^oK ^^-v^. * ^ '^ ^^0^ : '^^ o '&'•' . 4 o GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. BY ^ ALEXANDER L. WADE, Twenty Years a Teacher and Superintendent of Public Schools. ^n KntroUuction BY , Rev. J. R. THOMPSON, A.M., t V ^v' President of West Virginia University. 'The Common School, oh! let its light Shine through our country's story; Here lies her wealth, her strength, her might; Here rests her future glory." BOSTON: NEW ENGLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY, No. 16 Hawley Street. 1881. LKiSE: Copyright, 1880, By Alexakder L. Wade. Alfred Mttoge & Son, Printers, 34 School Street, Boston. PREFACE. Many excellent books have been written in the interests of popular education, and the author of this book has no desire to push aside any of them, but an earnest aim to fill a space occupied by none of them. A glance at the plan and scope of this work may, perhaps, give the reader a glimpse of some prominent points in which it dilfers from all other educational works. The common branches are taken as a course of study, and all the plans and appliances of higher schools — annual ex- aminations of graduaMng classes, granting diplomas, form- ing alumni associations, and publishing catalogues — are applied to country schools. This is simply the application of an old plan to a new purpose. The common branches are considered as the tools of thought, and the teacher is encouraged to give his pupils constant practice in the use of these tools. He is encour- aged to take the lead in the establishment of libraries, and in the circulation of newspapers and educational journals. He is encouraged to widen his work, and to elevate the school by giving the people outside of the school-room an intellectual uplift. The school is considered a joint company, in which the tax-payers are stockholders; and it is maintained that the most sensible method of promoting economy in school ex- penses is to insist on constant progress in the qualification IV PREFACE. and skill of teachers and superintendents, and to pa}^ them in proportion to their preparation and skill. The pupil's health is reckoned an element of supreme importance, alike essential to success in the school -room and in the business of later life; and the teacher is urged to secure, as far as possible, the healthfulness of the pupil's home, as well as the healthfulness of the school-room. Motives are esteemed more valuable than methods, educa- tion is made pleasurable rather than painful, and it is clearly intimated that the teacher who uses the rod as an incentive to study is on the wrong track. Woman's superior culture, and the refining influences of ornamentation and music, are regarded as elements of ines- timable worth in the educational Work. The Bible is accepted as the only standard of morals, and the fact that it is recognized as the seal of the citizen's oath before the court, is, of itself, considered sufficient reason why its sacredness should be impressed upon the child in the school. The subject of industrial education is introduced, and the teacher is urged to inspire his pupils with a love for the sev- eral callings which they are likely to pursue in later life. The schools of the United States and the schools of Europe are carefully compared, and the light in which both are viewed by leading Asiatic nations is considered. . It is maintained that a uniform system of money, weights, and measures for all nations should be adopted, in order to lessen the labor of school life in all lands, and to bring the business of the whole world into harmony. Illustrations and diagrams are used in this work wherever they are necessary to make the matter plain. The author has, all through the work, introduced the testi- mony of living educators to prove the positions he has taken. In four of the chapters of this book, he has been directly aided by educators especially able in the subjects they have considered ; and although due credit in each case is given, he may be permitted, here, to acknowledge his indebtedness PREFACE. V to Rev. J. R. Thompson, president of West Virginia Uni- versity ; Prof. D. T. Ames, editor " Penman's Art Jour- nal," New York; and lion. E. A. AjDgar, late United States Commissioner of Education to Europe. Outside of the author's own work, this book is an embodi- ment of the best and freshest educational thought of the broadest and foremost educational thinkers, — thought that is alike valuable to teachers and people. This book, there- fore, hopes to find a welcome in the famil}^ library as well as upon the desk of the superintendent and teacher. Without any expectation that it will rise above criticism, but in the hope that it may carry sunshine into country school-houses and country homes, this book is submitted to the public by The Author. MORGANTOWN, WeST VIRGINIA, November 22, 1880. COISTTEITTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION xiii LECTURE I. Needs op our Country Schools, and Aims of tub Grad- uating Systeji 1 LECTURE IL The Graduating System for Country Schools defined, AND THE Mode of its Application considered , 9 LECTURE III. The Graduating System for Country Schools defined, AND the Mode of its Application considered (concluded) 23 LECTURE IV. Origin of the Graduating System for Country Schools 43 LECTURE V. Trials and Triumphs of the Graduating System . 59 LECTURE VL Growth of the Graduating System, and Official Testimony op those who have tried it . , , 84 LECTURE VIL Editorial Reviews of the Graduating System in- LEADING Educational Journals Ill VUl CONTENTS. LECTURE VIII. What leading Educators say of the Graduating System 121 LECTURE IX. The Graduating System suited to the Primary Schools op Cities and Towns 131 LECTURE X. The Graduating System considered and commended BY the National Educational Association . . 135 LECTURE XL Objections to the Graduating System considered AND answered 138 LECTURE XIL Country School-houses. — Need of a National Archi- tect 144 LECTURE XIIL Furnishments op the School-room 157 LECTURE XIV. Ornamentation of the School-room 161 LECTURE XV. School-grounds and Shade-trees 165 LECTURE XVL Music in Country Schools . 182 LECTURE XVIL The Dictionary in the School-room 199 CONTENTS. IX LECTURE XVIII. How TO HAVE A LiBRAKY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM . . 220 LECTURE XIX. Newspapers in the School-room and Family . • • 231 LECTURE XX. Teacher's Salary, Library, and Educational Journals, 242 LECTURE XXL Teachers' Training-scAools and Institutes . , . 254 LECTURE XXII. Teachers' Examinations and Course of Study . . 272 LECTURE XXIII. Teacher's Salary, and Tenure of Office . . . 280 LECTURE XXIV. Free Text-books in Free Schools 291 LECTURE XXV. Methods for securing Attendance ... . 296 LECTURE XXVL First Lessons in the Common Branches . . . . 313 LECTURE XXVIL Hints upon teaching Writing 335 LECTURE XXVIII. Hints upon teaching Map-drawing . • • • • 355 LECTURE XXIX. Hints upon teaching Letter-writing and Book- keeping 306 X CONTENTS. LECTURE XXX. Hints upon grading Country Schools .... 385 LECTURE XXXL School Government, Manners, and Morals . . . 395 LECTURE XXXIL Industrial Education in Country Schools . . . 404 LECTURE XXXIII. Necessity for School Supervision 408 LECTURE XXXIV. Women as Teachers and School Officers . . .411 LECTURE XXXV. A Glance at Education Abroad 421 LECTURE XXXVI. Uniform Money, Weights, and Measures for the World 431 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS, DIAGEAMS, FOEMS, ATSTD TABLES. PAGE Common School Diploma ....... 37 Card Notice of Annual Examinations .... 56 Form of Teacher's Report for Annual Catalogue . 66 Card Notice of AlUxMNi Meetings 71 Card Notice of Superintendent's Visits ... 78 The Capitol at Washington 167 Normal Schools in the United States . . . 256 Teachers' Training Schools in Germany . . . 265 Monthly Pay op Teachers in the several States . 288, 289 Diploma of Honor 301 County School Banner 304 Average Attendance in the several States . . 310,311 Time Globe 328 Positions at the Writing Table .... 341,342,343 Pen-holding 343 Monogram of Small Letters . 348 Monograms of Capital Letters . . . ... 348 The Seven Principles used in Writing . . . 350 Diagram of North America ^ 357 Envelopes . 369,370 Models of Heading 373 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTIIATIOXS, ETC. Models op Introduction 375, 376, 377 Models of Conclusion 379,380 Number of Teachers inirLOVED and Salaries paid in the several states 412,413 Metric Table 438 Progress of Metric System in Various Countries . 441 INTRODUCTION It is idle to talk of the public health when the people are eating tainted meat. Public morality means, not that a few men are sober and trustworthy, but that the people are neither dishonest nor impure. There is no such thing as national religi5usness if the people are infidels. Public intelligence is impossible if the great mass of the people are ignorant, or indifferent to education. The nation's health, morality, piety, and intelligence must mean the health, the moralit}', the piety, and the intelligence of the people. A nation is strong and prosperous only when its citizens are possessed of these qualities. Mr. Wade has written a book entitled "A Graduating System for Country Schools." The value and significance of this work require emphasis on the word " country." It is written with the avowed object of improving our country schools. It is not in opposition to town or city schools. It does not seek to depreciate their v/ork or lessen their influence. It recognizes the place and incalculable impor- tance of the college and the university. This book, how- ever, has a single and most laudable end in view, viz., the improvement of the country school. The whole nation is interested in the character of our countr}' schools, for they are the schools of the people, and the people, in the end, XIV INTRODUCTION. constitute the nation. If the nation is to be pure, strong, just, intelligent, free, the people living in the country must be pure, strong, just, intelligent, free. We are to welcome every honest effort to render more efficient the country school, for in so doing we are directly contributing to the intelligence, the virtue, the health, and the wealth of the whole nation. I can conceive of no greater danger to free institutions than an ignorant country population ; and, I think, no doubt can be entertained of the proposition that an intelligent and thoughtful agricultural class must alwa3's constitute the strongest defence of a free people. Who- ever, then, is interested in the welfare of the nation and the perpetuity of republican government, will regard with favor every effort, like this of Mr. Wade's, to improve the quality of the instruction given in country schools. I have personal knowledge of the working of the Gradu- ating System in the schools of Monongalia County, West Virginia, and I have no hesitation in pronouncing that work to be '' very good." It enHsts the parents, it quickens the teacher, it stimulates the pupil, it stirs country communi- ties to almost a fever heat on the subject of education. Whenever a man of Mr. Wade's skill, enthusiasm, and good sense introduces this Graduating System, an educa- tional revival may be confidently expected. The system will not work itself; but in the hands of a county super- intendent who loves and honors his work, and is possessed of a reasonable amount of tact and knowledge of human nature, its success is certain. To all such I commend it. In the following pages Mr. Wade gives the history of the Graduating System, recountvS its early struggles and triumphs, shows its adaptedness to its work, considers and answers objections to the system, and discusses a variety of important matters in connection with the countr^^ school. INTRODUCTION-. XV It is written in a clear and readable st3'le. Some of its chapters have the charm of fiction. The book ought to have, and, when its merits are known, will have, an im- mense sale. This question of the education of the whole people is every day becoming a more serious and important one. We are scarcely past the period when the national vanity was swelling at the respectable figure we had made in the world during the first century of our history. Taken as a whole, the past history of this Republic justifies a sincere and hearty congratulation and rejoicing on the part of its patriotic and liberty -loving citizens. Neither among the republics and empires of antiquity, nor the existing nation- alities of the present, can there be found a parallel instance of such unprecedented growth and development in all that makes a nation great and powerful. In the light of the unquestionable facts of our history, a little boasting would seem pardonable. The real problem of our destiny, however, lies in the future. No amount of glorification over the achievements of the past can blind the ej^es of the thoughtful patriot to the duties and dangers of the next century of American history. In thirty j^ears from to-day, according to the present rate of increase in our population, there will be dwelling between the shores of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans over one hundred millions of souls. This will equal the present aggregate population of England, France, Spain, Switzerland, Portugal, Sweden, and Denmark. What a might}' empire these states would form if they were commingled into one mass, governed by the same laws, ruled by the same potentate ! Such a nation will be found on the shores of America in the opening 3'ears of the twentieth century. Sixty 3-ears from this time, if our XVI INTRODUCTION. poi^uinlion ciMiliiuio to iiuMVMso in llio snnie ratio luMvaftcr ns it. has heivtol'oro, lliore will be' dwelling within onr bonndarios two hnndrod and Ibrty-six millions of people, eqnalling the present i)opnlation of all Kuroi)e. Possibly the child is living to-day who shall witness the period when the population of the United States shall equal the present population of all the re[)ublics, empires, and kingdoms of the European continent. This great mass of commingled [)eoi>les, gathered] from all quarters of the globe, and representing every possible phase of social and political and religious development, are to govern themselves. No one man is to legislate and execute for the whole. Every man is to hold in his hand the elective franchise ; every man is to be a sovereign. The laws are to be made, interpreted, and executed by representatives of the peoi^le. The people are to hold in their own hands the reins of government, and control, by their action, the ultimate destiny of the mightiest nation- ality o\\ the globe. Never before, in all the history of the \vorld, did a single political society- hold in its hands such a magniticent prize. They will either demonstrate to the world that man is ca[)able of self-government, and thus put to the rout all the defenders of monarchies and aristocracies, or, b}' inca- pacity, faction, intrigue, sordid sellishnesj<, ignorance, im- morality, and otlicial peculation, the}' will blast foi-ever the dearest hopes of oppressed humanity, and turn back the dial of progress for a thousand years. The most opulent imagination can scared}' conceive the possibilities of glor}' and honorable renown that will open out before this Kepublic if these millions are true to their high and sacred trust. The most sanguine prophet, in casting the horo- scope o'^ our future, would scarcely dare [)redict the might INTIlODUCTrOX. XVII and i)Ovvcr and grandeur of this nation when it shall eele- brate its second centennial jubilee. The problem of the future is, how these corning millions of American citizens shall be fitted for the discharge of their momentous duties. The future of this country is assured only when its destinies are in the hands of a fraa, intelligent, and virtuous people. The great paramount question of the hour is. how the future generations of American freemen shall be prepared to preserve and per- petuate the Republic. An intelligent and virtuous people always will be a free and happy people. An ignorant and vicious people cannot but be slaves, for ignorance and vice are the conditions of slavery. The sine qua non of a republic is the virtue and intelligence of its people. With- out these prime characteristics, a transient, dazzling splendor ma}- be attained, but it is only as the hectic flush of the consumptive, betokening the decay within. Onr future is free from peril so long as the masses are reached by the educational and religious forces of the country. Education must not only be so free that all can have it, but the state must see to it, on the peril of its life, that all do have it. Every citizen must secure that mental culture and discipline which frees its possessor from pas- sion, bigotry, and prejudice. Religion must be more than a history, a creed, a ceremony, a form, a church. Religion must become synonymous with righteousness, and it must be clothed in such an attractive garb that it will irresistibly di aw to itself the lowest classes in society, just as the per- fectl}^ righteous One drew around him the publicans and sinners of Galilee. At all cost, religion and education must adorn, beautify, and ennoble the homes of the Repub- lic. These are the bulwarks of free institutions. En- shrined in these, as within an impregnable citadel, the XVIU INTRODUCTION. hopes and liberty of man are assured forever. Who, then, are the saviors of the Repubhc? They who are teaching its citizens, either b}^ precept or example, to be virtuous and intelligent. "Who are attempting its destruction? They who foster vice, and put a premium on ignorance. The former are gaining on the latter. They are increasing in numbers, devotion, influence. We are to hold fast to the belief that this land, conse- crated to liberty and religion by a baptism of blood, shall forever be the asylum of the oppressed and the hope of mankind. The glad song of freedom shall be wafted by oar breezes, shall be murmured by our rivers, shall be caught up by our vallej^s, shall be ^echoed by our hills, and shall be borne aloft by our mountains, until its strains of melody shall circle the globe and the long slavery of man shall be ended. J. R. THOMPSON. West Virginia University, November 9, 1880. A GRADUATING SYSTEM FOB COUNTRY SCHOOLS. LECTURE I, NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS, AND AIMS OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. I HAVE accepted an invitation to deliver a course of familiar lectures on the subject of A Graduating System for Country Schools. I am pleased to see before me a multitude of interested persons, embracing parents and pupils, teachers and school officers. TJiese lectures are intended, in the broad- est and best sense, to represent the blended interests of all parties, and to invite all who desire better schools to unite in the work of lifting the entire school system to higher and healthier grounds. While many features of the graduating system are new and original, the cream of what has been writ- ten and spoken upon living questions by the freshest writers and the foremost thinkers connected with the cause of popular education, in this country and in Europe, will be made tributary to these lectures. 2 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The graduating system for country schools is not a fabric of theories woven in the loom of fancy ; it is a complete system of common-sense plans, which have been tested by practice. Although this system is of recent origin, although it is still in its infancy, it has been officially recommended by State and county officers where its work has been fully tested ; it has been favorably reviewed by most of the leading edu- cational journals of the land ; it has been heartily indorsed by some of the pioneer thinkers in the com- mon-school cause ; and a resolution of 'the National Educational Association calls the attention of State superintendents throughout the United States to the propriety of its adoption. It is not my purpose in this introductory talk to give a minute account of the operations of this sys- tem, but rather to present its aims, and to give a glimpse of what will be brought to light in future lectures. But before attempting to present these aims, let us glance at the present condition of our public schools and at the results of their work. It is generally conceded by intelligent people that the common schools of the country are the pride of the present age ; and yet no one claims that they have reached anything like perfection. There is, indeed, a growing conviction that they ought to do more, — to produce a higher and purer civilization. The last annual report of the National Commissioner of Education shows a daily attendance of but little more than one third of the school population of the NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 6 States and Territories. From this fact alone it is evident that we cannot reasonably expect the most satisfactory results until the attendance upon our public schools be made more general and regular. Calls for compulsory attendance, which come from various quarters, certainly indicate that there is want of harmony between the public schools and the peo- ple. Vast multitudes of men and women unable to read and write, found in every State of the Union, all bear testimony to the belief that there must be a missing link in our system of popular instruction. While the amount of work accomplished by our public schools by no means meets our highest expec- tations, the quality of the work is even less satisfac- tory. Many of our young people form in the school- room an actual dislike for study ; and few of them, upon leaving school, carry with them a love of study which will last throughout life. Viewing the work of popular education from our present stand-point, we certainly cannot call it a com- plete and harmonious system. But want of success in the work of our schools is not proof that our teachers have been unskilful in the use of our school methods. The fact that failure has been, in a degree, almost universal, points to the conclusion that the defect is not, mainly, in the manner in which our school methods have been employed, but that it is in the methods themselves. No one will claim that we have been wanting in the number and variety of our educational methods. 4 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. We have had innumerable methods in endless variety. Our school machinery has been too much complicated. Nature points to but few educational methods, and these are all simple and pleasurable. If in our plans for securing attendance, and in our modes of teach- ing, we will but follow the hints which Nature has given us, she will help us fur more than half-way with our work. It is true that many of our teachers have been guided by Nature's methods in their modes of teach- ing, and have wielded a mighty influence in lifting whole communities to a higher plane. Close ob- servers have noted the fact that, under such instruc- tion, young people not only complete the common- school branches, but they form, in school, such a taste for study that education does not cease when school days are ended. The further fact has been noted, that under another class of teachers (so called), pupils take up but few branches and gain but little knowledge of these, and they look forward to the end of their school days as the end of all education. The former method leaves the pupil with a fair knowledge of all the common branches and with a love of learning ; the latter leaves him with but little knowledge of these branches and with an aver- sion to study. The former method is as far superior to the latter as railroads are in advance of foot-paths. We have heretofore had no plan for presenting to the public the results of the individual work of each NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. teacher and of each pnpil in the public schools of a count}^ The people of the country, having no opportunity to compare intelligently the work of the several teachers of their own county, sometimes conclude that one teacher is about as good as another, and they therefore prefer to employ the one who will work the cheapest. They do not, as a rule, seek for cheap legal counsellors, or for low- priced physicians. They prefer to employ the law- yer who gains his cases and the doctor who cures his patients, and they cheerfully pay liberal fees for such services. If the people of the country could see clearly the results of the work of each teacher in their county, they would employ successful teachers, at liberal prices, in preference to unsuccessful teachers at low wages. The several needs which I have named are met by the graduating system for country schools. It presents in every family of each county, in simple and suitable form, the recorded results of the Avork done in each school, so that every one may judge of the comparative success of each school and of each teacher in the county. But this system aims to do more than merely present results ; it aims to produce them. In order to produce the best results, it salects methods which Nature points out as suitable, and adopts plans which experience has proven to be practical. Close observation will convince that, in gaining h GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. knowledge, the method used by the child before the school period begins, and the method adopted by the man after the school period ends, are the same, — that is, self -instruction. If the process of mental growth and ot acquiring knowledge is alika in the infant and in the man, we are certainly justified in claiming that the same process should be followed during the period ])etween infancy and manhood. It is generally conceded by thinking people that the amount of knowledofe which the child chains before the school period begins, is greater than in any subsequent period of like duration. This knowl- edge it gains, too, by the voluntary use of its facul- ties. It is not forced to learn. It is self-educated. The pleasure it derives from what it learns is suf- ficient to prompt it constantly to push its inquiries into new and unexplored fields. It is not contented with a single teacher, but it persists in making the knowledge of every member of the family tributary to its education. No scientist of the present day is more busily engaged with his experiments and obser- vations than the child five years of age. We have but to open our eyes to see that this is a universal law of early childhood. It is evident that if we can continue throughout the period of youth this pleasur- able method of self-instruction, we have some assur- ance that study will not cease when school days are ended. If, however, when the school period begins, we change from the method by which the child has NEEDS OF OUR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 7 gained its stock of knowledge, and adopt a method of force, education at once becomes a stuffing pro- cess, and the child soon loses its keen appetite for knowledge. When the school period is ended, and the restraints of teachers and parents are removed, the man instinctively returns to the methods of infancy. Thenceforth his improvement, as in in- fancy, must depend mainly upon his own efforts. It is evident that one uniform method, running through the whole length of life, is great gain in time and labor. The most successful teachers of the present day are pursuing this plan ; and the tendency of all modern methods of education is in the direction of this through line of Nature s own choosing. ' 0))scrvation teaches us that there is wonderful uniformity in the intelligence of children before the school period begins ; but this line of uniformit}^ diminishes at every step as we pass from childhood to youth, and from youth to manhood. The aim of the graduating system is to lift this line of uniformity until it shall include a knowledo:e of all the common- school branches. It has been said that " no system of public educa- tion is w^orthy of the name unless it creates a great educational ladder, with one end in the gutter and the other in the university." The graduating system aims to life all the youth of the country to the first round of this educational ladder. This it seeks to accomplish, not by regarding the school as a bram 8 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. factor ij^ where the teacher is attempting to get up intellects to order, but by the adoption of a uniform system of common-sense motives tending to bring the aims of all country schools into harmony, and ])y creating in the minds of the masses a noble passion for having all the young people complete all the common branches before leavinsr school. We certainly need some great and harmonious system, which shall be to the educational work of the country what the mowing machine is to the farm, the sewing machine to the family, the power loom to the factory, the locomotive to travel, and the mag- netic telegraph to the transmission of news ; and I believe that the nearest approach to this which has yet been made is the movement to introduce in all the States of the Union the graduating system for country schools. LECTURE II. the graduating system for country schools defined, and the mode of its application considp:red. The graduating system for country schools is simply taking the primary branches as a course of study for graduation, and making application of all the plans and appliances of the best academies and colleges to the common schools of the country. The time in which each advanced pupil agrees to complete this course of study is announced. Public examinations of «:raduatin2: classes are held annually, at points agreed upon, in each county, and diplomas are granted to those who satisfactorily com- plete the course of study. An alumni association, holding annual meetings for the mutual improvement of those who have gradu- ated, is organized in every township or magisterial district. A catalogue, containing a clear statement of the work of each school, is published annually in every county. In this catalogue each school occupies suf- ficient space to give — 10 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 1. The ntime of the school. 2. The name of the teacher. 3. The number of youths entitled to attend. 4. The number of youths in actual attendance. 5. The number of youths entitled to attend, but not in attendance. 6. The daily average attendance. 7. The daily per cent of attendance, based upon the numl)er in attendance, and the number entitled to attend, but not in attendance. 8. The branches taught and the number studying each branch. 9. The names of pupils who have graduated, and the dates of their graduation. 10. The names of pupils who have undertaken to complete the course of stvidy in one, two, three, or four years, making clear the class to which each belongs. Pupils who cannot complete the course of study in four years or less compose the Preparatory Department, but their names do not appear in the catalogue. This catalogue contains also the annual report of the county superintendent or commissioner, present- ing the result of the work of the past year and his recommendations for the future, a synopsis of the proceedings of the several alumni associations, the names of officers and the time and place of the next annual meeting of each association, and also brief obituary notices of teachers and graduates and under- graduates who have died within the year. THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 11 This system may be introduced into the schools of a State or a county, and it can be tested even in a township or district, or in a single school. Course of Study for Country Schools. Orthography, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic^ Ge- ography, English Grammar, and History are the branches required by most of the States to be taught in the common schools of the country. Some of the States require additional branches, while in others history is not included. The propriety of readjusting the common-school course of studies and making the course uniform in all the States is worthy of the consideration of the nation's best educators. Until this ])e done, it is the duty of teachers and school officers to see that pupils pursue the course of study prescribed by tlie law of the Stiite in which they live. Every pupil should be early impressed with the importance of coimpleting this course of study. Many of them may do much more ; none of them should think of doing less. The provisions which are now made for the education of the j^outh of most of the States are more than sufficient to enable each pupil, if well worked, to gain a fair knowledge of all the primary branches ; and yet few^ of them" take up all these branches, and still fewer complete them. This may be readily accounted for, from the fact that in many places the educational work in the country has been entirely aimless. We have been 12 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. depending for success upon methods, rather than upon motives. Methods are essential, but they can no more rise to the dignity of motives than the road leading to a large city, which we are anxious to visit, can rise to the importance of the city itself. No one who begins the w^orld poor will ever, by the work of his hands or his head, have a home of his own, unless he be led by motives to work for this end ; and no one will become a scholar, unless he shall first make up his mind to be a scholar. The graduating system is simply applying to the educational work certain rules or laws of business, which are founded on common-sense. An agreement to complete a certain amount of work in a given time for a specified sum is a rule regulating labor in the best business establishments on the globe, and is found to work equally well in the employment of men, women, or children. In order to ascertain whether we need such a system in our schools, let us look at the manner in which the courses of study are carried out in the common schools of the country. The branches required by law to be taught in the common schools of the several States compose a course of study far more uniform than any which could be formed by uniting; the branches tau^rht in the colleges of this country or of Europe. So little eftbrt has been made, however, to carry out this uniformity, and to complete this course of study in our country schools, that the French Commissioners of Education, at our THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 13 Centennial Exhibition, after studying carefully our system of public instruction, as presented by the several States of the Union, in their report to the people on the other side of the sea, make this declaration : " The courses of study in ungraded schools are still in the tentative period, not to say in a state of chaos." So far as I am aware, this declaration of the French Commissioners of Education has not been contradicted by an intelligent journalist. Indeed, the leading journals of- education throughout the land have been laboring to impress this same fact upon the minds of educators everywhere, and to enforce the necessity for some great system to harmonize these chaotic elements. As an index to the sentiment of the public press upon this subject, I make a brief extract from one of our ablest journals, Barnes' Educational Monthly, In a leading editorial on " Our Common-School System," found in the February number, 1879, the editor says, "In a multitude of cases, what a child studies depends upon the blind judgment of parents or the momentary convenience or caprice of teachers. The so-called common-school course is no course at all. We most earnestly commend any superintend- ent or teacher who can suggest any way by which order can be obtained and the confusion now existing avoided." The unanimous verdict of all who have studied our system of popular instruction is, that the want of 14 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOK COUNTRY SCHOOLS. uniformity in the course of studies, or rather the want of any uniform plan for inducing pupils to take up and complete a course, is the lame limb in our educational work,* which has caused so much limping all over the land. This universal lameness in oar educational body is the legitimate result of our school manas^ement. I have carefully studied this subject, and I am fully convinced that we should bring our common- sense to the front, and adopt for our country schools plans which have been approved by the best business minds of the age. The methods by which most of our schools are managed would soon bankrupt any extensive farmer, business firm, or factory. If the teacher of a school of' hfty pupils should be made the foreman of a factory requiring fifty operatives, and should adopt the loose methods of many of our school-rooms, he Avould lose his position in less than a fortnight. Under such manaixement he would be unable to hold for a length of time any position of like character wdiere the result of the work is exam- ined at the end of the week. I would not have you lose sight of the foct, here- tofore presented, that the defective work of our country schools is not in the main the fault of our teachers, but that it is the legitimate result of the absence of a uniform system of incentives and aims. The graduating system for country schools carries with it wherever it goes this uniform system of incentives and aims, and embraces all the leading features of the laws of business. THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 15 God has wisely implanted in all of us a desire to see our names and the names of our kindred and friends mentioned in conneetion with honorable po- sitions. This desire is not peculiar to any particular period in life, but is as clearly seen in childhood and youth as in maturity. Neither is it peculiar to any l^articular rank or station. The common people of the country are delighted at seeing their names favor- ably spoken of in the local newspapers of their county ; and scholarly statesmen enjoy a high degree of pleasure when they see that their acts are approved by the ablest journals of the nation. The graduating system for country schools seizes upon this universal law of human nature and turns it to account. Under this system, as soon as the child is able lo read, and strong enough to study, and old enough to understand something of the char- acter of the connnon-school branches, it is told by the teacher that* as soon as it progresses far enough to be able to complete this course of study in four years, its name will be printed in the catalogue. Let us take a case for the sake of illustration. A child goes home in great glee with a copy of the catalogue in hand, and tells its mother that as soon as it learns a little more its name will l)e printed in a book like iJtis; and it points to the place where its own name will appear. Do you suppose the mother will not be in sympathy with this movement to have her child's name appear in a little volume which will be foimd in every flimily in the county? Do you 16 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. suppose she will feel no interest in letting people know how her child is progressing? Why, it ex- actly meets the wants of her womanly nature. This hook with her child's name in it will tell wherever it goes just what she has been telling in the circle in which she moves, and what she within wishes all her acquaintances, relatives, and friends, at home and abroad, to know ; namely, that she has a promising child, and that it is progressing rapidly with its studies. It requires no argument to prove to that mother the propriety of th'is plan, for she sees at a glance the wisdom of the arrangement, and promises the child all the help in her power. In the tender tones of a mother's voice she says, "Now that will be so nice: and moti.er will try to save money enough to get some extra copies of the catalogue ; and we will send them to our uncles and cousins who live far away, to let them know what a good student mother's child is." Encouraged by the mother's counsel, the tender mind of the child is turned into the proper channel, and it then and there dedicates itself to the work of its own education. Thenceforth it has an object in view, and study is as natural and pleasurable as eat- ing and sleeping. And do you suppose that the mother will fail to tell these things to the husband and fother when he comes from the field? Indeed, she can hardly wait until the time of his return, so anxious is she to tell him all about the teacher's plan, and what she pro- THE GEADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 17 poses to do. And do you suppose that tlie father will be less interested in this matter than the mother? He may, perhaps, appear less excited over it, but he is no less interested in it. He had not supposed that the child was progressing so rapidly. He would like to know just how long it will be before the child can enter the class made up of jDupils whose names appear in the catalogue. He resolves to embrace an early opportunity to ask the teacher about this mat- ter. The mother is as anxious to know as the father is. She suggests that as there are several children in the community who arc just about the age of hers, she will inquire of their mothers, as opportunity is afforded, how these children are progressing with their studies ; and she will compare the progress of each one with that of her own child. She finds these mothers as deeply interested in this matter as her- self; and a spirit of emulation, which already exists among the children, is soon created among the parents. Meanwhile the father has an interview with the teacher, and learns from him the proba])le time in which his child can complete the preparatory course. He tells the teacher to give him notice of any books that may be needed, and assures him that his child shall not be delayed in its studies for want of proper encouragement from its parents. He informs his wife of this interview, and answers numerous ques- tions which she is ready to ask him. They scarcely know why it is, but somehow they 18 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. believe that this is the best teacher they have ever had in their school ; and they are anxious that he may be retained from year to year, until their child's education shall be completed. They believe in him, and are willing and anxious to aid him in any and every possible way. The secret of all this is found in the fact that the teacher has touched, in the hearts of these parents, a chord which vibrates ; and human nature is so full of such chords, that if we will but study them, until we know when and how to touch them, we may readily produce the highest harnion}^ in our educational work throughout the whole country. We now come co that point in the pupil's history when he is so far advanced that he may with propri- ety agree to complete in a given time the common- school course of study. In our common schools we want no iron-bound system wiiich will destroy the pupil's individuality. The individual will-power of the pupil and his faith in his own ability are elements of power in our educational work which we should not attempt to subdue, much less to destroy. His success in his studies during the school period de- pends largely upon these elements, and he will cer- tainly need both of them when he reaches maturity. The secret of success in education is not the destruc- tion of these elements of power, but the turning of them into proper channels. When this is accom- plished, the more the pupil possesses of these ele- ments of power, the more certain will be his success in any cause which he may espouse. THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 19 A sensible and intelligent pupil, who believes he can accomplish a course of study in a given time, can accomplish it. The declaration of Scripture, that "all things are possible to him that helieveth ^'' is applicable to mental undertakings as well as to spiritual matters. I find in the Educational News Gleaner this gem of thought : " A child can learn infinitely faster when interested than when indiffer- ent.^' If this be true, and it certainly is, then the thing necessary to increase the pupil's power to learn is to increase his interest. In order, however, to secure a high degree of interest, the pupil must have an object toward which he is moving, and he must believe that he will be a])le to reach that object. There is no danger of damage from overwork if the pupil is interested, and has a variety of studies and plenty of pure air and exercise. Interest is the lubricating material which prevents mental wear and tear. We seldom become tired when interested, but we are always tired when uninterested. The evenings which a young man spends w^ith his sweetheart seem to him but moments, and the seven years which Jacob served Laban for Rachel, the Bible says, " seemed unto him but a few days." Think, on the other hand, of the dulness of an evenino: when there is nothinof to interest us, and imagine a seven years' servitude without an object before us. How many pupils in our public schools put in their time without any particular aim, and look upon the school period as a tiresome servitude? 