3* Glass. Book COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL. {From an Engraving of the Miniature in the MS. of " The Discovery of Guinea" 1448.) fll|j ^lorg of the Rations THE STORY OF PORTUGAL ITMORSE STEPHENS BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD, OXFORD UNIVERSITY EXTENSION LECTURER AUTHOR OF "A HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION" LC Control Number tmp96 025705 NEW YORK G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS LONDON : T. FISHER UNWIN Copyright, 1891 BY G. P. Putnam's Sons Entered at Stationers' Hall y London By T. Fisher Unwin Press of G. P. Putnam's Sons New York PREFACE. Tms volume is written on a different plan to that adopted in most of the volumes in the same Series which have preceded it, and attempts to give a short chronological history of Portugal. An episodical history, though more interesting than a consecutive narrative, in that it treats only of the most striking events, demands from the reader a groundwork of accurate knowledge. This is not given with regard to the history of Portugal in any book in the English language with which the author is acquainted. Dun- ham, who combined a history of Portugal with that of Spain, in five volumes published in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia between 1838 and 1843, based his account on Vertot's Revolutions ' de Portugal, first printed at Paris in 1678, and modern English standard books of reference still make use of Dunham, and contain the old blunders of identifying Portugal with Lusitania, recognizing the fictitious Cortes of Lamego in 1 143, regarding the victory of Ourique as a " pro- digious " victory, &c, &c. Since the time of Dunham, a few books have been published in England bearing VI 11 PREFACE. on special periods of Portuguese history, such as the lives of the Marquis of Pombal and the Duke of Saldanha, published by John Smith, Count of Car- nota, and two volumes of a History of Portugal, by E. MacMurdo, and which is still in progress ; but there exists no book containing a complete and trustworthy history to which students may be referred. Yet within the last fifty years the history of Portu- gal has been entirely rewritten. The modern school of historians, which derived its first impulsion from Niebuhr and Ranke, found a brilliant representative in Alexandra Herculano, who saw that history could only be written after a careful examination of con- temporary documents, and who in his Historia de Portugal, published between 1848 and 1853, swept away much of the cobweb of legend which had enveloped the early history of his country. Hercu- lano undoubtedly owed much to Heinrich Schafer, who wrote the history of Portugal in the Geschichte der Europdischen Staaten edited by Heeren and Ukert ; but he went much further than Schafer, and the history of the latter is now quite out of date. The works of Herculano and his followers have quite superseded the histories of Lemos, Sousa Monteiro, and J. F. Pereira, which are mentioned here only as books to be avoided by the historical student. It is not intended to give a complete bibliography of the works of the modern Portuguese school of his- torians, but the author thinks it worth while to refer to some of the books which he has used, and which can be recommended as trustworthy guides to those who may wish to examine further into the history of PREFACE. IX Portugal. First with regard to documents, the Col- leccdo de Livros ineditos de His tor ia Portugueza, edited by Correa da Serra, and the Colleccdo dos prin- cipaes Auctores da Historia Portugueza, and the Portu- gallice Monumenta Historica, edited by v Herculano, contain the best editions of the old chroniclers ; while perpetual reference must be made to the Quadro ele- mentar das Relacoes politicas e diplomaticas de Portugal of the Viscount oPSantarem, which was continued by Rebello da Silva as the ^Corpo diplomatico Portuguez, and contains in thirty-six volumes, published between 1856 and 1878, the "fcedera " of Portugal up to 1640, and to the Colleccdo dos A ctos publico s celebrados entre a Coroa de Portugal e as mais Potencias desde 1 640 ate Presente, edited by J. Ferreira Borges de Castro and J. Judice Biker. As consecutive narratives, the short history of J. P. Oliveira Martins, and the illustrated popular history, which is the joint work of Antonio Ennes, B. Ribeiro, E. Vidal, G. Lobato, L. Cordeiro and Pinheiro Chagas may be read ; but it would be far better to study the more scientific works of Alex- ander Herculano, Historia de Porttigal, 4 vols., 1848- 53, which goes to 1279, and ^Da Origem e Estabeleci- mento da Inquisicdo em Portugal, 2 vols., 1854-57 > the y Historia de Portugal pendente XVI e XVII. Seculos, 5 vols., 1860-71, by L. A. Rebello da Silva ; Historia de Portugal desde os Fins do XVII Seculo ate 18 14, 1874, by J. M. Latino Coelho ; and Historia da Guerra civil e do Estabelecimento do Governo Parlamentar em Portugal, 6 vols., 1 866-1 881, by S. J. da'Luz Soriano. Among special books of interest in different languages may be noted Memorias para a Historia e TJieoria das X PREFACE. Cortes, by the Viscount of Santarem, 1828 ; Las Rain- has de Portugal^ by F. da Fonseca Benevides, 1878 ; History of the Revolutions of Portugal from the Founda- tion of that Kingdom to the year \6jj,with the Letters of Sir R. Southwell during his Embassy there to the Duke of Ormond, by R. Carte, 1740 ; Les Faux Don Sebastien, by Miguel Martins d' Antas, Paris, 1 866 ; Le Chevalier de fant ; Relations de la France avec le Por- tugal au temps de Mazarin, by Jules Tessier, Paris, 1877 ; and Life of Prince Henry the Navigator \ by R. H. Major, 1868. Coming to the history of the present cen- tury, the great History of the Peninsular War, by Gen. Sir W. F. P. Napier, is justly famous in all countries, and it is so well known that only a very few pages have been devoted to the subject in the present volume ; but reference has also been made to the Historia geralda Lnvasdo dos Francezes em Portugal, by Accursio das Neves ; ,to the Excerptos Historicos relativos a Guerra denominada da Peninsula, e as anter lores de 1 80 1, de Roussillon e Cataluna, by CI audio de Chaby ; and to the Wellington Despatches. On the history of the civil wars the best authorities are Memorias para a Historia do Tempo que duron a Usiupacao de Dom Miguel, by J. L. Freire de Carvalho, 1841-43 ; His- toria de Liberdade em Portugal, by J. G. de Barros e Cunha, 1869 ; DespacJios e Correspondencia do Duque de Palmella, 1851-54; Correspondencia Official de Conde de Carneira com o Duque de Palmella, 1 874 ; Memoirs of the Duke of Saldanha, by the Count of Carnota ; The Wars of Succession in France and Portugal, by William Bollaert, vol. i., 1870, and The Civil War in Portugal and the Siege of Oporto, by a British Officer of Hussars PREFACE. XI [Colonel Badcock], 1835. Much valuable historical material is also buried in magazines and the transac- tions of learned societies, and special reference may be made to two particularly interesting essays in the Annaes des Sciencias Moraes e Politicas, Dom Joao II e a Nobreza, by Rebello da Silva, and Apontamentos para a Historia da Conqnista de Portugal por Filippe II., by A. P. Lopes de Mendonga. Apart from Portuguese history, Portuguese litera- ture deserves to be studied. Several pages have been devoted to it in the present volume, and with regard to the early poetry of the troubadour epoch, the author desires to express his obligations to the learned introductions of Theophilo Braga, himself a poet of no mean rank, to his Antologia Portugaeza, 1876, and his Cancioneiro Portuguez, 1878. The glory of Portu- guese literature is Camoens, and it is fortunate that his great poem, The Luszads, has found an adequate translator at last. I know of no translation of any classic which can compare with Sir Richard Burton's translation of The Lusiads. By his profound know- ledge of the Portuguese character no less than of the Portuguese language, by his intimate acquaintance with the places which Camoens describes, and, above all, by his temperament, which resembled that of the conquistador-poet, Sir Richard Burton was fitted to reproduce for the English people the thoughts and words of the greatest Portuguese poet. Every lover of Camoens, like every lover of Homer, has been tempted to translate his mighty poem ; but, at last, so it seems to me, the work of translation has been done once for all for Camoens by the loving labour of Sir Xll PREFACE. Richard Burton, and Englishmen may read The Lusiads, reproduced faithfully into their own language, alike in spirit and in words. That the life-poem of a hero of the sixteenth century should have been worthily translated by a hero of the nineteenth, seems to me a circumstance of which all lovers of literature in both England and Portugal should be glad and proud. In conclusion, the writing of this volume has been to the author a labour of love. In the intervals of a minute study of the history of another period, that of the French Revolution, he has turned with pleasure to the task of writing this " Story of Portugal." He has not been able to work at original authorities as thoroughly as he might wish, owing to the absorbing nature of his more important work, but he hopes the time may come when he will be enabled to spend a few years among the Archives at the Torre del Tombo, and investigate more thoroughly the history of the early relations of England and Portugal, and of the Portuguese in the East. Is he too presumptuous also in hoping that a clearer knowledge of the old and tried friendship of the English nation with the Portu- guese may influence in some degree the attitude taken by a portion of the English people towards their ancient ally in the dispute with regard to the extent of the Portuguese possessions in Africa ? H. MORSE STEPHENS. Oxford, March I, 1891. CONTENTS. Early History . The importance of, and features of interest in, Portuguese history — Greeks, Phoenicians, and Romans — Portugal is not the ancient Lusitania — The influence of Rome — The Visigoths — The rule of the Mohammedans — -The Christian princes commence their incursions — Ferdinand " the Great " captures Coimbra — The successes of the Almoravides — The formation of the County of Portugal. II. The County of Portugal — Donna Theresa The character of Henry of Burgundy, first Count of Portugal — The Countess Theresa — Her policy — Count Henry fights in Spain — His death — The regency of Theresa — The nobility and the bishops — The wars of Theresa — Theresa styled Infanta — The battle of S. Mamede — Theresa introduces the religious military orders — Death of Donna Theresa. PAGE I 20 III. Portugal becomes a Kingdom — The Reign of Affonso Henriques . . . . -34 The youth of Affonso Henriques — The heroism of Egas Moniz XIV CONTENTS. — The Gallician wars — Affonso assumes the title of king — He is recognized by the Pope — The Treaty of Zamora— -Inde- pendence won by the Gallician wars — The state of the Moors — Affonso's first war with the Moors — The victory of Ourique — Legends concerning it — The wars of conquest — The capture of Santarem and Lisbon — The assistance of the English cru- saders — Capture of Alcacer do Sal — The Treaty of Cella Nova — Affonso taken prisoner at Badajoz — Truce with the Moors — Further fighting — Great victory over the Moors at Santa- rem — Death of Affonso Henriques. IV. Portugal attains its European Limits . . 60 The reign of Sancho I. — The successes of the Moors — Sancho's internal administration — His quarrels with the clergy and the Pope — The marriages of his children — The reign of Affonso II. "the Fat" — Recapture of Alcacer do Sal and defeat of the Moors — Arrival of the friars —The reign of Sancho II. — The capture of Elvas — His quarrels with his bishops — He is deposed by the Pope — The reign of Affonso III. — His conquest of the Algarves — His alliance with his people — The Cortes — His death. The Consolidation of Portugal . . . . 85 The reign of Diniz — The Order of Christ — His internal administration — His encouragement of literature — Portuguese poetry — Stanzas of Camoens on Diniz — Affonso IV. " the Brave" — The victory of the Salado— Friendship -between Portugal and England — The murder of Ines de Castro — Pedro "the Severe" — Ferdinand "the Handsome" — The Queen Leonor — Riot in Lisbon — War between Portugal and Castile — The wickedness of the queen — The Treaty of Salvaterra — The Portuguese revolt under Dom John of Aviz — The defence of Lisbon — Dom John elected king— The victory of Aljubarrota — The Treaty of Windsor and alliance with John of Gaunt — Peace with Castile. CONTENTS. XV VI. PAGE Portugal during the Age of Exploration . -115 The policy of John " the Great " — The alliance with England — His internal administration — The power of the feudal nobility — The capture of Ceuta — The king's sons — The growth of Portuguese literature — The reign of Duarte or Edward — The expedition to Tangier — The "Constant Prince" — Dispute as to the regency — Dom Pedro regent — Overthrown at battle of Alfarrobeira — The reign of Affonso V. "the African" — His African expeditions — War with Castile — Defeated at Toro — His patronage of literature. VII. The Portuguese Explorers . . . .140 Prince Henry " the Navigator" and his work — The importance of a direct route to India — The discovery of Madeira — The story of Robert Machin — The discovery of the Azores — Cape Bojador passed — The commencement of the African slave trade — The discovery of Guinea, and of Cape Verde — The voyage of Cadamosto — Death of Prince Henry — The equator crossed — Discovery of the Congo — The Cape of Good Hope reached and doubled. VIII. The Heroic Age of Portugal . . . .158 John II.. "the Perfect "—Overthrow of the power of the nobility — His foreign policy — Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain — Friendship with England — His encouragement of explora- tion — His court — Emmanuel " the Fortunate " — Expulsion of the Jews — His policy and marriages — The discoveries of the Portuguese — The seeds of decline — John III. — His policy — The abandonment of the ports in Morocco — Corruption at Court — Rapid depopulation of Portugal — The Inquisition and the Jesuits— Death John III. XVI CONTENTS. IX. PAGE The Portuguese in India and the Eastern Seas 185 Romantic interest of the story of the Portuguese in India — The voyage of Vasco da Gama — State of India, when he reached it — His return — The voyage of Cabral and the victory of Pacheco — The viceroyalties of Almeida and Alboquerque — The capture of Goa — Alboquerque establishes a factory at Malacca and attacks Aden — The policy of Alboquerque — The rule of his successors — Their policy and the nature of their government— The Christian missionaries — S. Francis Xavier — The viceroy alty of Castro — His victory at Diu — The suc- cessors of Castro — The settlements in South-east Africa — The Portuguese at Malacca and in the Spice Islands — Their com- munications with China and Japan — The career of Mendes Pinto — Extraordinary energy of the Portuguese in Asia. X. The Portuguese in Brazil 220 Importance of Brazil to Portugal — Cabral's discovery of the country — Spain abandons its claims — The aboriginal inhabi- tants — Early days— The first settlers and their government — Emigration from Portugal — The viceroyalty of Thomas de Sousa — The Jesuits and their work — The government of Duarte da Costa — Failure of the French Huguenots to establish themselves in Brazil. XI. The last Kings of the House of Aviz — Dom Sebastian and the Cardinal Henry . . 236 The rapid decay of Portugal — The accession of Sebastian — The regency of Queen Catherine — The regency of the Cardinal Henry — The character of Sebastian — His crusading ardour — The Portuguese in India — Athaide's defence of Goa— Sebastian determines to invade Morocco — His applications for foreign aid — His preparations — He lands in Africa— The defeat of Alcacer Quibir — The death of Sebastian — The reign of the Cardinal Henry. CONTENTS. Xvii PAGE XII. Portuguese Literature — Camoens . . -259 The " Golden Age " of Portuguese literature — The revival of classical learning — History of the University of Coimbra — Gil Vicente — Bernardim Ribeiro — Sa de Miranda — Ferreira — Camoens — His life — His " Lusiads " — Joao de Barros — Other writers — Decline of Portuguese literature. XIII. The Sixty Years' Captivity 278 The claimants to the Portuguese crown — Defeat of the Prior of Crato — Philip II. of Spain recognized as king of Portugal — Further efforts and death of the Prior of Crato — The false Dom Sebastians — The government of Spain and its disastrous results — The reign of Philip II. — The Portuguese in Asia — The conquest of Kandy — The missionaries and the Inquisition — The Dutch and the English overthrow the Portuguese power in Asia — The Dutch in Brazil— Count Maurice of Nassau — Results of the rule of Spain. XIV. The Revolution of 1640 300 Discontent of the Portuguese at the rule of the Spaniards — Fostered by Richelieu-— The Duke and Duchess of Braganza — The Duchess of Mantua, and her advisers — Preparations for revolt — The leaders — The Revolution of December i, 1640 — The Duke of Braganza crowned as John IV. — He obtains help from Holland and France — The "Caminha" conspiracy — The victory of Montijo — Brazil expels the Dutch — War with Holland — The King despairs, and offers to abdicate — Treaty of alliance with France — Death of John IV. XV. The English Alliance 326 The Queen as Regent — Schomberg organizes thearmy — Victory of Elvas— Marriage of Charles II. of England to Catherine of XV111 CONTENTS. PAGE Braganza — Affonso VI. declares himself of age — The Ministry of Cast el Melhor — Victories of the Portuguese — Court revolution — Dom Pedro regent — Peace with Spain — The rule of Pedro II. as Regent and King — His foreign policy — Death of Charles II. of Spain — The Methuen treaty and its results — The war of the Spanish Succession — Death of Pedro II. — The decline of the Portuguese power in Asia — Prosperity of Brazil — Discovery of gold there. XVI. Portugal in the Eighteenth Century — The Marquis of Pombal 349 Portugal in the eighteenth century — Accession of John V. — End of the war of the Spanish Succession— Peace policy of the King — His long and prosperous reign — Accession of Joseph — Early career of Pombal — The earthquake of Lisbon — Pombal, prime minister — He attacks the Jesuits — The " Tavora " plot — Banishment of the Jesuits — Short war with Spain — Suppression of the Jesuits — Death of Joseph — The administration of Pombal — His great reforms — Accession of Pedro III. and Maria I. — Disgrace of Pombal — The reign of Pedro and Maria — Death of Pedro III. — The Portuguese in India in the eighteenth century — The prosperity of Brazil — Discovery of diamonds there — Literature in the eighteenth century. XVII. The Era of the French Revolution — The • Peninsular War 382 The French Revolution — Persecution of sympathisers with it in Portugal — Dom John sends help to Spain in the war against France — Deserted by Spain at the Treaty of Basle — The Treaty of San Ildefonso — Alliance with England — Dom John declared Regent— The war of 1801 — The Treaty of Badajoz — Policy of Napoleon against Portugal— Mission of Lannes — Treaty of Fontainebleau, 1807 — Junot invades Portugal — The Regent escapes to Brazil — Junot's rule — Forms the Portuguese Legion — General insurrection against him — The Portuguese appeal to England — Victory of Vimeiro and Convention of CONTENTS. XIX Cintra — Soult occupies Oporto — Expelled by Wellesley — Beresford reorganizes the Portuguese army — The Regency — Massena before Torres Vedras — The Portuguese troops during the Peninsular War — Conclusion of the War — Death of Queen Maria Francisca. XVIII. Modern Portugal — Civil Wars and the Estab- lishment of Parliamentary Government . 409 John IV. his queen, and his sons Dom Pedro and Dom Miguel — Oporto and Lisbon revolt against the Regency — The Constitution of 1821 — Brazil declares itself independent — The Constitution abrogated — Death of John VI. — The influence of the army — The Charter of 1826 — Pedro IV. abdicates in favour of Maria II. — Dom Miguel, Regent — Elected King — Reign of Dom Miguel — The " Miguelite " war, 1830-34 — Convention of Evora Monte— Reign of Maria da Gloria — Civil wars and " pronunciamentos " — Era of peaceful parliamentary govern- ment — Reigns of Pedro V. and Luis I. — Accession of Carlos I. — The Portuguese settlements in Africa— Material prosperity — The literary revival — Lessons taught by the history of Portugal — Conclusion . Index 433 Genealogical Tables — I. The Descendants of John "the Great" .... 139 II. The Descendants of Emmanuel . . . . . . 279 I II. The Dukes of Braganza 303 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE PRINCE henry OF PORTUGAL .... Frontispiece SPECIMEN OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE .... 9 VIEW OF OPORTO AND VILLA NOVA FROM THE SERRA CONVENT l6 COIMBRA (PRESENT STATE) 27 A VIEW OF THE ANCIENT MOORISH BATH AT CINTRA . 42 ARCH OF THE WESTERN ENTRANCE TO AN OLD CHAPEL AT LEIRIA 47 VIEW OF LISBON 50 CONVENTO DE CHRISTO AT THOMAR . . . 6 1 PRINCIPAL FAgADE OF THE IGREGA DOS JERONYMOS AT BELEM (PRESENT STATE) 68 GATE AND WINDOW OF THE MONASTERY OF BELEM . 77 FACADE OF LISBON CATHEDRAL 82 INES DE CASTRO 96 VIEW OF THE PALACE AT LISBON I08 TWO SIDES OF THE ROYAL CHAPEL OF THE MONASTERY OF BATALHA (PRESENT STATE) . . . .112 KING JOHN THE GREAT Il6 QUEEN PHILIPPA 1 23 PORTUGUESE GOLD COINS 1 36, 1 37 ST. SALVADOR IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY . . . 142 STATUE OF PRINCE HENRY 1 52 XX11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE TOMB OF PRINCE HENRY 1 55 CHART OF GOA ' . . . . l66 VASCO DA GAMA l68 ALBOQUERQUE, FROM THE SLOANE MS 194 ALBOQUERQUE, FROM AN ENGRAVING BY SILVA . . 202 DOM JOAO CASTRO 2IO PROCESSION OF AN AUTO DA FE 232 LISBON IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY .... 239 VIEW UP THE DOURO TOWARDS OPORTO . . . 250 LUIS DE CAMOENS . . 269 JOAO DE BARROS 275 PHILIP II 282 FIGURES OF MEN AT AN AUTO DA FE . . . . 293 PORTUGUESE GENTLEMEN 310 JOHN IV . 322 CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA 328 PEDRO II 335 oporto (present state) 339 specimens of portuguese silver and copper coins 344, 345 the marquis of pombal 356 BULL FIGHT 366 A PORTUGUESE MERCHANT, WITH HIS WIFE AND MAID- SERVANT 384 MARSHAL JUNOT, DUKE OF ABRANTES . . . -394 PORTUGUESE PEASANTS 398 A FEMALE PEASANT FROM THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CALDAS DA RAINHA 403 [A number of the views illustrating Portuguese scenery are taken from photographs ; others are copied from W. M. Kinsey's " Portugal Iliustrated," London, 1829; other volumes which have supplied illus- trations are " Les Royaumes d'Espagne et Portugal," La Haye, 1720 ; Murphy's " Travels in Portugal," 1798; Major's "Prince Henry the Navigator," &c, &c] THE KINGS OF PORTUGAL The House of Burgundy. Affonso Henriques (Count of Portugal 1 1 14), King Sancho I. "the City-Builder" . Affonso II. "the Fat" Sancho II. Affonso III. "of Boulogne" (Defender of the Realm 1246) .... Diniz " the Labourer " Affonso IV. "the Brave" . Pedro I. "the Severe" Ferdinand " the Handsome ; ' DATE I I40 IT85 I2II 1223 1248 1279 1325 1357 I367 The House of Aviz. John I. "the Great" . ■ 1385 Edward . . . . . . . . 1433 Affonso V. " the African " 1438 John II. "the Perfect " 1481 Emmanuel " the Fortunate " 1495 John III. ... . . . . . . 1521 Sebastian 1557 Henry " the Cardinal " 1578 The Spanish Dominion. Philip I. (Philip II. of Spain) . . .. 1580 Philip II. (Philip III. of Spain) . . . . 1598 Philip III. (Philip IV. of Spain). . . . 1621 XXIV THE KINGS OF PORTUGAL. The House of Braganza. John IV. . Affonso VI. Pedro II. (Regent 1667) JohnV. . Joseph Maria I. and Pedro III. Maria I. alone . John VI. (Regent 1799) Pedro IV. abdicated . Maria II. . (Miguel, 1828-1834. Maria II. . Pedro V. . Luis I. Carlos I. 1640 1656 1683 1706 1750 1777 1786 1816 1826 1826 1834 1853 1861 i88q = CO o.a. git oJJ S3 c '-ujtj 1 u t?" 3 a 1 o o 3 S< -I" VII. THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. THE internal history of Portugal under the rule of John " the Great," his son Edward, and his grandson Affonso V., has an interest of its own, yet it is not at home that the most important development of Portuguese energy is to be perceived. Great as were the services rendered to Portugal by King John, they mark no stages in the progress of Europe as the achievements of Dom Henry, his son, have done. Around the name of this prince, the discoveries of the Portuguese navigators may best be grouped, for he was the guiding spirit of these adventurers, and alike inspired and rewarded them. Henry, Duke of Viseu, Grand Master of the Order of Christ, and governor of the Algarves, was the third son of John "the Great" and Philippa of Lancaster, and after winning great credit in the capture of Ceuta, he took up his residence at Sagre, near Cape St. Vincent, in 141 8, and devoted himself to the task of maritime exploration. His father and his brothers assisted him, but they recognized his special fitness for the work, and therefore, though encouraging him as much 141 as possible, they did not interfere with his projects, and made no attempts to contest his well-earned title of Prince Henry " the Navigator." * The prince was too wise to neglect scientific knowledge, and he therefore summoned learned mathematicians and astronomers from all parts of Europe to his aid. Enjoying immense wealth, he established an observa- tory and a school of navigation at Sagre, where he employed the men of science in making charts and, above all, in improving the working of the compass. This was the theoretical side of his work ; the practical was not less important. He collected together all the most daring captains and mariners he could find, and sent them forth year by year on voyages of discovery along the western coast of Africa. He never went on any of these expeditions in person, but he was ac- knowledged by all the men of science and sailors in his pay to be their master and presiding genius. The idea in Prince Henry's mind was that it was possible to sail round Africa to India, and thus trade directly with the East, and he died after more than forty years of endeavour without having fulfilled his dreams. There were legends of old time, which he knew well, that the southern continent could be sailed round, legends probably founded on the tales of Carthaginian sailors, but no geographer of that period could assert that these legends were founded upon fact. If it were true, and ships could sail direct from 1 The leading authority for the discoveries of the Portuguese in this century is " The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navi- gator, and its results," by R. H. Major, London, 1868, of which a Portuguese translation, by J. A. Ferreira Brandao, was published at Lisbon in 1876. PRINCE HENRY S IDEAS. 143 Lisbon to India, it was easy to see what enormous profits must accrue to the people who found and followed this route. At that time the products of the East came by a long and dangerous journey to Venice, whence they were distributed over Europe. They had either to be conveyed by land all the way to the Levant, or else to be borne up the Red Sea and carried across Egypt. By either way the expenses and risk were enormous, and the prices of the com- modities of the East were proportionately great Could a direct sea route be discovered, it was obvious that these risks and expenses would be avoided, and that Lisbon would take the place of Venice as the distributor of the treasures of the East to Europe. Dom Henry understood this, and, urged by patriotism, as well as by an ardent zeal for the cause of exploration, he devoted his wealth and time to dis- covering this direct sea route. As has been said, he did not himself succeed in attaining this great end, but he did much towards it, and the navigators who were successful, Vasco da Gama and Pedro Alvares Cabral, were men imbued with his ideas and in a way his disciples. In speaking of the explorers of Prince Henry's time, the word " ship " must not be taken to mean the comparatively well-built and well- appointed vessels of the end of the sixteenth century. Modern sailors would think but little of Drake's famous ship the Pelican, yet it was far superior in size and equipments to the wretched sailing boats of the first explorers of the fifteenth century. The enterprise of Dom Henry did much to improve the ship-building of the Portuguese, and towards the end 144 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. of his life their vessels could carry as many as sixty men, but at the beginning of his career his ships were little better than half-decked sailing boats, with a crew of at most thirty-six sailors. A mere record of discoveries, a list of names of places along the inhospitable west coast of Africa, may be monotonous in itself; but when the scanty means of these early Portuguese manners is con- sidered, and the greatness of the goal at which they were aiming, a fresh interest arises in the study of the map of Africa. The first-fruits of Prince Henry's exploring ardour were the discovery of the island of Porto Santo by Bartholomeu Perestrello, in 1419, and of the more important island of Madeira by Joao Goncalves Zarco and Tristao Vaz, in 1420. These successes delighted Prince Henry and his father, and John "the Great" immediately granted the two islands to the Order of Christ, of which his son was Grand Master. Prince Henry at once rewarded his captains, and leased Porto Santo to Perestrello, and Madeira in equal parts to its two discoverers. The provinces of the larger island were named Funchal, from '■ funcho," the Portuguese word for fennel which abounds there, and Machico, said to be derived from the Englishman, Robert Machin. Prince Henry's first effort, before proceeding further with his explorations, was to colonize these two islands. With Porto Santo he was not successful, for the rabbits introduced by Perestrello ate up the whole produce of the island ; and a similar fate seemed to await Madeira, where the indigenous vegetation was almost entirely destroyed by a great fire, which lasted seven years. However, THE STORY OF MACHIN. 145 he did not despair, and it was Dom Henry who had the sugar-cane and the vine, which are to this day the chief sources of its wealth, introduced into Madeira. It is but fair to mention that many authors have held these great discoveries to be merely re-discoveries. Some people affirm that Madeira was really discovered by Emmanuel Pessanha, the first Lord High Admiral of Portugal, in 135 1, during the reign of Affonso "the Brave," and there seems to be more foundation for the story of Robert Machin, which is at all events of great antiquity. The story runs that Robert Machin, son of a merchant in Bristol, loved and was beloved by a lady of noble birth, whose relations refused to counte- nance him, and threw him into prison. About the year 1370, on his release, he found that his lady love had married a wealthy baron, but he continued his suit and she consented to elope with him. He took her on board a ship intending to go to France, but a gale came on and the ship, after being driven south for thirteen days, struck upon an island. They found the island uninhabited and very beautiful, and Machin and some of his companions took up their residence upon it, and built huts under the branches of a spreading tree. Here they lived very happily until a storm one day drove the ship from its moorings, which so grieved the lady that she died in despair at the thought of never seeing her native land again. She was buried beneath the tree, and Machin soon followed her to the grave, having first erected a cross with a brief inscription, narrating his adventures, and begging any Christians who might come to the island to erect a church over the place where her remains rested. I46 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. After his death, those of his companions, who re- mained, determined to try to escape in the ship's boat, but they were taken by a Moorish cruiser and sold for slaves. While in captivity in Morocco, one of the Englishmen told a Spanish fellow-captive, named Juan Morales, the whole history, and this Morales, being afterwards taken prisoner by Joao Gong^lves Zarco, related the narrative to his captor and to Prince Henry. Morales, according to this tale, was the pilot of Zarco and Tristao Vaz on their voyage of discovery, and the story goes on to say that the grave of the two English lovers was discovered, and that Machin's dying desire was fulfilled, and a church erected over their remains. Whatever may be the truth of this legend, and whether Machin ever landed on Madeira or not, the fact remains that the first occupation of the island, and its being marked upon the chart, were due to the enterprise of Prince Henry. The discovery of these islands formed no part of Prince Henry's plan. His desire was to circum- navigate Africa ; the expeditions of Perestrello, Zarco, and Tristao Vaz were all intended to sail south and double Cape Bojador, and it was certainly in an attempt to achieve this purpose that Perestrello was driven out to sea to the island of Porto Santo. Many years passed, during which Cape Bojador remained the great obstacle to the Portuguese mariners. Year after year Prince Henry despatched fleets of two or three ships at a time, which sometimes made important discoveries among the islands off the north-west coast of Africa, but they DISCOVERY OF THE AZORES. 147 never doubled the great cape. Among these dis- coveries the most important were the Canary Islands and the Azores. With regard to the former group, the Portuguese were met by a prior claim on the part of Castile ; and after a dispute, into the details of which it is not necessary to enter, John the Great, in pursuance of his consistent policy of maintaining peace with Spain, and at the request of Dom Henry, who did not wish to waste his strength in occupying islands, surrendered the Canary Islands to Castile. The Portuguese, however, successfully maintained their claim to the Azores, which still belong to them. This group was first touched at by Bartholomeu Perestrello, the discoverer of Porto Santo, in 143 1 ; and in the following year Goncalo Velho Cabral discovered the island of Santa Maria. To this captain was allotted the task of further exploring and occupying this cluster of islands ; and in 1444 he discovered the island of St. Miguel or St. Michael, where he founded the beautiful little town which gives its name to the St. Michael oranges. Prince Henry's endeavours were crowned with partial success, though not in the reign of his father, for in 1434 Gil Eannes doubled Cape Bojador, and in 1436 Affonso Goncalves Baldaya reached the Rio d' Ouro. The attention of " the Navigator " was, how- ever, soon absorbed by the progress of political affairs at home, and he had for a time to abandon his schemes of exploration. He served with distinction in the unfortunate expedition to Tangier, and then played an important part in the events, which ended in confirming the power of his brother Dom Pedro, I48 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. the Duke of Coimbra, as Regent of Portugal. This enlightened prince took the greatest interest in the African explorations, and he assisted Prince Henry with even greater ardour than King John or King Edward. These were the most successful years of Prince Henry's career. In 1441 Antao Goncalves went a hundred leagues further than the Rio d'Ouro, and in the same year Nuno Tristao, the greatest and most daring of all Prince Henry's captains, reached the cape which closes on the south the sort of shoulder formed by North-west Africa, and named it the Cabo Branco or White Cape. He did more than this ; he brought home several captives, including a native prince. The capture was hailed with enthusiasm, and from this time the slave trade on the coast of Africa really began. It is strange that Prince Henry " the Navigator " should have been the founder of the African slave trade, but so it was, and the reasons are not hard to find. The provinces of the Alemtejo and the Algarves had never been thoroughly populated since their conquest, and the great lords and religious military orders, the owners of those districts, had never been able to bring them properly under cultivation. Slavery was not regarded with the modern sentiment of ab- horrence ; it w r as the natural fate of prisoners of war, and flourished greatly in the neighbouring country of Morocco. Prince Henry and the Duke of Coimbra felt the need of procuring labour to cultivate the southern provinces, and it seemed quite natural to them to carry off the unfortunate savages of the African coast. This idea greatly impressed the Portuguese nobles THE SLAVE TRADE. I49 with Prince Henry's sagacity ; they did not under- stand his schemes about discovering a direct route to India, but they highly appreciated the intro- duction of cheap forced labour. The commence- ment of the slave trade greatly favoured the progress of the Portuguese navigators ; they no longer came home empty-handed, and exploring became a profitable as well as an adventurous business. In 1444. Lancarote, with a fleet of eight ships, went upon a slave-taking expedition, and brought home two hundred captives, who were set to work on the domains of the Order of Christ in the Aigarves, and in 1445 the same captain sailed with a fleet of fourteen ships from Lagos and brought home a still larger body of unfortunate slaves. From this time forth the tracks made by the explorers were followed closely by the slave-dealers. Large profits were made in the trade, which had its centre at Lagos, and by the labour of the captives the great estates of southern Portugal were speedily brought under cultivation. The employment of slave labour was to have serious consequences in the near future ; but at this period, during the life of Dom Henry, it had not yet begun to drive the poorer class of the Portuguese people out of work in the fields, and into more precarious modes of earning a livelihood. It is not necessary to do more than notice the com- mencement of the slave trade here ; it is far more important to trace the progress of the explorers. 1 In 1 There is a good deal of contentious literature on the chronology of the African voyages of the Portuguese explorers, and in this account Mr. Major's " Prince Henry the Navigntor" has been followed. 150 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 1445 Nuno Tristao sailed as far as the Senegal river, and in the same year, Diniz Dias, his most daring rival, discovered Guinea, and first saw the really black negroes. This advance, as a glance at the map will show, meant much ; the Portuguese explorers had now thoroughly learnt how to find their way round the inhospitable shoulder of North- west Africa ; Cape Bojador and Cabo Branco had no terrors for them, and their hopes of reaching India were excited by finding that the coast trended abruptly to the east. The country, too, was very different to that which they had toiled around so slowly ; the fertile land of Guinea with its powerful negroes, its spices and ivory, and its prospect of gold, gave them encouragement, and on their return, the acute merchants of Lisbon were not long in opening up a trade with the newly- discovered country. Un- fortunately the slave trade accompanied the ventures of the Lisbon merchants, and the white men, instead of making friends with the blacks, did not hesitate to seize them and to sell them into slavery. The Church made no effort to restrain this traffic ; the blacks were heathen, and so it was to their advantage to be brought to a Christian land to work, and perhaps to be converted. The next two years were marked by the greatest activity. In 1446 Diniz Diaz reached Cape Verde, which he called by that name from its green appear- ance; and in the same year, Nuno Tristam was killed in a chase after slaves, and Alvaro Fernandes, the nephew of Joao Goncalves Zarco, who had discovered Madeira, starting from that island, went one hundred DISCOVERIES ON THE AFRICAN COAST. 151 leagues further than Cape Verde, and left Joao Fernandes at his own request among the negroes. It is a strange commentary upon the death of Nuno Tristao, that Joao Fernandes was able to remain among the negroes for seven months in safety, learning their language and studying their customs. It shows that there was no deep-rooted antipathy between the whites and the blacks, and that the latter only attacked the Christians, when they showed themselves enemies, and tried to rob them of their liberty. Joao Fernandes was taken off in safety by Antam Goncalves, in the year 1447, and testified to Prince Henry that the blacks, if heathen, were not monsters, but people of peaceful and affec- tionate dispositions. This activity was followed by another pause. Dom Henry was deeply affected by the overthrow of his brother Dom Pedro ; and his nephew, Affonso V., failed to give him the moral and material support he had formerly received. It is indeed a blot upon the reputation of " the Navigator " that he made no greater effort to assist the great regent, and that he was not by his side at Alfarrobeira. The next decade is marked only in the history of maritime exploration by the discoveries of Luigi Cadamosto, a Venetian, who had entered the service of Dom Henry, and who had become his right hand both as a cartographer and an explorer. On the voyages of Cadamosto there has been much controversy. Some writers, resting upon certain notes of his, assert that he dis- covered the Gambia as early as 1445, and the Cape Verde Islands in 1446 ; but modern inquirers believe STATUE OF PRINCE HENRY. (From Major's "Prince Henry the Navigator:') DEATH OF PRINCE HENRY. 153 that he greatly antedated his discoveries in order to enhance his own glory. It is now generally believed that in his famous voyage in 1455 and 1456 he managed to get past the Senegal, and discovered the Gambia, and that the Cape Verde Islands were dis- covered in 1460 by Diogo Gomes. The tale that Cadamosto went as far as the Rio Grande is quite discredited, and seems in itself, apart from the evidence, to be most improbable. The period of the discoveries made under the direction and inspiration of Prince Henry " the Navigator " was then at an end, for he died at Sagre on November 13, 1460. What he had done appears better from a study of the map then in any number of words. He had not discovered a direct sea route to India, but he had paved the way for it, and it was quite certain that, if it existed, the gallant captains trained by him would find the route in time. His services are beyond dispute, and though he left no successor to carry on the work, he had given it such an impulse, that it remained only for the sailors them- selves to complete it. He was never married, but was succeeded as Duke of Viseu, Lord of Beja and Madeira, and Grand Master of the Order of Christ, by his nephew, Dom Ferdinand, the second son of King Edward, and brother of Affonso V., whom he had adopted. This prince had also become Grand Master of the Order of Santiago by his marriage with his first cousin, Donna Leonor, daughter of Dom John, the fourth son of John " the Great," by whom he was father of Dom Manoel, or Emmanuel, who reigned under the title of Emmanuel "the Fortunate," and 151 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. was to reap the fruits of the discoveries of Vasco da Gama and Pedro Alvares Cabral The death of Prince Henry did much to check maritime exploration for exploration's sake, and for the purpose of discovering the direct route to India ; but the slave trade and the general trade with the Guinea Coast were growing into importance, and the results of the labours of the early Portuguese navigators were not forgotten. AfTonso V. was more bent on his Moorish expeditions and his schemes upon the crown of Castile, than upon maritime dis- coveries ; but, nevertheless, something of importance was done during his reign in strengthening the hold of the Portuguese upon the part of the African coast already known, and in making their topographical information more exact. What Affonso did was done rather to improve trade or protect it for the benefit of his own exchequer than for love of explora- tion. It was for these reasons that he built a fort on the island of Arguin, near Cabo Branco, which became the depot for the trade with Guinea, and eventually he granted the monopoly of the trade with the African coast to Fernan Gomes for five hundred crusados a year. This enterprising merchant employed able captains, of whom the chief were Joao de Santarem, Pedro Escobar, and Lopo Gongalves, who worked their way further along the coast ; and in 147 1, in which year Fernando Po discovered the islands of St. Thomas, Fernando Bom and Anno Bom, they crossed the equator, and explored as far as Cape St. Catherine. John II., the successor of AfTonso V., set the seal TOMB OF PRINCE HENRY. {From Mayor's "Prince Henry the Navigator.' 1 '') 156 THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. upon Prince Henry's labours. He it was who built the fort of Ehnina, and took the title of Lord or Guinea ; and it was in his reign that Diogo Cao or Cam discovered the Congo in 1484, and Bartholomeu Diaz reached Algoa Bay in i486, and doubled the cape, which he called Cabo Tormentoso, or Stormy Cape, from the winds he met there, but which his sovereign, presaging from this fortunate voyage the future glory of his country, called the Cape of Good Hope. John II., like Prince Henry, was fated not to see the fulfilment of his dearest hopes, and it was not until the fifteenth century was within three years of its close that Vasco da Gama made his way from Lisbon to Calicut. While, in political life and commercial prosperity, the people of Portugal had been at home becoming more civilized, more self-controlled, and more wealthy during the fifteenth century, its sailors had been grow- ing more daring and enterprising. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese were to have their reward. Lisbon was to take the place of Venice as the depot for all the products of the East ; the trade of Persia, India, China, Japan, and the Spice Islands, was to fall into their hands ; they were to produce great captains and writers, and were to become the wealthiest nation in Europe. But that same sixteenth century was to see the Portuguese power sink, and the independence, won by Affonso Henriques and maintained by John "the Great," vanish away; it was to see Portugal, which had been the greatest nation of its time, decline in its fame, and become a mere province of Spain. Hand in hand with in- THE PORTUGUESE EXPLORERS. 1 57 creased wealth came corruption and depopulation, and within a single century after the epoch-making voyage of Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese people, tamed by the Inquisition, were to show no sign of their former hardihood. This is the lesson that the Story of Portugal in the sixteenth century teaches, that the greatness of a nation depends not upon its wealth and commercial prosperity, but upon the thews and sinews and the stout hearts of its people. VIII. THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. John II., surnamed "the Perfect," the only son of Affonso V., succeeded his father as King of Portugal in 1 48.1, and his short reign was marked by events of the utmost importance at home, as well as by the great discoveries of Diogo Cam and Bartholomeu Diaz. He had shown himself a gallant soldier in his father's last African expedition, when he was knighted, and at the battle of Toro, and also a capable ruler, as regent, during the absence of Affonso V. in France, and during that king's frequent periods of abdication. He saw the folly of his father in wasting his strength in African expeditions, and in fruitless wars with Castile, and he therefore recurred to the wise policy of his great-grandfather, John " the Great," in avoiding all interference with Spanish affairs, and maintaining a close alliance with England. He also, as has already been said, adopted enthusi- astically all the schemes of Prince Henry " the Navigator," and laboured for the discovery of a route to India by sea. He possessed all the hereditary aptitude of the princes of the house of A viz for KING JOHN " THE PERFECT." 159 literature, and fostered the spirit of the Renaissance in Portugal in the study of the classical languages, the advancement of science, and the encouragement of art. He was a broad-minded, tolerant man, with ideas far in advance of his age in many respects,. and possessing at once an inflexible will and remarkable sweetness of disposition. But John II. was more than all this ; he was a politician and a statesman of the first rank, and openly professed himself a disciple of Machia- velli and a believer in the theory of absolute government. He imitated Louis XL of France, just as one of his predecessors, Sancho II., had imitated Louis IX., and in his policy and in his manner of carrying it out, he showed himself an apt pupil of his wily master. The first great task he set himself, in imitation of that monarch, was to break the power of the feudal nobility of Portugal. In doing this he relied, and with justice, upon the assist- ance of the mass of the people, who had learned during the last reign to detest and fear the almost unlimited power of the nobles. The origin of the enormous estates held by the Portuguese nobility has already been pointed out, and the attempt made by King Edward to check accumulations by the " Lei Mental " has also been mentioned ; but this regulation had had. but little effect, owing to the profuse prodigality of Affonso V. This monarch had granted away nearly the whole patrimony of the crown ; and John II. said with justice that his father had left him " only the royal high roads of Portugal." This liberality had kept Affonso l6o THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. poor in spite of the increasing wealth of his people, and his extravagance had been such, that he had been formally rebuked by a Cortes, held at Guarda in 1465, and had been obliged to promise amendment. Under the influence of this headstrong monarch and his favourites the evils, inherent in the feudal system, had increased alarmingly ; crimes in country districts were only punished by fines, and every means which rapacity could suggest to wring money out of an impoverished tenantry were resorted to, while the wealth of the great landlords had been increased by the improvement in the cultivation of their lands due to the large importation of slaves. John II. determined to crush the powerful and turbulent feudal nobility, and to draw back some of its wealth into the royal treasury, and for this purpose he summoned a great Cortes to meet at Evora in 148 1, the year of his accession. In this Cortes he proposed that a "inquiracao geral" should be held into all titles to landed property, and that the royal corregidors should alone be empowered to dispense and execute criminal justice throughout the country. Both measures were agreed to, but the nobles determined to resist the examination into their titles, and the loss of the lucrative privilege of dispensing criminal justice, and they combined to oppose the king, under the leadership of the Duke of Braganza. Ferdinand, Duke of Braganza, was the wealthiest and most powerful nobleman, not only in Portugal, but in the whole peninsula. He was the grandson of Affonso, Count of Barcellos, the illegitimate son of John " the Great," who had been created Duke of THE DUKE OF BR AG AN Z A. l6l Braganza by Affonso V., and he had inherited the vast possessions of his grandfather and of his grandmother, the daughter of the Holy Constable. These pos- sessions had been increased by the lavishness of Affonso V., who had showered favours on the first and second Dukes of Braganza. Ferdinand possessed fifty cities, towns, and castles, and nearly one-third of the land of the kingdom ; he was patron of one hundred and sixty canonries and religious benefices ; he maintained a royal household, and bore the titles of Duke of Braganza and Guimaraens, Marquis of Villa Vicosa, Count of Barcellos, Ourem, Arrayolos and Neiva. and Lord of Montalegre, Monporto, and Penafiel. His brothers were nearly as powerful as himself. The eldest, Joao, was Marquis of Monte Mor, and Constable of the kingdom ; the second, Affonso, was Count of Faro ; and the youngest, Alvaro, held the important office of Chancellor. In the reign of Affonso V. this great nobleman had quarrelled fiercely with John II., then heir apparent, but he believed he had secured his safety by marrying a sister of the future queen, for both Prince John and himself married daughters of Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu and Beja, the brother of Affonso V., and in- heritor of the wealth of Prince Henry " the Navi- gator." The Duke of Braganza took the lead in opposing the king's decrees passed in the Cortes of Evora, and John II. was glad of it, not only because he coveted the wealth and lands of the Braganza family, which dimmed the splendour of the Crown, and on account of their former quarrels in the late king's lifetime, but also because he remembered that 162 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. he was, through his mother, the grandson of the great regent, Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, who had been defeated and slain at Alfarrobeira by this very Duke of Braganza and his father. For all these reasons John II. decided to strike a sudden and decisive blow, which should at once re-establish the power of the Crown and paralyze the feudal nobility with terror, and he therefore had the Duke of Bra- ganza arrested, and executed, after a very short trial, at Evora, on June 22, 1483. The nobles, however, were not yet defeated, and they continued to intrigue against the king's authority under the leadership of a yet nearer relation of his own, Diogo, Duke of Viseu and Beja, the eldest son of Dom Ferdinand, and grandson of King Edward, and the brother-in-law alike of the king and of the executed Duke of Braganza. But John II. was not dismayed : imitating Louis XL of France, he de- termined not to spare his own relations, and on August 23, 1484, he stabbed the Duke of Viseu with his own hand in his palace at Setubal. This murder he followed up with decision : he had the Bishop of Evora, one of his father's favourites, thrown down a well ; and he executed, with or without trial, about eighty of the leading noblemen of the country. By these means John II. broke the power of the feudal nobility for ever, and as happened in France under Louis XL, and in England under Henry VII., the fall of the nobility was followed by the absolutism of the monarch. Now that the nobles had lost their power, and the Crown had become wealthy by the confiscation of their property, John II. needed the THE TREATY OF TORDESILLAS. 1 63 support of the people, as represented in the Cortes, no longer, and he became a despot, though a benevolent one. But the weight of this despotism was not yet felt, for John II. possessed all the politi- cal ability of his grandfathers. He tried to- find means for encouraging his nobility, now that they were frightened out of treason, to enter into the career of maritime exploration, which had been opened by Prince Henry, while at home he won the love of his people by reorganizing the government of the kingdom, and proved so good an administrator that the Portuguese gave him the title of " the Perfect King." It has been said that in his foreign policy John II. followed in the course set before him by John the Great. With the great monarchs then ruling in Spain, Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, he consistently remained on friendly terms, and in 1490 his only legitimate son, Affonso, was married to Isabella, eldest daughter of these sovereigns. The death of this son in the following year, without leaving children, was a terrible blow to him, but he nevertheless maintained his friendship with Ferdinand and Isabella, and in 1494 concluded the Treaty of Tordesillas with them. By this treaty, which was confirmed by a Bull, issued by Pope Alexander VI., the limits of the future possessions of the Spaniards and Portuguese in the regions explored and dis- covered by their mariners was fixed at 360 east of Cape Verde, and it was agreed that the Spaniards were to have full right to all lands discovered to the west of this line, and the Portuguese to all to the 164 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. south and east. What a curious commentary this treaty forms on that of Cella Nova, concluded three hundred years before between Affonso Henriques of Portugal and Ferdinand of Leon, by which these two monarchs agreed to take the course of the Guadiana as the line to separate their future conquests from the Moors. Both nations had now developed ; the energies of both, heightened by the long struggle with the Mohammedans, sought for fresh fields, and ex- panding far beyond the boundaries of Europe, were to prove themselves, in the one case in Mexico and Peru, and in the other in India and the countries of the East. In the other cardinal point of the policy of John "the Great," the maintenance of a close alliance with England, John II. carefully followed the example of the founder of the house of Aviz. Affonso V. had not neglected this important tradition, and had even promised his sister, Donna Catherine, to Edward IV., in 146 1, a marriage only frustrated by the death of the princess in 1463 ; and the English monarch had solemnly ratified the Treaty of Windsor in 147 1, and again after the battle of Barnet in 1472, and he had also included the name of the King of Portugal, as an ally of England, in his treaty with Louis XL of France, in 1475. John II. drew the bonds of friend- ship still closer, and sent important embassies to the three kings of England, who ruled in quick succes- sion in this country. In 1482 Edward IV. ratified the Treaty of Windsor in the presence of the ambassadors of John II., and recognized his new title of " Lord of Guinea," and in 1484 Richard III. did the same. In 1485 the King of Portugal proposed in a Cortes, THE REIGN OF JOHN II. 165. held at Algoba^a, that his only sister Joanna should be given in marriage to Richard III., but the princess, who was famed for her piety and wished to become a nun, fortunately for herself, refused the alliance, as she afterwards did the hand of Charles VIII. of France. Henry VII. bore no enmity towards John II. on ac- count of his friendship with Richard III., but, on the contrary, showed every disposition to assist him in his struggle with his nobility, and in 1488 went so far as to arrest the Count of Pennamacor, one of the insurgent Portuguese noblemen who had escaped to England, and to imprison him in the Tower. It was in this year also that the last treaty of com- merce between England and Portugal, before the famous Methuen treaty in 1703, was concluded at Lisbon by Richard Nanfran and Thomas Savage, who had been sent for that purpose, and to invest John II. as a Knight of the Garter. But it was not only on account of his suppression of the power of the feudal nobility, and of his wise peace policy, that John " the Perfect " was beloved by his people, it was also because he showed himself a worthy successor of Prince Henry " the Navigator," in promoting exploration, and devoted his best energies to discovering a direct route to India. The two famous voyages of Diogo Cam and Bar- tholomeu Diaz, which had resulted in the discovery of the Congo and of the Cape of Good Hope, have been mentioned, but it was rather in other directions that the originality of mind which distinguished John II. showed itself. He was the first European monarch who thought that if it might be possible to reach EXPLORERS SENT BY JOHN II. 167 India by sea by sailing round the continent of Africa, it might also be possible to find a road to " Cathay " by sailing round the continent of Europe to the north-east. On this mission he despatched Martim Lopes, who sailed past the North Cape into regions hitherto unexplored, and discovered the great island to the north of Russia, which still bears the name he gave it of Nova Zembla. John II. also had ideas of striking out new routes to India by land, or at least of exploring the land routes in order to correct prevalent geographical mistakes. With these ideas he sent forth the two first European explorers of the interior of Africa, Pedro de Evora and Goncalo Annes, who managed to get as far as Timbuctoo. Still more important were the missions which he sent overland to India, and in search of that mythical Christian potentate, Prester John. The two travellers he despatched were Joao Peres de Covilhao and Affonso de Payva. The former of these enterprising men made his way safely to India by following the regular trade route and accompanying the caravans. He visited both Goa and Calicut, and though he was refused a passage to the Cape, he managed to find his way back to Arabia, and eventually to Abyssinia, where he became the chief adviser and almost prime minister of the king, at whose capital he died. The other traveller, Affonso de Payva, went direct to Abyssinia, where the mythical Prester John was supposed to reign, and also died there. The energies of John II. were so wholly absorbed in these expeditions to the East, and he felt so certain that he was in the right direction in try- VASCO DA GAMA. {From the Shane MS. 197, folio 18.) THE COURT OF JOHN II. 1 69 ing to reach India by eastern routes, that he made the great mistake in 1493 of dismissing Christopher Columbus from his court as a visionary. He lis- tened to all the arguments of the great discoverer with patience, but he did not agree with his con- clusions that it v/as possible to reach India by. sailing westwards across the Atlantic, and he therefore lost the opportunity of immortalizing his name and reign by a greater discovery than that of Vasco da Gama, the discovery of the vast continent of America. In other departments his energies found full scope. He greatly improved the art of ship-building, and encouraged the immigration of skilled shipwrights from England and Denmark ; he did much to pro- mote the improvement of fire-arms, and established a cannon foundry and a corps of artillery, of which he made Diogo de Azambuja the first Inspector- General ; and, above all, he patronized literature, and encouraged Ruy de Pina, the greatest of all the Portuguese chroniclers. His court abounded in great men, the founders of great families and the fathers of the coming generation of heroes, among whom may be noted, besides his navigators, Diogo Cam, Bar- tholomeu Diaz, and Lopo Infante, and his famous travellers just mentioned, his Lord High Admirals, Pedro de Alboquerque and Lopo Vaz de Azevedo ; his Lord Stewards, Diogo Soares de Albergaria, Pedro de Noronha, and Joao de Menezes ; his Master of the Horse, Affonso de Alboquerque ; his Secretary- General Ruy Galvao ; and his Chancellor, the acute lawyer and most strenuous supporter of the despotic power of the king, Ruy de Graa. 170 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. Yet the reign of John " the Perfect," full as it was of great events, and great as is its importance in the history of Portugal, was but comparatively short. His happiness was clouded by the sad death of his only son, Dom AfTonso, in 1491, the year after he had married the Infanta Isabella, eldest daughter of Ferdi- nand and Isabella, who then ruled in Spain, and he felt with repugnance that his successor on the throne must be Manoel, or Emmanuel, Duke of Beja, the brother of the murdered Duke of Viseu, a man in whom he could see no fit qualities for carrying on his own great schemes and projects. To oust him John II. thought of legitimatizing his illegitimate son by Anna de Mendonga, Dom Jorge, or George, whom he had made Grand Master of the Orders of Santiago and Aviz, but the reflection that on his death the country he loved so well would then be torn by civil war restrained him, and he did not interfere with the law of succession. During the last days of his life the "Perfect King" was busily engaged in fitting out the fleet which, under Vasco da Gama, was to realize his most cherished dream, and he was still in the ripe strength of manhood when he died at Alvor, in the province of the Algarves, on October 25, 1495. The quarter of a century during which the suc- cessor of John II., Emmanuel "the Fortunate," reigned, is the great heroic period of Portuguese history, and during it the great deeds, which make the Story of Portugal an important part of the history of Europe and of the world, were done. Discoveries and daring feats of arms distinguished nearly every year of this truly fortunate reign, and the fame of the great KING EMMANUEL "THE FORTUNATE." 