V-^' -^«," '^ • <-c5aVv^ - "^ .^%^ ^w^ . «r^ ''■ , '- ■'.1 :-/ .jg^^o..:3l: ^ •^*l <^^-i '-;v>>' The City of the Seven Hills A Book of Stories from the History of Ancietit Rome BY CAROLINE H. HARDING, A.B. AND SAMUEL B. HARDING, Ph.D. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN INDIANA UNIVERSITY Authors of ''Greek Gods, Heroes and Men'* CHICAGO SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 1902 THF t JBRARY •F Xwo Co*»i« RECEive* MAR. 12 1902 OUPVRIOHT ENTRY CLASSY XXc Hm. COPY a COPYRIGHT, 1898, BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1902, BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY TYPOGRAPHY BY MARSH, AITKKN 00 300 400 SOO conquering northern Italy and southern Gaul, so that their armies could march from Rome to Spain without being attacked by enemies on the way. This land also was added to the Roman territory, and almost all the western part of the Mediterranean world was thus united under their rule. ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD, 149 It was not long before the Romans reached out into the eastern Mediterranean also. Just north of Greece was a country called Macedonia, whose king had sent soldiers to Hannibal, at the battle of Zama, to aid him against the Romans. To punish him for this, the Romans made war upon him, and defeated him; and, when his son Perseus took up arms after his father's death, they conquered him also. Then the Romans began to rule over Macedonia, and over Greece as well, for the Greeks had long been governed by the Macedonians, and were now no longer able to rule themselves. After this they even went across to Asia Minor and made war on a great king there, who was interfering with affairs in Europe, and moreover, giv- ing shelter to Hannibal, after they had caused him to be driven from Carthage. In this war, the Romans were easily victorious; and then all of Asia that lay along the Mediterranean came under their influence, in addition to their European possessions. By this time, the Roman name had become a great and dreaded one among all the surrounding nations. Whenever the ruler of a country was threatened by an enemy, and was too weak to meet him alone, his first thought was to call upon the Romans for help. In this way the ruler of Egypt begged the aid of Rome, when a neighboring king made war upon his country. The Senate sent an ambassador to this king, and when they met the Roman drew a circle with his staff on the ground about the king, saying: "Before you step out of the circle which I have drawn, answer this question, O King. Which will you do, give up your war upon Egypt and have Rome for 150 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. your friend; or continue it and have Rome for your enemy?" It did not take the king long to decide that it was best to give up the v/ar. After that the Romans had much influence in Egypt, because they had saved the country from its enemies; and in the course of time, it too was joined to the Roman lands. In the meantime, Carthage had been slowly recover- ing from her last war with Rome. Once more, her streets were filled with citizens and her harbors with ships; and the city was growing strong and wealthy as before. But now a stern old Roman named Cato visited Carthage, and, seeing that the city was recovering its prosperity, he feared that it might again become able to fight with Rome on equal terms. When he returned to Italy he bore away with him a bunch of fine figs, plucked in the gardens of Carthage. Upon reaching Rome, he spoke long and earnestly in the Senate of the danger which the Carthaginians might yet be able to bring upon the city, and then he showed to the sen- ators the fresh figs which he had brought back with him. "The country where these grew is but three days' sail from Rome," he said. "Carthage should be destroyed." Afterwards this was the constant burden of his talk. He never ended a speech, upon whatever subject, with- out adding, "And, moreover, I think that Carthage should be destroyed." At last Cato persuaded the Romans to make war upon Carthage a third time. In spite of the brave defense of the city by the Carthaginians, when even ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD. 151 the women and children joined in the fight, the Romans were victorious once more. This time the city was utterly destroyed, and the ground upon which the buildings had stood was ploughed over and sowed with salt, so that it might never more be used by men, or even covered by growing things again. Then Rome began to rule the land about Carthage, and so gained control of most of the northern coast of Africa. The city of Rome now held sway over more of the world than any nation before that time, and besides ruling this great stretch of country, her citizens made it their own in another way. In whatever region the Romans went, they made their aqueducts, built bridges, and raised public buildings, as they had been doing for so long in Italy itself. Above all, they built good roads to all the lands that came under their rule, so that they might send armies swiftly from one coun- try to another whenever there was need. Along these roads they placed milestones, in order that travelers might know at any time just what their distance was from Rome; and where the towns were far apart, stations were built by the way at which they might rest and hire fresh horses to carry them on their jour- ney to the next stopping-place. So, traveling by land became much easier than it had ever been before, and distant countries seemed to be drawn closer together, just as they have been in our own day by the construc- tion of railroads and the stringing of telegraph wires. But Rome could not go out over the world and build and rule in all the Mediterranean countries, without this making a great difference in the Romans them- selves. Their great men were no longer like Cincin- 152 THE CITY OF THE SE YEN HILLS. natus, who left the plough to fight for his country and then went back again when the danger was past. The Roman generals were now very rich men, and they spent all their time in war or in the public business of their country. Moreover, instead of refusing the gifts of kings, as Fabricius had refused the gold of Pyrrhus, it was said that the Roman generals asked for money wherever they went about the world. The common soldiers, too, were not so good as they had been in the old days. Then each man fought in the army without pay, and supported himself and his family in time of peace by means of his little farm. But now many men began to make a business of fight- ing, and to serve in the army for a living. As these men did not fight solely for the love of their country, but rather for the money that they got by it, they began to grumble when they were commanded to do things that they did not fancy, and sometimes they would refuse outright to obey their orders. With such generals and such soldiers, it is not sur- prising that the Romans were now sometimes shame- fully defeated in battle. When they were carrying on the war in Macedonia with King Perseus, the first armies that were sent against him were beaten for just this reason. Then the Romans saw that there must be some change made, and they chose a general of the old-fashioned sort to take the command. His name was iEmilius Paulus, and he was a poor man still, although he could easily have been rich if he had been willing to do as other men were doing. He had been one of the generals in Spain, and also in the north of Italy, and in both places he had shown that he knew ROJVIE CONQUERS THE WORLD, 153 how to manage his armies and to gain victories. So the people agreed that he was the man to send against King Perseus, and, rather against his wishes, they elected him consul, and voted to give him command of the arm}^ yEmilius did not thank the people after they had chosen him consul, as was usually done. He spoke coFdly to them instead. "I suppose, O Romans, that you have chosen me to lead in this war because you think that I can com- mand better than anybody else. 1 shall expect, there- fore, that you will obey my orders, and not give me orders yourselves;^ for if- you propose to command your own commander, you will only make my defeat worse than the former ones.'* When ^milius came to the army in Greece, he saw that the first thing to do was to teach the soldiers to obey orders. He kept them in camp and drilled them for many days; and when they murmured and wanted to be led out to battle, he only replied: "Soldiers! you should not meddle with what does not concern you. It is your business only to see that you and your arms are ready when the order comes, and that, when your commander gives the word, you use your swords as Romans should." In this way, ^milius trained his arm}^; and when the battle was fought, the Romans won a great victory. King Perseus and his children and all his treasures were captured, and his country was brought under the Roman rule. But ^imilius would not so much as go to see the heaps of gold and silver which had been taken from the king's palaces. Instead of making 154 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. himself and his friends rich from it, he commanded that it should all be sent to Rome and placed in the public treasury; and the amount of it was so great that never after that did Rome have need to raise a war tax from her own people. The common soldiers, however, were angry at this action of ^milius, for they wanted to divide the spoil among themselves. Moreover, they disliked him because he ruled them so strictly; so, when the army had returned to Rome, and it was proposed that ^Emi- lius should be allowed a triumph, the soldiers opposed the motion before the people. But an old general who had commanded in many wars arose, and answered them. "It is now clearer than ever to my mind," he said, "how great a commander our ^Emilius is; for I see that he was able to do such great deeds with an army full of baseness and grumbling." At this, the soldiers were so ashamed that they let the people vole the triumph for ^milius. When the time for the celebration came, seats were set up in the Forum and in all parts of the city where the show could best be seen. On these the Roman people took their places, dressed in white garments and ready for the great holiday. The temples were all open and filled with flowers and garlands, and the main streets were cleared, and kept open by officers who drove back all who crowded into them. Then came the great pro- cession, which delighted the people for three days. On the first day, two hundred and fifty chariots passed, filled with pictures and statues which had been taken from the Greeks. Upon the next day, the rich ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD. 155 armor which had been captured was shown ; and it made a fine sight, with the light glancing from the polished helmets and shields, and with the swords and spears TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. rattling about among the armor. After these wagons marched three thousand men, each bearing a basin full of silver coin; and following them came others, 156 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. displaying the silver bowls, goblets, and cups which had been taken. But the third day furnished the finest sight of all. First, early in the morning, the trumpeters marched along sounding such notes as the Romans used to encourage their soldiers in battle. Then came young men wearing robes with ornamented borders, and lead- ing one hundred and twenty fat oxen, all with their horns gilded, and with ribbons and garlands of flowers tied about their heads. These were for the sacrifices to the gods, which were to be offered at the temples on the Capitol; and with them were boys bearing basins of gold and silver to be used by the priests in the offer- ings. After the cattle for the sacrifices walked seventy- seven men, each carrying a basin filled with gold coin; and with them marched those who bore the golden goblets and dishes which King Perseus had used at his table. The chariot of the king came next with his armor in it, and his crown lying on top of that; and the king's little children, two boys and^a girl, followed with their attendants and teachers. As they passed along, the servants wept and stretched out their hands, begging the Romans to show mercy to the little prin- ces; and even among those stern conquerors, many hearts were touched at the sight of the unfortunate children. Then, at a little distance, came King Perseus him- self, clothed all in black, and walking quite alone, so that all the people might have a good view of him. After the king and his attendants had gone past, iEmilius appeared, dressed in a robe of purple ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD. 157 mixed with gold, and riding in a splendid chariot, holding in his right hand a laurel branch. Following the chariot marched all the army, also bearing laurel branches and singing songs of victory, — just as though they had been the most obedient soldiers in the world. And so the triumph ended. Many years before, you will remember, the Roman people had crowded the Forum to see Marcus Curtius leap into the chasm and sacrifice himself for the good of his country. What a different sight they had now come to watch — their great army returning home in triumph, burdened with the wealth of a conquered people, and a king and his little children walking into cruel captivity before the chariot of their gen- eral! The power of Rome had indeed grown enor- mously in the meantime, but you can decide for yourself which of the two sights would be likely to have the noblest influence upon the spectators, — the triumph or the sacrifice. 