20 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The graduating system aims, hy incentives, to ren- der the school period as pleasurable to pupils as were the years to Jacob in which he served for Eachel. No point in the pupil's history is more important and critical, so far as his education is concerned, than the time when his age and attainments are such that he may, with propriety, agree to complete, in a given time, the common-school course of study. If he has been well trained up to the present time, and has determined to complete the course, he will be willing and anxious to give his name and to agree upon a time for his graduation. If, however, he is undecided, the highest skill in the art of teaching is here demanded. His name should not be entered in the catalogue without his hearty consent ; and this he cannot give unless he has made up his mind to complete the course. Decision is as essential to his becominof a scholar as conversion is to his becomins^ a Christian. In attempting to lead the pupil to a proper con- clusion, let the teacher carefully avoid everything that looks like compulsion. There is a universal law running through human nature which resents any attempt to drive us, even in the direction ci' desir- able objects. Let a young gentleman find that his lady-love demands his attention, and he soon loses his fondness for her society ; or let her become con- vinced that he is inclined to exact her favor, and she will be ready to accept the hand of another. THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 21 This law of Nature, which common-sense dictates in courtship, should never be violated by the teacher in his etlbrts to induce the pupil to make the decision that he will complete a course of study. In this work, however, the teacher may, vnth propriety, summon to his aid all the helps within his reach ; and if he is really a ieachei-, he can, through parents and intimate friends of the pupil, wield an influence which is almost irresistible. He should feel that success here makes his pupil a willing student, and that fail- ure here may prove fatal to his education. AVe can scarcely estimate the advantages of having the voluntary consent of the pupil to take his educa- tion into his own hands. Forcinsr mental sfrowth is as unnatural as forcing physical growth ; and we can no more cause the pupil's mind to grow by com- pelling him to study against his will, than wo can cause his body to grow by forcing food upon his stomach for which he has no appetite. In early childhood a desire to gain knowledge is as universal as a desire to take food ; and with proper management in the home and in the school, this mental appetite will continue undiminished through- out youth and maturity. During all the years of infancy, childhood, and youth, the sensible mother places suitable food before her child ; and if at any time it is indisposed to eat, she aims to prepare something more palatable. Sooner than force it to eat she allows it to fast. If the pupil has so far lost his appetite for knowledge that he has little taste for 22 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. the subjects contained in the course of study, it is the work of the true teacher, by methods and motives, to sweeten these subjects, and thereby ren- der them palatable to the pupil r LECTUEE in. THE GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS DEFINED, AND THE MODE OF ITS APPLICATION CONSIDERED (CONCLUDED) . When a pupil ten or twelv^e years of age, under the graduating system, after due consideration of the sul)ject, agrees to take up and complete the common- school course of study in a given time, he feels that his education is his own work. He then has an object in view, a point which he is resolved to reach ; and the full force of his wdll-power carries him onward like a vessel moving with the current. He looks forward with interest to the time when, with his cousins and acquaintances of like grade from other schools of the township, his work wdll be tested in the annual examination of the graduating classes. He begins to calculate how much work he must accomplish each quarter, in order to be ready for his graduation. He tries to ascertain from his acquaint- ances the progress of each pupil who is preparing for examination, and he carefully compares the work of each with his own.^ The pleasing prospect of ob- taining a handsome diploma helps to render his studies agreeable and easy. Fear of failure in the 24 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. coming examination is readily removed, by assuring him that faithful study will certainly secure success. The more fully he is impressed with the fact that his undertaking has been made public, the more earnest will be his efforts to complete the course of stud}^ in' the time prescribed. As the time for his graduation begins to draw near, he finds that there is yet a great deal of work to be done ; and he goes at it with a will. He devours history and geography with a greediness that he heretofore knew nothing of; and he solves problems and an- alyzes sentences with an ease which surprises himself. He now begins to feel conscious of his own strength. The branches upon which he is to be examined form his chief topic of thought and conversation, both in school and out of school. He can hardly lay down his books lone: enoiio-h to do the evenino; and morn- ins: chores about the house. He observes in the local paper of the county, at the house of a friend (for his father takes no paper), a notice of the examination which will take place the foUowinof week. He reads with interest a list of names of those who are expected to graduate, and he finds Ids name among them. Several of his acquaint- ances are named in the list, and he feels confident that if they can pass the examination, he can also. His earnest efforts to complete a course of study have already kindled an interest in the minds of his acquaintances, and they arc preparing to be present to witness his examination. THE GEADUATIXG SYSTEM DEFIXED. 25 It is now evident to the committee of arrange- ments, that no ordinary school-house can accommo- date the multitude that will be present to witness the exercises ; and the largest church in the commu- nity is secured for the occasion. A popular and practical speakei* is engaged to deliver an appropriate address to the graduating class and to the people, on the evening of the day of examination. Arrange- ments are made to have the best music, vocal and instrumental, both day and night, which the commu- nity can produce. The morning of the long-looked-for day arrives, and our young hero, for that is what wo will call him, is present at the appointed time. He is directed to take his place in the class, and he finds himself in the midst of more than a score of girls and boys who have been as busy in preparing for this examination as he himself has been. The church is crowded to ovei^owing, and he can almost feel in the atmos- phere around him that the multitude is in sympathy with this movement. The county superintendent, vrho is present to take charge of the exercises, in a few encouraofino: words addressed to the members of the gi-aduating class says, '' We will commence this work so gently that you will scarcely know that you arc in an examination." The teachers of the terri- tory represented are present, and constitute a com- mittee to consider the merits of each member of the class, as shown in the examination. The secretary takes the name of each member of the class and the 26 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. name of the school to which each belongs, and calls this roll; and each one, in answering to his name, rises in his place and remains standing for a moment, so that he may be recognized by the audience. An appropriate song is sung, a short prayer is offered, and the examination begins. In order to avoid embarrassment in the beginning, the first exer- cise will be in orthography, and will be written. Each member of the class is provided with paper and pencil. The superintendent pronounces distinctly, and each member of the class writes down rapidly a score or more of test words which are of common use in conversation or in public prints. He asks such questions upon the principles of orthography as seem to him proper and appropriate, and each mem- ber of the class writes his own answer. These man- uscripts are then carefully folded and appropriately indorsed by the members of the class, and delivered to the committee of examination. The superintendent here informs the class that after music their next exercise will be select read- ings, and he suggests that during the singing they may take occasion to become better acqu,ainted with each other. They do not wait for a formal intro- duction, but boys and girls begin at once to inquire of each other how certain words which the super- intendent pronounced should be spelled, and they come to the conclusion that most of them, and perhaps all of them, have made mistakes. Find- ing themselves about on a level with each other, a THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 27 bond of sympathy is formed, and they begin to feel at home. Many members of the audience have also written the words pronomiced by the superintendent, and are comparing papers and discussing differences ; while others are so interested in the music that they are imconscious of the conversation which is carried on all around them. The music ceases, and the superintendent an- nounces that the exercise in select reading will Ijegin. He takes occasion, however, to state that no member of the class will be called upon to read ; but that each one wdll rise when he is ready, and wdll remain silent until his teacher recognizes him and aimounces his name and the name of the school to which he belongs, so that all present, wdiile listen- ing to him, may know who he is, where he is from, and Avho has been his instructor. The superintend- ent further states that w^hile no disgrace will be attached to the one who reads last, there is an honor in being first in the class, and he calls for volunteers. " Our 3^oung hero " here resolves that, for the sake of his parents and friends who are present, and for the honor of himself and his school, he w411 try to take the front rank in this examination; so, in less time than it takes me to tell it, he rises to read. His teacher, having heretofore selected his piece, and'having, as he thinks, thoroaghly drilled him in reading it, feels an inward pride in announcing his name and the name of the school to wdiich he belons^s. 28 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The selection is from his school reader, for he had no other source from which to select, and his teacher had nothing else. He is perfectly familiar with his subject, and most of the people present are no less familiar with it than himself. He reads deliberately, pronounces correctly, and emphasizes carefully such words as his teacher taught him to render emphatic. He takes his seat, and all are ready to confess that his reading was faultless. Another member of the class rises to read. He holds a maofazine in his hand. He states that his subject is entitled, "Heating Country School-Houses by Hot-Water Pipes at the Feet of each Pupil." The bare announcement of his subject causes people to open their eyes and ears. The article, though short, shows that this method of distributing heat at the floor all over the room is like Nature's method of warming the body by the circulation of the blood ; that, although it costs a little more in the beginning, it is a great saving in the end, using much less fuel than the former plan, and that this method of warm- ing country school-houses and churches is likely to become universal. The article closes with a state- ment that the next number of the magazine will contain a complete description of this heating appa- ratus, together with the cost of its construction. As he takes his seat, it is evident to everybody that his reading has won ; that it will be remembered ; that he has given people something to take home with them. It is equally evident that " our young hero " THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 29 has been placed at a disadvantage, not for want of preparation, but for want of material from which to make his selection. A young lady rises to read. She has neither a book nor a magazine in her hand, but a printed slip of paper clipped from a cohimn of some journal. She announces as her subject, "Newspapers a Neces- sity in the Education of a Family." She reads with effect, and her hearers are almost ready to conclude that the newspapers of the present will soon super- sede the books of the past ; but her subject is quite balanced by another, Avho reads an article on " The Advantages of having a Family Librarj^" The oldest member of the class now rises to read. He is preparing to become a teacher, and all are anxious to hear him. His selection is entitled " Educational Journals Indispensable to the Teacher." In a clear tone and earnest hianner he declares that, among the great multitude of teachers who read no educational journals, not a single first-class teacher can be found. He proceeds to prove that the teacher's skill cannot be at its best, unless he can command the latest thoughts of the best thinkers ; that this he can accomplish only by bringing his mind into contact with the minds of the most skilful educators of the present day, and that educational journals are the most economical means for accom- plishing this end. A young lady rises with a Bible in her hand, and reads a few verses from St. John's Gospel, commen- 30 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. cing, "Search the Scriptures, for in them ye thiijk ye have eternal life." She is followed by another, whose subject is, "The Necessity for. an Unabridged Dictionary in every School-House and Family." One after another, in quick succession, pointed and practical pieces are read by members of the class. Some of the people present are about to come to the conclusion that, from the number of books and newspapers which appear to be needed, there is danger that work and business, and our duty toward each other, may be lost sight of and neglected. Just at this point a young lady reads from the Scrip- tures the following verses : — " Not slothful in business ; fervent in spirit ; serv- ing the Lord ; " Eejoicing in hope ; patient in tribulation ; con- tinuing instant in prayer-; "Distributing to the necessity of saints; given to hospitality. "Bless them which persecute you : bless, and curse not. " Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. "Be of the same mind one toward another. Mind not high things, but condescend to men of low estate. Be not wise in 3^our own conceits. "Recompense to no man evil for evil. Provide things honest in the sight of all men. THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 31 "If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably with all men. " Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but rather give place unto wrath : for it is written, Vengeance is mine ; I will repay, saith the Lord. " Therefore if thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him drink : for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of lire on his head. "Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good." All have now read, and the superintendent an- nounces a recess of a few minutes. Nothing is more natural than the fact that, during recess, the w^ork of the several members of the class forms the chief, and indeed the only topic of conveisation. People present could scarcely think of anything else to talk about, even if they would try. In the conversation which is now going on, it is generally conceded that some members of the class have made selections more appropriate and have read with better eifect than others ; but it is equally clear to most persons present that the chief cause of this difference may be traced to the fact that some have had periodicals and libraries from which to make selections, while others have had no such helps. Eecess is ended, and the superintendent announces that, in order to make the exercises especially inter- esting to the audience, most of the work of the examination will be oral. He states that he has carefully prepared quite a number of topics on each 32 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. hraiicli upon which the class is to ])e examined, — topics sufficient to cover, in a general sense, the entire field of each subject. These topics arc written on slips of paper, and each member of the class will be permitted, at the proper time, to draw and render one topic on each subject. At the conclusion of each rendering, opportunity will be given to other mem- bers of the class for brief additional remarks upon the topic, and for criticisms upon the manner in which it has been rendered. If any member of the class should draw a topic which he is unable to master, he may publicly surrender it and draw another ; but such surrender will indicate his want of knowledge on that particular point. This defect he may, however, in a considerable degree, make up by additional remarks or criticisms upon others. The superiutendent here exhibits a number of topics on the subject of geography, and he proceeds to mix and intermingle these topics in the presence of the class and of the audience. lie states that in rendering these geographical topics, more attention should be given to the principles of the science, and to the facts pertaining to the face of the country, and to the character of the people, than to the names of unimportant places. He suggests that in render- ing any geographical topic which pertains to a country or a place, the person rendering it should, first of all, locate said country or place, by stating in wdiat direction it is, and about how far from the point where he is standing, and by what mode of THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 33 travelling he would be able to reach it. Ho should not confine himself to his text-book. A knowledge of any matter of especial interest to the public which may be transpiring in any country is cer- tainly as important as a knowledge of the boundary lines of that country, and if omitted by the one who renders the topic, should be mentioned by some other member of the class. Each one now draws from the superintendent's hand one topic ; and, notwithstanding the choir dis- courses excellent music while the members of the class are preparing to render these topics, so deep is the interest that they are unconscious of its melody. Music ceases, and the superintendent calls for some one to rise, voluntarily, and render his topic. One after another, topics are read aloud and ren- dered, and interesting additional remarks and criti- cisms follow in almost every case. So deeply interested are the people who are present, that at certain points in the discussion of these topics some persons can scarcely refrain from speaking out pub- licly. The advantages gained by members of the class who have had access to periodicals and libraries, over members who have had no such help, are even more clearly seen in the examination in geography than in the exercises in select reading. The hour for dinner is noAV at hand, and the superintendent announces the order of the exami- nation for the afternoon, as follows : — 3 34 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. ^''Arithmetic, — An examination Avliich will not be difficult to the class nor uninteresting to the audience. ^^Ilistori/, — An examination running back into the past and coming down to the present. ^^ Penmanship , — A specimen of the handwriting of each member of the class, giving illustrations of the leading principles of the art of writing." I desire to say that all these subjects may be rendered interesting to an audience by the touch of a skilful hand ; and the superintendent has studied these subjects, in connection with human nature, until he knows how to interest patrons and pupils. The choir sings a closing piece., and the audience is dismissed for dinner. Most persons who are present have provided themselves with basket-dinners, and with a suffi- cient supply f)r supper also, as they expect to remain during the day and the evening. It is un- necessary to say that the noon hour is spent in earnest discussions about the work of the examina- tion. Every man and every woman present has an opinion to offer, and each one is ready to give a reason for his opinion. The members of the graduating class have now lost most of that timidity which is so natural to young people in the opening exercises of any pub- lic performance, and each one is quite as much at home as he would be in his own school. It is true that each one has discovered that in every branch upon which he has been examined, there are many THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 35 points which he has not yet mastered; but it is gratifying to each one to know, also, that most members of the chiss are in a similar condition. The hour for resuming the work of the examina- tion has arrived, the several members of the class arc in their respective places, the audience is seated, and the choir sings an appropriate song. It is scarcely necessary for me to follow the course of these exercises throughout the afternoon. I will simply say that, as the work of the examination pro- gresses, the interest increases, until it reaches a degree almost equal to white heat. We have now reached the closing point in the work of the examination. The superintendent an- nounces that the evening exercises will consist of an address to the graduating class and to the people, by an invited speaker, to be followed by the con- ferring of diplomas Ijy the superintendent, and that all the exercises will be interspersed with excellent music. The audience is dismissed and the teachers retire to a private room, arranged for the purpose, to con- sult about the merits of each member of the class. Oliver Wendell Holmes, in his w^onderful work of wit and humor, entitled "The Autocrat," says, " Little-minded people's thoughts move in such small circles that five minutes' conversation gives you an arc long enough to determine their Avhole curve." This quaint saying of Dr. Holmes is not npplicable to the members of this class, for they are 36 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. not little-minded people ; and yet the work of this day will certainly give to the committee of exam- ination, and indeed to all close observers, a fair index to the knowledge which each one possesses of the several branches upon which the class has been examined. The first point to be settled by the committee of examination is whether or not the members of the chiss are all worthy of graduation. Some are, with- out doubt, superior to others ; but it is decided that none stand so low that they deserve to be rejected. This decision is quietly communicated to the mem- bers of the class, so that they may feel, in a degree, easy ^ith regard to the result. This information is quite a relief to them, and they have a special relish for their suppers, as they now feel certain that their day's work has not been a failure. The committee of examination has now completed its work of grading, and all the diplomas are signed, ready for delivery. I present you here a miniature diploma or honorary certificate, which shows that the work of each pupil is graded upon a scale from one to ten, — five being medium and ten excellent. THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 37 ^cpacimcnf of public ^choota OF THE State of.^ , County of. ^>-M:HONORARY CERTIFICATE.'tf^^ GRADE NO ?^t -l:> ?ie^C/CM4 c<^tl|ic-b, That, ^9^ a pupilin the Public School in School-House No , District (or Township) of , County of and State of , has accomplished a Course of Study in branches prescribed by law, viz. : Orthography, Heading, Penniat-ship, Arithmetic, Geographi/j Muglish Gratnrnar and Historg, as evidenced by the signature of. , Teacher of said School. Said has also this day, at , in the presence of of the Teachers of said District (or Township), passed an examination in the branches above named, all of whom direct the County Superintendent of this County to grant this HONORARY CERTIFICATE, WITH THE ACCOMPANYING GRADE. The President of the School Board of said District (or Town- ship), also, by his signature hereto attached, certifies that said IS a person of good moral character. ©o^ve at. ., in the County of , State of , this. day of , A. D. 1880. County Supt. of. County. .Teacher of School No.. President of the School Board, Scale of Grade. — No. 10 signifies excellent; No. 5, medium. 38 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. You will observe th;it the teacher of each pupil who is entitled to the same, certifies that the holder of this certificate has accomplished the course of study therein named. This is required as a matter of good faith on the part of the teacher, and it shows that, in his judgment, the holder is worthy. Each certificate is signed by the president of the school board, who certifies that the holder is a person of good moral character. This is required as an incen- tive to good morals ; and no one should be graduated who is unworthy of such certificate. Each certificate is signed also by the county superintendent, who certifies that the holder has been by him examined in the presence of the teachers of the township or dis- trict, and that these teachers direct him to grant this certificate with the accompanying grade. Xo cer- tificate should, in my opinion, be granted where the grade is belov/ seven, on a scale from one to ten. It is now time to bei^in the exercises of the even- ing, and the house is crowded to its utmost capacity. The members of the graduating class are seated to- gether, and it is evident to all present that they have become pretty well acquainted with each other. They have done a hard day's work, but they have rather enjoyed it ; and they are almost sorry that the time for separation is so near at hand. As soldiers from different States standing side by side, braving together the dangers of battle, become, in a single day's action, warmly attached to each other, so the members of this class have in this examination formed THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 39 a friendship for each other which neither distance nor time can sever. After the opening exercises are conchided, the orator of the evening is introduced to the audi- ence. He is a plain, practical speaker, and he understands the wants of the country people. He announces the title of his evening talk : " Education pays; Ignorance costs," 'By argument, and from statistics, he proves clearly to all present that monej' paid by the State for the enlightenment o'f the people becomes an investment at compound interest. He proves that property must educate and so enal)le the people to take care of themselves and earn something more, by which the State is enriched ; or property must be taxed to support the paupers and punish the criminals, which grow up and curse and burden the State with costs, for lack of education. He proves to parents that, next to providing food and raiment for their families, the best investment they can make is to take stock in the education of their children. He asserts, and proves by persons present who have travelled, that prosperity is invari- ably seen in States where the people take a lively interest in the education of the masses. He proves that this prosperity is seen in the fertility of the fiirms, in the comfort, convenience, and beauty of the homes, and in the health, wealth, virtue, and happiness of the people. He makes it a point to prove that the reverse is true wherever the masses are groping in ignorance. 40 GRADUATING ' SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. He shows that the branches upon which the class has this day been examined are but keys to unlock the storehouses of knowledge, — the printed pages of volumes and of periodicals. He insists that parents should see to it that their children are provided with a sufficient supply of suitable books and papers to enable them to occupy pleasantly and profitably all their otherwise idle hours. Turning to the members of the graduating class, he tells them that this day's examination gives them an index to their weak points, — points which they must fortify in the future. This they can best accomplish by remaining for some time in school ; but when the school period is ended, they should by no means cease to study. They should not merely perfect themselves in these branches, but in every possible way enlarge the boundaries of their knowledge. In conclusion, he indulges the hope that the mem- bers of the class Avill so fit themselves for future work, that they may become better farmers and mechanics than their fathers, better housekeepers and cooks than their mothers, and that they may all be intelligent and enterprising citizens, and earnest ami useful Christians. The choir now sings, while the audience rises to become rested. The thoughtful expression of all who are present indicates that the speaker has set the people to thinking on a higher plane. "Our 3'oung hero" here resolves that he will, by a THE GRADUATING SYSTEM DEFINED. 41 course of reading, make himself more than a match for those with whom he has this day measured arms, and this seems to be the personal sentiment of each member of the class. Parents are pondering the propriety of purchasing books and subscribing for papers. New light has been let in upon their minds, and they see things as they never before saw them. Singing is ended, the audience is seated, the secretary calls the roll, and the members of the graduating class take their places, standing in front of the platform or pulpit. In the presence of the people, amidst unbroken silence, the superintendent presents each member of the class a handsome diplo- ma. In a few pointed and appropriate remarks he urges them to make themselves strong in hand and head and heart. He tells them that this is their first public victory, and he hopes it Avill be followed by a succession of greater victories won by each in the battle of life. He tells them that the^^ should regard themselves from this hour as an Alumni Association, and that he proposes, some time within the year, to call them together for permanent organization and for a public performance, consisting of original and select ora- tions, essays, and select readings. Pie announces that the First Annual Catalogue of the common schools of the county will be published as soon as the necessary information can be collected. He thanks the class for earnest work, the choir for 42 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRl SCHOOLS. excellent music, and the people for fjiitlifiil attention. The choir sings, the audience is dismissed, and the people dis[)erse. We have now witnessed the beginning of a great educational revival in this community. Time will not permit us at present to trace its influences. This revival is not the result of an unnatural stimulus, nor was it produced by appealing to huvs which are local. It is simply the response obtained by an appeal to nature's universal law, and under this law we would receive a like response from any civilized people on the face of the earth. Other methods of conducting examinations of graduating classes and holding commencements — methods which by many ai'e regarded superior to the foregoing plan — will be presented briefly at some future time. LECTUEE IV. ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The graduating system for country schools had its origin in Monongalia County, West Virginia. The first classes under this system were organized in the autumn of 1874, and the first examinations were held in the spring of 1876. The first country-school cata- logue was issued in the summer of 1876, and the first ahimni associations were organized in the following winter. I make these statements after consultinsr the best sources of information upon the subject, and I shall hereafter present some of the testimony upon which these statements are founded. A brief account of the location and educational facilities of the county which gave birth to this system will not be inappropriate. Monongalia County is situated in the valley of the beautiful Monongahela. On the east it reaches the slopes of Laurel Hill, a spur of the AUeghanies ; from thence it stretches westward, bordering on Mason and Dixon's line, a distance of nearly forty miles. It is triangular in form, and its greatest width is a little more than twenty miles. It has a population of 44 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. about 15,000, embracing over 5,000 youths who are entitled to attend its public schools. The seven country-school districts of this county contain eighty- five neat frame school-houses, nearly uniform in size and architectural style. IMorgantown, the county seat, beautifully located on the east bank of the Monongahela River, has long enjoyed a reputation as a literary town. Monongalia Academy, Woodburn Seminary, and Morgantown Female Collegiate Insti- tute were for many years flourishing institutions in this "Athens of West Virginia." It is at present the seat of AVest Virginia University, Morgantown Female Seminary, and a free graded school. In order to present a satisfactory account of the origin of the graduating system for country schools, it is necessary to narrate some of the circumstances which led to its discovery. In the autumn of 1873 I was employed by County Superintendent II. L. Cox, to visit the schools of Monongalia County, West Virginia. Most of my work as an educator previous to that time had been confined to the school-room. I had long entertained the belief that there is somewhere a missing link in our educational worli, and that its place, when found, would most likely be in our system of common schools. I resolved that wdiile vi-iting the schools of the county I would study the secret springs of action in school life, and try to devise a plan to facil- itate primary school work as broad in its application as the system which seeks to educate and to elevate ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 45 tbe race. To this end 1 began to study the princi- ples which prompt pupils to action, and the motives which move men and women to make sacrifices for the education of their children. I found in Sect. 55 of the school law of the State my duties set forth as follows : — " The coiint}^ superinteiident shall visit the schools ■u-ithin his count}' at least once, at such times as he may deem necessaiy and proper, and note the course and method of instruction and the branches taught, and give such directions in the art of teaching and the method thereof in each school as to him shall seem necessary or expedient, so that uniformity in the course of studies and method of instruction emplo^'ed shall be secured." A careful study of this section of the law con- vinced me that my time in each school must not be devoted mainly to speech-making. I made up my mind that I would visit two schools each day, and spend a morning or an afternoon in each; that I Avould examine carefully the work of each school, tiy to ascertain its wants, and see if I could suirsrest some w^ay of relief. I soon found that there was a painful want of uniformity in the course of studies of the several schools. Some schools had taken up twice as many branches as others, and arithmetic seemed to be the stopping-point in a majority of cases. Many parents reserved the right to dictate the branches which their children should study, and many teachers regarded their work well done when 40 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. they had given instruction in those branches which happened to suit the convenience or caprice of either parents or pupils. In h)oking to the school law for the settlement of the question as to what branches should be studied in the public schools of the State, I found the course as clearly defined as the course in any college or university, and that it was by no means an optional course of study. In order to make this matter plain, I here present Sect. 11 of the school law of the State : — ''In the primar}^ schools there shall be taught Orthogra- pb}^, Reading, Penmanship, Arithmetic, English Grammar, Ilistoiy, Geograph}', and such other branches as the Board of Education ma}' direct." I presented this section of the law in every school which I visited, and insisted that the entire course of study should be taken up by all the older and more advanced pupils. Many teachers suggested that there were insurmountable difficulties in the way of such an undertaking, among which they named a want of necessary books and an indisposition on the part of pupils to take up additional branches. The more skilful teachers, however, testified that they had no difficulty in inducing pupils to take up additional studies, no trouble to procure from parents the books they needed, and that pupils who had taken up all the branches contained in the course of study were making better progress in each than were pupils who ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 47 had taken up but half the branches contained in the course. I observed that the testimony of these teach- ers had great weight with parents and pupils, so I presented such testimony wherever I went. I found that if I expected to secure uniformity in the course of studies in all the schools of the county, as the law required, I would have no time to hear recitations; so I devoted myself mainly to the work of ascer- taining what branches each pupil was pursuing, and to the task of aiding teachers in the organization of additional classes, and procuring such books as were needed. I kept a journal in which I aimed to enter all items of general interest connected with the work of each school. I observed that teachers and pupils were all anxious to know whether any person l)eside myself would have access to this journal, and whether these items would in any way be made public. I soon became satisfied that the easiest way to induce pupds to take up additional branches, and to influ- ence parents to purchase necessary books, w^ould be in some w^ay to make pul^lic the work of each school. I began first by announcing in each school that I would report its vfork in the school which I would next visit. I observed from that time forth that whenever I entered a school-room I found pupils present from the school which I had last visited, and I learned that they were there by permission of their teacher to hear their school reporteJ, and to compare their own work with the work of their neighbors. 48 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The desire of teachers and pupils and parents to hear the reports, and to compare the work of the several schools, became so strong that, in order to gratify this desire, I held each evening an educational raeet- ing in one of the school-houses visited during the day. These evening educational meetings became a matter of public interest in every part of the county. People were not long contented with a knowledge of the condition of the schools of their own community, but frequently called for reports of schools in other sections of the county in Avhich they chanced to have acquaintances. I made it a point in each meeting to state the number of schools I had up to that time visited, and the number in which classes had been formed in all the branches ; and in many places I was called upon to name the schools in which such classes had been formed, and the teacher in charge of each. Teachers, pupils, and patrons of schools having classes in all the branches came from every direction to attend our meetings and hear their schools reported. Classes in many of the schools were organized in advance of my visits, and I was notified of the fact and requested to report them. Thinking that I had touched the true key to success by making public the work of each school, I pub- lished at the end of the school term in our local paper, the Morgantoion Post, a list of schools in ^rhich classes had been formed in all the branches, and the name of the teacher in charge of each. This county contained at that time seventy-eight country ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 49 schools, and thirty-two of these were reported m the published list, the "n>Z/ of honor 1^' Quite a number of teachers whose names had not been published, informed me, soon aftel- the publication of the list, that they did not intend to be left off the roll of honor next year. I observed that teachers felt more interest in having their names published than pupils and patrons felt in having their schools published. This convinced me that the most effectual way to reach pupils and pitrons of our public schools is, in some way, to make public the individual ivork of those pupils who are most deserving of praise. Be- lie vins^ that it would aid teachers in oriranizinof classes and obtaining books, I announced in tho county ne\;v^spaper that in the evening educational meetings which I proposed to hold while visiting the schools of the county the next winter, I would make public the names of all pupils who would take up the entire course of study. In the autumn of 1874, soon after the schools were opened, I received word from various directions that classes embracinof all the branches h:id been orij^an- izecl in nearly every school. I was highly delighted with the progress made in this matter, and I came to the conclusion that my plan was already a success. Soon after this I commenced visiting schools, and began to inquire for pupils who had taken up the full course of stud}^ intending to enter their names in my journal for the purpose of reporting them in our educational meetings, when, to my surprise and 50 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. mortification, I found that scarcely any of them had taken up more than two studies. One had taken up arithmetic and geography, another had taken up arithmetic and English grammar, and still another arithmetic and history, according as they had " likes and dislikes" for these branches. Feelins: that I had not yet accomplished my purpose, I next undertook to organize in each school a class of advanced pupils who would agree to take up all the branches. This was thought to bo, as one who entered the class ex- pressed it, "no fool of a job"; and yet, by the aid of the teachers, I succeeded from day to day in most of the schools. In our educational meetings, which were held each evening, I reported the names of pupils who had entered the classes in each of the schools visited during the day, and in other schools near by. The relatives and friends of pupils com- posing these classes were much pleased with these reports, and in most of our meetings the greater part of the audience was made up of relatives and tViends. Some of our best teachers entertained fears that at the close of the school term the special interest would cease, and most of the members of these classes would backslide, and thus render it necessary for us, the next term, to "do our first works." I soon became satisfied that these fears were well founded. Pupils had entered these classes, supposing that the end of the present school term would release them from all obligations. Very few of them had made up their minds to complete the course of study. In ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 51 order to obviate this difficulty I undertook to organ- ize in each school a class of volunteers who would agree not only to take uj) the free-school course, but to comj)l('te it. Pupils very naturally inquired, before giving their names as volunteers, "How soon is this work to be completed, and who is to judge whether or not it is well done?" I told them we would have to trust to each class to do this work well, and to do it in a reasonable time. I organized two classes upon this principle, and in our evening educational meeting I reported my plan. I observed, however, that my statement of the plan produced no special interest on the part of any who w^ere present. Several short speeches were made, but none of the speakers re- ferred to my plan. It was evident that they could sec nothing in it. I myself felt that it was a failure. After the meeting adjourned I retired at the house of a friend, but I found no rest. I was full of tossings to and fro. For the first time in my life I regretted that my lot as an educator had been cast in the common schools. I said, "Oh, that I were a president of a university, a professor in a college, or a principal of a high school, where the work of each pupil is annually tested by a thorough examination." I remembered noticing, not long before, upon the wall of a parlor in West Virginia, a diploma belong- ing to a young lady, a graduate of the high school of Fort AYayne, Indiana, my native State. Then the inquiry came into my mind, — if they graduated 52 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. pupils in liirjh schools, why not graduate them in low schools? In a moment the darkness fled from my mind ; the light flashed, and I almost fancied it was day. I felt sure I had made the discovery. I said, "We will bring all the plans and appliances from the higher schools and apply them to the primary schools ; we will have annual examinations and com- mencement exercises, and we will grant diplomas and form alumni associations." Early next morning I entered upon my duties with renewed energies, and undertook to organize, by the aid of the teacher, in each school a class of volun- teers, who would agree not only to take up the entire course of study, but to complete it in a given time and to pass a public examination in the same. I found very few pupils who were advanced flir enough to enable them to complete the course during that term ; so I proposed that a public examination be held by the county superintendent in each district (not sub-district) in the county at the end of the school term of the next year, and that each pupil who should pass such examination creditably would receive a handsome diploma or honorary certificate, signed by the county superintendent and the teacher of the school in which he had completed the course. This class was termed the graduating class of 187 G. I found, however, that pupils who were willing to enter this class were not numerous. Man}^ parents expressed their doubts about the propriety of their children making such pledges. The teachers, almost ORIGIN OF THE GEADUATING SYSTEM!. 