1J1 Portuguese generals, captains, and travellers is rivalled only by that of its poets and men of letters. As the progress of the Portuguese in the East and West, and their great literary development, will be examined in three different chapters, it will here be possible only to narrate the events of Emmanuel's reign in Portugal, and to show how, at the period of the greatest glory of the country, the age of its rapid decline was at hand. The causes of that decline were manifold, and are generally placed in the reign of Emmanuel's successor, but the seed of each appeared in the reign of the "fortunate" monarch himself. Emmanuel himself contributed but little to the blaze of glory which illustrates his reign. He de- spatched great fleets and armies to distant parts of the world, and received the wealth their discoveries and exertions brought into his treasury with equa- nimity ; but he had only one fixed idea, the old wild dream which had brought disaster upon Ferdinand "the Handsome" and Affonso V., the longing to sit upon the throne of Spain and to unite the kingdoms of the peninsula under his sovereignty. To gain this end he proposed to marry the Infanta Isabella, the eldest daughter of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile, and widow of the un- fortunate Affonso, the only son of John II., and in order to be recognized as heir to the kingdoms of Spain, he promised to expel the Jews and unbaptized Moors from Portugal. No class had done more to promote the height of commercial prosperity to which Portugal had attained than the Portuguese Jews. In another volume of this 172 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. Series x Mr. Lane- Poole says : " Wherever the arms of the Saracens penetrated, there we shall always find the Jews in close pursuit," and in no part of the peninsula had they collected in greater numbers than in the great cities of Portugal, especially in Lisbon, Santarem, and Evora. These Jews belonged for the most part to the Sephardim, and were in every intellectual quality superior to the Ashkenazim, or German and Polish Jews ; protected by the Moors, they had grown in wealth and power, and when they came under the rule of Affonso Henriques, that great monarch extended the same tolerance towards them. His successors followed his example, and under monarchs with commercial aspirations such as Diniz and John " the Great," the Jews had been more than protected, they had been favoured. While persecuted in other countries, they had met with consistent pro- tection in Portugal, and they acknowledged the generous treatment which they received by extending the commerce of their adopted country. The Portu- guese Jews possessed a high reputation all over Europe for wealth, integrity, and commercial acute- ness, and had business agencies and banks in every land, which contributed to the wealth of the country, which had been for centuries their home. Such was the wealthy and industrious class of citizens, which Emmanuel consented to banish from his dominions, partly to please the bigotry of Ferdinand and Isabella, whom he hoped to succeed, and partly in order to absorb, as the Portuguese crown eventually did, the whole of the coming trade with the East. 1 " The Story of the Moors in Spain," chapter ii. p. 24. EXPULSION OF THE JEWS. 1 73 These unfortunate families were obliged to leave the country, which had been their fatherland, and the cities, which had been their homes, from generation to generation, with but six months in which to prepare for banishment ; they were obliged to dispose of their flourishing businesses at a loss, and to start anew in the world to find new occupations and new homes. It is hardly a matter for wonder, that many Jews preferred to be baptized and to become half-hearted Christians rather than expatriate themselves, but these " Novaes Christiaos " had, as will be seen, no reason to rejoice a few years later at their apostasy. With the Jews were banished also many unbaptized Mohammedans, the especial enemies of Ferdinand " the Catholic." This class had become numerous since the taking of Granada in 1492, when many of them fled from Spain into Portugal, and had been kindly received by John II. It is worthy of notice that the Most Catholic monarchs, who persuaded Emmanuel to take such severe steps against Jews and Mohammedans, who were ready to earn an honest livelihood as free men, made no protest against the thousands of negro slaves, who were being yearly im- ported into Portugal, and left to their belief in super- stitions far more degrading than the religions either of Jews or Moslems. For this decree of banishment passed against law- abiding Portuguese citizens, Emmanuel had his reward, for he was married to the Infanta Isabella in 1497. But the curse of the Jews followed him, and he never sat upon the throne of Spain. Whilst the royal bride and bridegroom were passing through the 174 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. cities of Castile in a state progress as heirs to the thrones of Spain, Queen Isabella fell ill, and died at Toledo on August 24, 1498. She left an infant son, Dom Miguel, at whose birth she had died, but he did not survive to realize the hopes of his father, and died in 1500. Even these two deaths did not put an end to Emmanuel's schemes, and in the same year 1500, he married the Donna Maria of Castile, the sister of his deceased wife. This marriage was not so likely to promote his success as the first ; for whereas the Infanta Isabella was the eldest daughter of Ferdinand and his queen, the Infanta Maria was but the third daughter, and the daughter between them, the Infanta Joanna, had a son who, as the legitimate heir of his grandparents, was to succeed to thrones of Spain and eventually become the Emperor Charles V. By his second wife, Emmanuel had no less than six sons, but what has been called the " curse of the Jews " pursued them, and his descendants soon failed in the direct line. Even to the last, the same wild fancy possessed him, and in 15 18, the year after his second wife's death, he married again, and this time also with a view of succeeding Charles V., for he married his own niece, the sister of the Emperor. She survived him, and afterwards married Francis I. of France. From these restless longings after the neighbouring thrones, and the ignoble schemes of the Portuguese monarch, it is a relief to turn to the actions of the Portuguese heroes. Their deeds will be related separately, but after the barren intrigues of Emma- nuel, it will be as well to mention chronologically the chief discoveries of his captains. In 1497, THE DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE. 1 75 Vasco da Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope and reached India by sea ; in 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered Brazil, and Gaspar Corte-Real, Labrador ; in 1 501 Joao da Nova Castella discovered the islands of St. Helena and Ascension ; and in that year and in 1503 Amerigo Vespucci first visited the Rio Plata and Paraguay ; in 1506 Tristao da Cunha discovered the island which bears his name ; and Ruy Pereira Coutinho explored Madagascar and the Mauritius ; in 1507 Lourengo de Almeida touched at the Maldive Islands ; in 1 509 Diogo Lopes de Sequeira occupied Malacca and explored the island of Sumatra ; in 15 12 Francisco Serrao discovered the Moluccas; in 15 13 Pedro de Mascarenhas first touched at the lie de Bourbon or Reunion ; in 15 16 Duarte Coelho worked his way up the coast of Cochin China and explored Siam ; in 15 17 Fernao Peres de Andrade established himself at Canton, and the same explorer made his way to Pekin in 1521 ; and in 1520 Magalhaes (Magellan), a Portuguese sailor, though in the Spanish service, passed through the Straits which bear his name and led the way into the Pacific Ocean. These exploits make up a list of achievements of which any country might be proud ; the bare cata- logue of them, without any epithets, justifies the description given of the reign of Emmanuel " the Fortunate " as the heroic age of Portuguese history. It has been shown that the king contributed little to this greatness, and the mistaken direction of his foreign policy has been noticed. It now remains to be seen how the seeds of rapid decline were sown. Emmanuel was far from being a bad 176 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. man, though he does not show to advantage, when compared with such monarchs as John " the Great " and John "the Perfect ;" he was a moral and pious man, — too pious as his expulsion of the Jews clearly demonstrates ; he can hardly be blamed for his extravagance and taste for luxury, when the enormous wealth of the Portuguese Crown is considered ; and he spent much of this wealth on art and architecture, as the construction of the magnificent palace of Belem, near Lisbon, testifies to this day. This superb building may have many faults to the eye of the architectural expert, but to the ordinary mind it seems almost the most superb structure in the world. With regard to internal administration, Emmanuel did not do much harm ; the wheels of government had been put into such perfect order by John II. that the machine of administration worked well without inter- ference. But John II. had made one great mistake, the fruits of which appeared in the reign of Emmanuel and his successor ; he had changed the monarchy of Portugal from being patriotic and de- pendent on the good will of the people into an absolute monarchy, in which the king's will was everything. The overthrow of the nobility and the wealth of the Crown had made the king independent of the support of his people, as represented in the Cortes. The nobility, deprived of their power at home, had thrown themselves with ardour into the career of Eastern discovery and conquest, and nearly all the great heroes of the period belonged to noble families. Emmanuel recognized the greatness of these men, and showered honours upon them ; but in THE SEEDS OF DECLINE. 1 77 the next generation, the fatal result of despotism became evident, and the nobility, instead of thinking of their country, and looking to their fellow citizens' approbation for their reward, looked rather to the king, and made loyalty to a man and not to their country their guiding principle. This attachment to the king was encouraged by the wealth of the Crown, which enabled the sovereign to bestow large pensions and pay enormous salaries, and the Portuguese nobility began to become a nobility of courtiers instead of a nobility of patriots. This extraordinary wealth of the Crown was due to its absorption of the trade with India, for the wealth of the East was conveyed to Lisbon on royal ships, and fetched thence by enterprising traders of other nations. It was then that the mistake of Emmanuel in banishing the Jews became more and more obvious, for Portugal only brought the products of Asia to Europe, but did not distribute them throughout Europe. It was in these respects that the seeds of decline were sown, in the loss of public spirit, and the absorption by the Crown of the whole wealth won by the valour of the people. Yet these steps towards decline were not at first visible to the eyes either of foreign nations or of the people themselves. The glory of Portugal was spread abroad, and the wealth of its monarch and his splendour became proverbial. The great literary movement, which in this reign is represented by Gil Vicente, Ayres Barbosa, Garcia de Resende, and Ber- nardim Ribeiro, will be discussed in another chapter, but it must be noted here in regard to Emmanuel, that, though he did banish the Jews, he was broad- 178 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. minded enough to be a patron of literature and that he was in this respect the superior of the fanatical bigot who succeeded him. Emmanuel, as he increased in wealth, bestowed great appanages on his sons, while his daughters were sought in marriage by the greatest princes in Chris- tendom. His eldest son Dom John married Catherine of Austria, sister of Charles V. Of his other sons, three — Dom Luis, Dom Ferdinand, and Dom Edward — were created respectively dukes of Beja, Guarda, and Guimaraens, while the other two took holy orders and became cardinals. Of his two surviving daughters, the elder, Donna Isabel, married the Emperor Charles V., and the younger, Donna Beatrice, the divinity to whom the poet Bernardim Ribeiro addressed his songs, married Charles III., Duke of Savoy. With such a family of sons it did not seem likely that in a few short years the male line of the house of Aviz would become extinct, and it was with a feeling of pride in his wealth and with assured confidence in the perpetuation of his line that Emmanuel " the Fortunate " died in his beautiful palace at Belem, on December 12, 1521. The reign of John III. is that in which the rapid decline of Portugal is most perceptible. All the germs of decay which had appeared in the reign of Emmanuel, developed during the reign of his son, by the end of which, though the sovereign of Portugal was the richest in Europe, not excepting the Emperor himself, the greatness of the country was obviously disappearing. The natural growth of this decline was assisted by the fanaticism of John III., who was a THE REIGN OF JOHN III. Ijg bigot of the most pronounced type, and who power- fully aided the extinction of the greatness of the country by his introduction of the Inquisition. Though personally a pious and estimable man, he was absolutely unable to take any steps to check the downfall of his country's greatness, and considered the greatest fame of his reign would be due to the estab- lishment of the Inquisition and the introduction of the Jesuits. The greatest credit that can be given to him is that he kept his country out of all European complications, a task made comparatively easy by his close alliance with the greatest monarch in Europe, the Emperor Charles V. This alliance was sealed by three marriages ; for King John was married to the Infanta Catherine, the sister of Charles V., his only son Dom John was married to the Infanta Joanna, daughter of Charles V., and his only daughter, Donna Maria, was the first wife of Philip, prince of the Asturias, the eldest son of Charles V., and afterwards King Philip II. These marriages knitted the bonds of alliance closely between the reigning houses of Spain and Portugal, and a powerful Portuguese fleet under the king's brother, Dom Luis, Duke of Beja, assisted in the Spanish expedition against Tunis in 1535. Yet fighting with the Moors seemed to have lost its charm for the Portuguese people, for during the next ten years, all the chief towns held by Portugal in northern Africa, Azamor, Cafim, Cabo do Sul, and even Arzila and Alcacer Seguier, the captures of Affonso "the African," were abandoned, in order that the whole strength of the country might be concen- trated on its Indian and Brazilian possessions. l8o THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. This quiet abandonment of all the north African possessions, except Ceuta and Mazagon, affords a yet further proof of the change in the character of the Portuguese nobility and their sovereign. They no longer desired to fight against the old hereditary enemy of the Christian religion, as crusaders; John III. was no "Re Cavalleiro " like Affonso V., but preferred stamping out heresy at home to fighting infidels abroad ; and king and nobles alike agreed that it was better to expend their power in the wealthy Indies than in barren Africa. The nobles became more and more dependent on the Crown, and spent all their energies in intriguing for " moradias " or pensions from the Courts and for rich governments abroad. The absolutism of the king and the employ- ment of crowds of sycophant courtiers spread corrup- tion into every department of government, and the officials of all sorts, both in Portugal and India, hurried to make fortunes by every means, honest or otherwise, in their power. " Personal worship of the king," in the words of an able Portuguese writer, "had eaten out patriotism," 1 and though such a man as Dom Joao de Castro may be cited as a specimen of the great-hearted Portuguese nobleman of the finest type, most of the nobility sank into Court lackeys or greedy fortune hunters, and even the famous navigator, Fernao de Magalhaes, deserted his country and entered the service of Spain, because the pension he coveted was not conferred upon him 1 " Apontamentos para a Historia da Conquista de Portugal por Filippe II," by A. P. Lopes de Mendonca, in vol. ii. of the " Annaes das Sciencias Moraes e Politicas." DEPOPULATION OF PORTUGAL. I«I The Asiatic trade, it must be insisted upon, was the monopoly of the Crown, and only indirectly profited the ordinary trading classes, and in the hot pursuit of wealth, agriculture was neglected. There was, however, a more serious cause for the decline of the power of Portugal than the absolu- tism of the Crown, the want of patriotism of the nobility, or even than the corruption of the officials, and that was the rapid depopulation of the country. The Alemtejo and Algarves had never been thoroughly peopled, for the devastations caused by the Moorish wars could not be easily repaired ; and, though the exertions of Diniz "the Labourer " had made the Beira the garden of the whole Iberian peninsula, the part of the kingdom to the south of the Tagus had remained either in the hands of the military religious orders or split up into large feudal estates. The great discoveries at the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries largely checked the natural increase of population. Not only did the bulk of the young men gladly volunteer to man the fleets and serve in the armies in India and the East, but whole families emigrated to Madeira, and after 1530 to Brazil. The Portuguese are essentially an adventurous nation, fond of travelling and full of enterprise, and no difficulty was found in manning the great Indian fleets and recruiting the armies of Alboquerque and his successors. Of the thousands who flocked to Asia, but few ever returned. The incidents of perpetual warfare, and the noxious climate, killed off most, and of those who survived, many married native women and settled down in l82 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. India. Even of the people who did remain in Portugal, few remained in their native homesteads engaged in agriculture ; most crowded into Lisbon, where the necessities of the Eastern trade afforded work for all. The capital trebled its population in eighty years, in spite of its most unsanitary condition and the periodical pestilences which ravaged it. The king, the nobles, and the military orders were, how- ever, quite undisturbed by this extensive emigration and rapid depopulation, for their large estates were much more cheaply cultivated by African slaves, who had been imported in such numbers that the Algarves was almost entirely populated by them, and in Lisbon itself they out-numbered the free men by the middle of the sixteenth century. In this respect the condition of Portugal resembled that of Italy at the time of the decline of the Roman Empire, as the wealth of Lisbon resembled that of Imperial Rome, while the utter corruption and oppression of the officials in the Indian settlements resembled only too closely the peculation and corruption of the Roman proconsuls and procurators. While the Portuguese nation was exhibiting these signs of rapid decadence, another factor of decline was added by the religious zeal of John III., who, from the moment of his accession, had striven to introduce the Inquisition into Portugal. The Church of Rome was not likely to hinder his pious desire, but for several years the " novaes Christians " or neo- Christians, as the half-hearted converts made from the Jews, on condition that they might remain in Portugal, were called, managed to ward off the blow. THE INQUISITION IN PORTUGAL. 1 83 But the king's earnest wish was gratified at last, and in 1536 the tribunal of the Holy Orifice was estab- lished in Portugal, with Diogo da Silva, Bishop of Ceuta, as first Grand Inquisitor, who was soon succeeded by the king's brother, the Cardinal Dom Henry. The Inquisition quickly destroyed all that was left of the old Portuguese spirit, and so effectually stamped out the revival of Portuguese literature that, while, towards the close of the sixteenth century, the rest of Europe was advancing in civilization under the influence of the Renaissance, Portugal fell back, and her literature became dumb. The establishment of the Inquisition was followed in 1540 by the in- troduction of the Jesuits, who speedily obtained control of the national education, and carefully checked intellectual development. The king re- ceived his reward from the Pope for these services to Catholicism ; he was permitted to unite the Grand Mastership of the wealthy orders of Christ, Santiago, and Aviz, with the Crown, and to found the new bishoprics of Leiria, Miranda, and Porto Alegre, in Portugal, and the archbishopric of Goa, in India. It must not be thought that the reign of John III. seemed to his contemporaries the era of decline it certainly was ; no king was richer, no people more loyal, and no man more honoured. His reign, like that of Emmanuel, is studded with great names and great events, and a casual observer could not observe the seeds of decay. Besides Joao de Castro, there lived then many great Indian heroes and warriors, such as Nuno da Cunha, Antonio de Silveira, Joao de Mas- carenhas, and Luis de Athaide ; it was during this 184 THE HEROIC AGE OF PORTUGAL. reign that Francisco Coutinho, Count of Redondo, conquered Ceylon, and Fernao Mendes Pinto paid his famous visits to Japan, and the present Portuguese settlement of Macao was founded. Still greater are the literary glories of the reign of the supporter of the Inquisition, for in it Camoens wrote the " Lusiads," Ferreira wrote his dramas, Joao de Barros his history, and Sa de Miranda his poems, all works which do not seem to mark a declining country. In art, and especially in architecture, the king showed no mean taste, and his palace at Thomar and the great convent at Belem show that he was in this respect a worthy successor of King Emmanuel, and that the Portuguese workmen had attained to no small degree of skill in decorative work. Yet in spite of these glories, the heroic age of Portugal was over, and in little more than twenty years after John III.'s death, the country, which had so long maintained its independence, was absorbed by Spain. This was to be expected from the decline the causes of which have been analysed, but the final catastrophe was hastened by the death of .the heir to the throne, Dom Joao, in 1554, which brought about on the death" of John III., in 1557, the accession to the throne of a child of three years old, the ill-fated Dom Sebastian. Enough has been said of Portugal during the heroic age of the Portuguese nation ; it is now time to study the deeds of the men, who made the age heroic by their valour and daring. IX. THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA AND THE EASTERN SEAS. There is no subject that calls more loudly for an historian than the history of the Portuguese in India during the sixteenth century. There are Portuguese authorities in plenty, for, with a vivid perception of the picturesque, many of the greatest writers of the golden age of Portuguese literature devoted them- selves to this fascinating subject. Joao de Barros, the Portuguese Livy, and a contemporary of the great Indian viceroys, wrote a history of the first half century of Portuguese conquest in India in several volumes, full of interest and charm ; Fernao Lopes de Castanheda, Diogo do Couto, and Manoel de Faria e Sousa, all worked in the same field, and the lives of the two greatest of the Portuguese viceroys have full light thrown upon them in the Commentaries of Affonso de Alboquerque, 1 published by his son, and the beautiful Life of Dom Joao de Castro by Jacinto Freire de Andrade, which is a model of a perfect biography. Nor have the leaders 1 These Commentaries have been translated for the Hakluyt Society by W. de Grey Birch. 1 86 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. of the revival of the study of history neglected to treat this subject in a scientific manner ; many valuable monographs and reprints of precious docu- ments have seen the light within the last fifty years, and much material still remains undigested and unarranged in the archives at the Torre del Tombo. Yet this period, in spite of all the work which has been done upon it, still remains without an historian, fitted by a thorough knowledge, both of Indian history and of the state of civilization in India at the period in question, to draw out the salient and interesting points of the first direct contact between modern Europe and modern Asia, between the East and the West. Yet it is work which well deserves to be done. Prescott, the great American historian, has shown the interest attaching to the first conflict between Spanish chivalry and the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru ; but when will an historian arise to tell worthily the story of the contact between the heroes of Portugal and the more civilized inhabitants of Hindustan ? Apart from the fascination of this side of the subject, there remains the fact that for a century the intercourse between Asia and Europe remained in the hands of the Portuguese. The history of the Dutch and the English in the Eastern seas has its own peculiar interest, but they did not find their way in that direction until the nations of the East had been for a whole century in contact with Europeans, and until their attitude had been greatly modified by this contact. Besides, the Dutch and English both went to the East THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 1 87 as traders, and not as conquerors, colonizers, and preachers as well. Far different was the intention of the Portuguese. Regardless of the small size and slender population of their fatherland, they dreamed of nothing less than conquering the mighty empires of the East, and imposing Christianity upon them, if need be, by the edge of their swords. Grandiose as this intention was, and full of inconsequence as the idea seems to modern eyes, which have seen with what difficulty England with its teeming population has managed to maintain its hold upon India, even while it has discouraged proselytism and protected native religions, there is something noble in the con- fidence of the Portuguese warriors in their God, and in their belief that through their means He would spread Christianity throughout the East. For the ambitions of the Portuguese were not confined to India ; Portu- guese adventurers actually established themselves in power in parts of Arabia, in Burma, and in the dis- trict of Chittagong at the head of the Bay of Bengal ; Portuguese emissaries found their way to Pekin and Japan, closely followed by the missionaries of the Roman Church ; and it was while on his way to convert the millions of China to Christianity that St. Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies, gave up his life. And, lastly, it must be remembered at what odds the Portuguese fought and tried to proselytize in Asia : at many months' voyage from their homes and base of operations ; only able to reach their destinations after sailing in feeble craft round the hardly known, unexplored, and dangerous coast of Africa ; deprived of the modern knowledge alike of tides and winds, l88 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. and of £he means to promote existence in tropical climates ; they arrived amidst the hostile millions armed only with clumsy arquebuses and their swords; and yet with all these drawbacks they were victorious in many hard-fought fights against more powerful armies than their European successors in the East ever met. Of course there are many blots upon this noble history, tales of corruption and oppression, and of the preference of commercial transactions which made fortunes to the harder regime of honesty and uprightness ; but for all that the history is one marked by achievements of valour and adventurous daring, unmatched elsewhere in the history of the world. No wonder that Portugal was exhausted by her efforts ; the only wonder is that her sons ever did one tithe of these glorious deeds, or exerted themselves one-tenth as much as they did. This story of the Portuguese in India cannot be treated adequately in a single chapter. Only a resume of the very briefest descrip- tion can be given, but if it inspires any reader to go, for instance, to the history of De Barros, he will there find the record of many a deed which will justify these remarks and excite both his interest and his admiration. It was in the July of 1497 that the fleet of four ships, destined to double the Cape of Good Hope and find its way direct to India, set sail from Lisbon. King Emmanuel, who in carrying out this project and despatching this squadron was only fulfilling the plan formed by John II., selected for the command Vasco da Gama, a gentleman of his household, and son of an experienced mariner, named Estevao da THE VOYAGE OF VASCO DA GAM A. 189 Gama, who had been the nominee of John II. for this post ; and two able captains, Paul da Gama, the brother of Vasco, and Nicolas Coelho, volunteered to accompany him. The perils and dangers of this famous voyage have been told in immortal stanzas by Camoens ; it is enough here to say that the Portuguese fleet safely rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and began to work its way up the south-eastern coast of Africa. The rulers of Mozambique and Mombassa showed no disposition to assist the Portu- guese admiral in his endeavour to find a pilot to guide him across the Indian Ocean ; on the contrary, they proved actively hostile, and the false pilot, whom the the chief of Mozambique had given him, under the hostile influence, according to Camoens, of Bacchus, who was fearful lest his fame as Victor Indicus should be surpassed, deserted the fleet at Mombassa. However, Vasco da Gama pressed northwards, and at the little town of Melinda, to the north of Zanzi- bar, he found a friendly monarch, who gave him a skilful pilot. But the perils of the expedition were not yet over ; it was the wrong time of the year for crossing the Indian Ocean, and it was only after encountering fearful storms that the Portuguese heroes cast anchor off the city of Calicut on May 20, 1498, after a voyage of nearly eleven months. The India, which Vasco da Gama reached, was in a very different condition to the India of the Great Moghuls, which came into relations with the first Dutch and English adventurers. It contained no emperor, exercising almost universal sway, but many independent kingdoms. "An Afghan of the Lodi 190 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. dynasty was then on the throne of Delhi, and another Afghan king was ruling over Bengal. Ah- madabad formed the seat of a Muhammadan dynasty in Gujarat. The five independent Muhammadan kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Ellichpur, Gol- conda, and Bidar had partitioned out the Deccan. But the Hindu Raja of Vijayanagar still ruled as paramount in the south, and was, perhaps, the most powerful monarch to be found at that time in India, not excepting the Lodi dynasty at Delhi." x The ruler of the city at which Vasco da Gama first arrived was a Hindu Raja, who bore the title of Zamorin, a word derived, according to some writers, from the tradition that the first limits of the settle- ment were decided by the distance the crowing of a cock could be heard from the summit of the Tali Temple. But though himself a Hindu, the most important subjects of the Zamorin were the fanatical Moplas, the descendants of some Arab and Moham- medan settlers on the Malabar coast. These men had greatly extended the dominions of the Zamorins of Calicut and were the wealthiest inhabitants of the seaboard, for they held the trade of the Malabar coast with Aden, and therefore with the Red Sea, Egypt, and Europe in their hands. It is not to be wondered at therefore, that, though the Hindu Zamorin received the Portuguese navigator with courtesy, the Moplas showed the bitterest opposition 1 For this quotation, as well as the most precise and exact informa- tion on the state of India during the Portuguese dominion, I must ex- press my indebtedness to Sir W. W. Hunter's " Imperial Gazetteer of India," new edition, and refer to vol. vi., article India, chapter xiv., and the articles on Calicut, Cochin, Daman, Diu, and Goa. THE RETURN OF VASCO DA GAMA. 191 to him, and discouraged the idea of a direct trade with Europe, which would bring about their own ruin. This opposition prevented Vasco da Gama from carrying out his intention of leaving some settlers to form a trade establishment at Calicut, and after cruising about along the Malabar coast he commenced his voyage back to Europe. The voyage home was no less perilous than the voyage out, and it was not until the 29th of August, 1499, that Vasco da Gama cast anchor in the port of Lisbon, bringing back with him but fifty-five out of the 148 companions who had started with him on his adventurous journey. The pious navigator at once went up to the church of Our Lady at Belem, where he had offered up prayers for help before his departure. His devotions completed, Vasco da Gama made his solemn entrance into Lisbon, where he was received with a burst of popular enthusiasm, equal to that which greeted Christopher Columbus on his return from discovering America. King Emmanuel took the title of " Lord of the Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India," which was confirmed to him by a Bull of Pope Alexander VI. in 1502, and he erected the superb church of Belem, as a testimonial of gratitude to heaven. On Vasco da Gama the king conferred well-deserved honours ; he was permitted to quarter the royal arms with his own, and was granted the office of Admiral of the Indian seas, with a large revenue to be levied on the Indian trade ; he and his brothers were granted the right to use the prefix Dom or Lord, and a little later, when the importance 192 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. of his voyage became more manifest, he was created Count da Vidigueira. When the rejoicings were over, King Emmanuel determined to see what advantages could be gained from Dom Vasco da Gama's discovery, and des- patched Pedro Alvares Cabral with a fleet of thirteen ships carrying twelve hundred picked soldiers to establish " factories " on the Malabar coast, for the collection of the most valuable products of the East, which should be conveyed to Portugal in royal ships every year. And here it is necessary to again insist upon the fact, that the Portuguese trade with India was a royal monopoly. The Portuguese establishments in India were not, as was the case with regard to Hol- land, England, and France in later years, formed by companies of private merchants, who looked upon the Indian trade as a speculation, but were royal factories, managed by royal officers, and served by royal fleets. Private trade was impossible, and not even dreamed of, because it was considered necessary that these factories should be defended by bodies of troops and served by powerful fleets, which cost, an amount of money no private firm could furnish. But these royal factories were intended not only to establish and guard trade, but also to spread Christianity, and for that purpose they included from the first not only soldiers, but missionary priests. Pedro Alvares Cabral was driven by stress of weather to the coast of Brazil, of which country he took possession in the name of his sovereign, and then proceeded to follow the course laid down by Vasco da Gama, and reached "Calicut in safety. He immediately established a THE FIRST ESTABLISHMENTS IN INDIA. 1 93 factory at that place, but the Moplas showed the same unfriendly disposition which they had before ex- hibited towards Vasco da Gama, and at once murdered all the colonists. Cabral then cannonaded Calicut, and proceeded to Cannanore and Cochin, at both of which places he was favourably received, for their Hindu Rajas were unwilling tributaries to the Zamorin of Calicut and his Moplas ; and after purchasing great stores of pepper and other In- dian commodities, the Portuguese admiral left estab- lishments at these two places to open up trade, and returned home. In 1502, Vasco da Gama arrived for the second time on the Malabar coast with twenty ships, and after again cannonading Calicut, and destroying all the shipping in the port, he strengthened the factories at Cochin and Can- nanore and returned. On his departure, Vincente Sodre, one of the officers he had left, deserted the factory and set up as a pirate in the Arabian seas, being the first of those Portuguese adventurers in the Eastern seas whose stories read like romances. In 1503, three separate Portuguese squadrons under the command respectively of Francisco de Alboquer- que, ArTonso de Alboquerque, and Antonio de Sal- danha, reached India, and the first of these captains gave effective assistance to the Raja of Cochin, who had been attacked by the Zamorin for his welcome of the Portuguese, and was being besieged in the island of Vypin. Francisco de Alboquerque was only just in time, and to guard against such extremi- ties in the future, he built a strong fort, guarded with artillery, at Cochin, and when the three captains de- alboquerque. (From the Sloane MS. igy,/oh'o n.) *95 parted they left there a garrison of nine hundred men, under the command of Duarte Pacheco. This officer performed the first great feat of arms which illustrated the history of the Portuguese in India ; with his small garrison, enfeebled by sickness, he not only drove back the great army which the Zamorin sent against Cochin, but utterly defeated five thousand of his best troops in open battle. This victory established the reputation of the Portuguese in India as soldiers ; the factories now found no difficulty in purchasing all the goods they needed at a reasonable price ; and what was more important, the fame of Pacheco spread abroad, and he was able to send envoys into the interior of India, who were everywhere favourably received, and generally returned laden with presents. Pacheco's success inspired the Portuguese monarch with the idea that he could not only absorb the Indian trade, but could conquer India, and Emmanuel decided that a powerful imperial government should be established on the Malabar coast, instead of isolated factories. The first viceroy he selected was Dom Francisco de Almeida, a Portuguese nobleman of high rank, who had learned the art of war under Gonsalvo da Cordova, better known in Spanish history as the " Great Captain," and had been a favourite of King John II. The fleet with which he set sail from Belem on March 25, 1505, consisted of sixteen ships and sixteen cara- vels, and carried fifteen hundred soldiers besides many officials for the new establishment. On his way to India, Dom Francisco de Almeida occupied Quiloa and Mombassa on the south-eastern coast of Africa, ig6 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. and erected forts, which should make them safe resting-places for the Portuguese fleets ; and on his arrival at Cannanore on October 22nd he took the title of Viceroy of Cochin, Cannanore, and Quilon. The great Portuguese nobleman looked upon the state of affairs in India from a very different point of view to Cabral, Vasco da Gama, and Pacheco ; he did not regard commerce as the sole purpose of the establishments of the Portuguese in the East, and in- stead of trying to open up trade as Pacheco had done, and only defending himself when attacked, the first viceroy adopted a vigorous policy of active interfer- ence with native states, proselytism, and offensive war. He established his seat of government at Cochin, and sent forth expeditions along the Malabar coast, which generally came to blows with the Mohammedan merchants, who saw with dismay that their commerce with Egypt by way of the Red Sea would soon disappear. His chief commander was his son, Dom Lourenco de Almeida, a boy in years, but a hero in the fight. On October 19, 1505, young Lourenco cannonaded and nearly destroyed Conlao, the modern Quilon ; on March 18, 1506, he almost annihilated the fleet of the Zamorin of Calicut, consisting of eighty-four ships and one hundred and twenty prahs, with only eleven vessels, and received a check at Dabul, the modern Dabhol ; in 1507, he dis- covered the Maldive Islands, and with Tristao da Cunha sacked the port of Ponani, and in 1 508 the young hero was killed at Chaul in a combat against an Egyp- tian fleet, which had been sent by the Mamluk. Sultan to expel the Portuguese from India under the com- ALMEIDA S VICTORY OFF DIU. IQJ mand of an admiral named Emir Hoseyn. But a more serious danger was impending ; the wrath of the Mohammedan sovereigns, whose domains extended to the north-western coasts, and especially of the kings of Bijapur and Gujarat, was aroused by these aggressions, and they collected powerful fleets and joined Emir Hoseyn. The Viceroy of India, nothing daunted, sailed northward to avenge his son's death, with only nineteen ships, and after sacking Dabhol he entirely defeated the Mohammedan fleet of more than one hundred ships, on February 2, 1509, off the island of Diu. While the first Portuguese Viceroy was undertaking these operations, his appointed suc- cessor, Affonso de Alboquerque, with whom he had quarrelled, and the admiral Tristao da Cunha were exploring the Indian Ocean, and after stopping some time at the island of Socotra, they stormed the wealthy city of Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. These explorations had the most important re- sults, and Affonso de Alboquerque was glad, when the appointed time arrived for him at the close of 1509, to take over the government of India as second viceroy. Affonso de Alboquerque was the greatest of all the Portuguese heroes who served in India, and he owes his fame not only to his feats of arms, numerous and glorious as they were, but to the wisdom and justice of his civil government, and to the fact that he was a great and a far-seeing statesman, as well as a brave warrior. Like Francisco de Almeida, he had been a favourite and an intimate friend of King John II., in whose reign he filled the Court office of Master of the Horse. He commenced his viceroyalty by 198 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. r making a fresh attack on Calicut, the headquarters of the Moplas. He succeeded in burning the palace of the Zamorin and wrecking the city, but the popu- lace then arose in force and drove the Portuguese back to their ships, killing many of their leaders, including the Marshal of Portugal, Dom Fernando Coutinho. Alboquerque then proceeded to take a more important step ; he soon perceived that Cochin was too far south to serve as the headquarters of either the trade or the political dominion of the Portuguese, and that it was necessary to occupy some more central spot on the Malabar coast for a capital. The place he selected was Goa, a port in the possession of the Mohammedan king of Bijapur. Thither he sailed with twenty ships and twelve hun- dred men ; and one feat of arms, performed by Antonio de Noronha, at Panjim, at the mouth of the river Goa, where the present capital of the Portuguese posses- sions in India is situated, laid the city open to him. The citizens, who had been discouraged by the pro- phecies of a holy mendicant that they were about to be conquered by a foreign people from a distant land, surrendered at once ; eight leading men gave Albo- querque the keys of the gates, and the Portuguese viceroy entered the city in triumph on February 17, 15 10. But he did not hold it long, for on August 15th, Yusuf Adil Shah, King of Bijapur, recaptured the city after fierce fighting. Alboquerque did not despair ; he received reinforcements from Portugal, and on November 25th, he carried the city by storm, slaying over two thousand Mohammedans, and firmly established himself there. THE VICEROY ALTY OF ALBOQUERQUE. I99 But Alboquerque was not satisfied with conquering an appropriate capital for Portuguese India, he de- termined to make his country supreme throughout the Eastern seas. With this idea he undertook two famous expeditions to the east and to the west. The first Portuguese settlers upon the Malabar coast had been told by the native traders that spices and other produce of Asia could be obtained more cheaply further to the east, and these stories had been repeated to King Emmanuel, who determined to send an expe- dition to these " Spice Islands," under the command of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira. This captain reached the Malabar coast in safety, and was favourably re- ceived by the Viceroy, Francisco de Almeida, who found an experienced pilot for him, and gave him sixty well-seasoned soldiers, under the command of Francisco Serrao, and Fernao de Magalhaes, who, under the name of Magellan, was to leave his mark upon the map of the world. The pilot led the fleet skilfully, and on September 11, 1509, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira anchored off the city of Malacca, where the Malay chief permitted him to found a factory. On his return to India, he reported to Alboquerque on the wealth of Malacca and of the island of Sumatra, and that spices were both better and cheaper there than in India. The great viceroy at once determined to see these rich countries for himself, and, after some sharp fighting with the Malays, he established the Portuguese power in that quarter upon a firm basis, and returned to Goa. His expedition westwards was not so successful. During his former campaign, in which he had taken Ormuz, he had observed that 200 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. the greater portion of the Asiatic trade, which still followed the old routes, went not by way of the Persian Gulf, but by way of the Red Sea, and that the great entrepdt was the city of Aden. In order to secure the entire monopoly of the Eastern trade for the new Portuguese route round the Cape of Good Hope, it was therefore necessary to occupy Aden. With this intention Alboquerque sailed westwards in 15 13, and on Easter Eve he arrived before the city. On Easter Day he attacked it fiercely with a force of over two thousand soldiers ; but he failed, and had to content himself with destroying the shipping in the port. He then explored the Red Sea, and returned to Goa for the last time. It has been said that Alboquerque was a great statesman as well as a great warrior, and no better proof of this can be adduced than his treatment of the Hindu princes. He alone of Portuguese viceroys recognized the fact the Hindus did not take kindly to the rule of the Mohammedans, and that they would much sooner be ruled by Europeans, if they were only just and fair-minded. It was from Moham- medan powers that the Portuguese had met with such bitter opposition, from the Moplas of Calicut and the King of Bijapur, and if the successors of Alboquerque had but grasped this fact they would have found little difficulty in leading the Hindus against the votaries of Islam. They would then have waged against Mohammedans in India the same relentless war that their ancestors had waged in their own father- land, and might have established a protectorate over the Hindus without much difficulty. The wide- DEATH OF ALBOQUERQUE. 201 minded tolerance which Alboquerque showed in his communications with the Hindu princes, he also showed in the details of administration. He maintained the village system, which he found existing in Goa at the time of his conquest, and avoided all appearance of fresh taxation with as much care as a modern English collector. The ex- pedition to Aden was the last he ever undertook, and on December 16, 15 15, this truly great man died at Goa, and was buried there by his own directions in the costume of a commander of the Order of Santi- ago. " In such veneration was his memory held, that the Hindus, and even the Mohammedans, were wont to repair to his tomb, and there utter their complaints, as if in the presence of his shade, and call upon God to deliver them from the tyranny of his successors." * What better proof of the qualities which have won for him the title of Alboquerque " the Great " could be given than this ! The tyranny of the successors of Alboquerque has been much exaggerated, and in recording the accu- sations against them it must be remembered that the Portuguese viceroys and governors were re- garded at home as being placed in power for two reasons, the one to send home yearly large fleets laden with the commodities of Asia, purchased at such a low price as to afford the king a handsome profit for his treasury, and the other to propagate the Christian faith. Neither of these causes for the Portuguese dominion were likely to be regarded as satisfactory by the natives of India. The orders of 1 Hunter's "Imperial Gazetteer of India," vol. vi., article India, p. 360. kZC Jl/va j-cufc. O/iJyi. in 7y/uRey. An.1774. ALBOQUERQUE. {After the Engraving by Silva.) THE PORTUGUESE RULE IN INDIA. 203 the Directors of the English East India Company to Warren Hastings, to take care that they should have good dividends to declare in England, were not more imperative than the orders of King Emmanuel and King John III. to the Portuguese governors, that fleets heavily laden with Asiatic goods should be despatched to Lisbon without their demanding any money from home for their purchases. This of itself was enough to make the demands of the Portuguese viceroys upon the natives oppressive, and it must also be remembered that men do not leave their fatherland to live in an unhealthy climate for their own pleasure, and that the Portuguese official was as much tempted in the sixteenth century to " shake the pagoda tree " for his own benefit, and to exert his authority to that effect, as an English civil servant in the eighteenth century. Yet this search after gain was not wholly sordid, and many gallant deeds mark the period between the death of Afifonso de Alboquerque, and the arrival of the greatest of his successors, Dom Joao de Castro. The rule of Lopo Soares de Albergaria, from 1 5 1 5 to 1 5 18, was chiefly notable for his buildings at Goa, and for his success in opening up a trade with Ceylon by establishing a factory and building a fort at Colombo ; and his successor, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, the discoverer of Malacca, and fourth governor, did much to increase the development of this trade. The fifth governor, Duarte or Edward de Menezes, had to meet so many difficulties, and to put down so many insurrections at Ormuz, Malacca, and Ceylon, that he begged earnestly to be relieved; and in 1524 John III. determined to send out Vasco da Gama again, with 204 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. the title and powers of Viceroy, which had not been conferred since the death of Alboquerque. But the great navigator was now an old man, and never reached Goa to take up his office. He did, however, reach the Indian coast, which he had first seen a quarter of a century before, and died at Cochin, on Christmas Day, 1524. His body was buried in the principal chapel of the Franciscan convent at Cochin, but it did not long remain there ; for in 1538 it was removed to Portugal, and finally interred at Belem. Henrique de Menezes, who succeeded Vasco da Gama as governor, managed to put down most of the insurrections, and after a short interval of the rule of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio, Nuno da Cunha, the son of the great navigator, Tristolo da Cunha, succeeded to the governorship in 1526. His government was marked by more important events than any since that of Alboquerque, for he extended the influence of Portugal along both the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, and established settlements at Diu, off the coast of Kathiawar on the western, and at Hugh, at the mouth of the Ganges, on the eastern coast of India. The Portuguese had, ever since the days of Dom Francisco de Almeida, desired to obtain possession of the island of Diu, which could be easily fortified, and would form a good headquarters for their trade and political influence on the north-western coast of India. But all their efforts had been in vain until the year 1535, when Bahadar Shah, the Mohammedan king of Gujarat, permitted them to build a fortress on the island, and garrison it with their own troops. This he did because he was being closely pressed by THE GOVERNMENT OF NUNO DA CUNHA. 205 Humayun, the Moghul emperor, and father of Babar. But the Mohammedan monarch soon regretted that he had given the Portuguese such an important foot- hold in his dominions, and it was after a visit he had paid to Nuno da Cunha there that he was killed in a scuffle while disembarking from a Portuguese ship. His successor, Mohammed III. of Gujarat, regarded the murder of his uncle as a proof of treachery on the part of the Portuguese, and at once besieged Diu by sea and land. But the fortress was nobly de- fended ; the Portuguese women vied with the men in gallantry, and after being reduced to the greatest extremities, the commandant, Antonio de Silveira, beat off the assailants. The other important event of Nuno da Cunha's rule was the establishment of a Portuguese factory at Hugli, at the mouth of the Ganges, in the dominions of the King of Bengal, which for the first time tapped the trade of that most wealthy province. These great services during his long rule of twelve years did not protect Nuno da Cunha from malicious accusations being brought against him at Lisbon ; exaggerated accounts of his cruelty and of the corruption of his government were reported against him, and in 153B he was superseded yby a viceroy, Dom Garcia de Noronha. Nuno da Cunha died on his way back to Portugal, and the absence of his strong hand was soon felt in India. Garcia de Noronha, a former officer of Alboquerque, died almost immediately after his arrival, and his successors, as governors, Estevao da Gama and Marti m Affonso de Sousa distinguished their govern- ments by an expedition to the Red Sea, during which Z06 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. Da Gama was defeated by the Turks at Suez, and by the defeat of De Sousa at Tebelicavi. These checks greatly affected the profits of the Indian trade, and John III. determined to make a fresh departure by despatching to India Dom Joao de Castro, a hero of the old Portuguese type, and the intimate friend of his uncle, Dom Luis, Duke of Beja. In summing up thus briefly the history of the Portuguese in India, weight has been laid only upon its political and commercial aspect. It was for purely commercial reasons that Prince Henry "the Naviga- tor" had striven to find a direct sea route to India, and Vasco da Gama's success had at first been looked upon merely as opening up the Indian trade ; the idea of dominion had not then occurred to the minds of the Portuguese, and it was not until it became obvious that the commercial stations or factories would have to be guarded and defended, that troops were despatched as well as factors. The successful defence of Duarte Pacheco against the army of the Zamorin of Calicut, showed how easy it would be for the Portuguese to do more than just defend their factories, if attacked, and Francisco de Almeida com- menced a war of offence by attacking native poten- tates, who refused to allow factories to be established in their dominions. Affonso de Alboquerque originated the idea of playing off the Hindu princes against the aggressive Mohammedans, but none of his successors followed out his policy in this respect. It must not, however, be thought that the Portuguese had any idea of establishing such an empire in India as the English have built up during the last century. Their THE POLICY OF THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 20J great system was to occupy, by force if necessary, all important centres of trade along the coasts, and there to erect powerful cities and fortresses, whither the native merchants could bring down their commodities to be purchased and placed on board Portuguese ships for passage to Lisbon. They made no attempt to force their way into the interior, and only sent envoys to native princes to secure protection for the native traders coming to their ports. They occupied, indeed, small rural districts around their most impor- tant stations, such as Goa and Diu, which they ruled, according to the fashion adopted by Alboquerque in Goa, by regarding the village communities as units, and regulating taxation accordingly. If these facts are grasped, the tales of Portuguese tyranny and oppres- sion fall to the ground, for the only natives they could oppress were the merchants, who brought goods down to the ports, and the inhabitants who chose to dwell within the Portuguese borders. The merchants and traders did indeed suffer, because they had to sell their merchandise by a scale which cut their profits down much more than they relished, and the inhabi- tants of the cities were ruled as inferiors, who were bound to be subject to the Europeans in every re- spect. The Portuguese judges naturally favoured their own people, and thus in many instances treated the natives unjustly, but it may be pointed out that no merchant could be forced to come down to the ports, and that no native could be compelled to dwell in the Portuguese cities against his will. These con- siderations, joined to a recollection of the inevitable accusations always brought by a subject population 308 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. against a race of foreign rulers, tend to prove that the accusations of tyranny and oppression brought against the Portuguese have been greatly exaggerated, and it is quite certain that the Hindus were quite as badly, if not worse, treated by their Mohammedan con- querors. In one respect alone they had a right to complain, and that was, that the Portuguese, not satisfied with extending their commercial transactions, attempted also to overthrow the native religions, just as the Mohammedans did. For the Portuguese conquerors were not only traders, but ardent Christians, firmly convinced of the truth of their religion, and deter- mined to spread it. The squadron commanded by Pedro Alvares Cabral, which had been despatched to India directly after the return of Vasco da Gama, had carried some Franciscan friars, who were left at Cochin, in 1500, to preach their religion. They were speedily followed by other missionaries, chiefly Domi- nican and Franciscan friars, who increased in number, after the capital of the Portuguese sovereignty was removed to Goa. Great convents arose there, and the missionaries began their labours by preaching in the neighbouring districts, which were divided into parishes after the European fashion, and regarded as ecclesias- tical units. The fame of the Goa missionaries was greatly increased by the discovery or pretended discovery of the bones of St. Thomas the Apostle at the spot, which had long attracted the common worship of Mohammedans, Hindus, and native Christians, near Madras, where he was reported to have been martyred. These bones were brought to Goa in 1522, CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN INDIA. 