k \ %^ / 1/ PROFITABLE POULTRY KEEPING BY s STEPHEN BEALE EDITED WITH ADDITIONS BY MASON C. WELD ILLUSTRATED ,^-~— MAY 9 1884. NEW YORK GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS 9 Lafayette Place LONDON : Broadway, Ludgate Hill AZ1 n l Copyright, 1884, By JOSEFH. X/. BjUVMIRE. INTRODUCTION. I esteem it a privilege and a pleasure to introduce this excellent hand-book to all who are practically interested in keeping poultry. I would say to the veriest tyro, provided he had a modicum of common sense : " Here, take this book of Stephen Beale's, study it carefully in whatever it is applic- able to your needs, and follow it. You will find it a safe guide, and you will almost surely come out well with your poultry the first year." Any old poultry-keeper may study it with profit, and if he finds some few passages to criticise, and opinions advanced with which he does not agree, let him con- sider that no two parts of the country are subject to the same conditions of soil, climate and surroundings. English current literature is far richer than ours in the results of experience in poultry matters, and the systems in vogue there and in France among the most successful poultry raisers are very much superior to general practice in this country, so that Mr. Beale's obvious familiarity with the best practice in those countries, in connection with his own large experience, is a very great advantage to the book. The author shows himself upon every page to be a practi- cal man, fertile in expedients, gifted with rare common sense, with a knowledge of his subject in matters of useful and essential detail, and one can readily pardon a little verbose- ness of style and occasional repetitions. It is a business book, and as such it should be regarded. It was not written for fanciers, though no poultry book (and these are, gener- 4 Introduction. ally, primarily fanciers' books) gives better instruction in regard to the successful rearing of fancy poultry. Yet, giv- ing well-bred poultry of all kinds their true value, it is replete with instruction how to make the most money, or at least the most profit, by their use. The public is familiar with the advantages derived from the employment of thorough-bred and pure-bred males in the breeding of all other kinds of domestic animals. We all know how that, with sheep and swine especially, grades and cross breeds of the first generation are much more profitable to rear for their useful qualities than full bloods are, for the reason that in such a first cross those high qualities which have become fixed by a long course of breeding and selection assert themselves with peculiar force. It seems as if poultry raisers had been peculiarly negligent of or blind to this natural law, and had neglected to practise that which in the rearing of other kinds of farm stock they consider of vital importance. The chapter on " Cross-bred Poultry" puts this subject in a very clear light, but hardly dwells sufficiently, to my notion, on the fact that where it is difficult to obtain pure-bred poul- try of different breeds, such as one desires to cross, grades may be reared in two or three years by crossing a pure male bird of the wished-for breed upon, first, a good flock of com- mon females, the next year (changing the male) upon the pul- lets of the first year, and so on. By the time the second or third cross is made the grade birds will possess almost fully the useful qualities of the breed from which the cross is taken, and the hens may be used just as if they were pure in crossing with a cock of a different breed for market poultry or for layers, as Mr. Beale directs. Introduction. 5 Poultry keeping for profit is the laudable ambition of the great majority of poultry keepers, and poultry are really kept to the profit of their owners, in the great majority of cases. Little account is made of them, and no account is kept of their expenses or of the income derived from them, and yet it is the settled conviction of the frugal housewife, who looks more or less after the poultry, and of the farmer, who sees how large a part of the store bill is settled by eggs, and who brings home from market or from the shipper who buys his dressed poultry at Christmas-time a satisfactory roll of bank- notes, that poultry is really a paying farm crop. Then, too, when a regular debit and credit account is kept with the poultry, and a fair allowance is made for labor and interest, the profit always shows up to be something enor- mous — often one hundred per cent, or even more. If there really is so much profit in poultry keeping, is it not strange that when undertaken on a large scale it is always a losing business ? Few people consider that farm-yard fowls of all kinds, ducks and geese included, get a great part of their living, and in some parts of the year the whole of if, from what would otherwise be lost or wasted, and from insects, snails and worms, which are a positive harm to grow- ing crops. Hence the conclusion is a just one that poultry, if well managed, are really most profitable as an adjunct to other farm and garden operations, especially as but little time is generally devoted to their care which would be more use- fully employed. This amount of, so to speak, wasted food is limited, and when fowls or other poultry arc multiplied upon a single farm or circumscribed area, their care soon becomes sufficient to 6 Introduction. require the entire attention of one or more persons. Thus the point is soon reached when it will be easy to see there is no hundred per cent, profit in the business. Parallel cases are numerous. Twenty or thirty hives of bees may use all the bee-pasturage within the radius of the usual flight of the honey-gatherers, and, where this is the fact, the addition of a dozen hives would result in more labor to the bee-keeper and in the harvesting of a good deal less honey. Thus it is every poultry keeper's province to study care- fully his own resources and make the most of them ; and while Mr. Beale has carefully avoided advising the keeping of poultry on a large scale, and in fact discourages it, the person desirous of making the experiment will find the book replete with sound views and practical hints in regard to its success- ful accomplishment. Mr. Beale can hardly be as familiar as I am with the wretched manner in which a great part of our poultry is sent to market, and the shocking condition in which it arrives. New York receives thousands of tons of poultry which must be closed out in wholesale lots at ruinously low prices, and which is then sold at a small advance at retail, to secure a quick sale and prevent total loss. If a reform could be insti- tuted by which the common farmers of the interior and West- ern States would properly fatten, pluck, dress, and ship their poultry, somewhat after the system advised in this book, it would add almost inconceivably to the profits of poultry keeping to these people as well as to the general wealth of the country. I sincerely hope that this may be one of the results of its publication. MASON C. WELD. Closter, N. J., March, 1884. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction .......•♦• 3 CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The Poultry Mania — Cochins Thirty Years ago — Poultry Keeping often a Hob>>y — Recent increase of interest in Pcultry Keeping — Karmers and Poultry — Farms in France —Consumption of Eggs— Trices of Eggs — Value of Fresh Eggs— Poultry in Paris .••••• 11 CHAPTER II. WHO SHOULD KEEP POULTRY? Who may Keep Poultry — Value of Eggs for Children and Invalids — Who (should not Keep Poultry — Pleasure in Pursuit — Suburban Resident's — Size of Runs — Cot* agers and Poultry Keeping — Does Poultry Keeping Pay ? 13 CHAPTER III. LAYING OUT THE POULTRY-YARD. Gradual Commencement best — Selection of Ground — Separate Houses — Aspect of Houses— Walls of Houses — Dividing the Yard — Plans— A Chicken Yard ......•©.. 25 CHAPTER IV. POULTRY HOUSES. Importance of Houses — Cost — Elaborate Hou-es not Needed — Good Houses Required — Size of Houses and Runs— Adapting exist'ng Buildings — Che:. p Houses — Sheds — Houses in Gardens . . .30 8 Contents. ciiapter v. THE ERECTION OF POULTRY HOUSES. PAGE Material to be Used— Tenant's Fixtures — Too Large Houses Objectionable — Foundation— Saving of Timber — Frame- Work — Windows and Doors — Ventilation — Floors — Artificial Heating 37 CHAPTER VI. THE FITTINGS AND RUNS. Perches — Nest Boxes — Sheds — Unfenced Runs— Space to be Given — Fencing . . . 48 , CHAPTER VII. MORE ABOUT HOUSES AND RUNS. Effect of Confinement— Houses on Wheels— The Best Plan for Farms — Use of Fruit Trees in Runs — Kinds of Trees to Plant — Fruit Bushes — Other Aids 56 CHAPTER VIII. CHICKEN-HOUSES. Early Chickens — Position of Chicken House — The Attendant's House — Gravel and Grass Run — The House — Floor — Provision against Rats — Size of House 63 CHAPTER IX. THE KIND OF FOWLS TO KEEP. Choice of Breeds — Errors in Selection — Cross and pure bred Fowls — Breeds to bo cho'.Jn — Confinement or liberty - Hardy Breeds — Non-sitting Breeds — Table Fowls — Sitters and Mothers — General utility Fowls . 69 CHAPTER X. THE BREEDS OF POULTRY. Andalusians — Aseels — Bantams — Brahmas — Cochins — Dominiques — Dork- ings — Frencn — Game — Hamburghs — Langshans — Leghorns — Malays — Minorcas — Plymouth Rocks — Polish— Scotch Greys — Spanish — Silkies 79 CHAPTER XI. CROSS-BRED POULTRY. Farm-yard Mongrels — First Cross only to be Used — Value of Cross-breeding — Pure-bred Fowls to be the Fuundation — Sale of Eggs and Chickens — Methods of Cross-breeding — Some Crosses — Improving present O COCKS *•■•••■••■•. 1_ oxes — Making the Nests— Food and Water— Setting the "Hen — Feeding— Airing the Eggs — Kind of Food for Hens — Dust Bath — Testing the Eggs — Period of Incubation — Management duiing Hatching —Helping the Chicks I 64 CHAPTER XVI. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. A. Practical Success - Past Attempts — Difficulties — Later Attempts — The Turning Point — Rouillier's Machine — Prejudice Against the Hydro- Incuhator — The Incubator Trials— How Superior to Previous Machines — Drawback to Hydro-Incubator— Voitellier's nydro — Owen's Tabular — Arnold's E^'g Oven — Self Heating Incubators — Hearson's — New Cen- tennial— The "Perfect Hatcher ,, — The Thermostatic — The Novelty — j3rooders, etc. ....•*•••-• *™ io Contents. CHAPTER XVII. REARING— NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. PACE Size of Eggs — Supposed Ways of Testing Sex and Fertility of Eggs — For- mation of Egg — The Young Chicks — First Day after Hatching — Food — Coops — Influence of Early Management — Coddling Injurious — First Three or Four Days — Second Stage — Tbe Run — Food — Meat Diet — Green Food — System in Feeding — Co'd Mothers — Troubles with Hens — Artificial Mothers— Management — Outdoor Rearers — Heat — Overcrowding— Teaching Chicks to Eat— Turkeys as Rearers — water* 193 CHAPTER XVIII. FOOD AND FEEDING. Food the Fuel of all Life— Effect of Bad Food— Effect of Over-feeding— Food fcr Fowls in Confinement not to be s-ame as when at Liberty — What is Needed in Food — Qualities of the Grains — Barley — Oats — Wheat — Maize — Buckwheat — Pulse — Rice — Bone-meal— Water • 211 CHAPTER XIX. EARLY EGGS AND CHICKENS. Early E/g^ and Chickens bring High Prices — How to Secure them — Pullets to be Ust'd— Hens to be Mated Early — Good Housing and Feeding . 220 CHAPTER XX. TIIE PREPARATION OF TABLE FOWLS. Superiority of French System — Breeds of Fowls Suitable for Fattening — Methods — Duration of Process — Food — Fattening and Cramming Machines — Cramming by Hand — Killing Fowls — Dressing in France — Shaping-boards — Advantage of Dressing — Caponising . , ■ 224 CHAPTER XXI. THE DISEASES OF POULTRY. General Treatment of Disease — Causes — Apoplexy — Bronchitis — Bumble Foot — Catarrh — Consumption — Cramp — Cropbound — Diarrhoea — Diphtheria — Egg Organs — Feather Eating — Gapes — Roup— Cholera . 236 CHAPTER XXII. POINTS OF MANAGKMENT. Importance of Details — Keeping an Account — Rotation of Crops — Poultry Manure — The Dust-bath — The Pieservation of E gs — Packing Eggs — Sending Eggs to Market 245 PROFITABLE POULTRY KEEPING. CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The Poultry Mania — Coclans Thirty Years ago — Poultry Keeping often a Ilobhy — Recent increase of interest in Poultry Keeping — Farmers and Poultry — Farms in France — Consumption of Eggs — Prices of Eggs — Value of F:et>h Eggs — Poultry in Paris. There is an old adage, and one the truth of which is proved in our experiences almost every day, that " there is nothing new under the sun," and probably many of those who can remember the poultry mania of thirty years ago, may have been led to think that the undoubted revival of interest in poultry which has taken place within the last few years, is simply a repetition of that mania. Then, as now, poultry sold for fabulous prices, and it was no uncommon thing to hear of a bird having realised $200, or a setting of eggs $25 ; and the fact that last year (1882) a game cock was sold at Birmingham for $500, and at the Crystal Palace show a game bantam cockerel was claimed for $250, would at the first sight appear to warrant such a con- clusion as we have named. But on considering the matter a little further, we find a marked difference in every respect, save only the large prices paid for specimens. The mania of 12 Profitable Poultry Keeping. thirty years ago was almost entirely relating to one breed — the Cochin — whereas now all varieties of poultry receive a share of attention, although there are some greater favourites and more valuable than others. Then, the general belief was that the fowls named — which, by the way, were new, and had only recently been imported from China — were the greatest layers and best table fowls ever known, that their importation was of national importance, and that to obtain possession of some of these birds would be a sure road to wealth. How this delusion arose — for delusion it undoubtedly was, the Cochin then and now being the least profitable of all our breeds of domestic poultry — it is not our province here to inquire, except to say that we believe it was, like almost every other mania, due to designing men, who largely profited by it. At the present day, poultry fanciers, i.e., those who go in for poultry breeding as a hobby, without caring much for the economic qualities of the birds, and who are the persons that pay such high prices for first class specimens, have no claim to be regarded as public benefactors, and neither deceive themselves nor any one else by posing in such a manner. They say plainly that they keep poultry as a hobby ; it ministers to their pleasure when striving after an ideal standard, which may or may not improve the birds so far as their profitable qualities are concerned, but for that they care little. They claim the same liberty as the fox-hunter or the sportsman, and are willing to pay for their pleasure ; and if they pay very high prices for birds, they do so in the same way as others do for fancy stock, and can generally get their money back again. Therefore, it will be seen at once that there is a very marked difference between the poultry fanciers of thirty years ago and those of to-day, and there is very little probability of any repeti- tion of the collapse of the present mania, if such it can General Considerations. 13 be called, for there is now no deception as to the end in view. In considering the question of profitable poultry keeping there must be no mistake made by mixing up the poultry fancy, by which term we must be understood to mean those who breed for fancy points, and the revived interest in poultry, of which we have already spoken. The latter is due to an altogether different cause. Recent events have compelled agriculturists to turn their attention to matters which they have heretofore neglected, and perhaps re- garded with contempt. Our State and county agricultural societies throughout the countrv have lon^ been in the habit of offering prizes for poultry from a fancier's standpoint. This is well, perhaps, but they should not only not neglect, but should make especially prominent, the properly agricul- tural — that is, useful — breeds. It is, besides, a sign of the times, having an important bearing on the future of poultry raising, that some prominent societies have offered prizes for cross-bred fowls, shown with reference to their value upon the table, and one, at least, has conditioned the award of prizes upon a statement of the breed and sex of the parent fowls and the age of the chickens. But it is not the only sign, for all over the country more attention is being paid to poultry, both by farmers and cottagers ; and we think that the way in which the matter is now being treated proves that there is more chance of success than there ever has been before. Those who have the best opportunity of succeeding are now turning their attention to it — we mean farmers who have land at their disposal ; and there is little talk of establishing poul- try farms pure and simple, which never have, and we do not think ever will, succeed. Buildings, food, and wages have cost so much that the managers of poultry farms in the past have been induced to over-crowd, in the hope of getting a larger return ; disease has crept in, with ruin and disaster as a natural result. Examples of this kind have 14 Profitable Poultry Keeping. been numerous enough ; but the tales which a few years ago were current as to extensive poultry farms in France, so plausible and theoretically sound as they appeared to be, doubtless tempted many to venture on such a speculation. These huge farms never existed, and were all a myth ; and we have the testimony of Mr. II. M. Jenkins and of Mr. Sutherland, who visited France on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Commission, that whilst almost every peasant keeps a large number of fowls, and derives a considerable portion of his income from them, they never saw what could in any sense be termed a poultry farm. There are some establishments where eggs arc hatched in large numbers for the peasants of the district, but the latter provide the eggs in the first instance, and take the chickens when hatched ; so that such places arc simply hatching factories. Upon this phase of the question we shall have more to say later on. Poultry and eggs are of such well-nigh universal production that it is difficult to estimate the numbers produced with con- fidence that we even approximate the truth. In regard to those received in the markets of some of our cities a fairly accurate record is kept, but this is accurate only as to those transported by railroads and steamboats, and probably falls short of the facts. Thus, in the city of New York the amount of poultry reported as received for the year 1883, ending November 30th, was 27,592,050 lbs., valued at $4,310,- 604 — a little more than 15 cents a pound. The number of eggs received within the same period seems enormous, and yet does not equal the demand, as shown by the number imported from Europe, and by the high prices paid in our eastern cities — often 40 to 60 cents a dozen in winter. The receipts of eggs in New York, for 1883, are reported as exceeding 534,000,000, valued at $10,018,000, or about 22J cents a dozen. Of the total number, four million nine hundred and sixty-eight thousand (4,968,000) were im- ported from Europe at a cost of $82,800, which is 20 cents a General Considerations. 15 dozen after paying all expenses. Notwithstanding that eggs are admitted free of duty, there must be some sort of relation between the price of eggs and the price of feed upon which they are made, and it seems strange that, with our cheap grain and other "chicken feed/' greaves, pork-scrap, etc., which we are constantly exporting, it is possible to import eggs with proQt. Though the quantity is small, it shows that the demand for eggs is increasing faster than the supply. In England a different state of things prevails, for, during the last four or five years, which are marked by a great increase in population as well as in the consumption of poul- try products, there has been no appreciable increase of impor- tations. It is clear that the English home producer is waking up to the advantage which he has over the foreign one. He is near the market, and can get his goods in to take advantage of its fluctuations ; and with fresh eggs and poultry, in form to suit the trade, the highest prices can be realized, and it would seem that, unless the price of feed in England were very much higher than abroad, the home producer would soon be able entirely to shut out foreign competition in first-class goods. In America of course the producers have no excuse ; they simply let that eighty-two thousand dollars slip through their fingers because of their neglect to see and act up to their own interests. The prices now paid for fresh eggs, not only in the cities but in all great manufacturing centres "would have been re- garded as fabulous a few years ago. "We can remember that twenty years ago fresh eggs could be bought at 12| to 20 cents a dozen; but now these are never less than 2 cents each, and oftener 3 cents, 4 cents, and even 5 cents each. We have been informed by a lady who lives within two or three miles of a military head-quarters that during June and July she can sell about thirty dozen eggs per week at sixty cents a dozen. They are sent for to her own door, the cash paid down, and she could sell twice as many if she had them. This is undoubtedly an exceptional instance, but 1 6 Profitable Poultry Keeping, only exceptional as to the time of the year, for the price is not an uncommon one for the winter season. Doctors, when ordering their patients to have eggs, nearly always insist upon their heing fresh, as they know how much hetter they are than when even only a few days old. And cooks can tell the same story with respect to the way in which they use them. Only those who have kept fowls of their own, or been favoured by getting properly fresh ones, know the real pleasure of eating an egg ; and' there are many who cannot eat one if more than three or four days old. And when we consider how important an addition in its varied uses an egg is to the breakfast, luncheon, dinner, or tea table, it will be seen how the matter comes home to every one, apart from all economic questions. In the same way, but perhaps not to so great an extent, does the raising of chickens affect us. The prices which are demanded by poulterers for the miserable little things we see in their shops, are prohibitive to the great bulk of the population, and even those w r ho can afford to get them do so reluctantly. The display to be seen every week in the Halles Centrals at Paris has no counterpart in this country ; but in France the breeds are studied, and those encouraged which are the best for table purposes. They are fattened skilfully, and presented in an enticing manner, with the result that chickens are almost a regular article of diet with large numbers of the people, for in Paris during 1880 the average consumption of fowls was 251bs. per head of the population. These are ques- tions which require to be dealt with in detail, and cannot be more than mentioned in what is simply an introductory chapter. That there is much for our home producers to learn no one can doubt, and it shall be our endeavour to supply in a practical form tbe latest and best information upon so important a subject. Our object is to stimulate those who have the necessary space at their disposal to take advantage General Considerations. 1 7 of their opportunities, and not continue supinely to ignore, or from prejudice to neglect that which, well managed, must prove a source of profit. Farmers and villagers will find the help they need, but we shall not overwhelm them by too much of detail, — seeking to be practical first of all. We shall also show how suburban residents and others may supply their own tables, and, in fact, endeavour to make our remarks such as shall be valuable to all who may read them. 1 8 Profitable Poultry Keeping, CHAPTER XL WHO SHOULD KEEP POULTRY? Who may Keep Poultry — Value of Eggs for Children and Invalids — Who should not Keep Poultry — Pleasure in Pursuit — Suburban Residents — Size of Runs — Cottagers and Poultry Keeping — Does Poultry Keeping Pay ? It may be questioned whether the title which we have placed at the head of this chapter is rightly worded, and probably there are many who will suggest that it should read, "Who may keep poultry?" This would not, however, give as much latitude as we require, for, although it is our intention to show who may, we go a little further and say that all who have the opportunity of doing so should keep fowls, whether the number kept be great or small. It is a direct benefit to the individual to have fresh eggs to place upon the table, and what is good for the individual must be good also for the nation, and where there are children in a house- hold nothing can be better than eggs for them. The natural object for which eggs are laid is not to provide food for human beings, but to multiply the race, and the egg contains within itself ail the material necessary for the formation of the bird and for its support during the process. Thus, there can be no question that eggs are, in the same way as milk is, most suitable for children's food, and it is impossible to find in any other substance of equal bulk nutriment so equably mixed. We indirectly intimated in the first chapter that as the egg gets older decomposition • Who should Keep Poultry? 19 sets in, though it may not he noticed, and much of the virtue is gone out of it after a few days. The fact that- chicken s hatched from stale eggs are never so strong as those from perfectly fresh ones, and that the fresher the egg the stronger the chick will be, is corroborative of this. We believe, therefore, that where eggs can enter largely into the food of children they will prove of incalculable benefit to them, that is, if given perfectly fresh. Thus it will be seen that, apart from any selfish motive or desire for pecuniary gain, where there are children in the house- hold, it is very desirable indeed that fowls should be kept if there is accommodation for them. During sickness also, or for invalids, they are invaluable, and we well remember how a lady friend was kept alive through a long and severe illness by eggs we were able to supply her from our own yard. When appetite failed for everything else, she could always eat an egg ; and the doctor said that she could not possibly have recovered had it not been for the support thus afforded. This naturally leads us on to the question, " Who should keep poultry? "and perhaps we can best answer it in the first place by seeing who should not keep them. We have often known birds kept in the most unlikely places — in dark, damp cellars, in attics or rooms, in close unhealthy sheds, and on ground that is damp if not actually wet. The ingenuity of man is very great, and he often makes experiments in the keeping of live stock wdiicb may com- mand our admiration because of their very audacity, but which we can see are doomed to failure. Certainly we should no more like to eat an egg laid by a bird living in such places as these, than we should care for milk from cows kept in close, badly-ventilated town sheds, or bread out of some uncleanly bakehouse. It may be assumed, therefore, that we do not advocate the keeping of fowls in c2 20 Profitable Potdtry Keeping. . unhealthy places, and that unless there can be provided a reasonable amount of open space, a light, comfortable, dry, and well ventilated house, it is much better to do without the birds altogether, and trust to buying eggs from those who have more favourable opportunities for keeping them. Natural laws must be respected if success is to be attained, and we need to remember that fowls when wild are accus- tomed to live always in the open air, to have perfect freedom, and if we entirely reverse these conditions we cannot reason- ably expect to do so without paying the penalty. Domes- tication undoubtedly means an alteration of the habits of the birds, but we must make this alteration as small as possible, and the less it is the more likely are we to keep them healthy and thriving. Some breeds are stronger and can stand the change in their natural habits better than others, and it is always well for the poultry-keeper to select such if his desire is to make his poultry pay. We shall show which breeds these are later on. There is another consideration which will affect those who only wish to keep a few fowls, and that is the pleasure and healthfulness of the pursuit. How many there are whose occupations compel them to be indoors all day, and they know that exercise is necessary to preserve their health. They find it most difficult, however, to go out when they have no direct object in view. Walking, especially alone, soon gets wearisome ; or perhaps every spot of the district around has been explored, and the result often is that the exercise is not taken. The keeping of poultry has been to many a very great boon in this way, compelling regular exercise in the open air, and we recently met with an eminent scientific man who had taken up the pursuit as a hobby, on this account alone. We know that in our own case it was so, and we found not only pleasure but renewed health and strength whilst attending to our feathered pets. Conveniences requisite. 21 Commencing with those who only desire to supply their own table, there are hundreds of cottagers and suburban residents in the outskirts of our great towns, as well as in the country at large, who might keep fowls very easily indeed. Recent years have marked a great improvement in the houses built in both town and country, so far as open yards or gardens attached to them are concerned, and in a few years we hope to see all those dwellings done away with, where the back yards are just about the size of a decent scullery. Taking the smaller houses first, if the yard or back garden be a good sized one it will not be difficult to give a piece of it, say about 12ft. or 15ft. long by 6ft. wide, for the purpose of a poultry house and run, which will be amply sufficient for half-a-dozen fowls. How to build the house and prepare the run we shall describe in due course, the cost of which need not be very great, whilst the pleasure and benefit will be incalculable. Suburban residents have generally a good strip of ground behind their houses, and sufficient can often be spared to keep from half-a-dozen to a score fowls, or even more where the place is an extensive one. If economy is no object, then the houses and runs can be made ornamental, and will add much to the appearance of the garden or grounds. For these also, we shall have something to say in the way of instructions as to how the yard should be laid out and the houses built. Then again as to cottagers, there are few in country places who could not keep a score of fowls and rear half a hundred chickens during the year. Any man handy with tools can easily make houses and necessary appliances, or adapt existing outhouses for the purpose, and at a very small cost. Ground is generally to be had at a low cost, but there are more often fields near over which the birds can wander with- out doing any harm, and this more than doubles the accom- modation without any proportionate cost. But that is not 22 Profitable Poultry Keeping. all, for birds at liberty can pick up the greater portion of their living, and we are sure every cottager might make a considerable addition to his income by the keeping of fowls. In France the small farmers and cottagers are they who keep the poultry, and supply the vast numbers of eggs and chickens, not only sent to Great Britain, but consumed at home, for it is estimated that in Paris 160 eggs for every head of the population are used each year. A cottager can easily attend to the birds himself, without interfering with his other work, can feed his birds cheaply, can realise the produce quickly, for there is always a good demand, especially if large houses are at hand, or if in a thickly populated district, and he will find himself a happier and better man for his efforts. We have now seen that country and suburban residents, great and small, not only may, but should keep poultry, and next we come to the farmer, who may be regarded as the most important of all, for with him it will be a matter of business, and he may produce upon a large scale if he goes into it at all. He has advantages which no one else possesses, having plenty of room for the birds, food for them at first cost, means of utilising their manure which no one else can have, and can graft poultry keeping on to his other work without any great extra expense. He has also means of getting his produce to market at once, and can make contracts with large consumers, hotels, &c, such as a smaller man cannot. But, of course, the business to be really successful will require thought and attention, which many of our farmers have heretofore refused to give ; but they are at last coming to see that " there is money in it," and it shall be our endeavour to help them in every way, so that they may succeed in their efforts. We must not conclude this chapter without answering the question so often put, " Does poultry-keeping pay ? " for " Does Poultry -keeping pay ?" 