158 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. XXI The Gracchi and Their Mother. AFTER having watched the splendid triumph of ^milius, let us see one of the more common sights of the city, — a Roman wedding. You will find it oddly different from the weddings you may have seen among our own people, but however strange these old customs seem to be, you must remember that they were very sacred to the Romans. The most important part of the wedding ceremony took place at the house of the bridegroom. First, at her own home, the bride was dressed in a garment made all of one piece of cloth, without any seams, and fastened about the waist with a woolen belt or girdle. Her hair was parted, not with a comb, but with the point of a spear, and arranged in'six little curls; after which a yellow net or veil was thrown over her head. Then in the evening, a procession was formed by the friends of both families, and the bride was taken from her father's house to that of her husband. Along the way minstrels played on their harps, and bridal songs were sung, while a little boy marched on before, carrying a blazing torch made from the wood of the white-thorn tree. When the procession came to the door of the bride- groom, the bride wrapped the doorposts with sacred fillets of white wool, and smeared them with oil or fat; THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER, 159 after which she was carefully lifted over the doorsill by her husband. The Romans themselves did not under- stand the latter custom. Some thought that it was done so that the bride might not stumble upon entering her husband's house for the first time, as that would have been a very bad sign. Others said that it was repeated in memory of the time when the followers of Romulus took wives from the Sabine women by force. After the'procession had entered the house, the bride turned and said to her husband: "Where thou art, Caius, there will I, Caia, be also.'' Next the husband presented her with fire and water, to show that she was now a member of his family, and could sit at his hearth and join in the worship of his household gods. The ceremony was then ended by a feast, with a wedding cake and abundance of nuts. This is the manner in which Cornelia, the daughter of Scipio Africanus, was married to Tiberius Gracchus. He was a fine soldier and a just and honorable man; and she was then a beautiful girl, who had all the noblest qualities of the great family to which she belonged. For years afterwards they lived happily together, and had many children. Then, according to the story, Tiberius found in their sleeping-room one day a pair of large snakes. The Romans regarded reptiles as sacred, so he went to the priests and asked what he should do with the creatures. They answered that he must kill one and let the other go; and they added, that if he killed the female snake, Cornelia would die, and that if he killed the male, he himself would shortly perish. Tiberius loved his wife deeply, so, when he was told this, he went 160 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, home and killed the male snake, and let the female escape. Shortly afterwards Tiberius died, and then his widow, Cornelia, lived only for her children. Even when the king of Egypt sent to her and wished her to become his queen, she would not consent. Only three of her children — two boys and a girl — lived to reach manhood and womanhood; and on these Cornelia centered all of her love and care. She lived with them, and played with them, and taught them their letters; and, as she was a noble, high-minded woman, her children grew to be like her, brave, honorable, and unselfish. One day, as Cornelia was sitting at home with the children playing near at hand, a lady came to visit her. As they talked the visitor showed her the splen- did rings and precious stones which she wore, and at last asked to see her own jewels. Then Cornelia called her little children, and led them proudly before her guest. "These are my jewels," she said. As her boys grew up to be men, Cornelia would sometimes reproach them that she was still known as the relative of the Scipios, and not as the mother of the Gracchi. In this way she made them long to do great deeds^ so as to bring her honor; and when the elder of the two boys, Tiberius, carne to enter the army, he went at his work with so much earnestness that in a short time he excelled all the other young men in skill at arms. While the Romans were mak- ing war on Carthage for the third time, Tiberius Gracchus was the first man to climb up on the wall of THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER, 161 the city; and when he was in Spain, fighting with the mountain tribes, he saved the whole army from being destroyed as a result of the faults and mistakes of its commander. But it is not for what he did as a soldier that Tiberius Gracchus has been remembered. It is rather for what he undertook after he returned to Rome and became a tribune of the people. In spite of all the wealth and power that now came to Rome from her conquered countries, the condition of the common people had become serious, and they needed the aid of a wise tribune more even than in former days. During the terrible war with Hannibal, the small farmers had their property ruined, and fled to the city. After the war was over, the land gradually passed into the hands of the senators and rich men of Rome, and a few great farms took the place of many small ones. The worst of it was that these large farms were not tilled by free laborers, but by slaves, — captives taken in war, for the most part. So the poor freeman not only lost his land, but he lost the chance to work for hire also. The only thing he could do after that was either to enlist in the army and earn his living as a soldier, or else remain idly at Rome and demand that the state should provide for him. The rich can- didates for offices were so eager to get the aid of the poorer citizens that they gladly bought their votes by feeding them, and amusing them with games and various spectacles. But, in this way, both the rich and the poor became selfish and greedy, and thought only of what would help themselves, instead of what would be best for the whole people. 162 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. Tiberius Gracchus saw these evils, and when he became tribune, he tried to cure them. Much of the land which the rich men held really belonged to the state, though it had been in the hands of private citi- zens for so many years that the people who held it had begun to forget that they did not really own it. What Gracchus proposed to do was to divide this land among the poor citizens, and build up once more a strong class of small landholders, such as had been the strength of Rome in earlier times. Of course, the men who already had the land did not favor this plan; so, when Gracchus brought for- ward his law for the people to vote on it, they got another tribune, named Octavius, to veto it, and that stopped the voting. Then, when Gracchus found that Octavius would not withdraw his veto, he had the people put him out of his office and elect a new tri- bune in his place. This was against the law, but Gracchus could see no other way of carrying his measure through. After this, the law which Gracchus had proposed was passed, and he and two other men were appointed to make the distribution of the lands. Before the work was done, however, Gracchus' s year of office was over; and he was afraid that, as soon as he should be out of office, the rich citizens would not only find some way to interfere with the law, but that they would also punish him for his treatment of Octavius. At this time no one had ever been allowed to be tribune two years in succession; but Tiberius decided to disobey the laws once more, and have himself elected tribune a second time. THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER. 163 When the senators and rich citizens heard this, they were very angry, and determined to prevent it. Upon the day of the election Gracchus was accused of trying to make himself king and a riot broke out. Then the senators and rich men armed themselves with clubs and bits of benches and stools, and set upon the poorer citizens; and Tiberius Gracchus and three hundred of his followers were slain. Gracchus had been wrong in putting Octavius out of ofifice, and in trying to get himself elected tribune a second time against the laws. But how much worse was the action of the senators and wealthy citizens! In the old days, when the patricians and the plebeians struggled together, they did so peaceably and with respect for the laws. Now, in these new strifes between the party of the poor and the party of the rich, force was used for the first time, and men were killed in a political struggle at Rome. And for this the senators and rich men were chiefly to blame. The younger of the Gracchi, Gains, was not at Rome when Tiberius was killed. He was still a very young man, just beginning his training as a soldier, and for ten years longer he went on serving with the armies of Rome. Then, although the Senate tried unlawfully to keep him from returning to the city, he came back, and he too was elected tribune. Caius was much more rash than his brother had been. In spite of all that his mother^ Cornelia could do to prevent it, he resolved to carry out the plans of his brother Tiberius, and even to go further. He wanted to overturn the government by the Senate and the nobles, and put in its place a government by the 164 THE CITY. OF THE SEVEN HILLS. people, with himself at their head. He got the sup- port of the people for this by passing a law that they should always have grain sold to them at a low price. Then he gained the support of many of the wealthy citizens, by passing laws which took rights and priv-i- leges from the senators, and gave them to the rich men who were not senators. So Caius Gracchus obtained more power than his brother had possessed; and a law having now been passed which permitted one to be re-elected as tri- bune, he was allowed to serve a second time. After this, he was able to pass many laws to help the poorer citizens. • But when he wished to do still more, and aid the Italians who were not citizens of Rome, his followers selfishly deserted him. They were afraid that they would have to share their cheap grain and their free games with the Italians, so this law was not passed; and, at the next election, Caius Gracchus was not made tribune again. Then Gracchus tried to live quietly, as a private citizen, at Rome. But now that he was no longer tribune, the nobles soon found ways in which to quarrel with him; and when a riot again broke out, Caius and many of his friends were put to death by the senators, as Tiberius Gracchus had been before them. You would think that, after the death of her second son, poor Cornelia would have been heart-broken and would almost have hated her country, for the ingrati- tude with which its people had treated her children. But the Romans believed that you ought not to show sorrow at anything that happened to you, no matter how dreadful it might be. So Cornelia put on THE GRACCHI AND THEIR MOTHER. 165 a brave face, hiding the suffering that was in her heart; and when she spoke of the deeds and deaths of her sons, it was without a sigh or a tear, as if she were talking about some of the ancient heroes who had died ages before. Every one admired her for her courage and virtue; and in time the Roman people repented of their conduct towards her sons, and began to look upon them as the truest friends they had ever had. When Cornelia died, a statue was set up in her honor, and underneath it were carved these words, as her best title to remembrance: ^'Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi.*' 166 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, XXII The Wars of Caius Marius. CAIUS MARIUS was a poor country lad who entered the army as a common soldier, and, without the help of money or of a powerful family rose to the highest position. It is said that when he was a boy, he one day caught in his cloak an eagle's nest, with seven young ones in it, as it was falling from a high tree. From this the wise men foretold that he should be seven times consul; and Marius never rested until this saying had come true. He gained his first knowledge of war in Spain under Scipio ^milianus. This Scipio was the son of ^milius Paulus, the conqueror of Macedonia, and an adopted son in the family of the great Scipio Africanus. As he was also an able and honorable man, he was thus a very good master under whom to learn the art of war; and Caius Marius profited well by the lessons which he learned in his camp. When the commander was asked one day where the Romans would ever find as good a general as himself when he was gone, he turned and touched the shoulder of young Marius, who stood near. ''Here, perhaps," he replied. This encouraged Marius, and he struggled on for many years, gradually rising in the army and in the THE WARS OF CAIUS MARIUS. 