5o without exception, and the more intelligent people gave the plan their hearty co-operation. At the ensuing election, held Aug. 13, 1875, I was, without opposition, elected county superintend- ent. This I regarded not only a compliment to myself, but an indorsement of the graduating system which I had inauc^urated. In the autumn of 1875, as soon as the schools were fully in operation, I commenced my visitations, taking with me a sample free-school diploma, — a handsome certificate, nine by fourteen inches, neatly framed, which I exhibited in each school. I found that the graduating system was rapidly growing in popular favor, so I undertook to organize in each school, where there was material for doing so, not only a class for 1876, but also a class for 1877. Our educational meetings, which were held each evening, had, in the mean time, so increased in interest that school-houses were insufficient for the accommoda- tion of our vast audiences, and trustees of churches opened their houses of worship for our acconmioda- tion. I held, while visiting that winter, forty-three of these meetings, twenty-seven in churches. Numer- ous topics connected with popuhir education were discussed at these meetings, and addresses were de- livered by professors in the University, ministers of the gospel, teachers, f.irmers, and mechanics. No cue element added more to the interest and pleasure of these meetings than the music furnished by the young ladies and gentlemen of the several 54 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. communities in the comity. I availed myself each evening of the opportunity to report the names of those who had entered the classes of 1876 and 1877. I proposed to publish these names in the county newspaper ; and a spirit of emulation arose between the schools of each district, and an equal rivalry be- tween the several districts, as to wdiich school in each district or which district in the county should excel in the number and quality of its graduates. Teach- ers, pupils, and patrons of the schools became re- cruiting agents to obtain volunteers. The ranks were frequently increased by pupils publicly entering the classes at our educational meetings, and almost every mail brought me letters giving names to be added to the classes. In addition to the classes of 1876 and 1877, I sug- gested that each teacher form two other classes, so that each school w^ould have four classes ; and most of them did so. Pupils unprepared to enter either of these classes composed the preparatory depart- ment. One grand result of this classification was the effect produced upon pupils who entered the graduating classes. They had voluntarily consented to do a certain amount of work in a given time, and their work would be publicly tested. Every student of human nature could anticipate the result. Pupils began to count the months and weeks and da3^s in which this work was to be accomplished. They were found numbering the pages in their history, geography, and English grammar, and counting the ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 55 problems in arithmetic, in order to ascertain how many pages should be studied, and how many prob- lems solved each day, in order to complete these studies, and review, before examination da}^. One boy said to his comrade, after they had both given their names for gradujition, " Now, Tom, we have no more time for shooting paper wads at the ceiling or flipping beans at the girls." But the efiect of this classification was by no means confined to the mem- bers of the graduating class. Most of the younger pupils caught the example and inspiration of the older ones, and they too began to think and talk of the time Avhen they would also complete the course of study. Government in the school-room seemed to take care of itself, giving the teacher full time for his lei^fitimate work, teachino'. The time for the examination of graduating classes began to draw near, and croakers were busy, proph- esying that the whole system would prove a failure. " Such a thing," they said, " as graduating in country schools never has been done and never will " I watched anxiously the efiect of these predictions, and I was highly gratified to find that teachers and pupils were already beyond the region of uncertainty, and were only strengthened in their determination to make the plan a success. So far were they from fearing failure, that they requested me to make the examinations thorough and public, and as far as possible oral, so that the people could see and hear for themselves. 56 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Ill order to make pul)lic the time and place of each examination, I sent to each teacher, school officer, and minister of the gospel in the county, the following printed postal-card notice of examina- tions : — Office Sup't of Free Schools of Monongalia County, MORGANTOWN, W. Va., Feb. 16, 1876. To Teachers and Friends of Free Sdiools : The First Annual Examination of the Graduating Classes, for the several districts of this county, will be held at the places and dates named below : — ForGRvNT District, Zoar, Friday, Feb. 25, 1876. For Union '' Pierpoiut's, Saturday, Feb. 26. For Morgan *' Pleasant Plill, Friday, March 3. For Cass • ** Bethel, Saturday, March 4. For Ci AY *' Mooresville, Tuesday, March 7. For Battelle " West Warren, Thursday, March 9. For Clinton " Goshen, Saturday, March 11. Each examination will commence promptly at 10 a. m., and continue during the day. Every pupil should have a pencil and several sheets of fools- cap paper. At night the Graduating Class from each school will be repre- sented by an Oration, Essay, Declamation, or Select Keading from one of its members. The granting of Diplomas, and an Address to the Graduating Classes, by some experienced educator^ will close the exercises. Friends of Popu'ar Education are invited to be present. We expect the best music, vocal and instrumental, both day and night, which each district can produce. Basket dinners, and suppers too, will be in order. Very truly yours, A. L. WADE, Coxmty Supt. ORIGIN OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM. 57 I also sent copies of these card-notices to many of the public papers, and to all the county suponntcnd- ents of the State. The coming examinations were, therefore, published in all the schools of the county, announced from the pulpit, and noticed by the press. Great was the desire of the public to know the names of those who w^ere expected to graduate at each place named in the notice ; and when I published in the local paper of the county, the week previous to the first examination, a list of names of the graduat- ing classes for the following week, and announced that I would continue this each Aveek, until all the classes would be published, copies of the paper con- taining these lists were looked for with unusual interest, by parents and pupils, teachers and school officers, and by all who were interested in the educa- tional work. Unwilling to assume the responsibility of conduct- ing these examinations without aid, I secured the services of Prof. H. L. Cox, principal of Morgan- town Graded School ; Prof. W. E. Wh:te, late State Superintendent of Free Schools of West Virginia ; and Profs. Lyon, Purinton, and Owen, of AVest Vir- ginia University. I gave notice through the press, that one or more of these professors would be present to aid me in each examination, and to deliver an appropriate address in the evening. Although most parents were well pleased with the thought of having their children graduate, I observed, as the time for examination drew near, an increasing anxiety on the part of these parents about the final 58 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. result. I received numerous letters, was occasionally called upon, and sometimes sent for, by parents who had children in the ofraduatino: classes. One fortu- nate feature connected with this anxiety was, that these parents, almost without exception, were unwill- ing to let their children know that they had any fears as to their final success in the examination. An incident which took place a short time pre- vious to the first examination will serve, in some degree, to illustrate the depth of parental feeling in this matter. Eiding on horseback along a country road, I was passing a farm-house, when the proprie- tor, a man whom 1 knew very well, gave me a signal which indicated that he wished me to come to the house. On entering the door, I saw, in the manner of the man and his wife, unmistakable signs of great anxiety. Without any of the usual formalities, the man began : " The children are all at school ; wife and I have been wanting to see you for some time. You have got our daughter into this graduating class, and sJie seems to think that it is all very nice. Some people say that the object is to disgrace the children in the presence of a lot of college professors ; and wife and I have hardly slept any for a week. Our dauorhter knows nothino: about how anxious we are." Eising from his seat and approaching me, as I sat in his own house, without any sign of anger, but with deep feeling, pointing his forefinger at me, he said, "My daughter is a good girl, and she studies hard : I will go with her to the examination, and I intend to see that she is not abused." LECTURE V. i TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS OF THE GRADUATING SYSTEM The 25th of February, 1876,— the day which was to decide whether graduation in country schools should be a success or a faihu'c, — dawned beautiful and bris^ht. I was well aware that if the first exami- nation should bo a failure, it would be impossible, in this county, to rally a class at any subsequent time ; and I had felt a deep anxiety for this day to be fair. When the sun rose, the sky was clear, the air balmy and mild as a May morning. Full of hope, I was on my way to the appointed place, when I met a messenger who hurriedly handed me a letter. I saw, on opening it, that it was from one of the foremost teachers of the district in which the examination would be held. It was a short note, and I here pre- sent it in full : — Laurel Point, Feb. 25, 1876. A. L. Wade, County Superintendent of Schools. My Dear Sir, — A report is in circulation that you. will demand a fee of five dollars for each diploma granted, and that twenty-five cents will be charged each person as admis- sion to Prof- White's evening lecture I fear that this report 60 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. will fiffect the attendance, and I hope you will at once cor- rect it, tlirough the papers Yours in haste, Geoege Barb. While I had all confidence in the sincerity of the writer, I coLdd not believe that intelligent people would credit the report; and yet my anxiety was, 1 think, little less than that felt by Cyrus W. Field when the " Great Eastern " left the shore to lay the Atlantic cable. On nearing the church in which the examination was to be held, great was my gratifica- tion when I saw both sides of the road literally lined with horses and carriages, and the enclosure about the church almost filled with people. On entering the door I found the house already full ; and as I passed down the aisle toward the pulpit, an excellent choir, accompanied l^y a good organ, began to sing an appropriate song. Every teacher of the district was present, and a graduating class of fifty was seated in a suitable place. Professor Cox, my predecessor in office, a man of large experience and superior skill in public examinations, who had promised to aid me upon this occasion, was present, ready to perform his part. Professor Purinton, of West Virginia Uni- versity, was elected secretary, and was furnished with a blank book, for the purpose of making a permanent record of the proceedings. To give a detailed account of the work of this day and of the evening would be but a repetition of the spirit of the examination described in my last lecture. In order, however, to show the principal points of in- TEIALS AND TEIUMPHS. 61 terest in this and the subsequent examinations which had been announced, I here present an account copied from my official report for that year. The report says : — " These district examinations of graduating classes were held in churches in the following order : — " Grant District^ at Zoar Baptist Church, on Fri- day, Feb. 25, 1876. This district has thirteen schools, and all the teachers were present. The printed roll (of volunteers for graduation), number- ing sixty-one, was called, and fifty members re- sponded. The residue, having failed to complete the course, were transferred to the class of 1877. The examination was conducted by the county superin- tendent, assisted by Professor H. L. Cox, principal of Morgantown Graded School. In the evening addresses were made by Professor W. R. White, ex-State Superintendent of Free Schools of West Virginia, and Professor D. B. Purinton, of West Virginia University. " Union District^ at Peirpoint's Methodist Episco- pal Church, Saturday, Feb. 26, 1876. This district has eight schools, and all the teachers were present. The roll, numbering fifty, was called, and thirty- eight responded. The examination was conducted by the county superintendent, assisted by Professor F. S. Lyon, of West Virginia University, and Pro- fessor H. L. Cox. Addresses were delivered in the evening by Professors White, Lj^on, and Purinton. ^^ Morgan District, at Pleasant Hill Baptist Church, 62 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Friday, March 3, 1876. This district has eight schools, and all the teachers were present. The roll, numbering twenty-one, was called, and nine- teen responded. Professor White assisted the coun- ty superintendent in conducting the examination. Addresses in the evening by Professors Cox, White, Purinton, and Owen. '^ Cass District, at Bethel Methodist Episcopal Church, on Saturday, March 4, 1876. This district contains eight schools, and all the teachers were present except two, and these two were non-resi- dents. The roll, numbering thirty, was called, and twenty-one responded. Professor AVhite assisted the county superintendent in conducting the exami- nation, and in the evening delivered an address. " Clay District, at Valley Chapel Christian Church, on Tuesday, March 7, 1876. This district contains thirteen schools, and all the teachers were present except one, — a resident of this county. The roll of twenty -three was called, and seventeen answered. Professor Lyon assisted the county superintendent in the examination. In the evening addresses Avere made by Professor Lyon and Hon. William Price. ''Batttlle District, at West Vfarren Baptist Church, on Thursday, March 9, 1876. This district has thir- teen schools, and all the teachers were present except two, — one a resident of this county and the other a non-resident. The roll, numbering thii-ty- four, was called, and twenty-four responded ; but four of these withdrew from the class, not being TRIALS AND TKIIBIPHS. 63 fully prepared in all the branches of the course. One teacher who was present — a non-resident — declined to take any part in the work of deciding who were entitled to diplomas. Professor Lyon assisted the superintendent in conducting the exami- nation, and in the evening addressed the audience. " Clinton Dhiricl^ at Goshen Baptist Church, on Saturday, March 11, 1876. This district contains fourteen schools, and all the teachers were present. The roll, numbering forty-two, was called, and thirty- one answered. Professor L^^on assisted the county superintendent in conducting the examination. In the evening addresses were made by Professors Lyon, Owen, and Purinton. '■ The county superintendent, each evening, after the addresses were ended, in the pi'esence of the audience, delivered to each member of the class who was by the teachers of the district adjudged worthy of the same, a Diploma or Honorary Certificate, 9 X 14 inches, duly signed as heretofore set forth ; which, when framed, is an ornament to a parlor and an honor to the holder. ''Two hundred and sixty-one pupils entered the class of 1876, and of this number, one hundred and ninety-six completed the course and obtained diplo- mas." So far as I could learn, not a single pupil who had undertaken to complete the course of study for grad- uation stayed away from the examination from fear of failure. With the exception of a few who were 64 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. unable to attend, all who were prepared were present. Those who were unable to graduate in 1876 were transferred to the class of 1877. As an indication of the interest w^hich the teachers took in these examinations, I may refer to the fact which appears in the report I have given ; viz., only live teachers were marked absent. In order that 1 may, in some degree, give an idea of the interest which the masses manifested in these examinations, I quote further from my report of that year : — " With a single exception, the largest churches in the several districts were insufficient to accommodate, even during the day, the vast numbers who came to witness the examinations, i^nd these were not dis- interested spectators ; they were our most intelligent people, — the cream of society, — men and women who had sons or daughters or grandchildren or friends in the class, in whom they were deeply interested." In order to show the thorousrhness of these exami- nations, the success of pupils in passing through them, and the aims of those who graduated, I quote once more from my report : — " These examinations were no ' child's play ' ; they w^erc intended to test the knowledge of each pupil in the free-school branches ; and yet, with a very Ibw ex- ceptions, the members of the several classes displayed a coolness, a courage, and a knowledge of the common branches which many of our teachers do not possess. TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS. 65 But they do not expect to cease to study because they have graduated in the primary branches. They expect to work to obtain a, more thorough knowledge of these branches, and many of them intend to take up a higher course of study." You will please bear in mind that the quotations which I have made form a part of an official report, l)repared when the facts were fresh in memory, — prepared for circulation among the very people who were familiar with these ^icts. As soon as the last examination of graduating classes was ended, parents and pupils, teachers and school officers, began to inquire how soon the cata- logue of the schools of the county would bo pub- lished. Reports of these examinations had been published from time to time in the local paper of the county, and they had been read with interest, but they were scattered through several editions of the paper, — difficult to find for reference ; and the information which they gave, though good as far as it went, was incomplete, and by no means met the want that was felt in every family. A complete report, in cheap and convenient form, by the aid of which each family could compare intelh'gently the work of the several schools of the countj^, seemed to be essential. With a view of publishing such a pamphlet, I had, on the day of each examination, placed in the hands of each teacher who was present the following : — G6 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUXTRY SCHOOLS. Form of Eeport for Catalogue. REPOKT OF School, Sub^^zstrict No., district of..... ■^ ) For the Terr/i ending day of. 1878 Teacher. Number of youths entitled to attend . . '. Number of youths in attendance Number of youths entitled to attend, but not in attendance Daily average attendance Daily per cent of attendance of all entitled to attend Branches taught and number of pupils studying each branch, as follows : — Penmanship . Reading . , Orthography . History English Grammar Geography Written Arithmetic Mental Arithmetic . . igeS^ (Name any other classes, if any.) The following pupils graduated in 187G : CLASS FOR 1877. CLASS FOR 1878. CLASS FOR 1879. lagi-ee to pay member of the Publishing Committee of District, Dollar and Cents for Copies of the First Annual Catalogue of the Free Schools of Monongalia County — being ten cents per copy — at the time they are delivered to me. -•' Teacher. TRIALS AND TRIIBIPHS. 67 The teachers of each district, on the day of exami- nation of graduating classes, had chosen from their own body one member of the Committee on Publica- tion of the Cataloofue. This committee met at the Court House on the twenty-sixth day of June, 1876, having reports from most of the schools, and awarded the contract for publishing the First Annual Catalogue to the editors of the Morgantown " Post " ; six hundred copies for $60. A little over $50 had been subscribed, and the residue was paid by the county superintendent. A few teachers had failed to till up and return their reports, and in such cases abstracts were taken from the superintendent's journal. About the first of September, 1876, we published the First Annual Catalogue of the Free Schools of JMonongalia County, wdiich embraced the annual re- port of the county superintendent, and a report from every school in the county. This catalogue, w^hich was a 32 mo pamphlet of ninety-six pages, was pur- chased of teachers by parents and pupils, and read and studied by both 3^oung and old, until almost every one became familiar with the educational w^ork of the whole county. No other single book, except the Bible, seemed to present so many points of interest to the people of every community in the county. The per cent of attendance, which is clearly presented on every page, was carjefully studied by teachers and school officers. Parents and pupils having relatives and acquaintances residing in remote parts of the 68 GRiU)UATINa SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. county looked carefully in the catalogue to see whether the names of their cousins and friends were to be found in any of the classes. 1 he individual work of each teacher, as presented in the catalogue, indicated, in a good degree, his worth, and was care- fully considered by those who wished to employ pub- lic instructors. Many other points of interest connected w^ith this catalogue I must pass unnoticed. While the masses were generally well pleased with the work of the graduating system, there were some persons who had not ceased to prophesy that the plan would yet be a failure. " These examina- tions," they said, "were successful because the sys- tem was then new ; but the excitement will die away within the year, and it will be impossible to repeat them. These graduates," they said, " are sure in the end to be worsted, because they will certainly cease to study, as it is generally understood that gradua- tion means that they have learned all." In the autumn of 1876, as soon as the schools were fully at work, I commenced my annual visits. I was gratified to find the predictions that those who had graduated would cease to study were false. I found about ninety per cent of these alumni in school, either as teachers or pupils, many of them pursuing studies beyond the primary branches. Desiring to give the young people of the county the hiirhest mental training that our common schools can po-sibly afibrd, I introduced a plan v/hich gave a large number ot^ the graduates the privilege of TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS. 69 writing for the press. Another newspaper, called the "New Dominion," had hitely been started at the county seat. We now had papers representing the mterests of the twoleadmg political parties, and both papers were warmly interested in the educational work. At each of our educational mass meetings, held each evening, a correspondent for each of our county papers was chosen. These correspondents were usually selected from the alumni of the schools visited during the da}^ and generally consisted of a lady and a gentleman. Each correspondent was expected to furnish the paper Avhich he represented a condensed account of the proceedings of the mcet- ine introduced simulanteously into a number of buildings. For warming rooms of the size you mention hot water is cheaper than any steam apparatus that could be used, and is a positive and even heat, and can be regulated to any degree required. Your best plan for ventilating as well as Avarming your school-houses would be by indirect radiation, that is, place the apparatus in cellar of building. This system is a little more expensive than direct radiation, but it keeps the air pure and changes the entire air in a room every few minutes. The cheapest way would be to place the car stove in one corner of the school-room, and run pipes horizon- tally under the windows ; one coil arranged so fresh air from outside could pass over it, become warmed, and discharge into room through a grating or register, and the foul air exhausted throuirh a chimney-flue, COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSES. 153 with 11 register or grating at bottom near the floor. This would serve to ventilate as well as warm." I will not attempt to give a minute description of this heating apparatus. It may be seen and studied in any first-class car on most of our leading raiboads. I will say, however, that it is not a machine, but sim- ply a stove with an arrangement for heating water, and sending it on a circuit to all parts of the room, and returning it to be heated again. It is as simple as an ordinary suction pump, used by our farmers all over the land, and it is so constructed that fire is the only force needtd. A careful inspection of this apparatus will, I believe, convince any candid man that it maybe manufactured and sold at a price which will make its introduction into country school-houses a matter of economy as well as a matter of comfort. If railroad companies find that it pays them to place hot-water pipes at the feet of each passenger, are we not justified in the conclusion that it would pay the people of the country to place hot- water pipes at the feet of each pupil? The individual, or company, that shall furnish, at fair figures, an appa- ratus for heating country school-houses by hot water, providing for thoroughly healthful ventilation, and secure its introduction throughout the country, will lessen human suflfering and lengthen human life. The usual plan for depending entirely upon open spaces at the top of the windows for ventilation, is certainly not the common-sense method. A moment's consideration ought to convince any one, that if we 154 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. wish to provide a crowded school- room with plenty of pure air, we must let the air in low down, where it is needed. This we cannot do, in safety, unless we have some method of warming the air before it strikes the pupils. The plan of heating by hot water fur- nishes the means of warming the air as it passes into the room. Another important matter which should be care- fully considered in the ventilation of school-rooms is the fact that a considerable portion of the poisonous matter thrown from the lungs in breathing, being heavier than air, settles, and can be best carried away through a chimney flue having an opening near the floor. It would be better still if this open- ing consisted of a common fireplace, in which to keep live coals constantly burning. Perhaps the most dangerous impurity connected with a crowded school-room is the efliuvia from the skin. This poisonous matter settles upon the furni- ture and floor, and upon the clothing of pupils. It is not, like the gases, subject to the law of difi'usion, and the mere opening of a door or window will not remove it from the room. The most successful manner of removins: this matter from the furniture and floor is by flushiny, that is, by opening the door and the windows in the front and rear, so as to secure, as far as possible, a rush of air through the room. This can be done best at recess and noon, while pupils are at play, and it should never be neg- lected. In order that this work may be well done, COUNTRY SCHOOL-HOUSES. 155 there should be a door in the rear of the room as well as in front, or else the windows should come down almost or quite to the floor. It is idle to expect of pupils the highest progress, even under the most thorough teachers, if they are not supplied with plenty of pure air. We might as Avell feed our children on tainted meat and then expect them to enjoy a high degree of health, as to crowd them year after year into badly ventilated school- rooms, where they are compelled to breathe vitiated air, and then expect them to possess strong bodies and sound brains, — conditions which are essential to success in life. It would certainly pay the people of any State in the Union to employ a first-class architect, at a fair price, to devote at least a part of his time to the study of school architecture, and the preparations of plans for buildings yet to be erected, and to the introduction of the most approved methods of heat- ing and ventilating houses which have already been built. The foremost step that could possibly be taken would be the appointment of a national architect, who would devote himself entirely to the study of school architecture. AVe would not be without a precedent in making such an appointment. Bel- gium, several years ago, employed one of her best architects, and gave him three years to visit other nations and make the best model of a school-house, with the most healthful arrangements for heating, 150 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. lisflitinir, and ventilation. Thouo^htful educators who visited our International Exhibition in 1876, will Ion o^ remember the Belgian school-room as the highest model of a healthful school-house on the Centennial grounds. The propriety of appointing a national architect for this country is certainly worthy the consideration of Congress. It is a matter that ought to attract the attention of our wisest statesmen. If the Federal government feels an interest in the health, happiness, and intelligence of the people, let Federal aid be used for the purpose of doing that which single States can- not so readily accomplish. But in the absence of an official architect it will pay the people of any county, where houses are to be erected, to procure, at reasonable cost, the best model of a sanitary school-house. Where school officers are unwilling to expend money in procuring plans, they should at least consult the foremost teachers and the most intelligent people upon this subject. Let each new school-house represent the highest architectural skill and the purest taste of the most cultured people of the community in which it stands. I recommend all who are interested in .school archi- tecture to carefully study the suggestions of the committee that awarded the prizes offered by the pub- lishers of the " Sanitary Engineer." These sugges- tions alone, if carefully carried out, would produce a happy revolution in our school architecture. LECTURE XIII. FURNISHMENTS OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. The school-room should be furnished with every- thing that is essential to the health and comfort of teacher and pupils. It should also be supplied with whatever is necessary to a clear understanding of the subjects to be studied. Perhaps no one thing, in the last half-century, has done more to popularize our public school system than improved school furniture. School ofBcers who, in this age, conclude that it is economy to continue the use of the school furniture of their fathers, may be honest in their intentions, but they are mistaken in their conclusions. If the seat upon which a child is placed the first day it attends school is uncomfortable, it will form an unfavorable opinion of the school-room ; and this opinion is likely to grow with its growth and strengthen with its strength. It will, as a rule, have but little love for the teacher who placed it in such an uncomfortable situation ; for there is a law of life which leads us to love those who give us pleasure, and, if we are not careful, we may be led to hate those who give us pain. No teacher is likely to be popular unless he can 158 GRADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. command the Dieans which will render his pupils com- fortable. Let us take a case for the sake of illustra- tion. Suppose a school-house is t-o seated that the teacher is compelled to place small pupils on tall benches, where their feet cannot touch the floor; nine tenths of them will go home and tell their parents that they don't like the teaclier, when in truth the benches are to blame. Or, suppose the school-house is so seated that the teacher is compelled to place tall pupils upon low benches, where, day after day, they lean forward bending the breast bone, curv- ing the spine, and distorting every part of the body ; is it not natural for these pupils, while suffering, to cherish dislike for the teacher who keeps them confined in this manner? Lessons studied while pupils are suffering leave no lasting impressions upon their intellectual natures ; and there is great danger, under such circumstances, that they will form, not only a dislike for the teacher, but a hatred of school and an aversion to books. While it is true that very few country school- houses of the present day have furniture so anti- quated as that used fifty years ago, many of them are provided with seats made by a common house- carpenter. We do not now think of employing a carpenter to manufacture seats even for oar dining- rooms. If we wish to promote public health and happiness, and encourage the cause of universal education, we must supply our school-houses with seats and desks bent and shaped to suit the body. FURNISHIHENTS OF THE SCHOOL-EOOM. 159 In addition to seats and desks there are many other things which are essential to the school-room. I will name some of these essentials : — 1. Inside shutters hy which hght can be let in or shut out, without interfering with ventilation. 2. Black-boards — a plentiful supply — and eras- ers which will not " raise the dust " every time they are used. 3. A clock, placed where all pupils can see it. 4. Two thermometers, one placed at the warm- est and the other at the coldest point occupied by pupils. 5. Blocks for illustrating certain subjects in arithmetic. 6. A good globe, to illustrate the shape and motions of the earth, and to show the position of the several countries upon its surface. 7. A Bible and an unabridged dictionary, placed side by side upon the teacher's desk, as books of reference, to be used whenever needed. 8. A sweet-toned bell to call pupils from their play, and a still sweeter to call them to their class recitations. Numerous other thins^s will siif2:2:cst themselves to the live teacher as they are needed. All necessary supplies ought to be provided by school officers, but in some sections of the country many things which are needed must be furnished by the teacher, or they will be wanting. As a high degree of success in school work cannot 160 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. be reached without these essentials, let the teacher use his best efforts to secure from school officers such things as are needed. In case he should not fully succeed, I suggest that he may with propriety pay for his want of skill by purchasing such essentials as he is unable to procure from school officers. If, however, he should, term after term, fail to such an extent that he cannot aftbrd to furnish what is want- ing, he should inquire of himself whether this is an intimation that he has not been called to the teacher's work. Some one has said that " a great man is one who causes things to come to pass"; and I may be permitted to add that the clearest proof of a teach- er's skill is his success in what he fmdertakes. Our real worth as teachers depends upon what we do, but not upon what we know ; and the world will give us credit for our work, but not for our knowledge. LECTURE XIV. ORNAMENTATION OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. Fine pictures, in former times, were possessed only by rich people. In this age the parlors, sitting- rooms, and sleeping apartments of many of the poorer people are adorned with better pictures than Avere the palaces of kings a few centuries ago. The manner in which the home is adorned in this day depends, not upon the wealth, but upon the culture of its inmates. While nearly all pupils in the country come from homes Avhich are adorned with pictures, very few of them find the school-room ornamented in this man- ner. It would perhaps be difficult to tell why teach- ers have been so slow to introduce these tokens of culture into country school-houses. The uncertain tenure of the teacher's office has no doubt had much to do in this matter, but even this is not a sufficient reason for neo^lectin": to render the school-room beau- tiful and attractive. Without attempting to argue the necessity of making the school-room as attractive as possible, I propose to give a plan for introducing pictures into ll)2 GRADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUXTRY SCHOOLS o country school-houses, with very little cost to those who accomplish the work. The plan which I present is one which I have thoroughly tested. While superintending the schools of Mongolia County, W. Ya., I observed that the few teachers who introduced pictures into their school-houses seemed to have no trouble in the government of pupils. • The general appearance of these schools seemed to be so far above those around them, that I resolved to devise a plan for placing pictures in every school-room in the county. The plan is as simple as it was successful, and I commend it to all who may feel an interest in school aisthetics. I sent to the city for one hundred neat chromos, ten by twelve inches, which cost only a trifle at wholesale prices, and I carried several of these with me wherever I Avent in my work of visiting schools. In each school I proposed to present one of these pictures, upon condition that the teacher and pupils would promise at least one more for their school- room. The proposal accepted, a committee of pupils, ladies and gentlemen, appointed l)y the teacher, would make choice of a picture, which I then presented to the school. The interest in pictures flew in all dn-ections, and in many places they anticipated the superinten- dent's coming by performing their part of the contract in advance. The method adopted to accomplish this was as follows : — The teacher furnished one picture and gave permis- sion to each family, sometimes to each pupil, to fur- ORNAMENTATION OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 163 nish one. In rural districts, where pictures were not plenty, some pupils clipped them from magazines and almanacs. I Avas pleased to see, even in these cases, ingenuity and taste in framing them, using, as they did, for this purpose, wood, leather, paper, cornstalks, shells, autumn leaves, and fern. In other communi- ties cultivated mothers, yielding to the earnest ap- peals of their children, selected from the parlors their finest pictures and purest mottoes for the adornment of the school-room. These beautiful pictures and mottoes paid their cost in a single session. They strengthened in the pupils a love of the beautiful, a love of cleanliness, a love of order, and a love for their own school. The walls and windows of these school- rooms were kept clean and clear of cobwebs, and scrapers and mats were placed at many of the doors. Cleanliness of person and neatness of attire became marked characteristics, not only of teachers, but also of pupils throughout the county. The inspiration produced by this aesthetic culture was caught by many of the less fortunate pupils, and is still shedding sun- shine into their humble homes. No man can measure the influences of such culture upon the coming genera,- tions. I can name no field in which a teacher of culture can accomplish so much lasting good for the common people by the expenditure of so small an amount of time and money, as in the work of making the school- room more handsome and attractive. From numerous authorities which I could call up in support of this 164 GRADUATING SYSTEINI FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. opinion, I quote first the language of Ex-Governor Hendricks, of Indiana, who says : "I do not know of any duty more important for the teacher than that of making the school-room pleasant." Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, while speaking upon this subject in an address before the American Institute of Instruc- tion, said: "No church, no cathedral, or rich man's mansion ought to be so beautiful as the houses pro- vided for the children of the common people." But the teacher ought not to attempt to ornament the school-room without the help of his pupils. If he can induce all of them to aid him in this matter, he w^ill find that they will all be more than ever interested in the success of the school. If pupils feel that they have helped to make the walls of the school-room beautiful, they will also take an interest in keeping the floor clean. The influence which cleanliness and ornamentation exert upon the conduct of pupils may be clearly seen by all. It is a rare thing to find dis- order in a school-room where the furniture and floor are kept neat and clean, and where the walls are adorned by handsome pictures and pure mottoes. Ornjimentation of the school-room has also a power- ful influence in prompting pupils to regular attend- ance. Taking it altogether, I can think of no other investment that will pay so large a dividend as that which is expended to ornament the school-room. LECTURE XV. SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TEEES. It is unwise economy to select a cheap and unsuit- able spot of ground upon which to erect a school- house. It is equally unwise to have school-grounds so small that there is not sufficient room to give the sexes separate places for private walks and play- grounds. There should also be on every school lot considerable space, covered with shade-trees and shrubbery. A school-house is a public building, and it should, in a proper sense, be the pride of the dis- trict in which it stands. The taste of the people of any country may, in a degree, be measured by the location and architectural style of their public buildings ; but their true taste is, perhaps, more clearly seen in the extent and condi- tion of {he grounds connected with these buildings. Xo onfc can visit Washington without being impressed with the fiict that the Capitol stands upon the most beautiful elevation found at the " City of Magniticent Distances." As it is a matter in which every citizen of the United States feels an interest, I will present a brief 166 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. description of this beautiful building and its sur- roundings. It is taken from the '■ Youth's Compan- ion," Boston : — " No one can go to Washington and gaze upon the great white temple of liberty on Capitol Hill, Avith- out feeling the heart beat high with pride and pa- triotism. Critics may tell us that it will not be a perfect building while the central front recedes, — that is, until that is built out beyond the fronts of the wnngs, — and until the main dome is supported by lesser domes that are visible. But nobodj^ cares for critics when gazing at the marble pile rising over the velvet turf, and lifting its snowy dome, like a cloud itself, among the clouds. " Wherever you go, in Washington or its neigh- borhood, turn about, and there is the dome looking over your shoulder. You see it as you approach the city, you see it when you are far down the river, you see it from Arlington Heights, from the Mary- land hills, and out at the Soldiers' Home ; not only through the famous vista, where it rises out of the surrounding branches all by itself, like a phantom of old Rome, but as you look over a charming land- scape where the Potomac gleams like a silver thread out of the deep blue of the haze on the horizon, and the dim classic outlines of the other splendid pub- lic buildings, made almost dreamlike by distance, give you a doubt if you are on this Western conti- nent. "The Capitol stands almost in the centre of the SCHOOL GROUNDS AXD SHADE-TREES. 167 plan of the city. The corner-stone was laid in 1793 by Washington. The building was of freestone from Acquia Creek, painted white, and was origi- nally mnch smaller and more symmetrical. It was l)urned by the British in the war of 1812, and was only rebuilt after a stormy debate in Congress, which was assembled somewhere else. But with the growth of the country it was found much too small ; the extensions were ordered, their corner-stone was laid, with Daniel Webster as the orator of the day, and THE CAPITOL AT "WASHINGTON. they were completed in 1863. The structure has cost, ill all, about $13,000,000. " One would gather little idea of the size of this building by being told that it is seven hundred and fifty feet long by three hundred and twenty-five feet broad. One might better comprehend it, perhaps. 168 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. on learning that its ground plan occupies three and a half acres. " As you stand before it, you see that it consists of the old building in the centre, a beautiful thing in itself, of classic style, connected on each side by a corridor of fluted columns with the vast wings, which are built of white marble from Massachusetts, and are each a temple in itself. The one on the south side is the Senate wing ; the other is used by the House of Representatives. The whole stands upon a ^rustic basement' of granite, and beneath that is a sub-basement, hidden by the green turf of the terraces. "Each of the wings has three porticos of fluted Corinthian columns, every column cut from a single piece of marble. A carriage-way runs under the eastern porticos, by which one enters the basement, the middle entrance opening into the crypt ; and on the fronts are the most superb staircases of white marble that can be imagined, supported by immense blocks or buttresses, broad and lofty. "As you mount the central one of these flights, you observe on the pediment — that is, the pointed, gable-like portion above the columns and entabla- ture — a group carved in high relief, representing the Genius of America replying to flattering Hope b3^ pointing to eTusticc holding the Constitution ; a corre- sponding group by Crawford occupies the same posi- tion on the front of the Senate wing. *■ On the flat top of the u})per buttress of the main SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 169 stairway are two groups of statuary, one represent- iiiir Columbus hoklino- a o^lobe, with an Indian ^rirl at his feet ; and the other representing Civihzation, or the settlement of America, by means of a hunter with his dog, saving a woman and her boy from the tomahawk of the Indian. " The portico itself here is one hundred and sixty feet long, and carries twenty-four columns, each thirty feet high. In niches at either side of the ofreat doors are colossal fio-ures of Peace and War, and over the doors is another bas-relief representing Fame and Peace crowning Washington. "As you pause now and look back, you have the Capitol surrounded on every side by an ample space of greensward. Directly in front of it stretches a paved space in which is Greenough's huge, semi- nude statue of Washington, and on either side of that, and beyond it, picturesquely enclosed l)y low copings of colored stone, is a park exquisitely laid out with flowers and urns, fountains and lamps, and many trees. " Over all this beauty towers the dome, rising, from base to crest, a height of three hundred and seven feet. As it clears the top of the building, it rests first on an octagonal base ; above that it is enclosed by cohimns twenty-seven feet high, surmounted by a balustrade. At the apex is the lantern, fifty feet in height, suiTounded by another row of pillars, and on the top of the lantern is Crawford's colossal bronze statue of Freedom. 