upon, 535. Madeira, discovery of, 276, 279. Madison, James, 549, 550. Index. 631 Madoc, rebellion of, 264. Madras, in India, 22 ; founded, 354 ; cap- tured and restored, 443. Madrid, Charles in, 392 ; Napoleon at, 471 ; taken by Wellington, 474 ; by the French, 527 ; peace of, 803. Maecenas, 147. Maelius, Sp. 99. Magadha, empire of, 23. Magalhaes, F., 280. Magdeburg, bishopric of, 196 ; placed un- der ban, 305 ; stormed by Tilly, 311. Magellan. See Magelhaes. Magellan, straits of, 280, 286. Magenta, battle of, 602. Magians, 25. Magister equitum, 94. Magna Charta, 233, 266, 418. Magnano, battle of, 460. Magnesia, battle of, 78, 119. Magnetic needle, 279. Magnus the Good, k. of Norway, reign in Denmark, 207; in Norway, 209; II., 209; III., Barfod, 209, 238; IV., the Blind, k. of Norway, 238; V., 238; VI., Lagaboeter, 238. Magnus, d. of Saxony, 199. Magnus, k. of Sweden, 237, 238; Smek, k. of Sweden, 236. 237. Mago, 117. Magyars. See Hungary. Maha-bharata, Hindu epic, 23. Mahmud, sultan of Ghazni, 211. Mahmud II., sultan of Turkey, 489. Mahratta wars, 444, 541. Mahrattas, rise of, 389, 443, 444 ; conquered by the British, 541. Maid of Norway. See Margaret. Maid of Orleans. See Dare. " Main " plot, 340. Maine (in America), Pring's voyage, 290 ; Popham colony, 293 ; granted to Gorges and Mason, 295, 297 ; annexed to Mass., 858 ; restored to heirs of Gorges, ib. ; bought by Mass., 359; admitted to the Union, 552. Maine (in France), 231. Mainots, 488. Maintenon, Madame de,369, 371. Mainz, first archbishop of, 184 ; elector, 248 ; electoral archchancellor, 464. Majestiitsbrief, 308. Majorianus, Roman emp., 162. Malacca taken by the Dutch, 353. Malaga, battle of, 434. Malakoff, storm of the 501. Malcolm, k. of Scots, 205, 230. Maldon, battle of, 205. Malmo, truce of, 496. Malmutius Dunwall, k. of Britain, 37. Malplaquet, battle of, 392, 435. Malta, Phoenicians settle upon, 17 ; given to knights of St. John, 217 ; surrendered to Napoleon, 460; to be restored to the order, 464 ; not surrendered, 465 ; given to England, 483. Malvern Hill, battle of, 557. Mamelukes, overthrow the Ayoubites, 217 ; defeated by Napoleon, 460. Mamertines, 109. Mamun, 186, 210. Manchester massacre, 538. Manchester and Liverpool railway, 539. Mandate, 457. Manes. See Mani. Manetho, hist, of Egypt, 3, 4, n 3. Manfred, 225. Manhattan Island, purchased, 298. Mani, Manicheism, 188. Manlius, Capitolinus, M., 100 ; Imperiosus, 1., 104 ; Torquatus, T., 103. Mansfield, count, 309, 310. Mansfield, lord, 440. Manteuffel, gen., governor of Schleswig, 507, 508 ; Franco-Prussian war, 518, 519. Manteuffel, minister, 494; at Olmiitz, 498; dismissal, 502. Mantinea, battle of, 67, 71, 80. Mantua, siege of, 458. Mantuan war, 311. Manu, 23. Maori war in New Zealand, 544. Marat, member of Cordeliers 451 ; assassi- nated, 454. Marathon, battle of, 57. Marbod, 149, 167. Marcel, Etienne, 258. Marcellus, M. Claudius, 115-117. Marchfeld, battle of, 244. Marcomanni, 154, 167. Marcy, William L., 555. Mardonius, 56, 60. Marengo, battle of, 462. Margaret of Austria, negotiated Pais deB Dames, 303 ; q. of Dtnmark, Norway, and Sweden, 237, 238, 276 ; wife of Henry VI. of England, 240, 271, 272, 274. Margaret, " The Maid of Norway," 238. Margaret Maultasch, 247, 249. Margaret of Parma, 330 ; c. of Salisbury, 335. Marhatt&s. See Mahrattas. Maria Louisa, wife of Napoleon I., 481. Maria Theresa of Austria, heiress of Charles VI., 398 ; wars with Frederic the Great, 400^06. Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV., 366; died, 369. Mariana, 295, 296. Marie Antoinette, unpopularity, 446 ; exe- cution, 455. Marienburg, grandmaster at, 218, 277; treaty of, 373. Marignano, victory of, by Francis I., 319. Marion, Francis, 430. • Marius, C, 82; in Numidia, 127; defeats Cimbri and Teutones, 127, 128; social war, 129 ; death, 130. Marius the younger, 131. Marlborough, d. of, sketch of life, 382 ; joins William III., 384; in Ireland, 387 ; disgraced, 387 ; in the war of the Spanish succession, 391-393, 434; made a duke, 433 ; dismissed, 393, 435 ; reinstated, 436. Marmont, gov. of lUyrian provinces, 47^ 481. Marquette discovers the Mississippi, 364. Mars, 84, 85. Marshal, office of, 195. Marshall, John, 549. Marshall William, regency of, 234. Marsian, or social war, 129. Marston Moor battle of 348. 632 Index. Martignac ministry, 527. Martin V., pope, 252. Martinique, taken by England, ceded to France, 422, 441. Martinitz, 3u9. MartinsTOgel, the, 250. Mary, heiress of Burgundy, 253. Mary, the Catholic, q. of England, reign, 330, 336, 338 ; married Philip of Spain, 336. Mary Stuart, q. of Scotland, married Fran- cis II. of France, 321 ; reign, 338 ; exe- cution, 339. Maryland, granted to lord Baltimore, 293 rebellion of Clayborne and Ingle, 357 English parliament assumed control, 358 quo warranto against, 361. Masaniello, 327. Maserfeld, battle of, 180. Masham, Mrs., 434, 435. Mason, John, grant of Mariana, 295, 296. Mason taken from the Trent, 544, 557. Massachusetts Bay colony founded, 295; separation of general court into two houses, 357 ; execution of Quakers, 358 ; reassumed gOTemment of Maine, 358 ; forfeiture of the charter, 360 ; new char- ter, 361 ; treaty of peace with the east- ern Indians, 418 ; adoption of a constitu- tion, 431 ; insiirrection in, 432. Massagetae, 27. Massalia, founded, 19, 141. IVTflSHJisoiij iTf) Massena, 460, 461, 462, 467, 472 ; masterly retreat, 473. Massinissa, 116 ; dethroned, 117 ; restored, 118, 121. Match in, 413. Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, 200 ; her estates accepted bv Lothar from the pope, 218 ; withheld by Henry VI., 223 ; given to the papacy by Otto IV., 223 Matthias, emp. of the H. R. E., 308. Matthias of Thurn, 309. Matthias Corvinus, k. of Hungary, 278. Maupeou, 446. Maupertuis. See Poitiers. Maurepas, 447. Mauretania, Roman prov., 150. Maurice, Greek emp., 191 ; of Nassau, 331; d. of Saxony, 305. Maxen, surrender of, 405. Maxentius, Roman emp., 158, 159. Maximianus, 158, 159. Maximilian, d. of Bavaria, in thirty years' war, 308, 309. Maximilian, emp. of Mexico, 504. Maximilian I., emp. of the II. R. E., mar- ried heiress of Burgundy, 253 ; secures succession of Hungary, 278 ; reign, 300 ; II., 492, 306. Maximinus, 158, 159. Maximinus Thrax, Roman emp., 155, 156. May laws in Prussia, 521. Mayas, 285. Mayence. See Mainz. Mayenne, d. of, 324. Mayflower, 294. Mayo, lord, viceroy of India, 547. Mayors of the palace, origin of their power, 182, 183, 184 ; compared with the sho- ^uns in Japan 213. Mazarin, in thirty years' war, 314 ; agent of the pope, 325 ; his administration and death, 366. Mazdak, 189. Mazeppa, 395. Meade, gen., 558. Mecklenburg, 226, 316. Medea, 46. Media, revolt under Phraortes, 15 ; geog. raphy, 24 ; subject to Assyria, 25 ; re. volt suppressed by Sargon, 14 ; revolt under Phraortes, 15, 25 ; Median empire, 25 ; supremacy passed from Media to Persia, 26 ; revolt suppressed by Da- rius, 27; subject to Parthia, 30; large portion ceded to Armenia, 188. Median wall, 16. Medici, Alexander de', 327 ; Catherine de% 321 ; Cosimo de', created g. d. of Tus- cany, 327 ; Mary de', regency of, 325. Medici family in Florence, 263 ; in Flor- ence and Tuscany, 327 ; extinction, 398. Megacles, 51. Megalopolis, 71 ; battle of, 73. Megara, Doric state, 48 ; ally of Athens, 62 ; old constitution restored, 63 ; joined the Peloponnesians, 65. Megiddo, battle of, 6, 11. Mehemed Ali, revolt of, 491, 530. Meissen, origin, 194 ; given to Conrad of Wettin, 218 ; eastern part of Thuringia joined to, 225 ; Frederic of Meissen re- ceives the electorate of Saxony, 252. Melac, 370. Melanchthon, 303. Melas, 460, 461, 462. Melbourne, lord, home sec, 539 ; premier, 540. Melkart, Phoenician divinity, 17. Meminius, C, 126, 128. Memnon, 5. Memphis, in Lower Egypt, 2 ; worship oi Ptah, 2 ; Cambyses in, 27. Mena, first k. of Egypt, 3, 4. Mendoza, viceroy, 287. Menkaura, k. of Egypt, 4. Menou, 463. Menschikoflf, 410, 500. Mentana, battle of, 511. Mercia, founded, 179 ; supremacy of, 180 ; Danes in, 203. Mercurius, 84. Mercy, 314. Mergentheim, 218 ; battle of, 315. Meri lake, constructed by Amenemhat I., 4. Mermnadae, dynasty in Lydia, 21. Meroe, kingdom in Ethiopia, 5. Merowingians, 35 ; derivation of the name, 170 ; defeat Syagrius, 173 ; Franks un- der, 181 ; superseded by the Carolingi- ans, 184. Merseberg, 195, n. Merwan II., last Ommiad caliph, 182. Meschish, k. of Gaul, 36. Mesopotamia, Roman prov., 153. Messalina, 150. Messana, 51, 109. Messenian Avars, I., II., 51 ; III., 62. Meta Incognita, 289. Metaurus, battle of the, 117. Metcalfe, sir Charles, in India, 542. Index. 633 Metellus, L. Csedlius, defeats Hasdrubal at Panormus, 111. Metellus (Macedonicus), Q. Caeciliua, in the 4th Macedonian and Achaean war, 122. Metellus (Numanticus ), Q. Caecilius, cap- tures Numantia. 128 ; defeats Jugurtha, 126 ; superseded by Marius, 127. Metellus (Pius), Q. Caecilius, war with Ser- torius, 133 ; subdues Crete, 134. Methuen treaty, 434. Metoeci, 52. Metternich, at the congress of Prague, 476 ; of Vienna, 482 ; of Carlsbad, 487 ; head of the conservative party, 491 ; driven from Vienna, 492. Metz, siege of, 306, 516, 518. Mexican expedition, 503, 532. Mexico conquered by Cortez, 285 ; freed from Spanish rule, 488 ; war with the United States, 554. Michael Angelo Buonarotti, 328. Michigan admitted to the Union, 553. Michillimachinac, Jesuit mission, 364. Micipsa, 126. Midas, k. of Phrygia, 22. Middle Kingdom, 32. Middlesex, 178. Mieczeslav II., leader of the Poles, 198. Miguel, Don, of Portugal, 488. Mikado. See Japan. Milan, captured by Scipio, 35 ; captured by Barbarossa and destroyed, 221 ; rebuilt, ib. ; under the Visconti and Sforza, 262 ; war between Charles V. , and Francis I. , concerning, 304, 319 ; Philip invested with, ib. ; claims of Louis XII. to, 318 ; appanage