209 during the government of Duarte de Menezes, and buried with great pomp in the sacred shrine in the Church of St. Thomas at Goa, where they remain to this day. These first Portuguese missionaries were delighted to find native Christians in India when they arrived, and to find them a powerful military caste. They did not at first inquire too minutely into the doc- trines and ceremonies of these Christians, who belonged to the Nestorian Church, and far from persecuting them with especial fervour, as was the case later, they regarded the very existence of these Christians as a proof of the vitality of their own faith. After the discovery of the bones of St. Thomas missionaries flocked in increased numbers to India, not only from Portugal, but from Rome itself ; and in 1539 Goa was made the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, and Joao de Alboquerque was consecrated its first bishop. But the greatest impulse given to the cause of the propa- gation of the Christian faith was the arrival in India of St. Francis Xavier in 1542, during the government of Martim Affonso de Sousa. This great preacher and great man was not long in making a deep impres- sion upon the natives of India, and the news of the converts he had made without the limits of the Portuguese settlements, attracted a crowd of followers. The Society of the Jesuits, of which he was one of the founders, paid especial attention to this field of mission work, and the progress of Christianity became more and more rapid. This was the golden age of proselytising effort ; the Hindus listened with patience to the Christian missionaries, and did not yet begin to persecute them, and the Inquisition which was to DOM JOAO DE CASTRO. • ; th, MS of Pedro Barrato de Rezende of the AfUr ""^S^IZuL mrllZoftH* Viceroy* at G~> THE VICEROYALTY OF JOAO DE CASTRO. 211 bear so heavily upon the native Church of Nestorian Christians, did not inaugurate its forcible methods of conversion until the year 1560. - • The name of St. Francis Xavier suggests that of his illustrious friend, Dom Joao de Castro, who rivalled upon the battlefield the glories of Francisco de Almeida, Affonso de Alboquerque, and Nuno da Cunha, but who was distinguished above them all for the noble purity of his life. De Castro was the intimate friend of the king's uncle, Dom Luis, Duke of Beja, with whom he had been educated, and had won his spurs and the admiration of the Emperor Charles V., by his conduct in the expedition to Tunis. He had served with distinction under Garcia de Noronha and Estevao da Gama in the Indian seas, and on his return home had been employed in the difficult task of evacuating the various Portuguese stations in Morocco, which it had been decided to abandon. He was renowned for the purity and even austerity of his character, and it was for this reason , that he was appointed, in 1545, viceroy of India. The situation there was a difficult one, for the Sultan of Turkey had, it is said, at the request of the Venetians, who were disgusted at losing their profitable trade with the East, sent a powerful fleet down the Red Sea to exterminate the Portuguese in India. When Joao de Castro arrived at Goa, he heard that Diu was being again besieged by Mohammed III. of Gujarat. The news was true, and in spite of the gallant defence of Dom Joao de Mascarenhas, the besieged were driven to extremities. The viceroy at once proceeded thither, and not only relieved the 212 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. fortress, but defeated the King of Gujarat in a pitched battle beneath the walls. This victory, the greatest won by the Portuguese in India, exalted the fame of the general, which was further enhanced by his annihilation of the great Turkish fleet After these victories Joao de Castro turned to matters of internal reform, and, by a policy which recalls that of Lord Cornwallis in Bengal in later history, he fixed the salaries of the various civil officials and tried to put an end to the system of corruption and peculation by which they had robbed the royal treasury and the natives alike. He looked with especial disfavour upon the loose and immoral life led by the Portuguese at Goa, and sternly discouraged their luxury, which, as he declared, could only be paid for by robbing the king of his dues. Unfortunately Joao de Castro, though he was to inaugurate reforms, did not live long enough to see them carried out, for he died in 1548, in the third year of his viceroyalty, in the arms of his friend, St. Francis Xavier, and it is recorded to the glory of this knight of the olden type, that, in spite of his opportunities, he died poor, and bequeathed to his son only his sword, " ornamented," in the words of his biographer, " with a few stones of no great value, but with a glory beyond price." The immediate successors of Dom Joao de Castro, Garcia de Sa, Jorge Cabral, Affonso de Noronha, and t/ Pedro de Mascarenhas, found no great perils to meet, since the victory of Diu had terrified the Mohammed- ans for a time, and none of them left any important traces upon the history of the Portuguese in India. The government of Dom Constantino de Braganza, PORTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS IN AFRICA. 213 a scion of the most noble house in Portugal next to royalty, marked a return to the system of Dom Joao de Castro, whom he imitated not only in his internal reforms, but in his gallantry in the field. He it was who took and occupied Daman, which, with Goa and Diu, remains to this day a possession of Portugal. He was still in office when the death of John III. left the crown of Portugal to a minor, and the great- ness of his country, and even its independence, was on the point of disappearing. But the Portuguese power in Asia must not be regarded as being confined to India, though Goa remained its headquarters, and the centre from which the homeward-bound fleets sailed. It will be remem- bered that Affonso de Alboquerque made expeditions both to the east and west ; and his successors, during the century of the Portuguese monopoly of the Asiatic trade, maintained and extended their com- mercial operations in both direction. But before touching on these extensions attention must be called to the care with which the greatest Portuguese governors kept up the establishments on the south- eastern coast of Africa. Mozambique, which still belongs to Portugal, Mombassa, and Melinda, were all fortified with the utmost science of the time, for the homeward- and outward-bound fleets always paused at one or other or at all of these places before facing or after meeting the perils of the Indian Ocean, in order to refit and take in provisions. The dangers of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope were also sufficiently serious to need rest or preparation, for to mention but two disasters, Francisco 214 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. de Almeida, the first Viceroy of India was wrecked in Saldanha Bay, and died there on his way back from his command ; and a few years after occurred the wreck, imprisonment among the savages, and death of Dom Manoel de Sousa and his wife, which Camoens has immortalized in touching words. 1 More impor- tant than these African settlements was the city of Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, which became the headquarters of the Persian trade with Europe by means of the Portuguese fleets. It has been seen that Aden was too strong for Alboquerque to capture ; one of his successors, AfTonso de Noronha, \/ was more successful in 1 551, but he only held the key of the Red Sea for a single year, after which it was recaptured by the Turks. Far more valuable was the settlement of Malacca, which was placed upon a secure footing by Alboquer- que. It became the centre of a great trade with Java, Sumatra, and the Spice Islands, and from it Fernao de Magalhaes and Francisco Serrao prosecuted their discoveries among the Moluccas and the Celebes. The history of this settlement is full of interest ; it was repeatedly attacked by the Achinese and other natives, and some of its sieges are as famous as those of Diu, though not conducted against such civilized opponents. But Malacca was not only the head- quarters of the Spice Islands trade, but the port from which explorations were directed northwards. It was from Malacca that Duarte Coelho started to explore the coasts of Cochin China, and made his adventurous journey into Siam, and from Malacca also Fernao 1 Camoens, " Lusiads," canto v. stanzas 46-48. THE PORTUGUESE IN CHINA. 215 Peres de Andrade started to open up trade with the mighty and populous empire of China. There can be little doubt, according to a most distinguished Portuguese historian, 1 that the embassy, which King Emmanuel despatched in 15 17 to the emperor of China, was caused by a knowledge of Marco Polo's travels, and by the interest inspired by his account of the far empire of Cathay. At any rate it was as an ambassador from one monarch to another, and not as a conqueror that Fernao Peres de Andrade was sent to China with letters and presents. And the very fact of this embassy suggests a doubt whether the Portuguese would have ever acted as they did in India had there been a monarch there of such power as the emperor of China was reported to possess, or would have been contented to be traders only. De Andrade safely reached Canton by way of Malacca in 15 18, but in spite of his letters and presents he was long detained there and not allowed to proceed to Pekin until 1 5 2 1. When the Chinese thoroughly understood that the Portuguese came only to trade and not to conquer, they permitted the new-comers to establish a factory, first at Lium-po ; and in 1549 at Chin Chee ; and, finally, in 1557, in the year of the death of John III., at the request of the Chinese Government, the Portuguese withdrew their other factories and established themselves in the island of Macao, at the mouth of the Canton river. Here they carried on a prosperous trade, and in 1583 they received leave to 1 The Viscount de Santarem in his " Memoria sobre o estabelicemento de Macau." 2l6 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. dispense justice within their island, and in 1587 were recognized as independent there. The first communication of the Portuguese with Japan is still more curious, and is connected with the history of one of those adventurous travellers who boldly traversed the most distant lands of Asia, long before Englishmen or Dutchmen had ventured to assail the Portuguese monopoly. Fernao Mendes Pinto has for generations been regarded as a typical liar, an accusation generally believed in England from the famous line of Congreve in " Love for Love : " (act ii. scene v.) " Mendes Pinto was but a type of thee, thou liar of the first magnitude." But modern inquiry has shown that though he doubt- less exaggerated, and drew strange inferences, his curious " Peregrinacao " or Travels, which was first published in 16 14, and was translated during the seventeenth century into English, French, and Spanish, contains essentially a true account of his adventures. His career is typical of that of many another Portu- guese adventurer in the East. He first went to Asia in 1537, and during his wanderings was five times shipwrecked, thirteen times taken captive, and seven- teen times sold as a slave. On his way out he was taken prisoner between Socotra and the Persian Gulf, and sold as a slave at Mocha, where he re- mained until ransomed by the Portuguese governor of Ormuz. After many daring adventures, which savour of piracy, he was engaged in 1542 in a strange expedition to Calempin, near Pekin, which he had organized to plunder the tombs of seven- teen Chinese emperors there. On his way back THE PORTUGUESE IN JAPAN. 2iy from this sacrilegious attempt he was wrecked off the Chinese coast, and set to work in repairing the Great Wall of China. While there he was made a prisoner by the Tartars during one of their invasions, and after being present at a Tartar siege of Pekin was carried away into Tartary. After various adventures he managed to get back to China, and he then paid his first visit to Japan. His account of the wealth of the Japanese islands excited the minds of the Portuguese officials on the Chinese coast, and a fleet of nine ships was placed under his command at Ning-po, with orders to open up a trade with Japan. Ill luck again pursued him ; eight of his ships foundered, and the one upon which he himself sailed, was wrecked on the Loo-Choo Islands. Undiscouraged by all his reverses, he continued to represent the wealth of Japan to his superiors in China and at Malacca, and in 1548 he established a factory in the neighbourhood of Yokohama. Here he did good service, and besides opening up a trade in Japanese goods, he made a large fortune for himself. With this fortune he was on his way back to Portugal in 1553, when the ecclesiastics at Goa worked upon his religious sentiments, which, as in other Portuguese adven- turers, must have been very deep, though they do not seem to have influenced him in his dealings with Asiatics, and persuaded him to devote nearly all his wealth to the establishment of a seminary at Goa for the education of missionaries to Japan. The career of Mendes Pinto illustrates the extra- ordinary energy and indomitable courage of the Portu- guese in Asia, and it is a subject for wonder how 2l8 THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. one little country, one of the very smallest of the European states, could produce not only great governors and conquerors, like Francisco de Almeida, Affonso de Alboquerque, Nuno da Cunha, and Joao de Castro, and their lieutenants ; and military heroes like Duarte Pacheco, Antonio de Silveira, and Joao de Mascarenhas, and their soldiers ; but also daring adventurers like Duarte Coelho, who boldly penetrated into the interior of Siam, and Mendes Pinto. These men, from the highest to the lowest, seem to have had unbounded confidence in themselves, and, as will be seen later, two Portuguese adventurers, with hardly any support, Sebastiao Gonzales and Philip de Brito, established themselves as practically independent princes in Arakan. It has been shown that this extra- ordinary energy and enterprise exhausted the kingdom of Portugal. Of the thousands who left their homes in Europe, but an infinitesimal portion ever returned. Not one of the early governors of Portuguese India died in Portugal until the time of Dom Constantino de Braganza ; they either died in India, like Albo- querque, Vasco da Gama, and Noronha, or on their way home, like Almeida and Nuno da Cunha. The drain upon the energies of the people was immense, and the wonder is not that Portugal was soon ex- hausted, but that it ever put forth such vitality at all. The greatness of the Portuguese in India was due to the courage and heroism of the Portuguese people, and these qualities they owed to a succession of great kings, who had trained the people to freedom, self-reliance, and constancy ; were it not for great kings like John " the Great " and John " the Perfect," THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 2IO, and great princes like Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, and Prince Henry " the Navigator," the Portuguese nation would never have done what it did, and the Story of Portugal teaches the useful lesson that a people, trained to lofty thoughts and a high conception of duty, will be sure to find scope for its energies, and exhibit the result of its training in noble deeds. X. THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. THE history of the Portuguese in South America differs greatly from the story of the growth of their power in Asia ; in America they found no wealthy cities and civilized peoples, only poor natives, and it was no wonder that their chief efforts in the sixteenth century were devoted to the development of the lucra- tive Eastern trade and to Asiatic exploration. Had any one told King Emmanuel that the country which Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered by a mere chance on his way to Asia, would prove of more enduring value to Portugal than the settlements in India, that monarch would not have believed him. Yet such has been the case. Whereas at the present time the Portuguese possessions in Asia have dwindled down to the settlements of Goa, Daman, and Diu in India, and the island of Macao, which are of very little value to the mother country, the great republic of Brazil has expanded into an independent state con- taining fourteen millions of inhabitants, or more than three times the population of Portugal. 1 It is true that 1 According to the estimate formed at the close of 1888, Brazil had a population of 14,002,335 inhabitants, while according to the census THE DISCOVERY OF BRAZIL. 221 the governments of Portugal and her flourishing daughter across the Atlantic are separated,, and that they are politically independent of each other, yet Brazil still continues in close alliance with Portugal, and receives from the mother country the crowds of sturdy immigrants, who are steadily expanding the resources of the greatest country in South America. Brazilians are as proud of the great deeds of their European ancestors as the Portuguese themselves, and even surpass the inhabitants of the mother country in their admiration for Camoens, and the assiduous study of his works. The story of the settlement and gradual colonization of Brazil cannot rival in romantic interest that of the Portuguese exploits in Asia, but it is nevertheless instructive to study the slow growth of the colony which has now become a mighty empire. It was upon April 24, 1500, that Pedro Alvares Cabral, the admiral commanding the fleet which King Emmanuel had ordered to India, on receiving the news of the successful voyage of Vasco da Gama, caught sight of an unknown country towards the west. He had stood out to sea after passing the Cape Verde Islands, or, according to some authorities, had been driven out to sea by a storm and had not expected to see land at all, so that the discovery, which proved of the greatest value to Portugal, was the result of chance, and not of deliberate exploration. He was unable to land at first on account of the surf, of 1878 Portugal had a population of 4,160,315, in the Azores and Madeira 390,384, the possessions in Asia 847,503, and the possessions in Africa, 2,741,448. 222 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. and it was not until he reached 15 north latitude, that he was able to find a harbour, to which he gave the name of Porto Seguro or Safe Port. He landed and took possession of the new country in the name of the King of Portugal, and after erecting a cross gave it the name of Santa Cruz, which remained its official name for many years, before the popular name of Brazil, which was given to it from the quantity of brazil-trees it contained, was adopted. Cabral found the country to be fertile and well watered, and inhabited by a mild and inoffensive people, who allowed him to explore a little, and to take on board fruit and water. He at once perceived the value of his discovery, and sent off one of his ships to Lisbon with information of it, and with one of the inhabitants on board to be taught the Portuguese language. He also left two of his own men in the country to learn the language of the natives and to explore, and then proceeded on his way to India. King Emmanuel sent various expeditions to ex- plore this new country, notably two under Amerigo Vespucci in 1501 and 1503, and the greater part of the coast line down to the River Plate was visited and mapped out by this industrious explorer. But neither Vespucci, nor the first colonists despatched from Portugal, reported the existence of more than a fertile country, and the Portuguese people being at that time in the full excitement of their first conquests in Asia, and the rich trade to be opened up there, paid but little attention to the new possession across the Atlantic. It was soon discovered that there were no wealthy cities or powerful dynasties among the ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS. 223 inhabitants of Brazil, such as Cortez met with in Mexico, and Pizarro in Peru, and there seemed to be little prospect of a lucrative trade. So little was known, indeed, of the natural wealth of Brazil, that Spain, though by the Bull of Alexander VI. it had a right to all discoveries in that quarter of the globe, consented to give up to Portugal undisputed posses- sion of the whole coast line of Brazil from the River Maranham to the River Plate. Of the aboriginal inhabitants of this vast country, curious accounts were written by the first Portuguese explorers. They were reported to be partly nomadic, and to live chiefly on fish and fruit, and on the game which they killed in their forests with bows and arrows. They wore little or no clothes, and generally painted their bodies, and some tribes used to smear themselves with gum, and stick beautiful feathers all over them, which made them look at a distance more like great birds than human beings. They grew no corn, but made cakes of cassava root, and used to drink either the pressed juice of fruit or an intoxicating liquor made from honey. They understood how to spin and weave, and build huts ; they were great smokers of tobacco, and had some knowledge of the usefulness of the medicinal herbs and drugs which abound in Brazil. Their country, though fertile, seemed destitute of everything of value to Europeans, and it was at first thought that the discovery of Cabral would in no way contribute to the wealth or prosperity of the Portuguese people. So firmly was this believed, and so absorbed were 224 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. the king, nobles, and people of Portugal in their Asiatic explorations and conquests, that for many years no attempt was made to form settlements in South America, and no effort to explore the interior of the continent. Two royal ships only for a long time were despatched to Brazil every year to take out and land there condemned convicts and women of bad character, and to bring back parrots and different varieties of wood, notably the brazil wood which gave the new country its popular name. A few families of settlers, partly from Madeira and partly from northern Portugal, also went out on their own account, and established themselves in various chosen spots, where they introduced agriculture and tried in vain to make the natives work for them as slaves. No attempt was made by the Portuguese monarch to superintend these infant settlements, or to decree any form of government for the stray colonists and convicts, who did what seemed good in their own eyes, and in many instances treated the natives with the utmost severity. While soldiers, governors, and officials were despatched in numbers to Asia, there was no thought taken of America ; and as one instance of the manner in which Brazil was treated, it may be mentioned that the importation of ginger from that country was prohibited in order not to infringe the Indian monopoly. This neglect suddenly ceased about the year 1530, when the rumour spread throughout Portugal that Brazil abounded in gold, silver, and precious stones. The natives had made no attempt to work mines, for they attached no value to these commodities, but the THE SETTLEMENT OF BRAZIL. 225 knowledge that the precious metals abounded in Peru caused people to believe that they also existed in other parts of the South American continent. The discovery of gold in small quantities, and the rumours of an El Dorado in the interior, soon, attracted crowds of adventurers from ' all parts of Europe ; many families from Portugal were then encouraged to emigrate in order to counterbalance these adventurers, and the settlement of the new country was thus commenced in earnest. King John III. was as much excited by the news of the discovery of gold as his courtiers and people, and he sent over to Brazil in 1 53 1 the first royal governor, Martim Affonso de Sousa, with instructions to assert the royal power over the rapidly increasing population of colonists and adventurers, and to arrange for the future govern- ment of the country. Martim Affonso de Sousa, who was afterwards Governor- General of Portuguese India, was a wise and prudent statesman ; though unsupported by any soldiers he made a sort of royal progress through Brazil, and he strongly advised the king to let the country develop by itself without interference from home. For government, he advised that the form of administration which had sprung up in the various settled districts should be confirmed and not interfered with. This form of government was simply the combination of all the inhabitants of each settlement into a sort of little state, which elected an officer called captain, who exercised a sort of patriarchal authority, and superintended measures of defence against either natives or other colonies of settlers. These captains held no royal commission, 326 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. and imposed no taxes ; every man was able to do pretty much what he liked in his own house, and each settlement was ruled not by law, but by the general sentiment of the community. ' These captains had no authority, but what they derived from the willing obedience of the settlers, and every captain exercised more or less authority according to his personal character. Martim Affonso de Sousa saw the advantages of such a system for a new colony, and he advised the king not to send out royal officials from home whose authority would probably be ignored, but to confirm these captains in their authority, and that the settlements already made should be recognized as "captainships." This was accordingly done ; the king was only too glad not to have to despatch soldiers to America as he wanted all he could raise for Asia, and he sanctioned the measures taken by his representative. But he further subdivided the country into three vast " chief captain- ships," which he granted to Joao de Barros, the Portuguese Livy and historian of the Portuguese in Asia, Ayres da Cunha, and Fernao Alvares de Andrade, with instructions to search for gold mines and to exercise a general supervision over the government of the country. The colonists, w T ho flocked to Brazil from Portugal at this time, were of a very different type to the Portuguese who were sent to Asia. The latter were chiefly soldiers, sailors, and officials, despatched to India and the settlements in the East in royal fleets as servants of the Crown, who, while acknowledging themselves servants of the king, yet went to the East 1* THE COLONIZATION OF BRAZIL. 227 with the idea of making their own fortunes, and even- tually returning home to Portugal, while the Brazilian colonists went out at their own expense with their wives and families, and made their homes in their adopted country. These men were invaluable to a new country ; they went out with no intention of ever returning home, and with the power and will to labour with their hands. Throughout the sixteenth century a steady succession of Portuguese emigrants made their way to Brazil, either on account of the favourable report of its climate and resources, which they received from their friends or relations already settled there, or in order to escape the misfortunes impending on their own country, and more especially the heavy hand of the Inquisition. Mention has been made of the vast importation of slaves into Portugal ; this employment of negro labour threw a number of agricultural labourers out of work, who did not care to enlist as soldiers for the East, and could not make a livelihood in cities, and from this class many of the first colonists to Brazil came. Some weight, too, must be attached to the adventurous nature of the Portuguese people ; and this side of their character, which showed itself in individuals in the East, made men who loved a family life better than fighting find their way to the western continent. The colonization of Brazil was essentially popular ; it was not initiated by king, priests, or nobles ; and illustrates the extreme self-reliance and daring which made Portugal so great at this period. The one blot upon the careers of these early settlers was their treatment of the natives. Accustomed to the exis- 228 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. tence of slavery at home, they tried to make the natives work for them, and this attempt brought about a bitter hatred between the aboriginal races and the immigrants, which showed itself in murder and massacre. The steady tide of emigration to Brazil did not at this time contribute to the wealth of the mother country ; on the contrary, it must be noted as one of the chief causes of that depopulation of Portugal, which has been spoken of as the germ of the decadence of the Portuguese power. It has been said that some of the emigrants from Portugal to Brazil were moved by a fear of the Inqui- sition, and hoped to escape from it by going to the New World. Especially was this the case with num- bers of the " novaes Christiaos," or half- converted Jews. This class comprised many families of wealth and influence, who, when they saw the rapid approach of persecution, removed en masse to Brazil. In the new country they thought themselves free, and were joined by many of their unconverted brethren, who had been expelled by King Emmanuel. As usual, even it not wealthy, these people were able to raise money, and they brought into the new colony, what it most needed, capital. Many of the greatest families in Brazil trace their descent from these laborious and hard-working colonists, who, as in every other place, gave an impulse to trade and industrial development unfelt before. It was owing to their perspicacity that the sugar-cane, the greatest source of Brazilian wealth, was intro- duced into the colony from Madeira in the year 1548, and they started the direct slave trade with the Guinea Coast, recognizing both the impossibility of THE GOVERNMENT OF THOMAS DE SOUS A. 220. reducing the aboriginal races into a state of servitude, and the advantages of negro labour. From all these causes, Brazil was growing a wealthy colony by the middle of the sixteenth century, possessing many well-populated and well-cultivated districts upon the sea coast, surrounding the various ports and harbours, where prosperous towns had sprung up, of which may be noted at this time Pernambuco, Tamacara, Ilheos, Porto Seguro, and St. Vincent. The prosperity of Brazil attracted the attention of John III., and he at last decided to establish a vice- royalty there, instead of leaving the colonists to govern themselves, and for the first governor-general he selected a nobleman of talent and experience, Dom Thomas de Sousa. At the same time the king re- voked his decree forming the three "chief captain- ships," and granted his representative full powers to arrange for a new system of administration. In 1549 Dom Thomas de Sousa arrived in Brazil with a fleet of six ships of war, many officials for the new govern- ment, a strong force of soldiers, and the first contingent of Jesuits, who were despatched with the especial purpose of converting the natives. Fortunately for Brazil, Thomas de Sousa was a great statesman ; he made no attempt to enforce his powers unduly ; he carefully avoided interfering with the subordinate captainships, and left the system of local government established in each without modification ; he made no attempt to levy taxes or to interfere with the liberties of the people, and even avoided quartering his soldiers in any of the existing towns. He perceived that the weak point of the existing administration was that 230 THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZIL. the captainships were too independent of each other, scattered as they were down the coast like little states, and he therefore determined to found a capital, and to establish a central government, which, without inter- fering with local liberties, should become a court of appeal, and regulating power over them. The place he selected for his capital was at the head of All Saints Bay, better known as the Bay of Bahia, where he erected the city of San Salvador. This town he made the headquarters of his troops, and the seat of the central government, and the Jesuit fathers also made it their point of departure. The most impor- tant question that Thomas de Sousa had to face was the treatment of the aboriginal tribes. The attempts of the Portuguese settlers to reduce them to slavery had been met with stubborn resistance, and a chronic war raged along all the landward boundaries of the captainships. The natives did not often attack the settlements of the Europeans, but they resisted any advance towards the interior, and small parties of Portuguese attempting to settle in the interior were often massacred. Dom Thomas de Sousa determined to check this continuous guerilla war- fare by both warlike and peaceful measures. He sent his troops, and led them himself, against tribes which had committed any particular act of atrocity, and punished them severely, and at the same time he gave all the help in his power to the measures of the Jesuits for civilizing them. The history of the Jesuits in Brazil is far more glorious if less interesting than that of the Jesuits in India. In America they had not to contend with THE JESUITS IN BRAZIL. 23 1 the trained and subtle intellects of the Hindus, who were able and ready to meet them in the most abstruse philosophical arguments, but with simple- minded savages willing to be taught. The success of the famous Society was unbounded ; the teachings of Christianity did far more to quiet the aboriginal inhabitants than the swords of De Sousa's soldiers, and in a comparatively short space of time, either Jesuits, or native emissaries trained and taught by them, had penetrated many miles into the interior of the conti- nent. The rapid conversion and civilization of the native tribes produced many fortunate results : the great domain of Portugal in South America was saved much of the terrible warfare with savages, which marks the history of the English settlers in North America ; but, on the other hand, peace between the two races brought about intermarriage, and produced a class of mestizos, or half-breeds, which now includes about a quarter of the population. This conversion to the Christian religion was not hastened or in any- way assisted by the terrible power of the Inquisition. That institution, which did so much to weaken the influence of Christianity in India, by its auto-da-jes and its persecution of the Nestorian Christians was never allowed to take root in Brazil, and the atrocities of Goa were not imitated at San Salvador or Rio de Janeiro. Many reasons have been given for the non- establishment of the Inquisition, but the chief credit is undoubtedly due to Dom Thomas de Sousa, who was well aware of the services rendered to Brazil by the " novaes Christiaos " and other persons, whose orthodoxy could be impeached, and who urged at the o IN 1^ •H fc Hi « s « ta ~ < 240 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. The youthful king had none to help him. His father Dom Joao, the only son of John III., had died fifteen days before the birth of his only child, and his mother, Donna Joanna, the daughter of the Emperor Charles V,, had immediately retired to Spain, leaving the child to the care of his grandparents. On the death of John III. in 1557, his queen, Donna Catherine, the sister of Charles V., assumed the regency in the name of her grandson. From the very first, the Portuguese people, from the highest to the lowest, disapproved of her rule ; she was so ag- gressively Spanish in speech, bearing, and appearance, and had so persistently refused to identify herself with her adopted country, in spite of her long residence there, that every one believed her to be plotting to secure the eventual succession of her favourite nephew, Philip II. of Spain, to the crown of Portugal. Pier bigotry and encouragement of the Inquisition did not tend to make her popular, and national prejudice declared itself strongly against her. Yet she was not a bad ruler ; she maintained the old servants of John III., and the machinery of administration though in many places clogged by corruption, went on smoothly, and she even managed to despatch a sufficiently powerful army to relieve Mazagon, when it was besieged by the Moors. Yet throughout her five years' tenure of power the queen-regent found herself hampered by the intrigues of the Cardinal Henry, who, as heir to the throne, thought he ought to be in her place, and at last she decided to give up the struggle, and in 1562 she retired to Spain. The Cardinal Henry then satisfied his ambition THE MINORITY OF SEBASTIAN. 24I and became regent of the kingdom, of which he was to be for a short time the unfortunate monarch, and during his rule the government of the country fell entirely into the hands of two brothers, who had made themselves very conspicuous in the intrigues which had led to the retirement of Queen Catherine. Of these brothers, the elder, Luis Goncalves da Camara, was an able Jesuit, who had been appointed confessor and tutor to the young king, while the younger, Martim, was prime minister, and carried on the work of administration during the regency of the Cardinal Henry. The two brothers were both men of con- siderable ability, and, though they made no attempt to initiate reforms or to check the decay of Portugal, they managed to conceal her rottenness as much as possible from the eyes of Europe. In 1568 Dom Sebastian was declared of age by the Camaras, though only in his fifteenth year, and from that time they excluded their former master, the Cardinal, from even a semblance of power. This behaviour did not ensure their continuance in office, for as soon as the young king began to take an active interest in affairs, he dismissed the brothers, and placed the chief power in the hands of an upright nobleman, Dom Pedro de Algagova Carneiro. The character of Dom Sebastian was one of the most important factors in bringing about the final overthrow of Portugal, and therefore deserves some examination, the more especially as the nature of the Portuguese monarchy was now entirely absolutist, owing to the wealth brought into the private treasury of the king, by the Asiatic trade, and his .consequent 242 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AV1Z. independence of the Cortes. The young king was rather German than Portuguese in appearance, with his blue eyes and fair hair and his face disfigured by the Hapsburg lip, and in his nature there was much of the Teuton dreaminess and love of the marvellous, which impelled him to take part in rash undertakings. 1 He was fond of solitude, and of building up castles in the air, in which he always appeared as a Christian hero exterminating the Mohammedans. For with his German dreaminess he united a truly Spanish fanaticism. His tutor, Luis Goncalves da Camara, made him a bigot, and his governor, Dom Aleixo or Alexis de Menezes, taught him to look upon warlike enterprise as the chief aim of a monarch's career, and the double teaching had inspired him with crusading ardour. He was not likely to be satisfied like his grandfather, John III., with showing his zeal for Christianity by rigorous orthodoxy and systematic persecution at home, but longed rather to unite war with religion, and to spread Christianity, like St. Louis of France, by his sword. To fanaticism and warlike ambition he added an obstinacy and imperiousness of character, which made him a tyrant. While training himself from boyhood for war, he determined to train his people also by issuing a sumptuary edict that none of his subjects might have more than two dishes, and those of the simplest character, for their meals, forget- ting that no decree could alter the daily life of his people. Lastly, with these characteristics he united 1 On the character of Dom Sebastian, Sir Richard Burton has written some thoughtful pages ; see his Commentary on Camoens, vol. i. PP. 341-344- THE REIGN OF SEBASTIAN. 243 a spirit of profoundest melancholy, which is evident in his portraits and in all his actions, a melancholy which seemed to presage his early and tragic death, and is indicated by the motto he selected for himself: " Un bel morir tutta la vita honora." Such a monarch was not the man to check the decadence of Portugal ; only a practical man, who should try to husband the resources of the nation, could have attempted such a task, and even he would have had difficulties to face which might well seem insurmountable. But practical measures of reform, such as a systematic attempt to regulate the ex- penditure of the kingdom, and an effort to check the corruption which had grown up in all departments of the state, demanded an amount of serious and pro- longed labour which the dreamy king was little inclined to bestow ; he thought he had done enough in issuing his sumptuary edict, and paid no further attention to the evils which were sapping the strength of his kingdom. For one measure, however, he deserves much credit. Though paying no attention to the slaves in Portugal, and regarding negroes as a race made for slavery, he yet under the influence of the Jesuits issued a decree of the greatest importance for the colony of Brazil, by which it was ordered that for the future none of the aboriginal Brazilians should be publicly sold or sent as slaves to work in the plantations, except prisoners taken in a just war. Even in the higher domain of foreign politics as opposed to internal administration, he made no attempt to watch over the interests of Portugal. 244 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. His early marriage was a matter of supreme import- ance to the kingdom, for the only male heir of the house of Aviz was his great-uncle, the Cardinal, and the deaths of Dom Sebastian and Dom Henry with- out direct heirs would inevitably be followed by a civil war arising from the disputed succession. This consideration weighed but little with the romantic monarch, who after making a half-hearted attempt in 1570 to secure the hand of the beautiful Princess Margaret, sister of Charles IX. of France, the famous " Reine Margot," by the mediation of Dom Luis de Torres, abandoned the idea of marriage, and devoted himself to his schemes of fighting the Mohammedans. The times were singularly unfit for a war against the infidels. Crusading ardour had long been extinct, and though Pope Pius II. (^Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini) had in the preceding century tried to form a coalition against the Turks, and in 1 571 Don John of Austria had broken their naval power at Lepanto, the ardour of the Pope and the navy of the prince were directed against the Turks, not because they were unbelievers, but because they were a conquering race and threa- tened Western Europe. The expeditions of the Emperor Charles V. against Tunis in 1535, and Algiers in 1541, were dictated rather by naval and commercial than by religious considerations, and John III. had acted with the thorough sanction of the Church, whose most humble devotee he was, in aban- doning the smaller towns held by Portugal in Morocco. Yet Dom Sebastian persisted ; he would be crusader rather than politician, and he was determined to fight the Mohammedans. His first idea was to go in person SEBASTIAN'S AMBITION. 245 to India and place himself at the head of the Portuguese forces there ; but the minister, Pedro de Alcagova Carneiro, pointed out the difficulty of finding a regent to govern during his absence, and his former tutor, Aleixo de Menezes, turned his thoughts to Africa. He was fired by the fame of his ancestor, AfTonso V. " the African," and determined to waste what strength still remained to the exhausted Por- tuguese nation in useless expeditions to the barren regions of north-west Africa, where no possible advan- tage could be obtained of the slightest value to Portu- gal. Filled with the notion of recapturing the useless places which his grandfather had evacuated, such as Alcacer Seguier, Azamor, Arzila, and Cafim, King Sebastian in his twentieth year, in 1574, suddenly made up his mind to sail across to Africa. The expedition partook rather of the nature of a recon- naissance than of a serious campaign. The king spoke only of a visit to Tangier, and started off suddenly with his guards and courtiers from a hunting excursion, ordering the Duke of Aveiro to follow with a force of four hundred cavalry and one thousand two hundred infantry. With these troops Dom Sebastian made a few raids, and exhibited his personal courage by uselessly exposing his person, and he returned more bent than ever on a great war in Africa, which was to end in the Portuguese con- quest of Morocco, and the acquisition of everlasting fame for its leader as a brave " soldier of the Cross." Before entering on the history of this expedition, which was to end so disastrously, and strike a last and final blow at the declining power of Portugal, it 246 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. would be as well to see how the Portuguese dominion in Asia had been faring during the regencies of Queen Catherine and the Cardinal Henry, and during the earlier part of Sebastian's own tenure of power. Dom Constantino de Braganza, the friend of the poet Camoens, had succeeded Francisco Barreto, the enemy of the poet, in 1558, the year after the death of John III., and had distinguished his viceroyalty by the capture of Daman. He was a truly great governor, although he permitted the Inquisition to be established at Goa, and his high rank gave him an ascendency not possessed by previous viceroys. His conduct was so blameless and his power so wisely exercised that the queen-regent begged him to accept the viceroyalty for life. He refused, and at the end of his three years of office resigned and was succeeded by Dom Francisco Coutinho, Count of Redondo, a nobleman of high character, who died in office, and was succeeded first by Joao de Mendonca, and then by Dom Antonio de Noronha, who took the important city of Mangalore by assault. During his viceroyalty in 1565 occurred the battle of Talikot, in which the powerful Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, which em- braced the greater part of Southern India was over- thrown by the Mohammedan kings of Ahmadabad, Bldar, and Bijapur, and the way prepared for the extension of the Mohammedan power over Southern India. The next viceroy, Dom Luis de Athaide, was specially selected by King Sebastian himself in 1568, and he certainly justified the choice of the boy- king and his advisers. The Mohammedan kings of the Deccan were full of delight at their great vie- THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 247 tory of Talikot, and All Adil Shah, king of Bijapur, believed he could expel the Portuguese from his dominions. With this intention he collected a vast army of one hundred thousand men, recruited from various adventurers of the Mohammedan religion, and laid siege to Goa in 1570. The city was being ravaged by a pestilence, but neverthe- less the defence was a gallant one — the last great feat of arms of the Portuguese in India. The siege lasted ten months, and ended in the discomfiture of the besiegers and their final defeat in a pitched battle beneath the walls of Goa, when a victory was won, second only to that of Dom Joao de Castro at Diu, twenty-five years before. On his return to Portugal, Dom Luis de Athaide was received with the greatest favour by King Sebastian, who created him Count of Atouguia, and also by the people of Lisbon, who gave him the greatest reception vouchsafed to any Indian governor on his return for many genera- tions. King Sebastian then made an important alteration in the government of his Asiatic posses- sions. Hitherto all the petty governors from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan had been subject to the Governor-General or the Viceroy at Goa, an extent of command which caused many serious inconveniences. In 1 57 1 this vast extent of land and sea was divided into three separate governorships. The new viceroy, ^ Dom Antonio de Noronha, was to be supreme from Cape Guardafui to Ceylon with his capital at Goa, while Francisco Barreto was to govern the south-east coast of Africa with his headquarters at Mozambique, and Antonio Moniz Barreto was to rule from Pegu to 248 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. China with his capital at Malacca. Antonio Moniz Barreto succeeded as viceroy in 1573, and Dom Diogo de Menezes in 1576; and in 1578, the very- year in which King Sebastian met his fate, his faith- ful servant, Dom Luis de Athaide, became viceroy for the second time, and it is said that the defeat of his sovereign broke the heart of the defender of Goa and caused his untimely death. The expedition which was to meet with such a disastrous termination had long been contemplated by Sebastian, but its despatch was hastened by the state of affairs in Morocco itself, which seemed to the king most propitious for the success of his enterprise. The empire of Morocco had been divided between two brother Sherifs, as the rulers of that country were termed, in the early part of the sixteenth century. The younger of the brothers, Maula x Mohammed, beheaded his senior, Maula Ahmed, and was in his turn assassinated in 1556. The successor to the throne, Maula Abdallah, murdered two of his brothers and was succeeded by his illegitimate son, Maula Ah- med ibn Abdallah, the " Muly Hamet " of old English writers. At this, the brother of the late Maula Abdallah, Abd-el-Melik, commonly known as Muley Moloch, fled to Constantinople and, with the help of the Turks, ousted his nephew, Maula Ahmed. The defeated usurper then decided to make an application for Christian help, and when refused asylum by Philip II., of Spain, he appealed to Dom Sebastian. 1 The word Maula, generally corrupted into Muley, is said by Sir Richard Burton (Camoens, Commentary, vol. i. p. 350) to mean lord, master, and leader. Sebastian's appeals for help. . 249 This was the opportunity the young king had longed for, and when Maula Ahmed promised to hold the crown of Morocco as a vassal of the King of Portugal, Sebastian enthusiastically welcomed him and promised him assistance. The wiser statesmen of Portugal pointed out that the strength of Portugal in men and arms was in Asia, and that it was impossible to at- tempt such an enterprise as the invasion of Morocco without foreign help. Sebastian therefore sent em- bassies asking for help from the Pope, and from his uncle, Philip II. of Spain. Pope Gregory XIII. sent him an arrow of S. Sebastian and nothing else, but the arrangements with Philip II. were more important. The minister Pedro de Alcagova Carneiro was sent in person to the King of Spain to ask for troops and ships, in recognition of which Dom Sebastian would marry a Spanish infanta. Philip opposed the project strongly, but eventually promised five thousand men and fifty galleys to assist in an attack on Larache (El Araish), an offer which he afterwards withdrew, when the Duke of Alva assured him that at least fifteen thousand veteran soldiers would be necessary. In December, 1576, Sebastian had an interview in person with his uncle, when Philip II. again opposed his nephew's mad idea, and he is reported to have said when his efforts proved in vain, " If he win, we shall have a good son-in-law ; if he lose, a good kingdom." Dom Sebastian then decided to have all the glory of conquering Morocco for himself, and his hopes reached their height when Maula Ahmed managed to buy over the Kaid of Arzila and handed over that place, one of those surrendered by John III., to the SEBASTIAN'S PREPARATIONS. 251 Portuguese monarch. Maula Abd-el-Melik, who was in bad health, tried to dissuade his rash opponent from attacking him, and in a letter pointed out that he was the rightful Sherif of Morocco. He even went further, and offered to the young king a district of ten miles round each of the Portuguese towns — Tangier, Ceuta, Mazagon and Arzila — if he would give up supporting the usurper. Never might the hackneyed line of Horace be quoted with more justice than in regard to the rash young Christian monarch : " Quern Deus vult perdere, prius dementat." No amount of opposition could check the king's ardour ; he believed himself already surpassing in glory both John "the Great" and Affonso " the African," and proceeded to raise money in every possible way. The treasury was nearly empty owing to peculation and bad management, and it was filled by imposing new taxes, by further harrying the converted Jews, and by partial bankruptcy. As the country was nearly drained of men the king had to hire mer- cenaries belonging to different nations, who were not properly equipped, and he never seemed to realize the difference between an expedition to take a sea-side town and the invasion of a powerful empire. If Affonso V. had met with difficulty in taking Tangier, how could Sebastian hope to penetrate to Fez, seventy miles up the country ? Dom Sebastian trusted too much to the promised help of Maula Ahmed ; he believed other cities would yield as quickly as Arzila ; and he had been thoroughly convinced by the ex- pelled usurper that his uncle Maula Abd-el-Melik 252 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. was not only hated in Morocco, but enfeebled by ill- ness, and that his offers of peace were dictated by fear. The preparations made for the campaign were ridiculous in the extreme ; all the most experienced generals and most tried Portuguese soldiers were in India, and the Portuguese troops who were enlisted consisted of a few old veterans whose time had expired in Asia, and of youthful raw recruits. These latter were not in the least disciplined, and were officered by young courtiers, who may have been brave, and were certainly inexperienced. The king himself intended to take the command in person, and instead of making plans for the conduct of the cam- paign and looking after his troops, he spent his time in borrowing the sword of King Affonso Henriques from the convent of Santa Cruz at Coimbra, and in having a banner worked in which the arms of Portugal were for the first time surmounted by an imperial crown. This banner was solemnly blessed by the archbishop in the cathedral of Lisbon on the 14th of June, and the king then considered that all was ready. On the 24th of June, 1578, King Sebastian set sail with a fleet of fifty ships of war and about nine hun- dred transports under the command of the Admiral of Portugal, Dom Diogo de Sousa, carrying fifteen thou- sand infantry, two thousand four hundred cavalry, and thirty-six guns. Of this army only about ten thousand were Portuguese, the rest consisting of Spanish and German volunteers and mercenaries, and of nine hundred Italians, under the command of a gallant Englishman, Sir Thomas Stukeley. This well-known English Catholic, who had been created Marquis of SEBASTIAN IN MOROCCO. - 253 Leinster by the Pope, had been stopped with his soldiers by Sebastian while on his way to raise an insurrection in Ireland against Elizabeth. In spite of the desperate hurry in which he had been to start, Sebastian made no attempt to hasten his passage and try the effects of a surprise. He first stopped at Lagos in the Algarves, then at Cadiz, where he was sumptuously entertained by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and did not reach Tangier until July 6th. He was there met by his Mohammedan ally, Maula Ahmed, who handed over his son as a hostage, but who only brought eight hundred Moors instead of the army which he had promised. Sebastian at first amused himself with hunting, while his opponent was concen- trating his forces, and then repulsed a few Moors in a skirmish, which he magnified into a victory. From Tangier he suddenly carried his army to Arzila, where he encamped beneath the walls and wasted time. At last he determined to hold a council of war to decide in what way the army should attack Lar- ache ; Maula Ahmed wisely suggested by sea, so as to have the advantage of a convenient means of retreat to the ships, but Sebastian answered the Moorish prince so rudely that he left the council, and the king decided to march by land. Even at this last moment Maula Abd-el-Melik offered to cede Larache to Sebastian if he would cease his military operations, but the rash young king returned no answer whatever, and the Sherlf of Morocco, finding all his efforts for peace repulsed, determined to crush the invader. On the 29th of July the march inland, away from 254 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. the cool breezes off the sea, was commenced under the burning sky of an African summer ; the soldiers were soon maddened by hunger, thirst, and heat, and by the incessant attacks of the Moorish skirmishers ; and the army was dispirited before a battle took place. These miseries continued for five days, until August 3rd, when the Portuguese had some success in a skirmish, and Dom Sebastian took up what he con- sidered a strong position near the little town of Alcacer Quibir, or more correctly El-Kasr el-Keblr. The position was from a military point of view utterly indefensible, for both flanks were exposed, and Maula Abd-el-Melik, who was now face to face with the Christians with an army of forty thousand cavalry and fifteen thousand infantry saw that the Portuguese king was lost. At day- break on the 4th of August, 1578, the battle com- menced with some brilliant charges on the part of the Portuguese, but in a short time the wings of the Moorish army, which were entirely composed of cavalry, overlapped the small Christian army, and for four hours the army of Dom Sebastian was compelled to defend itself. The result of the continued charges of the Moorish cavalry could not be doubtful, and at the end of the four hours' fighting nearly the whole of the Christian army was cut to pieces. The Moorish monarch, Maula Abd-el-Melik, had been in the agonies of death when the battle commenced, and died in his litter from the exertion of trying to mount his horse at the first charge of the Christians, placing his finger on his lip as a sign that his death should be kept secret for a time. His rival, Maula Ahmed, was THE DEATH OF SEBASTIAN. 