23 that is the kernel of the whole matter, at least so far as many persons are concerned, though we think rich folks who only wish to supply their own table make too much of it. They are willing to grow fruit, vegetables, and flowers, often at double what they could be bought for, and never grumble at the cost, and if they like to expend money on grand houses and runs, or on high-bred stock, they should not complain of what their eggs and chickens may cost. But to others we would say, " Yes, poultry will pay, if properly managed." Cottagers and private persons can generally half feed the birds by what is left from their own tables, and as an illustration of this, we know a gentleman who at one time was always grumbling at the cost of his wife's fowls, declaring that they did not pay. To prove this an account was kept during the next year, when it was found that the eggs cost actually only one cent each all the year through. Then as to farmers, we know a farmer who makes an annual profit of $500 out of his fowls, and his stock is by no means a large one, but he has been content to make his profit, and say nothing to any one. Every- where there is a constant demand for the produce, and there can be no question that poultry-keeping does pay, and pay well, where it is managed in a common-sense manner. We may here mention that it is a most desirable thing in all places where the poultry-keeping is regarded as a business, to keep a strict account of all expenditure and income, and of the produce of the fowls. It is a very wise thing for all poultry-keepers to do, even if they only have half-a-dozen birds for the sake of their eggs ; but when it is a question of profit, then we regard such an account as absolutely necessary, not only as a satisfaction to the owner, but also as a means of checking expenditure and 24 Profitable Poultry Keeping. preventing waste. Figures have a very deterrent effect, and many a man will refuse to spend, when he has to put it down in black and white, what he would be tempted to do if such were not involved. An account book need not be very elaborate, though it should be complete. Laying out a Poultry Yard. 25 CHAPTER ILL LAYING-OUT THE POULTRY- YARD. Gradual Commencement best — Self ction of Ground— Separate Houses — Aspect of Houses — Walls of Houses— Dividing the Yard — Plans— Chicken Yards. We do not assume that those of our readers to whom the present work is specially applicable are all non-keepers of poultry at the present time, for probably the great majority have already stocks of poultry. As we have no means of knowing the present condition of their yards — and if we had it would be impossible to show in every case how they might be improved, if they need improvement — we shall describe the best ways of laying out a poultry-yard, of erecting the houses or adapting existing buildings, and by this means it will be very easy for the reader to apply the hints given to his own needs and requirements. Of course, those who contemplate commencing the keeping of fowls, or of laying out a new yard entirely, will find it easy sailing to adapt the plans we shall describe. It must not be thought, however, that we advise any one to commence poultry- keeping upon a large scale, unless he has had sufficient previous experience, and even then we think it much better to begin moderately, and gradually extend the scope of operations. We say this, not only because improve- ments can generally be made in the later-built houses, and that the whole yard is thus more easily got in hand, but also that the stock can be bred and not bought, 26 Profitable Poultry Keeping. which of itself will be a very great saving, as pure -bred birds cannot be purchased in large numbers. Therefore it is necessary to look ahead a little, and no one must expect to get into full working order all at once, as it will take twelve months at least to do this, where the intention is to keep large numbers ; but of course those who wish to keep only a few for their own household purposes can buy birds and have all going on smoothly in a short time. As an instance of the erroneous ideas not uncommon, we once heard of a brick manufacturer who, through the depression in trade, had some of his kilns thrown out of use. It was suggested to him that if wooden partitions were placed in these they would make capital fowl houses. He at once seized upon the idea, and talked about buying five thousand hens at once. If he had not met with some one who pointed out that, apart from his own inexperience, his place was thoroughly unsuitable for poultry, the land being strong clay, very damp, without grass, and only half a mile from the sea, he would probably have carried out his plan, and his enterprise could only have had one result, namely, an entire and dismal failure. Those who by false statements deceive others deserve more than ordinary reprobation, and the injury done is not con- fined to the immediate sufferers, but to the nation at large, as many who might succeed are prevented making the attempt from these failures. The first thing to do, whether the number to be kept is large or small, is to decide upon where the birds are to bo placed, and the amount of ground that can be given to them. In many places this will be very speedily settled ; for instance, in small suburban and cottage gardens, if fowls are to be kept at all, there will be little if any choice of position. But where the ground is more extensive, as upon farms, more consideration will be necessary. In the latter case it may be decided to scatter the houses all about th^ Position of Fowl House. 27 farm, and as this is a plan we believe to be a most excellent one, we shall deal fully with it ; but even then there will be some buildings required near home, perhaps for breeding pens, or, at any rate, for the chickens, and the ground thus required should be fixed upon. Much after trouble, expense, and annoyance will thus be saved, and the little forethought required will be repaid many times over. It is not our intention to recommend that the runs for the fowls should be laid out before the houses are built, for this would be a most foolish plan, as the fencing, if any is needed, and the carefully laid out ground would be damaged ; but before building it is certainly advisable to have a clear idea of where the houses are to be placed, and whether the runs will be the most suitable ones. Nothing is easier than to have a house built, to fence in a piece of ground, and to put a dozen hens in it ; but whether it is in the best position will have much to do with the result, so far as the produce and health of the birds are concerned. So apparently slight a matter as the house facing south or east will make a very great difference in the supply of eggs; and hence the neces- sity for care in the selection of the ground and position of the house and run. Whenever anything else can be done, and there are very few instances where this cannot be arranged, the front of a house should never face north, north- east or north-west \ or, at any rate, the doors and windows should not look in any of these directions. We all know how penetrating the winds are from these quarters, and whilst they are blowing the house will be cold indeed, thus acting unfavourably upon the laying and fattening qualities. A house with a southern frontage gets all the sun there is about — a most important matter in the late autumn, winter, and early spring, when every ray that can be secured is oj decided advantage. It almost surpasses belief the difference in temperature between a house fronting north and one front- 28 Profitable Poultry Keeping. ing south, for, whilst the latter will be comfortable, even on those days when but little of the sun has been seen, the former will be cold and comfortless. Practical ex- perience has led us to make a strong point of this, as we know the value of having the house in a sheltered position, and this is one of the little things that needs to be thought of before a house is erected, as it cannot be easily remedied afterwards. Of course there are some places where it is impossible to obtain a southern or southerly aspect, and then the best must be made of existing circumstances. Even in such a case as this, by a little planning much can be done, and we some time ago visited a poultry yard, the grass run of which was in a cold and bleak place, with an aspect almost due north. Here a substantial stone wall ran down one side of the field, and the houses were built on the south side of this wall, the covered runs being" on the other side, and the two connected by trap-holes in the wall. The effect of such a plan as this is very great, the temperature in the houses being several degrees higher than if they were on the north side, and thus much of the disadvantage of a north or east aspect can be overcome. If no other plan can be adopted, we would make the doors and windows at the one least exposed side or end of the house, having no opening on the other sides, but even when this is done the walls will need to be thicker than they would if in a more favourable position. Whenever it is possible we should advise that a brick or stone wall should be made the back of the house, as this is a great protection and support to the erection, and also gives additional warmth, as well as being a saving in cost. If this wall be part of, or next to a stable, a cow-shed, a greenhouse, an engine- shed, or even a dwelling, the warmth derived will be highly beneficial. We have repeatedly known instances where large numbers of eggs have been got in the severest Planning Poultry Runs, 29 weather, simply because the fowls' roosting-place adjoined a stable or cow-house. When it is remembered that the reason why fowls do not lay so well in cold weather is that much of the natural heat usually expended upon egg-production and flesh-forming is required to make up for the more rapid exhaustion of that heat, it will be seen that the value of such an arrangement as we have suggested is very great. Supposing, therefore, that the place has been chosen in accordance with what we have already stated, then the amount of ground and the number of divisions into which it has to be partitioned out must be decided upon. If a number of breeds are to be kept, and there is not sufficient ground at command to scatter them widely apart, then the decision as to the number of runs to be given should be very carefully made, and it will be much better to limit the number than to cramp the birds. Birds which are only required for supplying eggs can no doubt be kept in confined runs, but breeding stock should have good large runs, or their eggs will not hatch so well, nor the progeny be so vigorous and strong. In many places a large grass field is allotted to the fowls, and on one side of this a row of houses and sheds are built, each having a gravel run — say twenty yards long by three or four yards wide — and the various flocks of birds are allowed in the grass field by turn throughout the day. This is a capital plan where it can be adopted, and we recommend it to our readers ; but if runs can be given to each breeding pen twenty yards square, two-thirds grass and one-third gravel, they will do equally as well. The first-named plan is advantageous in one way — namely, that the houses can be all placed together, and if a passage runs behind, the birds can be seen at night, or the houses cleaned without going into the open air. And as they can also be used for chickens as well as for the breeding stock, this will be found a very great 30 Profitable Poultry Keeping. advantage, as the early chicks require to be attended to late at nights, and very early in the mornings. The chief danger of this plan is the tainting of the ground resulting from the droppings of the fowls, which is in itself a sure cause of disease, but we shall show how this can be prevented. In large yards it is advisable to have a proper chicken establishment, the house of which should always face due south, or nearly so, and as far as is possible be well pro. tected on the north and east either by a wall or thick trees. We shall describe how this house is to be built in the proper place, but now mention it so that it may not be forgotten, as is too often the case. The run, which should be chiefly grass, requires to be large and roomy, and if it can be placed near the attendant's house, no matter who the attendant may be, it will be all the better. Upon this run the chicken coops will be placed in the breeding season, and the more room that can be given to it the better. The actual size can only be regulated by each in accordance with the special requirements of the case, but we should be inclined to set aside a quarter of an acre for every hundred chicks to be reared in this chicken run, in addition to which other runs will be needed to put the birds in after they leave the hens. Some of the ordinary runs will come in useful for this purpose after the breeding season is over. Construction of Buildings. 31 CHAPTER IV, POULTRY HOUSES. Importance of nooses — Cost— Elaborate Houses not Needed — Good Houses Required— Size of Houses and Runs — Adapting existing Buildings — Cheap Houses— Sheds — Houses in Gardens. Having planned the yard in the manner described by us in the last chapter, and arranged it in the way that appears to be most conducive to the well-being of the fowls, the next consideration must be that of the houses in which they are to be placed. This is a most important subject, and takes place in the front rank of those matters which will have an all-important effect upon the success or other- wise of the enterprise. Too often is it neglected ; and we have known men, who thought nothing too good for their horses, their cattle, or their dogs, put their poultry into cold, damp, draughty buildings, and then grumble that they did not pay. Who could expect them to pay under such conditions? may be reasonably asked. But this is only a specimen of how the subject has been treated ; and if any of our readers are resting under such a delusion, we must ask them to give it up at once, or, as the only alternative, give up the idea of keeping fowls. Without due regard to comfort, ventilation, and cleanliness, fowls will not pay ; but where these things are attended to, and other things are favourable, they will pay. Much will depend on the tastes, and length of purse 32 Profitable Poultry Keeping, of the intending poultry keeper, as to the cost of the houses and runs. We have visited at various times some really palatial establishments, where hundreds of pounds have been spent in erections, and where everything is of the very best nature — planned and placed so as above all to please the eye. And we have, on the other hand, seen yards successfully carried on where the crudest and roughest houses and appliances are in use, the object being to secure the desired end with the least possible expenditure. The fact is, elaborateness has nothing to do with success or failure. So long as certain definable laws are observed all will go right ; and whilst first-class houses may add to the pleasure of the owner, or to ease in working, they are by no means necessary to — nay, we should say almost a hindrance to — profit, as the large amount needed as capital outlay requires a greater charge for interest than should be laid upon the concern. This is, of course, addressed to those who regard the matter as one of profit. Those who do not, can freely gratify their tastes, and can easily make more ornamental any such houses as we shall describe, and in all probability the additional cost will be amply repaid in the extra pleasure thus obtained. But there is as much care needed in the erection of grand houses as in smaller ones; and we have known hundreds of dollars spent in erections that were almost useless. In fact, there is in such places always a danger that utility shall be sacrificed to appearance, and against this we must utter a note of warning. It must not be thought from what we have said that we object to substantial and well-built houses, for this is not the case, and we believe that often the putting of a few extra dollars into a building is a good investment, saving the expenditure of many more afterwards. Nor must it be imagined that we think any plan is a suitable one, for Division of Houses. 33 while we encourage cheapness — that is, avoiding all needless expenditure — we strongly insist that every house, whether it he new or old, adapted or huilt for the purpose, made of wood or stone, shall be warm and comfortable, properly ventilated, and shall be large enough for the number of birds that are to be kept in it. Great injury is done for w T ant of proper housing, both through disease resulting from it, and in that it is a great hindrance to productiveness. Fowls kept in a cold, damp atmosphere will neither lay nor thrive well. In the summer it may not make so much difference to them, as day and night is then almost equally warm; but in the late autumn, winter, and early spring, just when they will make or mar the balance sheet for the year, they are consumers without being producers; conse- quently they are most unprofitable. The question of size of house deserves more considera- tion than it generally receives. It has been found by very many persons, from practical experience, that not more than fifty birds can be profitably kept together in one house ; and though this does not necessarily mean that if it is thought advisable to erect a house divided into several compartments, not more than fifty birds may be kept under one roof, it does mean that they should be kept well apart with runs of their own, and for this reason we prefer the plan of having a distinct house for every fifty fowls, where the room is at command. A few breeding runs may be put together ; but for layers the other is the better plan. Why large numbers together are not so prolific as when there are fifty and under, we cannot say, and any expression of opinion would be merely theoretical ; but such is undoubtedly the fact, and we must urge our readers not to keep mora than the number stated in one house. These should have half an acre of grass run, in order to keep them in health and condition, that is, if they are to be restricted D 34 Profitable Poiiltry Keeping. at all ; and those of our readers who have only a limited amount of space at their disposal will be able to decide how many birds they can keep upon it. The first thing for the intending poultry keeper to do is to see whether there are any existing buildings which can be adapted for his birds. This is, of course, more easily done by those who wish to keep a few than by those who go into the matter extensively ; and cottagers or suburban residents will often be able to find an unused shed, an out- house, or a stable which, with very few alterations, can be made to meet all their requirements. In most of these the floor is the greatest drawback ; but this can be remedied very easily, as we shall show in our next chapter. Failing such places as we have mentioned, other things can be " requisi- tioned" for the purpose, and where the cost is a most important matter, a little ingenuity will do a great deal. A hogshead can be made into a very good roosting-place for half a dozen birds, if it is raised on its side above the ground by bricks or stone, all chinks stopped up, well tarred outside and whitewashed inside, the upper half of the lid fixed, w T ith a few holes bored- in, and corresponding ones in the other end for ventilation, and the lower half made a hinged door, and a couple of perches and nests placed inside. A large packing case can be used in a similar fashion, if it has a sloping roof placed above the top of the box, so that the wet can run off easily, and in fact almost anything can be utilised, as we have seen old rail-car bodies, discarded carriages, and summer-houses made to do duty. A short time ago we read of a la/ge farmer in Essex who keeps several hundred head of fowls, and has bought up a number of old menagerio vans at a cheap rate, which have been made the houses for his fowls, and very comfortable ones we are told they are. The objection to be brought against this kind of roosting places, is that they do not provide sheds in which the birds Sheds for Shelter in Bad Weather. 35 have shelter during cold or wet weather. No matter how large and comfortable a house may be, poultry have a very strong objection to spend any portion of their time in it except when at roost or on the nest, and the result is that they often crouch about under bushes or even the lea of the house, sooner than go inside. This may be very stupid on their part, but there the fact is, and we must recognize it. Sheds should, therefore, be provided, and will be also useful for the dust bath — a most needful provision. In the case of any adapted out-house or shed, if large enough, the outer portion can be made into the shed, or if not large enough, a wooden erection about three feet high, and quite as large as the house itself, with open or a wired front, can be easily and cheaply erected. Where a hogshead or packing case is used, it should be lifted sufficiently high so as to leave a good space below. If the supporting bricks are built in the form of a U-shaped wall, they will be protection enough ; but if not, folding flaps of wood should be placed on three sides so as to keep wind and rain from the birds below. The small amateur who has accommodation for only a very few birds, and must confine them, would do well to so place his house that there will be a run on each side of it. In a suburban or cottage garden this will not be at all difficult, and the house and shed can be arranged according to circumstances. The object of the double run^ is to give the birds fresh ground, and thus prevent any tainting of it, so great a cause of disease in small yards. Only one run at a time will be used, and the other can be planted with vegetables, which will be found to grow amain on such a place, and be better and larger than any other in the garden, and at the same time clean the ground. If each run is thus used four months at a time, there need be no fear of disease. We know of an instance where this has been d 2 36 Profitable Poultry Keeping. tried most successfully, and on a fairly large scale, with very heavy crops, and the birds kept in perfect health, though the runs are smaller than we like to see. We do not see why farmers should not make poultry one of the series in the rotation of crops, as by this means the land would get well manured by the fowls, and before being used again for them would be sweetened by the produce grown thereon. This is a subject we shall return to again, as it is worthy of fuller consideration. If the small poultry keeper is unable to give these double runs, it will be better to lay down the one run he has in gravel, as it can be more easily renewed, and is less liable to contamination than earth. But as our subject is the houses, we must insist that if he uses an outhouse or any of the things we have already named, he will see that it is watertight above, dry below, properly ventilated, and comfortable. If he has to build a house he can follow the directions we give in the next chapter. Materials of House. 37 CHAPTER V. THE ERECTION OF POULTRY HOUSES. Material to be Usel— Tenant's Fixtures — Too Large Houses Objectionable — Foundation— Saving of Timber — Frame- Woik — Windows and Doors — Ventilation — Floors — Artificial Heating. Before the question of building can be entirely settled there is a matter requiring to be entered upon, which will probably have very much to do with the material of which the house will be built. There can be no question that for comfort and durability, a brick or stone house is best both for birds and owner, as it is much warmer, less liable to draughts, and more lasting than a wooden one. If the land be the property of the intending poultry keeper, or if the lease is sufficiently long to warrant a permanent erection, then we should certainly advise such being built ; but if there is any uncertainty as to the length of time during which the ground can be retained, then it will be better to put up a wooden one, which is removable, whereas a brick or stone erection becomes the landlord's property if the tenant leaves. Of course the rule we have laid down can be varied according to circumstances, as there are districts where timber is comparatively scarce and dear, and where bricks or stone are comparatively cheap, and vice versa. But as a rule wood is the cheapest material, and as it is 38 Profitable Poultry Keeping. easy to work with, and may be made capable of removal without much damage, if removal is necessary, there is no objection whatever to it, if sufficiently thick timber is used throughout, and the whole well and strongly put together. The question of size is one that must of necessity be ruled by the inclinations of the owner. We do not mean the number of fowls he intends to keep, so much as whether he prefers to have only one house, or several scattered about. We must confess to having a preference for the latter plan, where there is sufficient room to allow of it, but at the same time there are doubtless advantages in having the birds all in one house, not the least of which is that they can be easily seen and are less liable to be stolen. Then it is also cheaper to build one house for two hundred birds than four houses to hold fifty each, and even where the question of cost is not regarded so closely, a much more pleasing structure can be erected than if divided into a number of small ones. Perhaps the best plan is that indicated by us in the previous chapter, namely, to combine both these systems, and to have the breeding, and chicken houses near at home, and the others more widely scattered about. However, these are arrangements which can be safely left to be decided individually, and our instructions as to building poultry houses will apply to small and to large houses equally. A house twelve feet long by six feet wide, and seven or eight feet from the floor to the eaves, will be large enough to accommodate fifty fowls, and we should not recommend that it be made larger than this. Too small a house is dangerous, as the vitiation of the atmosphere which naturally results breeds disease, but on the other hand too large a house is equally an evil, as the birds are exposed to a very large amount of cold air during the winter, which absorbs the heat from their Dimensions of House. 39 bodies, and they are chilled and miserable during the long nights. If the house be of a reasonable size, the natural heat of their bodies is not absorbed, but remains to support them against the severity of the weather. These are matters which may not be so easily regulated when a build- ing is adapted, but when a house is built, then there is no more trouble in making it right than wrong. In all erections the first thing is to get a good foundation, and even when built of wood it will be better to put down bricks first, these to stand six inches above the ground. If well tarred after they are laid they will prevent the damp rising, and also protect the wood. As much of the latter as rests on, or is sunk into the ground should be well tarred also. The timber used for the walls should be tongued, or feathered and grooved. The superiority of this over straight edged deals is very great, keeping out both wind and wet more effectually, and the cost is small. Upon no account should the boards be less than an inch in thickness, no matter how small the house may be, and where it is large it will be found much better to have them an inch and a quarter. Many persons commit the mistake of having the deals too thin, the result of w T hich is, the houses are cold and easily pene- trated by damp. A capital plan is to make the house in length and width twelve feet, or a divisible fraction of it, that is, four, six, or eight feet, or if larger, eighteen or twenty- four feet. The object of this is, that as timber is generally sold in lengths of about twelve feet, if any of the sizes named are selected there will be no waste whatever, every inch being used up. Of course the house can be twelve feet long by six feet wide, or twenty- four feet long by twelve feet wide, or any other size that will be convenient. The shed which we have already mentioned can either be a portion of the building, the same in height and width, or it can be a less lofty erection placed in front or at one end of the house 40 Profitable Poultry Keeping. proper. Where a number of houses are placed together, it is better to have the sheds in front and part of the main building. Such sheds should be quite as large as the roost- ing house, and be separated from the same by a partition made of the same thickness of wood as the outer walls. The front of the shed should be of wood two or three feet up, and of wire netting above that. Having laid the foundations, the next step will be to prepare the framework, which should be of scantling, three or four inches square, according to the size of the house and the strain which will be put upon the frame. An extra up- right should be placed every three or four feet ; but one horizontal crosspiece, in a wall six to eight feet high, will be quite sufficient. The framework of a door not less than thirty inches wide, and of one or more windows, must be fitted in, and these should face the south or east. The windows are better when made to open, and simply hinged to swing outwards. The boards when nailed on should be laid horizontally, tightly clenched down, and nailed firmly to the frame, so as to prevent any warping. French nails are the best, as they do not destroy the wood, should it be necessary to afterwards take the house to pieces. A small trap, fifteen inches high by twelve inches wide, will be required for the fowls ; and this should have a sliding door, so that they may be kept in if necessary. The matter requiring greatest care in the erection of a wooden house is, to see that it is perfectly air-tight, except as afterwards provided, and all fissures or chinks stopped up. This is especially necessary with the door and window fittings, as draughts very often find their way in just at these places. The roof may be of shingles, slates, corrugated iron, or wood, the two first named being the most suitable for per- manent buildingp. A tin roof really has many advantages, as it is reasonable hi price, easily fixed, and perfectly water- Provision for Ventilation, 4* tight. But against these have to be placed the fact, that from its being so thin, and also being a rapid conductor of heat and cold, it is very hot in summer and very cold in vinter, and unless lined out with boarding the house is subject to these unfavourable conditions. If it is boarded, however, this is counteracted, and then it makes a capital roof — one that will last many years if given a coat of paint every twelve months. When wood is used as a roof, it should be firm and well put together, and be covered with felting, Fig. 1. — Veutilating roof. which needs to be well tarred and sanded once a year, thus making a warm and substantial cover. It is important to have a good slope in a roof of this kind, so that the water may run off rapidly ; and when this is done, a wooden roof is as good as anything else. The question of ventilation is a most important one, and worthy of more consideration than is usually given to it. The way often adopted is to make a few holes in one end of the house, and let the air get in and out the best 42 Profitable Poultry Keeping. way it can. We have actually known houses built with the boards left an eighth of an inch apart, in order to provide a current of air ; but such a method partakes considerably of madness. The plan we are about to describe is a very simple one, and will cost very little, if anything ; it is equally suitable to a single slope or to a gabled roof, but we shall describe the latter, and our readers can adapt it to the former. In the roof a small chamber should be formed, by nailing half-inch boards across the same, about midway between the eaves and the apex, and we give an illustration (Fig. 1) of the roof showing this method of ventilation. The crossboards forming the bottom of the chamber may either be closely nailed together, and have holes bored in them, or be left a quarter of an inch apart. At each end of this chamber, in the gables, louver boards should be inserted, or a ventilating trap, such as can be bought from any ironmonger, or a few holes bored into each end will do, but not so well. In addition to this, a couple of traps may be fitted about half- way up the walls of the house, but these are optional, and can be done without. If they are used, then a square wooden box, much larger than the trap, will need to be put over each one inside the house, having a very few holes in, it on the upper side only, so that when the fresh air comes in, it will be directed up to the roof, and not strike against the birds. The system of ventilation we have described is a perfect one ; there is a constant current of air through the ventilating chamber, carrying off the vitiated air, and this prevents any draught whatever in the house itself; but, at the same lime, the birds always have pure air to breathe; and go into their roosting-house at any time, day or night, it is fresh and sweet so far as the atmosphere is concerned. In winter some of the ventilating holes can be stopped up, as they will not be required, and the facility with which the current can be regulated is the advantage the trap ventilators Importance of Proper Floor, 43 have over the holes or louver boards. No holes must be made near the ground, or anything done to create a draught upwards, as when this is done there is great danger of the fowls having to roost midway between two openings — a plan which soouer or later results in colds and other diseases. This done, the house itself is complete, with the exception of painting outside and whitewashing inside ; two or three coats of the former and two of the latter will put it in capital order. The next part we have to deal with is the floor, which if it be damp or cold will militate very greatly against the com- fort and consequent success of the inmates. Such a subject as this needs to be specially dealt with, as there are many persons who appear to think that if the house itself is dry and well built the floor is of no consequence. Such an idea probably arises from the fact that the birds are almost always either on their perches or outside the house. But whilst this is undoubtedly the case, it must also be remembered that the nests are generally made on the ground, and what is of still greater moment, the atmosphere of the house is considerably affected by the floor, for if it is damp there is a cold, chilly feeling always present. In our own dwellings this is so, and all the efforts made to warm a damp house never succeed in making it comfortable; besides which there is the great injury to our health, and if this is the case where warmth and light can be freely given, how much more must it be felt in poultry houses. The first thing to be decided upon is that the floor of the house shall be not less than six inches above the ground outside. The object is to prevent the water running into the house, w r hich it will do if below or upon the level. Cement makes a capital floor, and if well laid there is no danger of water standing, or of a damp atmosphere resulting from it. It is cleaned very easily, and will not become charged with 44 Profitable Poultry Keeping. moisture from the droppings ; but it is very cold, and on this account, if used, should always be kept covered with two or three inches of fine soil or ashes. Bricks are often used, and if well drained below make a firm and dry floor. But they have one very decided drawback, consequent upon their porous nature and the interstices which must exist between them, namely, that they absorb the moisture from the drop- pings, and in time become impregnated with ammonia, which reacts upon the atmosphere in the house, and is very unhealthy for the birds in it. Were it not for this, bricks would make one of the best floors that could be desired. Wooden floors also are not to be recommended, except where the space is limited, when it is necessary to raise the floor of the house, in order to provide a sheltered run for the fowls below, or wooden floors may be used where movable houses are adopted. In either of these cases only such a floor is possible ; but of course it must be kept thickly covered with coal ashes, or fine soil, to be renewed con- stantly, and thus kept fresh. Of all the floors which may be laid down in a poultry house, we have proved the following to be decidedly the best : — In the first instance, dig the ground out to a depth of twelve or fifteen inches, and then fill up half of this with broken bricks, gravel, burnt ballast, coarse stones or slag, which must be well beaten down. A compost of coal ashes, fine gravel, quicklime and water must next be made, well mixed together, and spread over the other so as to raise he floor to the required height above the ground. This, when hardened, will be a perfectly dry floor, one upon which water will not stand, and yet it will be hard and firm in its nature, as well as warm and comfortable. It is easily cleaned, inexpensive, and in every way the best floor we know of. Of course, ashes or soil must always be spread thinly over it, as they should be upon every kind of floor, and Heating Poultry Houses. 