167 state from one position to another. At last he even succeeded in having himself elected consul, and so received the command of an army himself. His opportunity came in this way. A king named Jugurtha arose in a little kingdom near Carthage, gain- ing his power in a most unjust manner, and then using it in a way that was even worse. At last the Roman Senate was forced to declare war upon him. It proved that he was not to be easily conquered, and the Roman generals who were sent against him did not seem to be able to bring the trouble to an end. Finally Marius, who was with one of the generals as second in com- mand, became very impatient over this delay in crush- ing Jugurtha, and resolved to go to Rome and try to get the command for himself. Marius was very well liked .by the common soldiers because he had been one of themselves, and still ate the same coarse food and slept upon the same beds that they did, often helping them with his own hands in digging ditches and throwing up earthworks. But the general of the army scorned him because of his low birth; and when Marius applied to him for permission to go to Rome to become a candidate for consul, he laughed at him. "It will be time enough for you to become candidate for consul when my young son does," he said. Marius left the army deeply angered, and when he came to Rome he showed that he had more influence than had been suspected. He told the people how slowly the war was going on and how much better he could manage it himself. As he belonged to their own class, the common people believed him and elected him 168 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. consul, giving him by a special vote the command of the army against Jugurtha. When Marius returned to Africa, he found that it was more difficult to bring the war to an end than he had expected. But at last Jugurtha was betrayed to him by one of his own household, and then Marius ended the war and brought the king captive to Rome. No sooner was this war over than another one broke out which threatened the Romans with such a terrible danger that they elected Marius consul a second time to meet this new enemy; and then a third and a fourth time. At last he had been consul for five terms before the danger was past, and it seemed as though the old prophecy concerning him might yet be fulfilled. This new war was with a people who came from the region north of the Alps and overran Gaul, threatening to pass into Italy. Although they were called by several names, they were probably Germans, and belonged to the same family of nations from which the Germans of to-day, the English, and most of the Americans are descended. Large and strong of body, and as hardy as they were strong, they terrified the Romans more even than the Gauls had done two hun- dred and eighty years before. Like the. Gauls, they came in great numbers, carrying their wives and chil- dren and all their possessions with them in rude, cov- ered wagons, and went wandering about looking for a new home in which to settle. The Romans first met these newcomers in that part of Gaul which had come under Roman rule. There, four great armies of the Romans were destroyed one after the other. Then it was that Marius was elected THE WARS OF CAIUS MARIUS. . 169 consul a second time, and sent into Gaul to keep these Germans from crossing the Alps and reaching Italy. Fortunately for the Romans, the barbarians turned aside into Spain after their last great victory, and remained in that country for two or three years. Thus Marius had time to get together a new army, and to drill his men thoroughly. When the barbarians came back from Spain, they separated, — one band of them starting north around the Alps in order to enter Italy from the east, while the others remained in Gaul, and tried to reach the peninsula from the western side. Even after so large a part of the Germans had left Gaul, Marius did not dare to lead his men out of camp against those that remained. For six days he let them march continuously past his camp; and as they went by they shouted taunts to the Romans and asked whether they had any messages to send to their wives. But when the last of this band, too, had disappeared, Marius led his army out, and followed them. He came up with them just before they reached the Alps, and by this time he had his soldiers so well trained that he decided to risk a battle. The result was a great victory for the Romans; for the barbarians were entirely destroyed, and their kings were made captives. Then Marius hurried on into Italy and marched to the aid of the other consul, who had been sent to meet the band that was seeking to enter the peninsula from the east. This consul was not so good a general as Marius, and the barbarians succeeded in getting into the country on that side. When Marius arrived, they sent to him and demanded lands in Italy on which they and their brethren, whom they had left in Gaul, might settle. ITO THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. In reply, Marius showed them the captives who had been brought with him and the Germans were filled with grief and anger, for they knew that their brethren had been destroyed. Though they might well have feared the same fate for themselves, the chiefs of their army challenged Marius to fix the time and place for a battle. He chose the third day after that and a broad plain near by for the place. When the battle came, the Germans fought with great brav- ery, and their women, standing in the wagons, encour- aged their husbands and brothers with fierce cries; but at last the Romans were victorious and this band of the barbarians was also destroyed. After this Marius returned to Rome, where he was received with great honor and rejoicing. Men called him the third founder of the city; for they said, that just as Camillus had saved Rome from the Gauls, so Marius had saved it from these new invaders. As a reward for his victories he was soon after elected con- sul for the sixth time. If Marius had been a statesman as well as a soldier, he might now have used his power to remedy the evils which the Gracchi had tried to cure, and so have saved the state. But though Marius could win battles, he could not govern in time of peace. Long after this men said of him that '*he never cared to be a good man, so he was a great one"; and perhaps that is the reason he failed as a ruler. He hesitated to take either the side of the common people, or that of the nobles, for he wished only to do the thing that would benefit himself. In this way Marius lost the influence which he had gained by his victories; and for twelve THE WARS OF CAWS MARIUS, 171 years the conqueror of the Germans was despised and neglected by everyone. At last civil war began between the party of the com- mon people and the party of the nobles. The latter had a famous soldier named Sulla as commander of their army; and the leaders of the common people chose Marius, although he was then nearly seventy years old, to be their general. Marius had long been jealous of Sulla, and besides he was eager to gain the seventh consulship that had been promised him, so he accepted the command. But at first the nobles got the better of the party of Marius; and when Sulla marched on Rome, the city was taken* by his army. This was the first capture of Rome by a body of its own citizens, but it was not to be the last. When Rome was taken by Sulla, Marius escaped with much difficulty, and for many days wandered about Italy with only a few companions. Atone time they barely escaped a.party of horsemen on the shore by swimming out to some ships which were sailing by. At another they lay hid in a marsh with the mud and water up to their necks. Once Marius was taken prisoner, and the officers of the town where he was held sent a Gaulish slave to kill him in his dungeon; but Marius's eyes gleamed so fiercely in the darkness as he called out in a loud voice, "Fellow, darest thou kill Caius Marius?" that the slave dropped his sword and fled. Then the officers of the town faltered in 172 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. their, purpose and at last allowed Marius to go free. He escaped to the neighborhood of Carthage, but even there he was not safe, for the Roman governor of that district sent a message warning him to leave. When the command was given to him, Marius replied, '*Go, tell the governor that you have seen Caius Marius sitting in exile among the ruins of Carthage." At last Sulla was obliged to leave Italy and go to Asia Minor to make war on a powerful king in that region. Then the friends of Marius got control of Rome once more; and Marius could safely return. When he came back his heart was filled with rage against his enemies, and he caused thousands of them to be put to death without trial or hearing. Even his friends came to fear this gloomy and revengeful man. He grained his seventh consulship at this time, but he did not live long to enjoy it. His many years of war and bloodshed had left him a strange old man, full of bitterness and unrest. Finally he died, on the seven- teenth day of his seventh consulship; and the whole people breathed freer when he was gone. Soon afterwards Sulla returned from the east, and when he had regained his power he took a terrible revenge on all the friends of Marius. Many persons were put to death simply because some one of Sulla's friends desired their property. The Italian cities which had rebelled against Rome in this time of trouble were punished with great severity, and so ter- ribly was Italy wasted that it seemed as if Hannibal had come again. CICERO, THE ORATOR. 173 XXIII Cicero, the Orator. AT the close of the war with Jugurtha a child was born in Marius's old home near Rome, who was to become as famous as Marius himself, but in a better and nobler way. Marcus Tullius Cicero was to be a great orator and writer, and rule the state by his elo- quence as others governed it by force of arms. This would have been impossible in the earlier city, when the consuls had to be generals first of all, and the edu- cation of the citizens consisted mainly in training for battle. In these later times, however, the people •studied something besides the use of arms and the laws of their city; and Cicero, who 'was a scholar instead of a soldier, was chosen to govern them as consul. It is very interesting to compare the education of a Roman like Cicero with that which is given almost every boy and girl of our own day. Cicero's parents lived outside of Rome, and he was sent from his coun- try home to his uncle in the city at the age of six, in order to enter school there. Before this his training had been mostly in charge of his mother, except when he stood at the family altar watching his father's sacri- fices to the gods; or, perhaps, when he learned to speak Greek even so early, by listening to the talk of some slave brought from that country as a captive. 174 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. From his infancy he had been told the stories of the Roman heroes, and of his own ancestors, and taught by means of them to be modest, brave, and obedient. But this was only for family instruction; the school at Rome, to which he was sent so young, dealt with the usual general subjects. In the city the schools then began at sunrise, and ROMAN BOOKS AND WRITING MATERIALS. In two of the pictures purses and heaps~of coins are also shown, the children had to be up and ready to start before daybreak. They carried lanterns to light their way, and slaves went with them to and fro so that no harm might befall them. In the schoolroom, the master sat on a raised platform at one end of the room, with the children on stools and benches in front of CICERO, THE OR A TOR, 175 him. Around the walls there were lyres, or harps, to be used in the music lessons, and also pictures of the gods or of scenes from the history of Rome. On one of the walls a board was hung on which were writ- ten the names of all absent or truant pupils. Above the master's bench there was a great stick, and the lazy boys had good reason to fear it when they did not know their lessons. In this lowest school, the children learned to read and to write. Instead of slates or sheets of paper, they had wooden tablets covered with wax; and on these they wrote with a sharp-pointed instrument called a stylus. The other end of the stylus was blunt, so that when a pupil made a mistake in his writing, he could smooth it out in the soft wax with this end, and then try again. Here the children also learned arithmetic. Perhaps the arithmetic which you have to study is difficult for you; but think how much harder it must have been for the Roman boys. They did not have the plain and easy figures which you use, but only what we still call the ''Roman numerals." If you want to see how much more difficult it is to use these, try to find the answer to XXIV times LXXXVII, and then see how much easier it is when it is written 24 times 87. Because their arithmetic was so hard, each Roman boy carried with him to school a counting-frame to help him. This was a wooden contrivance divided into lines and columns, and he worked his problems with it by putting little pebbles in the different columns to represent the different denominations. 