255 drowned in crossing the Wed or Wady M'Hassan, and his brother, Ahmed ibn Mohammed, was declared king by the soldiers at the conclusion of the battle. The slaughter was terrible ; more than nine thousand Christians were killed, and all the rest, except about fifty, were taken prisoners. Sir Thomas Stukeley, after gallantly defending himself, was killed, with many of the chief Portuguese nobles and prelates, including Dom Jayme, brother of the sixth Duke of Braganza, the Duke of Aveiro, who had commanded the cavalry, and the bishops of Coimbra and Oporto, while among the prisoners were the Duke of Barcellos and Dom Duarte de Menezes, Quarter-Master-General of the army. Dom Sebastian throughout the battle behaved himself as a gallant knight, though he had not been a prudent general, and when the fortunes of the day went against him he determined to lose his life also. Many accounts are given of his death. One tradition says that he was taken prisoner by some Moors, who stripped him of his arms, and began to quarrel about him, and that a Mohammedan general rode in amongst them, and shouting out, " What, you dogs, when God has given you so glorious a victory, would you cut each other's throats about a prisoner/' immediately struck the King of Portugal down in ignorance of his rank. Another story is that the king met Dom Luis de Brito with the consecrated banner wrapped around him, and said, " Hold it fast, let us die upon it ; " and that when, after fierce fighting, Brito was taken prisoner with the banner, he saw the king riding away unpursued. Dom Luis de Lima also asserted 256 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. that he saw the king making his way towards the river unhurt. According to the most trustworthy account, Christovao de Tavora, the king's equerry, showed a flag of truce, and offered to surrender with the fifty horsemen, who still remained about the king, when Sebastian suddenly dashed on the Moorish cavalry, who, irritated at this breach of faith, instantly slew him, as well as the brave equerry, who followed his master. Anyhow, it is certain that the new Sherlf Ahmed ibn Mohammed sent out Sebastiao de Re- sende, a gentleman of the bedchamber, to discover the corpse of the king, and that a naked body was brought in covered with wounds, which the Portuguese prisoners at once recognized as that of the ill-fated Dom Sebastian. The body was temporarily buried in the palace at Alcacer Quibir, and removed in the following September to Ceuta, at the request of Cardinal Henry. It was eventually taken to Portugal in 1582, by the orders of Philip II., and buried with great pomp in the church of St. Jerome at Belem. It is important to lay stress on this subject, because for many years the lower classes of the Por- tuguese people refused to believe that their sovereign was dead, a belief encouraged by the stratagem of a wounded noble on the evening of the fatal battle to gain admission into the city of Tangier by asserting that he was the king. It was this belief which led to the acceptance of the successive false Dom Sebastians, who played a part in the ensuing half century, and it had a still further influence upon the whole future of the Portuguese people. That the u Principe Encuberto " or ACCESSION AND DEATH OF CARDINAL HENRY. 2$ J Hidden Prince would appear again became a religion, and the sect of the Sebastianistas became a powerful body of fanatics. Theirbelief was fostered by the princes of the House of Braganza as patriotic, and when- ever Portugal has been subject to a great strain, the Sebastianistas have always come to the front. Even at the present day they are not extinct, and Sir Richard Burton asserts that he has met with them in the interior of Brazil. It was this firm belief that gave point to the remark of Lord Tyrawley, in the English House of Lords in 1763: "What can one possibly do with a nation, one half of which expect the Mes- siah, and the other half their king, Dom Sebastian, who has been dead two hundred years ? " The news of the terrible disaster of Alcacer Quibir was brought to Lisbon by the Admiral Dom Diogo de Sousa, and occasioned the most passionate lamenta- tion. There was not a noble family which had not lost more than one of its representatives, not a patriot who failed to see that ruin was staring his country in the face. Deprived of soldiers, resources, and repu- tation at one fell blow, the Portuguese nation seemed stunned at the extent of its calamity. Even in India the same alarm was felt, and it is said that the brave Viceroy, Dom Luis.de Athaide, died of a broken heart at the news. The Cardinal Henry was solemnly crowned king, but he was a feeble old man of sixty- six, who had to be fed like a baby, and he was quite incapable of facing the situation. He utterly refused to acknowledge any successor, or to express any opinion on the subject, and when he died on January 31, 1580, the Cortes which had been summoned to decide 258 THE LAST KINGS OF THE HOUSE OF AVIZ. this important question was still sitting at Lisbon. With him ended for a time the separate existence of the Portuguese nation, and it is significant and interesting to observe that Camoens, the great national poet of Portugal, the poet who had im- mortalized its heroic epoch, died in a hospital of semi-starvation a few months before or after the Cardinal-king. It was well he did not live longer, for Portugal was to enter on the period of its " Sixty Years' Captivity," and her proud sons, who had the patriotism of a Camoens in their hearts, would not have been able to bear the burden of subjection to a foreign king. XII. PORTUGUESE LITERATURE— CAMOENS. It has always been the case in the history of a nation which can boast of a golden age, that the epoch of its greatest glory is that in which its literature chiefly flourished. The energies of a nation at its zenith cannot be bounded by the vastest schemes of conquest, but develop in other directions as well. It was so with Portugal. The age which witnessed the careers of its famous captains and conquerors was also the age of its greatest poets and prose writers. The establishment of the Inquisition soon checked the progress of Portuguese literature, but before its fatal power had time to thoroughly stifle free thought, and before the disaster of Alcacer Quibir, and the annexa- tion of the country by Philip II. of Spain, Portugal had been able to produce many great writers, and one of the most supremely- gifted poets the world has ever seen, Luis de Camoens. The affection which the first princes of the house of Aviz had felt for literature, and especially for purely national literature, has been alluded to, and the natural result is to be seen in the works of the 260 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. early poets, and of the eloquent chroniclers of the fifteenth century. The honour given by these princes to literary endeavour heightened its importance in the eyes of the people, and raised the whole standard of education. The Portuguese were therefore pre- pared to take advantage of the stores of knowledge revealed by the revival of classical learning, and to profit greatly by it. Ayres Barbosa, a native of Aveiro, was the first to introduce the study of ancient Greek into the peninsula ; he had listened to the lectures of Politian and his contemporaries at Florence, and after teaching "the humanities " at the University of Salamanca for about twenty years from 1495, he returned to Portugal as tutor to the younger sons of King Emmanuel. His most distinguished Portuguese pupil was, however, Andrea de Resende, the antiquary, who was one of the professors at the University of Coimbra, during the epoch of its greatest reputation, and is well known as the friend and correspondent of Erasmus. This university, 1 at which the most famous authors and statesmen of Portugal received their education, deserves some slight notice here. A university was founded by King Diniz at Lisbon in 1300, but the turbulence of the students, and their perpetual quarrels with the citizens, caused him to remove it to Coimbra, about the year 1308. During the fourteenth century the habitat of the Portuguese university was moved from Coimbra to Lisbon in 1338, from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1354, and from Coimbra back to Lis- 1 For the early history of the university, see Denifle "Die Univer- sitaten des Mittelalters," vol. i. pp. 519-534. THE UNIVERSITY OF COIMBRA. 261 bon in 1377. John "the Great" paid great attention to the university, as he did to every valuable institu- tion in the kingdom ; and in 1400 he entirely re- modelled it, establishing a staff of fourteen regius professors, four of whom were to teach grammar, three Roman law, three canon law, two logic, one medicine, and one theology. On this footing the Portuguese university remained until 1537, when John III., per- ceiving that the busy pursuits of a noisy capital were hardly suited to quiet study and the acquisition of learning, removed it finally to the beautiful city of Coimbra, and once more changed its constitution. In 1547 the king summoned Andrea Govea back to his native land, and requested him to bring with him other men of learning. Andrea Govea and his brothers were famous as scholars throughout Europe, even in the days which could boast of Scaliger ; they were all natives of Beja, and had been educated at Paris ; Martial Govea, the eldest, wrote one of the earliest Latin grammars, published at Paris in 1534; Antonio Govea argued the cause of Aristotle against Ramus, edited Virgil and Terence, and was held to be the most formidable rival of Cujas as an exponent of Roman law ; while Andrea had been principal of the College of St. Barbe, rector of the University of Paris, and afterwards principal of the College of Guienne at Bordeaux, and was termed by Montaigne, " le plus grand principal de France." * Andrea Govea brought with him to Coimbra, as requested, many of his friends and colleagues, including George Bucha- nan, the greatest scholar Scotland has ever produced, 1 Montaigne's " Essais," i. 25. 262 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. Patrick Buchanan, his elder brother, Arnoldus Fabri- cius and Elias Vinetus, learned Frenchmen, and his own countrymen, Diogo de Tieve, Joao da Costa, and Antonio Mendes. This brilliant band did not, how- ever, long remain united, for Andrea Govea died in 1548, and his death was followed by the persecution of George Buchanan by the Inquisition. The illus- trious scholar was accused of eating flesh in Lent, and of writing a poem against the Franciscans, and after being imprisoned in a convent he was only too glad to escape from the inhospitable country. Though the death of Govea, and the persecution of Buchanan, deprived the remodelled university of its most famous teachers, there yet remained a sufficient number with such coadjutors as Jeronymo Osorio, Bishop of Silves, Andrea de Resende, and Pedro Nunes, the mathematician, to make this the golden age of the University of Coimbra ; and the instruction they im- parted profoundly impressed the minds of their most promising young Portuguese pupils, such as Ferreira and Camoens. The result of the introduction of a knowledge of the masterpieces of classical literature was bound to have a great effect upon the development of Portu- guese poetry and prose, but before noticing the result of that influence in the works of the " classicists," headed by Sa de Miranda and Ferreira, and in the epic of Camoens, it is necessary to devote a little space to the life and works of the greatest Portuguese dramatist, Gil Vicente. The versatility of the Portu- guese people during the heroic period is in no way better illustrated than by the fact that in their country GIL VICENTE, THE DRAMATIST. 263 appeared the first modern dramatist, nearly a century before Shakespeare or Calderon. The date of Gil Vicente's birth is unknown, but it is said that. he came of a good family, and he is first found attached to the Court of Emmanuel as a dramatic author. He began by writing "autos" or religious pieces, resembling in their nature the miracle plays common all over Europe at the time, and the first, which attracted King Emmanuel's attention, was written to celebrate the birth of his eldest son, afterwards John III. Most of them are Christmas pieces, and the dramatist took advantage of the story of the shepherds watch- ing their flocks by night, to introduce the elements of what may be called pastoral comedy. Far more im- portant are his comedies and farces, which latter won for him the title of the Portuguese Plautus. Neither the plots nor the language of these productions are very refined, but they are full of dramatic vigour, and represent the life of the lower classes in Lisbon, with a vividness which strikingly recalls the works of his Roman prototype. Gil Vicente died at Evora in 1557, the same year as his patron, John III., who, in his younger days, did not disdain to act in his favourite's dramas, and he has had no successor as a comic writer worthy to be named beside him, which proves once again, how thoroughly with the extinc- tion of the national greatness, the originality of the Portuguese people in every direction disappeared. Side by side with Gil Vicente must be mentioned Bernardim Ribeiro, the founder of the most national school of Portuguese poetry, that of the romantic- pastoral type. Though he showed the influence of 264 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. the revival of classical learning in his style, he did not show it in his ideas, and the shepherds who converse in his eclogues, are as thoroughly Portuguese as those who appear in Gil Vicente's Christmas " autos." Ribeiro, like Gil Vicente, was a favourite at the Court of King Emmanuel, where he held the office of " Gentleman of the Chamber," and it is said that the lady for whom he cherished a hopeless affection was the Donna Beatrice, daughter of the king. A modern writer on Portuguese literature, speaking of Ribeiro and his works, says: "The rivers and mountains of his native land are the natural frame- work of a poet's fancy, and the revival of classical learning showed him in the Eclogues of Virgil a model, which he was not slow to imitate. His Eclogues, written in ' redondilhas ' (octosyllabic nine or ten-lined stanzas), are the earliest in modern Europe, and while replete with the charms and conceits of versification of the troubadours, show a truly poetic love of nature." * Ribeiro was the first true Portuguese poet, as Gil Vicente was the first Portuguese dramatist. While coming under the influence of the classical writers of Greece and Rome, he was not a slavish imitator of their master-pieces, and as the founder of the school of pastoral poetry, he holds an honourable place in the Portuguese literature of the heroic age. Ribeiro exhibits in his poetry the influence of the revival of classical learning to a slight degree ; after his time that influence increased, and his successors, who bridged over the chasm between Ribeiro and 1 " Encyclopaedia Britannica," Art. Portugal. SA DE MIRANDA. 265 Camoens, were thorough classicists, who imitated the Greek and Roman poets, not only in form, but in spirit. The chief poets of this classicist group were Sa de Miranda and Ferreira. Francisco Sa de Miranda was born at Coimbra, the Portuguese Oxford, in 1495, of a noble family, and he became professor of jurisprudence in his native town. On the death of his parents, he resigned his professorship, and travelled in Italy, where he studied the works not only of the great classical authors, but of the new school of Italian poets. He returned to his native country with a great reputation, and received an appointment at the Court of John III. He proved an accomplished courtier, but a quarrel with a Portuguese nobleman forced him to abandon his office, and he retired to his country seat at Tapada, near Ponte de Lima, where he died in 1558, while Camoens was still fighting in India. It was in Italy and not in Coimbra, that he learnt to study the great classical poets, and reverencing their works with the almost superstitious admiration of the Italians of the Renaissance, he dared not treat their ideas with the freedom of either Ribeiro or Camoens. Sa de Miranda devoted himself to the task of polishing the Portuguese language, and in doing this, he did more harm than good, for he introduced many Latin and Spanish forms of expression, which were not needed, and which helped to hinder the natural development of the national literature. He openly expressed his opinion that Spanish was a more dignified language than Portuguese, and many of his best poems are written in the former tongue, and are considered by 266 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. authorities on Spanish literature to be excellent specimens of sixteenth - century work. Sa de Miranda's poems comprise imitations of many poets. He wrote eclogues in the style of Theocritus, epistles on the lines of those of Horace, plays based on Terence, and sonnets of which the form was borrowed from the Italian writers of the Renaissance. All are good and interesting in their way, but all are imitations, and the very best imitations of foreign styles can hardly rank a poet among the glories of his country's literature. Sa de Miranda's right to be included in any work on Portuguese literature is not due to the poems he wrote, or to his questionable improvements in his native language, but to the fact that he familiarized the people with the classic forms of poetry, of which a greater than he was to take advantage. Yet Sa de Miranda held a very high place in the estimation of his contemporaries, and the writers of the next century did not hesitate to rank him above Camoens, as being more " correct," a criticism, which irresistibly recalls Voltaire's avowed preference of Pope over Shakespeare. Antonio Ferreira, the second leader of the Portuguese classicist school, was like Sa de Miranda, a slavish adherent to classical forms, but he was at the same time a genuine patriot and a lover of his country, and a student of its past history. He, like Sa de Miranda, was of a noble family, and he was born at Lisbon in 1528. He was sent to the University of Coimbra, and studied there in the days of its greatness. His favourite teacher was Diogo de Tieve, the friend of George Buchanan, and professor ANTONIO FERREIRA. 267 of classical literature, from whom he obtained a knowledge of the classics, not inferior to that possessed by Sa de Miranda. Even in his youth, Ferreira determined to devote his poetical talent to works in his own language, and he refused to write Latin or Spanish verses. He formed round him at Coimbra, a school of young poets, of whom the chief were Andrade Caminha, Jeronymo Corte-Real, and Diogo Bernardes ; and in 1557 he published his first volume of poems. This book established his fame, and on coming to Lisbon, he was appointed a judge of the Court of Appeal, and a gentleman of the Royal Household. He continued to write and publish until his death from the plague in 1569, the year before Camoens returned from India. Ferreira, like Sa de Miranda, was an imitator of the great classical poets, but he differed from his predecessor, in that he combined with this predilection, an appreciation of the national greatness. He wrote sonnets after the manner of Petrarch, elegies after Ariosto, eclogues after Virgil, and odes and epistles after Horace ; but his greatest work was a drama founded on the model of the ancient Greek tragedies. He selected for his subject the touching story of Ines de Castro, and the characters in his play are Ines and her nurse, Dom Pedro and his secretary, King Affonso and his three counsellors, a messenger, and a chorus of women of Coimbra. Ferreira's tragedy, though more fit for the study than the stage,remains to this day the finest drama in the Portuguese language, and stands almost as far as above other dramatic attempts of subsequent ages, as Camoens's great epic towers above all imitations. 268 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. The history of the development of the revival of learning, as illustrated by the classicist school of Sa de Miranda and Ferreira, is of great importance to the right understanding of the course of Portuguese literature, but to the world at large its chief interest lies in its share in forming the taste of the one man, whom Portugal has contributed to the small roll of supreme poets, Camoens. His name is more famous than that of any other Portuguese, whether king or captain ; his great epic has been translated into every civilized European language, and is a greater subject of pride to his countrymen than their conquests in the East ; and no " Story of Portugal " could be complete which did not give some account of the poet who has given immortal fame to the heroic deeds of the great age of Portugal. Luis de Camoes, commonly called in English Camoens, was the son of a captain in the Portuguese navy, who had more than once experienced the perils of the voyage to India, and he was born at Lisbon in either 1524 or 1525. His family was noble, but by no means among the first rank of the Portuguese nobility in wealth or importance. He was educated at the University of Coimbra, before it had been revivified by the energy and learning of Govea and his friends, and there acquired a profound knowledge of the Latin poets, and of the symbolism and the legends of the Greek and Latin mythology. He seems to have left the university, which he ever dearly loved, before the arrival of Diogo de Tieve, and the foundation of what may be called the national-classicist school of poetry by Ferreira, and m 111 ...-.■■.■. ■ ■ im* iQL % \Ks, ■- '"■'■..'■_ :-:C : ---:- -'-/'-':■: '-- : ■' - : ^- *^^T^ mm % jj®^ gm£&: §# '!■:>, h ^ Hi - 1 1 f (FVJ 1 :■:•■;.-'• W-' - : ' ^jjjjij II i " LUIS DE CAMOENS. (From the Portrait in ll " Portugal Illustrated" 1829.) 270 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. went to Lisbon to obtain employment. His poetical powers soon became manifest, and he had become somewhat of a favourite, when he fell in love with a great lady of the Court, said to be the Donna Catherine de Athaide, lady of honour to the queen. The lady's friends were indignant at the poet's suit, and at their request he was exiled to the little town of Ceuta, on the coast of Morocco, where he lost his right eye in a skirmish with the Moors. Wearied of this life he volunteered for India, the goal of every gallant Portuguese gentleman, and after serving a term in prison for a street brawl in Lisbon, he set sail for the East in 1553. In Asia, Camoens remained for more than sixteen years, and it was there that he gathered the local knowledge which gives truth and charm to many passages of his immortal poem. In 1554 he served in the Red Sea and at the capture of Muscat under Dom Fernando de Menezes, and soon after his return to Goa he was ordered to take up a lucrative appointment at Macao, in 1556. Here he remained for two years, and the chief glory of the little island off Canton is the cave where he is supposed to have worked on his epic, and which is still known as the " Grotto of Camoens." From Macao he was recalled in 1558, when in spite of his poverty he was thrown into gaol at Goa for pecula- tion, and he was not released until the arrival of an old court acquaintance, Dom Constantino de Braganza, as Viceroy of India. With this prince, he served at the capture of Daman, and he distinguished, himself in various engagements under the next governor-general, the Count of Redondo. In 1568 CAMOENS. 271 Camoens determined to return to Portugal with his great poem for his only fortune, but on his way, disaster again overtook him, and in 1569 he was thrown into an African prison for debt, by Pedro Barreto, Governor of Mozambique. From this cruel confinement, he was released by some old friends on their way from India, who paid the debt, and in 1570 he once more found himself in Lisbon. His reception in his native land was not encouraging ; he was not received at Court ; he had made no money in India, and had only shown a peculiar faculty for getting into debt and making enemies ; and he now devoted himself to the final recension of his " Lusiads." The first edition of the great poem was published in 1572, but the fame it at once acquired did little good to the author, who was only granted a pension of £3 8s. od. a year, equivalent perhaps to ^"20 in modern money. The later years of Camoens were utterly miserable ; poor and neglected, the arch-poet of Portugal had to subsist upon what his Javan slave could beg for him at night in the streets of Lisbon. He lived long enough to hear of the disaster of Alcacer Quibir, and of the death of Dom Sebastian, but he was spared the pain of seeing the Spaniards ruling over the fatherland whose glories he had sung, for he died in a common hospital at Lisbon in June, 1579, or June, 1580. These are the chief incidents in the life of one of the world's greatest poets, and they tell their own tragic story without need of a commentary. It serves no good purpose to speculate why Camoens was ever in debt and making enemies, or why he was neglected 272 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. and left to die in poverty ; other poets and men of letters have shared the same lot. It remains rather to examine the causes which make his epic take rank among the works which the unanimous opinion of posterity has decreed to be immortal. Of his sonnets, eclogues, and smaller poems, beautiful as many of them are, there is no need to speak, for it is on his " Lusiads " that the fame of Camoens must ever rest. The subject of the epic is Vasco da Gama's first voyage to India and his return, an achievement of such surpassing difficulty, and of such importance alike to Portugal and to Europe, that Camoens per- ceived its fitness for poetical treatment. But the poem is not confined to the narration of the perils of the voyage only ; it abounds in long episodes, in one of which Vasco da Gama relates the history of. the Portuguese people to the king of Melinda, while in another a nymph gives a prophetic history to the great admiral of the achievements of his country-men in the land he had just visited. Sir Robert Walpole is said to have declared that he derived his knowledge of English history from Shakespeare's historical plays, and it might be affirmed in the same sense that many, if not most, educated people have learned what they know of Portuguese history from the " Lusiads." Such a knowledge is not to be despised. For, if the poet makes the mistakes of his era, and, for instance, identifies the modern Portuguese with the ancient Lusitanians, he manages in a few stanzas apiece to sum up with dramatic genius all the famous tales of Portuguese history, such as the voluntary surrender of Egas Moniz, the pathetic story of Ines de Castro, and " THE LUSIADS." 273 the glories of the victory of Aljubarrota. This power of historical description is of itself enough to make Camoens the national poet of Portugal ; every old Portuguese family finds its name enshrined in some of its glowing passages, and the whole Portuguese people feel identified with the actors in the great deeds it describes. But Camoens is not only a national poet ; he is a hero telling of an heroic deed done by an heroic people, and this secures for him the interest of readers of all nations, who can appreciate true heroism. Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese sailor, but the results of his enterprise and success were to the advantage of all Europe, and the poet who sings of him deserved to be heard by Europe. If, then, the subject was fitted for epic poetry, the style of Camoens was equal to it. He rises far above the purely classicist school in Portuguese litera- ture ; he uses the names of the Roman gods, and narrates their councils and their intervention in mun- dane affairs with the verisimilitude of Virgil, yet he never falls into a base or servile imitation of the great Latin poet, but preserves throughout the cast of thought of a Portuguese " conquistador." To criticize the " Lusiads " further is without the purpose of this book, but in conclusion it must be pointed out that the great poem remains the strongest bond of union between the modern Portuguese people, whether in Portugal itself, or in Brazil, Goa, Macao, and Mozam- bique. It is impossible to meet an educated Portu- guese, who does not know his Camoens ; he is more to them than Dante to the Italians, Goethe to the Germans, or Shakespeare to the English ; he sings of 274 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. their nation's glory, and in maintaining his fame, each one of them is interested. Never was this more manifest than in the Camoens Celebration of 1880, when Portuguese-speaking people of all climes, and of all varieties of political and religious opinion, gathered together in Lisbon to do honour to the memory of their great poet, whose glory they felt to be a connecting link between them all. It was not only in the domain of poetry that the boundless energies of the Portuguese of the heroic age distinguished themselves ; in prose composition, also, they stood high above their contemporaries of other nations. History, as might be expected, was their chief study, and Joao de Barros, the Portuguese Livy, was the writer who bridged over the gap between the old chroniclers, of whom Damiao de Goes was the last, and the regular historians. This young nobleman, who was born in 1496, was distinguished at the Portuguese Court by his ardent study of the Latin historical writers, and especially of Livy, and was commissioned by King Emmanuel to draw up an account of the discoveries and conquests of the Portu- guese in the East. John III. continued the royal patronage to Joao de Barros, who received many lucrative appointments, such as Captain-general of Brazil and treasurer of the Indian department at Lisbon. The latter post gave him the opportunity to collect valuable information on his subject, and he made, good use of it. His "Asia " is written in exact imitation of the style of Livy ; it is divided into decads and abounds in speeches which might have been, but certainly never were, delivered, and in JOAO I)E BARROS. {From a Print in the British Museum.) 276 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE — CAMOENS. curious theories, entirely without foundation. Never- theless, Joao de Barros possesses the greatest quality of an historian, for he took pains in trying to ascertain the truth, and when he believed he had found it, he told his story simply and directly. He combines the naive simplicity of the early chroniclers with the art of making a story interesting, and he deserves a niche in the history of Portuguese literature as the first writer of modern Portuguese prose. In fiction the " Amadis de Gaul " type of romance was followed by imitations of the " Palmeirim de Inghilterra ; ' both are alike tedious and absurd, and thoroughly deserve the hearty mockery of Cervantes, who laughed them and their school out of existence. Far more interest- ing, if also somewhat tedious, are the pastoral novels, which were originated by the poet Bernardim Ribeiro, and written with most success by Rodrigues Lobo, for they are truly national, and exhibit the love of nature, which is inherent in the Portuguese character. Nor was more serious literary work neglected by the universally cultured Portuguese of the heroic age. Mention has been made of the great scholars, who made the University of Coimbra renowned, and who encouraged the study of the classics. Theological inquiry was also much favoured, and Francisco Ferrario, one of the divines at the Council of Trent, and Jeronymo de Azambuja, a learned Hebrew scholar, who wrote a commentary on the Bible, both held a high place in the estimation of their contem- poraries. Among grammarians, the name of Manuel Alvares, a Jesuit, is honourably remembered, while scientific research was represented by the mathemati- LITERARY ACTIVITY OF THE HEROIC AGE. 277 cian, Pedro Nunes, who was reckoned one of the wonders of his age. Lastly, Andrea de Resende, the greatest Portuguese antiquary, must be again noticed, for his " De Antiquitatibus Lusitaniae " is a work of exceptional value, and contains a transcription of many Roman inscriptions, since destroyed. Enough has been said to indicate how great and varied was the literary activity of the Portuguese during their golden age, and it is worthy of notice, that their literature was most abundant in great works at the very time in which their energies were most strained by their Asiatic conquests. It is matter for wonder, that one small nation could do so much, and in the " Lusiads " the key-note of their success is to be found. The Portuguese race, trained under great kings and great captains, believed itself to be invin- cible, and from that very belief it remained invincible for a time. When the illusion was shattered, the superabundant energy which it had fostered vanished completely. When once a nation has been conquered, and its belief in its invincibility is gone, its power withers away. The greatness of a nation depends upon the opinion its people have of themselves as individuals and members of the body politic ; as long as they believe in themselves they can do anything ; when their faith in their invincibility disappears, their position among nations speedily declines. XIII. THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. THE death of the Cardinal-King Henry brought the people of Portugal face to face with the problem which all had been discussing ever since the melan- choly fate of Dom Sebastian. There were seven candidates for the throne, but only five of them need be seriously considered, for the claims of Pope Gregory XI II., as heir-general to a cardinal, and of Catherine de' Medici, through the first marriage of Affonso III. to the Countess of Boulogne in the thirteenth century, need no further notice. The rela- tionship of the other five claimants to Emmanuel "the Fortunate" can be best perceived from the table on the opposite page. From this table it clearly appears that the true heiress to the throne was Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, and failing her heirs, the Duke of Parma ; and that the claims of Philip II. of Spain and of the Duke of Savoy were only legally valid in case of the extinction of the descendants of Dom Duarte or Edward, Duke of Guimaraens. The University of Coimbra, after due consideration, declared in favour of the Duchess of 03 O ■ rz! u5 a « "55 i-5 - w 11a, eldest da Isabella of Ca< , her sister, ra of Austria, 2; < i~; c& .§■«■§§ J §| s l-H h J g v^J, "FT'to <" < 7? ° > 2 j •" :— td td VO . u •^ C> w CO Z H io w G < _ M § be . w g-STJ K aS pqjDTJ U ° « W ri j < o M "^ ^ 1 ^£o g o g T3 M 3 oj -2 bjO >- 'i 00 c — C in LO-— t3 hfl '^•a'u in u>~ t3 .£ .a -» _ "> .5 c (u^ _ i-i rt C o H U [{ ]) ^^ Q < o 5.2 ° S 5 "> a> C 3 -^ ? £-50 2 < 1 ) u CQ •a •- X3 M M ^ 03 _.i2 o 3° , U < .-ft o »e §o ft .y hr fr C m ^ M OJ •- ■a o-o.S-o 280 THE SIXTY YEARS* CAPTIVITY. Braganza, but Philip II. of Spain cared little for this opinion ; he had long hoped to sit upon the throne of Portugal, and to rule over the whole Iberian peninsula, and he wished still more to add the profits of the Portuguese trade with Asia to his own American revenues, and thus fill his exchequer with the sinews of war for his struggle against the Protestants of the north of Europe. Philip II. there- fore set to work to win over the majority of the Cortes which had been convened at Lisbon, to settle the succession to the throne. Money and lavish promises assisted the eloquence of the two chief supporters of the King of Spain, Christovao de Moura and Antonio Pinheiro, Bishop of Leiria ; and when the death of the cardinal-king was an- nounced in January, 1580, the Cortes was quite ready to recognize Philip as king, although the people, or rather that small section of the people who were Portuguese patriots, felt and expressed all the traditional hatred against the union of the thrones of Spain and Portugal. The death of King Henry hurried on matters, and Philip, in order to establish himself peacefully on the throne, entered into negotiations with the Duke of Braganza. The King of Spain solemnly promised the duke that he should have Brazil in full sovereignty with the title of king, and that a marriage should be arranged between his daughter and the Prince of the Asturias, heir to the conjoined thrones ; and the duke, who hated war and loved peace, accepted these terms, in spite of his wife's opposition. But, to the surprise of Philip, another competitor for the THE CLAIMS OF THE PRIOR OF CRATO. 28 1 crown, to whom he had paid no attention — Dom Antonio, the Prior of Crato — declared himself king at Santarem, and, entering Lisbon without opposi- tion, struck money and began to raise soldiers. This Dom Antonio was the son of Dom Luis, Duke of Beja, the second son of Emmanuel " the Fortunate," by Violante de Gomes, surnamed " the Pelican," one of the most beautiful women of her time. Dom Antonio alleged that his father was secretly married to his mother, and reminded the people, in a pro- clamation, that, even if the marriage were not legal, one of the greatest of all the kings of Portugal, the victor of Aljubarrota, was a bastard also. But the Portugal of the close of the sixteenth century, ener- vated by wealth and luxury, oppressed by the Inquisition, and with its free population reduced in numbers, possessed none of the energy of the Por- tugal of the fourteenth century, and felt no inclina- tion to fight against the King of Spain, the son of the great Emperor Charles V., and the uncle and friend of their lamented monarch, Dom Sebastian. The brave, but hot-headed and noisy Prior of Crato could not be compared in warlike prowess or states- manlike qualities to John of Aviz, and he had no " Holy Constable " to support him ; and the Cortes of 1580, unlike that which in 1385 had listened to the manly words of Joao das Regras, and declared John "the Great" king of Portugal, listened to the promises of Christovao de Moura, and rejected the Prior of Crato. Dom Antonio raised a few soldiers, but the Duke of Alva who entered Portugal at the head of twenty thousand men, defeated them without diffi- PHILIP II. PHILIP II. OF SPAIN, KING OF PORTUGAL. 283 culty at Alcantara on August 26th, when the pre- tender fled to France, and Philip II. was proclaimed king. In 1 581 Philip II. of Spain and I. of Portugal, as he now styled himself, solemnly entered Lisbon, and in the presence of a great Cortes held at Thomar he swore on April 15, 1581, that he and his successors would observe the following conditions, which had been settled by his agents. He swore that he would maintain the privileges and liberties of the Portu- guese people ; that the Cortes should be frequently summoned to meet in Portugal ; that the viceroy or chief governor should always be a native, unless the king should give that charge to one of the royal family ; that the royal household should be kept up on the same scale as hitherto ; that all offices, civil, military, and judicial, and all dignities in the Church, and in the orders of knighthood, within the kingdom, should be conferred upon Portuguese subjects alone ; that the commerce of Africa, Persia, and India should be reserved to them, and carried on only in their vessels ; that he would make no royal grant of any city, town, or royal jurisdiction to any but Portu- guese ; that forfeited or lapsed estates should never be absorbed in the royal domain, but be regranted to some relative of the last possessor or to some other Portuguese subject ; that the king should reside as much as possible in Portugal, and that, when he did come, he should not take the houses of private individuals for his officers, but observe the custom of Portugal ; that there should be always resident at the royal court an ecclesiastic, a chan- 284 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. cellor, a treasurer, and two masters of requests, of Portuguese birth and nationality, to manage all busi- ness relating to their country ; that the revenue of Portugal should be kept distinct from that of Spain, and spent in the kingdom ; that all matters of justice should be finally settled there ; that Portuguese noblemen should be admitted to offices in the house- holds of the King and Queen of Spain ; that all customs duties at the land frontiers should be abolished ; and that King Philip should at once grant three hundred thousand crowns out of his royal treasury to redeem prisoners, repair cities, and relieve the miseries which the plague had brought upon the Portuguese people. All these conditions Philip II. solemnly swore to observe, and he was in consequence recognized as King of Portugal, not only in Portugal itself, but in Brazil and the Indian settlements, where Fernao Telles had succeeded the viceroy, Dom Luis de Athaide, as governor-general. The other candidates for the crown of Portugal were obliged to acquiesce in Philip's success ; the Duke of Braganza, though greatly disappointed at only receiving the office of Constable of Portugal and the Order of the Golden Fleece instead of the sovereignty of Brazil, was too apathetic to resist, and, in face of his apathy, the Dukes of Parma and Savoy were forced to surrender their claims, which were obviously inferior to those of the Duchess of Braganza. Only the Prior of Crato persisted in his attempts to win the throne from Philip by relying on the old dislike of the Portuguese people for the Spaniards. He was cordially received in France by THE DEATH OF THE PRIOR OF CRATO. 285 Catherine de' Medici, who, though Italian by birth, was true to the French policy of trying to weaken Spain ; and through her influence a strong French fleet of sixty ships of war, with many troops on board, was sent, under the command of Philip Strozzi, to the Azores, which had recognized Dom Antonio in 1580 as king of Portugal, and had refused to acknowledge Philip. But the ill-luck of the Prior of Crato followed him ; the French fleet was de- feated at Terceira by the Spanish admiral, Don Alvaro de Bacam on July 26, 1582 ; Strozzi was killed, and Dom Antonio escaped with difficulty to England. There Elizabeth received him cordially, and in 1589, the year after the defeat of the Great Armada, she sent a strong fleet, under Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris, to help him win back his " kingdom." This attempt also proved a failure ; Maula Ahmed ibn Mohammed of Morocco was prevented from advancing to the prior the loan of two hundred thousand crowns, which he had pro- mised on receiving Dom Antonio's son, Dom Chris- tovao, as a hostage, by Philip's timely surrender of Arzila ; Drake and Norris quarrelled, and the Eng- lish retired without effecting anything of importance. The unfortunate prior, finding that Elizabeth would do nothing more for him, once more went to France, where he died in great poverty and distress on August 2 ^> 1595- He was buried in the Church of St. Germain l'Auxerrois at Paris, where the inscription on his tomb styles him " King of Portugal " ; and he left several children behind him, who were not recognized as legitimate, owing to the fact that their 286 THE SIXTY YEARS* CAPTIVITY. father had taken a vow of chastity on becoming a Knight of Malta. The attempts of the Prior of Crato did not affect the equanimity of Philip II. ; he satisfied himself, when he entered his new kingdom, by making fifty- two exceptions to the general amnesty, which he had declared, including Dom Antonio himself and his chief adviser, the Bishop of Guarda. He returned to Spain shortly afterwards, leaving his nephew, the Cardinal-Archduke Albert as viceroy at Lisbon, with a strong guard of Spanish soldiers. The most in- teresting occurrences of the cardinal's administration were the risings of the two first " false Dom Sebas- tians." It has been said that the lower classes of the Portuguese people refused to believe that the young king was dead, and it was not long before impostors arose, who tried to make profit out of this credulity. The history of these impostors J is as curious in its way as those of the " False Smerdis," the " False Demetrius," and the pseudo-Louis XVII. s, and proves how strong a hold the memory of Dom Sebastian, in spite of his being a rash and foolhardy tyrant, had taken upon the minds of the Portuguese people. The first two of these impostors, who were mockingly called the " King of Pennamacor" and the " King of Ericeira" from the headquarters of their operations, were Portuguese of low birth, whose risings were easily put down. The original inventor of the idea was the son of a tiler of Alcobaca, named Sebastiao 1 On the history of these pretenders, see " Les Faux Don Sebastien," by Miguel Martins d'Antas, the late Portuguese minister in London, published at Paris, 1866. THE FIRST "FALSE DOM SEBASTIANS." 287 Gonzales, who, after leading a profligate life, had retired to a hermitage near Pennamacor. From this retirement he emerged in July, 1584, and declared that he was King Sebastian ; that he had escaped after the battle of Alcacer Quibir, and had since been praying in the hermitage, but that the miseries of his people had reached his ears, and he had determined to come forth to remedy them. He was accompanied by two men, who styled themselves Dom Christovao de Tavora and the Bishop of Guarda, and began to collect money in Pennamacor and the neighbour- hood. The trio were speedily arrested and marched through the streets of Lisbon to show that they were impostors ; and the false Sebastian was then sent to the galleys for life, and the pretended Bishop of Guarda was hanged. In the following year, one Mattheus Alvares, son of a mason at Ericeira, de- clared himself to be the lamented Dom Sebastian, to whom he bore a considerable personal resemblance, and solemnly promised to marry the daughter of Pedro Affonso, a rich farmer, whom he created Count of Torres Novas. His future father-in-law advanced the impostor a large sum of money, and he had raised a small corps of eight hundred fanatical followers, when the cardinal-archduke thought it necessary to send royal troops against him. The poor enthusiasts were defeated with much loss, and both the pretender and Pedro Affonso were hanged and quartered in Lisbon. This severe punishment effectually checked the appearance of any fresh impostors in Portugal itself, and the populace, though firmly convinced that Dom 288 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. Sebastian would one day appear again, were not to be deceived by any more pretenders. But these stories had spread far beyond the limits of Portugal, and two more attempts to personate the deceased monarch were made in Spain and Italy. The first of these impostors was a handsome young man named Gabriel Espinosa, who bore a striking re- semblance to the King of Portugal, and who was given out as Dom Sebastian by a Portuguese Jesuit, named Madujal, who introduced him to Donna Anna, a natural daughter of Don Johti of Austria, and induced her to believed in him. The whole scheme partook rather of the nature of a personal intrigue than of a political plot. Donna Anna, who was very wealthy, showered favours on the young man and his sponsor, and even advocated his claims to Philip II. The deception was, however, too obviously absurd to gain many supporters, and Espinosa and his clerical adviser were both executed in 1594. Far more curious is the story of Marco Tullio, a poor Calabrian peasant, who could not speak a word of Portuguese, but who nevertheless asserted that he was Dom Sebas- tian in 1603, twenty-five years after the disaster of Alcacer Quibir. His story was most carefully worked out, and his imposture ranks among the most extra- ordinary on record. He asserted that he was tne king, and had saved his life and liberty by remaining on the battle-field among the dead bodies ; that he had made his way into Portugal, and had given notice of his existence to the Cardinal- King Henry, who had sought his life ; that he then returned to Africa, because he was unwilling to disturb the peace of the THE IMPOSTURE OF MARCO TULLIO. 289 kingdom by a civil war, and travelled about in the garb of a penitent ; that he next became a hermit in Sicily, and was on his way to Rome to declare him- self to the Pope, when he was robbed by his servants, and obliged to find his way to Venice. When he told this elaborate tale at Venice, he got a few Portuguese residents there to believe in him, and was soon arrested in that city at the demand of the Spanish ambassador as an impostor and a criminal. He was several times examined, but stuck to his story so cleverly, and with such obstinacy, that the authorities, who were not sorry to embarrass the Spanish Govern- ment, refused to punish him as an impostor. The story of his claim spread so widely abroad, that the enemies of Spain became anxious to prove it true, and to set him up as a thorn in the side of Philip III. The Prince of Orange went so far as to send Dom Christovao, son of the Prior of Crato, to request the Venetian authorities to make further inquiries ; but those prudent governors only held a solemn public examination, when the Calabrian told his tale again, and then expelled him from their dominions without expressing any opinion as to its truth. From Venice he went to Padua in the disguise of a monk, and thence to Florence, where the Grand Duke of Tuscany had him arrested and given up to the Spanish Viceroy at Naples. He was imprisoned in the Castle del Ovo, publicly exposed, and sent to the galleys ; and as he made adherents even there, he was transferred to San Lucar, and eventually executed. The singular bold- ness of this imposture, and the tenacity with which the ignorant Calabrian stuck to his story, in spite of 290 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. its evident falsity, make it memorable in the history of pretenders. The " Sixty Years' Captivity," as the domination of Spain over Portugal from 1580 to 1640 is called, was a time of unexampled disaster for the country in every quarter, and the Portuguese, with their in- dependence, seemed to have lost all their old courage and heroism. Under the administration of the Cardinal-Archduke Albert great efforts were made to send a powerful contingent to the fleet known as " The Great Armada," and the destruction of this fleet by the English in 1588 ruined the naval power of Portugal. So low did the country fall, that it could not even defend its own ports, and in 1595 the English, under Sir Francis Drake, sacked the im- portant city of Faro in the Algarves. As a portion of the Spanish dominions, Portugal had to suffer defeat from all the enemies of Spain. The foremost of these enemies were England and Holland, and the Dutch were the first nation to break down the Portuguese monopoly of the lucrative trade with Asia. This they did with the more ease, since, with the true commercial spirit, they not only imported merchandise from the East to Holland, but also distributed it through Dutch merchants to every country in Europe ; whereas the Portuguese in the days of their commercial prosperity were satisfied with bringing over the commodities to Lisbon, and letting foreign nations come and fetch them. The incursion of the Dutch merchants into Asia was caused by the action of Philip II. in closing the port of Lisbon to them in 1594; and in 1595 Cornelius THE DUTCH FIRST GO TO ASIA. 291 Houtman, a Dutchman, who had been employed by the Portuguese as a pilot in the Indian seas, and had afterwards been imprisoned by the Inquisition, led a Dutch fleet round the Cape of Good Hope for the first time. But before studying the rapid manner in which, first, the Dutch, and then the English and other foreign nations, contended for a share in the Asiatic trade, and eventually destroyed the Portuguese power in the East, it is necessary to draw attention to the fact that this destruction did not commence until the beginning of the seventeenth century, and the reign of Philip III. The ruin of Portugal was indeed due to the policy of Philip II., whose enemies Holland and England consummated it; but it was hardly commenced in his reign, which ended in 1598. Indeed, during that period, when the power of Portugal was on the very point of extinction, its Asiatic trade, and more especially its Indian trade, was at its height. 1 Philip II. faithfully observed the promises he had made to the Cortes of Thomar in this respect. All the viceroys he appointed were Portuguese, and he made no attempt to intrude Spaniards into either official appointments or into the conduct of the Asiatic commerce. The Portuguese viceroys of his reign, Dom Francisco Mascarenhas, Dom Duarte de Menezes, Dom Manoel de Sousa Coutinho, Dom Mathias de Alboquerque, and Dom Francisco da Gama, were all able and enterprizing rulers, who increased the prestige of the Portuguese power throughout the East by many deeds of daring, 1 Hunter's " Imperial Gazetteer of India," article, India, vol. vi. p. 360. 292 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. and especially by the conquest of the King of Kandy in Ceylon. The yearly fleets increased in number ; the peoples of the East had got accustomed to regard the Portuguese as invincible ; and the wheels of administration, from long practice, ran smoothly. Especially active were the missionaries, principally Jesuits, in Asia, and their progress was forwarded rather than checked by the accession of Philip II. to the throne of Portugal. The bishopric of Goa was raised to an archbishopric in 1577, and suffragan bishops were appointed wherever the influence of the Portuguese spread, and it is curious to note that an important mission headed by Dom Luis de Sequeira, consecrated Bishop of Japan, and Father Alexandra de Valignano, was despatched to Japan to 1598 and had much success. 1 But though the authorities of the Roman Catholic Church in Asia paid much attention to preaching the gospel among the distant peoples of the East, in India they were chiefly occupied in persecuting the Nestorian Christians on the Malabar coast with the help of the Inquisition. These Nestorian Christians were especially obnoxious to the orthodox Catholics, who got the Portuguese to prevent the arrival of any consecrated Nestorian bishop in India by blockading the coast, and who solemnly condemned the doctrines of the Nestorians in the famous synod of Diamper (Udayampura) held by Archbishop Alexis de Menezes in 1599. The history of the work of the Jesuits in India at this time is peculiarly interesting ; the keynote to their policy is contained in the following words : " The Christian 1 The " Da Asia " of Diogo de Couto, decade xii. book i. chap. xix. s S = o ^ St 294 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. religion cannot be regarded as naturalized in a country, until it is in a position to propagate its own priesthood ; " * and it must be remembered that the credit of their activity must not be attributed to Portuguese priests alone, for Jesuits of all nations co- operated in the work of evangelization, and among them should be noted Thomas Stephens, an English- man and rector of the Jesuit college at Salsette. In preaching, teaching, and writing these early Jesuit missionaries were equally able, and it is recorded that the first book printed in India was printed by the Jesuits at Cochin in 1570. In opposi- tion to this activity must be noted the terrible severity of the Inquisition at Goa, which stained the labours of these early missionaries with blood. The last twenty years of the sixteenth century, comprised in the reign of Philip II., from 1580 to 1598, mark the height of the wealth and power of the Portuguese in the East, but their fall into nothing- ness there during the reigns of Philip III. and Philip IV. was as rapid as their success had been astound- ing. The first great blows were struck by the Dutch merchants, whose ships were sent out at their own expense, and in no way protected by the State. In 1 597 two years after Houtman had led a Dutch fleet round the Cape, the Dutch established a factory in Java. In 1601 they defeated the Portuguese governor of Malacca, and took that city ; in 1607 they conquered the Portuguese settlements in the Moluccas and Sumatra; and in 1618 they founded Batavia, which became the capital of the trade of the Spice 1 Hunter's " Imperial Gazetteer of India," vol. vi. p. 251. THE ENGLISH FIRST GO TO ASIA. 295 Islands, and soon not only took the place of Malacca, but rivalled Goa. Not satisfied with the trade of the further East, they attacked that of China also, and in 1635 occupied the island of Formosa. At a later date they even ousted the Portuguese from their chief settlements in India and Ceylon, always excepting Goa, which, according to Catholic belief, has ,ever been preserved to the Portuguese by the holy bones of St. Francis Xavier. Meanwhile, just as the Dutch broke the power of the Portuguese in the Spice Islands and China, a new power had arisen to attack their Indian monopoly. The ancient allies of the Portu- guese the English, now made no distinction between them and their bitter enemies, the Spaniards, and during the last forty years of the " Sixty Years' Cap- tivity," they laid the foundation of their empire in India. During the reign of Elizabeth, the English had sacked Pernambuco in 1594, destroyed Fort Arguin on the African coast in 1595, and ravaged the Azores in 1597 ; during that of James I. they attacked the Indian trade of Portugal. As was the case with the Dutch, the assault upon the Portuguese monopoly was the work of private traders, not of the State. This is not the place to trace the slow growth of the English power in India, but it is enough to say that the English ships went to Asia with no idea of conquest, and solely with the desire to trade. This the Portuguese desired to hinder, and in trying to prevent the English from taking on board cargoes at Surat in 161 5, the Portuguese were defeated by Captain Best, and thus lost their reputation for in- vincibility on the north-west coast of India. The 296 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. English, instead of showing a bold front, made efforts to live in harmony with the Indian kings, and especially with the Great Mogul, and were rewarded by being looked upon with favour instead of with suspicion, and being allowed to set up many commercial agencies. As traders, the English mer- chants had no wish to go to war and maintained no armies to defend their agencies, and the only offensive operation they undertook against the Portuguese was in 1622, when they assisted the Persians to capture Ormuz. These rapid .onslaughts completely over- threw the Portuguese power in Asia. The Dutch quickly absorbed all the trade of the further East, and of the Spice Islands in particular ; the English gained a good hold upon that with Persia and North-western India ; and in 1629 the Portuguese commerce with Bengal was almost destroyed by the capture of their headquarters, Hugll, by Shah Jehan who killed one thousand Portuguese, and carried over four thousand, including women and children, into captivity. Even smaller European nations attacked their monopoly, and in 161 6 the Danes established themselves at Serampore and Tranquebar. Against all these blows, Portugal made little resistance ; Golden Goa was shorn of its pre-eminence ; and the Portuguese fleets when homeward bound were preyed upon by the Dutch and English cruisers. It was not only in the East that disasters fell in quick succession upon the Portuguese, but efforts were made also by the Dutch to dispossess them of their great empire in South America. The history of the Dutch in Brazil is as remarkable as their history in THE DUTCH IN BRAZIL. 