45 renewed every day or two. In some places the floor simply consists of a few inches of fine, dry earth ; and where the ground below is porous and warm there is no objection to this, but it must be raked over every day, and entirely re- newed every few months, or the air will be vitiated. Any one with a sensitive nasal organ can, however, very soon tell when there is anything the matter in this way, so that will be of itself a protection ; but we do not approve of the plan some people adopt, of using carbolic powder and other disin- fectants so freely, that their smell may overpower any other one. This is not the way to do. By cleanliness a house should be kept sweet, and whilst the articles named are most valuable to the poultry keeper, yet they must not be made substitutes for, but assistants to, cleanliness. Perhaps it may be as well, before we deal with the ques- tion of fittings, to say a few words with respect to the much debated question of heating poultry houses. The arguments adduced in favour of artificial heating are very plausible indeed, and there need be no wonder that many are misled by them. The reason why hens do not lay so well in winter, is because the natural heat or reserve force of the body is more rapidly exhausted in winter than in summer, and there is less surplus to go to the formation of eggs or flesh. Thus it would appear very reasonable to suppose, that if, by sup- plying artificial heat, this rapid exhaustion can be prevented, then the birds would be as productive a"t one time as another. The fallacy of this is in the fact that birds cannot always be kept healthy indoors, and if there be high temperature, then when they go out, the sudden transition is very great, and disease results. So that for this reason, it will be seen that artificial heating is likely to do more harm than good, except under such conditions as we shall presently mention. Fowls cannot put on an overcoat when they leave their houses, and we know the danger ourselves of going from a heated room 46 Profitable Poultry Keeping. into the cold air unprotected in this way. But in addition to this there is a very grave ohjection to the burning of oil or gas in a house, as they vitiate the atmosphere greatly, and the birds having to breath air charged with impurities, must be injured thereby. This injury may not declare itself at once, but will do so sooner or later. In addition to the methods of heating already mentioned, which are more used for isolated houses than those in blocks, hot water pipes have been employed, but though these are much better than stoves of any kind, it is only a question of degree, and the use of them is to be equally condemned. We do not say that a gentle artificial heat is not beneficial, if it come from outside the house, and, for this reason, we recommended in a previous chapter that, where possible, the house should be built adjoining " a stable, a cow-shed, a green-house, an engine-shed, or even a dwelling," but this is altogether different to placing a stove inside a house, as the heat is then evenly diffused all over the house, without in the slightest degree vitiating the atmosphere. Even in -such a place as this, care must be taken to keep the temperature from rising very high, and the ventilation requires to be well looked after. It is often found convenient, where large numbers of fowls are kept, to have the buildings in large blocks, and when this is so artificial heat may be introduced without much danger, especially if there is a centre compartment into which all the others open. Here a fire-stove can be placed, and if the ventilation is so arranged that the fresh air can be supplied through this compartment, then the fowls will get warmth without danger of any great excess of it. But we may as well say at once, that, in a well built and properly ventilated house, there is no need of any artificial heat what ever, and even though the eggs are not quite so numerous as might be the case were it employed, the prevention of Straw Lining Useful. 47 future trouble, and the hardiness of the birds, will more than compensate for this deficiency. In very severe weather the houses may be lined out with straw, but this is only needed where the walls are thin, and it will be found that good sub- stantial food and free range, will do more real good than any artificial heat, however carefully applied. 48 Profitable Poultry Keeping. CHAPTER VI. THE FITTINGS AND RUNSu Perches — Nest Boxes — Sheds— Ucfenced Runs— Space to be given — Fencing. The perches should be regulated according to the kind of birds kept. For heavy ones, such as Brahmas, Cochins, Dorkings, Langshans, Scotch Greys, and Plymouth Rocks, a foot above the ground is quite high enough, as birds are often injured in flying down from high perches, or, what is equally as bad, roost upon the ground and are cold and starved all the night through. Some time ago we saw a capital perch for Brahmas, made of strong wood, about four inches wide, and in the form of a huge T, the three ends resting upon cement blocks built into the walls, and of course lying lengthwise parallel with the floor. We also give from Mr. Tegetmeier's Poultry Book an illustration (Fig. 2) of a capital frame for heavy fowls to roost upon, which has the decided advantage of being easily moved. Perches should always be made so that they can be got out of, and into the house without difficulty. As a rule, for lighter birds, where the perches are placed higher, fir poles sawn in tw r o make the best ones, but when these cannot be got, oval shaped bars, about three inches in diameter and sawn in two, are most suitable. Or if flat ones are used they should not be narrow, but have the edges taken off. In small houses it is best to get thick bent iron or wooden supports, made in the form of the Hen-Ladders* 49 letters U or J ; the former are the best, as the perches are not so easily knocked out by the birds. One of these rests must be fixed at each side of the house, and the perch ends made to fit them, taking care that the poles are not too short, or they will drop out when the birds get on to them. In large houses it is much better to make a hen ladder, which consists of two stout planks laid at each end of the house, at an angle of about forty degrees, the top resting Fi?. 2. — Fiamc for Itoost. against the back wall and the bottom on the ground, or, of course, by making a back upright to hold the planks spoken of, it will not be necessary to rest the same against the walls. Or, again, the latter may be made double, like the letter f{, with perches at both sides, though, for a reason about to be given, this is not to be recommended except where there are windows on both sides. At a distance of about every two feet, notches are made on the upper side of these deals, of course, corresponding with each other, and into these the perch ends are dropped, and then the ladder is complete. This ladder should face the window, wherever this is placed, as fowls always roost with their heads in that direction, and then the droppings fall on the floor without touching the birds on the lower perches. If the birds are allowed to roost the other way, each row will receive the droppings from those on the one above. Fine soil or ashes should be laid on the floor below the ladder, and raked over daily, as by this means a most valuable manure is made, 50 Profitable Poultry Keeping. and can be removed weekly. Whether the house is a large or a small one the perches should be made removable, so as to facilitate cleaning, and once every month the ends can be clipped in petroleum or carbolic acid, by the doing of which insects are kept away easily. Many people would be surprised at the myriads of insects which swarm over birds when they are roosting that are not so protected, but dipping the ends effectually prevents their reaching the fowls. Nest boxes will, of course, require to be fitted into the house, and in numbers sufficient to prevent any crowding of the hens, or they will fight for possession, and perhaps be thus led to lay away. These nest boxes can be made in a variety of ways, and if the house is a small one a couple of bricks, a box, or a basket can be used. Perhaps the first named is the best, as it is most easily cleared away, and can scarcely be neglected when the house is cleaned out, for the nest must be renewed constantly to keep it supplied with straw. In such a house as this, where room is not over plentiful, the nests may be arranged with a shelf above them, and if the perch is above that, then the hens will be quiet and retired, and no droppings can reach them. But, of course, such an arrangement necessitates great attention to cleanliness, and for this reason it is most important to have shelves removable, and to see that they are taken out at least every week. We have found in practice that if this is not done the nests below get neglected, and the backs of the shelves become harbours for insects, and dirt of all kinds. It may be taken as a standing rule, that one nest will b8 required for every three hens ; and in large houses, where forty or fifty birds are kept, a different plan to any yet spoken of will have to be adopted. W r e do not like nests in sets as usually made, because there are no facilities provided for easy cleaning, rather the reverse ; but the following plan is one that can be adopted with safety : — In a house for fifty Nest-Boxes. 5 1 hens we should make three rows, of five or six nests in each, every nest to be twelve to fifteen inches square, according to the size of fowls by which they will be used. The nests should have no bottoms, backs, or fronts, save only a strip of wood, three inches wide, nailed along the lower part of the fronts, and another exactly like it at the back. The top of each row will have to be entirely covered, and each of the two bottom rows have a ledge of about six or eight inches wide standing in front. This will complete the nests, and they will, therefore, consist simply of the partitions between each nest, the ends, the tops, and the strips, back and front. When put together the bottom row will stand on the ground next to one of the walls, the second row above it, and the third row above that. In order to prevent the fowls pulling the nests over when jumping on to the ledges, strong iron catches should be fixed to the end of each row with staples in the wall, so as to keep them firm and secure. As will have been seen, the top row will have no ledge, as one is not needed there, but it will be necessary to have a sloping top, or the birds will roost upon it, and thus constantly make it foul and dirty. These nests can be taken to pieces in a couple of minutes and re-erected as speedily, the great advantage being that, having no floor, the moment they are removed everything inside falls out, and there are no corners where dirt or vermin can congregate. They should have a good lime-washing inside and outside once a month, and this will keep them perfectly sweet and clean. Heavy fowls, such as Cochins, Brahmas, and Dorkings, will require some other arrangement, as the flying up and down to the nests would injure them just as much as when high perches are employed for them. This can be overcome by placing all the nests on the ground, and having a sloping board above the same the whole way round the house, or, what is still better, make the top of the nests sloping e 2 52 Profitable Poultry Keeping, from back to front, which will effectually prevent the birds roosting on it. In this case, we should make Jthe nests in sets of two or three each, as they will then be much easier to handle when cleaning. We have also seen hanging boxes made, not unlike a very large sink soap tray, but with wire bottoms ; and, where there is enough room in the house to allow of these being hung on the walls, about eighteen to twenty-four inches apart from each other, no better system can be adopted. They must be a foot or more above the ground, and the nest itself should be about six inches in depth, so that there may be no danger of the hen knocking out the eggs when getting out herself. In the chapter on " Poultry Houses" we mentioned the necessity for having a shed in addition to the roosting house. This should, if possible, be as large, if not larger than the house, but can be open or wired at the front. It must be perfectly dry, with good floor, which may be the same as the house floor, or be a foot in depth of fine sand. In one comer a hole should be dug, or a box placed, about two feet deep, and kept constantly supplied with fine dry ashes or soil. This dust bath is absolutely necessary to the well being of the birds, and must be given in order to keep down insects. Where large numbers of birds are kept we have seen a house or shed devoted to this purpose alone ; and any reasonable amount of trouble is worth taking, as fowls can- not possibly thrive if they are troubled with insects. The question as to how much space is required to keep birds in perfect health ia somewhat difficult to answer, be- cause there are some breeds which require more than others ; and there are breeds which can live on a grass plot without destroying it, whilst others would eat it bare in a month. Of course, it is much better when freedom can be given, and birds can then be divided without the use of netting or any- thing else, thus effecting a large saving in first cost. It is Space Desirable. 53 wonderful how close birds can be kept together without mix- ing one with the other. A short time ago the writer visited a farm where several hundred head of fowls are kept, compris- ing about a dozen pure varieties, and in one field of about ten acres two houses were placed, of course at the extreme limits from each other. In one were Dorkings, and in the other white Leghorns, and though they were in sight of each other, yet they had never been known to mix, nor even to Fig. 3. — EaDge of Poultry Houses and Runs. approach sufficiently near to quarrel. Probably each clan felt itself immeasurably superior to its neighbour, and that it would be derogatory to associate with the others ; but whatever might be the cause, the effect was satisfactory to the owner. And under such circumstances, namely, where there is an abundance of room, for the farm in question was nearly a thousand acres in extent, the question of run3 is easily settled, as even breeding flocks can be kept unpenned. 54 Profitable Poultry Keeping. Where runs are at all restricted, and must be kept within certain limits, then it is necessary to know how much ground is absolutely required to keep grass fresh. Under such conditions it will be needful to give half an acre to every fifty fowls of the lighter kinds, but rather more than this will be required for the heavier breeds. But where houses are built in sets, such as is shown in Fig. 3, which is a capital range of houses made by Bolton and Paul, Norwich, Eng., we prefer the plan given by us in a former chapter, namely, to give gravel runs to the houses, and have a large field into which the birds can go in turns during the day. They in this way thrive just as well as if on grass always, and the latter is preserved and kept in good order. Nothing appears worse to us than to see grass eaten and trodden down, as then it does no good to the fowls, and is much worse than gravel, which is clean at any rate, and does not lead the attendant to suppose that the birds have all the green food they require. Grass is only beneficial when fresh and clean, and hence the importance of what we have said. When fencing is necessary, the best material is wire- netting, which can be bought very cheaply, especially if in large quantities, and if it is galvanized it lasts a long time. That with a two inch mesh is fine enough, and it is as well to get it good and strong, as it will be found least costly in the end. Where something more show} 7 is required, there is a wire fencing made in sections of three feet wide, and six feet high, fitted to iron standards in the ground by means of small bolts. These are made in straight lattice work, and generally have ornamental tops, so that they are pleasing in appearance. Another admirable fence is one easily made to order by any woven-wire works, like Figure 4, the bottom half of which is made of galvanized iron, and the upper half of wire, thus forming a complete division between runs, and being at the same time a first-rate shelter against sun, Iron Fencing. 55 rain, or wind. The height of the fences will need to be regulated by the variety of fowls kept. Heavy birds will be easily restrained by a three or a four feet fence, whilst most other breeds can be kept in only by one six feet high. Ham- burghs, however, must have one at least ten feet, and often that is not sufficient, so that it is better to clip their wings. Gates must be .provided, and it will be found advantageous not to have too few, as thus many a long walk may be saved — no small consideration on a wet or stormy day ; and where a o .3 j =) o o w ■ 4 o <-> -• u ct": : o ''a j □ a a o o o o Fig. 4.— Poultry Fence. several runs join each other they must be boarded up three feet above the ground, if the fencing just mentioned be not used, in order to prevent the cocks fighting with each other, which they will certainly do if this precaution is not taken. 56 Profitable P 021 1 try Keeping, CHAPTEE VII. MORE ABOUT HOUSES AND RUNS. Effect of Confinement — Houses on Wheels — The Best Plan for Farms— Use of Fruit Trees in Runs — Kinds of Trees to Plant — Fruit Bushes — Other Aids. We suppose that, as it is human nature, when restricted within certain specified limits, to get as near the outer region of those limits as possible, even though there is an abun- dance of room, and a more nominal than actual curtailment of liberty, the same instinct is shown in fowls, because, no matter how large a run may be given them, if it be fenced in, they will be sure to wear down the grass near the boun- daries, whilst that in the centre will probably be untouched. On this account, where space is abundant, it may be the best plap :o use movable houses, either small enough to be carried by a couple of men, or on wheels, so that a horse or pony can take them easily from one place to another. Various patterns can be seen in the lists of poultry house builders, and we give illustrations of two of these, showing the ones which appear to us the best (Figs. 5 and 6). As is seen, one of these houses, for which we are also indebted to Messrs. Boulton k Paul, who have made some of the best poultry houses we have seen, has a run beneath, and side flaps to afford protection, whilst the other, made by Thos. Christy & Co., of Fenchurch Street, London, is without the run ; but if the latter plan is adopted, a small shelter should be made so as to stand adjoining, and for convenience of Portable Houses. 57 removal, it can be separate. The houses and shelters can be with, or without floors, as may be preferred, but if the soil is clay, or damp, it will be much better to have wooden floors, though even when it is dry soil we much prefer not to have them. Of course, in any case it will be necessary to see that the houses are not placed in hollows, cr, when it is wet weather, they will be standing in pools of water. Movable houses of this kind have many great advan- Fi£r. 5. — Portable House. fcages, but, of course, their use is limited to such as have plenty of ground at command. In the first place, a much larger number of birds can be kept than in a stationary house, as the ground is fresh, and they can wander about at their own free will. The fowls also cost less to keep, as they are able to find a great portion of their own food in the shape of worms, grubs, seeds, roots, and berries. There is less expense for material, as fencing is not needed, and 58 Profitable Poultry Keeping. even though wire netting is very cheap, when it has to be purchased by the hundred or thousand yards, it adds a very considerable item to the capital account. Then, again, the fowls clean and manure the land, which is a specially valuable thing after ploughing or harvesting, and we know farms an here the birds are kept on the pasture land during the early part of the year ; but, as soon as the hay, corn or root crops are off, the houses are immediately moved thereon, and kept there as long as possible. On one farm we are acquainted with, the fowls are allowed to wander about among both corn and root crops, as soon as the plants are Fig. C.-Chri-t 's Portable TTouse. about twelve and six inches respectively above the ground ; and the owner informs us that the injury done is really nominal, whilst the benefit is very great. Fortunately, the time of year when the number of birds is greatest, is during the late summer and early autumn, when the land is most at liberty, and thus the poultry do not hamper or hinder the other work of a farm. Finally, there can be no question that birds kept in movable houses are hardier, thrive better, and lay better, than if in confined spaces ; but, of course, there are some disadvantages, such as risk of the birds laying away, additional labour in feeding and attendance, and, in some districts, clanger of Cost of Movable Houses. 59 foxes. The two former can be overcome without difficulty, and the latter only needs greater care and watchfulness to be exercised, with the fastening up of the birds at night. With such a plan as we have suggested, we are certain that there are few farmers who could not find room for one of these houses to every five or ten acres of his occupation, and the cost would very soon be repaid. The benefit would be great, and touch the part where every one is susceptible, namely, the pocket. We are not speaking from mere theory, as we know several instances where the fowls are a profit, both indirectly through the benefit to the land, and directly in actual cash. Houses can be built to hold about twenty-five fowls for 112 each, or to hold about fifty fowls for $20 to $25 eacb, without wheels ; or with wheels, which must be broad and large to prevent their sinking in the ground, for a few dollars more ; or, sometimes, various tilings can be adapted at even a less cost than this. We have seen old carriages, railway cars, and many other things adapted to the purpose, and in one instance read of a number of old showman's vans being so used, and very successfully too. It will have been seen, from what we have already said, that we believe in poultry farming more as an adjunct to an ordinary farm, than as a separate business, with land devoted to it, and to nothing else. But in some cases, there may be ground at command, just sufficient to keep going a fair number of fowls, and then it is imperative to make the best possible use of it. If rent has to be paid, anything which can be done to help the paying of it, will be a great assistance to making the concern profitable, and at the same time do away with the temptation to overcrowd the ground — a certain cause of disease and consequent loss. This, we believe, can best be done by the planting of fruit trees, which may not be a new suggestion, but it is one which 6o Profitable Poultry Keeping, has not been brought very prominently forward of late. That it is a good suggestion few will be prepared to deny, for birds in a state of nature find all the protection they need in trees, as there are no houses or sheds to shelter them. But, of course, they are not restricted, and can keep themselves warm by exercise, whereas those that have not this liberty must have some artificial protection ; and the plan of putting birds in open runs, where they are restrained by wire fencing, without any corner to which they can retire, so as to be out of the reach of wind and weather, is foolish in the extreme, and we cannot wonder the birds do not thrive at all well. It is best as a rule, when planting runs in this way, to use large fruit trees, such as apple, pear, plum, and, in suitable places, cobnuts. These are generally regarded as a source of profit in themselves, for land is given up to them alone ; but, when this is so, they are nearly always planted too closely to suit poultry, at least in wet weather, and thus ordinary orchards cannot be looked upon as more than occasional or extra runs. If there are these near to where the poultry are kept, they will be a great boon, as in such places there is an abundance of insect life, which is highly beneficial to the birds. They also provide shelter duiing very hot weather, and protection from storms, the chief draw- back being that a closely-planted orchard or wood is nearly always damp, and therefore not suitable during the winter and late autumn. We have recommended the planting of large trees, but as they take a few years to get into full fruit bearing condition, and cannot be easily removed, some may prefer to use bushes, such as gooseberry or raspberry. These afford a capital pro- tection, as they are low, and thick near the ground, which is not the case with large trees. They, however, have one dis- advantage, and that is, the birds pick off the fruit when they Fruit Trees and Bushes. 61 are in the runs. A capital plan we recently saw on a farm, was to lay the runs out in wide strips, say, about one hundred feet long and fifty feet wide. Between these the various hushes were planted, of course being separated from the fowls by wire netting. Here, the plan adopted, was to let the fowls run on the ground for two or three years, then transplant the bushes into the runs occupied by them, and give the birds the strips where the bushes had been. This doubtless would involve considerable trouble, but not so much as might be imagined, and the bushes got the benefit of the well manured, and the fowls of the clean soils. Soma such plan as this, or the protecting of the bushes by tanned twine netting during the fruiting season, is necessary where small fruit trees are planted. Or, if there is plenty of shelter from other trees, runs which had been occupied by poultry for two or three years, could be planted with strawberry plants, fresh runs being given to the birds, and, we venture to say, that the quality and quantity of the fruit on the former, would lead to a still further extension of the system. The benefit, as we have already hinted, will be twofold. Not only will the profit from the fruifr, which can easily be made to almost if not more than pay the rent, but the land will be thus kept perfectly pure and sweet, and consequently there will be much less risk of disease among the stock. It is not necessary for us to go into any details as to the methods of planting, the number of trees per acre, and the kinds of trcc;s to be chosen. These can easily be obtained elsewhere ; but our readers having received the suggestion can adapt it in their own way. The plan can doubtless be considerably developed, and other things found to help forward the same end, if brains are set to work. For instance, in a yard where the pens are divided either by wood or wire, the appearance of these can be greatly improved by planting creepers about them, and for this purpose there is nothing 62 Profitable Poultry Keeping, better than the ordinary scarlet runner beans. Near large towns or fashionable watering places, rose bushes would be a source of profit, as both buds and flowers find a ready sale ; but each poultry-keeper must consider what will best meet the demands of the district, and what will suit his place, and ths soil at his command. The Chicken House. £3 CHAPTER VIII. CHICKEN-HOUSES. Early Chickens — Position of Chicken House— The Attendant's House — Gravel and Grass Run — The House— Floor— Provision Against Rats — Size of House. In all large poultry yards, especially where it is intended to hatch early broods, a special chicken-house is required ; and when we have described how it is to be built, then we have done with the subject of houses. The object of having a chicken-house is that the early birds may be protected from the bad weather generally found in the beginning of the year, and, when properly built, they can be kept indoors, if necessary. Consequently, such a house must be large and roomy ; but, as it can also be used as a hatching-house, there will be no waste of space in it. If the birds are crowded they will not thrive, and in building, this must be borne in mind. The position of a chicken-house must be facing south, south-west, or south-east, and to this rule there can be no exception whatever, as it is an essential that early in the year, when the sun's rays are few and far between, alt of them be gathered into the house ; for loss of this heat means more difficulty in rearing. Wherever possible, the back of the house should be a brick or stone wall ; and, if there is any measure of certainty about the occupation of the place CvJl Profitable Potiltry Keeping, upon which it is built, it will be worth the cost of building such a wall, if there is not one already which can be used. Of course, if the wall of a dwelling-house, stable, or cow- shed is available for such a purpose, co much the better ; but upon no account must the aspect of the house be altered, even to obtain the benefit of a warm wall. Heat of this land is good, but the sun's natural heat is far better; and for early chicks the latter is absolutely indispensable. If both can be obtained, well and good ; if not, let the one we have indicated be taken in preference. Whenever possible, it is well to have the chicken-house as near to the dwelling of the attendant as possible. In a plan of the yard of Sir Henry Thompson, near Hampton Court, which appeared in one of the Poultry Journals, we noticed that the chicken run is directly in front of the poultryman's cottage, the house being only a few steps away. Of this we heartily approve, as the birds require very great attention during the first weeks of their existence ; and, if the attendant has a considerable distance to go to them, he will be unable to give them the same amount of care, as when they are close at hand ; whereas, if only a few steps away, he will often go, even though his presence by strict rule may not be absolutely required. As far as possible let labour be saved, and the saving will be far more than repaid. It will be necessary, in selecting the site for a chicken- house, to arrange it so that there may be a good-sized run in front. The object of this is, not so much that the birds in the chicken-house may have plenty of space, when they are allowed to run outside, but that later on in the year, say in April and May, when the coops are placed outside altogether, as they should be, after the birds are a few days old, there will be room enough for them. This, we believe, to be a much better plan than scattering the birds all about the place, as, when the latter is done, they are not sufficiently under the Importance of a Ttirf Run. 65 eye of the attendant. A quarter of an acre will be sufficient upon which to rear a couple of hundred chickens ; and, perhaps, if more than this number is to be hatched, it will be well to divide both the house and run, giving a quarter of an acre for every two hundred birds. We do not mean that two hundred chicks with their mothers can be kept on this amount of ground at one time, for that would be crowding with a vengeance ; but, as the older ones are deserted by the hens, they will be drafted off into other houses, and younger ones be coming on ; so that probably there will be seldom more than fifty to eighty upon the ground at one time, and this only during four or five months of the year. One-fourth of the ground — that immediately in front of the house — should be laid in gravel, and the rest be in grass. The nicer and smoother the latter is, the better for the birds ; and upon no account must the grass be allowed to grow very long, or the chicks, in wandering about it, will get at times damp and wet, and the result be disease among them. Many ladies who keep fowls upon a fairly large scale, place the coops out upon their lawns during the spring, and as the grass is kept short, the ground, generally drained, and in a sunny place, the chickens thrive well. No harm, but a considerable amount of good, is done to the grass, as the manure enriches it very much. We know poultry yards, where the grass in the chicken-yard is as carefully cut and rolled, as a lawn can be ; but this is where feather-footed exhibition birds are kept. The house itself will best take the form of a long and rather narrow shed. It need not be more than eight or ten feet wide, and any additional ground space had better be put into the length than the breadth, as there is in this way a larger frontage for the sun to play upon. Where it can be done, we prefer the slope of the roof to be to the back ; the chief objection to this being, that if the back wall of the F 66 Profitable Poultry Keeping. house is of brick or stone, and only the height of the roof there, the roof itself presents a large amount of space for the north and east winds to play upon, so that unless it be very substantial the house will be greatly chilled in conse- quence. If the back wall is higher than the roof, then a spout will be needed to carry off the rain ; and the joint between the roof and wall will have to be very well made, or the water, and snow especially, will find its way through, and thus make the inside of the house damp. Another object in having the house this shape, is, that nearly all the front — that is from the roof to within a foot of the floor — should be of glass, the same as in an ordinary green house ; for, by this means, the birds inside will receive benefit from the sun, though it may shine only for a moment or two, and at the same time be effectually protected from the weather outside, no matter what it may be. Even on a winter's day, when there is no sun at all, a house facing the south, having a glass front, with a substantial back wall, will be many degrees warmer than one facing the other way; and birds will be quite comfortable in it, whilst they would be chilled and miserable in the other. If it is not thought advisable to have the slope to the back, but the other way, then the front must be of glass, as already stated ; and it will be as well to have glass windows (about three feet square) in the roof, at the lowest part of it, divided by, say, three feet of the roof itself, so that in a house twelve feet long there would be two windows in the roof. If the house faces south, a window can be inserted in each end, near the front ; if south-east, in the western end only ; and if south-west, in the eastern end only. Portions of the front of the house should be made to open, so that in fine weather the birds can get in and out quite easily. A large door will, of course, be wanted ; and it will be worth the extra cost to have water spouting put round the roof, as thus the drip- Defence against Rats, 67 pings from the same will not fall on to the birds, nor yet saturate the ground in front of the house. The floor of the house should be dug out to a considerable depth, especially if the soil is at all clayey in its nature, and filled in, first with a few inches of rubble stones, and then levelled up with dry sand. If rats are troublesome they must be guarded against, or they will make great havoc with the chicks, as we have known them carry off fifty — even taking birds from under the hens — within a very few days. Two most effectual plans can be adopted, either of which will prove a sure protection. One is to get a large number of bottles, or thick glass of any kind, and break them up into moderate sized pieces, so that the rubble stones will be almost covered. The other is to get some very strong wire netting, not larger than three-quarter inch mesh, and lay this over the stones, bringing it up the sides of the house above the ground. Either of these must be done before the sand is put on, which can then be spread on as before des- cribed, and a sure preventive will be provided against the destructive rodents. The wire netting will only last about three or four years, as it then gets rotten ; but the glass will not be affected in that way, and is probably both cheapest and best. A floor made in this way, supposing that the sand is about twelve to eighteen inches in depth, is warm, clean, and not easily contaminated, but it will require to be raked over every morning and all droppings removed, to be dug over twice or thrice each season, and be renewed every year or two. Sand is, however, inexpensive in most places, and hence there need be no bar to its use. The hatching boxes and coops are placed on the sand (these are described in the chapters on hatching and rearing), and it is well to have a shelf at the back of the house, say about 2 J- or 3 feet above the ground, under which the boxes and coops, can be placed ; this shelf can be f 2 68 Profitable Poultry Keeping. used for many purposes, such as for an extra row of hatching boxes, for a row of pens, if exhibition is to b3 attempted, and for surplus birds, or for a place upon which to keep coops and other things, when not in use. The size of the house is a question which must not be ignored. For a yard where a couple of hundred chicks are to be reared, that is, if many early ones are required, it should be twenty-four feet long by ten feet wide. In height it should be seven feet at the highest point, sloping down to three or four f 9et at the lowest part of the roof. If made of wood it must be kept well whitewashed inside, and painted or tarred out- side, and have proper arrangements for ventilation. As the house will probably be needed in bad weather, the ventila- ting traps should be made to open and close, as suggested in the chapter on Building Poultry Houses. This done, the chicken house will be all ready for its inmates. Choice of Breeds. 