176 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. After Cicero had gone through this school, he entered what was called a grammar school. There he studied Greek grammar, and read some of the famous books of that day, both Greek and Latin. Of course these were not printed books, as printing was not invented for fifteen hundred years after this. Those which he studied were all written with a pen, on smooth white skins called parchment, or on paper made from the papyrus plant which grows in Egypt. Instead of being bound as our books are, the pages of these were all pasted into one long strip, and then rolled tightly around a stick. In such a school young Cicero studied until he was fifteen years old. Up to that time he had worn the **boyish toga," with its narrow purple border, and carried a ''bulla" or charm about his neck to ward off the evil eye. After he passed that age, he discarded the boyish toga and the bulla, and put on for the first time a toga all of white, such as the men wore. This was made a day of festival for the family, and the young man went with his father and his friends into the Forum, where his name was written in the list of Roman citizens, and then to the temples on the Cap- itol to offer sacrifices to the gods. After this he rnight be called upon to serve in war, and he had the right to vote and to do everything that the grown men were allowed to do. All Roman boys of good families followed this course of training up to the time when they put on the manly toga. After that, if they intended to prepare themselves for war, they entered the camp of some general and attached thernselves to him; but if they CICERO. THE OR A TOR. 177 intended to train themselves for the law, and become speakers, they attended the law courts in the Forum. Cicero's father wished him to be fitted for the law, so he put the lad in charge of one of the great judges and lawyers of that time. In his company and under his direction, Cicero attended the law courts day after day, and listened to the best speakers, taking notes on all that he saw and heard. Thus, in the course of time, he learned the laws of his country and the ways in which the courts did business; and by constant attention and practice, he also came to be an excellent speaker. After a num.ber of years spent in this way, Cicero at last had a chance to show the Roman people what good use he had made of his time in the law courts. Dur- ing the terrible civil war between Marius and Sulla, a young Roman was charged most unjustly with the murder of his father; but all the lawyers of Rome were afraid to defend him, for it was known that whoever did so might anger Sulla, and so bring a sentence of death upon himself. Cicero, however, was willing to risk the danger. He defended the young man before the court, and the cause was so good, and Cicero spoke so well and fearlessly in his behalf, that he w^as at once released. This gave Cicero some fame at Rome, but he did not dare to remain there afterwards for fear of the wrath of Sulla. So he went to Greece, where he passed his time in studying under Greek masters, and learning how to speak and write still better. At last news came that Sulla was dead, and Cicero returned to Rome. Then he entered politics, and proved to be such a good speaker, and so honest, and 178 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, so learned in the laws, that he was elected to one office after another at-the very lowest age that he could hold them. Moreover, he received these honors in spite of the fact that the nobles looked upon him with scorn as a man of lower birth, since no member of his family had ever yet been chosen consul. Though he now held public offices, Cicero did not cease to come before the law courts whenever there was need. At one time a man named Verres was charged with misgoverning the province of Sicily and unlawfully taking large sums of money from them while he was ruling the island. This had come to be a very common thing. Indeed, people would often say that a Roman governor had to make three fortunes out of his province during the time that he was in office: one to pay off the debts he had made to get the office, another to bribe the judges at Rome in case they should try to punish him for his dishonesty, and a third to live on after he returned to Rome. So, although Verres was much worse than governors usually were, few people expected to see him pun- ished. Cicero took charge of this case, and he managed it so skilfully that in spite of all Verres could do he was forced to leave Rome and go into exile. This won for Cicero the praise of all honest citizens, but it is believed that it did not make the Roman gov- ernors themselves very much better. When Cicero had held all of the offices below that of consul, it happened that a plot was made at Rome which nearly overturned the government; and in this time of danger, Cicero was elected consul. The common people and the nobles had once more CICERO, THE OR A TOR. 179 begun their quarrels, which had been checked dur- ing the period of Sulla's stern rule. A ruined noble, named Catiline, now put himself forward as the leader of the common people, and with their support he tried to gain the consulship. But all good men distrusted him, because of the crimes which were charged against him, and because it was known that he was deeply in CICERO. debt and ready to do anything to get money. So the moderate men among both the common people and the nobles united in supporting Cicero for consul against Catiline, and Cicero was elected. Thereupon Catiline determined to secure by force what he could not get by the vote of the people. He drew together a number of ruined nobles like himself, and planned with them to murder the consuls and 180 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. seize the city, in order to burn and rob as they chose. Cicero was informed of these plans; but he did not dare to arrest Catiline, for he had powerful friends and the consuls did not yet have clear proof of the plot. He decided to rouse and startle Catiline so that he would show his plans openly, and all the people might be convinced of them. Accordingly, Cicero arose in the Senate, while Catiline was there, and made a powerful speech against him. *'How long, O Catiline,'' he cried, **will you abuse our patience ? When will this boldness of yours come to an end? Do not the guards which are placed each night on the Palatine hill alarm you? Do not the watchmen posted throughout the city, does not the alarm of the people and the union of all good men, do not the looks and expressions of the senators here, have any effect upon you? Do you not feel that your plans are known? What did you do last night or the night before that you think is still unknown to us?'* Then Cicero went on to tell all the plans of Catiline, and showed him that so much was known of them that he left the Senate in fright and rage, and rode hastily away from the city to join some soldiers that he had stationed near by. Everyone was convinced by this that what Cicero had claimed was true, and an army was sent against the plotter and his troops. They were easily overcome and Catiline was slain, while his fol- lowers in the city were arrested and put to death. For Cicero's wise government of Rome, at this time, men of both parties honored him, and he was publicly called "the father of his country." But it was not CICERO, THE OR A TOR, 181 long before the influence which he had gained by his good services was greatly weakened. Rome had grown, as you have seen, from a little city-state, to be a great empire; but the form of the government was still the same that it had been in the old days. This was not as it should have been, for a great empire could not be ruled like a single city. It was not only unjust, but it was unwise to let a few thousand greedy, selfish men choose the officers and make the laws that were to rule all the millions of people that were governed by Rome. But there seemed to be no way to remedy the trouble, for nobody had then thought of what we call *' representative gov- ernment,'' — that is, one in which the people of each city or district elect men to represent them at the cap- ital of the country, and make laws for the whole land. The Romans knew only two ways of governing a great empire: one was to let the people of the chief city rule over all the rest, as Rome was doing; the other was to give up free government altogether, and allow a king to rule the whole according to his will. Many people thought that the government by the Senate and people of Rome could still continue. Cicero was one of these, and he tried to build up a party in support of this idea; but it was an impossible task. The senators were selfish and shortsighted; the rich men were only anxious for more wealth; and the common people were ready to support anyone who would give them bread to eat, and amuse them with races and wild-beast fights. Besides this, there were now several powerful men in Rome who realized that a change in the government must soon come, and 182 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS, each of whom was trying to make himself master of the city. So Cicero failed in his attempt. First he was exiled from Rome, on a charge of unlawfully punishing some of the followers of Catiline. Then, after he had been allowed to return to Rome, civil war broke out CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the different persons who were trying to get the chief power; and the wars continued until at last the Republic came to an end, and Julius Csesar, the ablest man among the Romans, gathered up all the offices of the government in his own hands, and made himself sole ruler of the empire. CICERO, THE OR A TOR, 183 In this time of terrible civil war, Cicero could have no place, for he was a peaceful man who tried to rule men by persuading them, instead of commanding them by force. When the old government had been finally overthrown, he no longer took an interest in politics. After that, he spent his time in study; and the books which he wrote then may still be read by those who understand the Latin language, — indeed, they have done more to make the name of Cicero famous than anything else that he ever accomplished. But before many years had passed in this way, Caesar was slain by some of his enemies, and new struggles began for the mastery of the Roman world. Cicero now thought that perhaps the government by the Sen- ate and people might be renewed, and he spoke and wrote in order to bring this about; but his efforts were all in vain. The attempt to restore the old govern- ment failed, and Cicero lost his own life by it. His writings had annoyed and offended some of the great men of Rome, and at last they ordered that he should be put to death. Long after this, one of the men who had given the command for Cicero's death found his nephew read- ing a book which the boy vainly tried to hide under his gown. He took possession of it, and found that it was one of Cicero's works. For a long time he stood reading, absorbed in the noble thought and language: then, as he returned the book, he said, "My child, this was a learned man, and one who loved his country well.'' 184 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. XXIV Julius Caesar, the Conqueror of Gaul. CAIUS JULIUS C^SAR belonged to a noble family, but he was a nephew of Marius by mar- riage, and it was this perhaps that caused him first to act with the party of the people. He was little more than a boy when Sulla and Marius were carrying on JULIUS C/ESAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 185 their terrible struggles for the mastery, and he had taken no part in these troubles. But when Sulla had overcome the common people, and was putting to death all persons whom he regarded as the enemies of his own party, he wished to include young Caesar in the number. Some of the general's firmest friends, how- ever, and even the Vestal Virgins, went to him and begged that Caesar's life might be spared, because of his youth and his noble birth. For a long time they pleaded in vain, but at last Sulla gave way. "Let him live, then, as you wish,'* he said; "but I would have you know that there is many a Marius in this young man, for whose safety you are so anxious. You will find, some day, that he will be the ruin of the party of the nobles to which you and I all belong.'' After this narrow escape Caesar did not dare to stay longer at Rome. He went to the lands about the east- ern end of the Mediterranean Sea, and joined the camp of a general who was carrying on one of the conflicts which the Romans were now constantly waging in that region. Here Caesar got his first training in war; and one day he showed such bravery in saving the life of a fellow soldier, that the commander presented him with a crown of oak leaves. This, as you will remem- ber from the story of Coriolanus, was a mark of high honor among the Romans. After Sulla was dead, Caesar returned to Rome; but not to remain there long. He decided that he wished to be an orator as well as a soldier, so he went to Greece, as Cicero had done, to study the art of writing and speaking. While he was on his way there he had an adventure which shows very well the character of 186 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. the man even in his youth. The ship that he was on was captured by pirates, and Csesar was told by them that he must pay a large sum of money before they would let him go. He at once sent his servants to raise this sum, but in the meantime he had to stay with the pirates on their island home. These were desperate men, who considered the crime of murder a trifling act; but Caesar seemed to have no fear of them, and even showed his contempt for them quite freely. When he wished to sleep, he would order them to be silent while he did so; and in other moods he would join in their rough play and exercise. To help pass away the time till his servants should return he wrote poems and speeches, and recited them to these ignorant men. When they did not seem pleased with his efforts, he frankly called them "dunces" and ''barbarians." They accepted all this from Caesar with great good-humor, for they liked his fearless spirit; and when he threatened to punish them, as soon as he was free, for their piracy and crimes, they only laughed at him and thought it a great joke. After his money had come, however, and he was at liberty, the first thing that Caesar did was to carry out this threat. He gathered together some ships and men, and returned to the island where the pirates stayed. Here he found their vessels still at anchor, and in the battle which followed, he defeated them and cap- tured most of the men, recovering also the money which he had paid them as a ransom. At Rome, after this, Caesar led the kind of life that was usual among all the wealthy young men of the time. He joined in the gayety of the city, and seemed to JULIUS CAESAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 187 think of nothing but that. He was very careful in his dress, and was one of the leaders of the fashion at Rome, This seemed foolish to the grave Cicero, and he once spoke doubtfully of Caesar, wondering if there could really be any earnest purpose in a man who gave so much thought to the arrangement of his hair. Beneath this lightness of behavior, however, lay great powers of mind and character. Caesar had already determined to accomplish something great, and he never lost sight of this purpose. At the very time that Cicero thought him so foolish and careless, he was preparing himself to win the favor of the people and become their leader. When he began to speak in public, he had taken so much pains to train himself well, that he pleased his hearers from the first; and after his return from Greece, he was looked upon as one of the best orators of Rome. He was friendly and pleasant to every one, and gave money freely to all who begged his help. Of course he became very popular, and soon he was elected to several offices, one after the other. While Caesar held one of these offices, it was his duty to oversee the public games. The Romans, as you know, had now become very fond of such shows, and they were given a number of times each year in various forms. Some of them were like the Greek games, and were contests in running, wrestling, leap- ing, and hurling the spear. Others were sham battles, in which little armies of horsemen, infantry, and ele- phants took part. But those that the Romans liked best were three, — the chariot races, the fights with wild beasts, and the contests of gladiators. 