20,7 Asia, and considering the small size of Holland, the same feeling of astonishment, which strikes the student, when he reads of the exploits of the Portu- guese in the sixteenth century, affects him, when he examines the enterprises of the Dutch in the seven- teenth. It was in 1624, when success was assured in Asia, that a Dutch West India Company was founded to drive the Portuguese out of South America. The new company at once sent a fleet under Admiral Willi- kens to attack Brazil, and this admiral met with little opposition in the capture of San Salvador, the capital of Portuguese South America. The Portuguese governor-general, Dom Diogo de Mendonga, aban- doned the city, but the Archbishop, Dom Miguel de Teixeira, took his place, and calling on his clergy to take up arms, he defended the city for a few days, and then retired to a neighbouring port. Admiral Willikens plundered the city, and returned with a vast booty, to the delight of his employers, and left only a small garrison behind, which was soon driven back in all its forays, and eventually closely blockaded by the gallant old archbishop, who took the title of Captain-general of Brazil. In April, 1626, strong reinforcements arrived under Dom Emmanuel de Menezes, and the city of San Salvador once more fell into the hands of the Portuguese. It is not necessary to trace the exact history of every Dutch expedition to Brazil ; it is enough to say that from 1626 to 1637, plunder was brought home every year and distributed to the shareholders of the company, while no real attempt at establishing trade or at colo- nization was made. This policy naturally caused the 298 THE SIXTY YEARS' CAPTIVITY. Dutch to be loathed by the Portuguese settlers as robbers and pirates, and kept them in a state of perpetual disquietude. In 1637, a great ruler, Count Maurice of Nassau, was sent out by the Dutch West India Company as Governor-general of their posses- sions in South America, which extended roughly over the four Captainships of Pernambuco, Tamaraca, Paraiba, and Rio Grande. This great general and statesman attempted to entirely destroy the Portu- guese power in South America, and to establish a Dutch dominion there. His warlike expeditions were successful, excepting an attack on San Salvador, and he also managed to establish a general system of administration over the seven northern captainships with his capital at Mauriceburgh opposite the strongly fortified island of the Recife. It was Maurice of Nassau, who gave up the system of plundering the Portuguese, and substituted that of taxing them, and his power was at its height, when the news of the revolution of 1640, and of the overthrow of the Spanish domination, arrived in Brazil and revived the spirits of the Portuguese colonists. To compensate for all these losses, the destruction of the monopoly of the Asiatic trade, the loss of Ormuz and Malacca, and the reduction of the greater part of Brazil, what advantages had Portugal received ? The promises made by Philip II. to the Cortes of Thomar were mostly broken by his successors. The Duke of Lerma and the Count-Duke of Olivares, the all-powerful ministers of Philip III. and Philip IV. tried to see how far and how entirely they could prove to the Portuguese people that they were subject THE RULE OF THE SPANIARDS. 299 to Spain, and not a free nation. The Cortes, instead of being summoned frequently, was only summoned once during the reign of Philip III., in 1619, in order to recognize his son as heir to the throne ; and was never summoned at all during the reign of Philip IV. Spaniards filled every office in the kingdom, and more especially in the garrison towns ; Spanish eccle- siastics were consecrated to Portuguese bishoprics ; and the Portuguese council at the Court of Madrid was reduced to a single secretary. Taxation was heavy, and the revenue from it was not spent in the country, and the promise that no Portuguese land should be granted to other than Portuguese subjects was often broken, conspicuously in the case of the Duke of Lerma, who secured a grant of the royal domains of Beja and Serpa. But Lerma and Olivares forgot that the Portuguese were a separate race, with a great and noble history ; they would not be trampled on for ever, and to the surprise of Spain, the little country rose in rebellion in 1640 and put an end to the " Sixty Years' Captivity." XIV. THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. THE Portuguese people groaned under the power- lessness and poverty which fell to their lot during the Sixty Years' Captivity. None of the advantages which had been so eloquently prophesied by Chris- tovao de Moura as the inevitable result of a union with Spain had been experienced. Instead of being protected by great Spanish armies, the colonies and trade of Portugal had been left an open prey to the enemies of Spain ; it was on account of her union with Spain that the Dutch and English attacked the Portuguese possessions in both East and West ; and in return for all she lost, Portugal did not even have the satisfaction of retaining the independence of its local government, but was administered for the benefit of Spaniards alone. The proverbial Castilian haughti- ness was especially aggravating to the nobles and people of Portugal ; there was no attempt made to unite the two peoples ; they kept apart like oil and water, and the traditional hatred of the Spaniard grew to be more intense than ever. The loss of material prosperity and the insolent demeanour of PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 301 the Spanish officials affected all classes, high and low, and incited them to rebel, and to these causes must be added the influence of the Portuguese writers. The great Camoens had not lived to see the Spaniards supreme in his beloved country, but he had successors during the Sixty Years' Captivity, who sang in the same lofty strain of the great deeds of the Portuguese warriors during the heroic period. Such poems as the " Primeiro Cerco de Dio " (" The First Siege of Diu "), by Francisco de Andrade ; the " Segundo Cerco de Dio," by Jeronymo Corte-Real ; the " Affonso Afri- cano," by Vasco Mousinho de Quebedo ; and the " Malacca Conquistada," by Francisco de Sa de Menezes, were all calculated to stir the hearts of the Portuguese of the seventeenth century, and to make them desire to be worthy of their great forefathers. Nor were the prose writers less eloquent than the poets in telling of the great deeds of the past ; the "Decadas" of Diogo do Couto, and the "Asia," " Europa," " Africa," and " America Portugueza," of Manoel de Faria e Sousa, continued the work of Joao de Barros in making the Portuguese proud of their past exploits, while the historians, Bernardo de Brito and Antonio Brandao, in their " Monarchia Lusitana," told the story of the centuries of indepen- dence before Portugal became a province of Spain. A universal feeling of discontent had arisen during the reigns of Philip III. and Philip IV., but the final impulse from passive discontent to active rebellion was supplied by the energy of certain Portuguese noblemen, who relied for success on the weakness of Spain and on help from France. The Spain of Philip 302 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. IV. was indeed very different to the Spain of Charles V. and Philip II.; its days of greatness were over; Holland was practically independent ; and Catalonia was in revolt. On the other hand, France had passed through the terrible civil wars of the sixteenth cen- tury, and was being moulded into a mighty kingdom by the hand of Richelieu. One of the keynotes of Richelieu's policy was to harass Spain ; and for this reason the great cardinal encouraged the revolt of the Catalans in 1639, and had long fomented the feeling of discontent in Portugal. As early as 1636, one of Richelieu's secret agents is found writing to his master, " All Portugal cries aloud, ' When will the King of France deliver us from the Pharaoh of Spain'?" 1 and in 1638 the cardinal sent one of his most trusted agents, the Chevalier de Saint- Pe, to re- port upon the disposition of the Portuguese people. Richelieu soon grasped the situation of affairs, and resolved to encourage an open rebellion in Portugal, in order to secure an independent ally in the Iberian Peninsula, which should be such a thorn in the side of Spain as Scotland had in former days been in the side of England. The discontent of the people was shown in many overt acts ; in 1634 the people of Lisbon refused to pay their taxes ; in 1637 a serious riot broke out at Evora, which remained in a state of insurrection for many months ; and attacks upon Spanish soldiers and officials constantly took place all over the country. But the discontented people of Portugal wanted 1 Richelieu's "Letters," edited by the Vicomte d'Avenel, vol. vii. p. 85S. 9* a) X oO : II 3 >— , r rt "5 °^ -Ph Sr c «< s £ w -° c/! IT; U i3T3 rt v £> 3^? ec/2-5 O S crt O- O c M O rt H b - ■ fccq-o 3 -5-3 = « rt 1 ^ 3 Si C _,. J! 2 « ~'o~§ .O is ■g-s go o - o .2 a c o J ox g H 2 <3 -£•§1 i ^1 -a u i •S-S k> c x O i- i. • — rt O - ^ < o *o c '■" 20 11 •IK 03 -rt E H til.Tt - rt .E a. Co o; 3 a^S O 31 -a E H «. 3 C rt o -I x "3 31 -Si's, Eh •- " Kv. .. c o 304 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. some one to rally round ; the nobility wanted a leader. This leader and representative was found in John, eighth Duke of Braganza, the legitimate heir to the throne. This great nobleman was the head of the most noble family in Portugal, and the direct lineal descendant of the bastard son of John " the Great," who had married the daughter of the Holy Constable, and he was further the grandson of Donna Catherine, the rightful heiress to the Cardinal-King, Dom Henry. Philip II. had purchased the acqui- escence of the husband of Donna Catherine in his usurpation by securing to him the vast possessions of the Braganza family in Portugal, but he had not fulfilled his promise of the grant of Brazil in full sovereignty, to the great disgust of the heiress to the throne of Portugal. She had inspired her hatred for Spain and her love for Portugal into her son, Dom Theodosio, seventh duke, but her grandson, Dom John, was an indolent and timid nobleman, who preferred an easy life to a crown. Dom John had succeeded to the duchy and estates in 1630, at the age of twenty-six, and he had married Donna Luisa de Guzman, daughter of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, in 1633. This marriage had been hailed with delight by Olivares, as it seemed to bind the Braganza family closer to Spain, and he persuaded Philip IV. to grant Dom John as a wedding-gift the duchy and lordship of Guimaraens, which had been the property of Dom Edward, youngest son of Emmanuel " the Fortunate," the prince through whom the Duke of Braganza traced his claim to the throne. But this marriage did not cement the friendship of the House of Braganza THE DUCHESS OF BRAG AN Z A. 305 with Spain. On the contrary, the duchess seemed to surrender her Spanish nationality ; she made a point of speaking Portuguese, and became more patriotic than the Portuguese themselves ; she never forgot that her husband was by rights a king, and was encouraged to use all her great abilities to scheme for the throne of Portugal by the recollection of a prophecy made to her in her childhood that she should be a queen. Dom John himself did not share her opinions ; he was no warrior, but loved hunting, music, and the arts, and his lovely hunting-seat at Villa Vicosa, far more than he did politics or even his country. But his easy nature made him subservient to the will of his duchess, and she, through the duke's agent, Joao Pinto Ribeiro, Professor of Civil Law at Coimbra, let the nobility of Portugal know that the Duke of Braganza would put himself at their head, if they would but strike a blow for the freedom of their country. Portugal was at the period, when the Duchess of Braganza involved her husband in her ambitious schemes, under the nominal rule of Margaret of Savoy, Duchess of Mantua ; and the Court of this princess was, contrary to the promises made by Philip II. to the Cortes of Thomar, entirely filled with foreigners. Her Lord High Steward or Mordomo- Mor was the Marquis de la Puebla, a Spaniard, and her Estribeiro-Mor, or Master of the Horse, was the Marquis de Bainetti, an Italian, while among more important posts, two Spaniards, Don Didace de Cardenas and Don Fernando de Castro, were respec- tively general commanding the Portuguese cavalry, 306 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. and controller of the Portuguese navy. The most important native of the country admitted to her council was Dom Sebastiao de Mattos de Noronha, Archbishop of Braga, Primate of the kingdom, and a wealthy nobleman, but the chief administrative power was confided to Miguel de Vasconcellos de Brito, Secretary of State. This man was hated by his fellow-countrymen with the intensity of hatred only felt for a renegade. He had won the favour of Olivares, the Spanish Minister, by his skill in squeezing money out of Portugal, and his energy and activity made him indispensable to the Duchess of Mantua. But if he was hated by all classes of the Portuguese people, he was more especially obnoxious to the Portuguese nobility owing to his policy of excluding- them from all posts of honour and emolu- ment, and his personal insolence towards them. This was the state of the government and the general position of affairs in Portugal when Joao Pinto Ribeiro, acting with the full sanction of the Duchess, and the half-hearted assent of the Duke, of Braganza, began to form a conspiracy among the leading noble- men to bring about a revolution and expel the Spaniards. If he could only combine the nobles to take the lead and strike the first blow, he knew well that the people would warmly support them. The first step was to make the future king acquainted with his friends, and for this purpose great hunting parties were organized at Villa Vicosa, to which the most patriotic Portuguese noblemen were invited in turn. This behaviour, and the attitude of the young duchess, began to inspire Olivares with a vague THE DUKE OF BRAG AN Z A. 307 alarm, and he began to regret the policy which had allowed the rightful heir to the throne of Portugal to retain his vast estates in the quarter where his in- fluence was most to be feared. He first offered the government of the Milanese, an office generally held by a prince of the blood, to the Duke of Braganza, and, when the appointment was declined on the score of ignorance of Italian politics, the astute Spanish statesman began to feel still more uneasy. But it was necessary to disguise his apprehensions, for he knew that it was impossible to arrest the Duke of Braganza on his estates without causing serious dis- turbances, and he therefore directed the duke to make a tour of Portugal in his capacity of Constable to inspect the condition of the defences. This tour gave the duke ah opportunity to make the acquaintance of the greater part of the people, while he avoided falling into the various traps set for him. Then Olivares delivered his last stroke of policy ; he ordered out the whole ban and arrikre-ban of Portugal to serve under the king in person in putting down the Catalan rebellion, and directed the Duke of Braganza to proceed immediately to Madrid. The duke delayed his departure for a time, and Joao Pinto Ribeiro informed the noblemen who had been forming a conspiracy in Lisbon that they must strike at once or it would be too late. The names of these noblemen are worthy of record, not only because of the daring and successful revolution they initiated, but because they show how patrio- tic the Portuguese nobility were as a body, since most of the famous families of the early history of 308 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. Portugal and of the heroic period are represented among them. The leaders of the famous forty who planned the revolution were Miguel de Almeida, a venerable nobleman, at whose house the first meeting of the conspirators was held ; Pedro de Mendonca Furtado, Hereditary Grand Chamberlain or Camereiro- Mor ; Antonio and Luis de Almada ; Jorge de Mello, Hereditary Grand Huntsman ; Antonio de Mello de Menezes, his brother ; Estevao, and Luis da Cunha ; Rodrigo and Emmanuel de Sa ; Pedro Mascarenhas, v Carlos de Noronha, Gaston de Coutinho and Antonio de Saldanha. The Archbishop of Lisbon, Rodrigo da Cunha, the most popular ecclesiastical dignitary of the realm, if not actually a conspirator, certainly had some knowledge of what was going on through his relatives, the Almadas and Da Cunhas. The con- spirators met regularly and skilfully planned their rising, and in all their deliberations Joao Pinto Ribeiro, though not a nobleman himself, and rather looked down on by the forty, showed himself the boldest and most sagacious leader of them all. There was no idea of establishing a republic, in imitation of the Netherlands, as Vertot absurdly states, for the keystone of their plan was to make a show of legality, and to assert that they were merely placing the right- ful king upon the throne. Their preparations were fully made, when Joao Pinto Ribeiro brought the news that the blow must be struck at once, or else that the Duke of Braganza must proceed to Madrid. The 1st of December, 1640, was the day appointed for the revolution and on the morning of that day the conspirators assembled by different streets in THE REVOLUTION OF DECEMBER 1ST. 309 front of the palace. There had been no treachery, and consequently the viceregal court was quite un- prepared for resistance. The signal was given by a pistol shot from Ribeiro, and each conspirator went to his appointed place to accomplish his appointed task. Dom Miguel de Almeida overpowered the German guards of the palace without any difficulty, and Dom Jorge de Mello and Dom Estevao da Cunha were equally successful with the Spanish guards. The third party, under the leadership of Ribeiro, forced their way into the palace, and moved towards the apartments of the hated Secretary of State, Miguel de Vasconcellos. On their way they met Francisco de Soares de Albergaria, the " Corregidor Civil," or civil judge, who, in answer to their cries of " Long live the Duke of Braganza!" shouted "Long live the King of Spain and Portugal!" and was then immediately shot. They next came across Antonio Correa, the secretary's chief clerk, whose insolence had almost rivalled his master's, and Antonio de Menezes struck him down with his poniard and severely wounded him. At last they reached the apartments of the secretary, whom they discovered hidden in a cupboard under a mass of papers. The trembling wretch was dragged from his concealment, and shot by Dom Rodrigo de Sa. All parties now rushed to the part of the palace inhabited by the Duchess of Mantua, whom they found with the Archbishop of Braga. The princess was no coward, and boldly faced the conspirators, but she was informed by Dom Carlos de ^Noronha that she was a prisoner, and the life of the Archbishop of Braga, who attempted to cut his way THE SUCCESS OF THE CONSPIRATORS. 3II through his opponents, was with difficulty saved by Dom Miguel de Almeida. These successes in the palace were followed by equal successes in the city of Lisbon. The populace of all classes detested the Spanish domination ; they rose in a body, armed themselves as best they could, and arrested every Spaniard they could find from the Marquis de la Puebla to the naval officers on shore from the Spanish vessels lying in the Tagus. Dom Antonio de Saldanha, as previously arranged, entered the Relacdo, or High Court of Justice, and informed the judges of the revolution, and the president, Gon- calo de Sousa, immediately began to pronounce his decrees in the name of King John IV., instead of King Philip III. Dom Gaston de Coutinho set free all the political prisoners, and some young men rowed off to the three Spanish galleons in the port, and easily obtained possession of them, since most of their officers had already been arrested on shore. There remained only the citadel, or castle, of St. George, garrisoned by a strong Spanish force under Don Luiz de Campo. This important post was obtained by a stratagem of Dom Antonio de Almada, who forced the Duchess of Mantua to sign an order for its sur- render by a threat to assassinate all the Spanish prisoners already taken, and the order was willingly obeyed by the timorous governor. The conspirators then assembled in the palace, and amidst the shouts of the populace, the Archbishop of Lisbon was pro- claimed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom, with Dom Miguel de Almeida, Dom Pedro de Mendonca Furtado, and Dom Antonio de Almada as councillors 312 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. of state. The new government sent off expresses in all directions to announce the news of the successful revolution, and obtained peaceable possession of all the chief fortresses and strong places round Lisbon, of Belem, Bugio, S. Antonio, Almada, and Cascaes, with the exception only of S. Julian, at the mouth of the Tagus. The Duke and Duchess of Braganza were all this time waiting with feverish impatience at Villa Vi^osa for news of the great undertaking, and on the follow- ing day, Sunday, December 2nd, Dom Jorge de Mello arrived, after travelling all night, and hailed the Duke and Duchess as King and Queen of Portugal. The neighbouring country was devoted to the duke and his family and joyfully received the news of his acces- sion, and Affonso de Mello took possession of Elvas, the strongest city in Portugal, in the name of John IV., without any bloodshed. On December 3rd the new sovereign entered Lisbon amidst general rejoic- ings, and on December 15th he was solemnly crowned in the Cathedral of Lisbon. Never was a sudden revolution more successful. From Oporto to Faro the people everywhere rose in rebellion ; the Spanish arms were torn down ; the Spanish garrisons were expelled, and John IV. was hailed with acclamation. A Cortes was summoned to meet at Lisbon for the first time since 1619, and on January 19, 1641, John IV. was declared King of Portugal, as the right- ful heir of Emmanuel "the Fortunate," and the whole Cortes swore to obey him, and recognized his eldest son, Dom Theodosio, as heir to the throne. The new sovereign determined to meet his loyal people half CORONATION OF JOHN IV. 313 way, so he declared that his patrimonial estates were sufficient to meet the expenses of his royal' house- hold, and that the revenues of the Crown lands should for the future be spent on national needs. He be- stowed important posts and orders on the leading conspirators, and bribed Don Fernando de la Cueva to surrender the fortress of S. Julian, the only place which resisted his authority. The last person to be informed of this sudden and successful revolution was the former king, Philip IV. of Spain and III. of Portugal. His courtiers all feared to tell him the news, and when it became necessary to break it to him, the Count- Duke Olivares accomplished the feat with his usual adroitness. " Sire," he said to the king with a pleased countenance, " I have to congratulate you on a most fortunate event. Your Majesty has just obtained a powerful duchy, and some magnificent estates." " By what means," answered the astonished monarch. " The Duke of Braganza," said Olivares, " has madly allowed himself to be seduced by the populace, who have proclaimed him King of Portugal. His vast estates are therefore forfeited, and become the property of your Majesty, who, by the annihila- tion of this family, will in future reign securely and peaceably over that kingdom." Olivares had every reason to speak with confidence, for there could be no doubt that Portugal, weakened by her long subjection, could do little or nothing to resist the power of Spain, if it could be fully employed. But, fortunately for the independence of Portugal, Spain was distracted by the Catalan rebellion and foreign war, and was unable to exert her strength for the 314 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. time being. Both the new king and his advisers felt, however, that it would not be wise to count too much or too long upon this fortunate circumstance, and he sent ambassadors all over Europe to inform the foreign sovereigns of the revolution, and to beg for their help and alliance. The old Chancellor Oxenstiern, who governed Sweden after the death of her warrior monarch, Gustavus Adolphus, during the minority of Queen Christina, promptly recognized the acces- sion of the new dynasty, and welcomed it as another breach in the power of Spain. Charles I. of England, after some delay, also recognized John IV., but he was too much occupied by his quarrels with the Parliament to pay much attention to foreign politics. The Dutch received the news of the revolution with joy, and compared it to their own successful rebellion against Spain, and they at once concluded a treaty with Portugal, and promised to send assistance. But it was to France that John IV. looked with most con- fidence for help ; he remembered the secret emissaries of Richelieu and their lavish promises ; and on January 22, 1641, three days after his coronation, he sent two of his most accomplished courtiers, Francisco de Mello and Antonio Coelho de Carvalho, on a special mission to Paris. They were received with much cordiality by the great cardinal, who understood how thoroughly Spain must be crippled by the Catalan and Portuguese rebellions, and, to their sur- prise, also by the Queen of France, Anne of Austria, the sister of Philip IV. De Mello ventured to hint his surprise at this hearty reception, when the queen made a famous reply : " True it is, that I am the THE CAMINHA CONSPIRACY. 315 sister of his Catholic Majesty, but am I not also the mother of the Dauphin ? " Their negotiations ended in the conclusion of an offensive and defensive treaty between France and Portugal, signed on June 1, 1641, by which the King of France promised to make no peace with Spain until the independence of Portugal was fully recognized. These embassies and treaties ended in the arrival of a strong French fleet, under the command of the Chevalier de Breze, in the Tagus, on August 7, 1641, followed by a Dutch fleet, under Admiral Gylfels, on September 10th. At this very time, before the first king of the House of Braganza had been a year upon the throne, a serious conspiracy was in progress, which had for its aim the re-establishment of the power of Spain. This conspiracy was almost entirely the work of one man, Dom Sebastiao de Mattos de Noronha, Archbishop ot Braga, and Primate of Portugal. This prelate had not been in any way interfered with by the new government, but he felt that he had lost the power which he had enjoyed during the viceroyalty of the Duchess of Mantua, and he had never forgiven the danger in which his life had been placed on the day of the outbreak of the revolution in Lisbon. He first engaged the Marquis of Villa Real, and his son, the Duke of Caminha, to join him. Their family boasted of royal blood, and ranked next to that of the Duke of Aveiro in the kingdom of Portugal, and they felt indignant that no important posts had been conferred upon them for their acquiescence in the revolution. The marquis was won over by a promise that he should be the Viceroy of Portugal, if the conspiracy 3l6 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. succeeded, and his son threw himself so heartily into the project that the whole plot is generally known as the " Caminha conspiracy." The other chief laymen engaged were the Count of Armamar, the nephew of the primate, the Count of Ballerais, Lourengo Peres de Carvalho, keeper of the treasury, who feared to lose the lucrative post which he had held so long under the Spanish domination, and Antonio Correa, the confidential clerk of the murdered Vasconcellos, who had been severely wounded in the outbreak of December 1st. A far more important ally than any of these noblemen and officials, was the Grand Inquisi- tor of Portugal, Dom Sebastiao de Tello, Bishop of Leiria, who was persuaded to promise the " novaes Christiaos," or half-converted Jews, a cessation of all persecution if they would join in overthrowing John IV. They, on their part, were ready to assist because the new monarch had absolutely refused to make any concessions to them for fear of offending the Pope. The arrangements were soon made ; it was settled that the " novaes Christiaos " were to set fire to the palace on August 5th ; that the king was to be stabbed in the confusion which would ensue ; and that the Duchess of Mantua should be released from her convent, and again placed in power. The Count-Duke Olivares gladly ac- quiesced in all the schemes of the treacherous archbishop, and despatches giving all the details of the plot were entrusted to a converted Jew named Baese, to send to Madrid. These despatches fell into the hands of Marquis of Ayamonte, a Spanish nobleman, and a relation of the new Queen of Portu- THE VICTORY OF MONTI JO. 317 gal, who was acting as intermediary between John IV. and his brother-in-law, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, and the marquis promptly sent them to Lisbon. Forewarned was forearmed, and on August 5th, the day fixed for the rising, all the leaders of the conspiracy were arrested. Baese confessed, when put to the torture, and on August 29th all the noblemen concerned, including the Marquis of Villa Real and the Duke of Caminha, were publicly executed at Lisbon, while the Primate and the Grand Inquisitor were condemned to imprisonment for life. This severe punishment did not check the ardour of the friends of Spain, who were chiefly officials and discontented nobles, and numbered few adherents among the people, and in 1643 a new pl°t was dis- covered, headed by Francisco de Lucena, Secretary of State, who was promptly executed. In spite of these difficulties, the government managed to get together an army ; it was neither well-disciplined nor well-equipped, but popular enthusiasm took the place of experience, and on May 26, 1642, the Portuguese under the command of Mathias de Alboquerque, defeated a Spanish army under the Baron de Molingen at Montijo. This victory, which was loudly compared to that of Aljubarrota, was, in truth, of no great importance from a military point of view, but it invigorated the spirit of the Portuguese people, and encouraged them to persist in fighting for their independence. From every quarter of the globe news arrived that the old Portuguese possessions had declared for John IV. Mozambique, Goa and the possessions in India, Malacca, and Macao, all threw 318 THE REVOLUTION OF 164O. off the domination of Spain, and prepared to send money and men to Lisbon ; while Brazil, the most valuable possession of the Portuguese crown, since the Dutch had taken possession of the Asiatic trade, began a gallant struggle for the House of Braganza, a struggle which brought about a war with the Dutch in Europe, and lost the Portuguese the assistance which had been promised them in 1641 by the arrival of the fleet under Gylfels. The story of the great dominion acquired for the Dutch in South America by Count Maurice of Nassau has been told ; and the wealth received by the Dutch West India Company from his efforts was only inferior to that of the Dutch East India Company. The Count had managed matters on a large scale ; he had built or strengthened forty- five fortresses ; he commanded a regular army of three thousand men and a fleet of ninety ships ; and he sent over to Holland no less than twenty-five thousand chests of sugar a year. But in spite of his success he recognized that this dominion depended on the sword ; the Dutch were not good colonists, for they never thought of making their homes in Brazil, but always of returning some day to Holland ; and all the European settlers and planters in the five captainships held by the Dutch were of Portuguese descent. Further, the native Brazilians were on more friendly terms with the Portuguese than the Dutch owing to the labours of the Jesuits among them. Count Maurice of Nassau saw therefore that it was impossible to oust the Portuguese and replace them by Dutch settlers, so he established a dominion, MAURICE OF NASSAU IN BRAZIL. 319 resembling that of the English in India, which rested for its keystone upon the military possession of the country and the maintenance of strong garrisons in the various fortresses. It need hardly be said that the Portuguese of all the various captainships freely communicated with each other, and so wise and prudent was the administration of Count Maurice that the Portuguese settlers in his captainships were envied by those who remained under the power of Spain. But this attitude of mind changed, when the news arrived of the successful revolution of December, 1640. Dom Antonio Telles da Silva, the Portuguese Governor-General at once proclaimed King John IV. at San Salvador, and the Portuguese in the Dutch captainships felt an immediate desire to join their brethren. Matters of European policy however prevented them from striking a blow at once ; John IV. could not afford to make enemies of the Dutch, and one of the terms of his alliance with them was that matters should remain exactly as they were in Brazil for ten years. However the Portuguese colonists had not to wait ten years owing to the ungrateful behaviour of the Dutch themselves. The Dutch West India Company could not appreciate the political ideas of Maurice of Nassau ; these traders wanted large profits and not a great empire ; they were disgusted at the amounts spent on the fortresses and the army, and in 1644 they recalled the great man whose ideas were too grand for them to fathom. Immediately on his departure, matters went from bad to worse in the Dutch captainships. His 320 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. successors, a committee of merchants, neglected the fortresses, and aroused the hatred of the Portuguese sugar planters by their exactions, and though they sent home an unparalleled amount of sugar and money for one year, it was the only year they remained in office ; for in 1645 the- whole of the Portuguese colonists in the Dutch captainships burst into insurrection. It was in vain for the Dutch authorities to complain to Dom Antonio Telles da Silva ; he answered that it was not his fault if the Portuguese revolted ; they did not do so under his orders or directions ; and the Portuguese ambassador at the Hague made the same assertion in the name of the king. Seldom has an insurrection been so rapidly successful ; Antonio Moniz Barreto and Antonio Teixeira de Mello speedily reduced the province of Maranham, and Joao Fernandes Vieira, a self-made man and originally a butcher's boy, occupied the whole of the province of Pernambuco, and drove the Dutch into their capital. The neg- lected fortresses were easily taken, and soon the Dutch held no place, but the Recife. It was in vain for Holland to declare war against Portugal, and to send great armaments to Brazil ; the national movement was too strong to be resisted ; the Dutch won some naval victories but could gain no fresh foothold in the country, and in 1655 the island of the Recife was abandoned after a ten years' siege, and a King of Portugal once more reigned over the whole of Brazil. Great as was the triumph of the revolt in Brazil, it at first filled the heart of the King of Portugal with JOHN IV. OFFERS TO ABDICATE. ' 32 1 alarm, for it deprived him of an ally in Europe on whose -valuable assistance he had firmly relied. Everywhere he looked in vain for help. Sweden could do nothing ; England was torn by civil war ; and in France his ally, Cardinal Richelieu, had been succeeded as supreme minister by Cardinal Mazarin. John IV. instinctively felt that he could not depend upon Mazarin, who would certainly throw him over, if a peace should be made between France and Spain, and in his despair he made an offer to resign his throne to a French prince, who should bring ample assistance from France. The nature of this offer is best told in a letter from Mazarin to the Duke of Longueville, dated October 4, 1647. "The King of Portugal," wrote the Cardinal, " after having maturely considered the state of affairs, is disposed to resign his crown and retire to the Azores, and to offer his kingdom to any one whom the Queen of France shall select, believing himself strong enough to have such a person recognized as king and obeyed by all the people of Portugal. He only desires that the person selected should be a prince who may expect powerful help from France, and that he shall have the means to make such an alliance with his eldest son, as may eventually secure the succession of the kingdom to the latter. He proposes M. the Duke of Orleans and Mademoiselle, or M. the Prince, or you and your daughter." z This strange offer of abdication came to nothing, and it may well be doubted if John IV. would have had the power to introduce a foreign prince in this way ; and if he had 1 Mazarin's " Letters," edited by M. Cheruel, vol. ii. p. 501. JOHN IV. (From a Print of the I erioa.) ALLIANCE BETWEEN FRANCE AND PORTUGAL. 323 succeeded, Mazarin would have abandoned Portugal with equal certainty even if a French prince had been on its throne. Though this scheme failed, John IV. still hankered after help from France ; he offered his daughter, Donna Catherine de Braganza with a large dowry both to the Duke of Beaufort and to the young Louis XIV., and he also promised large sums of money to the avaricious cardinal for his own use. Years passed on, occupied with these various schemes and entreaties for assistance, and it was not until John IV. threatened to make peace at any price with Philip IV. that Mazarin's trusted agent, the Chevalier de Jant, signed an offensive and defen- sive alliance with Portugal on September 7, 1655. 1 This behaviour of France did not seriously concern Portugal so long as the war between France and Spain continued to occupy the chief strength of the Spanish armies ; but on all sides, John IV. saw that he was regarded abroad as a temporary monarch, ruling only until Spain had an opportunity to crush him. From England he could get no help ; CromweH showed his contempt for him and for the received principles of international law, by ordering the trial and execution of Dom Pantaleone de Sa, a lad of nine- teen, and the brother of the Portuguese ambassa- dor Rodrigo de Sa, for murder and riot in London ; 2 and his refusal to surrender Prince Rupert and Prince Maurice in 1650 to Admiral Blake, caused that 1 See the interesting little book by Jules Tessin, published at Paris in 1877 under the title of " Le Chevalier de Jant. Relations de la France avec le Portugal au temps de Mazarin." 2 See Carlyle's " Speeches and Letters of Cromwell," vol. iv. p. 21 ; Whitelocke's " Memorials," ed. 1732, pp. 592, 595. 324 THE REVOLUTION OF 1640. gallant admiral to capture his ships and pillage his colonies. On the other hand, the people of Portugal stood staunchly by their legitimate monarch. Brazil recognized his authority and sent him what help she could ; the Indian and Chinese possessions contributed what they could in money, and his great admiral Dom Salvador Correa de Sa e Benevides defeated several Spanish fleets, and conquered Angola and the former Portuguese possessions on the African coast. In the midst of these perplexities, expecting daily to hear of the conclusion of a peace between France and Spain, which should leave the latter power free to crush him, King John IV., the first king of the House of Braganza, died on November 6, 1656. His eldest son Dom Theodosio, whom he had created Prince of Brazil, had predeceased him in 1653, and his heir was a boy of thirteen, weakly both in body and in intellect. John IV. was not a great man ; he is no more to be compared with John " the Great " than the victory of Montijo is to that of Aljubarrota ; but his name and accession mark a great event. Hesitat- ing and undecided by nature, all his strength came from his queen ; but for her, he would never have been king of Portugal. But the revolution which placed this mediocre man upon the throne is both interesting and important ; it shows how impossible it is for a nation which has once been great to acquiesce in the loss of its independence. The heroic age of Portugal was indeed past, but the victory of Montijo and the insurrection in Brazil show that the people had recovered from the inertness and sloth which had permitted Philip II. to establish the power of Spain THE REVIVAL OF PORTUGAL, 325 over them. The struggle with Spain was not con- cluded ; the hardest part of the contest was to come, yet the people, if not their chosen monarch, never dreamed of failure. New and national institutions arose under the direction of Joao Pinto Ribeiro to take the place of the effete institutions of the Sixty Years' Captivity ; councils of war and the colonies were organized at Lisbon ; ships were built and armies raised ; new tribunals such as the " Junta do Commercio " were erected. Nor were men of letters backward in encouraging the revival of independence ; Francisco de Sa de Menezes the poet, Antonio Vieira the preacher, and Jacinto Freire de Andrade, the biographer of Dom Joao de Castro, all showed the spirit of patriotism, and it is not unworthy of notice that the first Portuguese newspaper, trie Gazeta de Lisboa was established in 1641. The whole course of the Revolution of 1640 shows that the people of Portugal in the seventeenth century were not unworthy of their ancestors, and that they had learnt much, because they had suffered much, during the " Sixty Years' Captivity." XV. THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. The death of John IV., and the accession of the boy Affonso VI., proved to be anything but a disaster to the House of Braganza. The queen became sole regent, and this energetic and able woman, who had always been the courageous supporter of her weak husband, determined to prosecute the war against Spain with redoubled vigour. She, too, hankered after a close alliance with France, and dis- trusted the promises of Mazarin ; but she felt that it was no good to wait for allies until Spain was at liberty to attack her, and now ordered the Portuguese army to take the field. Hitherto, since the battle of Montijo, the war had languished, and had been con- fined to skirmishes on the frontier, but the queen- regent determined to renounce this policy and to invade Spain. Her enterprize was not crowned with success, and the siege of Badajoz which she attempted resulted in failure and defeat. It was obvious that the Portuguese army, though full of gallant and loyal soldiers, was quite undisciplined and unfit for any serious operation of war. This being the case, the THE ENGAGEMENT OF SCHOMBERG. $2 J queen got her ambassador at Paris, the Count of Soure, to engage Frederick, Count Schomberg, the most famous military adventurer of his time, to enter her service, and to bring with him eighty officers and four hundred non-commissioned officers, to organize and discipline the Portuguese army. Schomberg, whose strange fate it was to serve under nearly every leading monarch in Europe, and to die an English duke at the battle of the Boyne, gladly accepted the queen's offer. Like the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg and Marshal Beresford in later days, he found that the Portuguese made excellent soldiers, brave and amenable to discipline, and the result of his labours appeared in the great victory won by Dom Antonio Luis de. Menezes, Count of Cantanhede, over the Spaniards under Don Luiz de Haro, at Elvas, on January 14, 1659. This victory, though it revived the courage of the Portuguese, who had been much -depressed by their repulse at Badajoz, in one way injured the cause of Portugal, for it so incensed Don Luiz de Haro that, during the famous conferences on the Island of Pheasants with Mazarin, which led to the signa- ture of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, he would not listen to any intercession on behalf of the Portuguese, and insisted on the insertion of a secret article in the treaty, that France would promise to abandon them entirely. Neither Mazarin nor Louis XIV. intended to observe this secret article and to give up the advantage of having such a useful ally in the peninsula to use against Spain, and they accordingly looked about for some i'divlo iil^{fY^'^Cd\'I^r.r'/^S'^iff'(xJM-m^ J*W-6to Jl^, CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA. {From an Engraving by Fait home.) THE MARRIAGE OF CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA. 329 means to evade it. Mazarin again sent the trusty- Chevalier de Jant to explain to the queen-regent that the seeming desertion of Portugal was rather nominal than real, and that the little kingdom would not be left to bear the whole brunt of the war with Spain. The means was found in 1660 by proposing that Charles II., the newly restored King of England, should marry the Donna Catherine de Braganza. This notion was acceptable to all parties. Mazarin and Louis XIV. would thus assist Portugal without breaking their promise to Spain ; Charles II. would get some ready money, and would repay the debt of gratitude he owed for the shelter afforded to Prince Rupert and Prince Maurice. The Earl of Clarendon saw the advantage of the alliance in establishing the influence of England in the peninsula and in India ; and the queen-regent was promised the help of a powerful army of English veterans, trained in the Great Civil War, whom Clarendon was anxious to get out of the country, and also the aid of England in making peace with the Dutch. Thus all parties were satisfied, except the King of Spain, who protested vehemently, and his Catholic Majesty offered to give a dowry to any Protestant princess whom Charles II. might select, if only he would give up this Portu- guese alliance. These protests were in vain. The strong wills of Louis XIV., Lord Clarendon, and the queen-regent of Portugal were all set upon the marriage, and Francisco de Mello, Count da Ponte, was sent to London, and Sir Richard Fanshaw, the translator of the " Lusiads," was sent to Lisbon to arrange the preliminaries. These were soon settled, 330 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. and on May 18, 1661, the marriage was announced to the English Parliament. Catherine de Braganza was to bring as her dowry the town of Tangier in Morocco, the island of Bombay, and the town of Galle in Ceylon, as well as £800,000 in money ; while on his side Charles II. promised to force the Dutch to make peace with Portugal, and in con- sideration of a further sum of £30,000 a year to send an army of not less than three thousand veterans to aid in the war with Spain. These liberal terms were approved in Parliament in spite of the religion of the Portuguese princess; and in April, 1662, the Earl of Sandwich arrived in the Tagus with twenty English, ships to take the bride to England. The marriage took place on May 31, 1662, and it was thus, upon the suggestion of the King of France, that the first step was made towards the revival of the old alliance between England and Portugal, which had existed under the kings of the House of Aviz, an alliance which was, in the indignant language of later French writers, to make Portugal a province of England. Before the English soldiers arrived and the final struggle with Spain commenced, a Court revolution took place in Lisbon, The king, Affonso VI., was now nearly nineteen, and he had grown up a de- bauched and vicious youth. A stroke of paralysis had disordered his intellect, and his mother, absorbed in the cares of government, had left him too much to servants. He was entirely under the influence of his valet, a young man named Conti, and his chief delight was to range the streets of Lisbon at the head of a troop of mulattoes and negro slaves, and to play VICTORIES OF THE PORTUGUESE. 331 pranks of which the English " Mohocks " of the eighteenth century would have been ashamed. The queen-regent, in disgust, banished Conti to Brazil, and two accomplished courtiers, Sebastiao Cesar de Menezes, Count of Atouguia, and Luis de Sousa e Vasconcellos, Count of Castel Melhor, persuaded the angry young king to declare himself of age on June 21, 1662, and to take the government into his own hands. The queen retired into a convent, and all power fell into the hands of the two conspirators. Fortunately for Portugal the two counts were energetic and able statesmen, and they pursued in every point the policy of the queen. Castel Melhor formed the English veterans, who had arrived under the command of Murrough O'Brien, first Earl of Inchiquin, some French and German volunteers and mercenaries, and the newly organized Portuguese levies, into a powerful army, of which Schomberg was the real, though not the ostensible, commander-in- chief. With this army a series of victories were won, which caused Affonso VI. to be surnamed Affonso " the Victorious," though his own successes, such as they were, were confined to the streets of Lisbon. On June 8, 1663, the Count of Villa Flor, with Schomberg by his side, utterly defeated Don John of Austria, an illegitimate son of Philip IV., at Ameixial, and afterwards retook Evora ; on July 7, 1664, Pedro Jacques de Magalhaes defeated the Duke of Ossuna at Ciudad Rodrigo ; on June 17, 1665, the Marquis of Marialva and Schomberg destroyed a Spanish army under the Marquis of Carracena, at the battle of Montes Claros ; and Christovao de Brito Pereira 332 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. followed up this victory with another at Villa Vicosa. These repeated successes utterly broke the power of Spain in the peninsula, and peace was only a matter of time, when Castel Melhor decided to increase both his own power and that of Portugal by marrying the king, who was a mere tool in his hands, to a French princess. Such an alliance was highly approved by Louis XIV., who believed it would bring Portugal under his influence, and the bride selected was Marie Francoise Louise Elisabeth, Mademoiselle d'Aumale, daughter of Charles Amadeus, Duke of Nemours, and Elisabeth de Vendome, and grand- daughter of Henry IV. of France. She was brought to Portugal by her relative, the Cardinal d'Estrees, and the marriage was celebrated at Lisbon with the greatest pomp in 1666. But instead of increasing his power, the great minister, Castel Melhor, found that this union brought about his ruin. The handsome and accomplished young queen could not but loathe her worthless and degraded husband, and she speedily fell in love with his younger brother, Dom Pedro, the Duke of Beja. Her passion was returned, and after fourteen months of an unhappy married life, the queen suddenly left the palace for a convent, and applied for a divorce on the ground of non-consum- mation to the chapter of the cathedral church of Lisbon. Her action was followed by a Court revolu- tion, and Dom Pedro shut King Affonso up in a portion of the palace, and assumed the regency on November 23, 1667. Every one rejoiced at the over- throw of the vicious king. The measures of Dom PEACE WITH SPAIN. 333 Pedro were universally approved by the people of Lisbon, and on January I, 1668, he was recognized as regent by the Cortes. The great minister, Castel Melhor, was not prosecuted, and was allowed to retire to Paris, and the young prince, who was not yet twenty, took the government of Portugal into his own hands. The regent immediately hurried on the negotiations for a peace with Spain, which had been commenced under the directions of Castel Melhor, by the Earl of Sandwich and Sir Richard Southwell, the English ambassadors at Madrid and Lisbon, and on February 13, 1668, the long war, which had lasted for twenty- seven years — ever since the small band of conspira- tors in Lisbon had proclaimed King John IV. — was formally concluded. By the Treaty of Lisbon, Spain solemnly recognized the independence of Portugal, and gave its sovereign the title of " Your Majesty," which had never been acknowledged even to Em- manuel and John III., and in return Portugal ceded Ceuta, in Morocco, to the King of Spain. This diplomatic success was followed on March 24th by the grant of a divorce to the queen, who, on April 2nd, with the dispensation and blessing of the Pope, married the regent Dom Pedro. The wretched ArTonso was sent to the Azores, and a new era of peace and prosperity commenced for Portugal. The regent was fully convinced of the necessity of peace and economy, in order to restore the prosperity of the kingdom after its long struggle with Spain. He reduced the army, and dismissed all the foreign soldiers, and he set to work to make improvements in 334 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. every department of administration. The treasury was empty, and the country was miserably poor. Agriculture had been neglected during the long war ; the Dutch and English had seized upon the Asiatic trade ; the Indian possessions were worth little or nothing ; and the only source of revenue, except taxation, was the wealth of Brazil. Yet Dom Pedro had the wisdom and self-restraint not to increase the taxes, or press too heavily upon the sugar and tobacco planters of his great dominion in South America, and he preferred to reduce the expenses of his household to the lowest possible amount. In all his endeavours he was assisted by his wife, and it was no wonder that the Portuguese people loved and reverenced their prudent rulers. The only event of importance during the regency was the plot of Dom Pedro Francisco de Mendonca and Dom Antonio de Cavida to restore Affonso VI. to the throne, in 1674. It was fortunately discovered in time ; the ringleaders were executed, and Affonso VI. was removed from the Azores, where he had been trying to make a party, and established at Cintra, where he died in 1683. The regent then ascended the throne as Pedro II., and added the title of " king " to the power he had enjoyed for fifteen years ; but in the same year he lost his wife, for whose sake he had overthrown his brother. His reign was marked by the same characteristics as his regency ; and his strict economy and maintenance of peace gave an opportunity for the exhausted country to recover. He was an excellent administrator, not only from inclina- tion, but from a desire to be independent of the Cortes, PEDRO II. (From a Print in the British Museum.) 336 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. which he summoned as seldom as possible, and never after the arrival of the first consignment of gold from Brazil. In his foreign policy he made a point of remaining on good terms with both France and England, and he refused to interfere in the internal affairs of Spain. His friendship with England was kept up through his sister, Catherine, who, by his instructions, kept herself aloof from ministerial quarrels, and remained quietly in her adopted country after her husband's death, all through the stormy reign of James II. and the Revolution of 1688, and who did not return to Portugal until 1692. With France he was more wary, for he feared the ambition of Louis XIV., and was apprehensive of the danger to Portugal which the accession of a Bourbon prince to the throne of Spain might cause. The vacancy, which would be caused by the death of Charles II. of Spain, and the general scramble which seemed likely to take place for his dominions, were of more importance to King Pedro II. of Portu- gal, than to William III. of England, or Louis XIV. of France. He felt that he was utterly unable to cope with any of the great powers, and he commenced saving money for the general war which was certain soon to break out. In 1687, at the request of his minister and most intimate friend, the Duke of Cadaval, he consented to marry again, in order to have an heir to the throne. He selected for his second wife Maria Sophia of Neuburg, daughter of the Elector Palatine, greatly to the chagrin of Louis XIV, who hoped he would have chosen a French princess ; and by her he had four sons. When the THE METHUEN TREATY. 337 death of Charles II. became an event daily to be expected, he proclaimed his intention of remaining neutral, and refused, in consonance with the traditions of the House of Aviz, to be himself a candidate for the Spanish throne. Nevertheless, he increased his navy, placed his army on a war footing and repaired his fortresses, and in 1699, he had the pleasure of receiving the first important consignment of gold from Brazil, amounting to a ton and a half, which proved to him that he had a new source of revenue more pro- ductive than any taxes he could impose at home. At last, on November 1, 1700, Charles II. of Spain died, and Louis XIV. in accepting the throne for his grandson, made his famous declaration, " There are now no longer any Pyrenees." King Pedro carried his complaisance so far as to acknowledge Philip V., as king of Spain, and he even sheltered a French fleet under the Count de Chastenau in the Tagus, against the assaults of the English admiral, Sir George Rooke. But he soon saw that, as he feared, it was impossible for him to remain neutral, and the insolence of Cardinal Porto Carrero, who spoke of him to King Philip as " the rebel duke of Braganza," and the information that there was a secret treaty, which promised French help for the subjugation of Portugal, made Pedro II. decide to enter into a yet closer alliance with England. This was exactly what the great Whig ministry wanted, and, in 1703, the Right Honourable John Methuen was sent to Lisbon with full powers to negotiate a political and commercial treaty with Portugal. On December 27, 1703, the famous Methuen treaty 3$8 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. was signed, by which Portuguese wines might be im- ported into England at a lower duty than those from France and Germany, in return for a similar conces- sion to English manufactured goods. The immediate result of this treaty was that King Pedro acknow- ledged the Archduke Charles, the English candidate, as King of Spain, and that he gave the English a base of operations in the peninsula. The ulterior result was that Englishmen in the eighteenth century drank port wine instead of claret and hock, while the Portu- guese imported everything they wanted beyond the bare necessaries of life from England. This was an advantage to both nations, for Portugal is eminently an agricultural country with neither the teeming population nor the materials necessary for manufac- tures, while England obtained a friendly province from which to import the wine and produce of a southern soil, and a market for the sale of the pro- ducts of her manufactories. The close connection thus formed went deeper than mere commerce ; it estab- lished a friendly relationship between the two peoples, which was of infinite advantage to the smaller nation. At Lisbon a regular English " factory " was established, and at Oporto a large colony of English wine merchants and shippers carried on business operations, which doubled the prosperity of the beautiful city on the Douro. The steady influx of English capital increased the wealth of Portu- gal, and the vineyards of the Entre-Minho-e-Douro became proverbial for their prosperous and industrious peasantry ; while, on the other hand, the importation of English goods gave means of comfort and luxury 340 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. to the Portuguese people which distinguished them in the eyes of all travellers of the last century from the Spaniards and Italians. To this day the beautiful porcelain from the famous English works at Worcester and Derby, Chelsea and Bow, is to be found in Portu- guese cottages ; and the English people have not lost their taste for port and St. Michael's oranges. From a political point of view, the Methuen treaty assured the very existence of Portugal ; in all times of danger it could now count upon the support of the great power whose interest it was to have an ally from "whose country it could act against Spain. On March 7, 1704, the Archduke Charles arrived at Lisbon with a powerful English fleet under Sir George Rooke, conveying ten thousand English troops under the command of Henri de Ruvigny, Lord Galway. On April 30, Philip V. declared war against Portugal, and the English advanced with a subsidiary Portuguese army under the Count das Galveras and Diniz de Mello e Castro. The campaign was successful ; the allies took Salvaterra and Valenca, and Sir George Rooke surprised the important fortress of Gibraltar. In the following year but little was done on the Portu- guese frontier, because the Archduke Charles had sailed round to Barcelona, and King Pedro, who felt himself to be dying, gave up all active interest in affairs, and made over the regency to his sister Catherine, Queen-dowager of England. Had he been conscious he might have heard of the great successes and reverses of the campaign of 1706. Lord Galway and Dom Joao de Sousa, Marquis das Minas, advanced into Spain, and after taking Alcantara, THE DEATH OF PEDRO II. 341 Coria, Truxillo, Placencia, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Avila in rapid succession, occupied Madrid on July 2, 1706. But they did not remain there long ; the Spaniards rose in arms for Philip V., and in August, 1706, the allied army fell back as quickly as it had advanced. Dom Pedro, however, remained unconscious of these stirringevents ; he gradually sank, and died at Alcantara on December 9, 1706, leaving a reputation of having been one of the bes t of the kings of Portugal. The great interest of his reign is to be found in the gradual formation of the English alliance, which is the clue to the Portuguese history of the next century. It was commenced by the marriage cf Catherine de Braganza to Charles II., strengthened by the action of Lord Sandwich and Sir Richard Southwell in making peace with Spain, and finally cemented by the Methuen treaty, and it is curious to note that the first link in this chain was forged by Louis XIV. and Mazarin in recommending the marriage of Charles II. It is important to observe the position of Portugal in Asia and South America during the half-century which succeeded the " Sixty Years' Captivity," and to see how the despised discovery of Pedro Alvares Cabral was to more than take the place of the vaunted Asiatic connection commenced by the voyage of Vasco da Gama. The heavy blows struck by the Dutch and English against the Portuguese monopoly of the Eastern trade before the successful revolution in 1640, have already been noticed, and the ruin of the Portuguese in Asia was consummated by the Dutch during the long naval war which succeeded the attack upon their settlements in Brazil. The China trade 342 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. had not attained very important dimensions, so the Dutch left the Portuguese undisturbed at Macao, but they destroyed their settlements in the island of Formosa, and the English absorbed what trade there was by their factory at Canton. It was the spice trade and the command of the Spice Islands, which the Dutch chiefly coveted, and of which they obtained a monopoly, which they practically retain to this day. After the foundation of Batavia, all the efforts of the Dutch were directed against Malacca, which, though in a decayed state, was yet mistress of no inconsider- able trade ; twice they stirred up the Achinese to attempt the conquest of Alboquerque's famous settle- ment, but the Portuguese beat off the natives, and it was not until 1640 that the Dutch destroyed the rival of Batavia. The Portuguese made no further effort to share the spice trade, and after the massacre of the English at Amboyna in 1624, the more danger- ous rivalry of the merchants of that nation was also withdrawn. In India, the Dutch made a point of securing the pepper trade only, and left the English to absorb that of the products of Northern India, of the muslins of Dacca and the brocades of Ahmadabad and Surat. The Portuguese repulsed the Dutch from Goa in 1639, Dut these determined traders were not to be beaten ; in 1662, in spite of the peace which had been concluded by the intervention of England, they took Cochin, the principal Portuguese station in Southern India, and by 1664 were masters of all the chief pepper ports on the Malabar coast. They were equally successful in Ceylon, where they captured Jaf- napatam, the last important Portuguese port, in 1658 ; THE DECLINE OF THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 343 and in 1669, they expelled the Portuguese from the Coromandel coast likewise, and took S. Thome and Macassar. In Northern India the English were the most formidable rivals of the Portuguese. After the capture of Hugh" by the orders of Shah Jehan, the Portuguese dropped all communication with Bengal, and the trade of that important province fell into the hands of the English. On the other side of India, the English were equally successful. Their victory off Surat had broken the prestige of Portugal, and the trade with Gujarat, Kathiawar, and Sind was chiefly in their possession. So weak indeed had the Portuguese become, that Diu, the city immortalized by the brave deeds of Antonio de Silveira and Joao de Castro, was plundered by a band of Arabs in 1670 ; and Goa itself, " Golden Goa," was only saved from the Marathas of Sambaji, the son of Sivaji, by the timely aid of a Mogul army. On the other hand, the Portuguese Jesuits won a reputation almost as great as that of the Portuguese heroes ; though the Inquisition still continued its horrid work at Goa, there were nobler missionaries than the inquisitors, and the name of Joao de Brito, who preached with unexampled success until his cruel martyrdom in Madura in 1693, deserves to be ranked with that of St. Francis Xavier himself. In Africa, the chief Portuguese ports were re-conquered by Salvador Correa de Sa e Benevides in 1648, but they were only of little value, since they had been maintained chiefly as stations on the road to India, and not for purposes of African trade. The Dutch made their resting-place at the Cape of Good Hope, which is the reason why Mozambique was left to the SILVER COINS. SPECIMENS OF PORTUGUES (i) A vintem, 20 reis = about a penny. (2) Half a tostao, 50 reis = nearly threepence. (3) Three vintens = about threepence halfpenny. (4) Tostao, 100 reis = rather more than sixpence. (5) Six vintens = about sevenpence. (6) Twelve vintens, 240 reis = about one shilling and twopence. (7) Crusado novo, 24 vintens = about two shillings and fourpence. ER AND COPPER COINS. COPPER COINS. (i) One-and-a-half-reis piece (Peter II., 1700) = less than half a farthing. (2) Three-reis piece (Maria and Peter III., 1797) = less than a farthing. (3) Five-reis piece (Maria Regina, 1799) = about a farthing. (4) Ten-reis piece (Maria I., 1799) = a little more than a halfpenny. 