of Spain, 326 : assigned to the emperor, 393 ; Victor Emmanuel in, 562. Milan decree, 550. Milan, pr. of Servia, 521 ; becomes k., 526. Milesians settle at the mouth of the Tigris, 28 ; in Ireland, 39. Miletus, in league with Croesus, 21, 28 ; lonians settle, 49 ; battle of, 67. Milhaud, confederation of, 322. Military roads in Persia, 28 ; constructed in Italy, 82 ; in Britain, 176. Millenary petition, 340. Millesimo, battle of, 458. Milo, S. Annius, 139. Miltiades, 28 ; at Marathon, 57. Milton, John, 389. Minamoto family, 212, 213, 242. Minden, battle of, 405. Mineptah, k. of Egypt, 5. Minerva, 84. Ming dynasty in China, 242. Minnesota admitted to Union, 556. Minos, k. of Crete, 18, 46. Minotaur, 18. Minto, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. Minucius, M., 114. Minuit, Peter, 298. Minyae, 43, 46, 48, 49. Mir Jafar, 443, 444 ; Kosim, 444. Mirabeau, C, 449, 451. Miramichi Bay, discovery of, 287. Miranda, 550. Misenum, treaty of, 146. Missi regis, 186. Missionary Ridge battle of, 658 Mississippi admitted to the Union. 551. Mississippi river, discov. 287,364; possession taken for France, 362, 365 ; claimed by France, 420 ; navigation free to England and France, 422 ; to England and the United States, 432. Missolonghi, 488. Missouri admitted to the Union, 552. Missouri compromise, 552. Mithra, 25. Mithridates, I., founded Parthian empire, 30 ; II., k. of Parthia, 30. Mithridates VI., k. of Pontus, his power, 129 ; Sulla concluded peace with, 131 ; alliance of Sertorius with, 133 ; killed himself, 136. Mithridaticwars,I.,129i II., 132 j III., 134. Mobile colony, 366. Mocenigo, adni., 416. Mockem, battle of, 478. Modena, 416, 458. Moesia, 148, 153. Mohacs, battle of, 303, 372. Mohammed, 182. Moira, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. Molai, Jacques de, 255. Moldavia, 395, 488. Mol6, ministry of, 530. Moliere, 371. Mollwitz, battle of, 401. Moloch, 17, 18. Moltke, 508, 509, 517. Momemphis, battle of, 6. Mompeson, impeachment of, 342. Monasteries in Ireland, 39 ; suppressed In England, 335 ; in Austria, 407 ; in France, 534 ; in Rome and Papal states, 520. Mondovi, battle of, 458. Mongols, defeated by the Chinese, 82 ; in- vasion of Germany, 240 ; conquest of China, 242 ; repulse from Japan, 248 ; supremacy in Russia, 277 ; check the Os- man power, 278. Monk, 376, 877, 878. See Albemarle. Monmouth, battle of, 430. Monmouth, d. of, 382, 883. Monroe doctrine, 552. Monroe, James, 550, 651. Mons sacer, 96, 98. Montague, proceedings against, 342, 387. Montaigne, Michael, 324. Montcalm, 421, 422. Monteagle, lord, 840. Montebello, battle of, 502. Montecuculi, 368, 372. Montenegro, war with the Porte, 521, 522; became independent, 524. Montereau, 259 ; battle of, 480. Monterey, battle of, 554. Montesquieu, 448. Montezuma, Mexican empire of, 285. Montgomery, general, 427. Montiel, battle of, 276. Montl'hery, battle of, 260. Montmartre, storm of, 481. Montmirail, battle at, 480. Montmorency, 320 ; execution, 326. Montpellier, 258. Montreal, settled by Maisonneuve, 300 ; sur- rendered to English, 422; captured bj Montgomery, 427. Montrose, marquis of, plots against ArgylOi 634 Index. 