188 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. The chariot races were held in a race course called the Great Circus, which lay between the Palatine hill and the one which stood south of it. Each chariot was usually drawn by four horses, and four chariots took part in each race. The drivers of the chariots wore different colored gowns, — white, red, blue, and green; and the people took such interest in these races, that they divided into parties over them. In this way there came to be a party of the Greens, who always favored the driver who wore that color, and a party of the Blues, and so on; while sometimes the people became so excited by the races that they actually came to blows about them. The custom of chariot races was very old, — indeed, it was said that Romulus first began them; but the wild-beast fights were not introduced until after the second war with Carthage. Then the Romans began to turn elephants, lions, leopards, and other beasts, into the ''arena" of the Circus (as the central part of it was called), and set men to hunt them for the amusement of the spectators. It is said that four hundred lions were once fought and killed there at the same time to make sport for the people. But the shows which delighted the Romans most were the fights of the gladiators. These were men who were trained for fighting to amuse the people; and they were usually captives who had been taken in war, or slaves who had been sold to the trainers of gladiators as a punishment. Most often they fought together in single pairs. Sometimes they were both armed in the same way, with helmet, shield, and sword. Sometimes, however, one only would be 190 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. armed thus, and the other would have nothing but a three-pointed spear with which to thrust at his enemy, and a net to throw over his head and entangle him. When one of the gladiators became wounded, the fight stopped until the will of the people had been made known. If they held their thumbs up, he was spared; but if they turned them downwards,, they wished to see no mercy shown, and the conquered one was put to death. The government was supposed to fur- nish the money to provide for these shows, but it had be- come the custom for the overseers of the games to add to them at their own expense. When Caesar was made overseer he tried to give finer spectacles than had ever been seen before, regardless of the cost. Every- body said that there had never been more or better gladiator fights o-r greater animal hunts than those he furnished. The statues and pictures, too, which he provided to decorate the Forum and the temples on the Capitol during the time of the games, were so numerous that places had to be found elsewhere for many of them. Caesar spent such large sums of his own money on these shows that he came out of the office very heavily GLADIATOR FIGHT. JULIUS CJESAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 191 in debt; but he had succeeded in his purpose. He had made the people think him generous and public- spirited; so when he became a candidate for the con- sulship some time after this, they gladly supported him. The nobles, however, did not like Caesar so well, and they opposed his election, for they were already beginning to fear his power over the peo- ple. But at this time there was a man at Rome who could aid him greatly with his election, if he would, axid he needed Caesar's help as much as Caesar needed his. This man was named Pompey, and he was called "the Great" because of his deeds in war. At one time he had put down a dangerous revolt in Spain. After that he had helped to stamp out a rebellion of gladiators, who had fled in large numbers to Mount Vesuvius in Italy, and formed a strong camp there. Then, some time after Caesar's adventure with the pirates, Pompey had been given a great fleet and had been commissioned to make war upon them. With this fleet he had started from the Straits of Gibraltar, and searched every nook and corner of the Mediter- ranean Sea, sweeping all the pirates before him till he reached the coast of Asia. There he defeated them in one great battle, and so cleared the seas of robbers for many years thereafter. Following this, Pompey had been given the command in a war with a king on the southern shore of the Black Sea; and there also he had been successful. At last he had come back to Rome with much honor, and was given a great triumph by the people; but the nobles looked upon him with sus- picion, and refused to reward his soldiers, or to 192 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. approve the arrangements which he had made for the conquered country in the East. This vexed Pompey exceedingly; so he joined with Caesar, and they agreed to help each other in gaining what they both wanted. In this way Pompey obtained lands for his soldiers and had his acts in the East approved; and Caesar received his election as consul. After his year as consul was up, and it was time for him to go as governor to one of the provinces, as was the custom, Caesar was appointed governor of Gaul for five years. Before that time was passed he was given another term of five years by a new agreement between the two men, while Pompey was appointed to govern Spain for an equal time. The senators were not sorry to see Caesar go to Gaul, for they hoped that during his long absence from the city, the fickle people of Rome might forget him, and so leave him without influence when he returned. Or, if this should not happen, they hoped at least that something might occur in the meantime to make his influence less dangerous to the party of the nobles. At this time there were two districts which the Romans called by the name of Gaul, and Caesar was given command over both of these. One was on the Italian side of the Alps, and included the lands in the valley of the River Po, on which those Gauls had lived" who welcomed Hannibal when he came into Italy. This was called "Cis-Alpine Gaul,'' or **Gaul on this side of the Alps." The other lay beyond the Alps, in what is now southern France, and this was called "Trans-Alpine Gaul." Cis-Alpine Gaul had been conquered for some time, JULIUS C^SAR. THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL. 193 but in Trans-Alpine Gaul the power of the Romans did not extend beyond a little strip of land in the southern part, where the country touches the Mediterranean Sea. Moreover, the affairs of Gaul beyond the Alps had been neglected by the Romans during the late strug- gles in the city itself, and when Caesar reached his provinces he found that troubles were beginning there which needed his immediate attention. He was told that a large body of people who lived in the val- leys of the Alps, had determined to leave their homes among the mountains, and seek new ones in the west- ern part of Gaul. They had burned their towns and villages, so that their people could have no wish to return to their old homes, and they were now ready to start on their journey through the Roman prov- ince, carrying their families and their goods with them. The march of so large a body of the Swiss through Trans-Alpine Gaul might mean the beginning of much trouble for the Romans; so Caesar determined that they must be stopped before they had gone any farther from their homes. He crossed the Alps in haste, therefore, and sent word to the Swiss forbidding them to rnarch through his province. Then, when they tried in'spite of this to force their way out of the mountains, he defeated them in a terrible battle; and sent them back to their own country, to rebuild their burned homes and settle upon their own lands once more. This great victory gave Caesar's soldiers confidence in their new commander; and it also caused many of the neighboring tribes of Gaul to submit to him, and become friends to the Roman people. Soon afterwards 194 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. the chiefs of one of these tribes appealed to Caesar for aid in a trouble of their own, begging him to help them against a tribe of Germans, who had lately crossed the Rhine, and come into their lands. These Germans had already conquered a part of the country, and were inviting other German tribes to cross the river and join them in overrunning the whole of Gaul. This would have been more dangerous even than to have had the Swiss pass through the country in search of new homes; so Caesar determined to give the help that was asked of him, and send the Germans also back to their own lands. But while Caesar was preparing to march against the Germans, his army began to give him trouble. The Gauls and the Roman traders, who passed through the camp, told marvelous tales of the great size of the Germans, of the fierceness of their appearance, and of their skill with their weapons. When Caesar's sol- diers heard these stories, and when it was whispered among them that they were about to march against the Germans, they began to fear this people as much as Marius's soldiers had done before them. Some of the young officers, who had had little experience in war, even began to make excuses for being allowed to return to Rome. Others, who >vere ashamed to leave the army in this way, made their wills, and went about the camp with tears streaming down their faces. These claimed that it was not the enemy they feared; but that they dreaded the narrowness of the roads, and the vastness of the forests through which they would have to pass, and they were afraid, too, that there would not be food enough for the army on its march. JULIUS C^SAR, THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL, 195 When Caesar heard these things, he called a meeting of his soldiers and rebuked them. ''Is it your business/' he asked, "to inquire in what direction we are to march, and what are the plans of your general? Is it your duty to think of the feeding of the army, and the condition of the roads? That is my affair, and not yours; and you should not distrust me so much as to think that I will not attend to it. I suspect, indeed, that it is the enemy that you dread, and not the dangers of the march. But even though you know that you are to fight against the Germans, what is it that you fear in them? They have already been defeated by Marius within the memory of our fathers. The Swiss, whom you have so lately sent back to their homes, have defeated them in their own country. Shall we not be able to do what they have succeeded in doing? I had intended to put off this march of ours to a more distant day; but now I have determined to break up our camp during this very night, so that I may find out as soon as possible whether my soldiers will answer to the call of duty, or give way to fear. If no others will follow me, I shall still go forward with the tenth legion alone; for I know that the men of that company, at least, are too brave ever to desert their commander." The fears of the soldiers vanished before the scorn and determination of their general. The tenth legion sent messengers to him to thank him for his confidence in them; and the soldiers of the other legions made excuses for themselves, and begged him to believe that they would follow him wherever he might wish to go. Caesar accepted their excuses; but that night, as he 196 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. had said he would, he began the march. When the army came up with the Germans, and a battle was fought, Caesar easily defeated the enemy, driving them back across the Rhine into their own country. These two wars were the beginning of Caesar's com- mand in Gaul. In a few months, he had succeeded in saving the country from being overrun by the Swiss and by the Germans; and perhaps he had even kept the barbarians from entering Italy again as in the time of Marius. He remained governor of Gaul for nine years, and during that time he conquered all the country from the Rhine west to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the Roman province in the south to the English Channel on the north. And several times he even passed these limits. Twice when he wished to overawe the restless tribes of Germany, he quickly built a bridge over the broad Rhine, and led his army across to frighten the neighboring tribes into submission. Twice, also, he gathered ships and went over into the neighboring island of Great Britain, to make