346 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. Portuguese ; and they also took possession of the rich island which had been first sighted by Lourenco de Almeida, to which they gave the name of Mauritius, after Prince Maurice of Nassau. On the western coast the Portuguese retained Angola, the Cape Verde Islands, and their other possessions ; but they lost St. Helena to the Dutch, who held it until it was captured by the English captain, Anthony Munden, in 1673, when it was made into a station of the English East India Company. With their possessions in Morocco, the Portuguese parted with the more willingness, since they were only a source of expense ; and the cession of Ceuta to the Spaniards and of Tangier to the English was generally approved. Of Bombay the other territorial cession made to England on the marriage of Catherine de Braganza, little need be said, for though destined to become the capital of western India, it proved at first of so little value, that in 1668 Charles II. granted it to the East India Company for ten pounds a year. Very different from this tale of decay is the history of the Portuguese in Brazil during the same period, and the comparison shows clearly of how much greater value is a colony than a dominion conquered and held by the sword. The loyalty of the Portu- guese colonists was shown by their expulsion of the Dutch with hardly any assistance from the home government, and the bonds of kinship enabled the Portuguese to maintain their power in South America without the establishment and maintenance of power- ful armies. Indeed, one of the most valuable lessons taught by the history of the daughter country, is that DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN BRAZIL. 347 the less interference the mother country makes in the affairs of its colony, the better it will be for both countries. The material prosperity of Brazil in the seventeenth century was due to the fact that during that period the colony was essentially agricultural, and that there was therefore time for a large and indus- trious population to collect, before gold was discovered in large quantities. The production of tobacco and sugar was the staple employment of the inhabitants, and the rapid development of these resources caused the growth of a large fleet, not only to carry these commodities to Europe, but to import the thousands of negro slaves, who worked in the plantations. And it is here well to remark that at this time the Portu- guese settlers made no attempt to enslave the native Brazilians, who were protected by the Jesuits and by edicts of the king, but considered it perfectly just and right to make use of negro slaves. This wise behaviour and the conduct of the Jesuits, who laboured assiduously among the natives, placed them on friendly terms with their conquerors, who soon began to intermarry with them. Owing to this friendly relationship the interior of the continent was gradually opened up, and at last gold was discovered in large quantities. It was fortunate for the Portuguese that it had not been discovered before, for otherwise they would certainly have lost their colony during the " Sixty Years' Captivity," but at this time they were too strongly planted to be expelled, and had besides the potent protection of the English navy. The first discovery of gold on a large scale took place in 1699, and the arrival of the first cargo at an opportune juncture 31-8 THE ENGLISH ALLIANCE. gave King Pedro the means he required for setting his army on foot. It must be remembered that at this time there were no Californian or Australian gold fields, and that the discovery of gold in Brazil was of more importance than it would be now. King Pedro prepared to work this source of wealth in a prudent manner ; he did not attempt to make the gold fields a royal monopoly, which the independent inhabitants of the captainships would not have allowed, but demanded one-fifth of the total registered yearly export. This left enough profit for the gold searchers, and as the yearly revenue of the crown of Portugal from this source was at least ^"300,000, it may be imagined that the kings of Portugal were well able to maintain a splendid court at Lisbon in spite of the loss of the Asiatic trade. No story is more interest- ing than this growth of Brazil into the most valuable possession of Portugal ; the land, which was at first inhabited by convicts, surpassed in wealth the domi- nion won by the noblest sons of the country. XVI. PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. MARQUIS OF POMBAL. THE The eighteenth century exhibits fewer features of interest than any other throughout the whole history of Portugal. The country remained in a political sense a mere province of England, and was bound by the Methuen treaty to take a part in all the wars in which England was engaged, and the impor- tance of this arrangement became more and more evident, when France and Spain were united by the close connection brought about by the " Pacte de Famille." The commercial relation was the cause of more intimacy between the people of the two nation- alities than the political alliance, for it brought, as has been said, English merchants and English capital into Portugal. But notwithstanding this double bond of union the two allies remained entirely separate. The Portuguese remained a race of bigoted Catholics, and the English made no efforts to convert them. This difference of religion prevented any close alliance between the reigning houses of the two countries, such as had been brought about by the marriage of 350 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Charles II. to Catherine of Braganza, for any marriage with a Catholic princess would have been rejected by the statesmen and the people of England. While therefore existing as an independent nation under the protection of England, Portugal maintained its own national characteristics, and remained in other respects more like Spain than any other country. The little state was no longer in the vanguard of the march of European civilization ; it felt that its great days were past, and was content to remain in stagnant quiet For this reason, if for no other, the story of Portugal loses its interest in the eighteenth century, for it was illustrated by no great feat of arms, no national revo- lution or advance of national progress, and it was at this time that in every point of view, literary as well as political, it fell behind the other European nations. It was inevitable that it should be so ; a nation which depended on another for its political independence, was not likely to produce heroes. It is strange that the influence of English example did not give rise to a movement for political freedom and representative institutions, but it was not so ; the monarchy remained absolutist and was prevented from needing the support of the people by the wealth it derived from the gold and the diamond mines of Brazil, and the Cortes was not once summoned throughout the century. Yet this absolutism was not an unmixed evil, for it pro- duced a great minister, the Portuguese Richelieu, in the Marquis of Pombal. The reign of John V., the eldest son of Pedro II., who at once assumed the royal power from the regent Catherine, was, though it commenced in war, remark- WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 35 1 able for the long continuance of peace. The War of the Spanish Succession was still raging in the penin- sula, and the first campaign after the accession of the new monarch was marked by the great defeat inflicted on the English and Portuguese by the French and Spaniards at Almanza, on April 15, 1707, a battle in which it chanced that the English were commanded by a Frenchman, Henri de Ruvigny, Lord Galway, and the French by an Englishman James Fitz-James, Duke of Berwick, Nevertheless John V., w r ho was a young man of seventeen, in spite of this disaster, kept true to the English alliance and the Methuen treaty, and left the management of affairs in the hands of his father's minister and friend Joao de Mascarenhas, Duke of Cadaval. This able statesman bound the king more surely to the Anglo- Austrian alliance by marrying him to the Archduchess Marianna, daughter of the late Emperor Leopold I., who was escorted to Lisbon by a powerful English fleet under Admiral Sir George Byng, in 1708. The war continued, how- ever, to go steadily against the allies, for the Spaniards had rallied enthusiastically around their Bourbon king, Philip V. ; and on May 7, 1709, a Portuguese army under the Marquis of Fronteira was defeated on the banks of the Caia, by the Spaniards under the Marquis de Bay. Far more serious was the capture of Rio de Janeiro, by the French admiral, Duguay- Trouin, on September 23, 171 1, which cut off all supplies from Brazil for more than a year. The war languished all over Europe after the accession of the Archduke Charles as Emperor, and on February 6, 171 5, nearly two years after the treaty of Utrecht, 352 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. peace was signed between Spain and Portugal, at Madrid, by the Secretary of State, Diogo de Men- donca, Count of Corte-Real. As soon as John V. began to mark out a policy for himself, after the death of the Duke of Cadaval, he showed his distaste for war. He refused to join in the war against Cardinal Alberoni, the famous minis- ter of Spain, and avoided as far as possible any com- bination which might lead to the rupture of peace. The only expedition he sent out was a fleet, which he equipped at the Pope's bidding to join the Venetians in their struggle against the Turks, and which, under the command of Lopo Furtado de Mendonca, Count of Rio Grande, defeated the Mohammedans off Cape Matapan in 17 17. The main effort of King John's foreign policy was to combine a firm adherence to the Methuen treaty with friendly relations with Spain, by which he hoped to avoid war. For this purpose he always kept on the best of terms with the English ambassadors at Lisbon, notably with Lord Tyrawley ; and in 1729 he closely allied himself with the new dynasty in Spain. His daughter, Donna Maria Josepha de Braganza, was married to Don Ferdinand, eldest son of Philip V., who succeeded to the throne of Spain as Ferdinand VI. ; while the Spanish infanta, Donna Marianna Victoria de Bourbon, was married to the heir-apparent of Portugal, Dom Joseph. With the papacy John V. remained on the best of terms ; he lent enormous sums of money to successive popes out of the wealth of Brazil, and in return received rewards, which were of no real value, but which were such as he highly esteemed. Lisbon was divided into THE REIGN OF JOHN V. 353 two dioceses ; the Archbishopric of Lisbon was erected into a patriarchate; the patriarch was allowed to officiate in vestments resembling those of the Pope, and his canons in imitation of those of the cardinals ; and, finally, in the last year of his reign, the title of " Fidelissimus," or " Most Faithful," was conferred upon the kings of Portugal, to correspond with those of " Most Christian " and " Most Catholic," attributed to the kings of France and Spain respectively. These are the only points of interest, which mark John V.'s long reign of forty-four years, and as the last thirty- five of these years were years of peace, it may well be said, happy is the reign which has but little history. But it must not be thought that he therefore left no impression upon his country. On the contrary, he did much to imprint his name on its history. He showed a tendency, like so many other princes of the eighteenth century, to imitate Louis XIV. He spent much money in building, and among his most famous efforts in this direction are the patri- archal church at Lisbon, the superb convent at Mafra, and the great aqueduct which still supplies Lisbon with water. He was a munificent patron of literature and the arts, and founded the Academy of History at Lisbon in 1720. He loved music and the theatre, and spent great sums in importing singers and dancers from Italy and actors from France. He took an intelligent interest in the administration of his kingdom, and for the better despatch of business formed three secretaryships of state for the home, foreign and war, and colonial and naval, departments instead of one, and he took a particular pride in his 354 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. navy, and founded the naval arsenal of Lisbon. One other fact also may be recorded to his credit, that in 1725 he obtained a Bull from Pope Benedict XIII., allowing all prisoners of the Inquisition to employ counsel to defend them, and ordering that all sentences of the Holy Office should be communicated to and confirmed by the king in council. This excellent monarch had a paralytic stroke in 1742, and for the last eight years of his reign, until his death in 1750, the kingdom was governed by the queen, and the Cardinal da Cunha, Patriarch of Lisbon. The reign of King Joseph, which lasted from 1750 to 1777, is made famous by the administration of the Marquis of Pombal, the greatest minister who ever ruled Portugal, and one of the greatest of eighteenth- century statesmen. The king, though a man of real ability himself, interfered but little in politics, and left the management of affairs entirely in the hands of the minister, whose greatness he was the first to perceive. The relationship between the monarch and his subject resembles that between Louis XIII. and Richelieu, and does honour to both parties. In every- thing — in his great internal administrative reforms, in his financial schemes, in the reorganization of the army, in the abolition of slavery, and in the struggle with the Jesuits, which ended in the suppression of that famous order — King Joseph supported his minister. Pombal broke the power of the nobility, and made the king more absolute than ever, and he exalted the royal prerogative, while using it for his measures of reform ; while, in return, the king main- tained the minister in power, in spite of the vehement THE MARQUIS OF POMBAL. 355 protests and wily intrigues of the Roman Catholic clergy, and the opposition of his wife. Sebastiao Jose de Carvalho e Mello, better known by his later title of the Marquis of Pombal, was a man of more than fifty years of age when his patron succeeded to the throne, and he himself entered office. His father, Emmanuel de Carvalho, was a country gentleman of moderate wealth, but by his mother, Theresa de Mendonca, he was related to some of the noblest families of Portugal, to the Almeidas, the Mellos and the Mendoncas. He was born at Soure, on May 13, 1699, and after receiving his education at the University of Coimbra, he entered the army as a private. He found neither pleasure nor profit in a mili- tary career in time of peace, and after leaving the ser- vice, he led the life of a man about town in Lisbon. His handsome face, great bodily strength, and proficiency in athletic exercises, made him popular in all circles of society in the capital, in spite of his comparative poverty, and he especially distinguished himself, if distinction it may be called, among the " Mohocks," who infested the streets of Lisbon. There seemed no prospect of his ever making any mark in life, when in 1733 he made himself the talk of the town by his elopement with, or rather his abduction of, a lady of the highest rank, Donna Theresa de Noronha, niece of the Count of Arcos. His wife's family were at first most indignant, but at last they relented, and in 1739 the bravo of the streets of Lisbon was, by their influence, appointed ambassador to the Court of Eng- land. It is some consolation for men of advanced years to remember that the greatest of Portuguese THE MARQUIS OF POMBAL. {From a Print in the British Museum.) THE EARTHQUAKE OF LISBON. 357 ministers was forty years of age before he ever re- ceived official employment. In London Sebastiao de Carvalho turned over a new leaf, and devoted himself to the serious study of politics, and he carefully in- vestigated the English system of government and the causes of England's commercial prosperity. From London he was removed to the Court of Vienna in 1745,' and he there married, on the death of his first wife, a daughter of Count Daun, the famous Austrian general. On this occasion King John V. was pleased out of compliment* to the victor of Kolin, to grant Sebastiao de Carvalho letters of nobility, which entitled him to the prefix Dom ; and in 1750 the ambassador was recalled to Portugal and appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. While he was on his way home John V. died, and when Carvalho reached Lisbon King Joseph had already ascended the throne. At first the new Secretary of State held no higher rank than his colleagues, but his abilities soon became evident to the king, and his conduct at the time of the great earthquake of Lisbon gave him unbounded ascendency over the mind of the monarch. This terrible catastrophe took place on November 1, 1755. The population of the city was collected in the churches listening to the solemn services of All Saints Day, when the first shock of earthquake was felt ; it was followed at intervals by three others, which laid half the city in ruins. Most of the unfor- tunate people, who managed to escape from the fall- ing houses and churches, rushed to the quays. But the disturbance affected the sea also ; an immense 35 8 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. tidal wave swept the quays, and washed off thou- sands of the fugitives, while the ships in the river were driven on shore. No element of horror was missing, for fires broke out in all parts of the wrecked city, and the scum of the populace rushed hither and thither, murdering and robbing those whom the cala- mities of nature had spared. At this fearful juncture the king and Carvalho showed the greatest courage and a most unshaken firmness of demeanour. To the demands of the monarch as to what was to be done, the minister answered laconically, " Bury the dead and feed the living," and for eight days and nights he lived in his carriage, driving from place to place, whithersoever his presence was needed, and repress- ing disorder. The news of the disaster spread all over Europe ; at least thirty thousand people, accord- ing to some accounts one hundred thousand people, lost their lives, and foreign nations were not back- ward in assisting the remnant of the people of Lisbon. In England the pity felt was keener than anywhere else, owing to the close relationship be- tween the two nations, and large sums of money and great quantities of provisions were promptly des- patched from London to Portugal. The catastrophe made an extraordinary impression on the minds of all contemporaries ; in London over twenty accounts were published within the year, apart from notices in magazines, and Voltaire in his " Candide " gave a full and, on the whole, very accurate description of it. Carvalho's energy at this time established his reputation with the king, and he felt able to com- mence his campaigns against the nobility and the THE JESUITS. 359 Jesuits. In order that he might have his time free for matters of such importance he was made Prime Minister in 1756, with power over all depart- ments of administration, and his friend, Luis da Cunha, was appointed Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in his place. Of his long series of administrative reforms, and his efforts to improve the condition of the country, which were spread over his government of twenty-seven years, it will be better to speak as a whole ; but a special description must here be given of his campaign against the Jesuits, which brought about the suppression of that famous order. It is not necessary to speculate on the various motives, which induced Carvalho to attack the Jesuits, but the principal cause lay in the fact that they were wealthy and powerful, and therefore a dangerous force in an absolutist monarchy. It must be remem- bered that the Jesuits of the eighteenth century formed a very different class of men to their prede- cessors. They were no longer intrepid missionary pioneers, but a corporation of wealthy traders, who made use of their spiritual position to further the cause of their commerce. They had done a great work in America by opening up the interior of Brazil and converting the natives, and their administration of Paraguay, one of the most interesting achievements in the whole history of Christianity, was without doubt a blessing to the people. But by the middle of the eighteenth century they had gone too far. It was one thing to convert the natives of Brazil, and another to absorb much of the wealth of that country, in doing which they prejudiced not only the Crown, 360 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. but the Portuguese people, whom they kept from settling in the territory under their rule. Whether it was a sufficient reason for Carvalho to attack the order because it was wealthy and powerful, and had departed from its primitive simplicity, is a question for every one to decide for themselves, but that this was the reason, and that the various excuses alleged by the admirers of the great minister are without foundation, is an undoubted fact. On September 19, 1757, the first important blow was struck, when the king's Jesuit confessor was dismissed, and all Jesuits were forbidden to come to Court. Carvalho, in the name of the King of Portugal, also formally de- nounced the order at Rome, and Benedict XIV., the then Pope, appointed the Cardinal de Saldanha, a friend of the minister, Visitor and Reformer of the Society of Jesus. The cardinal did not take long in making up his mind, and May 15, 1758, he forbade the Jesuits to engage in trade. An attempt upon the king's life, which shortly followed this measure, gave the minister the oppor- tunity he wanted for urging the suppression of the famous society. The history of the Tavora plot, which culminated in this attempt is one of the most myste- rious affairs in the whole history of Portugal, and from the many contradictory accounts which have been published, it is almost impossible to arrive at the exact truth. But it is certain that the Jesuits and the nobles had no reason to love the king and his minis- ter, and it is hardly to be wondered at that their opposition resulted in violent measures. The great nobles had been systematically deprived of all politi- THE TAVORA PLOT. 361 cal power since the accession of King Joseph, for Carvalho, like Richelieu, distrusted them, and pre- ferred to employ men of his own rank in life or of bourgeois descent in public business in preference to noblemen and their relations. The three leaders of the plot were the Duke of Aveiro, a descendant of John II., and one of the greatest noblemen in Portu- gal, the Marquis of Tavora, who had filled with credit the post of Governor-general of India, and the Count of Atouguia, a descendant of the gallant Dom Luis de Athaide, the defender of Goa ; but the heart and soul of the conspiracy was the Marchioness of Tavora, a beautiful and ambitious woman, who was bitterly offended because her husband had not been made a duke. The confessor of this lady was a Jesuit named Gabriel Malagrida, who is by some authors treated as a half-insane fanatic, and by others as a dangerous in- triguer, incensed by the attacks of Carvalho upon his order. Whether Malagrida was innocent or guilty, whether he was mad or sane, whether the Tavoras were incited by religious or political motives, or merely by a desire for private revenge, whether all these noblemen, and especially the Duke of Aveiro, were not merely accused in order to allow Carvalho to strike a blow at the nobility, whether, finally, all those who were punished were victims of the minister or really guilty, are questions which cannot be deter- mined here. The evidence on all sides is most con- tradictory, and all that is certain is that the king was fired at and wounded on the night of September 3, 1758; and that in the following January, the three noblemen who have been mentioned, the Marchioness 362 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. of Tavora, Malagrida with seven other Jesuits, and many other individuals of all ranks of life, were arrested as implicated in the attempt to murder. The laymen had but a short trial, and, together with the marchioness, were publicly executed ten days after their arrest King Joseph certainly believed that the real cul- prits had been seized, and in his gratitude he created Carvalho, Count of Oeyras, and encouraged him to pursue his campaign against the Jesuits. On January I 9> l 759> the estates belonging to the society were sequestrated ; and on September 3rd, all its members were expelled from Portugal, and directions were sent to the viceroys of India and Brazil to expel them likewise. The news of this bold stroke was received with admi- ration everywhere, except at Rome, and it became noised abroad that a great minister was ruling in Portugal. The elder Pitt, who was anxious that Portugal should join in the Seven Years' War, pub- licly acknowledged the ability of the Count of Oeyras, and at his demand apologized for the infraction of the law of nations, which had been committed by the English Admiral Boscawen's attack upon the French squadron under La Clue, in the Portuguese harbour of Lagos. The Count of Oeyras had no desire to take part in the general war raging in Europe, and refused to accede to Pitt's wishes, until the King of Spain, ac- cording to the arrangement of the "Pacte de Famille," attacked Portugal, as being a declared enemy of the Franco-Spanish alliance owing to the Methuen treaty with England. The Spaniards under the Marquis of WAR BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 363 Sarria invaded the northern provinces of Portugal in 1762, and captured in rapid succession the towns of Miranda, Braganza, and Almeida. Then the Count of Oeyras appealed to the English statesman, and not in vain. English soldiers and munitions of war were at once despatched to Lisbon, and, at the special request of the minister, a general in English pay, the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg, with some English officers and sergeants, were sent to reorganize the Portuguese army as Schomberg had done in the century before. The Count of Lippe, assisted by the energy of the Portuguese minister, quickly formed the Portuguese troops into a disciplined army, and on the arrival of Brigadier-General John Burgoyne, a gallant cavalry officer, who had distinguished himself at Belle-isle, but who is better known in English history from his surrender at Saratoga, to take command of the English troops, the allied army advanced. They were uniformly successful ; the Spaniards lost all their former advantages ; they were defeated at Valencia de Alcantara, where the English took three standards and a Spanish general ; and on October 5th Burgoyne stormed the entrenched camp of Villa Velha, and ended the campaign. The Spaniards were now quite ready to give in, and on February 10, 1763, peace was signed between Portugal and Spain. The Count of Oeyras had learnt a lesson from the contrast between the two campaigns, and when Burgoyne and his English soldiers returned to England, the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg was requested to remain, and he not only reorganized the Portuguese army, but put all the Portuguese fortresses on the Spanish frontier, and 364 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. especially Elvas, in thorough repair, according to the received ideas of fortification. On the conclusion of this short war, the Count of Oeyras once more turned his attention to the Jesuits, and in 1764 the Jesuit priest Malagrida was burnt alive, not as a traitor, but as a heretic and impostor, on account of some crazy tractates he had written. The man was regarded as a martyr," and all com- munication between Portugal and the Holy See was broken off for two years, while the Portuguese minister exerted all his influence with the Courts of France and Spain to procure the entire suppression of the society, which he hated. The king supported him consistently, and after another attempt upon his life in 1769, which the minister as usual attributed to the Jesuits, King Joseph created his faithful servant Marquis of Pombal, by which title he is best known to fame. The prime ministers of France and Spain cordially acquiesced in the hatred of the Jesuits, for both the Due de Choiseul and the Count d'Aranda had something of Pombal's spirit in them, and imitated his policy ; in both countries the society, which on its foundation had done so much for Catholicism and Christianity, was proscribed, and the worthy members treated with as much rigour as the unworthy ; and finally in 1773 Pope Clement XIV. solemnly abolished the Society of Jesus. King Joseph did not long survive this triumph of his minister, for he died on February 24, 1777, and the Marquis of Pombal, then an old man of seventy-seven, was at once dismissed from office. To analyse the internal reforms and general THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY, 365 measures of improvement introduced into Portugal by Pombal is almost impossible in a single paragraph, so far-reaching were his endeavours, so unlimited his energy. He has often been compared with Richelieu, chiefly, it seems, because of his rigorous suppression of the Tavora plot ; but the men whom he really resembled were the benevolent despots and their ministers who abounded in Europe before the out- break of the French Revolution. He firmly believed that the greatest happiness of a people depended upon the maintenance of an absolutist monarchy, which could do more good than representative institutions, and his struggle with the Jesuits was mainly due to the fact that they were so wealthy and independent, especially in Brazil, as to hamper the power of the Crown. The class of statesmen and politicians to which he belonged included such monarchs as Frederick the Great of Prussia, the Emperor Joseph II., Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Charles III. of Spain, and such great reforming ministers as Aranda in Spain and Tannucci in Naples ; and like them he believed that real good could only be done by an absolute monarch, who had the interests of his people at heart. The greatest evidence Pombal gave of this royal concern for the people was in the famous decree of May 25, 1773, by which slavery was abolished in Portugal, or rather by which grandsons of slaves, and all children of slaves born after that date, were declared free, and which at the same time abolished all distinctions between "old" and "new" Christians, by which latter term the descendants of the converted POMBAL'S REFORMS. 3^7 Jews and Mohammedans were still called, and made all Portuguese subjects alike eligible for civil, military, and ecclesiastical offices. In Brazil, however, he made no attempt to put down slavery, believing, like all his contemporaries, that negroes were made on purpose to be slaves ; but even there he repeated and enforced the edicts against making slaves of the natives of the country. In matters of internal administration he advocated and maintained efficiency and economy, and at one blow in 1761 he swept away more than three-quarters of the petty offices which hampered the administration of justice. The law courts were made accessible, and lawsuits cheap ; and in 1769 he robbed the Inquisition of its power by making it an open and public court, subject to the rules which regulated other courts. In matters of police he showed the same vigour, and by stern repression prevented the machinery of the law from being used to further private revenge. He recognized the importance of education, and reorganized the University of Coimbra in 1772 by abolishing the teaching of the dark ages which still continued there and introducing the modern element ; and though he expelled the great teaching order of the Church, he maintained the educational establishments of the Jesuits, and turned their college at Lisbon into a school for the training of the young nobility. Of the reforms in the army, which he carried out with the help of the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg mention has already been made, and he was equally energetic with regard to the navy, over which department he placed the most energetic of his subordinates, Martinho de Mello e 368 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Castro. Nor was the great minister careless of more material affairs ; he showed a taste for architecture and building ; under his superintendence the part of Lisbon which had been ruined by the earthquake rose from its ashes in redoubled beauty, adorned with fine streets, squares, and buildings, generally designed by the famous Portuguese architect Joaquim Machado de Castro. He did not neglect to encourage agriculture and viniculture, which must ever be the source of livelihood of the greater number of the Portuguese people, and he introduced the silkworm into the northern provinces, and made special regulations for the management and encouragement of the bold fishermen of the Beira and the Algarves. In his attempt to introduce manufactures the Marquis of Pombal was not so successful ; the Portuguese are not a manufacturing people, and the system of protection which he enforced only roused the opposition of English merchants, who protested against it as a breach of the Methuen treaty, and made manufactured articles dearer than they had been during the first half of the century. Yet some of the native industries which he established or protected were not unworthy of his care, and the glass-works of Leiria, the lace of Vianna, and the potteries of Aveiro enjoyed a great and deserved reputation. In commercial matters he showed the result of the lessons he had learnt during his official residence in London, for he founded the Royal Bank of Portugal in 175 1, and established the Oporto Wine Company, against which infraction of their monopoly the English wine merchants loudly in- POMBAL AND LITERATURE. 369 veighed. He encouraged trade with Brazil by granting concessions to the gold seekers and planters of that great colony ; and the importation of gold, sugar, and tobacco brought back to Lisbon some of the prosperity of the sixteenth century. In Asia he was clear-sighted enough to perceive that any attempt to contend for a share of the Indian or the spice trade was bound to be of no avail ; but he was the first of Portuguese statesmen to perceive the value of the little settlement of Macao in the Canton river. Most of the Chinese trade, which had been yearly growing in value, was in the hands of the factory of the English East India Company at Canton, but the jealousy of the Chinese Government was such that the Company had no assured position there. But Macao was a free port ; most of the factors and writers of the East India Company resided there, and Pombal, seeing that the tea trade passed through Portuguese territory, greatly en- couraged it, and took care that it should pay due toll to the Portuguese authorities and contribute to the wealth of the Portuguese Crown. Nor was the great minister insensible to literature and the fine arts. He founded the "Arcadia de Lisboa " in 1757, for the propagation of the teachings of the school of the French encyclopaedists ; and it was under his influence and protection that Diogo Barbosa Machado compiled his " Bibliotheca Lusitana " and Damiao Antonio de Lemos wrote his " Historia de Portugal," a work which stands midway between the naive annals of Bernardo de Brito and Antonio Brandao, and the modern scientific histories of Alexandra 370 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Herculano and Rebello da Silva. Of music he was particularly fond ; he persuaded the king to build the opera house at Lisbon, and to invite the famous singer Cafifarelli, the confidant of the King of Spain, to sing there, and to him was dedicated the best Portuguese opera, the "Alessandre nell' Indie" of David Peres. Such were some of the reforms, schemes, improve- ments, and tastes of the great minister ; they made him the friend of his sovereign and the adored of the people ; but, on the other hand, his persecution of the Jesuits and his rigorous treatment of the leading noblemen, whom he had often imprisoned without trial, made him many personal enemies, and when his patron died he knew that his own fall was at hand. ,King Joseph had died without male issue, and was succeeded on the throne by his eldest daughter, Donna Maria Francisca, who had married in 1760 her own uncle Dom Pedro, a younger brother of King Joseph. By this arrangement it was hoped that all disputes as to the accession would be avoided ; the husband and wife were crowned together, and coins were struck in the joint names of Maria I. and Pedro III. Both the king and the queen were feeble and weak-minded, and the reins of government fell into the hands of the widow of King Joseph, Donna Marianna Victoria, a fanatical Catholic who had always resented the influence of Pombal and opposed his policy. By her advice the great minister was at once dismissed from office and ordered to send in his accounts, while his enemies were released from prison. Their names will show how powerful was the enmity he had to expect, for among them were THE DEATH OF POMBAL. 37 1 Dom Miguel de Annunciacao, Bishop of Coimbra ; Dom Joao Amberto de Noronha, Count of San Lourenco ; Dom Joao de Almeida Portugal, Marquis of Alorna, a former Viceroy of India, and brother of the Marquis of Tavora ; Dom Martinho de Masca- renhas, son of the executed Duke of Aveiro ; Dom Jose, illegitimate brother of the late king and Grand Inquisitor of Portugal ; Antonio de Andrade Freire, the Chancellor ; Dom Frederico de Sousa Holstein ; and Dom Joao de Braganza, Duke of Lafoes. These men at once surrounded the new sovereigns and gave utterance to complaints against Pombal ; the pro- ceedings in the case of the Tavora plot were reversed, and the prosecution of the late minister pressed on with bitter hostility. Yet his enemies hardly dared to con- demn such a benefactor to his country to any severe penalty, and after being driven about from pillar to post for four years, the old man, now more than eighty years of age, was condemned to be banished twenty leagues from Court. Had his relentless persecutor, the widow of King Joseph, been alive, his punishment would doubtless have been more severe, and, as it was, the queen dared not pass such a light sentence until after her mother's death. The old minister did not long survive his disgrace, and died at Pombal on May 8, 1782, at the age of eighty- three. To the credit of Pedro and Maria let it be admitted at once that in consideration of his father's long and eminent services the young Marquis of Pombal was fully confirmed in all the honours and estates which had been conferred upon the minister by King Joseph. 372 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. It need hardly be said that the fall of Pombal left many aspirants to his high place. The three Secretaries of State, M-artinho de Mello e Castro, Thomas Xavier de Lima Brito, Viscount of Villa Nova de Cerveira, afterwards Marquis of Ponte de Lima, and Ayres de Sa e Mello ; the Intendant of the Treasury, Pedro Jose de Noronha, Marquis of Angeja ; and the Intendant of Police, Diogo Ignacio de Pina Manique, had all been trained in official work by Pombal, and were all eager to succeed their master in power. None of them, however, were successful, for the great nobles who had been recalled to Court were determined to have no such supreme ruler again over them, while they were too jealous of each other and too inexperienced in affairs to take office themselves. Matters went on therefore at the commencement of the new reign much as they had done under the management of Pombal ; his spirit remained amongst the ministers, and in such measures as the commercial treaty with Russia, the lighting of Lisbon by oil lamps, and the abolition of imprisonment for debt, the impulse he had given to all reforms is clearly to be seen. The " Arcadia de Lisboa " was indeed allowed to disappear, but in its place the Duke of Lafoes established the " Academia Real das Sciencias " in 1779, which did even better work for literature by its publication of the works of the early Portuguese chroniclers. In carrying out these measures the king and queen had little share ; Pedro III. was a silly and vicious man, and Maria Francisca was a woman of weak intellect, completely subservient to her confessor, Ignacio de San Caetano THE PORTUGUESE IN INDIA. 373 who found her greatest happiness in raising vast sums of money and sending them to the Latin convent at Jerusalem. The only important event in which they took a part was their conference with the Court of Spain at Badajoz in 1785, when an arrangement was come to about the disputed frontier in South America ; and when Dom John, the second son of Pedro and Maria, was betrothed to Donna Carlotta Joaquina, grand-daughter of Charles III. of Spain. In the following year Pedro III. died, and his death, followed as it speedily was by those of her confessor and of her elder son, Dom Jose, who had married his aunt, Donna Maria Benedictina, completely upset the small amount of intellect possessed by Maria Francisca. It was observed in 1788 that she was quite unfit to transact any business ; and in 1792, when the progress of the French Revolution was setting all Europe in a blaze, Dom John found it necessary to take the management of affairs into his hands, though he was not declared regent until 1799. To turn from the history of Portugal in the eighteenth century to the history of the Portuguese possessions in India is a melancholy task ; for these possessions instead of being a source of pride were a source of expense and anxiety to the home government, and they were maintained rather from a recollection of ancient greatness and as a base for mission work than for any actual advantage derived from them. In 1739 Bassein, the "Capital of the North " as it was called, a city which had been second only to Goa in commercial and political importance, was captured by Chimnaji Apa, a 374 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Maratha general, after a three months' siege, and with it fell Thana and all the possessions of the Portuguese on the north-west coast except Daman and Diu. In 1741 the Marathas and the Bhonslas of Sawantwarl over-ran the country round Goa and threatened the city, but in the moment of difficulty, the Marquis of Lourical arrived with twelve thousand men, and first defeated the Marathas at Bardez, and then made Khem Sawant, the ruler of Sawantwarl, tributary. His successes were followed by those of the Marquis of Castello Novo, who captured Alorna, Tiracol, Neutim, Rarim, and Satari; and the Marquis of Tavora, who took Sadashivgarh. But the Portuguese Government had no desire to make fresh conquests which it would need fresh supplies of money from home to defend, and the Count of Ega was ordered to surrender most of the conquered towns to their former owners. Meanwhile commerce had entirely deserted the Portuguese possessions, which were given over to the Church ; and Captain Hamilton in his travels, after speaking of the poverty of the Portuguese inhabitants, says that he counted no fewer than eighty churches and convents in Goa, and that there were no less than thirty thousand priests in the city and territory. Revenue there was none, and the two thousand European soldiers who defended the ancient capital of Alboquerque had to be paid out of the Portuguese treasury. The last blow was given to what little commerce still remained by Pombal's suppression of the Jesuits, and in 1759 "Golden Goa," which had become unhealthy and ruinous, was left to priests and BRAZIL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, 375 monks, and the seat of government was removed to Panjim. Pombal, with his practical insight, saw that nothing was to be made out of the Portuguese possessions in India, and spent all his efforts in Asia in promoting the prosperity of Macao ; and in 1794, when Portugal was in difficulties in Europe, the Viceroy of Goa asked for the protection of English troops, and Goa was garrisoned by the English East India Company throughout the con- tinuance of the great war with France. Very different was the history of Brazil during this century : while India was a source of expense, Brazil was the great source of wealth to the Portuguese treasury, and was to be the refuge of the royal family when it became impossible for it to remain longer in Lisbon. Throughout the century there was a steady influx of immigrants to Brazil from Por- tugal, and the population of the great colony rapidly increased in numbers. Most of these immigrants settled down as sugar or tobacco planters, and the labour upon the plantations was completely in the hands of the negro slaves, who were imported in vast numbers. The trade in slaves was kept entirely in the hands of Portuguese merchants, in spite of the efforts of the English slavers, and was not only looked upon as a lucrative calling, but as the chief employ- ment for the Portuguese sailors. It was this trade alone which made it worth while for the Portuguese Government to keep up its establishments on the coast of Guinea, and Pombal encouraged it as the only means of supplying Brazil with labourers. The slaves in Brazil were not treated unkindly ; their 376 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. masters were bound to feed them ; and were not only allowed, but were obliged to sell them their liberty, on the offer of a certain fixed sum of money. These freed slaves and the mulattoes, who were very nume- rous, often accumulated considerable wealth, and were treated as citizens in every respect, except that they could not hold any civil or municipal office. They were even enrolled as soldiers, but the mulatto regi- ments were kept distinct from the European, and officered from among the wealthy members of their own class. The native Brazilians were treated even more favourably, and by the great decree of 1755 they were not only forbidden to sell themselves as slaves, but were made citizens in every respect, and allowed to receive their education at the University of Coimbra. The importance of the discovery of gold in the interior has been mentioned, and the revenue to the Portuguese Crown from the king's fifth, in spite of much fraud, was estimated at ^300,000 a year. The opening up of the interior led, about the year 1750, to the conquest of the Paulist Republic. This curious little state had been formed round the city of St. Paul about the commencement of the eighteenth century by fugitives from Brazil and from the more oppressive Spanish Governments of Chile and Peru. The town was originally founded far up in the heart of the virgin forests beyond the jurisdic- tion of the Portuguese and Spanish officials, where the inhabitants led a wild, romantic life, tempered only by lynch law. But by degrees the march of civilization brought them in contact with the Portu- guese Government, and the discovery of diamonds in PROSPERITY OF BRAZIL. 377 the vicinity led to the suppression of the little republic. This discovery of diamonds further increased the wealth of the Portuguese Crown, and in addition to the royal right to every diamond above twenty carats weight, the king was estimated to make an income of ^"100,000 a year by a contract entered into with a syndicate of English diamond buyers. Nor were other precious stones lacking, for rubies, emeralds, and topazes were all discovered in such large quanti- ties in the latter half of the eighteenth century as to seriously lower their price. The great colony was ruled most wisely ; only a few of the superior officers were sent from Portugal, and most offices were filled from among the settlers themselves. It was not even found necessary to send troops from Portugal, for a regular army of sixteen thousand men, and a militia of over twenty thousand were easily raised and paid in the country itself. The only troubles which beset the colony were caused by the indefiniteness of its boundaries, and Portugal found it necessary to yield much territory, which has since developed into wealthy and prosperous republics to the encroach- ments of Spain. Its importance was recognized by the title of Prince of Brazil granted to the eldest son of the King of Portugal since the days of John IV., and it became a safe refuge for the exiled royal family when events in Europe made it necessary for it to fly from Lisbon. In literature the Portuguese writers of the eigh- teenth century followed and imitated the French authors of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. instead of striving to develop the characteristics of 37% PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. their own nation. The " Academia Real de Lisboa," the " Academia Real de Portugal," the "Arcadia de Lisboa," and the " Academia Real das Sciencias," which succeeded each other at short intervals, were all attempts to imitate the French Academy and its offshoots, and though they did good work in encou- raging research and rewarding literary endeavour, they failed, as such institutions generally do fail, to produce great writers and thinkers. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, before the academies exer- cised their influence, the only literary productions in Portugal were lyric poems of no great merit, which were much admired by the members of numerous little literary clubs resembling the Italian arcadias, and which were chiefly imitations of the forms of verse most in vogue in France and Italy. But during the rule of Pombal a more healthy spirit appeared ; the works of the French encyclopaedists and their contemporaries were studied instead of tricks of versification, and a new departure was made alike in poetry and prose. The new poets did not confine themselves to lyrics ; they attempted epics, dramas, and eclogues, all more or less based upon an imitation of the French, but yet pos- sessing a more truly national ring than the lyrics of their predecessors. All these poets were not lovers of Pombal ; the great minister was too heedless of hurting their susceptibilities and too sparing of his pensions for that ; and the best known among them, Antonio Diniz da Cruz e Silva, who was termed the Portuguese Boileau, vehemently attacked the great man after his fall. The influence LITERATURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 379 exerted by this poet on the progress of Portuguese literature was, however, slight compared to that of his successors, Francisco Manoel de Nascimento and Manoel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, whose followers under the names of the " Filintists " and " Elma- nists " preached freedom from the rigour of the French canons of criticism, and adherence to national forms. Epic poetry was not neglected, though none of its writers can compare with the great Camoens, whose " Lusiads " were several times reprinted with notes during this century. The fame of the great Portuguese epic was indeed spread abroad throughout Europe ; it was translated into French by Duperron de Castera and by the French critic La Harpe; into Dutch by L. S. Pieterzoon; and into English by Mickle who, as a translator of their master-poet, was cordially received at the Portuguese Court in 1780. Nor was the drama forgotten ; the Portuguese stage was held by tragedies after the French classical model, the subjects of which were gene- rally borrowed from the annals of the country, of which the titles of the three tragedies of Du Bocage, " Viriato," " Affonso Henriques," and " Vasco da Gama," may be cited as a proof. In prose, the most valuable work was done in history, and the editions of the old Portuguese chroniclers, Ruy de Pina, Azurara, Fernao Lopes, and Acenheiro, edited for the " Academia Real das Sciencias," by Jose Correa de Serra still remain the standard editions. Nor was science neglected in the country of Pedro Nunes ; Bartholomeu de Gusmao is as- serted to have discovered ballooning in 1709, 380 PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. years before the Montgolfiers commenced their experiments ; and the botanists Felix de Avellar Brotero and Antonio Correa da Silva, to mention but one department of scientific activity, were well known throughout Europe, and were members of most of the scientific societies of the time. In the arts mention has already been made of David Peres, the musical composer, and of Joaquim Machado de Castro, the architect ; the latter was in addition the best sculptor of his country, and Domingos Antonio de Sequeira, as a painter, will compare favourably with most of the contemporary artists in Europe. But though the influence of France is to be per- ceived in every department of literature until the revival of national poetry by Nascimento and Du Bocage, the Portuguese people remained, owing to the Methuen treaty, on much more intimate terms with the English. The royal family might hanker after matrimonial alliances with Spain, a great minister, like Pombal, might resent the absorption of Portuguese trade by England ; but, for all that, the people felt how close were their bonds with the English nation. Mention has been made of the influx of English capital, of the wine merchants of Oporto, and the English factory at Lisbon, and also of the power exercised by the English ambassadors. But there was a closer bond than that ; Portugal became the sanitarium for England ; it was to Portugal that the seekers after a milder climate resorted as they would now do to the Riviera, and it was to Lisbon that the great English novelist, Henry Fielding, to mention but one of many invalids, was sent ; it was PORTUGAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 381 in Lisbon that he died, and he is buried in the cemetery of the English factory there. These were the bonds that bound the two peoples together, and the Portuguese people were justified in counting upon the armed help of England in the terrible struggle which they were now to pass through. XVII. THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION— THE PENINSULAR WAR. WHEN Dom John took the government of Portugal into his hands in 1792, popular attention was con- centrated throughout Europe on the progress of the French Revolution. The interest excited in Portugal was as great as it was everywhere else, for the ideas, which were at the bottom of the most important movement of modern times, had been eagerly received in the literary circles of Lisbon. It is absurd to suppose that there was any great democratic party in the country, for as long as the administration was well carried on, and taxes were not oppressive, the mass of the people were absolutely indifferent as to the nature of the govern- ment. It was different with regard to the more educated classes, who had been brought up in the doctrines of the encyclopaedists, and who had read Rousseau and Diderot, Voltaire and Montesquieu. These men were sceptical about the advantages of a benevolent despotism ; they had studied the history of their own nation, and knew that in former days, before the discovery of gold in Brazil, the Cortes had been THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 383 frequently summoned, and they desired that it should meet regularly, and that the Portuguese people should once more take a part in legislation by means of its old representative assembly. Some of them went further, and inspired by the example of the great American Revolution, dreamed of a republic, while others adopted all the fantastic political and social ideas of Rousseau. But these men were mere theorists ; they were to be found only among a small circle of educated noblemen and bourgeois in Lisbon and Oporto ; and their fancies were quite unknown to the mass of the population. These w r ere the men who hailed with joy the capture of the Bastille, and the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly, and who openly expressed their sympathy with the new order of things in France. The government failed to understand that these sympathizers would not be able to follow the example of the French revolutionary leaders, so long as the general population of Portugal was contented and happy, and like all the absolutist monarchs of Europe, Dom John heard with the utmost horror of the events passing in Paris, and feared that they would be imitated in Lisbon. In his terror of the spread of " French principles," he began to persecute their admirers although they had never dreamed of acting or conspiring, and he thus made martyrs of the holders of the new opinions, which were only propagated the more rapidly by his tyrannical behaviour. In his crusade against the sympathizers with the French Revolution, Dom John found his chief ally in Diogo Ignacio de Pina Manique, the * s OPPOSITION TO " FRENCH PRINCIPLES." 