346 ; campaign, in Scotland, 348 ; execu- tion, 375. Monts, sieur de, 290. Moors, origin, 183 ; conquer Spain, 183 ; oaliphiate, 209 ; conquered by Almora- vides, 209 ; by Almoliades, 240 ; conquest of Granada, 276. Moqui Canon, 287- Morabethes, 209, 240. More, Sir Tliomas, 335. Morea {see Greece), conquered by Turks, 397 ; ravaged, 488. Moreau, 458, 460, 462, 465, 477. Morgan, 431. Morgarten, battle of, 247. Morkere, 206, 229. Mornington, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. Moro, Ludovico, 318. Morosini, 416. Morse, 487. Mortier, 481. Mortimer, Edmund, 270 ; Roger, 267, 268. Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 272. Mortmain, statute of, 266. Moscow, national centre of Russia, 277 ; burning of, 475. Moses, 8. Moshaisk, battle of, 475. Moslems, 182. Mt. Cenis tunnel, 520. Mount Desert, 292, 299. , Mountain, the, in the legislative assembly, 451, 453. Mowbray, conspiracy of, 270. Muawwiyah I., caliph, 182. Mucius ScBBTola, 95. Mughal empire, founded, 353 ; end of, 546. See, also, India. Muhammed II., destroyed eastern empire, 278 Muhammed Ghori, 211, 241 ; Shah, 442 ; Tughlak, 241. Muhammedanism, in China, 31 ; origin in Arabia, 182 : conquests in west, ItiS ; in Persia 192, 193. Miihlberg, battle of, 305. Miihldorf, battle of, 247. Mukhtar Pasha, 523. Mummius, 122. Munchengratz, 491, 509. Munda, battle of, 143. Miinger, Thomas, 302. Munich, 312, 492. Municipal corporations reform act, 541. Miinnich, 410, 411. Munro, major, 444. Miinster, anabaptists in, 304 ; negotiations for peace at, 315. Murad, I., sultan of the Turks, 278; V., deposed, 521. Murat, 460, 467 ; g. d. of Berg, 468 ; k. of Naples, 470 ; driven from Naples, 484 ; executed, 485. Murray. See Mansfield, lord. Murray, earl of, regent, 338. Murray, lord George. 438. Murten, battle of, 262. Musa, 183. Muthul, battle of, 126. Mutiua, founded, 112 ; battle of, 35, 144. Mutiny act, 386. Mutsu-Hito, 33, 562. Mycale, 61. Mylae, battle of, 110, 146. Myonnesus, battle of, 119. Mysia, 20, 21. Nabis, 80, 119. Nabonetus, k. of Babylon, 16. Nabopolassar, k. of Babylon, 15, 16, 25. Nachod, battle of, 509. Nadir Shah, invades India, 442. Nafels, battle of, 250. Nagpur, raja of, 541. Najara, battle of, 259. Nancy, battle of, 262. Nangis, battle of, 480. Nankin, treaty of, 542, 561. Nantes, edict, see edict of, 369; reTolu- tionary tribunal of, 454. Nantwich, battle of, 348. Napata, kingdom of, 5. Napier, 500. Napier, lord, 561. Naples [see Sicily), separated from Sicily, under Charles of Anjou, 226 : conquered by Charles VIII. ,262 ; by Alphonso of Ar- agon, 263 : by Louis XII. and Ferdinand, 318 ; revolt of Masaniello, 327 ; ceded by Austria to Spain, 398, 416 ; transferred into Parthenopsean republic, 460 ; French garrison, 463 ; Bourbons banished, 468 ; restored, 483 ; revolutionary movements, 487, 493 ; liberated by Garibaldi, 503. Napoleon I., emp. of the French {see Bona- parte, Napoleon), crowned, 465 ; k. of Italy, 467 ; protector of the confederacy of the Rhine, 468 ; divorced from Jose- phine, 473 ; birth of the k. of Rome, 474 ; campaign of Feb., 1814, 480; abdicated, 481 ; removed to Elba, 481 ; return, 483, 526; hundred days, 483 ; Waterloo, 484; transported to St. Helena, 484 ; death, 527 ; entombment in Paris, 530. Napoleon III., emp. of the French [see Louis Napoleon), elected, 499, 531 ; at- tempted assassination, 531, 544 ; war with