170 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. "This dome is entirely of iron, painted white, and weighs a little more than eight million pounds. It is supported by solid masonry, and by forty columns carrying arches which uphold the floor of the rotunda. "It is not by any means the largest dome in the world. There are four larger ; but we doubt if there is any more beautiful, more buoyant and perfect, as you would think if you sometimes saw it early in the morning, with the mist streaming away from it as clouds are stripped from a mountain-side, or at night, when the light burns in the tholus at the summit, and shines over the town, announcing that Congress is in session, and almost giving it a place among the stars. "In summer, sometimes, when Congress sits in the night, and the radiance gleams from the dome and from all the windows, and the moon shines full upon it, the great white splendor, sitting in the dense greenery of its trees, has seemed the very p dace of light itself. One hardly knows whether it is most beautiful then, or when, unlighted above, on a dark night, the lamps twinkle in long distances under the arches of the outer basement, the lines of columns retreat spectrally into the gloom, and the dome soars above, a shadow on the shadow of the midnight heavens ; or when, on a spring morning, as one comes up the avenue, one sees it throned above the tree-tops of the western side, that rise from banks that are purple w^ith violets. "The chief attractions of the Capitol belong to the seasons when Congress holds its most important ses- SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 171 sions, but its outward beauty is best displayed in the summer-time." But the beauty of this building would be greatly marred, indeed almost destroyed, if we would take from it its spacious grounds, with their shade-trees and shrubbery, their winding walks and rustic seats, their flowers and fountains, parks and lakes. Visitors from abroad regard the condition of this building, and these grounds, as an exponent of the public taste of the American people. The Legislatures of the several States have shown a good degree of taste in the selection of suitable grounds upon which to erect State buildings. But public taste may be more clearly seen, from year to year, in the condition of the grounds connected with these buildings. If, in any State, these grounds, which Nature has made beautiful, are left un cared for until they become uninviting, it is evident that the public taste of the people of that State needs to be improved. A traveller who visits a county town looks at the court-house and jail, and especially at their location, and at the condition of the pul)lic grounds around them, and then forms his opinion of the people of that county. His opinion may possibly be incorrect, but he has used the best public index within his reach. The rule by which we measure the culture of the people of a nation. State, or county, has not gener- ally been accepted as the true test for measuring the taste of the people of a single school district, be- 172 GKADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. cause we have all been slow to believe that the average condition of our country school-houses and grounds is a true exponent of the taste and culture of teachers and school oiScers, parents and pupils. In some sections the people have just cause to be proud of their school-houses and school grounds, while in other places they ought to be ashamed of them. Teachers should lead in matters of taste, and there is no better opportunity for them to do this than for each one, aided by his pupils, to have the grounds around his school-house put into condition of which all interested persons may be proud. In selecting a site for a country school-house, they who are charged Avith this responsibility should be as careful to perform their work well, as they would be if they had been appointed to select a situation for a State capitol. The situation of the district school- house may, indeed, be to them and to their children a matter of much more importance than the location of the capitol of the State. The value of the lands and the culture of the people of any community will be increased by erecting a handsome school-house in a prominent place, convenient to all who are entitled to attend. But the value of property and the culture of people will depend quite as much upon the con- dition of school -grounds as upon the style of school buildins^s. Let us take a case for the sake of illustration : An intelligent man desires to purchase a form as a home for himself and family. He finds one with which he SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 173 is at first pleased, but he observes that the school- house, which is near by, is situated in a low place on a small lot. This lot is not enclosed, and is entirely bare. He goes into another community and finds a farm which seems, in itself, to be a])out equal in value to the former farm. He observes, however, that the school-house, which is near by, is beautifully situ- ated, and that it bears many marks of good taste in its construction. It is embellished with a handsome '^upola and furnished with a sweet-toned bell. It is surrounded by ample grounds, which are enclosed by a neat fence. A part of this lot is adorned with shade- trees and shrubbery, and the residue is laid off into appropriate places for play. He finds that the former farm can be purchased for less money than the latter. I ask the question, Which of these farms will an intelligent man, under these circumstances, be likely to purchase as a home for himself and family ? Several matters of importance should be carefully considered in the selection of a site for a country school-house. I will name some of these. 1. It should be, as nearly as possible, equally accessible to all who arc entitled to attend the school. 2. It should be a healthful situation, and should not be in the vicinity of a swamp. 3. It should be a beautiful situation, sufficiently elevated that the school-house may be seen from afar. 4. It should be laro'e enou2:h to o^ive the sexes separate places for private walks, and to allow con- siderable space to be planted in shade-trees and shrubbery. 174 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The school lot should be enclosed by a neat and substantial fence. Where there is not a f^pring of water convenient to the scho l-house, a well should be dug upon the school lot, and convenient arrangements for procuring water therefrom should be provided. A ladder and two or three extra buckets should be provided for each school-house, and kept in a con- venient place on the grounds, so they could be used promptly in case a fire should occur. The absence of anything of this kind has caused the loss of many a school-house. The planting of shade-trees upon school-grounds is no longer considered, by intelligent people, a mere matter of taste. It is a matter that has much to do with the health, comfort, and progress of pupils. Let us take a case for the sake of ilhistration : Here are forty or fifty pupils, on a hot da}^, in a school-house which stands on a bare lot. The walls and windows of the building are heated by the burning rays of the sun, and the flushed faces of pupils indiccite that they are far from being comfortal)le. It is evident that when these pupils are dismissed for dinner they ought not to eat in the school-room. It is also evident that they should not eat in an open lot under a noonday sun. They need, for a few minutes at least, to be in the open air, where they are shielded from the sun by shade-trees. The physical condition of many pupils in warm weather is such that they should play quiet games and take gentle exercise in the shade, rather than SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 175 severe exercise in the sun. This is especially true in the case of girls. But the benefits arising from shade-trees upon school-grounds arc not all to be found in the fact that pupils are thus shielded from the rays of the sun. I will name a few additional advantages. 1 . Shade -trees produce constant breezes which are healthful and pleasurable. 2. Shade-trees mitigate the heat in their vicinity by the condensation of moisture upon their leaves by night, and by the vast amount of evaporation that takes place through their leaves by day. 3. Shade-trees either absorb or destroy the poison- ous gases and dangerous effluvia Avhich may always be found in or around a crowded buildinsr. Shade- o trees on school-grounds are, therefore, essential to the public health. In order to prove that shade has an influence even in preventing the most fearful epidemics,! offer some facts which are matters of history. "In 1859," says a certain historian, "cholera raged in Allahabad. British soldiers whose barracks were exposed most to the sun suffered most from the epidemic ; those in barracks surrounded by four rows of trees suffered much less ; but not a single case occurred among the soldiers whose barracks were in a thicket." In order to show the benefits of shade along a pub- lic road, I quote further from the same historian : "A certain road in India leads for sixty miles through a dense forest. Further on it runs for ninety miles 176 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. through a barren plain. Hundreds of persons travel the road daily. Now, in the first or wooded portion, cases of sickness seldom occur, while in the latter, the sick, the dying, and the dead are found lying by the wayside." In our own country epidemics generally do their worst work where people are crowded in buildings which have neither grass nor shade around them. Our government has recognized the necessity for shade-trees, and has been engaged on a large scale in promoting the planting of forest trees. Our State governments should also take an active part in tree- planting wherever there is a necessity for so doing. In a section that is bare, the planting of trees is now regarded almost as essential to public health as the draining of swamps. We have now reached the practical part of this subject, and I will attempt to answer the question, How shall school-grounds be supplied with shade- trees? Let me say, first of all, that it is not best for school officers to provide and plant trees. This work, like the ornamentation of the school-room, should be performed by the teacher and pupils of each school. In sections of country which are bare of timber it may be necessary for school officers to furnish trees, but the school should plant them. In sections where forests are accessible, no outlay need be made, as a sufficient variety of trees may be obtained from the forest. The following plan for improving school-grounds SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 177 will, ill the hands of a skilful teacher, make the work a matter of real pleasure to all pupils ; and the inter- est created will not cease when their school-days are ended. Let us take a case for the purpose of illus- trating the plan : — A teacher of culture commences a country school m a house which stands upon a bare lot. After the school-room has been made beautiful by pictures and mottoes, furnished by teacher and pupils, the teacher proposes that they proceed to improve tho school- grounds. The first thing to be done is to remove all obstructions, such as stumps and stones, if any there be, from the lot. The larger pupils, Avith mattocks and axes, undertake the work of removing these obstructions, and cheerfully devote the time intended for play to this work, until it is completed. The smaller pupils become interested in the work, an^l wish that they could do something to aid this improvement. The teacher now proposes that each pupil shall have the privilege of planting a shade-tree, a shrub, or a flower, vipon the school-grounds, and that each tree, shrub, or flower shall be cared for and culti- vated by the one who plants it, whose name it shall bear. All the pupils, from the oldest to the youngest, have become deeply interested in the work of improv- ing the school-grounds, and each one is anxious to plant something. The patrons of the school have also be- come interested in this matter, and are discussing the propriety of planting shade- trees upon school-grounds. 12 178 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. It is a subject that many of them have never before carefully considered, and the more they think of it the better they are pleased with it. The proper season for planting trees is now at hand. The teacher gives a general invitation to patrons, pupils, and school officers to meet at the school-house next Saturday, to decide what portion of the lot shall be devoted to shade. The mothers of the children are especially invited to be present. When the day set apart for the meeting arrives, the teacher has the school-house open and in order. The floor is clean, the furniture is free from dust, and the ceiling and corners of the room are clear of cobwebs. The walls are adorned with beautiful pic- tures and pure mottoes. As the patrons collect, they are invited to take a look at the interior of the school- room. They are all delighted with the homelike appearance which the school-room presents. None of them ever attended a school that was half so invit- ing, and they do not wonder that their children are pleased with the school. The teacher, in an informal address, explains the object of the meeting, shows the advantages of shade- trees and shrubbery upon school-grounds, and con- cludes by stating that the school is willing to do the work of ornamenting the lot. On motion, a com- mittee of ladies and gentlemen of culture is appointed to aid the teacher in deciding what part of the school lot shall be devoted to shade. This committee, after a careful examination of the SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 179 grounds, recommends that one dozen trees shall be planted around the school-house, near enough to shield the house in a degree from the sun's hottest rays, and yet far enough away to allow the sun to dry up any dampness that may collect about the house. Stakes are set where these trees are to be planted, and the people who are present seem })leased with the arrangement. 1 he committee further recom- mends that about one fourth of an acre, which is suit- ably located, shall l)e devoted to shade-trees, shrubs, and flowers, and that the teacher be allowed to judge of the number of trees, shru'js, or flowers that may be planted upon this particular part of the lot. The teacher promises to exercise his best judgment and purest taste in carrying out the wishes of the com- mittee. He announces that next Saturday will be dev^oted to the planting of trees and shrubs and flowers. He states that each pupil will be allowed to bring a tree, a shrub, or a flower, and that space will be found where each may be planted. He ex- tends a hearty invitation to all who may wish to be present on the day of planting. Some one present suggests that if the school of- ficers will furnish material for enclosing the lot, the patrons of the school Avill meet in one week from that time with necessary tools to put up a neat and substantial fence. The susrsrestion is seconded by the school officers, and approved by all who are present. The day for planting and fence-building arrives, 180 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. and teachers, pupils, and patrons are early on the ground. Mothers have come Avith their little sons or daughters, in order to plant something in which these little ones will each feel an interest. These cultured women, at the request of the teacher, aid in arranging the points where trees shall be placed, or shrubs planted, or flowers set out. The teacher plants a tree in a prominent place, which is to be called the "teacher's tree." Every pupil who is old enough plants something, and the younger pupils have each something planted by their parents. Early in the afternoon the fence is finished, and the work of planting is completed. It has been a busy day, but a happy one, because all have been interested. Each one feels that while this work is a permanent improvement for the public good, there is something in it in which he is personally interested. As the patrons prepare to leave the grounds they take occa- sion to assure the teacher that he will have their hearty co-operation in all his efforts to make the school a success. They go to their homes with the feeling in their hearts that they have never before had a teacher who took so deep an interest in their district school. This feeling is the result of the fact that the teacher has o^iven them all something: to do. The interest in aesthetics created, by this teacher, in the minds of the young people of this school dis- trict, will increase as the trees and shrubs and flowers which they have planted grow, but this interest will not cease when these trees and shrubs and flowers SCHOOL-GROUNDS AND SHADE-TREES. 181 shall decay with age. It is impossible to measure the foundations of future healthfulness and happiness, interest and culture, that have this day been laid. Time alone can tell the extent of this teacher's influ- ence in a work which would appear to many teachers to be entirely outside of his profession. LECTURE XVI. MUSIC IN COimTRY SCHOOLS. ** There is in souls a sympathy with sounds, And as the mind is pitched, the ear is pleased With melting air, or martial, brisk, or grave. Some secret chord in unison with what we hear Is touched within us, and the heart responds." Music should certainly be made a part of the daily programme in all public schools. The want of it has done much to render our country schools uninterest- ing and tiresome to those who attend them. It would, perhaps, with a single exception, be impos- sible to find another important organization having no music on its programme. Let us look at this subject long enough to see whether the country school, with- out music, really is an exception to the rules of civil- ized society. All Christian denominations, with a single excep- tion, have music mingled with their sacred services, and all social orders of a high character have music interspersed with their beautiful ceremonies. Music is heard in the Sunday school, and it is heard in the social circle. It is heard in the mass meetings and public processions of all political parties. It is heard in the army upon the land, and in the navy upon the sea. It is heard amidst the din of battle in time of MUSIC IN COUXTHY SCHOOLS. 183 war, and it is heard on the day of thanksgiving, when peace is proclaimed. It forms a part of the solemn ceremonies of the funeral, and it adds to the festivities of the wedding. It is heard in the streets of the city, and along the lanes in the country. It is heard in the palaces of the rich, and in the cabins of the poor. A love of it may ho seen in the face of the infant as it listens to the music of its mother's voice. In universities, colleges, and schools of liigh order, and in the most progressive primary schools of cities and towns, music forms a part of the daily programme. Yv^herever people — young or old, cheerful or sad, rich or poor, learned or unlearned — are gathered to- gether, having the privilege of making their own programme, there is always music. It seems to be essential to life. In many of the most progressive countries of Eu- rope, nmsic is made one of the branches in the com- mon-school course of study ; and far-ofi Japan, some time since, undertook to introduce elementary music in all the common schools of that country. The Emperor of Japan sent to the United States and se- cured the services of Mr. Luther W. Mason, who had been for fourteen years special instructor of mu- sic in the schools of Boston. Mr. Mason left this country late in the year 1879, to enter upon the im- portant work of introducing music into all the pub- lic schools of Japan. In this country there is a growing sentiment in favor of mnkino: music one of the branches in the 184 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. common-school com-se of study. The most pro- gressive step in this direction has been taken in Cal- ifornia, where the Legislature has made music a com- pulsory branch in all the public schools of the State. In several other States music forms a part of the daily exercise in many of the country schools, but in most cases, Vv^here it is found, it is there simply by accident, and is liable to be left out when there is a change of teachers, or upon the complaint of objectors. It is universally conceded that children should first of all be taught that which they will practise in after life. If this be true, they should be taught to sing. Again, it is generally agreed that they ought first to study that which will afford them most pleas- aie and profit in after life. If this bo true, they should study mu -ic along with reading and waiting. Music, as a branch of study, should certainly pre- cede in importance English grammar, though both are essential, and neither should be neglected. Most persons concede the fact that the young peo- ple of the country should be taught music, but there are some who maintain that this branch should be studied outside of the school, under instructors who make music a specialty. They insist that there are but few persons who are well fitted to teach music, and that only those who are highly qualified should perform this work. I answer that the same might be said of penmanship. There are persons who make this subject a specialty. They are much bet- IVIUSIO IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 185 ter prepared to advance pupils in this art than the average teacher, and yet no one would, for this rea- son, maintain that writing should not bo a branch in the common-school course. Every teacher who has had experience in such matters is aware that the organization of a class of pupils in penmanship or music, outside of the school, has a demoralizing influence upon the work of the school to which these pupils properly belong. I have known schools to be almost broken up by the formation of a " singing class " outside of the school. I may also say that music taught as a special sub- ject, outside of the school, is so costly that the poor cannot afford it. This of itself, it seems to me, is a sumcient objection to the system of special instruc- tion. Therefore, if we vrish the masses to have a knowledge of music, we must make music a part of the work of our common schools. By some it may be argued that the study of music in country schools is impracticable, from the fact that so few of our teachers have secured a musical train- ing. I answer that this objection may be urged ag:iinst the introduction of any new branch of study. Let music be made one of the branches of study, and teachers will prepare to give instruction on this subject. I am aware that it may be maintained that there are many teachers who cannot become good singers. I answer that there are many teachers who cannot write a good hand, and some of them cannot read well. Let music stand as other branches, and 186 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. if the musical qualifications of the teacher are too low, let him be rejected, or let him agree to furnish a substitute for teaching music. We sometimes find among pupils one fully competent, vvho will cheer- fully take charge of the class in music. I would not propose that music should be taught in country schools as a fine art or a profound science ; neither would I be willing that its study should occupy largely the school hours. With fifteen or twenty minutes' instruction and exercise at the opening of the school each morning, a great improvement will be made in a few months, and an interest in music will be created which will become a matter of pleasure to teacher and pupils. This exer- cise in music each morning will have a tendency to diminish tardiness and increase the attendance of pupils. The exercises of the day should also be con- cluded with music. A writer in the Philadelphia "Times," on music in the public schools, gives the following reminiscences of the beginners in Boston fifty years ago : — "It was my fortune to be a member of the Hawes School, South Boston, in 1831, while Joseph Harring- ton was its teacher, and through his wonderful tact of introducing new and profitable ideas into that school, music was first taught publicly, an anti-swearing society was formed, a library founded, and other novel works established. By some means the city of Boston was induced to test, in a year's study, tlie introduction of vocal music into one of its schools as MUSIO IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 187 a trial, to see if it in any way interrupted the other teachings. The celebrated teacher and musical com- poser, Lowell ]Mason, was our teacher. The first portion of the programme, after Mr. Mason's entering our school, was to grade the scholars as he found them : Good singers, Xo. 1 ; not so good, No. 2 ; so on to No. 6, or no singers. At the start the number in the first class was about fifteen out of a school of three hundred scholars ; a very large pro- portion went in the No. 1 class, and only a very small number were in class No. 6. He perfectly demonstrated four facts : — " First, that vocal music, with instrumental accom- paniment, did not in any way or manner retard scholars from learning their ordinary studies. "Second, they learned more rapidly and readily than before. "Third, it increased the size of the respiratory organs, thereby improving their health. "Fourth, it improved them morally. " The next year music was introduced into all the public schools of Boston." Accordin^f to the method of teachinci: music in the public schools of Boston, the voice and ear should be thoroughly trained by practice before the pupil attempts to read music. In order that I may not be misunderstood in this statement, I v/ill give the lan- guage of Prof. H. E. Holt, musical instructor of the public schools of Boston, which language I copy from '' The New England Journal of Education," of that city. 188 GEADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Prof. Holt says : " The object of instruction in music in the primary schools should be to develop the musical nature by training the voice and ear, and developing the sense of rhythm. What the child learns of language during the first five years of its life is a preparation for learning to read. No one would think of attempting to teach a child to read before it could talk. It would be equally absurd to attempt to teach a child to read music before it could sing. Children should first learn to sing, as they first learn language, purely by imitation." I am aware that the above method of teachinsf music will not be approved by those who insist that children should be taught to read music l^efore they are trained to sing. But as the people of Boston have given special attention to this subject, and have, probably, made greater proficiency in music than the people of any other city on the continent, the system which they practise in teaching music in primary schools is certainly worthy the consideration of all who feel an interest in this subject. A class of sixteen girls, from the Boston public schools, led by Prof. Holt, sang before the American Institute of Instruction, at its late meeting: at Sara- toga, and their singing was, by competent judges, considered excellent. It was there publicly stated that they had been trained under the system of sing- ing by imitation. After the voice and ear have been thoroughly trained, they will, of course, be taught to read music. This seems to be the natural method of MUSIO IN" COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 189 teaching music, and yet there may be some teachers who think they cannot successfully carry it out. Let each teacher, therefore, thoroughly study this •subject, and then adopt that plan by which he can best teach his pupils to sing. The extent and thoroughness of the study of music in each school district depends largely upon the quaU- fications of the teacher, and the interest which he feels in this subject. In some sections, vocal music alone will not satisfy the wants of the school, and by the contributions of patrons and pupils A cabinet ORGxiN" W^ILL BE ADDED TO THE FURNITURE OF THE SCHOOL-ROOM. An organ can be purchased for a small sum, and the demand for instrumental music in the country is increasing, so I venture to predict that the time is not distant when an instrument will be considered as one of the essentials in every school-room. The sound of an organ in connection Avith vocal music adds to the interest of the opening and closing exer- cises of the school. It is well to have the older pupils, who are able to preside at the organ, take this place by turns ; and if any pupils play upon other instruments which harmonize with the organ, and which are in good standing with the community, they should bo invited to bring these instruments and join in the daily exercise. The more interesting these exercises become, the more anxious will pupils bo to attend the school. If the number of instru- ments should make a " band of music," so much the 190 GKADUATINQ SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. better, as there will then be no need of a compulsory school law. I am av/are that some of the sweetest-toned instru- ments, by being often found in bad company, have, - in many places, become unpopular. As the choice of company has been made by the owner, I think we could safc'ly admit these instruments into the school- room "on trial," or so long as they produce no dis- order. Public sentiment, however, should be con- sulted on this subject. I believe that the time will come when every musical instrument which man has made will be tuned to the praise of God. In some sections of the country prejudices exist in the minds of many against music of any kind in pub- lic schools. In such cases the teacher should sum- mon to his aid those who favor music in schools, and they can readily create a public sentiment in its favor. It will not, as a rule, be best for the teacher to force music into the school contrary to the wishes of the patrons. It is not, however, a difficult mutter to convince most persons that there is no time lost by having music in school, morning and evening. Let the teacher illustrate this by referring to the fact that when we have but an hour to spend in Sun- day school we do not regard it a waste of time to devote one fourth, or even one half, of that hour to music. Let him ask how many would be willing to attend Sunday school if there was no music connected with the exercises from beginning to ending. The tira^j allowed for religious services in Christian MUSIC IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 191 churches is almost half devoted to sacred song, and no one regards this time wasted. It is certainly evident to every one that if Sunday schools and churches would exclude all music, superintendents and clergymen would soon feel the need of " compulsory laws and truancy acts," to fill vacant chairs and empty benches. Music will do more to collect a scattered crowd than the voice of the orator. People, young or old, cultured or uncultured, will come together if called by the sweet strains of music. It is not, therefore, unreasonable to suppose that the introduction of music into all our country schools would do more to increase the attendance of pupils than compulsory laws could do. Indeed^ I can name no other one thing that would so popularize our system of public instruction as the introduction of music into all our primary schools. Many of the lower animals will collect in flocks or herds, if called by music. Shepherds, in ancient times, when watching their flocks, were accustomed to play upon the harp to prevent the sheep from wan- dering. The modern practice is to place a sweet- toned bell upon one of the sheep, and then the entire flock vv^ill follow the bell, in order to hear its music. It is said that the boys who are engaged in herding cattle on the great plains in the South have learned that they can save labor by moving quietly alj day long among the herds, humming low tunes. Cattle are not inclined to wander avfay, say these boys, if 192 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. there is music in the midst of the herd. At night the boys rest with the cattle upon the phiins, and in case of a sudden noise, as, for example, a clap of thunder, when the cattle are suddenly startled and Vviien there is prospect of a general fright, the boys rise and commence humming their low tunes. The cattle, upon hearing the accustomed music, suppose all is right, and quietly lie down to rest. Historj^ furnishes numerous examples of the power of music over various kinds of animals ; but I will not further follow this particular part of my subject. There is music in a sweet-toned school bell, and it^ tends to collect pupils just as the bell upon a sin- gle sheep tends to call the flock together. "The church-going bell" pays its cost in the additions which it makes to the congregation. So fully is this influence understood, that sometimes, in cities, a set of bolls tuned to a musical scale is placed upon the church, and the " chime of bells," the sound of bells in harmony, will collect a congregation even at unseasonable hours. But the best results arising from music in the school-room do not consist of increased attendance of pupils, but of improved conduct and character. Pure music not only pleases the ear, but it improves the heart. No one can listen to pure music without feeling a desire to be better. Y^'^ords which are set to music may be immoral, but music itself is pure, it is divine. The present generation of youth is certainly fortunate in having MUSIC IN COUKTRY SCHOOLS. 193 SO many excellent published collections of songs suit- able for the school-room, from which to make selec- tion. These song-books are generally cheaper than other school books, and it is as important for each piq')il, ivho can read, to have his own singing hook, as it is for him to have hisoivn reader. Most of the studies in the common-school course appeal more to the intellect than to the heart, and, as pure music tends to improve both manners and morals, it should occupy a prominent place upon the programme in all our public schools. Perhaps I cannot conclude this subject to better advantage than by presenting the following article from "The National Journal of Education,'' Bos- ton : — " It has been urged that music is a branch of study more ornamental than useful ; which can bo dispensed with altogether, or the expenditure in its behalf be greatly reduced. Yet, as a matter of flict, no such claim is made among prominent educators, or by those best informed on matters pertaining to public instruction. On the contrary, here in Massachusetts, music never stood higher on the list of studies than now ; was never so thoroughly taught as now, never so justly appreciated as now. Our University, with its professor of music, within the year has found it necessary to employ in addition a tutor in singing, ' and is granting diplomas to such as successfully com- plete the course prescribed. " The Empire of Japan has just concluded a con - 194 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. tract with Mr. L. W. Mason, late superintendent of music in the schools of Boston, to introduce our sys- tem of musical instruction into that country. Ar- rangements are making at Tokio, on the most liberal scale, to furnish the means and appliances needed in the line of his profession, to promote his personal comfort, and to add dignity to the office he assumes. "Music has become, may we not say, the chief amusement of the people? As such it is innocent, it leaves no sting behind ; and it is not every amuse- ment of which this can be predicated. The love for it, moreover, in the househokl is limited only by the amount of talent in that direction possessed by the members of the family, or by their ability to procure for themselves the means of its gratification. "But it would be taking a partial view of the matter were we to regard it merely in the light of a recreation. As a branch of study its value is beyond question. It cultivates the ear, informs the taste, trains the faculties of the mind, develops and invig- orates the powers of the body. Of what other study can this be affirmed in an equal degree? Viewed simply as a resource for earning one's living, it is safe to say that a knowledge of music gives direct support to a vastly greater number of men and women than does an acquaintance with any one of the so-called higher studies pursued in our schools. " Consider the interests of music in their financial aspect. See the amount of capital invested in the manufacture of pianos, organs, band and orcliestral MUSIC IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 195 instruments ; the printing and engraving of sheet music and musie-books ; the various newspapers or journals devoted exchisively to musical matters ; the fabulous sums lavished upon distinguished singers or players, who fill our largest halls at their concerts with eager listeners. " There has been heard here, this season, an art- ist who received for singing a couple of songs more than three hundred dollars ; while orchestral plaj^ers have been paid for an hour's w^ork twenty-five dollars each. Members of church choirs obtain for their services from two dollars up to thirty dollars a Sunday. . Boys from our grammar schools, even as low as the fourth class, are en2:a2:ed in the choirs of Boston and vicinity, where, in addition to the instruction given them, they receive salaries corresponding to the degree of talent they manifest. Five dollars, for a couple of hours spent in church at the organ, is not uncommon. " A professional man, whose fees amount to one hundred dollars a day, is looked upon as quite suc- cessful ; a merchant, who clears the like sum of money, may v/ell congratulate himself as being in prosperous circumstances. But there are singers able to command twice as much for every appearance they make before the public. It is within the mem- ory of some of us that Jenny Lind contracted with Mr. Barnum to sing one hundred nights in America for one hundred thousand dollars, and he never com- plained of the bargain. 196 GRADUATING ' SYSTEM FOK COUNTRY SCHOOLS. " A single song, the production of Dr. Arthur Sullivan, V\^hieh may have cost him only a foAV hours' labor, has yielded its proprietor an annual in- come of two thousand live hundred dollars. A second song of his, ^ The Lost Chord,* well known in our concert-rooms and parlors, has proved a fortune in itself. 'II. M. S. Pinafore,' a work of the same composer, which has gone the length and breadth of the land both here and abroad, — a clean, charming, wholesome composition, ad- mired alike by artist and amateur, — has been a mine of wealth to many a manager and publisher, besides aiTordinsr delisfht to thousands of hearers. "Music-seliing and music publishing houses in this country, if we consider the magnitude of their busi- ness and the variety of their publications, stand sec- ond to none the Avorld over. " Pianos and parlor organs are almost as common as tables and bureaus ; or, at least, it may be said with truth that a house without a musical instrument of some sort is a rarity. A family in which there is no music, and no love for it, must certainly be ac- counted unfortunate in that respect. " See how largely dependent we arc upon the Ger- mans in filling the ranks of our bands and orchestras ; because, music having been so many years a regular study in their common schools, enjoying all the time the highest consideration in the community at large, they have become superior to us in the art, and are, for the present, beyond our competition. MUSIC IN COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 107 "Look at our conservatories and colleges of music, which already surpass those of Europe in the number of their students, and bid l;iir, in due time, to rival them also in the excellence of the instruction fur- nished, as well as in the talent and proficiency of their graduates. " The complaint is sometimes made against our schools, that children are not taught what will be of practical use in after-life. V/hat is learned of some subjects, it is said, needs to bo so modified before it can be available in practice, that, aside from the men- tal discipline thereby secured, it may be a question whether time so spent could not be better employed in other ways. Such is not the case with music. Whatever is gained in that direction, though it be only the power of singing the scale, is immediately useful, and will form one of the inevitable steps to be taken sooner or later if one desires to become a musician. " Given the requisite amount of talent, with corre- sponding application under competent instruction, and the pupil finds himself in the possession of an ac- complishment more or less adequate to his support in life, while leaving him opportunity to attend to other business But whether he turn this acquirement to account pecuniarily or not, his knowledge and skill in the art will continue an unfailino: source of delisfht to himself and friends as long as life and health remain. " Is there one of us who, when his son leaves school 198 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. to take his place in society, would not be glad to know that he had gained a taste for music, and some knowledge of it? Should we not consider it, in some sense, as a safeguard to restrain him from the pursuit of other and less salutary modes of enjoy- ment? Where there is music at home, and an appre- ciation of it, the various forms of dissipation, to which, for want of something better to occupy their leisure hours, the young are so prone, will lose their charms, and fail to make felt their pernicious attrac- tions. " All this goes to show how deep a root music has taken among us, how rapidly it is growing, how widely extending, and how it demands — and rea- sonably, too — a fostering hand and liberal support from those who are charged with the administration of the interests of public education." LECTURE XVII. THE DICTIOXARY IX THE SCHOOL-ROOM. I:n^ the school-room, as on the farm and in the workshop, some things are mere matters of comfort or convenience ; some are intended to lessen labor, while others are absolutely essential to success. The patrons of our public schools will agree that, first of all, the furnish ments of the school-room should include such things as are indispensable in the work of gaining a thorough knowledge of the common branches. As a simple illustration of the thought which I desire to present, I may say that on the farm the mowing-machine is an important implement, — a labor-saving machine ; but it is not absolutely essen- tial, as the ordinary scythe may do well the work of the mowing-machine. The plough is an essential imjylement on every farm, as nothing else can take its place or do its work. Any sensible farmer who wishes to engage in raising grain and grass, if called upon to decide whether he will do without a plough or a mowing-machine, will at once decide to do without the latter. If he is unable to purchase either, and a 200 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. friend proposes to make him a present of one or the other — his choice of the two — for his own use, he will choose the plough, although he is aware that the mowing-machine sells for the most money. In the school-room the blackboard serves a very important purpose ; it saves an immense amount of labor, and some may say that it is essential to suc- cess. But when we consider the fact that, in the absence of the blackboard, the same work may be done upon slates, wo conclude that the blackboard, though important, is not indispensable. A dictionary, giving the proper pronunciation and a complete definition of all the words of the English language, is not only important, but absolutely essen- tial, in every school-room. It is to the school-room what the plough is to the farm, — the foundation of success. No substitute for it has ever been found, and it is evident that much of the work done in any school-room that is without it must necessarily be mere "guess-work." It is folly to argue, as some have done, that teach- ers in our country schools ought to be so familiar with the pronunciation and definitions of words, that they may wdth safety undertake to teach without a dictionary before them. The finest scholars, and the most thorough teachers in the higher institutions of learning throughout the land, tell us that, in their work of instruction, they make the dictionary a constant companion. No well-qualified teacher will claim that he can do first-class work without a THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-EOOM. 201 dictionaiy as a book of reference for himself and bis pupils. It is the one weapon witb which every true scholar, who wishes to be strong, must be con- stantly armed. But some of the patrons of our public schools may honestly ask, What benefits are to be derived from a dictionary in the school-room? Among the many advantages which might be named I may rely upon three principal ones, namely : — 1. All members of the school may learn to spell correctly by forming the habit of looking in the dic- tionary, to see the correct spelling of all words about which they are in doiibt, before using them in com- position. 2. All members of the school may be led, by the use of the dictionary, to form the habit of pronoun- cing correctly all words which they see in reading or which they use in writing or in conversation. 