69 CHAPTER IX. THE KIND OF FOWLS TO KEEP. Choice of Creeds — Errors in Selection — Cross and pure bred Fowls — Breeds to be chosen — Confinement or Liberty — Hardy Breeds — Non-sitting Breeds — Table Fowls Sitters and Mothers — General utility Fowls. Before commencing to describe the many varieties of fowls, it is necessary that we should show what kinds should be kept by different persons. Success in poultry keeping means, not only the proper feeding and management of the birds, but the selection of a breed that is suitable to the place where they are to be kept. In addition to this, the question of what is most in demand must be taken into consideration, for in poultry keeping, as in every other pur- suit, opportunities must control circumstances, and circum- stances adapt themselves as far as possible to opportunities. It would be folly for any one to select a breed that is most suitable for table purposes, in a place where eggs are wanted and chickens at a discount, or, on the other hand, to keep laying fowls, where chickens are sought for most of all and eggs very plentiful. And it is equally foolish to rear birds of no breed whatever, which, having no special characteristics, are neither suitable for one purpose or the other. This is a most important matter, and, as au illustration of the mistakes often made in this way, we may mention that we once knew a poultry farm commenced under most favourable 7o Profitable Poultry Keeping. auspices, situated within a short distance of a large manu- facturing town, where eggs could be sold in any numbers at high rates. The ground laid out for the farm was in many respects very suitable, and the houses and runs designed with a considerable amount of skill and foresight. The owner, however, who was thus careful in almost everything else, suddenly became negligent when he began to stock his yards, and, instead of buying a few birds of a good laying breed and breeding from them as many layers as he required, he went into the market and bought some hundreds of hens, paying no regard whatever to age or breed. It is true that he got them at a less rate than he could have bought pure bred stock, and he began to get returns from the sale of produce at once, which he could not have done had he bred his stock. But the returns were miserably small, the bulk of the hens soon wanted to sit, and more hens were bought in order to supply the demand for eggs, disease crept in through overcrowding, and the balance-sheet showed a very decided margin on the wrong side. Disheartened and disgusted, the owner soon turned up the whole affair, a sadder, a poorer, though, perhaps not a wiser man. Such instances as these could be multiplied to almost any extent, and it has probably been more due to want of knowledge or thought, that the idea has taken root that poultry-keeping does not pay There is an idea very prevalent, that cross-bred poultry are much more profitable to keep than pure bred ones, and, whilst there can be no question that it is a decided advantage to cross certain breeds one with another, in order to obtain specific results, that is, of course, if the crossing is scien- tifically and skilfully performed, having an end in view, this is altogether different to the breeding of mongrels, which is so common. In the former case there is method, in the latter there is none, and it is to this indiscriminate crossing that we owe the present degenerate races of farmyard or barn- Crossing of Dreed, Ji door fowls, email, subject to disease! poor as layers, equally as useless on the tabic, and certainly neither profitable nor creditable to the owner. The first cross may be useful, if properly made, but, it has been found as the experience of many, that if these are bred from, the progeny deteriorates, both in fecundity and size with every generation. This is a matter deserving fuller consideration, which shall be given at the proper time ; but, we have mentioned it now, so that it may be understood that when we speak of cross-bred fowls, W6 mean the first cross only. Others we shall designate by the only term they deserve — mongrels. The basis of every yard should be pure-bred stock, but where there is room, these should only be used for breeding layers or table fowls. If only a few can be kept for home consumption, then we should advise that crossing be not attempted, but only pure- bred birds kept, unless there is some means of getting the cross-bred ones at a reasonable price, with the certainty that they are as represented. Perhaps the consideration we must deal with first of all, is the kind ct soil upon which the birds are to be kept, as this will have a great deal to do with the kinds of birds that can be kept thereon. Any birds can be kept on a dry, sandy, chalk, or gravel soil, upon which they will do well ; but there are many breeds which never thrive where the ground is cold, damp, or clayey. On wet, low-lying lands, we should strongly urge that no poultry be kept at all, except it be ducks or geese. These will do well in such places, and as there is always a demand for water-fowl, and at good prices, a considerable profit can be made where fowls would entail a heavy loss. We regard duck breeding as one of the most profitable portions of poultry keeping,, and are surprised that more attention is not paid to it. Upwards of 8100,000 is paid annunlly to the cottagers in the vicinity of Aylesbury, England, for ducklings, and they have no more Profitable Poulh v A. . ' .-.<;. advantages or opportunities than are bo be found in many other places, though higher prices are paid there than here* As \w have already stated, any breed can be kept on a dry, sandy, chalk, or gravel soil, and those who have those advantages are unlimited in their choice. 1 >ut on the day this choice becomes at onoo restricted, and we should advise that in such i place the following breeds be altogether avoided \ Dorkiugs, Spanish. Polish. Creves, and La Flechej and, we ma) add, that it will be found Minorcus, Leghorns, Houdans, Brahmas, Langshans, Game, A.ndalusians, Ply- mouth Rocks, Scotch Grays, and Cochins will be best able to stand such s soil, The next point to be settled is whether the birds are to be kept in confinement or given their liberty, because this is u very important consideration, us there are Borne breeds which never thrive unless they can have a large amount of Bpace given to them. The worst of all in this respect is the Hamburgh, which scarcely ever does well in o confined space, and after it we must place the Lighter varieties o( the Spanish tribe, The hardier of these, Buch as Minorcas and Leghorns, are often successfully kept In small runs, hut o( course thrive better when they can have s reasonable amount of liberty, We need hardly say that everj breed does much better when it has freedom than when oooped up, and it is b mistake to oxpecl eggs to be very plentiful without liberty, except bj verj great care and attention ; and hardy chickens are scarcely to be hoped for in the Bmall miserable pons so often devoted to breeding Btock, Those who wish to keep about half-a-doxen fowls, simply io supply eggs for their own tables, may do so in s small run, but they must not feed them too well, or internal fat will ensue, and this will stop the laying as w-A\ as bring on disease, The birds so confined should never be bred from, and it will be found advisable to kill them off when about twenty-seven A v Laying Breeds, 75 months old. For such places as these we should recommend Minorcas, Leghorns, Houdans, or Plymouth Rocks, the first three of which are non-sitters. The majority of poultry keepers have eggs as their primary object, and where this is the case they will do well to select one of the non- sitting breeds, for, not only are these the best layers, but they give no trouble in the way of wanting to incubate. Many are the sorrows of a poultry- keeper whose hens want to sit when he desires eggs, and it is hard work conquering a determined bird of this kind. These non-sitting breeds are Hamburghs, Minorcas, Leg- horns, Andalusians, Houdans, Spanish, and Polish, which v are here given in rotation according to their laying powers. The Hamburghs lay small eggs, too small for ordinary mar- ket purposes, and the Spanish and Polish are rather deli- cate, so we should recommend that the choice be restricted to the other four varieties, which, whether they be kept pure or crossed will be found first-rate layers of good sized eggs. They are also very hardy, and can be kept successfully in nearly every place, unless it is really a wet one. We do not recommend to have more than two laying breeds, but where there is sufficient room we should certainly advise two, as they can then be crossed one with the other, if that is thought desirable. Coming now to those breeds of domestic poultry which are specially characterized for their table qualities, and which should be kept where there is a demand for dressed fowls, for in time quality must tell, we cannot but place at the head -\ the Game variety, though they are rather too small for ordinary market purposes. Then come in rotation La Fleche, Dorkings, Creve-coeurs, Houdans, Langshans, and Plymouth Rocks. These are much larger than the Game, and will be found to excel any other breeds for quality of flesh. The Game crossed with Dorking has been stated to j6 Profitable Poultry Keeping. have the smallest amount of offal, to be very deep in flesh on the breast, and is a cross which can be highly recommended. In all large yards it will he necessary, unless tho artificial method of hatching is adopted, to have a sitting hreed, and as the table varieties are nearly all good sitters, one or two can he chosen to serve hoth purposes. Some breeds do not make good mothers, and others, such as the Cochin and Brahma, though the maternal instinct is very great in them, are so clumsy that there is great danger of their crushing both eggs and chickens. The best for this purpose are Dor- kings, Game, Dominiques, Plymouth Bocks, and Langshans, or amongst cross-breds the Brahma-Dorking. Thus thero will be no difficulty in selecting a breed, which will prove first-rate mothers and good table birds. In more limited yards where there is not accommodation for more than one or two breeds, and it is desirable to have such as are both good layers, table fowls and sitters, wo should recommend Plymouth Rocks, Langshans, Scotch Greys, or Dominiques, or if sitters are not required, then there is no better breed for the purpose than the Houdan, which has been described as " one of the best fowls for ordinary purposes that we possess." AYe have thus rapidly shown the varieties of useful fowls, with the qualities for which they are noted, but in describing the breeds themselves we shall enter more fully into the questions here only touched upon. < ' ' il , ' ; ; ;■:''■. //I i),m \ mm [is Andalusians, £9 CHAPTER X. THE BIIEEDS OP POULTRY. Andalusians — Ased- — Bantams — Brahmas — Cochins— Dominiques— Dorkings- French — Game — Hamburghs — Langshans— Leghorns — Malays — Minorcas — PI j mouth Rocks — Polish — Scotch Greys — Spanish— Silkies. We shall now proceed to briefly describe the various breeds, together with their leading characteristics, so that it will be easy to decide which varieties will be most suitable to the place where they are to be kept, and to the requirements of the poultry keeper. We shall put them in alphabetical oider for easy reference, and do not intend to go into long de- scriptions, which can only puzzle the reader, but will content ourselves with a few particulars. Nor do we think it necessary to do much more than mention those breeds that are purely fancy, for, though perhaps very beautiful, they are of no use for commercial purposes. The illustrations of the various breeds we give are very correct representations, from which the reader will have little difficulty in recog- nizing them when seen. We would, however, advise the reader who wishes to see for himself the various breeds, to visit some poultry show, as he will then be able to verify and confirm his own ideas on them. Andalusians. This is one of the leading varieties of the Spanish group, and is sometimes known by the name of Blue Spanish. Tho 80 Profitable Poultry Keeping, appearance of all this group has been well described as fol- lows : — A close, compact, smallish-sized body, placed upon legs of a good length ; the neck rather long, with a fine head ; a large, upright-single comb in the cock, and in the hen also large, but falling over on one side : and the cocks have large sickle-shaped tails. Of course the colour of plumage, legs, &c, are different in the several varieties, but the general appearance is as here described. In Andalusians the plumage is slate-coloured, but on the cock's neck and back it is dark purple or nearly black. The birds are of a good size, are prolific layers of large white eggs, are precocious as chickens, very hardy, bear confine- ment well, are fair table birds when young, can be kept on all fairly dry soils, and are non-sitters. In selecting birds attention should be paid to size, to erectness of carriage ; and any white on the face, which ought to be red, should be avoided, as this indicates a cross with the black Spanish. Aseels. These are Indian game cocks, used in that country for fighting purposes. They are good in flesh, but very poor layers, and so savage that they are not to be recommended, and, therefore, we need not say more respecting them. Bantams. The number of varieties of Bantams is very great, and shows every sign of increasing, for experiments are constantly being made in order to obtain miniature specimens of the larger breeds. As a rule they are simply small specimens, though in some cases some differences can be discerned. We only give illustrations of two varieties, the white and the Japanese, as all Bantams are purely "fancy" fowls, being popular , ;,;^ B rah mas, 83 chiefly because of their beauty, and that they can be kept in places where large fowls cannot, as well as from the fact that they make capital pets. In the Game section there are all the varieties known in large game, and in the other section we find Blacks (like Black Hamburghs), Whites, Gold and Silver Sebrights (or laced), Japanese, Cuckoos, Pekins, &c, but as they have no commercial value we need not do more than mention their names. Bbahmas. One of the most prominent of the breeds of poultry is the Brahma, and from an exhibitor's, or fancier's point of view, perhaps the most valuable. Two hundred dollars has been occasionally paid for a first-class bird, and eggs from such are almost literally worth their weight in gold ; but, of course, there are plenty of good ones to be had at reasonable prices. It is undoubtedly a manufactured breed, and for some years there was a great controversy as to its origin. At the first it was not very attractive in appearance ; but this was in time remedied, and of late years it has been so carefully and skilfully bred, that its characteristics are firmly fixed and clearly defined. It is chiefly valuable for its great size and hardiness, and for laying well in winter, although the eggs are often small and disproportionate to the size of the fowls themselves, but they are rich in quality, next in this respect to cochins. They are buff in color, and with many purchas- ers this is a decided attraction. Brahmas cannot be regarded as first-class table fowls, so far as quality of flesh is concerned, having the flesh laid more on to the legs than the breast, which is always a dis- advantage ; but when they are young they are by no means to be despised, especially when their size is considered. For a familv fowl they are unequalled, and a large Brahma a 7. 84 Profitable Poultry Keeping. chicken is sufficient for the dinner of a moderate sized family. For crossing purposes they are very useful, when table fowls are in view, and we shall have occasion to recom- mend them for that purpose. There are two varieties of Brahmas, the dark and the light, of which we give three illustrations. Both of these are alike, save in colour. The shape of a good bird is most pleas- ing, as they are well-proportioned and very handsome ; the heavily-feathered legs, the deep massive bodies, the neat heads, with small pea-combs, all combine to complete the effect. They are capital sitters and mothers — though when old, rather clumsy and heavy for this purpose, are very docile, can be kept on almost any soil that is not absolutely always wet, are fairly good as layers, and whilst they should have a fair amount of liberty they do not require very extensive runs, and can always be kept within bounds by a three-foot fence. Cochins. At one time this was the most popular breed of all, and there are many now living who can remember the Cochin mania of thirty years ago. Fabulous sums were then given for both eggs and chickens, sums which are not ex- ceeded by the high prices now obtained, and poultry shows were at that time crowded by the fashion and beauty of the period, and were mines of wealth to the promoters. It was expected that the hens would lay two or three eggs a day, and many persons invested their money in them in the hope of thus making a fortune. But the breed was never worth the fuss made about it, and soon subsided into the background, so far as its commercial qualities were concerned. Cochins somewhat resemble Brahmas in shape and appearance, but have more abundant feather, and are rather rounder. They are fairly good as winter layers, but WATH SI- COCHIN COCK. COCHIN HEN. Cochins. 89 in the spring and rammer are bo continually broody that very few eggs indeed are obtained from them. In fact, they arc the most inveterate si 1 ton of all fowls, and on thin account cannot be recommended ; for nit they will, and when they will, choosing all kinds of unlikely articles if they cannot obtain eggs. They arc clumsy, and often break the eggs, or crush the chickens given to them. They are very hardy and easy to rear, can be kept on any soil, arc very docile, but make poor table birds, except so far as size is concerned, having coarse flesh and large bones. We give portraits of a fairly good pair of bufFs, though the best exhi- bition birds are now bred higher in the tail and with more leg and footfeather than is here represented* There are four colours — buff, partridge, black, and white — all of which are very handsome, and look well in a show pen, or on a lawn, where appearance and not utility is looked for. But as com- mercial fowls they arc of no use whatever. Dominjques. These arc birds of American origin, and resemble Cuckoo Dorkings in shape and in some other respects, but have a rose comb. They have yellow legs, are very hardy, will thrive on almost any soil, are capital layers, fairly good table birds, good sitters and mothers, making altogether a most useful breed for general purposes. They have not, however, come into anything like general favour as show birds, and therefore are not very easy to obtain of high quality, but would, wo think, amply repay any one who took them up. ' Dorkings. Dorkings and Games are, perhaps, the oldest and best preserved of all the English pure-bred fowls. The general 90 Profitable Poultry Keeping. characteristics are, a square-shaped body, with a quiet stately carriage, the breast being put well forward. Some varieties have a single, and others a rose comb, but in all cases the head is large, yet neat. The wattles are large and pendant ; the neck is short, taper and with full hackle ; the body is large and deep when viewed sideways, almost forming a square ; the breastbone is deep, the back broad, the tail full, and the thighs large and full ; the legs are white in colour, straight, strong, and clean, have five toes ; and the whole frame is large. Full-grown cocks weigh 101b. to lllb., and hens 81b. to 91b. This breed is the old-fashioned Sussex fowl, and' takes its name from the town of the same name in that county. It has long held the pre-eminent position among English table fowls, and deservedly so, for its white flesh, deep breasts, white legs, and light bones make it one of the best fowls that can be placed upon the table. There are four kinds of Dorkings — w T hite, silver grey, cuckoo, and coloured — all of which are equally good for table purposes, the last named being the largest. In England great size is attained, some cockerels weighing 81b. to lllb., and adult birds 101b. to 141b., which, unlike some other breeds, is not made up of heavy bones, thick shanks, and fleshy thighs. The great drawback to this breed is its tenderness. Whilst the birds can stand any amount of cold, as is proved by their being so largefy bred in the north of Scotland, they cannot thrive in a damp place ; and, consequently, unless the ground is of a dry, porous nature, some other breed should be chosen. Good housing and feeding will do much, but even these will not be sufficient on a heavy clay soil, which is always fatal. All Dorkings have five toes, and, as is generally found, this characteristic is generally accompanied by a tendency to "bumble foot," which is an enlargement of the joints there. To obviate this as far as possible, the birds should have low ,1 French, 93 perches and soft floors and runs. Dorkings are not very good as layers, being table fowls first of all. French. The French people have devoted considerably more atten- tion to poultry than the English have, — at least so far iu the economic qualities are concerned, and as a result their fowls are much superior in commercial character! with one or two exceptions, to the English breeds. In all cases they have regarded egg laying and quality of meat before mere feather, but at the same time have bred to certain general standards, and avoided the production of mongrels, which has not been the case either in America or England. Many of the French breeds are remark- able, both for size, quality of flesh, and depth of breast, and, as those of our readers who have been in Paris can testify, are prepared in a much superior manner to the ones at home, and look much better upon the table. Upon this aspect of the question we shall have more to say later on, when our remarks will be more appropriate. Unfortunately, nearly all the French breeds have dark legs, and, therefore, are objected to in many places where there is a prejudice in favour of light ones. But we hope this prejudice will soon die out, and were it not for poulterers and cooks, it would have died a natural death already. They are the culprits in the matter, and if their influence was being rightly used in favour of quality and not mere appearance, their customers would very soon be reconciled to the change, for the legs, in spite of all that may be believed, are no criterion as to the colour of the flesh. We shall now briefly describe the chief French breeds, as known in this country. The Houdan is one of the most useful breeds we have, 94 Profitable Poultry Keeping* and is now thoroughly acclimatized here. It is espe- cially worthy of the attention of those who have not ft very dry or warm soil, or who desire a good layer, and, at the same time, a plump, large table fowl; or o( those who have to fight against the black leg prejudice, and yet from the nature of their place cannot, keep Dorkings. The breed has undoubtedly been produced in the first in- stance by Orossing, but the same can be said of many of tho other breeds, and it is no disadvantage to it, as ifc certainly breeds pure, and is one of the best farmer's or cottager's fowls we have. As will he seen from the illus- tration we give, the head has a small crest ; the plumage is black and white spangled, the legs are pinky in colour, tho fifth toe is present, as in Dorkings, tho form is bulky and tho size large. It bears confinement well, can be kept on any soil, is very hardy, lavs well, its flesh is all that can bo desired, and it is a non-sitter. We should not, however, advise purchasers to take birds simply because they have won in tho show pen, but get them from some place where llondans have been kepi for years, and bred chiefly for economic qualities. They are then most valuable, and as Mr. Tegetmeier says, they " may certainly be regarded as the Dorkings of France* Large, heavy, short legged, live-toed fowls, with small light bone, a remarkable absence of offal, and with irregularly speckled or mottled plumage, they strongly recall to mind tho old-fashioned coloured Dorking, as it existed beforo any attention had been directed to uniformity of feathering by the poultry shows. Their merits as table fowl are of the highest excellence. No pure bred chickens mature with greater, or perhaps with as great, a degree o( rapidity; they feather early, are extremely hardy, and consequently easily reared. The old birds are robust, and the eggs which tiro numerous, are remarkable as being almost invariably fertile." Of all the Frcneli breeds La Fleche stands at tho head for HKKKmmMWmA V / . ^ a La Fleche. 99 table qualities, and for the great feast of Ifardi gras, held in Paris on Shrove Tuesday, it is no uncommon thing for one hundred francs to be given for a pair of tho.se birds, weighing 101b. each, plucked and dressed. The flesh is beau- tifully white, and there is plenty of depth on the breast. They feed well, hut, unfortunately, have been found in America to omewhat delicate, at least in damp situatic . I where they have not full liberty. It was formerly thought that they were too delicate for England; but in the year L882 Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, when over in Paris, was ho struck with the table qualities of these fowls that he purchased some for his own use. These he placed in his grounds at Finchley, on the north side of London, where the bed of clay is one of the heaviest in the neighbourhood of the Metropolis* The birds were given fall liberty, and his experience has been that they are as hardy as any other breed when so kept. In confinement they arc undoubtedly delicate, but with freedom can be kept by almost any one. They are large, tall, well-shaped birds, with glossy, green-black plumage : have red feces, white ears, and a horned comb, the last of which does not add to their beauty, giving tl an almost satanic appearance. They are clean legged, the legs being dark in colour, are non-sitters, and in France are specially bred for table qualiti The Creve-Cksur is a large bird, with metallic black plumage, but of a lower, squarer build than La Fleche. It is also much more attractive in appearance ; its head is surmounted by a handsome crest, which, in young hens especially, is beautifully round and pleasing. The legs are also black, but the flesh is almost equal to the best English or French fowl. It is hardy, easily reared on any moderately dry soil, is a non-sitter, and a fairly good layer, but the eggs are small. It is necessary to have a good shelter for Creves, so that they can be protected in wet or cold weather, ii 2 ioo Profitable Poultry Keeping. as they are rather liable to colds and roup if the crests gefc wet ; but for this they would be oftener kept than they are. There are, in addition to the breeds already named, several others, such as La Bresse and Courtes Pattes, but as these have no special characteristics more than we have already named in the others, and are not very easily obtained in this country, we need not do more than mention them here. Game. These are probably the oldest of the pure English breeds, and have been bred for many generations with great care and skill. In olden times cock-fighting was a pastime almost national, and was indulged in by both rich and poor. Game fowls were bred for this purpose, courage and endurance being most sought after, and these were combined with great beauty of plumage. Some of the highest men of England thought it no dishonour to breed fowls for this purpose; and important " mains" were regarded with as great interest as are some of the chief race meetings now — this too within the memory of man, for there are many living now, and not old men either, who were accustomed to indulge in this cruel pastime. In modern times a higher standard of taste has done away with cock-fighting, except such as is carried on secretly ; but the change has not done away with the splendid race of fowls, though it is much changed from the old fight- ing days. Unfortunately, however, the pugnacious nature remains, and for this cause most people are unable to keep game birds pure. For crossing purposes, as we shall after- wards see, they can be utilised ; and, as all kinds of games are fair layers, splendid sitters, attentive mothers, have the finest eating flesh of any race of domestic fowl, are very hardy, easy to rear, and can be kept on any soil when at liberty, if this crossing is judiciously done, these characteris- \ fl I I Hamburg hs. 103 tics can be largely retained, without the fear of constant warfare. The chief kinds of games are black-breasted reds, brown- breasted reds, duckwings and piles, all of which are very handsome; and we cannot wonder at the popularity of the breed among those who have opportunities for keeping it, considering its great beauty, endurance and pluck. Among suburban working-men it is the first favorite, and magnifi- cent birds are often bred under the most unfavourable con- ditions. The prices realized for high-class show specimens are very great, and over $500 has been paid for a single cock two or three times during the last three or four years. Of course, good birds can be obtained at reasonable prices ; but no one should attempt to keep this variety unless he has plenty of room, and, for those whose object is profit, we can scarcely recommend it except for crossing purposes. Hamburghs. First and foremost among all laying breeds of fowls stand the Hamburghs, for they are undoubtedly the most prolific layers we have, and it is no unusual thing for hens to lay 200 to 230 eggs per annum. Unfortunately, however, their eggs are small, and the fowls do not bear confinement very well. They have, from their great beauty, come to be regarded as a fancier's fowl, pure and simple ; and whether we look at Ihe cock, with his neat head, beautiful plumage, close com- pact shape, and sweeping tail, ornamented by a well shaped rose comb, and pure ear lobes, or at the hen, neat and saucy as she appears, rich in colour and sprightly in carriage, we cannot but be attracted by them. As show birds there are five varieties now most recognized, namely, gold pencilled, silver pencilled, gold spangled, silver spangled, and black. Of all these the blacks are the most useful, they being much 104 Profitable Poultry Keeping. larger than the others in body, lay larger eggs, and, either alone, or crossed with some breed that will increase the size of the egg, such as any one of the Spanish varieties, will be found profitable, if plenty of room can be given to them. Hamburghs must have space ; if wired-in, a ten-foot fence is necessary to restrain them ; but on farms where they are not at all restricted they will do very well. It must, of course, be under- stood that we are speaking of where they are kept in large numbers, when we say that they must have room. A few birds can easily be kept in a moderately confined place, as is done in hundreds of instances, and some of the very best birds bred every year, both in this and other varieties, are so bred, in places where the fowls have little more than moving room. When they have plenty of room most of the varieties of Hamburghs are hardy, easy to rear, and, as they are non- sitters, make most useful fowls, where the size of egg laid is of less importance than the number. As already stated, the blacks are the best for commercial purposes, and the silver spangles come next in point of size and hardiness. In selecting such birds for stock purposes, mere show qualities, such as fineness of ear lobe and comb, should be ignored, and size of body, good shape and liveliness of carriage be looked for principally. The larger the fowl the larger the egg, as a rule, and by selection both can very materially be increased. There are other varieties besides those named, such as red caps, creels and pheasants, which lay good sized eggs, and can be recommended equally with the blacks as useful fowls. Langshans. About the origin of this breed of fowls considerable con- tention has taken place ; but we have no desire to enter here into the controversy at all. It has only been a very few years Langs hans. 107 in America, being first introduced from China through England and vaunted by its sponsors as an entirely new breed ; but, as it bears some resemblance to Black Cochins as they were at first, it is thought by many that the two breeds are very nearly allied. There can be no question but that they are vastly different now, resembling each other only in colour ; for, whilst the Langshan is a splendid layer and a capital table bird, not too determined a sitter, and a most valuable fowl for general purposes, the other is just the opposite of all these. The Cochin is handsomer in appearance, but that is all. We are disposed to think the truth of the whole matter is, that the Langshan of the present day and the Black Cochin of thirty years ago, are, if not exactly the same, very nearly so, but that the latter has been spoiled by the breeding for fancy points alone. The Langshan is a large bird, standing upon somewhat long legs, which are only very slightly feathered. It has a single upright comb, beautiful metallic plumage, and has inuch of the Cochin shape. In addition to the qualities already named, it is very hardy, easily reared, can be kept on any soil, bears confinement very well indeed, and is a most faithful mother, but, as we have already indicated, not so constant a sitter as is the Cochin. It is, indeed, one of the most valuable additions to our list of fowls that has been made of late years, and its beautiful bright plumage makes it most attractive. Whilst not agreeing with what some of its friends have claimed for it, we have no wish to deny its good qualities, and regard it as one of the best all-round pure-bred fowls for ordinary purposes that we possess. Leghorns. This is a sub-variety of the Spanish type of birds, which originally came from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, 108 Profitable Poultry Keeping. principally from Northern Ital}-, where it is the common breed of the country, and is known all over the continent as the "Italian" fowl. Leghorns were brought some years ago to the United States, and their intrinsic merits soon made them one of the most popular breeds in this country for those poultry breeders who regard utility as of equal, if not greater, importance than fancy points. It was from America that Leghorns were originally taken to England ; and although at first they were met with a great amount of prejudice, they have gradually overcome it, and are now very popular indeed. Originally there were but two varieties, the white and the brown, but now there are two others, the black and the cuckoo. The chief characteristics of Leghorns are — a somewhat large-sized single comb, with deeply cut serrations, and the comb itself extending down over the back of the head ; long pendant wattles, red face, with white ear lobes, yellow bill, and clean legs of the same colour, the hackles full, and a sweeping tail in the cocks. The body is smallish, but close and compact, and the whole appearance sprightly and pleasing. The comb of the hen is large, and falls over on to one side, in a single fold. So far as colour is concerned, in the whites it is that self colour throughout the plumage ; but in the browns the markings are very like brown-red game, though not quite so bright, In the cock, the hackles are golden bay, striped with black ; the back red, each feather having a stripe of brighter bay ; the breast rich black, standing out full in front ; the wings large, of a dark red, striped across with bars of bay and green-black ; the sickles long, green and black in colour; and the legs yellow, as we have already stated. In the hen the breast is a light salmon brown ; the neck hackle yellow, striped with brown ; the back brown, with slight pen- cilling thereon ; and the action sprightly and graceful. The blacks are self colour, and the cuckoos, black and white mixed. BROWN LEGHORNS. Leghorns. 