war upon the tribes that lived there, and punish them for having interfered in the affairs of Gaul. Caesar was the first Roman general to lead an army into either Germany or Britain; and although he made no serious attempt to subdue these countries himself, he prepared the way for the conquest of Britain, at least, in the time that was to come. In Gaul, however, he completely conquered the country. When he left that land its people had already settled down quietly under the Roman rule, and they were beginning to learn the Roman customs and the Roman language. So entirely did they accept these that they became JULIUS C/ESAR, THE CONQUEROR OE GAUL. 197 almost like the Romans themselves, and even to-day the language of the country — French — remains a form of the old Latin tongue, which the Roman conquerors spoke nearly two thousand years ago. One of the things that helped Caesar most in this great work of conquest was his power over the com- mon soldiers. During, all the years that they fought under him in Gaul, they never once repeated the threat of disobedience, which they had made when he first proposed to lead them against the Germans. From that time on they were entirely devoted to him, for they had confidence in him. He was willing to share every danger and hardship with his men, and when he spoke to them he called them "Fellow soldiers," to show that he was one of them. In the marches with his army, he used to go at the head of his troops, sometimes on horseback, but oftener on foot, with his head bare in all kinds of weather. At the beginning of a battle, he often sent his horse away, so that he might lead his men on foot. If they began to give way during the fight he would go among them and stop those who were flying, turning them towards the enemy again; and so by his own courage and determination he would compel them to be victorious. Caesar was both mild and strict in his control of his men. After they had won a victory he would allow them to rest and make merry; but before a battle had been fought, he demanded unceasing watchfulness and entire obedience. He would give no notice of battle till the last moment, in order that the soldiers might always hold themselves in readiness for it; and, for the same reason, he would often lead his men out of. 198 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. their camp, when there was no need of it, even in rainy weather and on holidays. Sometimes, either by day or night, he would suddenly give them orders to follow without losing sight of him; and then lead them on long marches in order to test their strength, and to prepare them for doing the same thing when- ever there might be real necessity for it. In this way, long before Caesar's nine years in Gaul were over, he had an army of veterans, every man of whom was will- ing to follow him into any danger. While Caesar was still in Gaul, he wrote an account of his struggles with the barbarians, and sent it to Rome, so that the people might know of the successes of his army. Many of the Roman books have been lost, but Caesar's own account of his wars in Gaul is so well written and so interesting that it was carefully saved, "and if you should ever study Latin, this will be almost the first book that you will read. C^SAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE, 199 XXV Caesar and the Beginning of the Empire, DURING the years of Caesar's life in Gaul, the mis- government of Rome had been growing steadily worse. The elections for consuls could not be held without disorder, and the candidates for office went about with bands of armed men for their protection. Sometimes these bands actually fought at the voting places; and once the election of consuls was pre- vented, by these quarrels, for six months after the proper time. Thus the Romans were not only failing to rule their provinces justly, — as in the case of Sicily, — but the city itself was now filled with confusion and violence; and many wise and thoughtful men became willing to end the disorder in any way that was pos- sible. At this time, Cicero was trying to cure the evils of the government by urging the people of Rome to be as unselfish and virtuous as their forefathers had been. His efforts failed, for the people were not willing to believe that their greed and selfishness were ruin- ing^their country. Perhaps, if they had believed it, they could not have changed themselves in order to remedy their public evils. They had no idea of alter- ing the government by giving it the representative form such as we have now; so the only cure that /emained was for the rule of the Senate to give wa\' to 200 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. that of one strong man, who could put down disorder and punish wrong-doing. But where was the strong man to be found who could, and would, force the Senate to step aside and let him carry on the government? To be able to do this, it was necessary that he should have an army, for the Senate would certainly not give up its power with- out a struggle. There were only two men at this time who had armies which they could use in this way. One of them was Pompey, the conqueror of the pirates and the East; the other was Caesar, the conqueror of Gaul. Pompey might long ago have overcome the power of the Senate, if he had really desired to do so. He did not know much about government, however, and could not make up his mind what he wanted to do. Caes^, on the other hand, was as able in state affairs as he was in war. He had long seen that the old govern- ment was so bad that it could only be cured by setting up another in its place; and he was quite ready to un- dertake this himself, if the chance should come to him. For a while Caesar and Pompey had acted together, and had'helped each other in politics. But when news came to Pompey at Rome of the splendid victories which Caesar was winning in Gaul, he began to be jealous of him, and at last he was ready to join with the party of the nobles in any plan that would destroy his power. It had been agreed that Caesar was to have his com- mand in Gaul for ten years, and when that time was passed, he had arranged that he should be elected consul again. That would give him an army as con- CyESAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 201 sul, just as soon as he laid down the command of his army in Gaul; and when his year as consul was up, he would go to one of the provinces again as the head of another army for a long term of years. In this way there would be no time when Caesar would not have an army at his command; and so the nobles would not be able to injure him, or put him to death, as they had Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. The plan which the nobles and Pompey formed, to get rid of Caesar, was this. They would make him give up his government in Gaul before his last five years were over; then, perhaps," when Caesar had no army to protect him against injustice, they would bring him to trial before the courts at Rome on some charge — any charge would do — and have him convicted. By this means they would thrust him aside, and the selfish government of the Senate could go on as before. To carry out this plan, the Senate ordered Caesar to give up his governorship, and return to Rome. Caesar knew that he could not trust himself there without an army to protect him. Nevertheless, he made an offer to the Senate to give up his command, if Pompey, who was then at Rome with an army near by, would resign his also. The Senate replied that Caesar must give up his army, or become a traitor to his country; and that Pompey need not give up his. Caesar now saw that his enemies were planning to destroy him; but to resist them meant the beginning of a civil war between himself and Pompey. Never- theless, he prepared to lead his victorious army across the little river Rubicon, which separated Cis-Alpine Gaul from Italy, and to march south upon his enemies. 202 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. The old stories say that after Caesar had drawn up his men on the banks of the river he stood for some time in deep thought, questioning whether it was the wisest thing, after all, for him to go in arms against the gov- ernment of his country. While he lingered in doubt, a wandering minstrel near by suddenly seized a trum- pet from one of the soldiers and sounded the call to advance. Caesar accepted this as a sign from the gods. ''Let us go whither the gods and the wickedness of our enemies call us," he cried. "The die is now cast." Then he led his veteran soldiers across the Rubicon and advanced to meet the army of his countrymen. Pompey mean- while had made almost no prepara- tions for the war. When some one had asked him what he would do if Caesar should march upon Rome, he had replied: 'T have but to stamp my foot, and soldiers will spring up all over Italy to fill the legions of my army." But after Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, news was soon brought to Rome that the Italian towns were yielding to him without a struggle. When one of the senators taunted Pompey with his vain boast, and asked him why he did not stamp his foot, the latter ROMAN SOLDIERS. CjESAR and the beginning of the empire. 203 could find no answer. It was too late now to raise men to save Rome; so Pompey had to leave the city to its new master. He retreated with his army to the south of Italy; but Caesar promptly followed him.. Then, rather than to fight in Italy, Pompey crossed over into Greece; for his influence was strongest there and in the East, where his greatest victories had been won. Caesar could now follow him no farther, as there were not enough ships remaining to carry his men across the sea. Accordingly, having driven his enemies from Italy in sixty days, without the shedding of a drop of blood, he turned back to Rome. There he treated the people mildly and generously, and the men who had feared that the terrible times of Sulla and Marius had come again soon saw that they were mistaken. Caesar pun- ished no one, and he took the property of none. He remained in the city only a short time, and then set out for Spain, where the greatest part of Pompey's army had been left. *T go," he said, ''to attack an army without a gen- eral; I shall return to attack a general without an army." After some difficulty, Caesar succeeded in getting possession of the Roman provinces in Spain. He now had Gaul, Italy, and Spain under his control, and he could turn all his efforts against Pompey and the forces in the East. He led his army back through Italy by rapid marches; and, although it was by this time the middle of winter, he immediately crossed into Greece. Then, for about four months, the two armies marched and 204 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. countermarched, and built camps and threw up earth- works. During all this time Pompey's army was larger than Caesar's; and it was better fed and better cared for also, as Pompey's ships could bring him every- thing that he needed, while Caesar's men had to live upon the country around them. Caesar tried by every means to bring on a battle, but without success; for Pompey knew that, though he had the larger number of men, Caesar had the better soldiers. At last, how- ever, Pompey yielded to the urging of his followers, and drew out his men for battle. The result was a great victory for Caesar. Although Pompey had twice as large a force as the conqueror of Gaul, he was defeated and his army was destroyed. After this battle, Pompey was forced to fly from Greece and seek refuge in Egypt. There he was basely murdered by men who wished to please Caesar, and thought that this would be the surest way of win- ning his favor. But when Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt, and was shown the proofs of his death, he did not rejoice, but turned away his face and wept. To all the men who had been in Pompey' s army, he showed himself kind and generous; and he wrote to his friends at Rome that *'the chief pleasure he had in his victory was in saving every day some one of his fellow citizens who had borne arms against him." After Caesar's victory over Pompey, he established his power firmly in Greece, Egypt, and Asia, as he had already done in the western countries of the Mediter- ranean. When he returned to Rome, Africa was the only portion of the Roman Empire that remained unconquered; and all who continued hostile to C/ESAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 205 Caesar had gathered there. For a time he remained at Rome to attend to public affairs; but as soon as he could, he arranged to go to Africa and conquer this last army of his enemies. Caesar's soldiers, however, were wearied with march- ing from one end of the world to the other. The tenth legion, which had served him so well, at last rebelled, and the men demanded that they should be dismissed with the rewards that, were due them for their long services. When Caesar heard this, he went out and spoke to them. "Citizens, you shall be dismissed as you desire, '* he said coldly, ''and you shall have all the rewards which have been promised you.