3 . All members of the school may be led to form the habit of looking to the dictionary in order to learn the exact meaning of the words which they see or hear, about which they are in doubt. Perhaps no one will doubt the necessity for correct spelling, as the meaning of words in a letter or a contract may depend upon the way these words are spelled. But some persons may ask, Where is the need of such precision in pronunciation ? I may answer that it has been truly said, that "hardly any one thing so publicly marks and distin- guishes the unrefined and uncultivated from the 202 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. refined and cultivated, as inaccurate and inelegant pronunciation." A man whose pronunciation is in- accurate and inelegant may read extensively, he may even become a professional man ; but whether he ap- pears in the pulpit, on the platform, or in the social circle, his pronunciation will constantly attract atten- tion, as do stains upon a costly garment. No one will deny the fact that all young people ou^ht to have a clear knowledsre of the meanins: of such words as they see in reading or use in writing or in conversation. They cannot read, or write, or converse, or even think, to the best advantage, unless thev have a correct knowledo^e of the meaning: of the words which are used. It is the duty of those who are charged with the interests of public education to place a dictionary in every school-house. The discharge of this duty would insure to the nation a hi<2:her desrree of intelli- gence and a broader culture. In many places pu]:)lic schools have already been supplied with dictionaries, and there is almost everywhere a growing sentiment in favor of this work. I suggest that where the school officers decline to furnish a dictionary for the school-room, the teacher may, with propriety, appoint a committee of pupils to solicit contributions from the patrons ; or they may arrange an interesting literary entertainment, and charge an admission fee sufficient to purchase a dictionary. In selecting a dictionary for the school-room, care THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 203 should be taken to ol)tain the best. A small diction- aiy should not he selected, as the vocabulary and definitions in such a book will be incomplete and un- satisfiictory. We have, in this country, only two unabrido^ed dictionaries, — Webster's and Worces- ter's, — one of which ought to bo placed in every school. It should be a part of the regular furniture of the school-room, for the benefit of the whole school, accessible alike to the teacher, and, under proper regulations, to every scholar capable of deriv- ing benefit from consulting it. But then, as it is obvious, no one copy, nor several copies of a work of this kind, can meet all the wants of all the pupils, since nearly every scholar should find frequent occasion to consult his dictionary on minor points, and will often have occasion to refer to it in his own seat, or to take it home to aid him of an evening there, every scholar past the most element- ary branches, and beyond the age of six or eight, should have his or her own dictionary in an abridged, portable form. In order that I may present this su1)ject in the clearest light possible, I will offer the opinions of some of the foremost thinkers connected with the educational work in this country. The first article which I offer is from the pen of one of the publish-' ers of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary ; but this fact will in no way Aveaken its force with people who think for themselves : — " Every mtelligent teacher will readily concede the 204 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. importance of having each of his pupils furnished with a good dictionary of the language. The faculty of speecJi, with which man is endowed by his Creator, and written language, arc among the crowning excel- lences which distinguish him from the brute creation. They form the garb in which his rational thoughts are clothed, and constitute the medium through which he communicates those thoughts to the minds of others. Without them, the treasures of knowl- edge which an individual may acquire must remain forever locked up in his own breast, and his own intellectual stoi'es be limited to his self-obtained and very imperfect acquisitions. The past can make to them no additions, nor can he communicate them to those around him, — much less transmit them to the future. " Words, therefore, a written and spoken language, form the great instrument to be employed in acquir- ing or communicating ideas. It becomes, then, obviously important, in order that this instrument may be employed skilfully and successfully, that we possess it in as great perfection as is attainable, and know perfectly how to use it. How can I thor- oughly understand the mental conceptions of another, unless I know fully the meaning of the words he employs in giving them expression, and unless his utterances, and my understanding of them, are coin- cident? Otherwise, errors, confusion of ideas, and blunders interminable, must be the result. "It follows, therefore, that while the scholar, in THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL- ROOM. 205 pursuing any other given l)ranch of study, as of niiithematics, or natural or mental philosoplij, needs, specially, only the text-books appropriate to that particular department, yet, in all his studies, the dic- tionary should be his constant and intimate compan- ion. From the very first hour when he begins to employ words in combination, — nay, from a still earlier period, since orthography and pronunciation, taught by his dictionary, have to do with words in their isolated forms, — on through every stage of his progress, up to the highest atttiinments in science of wliich the human mind is capable, the wise and reflecting scholar will have constant recourse to his standard lexicon, and find its treasures continually .available. "It is related of Daniel Webster, that on being inquired of what authorities he consulted, or what course he adopted, in his preparation for his great forensic efibrts, he replied that he consulted his dictionary. "Yet the opinion has been expressed that, in pro- portion to the number of pupils, a less number of dictionaries will now be found in our schools than formerly. The introduction of a great number of studies, once unknown in our common and higher schools, may have contributed to this result, if such a result have really followed, and thus important elementary studies, lying at the foundation of all others, be in danger of being overlooked. Docs not the introduction of these higher branches, on the other 206 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. hand, render still more important the possession, by every scholar, of a good English dictionary ? " Let us look at this matter a little more in detail. Is there a single study, in which the scholar can be engaged, above the simple learning of the alphabet, and the spelling of words in their primitive forms, which follows (the spelling book affording for this object a partial substitue for the dictionary) , in which he ouo'ht not to have a constant reference to the latter ? "Take, first, the reading exercise. iSTo reflecting teacher supposes that reading — giving vocal utter- ance to the written language of an author, so as to do full justice to that author's conceptions — can be intelligently taught by merely requiring a parrot-like compliance, on the part of the pupil, with certain prescribed rules for reading ^ — here to give the ris- ing and there a falling inflection of his voice, here to pause while you could count one, and there two, etc., and in this manner to indicate all the tones and cadences of the voice by stereotyped, fixed directions. How can the cver-varj^ing emotions of the human soul, and the corresponding expression of those emotions by the human voice, appropriately em- ployed by one in reading aloud the recorded thoughts of another, be thus formally indicated ? "Is not this, rather, the true philosophy? The scholar must first possess himself of the exact thought of his author. lie must know the precise meaning of every word in the sense in which that THE DICTIOXARY IX THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 207 author employs it, and that author, it is to ])e in- ferred, will have employed correct and appropriate laniruajre. The si£2:nification of each ^vord, if not otherwise understood, he must learn from his diction- ary. He must also learn the relation of one word to another, or the construction of words in sentences. He must become thus thoroughly imbued Avith the spirit and meaning of the writer. Then, general, simple rules, the instructions of the living teacher, and practice, must do the rest in forming a graceful, effective reader. " Take the study of English grammar. Is it not perfectly obvious that a correct knowledge of the precise import of every word is necessary, in order to a correct grammatical analysis of any given sen- tence? The same word is often used, now as one part of speech, and now as another, — hero a noun, and there a verb ; in this connection a conjunction, in that a [)ronoun ; here the word is an adverb, there an adjective, and so on. The dictionary, therefore, hardly less frequently than the grammar, must bo consulted in the preparation for the parsing exercise. " And so we might proceed through the whole course of Eni^lish studies. In mathematics, a full and clear perception of the exact meaning of a term is absolutely essential to a right understanding of the chains of reasoning employed, and an error here may be fatal to the whole process. Is not every teacher made often aware that many of his scholars either have DO lucid perception, or wholly fail to understand \208 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. the import of such words as proportion, cancel, inverse, ratio, and many other terms employed in the ai'ithmetic they are studying? So in physiology, logic, rhetoric, natural and mental philosophy, his- tory, and every science. "How many persons, young and old, fail to appreciate the beauties of an author, or entirely misconceive his meaning, from want of a right imderstandino:, in their nice shades of thou2:ht, of the words he employs ! The gratification they would otherwise experience from a fine composition is thus proportionably lost. " But not only do many persons, from this cause, fail of a correct appreciation of the thoughts of others, hut they likewise have very little power of commu- nicating their own. They at best express vaguely or inaccurately their own ideas, and so have very little power, either by written or spoken language, of influencing their fellow-men ; while he who is well skilled in the use of language wields a power and possesses an influence, an ability to persuade or con- vince men to his own views, entirely unknown to one lacking this qualification. IS^or is this a kind of knowledge only occasionally available ; it is in diily and constant requisition. Indeed, how could the eloquent orator, as Webster or Clay, or th3 gifted poet, like Willis, clothe, with ' thoughts that breathe,' * words that burn,' unless he had entire command, in their full import, of these instruments of thought, the words in which they must find expression? How THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 209 else could he so effectively stir up the deep fountains of feeling in tlie soul of the reader or listener? What wonder that these men of commandinar "renins and master minds, as we liave seen, have constant reference to the dictionary ! Nor is such an attain- ment as has been described, the power accurately to understand and readily to employ the words of a lan- guage, made without effort, constant and protracted. The dictionary is the expositor of words. Its busi- ness is to giv^e accurately and unmistakably their orthography, pronunciation, and meaning; and, rightly appreciating the importance of a correct knowledge of words, Avhat work can be more prof- itably made a daily study ? And could a thorough and uniform understanding!: of the meaninsr of words become universal, how many discussions would be shortened ; how many disputes avoided ; how greatly mankind benefited ! " I desire next to present some excellent suggestions, made by Dr. Joseph Emerson, long and extensively known as an accomplished teacher, in his Introduc- tion to Dr. Watts's "Improvement of the Mind." His remarks are earnestly commended to every one having anything to do with the mental training of the young. "There is," says Dr. Emerson, "probably no other branch of literary education of equal impor- tance that is so neglected, or imperfectly taught, as defuilnj^ — no other that has now such demands upon the attention of teachers. It is often astonishing and 14 210 GRADUATIXG SYSTE^M FOR COUXTRY SCnOOLS. grievous to see how grossly ignorant are children and youth, and even men and women, of the meaning of important words and phrases, — an ignorance which, in general, they are very far from feeling or mistrust- ing. They cannot express their thoughts, for want of words, and often they express thoughts very dif- ferent from what they intend, because they do not understand the words they employ. And very fre- quently, from the same cause, they take no idea, or wrong ideas, from what ihey read and hear. Prob- ably more than three foui'ths of the disputes that have troubled the world have arisen from the igno- rance or misapprehension of words. 'No doubt one of the greatest reasons why so Yittlo good is effected by preaching is, that the language of the preacher is but very imperfectly understood by most of the hear- ers. Said a venerable and pious lady to her little grandchild, just recovering from sickness, 'Now you must be thankful.' But the poor child did not know — could not guess — the meaning oithanlcfuJ , and was afraid to ask. So her excellent instruction was lost upon the child, at least for years, till he ascertained the meaning of the word. So it is, no doubt, v/ith a great part of the instructions that parents and teach- ers, as well as ministers, give to those under their care. " A remedy for these various and abounding evils is devoutly to bo wished and sought. What is it? Proper attention to the exorciso of defining is doubt- less ono of the remedies, and perhaps the best of all. THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 211 And it would be easy to show that all other methods must be inefiectual to gain an accurate knowledge of words, at least of many words, without this. " But the exercise of defining may not only prevent much evil, but eifect much positive good. When properly attended to, it is one of the best exercises for improving at once tLe memory and the judgment, and storinof the mind with useful knowledcre. And when a good acquaintance with language, I mean the ver- nacular language, is once acquired, this knowledge is one of the best aids ever devised by human ingenu- ity to assist the reasoning faculty in the search of truth. Wo make much use of words in thinkinir, especially in close thinking ; and it is perhaps impos- sible to pur.-ue a train of thought, to any consider- able lens^th, without their aid. But how often do we impose upon ourselves, and draw wrong conclusions, by imperfectly understanding the words we silently and perhaps insensibly use, or by using them in dif- ferent senses. And how often do we think in words, of which we have no definite understanding, flat- tering ourselves that we are nobly investigating thoughts and things, while, in reality, we are only making progress in pride and darkness. As words are only the signs of thoughts and things, and the re- lation of things, so it is very important, in order to improve our acquaintance with thoughts, things, and relations, that we should have a very clear and cor- rect knowledge of the meanings of words, or objects which they represent. This cannot l)e gained by 212 CRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. nttendin£>: to tlic manner and connection in wliicli words are used, whether written, printed, or spoken. This will often leave the sense very vague and inde- terminate, or positively wrong. "^?i acquaintance icitJt oilier languages ivill not give us a correct knowledge of English xvords. For, in the first place, all the English words derived from these three hinguages do not constitute one fifth part of our language. "In the second place, there is scarcely an instance in which a knowledi^e of the oris^inal word can <2:ive us any precise idea of the meaning of its derivative. The fact is, that the meaning of almost every word includes several ideas ; and when we borroAV a word from another language, we scarcely ever use it to sig- nify just the same ideas denoted by its original. For example, our words, cap^ captain, caption, capital, capitol, capitation, decapitate, all are derived from caput, — a head. But they all differ in signification from cajmt, as well as from one another. There is, indeed, some resemblance among the significations of all. This makes it a little easier to learn and to retain their meanings ; but an acquaintance with these various meanings cannot be gained, but from other sources. The same might be shown by multi- tudes of other examples. Hence it has come to pass that iise, and not derivation, is the law of lano-aaire : and hence our word virtue has by no means the same signification as its original, virtus. Hence, too, it has come to pass that a knowledge of the original THE DICTIONAllY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 213 word has often led the unwary youth to misunder- stand and misuse its derivative of different meaninoj. "It is the grand object of the dictionary to tell us the sense or senses in which our words are used by good writers and speakers. To learn the meaning of words, then, must constitute a capital part of a good education. It should he begun as soon as tlie child can distinguish between one word and another, and continued as Ions: as sio^ht or hearino: continue. The chief, study in this pursuit is that of defining, i^rin- cipally in the use of a dictionary . The best way of pursuing this study is doubtless in connection with other studies, — to learn and fix in the mind the defi- nitions of the most important words, as they occur. Tho instructions of ths lessons will greatly assist to fix in tho mind the definitions, and the definitions to fix the instructions. To promote this exercise it is tboiiglit needful to have a large number of cjucstions, to bo answered by definitions. But the pupil should not content himself merely with learning these. He should consult his dictionary for the meaning of every word that he does not clearly understand. Let him also consider the connection, and endeavor to gain the exact import, not only of each word, but also of each phrase and sentence, as he proceeds. In this way, though his progress from page to page will be slow, 'especially at first, yet it will be sure, and exceedingly conducive to mental improvement and the acquisition of knowledge." The following article from the pen of President 214 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Porter, of Yale College, is so able, appropriate, and convincing, that I present it as the concluding argu- ment upon this subject : — "It is acknowledged by all to bo very desirable that every school and every scholar should be fur- nished with the best English dictionary. No one doubts that it is well that the large dictionary should lie upon the teacher's table, and that some one of the smaller dictionaries should be in the hands of every scholar. " But how shall they bo used ? How can they be used to result in the "greatest advantaofo? Is it enough that the large book should repose in the sol- itary dignity of an oracle, ready to answer any ques- tion that is forced upon its notice, about the spoiling, pronunciation, derivation, and meanings of the hard words which come up in the school recitations ? Is it enough that the pupil should be taught to resort to the dictionary by his side, whenever, in his private studies, he is at loss in respect to any of the points which we have named? TJieso objects are very good indeed. They are quite suiEcient to reward all the pains which is taken to provide our schools Vvdth works of this kind. " Is this enough ? Can nothing more be attempted wdth the hope of success? Does the teacher dis- charge all his duty when he makes an occasional ref- erence of this kind to the standard before him, or when he exhorts his scholars to do the same ? We think not. More than this can be done in the way THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 215 of systematic efforts to train the scholars to the constant use of these books of reference. JMany teachers attempt this. They require of their classes in spelling to give the definitions of a few words in every lesson. Some require very young children, as soon as they are old enough to write, to write out definitions in a copy-book, and to learn these defini- tions by heart. This is generally a severe and unpleasant task. The young scholar finds tJte defi- nition to be nearly if not quite as unintelligible as the word itself, and both are too often words, and hard words too, — "" dictionary words^ as they are sometimes expressively termed. " It requires a mature mind to take very much interest in a dictionary, or to resort to it of its own accord. Special and well-directed efforts are needed in order to make tlie study of it pleasant and prof- itable. Such efforts, we are persuaded, may ])e made, and it is with the hope of leading to such efibrts that the foilowiuof suij^srestions are offered. " The great end of stud3dng a dictionary is to train the pupils to the study of words. The teacher should aim, with all his patience and skill, to make his scholars attend to the words which they use, — to understand them in all their force and beauty, as expressive of thought and feeling. It is not enough to spell and pronounce them correctly, to apply them to the right objects, to use them in the right connec- tion, and to avoid grammatical blunders. This knowledge is desirable in its place ; it is even neces- 210 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. smy, but it is not all that is to bo aimed at. It is only a preparatory to that which is of greater conse- quence. Words are living things only when they arc parts of the sentence. They cannot be fully understood except as seen in their connection. ^Vhen they are separated from one another they are no more alive than a bone or blood-vessel is alive when it is cut ofi' from the body of which it was a part; no more aUve than a leaf, or a flower, or a twig is alive when it is separated from the tree and scattered upon the earth. " The dictionary must be used in the study, not of dead, but of living words. The dictionary must teach the scholar how to use words as they occur in sentences. To show what can be done in this w^ay, we suggest the following exercise as a daily lesson : Let a word or two be selected as the lesson for the day. Let the scholars be directed to prepare to give as many sentences as there are definitions of the "word, in each of w^hich one of the w^ords given as the definition shall be prominent. Let this be done sometimes with preparation and sometimes without preparation. In this way the attention of the class will bo directed to the shades of meaning: that distinguish the words which are ordinarily considered synony- mous, lie will see that a difierence in the connection makes all the diiiercnce conceiv^able with respect to the use of the w^ord. The greater proprietj^ and beauty of the use made of a word by one scholar over that made by another, Avill suggest lessons con- THE DICTIONARY IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 217 ccrning tlio force and beauty of laiigiiuge in general, and make the exercise teach composition and style. When the lesson is done, and all the su2:2:estions and ini^uiries about the various senses of the word are fin- ished, then the teacher should open the large diction- ary, and read, at length, the extended definitions, and the full illustrations which it contains. In view of all the li2:ht suirsrested by looking at the word in actual use, as a part of a sentence, and as a part of very many sentences, all these definitions will be clear and intelligible, and the word or words wliich have been studied for the day will be ever after full of interest to the pupils. " Xor if, this all. A few such lessons as this will teach the pupil how to use the dictionary for himself, and how to put meaning into the definitions given in the dictionary. A word separate from its con- nection, or rows of words looked out in a dictionary, from the columns of a spelling-book, can never excite such interest. Nor is it enough to take words in our school or private reading, in sentences made by others, and search out their meaning. The pupil must construct the sentences for himself, he must create by his own powers, he must apply the word in order fully to appreciate it. Then will it be a living thing. It will be a living sprout with a living root, planted in the moist earth ; not a dry twig stuck in the dry sand-heap, to stand for a moment and be soon plucked away. " This is not all. Every word has a liistory of its 218 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. own, and that history tho pupil should loarnto trace. It was first used ia a simple moaning, probably it was a picture word, representing some familiar ob- ject or action in nature. The worvds rights wronj, apj)rehend^ comprehend, imagine, resolve, and thou- sands like them, were first applied to something seen with the eye and handled with the hand, and by changes easily, but gradually, made, have come to signify the remote and abstract things or acts for which they are so freely used. '' The dictionary gives these meanings somewhat in their order. It traces them from their humble oriorin and application up to their higher' uses. It illus- trates the successive steps by which they have ad- vanced in the various uses to which they are applied. The teacher may know something of this history of single words. If his attention has not been directed to it, ho may obtain much light on the subject from Trench on the * Study of Words.' From that book he may learn what treasures of knowledge are hid in his dictionary, and tliat these treasures only need to be mined for the good of his scholars, with a little patience and skill. There is no exercise more profit- able to advanced classes than the lessons in the changes of meanings which words have undergone. They will learn that the history of a single word is a history of the thoughts and feelings of multitudes of men who have used it, and that changes are all the while going on in the words which are in actual use at the present time. The adroit and skilful teacher THE DICTIOXAIIY IN THE SCHOOL-llOOM. 219 can show how new words are continually coming into being, such words as loafer, filibuster, free-soiler, bloomer, bloomer-hat, propeller, young America, old fogy, and what is their origin. "If scholars reflect on the words which they use, they must learn to think. These living messengers of thought are flying from mouth to mouth every instant that we live. They drop from thousands of pens, in glistening pearls that are woven into ])race- lets of beauty. They attract or repel. The}^ win or they ofiend'us. They are used by the intelligent and clear-headed thinker to influence thousands of his fellows to good thoughts and useful deeds. Happy is the teacher, and happy the pupil, who are led to the thoughtful study and the intelligent use of the words of his native En2:lish tonsrue." LECTURE XYIII. HOW TO HAVE A LIBRARY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. The actual wealth and enterprise of the people of each State in the Union are about in proportion to the degree of intelligence and culture which the masses have attained in these several States. Wherever the masses arc ignorant and uncultured, there are poverty and want ; and wherever the people are intelligent and cultivated, there arc enterprise and wealth. But the study of the text-books used in the common schools of the country can never, of itself, produce that degree of intellectual strength which the masses must possess in order to insure public prosperity. The mind, like the body, demands daily food in order that it may increase in strength, and regular reading is the surest method of producing mental growth. Universal reading, therefore, is the surest method of producing universal intelligence. In childhood, the desire to gain knowledge is as universal as the desire to take food ; and if young people were provided regularly with reading matter to suit their taste, as parents provide their children with suitable food, reading would be to them as pleas- A LIBRARY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 221 urablc as eating and drinking. But observation and experience prove that the habit of reading, if formed at all, is generally formed early in life. When we consider that many homes have no libra- ries, and that few family libraries contain books suited to the taste of childhood and youth, we can readily account for the fact that, in many places, the masses have not formed the habit of reading. They were not furnished with suital)le readinsr matter vvhile iheir habits were forming. It is evident, then, that if we wish to lift the masses to a higher level — if ^ve wdsh to raise up a generation of readers and thinners — Ave must, in some way, provide suitable reading matter for all young people. There is no other method by which the masses can be so generally reached, and by which the }'outh of the country can be so readily induced to read, as the plan of having a library in every school-room. The question, then, for consideration is, shall we have a library in every school-room, and if so, how can we obtain it? I answer, we should have a library in every school-room, and we can obtain it from patr(.ns and pupils w^ith but little cost to any one and with pleasure to every one. I will present a plan for procuring books which requires only a lit- tle skilful management on the part of the teacher. It is this : Let the teacher lay the foundation of a lil)rary, just as he would introduce pictures into the school-room, or as he would plant shade trees upon school grounds, namely, by permitting each one who 222 GEADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. i;3 interested to take stock in the enterprise. To be more specific as to the method, I will say : — 1 . Let the teacher contribute one volume to the library. 2. Let the teacher encourage each pupil to con- tri])ute one volume. 3. Let the teacher appoint a committee of the larger pupils, ladies and gentlemen, to solicit con- tributions of books and monej^ from the citizens of the district. 4. Let the school give a public entertainment and charge an admission fee for the purpose of ob- taining: additional funds. 5. Let all money, contributed or collected, be used in purchasing suitable books and periodicals for the school library. 6. Let the teacher obtain printed labels, and let each book contributed be labelled with the Name of donor Date of donation Valfie of hook Condition {ne>v^ soiled^ or shelf-worn) 7. Let the teacher use the local paper or papers of the county to make known the names of contrib- utors, and the character and amount of each con- tribution. 8. Let there be a laudable ambition on the part of the teacher, pupils, and patrons of the school, to have the best school library in the county ; and let A LIBRAHY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 223 this purpose be made known through the public papers. The foregoing plan, if skilfully carried out, will produce a fair beginning for a school library ; and the same method may be repeated with increasing interest and pleasure, from year to year. During the school term, the library should be mainly under the control of the teacher ; but a libra- rian, and other officers, should be elected, and ar- rangements should bo made to let out books at stated times, embracing the season when the school is not in session. In this way the school library may be made fx permanent institution^ wnd men of means may be led to contribute liberally to its support. I find, in " The New England Journal of Educa- tion," Boston, a communication from a teacher on the subject, "How to start a School Library"; and I here present it for the consideration of those who wish to study the best methods for accomplishing this work : — " Noticing the above query in a recent number of 'The Journal,' I thought I might interest its readers by staling how we started our library. "I first mentioned the matter to the school, and asked the pupils to talk with their parents about it. I told them that all who contributed twenty-five cents should have their names enrolled as founders of the library ; that each one should pay a cent a week for the privilege of taking out books, or fifteen cents for six months. I also asked them all to see at home 224 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. if they had not some books that were old to them, but that would bo new to others. " I contributed a ^ School History of England/ a delightful 'Child's History of the United States' (given me by a book agent), and the history of 'Old Abe' (bought at the Centennial). The chil- dren contributed over twenty books, all good and in good condition. They contributed and collected $8, and I collected over $2 by asking the different friends whom I met, ' Won't you give me live cents toward our school library ? ' "In order to get the most for our money, we first subscribed for ' Wide- A wake ' and 'The Nursery' for six months ; wo then invested about four dollars in cheap reprints of standard works, such as miiy be found in the Seaside and Franklin Square Libraries, and Harper's ' Half-Hour Series ' ; also several little paper-backed picture books for the little folks, in- cluding a five-cent copy of ' Mother Goose.' The remaining four dollars we spent for books on natural history, travels, etc. " Our library has now been in operation two months, and, though only in its infancy, is a success. AVe have over one hundred volumes : among these are several on history and biography ; some of Scott's, Dickens's, and Miss Muloch's ; 'Arabian Nights,' 'Swiss Family Robinson,' and 'Robinson Crusoe.' Some of the more valual)lG works are only lent, but we are making good use of them while we have them. Several volumes of old magazines were A LIBRARY IN E\^ERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 225 contributed ; these I stitclied together by means of an awl and coarse thread, and they are quite in demand. "In conclusion, I will only add that the best way to accomplish any desirable result is to have faith that you Avill succeed, and then go to work." The school law of New Jersey provides that the State treasurer, upon the order of the State superin- tendent, is authorized to pay $20 to any school that shall raise a like sum, by subscription or entertain- ment, for the purpose of establishing a school library, and ^-10 annually thereafter on the same condition. I have before me the last three annual reports (1877, 1878, and 1879) of the State superintendent, contain- ing some important facts and figures concerning the operations of this law, which I offer for consideration. In his annual report for the year 1877, the superin- tendent says : — "The number of school districts in the State is one thousand three hundred and sLxty-seven. Three hundred and thirty-four districts have school libra- ries, sixty- live have made the first addition, forty- three the second, thirty-three the third, fifteen the fourth, and two the fifth." In his annual report for the year 1878, he says : — '' The number of school districts in the State is one thousand three hundred and sixtj^-seven. Three hundred and ninety-five schools have established li- braries, seventy have made the second application, fifty the third, twenty-two the fourth, twelve the fifth, ten the sixth, and two the seventh." 15 226 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. , In his annual report for the year 1879, the superin- tendent says : — " The number of school districts in the State is one thousand three hundred and seventy. Four hundred and thirty-seven schools have established libraries, eighty-two have made the second applica- tion, fift3'-four the third application, twenty-seven the fourth application, thirteen the fifth appUcation, eleven the sixth application, five the seventh applica- tion, and one the eiglith application." From the foregoing official statement, it appears that nearly one third of the schools of the State of New Jersey have already established school libraries, and the number of hbraries is annually increasing. This co-operative plan^ which helps those ivJio help them- selves, is a wise arrangement, and I commend it to law-makers in other States. But law-makers are rarely ever in advance of the people in matters of education. Therefore, if we wish our State lea^islatures to enact laws encourao^ins^ O CO the establishment of school libraries, we must first lift the masses high enough to let them see some of the advantages of such libraries. This our teachers can accomplish by the establishment of libraries all over the land, upon the voluntary plan heretofore presented. In this way our teachers xnay widen their worh, and increase their power and influence with the people. In the selection of books for a school library, care should be taken to embrace a wide range of subjects ; A LTBPvAPtY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 227 but books which intelligent and cultured parents would be unwilling to place in the hands of their sons and daughters should find no place upon its shelves. The school library should include, at least, some of the most popular histories, biographies, books of travel, stories, some standard works of fiction, the leading poets, books of reference, an unabridged dic- tionary, Shakespeare, and the Bible. Many standard works are now furnished by leading publishers at low prices, and a small amount of money will secure a fair library. The local newspapers of the county, and at last a couple of the great weeklies from the city, should also be included in the readins^ matter fur- nished for the school. It is the duty of the teacher to assist his pupils in forming a taste for reading. He should also, in a degree, direct them in their reading in connection with school studies and inde- pendent of the school course. In this way the teacher may lead his pupils to begin a course of reading Avhich shall become a supplement to the school work, lastino: throuo^hout life. The library should bo kept open during school hours, and books of reference should be freely used by pupils in the preparation of their lessons. The teacher should instruct his pupils how to use books of reference, as the master mechanic teaches his appren- tices how to use tools. I find in "The Western Educational Journal," Chicao'o, an editorial on "The Use of Books of Eef- 228 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. crciice," which is so appropriate that I here present it: — "There is no doubt that too little use is made of books of reference in schools of all grades. Many teachei-s do not understand how to use to the best ad- vantage even the unabridged dictionaries ; failing in this knowledge themselves, how can they instruct their pupils when and how to use them? One of the most important qualifications of a thorough and successful teacher is the ability to teach pupils how to use other books than their text-books. Mere knowdedge of Vv^hat the text-books says upon any subject is not suiScient ; the pupil should be taught how to supplement this knowledge by the constant and proper use of books of reference. Even the pe- culiar shade of meaning in a single w^ord, as used in one connection rather than another, will often throw a flood of light upon the subject-matter in hand, and this may be had by a single reference to the dic- tionary. "The master mechanic does not expect his appren- tice to become a thorough workman by verbal in- struction alone ; he shows him how to use his tools to the best advantage. So w^ith the teacher To make good scholars they must be taught how to use their books of reference ; and these should bo pro- vided in every school-room with liberality. The un- abridged dictionary, of course, and with this t!io geographical gazetteer, the large atlas and globe, and the biographical dictionary; and, in the higher A LIBRARY IN EVERY SCHOOL-ROOM. 229 grades of schools, one of the best eucych)pa3clias ; and all of these should be consulted by pupils under the teacher's guidance, as often as possible, until their use becomes familiar to all In this way will the pupils' habits of observation be cultivated, their ideas broadened, and a spirit of thoroughness be imparted which will be invaluable in later life. The man who knovv's how to investigate a subject is the man who will become master of it." If all the teachers in our public schools would go to work, and, in some way, establish a suitable library in every school-room, and induce young people to form regular habits of reading, they would thereby secure to the masses greater prosperity, higher inteUigence, and purer morality. It requires no argument to prove that in this way the work and inllucnce of teachers would become worth, to the public, twice as much as at present. It is equally certain that an enlightened people would acknowledge this in- creased woi-th of their teachers by giving them cor- respondingly increased wages. A brief editorial in "The American Journal of Education," St. Louis, is so clear upon this point that I present it for the consideration of teachers : — "What the people need to hioio is, that intelli- gence begets thrift and enterprise, and coins money out of the land, out of the mine, out of water and out of air, and every other element ; and that State which educates her people the best is the strongest State, the richest State, the most prosperous and 230 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. law-abiding State. Our teachers should he so well posted that, when information is lacking, they can give it to establish the truth of these propositions. A little more reading and study on the part of our teachers would bring to them power and influence, and a rich reward." LECTURE XTX. NEWSPAPERS m THE SCHOOL-ROOM AND FAMILY. Newspapers are public teachers of incalculable value. No other public educators visit the family so often, no others are so numerous, or so ready to give instruction on any subject, at any hour. "\'\'hile the pulpit and the platform are using the newspaper to widen their influence and to multiply their power, our country school-teachers ought to be sufficiently progressive to use this tjame element for a like pur- pose in the educational work. The first step to l)e taken by teachers in utilizing the newspaper is to introduce it into every school- room, and to see that it finds a place in every family. The second step to be taken is to keep the people posted, through its columns, as to what the schools are doing. Speaking of the newspaper in the school-room, President Gregory, of the Illinois State University, says : " Every editor is a teacher, — a teacher of men as well as of children. The newspaper is the fresh- est of books. It is the latest history, the newest science treatise, the current political economy, the 232 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. manual of the arts, the text-book of a livipg phi- losophy. That school-room, other things being equal, will be brightest, freshest, and most pro- ductive in practical learning into which the news- paper penetrates." But some one will say. How can the newspaper be used in the school-room ? I answer, it may be used in various ways. A very interesting and profitable reading exercise may be had, once or twice a week, by permitting each pupil to read from a newspaper an article of his own selection. It is evident that such an exercise will create an interest, and carry with it a freshness not seen or felt in readins: from regular text-books. Pupils who take part in these exercises will search the newspapers for interesting articles, and will take pleasure in making thorough preparation to read them. .In this way they will gain information on a variety of subjects, and they will learn to read as they talk, when they have some- thing of importance to tell. These weekly readings may be made still more profitable by inviting the patrons of the school to be present. The teacher should embrace these occa- sions to convince parents that newspapers are impor- tant aids in the education of a family. The following article, from the " National Journal of Education," Boston, may be of service to the teacher in the pres- entation of this subject : — ^'' A school-teacher Avho had been a long time en- gaged in hib profession, and had witnessed the inllu- NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 233 ence of newspapers on a family of children, writes as follows : — " ' I have found it to be a universal fact, without exception, that those scholars of both sexes, and all ages, who have access to newspapers at home, when compared with those who have not, are, — "'1. Better readers, excellent in pronunciation, and consequently read more and understandingly. "'2. They are better spellers ; define words with ease and accuracy. "'3. They obtain practical knowledge of geog- raphy in almost half the time required by others, as the newspapers have made them acquainted with the location of important places of all nations, their government and doings, on the globe. " ' 4. They are better grammarians ; for, having become so familiar with every style in newspapers, from the commonplace advertisement to the finished and classical oration of the statesman, they more readily comprehend the meaning of the text, and consequently analyze its construction with accuracy. " ' 5. They Avrite better compositions, using better language, containing more thoughts, more clearly and correctly expressed. "'6. Those young men who have for years been readers of newspapers are always taking the lead in debating societies, exhibit a more extensive knowledge upon a greater variety of subjects, and express their views with greater fluency, clearness, and correctness.'" 234 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. In attempting to introduce papers into the family, the teacher may, in a quiet manner, make a list of the names of patrons who are subscribers to news- papers, and a list of those who take no papers. If he will manage this matter skilfully, the former list may be lengthened and the latter list may be les- sened, until a newspaper shall be found in every family. When the list is completed, he should give notice of the fact through the local paper, as an incen- tive to other teachers to work in a similar manner. President Hewitt, of one of the normal schools of Illinois, suggests an excellent way of using the knowledge gained from the newspaper, and of keep- ing the school posted on the news of the day. He says: "Ten minutes a day, for two or three days in the week, may be very profitably spent in our public schools in the way of a general exercise on the news of the day. A good plan is to let a committee of one or more pupils prepare a report giving a brief statement of the affairs that seem to be worthy of mention. Then let the teacher and the other pupils make criticisms, additions, corrections, and com- ments." The foregoing method teaches pupils not only to compile, but to compose. It is the easiest and most natural method of teaching composition. Pupils may, in this way, be led to form the habit of writ- ing for the public papers, — a habit which is always pleasurable and often profitable. I have seen this plan thoroughl}^ tested, and I commend it to teachers. NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL- ROOM. 235 I am clearly convinced that it is the duty of all teachers to engage in the work of circulating public papers. They are indispensal)le to the highest suc- cess in the work of educating the masses, — the fathers, the mothers, the children. The following forcible suggestions upon this sub- ject, from the "American Journal of Education,'' St Louis, are earnestly recommended to teachers : — " If our teachers are wise — and they certainly are growing wiser and stronger and better — they will see to it that the printed page, carrying argument, persuasion, and facts, which ripen into conviction, is circulated continuously among the patrons and tax- payers. Trouble and hindrance come from lack of knowledge. Intelligent, well-posted people sustain the teachers in their work of instruction and dis- cipline. Circulate the printed page among the people. " Are your plans all laid for more reading in con- nection with your next school term ? Books were never so cheap as now, — good books, too. Circu- late good books, magazines, newspapers, and thus help the people outside the school-room as well as the pupils inside. The newspapers were- never giv- ing so much information as at present. By all means lay plans for more culture, for more reading with the pupils and the people. Intelligence begets its like, and intelligent people appreciate what and how much our teachers are doing for their children." The teacher who circulates public papers may 236 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. easily avoid the charge of "partisan," by obtaining a list of leading periodicals from which to allow patrons to choose for themselves. The newsdealer is not censured for keeping on hand pure publications of all parties. It is a good plan to appoint a com- mittee of the larger pupils, ladies and gentlemen, to solicit subscriptions, as the young jieople will in this way become interested in the circulation of papers. The teacher and pupils may with propriety give the preference to the local jjaper, as it is properly the organ of the people of the county, and ought, to find a place in every family. Where there is more than one local paper there is a chance to make choice. On this subject I quote the following article from the " American Journal of Education " : — "First the county newspaper, then the great weeklies from the city, and then the religious news- paper, bring all the world to you, and take you out of yourself into the society of the best and strongest. The newspaper, then, not only increases your intel- ligence, but your faith in the possibilities of j^ourself and the great people among whom you dwell. The local county papers are not only very friendly, but very helpful to teachers. They are pleased, always, to note the progress made by the pupils in the schools. They are glad to say good things of the good work done by our teachers. The printed page of the local newspaper should find its way to cyery home and fireside. Certainly no intelligent NEWSPAPERS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 261 father or mother can afford to allow the children to grow up without a glimpse of the outside and out-of- sight world which the newspaper gives. Use, by all means, the local papers, to show the tax-payers what is being done in your school." Objections are sometimes urged against the circu- lation of local papers, — 1. Because there is sometimes want of culture in the style of their composition. 