1 1 1 Leghorns are splendid layers of fair-sized eggs, the whites being both the best layers and producing the largest eggs. They are very precocious and hardy (we have known pullets commence to lay at fifteen weeks old, and heard of an instance where the second generation was bred within five months), bear confinement very well, and can be kept almost on any soil, but they are not good as table birds. They are small eaters, and, when at liberty, splendid foragers. Unfortunately, during the last few years the size has diminished, especially with the brown variety, chiefly from the fact that Leghorns have become favourite exhibition birds, and, as a consequence, fancy points have been looked at before the commercial qualities. There are signs, however, that an improvement is taking place in this respect, which, we trust, may be the case, as the breed is a most valuable one, and we should be sorry to see it injured in any way. For those who wish to produce eggs for maiket, it is one of the best breeds that can be kept. Malays. The Malay is of East Indian origin, and was doubtless at first bred chiefly for fighting purposes. As a commercial fowl it is not to be recommended, for it is not only a poor layer, but also very quarrelsome. It can be used to cross with the Dorking for table purposes, as the meat is very richly flavoured ; but, except for this, it is not worth keeping. It is tall, gaunt, and almost ugly, with huge shanks and bones, and a coarse head. Minoecas. These form another variety of the Spanish section, and have been carefully bred for very many years in the south- I 12 Profitable Poultry Keeping, western districts of England, outside of which, until recently, they were scarcely known. But now their great value as layers has made them very popular indeed all over that country, and they promise to become first favorites in this as well. Nor can we wonder at it, for their great fecundity, the large eggs they produce, their precocity and hardiness, their adaptability for all soils and places, whether con- fined or otherwise, makes them one of the most useful breeds we possess, and being non-sitters we must give Minorcas the first position among all the laying breeds of poultry. The Minorcas are in many places known by the name of "Red-faced Spanish," and are the nearest, in shape and appearance, to the Black Spanish of all varieties of fowls. It is probable that the two races were originally one, and that the faces then were red, as the Minorcas now have them ; but the Spanish have been bred with white faces, and spoiled by too fine breeding. The shape is not unlike the Leghorn, but the comb is much larger, and there is the red face, the white ear lobes, and the clean legs also. There are two colours, the blacks and the whites, but the latter are very little seen, and the blacks are the ones of which we have been speaking, being really splendid birds. Their metallic black plumage makes them very handsome, and they are for the same reason very suitable for keeping in towns, or in such districts as are not over clean, from the proximity of factories or works of any kind. As layers Minorcas are about the best breed w r e have at present ; they can be kept on any soil, either at liberty or in confinement, are capital foragers, small eaters, and, were we about to commence keeping a large number of fowls on a farm, we should certainly select this as the laying breed, either alone, or to cross with some of the other Spanish varieties. BLiOK MINORCA Polish. 117 Plymouth Rocks. This is a variety of New England manufacture, but is nevertheless a most useful breed for general purposes, and has become wonderfully popular within a very short time. The fowls are cuckoo in plumage, and resemble a Cochin in shape more than anything else, as that variety has doubtless had much to do in the making them. They are large in body, adult birds being of ten and twelve pounds weight ; have strong yellow legs ; are very good layers, (but the eggs are small, though very rich in flavour) ; are capital as table birds, with a good supply of meat on the breast ; are fairly good sitters and mothers; very hardy, can be kept on almost any soil, and bear confinement very well. Throughout the United States they are great favourites, competing with Leghorns for first position, and are doubtless most useful for general purposes, but are not characterized by any great beauty. They have found many friends in England during recent years, and are now kept in large numbers, which show every sign of increasing. Polish. The Polish must be regarded as one of the most beautiful of all the races of poultry, but it is more suitable as a fancy fowl than for commercial purposes. In fact, it is not to be recommended for the latter at all. There are four principal varieties — the gold-spangled, the silver- spangled, the white- crested blacks, and the buff, or chamois, all of which are very beautiful indeed. Polish are of a medium size, with well- shaped bodies, very rich coloured plumage in the coloured varieties, clean legs, sweeping tails, but their chief glory is a large globular crest which surmounts the head. The illustra- tion which we give is representative of a good pair of white- 1 1 8 Profitable Poufay Keeping, crested blacks, which is about the most striking of all the Polish tribe. They are fairly hardy, but require to be kept where they can have plenty of shelter in wet weather, for they are very subject to colds and roup. They are good layers and table birds, are non-sitters, and most suitable in dry town runs, where they have not a great amount of liberty. Although not generally placed under the head of Polish, yet as they are undoubtedly of the same origin, we now mention the Sultan fowl, which has several points in common with the Polish. It originally came from Turkey, and hence its name. The size is small, the plumage is pure white and very plentiful, the head is surmounted by a large crest, with heavy muffs below, the hock and leg feathers are well developed, and the birds are fairly hardy. They are good layers and non-sitters, but cannot be regarded as commercial fowls. Scotch Greys. Until a few years ago, very few of these handsome birds were to be seen in England and almost none in America. They have been long kept in Scotland, and the first Edin- burgh show we ever visited was a revelation to us, for some two or three hundred birds were there exhibited. They are really a large, hardy, cuckoo Dorking without the fifth toe, and are capital layers, good sitters and mothers, first-rate table birds, hardy, and can be reared on almost any soil, though they do best in dry places. Having white or mottled legs, they can be used both for a chicken trade and as layers, and their economic qualities will doubtless insure them a welcome in many places, where they have heretofore been unknown, and where a hardy and large fowl is specially needed. pq P H h CO | Silkies. 1 2 1 Black Spanish. This breed was at one time the most popular of all, and certainly merited everything that could be said in its favour, as it was a small eater, a prolific layer of large eggs, and bore confinement very well. But that was before it bad been spoiled by the attentions of the fanciers, who, by breeding for fancy points, have almost ruined it; we mean by the foolish development of the white face, which has boon at the expense of its stamina and strength. It is still a good layer, but the chickens arc troublesome to rear, are very slow in feathering, and the adult birds get through the moult with great difficulty, and it is poor as a table bird. In a few strains, which have not been bred for show purposes, and in which the white face has not been unduly developed, these failings arc not so much found, and the birds have all the old strength and value ; but these are very scarce and difficult to obtain, and we should advise any one who wishes to keep Spanish for profit, to cross them with the Black Minorcas, as by this means strength will be secured, and without injury to the laying properlies. As will have been seen from what we have said, Spanish need a warm, dry soil, and special treat- ment during chickenhood, and the moulting season. The plumage is bright black, the comb single (erect in the cock, lying over in the hen, as is shown in the illustration), the face white, the tail sweeping, and the legs black. Silkies. These arc scarcely to be regarded as commercial fowls, but, as they are often used for hatching other eggs, for they are exceptionally good mothers, and as they are of great anti- quity, they cannot be regarded as out of place here. They are small in size, have purple coloured faces and flesh of a 122 Profitable Poultry Keeping, similiarly dark hue, but their great peculiarity is, that their feathers are not webbed, as aro those of other fowls, but separate, and giving the appearance of a covering of silk or down. Respecting them Mr. Tegetmeier in his Poultry Book remarks : — " In form Silk fowls are compact, and low on the legs ; in this respect resembling well-bred Cochins. They are by no means of so great a weight as they appear, for their feathers when in good condition are very fluffy, and stand well out from the body, giving them the appearance of far greater bulk than they in reality possess. Their ordinary weight is under two pounds each for the hens, and two pounds and a half for the cocks. From their small size they are not unfrequently termed silky bantams, and are often exhibited at our poultry shows in the classes for those breeds. The eggs laid by silk fowls are small in size, and of a pale buff colour. The hens usually lay about twenty or twenty-five eggs before showing any desire to sit ; they are admirable mothers, and, on this account, as well as from the warmth afforded by their downy plumage, they are well suited for rearing pheasants or partridges." 8 Cross-bred Poultry. CHAPTER XL CROSS-BRED POULTRY. Farm-yard mongrels — First Cross only to be Used — Value of Cross-breeding — Pure bred Fowls to be the Foundation — Sale of Eggs and Chickens — Methods of Cross-breeding — Some Croises - Improving present Stocks. Considerable attention Las been of late devoted to the subject of cross-bred fowls, and the real value of crossing, as well as the lines upon which it should go, have at last been agreed upon. The ordinary cross-bred poultry, such as we see on too many farms, are simply mongrels, crossed and re-crossed; but w 7 e do not mean these at all. When w r e say cross-bred, we must be understood to refer to a cross between two pure breeds, by which definite characteristics are to be obtained. Therefore, in using the term cross-bred, it must be remembered that we mean a first cross only, for if cross- bred birds be bred from, the slock rapidly degenerates, and loses those qualities for which the crossing had been made. It has been advocated by some writers, that, because the first cross is profitable, following ones must be the same ; and, in one place, we read that poultry should be crossed " as much as possible, as you cannot have too many breeds mixed. " This is simply nonsense, and it has been proved over and over again, that repeated crossing is positively injurious, and that where this system is practised, the birds get smaller in size, weaker in body, and less prolific. Crossing can only be beneficial when it is conducted with skill and foresight, both 126 Profitable Poultry Keeping. of which can easily be attained, by any one having ordinary common sense. If crosses are made without relation to the characteristics of the birds so used, or without due apprecia- tion of what is wanted in the progeny, or, again, simply made for the sake of crossing, then the result can hardly fail to be unsatisfactory. It will be asked by those who have large numbers of fowls, which they keep for the sake of profit only, and who do not care or who have no desire for pure-bred fowls as such, whether it is better to keep the birds pure or crossed. We certainly prefer the cross-bred birds for profit, but there must be pure- bred fowls to supply the stocks of layers or table birds, and these will have to be mated together in a systematic manner. There are many advantages to be obtained by crossing, the first, and perhaps principal, of which is the greater hardiness of the birds so produced. The tendency of all high-class breeding is to develop some point or quality, which is generally secured only by the sacrifice of others, and thus, as these points or qualities are by no means general, a certain amount of in-breeding must take place ; or, the strength and constitution of the animals are regarded as minor matters, and the result is a weakening of the system. A first cross remedies this, but, strange to say, the second generation begins to go back again ; and the promiscuous crossing and in-breeding among farm-yard fowls is undoubtedly the great cause of their de- terioration. There is a natural law for this, but we have not space here to enter into the details of it. Another great ad- vantage is, that certain qualities can be bred for, which are only to be got in pure-bred stock after many years of labour, and not even then if feather is made the chief point. For instance, Leghorns are good layers, but only moderate table birds. To remedy the latter defect, without injury to the laying powers, if present outward characteristics were to be preserved, w r ould be a long and weary task ; but in one year, SILKIES. Cross Breeding. 129 by means of a judicious cross, fowls can be obtained that will retain the good lading qualities of Leghorns, and yet be vastly superior for table purposes. Of course, the distinctive colour and shape would be largely done away with, and, therefore, if this were objected to, such a cross should not be made. As we have already said, there must be a certain amount of in-breeding among pure-bred stock, which natur- ally weakens the system, and reacts upon the commercial properties of the fowl. For profitable purposes, therefore, we strongly recommend cross-breeds, as th Q y are much superior to the pure breeds, if properly mated. Hap-hazard mating of birds will do no good, but rather the reverse, and there must be an object in view in all that is done, or more harm than good will certainly be the result. There is yet another advantage in having pure-bred fowls to breed from, and that is, there are many persons all over the country who have room for only a few fowls, say, half-a- dozen to a score, and who only wish to supply their own tables with eggs, and, in a few cases, with a chicken now and again. Many of these have not space sufficient to allow them to go in for breeding, and others only want to rear a very few chickens every year, say, one or two clutches at most. Such persons do not care for showing, but at the same time like to have pure-bred fowls. They are generally willing to give two dollars for a good cockerel, and two-thirds as much for a nice-looking pullet; or, when they take a fancy to rear a few chickens, they prefer to obtain a few eggs from another yard, and will pay two or three dollars for a setting of eggs. There are some poultry yards where hundreds of settings of eggs, and hundreds of birds, are sold in this way every year ; and we do not see why every farmer who goes in for poultry should not do a little in this way also. Of course, if every one did this, each one would make less out of it. than those who have it all to themselves now do ; but, as there K 130 Profitable Poultry Keeping, is always a demand for birds to provide a change of blood, and there are probably fifty poultry-keepers, who have only a few fowls for their own household purposes, to every farmer who could go in for the business we have mentioned, there would even then be plenty of room for all ; and we may reasonably suppose that the number of small poultry-keepers would in- crease as rapidly as the larger ones, if, indeed, not more rapidly. Not only is the demand for pure-bred stock greater for this purpose than for cross-bred s, but the prices are much greater also. There is always a pleasure in looking at birds which have a decided individuality of their own, at least, where the keeping of them is made a hobby; and it is surprising how much greater pride is taken in fowls of this kind than is taken in mongrels. Cross-bred fowls will sell for very little more than killing prices, and their eggs, for hatching purposes, will only realize market prices per dozen ; whilst pure-bred ones, even though the parents in each case may be of the same family, will bring twice and often three times the money. Thus it will be seen that the keeping of a stock of pure-bred birds is the best paying system of the two. When commencing, the best plan is to purchase one or two pens of pure-bred fowls, if there are none that can be used for the purpose already in the yard, the cocks to be of a breed that will help the qualities of the hens. Each pen will require to be kept by itself, and should have a good run, or perfect freedom, as exercise has much to do with the hardi- ness of the chickens. If the houses are placed a good distance from each other, there will be very little danger of intermixing. Only the eggs from these pens should be hatched, and (calculating that half will be cockerels) in sufficient numbers to completely stock the yard with having hens in the autumn, when the present stock of hens, if any, can be fattened and killed off, just before they go into the Desirable Cross Bi'eeds. 131 moult. By this means a race of first-class birds will be obtained, and the difference in returns the following winter if mongrels have been previously kept, will show the wisdom of the course adopted. Layers can easily be got that will produce an average of 150 to 200 eggs per annum, and table fowls that will grow and fatten very rapidly. The breeding hens can be put among the young ones in the autumn, as they will be wanted again the following spring. In all well-regulated yards it is customary to kill off the hens when about nine- teen months old, just before they go into their second moult, as they are still good for eating, or, at any rate, much better than they will ever be again ; and, as every moult gets more severe and protracted, and the number of eggs laid fewer, it is much more profitable to supply their places with young hens. But the same breeding stock will do again, simply filling up the g<^ a, or introducing fresh birds as may be found necessary. As breeders of laying fowls we suggest the following crosses, the first-named of each pair being the cock : — Black Minorca — Leghorn ; Minorca — Houclan ; An- dalusian — Leghorn; Andalusian — Minorca; or, Andalusian — Houdan. For good all-round fowls — layers, sitters, and table fowls : — Game — Houdan ; Game — Langshan ; Game — Brahma ; or, Game — Scotch Grey. And for first-class table birds : — Game — Dorking ; Game — La Fleche ; Game — Creve ; or, Dorking — La Fleche. These crosses will be found sufficient for those who wish to try the plan suggested, and we should recommend them not to keep too many varieties. One laying and one table-fowi cross, will be sufficient for most yards. Doubtless there will be some of our readers who have a stock of hens which they do not wish to part with, and would prefer to improve these by obtaining some fresh cocks. We do not look upon this as the best plan, but at the same time give such information as will help those w T ho prefer to adopt k 2 132 Profitable Poultry Keeping. it. The way to proceed is, to select twelve to fifteen clean- legged, close-bodied liens, known to be good layers, and not more than two years old, and buy a couple of Minorca, Houdan, or Andalusian cockerels, if layers only are wanted, and Lang- shan or Game, if both layers and table birds arc desired. Mate these up with the hens spoken of, and the progeny will be vastly superior to the present stock, which can be partially, or entirely, cleared out in the autumn. The cockerels just named should be got rid of also, and the following spring a similiar number of the pullets bred should be selected, and a couple of fresh cockerels obtained, of the same breed as before, which will have to be repeated every year. By this means the fowls will gradually improve, and in a very few years the character of the yard will be entirely altered. Or, another plan, is to buy five cocks for every fifty hens, and let all run together, killing ofT the old hens in the autumn, and buying new cocks every spring. Both these methods are, however, slow, and the one we first named, will be found cheapest and best in the long run. Ducks. 133 CHAPTER XIL DUCKS. Ducks very profitable — Water needed for Breeder! — Not to be kept with liens — Duck Farms— Hooting — The Wild Duck — The Aylesbury — The Rouen — The Pekin— The Cayuga— The Muscovy — Ornamental Varieties — Keeping in Small Runs — Forcing — Breeding — Hatching —Hearing — Feeding — Pre- paring Rice. Of all the various kinds of domesticated poultry, which can bo kept by farmers or cottagers, there is no doubt that ducks are the most profitable ; but they need a suitable place to be kept in, and are not so capable of adapting themselves to circumstances as are hens. They are, however, hardy, easily reared, feed up quickly, and can, at the proper season of the year, or in some places at almost any season, bo sold very readily at good prices. Where there are towns within a reasonable distance of a farm, arrangements can be made to supply hotels, restaurants, private houses, or dealers, and we are sure the result will be a satisfactory one. Of coarse, water will be required, and a running stream is best of all, but the soil can be of any nature, though where it is gravel or sand, it is all the better for the purpose, as ducks require one or other of these to help them in the digestion of their food, and the more easily they do digest the food the better they will thrive. Ducks do not want good land, but can be kept on uncultivated ground, and it will be none the worse for them if they can have some good shelter, such as trees or bushes afford. They must not, however, be kept with hens, 134 Profitable Poultry Keeping. or the latter will be found to suffer in consequence, as ducks thrive in dirt, and hens do not, so that, if there is not sufficient room to permit of their being widely separated, then hens or ducks should be selected, for which the place and soil is most suitable, and for the produce of which there is most demand in the district. As an instance of what is done in this way, we may state that the Aylesbury district, England, is great for ducks, and it is said that upwards of $100,000 per annum is paid to the cottagers around the town of Aylesbury for ducklings, which are chiefly reared for the London market. Same time ago a description appeared in the Field, of London, of a duck farm near to Dunstable, in Bedfordshire, which has been found a profitable investment by its owners. A large house was built about a couple of years ago to keep and fatten the young birds in ; and the object of the owners is to get the ducklings ready for market as rapidly as possible, for which purpose they are fed on boiled rice ; to this meat is added for the older ones, during the two or three weeks previous to their being killed, and some hundreds are sent to market every week in the season. Since the above description appeared, a lady, who writes under the name of " Hen wife," has given, in the hive Stock Journal, the results of her own work in this direction. She says : — " Ini the spring of 1881 I obtained from my own stock of Aylesburys, and from purchases of eggs, upwards of 500 ducklings. Of these I lost from rats, heavy rains, and an incursion of cattle, about thirty-five. The twenty birds which I set aside as breeding stock were hatched in March and April. Having set eggs in December, 1880, I had ducklings fit for the table in Februrary, which I sold at' 16s. to 18s. per couple. I had a constant supply of Ducklings until August, 1881. On November 10th my reserve breed- ing stock began to lay, being then about seven months old, Duck Keeping. 135 and from these eggs Cue ducklings were hatched on the 20th. December I never keep ducks over eighteen months old, as I find they eat idle food from the end of August to March, which is better bestowed on their young ones, at that time laying. I except from this rule any particularly large bird, or one remarkable for its laying qualities." One great advantage in keeping ducks is, that they are hardy and easy to rear, in proof of which we may quote what was told us some time ago, by one of the largest breeders in the kingdom, namely, that he very seldom finds any eggs infertile, that the proportion of eggs failing to hatch is very small, and that the moibility amongthe ducklings is almost nil — so that the duck breeder has every chance of success. So far as the fattening is concerned, we have fed ducklings up to 81b. and 101b. the- couple, in eight weeks, at a cost of about 30 cents to 40 cents each ; and as the price to be got even at an ordinary time would be not less than 18 cents, and probably 25 cents a pound, whilst earlier in the year it would be much greater, there is plenty of margin for profit. Besides, ducks are most prolific layers, and there is always a good demand from cooks and confectioners for their eggs. Ducks are undoubtedly large eaters, but as the old birds kept need not be very numerous, this does not affect the matter ; and there are thousands of cottagers and others, living near small streams, who might add veiy considerably to their incomes by keeping ducks, and without any great outlay in the first instance, or much time and money after- wards. But the place must be suitable if profit is to be made. We do not for a moment wish to say that ducks cannot be reared without water. In fact, in our early poul- try days we hatched and reared every year sufficient ducks to supply our table for months, on a very small plot of ground ; but we never attempted to keep adult birds, buying the eggs J 6 Profitable Poultry Keeping. for hatching, and rearing the claddings, which had only a pool of water about six feet in diameter to disport them- selves in. Had we attempted to keep layers we should doubtless have failed, for it is an undisputed fact that ducks which are to be used as breeders, must have a fair amount of water, enough to swim about in. And if this cannot be given, the plan we have adopted should be followed, or no ducks kept at all. Otherwise, failure will be the inevitable result. So far as the housing of ducks is concerned, they require a comfortable house in the winter or late autumn. One low in the roof is the best, as they always lie upon the floor, which should be made in the same way as that already described for ordinary poultry houses. If the roof is three feet above the ground, that will be sufficient, but it must be properly ventilated, and dry both above and below. Clean straw should be kept on the floor, and bricks and straw used for nests, but no shed is needed if the house is of reasonable size, as the birds rather enjoy rain than other- wise. It is best to have an enclosure round the house, made of low wcod railings, in which the birds can be kept until about ten o'clock in the morning, for if allowed out before that time they will lay in any out of the way place, where the nests will not be very easy to discover. Where plenty of water is at hand for breeding ducks, then one drake will be sufficient for five or six ducks, and, as they are peace- able in their nature, all ihe stock may be kept together, except there is an cbject in separating them, such as when there are different breeds, or there is a desire to keep families separate. There are many varieties of ducks, some of which are purely fancy ones, whilst others are chiefly noted for their economic qualities ; but it is generally admitted by natu- ralists, that the various breeds of domesticated ducks have all descended from the wild duck, or Mallard, as it is called, The Aylesbury Duck. 137 which is to be found over all the continent of Europe, in most parts of North America, and has also been seen in portions of Northern Africa and Western Asia, though it is most numerous on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It is not much unlike the Rouen in its plumage, though more upright in shape ; and, as is generally the case with wild birds, it is much more active in its habits. It is found chiefly in marshes and fens, and, in parts of the West and South especially, it is shot in very large numbers, but there are many other parts of the country where it is also to be met with. In a wild state ducks are monogamous, and thus the domesticated ones have been corrupted by civilization. Wild ducks are often tamed, which is done by obtaining the eggs and hatching them under hens, when the progeny do not appear to seek for or desire liberty. In two or three genera- tions they begin to vary in colour ; and, doubtless, if the experiment were continued long enough, the breeds we now have could all be produced again in this way. It is a strange fact, that it takes several generations to teach tamed birds the polygamous customs of domesticated duckdom, as they at first go in pairs, like their wild progenitors, but afterwards the descendants lose this trait of their nature. The Aylesbury. — Of the many varieties of domestic ducks, probably the Aylesbury is the best known, and it is found, more or less, all over the country. This variety, as might be supposed, takes its name from the little thrifty English town, in the neigbourhood of which it is kept in such large numbers. It is perfectly white in its plumage, the slightest discoloured feather denoting impurity of breed, and being regarded as a disqualification for the show pen. The bills of birds of this variety are of a pale pink colour, and the nearer they are to the delicate tinge of a lady's finger nail, the better are they looked upon, whilst their legs are a bright orange. They are certainly the most easily acclimatised of 138 Profitable Poultry Keeping, all the duck varieties, often thriving in very unsuitable places ; and they are hardy, mature rapidly, and grow to a great size. The only difference between drakes and ducks is, that the former are rather larger than the latter, and have a curled feather in the tail, by which the sex is very easily distinguished. The average weight of these birds, when twelve months old, is 71b. for the drake, and 61b. for the duck ; but, of course, by special feeding, such as is adopted for exhibition birds, and those for table purposes, these weights can be exceeded to a considerable extent; and the winning birds at the Birmingham show of 1882, were upwards of 201b. the pair. Ducklings generally w T eigh, if properly fed, about 41b. when seven or eight weeks old, which is the usual age for killing : for when they get older their adult feathers begin to form, and they are neither so plump, nor yet so presentable on the table. The nearest in appearance are Pekins, but it is not very difficult to distinguish Aylesburys from them, as the pure-bred Aylesburys are perfectly white, of a boat shape, with short legs and a long fine neck ; and any deviation from these points denotes impurity. We often see so-called Aylesburys with a partially erect body, yellowish bills, or canary-coloured plumage, all, or any of which, show that Pekin blood has been introduced, too many of our birds being thus crossed now-a-days. We do not object to this cross, and it is doubtless at times very advantageous, but we prefer to do it ourselves, and not have others sell us as pure- bred stock birds that have been so adulterated. The Eouen. — This may be regarded as the handsomest of all the larger varieties of the duck tribes, and, as we have already stated, is like the wild duck in its plumage. But domestication has resulted in its losing the more graceful shape of the latter, for it is decidedly thicker and heavier in build, but has the decided advantage of being more easily fattened. The drake has a clear yellow bill, with a slight The Pekin. 