385 Intendant of Police, who believed that by his vigour he should obtain the ascendency formerly held by Pombal, and who proceeded therefore to work upon his master's fears. His first measure was to issue an edict against aliens, under which he expelled two Frenchmen, Pierre Noel and Pierre Louis Fontaine, and kept a strict and irritating surveillance over Edward Church, the United States Consul, and Jacome Ratton, a merchant of Lisbon, whom he declared to be the fomenters of discontent and the leaders of a conspiracy. Against Portuguese sub- jects, Pina Manique acted with still more severity ; Francisco Coelho da Silva, the father of Portuguese liberalism, was thrown into prison ; other men of letters were suspected and often, prosecuted, including the poets, Nascimento and Du Bocage, the botanist Avellar Brotero, and the historian Correa da Serra ; many noblemen of liberal principles were watched by spies, and the Duke of Lafo€s, the great patron of literature, was expelled from Court, because he was a friend of Broussonet, the French chemist. The men whom the Intendant of Police most abhorred were the Freemasons whom he hated, because their society was secret, and by his attempt to suppress all their lodges he made them actively democratic, and the chief promoters of " French principles." It was no wonder that this conduct excited attention in France, and when in January, 1793, three months after the proclamation of the French Republic, the Girondin deputy, Kersaint, inveighed against England in the Convention, he abused Portugal also, and spoke of that country as a province of England. 386 THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Dom John, not satisfied with thus combating " French principles " at home, believed it to be a holy duty to join in the general war against France, and he therefore rejected the advice of the English ministry to remain neutral, and sent his Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Luis Pinto de Sousa Coutinho, to Madrid to beg leave to send an army to join in the invasion of France. It need hardly be said that the Spanish minister, the Count of Florida Blanca, was only too glad to accept assistance, and a treaty of alliance between the two countries was signed at Aranjuez on March 25, 1793. It was vain for the French revolutionary leaders to protest that they had not injured Portugal and to ask for neutrality ; the French Ambassador, M. d'Arbaud, was ordered to leave Lisbon ; a corps of five thousand men under General Joao Forbes-Skelater was sent to join the Spanish army in the invasion of Roussillon ; and a squadron of eight ships of war under the Marquis of Niza joined the English fleet in the Mediterranean. The Portuguese contingent served gallantly in the Eastern Pyrenees from November, 1793, to 1795, and shared alike in the success of General Ricardos, and the defeats of General La Union and General Urrutia, but nevertheless the Spanish Court under the influence of the handsome but worthless guardsman, Godoy, did not hesitate to desert its ally, and made a separate treaty with the French Republic at Basle in July, 1795. Dom John began to believe that the war against the French Republic could not be holy, since the Most Catholic king had made a treaty with France, and he promptly sent Dom Diogo de SIR CHARLES STUART SENT TO PORTUGAL. 387 v Noronha to Paris to sue for peace. But the Com- mittee of Public Safety had no idea of making terms with him ; the treaties signed at Basle had been part of a deliberate policy, which was to convert Prussia and Spain into allies of the Republic, and to unite all three against Austria, England, and Portugal, which was regarded as a province of England, and the Portuguese ambassador was dismissed immediately. After the Convention ceased its long session and the Directory was appointed, Dom John made another effort for peace, and sent Antonio de Araujo de Azevedo, the head of what may be called the French party at the Court of Lisbon, to Paris. He met with no better reception than his predecessor, and when after the treaty of San Ildefonso, by which Spain declared war against England in 1796, came the news of a secret convention between the French ambassador at Madrid, General Perignon, and Godoy, Prince of the Peace, by which Portugal was to be divided between those two powers, and Spanish troops were being massed upon the Portuguese frontier, the English party in the Portuguese ministry gained the upper hand, and urgent supplications were sent to England for help. Pitt and Grenville were only too glad to comply ; for they regarded Portugal as affording an important base of operations in the peninsula. The House of Commons voted Portugal a subsidy of £200,000 ; a force of six thousand men was despatched under the command of Major-General the Honourable Sir Charles Stuart, which deterred the Spaniards from attempting an invasion, and the Prince of Waldeck, 388 THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. like the Count of Lippe-Buckeburg in former days, was sent to re-organize the Portuguese army. This policy caused the French Directors to hesitate, and they signed a treaty of peace with the Portuguese ambassador Antonio de Araujo de Azevedo ; but to their wrath and surprise, Dom John refused to ratify the treaty, on which the Directors imprisoned the Portuguese ambassador in the Temple. In the ardour of his alliance with England, the prince for a year or two threw himself into the hands of the English party at his Court, and on the death of Martinho de Mello e Castro, he appointed Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho, the leader of that party, to the Secretaryship of State for the Marine and Colonies. Yet the English party could not win the day entirely. The prince wavered ; at his request Sir Charles Stuart and the English army were withdrawn ; and he made another attempt to make peace with France through the mediation of Spain. This was the situation of affairs when Dom John formally declared himself Regent in 1799, as it became obvious that the Queen Maria Francisca would never recover the use of her faculties ; and in the same year General Napoleon Bonaparte made his coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire, and became ruler of France with the title of First Consul. The accession of Napoleon to power was of no advantage to Portugal ; from the very first he showed his hatred of the little country ; no amount of sub- mission could win his friendship ; he persisted in regarding Portugal, as the Convention, the Committee of Public Safety, and the Directory had done, as a province of England ; and he thoroughly understood THE TREATY OF BADAJOZ. 389 what an important base of operations it afforded to the English armies. Hardly was Napoleon firmly- seated in office, when he despatched his brother Lucien Bonaparte to Madrid in the year 1800 with directions to negotiate with Portugal. He was to insist on the abandonment of the English alliance, on the opening of Portuguese ports to France and the closing of them to England, on the grant of special commercial advantages to French merchants, on the extension of French Guiana to the Amazon, on the cession of a part of Portugal to Spain until the recovery from the English of Trinidad and Minorca, and on the payment of a large sum of money, and he was authorized to offer Spain the assistance of French troops if these hard terms were rejected. The Prince Regent did reject them and declared war against Spain on February 10, 1801, and twenty- two thousand French veterans at once entered the peninsula under the command of Bonaparte's brother-in-law, General Leclerc. The campaign was a very short one ; the French soldiers never came into action, but in the month of May the Spaniards took Olivenca, Juromenha, and Campo Mayor, laid siege to Elvas, and defeated the Portuguese in two engagements at Arronches and Flor da Rosa. The Portuguese sued for peace, and on June 6, 1801, a treaty was signed at Badajoz, by which Olivenca and the surrounding district was ceded to Spain, followed by another at Paris, by which French Guiana was extended to the Amazon. Napoleon was very dissatisfied with the peace of Badajoz, for he aimed at nothing short of the extinction of the 390 THE PENINSULAR WAR. independence of Portugal, and it was many months before he consented to ratify the treaties. Mean- while an English force under Colonel Henry Clinton had occupied Madeira, and a force of the English East India Company's troops garrisoned Goa. The pride of the people of Portugal was deeply wounded by the loss of Olivenca, which had been an integral part of Portugal ever since the days of Affonso Henriques, and they lost no opportunity of showing their contempt for the Prince Regent and his advisers. Their wrath was kindled against the French, and from this time forth, the mass of the people who did not care for politics, but who did under- stand the meaning of national disgrace, was ready to dare anything against the nation which had brought about the disintegration of the fatherland. The Treaty of Amiens gave Europe a moment's breathing space ; the English evacuated Madeira, and the Prince Regent determined on a policy of absolute neutrality. But Napoleon was not to be moved ; he had determined on the destruction of Portugal, and it was with the full expectation that he would irritate the Portuguese into declaring war, that he sent General Lannes, one of the most courageous, but one of the roughest and least educated of his generals, as ambas- sador to Lisbon. Lannes acted in accordance with the expectations of his chief ; he insulted the Portuguese Court ; he failed to observe the most ordinary customs of diplomatic courtesy ; and he finally demanded the instant dismissal of all the ministers who belonged to the English party, and especially of Pina Manique, the Intendant of Police, because he had in former days THE FRENCH PARTY IN POWER. 39 1 prosecuted the admirers of the French Revolution. The Prince Regent obeyed > both from fear of France and dislike of the high-handed naval policy of England ; and Antonio de Araujo de Azevedo, the head of the French party, became Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, with the Count of Villa Verde, and the Viscount of Anadia as his colleagues, and Lucas de Scabra da Silva succeeded Pina Manique. Even this humble and prompt submission did not satisfy Napoleon, and in 1804 ne replaced General Lannes by General Junot, whom he ordered to insist upon Portugal's declaring war against England. For a time, however, he thought it wise to postpone his designs against the country, which he regarded as the most vulnerable province of England, while he was engaged in his great campaigns in Germany, and he even signed a treaty of neutrality with the Portuguese Government. The English were not inclined to submit to this, and in 1806, Admiral the Earl of St. Vincent, General the Earl of Rosslyn, and General Simcoe were sent to Lisbon to remind the Prince Regent of the ancient alliance between the two countries, and to promise ample assistance if Portugal would declare war against France. Dom John declined, and on the advice of his ministers, treated the English ambassadors with something like contempt. At length, in 1807, having defeated the armies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, Napoleon again turned his thoughts to his projects for the annihilation of Portugal, which had become more than ever a thorn in his side, since it refused to co-operate in his Conti- nental System for the commercial ruin of England. 392 THE PENINSULAR WAR. He resolved at first to act with Spain and Godoy, as Perignon and Lucien Bonaparte had done, and on the 29th of October, 1807, he signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, by which it was agreed that Portugal should be conquered by the combined armies of France and Spain, and that the northern provinces of the country should be given to the King of Etruria, in exchange for his Italian kingdom, which Napoleon desired to annex, while the southern districts were to be formed into an independent kingdom for Godoy, Prince of the Peace, and the central provinces were to be held by France. The signature of this treaty was followed by immediate action. Junot moved rapidly across Spain with a French army, and in conjunction with a Spanish force, under General Caraffa, invaded Portugal along the line of the Tagus, while General Taranco and General Solano, with two other Spanish armies occupied the Entre Minho e Douro and the Alemtejo. With amazing rapidity Junot accomplished his march, and the Portuguese people hardly realized that war was imminent, until on the 29th of November, Colonel Le Cor rushed into Lisbon with the news that French soldiers were in possession of Abrantes. This alarming intelligence completely unnerved the Prince Regent, who listened to the strongly-worded advice of Sir Sidney Smith, the commander of an English squadron in the Tagus, to abandon his capital for Brazil, and to leave the English to defend Portugal. Dom John believed this the best course to pursue, and after naming a Council of Regency, he went on board an English ship with his wife, DonnaCarlotta Joaquina, his two sons, Dom Pedro and Dom Miguel, his six JUNOT CONQUERS PORTUGAL. 393 daughters, and his unhappy mother, Queen Maria Francisca, whose disordered brain seemed to under- stand what was going on, and whose resistance to the efforts to remove her was painful to observe. The English ships had hardly left their moorings in the Tagus, when Junot at the head of two thousand wearied French soldiers, who had survived the fearful fatigue of his rapid march, entered Lisbon on the 30th of November, 1807. Nothing shows more certainly the great advance of what were called " French principles " — that is to say, of democratic ideas — in Portugal during the last few years, than the cordial reception which Junot received. At Santarem he was welcomed by a deputation of the Freemasons of Portugal, who had been made by persecution, as in other continental countries, a secret society for the propagation of democratic ideas ; the army made no attempt to resist ; neither villages nor towns rose in insurrection ; and the Council of Regency, which consisted of the Marquis of Abrantes, the Marquis of Olhao, General Francisco da Cunha e Menezes, General Francisco Xavier de Noronha, Principal Castro, and Pedro de Mello Breyner, President of the Treasury, instantly submitted. The people of Lisbon had been disgusted with the wavering and unpatriotic policy of the Prince Regent ; they complained with reason that he had wasted time in diplomacy instead of preparing for defence ; they contrasted his yielding to Spain at the Treaty of Badajoz with the gallant conduct of John I., and the successful wars of John IV. ; and they looked upon his departure for Brazil as a base desertion of 7 MARSHAL JUNOT, DUKE OF ABRANTES. {Front a Print of the period. ) JUNOT'S CONDUCT IN PORTUGAL. 395 his country. For all these reasons they welcomed the French, and the democratic leaders hoped that the Emperor Napoleon would annex their country, and grant it representative institutions. Junot at first acted with the greatest prudence ; he certainly raised two millions of francs in Lisbon by requisition, and seized all the money in the royal treasury, but at the .same time he gratified the Portuguese people by refusing to give the Spaniards any of the plunder, and he encouraged them in the belief that the Emperor would not destroy their independence. His next step was to disband the whole Portuguese army, and to quarter French troops in all the more important cities and fortresses. Not satisfied with this, Junot then raised a powerful Portuguese force, consisting of two divisions of infantry, two regiments of cagadores or light infantry, and three regiments of cavalry, which he despatched to . France under the command of Lieutenant-General Dom Pedro de Almada, Marquis of Alorna, and Major-General Gomes Freire de Andrade. This force which was known as the Portuguese Legion, contained all the most disciplined officers and soldiers of the nation, and did gallant service under Napoleon throughout the French cam- paigns in Spain, Germany, and Russia, and the remnant of it served under his standards at Waterloo. Thus freed from the presence of the most dangerous element of resistance, Junot began to show his own disposition. He now made no effort to conciliate the Portuguese democrats, and laughed at their idea of a Portuguese constitution ; he hoisted the tricolour flag on the Citadel of St. George ; he divided the country into 396 THE PENINSULAR WAR. military governments under his generals ; and finally on the 1st of February, 1807, he issued a proclamation " that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign." After issuing this proclamation the French took entire possession of Portugal ; the alcaides were dis- missed, and the French generals ruled with absolute authority as military governors. A new regency was formed, which included several Frenchmen, notably Junot himself as president, General Herman, M. Lhuillier, and Viennot de Vaublanc as Secretary- General ; and a new ministry was constituted of friends to the French alliance, consisting of Pedro de Mello Breyner at the Home Office, Azevedo at the Treasury, the Count of Sampaio at the War Office, and Principal Castro at the Ministry of Justice. Junot then began to intrigue for the throne of Portugal ; he knew well that Napoleon had no intention of carrying out the terms of the treaty of Fontainebleau ; and he did not see why, after his successful campaign, he should not receive this great reward. He posed as a patron of letters, and was elected President of the " Academia Real das Sciencias " in the place of the Duke of Lafoes ; he changed his attitude towards and made extravagant promises to the radical party ; and in the hope of succeeding the Braganzas, he reduced Napoleon's requisition of forty millions of francs to twenty millions, on his own authority. The chief agent, through whom he negotiated, was a lawyer, named Jose de Scabra, who got up a deputation to visit Napoleon, headed by the Grand Inquisitor, the Bishop of Leiria, to ask for the nomination of Junot as King of Portugal. These efforts of Junot's were, however, of no THE PORTUGUESE REBEL AGAINST THE FRENCH. 397 avail. The tyranny of his generals, and their treatment of the Portuguese as a conquered people ; the atro- cities which the French soldiers committed, and their deliberate insults to the dearest sentiments of a proud nation, far outweighed the effect of Junot's policy. General Thomieres, for instance, plundered the great abbey of Alcobaga, and destroyed the corpses of the early kings of Portugal ; and General Loison trampled on the people, and put down a little riot at Mafra with most frightful cruelty. There were exceptions to this behaviour of course. General Travot and General Chariot made themselves popular by their just administration ; but, as a rule, the conduct of the French generals was rapacious in the extreme. At this moment, when the Portuguese people were quiver- ing with indignation, came the news of the rebellion in Spain, and of the victory of Baylen. The Spanish general, Bellesta, who commanded at Oporto in suc- cession to General Taranco, seized the French gover- nor, General Quesnel, and handed him over to a Portuguese junta, and then marched away into Gallicia. It was on the 18th of June, when the French had held Portugal for about nine months, that this great event occurred. Antonio Jose de Castro, Bishop of Oporto, was declared president of the "junta" of that city. The example was followed from Braga to Faro ; everywhere the French officers were murdered or expelled, and independent "juntas" were formed. At this juncture the Portuguese people felt that they could not resist France by their own strength ; and the Bishop of Oporto appealed to the old ally of Portugal, England, for assistance. SIR A. WELLESLEY LANDS IN PORTUGAL. 399 The English Government willingly listened to this appeal ; they had long wished for a base on the Con- tinent from which to act against Napoleon by land, and, in the words of Canning, " the arm of Great Britain became the lever, and Portugal the fulcrum, to wrench from its basis the power that had subdued the rest of Europe." In the previous year, a force under Colonel Beresford had occupied Madeira, but up to this time, no attempt had been made to dislodge the French from Portugal itself. On the receipt of this appeal from Oporto however, a small army, which had been collected at Cork under the command of Lieutenant - .General the Honourable Sir Arthur Wellesley, for an expedition to South America, was ordered instead to proceed to Portugal ; reinforce- ments were collected at Ramsgate and Harwich, and a division under Major- General Brent Spencer was ordered to sail from Gibraltar to join him. A Lusi- tanian Legion was also formed out of the Portuguese who happened to be in England, and despatched to Portugal under the command of Colonel Sir Robert Wilson and Colonel Mayne. It was indeed time that help should arrive ; all the best troops and most skilled officers had been sent out of Portugal in the Portu- guese Legion to join the Grand Army of France, and the undisciplined peasants and apprentices hastily collected by the "juntas" were easily defeated in many places by the French veterans. Sir Arthur Wellesley landed at the mouth of the Mondego River, and advanced southwards upon Lisbon. He first de- feated Laborde's division at Rolica on the 17th of August, 1808 ; and, after receiving reinforcements, he 400 THE PENINSULAR WAR. routed Junot himself at Vimeiro on the 2 1st of August. These victories were followed by the Convention of Cintra, by which Junot agreed to evacuate Portugal and surrender all the fortresses in his possession, on condition that his troops and their plunder should be transported safe to France. This convention, how- ever disappointing from a military point of view to the English authorities, was eminently satisfactory to the Portuguese people, who saw themselves delivered from the French, as speedily as they had been conquered by them. The former Council of Regency, nominated by the Prince Regent before his departure, was re-established at Lisbon, and at once began to quarrel with the "junta" of Oporto, but both bodies perceived how dependent they were on the English Government, and the Regency sent Domingos Antonio de Sousa Coutinho to London to ask that an English ambassador with full powers should be accredited to Lisbon, and that Sir Arthur Wellesley might be appointed to re- organize their army. In compliance with these requests the Right Honourable J. C. Villiers was sent as ambassador to Lisbon, and, as Sir Arthur Wellesley could not be spared, Major- General Beresford, who had learnt the Portuguese language, when governor of Madeira, was sent to command and discipline the Portuguese troops. Meanwhile, Portugal was" again exposed to the attacks of the French ; when Sir John Moore advanced to Salamanca, he had left very few English troops behind, and Napoleon ordered three French armies to invade the country by different routes. Of these armies only one THE FRENCH DRIVEN OUT OF PORTUGAL. 401 actually entered Portugal, that from the north under the command of Marshal Soult. Parties of the Lusitanian Legion, under Sir Robert Wilson and Baron Eben, made a spirited resistance, and even the unorganized Portuguese levies, under General Antonio de Silveira, showed courage, if not discipline ; but their efforts were in vain, and Soult occupied Oporto. Fortunately for the Portuguese, Soult, like Junot, was led away by the idea of becoming King of Portugal, and did not advance on Lisbon, while Lapisse and Victor did not support him by entering the Beira and the Alemtejo, as they had been ordered to do, and this delay gave time for Sir Arthur Wellesley to reach the Tagus with a powerful English army. On the 1 2th of May, 1809, he drove Soult out of Oporto, and into Gallicia ; and after this success he invaded Spain, and defeated Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Victor at the battle of Talavera. From these successes of the English general, it is necessary to turn to the condition of the Portuguese regency. After the departure of the Prince Regent, all the able men of the English party and the trained administrators had left Portugal for Brazil ; the leaders of. the radical party were either in disgrace, or had fled to France, and none were left to compose the regency save a set of intriguers, whose chief idea was to get as much money from England as possible, and convey it into their own pockets. The Portuguese people acted very differently ; they were indignant at the outrageous conduct of the French soldiery, and were ready to sacrifice their lives for the national cause. This enthusiasm was reported to the English 402 THE PENINSULAR WAR. Government, which determined to take ten thousand Portuguese soldiers into English pay, and to send out a number of English regimental officers to discipline and command them. No better man than Beresford could have been selected as commander-in-chief of the Portuguese army. He proved himself in after- years, and especially at the battle of Albuera, to be but a poor general ; but as an organizer his firmness, which almost amounted to severity, made him at once obeyed and feared. His chief assistants in this work were the English officers who had been sent to him, and a small body of Portuguese officers whom patriotism had forced into exile in preference to serving in the French Portuguese Legion, and at the head of these two classes were his Quartermaster- General, Major-General Benjamin D'Urban, an Eng- lishman, and his Adjutant-General, Colonel Manoel de Brito Mousinho, a Portuguese. So hard did Beresford work during the winter of 1809, while Lord Wellington, as Sir Arthur Wellesleyhad been created, was in Spain, that in the spring of 18 10, certain Portuguese regiments were brigaded with the English, and showed themselves worthy of the honour. They fought side by side with the English soldiers at the battle of Busaco, and the behaviour of the 8th Portu- guese Infantry is one of the most disputed points in the history of that battle, every historian of the war stating that it behaved well, but all differing as to the time it came into action, and the effect of its bayonet charge. While Beresford was doing this good work, and the flower of the Portuguese youth was rushing to arms A FEMALE PEASANT FROM THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF CALDAS DA RAINHA. {From Kinsey^s " Portugal Illustrated" 1829.) 404 THE PENINSULAR WAR. in the regular army, or in the militia reserve, the regency at Lisbon was going from bad to worse. The Prince Regent at Rio de Janeiro had no control over it, and it was divided into parties, which quar- relled over the disposition of the English subsidies as if they were legitimate spoil. There is no need to study the intrigues of these parties, but it is worth notice, that Dom Pedro de Sousa Holstein, better known in after-years as the Duke of Palmella, was despatched to the Spanish junta to claim the Regency of Spain for Donna Carlotta Joaquina the Queen of Portugal, when Portugal could not even defend its own territory. Neither Wellington nor Beresford could work with this factious regency, and the English cabinet had to insist that the English ambassador at Lisbon, Sir Charles Stuart, the son of General the Honourable Sir Charles Stuart, should receive a seat upon the council. His great ability and tact soon made him the master of his colleagues, and a certain portion of the money, sent by England to pay the Portuguese troops, did at last find its way to its proper destination. The Regency, even when thus strength- ened, failed to become popular ; it was hotly criticized and abused ; and the murmuring radical party in Lisbon, which hankered after peace with France, was only suppressed by the deportation of eighteen leading journalists to the Azores in September, 1810. It is little wonder that some opposition to the war existed in 1810, for in that year the most formidable invasion of French troops took place. This was the famous invasion of Massena. The Portuguese nation showed all the valour of a people, fighting for its very THE PORTUGUESE ARMY. 405 existence as a nation, and when Lord Wellington, on being obliged to retire into the lines of Torres Vedras, commanded the peasants to abandon their homes and leave nothing for the French to subsist upon, they obeyed him with touching fidelity. While Wellington was entrenched within his lines, Beresford established his headquarters at Lisbon, and continued the work of reorganization with the help of a fresh contingent of English regimental officers, which reached him at this time. He proceeded rapidly, but in regular order, and having organized and disciplined the Portuguese regiments in the winter of 1809, he made them into independent Portuguese brigades in the winter of 1 8 10. In all he formed a powerful Portuguese army of twelve infantry brigades, partly commanded by English brigadiers, such as Ashworth, Pack, Brad- ford, and Archibald Campbell, partly by native officers, such as Le Cor, Fonseca, Palmeirim, and Bernadim Ribeiros, four cavalry brigades, under Povoa and Barbacena, Madden and Hawker, and an artillery park of forty-eight guns under Colonel Alexander Dickson. While Beresford was engaged at Lisbon in organizing the Portuguese army, the Portuguese militia was doing good work in the northern provinces, where the chief command was held by Major-General Manoel Pinto Bacellar. Brigades of militia under such dashing commanders as Antonio de Silveira, John Miller, Nicholas Trant, and John Wilson, harassed Massena's lines of communication with Spain ; and while he was before the lines of Torres Vedras and at Santarem, he had to keep three divisions em- ployed in keeping open his line of retreat and escort- 406 THE PENINSULAR WAR. ing his convoys. In the field, the Portuguese militia was always defeated, but Massena could never feel safe from their attacks, and to mention but one brilliant exploit, Trant's capture of Coimbra seriously inconvenienced him at a critical moment. Finally in the March of 1811, Massena had to retire, and the Portuguese then reaped their reward in having their frontiers freed from the invader for the rest of the Peninsular War. Englishmen of modern times are too apt to look upon the victories of the Peninsular War, as the results of English valour alone. Wellington knew better ; he knew what he owed to the Portuguese troops, and recognized their services in his despatches ; and contemporaries always spoke of the victorious soldiers, as the allied, or the Anglo- Portuguese army. Throughout the great campaigns of 18 1 2, 18 13, and 1 8 14, the Portuguese troops, shared the labours and the glories of Wellington's army ; and to mention but a single exploit, the attacks of Pack's and Bradford's Portuguese brigades on the Arapiles in the battle of Salamanca roused the warm admiration of the English soldiers and officers though they were not crowned with success. During the winter of 1 812, while the allied army was in winter quarters after the retreat from Burgos, Beresford put the finishing touch to his work by the formation of independent Portuguese divisions. The cacadores or light infantry were however too valuable to be sepa- rated from the English light infantry regiments, and continued to form part of the famous Light Division until the close of the war. The Portuguese divisions were like the brigades divided between English and THE END OF THE PENINSULAR WAR. 407 Portuguese generals, among whom the most conspic- uous were Sir John Hamilton, and Sir Archibald Campbell, the future conqueror of Burma, Carlos Frederic Le Cor and Agostino Luis da Fonseca. Dur- ing the movements which followed the victory of Vittoria, the Portuguese showed their courage and discipline, and not only Wellington, but all the historians of the war, draw attention to their good conduct alike in the field and in quarters, as com- pared with the licentiousness and want of discipline of the Spanish armies. Meanwhile, matters went on well at home ; the Regency, under the control of Sir Charles Stuart, was unable to embezzle the English subsidies ; he took care that the troops were well paid, clothed, and fed ; the Portuguese people rejoiced at the achievements of their soldiers against France, and profited by the large influx of English money into Portugal. When the war was over and the news of the abdication of Napoleon, and of the battle of Toulouse arrived, the returning troops were enthu- siastically received, and all promised brightly for the future. The English Government were not unmindful of the services rendered by the Portuguese, and when Wellington's generals were raised to the peerage, Marshal Beresford, the organizer of the Portuguese army, was created Lord Beresford, and Sir Charles Stuart, the ambassador at Lisbon, Lord Stuart de Rothesay. But these rejoicings were soon followed by bitter lamentations, for the English plenipotentiaries at the Congress of Vienna headed by Lord Castlereagh, basely deserted their gallant allies. The Portuguese 40 8 THE PENINSULAR WAR. envoys at this famous meeting for the re-settlement of Europe were Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmella, afterwards Duke of Palmella, Antonio de Saldanha da Gama, afterwards Count of Porto Santo, and Jeronymo Lobo da Silveira, afterwards Count of Oriolla. These diplomatists urged that Spain should be forced to restore Olivenca, which Portugal had been obliged to cede at the Treaty of Badajoz in 1 80 1, a claim which was perfectly fair and just ; but Talleyrand opposed this act of justice, and Castlereagh unjustifiably abandoned the faithful ally of England, an act at once ungrateful and impolitic. A feeling that England was ungrateful was the prevailing idea among the Portuguese, when the news arrived from Rio de Janeiro that the mad Queen Maria Francisca had died on March 20, 18 16, and that the Prince Regent had been proclaimed king as John VI. XVIII MODERN PORTUGAL. CIVIL WARS AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PAR- LIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. The history of Portugal, after the conclusion of the Peninsular War, affords a melancholy example of the evil effects of all prolonged wars. The people, without great monarchs or great ministers, was divided into many parties, which quarrelled and fought ; numerous civil wars distressed the country ; commerce and agri- culture were neglected ; local rivalry and class jealousy were allowed to grow to serious proportions ; the government of the country and the administration of justite went from bad to worse ; and, as usual, misery and poverty followed in the train of political discon- tent. It is neither interesting nor instructive to study the details of the civil wars of the first half of the nineteenth century. Throughout the whole story of Portugal, the most prominent feature is the singular tenacity with which the little country maintained its independence and its individuality, and it is painful to observe that this patriotic feeling almost entirely dis- appeared for a time. It was during this period that 410 MODERN PORTUGAL. Portugal fell to the rank of a third-rate state, for it now ceased to be an important factor in European politics, either from its wealth and its colonies, or as the trusted ally of England. This was largely due to a change in the attitude of England, where the old historical friendship for Portugal, which had been maintained since the Middle Ages and had been of advantage to both parties, was abandoned, to the lasting regret of every one who values the existence of sentiment and of historical continuity in politics. Nevertheless, in spite of its loss of importance, some account must be given of Portugal during this dis- tressing epoch ; for, if it is interesting to study the history of a nation in prosperity, it is also instruc- tive to see how it fell to its lowest depths. John VI. had greatly enjoyed the peace and com- fort of his residence in Brazil as Prince Regent, and he had become more attached to Brazil than to Portu- gal, when he was proclaimed King of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves in 1816. The people of the mother country resented this heartily ; they looked upon him as a deserter ; and feared that he would favour the interests of the colony unduly. They were also alarmed at the growing spirit of independence in Brazil ; they knew that the chief wealth of Portugal during the eighteenth century had been derived from its great colony, and they were well aware that any separation would be most prejudicial to their pros- perity. The affection of the new king for Brazil appeared in the very first year of his reign, for instead of insisting on the restitution of Olivenga, he preferred to attack the former possessions of Spain in South JOHN VI. REFUSES TO LEAVE BRAZIL. 411 America, and ordered to Brazil a corps of 4,500 veterans of the Peninsular War under the command of Lieutenant-General Le Cor. A pretext for war was found in the republican movement of Artigas ; the local militia could make no stand against the Portuguese soldiers; on the 20th of January, 18 17, Le Cor took Monte Video, and he soon occupied all the country up to the left bank of the River Plate. The victorious general was created Baron of Laguna, and continued to occupy the Banda Oriental until 1825, when the inhabitants rose in rebellion, and after much warfare they founded the Republic of Uruguay, and became independent alike of Brazil and the Argentine Republic. John VI. gave colour to the accusation of the Portuguese that he intended to desert them for the Brazilians, and invert the position of the two nations, by his obstinate refusal to leave Rio de Janeiro. The English Cabinet persistently urged him to return to Europe, but he remained deaf to all remonstrances, and paid little or no attention to the state of affairs in Portugal. He met with no help, but only with opposition from his queen, Donna Carlotta Joaquina, who was always intriguing against him, and who had, as early as 1805, promised a liberal constitution to certain Portuguese radical leaders, in order to build up a position distinct from her husband. Nor had she intrigued only in Portugal, for in 1812 it was dis- covered that she had formed a scheme to become independent Queen of Brazil. All these plots were intended for the eventual advantage of her younger son, Dom Miguel, an arrogant youth, who was com- 412 MODERN PORTUGAL. monly believed to be illegitimate. Nor was John VI. more happy in his relations with his elder son, Dom Pedro, who was a fanatical admirer of the system of parliamentary government. Dom Pedro was further Grand Master of the Freemasons of Brazil, and an open supporter of the Brazilian party, which hoped for a liberal constitution and complete separation from Portugal. This prince was a man of real ability, high character, and enlightened opinions, and his importance in the family was increased by his marriage, through the negotiations of Dom Pedro de Menezes Coutinho, Marquis of Marialva, and Prince Metternich, with the Archduchess Maria Josepha, daughter of the Emperor Francis I. of Austria, In Portugal, the government of the Regency had grown intensely unpopular, for Lord Stuart de Rothesay and Marshal Beresford ruled most despoti- cally. The people which had endured the authority of the English during the terrible war for existence, and the very soldiers who had served so gallantly under English officers on the field of battle, soon grew weary of foreign rule in time of peace, and raised the cry of " Portugal for the Portuguese." The ministers, who had reluctantly paid the large sums needed for the expenses of the army, even when aided by sub- sidies from England, now that those subsidies were withdrawn, insisted on great reductions, and practically paid nothing at all. Democratic ideas spread swiftly ; the people claimed a share in the government, and expressed aloud their hatred for the king, the Regency, and the English, and a spirit of discontent arose in every part of the kingdom. The first outbreak took THE REVOLUTION OF 1820. 413 place in 18 18, when General Gomes Freire de Andrade, who had commanded the Portuguese Legion in the Russian and other campaigns in Napoleon's army, and who was an ardent lover of France, planned a " pronunciamento," but the plot was discovered and suppressed with stringent severity by the Regency, which ordered the execution of the general and of ten of his partisans. This rigorous punishment only enraged the radical party, and when Beresford went to Brazil in 1820 in order to get money from the king to pay the arrears due to the army, advantage was taken of his absence by the people of Oporto to raise the standard of revolt under the leadership of Colonel Antonio de Silveira, Brito da Fonsr ja, and other officers belonging to the garrison. The Regency in Lisbon, deprived of the presence of Beresford, gave way before a similar rising in the capital, headed by the Counts of Resende, Penafiel, and Sampaio, and the revolutionary juntas formed in the two great cities agreed to act in harmony. The English officers were driven from the country ; Beresford was not allowed to land when he returned from Rio de Janeiro ; a fresh regency was proclaimed ; and a con- stituent assembly was summoned to draw up a con- stitution for Portugal. This assembly, of which the majority consisted of men of the most democratic opinions, at once abolished all relics of feudalism, and, to the disgust of the ecclesi- astics, suppressed the Inquisition in Portugal, in spite of its studied moderation in recent years, on account of its former misdeeds. The deputies then proceeded to draw up a most impracticable constitution for the 414 MODERN PORTUGAL. future government of the country, which showed that they had studied the glowing speeches of the orators of the French Revolution, and had not profited by the knowledge of their mistakes. By this constitution, which was known in later history as the " Constitution of 1822," protection of person and property was guaranteed ; and liberty of the press, equality before the law, the admissibility of all citizens to all offices, the abolition of privileges and the sovereignty of the nation were proclaimed. One freely elected chamber was to be summoned yearly to make laws and superintend the government of the country, and the king was granted only a suspensive veto over its measures. On hearing of this revolution, Prussia, Austria, and Russia withdrew their ambassadors from Lisbon, and England insisted that John VI. should at once pro- ceed to Portugal. The king accordingly left Rio de Janeiro and returned to Lisbon, where he solemnly swore to observe the new constitution, and to rule for the future as a constitutional monarch. The queen and Dom Miguel were not so complaisant; they re- fused to recognize the constitution, and were at once forced to leave Lisbon. On the departure of John VI., Brazil declared itself independent, and Dom Pedro, who was elected emperor, granted that country a liberal parliamentary constitution. The Portuguese troops and royal vessels made a slight attempt to pre- serve the royal authority in South America, but the latter were speedily defeated by Lord Cochrane, who entered the Brazilian service, and the separation of the great colony from its mother-country became an acknowledged fact THE REIGN OF JOHN VI.' 415 The loss of Brazil and the conversion of the govern- ment of Portugal into a limited monarchy, enraged the nobility, and still more the clergy, who looked with horror on the radical reforms of the constituent assembly, and when the French invaded Spain in 1823 to suppress the rebellion in that country, General Francisco de Silveira, Count of Amarante, raised a " pronunciamento " in the Tras-os-Montes against the Constitution of 1822. John VI. had imbibed some of his elder son's ideas, and was in favour of modi- fying the absolute character of the Portuguese monarchy, but he never concealed his opinion that the radical party had gone too far in its extreme reforms. He therefore took advantage of the " pro- nunciamento " in the north to declare the Constitution of 1822 abrogated, and appointed the Count of Pal- mella prime minister, with instructions to form a "junta," and to draw up a moderate and well-balanced parliamentary constitution on the English model: But the absolutist party, headed by the queen and Dom Miguel, who had been appointed commander-in-chief of the army, would not tolerate any form of constitu- tional monarchy ; they raised an insurrection in Lisbon against John VI. ; the king's greatest friend, the liberal-minded Marquis of Louie, was assassinated ; Palmella and his colleagues were imprisoned ; and the king himself was shut up in his palace and eventually fled for refuge on board an English man-of-war in the Tagus. The united action of the foreign ambassadors and ministers accredited to Portugal, led by Sir William A'Court, afterwards Lord Heytesbury, the representative of England, secured the restoration of 416 MODERN PORTUGAL, the king's authority ; the insurrection was sup- pressed ; Dom Miguel was banished ; Palmella was re-appointed prime minister ; and at the close of 1824, the king returned to Brazil to spend his last days in peace. On reaching Rio de Janeiro, he recog- nized Dom Pedro as Emperor of Brazil, and on the 6th of March, 1826, John VI. died in the country of his choice. By his will, John VI. left the regency of Portugal to his daughter Isabel Maria, to the dis- gust of Dom Miguel, who had fully expected in spite of his conduct that Portugal would be in some manner bequeathed to him, and that Dom Pedro would be satisfied with the government of Brazil. The next twenty-five years are the saddest in the whole history of Portugal. The establishment of the system of parliamentary government, which now exists, was a long and difficult task ; it is almost im- possible to follow the rapid sequence of events, and quite impossible to understand the varying motives of different statesmen and generals. The keynote of the whole series of disturbances is to be found in the pernicious influence of the army. Beresford's creation was a grand fighting machine, but armies, and more particularly generals, after a long period of active service, are almost, certain to become dangerous in times of peace. In the case of Portugal, the army was disproportionately large for the size and revenue of the country ; there was no foreign or colonial war to occupy its energies, and the soldiers would not return to the plough nor the officers retire into private life. The English Cabinet at this juncture determined to DOM MIGUEL ELECTED KING. 417 maintain peace and order, and in 1826, a division of five thousand men was sent under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir William Clinton to garrison the chief towns. The accession of Pedro IV. to the throne was hailed with joy in Portugal, though looked on with suspicion in Brazil. He justified his reputa- tion by drawing Up a charter, containing the bases for a moderate parliamentary government of the English type, which he sent over to Portugal, by the English diplomatist, Lord Stuart de Rothesay. Then to please his Brazilian subjects, he abdicated the throne of Portugal in favour of his daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria, a child of seven years old, on condition that on attaining a suitable age she should marry her uncle, Dom Miguel, who was to swear to observe the new constitution. The Charter of 1826 was thankfully received by the moderate parliamentary party ; Clin- ton's division was withdrawn ; Palmella remained prime minister ; and in the following year, 1827, Dom Pedro destroyed the effect of his wise measures by appointing Dom Miguel to be regent of Portugal in the name of the little queen. Dom Miguel was an ambitious prince, who believed that he ought to be king of Portugal ; he was extremely popular with the old nobility, the clergy, and the army, with all who disliked liberal ideas, and with the beggars and the poor who were under the influence of the mendicant orders. He was declared Regent in July, 1827, and in May, 1828, he summoned a .Cortes of the ancient type, such as had not met since 1697, which under the presidency of the Bishop of Viseu offered him the throne of Portugal. He 4-l8 MODERN PORTUGAL. accepted, and immediately exiled all the leaders of the parliamentary, or, as it is usually called, the Chartist, party, headed by Palmella, Saldanha, Villa Flor, and Sampaio. They naturally fled to England, where the young queen was stopping on her way to be educated at the court of Vienna, and found popular opinion strongly in their favour. But the Duke of Wellington and his Tory Cabinet refused to counten- ance or assist them. The duke urged on the marriage of the queen with her uncle, and persisted in con- fusing the moderate and the radical parties, and in believing that Palmella was a democrat. The little queen was herself kindly received by George IV., but the behaviour of the Duke of Wellington was so obnoxious to her guardians, Amelia of Bavaria, Empress of Brazil and second wife of Dom Pedro, and Felisberto Caldeira Brant Pontes, Marquis of Barbacena, that they took her to France in 1829. She was there granted the Chateau of Meudon for a residence, and was educated by her stepmother, and two accomplished ladies, Eugenia Telles da Gama, Countess of Palmella, and Leonor da Camara, Mar- chioness of Ponte Delgada, while civil war was raging in Portugal in her name. Meanwhile the reign of Dom Miguel had become a Reign of Terror ; arrests and executions were frequent ; thousands were deported to Africa, and in 1830 it was estimated that forty thousand persons were in prison for political offences. He ruled in absolute contempt of all law, and at different times English, French, and American fleets entered the Tagus to demand reparation for damage done to INSURRECTION AGAINST DOM MIGUEL. 419 commerce, or for the illegal arrest of foreigners. The result of this conduct was that the country was hope- lessly ruined, and the chartist and radical parties, who respectively advocated the Charter of 1 826 and the Con- stitution of 1822, agreed to sink their differences, and to oppose the bigoted tyrant. The island of Terceira in the Azores had never recognized Dom Miguel, and it was there in 1829 that Palmella, Villa Flor, Jose Antonio Guerreiro and Quevedo Pizarro declared themselves a council of regency for Queen Maria da Gloria. On the nth of August, 1830, they defeated a fleet sent against them by Dom Miguel in Praia Bay, and at this news all the chartists who could escape from Portugal, and the numerous Portuguese exiles in England and France, hastened to the Azores. Dom Pedro, who had devoted his life to the cause of parliamentary government, resigned his crown in 183 1 to his infant son, and left Brazil to head the movement for his daughter's cause. He first went to London, where he met with a good reception from the Liberal Cabinet of Lord Grey, and he there negotiated a large loan in his daughter's name. He then hastened to the Azores with as many men as he could raise, most of whom were English soldiers, tired of peace, or adventurers of other nations, and on his arrival he appointed the Count of Villa Flor, commander-in- chief of the army, and Captain Sartorius, of the English navy, admiral of the fleet, of Queen Maria da Gloria. In July, 1832, the ex-emperor with an army of 7,500 men arrived at Oporto, where he was enthusi- astically welcomed, and Dom Miguel then laid 420 MODERN PORTUGAL. siege to the city. European opinion was divided between the two parties ; partisans of freedom and of constitutional government called the Miguelites "slaves of a tyrant," while lovers of absolutism, alluding to the loans raised by the ex-emperor, used to speak of the "stock-jobbing Pedroites." The siege was long and protracted ; Dom Miguel finding himself invari- ably repulsed in his assaults, turned it into a blockade, and want within the walls and cholera among the besiegers decimated the armies. On both sides the commanders quarrelled among themselves, and the only event worthy of mention is the defeat of the Miguelite fleet by Sartorius on the nth of October, 1832. In 1833 more vigorous action marked the career of the Pedroites. Major- General Joao Carlos Saldanha de Oliveira e Daun, an old officer of Beres- ford, and a friend and former colleague of Palmella, took the command of the army in Oporto, and defeated the Miguelites under the Count of San Lourenco, on the 4th of March, and under General das Antas, on the 24th of March, 1833. Captain Charles Napier, of the English navy, succeeded Sartorius as admiral of the Pedroite fleet, and con- veyed a force of one thousand five hundred men from Oporto to the Algarves, under the Count of Villa Flor, now created Duke of Terceira, and then practically destroyed the Miguelite fleet offCape Saint Vincent on the 5th of July, 1833. The Duke of Terceira was equally successful on land ; he was warmly welcomed by the people of the Algarves and the Alemtejo ; his army was increased by volunteers as he advanced ; he utterly defeated the Miguelites under General Telles SURRENDER OF DOM MIGUEL. 42 1 Jordao at Covada Piedade, and triumphantly entered Lisbon on the 24th of July. Dom Pedro immediately sailed round to the capital, and summoned his daughter from France, and on her arrival he again proclaimed the Charter of 1826. The Miguelites, under the French Marshal, Bourmont, then attacked Lisbon, but were easily beaten off. The year 1834 was one of unbroken success for the Chartists. England and France recognized Maria da Gloria as Queen of Portugal, and the ministry of Queen Isabella of Spain, knowing Dom Miguel to be a Carlist, sent two Spanish armies under Generals Rodil and Serrano to the help of Dom Pedro. Saldanha took Leiria and defeated the disheartened Miguelites at Torres Novas and Almoster ; Captain Napier having destroyed the usurper's fleet, took to the land, and reduced the Beira, capturing Caminha, Vianna, Ponte de Lima and Valenca ; General Sa de Bandeira conquered the Alemtejo ; and the Duke of Terceira overran the Tras-os-Montes, and won a victory at Asseiceira. Finally the combined Spanish and Portu- guese armies surrounded the remnant of the Miguelites at Evora Monte, and on the 26th of May, 1834, Dom Miguel surrendered. By the Convention of Evora Monte, Dom Miguel abandoned his claim to the throne of Portugal, and in consideration of a pension of ;£ 1 5,000 a year promised never again to set foot in the kingdom. Dom Pedro declared the young queen of age, and summoned a full Cortes to meet at Lisbon. He appointed a strong ministry with the Duke of Palmella as president, and the Duke of Terceira at 422 MODERN PORTUGAL. the War Office, and an attempt was made to re- arrange the finances and settle the kingdom. The Cortes declared Dom Miguel and his heirs for ever ineligible to succeed to the throne and forbade them to return to Portugal under pain of death, and struck a fatal blow at the influence of the Miguelites by abolishing all the orders of the friars, who had hither- to kept alive his party in the provinces. Dom Pedro, who had throughout the struggle been the heart and soul of his daughter's party, had thus the pleasure of seeing the country at peace, and a regular parliamen- tary system in operation, but he did not long survive, for on the 24th of September, 1834, he died at Queluz near Lisbon, of an illness brought on by his great labours and fatigues, leaving a name, which deserves all honour from Portuguese and Brazilians alike. Queen Maria da Gloria was only fifteen, when she thus lost the advantage of her father's wise counsel and steady help, yet it might have been expected that her reign would be calm and prosperous. But neither the queen, the nobility, nor the people, under- stood the principles of parliamentary government, and the army, accustomed to fight and unable to do any- thing else, was a constant source of danger. Members of different parties could not or would not believe that all true Portuguese alike loved Portugal ; the party in power proscribed and exiled its opponents, while the party in opposition invariably appealed to arms, instead of seeking to enforce its opinions by legitimate parliamentary means. In addition, the un- fortunate country was ravaged by numerous brigands, generally disbanded soldiers, who called themselves THE REIGN OF MARIA II. 423 Miguelites, and who invariably escaped into Spain, when attacked in force. Each successive government refused to recognize or to pay interest upon the loans raised by its predecessor, and the financial credit of Portugal soon fell to a very low ebb in the money markets of Europe. It is unprofitable and almost impossible to examine here the tendencies of the chief statesmen of the time, for new governments quickly succeeded each other, and it will be sufficient to notice only the most important " pronunciamentos " and appeals to arms. The whole reign was one of violent party struggles, for they hardly deserve to be called civil wars, so little did they involve, which present a striking contrast to the peaceable constitu- tional government that at present prevails. In her earlier years, Queen Maria da Gloria was chiefly under the influence of her stepmother, Amelia of Bavaria, and in January, 1835, she married the Queen Dowager's brother, Augustus Charles Eugene Napoleon, Duke of Leuchtenberg, second son of Eugene de Beauharnais by Princess Augusta of Bavaria, to the great chagrin of Louis Philippe of France, who had proposed his son, the Duke of Nemours. This prince died after two months' resi- dence in Portugal, but it was so necessary to have an heir to the throne, that the queen was pressed to marry again at once. She complied, and in January, 1836, she married Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, nephew of Leopold, King of the Belgians, and it was his nomination to the high office of commander- in-chief, which brought about the first appeal to arms. In September, 1836, Fernando Soares da Caldeira 424 MODERN PORTUGAL. headed a " pronunciamento " in Lisbon for the re- establishment of the Constitution of 1822, which was entirely successful, and resulted in the drawing up of a new constitution. This "pronunciamento" was followed by various other "pronunciamentos" and good deal of fighting, but eventually the new Constitution of 1838, which was really that of 1822 slightly modified, was generally adopted. It worked until 1842, when one of the radical ministers, Antonio Bermudo da Costa Cabral, suddenly declared for the Charter of 1826 at Oporto. The Duke of Terceira at once headed a "pronunciamento " in Lisbon in favour of the Charter, and came into office with Costa Cabral as home secretary, and virtual prime minister. Costa Cabral, who was in 1845 created Count of Thomar, made himself very acceptable to the queen, and by inter- preting the Charter in the most royalist sense, even attempted to check the liberty of the press. It was now the turn of the Septembrists to have recourse to arms, and after an attempt to place Saldanha in office, the opposition broke out into open insurrection under the Viscount Sa. de Bandeira, the Count of Bomfim and the Count das Antas. This new insurrection was followed by what is known as the war of Maria da Fonte or " Patuleia," which is even more pitiable than its predecessors. Foreign powers eventually inter- vened, and on the 29th of June, 1847, the Convention of Granada was signed, by which a general amnesty was declared, and Saldanha was maintained in power. In 1849 the Count of Thomar once more came into office, and in 185 1 he was again expelled by Saldanha at the head of his troops. This was the last " pro- PEACEFUL PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. 