Italy, 502, 532 ; Mexican expedi- tion, 503 ; Luxembourg question, 511 ; Franco-Prussian war, 513 ; surrenders to William III., 517 ; death, 520, 533. Narragansett Indians, 359. Narses, 175, 188. Narva, battle of, 395. Narvaez, 285, 286. Naseby, battle of, 349. Nassau incorporated with Prussia, 510. National convention, 447,451, 452; federa- tion, 450 ; petition, 542. Naucraries, 53, 55, 58. Navarino, battle of, 489, 539. Navarre, origin, 209 ; Joanna, heiress of, marries Philip IV., 254; Charles the Bad, k. of, 258 ; in the Huguenot wars, 321. Navarrete, battle of, 276. Navigation act, 376 ; repealed, 543. Nayler, 377. Nebraska, admitted to the Union, 559. Nebuchadnezzar, k. of Babylon, 6, 11, 16. Necker 447 449. Neerwinden, battle of, 370, 388, 453. Nehavend, battle of, 182, 193. Neku, k. of Egypt, 6, 11, 16. Nelson at Aboukir, 460; at Trafalgar 467 Index. 635 Nemean festival, 42. Nemed, 39. Nepalese, conquered by Chinese, 444. Neptunus, 84. Nero, C. Claudius, consul, 117. Nero, Roman emp., 150, 151. Nerva, Roman emp., 152. Nessfelrode, 482. Netherlands, acquisition by the house of Burgundy, 328, 329 ; war of liberation, 330 ; independence recognized, 331 ; war with Louis XIV., 367 ; with England, 379, 380 ; New Amsterdam lost, 358 ; Spanish Netherlands given to Austria, strife with Joseph II., 408 ; trans- formed into the Batavian republic, 456 ; into the kingdom of Holland, 468 ; in- corporated with France, 473 ; the French expelled, 479; kingdom of the Nether- lands formed, 483 ; Belgium separated from Holland, 489. Neuchatel, given to Prussia, 393; to Ber- thier, 468 ; as principality restored to Prussia, 482 ; as canton joined to the Swiss confederacy, 483 ; revolt from Prussia, 492 ; given up by Prussia, 501. Neuhof, baron, k. of Corsica, 415. Neustria, decay of, 35 ; in the 2d division of the Prankish kingdom, 181 ; in the 3d, 182, 183 ; in treaty of Verdun, 187. Neutrality act, 548. Nevada admitted to the Union, 558. Nevers, house of, 311. Neville's Cross, battle of, 268. New Albion, west, discovered by Drake, 289 ; east, granted to Plowden, 293. New Amsterdam, founded, 298 ; captured by EngUsh, 358, 379. Newbury, battles of, 348. Newcastle, ministry of, 438, 439. Newcomen, 486. New England, named, 294 ; presidency of, 361 ; Indian hostilities in, 417. New Forest, 230. Newfoundland, discovery, 284, 287 ; Gilbert takes possession of, 289 ; grant of a part to sir Geo. Calvert, 299. New France, French settlements in, 299 ; name extended to the west, 364, 365 ; ceded to England, 422. New Granada, 488. New Hampshire, granted to Mason, 296 ; separated from Massachusetts, 359; in- surrection in, 432. New Haven, colony of, 357 ; union with Connecticut, 358. New Jersey, granted to Berkeley and Car- teret, 358 ; under Andros, 361 ; divided into east and west Jersey, 359. New Netherlands, agreement with the united colonies, 367 ; granted to dukes of York .Hud Albany, 358. New North Wales, 299. New Orleans, reserved to France, 422 ; British repulsed at, 551. Newport, treaty of, 351. New South Wales, 299. New Sweden, 298. Newton, Isaac, 388, 389. Newtown Butler, battle of, 386. New York, name of New Amsterdam changed to, 358 ; captured by the Dutch, restored to England, 359 ; gov. Andros, 359, 361 ; gov. Fletcher, 362 ; gov. Bur- net, 417 ; settlement of Conn, boundary, 418 ; treaty with the Iroquois, 418 ; occu- pied by the British, 428 ; evacuated, 432. Ney, 467 ; " bravest of the brave," 475, 477 ; joined Napoleon, 483 ; executed, 485 Niagara, expedition against, 421, 423. Nicaea, council of, 159 ; Greek empire of, 216. Nice, truce of, 304; annexed to France, 602. Nicephorus Phocas, Greek emp., 210. Nicholas I., tsar of Russia, 488 ; Polish revolution, 490; intervention in Hun- gary, 495; joins Austria, 498; Crimean war, 499; death, 500. Nicholas V., anti-pope, 247. Nicias, 65-67 ; peace of, 66. Nicomedes, k. of Bithynia, 78; III., 129, 134. Niels, k. of Denmark, 208. Nightingale, Florence, 500. Nihilists, 525, 526. Nikita, pr. of Montenegro, 521. Nikolsburg, truce of, 509. Nile, battle of the, 460, 536. Nimrod, k. of Assyria, 5, n. 2; 13. Nimwegen, peace of, 368. Nineteen propositions, 347. Nineveh, on the Tigris, 12; foundation, 14 ; captured by Cyaxares, 15, 25 ; battle of, 192. Ninus, 14. Nippon, proper meaning, 32, n. 2. Nisib, battle of, 491. Nitta Yoshisada, 243. Nizam ul Mulk, 442. Noah, 36, 39. Noailles, vicomte de, 450. Nobility in Rome, 101, 102; abolished in France, 453 ; new nobility, 467. Nobunaga, 356, 356. Noisseville, battle of, 616. Nola, battle of, 149. Nollendorf, battle of, 477, 478. Nombre de Dios, 289. Non-jurors, 386. No popery riots, 440. Nordlingen, battle of, 313. Nore, mutiny at the, 536. Noreia, battle of, 127. Noricum, 148, 167. Normandy, settled, 202 ; Vexin annexed to, 203 ; duke William conquers Eng- land, 206 ; belongs to Henry II. of Eng- land, 231; conquered by Philip Augus- tus, 227. Normans. See Northmen. North, sir Francis, 382. North, lord, administration, 400, 425 ; re- signs, 441. Northampton, battle of, 272. North Anna, battle of, 658. Northbrook, lord, viceroy of India, 547. North Carolina, separated from South Car- olina, 418 ; colonial charter suspended, 427 ; insurrection in, 425 ; accepted the constitution of U. S., 547. Northcote, sir Stafford, 646. Northern convention, 462 463. Northern war, 394. % 636 Index. North German Confederation. Site Ger- many. Northmen, wars with Charles the Great, 185 ; ravages in France and Germany , 193, 201 ; settled in Italy, 198, 199, 200 ; siege of Paris, 201 ; settlement, 202 ; in England, 203, 204, 205 ; conquest of Eng- land, 206. Northumberland, d. of, 336 ; e. of, 270, 271. Northumbria, kingdom of, 178, 179, 180. Norway, early history to 1103, 208 ; from death of Magnus Barf od to union of Cal- mar, 1103-1397, 238 ; to 1524, 276, 351 ; to 1789, 409 ; ceded to Sweden, 479, 483 ; war with Sweden, 484 ; constitutional contest in, 526. Notables, assembly of, 447. Notium, battle of, 69. Nottingham, e. of, impeached, 270. Nottingham, e. of, sec. of, state, 385, 433 ; pres. of council, 436. Novara, battle of, 319, 488, 494. Nova Scotia, granted to sir Wm. Alexan- der, 295, 299 ; ceded to England, 393 ; 422, 439 ; fisheries in, 432. Novgorod, 208, 277. Novi, battle of, 461. Nullification proclamation, 553. Numa Pompilius, k. of Rome, 88. Numantia, destruction of, 123. Numerianus, Roman emp., 158. Numidia, divided between Bocchus and Gauda, 121, 127, 142. Nuremberg, peace of, 303 ; fortified camp of, 312. Nymphenburg, alliance of, 401. Nystadt, peace