2. Because they are not always free from impurity and indecency. The first objection proves that our system of public education has done its work imperfectly ; that the masses have not been thoroughly trained in compo- sition. The remedy is, more thorough culture of the masses, that we may be sure to reach those who will become journalists. The i"0 Californ.jL .2o_ ^•uisiana. Kentucky. I(V Illinois. Nfbraaks. Peiiinylvann W Virdoit 1 CIO. Delaware. " * Wn.OO KjinsM. Miswari. >.'. Carolina. Wajh Terr •J.lKl low.a. Mi».i6»ippi. Tmirea.-fe. iOH.nn. Minnesota. ..tn.nn Michigan. South Carolina, Virginia, .ou Choctaw.. Maine. WIsLonam on. Ciah. Vemicnt, 290 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. der the tenure-of-office principle, as we hold it, the teacher is constantly subject to the law of fitness and its recognition ; and the easy rule of such a law in service is not a yoke of bondage, but one of the most perfect freedom. Should occasion arise, the incumbent may be removed at any time, while, under the annual election principle, the teacher is master of the situation so long as the contract holds. As to precedents, the authorities of Germany, France, and England all favor the idea of permanency founded on good service." LECTURE XXIY. FREE TEXT-BOOKS IN FREE SCHOOLS. Several cities and some of the States are trying the experiment of furnishing free text-books in free schools. General Eaton, commissioner of the National Bureau of Education, in his last report, gives a brief account of this movement, which I here present : — " From a desire to extend to ever}^ child the full advantages of public instruction, the laws of thirteen of our States make provision for supplying indigent pupils with the needful text-books free of charge. These books are understood to be held by the chil- dren as a loan, to be returned in the best condition possible to tlie school boards after use, and to be passed on from session to session, and from child to child. The benefits derived from this arrangement have been so many and so various as to give rise to considerable discussion of the question whether the system of a free supply of books by school boards would not better be made universal, instead of par- tial and discriminating, as it is. " The advocates of a system of free supply urge in favor of it that it saves expense, the books being pur- chased at wholesale ; that it saves time, enough books 292 CEADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCTfOOLS. for every scholar being thus availal)le at the opening of each term ; that it secures for a district a desirable uniformity of text-books, making the work of teach- ers greatly easier and more effective than in other cases ; that it thus promotes better classification of pupils, so that more time can be given to each class ; that it increases the attendance on the schools ; and, finally, that it prevents expense and annoyance when a pupil goes from one district to another. " In view of these advantaofes, our two hiro-est cit- ies, New^ York and Philadelphia, have, for a long time, furnished free books ; and smaller cities, such as Bath and Lewiston in Maine, Fall River in Massachusetts, Newark and Paterson in New Jersey, have followed their example, with the happiest results. Four of the States, too, now explicitly provide for allowing the system of free supply. Maine, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin leave the matter to be decided \)y dis- trict or town meetings and city councils and the local school boards ; and New York authorizes city boards to furnish books to pupils out of any money provided for the purpose. In most of the remaining States the laws are silent on this point, except, as before mentioned, where a supply for poor pupils is allowed. But in California, Iowa, Michigan, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania the State superintendents express them- selves as decidedly in favor of furnishing free all the books needed. Su[)erintendent Carr, of California, further ventures the opinion that in the silence < f the law there is no obstacle in the way of the adoption FREE TEXT-BOOKS TN FREE SCHOOLS. 293 by any district of the free plan ; and probably, in almost any State, districts would be allowed to de- cide the matter for themselves, provided that proper notice be given beforehand to the people of the intention to discuss and determine the question at a specified time." State Superintendent E. A. Apgar, of New Jersey, after thoroughly testing the system of furnishing text- books by district taxation, in his annual report of 1(577, gives the following reasons in favor of the plan : — " First. The larijest discount can be secured. Parents pay fifty per cent more for the books they purchase than the district would be obliged to give. " Second. The books, when owned by the dis- trict, continue in use until they are worn out They pass from class to class. There is a very great sav- ins: in this. A sins^le child, or the children of a fomily, seldo4Ti wear a book out. Ever}^ parent knows how frequently he is obliged to purchase new books, to take the place of others still in a good or fair condition, which his children have finished, " TJilrd. Changes in school books are too fre- quent. These changes are too often made at the request of the teacher, avIio, upon entering a new school, finds the books used are not those he is most familiar with, and otb.ers he is most accustomed to are recommended. If the district furnishes the books, the teacher has not the same opportunity to secure changes, and they will, therefore, be less fre- 294 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. quent. These changes are not necessary. A good teacher will do as good work with one series of books as with another. More depends upon who is behind the book, than what is in it. ^^ Fourth. The most important saving is in the time of the children. If the district owns the books, a child, upon entering school, is assigned his place in his classes, and furnished with all the books he needs, without delay. He at once enters upon his work. Where this is not the case, the teacher first ascertains what books the child requires ; he sends the list to the parent. Then there is more or less delay in purchasing the books. Several days may elapse before the father becomes entirely satisfied that the books are actually required ; then he finds they cannot be had in the district store, and the child must wait until some business necessitates a visit to the city. Thus the child is unable to take his proper place in his classes, and valuable time is lost." State Superintendent J. P. Wickersham, of Penn- sylvania, in his annual report to the Legislature, in 1878, renews his former recommendation of free text-books, as follows : — " Boards of school directors are required to adopt books for the schools under their care, and to see that these and no others are used. But there is some doubt as to whether the law now authorizes them to furnish text-books to the pupils without charge, as they furnish globes, maps, charts, and die- FREE TEXT-BOOKS IN FREE SCHOOLS. 295 tionaries. The plan of free text-books has so many advantages, and has worked so well wherever fairly tried, that I have no hesitation in askino^ the Lesris- lature to remove whatever uncertainty there may be with reference to the power of school boards in the premises." The system of free text-books may be liable to some abuses, but it certainly has many advantages. The subject should be fully and fairly discussed in State and county institutes, and in the public papers, so that the people may understand it and decide for themselves. LECTURE XXV. METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. How to have n complete attendance upon public schools is a problem yet unsolved by the American people. After experimenting for more than a cen- tury upon this question, we have, now, an average attendance of but little more than one third of the school population of the States and Territories. No other obstacle so formidable as non-attendance- stands in the way of educating the masses. It is evident to every one, that universal education is attainable only by universal attendance. How to so manage the masses that all children may be brought into school is, perhaps, the highest problem of the present age. Compulsory laws have been enacted in several States, and wherever they have been enforced the attendance has increased. This enforcement, how- ever, has been confined almost entirely to cities and towns. There has been very little disposition to carry out compulsion in country districts. In some of the States where compulsory laws were enacted years ago, no attempt has ever been made to enforce METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 297 them, either in town or country, and if not repealed, they remain as dead letters upon statute-books. If we may judge the future by the past, it is unwise to depend upon compulsory laws for securing a full at- tendance in country schools. I may further say that if we can, by pleasurable methods, bring pupils into school, it is far better than to compel them to come. The most sensible plan for securing attendance that has yet been tried in country schools, is that which makes the teacher personally interested in the per cent of attendance. The two principal methods for accomplishing this end are here presented : 1. Let the amount of the teacher's monthly sal- ary depend, in some degree, upon the average per cent of attendance. 2. Let the teacher's tenure of office depend, in some degree, upon a reasonable per cent of attend- ance. The first method will increase the salaries of live teachers and diminish the salaries of dead ones. The second method will retain live teachers and dismiss dead ones. Both methods should be made a part of the school law of every State. This plan makes the teacher the paid agent for bringing pupils into school. It is cheaper and more pleasurable than compulsion, and is near akin to the laws which govern men in business and in the professions. The merchant's clerk commands a salary, great or small, in proportion to his ability to win and retain custom. The fees of the attorney and the ph^^sician 298 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. depend largely upon the number of their clients and patients. The salary of the Christian minister is somewhat dependent upon his ability to command a good congregation. The active teacher who can secure an averaii^e at- tendance of seventy-five or eighty per cent of all who are entitled to attend his school is, all else be- ing equal, w^orth twice as much as the teacher who sits down satisfied with an attendance of thirty or forty per cent. As a rule, to which there may be some exceptions, the attendance upon a school is a fair index to the quality of its inside work. If the per cent of attendance is low, there is generally a lack of interest in the work of the school. Whether the position and pay of the teacher are made to depend upon attendance or not, the work of securing a full attendance in each school must, in many places, be done mainly by the teacher, or it will not be done at all. In order to aid teachers in the work of increasing attendance, I ofier some sug- gestions founded on the customs of political parties and religious denominations. Let us take a case for the sake of illustration. Here is a district or township containing half a dozen country school-houses, and the teachers for these several schools have just received their ap- pomtments. It is evident that the highest success in each school cannot be reached unless all who are entitled to attend can be present at the beginning of the term. Now let these teachers learn wisdom METHODS FOK SECURING ATTENDANCE. 299 from politicians ; let them take the same pains to bring pupils into I heir schools that politicians take to bring people to the polls, and then see what the re- sult will be. Let us look at the methods which politicians use in securing a full attendance at the polls, and see if the same methods will not secui'e a full attendance in the schools. What methods do politicians use for this purpose ? I answer, — 1 . They list all the names and see all the " doubt- ful ones." 2. They hold mass meetings, have banners and music, make earnest speeches, create emulation, and circulate papers. They spare no pains in trying to convince people that the success of their cause is es- sential to public prosperity. Now if the teachers of the district or township, directed by the county superintendent or commis- sioner, will spend one week, before the school term begins, working as earnestly, skilfully, and harmo- niously as politicians of the same party work, they will hnd a full attendance on the first day of the term. But as schools are not like elections, w^hich last for one day only, teachers cannot, like politi- cians, cease their public efforts after securing one day's full attendance. They should, therefore, adopt the custom of the churches, and hold public meetings at stated periods. No religious or moral enterprise will long retain its interest without holdins' meetinofs at stated periods. 300 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Our educational work in the country provides for a great many meetings, but most of them are " teach- ers' meetings." ^Ve need more educational mass meetings, in which the people may take part. In order to have a full attendance on the iirst day of the term, some teachers adopt the plan of offer- ing, beforehand, a reward to all who may be present on that day. This plan, though a good one, offers no inducements to pupils after the first day of the school term. A still better method — one that has w^orked with admirable success wherever tried — is, for the teacher to offer, before school begins, a handsome diploma of honor, to l)e presented, at the end of the term, to each pupil who may be entitled to it. I present here a miniature form of this di- ploma. METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 301 ^jpa^c^ge^t-e^eiye^^^ 302 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCil;)Oi:.S. It will be observed that this diploma requires not only regular attendance, but good deportment vaid good recitations. The effect of this plan upon the attendance, conduct, and diligence of pupils can be realized only by those who have tried it. But the most successful method for securins: a full attendance upon the schools of any county in any State is a system of beautiful banners. This sys- tem embraces a county banner and a banner for each township or magisterial district. The county banner is publicly presented, at the end of the school year, by the county superintendent or commissioner, to the township having the highest per cent of attend- ance for the past year, and the name of the town- ship, and the year in which the banner is presented, are inscril)ed upon it. But this banner is presented with the understanding that if at the end of the next year the township holding it should not show the highest [)er cent of attendance of all the townships in the county, then the banner shall be surrendered and presented to the township having the highest per cent, and the name of the township receiving it, and the year in wdiich the banner is surrendered and presented, shall be inscribed underneath the name of the township which surrenders it. Should an}-^ town- ship obtain this banner a second time, the year of its second presentation may be inscribed opposite the former inscription. Each township banner is publicly presented, at the end of the school year, to the school in its township METHODS FOR SECURIISG ATTENDANCE . 303 having the highest per cent of attendance for the past year, and the name of the school, and the year in which the banner is presented, are inscribed thereon. Each township banner is held and surrendered upon the same conditions as the county banner. The county banner, in the course of time, may be obtained and surrendered by every township in the county ; and each township banner, in the course of time, may be won and lost by every school in its township. These changes, however, will be made only through mighty struggles, some striving to hold and others to obtain the banner. Parents, pupils, and teachers will voluntarily become recruiting accents to brinsf absentees into school. This system of school banners should be extended so as to create an emulation between the several counties of a State, and between the several States of the Union. A beautiful banner, suitably inscribed, seems to be Nature's choice method for creatine: a hio^h de^Jfree of interest. Every nation under the sun has its ensign, which it keeps before its subjects, whether they are on land or sea. No great political party, in any country, could be induced to dispense with banners in its mass meetings and marches. Great armies, mixing in fierce encounter , are cheered when, amidst the smoke of battle, they even get a glimpse of the flag of their country. Late experiments have proven that the banner is as essential, and may be made as powerful in the edu- 304 GKADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. cational work, as it is in an army, a political party, or a nation. Its influence may be easily tested in a single township, county, or State. As this sj^stem of school banners for securing attendance is a new plan, a brief account of its origin may not be inappropriate. While superin- tendent of the schools of Monongalia County, West Virginia, I introduced several new methods for securing attendance. Early in January, 1878, I of- fered a beautiful banner, suitably inscribed, to be presented to the district (township) that would produce the highest average per cent of attendance of its entire school population for the year ending Aug. 31. In order to show the inscription, I present here a representation of both sides of this banner. ^^ Free School System Es- tablished in "West Virginia in 1863. Graduating System first introduced in Pri- mary Schools of Monongalia County, 1876. Alumni Organized, - 77. @&€ES The Highest Per Cent of Attendance. COUNTY SCHOOL BANNER. METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 305 I carried this banner wherever I went in my w^ork of visiting schools, and placed it on exhibition in the educational mass meetings which were he'd each evening. ]Many parents who had never before taken an interest in education, commenced sending their children to school, and urging others to send, as they said, " for the purpose of obtaining the county ban- ner." Several teachers said to me, "If we had only known of this plan beforehand, we would have had all our pupils in school on the first day of the term." Finding that the county banner was working so admirably, I offered seven district banners, one to each of the seven country districts of the county, each banner to be presented to the school in its dis- trict that wou'd produce the highest average per cent of attendance. These banners were all to be presented with the understanding, and to be held upon the conditions already Stated. The influence of these district banners was like local elections in a State campaign, — stirring every nook and corner of each community in the county. In order to show how carefully this banner system was carried out in the county, I present the follow- ing extract from the published report of the presi- dents of the several school boards of the county, made at their annual meetinsr held at the court- house. "MoRGANTOWN, West Va., June 24th, 1878. " At a meeting of the county banner committee of the free schools of Monongalia County, to ascertain 306 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. the per cent of attendance attained by the several districts of said county, we, the undersigned com- mittee, find, from the reports of the district commit- tees, the average to be as follows : — " Clinton district, sixty per cent of attendance ; Morgan district, fifty-three per cent of attendance ; Union district, sixty-seven per cent of attendance ; Grant district, sixty-one per cent of attendance ; Cass district, sixty-one per cent of attendance ; Bat- telle district, sixty-one per cent of attendance ; Clay district, fifty-five per cent of attendance. " We, therefore, award the county banner to Union district, to be held one year, or till it shall be excelled by some other district. "We find, also, from the reports of the district committees, that the following schools are entitled to district banners for the ensuing year : — "Battelle district. West Warren school, J. Milton Shriver, teacher, — eighty per cent. "Cass district, Jimtown school, D. Weidman, teacher, — seventy-three per cent. "Clay district, McCurdysville school, Otis W. Waters, teacher, — seventy-five per cent. "Clinton district, Martin's school, Wm. J. King, teacher, — eighty per cent " Grant district, Stewart's Run school, A. J. Ar- nett, teacher, — eighty-six per cent. "Morgan district. Chestnut Ridge school, John D. Gans, teacher, — sixty-nine per cent. "Union district. Pleasant Hill school, Adis Zear- ley, teacher, — seventy-two per cent. METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE. 307 " We find, further, that the average per cent of at- tendance in the county is about sixty per cent. (Signed) "James S.Watson, S. H. Shkiver, James Hare, A. W. Bkown, Coleman Vandervort, CommiUee." In the autumn of 1878, before the schools were opened, many of our teachers visited their patrons and obtained promises that they would send their children promptly. Several of our schools had a full attendance on the first day of the term ; and the efibrts of each district to merit the county l)anner, and of each school to merit its district banner, were even greater than the previous winter. In some parts of the county, clothing and books were quietly provided for poor children, and they were brought into school for the purpose of increasing the attend- ance. At the end of the school year the county banner was ao^ain awarded to the district that had he'd it the previous year; two district banners were retained by the schools that already held them, and all the other banners changed places. We had expected to reach, that year, an average attendance of seventy- five per cent, but " mumps " and " measles " pre- vailed, during the school term, to such an extent, that our attendance was but little over sixty per 308 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. cent. This, however, is about as high an average attendance as a country district, where the school popvdation embraces all ages, from six to twenty-one, can reasonably be expected to reach. It is folly to say, as some have said, that our schools are a failure unless we have an attendance of one hundred per cent of the entire school population. Many per- sons who are entitled to attend school have already completed the common branches, some are sick or distant, some are learning trades or working on farms, some are doing housework, and some are married. It is the duty of the friends of popular education to see that all young people obtain, at the very least, a fair knowledge of the common branches. In order to accomplish this, we should adopt the best methods for securing attendance. The newspaper may be made a powerful agent for increasing the attendance upon our public schools. If in this w^ork we can create an emulation among the several schools of each township, among the several townships of each county, among the sev- eral counties of each State, and among the several States of the Union, and then use the newspaper to promptly make known the results, as we do in matters pertaining to elections, we will greatly in- crease the interest of the people in the work of se- curing attendance. Our school statistics lack fresh- ness, because they come so late. The National Bureau of Education furnishes much METHODS FOR SECURING ATTENDANCE 309 valuable information, but it comes one or two years after the time we ought to have it. The delay is, how^ever, not the fault of the Cmmissioner of Edu- cation, but want of facilities. I present an interest- ins: diairram from his last report. This diairram, which shows the relation of enrolment and average attendance to the school population of the United States, ought to 1)e presented in every newspaper in the land. A like diagram could be made to show the attendance of the several counties in a State, or the several townships in a county. The following explanation of this diagram is from the " New England Journal of Education," Boston : — *' Average Attendance. — The percentage of daily averasre attendance is here based on the total shcool population of each State, as given in the State cen- sus, and is subject to the same variable element as appears in the total enrolment table. Another va- riable element appears in addition, — the diflering lengths of the school year in the general States. No two are alike. The school year varies from sixty days, the minimum, in North and South Caro- lina and Missouri, to one hundred and eighty-eight days, the maximum, in the District of Columbia. The percentage of daily average attendance is not given in the States of Arkansas, Delaware, Minne- sota, South Carolina, Texas, and Wisconsin, and in the Territories of Dakota, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Washington, and Wyoming " Enrolment. — The central column represents AVERAGE ATTENDANCE. A Diagram, showing the Relation of Enrolment and Average Attend- ance to School Population in the several States. iMtMachusells, 74. JTew Hynpslilre, 65 ^ Cjinnertlout. Hhode Islar Maryland. Pennsylvania, 49. "VermoiiU 46. Cmifoin'm, MklilBKi). 'Nebraska, 45. lowo, Ohio. Utah, 44.. Indiana. 43. lllinoia, 42. Tennessee, 32. Kentucky, 31. ItllRsiasippi. Georgia, 29. Alabama, 28 Maryland, 27. ^onh Carolina, 26. llUsonri, 2 Tirginia, 24. Florida, 22. .M.«achu,ovt^ 104. ENROLMENT. ..Idaho, 98. - 20 - .-Rhoie Island. 81 ..Termont, 73. ..ICcliigan, PemisylTanla, 78. ,.Ioira, CaHfornla, 71- ..Indiana, 72. '..lUin'oia, Ohio. 70. ^"oTawa^rCm^ct'of Col.^hla, We.t Virginia, 'orth CaroUna, ^9 ..Kentucky, 48. Tirginla, ■Washington Territory, &. \ ITew Mexico, ix ..Arkanaaa, IS. 312 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRr SCHOOLS. the total school population of each State, and is di- vided into one hundred parts. The census of the school population varies in the several States, afford- ing seventeen different standards of school age. In the longest the age extends from the fourth to the twenty-first year, covering seventeen years ; the shortest extends from eight to fourteen years, cover- ing a period of six years. The figures on the right show the percentage of the school population of each State that is enrolled in the schools. Arkansas has only sixteen per cent of her school population en- rolled, but the school age is from six to twenty-one years. Massachusetts has one hundred and four per cent in enrolment, while her school age is from five to eighteen years Persons using this table must bear in mind this important fact of the variable school age of the school population of each State." LECTURE XXVI. FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. In this age of steam and lightning, while railroad and telegraph companies are extending their lines, and fcirmers and mechanics are introducing improved implements and machinery for the purpose of accom- plishing more work in less time, progressive teach- ers are introducing improved educational methods for a like purpose. It was once the custom in coun- try schools for the teacher to hear each pupil recite singly. It is now evident to every one, that under the present plan of placing all pupils of like grade in the same class, the teachers al)ility to hear recita- tions, and his opportunity to throw light upon lessons, are infinitely greater than under the former method. Country teachers, in former times, were unanimous in the opinion that children should learn all the letters before beginning to spell, that they should become good spellers before attempting to read, and that they should be able to read well before undertaking to write. Progressive teachers of the present day have proven, however, that all these branches may, with profit, be taken up and studied together. 314 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Paradoxical as it mny appear to those who have not thought upon this subject, if we will but take the hints Avhich nature gives us we will see that chil- dren should begin to read before they begin to spell, and they should begin to learn words l)efore they be- gin to learn letters. For proof of this declaration we have but to look at the method by which the child learns the names of its playthings, and all their parts. Take, as an illustration, a toy-wagon. We find that the child learns first the name, — vagon^ — and its use ; then the names of its principal parts, — wheels, bed, tongue, axles, spokes, hubs, linch- pins, etc. And notwithstanding the fact that the primary school has attempted to reverse this order of nature by i*equiring the pupil to learn first the names of the several parts, the mature man adopts, in his practice, the methods of infancy. Take, as an example, a man who wishes to gain a clear knowl- edge of a steam-engine ; he studies first the engine as a whole, then the several parts. In order to test the practicabihty of the old-time school method, let us try it in teaching a child the names of the several parts of its toy-wagon. Let us take the wagon to pieces and show the child the separate parts, and require it to learn their names be- fore it sees their use, and before it has any concep- tion of their combined beauty. It is evident that this process would be slow and laborious ; while un- der the child's own method it soon learns all these, and we can scarcely tell how or when it learns them. FIEST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 315 If we try the school method on the mature man, and undertake to give him a clear understanding of all the parts of a steam-engine, the plan will prove equally unsatisfactory. For some time past the freshest writers and the foremost thinkers connected with primary education have been urging the universal adoption of the ''child's method " in primary schools, and practical teachers have proven that the plan works with won- derful success. I offer the opinions of some standard authorities on this subject. Mrs. Rebecca D. Rick- off, of Toledo, Oliio, who recently read a paper be- fore the National Educational Association, entitled "First School Days," and who is author of a primer on primary school work, says : " The child should be taught — " Firsts To read sentences. " Secondly, To read words. " Thirdly, To analyze spoken words into sounds. ^^ Foarthly, To analyze written words into symbols of elementary sounds, l^eginning with such words as cat, rat, not, etc. ; then such words as that, them, ship ; then words with new sounds to the symbols, as thin, caper, no ; finally, words with silent letters, as cate, rate, noble, etc." The " National Journal of Education," Boston, in reviewing a new book for primary schools, by Col. Francis W. Parker, supervisor of the public schools of that city, says : — " The lessons are simple, but based upon a definite 316 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. plan — and that an admirable one — of teaching the child a vocabulary of words, the signs of ideas, and repeating them in such association as to open to it new thoughts as well as new words. A few words should first be taught thoroughly as the nucleus of a vocabulary, and then plenty of good reading will give the child facility in expression, as well as an understanding of the thought conveyed by the words read. Nothing better his been put into i)rint." The following appropriate article is taken from the '^Primary Teacher,*' Boston : — " In starting little folks in reading, it is not quite clear that, at the outset, it is best to trouble them much with letters, and the sounds they represent, or to try to have them derive the word from its phonetic or alphabetic elements. The theory seems to be very good, too, but we find that, in practice, children learn many things contrary to our wise theories. In learning to speak the language they skip over the elementary laws that govern speech, and are only bothered with them when they reach the school. It is pretty much the same in learning to sing, indeed in learning most things, — the scientific principles do not confront the young learner on the start. So in learning to read, the normal method, as we view it, is to let beginners, if young, go on for a time without spelling out the words either by sounds or letters. We should teach them words, — dog, cat, chair, — precisely as we would the real objects which these words represent. FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 317 " We all know how rapidly children learn the names of things about them, becoming acquainted with hundreds before they are old enough to be sent to school; and they learn them, too, for the most part, without being directly taught by any one. Then, too, in recognizing objects and sieaking their names, they do not fix the eye upon each sc^parate part, — as, for example, the object chair, and speak each part of the chair before naming the object itself. They see the object as a whole, and speak it at once. Indeed, in adult age we all do the same. We speak words addressed to the eye in the same way, what- ev^er method was pursued by our teachers in giving us the start. " Since children learn the names of things so read- ily, why should they not be able to acquire words readily? It is found that they will. They will ac- quire them surprisingly fast if teachers will make the work equally simple, not load the words down with elements, which to the little learners of reading are not elements. It is best, then, or at least as it ap- pears to us, to keep beginners upon words for some time, — two or three months, perhaps. Starting out with the phonetic elements (complicates the matter greatly, and confuses little learners more than one is aware of. Besides, it is not necessary. All this fine word-analvsis and nice trainino- in the discrimination of sounds are proper enough, introduced incidentally, or further along in the course, but nothing of the sort is essentially needed at the outset. 318 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. " By commencing with words, as the child does in learning to talk, omitting the elementary sounds, teachers find that their pupils become interested in their work almost at once, since in a few days they are able to read phrases and short sentences at sight, and this newly acquired power pleases them greatly. With slate and pencil and proper encouragement they begin to imitate the words they have learned, and write hoy^ caf, (food, etc., with supreme delight." It is now the almost universal practice of the fore- most teachers in primary schools to introduce writing along with reading, at the very beginning. The child is thus trained to ex[)ress thought on slate and blackboard in written words, as soon as it can have word forms in which to express it. It is found that good penmanship can be more easily acquired early than later in life ; and it is evident that its acquisition in early life will leave more room for other studies, demanding reason, in later years. The following extract from a lecture by Superin- tendent Parker, of Boston, cannot be too highly commended : — *' Everything should be learned by doing. The best way to get a correct idea of any form is to attempt to draw it, so have the children draw the words, — for writing and drawing are the same thing ; the purpose is not to picture the words upon the board, but by often picturing them upon the board to produce a correct picture in the brain of the child ; hundreds of children spell well orally who cannot FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 319 write the simplest words without blundering; of what use is such spelling? There should be no oral spelling ill the first two years of school, no reproduc- tion of words from memory in that time either, but faithful copying from well- written patterns. Wait for things to grow in the minrl; ideas gvoio slowly^ and if you force a child to a single utterance before he is ready you do him an injury. " If the firi>t year's work is done, if the first year's work is DONE, IF THE FIRST YEAR'S WORK IS DONE, there is no trouble with the rest. " Begin written compositions in the second year. A good beginning is to do something, and ask the child to write what you did, upon his slate. Never allow a word to be written wrong ; never allow a sentence to be begun except with a capital ; never let a child guess at the spelling of a word ; if he mistakes once, don't let him try again ; write the word correctly for him at once, or have another pupil do it ; guesses confuse the mind. Say nothing about rules for punc- tuation and capitals in a primary department, but write your sentences correctly, and insist upon cor- rect copies from the pupil." Teachers who are not skilful in " printing" upon the blackboard, may adopt the method of teaching beginners to use script, even before they learn Roman letters. Indeed it is now maintained by some emi- nent educators that this is the easier and more nat- ural method for beginners. A writer in the "New England Journal of Education," Boston, in answer 320 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. to the inquiry, " Should script be taught before Roman ? " says : — " No practical difficulty arises from the use of two forms, if the child uses script alone for its first hun- dred or two hundred words, and is given its new words in script for some time thereafter. The child does have difficulty in passing from print to script at any period of school-life, and it suffers almost irre- mediable injury by use of print first. The infant languages of the world are script languages. The untaught little child writes ( ?) continuously across its slate or paper. In teaching we purpose giving the child ideas as fast as he can use them. The com- pact and much-used print-form the child gets and masters (with no perceptible effort) as soon as he needs it. We avoid weakening, even to destruction, the child's fondness for using what he knows, and his power of thinking and of expressing his thoughts in the symbols he at any given time possesses. To read and not to write is questionable gain for the child. We have not only watched both processes — the script-print and the print-script — in scores of classes, but have tried both ourselves, and have seen no reason to abate our preference for the prior use of script, and its abundant use throughout school-life." Another correspondent of the same journal says : — " In teaching: bes^inners to read we would not teach the names of the letters, whether made in script or in Roman character; because, 1. It is not necessary. If the children have escaped learning them before FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 321 attending school, they will learn them incidentally, and without pains for anybody. 