139 greenish tinge, and in shape, long and broad. The head is rich green, glossed with purple, which extends down the neck, where there is a ring of pure white. The breast is a rich deep claret brown, and the under parts are a delicate French grey. The back is a rich greenish black, and the curls in the drake's tail are dark green. The wings are greyish brown, and have a ribbon mark across them, this being of a bright and distinct blue, with a white edge on each side. The flights are grey and brown, and the legs orange. The duck has a brown head, with two distinct shaded lines on each side. The breast is brown, pencilled over with a darker shade of the same colour, and the wing has a ribbon mark like that of the drake. The weight of these birds is about six t<* eight pounds, and the heaviest pair at Birmingham show in 1882, was over twenty-one pounds, but once this has been exceeded by nearly two pounds. The Rouens grow to a greater size than the Aylesbury, but take a considerably longer time about it, and on this account are not so profit- able for market purposes. We therefore regard the Ayles- bury as being the better of the two, for a Rouen duckling at eight weeks is no larger than an Aylesbury at six weeks. They are, however, equally as hardy and as prolific, though their eggs are not quite so large ; are as easily reared, and have one decided advantage, namely, that as their plumage is dark, they do not show dirt So soon, and consequently suit places where the white-feathered birds would always look filthy. The Pekin. — The Pekin is a recent introduction, and, as the name implies, is a native of the Celestial Empire. It was first heard of in 1873, when specimens were imported into the United States, and they were hailed with great eagerness. Soon afterwards a few were imported into Eng- land, and, from their large size, splendid laying powers, great hardiness, and striking appearance, soon won favour, 140 Profitable Poultry Keeping, becoming very popular indeed; but they have not main- tained their position, for they are larger in frame than in flesh, and have an abundant plumage, which gives them the appearance of greater bulk than they actually possess. They do not mature so rapidly as the Aylesbury, and their flesh is not of the same rich and delicate flavour as is that of the Aylesbury, Eouen, or Cayuga. On the other hand, they are heavy layers of large well-flavoured eggs ; the eggs are, as a, rule, very fertile indeed, and the ducklings easy to rear, for which reasons they have been largely crossed with the Ayles- bury, in order to counteract the evils of in-breeding in some strains of the latter variety. Many of the winning show Aylesburys are so crossed, the canary tinge in the plumage, yellowish bills, and the peculiar carriage being the best signs of this cross. The Pekin differs from all other ducks in the shape and carriage of its body, which is of a peculiar boat shape. The legs are set well back, and the bird walks rather upright or penguin fashion. The head is large, and the neck long ; the legs and bill are of a rich yellow, and the plumage generally has a peculiar cream colour running through, it, sometimes scarcely noticeable, but often so decided that it is really a canary colour. It is very graceful on the water, and for crossing with the Aylesbury is a very valuable variety. The progeny are easily fattened, and have good flesh, two most important matters to those who wish to obtain a rapid return. The Cayuga. — This is a variety which deserves to be much more kept than it now is, for it is a most useful fowl, of capital size, and extraordinarily good as a layer. Cayugas are very hardy, mature rapidly, fatten well, and their flesh is of high flavour — said to be even better than that of the wild cluck. The drakes weigh about nine pounds, and the clucks about a pound less, when matured ; and they have a very good characteristic, namely, that they do not wander The Muscovy. 141 away from home, but can be left at liberty without fear of their straying away. They are very similar in colour to the East Indian ducks, being of a brilliant black throughout, with lustrous green reflections on the head, neck, and wings ; both males and females have a bright purple or claret brown tinge on the back and wings, but the secondaries are more blue than green ; the drake also is more strongly tinted with green than the. duck. The drake's bill is greenish yellow, but not so yellow as the Rouens, and it has a clear black bean at the tip. The bill of the duck is black at the base, and tipped with a greenish slate colour ; and the colour of the bill, like that of the Rouen, changes at different seasons of the year. The shape of the bill differs from that of any of the other breeds already named, as it does not come straight from the skull, but curves down to the centre and up towards the tip, in dish shape. The legs are of a smoky orange colour, and, from the colour of its plumage, the Cayuga is very suitable for any place, whilst its economic qualities make it one of the most valuable of all water fowls. The Muscovy. — This duck was brought from South America, and hence it is sometimes called the " Peruvian " duck, but the name usually given to it refers to its musky odor. The drake is much larger than the duck, which is a good layer, hardy, easily reared, and rich in flesh. Being most pugnacious and tyrannical, the muscovy duck cannot be recommended for farmyard purposes. No other fowl can exist with comfort, and it is best either to have no other birds about the place, or to confine them to a run of their own, which is not always a convenient matter. Of this variety there are the black, blue, mottled, and white ; the feathers are very profuse and long, and in the dark drake the colour is exceedingly lustrous. The head is noticeable for a fleshy bunch at the base of the bill, and there is also a red 142 Profitable Poultry Keeping. fleshy arc round the eye, the face being of the same substance, and bare. The drake is furnished much more profusely than the duck, and the sex is much more easily distinguished than in any other breed, notwithstanding the entire absence of the usual curl in the tail, as the male bird is generally three or four pounds heavier than the female. These birds are by no means pleasing in appearance, and are not to be recommended for the reasons already given, though they make an exceedingly valuable, but infertile, cross with any of the large breeds, the muscovy drakes being used. In addition to the five chief varieties of ducks which we have mentioned there are several others, but these are chiefly fancy ones, and consequently scarcely fall within our province. We may, however, be permitted to say, that for such as have a piece of ornamental water, there is nothing prettier, or will add to its beauty more, than a few of the rich-coloured Mandarins or Carolinos. The small black East Indian breed is also very good for this purpose, but it is difficult to get hardy or strong birds, for in-breeding has been so much resorted to, in order to obtain diminutive size, that the breed has really been ruined. Where the place is clean and free from smoke and dirt, the White Call, or decoy ducks, are very nice, and this variety has one decided advantage, namely, that it is tame and domesticated, not given to fly or wander away, like some of the other birds. In addition to these there are many other varieties, such as Spotted Bills, Whistlers, Pintails, and Kasarkas, so that those who desire ornamental waterfowl, need have no difficulty whatever. In the keeping of ducks, it is necessary to have a clear idea as to the object for which they are to be kept. As wo have previously pointed out, a reasonable amount of spaco and sufficient water for the breeding birds must be provided, and it is of no use attempting to keep and breed from ducks cooped up in a very small run. In that case it is better to Management of Ducks. 143 buy eggs and hatch them, or buy the ducklings, when very young, and rear them. Bat, granting that the place is suitable, then in rearing the birds, those intended for early killing require to be treated in a different fashion, to those that are to be kept for future breeding purposes, or to be sold. If birds destined for the table are fed upon foods that develop bone, or that which is offal in the birds when they are killed, then there is a direct waste, for these things cannot be eaten, and prevent the laying on of that flesh, which is, or should be, the aim and object of fattening. But, on the other hand, to feed birds that have to be reared to maturity, on flesh-forming foods alone, would be equally as foolish, for, in that case, there would not be sufficient bone to support the flesh, and, though the bird might apparently thrive for a time, it would begin to fail before long, and probably die. It must be clearly under- stood, that an undue forcing of any part of the nature of the bird, cannot but be at the expense of some other part ; consequently, if too much prolonged, the balance of the system is upset, and the bird dies. This is the reason why birds, when fattened, begin to go back and lose flesh, if the process is extended too much, and the fact that feeding continuously on food of a fattening nature induces disease, would appear to show that the statement of those scientific men, who say that all fat is a disease, has something to support it, although it may be that it is the excess of fat, and not the moderate quantity of it, that really causes disease. When keeping ducks for breeding purposes it is best to give them a running stream, if it be convenient to do so, for this is much better than a pond, but one or the other is indispensable. Two ducks should be given to one drake, or, if the birds are young ones and of a vigorous breed, five ducks may be given to two drakes. Drakes are not to be relied upon for breeding purposes when more than two years old, and it is better, therefore, not to keep them after that age, 144 Profitable Poultry Keeping. but to fatten and kill them off. Ducks are capital layers, as a rule, and the eggs, when the drake is not older than we have just mentioned, very fertile. In hatching, large Cochin or Brahma hens should he used, as these can cover eleven, or sometimes thirteen eggs, very easily ; hut, it is necessary to remember, when hens are used, that a duck in sitting a nest will, on going off to feed, have a swim before she returns, and, as her feathers will be wet in consequence, the eggs get the benefit of it. Eggs under hens, therefore, must be kept moist, or they will not hatch, for, when this is not done, the inner skin gets hard and tough, so that the little inmate cannot make its way out. The nest should be in a moist place, but if this cannot be arranged, then the earth below it must be kept damp, much more damp than is required for fowls. We have always found it very advantageous to sprinkle the eggs with a little warm water when the hen is off feeding, so that the shells get moist all over. Ducks' eggs can easily be hatched in incubators, and we have been very successful in this way ; but one thing must be borne in mind, that ducks' and hens' eggs are not to be put into one machine, as each kind requires different treatment. Hens' eggs only need a reasonable amount of moisture, and should never be sprinkled, whereas, for ducks' eggs, the moisture trays are by no means sufficient, and they should be sprinkled daily, so that the air in the machine will be more heavily charged with moisture than is good for ordinary eggs. Not only so, but duck eggs hatch all the better if given con- siderably more air, and a longer time for cooling, than is good for hens' eggs, and for these reasons, it will be seen that separate machines are required for the two kinds of eggs. The period of incubation for ducks is twenty-eight days, but, when the eggs are very fresh, they very often hatch a day or two earlier. If the sprinkling of the eggs is attended to, there is seldom any loss during the process of hatching; but, Feeding Ducklings, 145 in order that all may come out together, or within a short time of each other, it is best to select eggs as nearly equal in age as possible. Duck eggs should be tested in the way we shall describe for hens' eggs ; but it is best to make the first examination on the ninth or tenth day, and the water test on the twenty-fifth day. Of course, a daily look at the eggs is advisable; and if any get broken, all must be washed, and the nest re-made. As a rule, we do not approve of the plan of removing any of the little things from under the hen, should the hatching be irregular ; but if any are greatly delayed in hatching, then those ducklings that are dry, may be taken away, and put in a flannel covered basket, near the fire. They need, however, to have something against which they can put their backs, and thus a good cushion may be put over the flannel, of course, seeing that there is enough ventilation through the sides of the basket, or the ducklings may all be smothered. The morning after the hatching is completed, the hen and her brood should be removed to a coop, placed under a shed ; and, as they do not require any food for the first twenty-four hours after being hatched, they will now be ready for their first meal, which should consist of hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine, and mixed with boiled rice. This food may be continued for two or three days, when Spratt's or Chamberlain's foods, or boiled rice, or barley meal, the two latter mixed with greaves, should be given, if the birds are intended to be killed at an early age ; but if not, the greaves should be dispensed with, and the boiled rice reduced in quantity, to made only an occasional food. The greaves consist almost entirely of fat, whilst the rice contains only a trace of bone-forming sub- stances in it, so that both these foods arc admirable for the purpose of forcing birds for the table ; but, they are not at all calculated to build up the frames of those birds intended to be reared to an adult age. In the latter it is necessary L 146 Profitable Poultry Keeping, to have slower growth, less development of fat or flcsli, and more stamina ; in the former all that is required, is to get as much flesh as possible, in as short a time as possible, with little bone, or other offal. Thus, when they are to he reared, ducks should have no forcing food, and plain barley meal or ground oats, made into a crumbly mass, will be the best food. It may be well to give boiled rice as a variation, for there can be no doubt that variety is appreciated by the birds ; but, if it is given, it should have a good handful of bone meal, to every quart-measureful of the rice, which will make up for the deficiency in bone-forming qualities. As very many persons do not know the best way to prepare boiled rice, we will give our method, for this food is a iirst- cbtss one for fattening any kind of fowl. The kind known as poultry rice can be bought from nearly all corn dealers at a reasonable price, and it is good enough for the purpose, if the sample is a clean one. The way to prepare it is to put, say, a pint of rice into a gallon pan, with three quarts of winter, a small handful of the chopped greaves, and a tea- spoonful of aromatic compound. This we place upon the side of the fireplace, and allow it to simmer for two or three hours. In that time tho rice will have swollen out and absorbed all the water, so that it will be crumbly moist, liko a well-made rice pudding. If this is given to the birds when warm, though not actually hot, the eagerness with which they will eat it will be sufficient proof of how much they relish it. Those who follow our directions should remember, that it must not be allowed to boil in the usual way, or it will be soft aud sloppy, but it should be allowed to gently simmer in the manner as described by us, and then it will be all that can be desired in the way of an appetising and useful food. Geese and Turkeys, O47 OHAPTEK XTTI. OBESE AND TURKEYS. G in England Benefit to Crope— Breedi Weight! attained— Management^ Turkey*— Said to b<; delicate Breedi Management Fattening, Wi. bare now nearly got to the end of our list of com- mercial poultry, ami come to the two groat — i.e., BO far as bulk is concerned — varieties. OF these geese are the hardier, and much easier to rear, so that in many places they are much preferred to turkeys, if fat, bringing always a good price in the market. They pay very well indeed for keep- ing, and the farmer will, as a rule, find it worth his while to have a few of them in the autumn, when his grain crops are off the laud. In the eastern-middle counties of England very large numbers are kept, and a ride through that portion of the country would be quite a revelation to those who had not been there before. On the fields and the commons, flocks of geese and turkeys are to be seen, and the place where they are not to be found is the exception, not the rule. They are a considerable source of profit, and, consequently, are not neglected; and the vast numbers which are sent to London every year is astonishing to those who are not conversant with the facts of the case. In these counties the majority of farmers breed their own birds, but there are many who buy goslings in the early autumn, and simply fatten them for the market. In this country the sale of young goslings is rare, as those who fatten hatch their own stock, and no one part of the country is especially famous for its geese. 148 Profitable Poultry Keeping. By putting on goslings in the way we have described, the land is made profitable after the crops are gathered, and they do it an immense amount of good. The birds pur- chased are generally bred by those who live near commons or waste land, and there is no need why this should not be done in every district. If it were done, the benefit derived would be great, and probably the farmers near small towns who need it most, would reap the benefit, and would also supply a demand which has generally to be met from a dis- tance. Of the various breeds of geese the Toulouse and the Emb- den are the chief, and, as a rule, for commercial purposes, it will be found better to select one of these. The Toulouse is commonly known as the grey goose, because its plumage is of that colour; and the Embclen is called the white goose, its plumage being pure white throughout. The latter is said to be the earliest and best layer, which is a very great recom- mendation, and its feathers always bring a higher price, than do those of the coloured variety. In some places, however, pure white birds would not look at all well, because of the presence of smoke ; but, these are considerations which must be left to be decided individually, according to circumstances. Both these varieties are about equal in point of size and quality of flesh. At the Birmingham Show of 1882 the weight of the winning pair of grey geese was 451b. 4oz., and of the whites 4jlb. 12oz.; but generally at that exhibition the Toulouse are heaviest. Of course these weights are abnormal, and only obtained by a very careful and continued system, which our readers will do well not to follow, but be content if they get birds from 121b. to 181b. weight, for the Christmas market. In addition to the varieties named, there are the Sebastopol, the Chinese, the Canadian, and the Egyptian, but we do not think that they will be found bo profitable as the Toulouse and the Embden. Management of Geese, 149 A, capital description of the method of management ap- peared some years ago in the Farmer, and was deemed worthy of being reprinted in Mr. Tegetmeier's Poultry Book. This we now give for its practical value : — " A good-sized pond, with a plentiful supply of water and good pasturage, are in- dispensable to make goose-keeping a paying business, for they are very large consumers. Let them have an outhouse all to themselves, regularly supplied with clean straw, with which to make nests on the floor as the laying season ap- proaches, and partition the nests off according to the number required. One gander will be sufficient for three or four geese. They generally lay about twelve eggs each, which number they will hatch. The eggs, for safety, should be collected daily and placed in bran, until the geese, by re- maining on their nests, show their desire for sitting. The eggs must then be placed under them, and the house so arranged that they can have free liberty of egress and ingress at all times of the day, as they will require food and water daily, to which they will help themselves, if a pasture-field and pond of water be near, and afterwards return to their nests. Little attention is, therefore, required whilst they are sitting, beyond keeping their nests undisturbed, and protected from vermin. When the time of hatching has arrived, in case any young birds are out, see that all shells are removed, for fear they may cap the other eggs, and thereby prevent their hatching. Allow the goslings to remain in the nest for a night and a day; they will not require feeding during that time, but will gather strength ; and, if the following morning be fine and sunshiny, they can be moved at once upon a grass-plot or other convenient place, where they will be safe, and supplied with an abundance of nice young grass, of which they will soon partake (this, their natural food, suits them better than to be crammed with oatmeal pellets), not forgetting to place them some water in a shallow vessel, with 150 Profitable Poultry Keeping. which a little oatmeal may he mixed. If the weather is un- favourable, they must he confined in an outhouse, and plen- tifully supplied with nice green grass turfs and water. . . . The most critical time for young geese is ahout midsummer; if it is very dry weather, and the pasturage and water is not plentiful, it is then desirable to give them a few oats night and morning to assist nature over this peculiar juncture, and help them on until the stubbles are ready for them, and when those are cleared they will be in nice condition for fattening, which is best done by making them up in lots of ten or fifteen in number, according to the size of the place, supplying them with plenty of water and an unlimited quantity of oats for three weeks, giving them a clean bed of straw when required ; they will then be ready for the market. The day previous to killing, turn them on to the pond for the purpose of washing their feathers, and supply a clean bed of straw in the feeding-house before their return ; but take away all food and water, and let them fast until killed the next day, when they must be dressed for the market. There is not the slightest doubt geese pay well where there are conveniences for keeping them, but they must be well man- aged, and kept out of the mowing grass and cornfields, or they will soon do damage to the amount of double their profit." The same plan, as is here described for fattening, may be adopted equally by those who only rear the birds, as by those who breed them also ; goslings can be bought about August and September at low prices, and will fatten up very rapidly, if fed in the way described. There is only one thing we need add to what has been already said, and that is, geese must never be put in compartments alone when fattening, as is done with ordinary fowls, for in that case they would fret and lose flesh, instead of gain it. Turkeys have the name of being very delicate and difficult Turkey Rearing, 15T. to rear, in consequence of which they are often not kept, where they might he with advantage, for, in a suitable place, they are one of the most profitable of all domestic poultry. They are undoubtedly delicate if kept on damp soil, but where the ground is dry, and the position not too exposed, they will do well. Just at one period of their growth, when they are "shooting the red," that is, when about six weeks old, and the red skin is appearing on the head, they need extra care and to be well sheltered, for getting wet just then is almost certain to be fatal. The prices obtained for turkeys, and the heavy weights to which they grow, make them very profitable indeed, and wherever it can well be done, we should strongly urge that a few of them be kept. The varieties of turkeys known in this country are the Wild, Bronze, Narragansett, Black, Buff, and White. Of these the Wild is the hardiest, firmest fleshed, and highest flavored,' even Avhen bred in domestication ; the Black approaches it most nearly but fattens more readily, while the Bronze, which closely resembles it in coloring, is the most rapid in growth, quickest to fatten, and heaviest of all. The Nar- ra^ansetf.s and Whites are the most domestic. Large size is a matter that must be considered, for the price turkeys realize in market increases with the weight, and the fact contrary to the rule in most things, that, the price per pound of a thirty-pound turkey is considerably greater than that of one half its size is especially true in early winter, but not at all times of the year. Turkeys are not fully grown until they are three or four years old, but it will be found that birds can be bred from, without fear, when two years of age. The young birds produce more eggs than the older ones, and begin to lay earlier in the season, and, also, are not so savage. A turkey hen generally lays about twenty eggs, but she should not be allowed to sit all these ; and it is better to give the first half- dozen to hens, letting her have the rest herself, for it is very 152 Profitable Poultry Keeping, cruel, and does not pay in the long run, to prevent her having a nest, in addition to which, she will prove a better mother than any hen could be. The period of incubation is twenty-eight days, and the first food for the young birds should be hard-boiled egg, with dandelion, lettuce, onions, or nettles chopped up, and all mixed with bread crumbs ; and to this may be added a little rice boiled in sweet skim milk, a little suet, or greaves, and in cold weather a little aromatic compound, with grain of all kinds for the birds, as they get older. We have also heard the very highest accounts of the value of Chamber- lain's meal in reariDg turkeys, even from those who had failed before they used it. A fresh site for the coop is neces- sary every morning, and a little exercise, by letting the mother out of the coop, which must be large and roomy, not less than three feet square, will do the chicks a lot of good. When the birds are about ten or twelve weeks old they may be put on to barleymeal as the staple food, mixed with a little greaves, and alternated with corn, barley, and small wheat. As soon as they are deserted by the mother, the birds should be put in a large roomy house at night ; and, it is then neces- sary, to see that they do not perch on rails or hurdles, as crooked breasts would be the certain result. Christmas turkeys are shut up in a light, dry, and roomy shed, or house, about the first week in November ; and the Norfolk system is to keep troughs filled with maize and good barley always near them, but giving twice a day a good meal of just as much barleymeal, mixed with skim milk, as they can then eat up, and also milk to drink. The troughs are cleaned every day, and all surplus food removed. Sliced mangolds, turnips, swedes, and cabbages are also given ; and plenty of sand, lime, and brick dust kept in one corner, so that the birds can get it when they wish. This is all the feeding they need, to bring them up into prime condition for the market. They are killed by having the neck broken. The Selection of Stock Birds. 153 CHAPTER XIV. THE SELECTION OF STOCK BIRDS. Importance of Care in Selection — Influence of Parents — Selection for Layers — Selection for Table Fowls— State of Breed ingSto^k — Buying Birds — Buying Eggs for Sitting - Space for Breeding Stock — Birds not to be Related— Evils of In-breeding — Number of Hens to Cock — When to Expect Fertile Eggs — Feeding — Importance of Health and Condition. The choosing of birds or animals for breeding is one of the most important matters, that can command the attention of any keeper of live stock, for, in accordance with the care and skill given to it, will be the quality of the produce. Parents impress upon their progeny those characteristics which they themselves possess, in so far as there are no counteracting influences. If these characteristics are good ones, they should be preserved by judicious mating, but if they are bad ones, then, it must be the object of the breeder, to get rid of them as quickly as possible. And in order to secure this it is necessary to have a clear idea of the influence of each parent, for the influence on either side is different to that on the other. Without this knowledge, there can be no possibility of arriving at a true appreciation of the question. We have said that the influence of each parent is different, and, to this we may add, that, as a rule, the characteristics of both can be traced in the offspring. Sometimes, however, qualities are developed which were not found in the parents, nor yet can be regarded as a combination of qualities from 154 Profitable Poultry Keeping. either side. As these are generally characteristics to be avoided, it will most probably be found on examination, thai they have descended from the grandparents, or from progeni- tors even further back than that. Hence the value of pure stock, as there is with it a much greater certainty in breeding. It may be taken as a certain rule that the male parent affects the external structure, the shape, and the outward appearance generally, including the locomotive peculiarities ; and that the female parent controls the internal structure, the constitution, the temper, and the habits. But, we must in this be regarded as speaking of pure-bred birds, for with such as have been bred in any sort of way, in which all or no breeds have been mixed up, it is almost impossible to look for any certainty, as there are constantly unexpected and unwished-for developments turning up. The purer the breed, the greater the certainty of obtaining those points or qualities we are seeking for, and it must also be noted, that, if one of the parents is of a purer descent than the other, it will exert the greater influence upon the chickens. This will account for the rapidity with which a pure-bred cock improves the birds bred in a farmyard, when one is introduced, which doubtless many of our readers have observed. Considering these facts, it may be worth our while to study the question of the influence of parents, a little more closely than is usually done, and, taking the male parent first, it will be found, as already indicated, that it affects the external structure as well as the shape of the bird. Thus, in selecting cocks for breeding purposes,. it is necessary to see that they have size, which, of course, means bone and flesh, not merely feathers, and that they are of a right shape. If a bird is short in either of these qualities, as certain as can be such defect will be transmitted to its descendants. Thus it will be seen how foolish it is to choose Selection of Stock Birds. 