*' But when the soldiers heard their beloved commander call them "citizens,'' instead of "fellow soldiers," as always before, they no longer desired the thing that they had asked for. The rebuke and the idea of separation, which lay in that one word, were not to be borne. They begged that they might be taken back into his service again; and after that, there was no longer any talk of dismissal on their part. Caesar was as successful in defeating his enemies in Africa as he had been everywhere else, and when he returned to Rome, he was able to celebrate four tri- umphs, one after the other, for his victories in Gaul, in Egypt, in Asia, and in Africa. On the day of his triumph over Gaul, he ascended the Capitol at night, with twenty elephants bearing torches to the right of him and twenty to the left. When he triumphed because of his victories in Asia, an inscription was carried before his chariot which read in Latin, "I 206 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. came, I saw, 1 conquered." This was copied from a message which Caesar had sent to the Senate announcing one of his victories, and it was intended to remind the people how quickly he had ended the troubles in the region of which he wrote. Caesar was now master of Rome and of her empire. The Roman army, made up of men of all countries, v/as the strongest power in the city; and Caesar, who C^SAR S TRIUMPH. controlled the army, was the first man in the empire. He could now make whatever reforms in the state he thought best. As the Senate and the people had shown so plainly that they were no longer fit for the task of governing the nations under their rule, he decided to carry on the government himself. He allowed the Senate and the assemblies of the people to meet as before, but he took good care to see that they had no real power. He took charge personally CAESAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 207 of most of the public offices; and, besides the titles which went with these, he gave himself the name of "Emperor," or commander, and that in time came to be the highest title of all. Caesar used his great power well. Instead of treat- ing those who had fought against him as Sulla and Marius had treated their enemies, he tried to make them his friends, and allowed them to hold offices ufider him. There were still some men left, united under the command of the sons of Pompey in Spain, who were determined to defy him to the last; and Caesar was compelled to leave Rome, and lead an army against them himself before they were finally defeated. But the greater part of the people of Rome were satisfied with the rule of Caesar, because it prom- ised to give the peace and safety which they had not enjoyed for a long time. Caesar lived for only two years after the four-fold triumph which followed his return from Africa. In those two years, however, he succeeded in doing much good for Rome. He made laws for the reform of the courts of justice, and others to enable men w^ho were in debt, and could not pay, to settle with their credit- ors. To reform the manners of life among the Romans he had laws passed against extravagance in dress and in banquets. He tried to check the growth of slave labor by requiring that one-third of the labor- ers on sheep-farms must be free. New colonies were planned to provide for the poor and idle population of the city; and he passed laws to admit many of the subjects of Rome to an equality with the citizens them- selves. 208 THE CITY OF THE SE VEN HILLS. Another of the changes which he carried out is of especial interest to us, because the civilized world to-day still profits by it. This was a reform of the calendar. The Romans divided the year into twelve months, as we do; but their months were not long enough, so they had an awkward way of putting in an extra month about every two years, to make the seasons come out right. This plan worked badly, and, by the time of C^sar, the calendar and the real year of the earth's revolution around the sun, had become ninety days apart. As a result of this, the Italian farmer began his work in the fields in June and July, according to the calendar, when it was really March and April. Caesar consulted the most learned men of his time, and the calendar was corrected and made to agree with the seasons. Then, to keep it right in the future, Caesar increased the length of some of the months, so' that the ordinary year should have three hundred and sixty-five days; and he arranged that every fourth year, or leap year, an extra day should be given to February. The calendar after this did very well, and with one small change we use it still, even retaining all the Roman names for the months. One of these, July, was given in honor of Caesar himself, to commemorate his part in bringing the change about. Besides these various reforms, Caesar planned many other important works. ' He expected to collect a large library at Rome, and this was at a time when books were very rare and costly. A theater was also begun, and he was planning to build a new Senate house, as the old one had been burned in the terrible disorders of the late wars. A great temple to Mars was designed C^SAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE, 209 to keep the memory of his victories fresh in the minds of the people. At the mouth of the Tiber, an immense harbor was to be built, and a new road was projected east through the mountains to the Adriatic Sea. In the midst of all this he was preparing to lead armies against the barbarians on the Danube, and against those south of the Caspian" Sea in Asia; for in both these regions the people were forcing their way out of their own lands and seeking to come into the Roman provinces. But all these plans were left unfinished or were not even begun. Although Rome was now better off than it had been at any time for fifty years, there were some men among her citizens who still thought that there was nothing more shameful than to submit to the rule of one man. They longed for the old government of the Senate with all its faults. At last sixty of the nobles formed a plot to kill Caesar, and so free them- selves from his power in the only way that was pos- sible. Almost all of these men had received favors from Caesar, and one of them, Marcus Brutus, had been his friend. Brutus was not an evil man, but others who were crafty and selfish persuaded him that it was his duty to save his country from Caesar, as his ancestor had rescued it from Tarquin long before. So, in spite of his feeling for his friend, he joined the plot and became one of its leaders. Caesar was warned of the danger that threatened him, but he would have no guards about him. "It is better to die once,*' he said, ''than to live always in fear of death." He had been warned especial 1\' to beware of the day 210 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. which the Romans called the ''Ides'' of March; but on that day he went to the Senate house as usual. On the way there he saw the priest who had given him the warning; and he laughed at him, declaring him a false prophet, because the Ides of March had come and nothing had befallen him. "The day is come, Caesar, but it is not gone," answered the priest: When Caesar entered the Senate house, all the sen- ators arose to greet him, as was their custom. Then the plotters advanced to Caesar'"s chair, one of them pretending to beg a favor of him, while the rest appeared to urge the granting of this request. Suddenly one of the plotters laid hold of Caesar's toga, and dragged it from his shoulders. This was a signal for the others, and at once they fell upon him with their swords and daggers. For a moment Caesar resisted them, and then he saw his friend Brutus strik- ing at him among his foes. "Thou, too, Brutus!" he cried, and with this he ceased his struggles. Wrapping his head in his toga, he fell, pierced with many wounds, at the foot of the statue of Pompey which stood in the Senate house. Thus died one of the ablest men who ever lived in any country or at any time. There have been many men in the world who have been great in one way; but CTrhus. 7. Second battle with Pyrrhus ; the Romans again defeated. 8. Pyrrhus in Sicily. 9. The third battle; victory of the Romans; Pyrrhus leaves Italy. 10, Capture of Tarentum ; Rome the ruler of the peninsula. S UMMA RIES OF CHA P TERS. 255 XVIII. — Rome and the Carthaginians. 1. The Carthaginians: their mother-country; their voyages; their inventions ; the city of Carthage. 2. Rivalry with Rome in Sicily ; beginning of the first war. 3. Strength of the two peoples. 4. The Romans build a fleet; the "crows" ; Roman victories. 5. Regulus in Africa ; his capture. 6. Embassy of Regulus to Rome ; his death. 7. Length of the war ; Ro'man misfortunes. 8. The Romans build a new fleet ; its victory. 9. The treaty of peace. XIX. — The War with Hannibal. 1. Civil war at Carthage ; Hamilcar. 2. Hamilcar goes to Spain ; the oath of Hannibal. 3. Carthage conquers Spain ; Hannibal becomes commander of the army. 4. Beginning of the second war between Rome and Carthage. 5. Hannibal's plans. 6. His march across the Alps. 7. Arrival in Italy ; his successes. 8. Roman fear of Hannibal. Causes of Hannibal's failure; his recall. Scipio Af ricanus ; defeat of Hannibal at Zama. Terms of peace. Last years of Hannibal ; his death. XX. — Rome Conquers the World. 1. Rome*s gains from Carthage. 2. Conquest of Northern Italy and Southern Gaul. 3. Conquest of Macedonia. 4. The Romans in Asia Minor and in Egypt. 5. The third war with Carthage ; destruction of the city ; Roman power in Africa. 6. Good results of Roman rule. 7. Effects of the conquests on the Roman generals; on the common soldiers. 256 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, 8. -^milius Paullus : his reforms ; his victories over Macedonia ; his just dealings. 9. The triumph of ^milius. XXI. — The Gracchi and their Mother. 1. Roman marriage customs. 2. Marriage of Tiberius Gracchus and Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus; death of Gjacchus; Cornelia and her children. ^ 3. Young Tiberius Gracchus; his service in the army. 4. Troubles of the Roman farmers ; slavery ; decay of the people. 5. Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune ; he attempts to cure these evils. 6. Mistakes of Tiberius; he is put to death; character of the new party struggles at Rome. 7. Caius Gracchus; his election as tribune; his reforms; his death. 8. Conduct of Cornelia. XXII. — The Wars of Caius Marius. 1. Caius Marius; the eagle's nest; the saying of Scipio JEmiW' anus. 2. Marius and the war against Jugurtha ; his first consulship. 3. The invasion of the Germans. 4. Victories of Marius over the Germans. 5. Marius's sixth consulship; his failure as a statesman. 6. Civil war between the parties of Marius and Sulla. 7. The victories of Sulla; wanderings of Marius; departure of Sulla. 8. Return of Marius to Rome ; his cruelties ; his seventh consul- ship and death. 9. Return of Sulla ; his terrible vengeance ; sufferings of Italy. XXIII. — Cicero, the Orator. 1. Birth of Cicero; his home life and training. 2. Roman schools ; Cicero's life till he was fifteen. 3. Cicero in the law-courts. 4. His first case; his fear of Sulla's" anger; travels in Greece. 5. Cicero enters politics ; trial of Verres. SUMMARIES OF CHAPTERS. 257 6. His election as consul; Catiline's conspiracy. 7. Evils of Roman government ; Cicero's plans. 8. New civil wars; Cicero's course. g. Cicero's death ; his character. XXIV. — Julius C^sar, the Conqueror of Gaul. 1. Caesar's youth ; Sulla wishes to put him to death. 2. Caesar in the East ; his first training in war. 3. His adventure with the pirates. 4. Caesar at Rome ; his habits. 5. Caesar made overseer of the public games. 6. Character of the games: the chariot races; the wild beast hunts ; the gladiatorial combats. 7. Caesar and Pompey; Caesar elected consul, and made governor of Gaul. 8. Condition of Gaul. 9. Caesar's victory over the Swiss. 10. His march against the Germans; trouble with his soldiers. 11. Extent of his conquests; expeditions into Germany and ^ Britain. 12. Caesar's character as a general. XXV. — C^SAR AND THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 1. Failure of the government of Rome ; the remedy. 2. Pompey joins the party of the Senate ; plans against Caesar. 3. Caesar crosses the Rubicon ; the second civil war begins. 4. Flight of Pompey to Greece ; Caesar goes to Spain. 5. Caesar follows Pompey to Greece; defeat and death of Pom. pey. 6. Further conquests of Caesar ; mutiny of his soldiers. 7. Caesar's four-fold triumph. 8. Caesar as Emperor ; his reforms. 9. Plot against Caesar ; his death. 10. His character. XXVI. — Rome in the Time of Augustus. 1. Struggles after Caesar's death ; his nephew becomes Emperor. 2. The gfood rule of Augustus ; boundaries of the Empire. 3. Literature under Augustus ; the poet Horace. 258 THE CITY OF THE SE YEN HILLS, ' 4. A day in Rome : clients and the morning reception ; the business in the Forum; the mid-day rest; exercise in the Field of Mars ; the baths ; the banquet. XXVII. — The Empire after Augustus. 1. The successors of Augustus; Nero. 2. The Good Emperors: Trajan; Hadrian; Marcus Aurelius. 3. Decline of the Empire; danger from the Germans; the emperor Diocletian. 4. Constantine the Great ; the Christian religion ; Constantinople. 5. Division of the Empire; attacks of the Germans; fall of the Empire of the West. 6. The German conquest paves the way for modern Europe. XXVIII.— The Christians and the Empire. 1. Spread of Christianity in the Empire. 2. Attitude of the government; ''To the Uons with the Chris- tians!" 3. Persecution under Nero. 4. The Catacombs. 5. Bravery of the Martyrs ; Polycarp. 6. Failure of the persecutions to check the growth of Christianity. 7. The Empire becomes Christian; Constantine; end of the old religion. XXIX. — The Remains of Rome. 1. Roman remains: language, laws, ruins. 2. Eruption of Vesuvius, 79 a. d. 3. Discovery of the buried cities ; Pompeii. 4. Streets and public buildings of Pompeii 5. The private dwellings. 6. Pictures and furniture. 7. Pompeiian shops. 8. Writings on the walls. 9. Disappearance of the ancient remains at Rome, 10. The old in the new. CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE, CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE. For the sake of completeness, some names and events have been introduced into this outline which are not mentioned in the text. These are distinguished by being printed in italics, B.C. 753. Rome founded (legendary date). 