2. It is not desir- able. A knowledge of the names of the letters of the English alphabet is an obstacle to a child begin- ning to learn to read. It interferes with the process of teaching reading. The aim of the teacher is to teach a word, and, as soon as may be, a phrase or sentence in which it is used. His success is hin- dered if the pupil's attention is distracted from the whole word by any antecedent interest in its parts. The child tries in vain to transmute the sound of the name he has learned into the sound he does not, and cannot know that he ous^ht to q'iyq for each let- ter in the word or words before him. "In teaching beginners to read we present words, phrases, sentences, on the blackboard in script. We contmue to present in that way all words whose form or significance we wish to impress accurately and durably, until at least one hundred script words can be read by the pupil in any sentences that can be made from them ; we withhold the printed page of chart or primer. The script form of a word is significant of an idea already alive in the child's mind through object-presentation. The letter-parts of that form are not significant, with rare excep- tions, of anything useful or comprehensible to the child. At first we do not teach the forms of the script letters. We do not take these forms sep- arately and teach them, nor do we call attention to them in the words. The child copies all his words 21 322 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. as wholes. Gradually he becomes conscious of the forms composing them, and his drill in penmanship fixes correct perceptions of those forms, and habits of executing them exactly. We wish the pupil from the start to make on slate, blackboard, sep- arately and in sentences, that he may surely know, on paper, all his new words, and to continue making them, and know how to use them. Of course w^e give him his copy in the form in which we wdsh him to make his w^ords. Besides, the continuous form of the script-form assists the teacher to impress, and the child to receive, the word as a whole. The dis- joined form in which the word appears in Roman tempts the eye, until thoroughly accustomed to read- ing w^ords, to dwell upon its parts, and confuses the child's mental picture of the word. Its components stand apart from each other. The impression re- ceived is a broken one. It lacks unity, whereas it stands for a unit-idea. It is best that the child feel that each word is not a combination of characters, but a character to represent the idea he has in mind. " Moreover, it is easier for both teacher and pupil to make words in script form well and rapidly than to make them well and rapidly in Roman character. A modified Roman character resembling Italic is sometimes used effectively, but it also breaks the word into parts, and its acquirement mars progress in chirography. Furthermore, as is well known, children do not pass easily from understanding, reading, and making print, to doing the same with FIPwST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 323 script ; while it is a fact that they do pass with ex- treme ease from script to print. A child who knows his hmidred or two of words in script will at once detect them in print. Taught to read three or four readers without using script, he can with difficulty read a line of it. So we, at first, teach no letters, neither by names nor by form, neither in Roman nor in script. We teach words, phrases, and sentences in script ; and the children make them in script, from copy the first year, from copy and from memory af- terwards ; and we very carefully and very slowly advance from the first through a regular drill in pen- manship. AYe do so not only because we believe the process well based in theory, but because we have found it to yield better results than we have known to be reached otherwise." Pupils, when further advanced, should, of course, become familiar with the names and sounds of all the letters ; but whether they should be kept constantly repeating these names in order to learn how to spell, is, to say the least, a matter of very grave doubt. The fact that so much time has been spent in learn- ing to spell, and so few good spellers have been pro- duced, is certainly proof that our sj^stem of teaching spelling has not been a success. Teachers who stand in the front ranks tell us that we have been on the wrong track ; that in teaching spelling we have used mainly the tongue and ears of the child, whereas the mature man in practice uses his hand and eyes. I present, in this connection, the follow- 324 graduatinOt syste:\i for country schools. ing frorn a correspondent of " The Teacher," Phila- del[)hia : — "It fell to my lot to examine the pupils of our seventh grade, at the close of last term, and I tested them in spelliug, both orally and on slates. Most of these pupils were thirteen to fourteen years old, and had been going to school about seven years. They spelled fairly orally, but all, of course, missing some words, as everybody does in oral spelling. In the test by writing, they failed much more. Evidently they had not yet finished learning to spell. One who missed two words orally missed ten with the pencil. Oral spelling had not enabled them to spell practi- cally. " I am strongly inclined to believe that oral spell- inof is an actual detriment, and that the immense amount of time given to it is wasted. It may be different with children ; but we adults never think of the letter-names when spelling a new word, fresh in the papers. Suppose it is a name in the Afghan war, — say Gen. Phayre. If we want to write it, we recall the eye-picture of it, and copy that. Now, children excel us in this sort of photography. Their eye-galleries are less crowded with images, and their apparatus clearer and fresher, and impressions firmer. If we do not need to go over the jumble ofpee-aitch- 07/-wi/-ar-ce, for Avriting Phayre as seen in print, it does not seem likely that children need to ; but, on the contrary, it seems very likely that requiring them to learn the oral jingle for each word is an FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 325 enormous imposition, a stumbling-block that only few ever surmount, and one that, in most cases, pre- vents education instead of aiding it. " Why, indeed, should we keep children through all their childhood incessantly repeating, like so many parrots, these separate and senseless jingles — one for each word — until each is thought to be fast- ened in the dull and faithless ear? The eye is vjistly quicker, more retentive, and better placed ; and the hand alone uses spelling. "When we consider these wonderful powers of the eye, and how quick the child is in catching and keep- ing all the details of a scene, we may fairly expect that spelling can be met and mastered by employing the e3'e, from the first, to note all word-forms, and to guide the hand in shaping them, taking care that the eye is not impressed and confused by any spuri- ous forms. No other school improvement could compare with this in beneficial results. It w^ould be the lifting of a heavy, smothering weight off every school and every child of all the millions that are learnino^ Ensrlish." Reading in country schools is as unsatisfactory as spelling, because the habit of halting to examine the several parts of each word in spelling clings to the pupil when he attempts to read. A more rational method of spelling will therefore produce a better class of readers. Pupils should be trained to write sentences and repeat them as part of their reading exercises. They will read well their own composi- 326 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. tion because they understand it, and they should be encouraged to read the writings of otiiers, as they find them in books, just as they would read their own. Pupils should not be loaded down with " rules for reading," but they should be as free as at home or out in the open air. The following rules on read- ing are laid down by Superintendent Parker, of Boston. These rules, it will be observed, are for teachers, not for pupils : — "1. Pupils should not be required to express a thought (read a sentence aloud) until the thought is in their minds ; that is, until the sentence is mentally read. "2. If the thought is in the mind, it will control expression^ thus making attention to punctuation, mechanical emphasis, and inflection not only unne- cessary, but a great hindrance to the proper expres- sion of thought. Capitals and punctuation aid the eye in taking the thought, but have nothing whatever to do with the expression of it." Arithmetic, or exercises in numbers, may be taken up along with the first lessons in reading and writ- ing. Each beginner should be provided with balls placed on a wire by which to learn to count, add, subtract, multiply, and divide. The following arti- cle on primary arithmetic is from " Barnes' Educa- tional Monthly," New York : — "1. The pupil should be taught to count at first only to 12 or 15. But he should never count with- out counting something. Let there always be objects before him to be counted. Adhere strictly to this. FIKST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 327 "2. Teach him to make the Arabic figures as far as he has counted. When he has counted to five, and has five pieces of chalk (for instance) before him, then have him make the figure five. Do like- Avise with the other numbers, carrying the same phin to hundreds when they are more advanced. " 3. When he can write numbers to four or five, teach him to add and subtract these, both mentally and upon slates or board. Continue until he can perform the operations very rapidly. When he can count and write to ten, teach him to add and subtract all numbers beloAv ten, and in this manner continue. At length derive multiplication, addition, and division from subtraction, and drill him in these operations. "4. An hour before recitation, which should occur just preceding the 11 a. m. intermission, place upon the board examples in addition, subtraction, etc., omitting the answers, for the class to solve at their seats upon slates, and have the work brought to the class for the correction of answers and other crit- icisms. During the recitation some work should be done on the board by them, and a very brief analysis required. •Examples may be both abstract and con- crete. "5. Intersperse the above work with drill in rapid combination, in counting by twos and threes, etc., by requiring them to invent and solve concrete examples, and by occasional work in Roman notation up to one hundred. " 6. The common errors of method in this liranch arc such as the omission, for a long time, of any 328 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOIl COUNTRY SCHOOLS. written work ; the attempt to teach counting in the abstract to a thousand, perhaps, without having them count things; the attempt to teach them to w^rite numbers to l)illions before they can add to himdreds ; the omission of any written work at seats between recitations." Geography and history are inseparal)ly connected, and should always be studied together. The first step in teaching these branches is to give pupils a clear conception of the earth, as a whole, — its form and motions. It is evident that a good globe is essential to success at this point. The latest and simplest apparatus for impressing the form and daily motion of the earth upon the minds of pupils is the "Time Globe." In order to give a clear idea of this globe, I present the following de- scription and cut : — "The ^Time Globe' is a globe apparently endowed with life, having a diurnal revolution exactly corre- sponding to that of the earth. It is a miniature FIRST LESSOXS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 329 representation of the earth in position and daily motion, revolving once in twenty-four hours upon its own axis by means of chronometer vrorks located in its interior. It gives local time on dial above the noi-th pole, and the time of any and all parts of the world is read at a glance on the equatorial zone. It shows at all times the position of different parts of the earth, with reference to midday, midnight, morning, or evening twilight. It measures the comparative, and, by simple computation, the exact size of any country on the globe as it passes the meridian ring and equatorial dial. It illustrates the difle'rence in time between any two or more places. It can with- out injury be put in sidereal position or placed hori- zontally to be used as a clock. All parts of its sui- face can be readily examined. It runs several days, is a stem-winder, and regulates from the outside." After pupils have become acquainted with the earth as a complete body, they will enjoy learning something of its several parts. The several grand divisions, oceans, and most important island, should then be pointed out on the globe. No books should be used in the study of this subject until after pupils have become familiar with the most important places marked on the globe. If all our school-maps were placed on globes, pupils could certainly gain a clearer idea of the relative position of the most im- portant places on the earth's surface. Books should be introduced, therefore, only when the class needs information which the school-globe does not furni^ii. 330 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. While assigning lessons in either geography or history, the teacher should see that each member of the class has, before commencing to study the les- son, a clear understanding of the direction and distance of the place or phices referred to in the lessons. Without this understanding pupils might as well study lessons in " dreamland." Free-hand map-drawing should be practised daily in connection with the study of geography and his- tory. The child's hrst eflbrts may produce only rough sketches, but the countries sketched will be thereby photographed in the memory. State Super- intendent J. W. Dickenson, of Massachusetts, in a circular letter to teachers, says : — "Every map as studied should be drawn in outline, upon slates or paper. With a little practice such drawings can be made in very little time. There is no method comparable wath map-drawing for fixing geographical knowledge in the memory. Have exer- cises in representing the various natural features quickly and accurately upon the blackboard. Reci- tations in geography should be largely guided by a special outline previously written on the blackboard. This practice saves much talking on the part of the teacher, and cultivates independence in the pupil." But pupils should study the people and products of the several countries on the face of the earth more than they should the boundary lines of these coun- tries. They should learn the names and location of the most important places only. Learning long lists FIRST LESSONS IN THE COMMON BRANCHES. 331 of names and location of unimportant places is time worse than Avastecl. It is burdening the mind with knowledge that is not needed, and nature will throw it off as soon as possible. There is so much life on the land and in the sea, that geography ought to be a living subject rather than a dead one. If we undertake to teach universal history, we should first present the world in its most perfect form, — the present. If we undertake to teach the history of a nation or country, we shoald first present its current history ; then we may, with profit, study the past. It is true that this plan rather reverses the usual order of studying history. Too many com- mence with the past, and never come up to the pres- ent. This is too true, even of teachers. Professor Saulsbery, an experienced conductor of normal in- stitutes, says, in the Wisconsin "Journal of Educa- tion " : — *' Teachers, with rare exceptions, do not read nor greatly interest themselves in the history of the present. They know something of Jackson's admin- istration, and more of Washington's, but nothing at all of Grant's or Hayes's. Events of a hundred years ago are more famiUar to them than those of the past ten or fifteen prolific years. The ancient history of our country, and of the world, is better attended to than the modern or recent. Whatever may be the cause of this, the fact itself is lamentable. It in- dicates such a state of immaturity and mental child- hood on the part of those who assume to teach, or 832 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. such a degree of dead indiflerence as to the world's ongoings, as ought in citlier case to startle those who come in contact with it." Beginners should have lessons in current history presented on the blackboard, until they become fa- miliar with the present, before they undertake to study the history of the past. The bare mention of English grammar is almost enough to frighten beginners, therefore children should be trained in speaking and writing correctly without any intimation that this is English grammar. They should be early impressed with the fact of the wonderful beauty of language when written and spoken in its best form. The best method of teach- ing beginners how to speak and write correctly, is to have them speak and write correctly. Professor Greene, author of Greene's English Grammar, in an address before the Rhode Island In- stitute of Instruction, said : — " I believe in wr.ting very early, and having chil- dren taught at an early age to put their thoughts into writing. Then you can point out improvements, and show the child why the improvements are made, and why they are improvements. If I were a teacher in the primary school, I would adopt this motto from beginning to end : 'Every lesson shall be a language lesson.'" Hon. E. E. White, ex-State school commissioner of Ohio, but now president of Purdue University, Indiana, says : — FIRST LESSONS IX THE COMMON BRANCHES. 333 " The study of the English language, though it is the most difficult of all the school studies, ought to be the most interesting. Pupils should not be re- quired to memorize pages of dry, wearisome notes and observations as found in text-books. A knowl- edge of the meaning and relation of words is of first importance in all reading lessons, and this study of lanofuao-e must be commenced lono^ before a jjram- matical text-book is used. The reading lesson should be made the prominent exercise of the day. " The correct use of lansruaofe is a matter of habit rather than of technical study of the rules of gram- mar. It should be a part of the w^irk of the teacher, either in classes of higher or lower grade, daily to correct the inaccuracies of speech resulting from bad habits of pronunciation, and in the use of language. No provincialisms, no slang or careless pronunciation, should be allowed to pass unnoticed. Questions should be direct, answers concise. Every answer should be a complete sentence." A thoughtful teacher can readily see that while he is training his pupils in speaking and writing, their inquisitive natures desire an acquaintance with the source from which he obtains his information. Sup- pose, for example, the teacher has occasion often to correct his pupils in their use of certnin irregular verbs ; a list of these verbs, and exercises illustrat- ing the proper method of using them, will prove in- teresting and profitable to the entire school. So all the several parts of English grammar may be made 334 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. pleasiira1)le, provided each part is presented just when pupils feel their need of it. Constant exercises in writing, together w^th cor- rections made by the teaclier, will convince pupils that they need a more thorough knowledge of the laws of language, and by the time they are old enough they will be anxious to take up English gram- mar as a branch of study. When each pupil, b}^ careful study, has become acquainted with his English grammar, he should be encouraged to use it as he does his dictionary, as a book of reference. LECTURE XXVII. HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. Penmanship, in this the latter part of the nine- teenth century, is, perhaps, more generally neglected in country schools than any other branch in the com- mon school course. In many parts of the country good penmanship appears to be reckoned among the "lost arts." Writing, as a medium for the communication of thought, is almost as important as speaking. For this reason, it has been said that " writing is a sec- ondary power of speech, and they who cannot write are in part dumb. Scrawls that cannot be read may be compared to talking that cannot- be understood ; and wa-iting difficult to decipher, to stammering speech." Feeling anxious to offer the highest helps of the ablest instructors, I applied to Prof. D. T. Ames, editor of " Penman's Art Journal," New York City, asking him to prepare an article that might be both an incentive and an aid to better penmanship. This he consented to do. The cuts for the illustrations of his article arc chiefly from " The Spencerian The- 336 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. oiy of Penmanship," and inserted by courtesy of the publishers, Messrs. Ivison, Blakenuin, Taylor & Co., New York. The remaining cuts were kindly fur- nished by Prof. Ames. I here i)resent Prof. Ames's article, without further comment. Of the great importance to all classes of a rapid, graceful, and legible handwriting, I scarcely need speak. To the young man it opens more avenues to desirable and lucrative employment than any other one qualification. To a young lady it is not only a rare accomplishment, but to such as are required to earn their own livelihood, it is the one most ready and available. To be able to awaken and maintain earnest thought and study on the part of the pupil, and skilfully direct the same, is a paramount qualification for suc- cessful teaching. Indeed, the poAver to do this is the real secret of the wonderful success that has attended the labors and immortalized the names of our great- est teachers, not of writing alone, but of all depart- ments of education. The interested and attentive pupil is always a success, while the indifierent pupil is a certain failure ; the former seems almost to drink in knowledge, while the latter receives it as by force. Many teachers of writing rely mainly upon the imi- tative power of pupils for their success, which is a fatal error; writing should be taught mechanically more than by imitation. An imitative pupil may manifest remarkable prog- HIXTS UPON TEACTimG WRITING. 337 rcss, and be able to imitate with the greatest fidelity the most perfect copy, so long as it is before him, and yet write mi)st awkwardly when it is removed, from the fact that there remains no correct mental conception or ideal of writing to guide his practice. It is not so with the pupil who has been taught mechanically, and has learned the correct analysis of each letter, studied its form and construction, at the same time that the errors in his own writing have been criticised and corrected according to established rules and principles; though he may, at the outset, be greatly distanced by the imitative genius, he will, in the end, become much the more skilful. The removal of the copy matters little to him, its form having become so completely impressed upon his mind that it continues, as it were, constantly before him, a perfect ideal, to reproduce which the hand will ever strive, and ultimately attain. Writing, in all its grace, ease, and perfection, must first clearly exist in the mind before the hand can, by any amount of exercise, be taught to produce it. The hand can never transcribe a form more perfect or beautiful than the ideal of its master, — the mind. Hence the vital importance of preceding and accompanying all practice, in writing, with a careful study of its me- chanical construction. The exercise or copy for each lesson should be short, embracing but a few letters ; and they should be systematically arranged so as to present, forcibly and concisely, at each lesson, some important feature of writing. The observation and experience of more th'^u 338 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. twenty-five years as student, teacher, and author of writing, have led ms to believe that every person possessed of ordinary faculties can and should learn to write Avith facility, at least, a legible hand. That they do not, is due alike to the faults in our methods of teaching and practice. The first great fault has been with the teachers and authors of systems of writing, that they have given to the pupil too many and too complicated forms for letters, apparently in the belief that the more numerous and fanciful were their forms, the greater the evidence of their own skill and deserved popularity. Not unfrequently in a single copy-book, or a short course of twelve or twenty lessons, has the pupil been required to jorac- tise upon from two to four distinct and radically dif- ferent types or forms for all the capitals and many of the small letters of the alphabet, and all or most of these forms much too complicated to l)e practical for rapid business writing. I will here illustrate in the case of one letter, and this is no fancy sketch, but from a case of actual observataion. I have found all the following types of the letter R in a single copy- book, and have seen them all, and others, taught or attempted, by a teacher of writing, in a short course of ten lessons : — HTXTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 339 This method carried through the alphabet would require the pupils to practise upon one hundred and eigJdy different forms for the capitals alone, and a corresponding, though necessarily less, number for the small letters, all given and practised often with- out any sort of system or science. Is it any wonder that the pupil is a discouraged failure at the end of a course of such diversified practice upon complex and multitudinous forms? The labor and practice necessary to become skil- ful in making such a multitude of difficult forms is too great to be overcome except by rare genius, or the most persistent and prolonged practice. The multitude must fail ; while, if required to make but twenty-six of the most simple forms, and those re- duced by system to seven elementary principles, the multitude can and will succeed. Another fruitful cause of failure is found in the effort of many, perhaps most, teachers to teach writ- ing almost or quite wholly by imitation, by which method pupils acquire little or no al^solute or perma- nent idea of the true form or consti^uction of letters or the general style and excellence of writing. They may succeed well at imitating their copy so long as it is before them, but fail utterly to write well when it is removed. This will not be the case when it is systematically and analytically taught ; each letter being accurately analyzed, its correct form and man- ner of construction explained by the teacher, and un- derstood by the pupil, at the same time that his 340 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. writing is thoroughly criticised and its faults pointed out and corrected according to well-established prin- ciples. Where this is done the eye and understand- ing are disciplined and taught as well as the hand, and there remains impressed vividly upon the mind of the pupil a clear and well-defined conception of the form and construction of his copy, so that, though literally absent, to the mind's eye it is ever present, and is a perpetual copy, for the mastery of which the hand will ever strive and will ultimately accomplish. Unlike the pupil who practises without system or principle by imitation, and who not only ceases to improve, but actually goes backward, when the in- struction ends, and the copy is removed, the analytic pupil will continue ever to advanc*e, and is certain, ultimately, to become a good writer. HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 341 HOW WRITING SHOULD BE TAUGHT. POSITIONS. The first care is to secure and maintain the correct positions of body, arm, hand, and pen. The position at the desk or table will be governed somewhat by circumstances. In the school-room, where desks are >mall and narrow, we think a position with the right side to the desk will be the best, thus : In business colleges and writing academies, where the table or desk is more spacious, and especially in 342 GEADUATING SYSTEIM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. the study and practice of bookkeeping, where the books are often large and numerous, also by artists and penmen working upon large pieces of work, the front position will be found the best, thus : In this position the same relative position of hand, pen, and paper should be maintained as described in the former one. Another position at the desk, sometimes advo- cated by authors and teachers, is the right oblique, which is a position between the front and side. In our opinion, which of these positions is to be adopted should be governed by the circumstances of the writer or the class-room. HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 343 Some authors and teachers have also advocated a position of presenting the left side to the desk, m favor of which we have nothing to offer, for we be- lieve either of those above described entirely prefer- able ; yet the position at the desk is of much less importance than that the proper relative positions of the pen, hand, and paper should be sustained nud ob- served. 344 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. PENHOLDING. Take the pen between the first and second fingers and thumb, letting it cross the forefinger just for- ward of the knuckle (a) and the second finger at the root of the nail (b) J of an inch from the pen's point. Bring the point (c) squarely to the paper, and let the tip of the holder (d) point toward the right shoulder. The tliuDih should be bent outward at the first joint, and (e) touch the holder opposite the first joint of the forefinger. The first and second fingers should touch each other as far as the first joint of the first finger ; the third and fourth must be slightly curved and separ- ate from the others at the middle joint, and rest upon the paper at the tips of the nails. The wrist must always be elevated a little above the desk. These positions should be rigidly maintained, thus keeping the nibs of the pen flat upon the paper, and both always under the same degree of pressure, when the pen will give a smooth, clear line, and move smoothly and easily upon the paper. MOVEMENTS. These positions secured, attention should be di- rected to movements, all of which should be explained and illustrated, and the peculiar advantages and dis- advantages of each set forth. HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 345 There are four different movements more or les.s employed in writing. The First, or Finger Movement, is most generally used and taught by unprofessional teachers, and practised hj most unskilful writers, and is so called because the fingers alone are employed in giving motion to the pen. Writing by this movement is less rapid and graceful than that by either of the other movemerits. It is more of a drawing process, it seems to be the most easy and natural to acquire, and, being th^ only movement known or taught in a large majority of our public schools, it is practised by a very large p "oportion of people outside of the mer- cantile and professional pursuits. Most of the latter have found >t necessary to gain some further knowl- edge of writing than that acquired in our public schools, so they have either attended a commercial school or received instructions from some professional teacher of writing, and Lave been instructed in other movements. The second is the Fore-arm, or Muscular Move- ment. By some teachers it is called the Spencerian, and by others the Carstairian, being so called after the names of two of its most noted and skilful teach- ers and advocates ; this movement is obtained by resting the fleshy or muscular part of the fore-arm upon the desk, and then by simply contracting or re- laxing the muscles of the fore-arm a very rajoid, graceful, and tireless motion is imparted to the hand and pen ; but it is only when combined with the fin- 346 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. ger, producing what is known as the Third, or Com- bination Movement, that it is employed to the great- est advantage. In this movement the muscles impart rapidity and endurance, the fingers accuracy of form, and ease in making the extended letters, thus ren- dering it, as a whole, by far the best and most desir- able movement for practical writing. The Fourth, or Whole Arm Movement, is the most graceful and rapid of all the movements; it is also, when employed on a small scale, much less accurate, and hence less desirable for practical writing. It is used to advantage only where considerable license is allowable, as, for instance, in writing dates, signa- tures, superscriptions, blackboard writing, etc. To be able to employ this movement with skill requires much and continued 4Dractice. Its proper and skil- ful use is, however, an important accomplishment to the professional penman. It is obtained by raising the entire arm free from the table, resting the hand lightly upon the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and then striking the letters with a full sweep of the whole arm. This movement is also used in all off- hand flourishing. MOVEMENT EXERCISES should be frequently and extensively practised, and a short exercise should precede the regular practice of every lesson. The object is threefold. First, to secure a free, graceful, and rapid general movement HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 347 to the fingers, muscles, and fore-arm. Second^ a special upward and downward motion ; and Thirds a lateral movement of the hand. To secure the first two, exercises like the following should be practised : To secure the lateral movement, the following or similar exercises should be practised : The major part of the time for the first, considera- ble of the second and third, and a part of the time for ever}^ lesson of a course, should be devoted to careful movement exercises. These exercises, as Avell as all the copies of the course, should be either engraved or written upon short movable slips, and passed to each pupil of the class with the opening of each lesson. We are now prepared to present the principles and begin the analysis and practice of writing, which we do by placing upon the blackboard the principles. At the same time we brieflv illustrate to the class 348 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. their use and importance in learning to write, by rap- idly making a few monograms embracing the entire alphabet, capitals and small letters; showing the close resemblance between the form and construc- tion of many of the letters of the alphabet, and how very simple and easy is their construction from these principles. , This can be very clearly and strikingly illustrated in the case of the small letters by a monogram repre- senting them all as follows : We then combine the capitals in three monograms, those having the fifth principle for their base, thus : Making the letters and subsequently arranging them in groups, each embracing those letters that most resemble each other in their form and manner of construction, thus : // / yy r/r^—r^^~- ,/ ./ ■///■. -^//// ^-^/ ,_^ ^-^j ^^^ Oi^Cy// c ^i//y' ( y •Cj L^y^L^yiy /■/ // y /^> /"> y > .^y y .-u. / ^ ^!^ / >y ^ ^ ^7^ i^7 y uyj [yiy HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 34 9 Monogram embracing the letters having the sixth principle as base is made as follows : and the letters separately, thus : m^ Monogram of seventh-principle letters would be made thus : and the letters, thus : a ^iJ (c By this method the great simplicity and practicabil- ity of this plan of teaching and practising writing is fully brought home to the mind and understanding of the pupil, and also the great importance of master- 350 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. ing thoroughly, at the outset, these elementary forms or principles of writing. I will briefly define these principles. No. 1 is simply a straight line, shaded or unshaded. No. 2 is a right curve. No. 3 a left carve. No. 4 combines a right and left curve to form the loop. Principle No. 5 is a direct oval, whose length is twice its width. No. 6 is an inverted egg-shaped oval. No. 7 consists of an unshaded left and shaded right curve of equal length and degree of curvature, forming a com[)Ound curve variously called capitol stem, master stroke, chirographic curve, line of beauty, etc., to which is added a left curve which in- tersects the other two curves at the point of their union, forming an oval The stem slanting on an angle of fifty-two degrees, and the oval on an angle of fifteen degrees ; the oval should be twice as long as it is broad, so, if divided into sections, it would have four spaces in length and two in width. The correct angle of slope will be best illustrated, thus : The class w^ill now make this principle after a few HINTS UPON TEACHING WRITING. 351 moments' practice. Robert, and several others, are found to be making it thus : c/ef "WTiile James, and others, are makino: it thus Other members of the class are also making equally conspicuous faults. We now make upon the black- board strokes representing the most prominent faults of the class, and illustrate. Robert has made the left curve too long and the right curve too short, and not on same decree of curvature ; while the second left curve defines more nearly a circle than an oval, and intersects the downward stroke below the centre, and would be corrected, as indicated by the dotted lines. After sufiicient attention has been given to the analysis and practice of the capital stem, we add to it a line to make the which we practise briefly, and then add the small letters forming a short word for a copy, all of which is written upon the blackboard and analyzed before 352 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. being practised by the class. Follow this in the same manner by the and so on through the alphabet, — presenting the cap- itals in groups most similar in their construction and analysis. By thus using a short copy we are be:ter enabled to concentrate the entire thoughts and practice of the pupil upon a few points in writing at a time, which will be more clearly understood and thoroughly mas- tered than if he were to practise upon a copy em- bracing most of the alphabet and all the principles and characters of writing. * If such a copy were fully analyzed, so much would be said, and so many points presented, as to cause utter confusion, and its entire effect would be lost, and the corrections of faults too numerous to be either remembered or guarded against in subsequent practice. Where copy-l)ooks are used having long copies, they should, in the early stages of practice, be writ- ten down the page by sections of not more than one fourth its length, thus concentrating the practice and criticism upon a few letters at a time. The leading faults of the class while practising the copy should be pointed out and corrected at the blackboard. Gen- eral faults in writing would be corrected by writing the copy upon the blackboard in such a manner as to magnify the foult, and then show how it can be HINTS UPON TEACHIXG WKITING. 353 best corrected. For instance, the bad effect of dis- proportion in size of letters can be strikingly illus- trated by writing the copy, thus : Having care to make each letter, by itself, as nearly perfect as possible, showing, thereby, that perfect let- ters alone cannot make good writing. The correc- tion of tliis fault can be greatly aided by ruling a guide line for the top of the letters. At the next lesson illustrate the bad effect of un- even spacing, thus : At the following lesson we would present the special beauty of a variety in slant in writing, thus : Slant, though quite different, will not be specially conspicuous in the contracted letters, but may be made to appear strikingly so by drawing extended lines through the parts of the letters, thus : 354 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. We then illustrate all the essential qualities of cor- rect writing, by writing the copy correctly upon a scale, thus : This method pursued earnestly through a course of even twenty lessons will not fail to secure to the attentive pupil not only marked improvement, but will so discipline his eye, and idea of the correct forms and cnaracteri sties of good writing, that he can scarcely fail of ultimately writing, with facility, a legible and graceful hand. LECTUKE xx\an. HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAAVING. Dra^ving is now regarded, by the foremost teach- ers, as the most effective method of fixing the form of any object in the mind. It is practised with profit in the study of all the common branches, and in no other is it found to be more helpful than in the study of geography. The old method of learning geog- raphy by memorizing boundary lines, and long lists of names of places, is giving way to the more sensible method, — map-drawing. As the object of this lecture is simply to help those who have had no instructions in map-drawing, I shall not attempt to fully discuss this subject, but rather to give some helpful hints, hoping thereby to lead teachers and pupils to form such a taste for map- drawing that they will wish to follow it further. The method that I present is known as " Apgar's System of Free-Hand Map-Drawing," which is a plain method, a method well suited to the work of our country schools. The illustrations presented are taken from " Apgars' Geographical Drawing Book." They are original, and have been patented, but are used here by permission of the patentees and au- 356 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. thors, Messrs. E. A. and A. C. Apgar, of Trenton, New Jersey. The cuts for these illustrations were furnished by the publishers of the above-named book, — Messrs. Cowperthwait & Co., Philadelphia. Most of the suggestions which follow are also taken from the foreo^oins: w^ork, but neither susrsrestions nor illustrations are arranged in the exact order in which the authors placed them. The study of geography consists largely in a study of the form and locality of the features of the earth's surface. Maps give a much better idea of the form and locality of geographical features than can be obtained from descriptions only ; hence maps should be among the principal objects of study in geography. That form is easiest remembered which the hand is taught to trace. The exercise of the mind, needed to teach the hand to trace a form, im- presses that form upon the mind. As the study of maps is a study of form, the manner of studying them should be by map-drawing. In learning to draw maps, the pupil needs some rule or guide to assist him in drawing them correctly, and also to enable him to judge of their accurac}^ when drawn. This assistance is l)est afforded by the use of geometrical figures or diagrams. The diagram used in each case, in order to answer the purpose intended, should be so constructed as to coincide as nearly as possible in its outline with the boundaries of the map to be drawn. By the relative lengths of the lines of which it is composed, it should express the general laws of form of the map it is intended to accompany, and HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. 357 by its angles and division- marks the position of prominent features should be determined. However complex and irregular the map may be, the diagram should be so simple that it can be readily constructed and easily remembered by the pupils. In the con- struction of the diao'nims used for drawins^ the conti- nents, the first line in each case serves as a measure for determinincr the lens^ths of the other lines. I present here a diagram of North America, with directions for drawing it. By comparing this dia- gram with a map of North America it will be seen that they nearly agree in outlines. A DIAGRAM OF NORTH AMERICA. 358 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Directions for Drawing. — Diagram. — 1. Draw a quadrant, and divide it into four equal parts, as represented in rig. 1. Through the first division point at 2, and the right angle at a, draw the first line of the diagram the length desired for the map. 2. From the centre of this line draw the line CjD at right angles with it, and one half its length. Connect A and i>, and B and D. 3. Extend the line CB toward E, making the whole length, B E, equal to AB ov B B, and draw lines from A to E and from E to B. 4. Divide the line A E into four equal parts, and from the upper division point, at H, draw the line 7i Jat right angles with A E, and equal to ^ C in length. Connect A and I. 6. Divide the line E B into two equal parts, and from its centre, and at right angles with it, draw the line G K one half the length of E C. 6. Divide the lines CB and CB each into two equal parts, and the lines A B and BB each into six equal parts. 7. Subdivide the lower division of the line B B into three equal parts, and from the division point at 14 draw a line to the right to 15 ; and from 15 draw one toward the south to 16 ; and from 16 draw another to the right to 17, — making the length of each equal to two thirds of the distance from 12 to J^:. It will be observed that if the diagram is correctly drawn, the lines AB,E B, and B B are equal in length, and the line ^ ^ is vertical. Mg. 2. Fig. 2 represents a convenient ruler for pupils to use in drawing maps upon the blackboard. It is twenty inches long, and divided into halves, thirds, fourths, and sixths. A similar one, six inches long, may be used for drawing on slate or paper. HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. 359 Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 3 represents an easy method for i Fig. 4 represents an easy method for drawing a Quadrant. | trisecting a line. Note. — In the construction of diagrams, and in the division of lines, the pupils should at first be allowed to use a ruler, such as the one rep- resented in Fio. 2. This is important, iu order to insure accuracy. After some practice, however, the ruler should he dispensed with, and the figures should be drawn by hand, guided only by the eye. In drawing a quadrant, a piece of crayon held between the thumb and first finger may be made to describe the arc around the end of the fourth finger, as represented in Fig. 3. A vertical and a horizontal line drawn from the centre to the arc will complete the quadrant. In- stead of the hand, a short string, with a piece of crayon tied to the end of it, may be used ; or each pupil may be furnished with a (juarter of a circle, cut out of a piece of writing- i>aper, having the divisions of quarters and sixths marked upon it. In dividing a line into thre • equal parts, use the finger of one hand and a crayon in the other, and place them so that the three parts ap- pear equal, as represented in Fig. 4. In dividing a line into four or six parts, first bisect it, and then bisect or trisect each half. It will be observed that the different lines of the diagrams are drawn in t!ie order they are lettered, and tliat the divi.sious are made in the order they are numbered. In drawing upon paper or slate, the diagram should be in very light lines For blackboard work, the figure should be drawn with a slate- pencil. At each board should hang a rule, a triangle, a rubber, and a pointer. PosiTioisT. — ^ orth America is situated north of the Equator, and is joined to South America by the Isthmus of Panama. Extent. — The greatest length of the continent, extend- 360 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. ing from Point Barrow, on the north, to the Port of Guate- mala, on the south, is 4,S00 miles. This length is represented by the first line of the diagram. General Pokm. — llie general form of North America is triangular. It is wide toward the north, and narrow toward the south. The Arctic and Atlantic coast lines are nearly straight in their general directions, while the Pacific coast line is curved. Points of Coincidence. — The position of Point Bar- row is determined by the northern angle of the diagram ; Cape Charles by the eastern angle ; port of Guatemala by the southern angle ; Bay of San Francisco by the western angle ; and the western extremity of Alaska peninsula by the northwestern angle. Draweng the Map. — Arctic Coast. — Commence at Point Barrow, Make the mouth of the Mackenzie Kiver op- posite to the first division ; Victoria Land on the second ; the mouth of Hudson Bay between the third and fourth, and Ungava Bay and Cape Chidley near the fifth division. The southern extremity of James Bay touches the line C D, near its centre. Atlantic Coast. — On the line D 5, between Cape Charles and the first division, draw the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Make the peninsula of JSIova Scotia without the line, and opposite the first division ; Cape Cod north of the second, and Cape Fear at the third. The western shore of Florida peninsula crosses at the fourth division. The mouth of the Gulf of Mexico is between the fourth and fifth divisions ; the north- ern shore crosses the line CB near its centre, and the west- ern shore is on the line E B. Cape Catoche is near the fifth division and the shore of Central America, and the Isthmus of Panama follows closely the zigzag line extending from 12 to 17. Pacific Coast. — Commence at Point Barrow. Draw Kotzebue and IN'orton Sounds without the line, and Bristol Bay within. ]S"orton Sound is near the centre of the line. The southern shore of Alaska follows closely the line I H, HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. o()l and the remaining portion of the western shore of the con- tinent deviates but little at any one point from the lines of the diagram. California peninsula extends nearly as far south as the angle at iT, and the eastern shore of the Gulf of California crosses the line K G near its centre. Note. — It will be observed that the Lake of the Woods is on the line CD, midway between the centre and C; also that Lake Erie is midway between the centres of the lines CD and B D, or between the points 2 and 3 on the diagram. In map-drawing exercises the pupils may either be required to describe their work in full, without the assistance of questions, or the lessons may consist of a series of questions and answers. After the dia- gram is made the class is prepared to draw the map, — first with the atlas in hand, and afterwards from memory. Every order given by the teacher should be executed by the class simultaneously, and with military promptness and precision. The execution should commence immediately after the last word of the order is given. Each pupil is supposed to have his own diagram on the board upon which he draws his map. For the States no additional diagram is used^ be- cause the bounding lines are generally straight, and they themselves, when taken together, form a geo- metrical figure. In drawing the States, therefore, it is only necessary to select one of the straight lines forming the boundary for a measuring unit. The line selected should be a convenient measure or mul- tiple of the other lines. In conducting exercises in map-drawing, the class 362 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. should be practised, first, in drawing upon the blackboard, under the immediate direction of the teacher ; second, in drawing upon slates, their work to be submitted to the teacher ; and tJiird,\\\ ex- ecuting maps upon paper, to be presented for the criticism of both the teacher and the class. Either the teacher or one of the more skilful pupils should execute a w^ell-finished and accurate map upon the l)lackboard. From this drawing — which is much to be preferred to any printed outline map — the class may recite their lesson ; and upon it each of the new features, as they are learned from day to day, may be represented. It is Avell to accompany every lesson in map-draw- ing with more or less practice in rapid sketching. In order to excite emulation for quick work, the lesson may be drawn on the board and the exercise timed by the teacher. Pupils, by practice, will soon be able to draw a diagram in half a minute, a State in from half a minute to two minutes, and a continent in from three to live minutes. Concert recitations should frequently accompany rapid sketch- ing. An exercise called talking and chalking will Ix found both interesting and valuable. The pupil, while he is drawing a map, briefly, and in a lively manner, describes the features as he represents them ; his verbal explanations all the while keeping pace w^ith his illustrations made with the chalk. All directions and exercises in map-drawing should HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP DRAWING. 