155 a bird small or of a bad shape, no matter how good he may be in other respects. It can serve no useful purpose to have a bird unshapely, even though this does not influence its profitable qualities ; but, whilst we should not kill a good laying hen if she was mis-shapen, yet we would not breed from such an one, as the weakness inherent from the deformity would probably transmit itself to the chickens, and thus more than counterbalance the merits of the parent. As a rule, those birds are best which look best. And again, it would be unwise to use for stock purposes, any bird weak, or deformed in his organs of locomotion, for, though he might be as good upon the table as another one, perfect in these respects, his defects would be reproduced in his progeny, and probably intensified. As an example of this, we may mention that the breeding for white faces in Spanish — though the white face is not a defect but a sport — having been carried to a ridiculous extent, has so weakened the breed that it is now a delicate variety, not to be recommended for general purposes. In selecting a cock bird, therefore, for breeding, and this equally applies to all varieties, whether pure or otherwise, one should be chosen, close and firm in body, not too large in size — that is, not abnormally larger than the majority of his kindred, though a little larger is an advantage — clean on leg, tall, and active in his habits. Such a bird will not counteract, but, rather assist those qualities which, in a hen, conduce to the breeding of good layers. But, if a bird is wanted for breeding table fowls, one must be chosen heavy in body, deep in breast, short on the leg, and, perhaps, not so active, though by this we do not necessarily mean a non-flying bird, as these generally develop flesh on the thighs, and not on the breast. The former may be heavier in weight, but the meat is not carried in the best place, and is not of the same quality. A bird similar to what we have described, will help forward the end we have in view, and 156 Profitable Poultry Keeping. assimilate his qualities readily with those of the hens to which he may he mated, if they are chosen with equal care. It will be remembered, we stated that the hen affects the internal structure and vital organs of her chickens, in which are included the laying qualities, as well as the temperament and the constitution. A good, quiet mother, generally pro- duces pullets that exhibit the same qualities in their turn, if she is properly mated, and, on the other hand, a restless, uncertain mother, will impress these characteristics upon her chickens. A poor layer, must not be expected to produce hens much better than herself, no matter with what bird she is paired, and though there is wisdom in the belief of old henwives, that it is always well to breed from hens that are known to be good layers, it is necessary to see that the cock does not counteract this influence. By judicious selection of the male bird, it may be possible to gradually improve the laying powers, as it is possible to alter the characteristics of any birds ; but, of course, this can only be a slow process, and it is better to commence breeding with suitable birds, and to depend upon the hens for such an improvement, instead of on the cocks. As shown when speaking of the male birds, the purer the parents are, the more certainty there is in breeding, and this is the case equally with both sexes, though, as the cocks influence the externals, the result is more seen on their part, than on that of the hens. When breeding with the object of producing good laying fowls, the hens selected should be shapely, have no grave defects, and, above all, be known as good layers, or from a good laying strain. To be sure of this latter point may involve some trouble ; but it need not be very great, as any one who attends to the fowls, and really takes an interest in them, knows which are the best layers. By this means, it is quite possible to very largely increase the laying powers of any strain of birds ; and, the care thus taken, will be rewarded Selection of Brood Hens, 157 by a great difference in the production of eggs. Of course, if the male birds are bred from hens that are known to bo good layers, then this will greatly facilitate the matter. Therefore, where it is thought desirable to have laying birds only, or, in places where eggs are most in demand, it is better to have non-sitting fowls, such as Minorcas, Leghorns, Andalusians, or Houdans, as these birds have been bred as layers for generations; and, their attention not being taken off by maternal duties, they consequently are much better layers. On the question of selecting hens for breeding table fowls, very little more need be said, than what we have already remarked in connection with the male birds, except that it is important to choose quiet, contented fowls, as these will be found to fatten up best of all ; restless birds never do this, and as a consequence are not profitable. The breeds to be chosen should be either La Fleche, Dorkings, Creve-cceurs, Houdans, Langshans, Plymouth Rocks, or such crosses as Game-Dorking. These must be selected in accordance with the rules laid down in the chapter on laying out the poultry-yard, where we spoke of the soil and position of the poultry-yard, and the influence these must have upon the breeds kept. Closely associated with the question of breed to be chosen, is that of the general condition, and state of the birds selected for breeding. Here we must emphatically warn our readers against what we have indirectly mentioned before, namely, that no bird tainted with disease, or organically deformed, must be bred from in any way. Such diseases and defects will be transmitted, probably in an intensified form, to the descendants, which in their turn will probably be the means of passing them on to others. There can be no question that the breeding in of defects, or the transmission of disease, are very easy matters, whilst the breeding of them out is not only difficult, but often impossible. Stamina, and 158 Profitable Poultry Keeping, good condition are two most important elements, which should never be lost sight of by the poultry breeder, as with- out these it is impossible to succeed ; and, whilst great care should be taken to see that the other qualities of the birds are suitable, nothing should ever induce the use of sickly ones for stock purposos. And, also, in deciding upon the selection of breeding fowls, there must be a clear understand- ing as to what is required — we mean, to what purpose the chickens are to be put, and then, keeping this end in view, let them be chosen accordingly. Hap-hazard breeding never did, and never will, succeed ; though, at times, a lucky hit is made, but there is no certainty as to its being repeated. A careful study of the birds to be so used will be well repaid ; and, if they have to be purchased, it will be time well spent to make inquiries as to the qualities of the birds. Poultry fanciers expend both time and money freely, in order to obtain all the information possible about a bird they pur- pose buying, knowing the great injury which may be done through want of a little care ; and the matter is equally as important to the poultry farmer. Because of the want of information, we do not advise buying in a poultry show, except it can be obtained, and many a yard has been ruined by diseased, or otherwise unsuitable birds, bought in this way. The best way is to go, or send, to known breeders, who have a reputation to keep up; and, though a little more money may have to be paid in the first instance, it will prob- ably be found the cheapest way in the end. In the spring of the year, a very common way of getting fresh blood into a yard, or, of commencing one afresh, is to purchase eggs, and if fairly dealt with, this is both a cheap and good means of doing so ; but, unfortunately, there is a good deal of roguery in the business. Where it is desired to get the yard into full operation, or to have the benefit of the new blood at once, this plan will not do, and birds must be bought instead. Management of Breeding Pens. 159 We now come to the putting together of the breeding- pens, and the management of the birds in them. In the first place, there is the question of space to be given to them, and it is here necessary to utter a warning — though we have dwelt on the question of runs already — against the very common practice, of putting breeding stock into very small houses and runs. Nor do we, on the other hand, think the system of breeding from the ordinary stock a wise one, as this does not permit of the proper improvement of the stock, which might otherwise take place. The best plan, is either of those we have already recommended, namely, to have separate houses in which the birds can be kept, or a row of houses with large open runs. Weakly chickens are very often caused by want of sufficient exercise on the part of the parents ; and it will be found, that the more liberty that can be given to the breeding stock, the hardier the chickens will be. There- fore, it should be a rule, that, whether the laying fowls have an abundance of room or not, the breeders must have plenty ; and, upon no consideration, should the latter be cooped up in small runs. We have given in a previous article, the smallest amount of space necessary to keep birds in health and con- dition, and this will be a guide to our readers in this respect. A sufficient number of chickens can be bred from one pen of fowls, in a single year, to stock a good-sized yard, and thus it is worth while giving them sufficient room. Then it is a most important matter, that a cock and hen mated together for breeding purposes, should not be related to each other. A very large amount of harm has been done by in-breeding, and the degeneracy of many of the races of high class poultry, is entirely due to this practice. Poultry fanciers, whose object is to obtain fine feather, or peculiar con- formation, regardless of all commercial considerations, may, if they think lit, resort to in-breeding, for they are willing to pay the price ; but, those to whom it is necessary that their 160 Profitable Poultry Keeping. birds shall have stamina, size, and unimpaired laying powers, must not indulge in so foolish a practice. The state of the breeding stock, in very many of the farmyards of this country, where we find miserable, weedy mongrels, of no use either for laying or to put upon the table, is very largely due to the in-breeding which has gone on generation after genera- tion, and to the want of regard for the selection of breeding birds. Of course, it may be accepted as a fact, that all our various breeds of birds have been produced by more or less in-breeding ; but even acknowledging that much, it has been a gradual process, and not a forced one. Therefore, it is more than necessary, that the birds mated together should be unrelated. Only by care in putting them together, can this be secured ; but the result is worth all the trouble. The next subject which must be touched upon, is that of the number of hens to be put with each cock, as the fertility of the eggs will naturally greatly depend upon this. No certain rule can be laid down applicable to all breeds, as the number varies, not only with the breed itself, but with the circumstances under which they are kept. For in- stance, birds in a confined run are more indolent and less vigorous than those at liberty, whilst the state of the weather has much to do with the question also ; and, again, a young bird should have a larger harem than an old one. So far as a rule can be laid down, not more than four hens should be given to a cock of any of the larger and heavier breeds, i.e., Cochins, Brahmas, Dorkings, Langshans, and Scotch Greys, when in confinement ; but, if at liberty, then this number may be increased to six or eight. The lighter breeds can take six or eight in confinement, and a dozen when at liberty. These numbers will have to be varied according to the season of the year ; of course fewer being given in severe weather, and more added, as it gets warmer and finer. The best test is, that when too few hens are given, they will To secure Fertile Eggs, 161 be found stripped nearly bare on the back, and when this is seen, then more should be supplied to the cock. This must be done even if hens of a different breed can only bo used, as too few hens is as great a cause of unfertile eggs, as too many, and the strain upon them is also very liable to cause them irreparable injury. As the bare backs can be seen by the most casual observer in a poultry yard, there can be no excuse for the neglect of it. As a rule, eggs may be depended upon as fertile within a week of the birds being mated together ; but, we make it a rule, never to use the first two or three eggs produced by each hen after she is so mated, especially, if she has been running about in the open yard, or been mated with other cocks. Those who breed birds for exhibition, are most careful not to allow any cock to have access to the hens, except the one mated with them, during the breeding season. The reason adduced for this is, that the effects of such a cross may be noticed in the chickens, even though a considerable time has elapsed, between the alliance and the laying of the eggs. Whether this is so or not, it is quite unnecessary for us to inquire here, as it does not sufficiently concern those who breed only for commercial purposes, but, of course, it is wise to prevent mixing up in this way unnecessarily. In any case, we should not advise the using of the first two or three eggs, as they arc almost certain to be either infertile, or to show signs of previous mating, neither of which is desirable. The feeding of breeding stock, is a point on which a mis- take is made by too many poultry keepers. Fowls will not lay if they are fed too well, and on this account, great care must be exercised in what is given to them, both as to quan- tity and quality. All fattening foods must be avoided, as these cause internal fat, which acts upon the egg organs, and prevents, instead of helping, the object in view. We believe in good food, that is, food oi a sound nature, and this will M 1 62 Profit a die Poultry Keeping, be found most satisfactory in the end. Barley, wheat, buck- wheat, oats, and dari, both whole and ground, are all first- rate foods, and may be relied upon as best for the purpose. If the birds are in runs, where insect life cannot be got very freely, then a very little meat may be given to them, but not otherwise. And on wet or cold mornings, a little stimulating powder is very helpful, but upon no account should it be used when the weather is warm and dry. Green food is also very essential, and a barrow load of cabbages will be greatly re- lished, as well as be highly beneficial, even when the grass run is an extensive one. For a system of feeding we prefer the following : — First, a meal of soft food, mixed with boiling water, early in the morning, the sooner after the birds leave their roosts the better; second, a handful of grain in the middle of the day; and, last, a good feed of grain about an hour before they go to roost at night. A question is sometimes asked, How much food should be given to each fowl every day ? This it is impossible to answer, by stating any quantity, as the appetites of the birds vary with the season of the year, and with the different kinds of fowls, some being much greater eaters than others. The only safe rule is to either throw the food down in hand- fills, or put it in dishes or troughs, and to cease giving, or remove it, as soon as the birds cease to eat eagerly. There is just one exception to this rule, and it is one that needs to be very especially mentioned here, for there are some cocks of a very gallant nature, which will not touch any food, until all their hens have been served. They call their mates to it, and see that they get enough, but do not attempt to touch it themselves. Therefore, unless the attendant is very observant, the bird will get very little to eat — certainly not enough, and will go down in condition, infertile eggs being one of the results. Where this is observed, either a little more food must be given to the cock or he must be fed by To secure Hardy Chickens. 163 himself. Either plan will answer the purpose so long as it is seen to. We need only just mention that material will be needed for the formation of the shells, and this may be old mortar, broken oyster shells, lime and gravel, the last being specially useful, in assisting the birds to digest their food, and should for that reason always be supplied. The chief object should be, to keep the breeding stock in the best of health and condition, as this is most conducive to the production of strong and ha: Jy chickens. It can only be secured by selecting good birds, in the way indicated by us, by giving the birds as much room as possible, by housing them well, and by feeding them in a systematic and sensible manner. Neglect any of these points, and tin result will show itself in the progeny, because in this, as in all other similar operations, effects follow causes remorselessly. We do not say that the effect is always immediate, or even apparent at once, but it is nevertheless there, and sooner or later will declare itself. M 164 Profitable Poult l ry Keeping. CHAPTER XV. HATCHING. Shall Hens set themselves ? — Selection of Place for Sitting — Hatching Boxes'— Making the Nests— Food and Water — Setting the Hen — FeediDg — Airing the Eggs— Kind of Food for Hens — Dust Bath — Testing the Eggs— Period of Incubation — Management during Hatching — Helping the Chicks. The time when hens should be set, will depend very largely upon the purpose for which the chickens aro required, and the breeds of poultry kept. If eggs are the object in view, and any of the breeds we have named as most suitable in such a case as this are selected, then March and April are the best months ; but, if heavier breeds, such as Brahmas or Langshans are chosen, then no chickens should be hatched after the first week in April, or, at any rate, as few as possible* Birds intended for table purposes, whether chickens or duck- lings, may be hatched at any time, but it is best to do so as early as possible, even in autumn. Those hatched at other times, mature, and are placed on the market, when it is overstocked, and, consequently, they do not realise so paying a price. The rapidly maturing fowls may be hatched much later than those which are more deliberate in this respect, and these are the questions which must decide the time of hatching, for, with layers, the object is to have them laying before the winter sets in, and, with table birds, it is to get them to market when prices are at their highest point. Those who breed fowls for exhibition, generally get their birds out Hatching. 165 as early in the year as possible, to have them matured before the autumn and winter shows, except in the case of Bantams, in which, small size being a desideratum, they are bred late, so as to prevent undue growth. Thus it will be seen, that there is a way provided for all denominations of poultry keepers. Among old-fashioned henwives there is a very general impression, that it is a much better plan to let a hen set herself, than to provide a nest for her. This is doubtless true to a certain extent, with some breeds, as they ara thus content, and, being under perfectly natural conditions, often produce larger broods than they otherwise might. But, where there is any attempt at careful breeding, it is almost impossible to adopt such a system, unless the amount of ground at disposal is very large indeed, and the birds are at perfect liberty. In addition to the need for space, there are other drawbacks to a plan of this kind. In the first place the owner is at the mercy of the birds — he must wait their con- venience, and it may be lose the best weeks of the year. Time is everything, and if none of his own hens are broody, he should seek for others that are, if he wishes to succeed. Then, in the second place, no other eggs than the ones laid by each hen herself can be used for hatching, which is, of course, simply out of the question ; and in the third place, if a hen elects to set herself in the laying house, constant fighting will be the result, probably ending in the spoliation of the whole nest. Some hens resist being removed, and refuse to sit anywhere but in the places they select ; but, as a rule, they are much more reasonable than this. On a large farm where hatching is to be extensively adopted, it is better to have a docile sitting breed, and for this we know of none better than Brahma-dorkings, as they will allow themselves to be handled, are large, without being clumsy, cover a goodly number of eggs, make excellent sitters and 1 66 Profitable Poultry Keeping. mothers, and are very good all-round fowls. Often, however, other hens have to be obtained, and, when sitters are scarce, the}' must be taken. The plan we are about to suggest will generally be found to answer for all, except, it may be, very wild ones. "Where it is only necessary to hatch one or two settings each year, there need be no difficulty in setting the hens, as they can be put separately in outhouses, empty runs, or any other places of that kind, but, where a number of hens have to be kept at work at one time, then some other system must be adopted. If the farm or ground space available is very large, the hens may be distributed in various parts, under charge of the cottagers, but, as a rule, we prefer to keep them near home, where they can be looked after by one person, whose sole care they will be. And, for this purpose, it is best to devote a good, large, comfortable room, such as an empty stable, an unused coach-house, a loft above a stable, a cool conservatory, or, even a large empty room in the house itself, and, during the early part of the season, the chicken-house, if one has been made, may also be used. But, when the chickens begin to appear, it will be much better to put the sitting hens elsewhere, as they are very apt to get fidgety and restless, hearing the " cluck, cluck" of the mothers a*nd the "peep, peep" of the chickens. Whatever is the place selected, it should be warm, com- fortable, well ventilated, free from draughts, and as even in temperature as possible, but, except in very severe weather, it is not necessary to keep a fire in it, for, if well built, it will be warm enough, though if adjoining a stable or green-house it will be all the better. In very cold weather some arti- ficial warmth is necessary, or the hens will be most likely to desert their nests. The room selected need not be well lighted, and, in fact, a somewhat dim place is the best, for the birds sit quieter in the dark. The same room can be The Hatching Box, 167 used as a fattening place later on in the year, if not in a dwelling-house, and, if dark, the inmates will thrive more rapidly than in light, but hatching and fattening must not be carried on at the same time. An earthen floor is best, though when it is made of brick, cement or wood, the same result can be arrived at by laying down ashes or fine earth, about a foot thick, over the same. Upon this, all round the room, hatching boxes may be placed, if the first plan we are about to describe be adopted. The kind of nest box we prefer, having used it for many years, is a plain deal box, about eighteen inches in height, Fig. 7.— Matching Box. and fifbifen inches square, similar to that shown in Fig. 7, which should be kept by all dealers in poultry supplies. It is made without bottom, or only with wire netting to keep out rats, but with a solid top ; the upper two-thirds of the front forms a door, which may open either upwards or down- wards, the latter preferred, and, if hinged and provided with a simple catch, is easily opened and closed, and, when closed, the inmate is perfectly secure, and cannot be molested. Holes for ventilation are bored in the top and the sides, and a coat of whitewash inside completes the whole. "We have often made half-a-dozen of these boxes in a single afternoon, at a small cost, but they can also be bought at reasonable 1 68 Profitable Poultry Keeping, prices. We prefer these to any others, especially to those made in sets, as each one can be removed at any time for cleaning purposes, and, consequently, vermin are not harboured. And as a score boxes can be kept in one room without difficulty, tbey answer all the purposes required. We do not approve of hatching nests in tiers, not only because they harbour insects, but, also, because the air cannot circulate about the nests, as it can in the boxes we have described. This is most im- portant, and is sufficient to account for the non- success so often found where the nest boxes are made in sets. Other plans can be adopted for hatching boxes. For instance, we some time ago visited a very large poultry yard and were surprised to see in use, in the hatching houses, what to us was a new plan, but which at first did not appear to be a good one. The hatching boxes were suspended to the wall, about two feet above the ground, and were made so that the hens could be securely shut in. The bottoms of these boxes were pieces of wire netting stretched upon frames, and removable, so that the inside could be properly cleaned out. The nests were simply straw — no earth or grass sod, or anything, but straw — and the owner informed us that dur- ing the previous season, the success in these nests was greater than in any other. His idea was taken from the nests of wild birds, and he believed that free circulation of air, is of the greatest importance for successful hatching. This bears out what we have already said ; and whilst we cannot now go so far as to recommend this system to all our readers, yet there is undoubtedly something in it. Of course, there are many who succeed well in hatching, with only plain boxes, or even a couple of bricks ; but, where a number of hens are to be set, this plan necessitates a separate place for every one, which is not at all times possible. As already stated, where the hatching boxes recommended by us are used, the floor should be covered with fine soil, or Arrangement of Hatching Boxes. 169 ashes, about a foot thick, and upon this the boxes must be placed. The object is to keep the underside of the eggs cool, and the atmosphere in the nest moist. A hen, when allowed to choose her own nest, generally selects a cool, damp spot, so that we are only following nature in doing this ; and, as the boxes are without bottoms, the moisture in the earth or ashes naturally affects the nest itself. The best plan is to put these boxes all around the room, with their backs to the walls, and a space of a foot between each. Thus, in a room fifteen feet square, between thirty and forty nests can be accommodated. As each hen has to be allowed out to feed separately, it is sometimes thought advisable not to put so many in one room, but to divide them, so that two or more may be off feeding at one time. We have also seen a capital plan adopted in some places, namely, having half-a-dozen large roomy pens at one end of the room, in each of which food and water is provided, and plenty of fine dry ashes for a dust bath. By such an arrangement as this, half-a-dozen hens can be fed at one time, but, of course, they will have to be lifted off the nests, put into the pens, and returned to the nests again, when they have been properly fed. The saving of time by so doing is very great, for, allowing fifteen minutes to each bird, it would take six hours to feed twenty- four, whereas, in the way we have described, one hour would be sufficient. If the attendant has little or nothing else to do, then it is, perhaps, not worth the extra cost ; but where there is plenty of other work to do, it will be found a very economical method. After the box is in position, a good shovelful of fine soil or ashes should be placed inside, and then hollowed out with the hand like a saucer, so as to make the nest a proper shape. Care is necessary, to see that the corners are filled up, or the eggs will be very liable to roll away from under the hen, the result of which will be chilling and addling. Above the 170 Profitable Poultry Keeping. earth, some soft straw must be laid, oaten preferred, or, if wheaten is used, it should be well beaten or rubbed in the bauds, and then the nest is ready for the eggs, and for the hen. Most of our readers will be sufficiently learned in poultry matters, as to be able to tell when a hen is " broody,'' or " clucking," as it is often called. Any one who has lived in the country will have no difficulty in the matter, but it may be, that a few denizens of the towns may not have this knowledge. The best sign is that the hen sits closely on her nest, and makes a sound not unlike " cluck, cluck." If taken off, she gets back again as fast as possible, resenting the interference more or less, according to her temperament. The best plan of putting a hen off being broody is to move her about; and, therefore, when she is wanted as a sitter, she must not be disturbed too soon, but left alone until the broody fever is fully developed. In the case of a hen, which has been proved in previous years to be a really good mother, then the eggs may be placed in a hatching box, and she can get to work at once ; but with a young or unknown hen our plan has been to put a few dummy eggs — i. e., either chalk or spoiled eggs — into the nest, in order to test her, before the eggs to be hatched are given. By this means very many valuable eggs may be saved, which would otherwise be lost through the removal having upset the hen. The best time to set a hen is at night, as then she is more likely to settle down to her work, not having seen the surroundings. The eggs should be put into the nest, with some food and water near, and, if the rays from a lantern or candle be thrown upon the eggs so that the hen can see them, the food, and very little else, she will gene- rally go on of her own accord, as soon as she has fed herself. Should she be reluctant to do so, gentle force may be used, and the hen placed on to the nest, and shut therein. As a Management of Sitting Hens. 171 rule, if left undisturbed for twenty-four hours, a hen so treated will be found sitting closely, and all will go on well after- wards. The real eggs can then be substituted for the others ; but, if she is at all unsettled, this must not be done for a day or two longer. As already indicated by us, each hen must be allowed off the nest for feeding purposes once every day, and thus, in a room where there are a large number of sitters, it should be arranged that this shall take place in rotation. The period may be varied according to the season of the year, and the temperature of the place where the hens are sitting. Hens which find their own nests are accustomed to leave them an hour at a time ; but, it must be remembered, that, as a rule, they never sit except in moderately warm weather, such as can generally be found in the late spring. It will not do, there- fore, to adopt the same plan at all seasons. Eggs will stand a very great deal, and we have known them hatch, even after being stone cold for twelve hours ; but this fact must not be taken as a warrant for carelessness. As a general rule, it may be accepted that ten to fifteen minutes is long enough, early in the year ; but, later on, or, if in a warm place, then half-an-hour will do no harm. If the temperature is very low, the first-named period would be sufficient to kill the eggs ; and, when this is the case, something must be done when the hen is off, either by closing the box or covering the eggs, to prevent their getting chilled. If the nest is made in a proper place, however, there will be no danger of this, and the periods given by us may be taken as a rule. The leaving of the nest by the hen is necessary, not only for her sake, but that the eggs may be cooled, without which they will not hatch. It is supposed that the cooler air is required to expand the lungs of the embyro chick, and that fresh vigour is thus drawn through the pores of the shell. At any rate, whatever may be the reason, it is no doubt a fact that 172 Profitable Poultry Keeping, too close a sitter generally spoils her nest, and fails to bring out any chicks. Upon this account, therefore, if a hen shows any reluctance to come off, she must be lifted off. To do this properly, care is necessary, and the hands must be slid below the wings, so as to prevent any eggs that might happen to be tucked under them, falling down when the hen is lifted, and breaking the others in the nest. She must then be lifted up by the wings ; and, if she makes any attempt to run back without feeding, the door of the hatching box should be closed until the time named has expired. The food given to a sitting hen must always consist of hard grain, as corn, wheat or barley, and never of soft food. The latter causes looseness of the bowels, and the poor hen, unable or unwilling to leave her nest, fouls it. If this should happen, or, from any cause an egg gets broken, the eggs remaining, must be well washed, and the nest re-made. This is best done by having a pail half full of warm water, just hot enough so that the hand can bear it. The eggs should be placed in this, and properly cleaned with a sponge ; and the legs and thighs of the bird must also be washed, to prevent the eggs sticking thereto, and, perhaps, falling and breaking, when the hen gets out. A dust bath will be needed also, say, a box half filled with dry ashes or earth, with a sprink- ling of carbolic powder in it. This will help to keep down lice, which are not only troublesome to the hens, but danger- ous to the chicks, causing that most dreaded of all chicken diseases, the gapes. Considerable discussion has arisen as to the testing of eggs. This is done to prove their fertility, during the process of incu- bation. Some there are who advocate a " let alone " policy; but we do not, as we firmly believe in ihe testing, and always do it. If carefully done no harm can ensue ; and, if unfertile eggs are present, as they very often are, especially early in the season, they can be removed, and thus six or eight hens made to do Testing Eggs, 173 the work of a dozen under the old system. Whether hens or incubators are used, all eggs ought to be tested on the seventh day, and, in order to obtain the full benefit of this, two or more hens should be set at the same time, so that, if a number are barren, one of the sitters can have her eggs given to the others, and a fresh nest made for her instead. Eggs may be tested in various ways. The original method was to grasp the egg with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, using the other fingers, and the other hand, also, to shade off the light from the eyes. Many hundreds we have done in this way ; but now egg testers are sold at about a quarter each, which are more certain, at any rate to those who have not tried the testing before. If there is only one window in the room, place the egg in the tester between the light and the eye, when the egg will appear cloudy or clear, as it is fertile or unfertile. At seven days, a " live " egg will have a black spot in the centre, gradually shading off to the edges, where it is much clearer, whilst an unfertile egg remains clear all the time. When working an incubator, we can tell fertile eggs thirty -six hours after they are put into the machine, but this requires considerable experience, and it is not wise to disturb a hen so early as the time named. In testing, perhaps the safest way, is to examine the eggs at night, by a candle, a lamp, or a gas jet, but care must be taken that they are kept at least six inches from the flame, or the heat will kill the embryo. All eggs found unfertile can be removed, and will be perfectly good for cooking purposes, or may be used for feeding chickens. After this examination, nothing more need be done until the nineteenth day, except to see every day when the hen is off for feeding that the nest is all right, and, in drj weather, or, if upon a boarded floor, about a pint or a quart of hot water should be poured round the outside of the box> so as to keep the earth in the box damp, and thus provide 174 Profitable Poultry Keeping. the necessary moisture. This is a most important, but often neglected, precaution. On the nineteenth day, a further examination will be advisable, but this time by water. A pail, about three-parts full of water heated up to 103 degs., which is just as hot as the hand can comfortably bear it, must be at hand, and in this all the eggs placed. The dead, or addled ones will generally sink to the bottom, whilst those that contain strong chicks will float in the water, and, in a minute or two, begin to bob about in a most peculiar manner, sometimes almost jumping out of the water. This is caused by the efforts of the chick to escape from its prison, and often may the chicks be heard to chirp in the shell. Only such eggs as have moved, and they need to be carefully noted to prove this, as the motion in the water may deceive as to whether they have moved or not, should be put back in the nest, as the others are certainly dead. We have tested hundreds, if not thousands, in this manner, and never found but two or three in which we had been mistaken. The benefits of this test are obvious. The water softens the shell, making the escape of the chick easier, and the removal of the dead eggs gives the birds more room as they come out, the attention of the hen being entirely devoted to them, and not partially taken away in expectation of the appearance of others. As is generally known, twenty-one days is the period of incubation for chickens, but for one or two of the more active breeds, a day less, in which case the water test should be applied the same period of time earlier. If the eggs are very fresh when put into the nest, it will be found, when the hen is off on the day after they have been tested, that many are chipped, or even the chicks out of the shell, and, if this latter is the case, the egg shells must then be removed, and every three or four hours afterwards, the nest examined for the same purpose. These vacant shells have a very dangerous Breaking the Shell. 