753-509- Rome under the rule of Kings: Romulus, Numa Pom- pilius^ Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Targuinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Tarquihius Superbus (Tar- quin the Proud). 509. The Kings driven out, and a republic set up. 509-345. Frequent wars with the Etruscans, Volscians, ^quians, and other neighboring peoples. Struggle for existence during the first sixty years ; after that, neighboring coun- try gradually conquered. 494. Secession of the plebeians to the Sacred Mount. Creation of the tribunes of the people. 451. Ten men {Decemvirs) apjx)inted to rule the state and pub- lish the laws; the Twelve Tables of the Law. {Misrule of Appius Claudius; the story of Virgi?iia. ) 396. Capture of Veil by Camillus. 390. Battle by the brook A Ilia, and capture of Rome by the Gauls. 367. Plebeians admitted to the consulship, {la7us of Licinius and Sextius), 343-290. Three wars with the Sajnnites {a ?nou?ttain people of Southern Italy), Revolt and conquest of the Latin neighbors of Ro7ne, The Romans become the chief people i?t Italy. 282-272. War with King Pyrrhus; battles of Her ac lea, Auscu- lum, and Be7ieventum; conquest of Tarentum. Rome now mistress of the peninsula of Italy. 260 THE CITY OF THE SEVEA HILLS. 264-24T. First War with Carthage. Rome gains Sicily and (later) Sa?'dinia. 225-222. Cis-Alpine Gaul (the valley of the Po) conquered. 218-201. Second War with Carthage. Haainibal marches into Italy; battles of Ticmics^ Trebia, a7id Lake Trasimenus; battle of Cannae; Roman victories in Spain and Sicily; Hannibal's reinforcements defeated in the battle of the Metaiiriis; Roman victories in Africa; recall of Hanni- bal ; battle of Zama. 200-168. Wars with Macedonia. Battle of Cynoscephalce; Greek states set free from Macedonia; victory of ^milius Paullus over King Perseus at Pydna. (Macedonia made a Roman province, 146 b.c.) 192-189. War with Syria (in Asia). 149-146. Third War with Carthage. Capture and destruction of the cit}^ by Scipio ^mitia^ius, 146. War with Greek states {Achcean league), Destructio7i of Corinth. 143-133. Wars with the tribes of Spaifi. 133. Tiberius Gracchus elected tribune. 123. Caius Gracchus elected tribune. 111-105. War with Jugurtha, in Africa. 113-101. Wars with German tribes {Cimbrz and Teutones), Victories of Marius at Aquce Sextice (102), and Ver- cellcB (loi). 90-88. Revolt of the Italians: Rome forced to ad?nit the7n to citizenship. 88-64. Three wars with King Mithradates of Pont us {in Asia Minor). The first war was brought to an end by Sulla; the third by Pompey, by whom Pontus was annexed to the Roman territory. . 88-82. Civil war between Sulla (party of the nobles) and Marius (party of the people). 80-72. Rebellion in Spain {tc7ider Sertorius\\ put down by Pompey. 73-71. Rebellion of gladiators and slaves about Mt. Vesuvius (under Spartacjis) ; put down by Pompey. 67. Pompey overcomes the pirates. CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE. 261 66-62. Plot of Catiline at Rome; Cicero consul. 60. Agreement between Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus {first triu77iv irate). Caesar elected consul. 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar. 49-48. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus. Caesar becomes sole ruler of Rome (emperor). 48-45. War against the followers of Pompey in Africa and Spain. 44, March 15. Caesar slain. (Brutus and Cassiiis, leaders of the plot.) 42. Brutus and Cassius defeated by Octavius (the nephew of . Caesar) and Antony, in the battle of Philippi. 31-30. War between Octavius and Antony. Defeat of Antony at Actium. Octavius becomes Emperor, and takes the name Augustus. il AD [ Augustus, emperor. 54-68. Nero, emperor. Fire at Rome; persecution of the Chris- tians. 98-117, Trajan, emperor. 1 17-138. Hadrian, emperor. 1 61-180. Marcus Aurelius, emperor. 284-305. Diocletian, emperor. 323-337. Constantine the Great. The empire becomes Chris- tian; founding of Constantinople as the capital of the empire. 375. The German tribes begin to come into the Empire in large numbers. 395. The Empire permanently divided into a Western Empire, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern Empire, with its capital at Constantinople. 410. Rome plundered by the Goths under Alaric, 476. End of the Western Empire. 262 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. ?;.• o o O t3 O rj- g'S^^S'.^ 3^ JO p ^ 5* ^ § cr 2 o p -5 P (t tJ' 2- 2. ^ (^ 9 S 2, ^- c^ P (p o o S ^ as o p CD p CD O CD Q C/2 S ^ O d ""^ h-» c« :j ^ tT p 5^ o < P «-^ trt f^ g. ff^ i^ -$ S.§ St 1/J V^ p P « I P 0) o f^ p XfX J;:* < rr i-t (D 5^ n> o S^s^ p p p a> p ^1, '-^ § Ct D* ""^ ^ P -*2 . r+ ?; ^ 5 ^ crcrq O _ p 2- ::: ^ o p a d o o* d o d- HH o 3 r^* d o" C^ '^ o EL S CT> p vT^ 5f O CD d* a eg ^ '• U B o P b P ^ CD 3d: H-. p ^ ^ d o ■ ■ 71 d- ?:;?• CD -"' §. ^ cr P ^ V- d ^ o S* 5 ^ _ 9* CD wg c^ p Qrq ^ Da CD poo. CD f;*- c/i CD o CL p 71 CD d- d ^ d - CD 2. p ^ CL 71 o •-1 d' d" (DQ^^ m ^ ^ r^P CD rr p ,, E- i^i - Kome founded (753 B.C.). S - Rome burned by tbe Gauls (390 b.c). }- First War with Carthage (264-241 b.c). \- Second War with Carthage( 218-201 b.c). S >- Third War with Carthage (149-146 b.c). - -- i. Augustus, Emperor (31 b.c-14 a.d.). - sihts End of Western Empire (476 a.d.). OFFICERS UNDER THE REPUBLIC. 263 OFFICERS UNDER THE REPUBLIC. 1. Consuls, two: Elected for one year, and acted as heads of the state, and commanders of the army. Patricians only could be chosen, at first; after 367 b. c. both might be. and one must be, Plebeian. 2. Dictator, one: Appointed in time of danger or for a special purpose; could hold office for six months, but usually resigned before that, as soon as the work was done. The Dictator held the highest power in the state, the consul and all other officers being under his orders. He usually appointed a "Master of the Horse" as his second in command. 3. Tribunes, ten: Established 494 b. c. Elected for one year; must be Plebeians; had the right to "veto" any proceeding ; their persons were sacred. 4. Other Officers: Two Censors, elected every fifth year, to take a census of the people, and revise the lists of the Senate, the tribes, etc. Four iEdiles, who kept order in the city, and had charge of the public buildings and markets ; two of these, called curule cediles, also had charge of the games and gladiatorial shows. One or more Praetors, who acted as judges at Rome, and served as governors of the provinces. ASSEMBLIES. I. Assemblies of the People. 1. Assembly of the People by Curies, or groups of families. This was made up only of Patricians, and soon lost its power in the state. 2. Assembly of the People by Centuries. Servius Tullius divided all of the free Romans, both Patricians and Plebeians, into groups or centuries, according to their wealth. In the assembly of the Centuries, the vote was taken by these groups, so that 264 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS. Plebeians and Patricians both voted in this body. The power in the state gradually passed from the assembly of the Curies to this new assembly, and it came to be the body which made laws, elected officers, declared war, and concluded peace. 3. Assembly of the People by Tribes. Besides being divided into classes by their wealth, the Romans were also divided into twenty-six tribes, according to their places of residence. In the assembly of the Tribes, the Plebeians alone took part at first, and the assembly had little power beyond electing the Tribunes. Gradually the Patricians were admitted to it, and it increased in importance till it could make laws which were binding on both Patricians and Plebeians. It ended by becoming the most important of the assemblies of the people. II. The Senate. This body was composed of the chief men of Rome, especially those w^ho had filled the offices of Consul, Praetor, and the like. Vacancies were filled up by the Censors, who also had power to expel unworthy members. Under the Republic, there were three hundred Senators, at first, but the number was aftdrward increased. The Senate watched over the government, and advised both the people and the officers of the state. It came to be the most powerful body in Rome, but from time to time the people asserted their power against it, INDEX. Note. — In indicating the pronunciation of proper names in this Index, a, e, i, 6, u, f^ denote the short sound of these letters, and a, e, I, 6, ti, y, their loug sounds; a, is as in/ar, e as in her, q like s, € like k^ g like/, and g like z. The diphthongs SB and ce are to be pronounced like e. .ffi-mil i-us Paul us, 152-157, 166. .£-qui'ail§, wars with, 65 ; victory of Cincinnatus over, 69. Alba Lon'ga, 13, 15; destruction of, 27. Al'ban, Lake, 77, 79' Ap pi-an Way, no, 120. Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, no, 120-121. Aqueducts, building of, 108-110. Au-gUS tus, rule of, 212-215. Banquets, 210-222. Baths, Roman, 220. Books, Roman, 29, 176. Br 1 tain, invaded by Julius Caesar, 196; conquest of, 2x5; Hadrian in, 226. Bru^tus (the elder), heads rebellion against Tarquin, 30-32; judgment of his sons, 35. Bru'tus, Mar'CUS, plots against Caesar, 2r 9-210. Qse'gar, "Ga'ius Juli-US, youth of, 184-187; and the public games, 187-191: alliance with Pompey, 191-192; governor of Gaul, 192-196; character as a general, 197-198; his writings, 198; war with Pompey, 201-204; ^^s rule of the Ktnpire, 182, 206-209; his death, 210; character, 210-211. Calendar, reformed by Csesar, 208. Ca-mlllus, appointed Dictator, 79; takes Veii, 80; other wars of, 81-83; goes into exile, 83; victory over the Gauls, 94; again Dictator, 95; alleged rescue of Rome, 98; speaks against removal to Veii, 99-100; last wars of, 102-105; death, 106, 108. Capitol, temple on, 29; defended against the Gauls, 91-97. Carthaginians, 125-127; first war with, 127-134; conquer Spain, 135-136; second war with, 137-146; third war with, 150-151; destruction of their city, 151. Cas'tor and Pollux, 44, 45. Cat'a-combs, 234-235. Catl-line, conspiracy of, 179-180, 182. Ca't5, stirs up third war with Carthage, 150. Christianity, spread of, 231, 237-238. Christians, persecution of, 232-237. gi^'e-ro, 173-183, 187. 265 266 INDEX, 67. Lucretia, (Lu-cre'shi-a), 31. Mag-e-do ni-a, conquest of, 149, 152. M3e-9e nas, patron of Horace, 216, 217-218, 220. Manli-us, Marcus, saves the Capitol, 95-96, 97. Mar'cus Au-re li-us, 227, 234, 235. Ma'ri-us, Caius, 166-172, 184, 185. Marriage customs, 158-159- Mucius (Mu'shi-us), the left-handed (Scsevola), 41-42. Ne'ro, 224, 233-239. Nu^ma, election of, 19; character, 19-20; rule of, 20, 22-26. Oc-ta^Vi-US, opponent of Tiberius Gracchus, 162. Octavius, grand-nephew of Csesar, 212-214. See Augustus. Oracle of Derphi, 31, 77, 78- Pales-tine, conquered by Pompey, 231. Patricians (Pa-trish'ans), 46; oppress the plebeians, 47-48; struggles with, 49-50, 51, 55-56, 60-61, 72, 73; end of struggles, 107-108. Perseus (Per^sus), King of Macedonia, 149, 152, 153, 156. Pirates, Caesar's adventure with, 186; overcome by Pompey, 191. Ple-belans, grievances of, 47-49; secession. 49, 51; continued struggles, 51; and Coriolanus, 55-56; and the Fabii, 60-61, 63; and the publication of the laws, 73; end of struggles with the patricians, 107-108. Pol'j^-carp, martyr, 235-236. Pompeii (P6m-pa'ye), destruction of, 240-241; rediscovery of, 241-242; descrip- tion of, 242-248. Pom'pey, deeds of, 191; relations with Caesar, 192, 200-204; defeat and death, 204. Private Life of the Romans, 215-223, 242-248. Public land, 47, 162. Pyrrhus (Pir'iis), war with, 117-124; predicts war between Rome and Carthage, 127-128. Reg'ii-lus, 132-133. Religion, Roman, 20-26. Remus, brother of Romulus, 15-16. Roads, Roman, iio-iii, 151. Rome, situation of, 12; founding, 13, 16-17; growth, 18, 27, 46; burned by the Gauls, 93; rebuilt, loi; improved by Augustus, 215; burned under Nero, 224, 233; plundered by the Goths, 229; disappearance of ancient remains, 248-250. R6m ti-lus, story of, 13-18; founds Rome, 16-17; rule of, 16-18. Sant)I-neg, seizure of the women of, 17, 159; war with, 17-18; settle at Rome, 18; claim the kingship after Romulus, 19. 268 INDEX, Sacred Mount, secession to, 49. Saturn, festival of, 122-123. Schools, 81-82, 174-176. Sgip'i-o ^-mil-i-a'nus, 166. Scipio Af-ri-can us, 144-145; 159- ^66. Senate, founded by Romulus, 18; rules iu hiti.-/e^;iu :i, 19. Sib yl-llne books, 29-30. Slavery, 47, 161, 173, 207, 217, 218, 219, 221, 233. Spain, conquered by the Carthaginians, 135-136; conquered by the Romans, 144; rebellion in, 191 : Csesar in, 203. Sul'la, 171, 172, 177, 185. Swiss, defeated by Csesar, 193. Ta-ren turn, war with, 115, 124. Tar'quin the Proud, rule of, 30; revolt against, 31-32; attempts to regain his throne, 33-39. 43-45 ; death of, 45. Trajan, rule of, 226, 234. Tribunes, origin of, 50; powers of, 50-51. Triumph, of Cincinnatus, 69-70; of ^milius Paulus, 154-157; of Julius Csesar, 205-206. Tul'lus, Volscian chief, 56, 57. Veil (Ve'yi), Roman wars with, 63-64; conquest of, 79-80; proposals to remove to, 99-100; destruction of, loi. Ver'gil, 220-221. Ver reg, prosecution of, by Cicero, 178. Vestal Virgins, training of, 24, 26, 92, 185. Ve-su'vi-us, eruption of, 241. Ve-tu'ri-a, mother of Coriolanus, 52, 53, 57, 58. Volscians (VSrshi-ans), wars with, 53-54, 57-5S. Za^ma, battle of, 144-145. <%* ^°-n^. ^-./ -» -CL^ -^-^ ' o • » • y> "^^.^ ' « Deacidlfied using the Bookkeeper process. (^ -\ ^i-CM^'*4^ v^ Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide A^ H*<^^^^ ^^ Treatment Date: ^^^ " ^QOI ^ PreservationTechnologies > ^ A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION U»^ 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive ^ Cranberry Township. 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