363 be such as to prepare the pupil to draw rapidly, ac- curately, and without the copy. Alter the pupils have learned to draw a map with sufficient accuracy, and are able to describe satisfac- torily the features it contains, they may, with the use of colors and India ink, be taught to draw and embellish one for preservation. Not much time, how- ever, should be spent in producing highly orna- mented maps. A slate-pencil and slate, lead-pencil and paper, white crayon and blackboard, are all the materials usually needed in map-drawing exercises. Rapid work, and much of it, should be the motto. Special attention should be directed to the method employed for representing the population of cities and the heights of elevations. The syml)ols used will greatly assist the memory in retaining the-e facts. Special lessons may be given to teach their meaning. Their use should be required in all map-drawing ex- ercises. I will conclude this subject by presenting two pages of symbols ; one showing the signs used to represent the population of cities and towns, and the other the signs used to represent the elevation of mountains. 364 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS USED TO REPRESENT THE POPUI-ATION OF THE CITIES AND TOWNS. riPwST CLASS. In the First Class only one Sign is userl viz. a round dot. Q represents under 10.000 Inhabitants. SECOND CLASS. THIRD CLASS. Each Line of the Second Oass The markings of the Third Class represents a population of 10.000. Lave a Dot in the centre. Each Line upon this Dot represents 100.000 population. a lo.ooQ ®- Joo,ooo + 20,000 +- 200,000 -ft 30.000 * 300.000 # 40,000 * ^'^■°°0 ^. 50,000 # 500,000 ^ ^o.ooo ®-- ^fi^ ^ 70,000 ^- -700.000 ^ 80,000 W- 800.000 ^ 90,000 9 900.00O FOURTH CLASS. The markings of the Fourth Class have a Dot and Circle ( ® ) i n the centre. Each Line upon this Dot and Circle represents 1,000,000 Inhabitants. m 1,000,000 •^- 3.000.000 4"- 2.000.000 #. 4,000,000 System Patented October 16th, 1866. HINTS UPON TEACHING MAP-DRAWING. 365 EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS USED TO REPRESENT THE ELEVATION OP THE T^IOUNTAINS, RANGES. Hill and Mountain Ranges, Like tho Cities, are divided into Four classes. The First is represented by a series of Parallel Curves; the Se, cond by a series of Interlocking Curves ; the Third by a Waved Line; and the Fourth by a Zigzag Line ; as follows: »)))>:»)));)))))))) I'irst Class or Mills,— TTuder 2000 ft.Trigh. ^A.^K0k, Second Class,— Between 2000 & 8000 ft. "high. J''^''V%. °^ between. >^ and J i^ miles high. Hard Class,— Between. 8000 & 16,000 ft. llgh, |y '% or Between 13^ and 3 miles high. FourOi CTass, -Over 16,000 feet high, or over 3 miles high. PEAKS. Tor Peaks under one mile high each Curve upon the right represents One-Fourth of a mile Elevation; for those one mile high or more, each Line upon the right represents One Mile in Elevation and the Dash underneath One Haifa Mile. O ;i of a mile high. A 2^ mileHliigh. n\ 3i' „ .. A 3 m ^ u „ A 3J^ ,, ., A 1 ., .. A 4 „ .. -A 3^ miles high. A iy^ .. ,. A 2 „ » A 5 ., ,. System FattnLtd October 16 th., 1866b LECTURE XXIX. HINTS UPON TEACHING LETTER-WRITING AND BOOK- KEEPING. The pen is seldom used by country peop'e except in writing letters and keeping accounts. If it be true that children ought to learn, in school, what they will practise in later life, then it is evident that they should there learn how to write letters and keep accounts. The slipshod style of writing and directing letters, and the unsystematic and unsatis- factory manner of keeping accounts, seen and prac- tised in all parts of the country, prove that these subjects have not received sufficient attention in public schools. In many schools the subject of let- ter-writing and book-keeping is not so much as hinted at by the teacher. In order to present, forcibly, the importance of a knowledire of letter- writins^ viewed from a business, social, and intellectual standpoint, I offer the follow- ing extract from WestJake's admiral )]e book, " How to Write Letters," published by Sower, Potts &Co., Philadelphia : — "As letter- writing is the most generally practised, LETTER-WRITING AND BOOK-KEEPING. 367 SO also it is the most important, practically consid- ered, of all kinds of composition. This will more fully appear from the following considerations : — "1. Lf.tter -writing is indispensable in business. All persons have business of some kind to transact, and much of it must be done by means of letters. To he able to write a good letter is greatly to a per- son's advantage in any occupation. Many good sit- uations are obtained by teachers, clerks, and others, on account of this ability, and quite as many are lost for the want of it. "2. Il is a social oblir/ation. Wg are naturally social beings ; and pleasure, interest, and duty equally demand that our friendships and other social ties should be maintained and strengthened. In many cases this can be done onl}^ by means of let- ters. No one would willingly lose out of his life the joy of receiving letters from absent friends, nor withhold from others the same exquisite pleasure. It may be stated, also, that a person's social, intel- lectual, and moral culture is indicated in his letters as plainly as in his manners, dress, and conversation; and it is as great a violation of propriety to send an awkward, careless, badly written letter, as it is to appear in a company of refined people with swag- gering gait, soiled linen, and unkempt hair. "3. It gives intellectual culture. Letter writing is one of the most practical and interesting exercises in English composition, — one that is suitable for persons of all grades, from the child just learning to 368 GEADUATIXG SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. write, to the man of highest attainments. It adbrds exercise in penmanship, spelling, grammar, diction, invention, — in short, in all the elements of composi- tion ; and gives ease, grace, and vivacity of style. Many who have become distinguished in other kinds of writing, have acquired much of their power and fluency of expression by their practice of writing letters. Of these Robert Burns is a notab'e exam- ple. In fact the letters of distinguished men and women form a distinct and important department of literature ; and some who are recognized as standard authors would long ago have been forgotten but for their admirable correspondence." It is not my purpose to suggest that letter-writing should be made a l)ranch of study in the common school course, but rather to insist that the teacher should be familiar with the best forms of directing, heading, introducing, and concluding letters, and that he should occasionally present these forms for the benefit of his pupils. A pleasing and profitable exercise of fifteen or twenty minutes may be had in the school-room, once a week, by presenting upon the blackboard any separate part of the subject of letter-writing. In order to make this matter clear, I ofter some illustrations of the method by which letter-writing may be taught. The quotations which I make, and the models which I present, were all taken, by permission, from Westlake's "How to Write Letters." The cuts for the models were fur- LETTER-WRITIXG AND BOOK-KEEPING. 369 nished hy Messrs. Sower, Potts & Co., Philadelphia, publishers of the above-named l)ook. Let the teacher take up, for the first lesson, the subject of the ''^ superscription^''^ which is the outside address that is put upon the envelope. In order that the lesson may seem to be a reality, each pupil should have several envelopes. The teacher may then draw upon the blackboard the form of three or four envelopes, with directions upon each, and accompany the same with instructions, while his pupils direct and stamp real envelopes. Old stamps may be used for this purpose. The following in- structions and forms may be presented. If the person addressed lives in the country or in a small tow^n, the following form should be used : — p_ Stamp. Q "^oo^^ cJkt'dd '^A-ezt-Ca/Ze. C/'e-i'nA'/e^ J^te-e-^ -ui-ao. eddAd. ^^^m.^^1^ J2:islature of this State the bill, which is now a 418 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. law, making women eligible to all school offices, the opponents of the measure claimed, if passed, it would be a dead letter, as women would not consent to take office ; and, if they did, they would only show that they were inefficient ; and that if a woman was once elected to a responsible school office, she would never be re-elected. The bill became a law, and the very first year fourteen women were elected county superintendents of schools ; and the Hon. Newton Bateman, State superintendent, gave it as his opinion that the average ability of the women that were elected was higher than that of the men. Every year since the passage of the bid, Illinois has had quite a number of women superintendents, all of whom have proved faithful, efficient officers, and not a defaulter has been found among them ; and this is more than can be said of all their brother su- perintendents. A number of these womeii superin- tendents have, from time to time, been re-elected. Among them we will mention Mrs. West, of Gales- burg, who is one of the most capable superintendents in the State ; Jind Mrs. Mary L. Carpenter, who was elected at the first election under the law, and has been re elected at every election since. She has just entered upon her seventh year as superintendent of the public schools of Winnebago County, one of the best counties in the State." The State convention, of the minority party in Kansas, in 1880, placed Miss Sarah E. Brown upon the ticket as a candidate for State superintendent of WOMEN AS TEACPIERS AXD SCHOOL OFFICERS. 411) schools. In order to show the sentiment of the convention upon this subject, I quote from a corre- spondent of the New York " Times." Speaking of the convention,' he says : " The nomination of Miss Sarah E Brown was the event of the day at the Democratic State Convention. She is at present school superintendent of Douglass County. Ex- Senator Ross (the nominee for governor) was loudly called for, and came upon the platform and said that he felt highly honored in being placed upon the same ticket with such a distinguished lady. He thought the nomination of Miss Brown emi- nently proper. Judge J. S. Emery, a member of the LaAvrence delegation, which made a strong fight against the lady's nomination, was interviewed by a reporter. He said : ' The truth is, the opposition to her grew out of the fact that she has taken an active part in the temperance campaign in our county. She is strongly in favor of the proposed amendment to the Constitution, and this has excited the antip- athy of the whiskey dealers. She is county super- intendent of schools, beat the regular Republican candidate last time by a fine majority, and her nomi- nation on our State ticket will give it great strength." The experiment of electing women as school offi- cers was tested in Great Britain before it was tried in the United States. The following editorial from the London " Modern Thought " shows how the plan works on the other side of the sea. 420 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Speaking of women on school boards, it says ; — " London is not the only city which has gladly welcomed women candidates. Manchester elected Miss Becker three times. Brighton returned Miss Ricketts at the head of the poll; Bath, in 1870, elected two ladies; Birmingham, Huddersfield, Ox- ford, Exeter, all followed this example. In Scot- land a very large number of ladies were elected, and in subsequent elections many other towns and small country districts have raised women to this position of trust. Nor has this confidence been misplaced. They have shown themselves fully the equals of men in their business capacity, and their superiors in philanthropic schemes." LECTURE XXXV. A GLANCE AT EDUCATION ABROAD. My main purpose, at present, is to consider the comparative merits of the common schools of Europe and of the United States. Before I begin the dis- cussion of this subject, however, I wish to give a glimpse of the light in which the higher educational institutions of the two countries are viewed by some of the leading Asiatic nations. When China, in 1860, was compelled by Western powers to open her ports to the commerce of the world, she determined to educate her comins: officers in schools of more modern thought than were to be found in the Chinese Empire. Glancing at the sev- eral systems of education upon the globe, she passed by the schools of Europe, and sent one hundred of her choicest young men to the United States to be educated. If it be maintained, as a reasou for this, that China, at that time, was unfriendly to European nations, and regarded our people as her truest friends, I answer that notwithstanding the strong opposition to Chinese emigration which, for several years, has existed in some sections of this country, China still 422 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. continues to send her young noblemen to the United States, in order that they may be trained for posi- tions of trust. The Empire of Japan, following the example of China, is sending some of her most promising sons to American schools, expecting that, when educated, they will carry back to their own country the pro- gressive spirit of our civilization. Perhaps I cannot better present this subject than by quoting the hmguage of that celebrated lecturer, the Rev. Joseph Cook. In one of his late " Boston Monday Lectures," Mr. Cook said : — "The presence of Chinese and Japanese students in our American schools in considerable numbers, studying after a careful method, and v/ith a definite aim, is significant of something more than a spirit of curiosity, adventure, enterprise, the love of knowl- ed schools is paid by the government, and the balance is asssessed upon the parents of the children who at- tend. Last year the fees in London ranged from four to eighteen cents for each pupil per week. This is about the average in other countries ; in some the percentage paid as tuition is lower, and in some it is higher. In several of the countries the governments have prescribed the maximum and the minimum for the charges that can be made, and the local authori- ties determine the varying amounts between these ex- tremes that shall be paid by the school patrons, ac- cording to their varying financial conditions I found in some cases there was an ascending scale of fees charged, the expense being very slight in the lowest departments, and gradually increasing through the advancing grades. In the schools of Sweden a small tuition fee is charged for all children over ten years of age.. The people of Sweden, generally, are educated. According to a peculiar law, no person is permitted to marry until he is confirmed, and he is not admitted to confirmation unless he can satisfy the curate that he is able to read. In all of the countries of Europe [)rovision is made for the free education of those who are unable to pay. Such children, how- ever, are looked upon as pauper pupils. Sometimes all such are gathered together, and the school is known as a pauper school. The rule is, those who can pay must. The distinction between the rich, or those in moderate circumstances, and the very poor, is thus made unpleasantly prominent. 430 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. Public schools, which, from the lowest to the high- est grades, are free to all alike, both rich and poor, thus giving to all equal chances for success in life, can only be found in this country ; and this fact, more than any other I learned abroad, impressed me wdth the superiority of our public educational sys- tems over those in Europe. Conclusion. — I am satisfied that we in this coun- try have the best public-school system in the world. We furnish better facilities to the whole people for acquiring a fundamental education than any other country. There is no excuse for any of our chil- dren growing up in ignorance of the common or ordinary branches of knowledge. We have good colleges and professional schools also. Any one, af- ter completing his public-school course, can avail himself of the advantaiJ:es of these hiofher institutions of learning, and thus prepare himself for any of the learned professions. In Europe the educational work had its beginning at the top, in the founding of the higher institutions of learning, and the progress has been downwards. The establishment of public schools in some of the countries of Europe is quite recent. In this coun- try we began at the bottom, by first establishing the lower schools for the public, and our progress must be upwards. LECTURE XXXVI. UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES FOR TIIE WORLD. • Lightning and steam have brought the nations of the earth so near each other that a uniform system of money, weights, and measures seems to l)e almost absolutely essential. Such a system would bring the business of all nations into harmony, save mill- ions annually in computations, aud wonderfully les- sen the labor of the school life of every child. The Metric S3^stem, now making rapid headway amono^ all civilized nations, furnishes a uuiform stand- ard for everything susceptible of being weighed or measured ; and of this system I propose to speak. My object, in presenting this subject, is to aid in educating the American p; ople in the belief of the fact that national legislation upou this subject is a matter in which every man, woman, and child is in- terested. It is a liict worthy of note, that under a monarchy the lawmakers are the leaders of the people, but in a republic the people lead the law- makers. In this country, therefore, all laws looking to important changes must originate with the people. 432 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. By the courtesy of Hon. E. A. Apgar, of Tren- ton, N. J., late United States Commissioner of Edu- cation to Europe, I am permitted to present from his pen, as my concluding lecture, the following carefully prepared article on the subject of the METEIC SYSTEM. In the early history of the world, when civiliza- tion had made but little progress, tables of weights and measures were unknown. Trade was conducted in the form of barter. One article was exchansfed for another, or a single one of a certain descrip- tion for several of another. As civilization ad- vanced and wealth increased, the necessity of a common understanding relative to weights, meas- ures, and values became apparent. Out of this necessity arose the various systems that have prevailed among all nations and tribes. These systems were as numerous as were the centres of trade or traffic. Each tribe or clan had its own. They were in no sense related to each other; their units were incommensurable ; and the ratios of in- crease and decrease were entirely the result of acci- dent or caprice. In the commercial world confusion reigned supreme. As late as the year 1800, there were in Europe not less than eighty different lengths for tlie foot in use. Equal diversity existed in all measures for weight and capacity. In Italy, each province had its own system ; in Germany, each UNIFOKM MONF.Y, WEIGHTS, AND IMEASUIiES. 433 state; in France, each district; in Switzerland, each canton ; and so throughout Europe every local polit- ical organization traded, reckoned, and kept accounts according to its own arithmetic, which was like no other arithmetic in the world. Take two cantons of Switzerland, for instance. In Berne, the foot was 11.54 inches; in Zurich, it was 11.81 inches. In Berne, the unit of weight wis 18. 64 ounces avoirdu- pois ; in Zurich, it was 18.35 ounces. In Berne, the measure of liquid capacity was 1.76 quarts ; in Zurich, it was 1.92 quarts. Berne had four different bushels for diiferent sul)stances ; that for wheat contained 1.55 pecks ; in Zurich, the measure for the same sub- stance contained 2.33 pecks. This only illustrates the confusion that prevailed throughout every coun- try in Europe, only three fourths of a century ago. And what made the matter infinitely worse, these units for weight, measure, and capacity, which num- bered at least five hundred in all, were incommensu- rable. There was, so far as is known, but a single exception to this. The sagene of Russia, which was their unit of length, was just seven times as long as the English foot. With this one cxeption, there was not a single term used to designate quantity anj^- where in Europe that could be expressed in exact numbers by any term used elsewhere. And even this does not illustrate the extent of the confusion that existed ; the multiples and sub-multiples for the increase and decrease of these units were equally diverse. No other cause contributed so largely as 28 • 434 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOll COUNTRY SCHOOLS. this to embarrass business transactions among men. Commercial exchanges between diflerent countries, or between different provinces, cities, or even indi- viduals of the same country, were subject to contin- ual misunderstanding, confusion, and fraud These embarrassments increased as commercial intercourse increased, until it became apparent that the only relief possible was that to be found in the general adoption, throughout the world, of one common system of weights and measures. Until nearly the close of the eighteenth century, however, nothing seems to have been done looking toward the acccmi- plishment of this object. It was reserved for ihQ Constituent Assembly of France, during the most critical period of that country's history, to devise, for the common use of all nations, a system of weisfhts and measures that should be constructed strictly according to scientific method. The princi- ples that the assembly had in view in this undrrtak- were : — That for everything susceptible of being measured or weighed, there should be only one measure of length, one of weight, and one of contents, with their multiples and subdivisions exclusively in deci- mal proportions, and that the three units used should be commensurable." I will here briefly relate the history of this impor- tant undertaking : — Prince de Talleyrand, in the year 1790, addressed to the Constituent Assembly of France a proposal. UNIFORM MONEY, TVEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 435 in which he urged the adoption of a new system of weights and measures that should be founded upon a single and unalterable standard. This proposal assumed the form of a decree, wdiich was, passed by the assembly, and received the sanction of Louis XVI. on the 22d of August, 1790. By the terms of this decree the king was requested to write to the king of Great Britain, inviting him to propose to the Parliament the formation of a joint commission of members of the "Eoyal Society" of England, and of the "Academy of Sciences" of France, to deter- mine upon a unit for the proposed international S3^stem. On account of the political animosities then exist- ing between these two countries, the invitation for a conference extended by France failed to receive acceptance on the part of England. This, for many reasons, is greatly to be regretted. The matter was then referred, by a decree of the National Assembly, to a committee of the Academy of Sciences, consist- ing of five of the most eminent mathematicians of the country. Their report was made to the academy, and immediately transmitted to the assembly. This occurred March 19, 1791. The committee, in its report, proposed that the ten-millionth part of the quarter of a meridan be taken as the standard unit of linear measure, and that the Aveight of distilled water at the point of freezing, measured by a cubical vessel in decimal proportions to the linear standard, should determine the standard of weight and capacity. 436 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. This report received the sanction of the assembly, and a committee of the academy was appointed to determine the length of the standard unit for the new systenj. This was a laborions operation, and consisted in a trigonometrical measurement of an arc of the meridian extending through France, from Dun- kirk to Barcelona, a work that occupied seven 3'ears. In the year 1799, an international commission as- sembled at Paris, on the invitation of the govern- ment to settle, from the results of the great meridian survey, the exact length of the meter. In this com- mission were represented the governments of France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, and the Roman Republic. After the completion of its labors, the conmiission proceeded, on the 22d of June, 179. , to deposit, at the Palace of the Archives, in PajL'is, the standard meter bar of platinum, and the standard kilos^ram weisfht. These standards have since become the units of weis^hts and measures for nearly the entire civilized glo])e. Althou2:h the leno^th of the unit, the meter, had been determined with such extreme care, it was, nevertheless, clear that the measurement of the earth's meridian, or any other unvarying dimension, could never be made with absolute accuracy. It was, therefore, evident that if the standard meter at Paris should be destroyed at any time, its exact du- plicate could never be found. Accordingly, on the twenty-fourth day of September, 1872, the Interna- tional Metric Commission, composed of scientific men UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 437 of all countries, including the United States, met at Paris, for the purpose of providing against this dan- ger. They resolved to make a new bar to replace the prototype, and to make it out of better material, and with a better cross section; and also, that four others should be made and placed in charge of the International Bureau, to be kept in a comparatively uniform temperature, for the purpose of studying the eftects of time, by com[>arison, at interv^als. They also provided that another similar bar should be kept at invariable temperature in a vacuum. They even recommended that, for fuither securit}^, samples be made of quartz and beryl. The conven- tion also resolved that bars of the same form, cast from the same ingot of platinum and iridium, in or- der that the expansion, contraction, and other mod- ifying influences should be the same for all the bars, should bo constructed for all nations that applied for them. In accordance with the action of this com- mission, and in strict conformity with its directions, an ingot of metal, composed of ninety per cent of platinum and ten per cent of iridium, was cast large enough to make all the standards required. This casting was made in 18.74, and all the bars were completed in 1875, and nearly every country of the globe has Ijecn supplied with one that has the same legal authenticity as the prototype standard itself. Thus nearly every nation has in its possession a standard for all weights and measures, as unalter- able and indestructible as modern science and skill, 438 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. exercising all possible care and caution, can make it. Every one of these copies of the prototype is ac- companied with its certified equation, and the length of the meter is determined from these rods when en- cased in ice. From this standard is derived the units for capacity and weight, and each unit in- creases and diminishes l)y the ratio of ten. Thus all the tables agree with our system of notation and with our currency table. The liter is the unit for measures of capacity, and is equal in volume to one cubic decimeter. The gram is the unit for weight, and is equal to the weight of one cubic centimeter, or a millimeter of water at four degrees centigrade. The relation existing between the different tables is shown in the following tabulation, which represents at one view the entire metric system : — METRIC TABLE. Length. Abbreviation. Millimeter mm. Centimeter cm. Decimeter dm. METEE m. Dekameter Dm. Hektometer Hm. Kilometer Km. Myriameter Mm. Capacity. Abbreviation. (cm.) cubed = Milliliter ml. Centiliter cl. Deciliter dl. UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 439 Capacity. Abbreviation. (dm.) cubed = LITER 1. Dekaliter Dl. Hektoliter HI. (m.) cubed = Kiloliter Kl. Myrialiter Ml. Weight. Abbreviation. Milligram mg. Centigram eg. Decigram dg. 1 ml. of water = GRAM g. 1 cl. " = Dekagram Dg. 1 dl. " = Hektogram Hg. 11. " == Kilogram Kg. 1 Dl. " = Myriagram Mg. 1 HI. " = Quintal Q. IKl. " =ToN MT. In the above table it will be understood that ten of any denomination make one of the next ; thus, ten millimeters equal to one centimeter ; ten milli- liters equal to one centiliter ; ten milligrams equal to one centigram, etc. The table of length is con- verted into a table of square measure hy considering that ten of any denomination, squared, makes the square of the next denomination ; thus, ten square millimeter equal to one square centimeter, etc. The same table is converted into cubic measure by considering that one hundred of any denomination, cubed, make the cube of the next denomination ; thus, one hundred cubic millimeter are equal to one cubic centimeter, etc. 440 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. In the table of length the meter is the unit, and it is the term used in the measurement of dry goods, taking the place of the yard. Its length is about three feet three inches and three eighths. The mil- limeter is used in the measurement of small objects, such as the parts of insects. The kilometer is the term used for long distances, and becomes the sub- stitute for the mile. In the table of capacity the liter is the unit, and takes the place of the quart for ordinary use, from which it differs but slightly. The term centiliter is used in measuring small quantities. For the measurement of grain, etc., the hectoliter take^ the place of the bushel. In the table of weight the gram is the unit, and serves as a small weight. For very delicate weigh- ing, such as is required in scientific experiments, the centigram is the term used. For ordinary use in a grocery store the kilogram takes the place of the pound. Its weight is about equal to 2.2 pounds. For heavy weighing, the metric ton becomes a sub- stitute for our present ton. The following table represents, in a condensed form, the progress that has been made in the adop- tion of the metric system by the various countries of the world. Those countries where it may be said, with substan- tial accuracy, that the metric system is already in exclusive use, are printed in large capitals, and those where its use i^ permissive, in small capitals. UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 441 1863 1872 1836 1862 1848 1857 1856 1837 1876 1873 1840 1868 1872 1864 .... 1836 .... 1817 1821 1863 18.37 1862 1852 1864 1864. 1866 1849 1876 1850 1889 1851 1857 1870 .... List of Countries. Argentine Con- FEd'e RATION. AUSTRIA BELGIUM BRAZIL Chili Costa Rica Denmark Ecuador FRANCE GERMANY Great Britain . . Greece HOLLAND ITALY Mexico Norway Peru PORTUGAL .... ROUMANIA .... Russia . . SPAIN . Sweden Remarks. SWITZERLAND Turkey Obligatory law incompletely enforced. Metric system used in customs. German names allowed. Used previously with different nomencla- ture. In some markets, commodities for exporta- tion are quoted in the old measures. The metricisystem is legal. Government was authorized to establish the metric system, but old measures are t-till used. Pound of 500 grams, decimally divided, adopted in 1852. Metric system prescribed, but others still used. A modified metric system was previously used. In some special cases, till 1875 was allowed to complete the change. German names are permitted. fin India special weights and measures may I be authorized by the governor-general. IThe kilogram is called ser. The meter has been adopted in the construction of some of India state railways. I The metric system is used with modified } nomenclature. Dutch names are used. S Previously adopted in some parts of the } present kingdom of Italy. I Law obligatory, but old measures still in ( use. I Likely to follow Sweden. The pound is } taken to be equal to 500 grams, i Government has adopted metric system. ( Citizens use a variety of measures, i Other measures are probably used to some I extent. An Imperial Commission has reported in favor of the introduction of the metric ■ system. Its use in the custom-house was ordered in 1870. Compulsory law will take effect in 1889. The Swiss system is not completely metric, but has a foot equal to 30 centimetres; and, decimally divided, a pound equal to 500 grams, etc. It has been stated that the archive has been made equal to 75 centimeters; also, that the metric system was made obligatory in 1870. ' 442 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. fl . o a •-3 o ca !D Ci. •s, :^ < o o S d Q ft 1866 .... 1853 1865 1867 1857 .... List of COUNTKIES. U. S. opAmekica, U.S.or Colombia, Uruguay Venezuela Remarks. The metric system is used in the mint, and on the coast survey. Official system metric; various measures in private use. Law obligatory, but old measures still in use. Both systems used. To sum this all np in twenty words, Russia, Eng- land, and the United States use the British foot ; the rest of Christendom is committed to the metric system. In the year 1871 a bill was introduced in the English Parliament to render the use of the metric system compulsory, and was lost by only five votes, the vote standing eighty-two against the bill and seventy-seven for it. From the closeness of this vote, it is evident that the time for the exclusive use of the system throughout England cannot be much longer postponed. Thus, in Europe, the coun- tries, in rapid succession, have adopted these inter- national standards. Can any one suppose that the progress already made is going to be arrested at the point it has now reached? No. The world must and will have a uniform system of weights and measures ; and the only question that arises is. What system shall it be? And here it may be well to state that except the metric system, and that which UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 443 we use, no other one existing can be advocated as having the least claim for the world's adoption. The choice must, therefore, be between our own and the metric. It would l)e exceedinijfly flatterinof to our Yankee pride if we could convert the whole world to our way of doing business. Let us examine some of the advantages our system possesses, and perhaps we may convince the world that it is the best. Our unit of measurement is the foot ; three of these make a yard ; five and a half yards constitute a rod ; forty rods a furlong, and eight furlongs a mile. For surface measure, our square yard is nine square feet ; our square rod is thirty and one quarter square 3^ards, or two hundred and seventy-two and one quarter square feet ; and one acre is one iuuidred and sixty square rods, or four thousand eight hun- dred and forty square yards, or forty-three thou- sand five hundred and sixty square feet. It is diffi- cult to comprehend an3'thing more ingenious than this. For capacity our unit is the gallon, or our units, rather, for we have the advantage of having several of them. These are all related to the unit of length, and the relation is so simple that it can be remem- bered by at least one })erson in every ten thousand. The dry gallon contains two hundred and eighty-six and eight tenths cubic inches, more or less ; the wine gallon contains two hundred and thirty-one cubic inches, and the beer gallon two hundred and eighty- 444 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. two. Thirty-two of these gallons make a barrel of cider ; thirty-one and a half a barrel of ale ; thirty- six a barrel of milk ; thirty a barrel of fish, etc. One has almost unlimited freedom of choice to take what he prefers. Our unit of weight is related to our measure of length ; at least this is the presump- tion. It may be expressed approximately by a decimal two miles and a half in length. If the avoirdupois pound is too heavy, we can take the Troy pound, which is some lighter. These pounds have the advantage also of being divided differently, the one into sixteen ounces, and the other into twelve. These ounces diifer, also, in weight ; and, by a beautiful law of contrarieties, as the avoirdupois pound is heavier than the pound Troy, the avoirdu- pois ounce is lighter. These ounces are divided into drams, which difier also, — the one is about three times the weight of the other. Our tables contain ratios or multipliers to suit the most particular. The beauty of our system in this respect must command the admiration of all. We have, among these ratios, three 2's ; nine 3's ; two 4's ; four 5's ; one 7 ; five 8's ; one 9 ; four lO's ; two 12's; three 16's^ three 20's ; one 24; two 25's ; one 27; six 30's ; three 40's ; one 50; three 60's ; one 80; two lOO's; one 128; one 144; one 3()0 ; one 640 ; one 1728 ; one 5^ ; one 16 J ; one 30^ ; one 31| ; one 24 J ; (me 7^^^ ; one 69 ^ ; and one 272^. If the superiority of our system over the metric from this exposition is not apparent, it probably UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND IVIEASUEES. 445 may be shown more clearly by a practical example, making use of the two systems. I recently had occasion to purchase some pita wood to line insect drawers. The price for the wood was $1.80 per square yard, or $2.20 per square meter. There were twenty drawers in all ; ten of them were 12 J inches by 15| inches, and the remaining ten were 12J inches, by 14| inches. Or measured metrically, the first series were thirty-two centimeters by forty centimeters, and the second series were thirty-two centimeters by tliirty-seven and one half centimeters. In estimating the cost of the wood needed,, from the measurements in inches, the operation is as fol- lows : — i2||6iL^1296, the number of square inches in a square yard, is equal to W\W" 'WitV' X $1.80, the price per square yard, is equal to ^¥iW2^^- This reduced equals $5.45if|f|, which is the answer sought. The following operations are also required in the above calculation : — 103 103 144 1296 125660 63 59 9 32 1.80 309 927 1296 2592 100528.00 618 515 3888 125660 6489 6077 41472 226188.00 446 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 41472)2261880.00(5.45^f|ff 2073G0 188280 165888 223920 207360 16560 In estimating the cost from the metric measure- ments, the operation is as follows : — 32 37.5 40 32 1280 X 10 = 12800 sq. cm. 750 1125 1200.0 X 10 = 12000 sq. cm. 12800 sq. cm. +12000 sq. cm. = 24800 sq. cm., or 2.48 sq. m. 2.48 sq. m. 2.20 4960 496 $5,456 The answer sought. In the first calculation there are eighteen opera- tions and three hundred and three figures ; in the second there are six operations and seventy-four figures. If the value of mathematics depends upon the mental discipline it gives, we certainly should hold fast to our present system, for the discipline afforded UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 447 by working a problem by it is at least tenfold greater than it would be if the operation were metric. If the confusion existing in Continental Europe at the beginning of the present century was sufficient to induce the nations to accept the metric system, are not the absurdities Ave have pointed out, as exist- ing in our country at the present day, sufficient to make it an object for us to do the same ? By the use of the metric system Ave not only get rid of de- nominate numbers, but fractions will scarcely ever enter into our mathematical operations. The whole Avorld is a unit ; the interests of all nations, by commerce and telegraphic communica- tions, are so interlocked that neither can retain a system of commercial intercourse out of harmony with the rest We are out of harmony at present with all Continental Europe. This unnatural condi- tion cannot continue, and as we cannot expect other nations to accept our system in preference to the metric, it must be considered as a foregone conchision that ours must be supplanted by the metric. This change does not involve a question of possibilities or of probabilities, but is only one of time. Is any- thing gained by postponing the date of making this change? Nothing Avhatever. Every year's delay makes the change more difficult, but the change must be made whatever is the cost or trouble. Thus far it can be said that we have not been in- diflferent spectators of the world's progress in this matter. We have made a beginning, at least. 448 GRADUATING SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. In this country the system was legalized in 1866, and since then much has heen done to prepare the way for its exclusive adoption. It is used by the United States Coast Survey, the greatest of our public works. The postage law authorizes its use by making fifteen grams equivalent to a half-ounce for all postal purposes. A knowledge of this fact will enable any one to save six per cent of his pos- tage expenses, for fifteen grams exceed half an ounce by that percentage. The postal department is required to furnish metric postal balances to all post- offices that make requisitions for them, and many of the larger ones have already been supplied. Besides this work done by the government to fur- ther the use of the system, many manufacturers and merchants are beginning to recognize the great ad- vantages that are to be gained by the change. The American Watch Company, of Waltham, Mass., that employs one thousand hands, and turns out three hundred and fifty watches daily, has adopted the metric system in all its operations. All its com- putations, drawings, and tools are purely metric, and the superintendent says that nothing could induce them to return to the old system. Amherst College has taken an advanced position on the metric sys- tem, which will soon, in all probability, be followed by other leading educational institutions. They not only require a knowledge of the system for admis- sion, but the professors of the several departments of mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, ge- UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 449 ology, paleontology, botany, zoology, anatomy, and physiology use the metric denominations in their lectures and instructions. The scientific publications issued by the Smithso- nian Institute at Washington contain metric expres- sions only for all measurements. The American Library Association, recently organized, has adopted the centimeter as the unit for the measure of all books. The system is gaining ground very rapidly among physicians. Two societies composed of the most active advocates of the system have been formed for the purpose of hastening its exclusive use. The one is called the " Metrological Society," and has its headquarters in New York, and the other is known as the " American Metric Bureau," and is located in Boston. Besides these home influences there are others of an international character tending to make the early adoption of the metric system by our country a ne- cessity. Scientific men and associations, and scien- tific journals, are using the metric system almost exclusively in their experiments, calculations, and writings. The International Statistical Congress, composed of representatives from all nations, pub- lish all their reports, containing information of vast importance to the world, in metric nomenclature. The International Social Science Association exerts a powerful influence in every country of the civilized globe. Its proceedings are given in metric terms. The indications at present are that the last coun- 29 450 GRADUATIXa SYSTEM FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. try to adopt the system will be either England or the United States, and neither will be long in fol- lowing the other. We led the world in decimal currency ; why should we be so slow in reducing all our other tables to equal simplicity ? When this country proclaimed itself independent of Great Britian, it is a matter of ofreat re^cret that we did not declare ourselves for- ever free from all the absurdities found in their tables of weights and measures. Instead of doing this, we accepted them all, and added some others of our own. None of our standards agree precisely with those of England, except that for the measure of length, and until the year 1855 there was a varia- tion in that also. The time is now at hand, in my judgment, for us to make our second declaration of independence. Congress should be petitioned to fix a time in the near future when this great and glori- ous change shall be accomplished, and we should all adapt ourselves to the new order of things as soon as possible. Teachers can do much to bring about this desirable result. The subject should be taught in every school. If the children now receiving their education become familiar with the metric units, they will find little trouble in their use in active life, and I have not the slightest doubt that the use of the system will be made compulsory before these chil- dren become men and women. The desirableness of this change is beyond all conception. It brings all ordinary calculations UNIFORM MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 451 within the arithmetic of every person who can add, subtract, multiply, and divide simple numbers. Two years, at least, can be saved of the time chil- dren now devote to arithmetic, and with this savinof the pupils, when they leave school, will be far bet- ter prepared to perform the arithmetical operations business calls for, than now. Devote this time gained to the study of other important subjects, and the advantages derived will be multiplied manifold. The teaching force of this country constitutes a tremendous power. Let it be found united in its efforts to secure, on the part of Congress, the adoption of the metric system, and the years will not be many before we are in possession of the greatest commercial blessing that can be secured. THE END. EDUCATION: AN INTEKNATIONAI. MAGAZINE, DEVOTED TO Tie ScieEce, tie Art, lie PlilosoDly, and 113 Lileralnre of Eincalion. Bimontlily. THE BEST WRITERS ARE SECURED AS CONTRIBUTORS. Conductor, THOMAS W. BICKNELL. Size of the Magazine : Octavo, 112 pages, with manila cover ; the paper, type, and presswork of the best quality. Price, $4:, 7o cts, a Number, OFINIOTSrS. " For one, I welcome this capacious bimonthly as a new instrumentality for promoting among ua more serious study of educational science. On the coun- ters of tiie ' Old Corner Bookstore,' I tind nothing comelior, outside or in. It has the characteristics of a high, broad, liberal, serious organ, and the name of the conductor is a sufficient guaranty of pluck and enterprise in the manage- ment."— John D. Philbrick, U-i.T>., Boston. " Its make-up compares favorably with the best re^iew8. Its articles are strong and vigorous, timely and readable, of the highest scholarship and the greatest utility." — AVilliam A. Mowry, Presi. American Inst, of Jnstru