425 nunciamento" worthy of notice ; in 1852 the Charter was revised to suit all parties ; direct voting, one of the chief claims of the radicals, was allowed, and the era of civil war came to an end. Maria da Gloria did not long survive this peaceful settlement, for she died on the 15th of November, 1853, and her husband the King-Consort, Ferdinand II., assumed the regency until his eldest son Pedro V. should come of age. The era of peaceful parliamentary government, which succeeded the stormy reign of Maria II., has been one of material prosperity for Portugal ; agricul- ture and commerce revived, and a great literary and historical revival took place, marked by the names of Joao Baptista de Almeida-Garrett, Antonio Feliciano de Castilho, and Jose da Silva Mendes Leal, the poets, and of Alexandra Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, the Viscount de Santarem, and Luis Augusto Rebello da Silva, the historians. Men were not wanting in the first half of the nineteenth century to advocate the formation of an Iberian republic or kingdom, comprising the whole of the peninsula, but the revival of national pride in recall- ing the glorious past of Portuguese history, which has been the work of these great poets and historians, has breathed afresh the spirit of patriotism into a people which had been wearied out by perpetual " pronuncia- mentos " and absurd civil wars. The only political event of any importance during the reign of Pedro V., who came of age and assumed the government in 1855, and who in 1857 married the Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollern, was the affair of the Charles et Georges. This French ship was engaged 426 MODERN PORTUGAL. in what was undoubtedly the slave trade, though slightly disguised, off the coast of Africa in 1858, when it was seized by the Portuguese authorities of Mozambique, and, in accordance with the laws and treaties against the slave trade, the captain, Roussel, was condemned to two years' imprisonment. The Emperor Napoleon III., glad to have a chance of posing before the French people, and counting on his close alliance with England to prevent the interven- tion of the ancient ally of Portugal, instantly sent a large fleet to the Tagus under Admiral Lavaud, and demanded compensation, which, as England gave no hint of assistance, Portugal was obliged to pay. The whole country, and especially the city of Lisbon, was during this reign, on account of the neglect of all sanitary precautions, ravaged by cholera and yellow fever, and it was in the midst of one of these out- breaks, on the nth of November, 1861, that Pedro V., who had refused to leave his pestilence-stricken capital, died of cholera, and was followed to the grave by two of his younger brothers, Dom Ferdinand and Dom John. At the time of Pedro's death, his next brother and heir, Dom Luis, was travelling on the continent, and his father, Ferdinand II., who long survived Queen Maria da Gloria, and morganatically married Elise Hensler, a dancer, assumed the regency until his return, soon after which King Luis married Maria Pia, younger daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy. The new monarch followed his brother's policy, and allowed his ministers to fight out their battles in the chambers without any interference from himself. THE REIGN OF LUIS I. 427 During his reign, the old combatants of the stormy reign of Maria da Gloria, Palmella, Terceira, Sa de Bandeira, Thomar, and Saldanha, all died off, and with them their peculiar method of enforcing their political views. Their successors in the leadership of political parties, the Duke of Louie and the Marquis of Avila, Antonio Manoel Fontes Pereira de Mello and Antonio Jose Braamcamp, were men of greater administrative ability, who did not go to war when they were defeated in Parliament, and they therefore do not contribute any striking pages to the national history, though they have done much for the prosperity of the country. The last " pronunciamento," or rather attempt at a " pronunciamento/' of the last survivor of Maria da Gloria's turbulent statesmen, the Duke of Saldanha, in 1870, only proved how entirely the time for such movements had passed away. He conceived the idea that the Duke of Louie was too great a favourite at court, and so he one day came to the palace and after recalling to the king's mind a few historical examples, such as the fatal intimacy of Charles X. of France with the Due de Polignac, he threatened an appeal to arms unless the Duke of Louie was at once dismissed. King Luis, perceiving that the old man was in earnest and not wishing to have the peace of the country disturbed, humoured his fancy, and after keeping Saldanha himself in office for four months, despatched him as ambassador to London, where the old warrior died in 1876. With this trifling exception, the reign of King Luis was prosperous and peaceful, and the news of his death on October 9, 1889, was received with general regret. 428 MODERN PORTUGAL. Luis I. was succeeded on the throne by his elder son, Dom Carlos, or Charles I., a young man of twenty-six, who married in 1886, the Princess Marie Amelie de Bourbon, the eldest daughter of the Comte de Paris. His accession was immediately followed by the revolution of the 15th of November, 1889, in Brazil, by which his great uncle, Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, was dethroned and a republican government established in that country. This news created a profound impression in Portugal ; the repub- lican party, which has for some years been growing in strength in the cities of Lisbon and Oporto hailed it with delight, and the democratic journals urged that the example of Brazil should be followed. The young king's difficulties have been further increased by the disputes which have arisen with regard to Africa, and there is no concealing the fact that Charles I. will have to show the greatest political wisdom, if he is to weather the storms now besetting the position of Portugal, and to save the Portuguese monarchy. Many allusions have been made to the possessions of Portugal in Africa. It has been seen that certain places both on the east and west coasts of Africa, such as Angola and Mozambique, were originally occupied and fortified as resting-places for the Portu- guese fleets on the way to and from India, and that when they were re-taken after the Revolution of 1640, they were occupied only because they had formerly belonged to Portugal and not because of their intrinsic value. Of recent years, however, the value of these settlements has increased owing to the open- ing up of Africa to commerce. This is thoroughly THE AFRICAN QUESTION. 429 understood by the more intelligent of modern Portu- guese statesmen, and courageous Portuguese travellers, such as Serpa Pinto, Roberto Ivens, and Brito Capello, have taken their part in obtaining a more correct knowledge of the geography of Africa. But the opening up of Africa has attracted settlers and explorers of other nations to the " Dark Continent," who, if they have not denied the rights of Portugal, have certainly infringed them. The original Portu- guese settlements were merely ports at which ships might rest and refit ; and the points at issue now concern the amount of the territory adjoining those settlements or of the "hinterland" behind them towards the interior, which rightly belongs to Portugal. This question of boundaries is in the nature of things a difficult one to settle, and it is much to be regretted that the disputes which have arisen have chiefly been with England, the ancient ally of Portugal. The high spirit of the Portuguese people has been wounded by the tone of part of the English press, and their know- ledge of their own present weakness and of their past greatness has made them the more sensitive. Some of their agents in Africa have possibly acted in an arbitrary and high-handed manner, and Englishmen have not been slow to resent such treatment. Yet it is to be sincerely hoped that these differences between the two ancient allies may be peacefully settled, and it may be that some knowledge of how close the friendship of the two nations was for many centuries may make the English people feel more tolerantly inclined towards the claims of the Portuguese to con- sideration and respect. 43° MODERN PORTUGAL. Within recent years the internal prosperity of Portugal has increased ; railways and telegraphs have been constructed ; sanitary improvements have been introduced ; and a good system of national primary and secondary education has been established, owing mainly to the efforts of the poet, Antonio Feliciano de. Castilho. Its financial condition, however, may well give rise to the deepest apprehension ; the amount of its national debt is nearly as heavy in pro- portion to its population as that of England, and the repudiation of loans during the reign of Maria II. has made it difficult to raise money in the more wealthy countries of Europe. Even more serious danger to the prosperity of Portugal is threatened by the continued emigration to Brazil, to which country a large number of the sturdy peasants flock every year, chiefly from the northern provinces of the Tras-os-Montes and the Entre-Minho-e-Douro. This continuous stream of emigration, though prejudicial to Portugal, has been of the greatest service to Brazil, and Greater Portugal, as the mother country and her colony in South America may be termed, though politically divided, is more prosperous than ever. Even more striking than the advance of material prosperity has been the great literary revival, which has marked the era of peaceful parliamentary govern- ment. King Luis was an enlightened patron of letters, and translated some of the plays of Shake- speare into Portuguese in a manner which showed him to be well versed in the capabilities of his own language. In the country of Camoens there has been no lack of poets, though none of the modern writers MODERN LITERATURE. 431 would dare to class themselves with him. Foremost among these poets are Almeida-Garrett and Castilho, who alike sang the ancient glories of Portugal, but among their followers are many whose inspiration is hardly inferior to their own. Such men as Jose da Silva Mendes Leal, Luis Augusto Palmeirim, and Joao Soares de Passos, have written poems worthy to rank with the classics of Portuguese literature, and their muse has generally been fostered by a knowledge of ancient writers and of old national lyrical forms. Even more important than the poets are the historians of modern Portugal, for they are the men who have made the Portuguese so proud of their nationality that they still cling closely to their independence and oppose the advocates of " Iberianism. " The founder of the new school of scientific historians was Alex- andra Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, who, after imitating Sir Walter Scott in his historical novels, showed that he had been influenced by Niebuhr and Ranke in his famous history of Portugal, of which the first volume was published in 1848. He it was who first grasped the fact that history can only be rightly studied and correctly written after a careful and critical investigation of documents, and he manifested both energy and discernment in clearing away the cobweb of legend which had been spun about the early days of the nation. Herculano inspired his spirit into the new generation, and he has had many painstaking and able followers, among whom the ablest are Luis Augusto Rebello da Silva, Simiao Jose da Luz Soriano, and Jose Maria Latino Coelho. In general literature, the modern Portuguese are equally 432 MODERN PORTUGAL. distinguished, though their greatest strength lies in poetry and history, and it is worthy of notice, that literary fame is a sure passport to rapid advancement in political life. The high opinion held of literary endeavour is an evidence of the persistency of the national spirit, and as such may be welcomed as the brightest augury for the future development of the Portuguese nation. Few countries of Europe will repay attentive study better than Portugal ; no nation, except Spain, passed through such a trial as the reign of Maria da Gloria, and in no country have the advantages of representa- tive institutions been better realized ; socialism possesses there a reforming, not a revolutionary, force ; knowledge of the history of their nation, inspired by great writers, has made the modern Portuguese ambitious to revive the glories of the past, and has united men of all shades of opinion in a common patriotism. The Camoens celebration of 1880 showed that the Brazilians are still proud of their mother country, and that the Portuguese race on both sides of the Atlantic was ready to develop new energy and perseverance, and to prove its descent from the men who under Affonso Henriques conquered the Moors ; who under John I. and John IV. rejected the rule of the Spaniards ; who under Affonso de Alboquerque and Joao de Castro made their names famous from Arabia to Japan ; and who, by the labours of Prince Henry " the Navigator " and the voyage of Vasco da Gama, initiated a new era in the history of the world. INDEX. A. Abd-el-Melik, 248, 250, 253, 254 Abrantes, 57, 104, 392 Abrantes, Marquis of, 393 Abu Abdallah, Governor of Alca- cer do Sal, 72, 73 Abu-1- Hasan, defeated at the Salad o, 1 340, 92 Abyssinia, visits of Portuguese travellers to, 167 "Academia Real das Sciencias," 372, 396 Academy of History, 353 A'Court, Sir William ; see Heytes- bury, Lord Aden, 200, 214 Affonso Henriques, 24, 31, 34, 35, 37-58, 98 Affonso II., 70-74, 98 Affonso HI., 79, 80-83, 89, 98 Affonso IV., 86, 91-99 Affonso V., 130-35,138, 159, 160 Affonso VI., 324, 326-34 Affonso, son of Affonso III., 85, 86 Affonso, only son of John II., 163, 170 Affonso, Joao, bastard son of Diniz, 91 Affonso, Pedro, bastard son of Count Henry, 31 Affonso, Pedro, bastard son of Diniz, Count of Barcellos, 91 Africa, 144-56, 195, 343, 346, 428, 429 247, Agriculture, 87, 181, 368 Ahmed, Maula, 248, 249, 253-55 Alans, the, conquer Lusitania, 10 Alarcos, battle of, 63 Albergaria, Diogo Soares de, 169 Albergaria, Francisco Soares de, 309 Albergaria, Lopo Soares de, 203 Albert, Cardinal, 286, 290 Alboquerque, Affonso de, 169, . 185, i93» 197-201 Alboquerque, Francisco de, 193 Alboquerque, Joao de, 209 Alboquerque, Mathias de, 291 Alboquerque, Mathias de, 317 Alboquerque, Pedro de, 169 Alboquerque, Sancho, Count of, 101 Alcacer do Sal, 54, 62, 66, 72 Alcacer-Quibir, battle of (1578), 254 Alcanede granted to Knights of Calatrava, 66 Alcantara, battle of (1580), 283 Alcobaca, monastery of, 54, 69, 98, 99, 397 Alcobaca, Cortes of, 164, 165 Alemquer, 53, 104 Alemtejo, the, 55, 57, 66, 87, 181, 421 Alexander III., Pope, 57 Alexander VI., Pope, 163, 191 Alfarrobcira, battle of (1449), 133 Alfonso VI., 17, 18, 23 434 INDEX. Alfonso VII., 30, 35, 37-39, 54 Alfonso, VIII., 63, 71 Alfonso IX., 63, 64, 71 Alfonso X., 81 Alfonso XI., 92 Algarves, the, 43, 62, 76, 78, 80, 81, 181, 182 Alho, Affonso Martins, 94 Ali, Almoravide Caliph, 28 AliAdil Shah, King of Bijapur, 247 Aljubarrota, battle of, ii-i, 113 Aljustrel, taken by Knights of Santiago, 76 Almada, 53, 62, 66, 104, 312 Almada, Alvaro Vaz de, see Ar- ronches, Count of Almada, Antonio de, 308, 31 1 Almanza, battle of (1707), 351 Almeida taken by the Spaniards (1760), 363 Almeida, Francisco de, 195-97, 214 Almeida, Lourenco de, 175, 196 Almeida, Miguel de, 308, 309, 311 Almeida-Garrett, Joao Baptista, 425, 431 Almohades, the, 44, 55, 57, 62 ; see Ya'kub, Yusuf Almoravides, the, 17, 41 Almoster, battle of (1834), 421 Aorna, Joao de Almeida Portugal, Marquis of, 371, 374 Alorna, Pedro, Marquis of, 395 Alva, Duke of, 249, 281, 283 Alvares, Manoel, 276 Alvares, Mattheus, 287 Alvitiz, Pedro, 72 " Amadis of Gaul " romance, 126 Amarante, Francisco da Silveira, Count of, 415 Ameixial, battle of (1663), 331 Amelia of Bavaria, 418, 423 Anadia, Viscount of, 391 Andeiro, Joao Fernandes, see Ourem, Count of Andrade, Gomes Freire de, 395, 413 Andrade, Jacinto Freire de, 325 Andrew of London, 52 Andrew of Oxford, 93 Angeja, Marquis of, 372 Angola, 324, 346 Anne of Austria, 314, 315 Annes, Affonso, 109 Annes, Estevao, 80 Annes, Goncalo, 167 Annes, Martim, 75 Annes, Pedro, 73, 75 Annunciacao, Miguel de, 371 Antas, General das, 420, 424 Antonio, Prior of Crato, 281, 283-86 Aranjuez, Treaty of (1793), 386 Arcadia de Lisboa, 369, 372 Arguin, fort at, 154, 295 Armamar, Count of, 316 Arnold of Aerschot, 52 Arnold, Edmund, 1 18 Arrayolos, Count of, 130 Arronches, battle of (1801), 389 Arronches, Antonio Vaz de Al- mada, Count of, 132, 133 Arundel, Richard, Earl of, 93 Arundel, Thomas, Earl of, 1 18 Arzila, 133, 179, 249, 253, 285 Ash worth, Sir C, 405 Asseiceira, battle of (1834), 421 Asturians, the, 5 Ataulphus, Visigothic king, 11 Athaide, Catherina de, 270 Athaide, Luis de, Viceroy of India, 246-48, 257 Atoleiros, battle of (1384), no Augustus, Duke of Leuchtenberg, 423 Ayamonte, 78, 80 Ayamonte, Marquis of, 316, 317 Aymeric of Cahors, 89 Azambuja, Diogo de, 169 Azambuja, Jeronymo de, 276 Azamor in Morocco, 179 Azevedo, Antonio de Araujo de, 387, 388, 391, 396 Azores, the, 147, 285, 295, 419 Azurara, chronicler, 135, 379 B Badajoz, 56, 326, 375, 389 Bahadar Shah. King of Gujarat, 204, 205 Bainetti, Marquis de, 305 Baldaya, Affonso Goncalves, 147 INDEX. 435 Ballerais, Count of, 316 Bank of Portugal, 368 Bar, Count of, 62 Barbacena, Felisberto Caldeira Brant Pontes, Marquis of, 405, 418 Barbosa du Bocage, Manoel Maria, 379, 385 Barbosa Machado, Diogo, see Machado Barcellos, Joao Affonso Telles de Menezes, Count of, 104 Barcellos Duke of, 255 Bardez, Marathas defeated at, 374 Barreto, Antonio Moniz, 320 Barreto, Antonio Moniz, 247, 248 Barreto, Francisco, 246, 247, 271 Barros, Joao de, 185, 226, 274-76 Batalha, Convent, 1 13, 1 19 Batavia, 294, 342 Beatrice de Gusman, 81 Beatrice of Castile, 86, 98 Beatrice, daughter of Pedro I., 101 Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand and Leonor, 106, 107 Beatrice, daughter of the " Holy Constable," 125 Beatrice, daughter of Emmanuel, 178, 264 Beauvais, Bishop of, 62 Belatha, Emirate of, 43 Belem, palace at, 176 ; Convent at, 184, 204 ; Sebastian buried at, 256 Bellesta, Spanish general, 397 Benedict XIV., Pope, 360 Bengal, trade with, 205, 296, 343 Beresford, William Carr, Viscount, 400,402, 405-7, 412,413 Bermudo II., King of Gallicia, 13 Berwick, James, Duke of, 351 Bishoprics and bishops, 10, 26, 30, 67, 75, 79, 183 Black Death, the, 95 Blake, Admiral Robert, 323, 324 Bojador, Cape, 146, 147 Bombay ceded to England, 330, 346 Bomfim, Count of, 424 Bonaparte, Joseph, 401 Bonaparte, Lucien, 389 Braamcamp, Antonio Jose, 427 Bradford, Sir Edward, 405, 406 Braga, Archbishopric of, 26 Braga Cathedral, 32, 98 Braganza, the Dukes of, 303 Braganza, Affonso, Duke of, 125, 126, 131-33 Braganza, Alvaro de, 161 Braganza, Catherine, Duchess of, 278 Braganza, Constantino de, 212, 213, 246, 270 Braganza, Ferdinand, Duke of, 161, 162 Braganza, Jayme de, 255 Braganza, Joao, Duke of, 280, 284 Braganza, Theodosio, Duke of, 304 Brandao, Antonio, 301 Brazil, 175, 221-35, 2 43> 296-98, 318-20, 336, 337, 346-48, 369, 375-77, 392, 414, 419, 428, 430 Breyner, Pedro de Mello, 393, 396 Breze, Chevalier de, 315 Brito, Bernardo de, 7, 301 Brotero, Felix de Avellar, 380, 385 Bugio, castle of, 312 Burton, Sir Richard F., quoted, 90, 130, 242, 257 Busaco, battle of (1810), 402 Cabo Branco, 148 Cabral, Goncalo Velho, 147 Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 175, 192, 193, 221, 222 Cacello taken, 78, 80 Caceres taken by Affonso Henri - ques, 55, 56 Cadamosto, Luigi, 151, 152 Cadaval, Duke of, 336, 351 Cafim, abandoned by John III., 179 Calatrava, Order of, 66 Caldeira, Francisco Soares da, 423, 424 Calicut, 189, 193, 198 Calpurnius, C, 6 Cam, or Cao, Diogo, 156 43^ INDEX. Camara, Luis Goncalves da, Jesuit, 241, 242 Camara, Martini da, 241 Caminha, Andrade, 267 Caminha, Duke of, 315— 1 7 Camoens, Luis de, his life, 268-71 ; his " Lusiads," 271-74, 379 Camoens, " Lusiads" of, J, 45, 90, 97, 130, 189, 214 Camoens Celebration, 274, 432 Campbell, Sir Archibald, 405, 407 Campo, Don Luiz de, 311 Cannanore, 193, 196 Cannon, in, 113, 169 Cantabrians, the, 5 Cantanhede, Antonio Luis de Menezes, Count of, 327 Canton, Andrade at, 175, 215, 342 Cape Matapan, 352 Cape of Good Hope, 156, 343 Cape Saint Vincent, 420 Cape Verde, 150 Cape Verde Islands, 153, 346 Caraffa, Spanish general, 392 Cardenas, Don Didace de, 305 Carlotta joaquina, 373, 404, 411, 414 Carneiro, Pedro de Alcacova, 241, 245, 249 Carracena, Marquis of, 331 Carthaginians, the, 5, 6 Carvalho, Antonio Coelho de, 314 Carvalho, Lourenco Peres de, 3 l6 Carvalho e Mello, Sebastiao Jose de, see Pombal, Marquis of Castanheda, Fernao Lopes de, 185 Castel Melhor, Luis de Sousa e Vasconcellos, Count of, 331-33 Castilho, Antonio Feliciano de, 425, 430, 431 Castlereagh, Lord, 407, 408 Castro Alvaro Peres de, 95 Castro, Antonio Jose de, 397 Castro, Fernando de, 305, 306 Castro, Ines de, 95-98 Castro, Joao de, 206, 210-12 Castro, Joaquim Machado de, 368, 380 Castro, Pedro Fernandes de, 93, 95 Catherine, daughter of King Edward, 1 ^4, 164 Catherine of Austria, 178, 240 Catherine of Braganza, 323, 329, 330, 336, 340 Catheiine de' Medici, 278, 285 Cave-dwellers in Portugal, 4, 5 Cavida, Antonio de, 334 Celestine III., Pope, 63, 64 Celorico, built by Sancho I. , 69 Cerneja, battle of (1137), 38 Ceuta, 123, 333 .Ceylon, 184, 203, 292, 342 Cezimbra, palace at, 119 Chancellors of Portugal, 88 Charles I., King of Portugal, 428 Charles I., of England, 314 Charles II., of England, 329, 330 Charles V., Emperor, 178, 179 Charles, Archduke, 338, 340, 351 Charles VIII., of France, 165 Charles III., Duke of Savoy, 178 " Charles-et-Georges," the, 425, 426 Chariot, General, 397 Charter of 1826,417, 421, 424,425 Chastenau, Comte de, 337 Chaul, battle of (1508), 196 Chimnaji Apa takes Bassein, 373 China, 175, 215, 216, 342 Chin Chee, factory at, 215 Christ, Order of, 86, 124, 183 Christianity introduced, 10, 12 Chronica do Conquista do A I gar - ves, 127 Chroniclers, the early, 126, 127, 379 Cintra, 53, 104, 119, 334, 400 Ciudad Rodrigo, 56, 331, 341 Clement XIV., Pope, 364 Cleynaerts, quoted, 236 Clinton, Col. Henry, 390 Cochin, 193, 195, 196, 198, 204, 294, 342 Cochin China, 175, 214 Coelho, Duarte, 175, 214 Coelho da Silva, Francisco, 385 Coelho, Jose Maria Latino, 431 INDEX. 437 Coimbra, 15, 18, 24, 28, 58, 74, 83, 87, 97, 105, in, 119, 406 Coimbra, bishops of, see Annun- ciacao, Aymeric, Tiburcio Coimbra, University of, see Uni- versity Coligny, Admiral, 234 Colombo, factory, 203 Columbus, Christopher, 169 Commerce, Treaties of, 86, 94, 165. 337-40, 372 Congo, the, 151 Congreve, "V\ illiam, quoted, 216 Constance, daughter of Diniz, 86 Constance, wife of Pedro, 92, 95 Constituent Assembly of 1820, 4I3> 414 Constitution of 1822, 414, 424 Conti, valet of Affonso VI., 330, 331 Conventions, 400, 421, 424 Correa, Antonio, 309, 316 Correa da Silva, Antonio, 380 Correa da Serra, Jose, 379, 385 Correia, Paio Peres, 76 Corte-Real, Diogo de Mendonca, Count of, 352 Corte-Real, Gaspar, 175 Corte-Real, Jeronymo, 267, 301 Cortes, 45, 71, 81, 83, 106, in, 128, 130, 160, 164, 165, 257, 280, 283, 312, 417, Costa Cabral, Antonio Bermudo da, see Thomar, Count of Costa, Duarte da, 233 Costa, Joao da, 262 Courts of Love, 89, 91 Coutinho, Francisco, see Redondo, Count of Coutinho, Gaston, 308, 311 Coutinho, Luis Pinto de Sousa, 386 Coutinho, Manoel de Sousa, 291 Coutinho, Ruy Pereira, 175 Couto, Diogo do, 185, 301 Covada Piedade, battle of, 421 Covilham, Joao Peres de, 167 Cromwell, Oliver, 323 Crusaders, 48, 52, 60, 62, 72 Crusadoes, struck by Affonso V., 133 Cruz e 378 Cueva, Cunha, Cunha, Cunha, Cunha 393 Cunh 104 Cunha, Cunha, Cunha, Cunha, Cunha, Silva, Antonio Diniz da, Fernando de la, 313 Ayres da, 226 Cardinal da, 354 Estevao da, 308, 309 e Menezes, Francisco da, a, Joao Lourenco da, 101, Luis da, 308 Luis da, 359 Nuno da, 204, 205 Rodrigo da, 308, 311 Tristao da, 175, 196, 197 D Da Cunha, Da Silva, &c, see Cunha, Silva, &c. Dabhol, sacked by Almeida, 197 Daman, taken by Constantino de Braganza, 213, 270 Das Antas, Das Regras, &c, see Antas, Regras, &c. De Castro, De Noronha, &c, see Castro, Noronha, &c. Denifle, II, " Universitiiten des Mittelalters," 260 Diamonds discovered in Brazil, 377 Diamper (Udayampura), Synod of, 292 Dias, Bartholomeu, 156 Dickson, Sir Alexander, 405 Diniz, King of Portugal, 81, S3, 85-91, 98, 260 Diniz, son of Pedro I. and Ines de Castro, 103, 114, 118 Diogo, Duke of Viseu, 162 Diu, Island of, 197, 204, 205, 211, 212, 334 Domingues, Rodrigo, 93 Domingues, Vasco, 104 Drake, Sir Francis, 285, 290 Dulce of Aragon, queen of San- cho L, 57, 98 Duperron de Castera, 379 D'Urban, Sir Benjamin, 402 Dutch, the, 290, 291, 294-98, 314, 3i5> 3 l8 > 320, 341-43, 346 438 INDEX. E Eannes, Gil, doubles Cape Boja- dor, 147 Earthquake of Lisbon, 357, 358 Eben, Baron, 401 Education, National system of, 430 Edward, King of Portugal, 122, 124, 126-29 Edward I., of England, 86 Edward II., of England, 85 Edward III., of England, 93, 94, 104 Edward IV., of England, 134, 164 Edward, the Black Prince, 94 Edward, Duke of Guimaraens, 178, 278 Egas, Joao, Archbishop of Braga, 79 Elizabeth, Queen of England, 285, 295 Elmina, fort built at, 156 Elvas, 75, 312, 327, 360, 389 Emeralds found in Brazil, 377 Emmanuel, King of Portugal, 170-78, 188, 191, 215 England, 52, 62, 72, 86, 93-95, 106, in, 113, 1 16-18, 164, 165, 290, 295, 296, 329, 330, 336, 337-40, 343, 352, 363, 380, 381, 387, 388, 399-405> 414, 417, 421, 429 Epic, first Portuguese, 93 Equator, the, crossed, 154 Era, changed from Augustan to Christian, 121 Espinosa, Gabriel, 288 Euric, Visigothic king, 11 Evora, Pedro de, 167 Evora, 10, 55, 57, 66, 128, 135, 160, 302, 331 Evora Monte, surrender of, 421 Faria e Sousa, Manoel, 185, 301 Farinha, Affonso Peres, 76 Faro, Affonso, Count of, 161 Ferdinand, King of Portugal, 99- 107 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 423, 425, 426 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, 134, 135, 163, 171 Ferdinand VI., of Spain, 352 Ferdinand I., of Leon, 14, 15 Ferdinand II., of Leon, 54-56 Ferdinand IV., of Castile, 86 Ferdinand, son of Sancho I., 70, 74 Ferdinand, son of Affonso II., 76, 78, 79 Ferdinand, son of John I., the " Constant Prince," 122, 125, 129, 130 Ferdinand, son of Edward, 153, 161 Ferdinand, son of Emmanuel, Duke of Guarda, 178 Ferdinand, son of Maria II., 426 Fernandes, Joao, 151 Fernandes, Martim, 73 Ferrario, Francisco, 276 Ferreira, Antonio, 266, 267 Feudalism in Portugal, 87, 88, 120, 121, 160, 413 " Fidelissimus," title conferred on kings of Portugal, 353 Fielding, Henry, 381 " Filintists," the, 379 FlordaRosa, battle of (1801), 389 Fonseca, Agostino Luis da, 405, 407 Fontaine, Pierre Louis, 385 Fontainebleau, Treaty of (1807), 392 Forbes-Skelater, Joao, 386 Francis Xavier, St., 209, 212, 295 . Frederick III., Emperor, 134 Freemasons, 385, 393 Freire, Antonio de Andrade, 371 French, the, in Brazil, 233-35 French Revolution, 382, 383, 385, 414 Friars, Orders of, 74, 208, 417, 422 Funchal, in Madeira, 144 Galle in Ceylon, 330 Gallicia, 15, 25, 37-39, 56 Gallicians, mentioned by Strabo, INDEX. 439 Galveras, Count das, 340 Galway, Henri de Ruvigny, Lord, 340, 341, 351 Gama, Antonio de Saldanha da, see Porto Santo, Count of Gama, Estevao da, 205, 206 Gama, Vasco da, 175, 188, 189, I9I-93* 203, 204 Gaunt, John of, see Lancaster, Duke of Gazeta de Lisboa, 325 Gelmires, Diogo, 28-30 George IV. of England receives Maria II., 418 Goa, 183, 198, 201, 203, 208, 209, 246, 247, 292, 294, 317, 342, 343, 374, 375, 390 Godoy, Prince of the Peace, 386, 387, 392 Goes, Damiao de, 274 Gold, discovery of, in Brazil, 336, 337, 347, 348, 376 Gomes, Diogo, 153 Gomes, Fernan, 154 Gomes, Sueiro, 72, 74, 78 Gomes, Violante, 281 Goncalves, Alvaro, 97, 98 Goncalves, Antonio, 148, 151 Goncalves, Lopo, 154 Gonzales, Sebastiao, 218 Gonzales, Sebastiao, 286, 287 Goths, the, 10, 11 Govea, Andrea, 261, 262 Govea, Antonio, 261 Govea, Martial, 261 Graa, Ruy de, 169 Granada, Convention of, 424 Greek colonies in Portugal, 5 Gregoiy IX. , Pope, 76 Gregory XL, Pope, 101 Gregory XIII. , Pope, 249, 278 Guimaraens, 5, 24, 31, 133, 304 Guinea, discovered by Diniz Dia-, 150 Gusmao, Bartholomeu de, 379, 380 Guy of Boulogne, Cardinal, 103 Guy of Vico, Cardinal, 39 Gylfels, Dutch Admiral, 315 H Hamilton, Captain, quoted, 374 Hamilton, Sir John, 407 Haro, Don Luiz de, 327 Hawker, Sir Richard, 405 Henry of Burgundy, 18, 20, 21, 20-24, 98 Henry, Cardinal, King of Portu- gal, 183, 240, 241, 257 Henry IV., of England, 118 Henry V., of England, 118 Henry V1L, of England, 165 Henry I., of Castile, 70 Henry II., of Castile, 101, 103, 106 Henry III., of Castile, 113 Henry IV., of Castile, 134 Henry, Prince, " the Navigator," 122, 124, 125, 131, 132, 140-53 Hensler, Elise, 426 Hentzel, squire of John of Gaunt, in Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo, Alexandre, 102, 425, 431 Herman, M., 396 Heytesbury,W.A'Court, Lord ,415 Historians of Portugal, 126, 127, 274, 275, 301, 369, 372, 379, 425, 431, 432 Holland, Earl of, 72 Honorius III., Pope, 73, 75 Hoseyn, Emir, 197 Hospital, Knights of St. John, of the, 32, 66, 76, 80 Houtman, Cornelius, 291 Hugh of Cluny, 23, 28 Hunter, Sir W. W., quoted, 190, 201, 291, 294 I Iberianism, 2, 415, 421 Ilheos in Brazil, 229 India, 143, 167, 175, 189, 190, 192-213, 245-48, 291-96, 342, 343, 373-7S Innocent II., Pope, 39, 40 Innocent III., Pope, 67, 69, 71 Innocent IV., Pope, 79 Inquiracaoes-geraes. 73, 160 Inquisition, 183, 231, 246, 291, 294, 343, 354, 3£>7, 413 Interdicts, 69, 7^, 78, 81 Isabel, St., 86, 91, 92 440 INDEX. Isabel, daughter of John I., 125, 134 Isabel, queen of Affonso V., 132, 134 Isabel, daughter of Emmanuel, 178 Isabel Maria, daughter of John VI., 416 Isabella, Queen of Castile, see Ferdinand and Isabella Isabella, eldest daughter of Fer- dinand and Isabella, 163, 171, 174 J Jaffnapatam, taken by Dutch, 342 Jant, Chevalier de, 323, 329 Jayme, son of Duke of Coimbra, 133 Jesuits, 183, 209, 230, 231, 343, 347. 359-6i, 364 Jews, Portuguese, 171, 172, 173 Joanna, Lady of Flanders, 70 Joanna, daughter of King Ed- ward, 135 Joanna, queen of Affonso V., 134 Joanna, daughter of Affonso V., 165 Joanna, daughter of Charles V., 179, 240 John I., King of Portugal, 97, 103, 105-7, 109-11, 113-27, 133, 261 John II., King of Portugal, 156, 158-70 John III., King of Portugal, 174- 84, 261, 263 John IV., King of Portugal, 304- 6, 312-17, 321, 323, 324 John V., King of Portugal, 350- 54 John VI., King of Portugal, 373— 89. 392, 393' 408, 410, 411, 414-16 John XXL, Pope, 83 John XXII. , Pope, 86 John L, of Castile, 106, 107, no, in, 113 John, son of Pedro L, 103-5 John, Duke of Beja, 122, 125 Tohn, son of John III., 179, 184 John, son of Maria II., 426 John of Abbeville, Cardinal, 75, 76 Joseph, King of Portugal, 354-70 Joseph, bastard son of John V., 371 Joseph, son of Maria I. and Pedro III., 373 Juliao, Chancellor, 67,71 Junot, General, 391, 392, 393, 395-97, 400 Juromenha, 66, 389 Justice, administration of, 88, 121, 160, 367 K Kandy, conquest of king of, 292 Kersaint, French deputy, 385 Knights, military religious Orders of, 32, 48, 66, 76 Labrador discovered, 175 La Clue, French admiral, 358 Lafoes, Joao de Braganza, Duke of, 371, 372, 385 Laharpe translates " Camoens," 379 Lamego, 8, 15, 45 Lancarote, his slaving voyages, 149 Lancaster, Henry, Earl of, 93 Lancaster, John of Gaunt, Duke of, 103, 113 Lane-Poole, S., quoted, n, 172 Language, the Portuguese, 2, 8, 89, 121, 265 Law, Portuguese, 10, 88, 121, 124 Leca granted to Knights of Hos- pital, 32 Le Cor, Carlos Frederico, 392, 405,407,411 Leiria, 10, 43, 46, 81, 87, 106, 183, 368, 421 Lemos, Damiao Antonio de, 369 Leonor Telles de Menezes, Queen, 101, 103-5, io 7> IIQ Leonor, daughter of Affonso IV., 94 Leonor, daughter of Edward, 134 Leonora of Aragon, 124, 130, 131 Leonora of Castile, 101, 102 INDEX. 44I Lhuillier, member of Regency, 396 Lima, Luis de, 255 Limia, taken by Affonso Hen- riques, 37, 56 Linhares, built by Sancho L, 69 Lippe-Buckeburg, Count of, 363, 364, 3 6 7 Lisbon, 5, 8, 12, 17, 18, 51, 52, 64, 87, 95, 102, 103, 109, no, 119, 120, 182, 236, 237, 257, 260, 261, 286, 290, 302,308-12, 333, 338, 353, 355. 357, 35^, 368, 372, 380, 381, 393, 413, 421, 426, 427 Literature, 89, 90, 126, 127, 135, 137, 169, 259-77, 301, 325, 369, 377-79, 425, 430-32 Lobeira, Vasco de, 126 Lodeiro, granted to Knights of Sepulchre, 32 Loison, General, 397 London, crusaders from, 62, 94 Lopes, Fernan, chronicler, 127, 379 Lopes, Martim, 167 Louis XL, of France, 135, 159 Louis XIV., of France, 329, 332 Louie, Marquis of, 415 Lourenco, Archbishop of Braga, no, 121 Lourenco, Theresa, 97 Luis L, King of Portugal, 426, 427, 430 Luis, son of Emmanuel, Duke of Beja, 178, 179, 211, 281 Luisa de Guzman, Queen of John IV., 304, 305, 326-31 Lusitania, not Portugal, 6-8 Lusitanians, 5-7 Luz Soriano, Simiao Jose da, his- torian, 431 M Macao, 215, 270, 317, 342, 369, 375 Macassar, 343 Machado, Diogo Barbosa, 369 Machado de Castro, Joaquim, see Castro Machico, Province of Madeira, 144 Machin, Robert, 144-46 Madden, Sir Samuel, 405 Madeira, 144-46, 390, 399 Madrid, 341 ; treaty of, 351, 352 Mafra, 53, 353, 397 Magalhaes, Fernao de, 175, 180, 199, 214 Magalhaes, Pedro Jacques de, 331 Magellan, see Magalhaes Magro, Gonealo Peres, 80 Major, R. FL, quoted, 141, 149 Malacca, 175, 199, 214, 247, 248, 294, 3 T 7, 342 Malagrida, Gabriel, 361, 364 Maldive Islands, 175, 196 Mangalore, 246 Manique, Diogo Ignacio de Pina, 172, 382, 385, 390 Manufactures, Pembal and, 368 Marathas, the, 343, 373, 374 Margaret of France, 244 Margaret of Savoy, 305, 306, 309 Maria L, Queen of Portugal, 370- 73, 393, 4o8 Maria II., Queen of Portugal, 417, 418, 421-25 Maria, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, 174 Maria, daughter of Affonso IV., 92 Maria, daughter of John III., 179 Maria Amelia, queen of Carlos L, 428 Maria Barbara, daughter of John v., 352 Maria Benedicta, 373 Maria Francisca, marries Affonso VI. , 332; and Pedro II., 333, 334 Maria Josepha, marries Pedro IV., 412 Maria Pia, queen of Luis I., 426 Maria Sophia, queen of Pedro II., 336 Marialva, Marquis of, 331 Marialva, Marquis of, 412 Marianna, queen of John V., 351 Marianna Vittoria, queen of Joseph, 352, 370 Martinho, commander of Palmella, 72 Martinho, Archbishop of Lisbon, 109 442 INDEX. Martins, Lourenco, 109 Mascarenhas, Francisco de, 291 Mascarenhas, Joao de, 21 1 Mascarenhas, Joao de, see Cadaval, Duke of Mascarenhas, Martinho de, 37 1 Mascarenhas, Pedro de, 175 Mascarenhas, Pedro de, 212 Mascarenhas, Pedro de, 308 Massena, Marshal, 404-6 Matapan, Cape, battle off, 352 Matilda of Savoy, 41 Matilda, daughter of Affonso Henriques, 54 Matilda, daughter of Sancho I., 70 Maurice of Nassau, 298, 318, 319 Maurice, Bishop of Coimbra, 21, 28 Mauritius, 175, 346 Mayne, Colonel, 399 Mazagon, 240 Mazarin, Cardinal, 321, 323, 329 Medina Sidonia, Duke of, 304 Melinda, 189, 213 Mello, Affonso de, 312 Mello de Menezes, Antonio, 308, 309 Mello e Castro, Diniz de, 34 Mello, Francisco de, 314, 329 Melllo, Jorge de, 308, 309, 312 Mello, e Castro, Martinho, 367, 368, 372, 388 Mello, Vasco Martins de, 105 Mencia, queen of Sancho II., 78, 80 Mendes, Antonio, 262 Mendes, Goncalo, "j^, 74 Mendes, Nuno, 15 Mendes, Paio, 30, 31 Mendes, Sueiro, 17, 30, 31 Mendes Leal, Jose da Silva, 425, 431 Mendonca, Antonio Lopes de, 180 Mendonca, Diogo de, 297 Mendonca, Diogo de, see Corte Real, Count of Mendon9a, Joao de, 246 Mendon9a, Lopo Furtado de ; see Rio Grande, Count of Mendonca Furtado, Pedro de, 308, 311 Mendonca, Pedro Francisco de, 334 Menezes, Alexis de, 242, 245 Menezes, Alexis de, 292 Menezes, Diogo de, 248 Menezes, Duarte de, 203, 209 Menezes, Duarte de, 255 Menezes, Duarte de, 291 Menezes, Emmanuel de, 297 Menezes, Fernando de, 270 Menezes, Garcia de, 6 Menezes, Henrique de, 204 Menezes, Joao de, 169 Mertola, taken (1239), 78 Methuen, Right Hon. John, 337 Methuen Treaty, 337-40, 368 Metternich, Prince, 412 Meudon, Chateau of, 418 Mickle, William James, 379 Miguel, King of Portugal, 411, 412, 414-21 Miguel, son of Emmanuel, 174 Miller, Colonel John, 405 Minas, Marquis das, 340, 341 Miranda, bishopric of, 183 Missionaries, their work in India, 208, 209, 292, 343 Mohammed III. of Gujarat, 205, 211, 212 Mohammed En-Nasir, 71 Mohammedans, n-13, 40-58, 60- 63, 78, 80 Molingen, Baron of, 317 Moluccas, the, 175, 214, 294 Mombassa, 189, 195, 213 Moniz, Egas, tutor of Affonso Henriques, 31, 35, 36 Moniz, Emigio, 31 Montaigne, Michel de, quoted, 261 Monte Mor, Joao de Braganza, Marquis of, 161 Montevideo taken (1817), 411 Montes Claros, battle of (1665), 33 1 Montijo, battle of (1642), 317 Moplas, the, 190, 193 Moradias, 180 Morales, Juan, 146 Morocco, 122, 123, 129, 133, 179, 211, 248, 252-55, 346 Mortmain, laws of, 71, 73, 88 Moura, 76 Moura, Christovao de, 280 Mousinho, Manoel de Brito, 402 INDEX. 443 Mowbray, Thomas, 1 1 1 Mozambique, 189, 213, 247, 337, 343> 428 Munden, Captain Anthony, 346 Municipal Institutions, 10, 12, 22, 65, 87, 120 Muscat taken (1554), 270 N. Nanfran, Richard, 165 Napier, Sir Charles, 420, 421 Napoleon I., 388-92 Napoleon III., 426 Nascimento, Francisco Manoel de, 379. 385 Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 71 Navy, the Portuguese, 88, 121, 290, 353. 354, 3£>7 Neiva, Gon9alo Telles, Count of, 104 Nestorian Christians in India, 209, 292, 294 Neutim, 374 Nicholas IV., Pope, 87 Niza, Marquis of, 386 Noel, Pierre, 385 Noronha, Affonso de, 212, 214 Noronha, Antonio de, 246, 247 Noronha, Carlos de, 308, 309 Noronha, Diogo de, 386, ^7 Noronha, Francisco Xavier de, 393 Noronha, Garcia de, 205 Noronha, Pedro de, 169 Noronha Sebastiao de Mattos de, 306, 309,311. 315-17 Noronha, Theresa de, 355 Norris, Sir John, 285 Northberry, John, in Nova Castella, Joao de, 175 Nova Zembla discovered, 167 " Novaes Christians," 173, 182, 228, 316, 365 Nunes, Gomes, 38 Nunes do Prado, Joao, 91 Nunes, Pedro, 262, 277 Nunes Sancho, 31 Obidos, 104 Odivelas, Convent of, 98 Oeyras, Count of, see Fombal, Marquis of Olhao, Marquis of, 393 Olivares, Count-Duke of, 298, 299, 307, 3I3» 3i6 Olivenca, 389, 408 Omar, Emir, 44-46 Opera-house at Lisbon, 370 Oporto, 8, 12, 13, 64, 113, 133, 338, 397. 401, 4*3, 419, 420 Oporto, bishops of, see Castro, Hugh, Rodrigues, Salvadores Oporto Wine Company, 368 Orense, 28, 30 Oriolla, Jeronymo Lobo da Sil- veira, Count of, 408 Ormuz, 197, 214, 296 Osorio, Jeronymo, Bishop of Silves, 262 ♦ Ossuna, Duke of, 331 Ourem, Joao Fernando Andeiro, Count of, 104-6, 109 Ourique, battle of, 44-46 Oxenstiern, Chancellor of Sweden, 314 Pacheco, Diogo Lopes de, 97, 98 Pacheco, Duarte, 195 Pack, Sir Denis, 405, 406 Pacos de Penalva, granted to knights of Sepulchre, 32 Paes, Gualdim, 62 Palmeirim, General, 405 Palmeirim, Luis Augusto, 431 Palmella, 53, 62 Palmella, Pedro de Sousa Hol- stein, Duke of, 404, 408, 415, 417-19, 421 Panjim, 198, 374, 375 Paraguay, 175 Paraiba, Captainship of, 298 Passos, Joao Soares de, 431 Patuleia, war of, 424 Paulist Republic, the, 376 Paullus, L. zEmilius, 6 Payva, Affonso de, 167 Pedro I., 92, 95, 98, 99 Pedro II., 332-41 Pedro III., 370-73 Pedro IV.,41 1, 414,416,417,419-22 444 INDEX. Pedro V., 425, 426 Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, 419, 428 Pedro IV., King of Aragon, 94 Pedro, son of Sancho I., 70, 76, 78, 80 Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, 122, 124, 126, 130-33 Pedro Hispano elected Pope, 83 Pekin, Andrade at, 175, 215 Penafiel, Count of. 413 Peninsular War, the, 399-407 Pennamacor, Count of, 165 Pepper trade, 193, 342 Pereira de Mello, Antonio Manoel Fontes, 427 Pereira, Christovao de Brito, 331, 332 Pereira, Nuno Alvares, "the Holy Constable," 107, 109, no, in, 125, 126 Peres, Abril, 75 Peres, David, 370, 380 Peres, Rodrigo, 38 Peres de Trava, see Trava Perestrello, Bartholomeu, 144, 147 Perignon, Marshal, 387 Pernambuco, in Brazil, 229, 295, 298, 320 Persian trade, 214, 296 Pessanha, Lancarote, 109 Pessanha, Manoel, 88, 93, 145 Philip II., of Spain, 179, 248, 280, 283, 290, 298 Philip III., of Spain, 299 Philip IV., of Spain, 304, 313 Philip V., of Spain, 337, 340 Philip "the Good," 125 Philip of Flanders, 58 Philippa daughter of John of Gaunt, queen of John I., 1 13-15, 123 Pieterzoon, L. S., 379 Pina, Ruy de, 169, 379 Pina Manique, Diogo Ignacio de, see Manique Pinheiro, Antonio de, 280 Pinhel, 104 Pinto, Fernao Mendes, 216, 217 Pinto, Serpa, 429 Pires, Ines, 118, 125 Pisano, Matthew de, 6, 7, 127 Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 362 Pizarro, Quevedo, 419 Placencia, 341 Plate. River, 175 Po, Fernando, 154 Poetry and poets, 89, 90, 126, 263, 264-74, 3oi . 378, 379> 430, 43i Pombal, Sebastiao Jose de Car- valho e Mello, Marquis of, 355, 357, 358, 360-71 Ponani, 196 Ponte de Lima, 421 Ponte de Lima, Thomas Xavier de Lima Brito, Marquis of, 372 Ponte Delgada, Leonor da Ca- mara, Marchioness of, 418 Porches, 80 Porto, see Oporto Porto Alegre, bishopric of, 183 Porto Carrero, Cardinal, 337 Porto de Moz, 53 Porto Santo, island of, 144 Porto Santo, Antonio de Saldanha da Gama, Count of, 408 Porto Seguro, 222, 229 Portuguese Legion, the, 395 Povoa, General da, 405 Praia Bay, battle of (1830), 419 Prehistoric monuments, 4, 5 Prose, its commencement, 126, 127 Puebla, Marquis de la, 305, 311 Quebedo, Vasco Mousinho de, 301 Quesnel, French general, 397 Quiloa, South-east Africa, 195 Quilon, India, 196 R Ramires, Mem, 49 Rarim, 374 Ratton, Jacome, 385 Raymond of Toulouse, 18, 21, 23 Raymond Berenger of Aragon, 54 Rebello da Silva, Luis Augusto, 425, 431 INDEX. 445 Recife, island of, 298, 320 Red Sea, the, 200, 204, 205, 270 Redondo, Francisco Coutinho, Count of, 184, 246, 270 Regency of 1807, the, 393, 400, 401, 404, 407, 412, 413 Regency of 1808, 396 Regras, Joao das, 109, in, 121 Republican party, 428 Resende, Andrea de, 7, 262, 277 Resende, Count of, 413 Resende, Sebastiao de, 256 Reunion, island of, 175 Ribeiro, Bernardim, 263, 264, 276 Ribeiro, Joao Pinto, 305, 306, 308, 309, 325 Ribeiros, Bernardim, 405 Richard II., of England, 106, 113, 118 Richard III., of England, 165 Richard of Saham, 93, 94 Richelieu, Cardinal, 302, 314, 315 Rio de Janeiro, 351 Rio d'Ouro, 147 Rio Grande, 298 Rio Grande, Count of, 352 Rodil, General, 421 Rodrigues, Martinho, 69, 76 Rolica, battle of (1808), 399 Romans, the, 6-8, 10 Romances, 126 Rooke, Admiral Sir George, 337, 340 Rosslyn, General Earl of, 391 Roussel, Captain, 426 Rubies in Brazil, 377 Rupert, Prince, 323 Sa. e Mello, Ayres de, 372 Sa, Emmanuel de, 234 Sa, Emmanuel de, 308 Sa de Menezes, Francisco de, 301, ,325 Sa de Miranda, Francisco de, 264- 66 Sa, Garcia de, 212 Sa, Pantaleone de, 323 Sa, Rodrigo de, 308, 309, 323 Sa e Benevides, Salvador Correa de, 324, 343, 346 Sa de Bandeira, Viscount, 421, 424 Saccavem, 104 Sadashivgarh, 374 Sagre, Prince Henry at, 125, 140, 141 St. Antonio, Castle of, 312 St. Benedict of Aviz, Order of, 66, 80, 103, 125, 170, 183 St. Caetano, Ignacio de, 372 St. George, Citadel of, 311, 395 St. Helena, 175, 346 St. Ildefonso, Treaty of (1796), 387 St. Julian, Castle of, 313 St. Lourenco, Joao Amberto de Noronha, Count of, 371 St. Lourenco, Count of, 420 St. Mamede, battle of, 31 St. Michael in the Azores, 147 St. Paio de Gouvea, 32 St. Paul in Brazil, 376 St. Pe, Chevalier de, 302 St. Salvador, 230, 297, 298 St. Thome, 343 St. Vincent, Cape, battle off, 420 St. Vincent, Earl of, 391 Salado, The, battle of, 93 Saldanha, Antonio de, 193 Saldanha, Antonio de, 308, 311 Saldanha, Cardinal de, 60 Saldanha, Joao Carlos de Sal- danha de Oliveira e Daun, Duke of, 418, 420, 421, 424, 427 Salic law, the, rejected, 106 Salvaterra, Sj, 107 Sampaio, Lopo Vaz de, Governor- General of India, 204 Sampaio, Count of, 396, 413, 418 San Caetano, San Lourenco, &c, see St. Caetano, &c. Sancha, daughter of Sancho I., 74 Sanches, Affonso, 91, 92 Sancho I., 56-58, 60-70 Sancho II., 74-80 Sandwich, Earl of, 330, 333 Santarem, 17, 18, 49, 57, 58, 60, 62, $7, 393 446 INDEX. Santarem, Joao de, 1 54 Santarem, Viscount of, 215, 425 Santiago, Knights of, 76, 87, 125, 170, 183 Sarria, Marquis of, 363 Sartorius, Admiral Sir George Robert, 419, 420 Savage, Thomas, 165 Scabra, Jose de, 396 Schomberg, Frederick, Count, 327, 331 Sebastian, King, 184, 238, 240-45, 249, 251-56 Sebastianistas, the, 256, 257 Sebastians, the false, 286-90 Seia, Castle of, 37 Senegal, River, 150 Sepulchre, Knights of the, 32, 66 Sequeira, Diogo Lopes de, 175, 199, 203 Sequeira, Domingos Antonio de, 3 8 0< Sequeira, Luis de, 292 Serpa, 76, 299 Serra, Jose Correa da, 379, 385 Serrao, Francisco, 175, 199, 214 Serrano, General, 421 Sesnando, Count of Coimbra, 15, 17 Seyr, 18, 24 Shah Jehan, takes Hugh", 296 Ship-building, 143, 144, 169 Siam, 175, 214 Sieges, 24, 28, 29, 37, 49, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 72, 75, 103, no, 123, 129, 205, 211, 247, 320, .326, 373, 374.419, 420, 421 Silkworms, 368 Silva, Antonio Correa da, 380 Silva, Antonio Telles da, 319, 320 Silva, Diogo da, 183 Silva, Estevao Soares da, 73, 75 Silva, Francisco Coelho da, 385 Silva, Luca de Scabra da, 391 Silva, Luis Augusto Rebelio da, 425, 431 Silveira, Antonio de, 205 Silveira, Antonio de, 401, 405, 413 Silveira, Francisco de, see Amar- ante, Count of Silveira, Jeronymo Lobd de, see Oriolla, Count of Silves, 62 Simcoe, Gen. J. G., 391 Simon of Dover, 52 Skelater, Gen. Joao Forbes, 386 Slavery, 182, 243, 365 Slave-trade, the African, 148-50, 228, 347, 375 Smith, Sir Sidney, 392 Soares, Garcia, 31 Sodre, Vicente, 193 Solano, Spanish general, 392 Soriano, Simiao Jose da Luz, 431 Soult, Marshal, 401 Soure, 32, 351 Sousa, Diogo de, 252, 257 Sousa Coutinho, Domingos An- tonio de, 400 Sousa Holstein, Frederico de, 371 Sousa, Gonealo de, 311 Sousa Coutinho, Luis Pinto de, 386 Sousa, Manoel de, 214 Sousa, Martim Affonso de, 205, 206, 209 Sousa Holstein, Pedro de, see Palmella, Duke of Sousa Coutinho, Rodrigo de, 388 Sousa, Thomas de, 229-33 Sousa, Vasco Martins de, 99 Southwell, Sir Richard, 333 Spanish Succession, war of the 340, 341, 35i Spencer, Gen. Sir Brent, 399 Spice Islands, 199, 294, 295 Spice trade, 214, 294, 295, 342 Stephanie of Hohenzollern, 425 Stephens, Thomas, 294 Strabo, 5 Stratton, Robert, 94 Strozzi, Philip, 285 ' Stuart, Major-General Hon. Sir Charles, 387, 388 Stuart de Rothesay, Lord, 404, 407, 412, 417 Stukeley, Sir Thomas, 252, 255 Suez, Estevao da Gama at, 206 Sugar, cultivation of, 145, 228, 3i8,.347, 375 Sumatra, 175, 199, 294 INDEX. 447 Surat, 295 Synod of Diamper, 292 Talavera, battle of (1809), 401 Talikot, battle of (1565), 246 Tamaraca in Brazil, 229, 298 Tangier, 129, 133, 245, 253, 330 Taranco, Spanish general, 392 Tavira, 76, 80 Tavora, Christovao de, 256 Tavora, Marquis of, 361, 362, 374 Taxation, right of, 83 Telles de Menezes, Goncalo, 104 Telles de Menezes, Joao Affonso, 104 Telles de Menezes, Leonor, see Leonor Telles de Menezes, Maria, 104, 105 Tello, Sebastiao de, 316 Templars, Knights, 32, 43, 57, 62, 66, 72, 86 Terceira, battle of (1582), 285 Terceira, Count of Villa Flor, Duke of, 418-22, 424 Teshfln, last AlmoravideCaliph,44 Texeira, Miguel de, 297 Theodosio, son of John IV., 312, 324 Theotonio, St., 49, 58 Theresa, daughter of Alfonso VI., Countess of Portugal, 18, 22-32, 98 Theresa, daughter of Affonso Hen- riques, 58 Theresa, daughter of Sancho L, 63,64 Thierry of Alsace, 54 Thomar, 43, 44, 62, 184, 283 Thomar, Antonio Bermudo da Costa Cabral, Count of, 424 Thomas, St., bones of, 208, 209 Thomieres, General, 397 Tieve, Diogo de, 262, 266 Tobacco in Brazil, 347, 375 Topazes in Brazil, 377 Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 163 Toro, battle of (1476), 135 Torre del Tombo, 135, 186 Torres Novas, 53, 130, 421 Torres Vedras, 104, 405 Tower and Sword, Order of, 135, Trancoso, battle of (1385), 111 Trant, Colonel Sir Nicholas, 405, 406 Trava, Bermudo Peres de, 29, 37 Trava, Fernando Peres de, 28, 29, 3i, 37, 38 Travot, General, 397 Treaties, 29, 39, 40, 55, 107, 1 13, 163, 333, 337-40, 351, 352, 386, 387, 389, 392 Treaties of Commerce, 86, 94, 165 Tristao, Nuno, reached Cabo Branco, 148 ; killed, 150 Troubadours, influence of the, on Portuguese poetry, 89, 91 Truxillo, taken by Affonso Hen- riques, 55 Tullio, Marco, 288-90 Tunis, expedition to, 179, 2IX Tuy, 28-30, 38, 56 Tyrawley, Lord, 257, 352 U Udayampura (Diamper), 292 Universityat Lisbon, 89, at Coimbra, 260-62, 268, 278, 355, 367, 376 Urban IV., Pope, 81 Urraca, daughter of Alfonso VI., 18, 23, 29, 30 Urraca, daughter of Affonso Hen- ri ques, 54 Urraca, queen of Affonso II., 70, 74 Uruguay, Republic of, 41 1 Valdevez, tourney and truce of, 39 Valenca, 421 Valencia de Alcantara, battle of (1762), 363 Valignano, Alexandre de, 292 Valverde, battle of (1385), 113 Vasconcellos de Brito, Miguel, 306, 309 Vasconcellos, Rodrigues de, in Vasconians, the, 5 Vasques, Fernan, 102 Vaublanc, Viennot de, 396 44 8 INDEX. Vaz, Tristao, 144 Vela, Rodrigo, 38 Vertot, Abbe, 45, 308 Vespucci, Amerigo, 175, 222 Vianna, 368, 421 Vicente, Dean of Lisbon, 74-76 Vicente, Gil, 262, 263 Victor, Marshal, 401 Vidigueira, Count of, see Gama, Vasco da Vieira, Antonio, 325 Vieira, Joao Fernandes, 320 Vienna, Congress of, 407, 408 Villa Flor, Count of, 331 Villa Flor, Count of, see Terceira, Duke of Villa Real, Marquis of, 315- 17 Villa Velha battle of (1762), 363 Villa Verde, Count of, 391 Villa Vicosa, 104, 305, 306, 312, 332 Villegagnon, Nicolas Durant, Sieur de, 234 Villiers, Right Hon. J. C, 400 Vimeiro, battle of (1808), 400 Vinetus, Elias, 262 Viniculture, 87, 145, 368 Viriathus, Lusitanian hero, 6 Viseu, 8, 15 Visigothic rule, 10, 11 W Waldeck, Prince of, 387, 388 Waldemar, King of Denmark, 70 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, 399-402, 405-407, 418 Willikens, Dutch admiral, 297 Wilson, Colonel John, 405 Wilson, Colonel Sir Robert T., 399, 401 Windsor, Treaty of (1386), 1 1 3, 118, 128, 131, 164 Witchcraft, 69 Y Ya'kub, Almohade Caliph, 60, 62, 63 Yokohama, factory at, 217 York, Edmund, Duke of, 106 York, Edward, Duke of, 106, 107 Yusuf, Almohade Caliph, $7, 5$ Yusuf Adil Shah, King of Bija- pur, 198 Yusuf Ibn Teshfin, 17 Z Zalaca, battle of (1086), 17 Zamora, Affonso Henriques, 35, 39, 40 Zamorin of Calicut, the, 190, I95> 196 Zarco, Joao Goncalves, 144 Ube Storip of tbe IRations, MESSRS. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS take pleasure in announcing that they have in course of publication, in co-operation with Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of London, a series of historical studies, intended to present in a graphic manner the stories of the different nations that have attained prominence in history. In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other as well as to universal history. It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as they actually lived, labored, and struggled — as they studied and wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be over- looked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical authorities have resulted in definite conclusions. The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS ;.. but it is, of course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in their chronological order. The " Stories " are printed in good readable type, and in handsome i2mo form. They are adequately illustrated and furnished with maps and indexes. Price, per vol., cloth, $1.50. Half morocco, gilt top, $1.75. The following volumes are now ready (January, 1891) : THE STORY OF GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison. " ROME. Arthur Gilman. 44 THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer. " CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin. " GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould. " NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen. 44 " " SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale. " HUNGARY. Prof. A. VAmbery. 44 CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church. " " " THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman. 44 " " THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole. " " THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett. " PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin. " " " ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson. 44 " " ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy. 44 ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin. 44 THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley. 44 44 44 IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless. 44 44 " TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole. 44 MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z. A. Ragozin. 44 MEDIAEVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustav Masson. 44 4C 44 HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers. 44 44 4I MEXICO. Susan Hale. 44 44 " PHCENICIA. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson. • 4 44 " THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern. 44 4< " EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church. 44 44 44 THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole. 44 " RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill. " " 4< THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison. 44 " 44 SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh. 44 SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. Arnold Hug. Now in Press for immediate issue : THE STORY OF PORTUGAL. I H. Morse Stephens. " VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin. " THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. " WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen M. Edwards. " CANADA. A. R. Macfarlane. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS T. FISHER UNWIN New York London Iberoes of tbe IRations. EDITED BY EVELYN ABBOTT M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. A SERIES of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of representative historical characters about whom have gathered the great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career. The narratives are the work of writers who are recog- nized authorities on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present picturesque and dramatic " stories" of the Men and of the events con- nected with them. To the Life of each " Hero " will be given one duo- decimo volume, handsomely printed in large type, pro- vided with maps and adequately illustrated according to the special requirements of the several subjects. The volumes will be sold separately as follows : Cloth extra . . . . . . . . $i 50 Half morocco, uncut edges, gilt top . . 1 75 Large paper, limited to 250 numbered copies for subscribers to the series. These may be ob- tained in sheets folded, or in cloth, uncut edges 3 50 The first group of the Series will comprise twelve volumes, as follows : Nelson, and the Naval Supremacy of England. By W. Clark Russell, author of " The Wreck of the Grosvenor," etc. (Ready April 15, 1890.) Gustavus Adolphus, and the Struggle of Protestantism for Exist- ence. By C. R. L. Fletcher, M.A., late Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Pericles, and the Golden Age of Athens. By Evelyn Abbott, M.A. s Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Alexander the Great, and the Extension of Greek Rule and of Greek Ideas. By Prof. Benjamin I. Wheeler, Cornell University. Theoderic the Goth, the Barbarian Champion of Civilization. By Thomas Hodgkin, author of " Italy and Her Invaders," etc. Charlemagne, the Reorganizer of Europe. By Prof. George L. Burr, Cornell University. Henry of Navarre, and the Huguenots in France. By P. F. Willert, M.A., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. William of Orange, the Founder of the Dutch Republic. By Ruth Putnam. Cicero, and the Fall of the Roman Republic. By J. L. Strachan Davidson, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Louis XIV., and the Zenith of the French Monarchy. By Arthur Hassall, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church College, Oxford. Sir Walter Raleigh, and the Adventurers of England. By A. L. Smith, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Bismarck. The New German Empire : How It Arose ; What It Replaced ; And What It Stands For. By James Sime, author of "A Life of Lessing," etc. To be followed by : Hannibal, and the Struggle between Carthage and Rome. By E. A. Freeman, D.C.L., LL.D., Regius Prof, of History in the University of Oxford. Alfred the Great, and the First Kingdom in England. By F. York Powell, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church College, Oxford. Charles the Bold, and the Attempt to Found a Middle Kingdom. By R. Lodge, M.A., Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford. John Calvin, the Hero of .he French Protestants. By Owen M. Edwards, Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Oliver Cromwell, and the Rule of the Puritans in England. By Charles Firth, Balliol College, Oxford. Marlborough, and England as a Military Power. By C. W. C. Oman, A.M., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Julius Caesar, and the Organization of the Roman Empire. By W. Warde Fowler, M.A., Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS New York London 27 and 29 West Twenty-third Street 27 King William Street, Strand Editors. PUBLICATIONS OF G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS THE SCRIPTURES, HEBREW AND CHRISTIAN. ARRANGED AND EDITED AS AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE. Rev. EDWARD T. BARTLETT, D.D., Dean of the Divinity School of the P. E. Church in Philadel- phia, and Mary Wolfe, Prof, of Ecclesiastical History. Rev. JOHN P. PETERS, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Literature and Language in the Divinity School of the P. E. Church in Philadelphia, and Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. The work is to be completed in three volumes, containing each about 500 pages, Vols. I. and II. now ready. Vol. I. includes Hebrew story from the Creation to the time of Nehe- miah, as in the Hebrew canon. Vol. II. is devoted to Hebrew poetry and prophecy. Vol. III. 'will contain the selections from the Christian Scriptures. The volumes are handsomely printed in i2mo form, and with an open, readable page, not arranged in verses, but paragraphed according to the sense of the narrative. Each volume is complete in itself, and will be sold separately at $1.50. The editors say in their announcement : " Our object is to remove stones of stumbling from the path of young readers by presenting Scriptures to them in a form as intelligible and as instructive as may be practicable. This plan involves some re-arrangements and omissions, before which we have not hesitated, inasmuch as our proposed work will not claim to be the Bible, but an introduction to it. That we may avoid imposing our own interper- tation upon Holy Writ, it will be our endeavor to make Scripture serve as the commentary on Scripture. In the treatment of the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Epistles of the New Testament, it will not be practica- ble entirely to avoid comment, but no attempt will be made to pronounce upon doctrinal questions." The first volume is divided into four parts : Part I. — Hebrew Story, from the Beginning to the Time of Saul. " II. — The Kingdom of all Israel. " III. — Samaria, or the Northern Kingdom. " IV.— JUDAH, FROM REHOBOAM TO THE EXILE. PUBLICATIONS OF G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS The second volume comprises : Part I. — Hebrew History from the Exile to Nehemiah. " II. — Hebrew Legislation. " III.— Hebrew Tales. " IV. — Hebrew Prophecy. " V. — Hebrew Poetry. " VI. — Hebrew Wisdom. The third volume will comprise the selections from the New Testament, arranged as follows : I. — The Gospel according to St. Mark, Presenting the Evan- gelical Story in its Simplest Form ; Supplemented by Selections from St. Matthew and St. Luke. II. — The Acts of the Apostles, with some Indication of the Probable Place of the Epistles in the Narrative. III. — The Epistles of St. James and the First Epistle of St. Peter. IV. — The Epistles of St. Paul. V. — The Epistle to the Hebrews. VI. — The Revelation of St. John (A Portion). VII. — The First Epistle of St. John. VIII. — The Gospel of St. John. Full details of the plan of the undertaking, and of the methods adopted bv the editors in the selection and arrangement of the material, will be found in the separate prospectus. " I congratulate you on the issue of a work which, I am sure, will find a wide welcome, and the excellent features of which make it of permanent value." — Rt. Rev. Henry C. Potter, Bishop of New York. "Should prove a valuable adjunct of Biblical instruction." — Rt. Rev. W. E. Stevens, Bishop of Pennsylvania. " Admirably conceived and admirably executed. . . . It is the Bible story in Bible. words. The work of scholarly and devout men. . . . Will prove a help to Bible study." — Rev. Howard Crosby, D.D. " We know of no volume which will better promote an intelligent understanding of the structure and substance of the Bible than this work, prepared, as it is, by competent and reverent Christian scholars." — Sunday- School Times. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS New York : London : 27 AND 29 WEST 23D STREET 27 KING WILLIAM ST., STRAND N -0 ''J':? LIBRARY OF CONGRESS # 020 562 003 5 8 TutP WmM IIh Still in ■ >-•/■■ '■■'■■■■ ■ ■ ■"•' ,