of, 397. Oates, Titus, plot, 381 ; trial, 383 ; pardon, 386. Oaths of allegiance and supremacy, 386. Obelisks, 3. Ocampo circumnavigates Cuba, 284. Occasional conformity act, brought in, 433, 434 ; passed, 435 ; repealed, 437. Octavia, 145, 150. Octavianus, C. Julius Caesar ; negotiations with the senate, 144 ; appointed consul, 145 ; receives the west, 145 ; war witb Sextus Pompeius and Antonius, 146 ; sole ruler, 147. See Augustus. Odenathus, 157. Odin, 164, 165. Odo, b. of Bayeux, 229 ; c. of Paris. See Eudes. Odovaker, ruler of Italy, 162, 173 ; over- thrown by Theodoric, 174. Odysseus, 47- , 660 Index to Appendix. berlain's campaign, 570 ; German, 574, 578, 585; French, 577 ; Russo-German war, 578 ; U. S., 586, 588-590. Telegraph, Pacific cables, 572, 594 ; wire- less, 572 ; first Chinese, 594. Tennyson, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 572. Tewfik, khedive of Egypt, 565 ; death, 567. Theebaw, k. of Burma, 566. Thevenet in ministry, 576. Thibet, boundary, 567 ; Bi'itish mission, 573 ; and'Rusbia, 598. Tientsin, treaty, 574 ; reduced, 598. Ting, admiral, in Japanese war, 595. Tirard, in ministry, 573 ; premier, 576. Togoland, German protectorate, 574; boundary, 582. Transvaal, colony, 571. See South African republic. Triple alliance, 573; renewed, 585. Trusts, development, 587 ; anti-trust law, 588. Turkey, Armenian massacre, 579 ; Cretan revolt and Greek war, 581 ; Macedonian revolt, 584 ; and France, 584. Uganda protectorate, 568. United States, and coercion of Venezuela, 585 ; fishery controversy, 586 ; Bering sea, 586, 588 ; world power, 587 ; Chile, 588 ; panic and depression, 589 ; Vene- zuela-Guiana boundary, 590 ; Spanish war, 590 ; joint high commission, 591 ; insular cases^ 593. See Elections. Utah admitted, 590. Vaal Krantz, battle, 570. Venezuela, coerced, 585 ; boundary dis- pute, 590. Victor Emmanuel III,, k. of Italy, 583. Victoria, q. of England, jubilees, 566, 569 ; death, 572. Volos, Turks occupy, 581. Waldeck-Rousseau, in ministry, 573 ; pre- mier, 582. Washington admitted, 587. Weaver, J. B., populist nominee, 588. Weihaiwei, Japanese capture, 595 ; leased to England, 597. Weyler, capt.-gen. of Cuba, 590. White, George, Ladysmith, 570. Wilhelmina, q. of Netherlands, 577 ; ac- cession, 583. William, emp. of Germany, I., death, 576; II., 576; in Holy Land, 583; mailed fist, 597. William III., k. of Netherlands, death, 577. Wolseley, lord, in Soudan, 565. Workmen. See Insurance, Labor. World's Columbian exposition, 589. Wyndham, George, sec. for Ireland, 572. Wyoming admitted, 588. Talu river, battle, 595. Yamagata, gen., in Chinese war, 595. Yi Hi, k. of Corea, and Russia, 596. Younghusband, F. E., Thibet mission, 573. Zanzibar, protectorate, 567. r- 99 6 n^ ^. OO .>' -/ c- <--. V \ *' -o <=50 A V *jO Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pro Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: ^pp «j PreservationTechnoloc A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVE 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 160^, (724)779-2111 (i O^ aV N G T^ . 1^ '^ 7. ^<^^ ,^\^^' '^y ^'^ ^^ ^- ' i> {, '^ A ■ ^x '-^ -x^^' v^' " Si> ■''ci'. ^/^ ..\ .^\ . -ei '7' ' ■'- -^^""'^iRiISs-, "f. s^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 009 472 688 8