175 habit of fitting themselves on to the other eggs, which simply means, that the chicks in the latter cannot get out. Unless the hatching is very uneven, we do not advise the removal of any of the birds from under the hen, but some- times this is necessary, when they should be placed in a basket near a fire, and covered up with a piece of new flannel. This uneven hatching is more the result of some of the ecrgs o DO not being fresh, than from any other cause. Should any of the chicks appear to be unable to get out of the shell, they may be aided, but, as a rule, if they cannot get out themselves they are generally not worth the trouble. We have found, however, that the use of the water on the nineteenth day, almost entirely prevents any difficulty in this respect, but, if it is thought desirable to help the hatching, the way to do it is to get a bowl of warm water, in which they are placed, taking care to keep the chipped portion out of the water. In this the eggs are kept for a couple of minutes, when they are returned to the nest. Breaking the shell is very dangerous, for if blood is drawn, then death or deformity ensues, but the plan we have here recommended does all that is necessary in the majority of cases, and, in the others, the birds would probably drag out a miserable existence, and be neither of use, nor give pleasure to the owner. A little patience is needed, as sometimes hatching is delayed, and we should not give up eggs that had " bobbed" in the water, for two or three days after the time they were due to hatch. If two or more hens are set at once, then these late eggs can all be given to one, and the others have the chicks. 176 Profitable Poultry Kecjwtg. CHAPTER XVI. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. A Practical Success — Past Attempts — Difficulties — Later Attempts — The Turning Point — Rouillier's Machine — Prejudice Against the Hydro-Incubator — The Incubator Trials— How Superior to Previous Machines— Drawback to Hydro- Incubator — Voitellier's Hydro — Owen's Tabular — Arnold's Egg Oven— Self Heating Incubators — Hearson's — New Centennial — "Perfect Hatcher" — The Thermostatic— The Novelty— Advice to Workers. It is not at all necessary, now-a-days, to make any excuse for introducing the subject of artificial incubation into any work upon the keeping of poultry, for such a method of hatching has passed out of the theoretical into the practical stage ; and, it is not too much to say, that there are thousands of machines at work in Great Britain, in France, and in America, as well as very large numbers used for ostrich hatch- ing at the Cape. It is no longer a merely theoretical and expensive hobby, only to be taken up by those who have plenty of time and money at command, but has become an acknowledged success, neither intricate in its method of working, nor expensive in the first cost and subsequent management. But this has only been reached within the last few years, as many can verify, and there is every sign that the use of incubators is very likely to last, the results already attained being sufficient to justify this belief. In theory, there has never been any difficulty about artificial incubation, because, so far as can bo seen, wLen A rtificial Incubation. 177 eggs are laid by the hen all that is needed, if they are fertile, is to give the same amount of heat, air, and moisture as if brooded by the mother, and the chickens must come. This lias not, however, been found so very easy in practice. In the first place, the heat must be kept regular, like that of the hen ; and, in order to obtain this, most elaborate and ingenious machines have at various times been devised, the object being, of course, to regulate the supply of heat, so that the temperature to which the eggs are subjected might be maintained as evenly as possible. Many of these worked splendidly, so long as the mechanism did not get out of order ; but this mechanism was necessarily so intricate, that very little upset it, and, in addition to this, the cost was so great that only the wealthy could afford to risk so much money over a doubtful experiment. In other machines, where the regulating power was not so susceptible, all went well so long as the outer atmosphere was moderately even, but, as soon as a sudden change came, the calculations were upset, and the eggs chilled or roasted. A hen's body is always about the same in heat, and she sits closely or lightly, in accordance with the weather ; but, as a machine can never be made to think, and cannot be endowed with instinct, pre- parations are necessary to meet all conditions, and these preparations, in many instances, meant complexity and expen- siveness. The accounts of the egg ovens of Egypt, China, and Siam, where artificial egg hatching has existed for centuries, led many to attempt reaching the same end here, and the records of the Patent Office, show the large numbei of attempts made to find success, many of which exhibited very great skill and scientific knowledge. It was forgotten, however, that what was possible and easy in the countries we have named, where the temperature is high and very even, is most difficult in an erratic and cold climate. Even with natural hatching, the difficulties in the way, are greater in N 1 78 Rro fit able Poultry Keeping, America than in many other countries; and, wherever a changeable climate is found there are great difficulties to contend with, both in natural and artificial incubation. This is even exemplified in the difference between the south- ern and the northern parts of the country, for in the former chickens can, as a rule, be hatched some three or six weeks earlier than in the latter. As we have just stated, many attempts have been made to solve the problem, some of which promised to, and did, attain a measure of success. A generation or two ago, Messrs. Brindley, Schroder and Cantello, worked hard at the question; and, in later years, Messrs. Vallee, Boyle and Penman have done the same ; but, it is with no idea of discrediting those gentlemen, that we say, they did not really help to arrive at the true solution. Mr. Boyle spent a very great deal of time, and several hundreds of pounds, in his experiments, and his machine displayed great scientific know- ledge and skill. It was fitted with the best regulator we have ever seen, which was so delicate, that we have known it maintain the temperature for weeks, with a variation of only half a degree, in most changeable weather. The incubator of Mr. Penman was also very cleverly devised, and worked well ; but, in both these machines, the mechanism made thern expensive, and the many fine and delicate movements, to regulate the supply of air, moisture, and heat, made the working of them difficult, or, at any rate, too difficult for the results. Doubtless the makers, and a few others, were able to work them, but ordinary folks could not ; and, although many tried, few succeeded in their endeavours. And, again, gas or oil lamps were used as the heating power, the cost for either of which was expensive under the system adopted, and, not only so, but the great consumption of gas or oil, charged the air with impurities, which often killed the germ in the egg, either early or late in the process. And, in Successful Incubators. 179 addition to this, the art of artificial rearing was very little understood, so that even when the birds were hatched, they died off in large numbers afterwards. The numberless failures — fur there were scores who mado and tried artificial incubators, who were never known to fame — gave the general impression that there must be something supplied by the hen, unknown to man, but which is necessary for the successful hatching of the eggs. This was after- wards proved to be erroneous, and that the failures had been the result of a false system, upon which they had all been made. The Paris Exhibition of 1877 was an im- portant period, so far as this question was concerned, for, at it, there were shown incubators upon an altogether new principle, and these have revolutionised the system, turn- ing into a success that which was an entire failure pre- viously. The machine we no»v speak of, is the hydro- incubator, invented by a Frenchman named Rouillier, and which, in its arrangements and mode of working, is simplicity itself, so simple thai, we wonder no one ever thought of it before. The main idea worked upon is, that a large body of water, embedded in non-conducting material, so as to prevent exposure to the atmosphere, will retain its heat for a very long time. These incubators have very large tanks, holding about fourteen gallons of water, which are divided into three horizontal compartments, each communicating with the others by means of a few small holes. This tank is placed in a wooden case, and surrounded on all sides, save the bottom (under which is the egg drawer), by an inch or more of felt, or some other non-conducting material, tightly pressed down. When this tank is filled with hot water, it is found that the water only loses from two to five degrees, every twenty-four hours, according to the temperature of the place where it is kept. If the water in the top compartment only be Irawn off, and that in the lower ones be left undis- n 2 180 Profitable Poultry Keeping. turbcd, the former being again filled with boiling water, the heat from this will gradually affect the lower body, and prevent its going down. By repeating this every twelve hours, the heat in the egg drawer can be maintained at almost any degree of temperature, with a scarcely perceptible variation, and, as there is no great expense in the making of such a machine, no intricate mechanism to get out of order, no cost for gas or oil, or combustion of these latter to vitiate the atmosphere, the advance upon the old system is very great, and, in practice, the hydro-incubator has been found very simple and efficient, so that now there are large numbers in operation. The inventor of this machine has stated that, in one year he hatched upwards of 44,000 chicks in these machines. In the district of France where he lives, the poultry keepers bring their eggs to him to be hatched, and go three weeks afterwards for the chicks, one in three of the birds thus brought out being paid for the trouble involved. Hydro-incubators, on their introduction to our breeders, had to contend with a very great deal of prejudice aud oppo- sition. They were altogether against all preconceived notions, and apparently were more for playthings than actual work. The very fact of having to supply a gallon or two of boiling water twice a day was deemed too great a trouble ; but a few bolder spirits tried the machines, found them succeed very well indeed, and, at a public trial held in 1879, the hydro came off victorious, which was sufficient to give it a position at once. Many defects had by this time been remedied, so as to make it more fitted for Great Britain ; and the rearers sent out with it were found to be, beyond all question, first-rate things. Thus the hydro at once silenced all opponents, and, from its com- paratively low price, at once became the machine. We believe we are right in saying that of its opponents in the trial of 1879, only one machine is now to be purchased, the others no longer being made. This success has made artificial incuba- The " Hydro-Incubator." 181 tion a fact, and thousands of chickens are hatched every year in inc abators. The bearing upon the question of poultry farming is very great, as the attention given to a machine is not more than is needed by a couple of hens, whilst it will do four or six times the work, and with greater certainty. This has, undoubtedly, had much to do with the recent revival of interest in poultry keeping, and we, therefore, are justified in dealing fully with the question. As might naturally be expected, the lrydro-incubator was not allowed to have all the field to itself. If its introduction had not done any other good, that of showing where the mistake was in the construction of previous machines was enough to earn our favour. All these machines had been made on the principle of having a small tank of water above the eggs, heated by a continuously burning lamp, or gas jet. In some, the tank was partially embedded, bat in others, it was entirely exposed, and in all it was very liable to external atmospheric influences. The result of this was, that every variation of the temperature affected the machine, and, during sudden changes, it was almost impossible for any regulator to withstand the pressure brought to bear upon it. Only one — Boyle's — did actually work smoothly in this way, and that was doubtless partly due to the fact, that its tank was the most protected of all. This constant variation in the temperature, could not but be hurtful to the eggs. But there was another great evil, namely, that the rapid exhaustion of the heat, consequent upon exposure, necessitated the consumption of a comparatively large quantity of gas or oil, with vitiation of the atmosphere already spoken of. On the introduction of the hydro-incubator, therefore, it was at once seen that, with a larger body of water in the tank, and the tank protected from external influences, the heat in the machine would be steadier, the consumption of oil or gas would be very small, and the vitiation of the atmosphere reduced to a minimum, or entirely 1 82 Profitable Poultry Keeping, prevented, and this led to experiments, which have resulted in machines with continuous burning lamps, but without any of the objectionable features in the incubators of the past. The incubators now upon the market, both in England and America, are numerous, and there is a considerable trade in them. It is not necessary for us to do more than refer to their leading characteristics, and then any of our readers, who may be inclined to invest in a machine, can form their own opinions as to the one most suited to them ; not only so, but, as each maker issues a pamphlet or circular relating to his own machine, very full information can be got out of these. We have seen that the great improvement which the hydro- incubators exhibit over the older ones, is in the larger body of water, as this makes the working of the machine a great deal easier, and maintains the temperature much steadier, than in the old machines, where the bulk of water was only one-sixth or one-eighth as great. The chief drawback to the "hydro," is the trouble involved in the partial emptying and refilling of the tank twice a day. In places where there is plenty of hot water at command, or, in a large room specially fitted up for the purpose with hot-water pipes, this is of small moment ; but, with ordinary folks, it means a great deal of labour and trouble. One plan adopted is to have a large tin boiler, holding four gallons of water, standing upon a gas stove on the top of the incubator, in which the water is boiled twice a day, and the water run into the tank direct. Oil stoves have been introduced for the same purpose, where gas is not available ; but, about two years ago, a modification was introduced in the shape of small heating boilers, affixed, by means of a couple of pipes, to the side of the machine as is shown in fig. (8), and so constructed, that the water in the tank can be re-heated twice or thrice a day, without the trouble of emptying and refilling. This is done by the simple process The Ilydro-Incubalor. 183 of Laving a lamp or gas jet under the boiler, and, b y the natural circulation ot water, that in the upper compartment of the tank gradually passing through the boiler and thus being requested. by the use of this boiler twice a day for about an hour each time, the machine can be worked; and, though this system requires care, yet with that care it is both simple and easy. The makers of the hydro-incubator are Messrs. Hg. 8. - Christy*! I7y]ro-Incubator, with Cirenhiiog Boiler. Thos. Christy and Co., of Fenchurch Street, London, who bare by their enterprise done a very great deal to solve the problem of artificial incubation and rearing, and their machines are now well known all over the world. In a place where hot water is not to be obtained easily, and in sufficient quantity, we know of no better machine than theirs, and we should in such a place strongly recommend it, as there is no dungcr of fire, no vitiation of the atmosphere, and there are no regulators to get out of order. iS.j. Profitable Poultry Keeping. The other machines made on tins hot-water principle are, first, that o( M. Voitellier, of Nantes, in France. This is very similar to the Christy machine, except that it has the egg drawer rather differently situated. It is one of the oldest machines, and we have heard von- favourable accounts of it, both in this country and in France. Secondly, there arc tho tubular incubators made by Mr. John Owen, of the Minories, London, which arc very similar to the Christy, having a boiler at tho side. In this case, the water in the tank is not reheated by flowing through the boiler, hut, connected with the boiler aro pipes through which the heated water flows, and theso heat the water in the tank. And, thirdly, there is the " Egg Oven," a machine invented byMiss May Arnold, of Acton. This is almost conical in shape, and the tank above the eggs forms an archway. The body of water held in it is very large, SO that the quantity to he supplied, in order to keep up the heat, is very small indeed. Capital arrangements are made for ventilation, cooling, and moisture ; and, though we havo not had an opportunity of testing it in actual practice, as it is of but recent introduction, we have great faith in it, as it appears to be made upon very sound principles. All these machines are made in various sizes, from thirty-six eggs upwards, and are reasonable in price. The trouble involved with the hydro-incubators, led many to experiment with self-heating machines, and we appear now to be returning to the original system of continuous burning lamps; but, certainly, they are in a much less objectionable form than at first, as the water tanks are large, Consequently the loss of heat is small, and the boilers are made small so that the water in them heats very rapidly. As a result of these alterations, the lamp flames or gas jets are diminutive, compared with the old ones, so that the vitia- tion of the atmosphere is reduced to a minimum. These nro decided steps in advance ; and, though wo should prefer M Hearsotti Incubator" 185 the hydro-incubators if ire were working on a large scald, is which cam the snpply of boiling water could be easily pro- vided for, we are almost inclined to think that the self beating machines are better for those who do not Irish to conduct op mi ions so ( ■••■.!« □ ively. 'J'Jic latter are certainly much < to work, and are rery little more costly than the others* The greatest dangers sre in over-heating, and, in the case of lamp machines especially, making the air in the apartment where It is kept impure a danger which can be obviated to a largo extent, by the exercise of a little care in the working of the machine, and by having the room well ventilated. One of the best machines of this class, is that known Hearson's, made by the Sun Anto-Pneumatic Company, of Bouthwarki We have heard the rery highest testimonies as to its capabilities, and recently heard a gentleman, who Jiiis about a dozen incubators of various kinds, say that be prefers this one to all the others* Above the lamp, which is placed at one side of the machine, is a chimney, which bas two outlets. TI10 first of these is immediately over Ihe lamp, but the other runs through the water-tank and bad again, the top of which is the side of the one first named* There is no boiler above the lamp, and the only method of heating in by means of tin- hot air passing through iIjih longer chimney, for, when in operation, a cap fits on to the shorter one, and the heated air cannot escape in that way, 1 pt under such circumstances as we shall presently indi- cate. Below the tank, and just above the egg-drawer, if a metal capsule about two inches square, and in this in some fluid, unknown ( icept to the makers, which expands enor- mously when the beat rise:-; to more than 10 1 degrees. On the upper side is a rod, which passes up a tube through the tank, communicating, l>y a lover, with another rod, whicb is attached to the cap fitting on to the chimney immediately above the lump. When the machine is in its normal con- iS6 Profitable Poultry Keeping, dition, this cap remains in position, and the hot air has to go the circuit already named ; but, when the heat rises above 104 degrees, the capsule expands, the lever is acted upon, and the cap is lifted from off the chimney, so that the hot air escapes there, and the machine soon cools down. This cap- sule is wonderfully susceptible, and the incubator is found to work admirably. The usual arrangements are made in it for ventilation, and moisture, without which no machine could succeed. AMERICAN INCUBATORS. THE "NEW CENTENNIAL" INCUBATOR. A — Thumb piece, or crank, on roller of turning-tray. B— Boiler. 0— Connecting rod from outside lever of rock-shaft to lamp. Z>— Outer door. A"-- Moisture pan under egg tray. G— Egg tray. H— Ventilator to nursery, i— Lamp lever. A"— Outside lever of rock-shaft. L — Lamp. N — Door of nursery. P— Rods or wires of adjustable egg tray. 8— Springs that hold lamp in place. T— Moisture trough. T— Ventilator flues from egg chamber. Z— Inner door with glass window (shown open). There are three self-regulating incubators prominently before the people of this country, each practically good, and neither characterized especially by the modesty of its claims. A merican Incubators. 1 8 7 The oldest of these is Halsted's " Centennial" now im- proved and called New Centennial.* The construction of this is certainly very simple, as it has neither clock-work, electricity, weights, pulleys, gear or ratchet wheels, provided the four il thermostatic bars so pivoted and linked together that they multiply power and motion, " do not make a complication. The machine consists of a small water heater, which warms the water in a tank placed over the egg-chamber. The source of heat may be either kerosene oil or gas. The eggs, placed in trays, are warmed by radiation on the upper surface only. Under the trays are shallow pans of water six to ten degrees cooler than the eggs, the aim being to imitate the conditions which are observed when hens make their nests on the ground. The air in the egg-chamber is also moistened by water from troughs suspended above the eggs. Ventilation is provided through tubes which introduce a constant flow of fresh air close under the tank, thus warming it before it comes in contact with the eggs. The impure air is taken out from the bottom. All the eggs are turned at one time by means of an ingenious construction of the bottom of the egg' tray. A set of thermostatic bars above the eggs raise and lower the flame of the lamp or gas burner, and thus adapt the heat given out to the changes of temperature in the room, and hold the heat of the machine close to the desired point by a constant and not by a fitful or alternating action. There is a chamber under the egg-trays which is warmed by the tube which returns the water from the tank to the heater outside, which is used as a " Nursery " for the chicks. The machine is well made, neatly finished, easily managed, and gives satisfaction. The inventor has long been before the public as a maker of incubators, and this combines features which have proved their usefulness in his other machines. * Made by A. M. Halsted, Rye, N. Y. i88 Profitable Poultry Keeping. THE " PERFECT " HATCHER.* In general construction this machine is similar to the " Cen- tennial ; " that is, the water tank is above the eggs, and it is warmed by a heater exterior to the machine, the Nursery is below the egg-chamber, and the source of heat is gas or kero- sene oil. The moisture pans are in contact with the return water pipe under the eggs. The eggs are turned by placing an empty tray inverted over the eggs and then inverting both at once. The regulation of the heat is effected by means of a thermostatic bar, which, by moving a lever, connects an elec- trical (Leclanche) battery with a clock-work, which, when the heat reaches the highest point, opens a ventilator and reduces the flame of the lamp, and, when the lowest permitted tem- perature is reached, closes the draft and turns up the flame. Thus the heat constantly but slowly vacillates between the two extremes as fixed — intermediate between the highest and lowest admissible temperatures. A notable peculiarity of this machine, and one which doubles its capacity after the first ten days, is its double layers of eggs. The upper tray is * Hade by Perfect Hatcher Co., Elmira, N. Y. American Incubators. 189 placed below after being set ten days, and then the upper one is filled. It is fair to say that experienced hatchers differ in their opinions as to the merits of this feature, the weight of opinion being against it, except, perhaps, when eggs are very plenty. The clock needs to be wound once in three days, but daily winding is recommended, and the battery is guaranteed to work a year without removal or interference. This ma- chine also receives high commendation from those who use it, and is certainly successful and satisfactory in its results. ii^'-^ THE THERMOSTATIC INCUBATOR," In this incubator we have several novel features. There is no water tank, and no water is used except to supply moisture, * Made by E. S. RsnwicX 19 Parle Place, Now York. 190 Profitable Poultry Keeping* sir warmed by oontaot with two metallic lamp flues giving the desired warmth to the eggs. The air thus wanned is dif- fused in the upper part of the maehine, where it eomes in contact with pans of water, absorbing as muoh as it needs ; then it is forced downward, maintaining a nearly nniformlj descending flow past and through the egg trays, ami passes out at the bottom of the maehine through the N ursery, where it passes ofl by a tine ami chimney at the rear. The regula- tion of the heat is accomplished by a thermostat ie bar, whieh, operating a simple eloek-work, opens or eloses the lamp Hues, thus increasing or diminishing the heat of the current of air, which is constantly passing through the maehine. None o'i the products of combustion enter the egg chamber. The eggs are held in bottomless trays either upon rods or upon wooden rollers. The rollers are connected by rubber bands so that they all turn together one way or the other, and thus when one is turned all turn, and the eggs lying upon them turn, and may thus all be turned over at one operation. When trays with rods are used, one-third more ejttfS may be held in the same spaee. Both rollers and rods are set so far apart that while they hold eggs of all sizes they allow the chicks io fall through into the Nursery, the Horn- of whieh is four inohes below the egg trays. The regulation of the tem- perature is by its alternate rise and fall, but, as this is very gradual and may have a very small range, it does not appear to be objectionable. The Thermostatic is a comparatively new incubator, vet is well received by practical men. and has done very crood work. There is a very simple elass of ineubators with whieh per- sons whose employment, or lack o( other employment, is sueh that they can give them frequent attention, may successfully hatoh many ehiekens. Oi' this elass is THE "NOVELTY" lNOUlUTOR.* This may stand for its elass, whieh is peculiar in having no automatic regulating apparatus. This machine consists of * Made by A. G Atkins, Orarge, N. J. Brooders or Artificial Mothers. 191 two tanks placed one above and one beneath the egg drawer, and connected by tubes in such a way as to cause a very free and perfect circulation of the water. This double tank is jacketed with felt and inclosed in a wooden box. The egg tray or drawer is between the tanks as stated, and beneath this a pan of earth kept constantly moist imparts sufficient moisture to the air. The source of heat is a naked kerosene lamp under the centre of the lower tank. The flame of this is regulated according to the judgment of the attendant, who keeps it as near to 102° F. as he can. In careful hands machines of this general character give very good results, and, the body of water being large, the changes occur slowly, and less constant attention is required than might be supposed, except when the temperature of the room is subject to very sudden and great changes. In fact, when such extraordinary changes occur, all the incubators need watching, and often blanketing or special attention. No part of an ordinary dwelling is so good as the cellar to set the incubator in. Here the temperature varies but little between day and night, and between one day, when the ther- mometer may stand at fifty-five, and the next, when it may sink to zero — a change which not unfrequently occurs several times in each winter in the Northern States, and which all other parts of th« house feel more or less. BROODERS OR ARTIFICIAL MOTHERS After the chicks are hatched and have been for a while in the Nursery, so that they are well dried off and have begun to be lively and active, say from two to twelve hours after hatching, they should be removed to the brooder. Of these artificial mothers there are many kinds. Each maker of 192 Profitable Poultry Keeping, incubators has one, and they are usually good. Whether the eggs are hatched in an incubator or by a hen, it is best for the chicks to be soon removed and raised in the artificial brooder. Parasitic vermin quickly pass from the hens to the chickens, and are the cause of many losses and always of lack of thrift. The artificial brooder, if kept tolerably clean, keeps the chicks perfectly free from lice, gapes and similar evils. The fault of many who use the brooders is that they keep the chicks too much confined in them. The brooders should oe set in very cold weather on the earth-floor or deeply sanded floor of some close room or shed with a warm southern expos- ure and plenty of light. The floor of a cold grapery is an excellent place. As soon as the weather is such as will admit of the brooder being set out-of-doors — that is, as soon as the frost is out of the ground in the spring — a small enclosure should be made of wire netting and the brooder placed within it. Then the chicks, being allowed perfect freedom by day to run in and out of the brooder, will do much better than when in-doors. This is true even during cold snaps when the ground freezes hard, or when there is a considerable fall of snow. Care must be taken, however, that there shall always be sufficient warmth w T ithin the brooder, especially at night. In fact, on sunshiny days there is rarely need of any heat at all by day after the little flock is ten days old. — W. Rearing — -Natural and Artificial. 193 CHAPTER XVII. REARING NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL* Size of Eggs — Supposed Ways of Testing Sex and Fertility of Eggs — Formation of Egg — The Young Chicks — First Day after Hatching— Food — Coops — Influence of Early Management— Co Idling Injurious — First Three or Four Days — Second Stage — The Run— Food— Meat Diet— Green Food — System in Feeding, — Cold Mothers -Troubles with Hens — Artificial Mothers —Management— Outdoor Rearers— Heat— Overcrowding— Teaching Chicks to Eat — Turkeys as Rearers. —Water— Milk. There is a great variety in the size of eggs laid by the different breeds of domestic poultry, but, the size of the egg is very little indication of the size of the fowl which it will produce. Of course Bantams lay much smaller eggs than ordinary fowls, and ducks much larger ones ; but, if we take the Spanish tribe, which are almost the smallest in size of body, save only Bantams and Hamburghs, they have almost the largest egg of any; whereas, on the other hand, Brahmas and Cochins, which are the largest fowls, have very much smaller eggs than any other domestic fowls, except those already named. Doubtless, they are very rich in quality, whilst the Spanish are rather dry ; but, what we have said, shows that the size of fowl and the size of egg have no regular relationship, and, therefore, larger eggs than those usually laid by the fowls should not be selected for hatching. Very large eggs are generally double yolked and unfertile, or, if fertile, produce mal-formed chicks. The best, and ooly 194 Profitable Poultry Keeping. safe plan, is to select ordinary-sized, smooth-shelled, and good shaped eggs, refusing such as are abnormal in any way. We have heard it stated that long and pointed eggs produce cock birds, and that short, round eggs produce hens ; but the belief upon which this supposition rests, is so wanting in proof, and the opposite has been so often shown, that it must be dismissed as incorrect. We have also heard that eggs laid before noon produce hens, and after that time of day cocks, the promulgator of this extraordinary theory declaring that he has proved its truth scores of times ; but this must be dismissed as nonsense. It has been also said, and with a greater measure of probability, that the fertility of eggs can be told by placing the broad end to the mouth, and breathing upon it. If the egg feels cold, it is unfertile ; but if it is warm, or, to describe it more accurately, appears to give back warmth, it has been impregnated. The reason for this is stated to be, that a fertile egg contains the germ of life, and that there cannot be life without heat ; therefore, the egg does not absorb the same amount of heat when breathed upon, as when an unfertile, and, consequently, entirely cold egg is tested. We have known many instances where this test has been applied, and the eggs selected accordingly, with the result that they have turned out as marked, when placed in an incubator; but, we have known other instances, where it has not been found so reliable, and we cannot, therefore, state that the test is an entirely safe one. It is a fact, how- ever, that after eggs have been in process of incubation for ten or twelve days, and are exposed to the atmosphere for five minutes, the living and the dead ones can easily be distinguished, if held in the hand. The former are as warm as when the hen was on them, whilst the latter are quite cold, or very nearly so. The formation of an egg is truly a wonderful process, and puts the poor, weak inventions of man into the shade Rearing — Natural and A rtificial. 1 9 5 The yolk, which contains the germ, when detached from the ovary, finds its way to the oviduct, and is there coated in succession with numerous thin layers of white — which is largely composed of albumen. It has the chalazas — which hold the yolk in position, and are known as the portion which cooks take out when beating up an egg — fixed, is then lovered with the two outer membranes or skins, and, finally, before being voided, is covered with the shell. The white is the matter from which the chick is formed, when the germ of life is present, and the egg subjected to the proper conditions. The yolk-bag contains the food of the chick, and, during the process of incubation, this bag hardens, and is absorbed with its contents into the stomach of the bird, shortly before it emerges from the shell. Thus, by a bountiful provision of nature, no food is needed by the chick during the first twenty- four hours of its existence, and giving any food during that time, is not only useless, but positively injurious, so that no attempt should be made to force the birds to eat. Young poultry keepers often get anxious, because the food put down during the first day is not eaten, but for the reason just stated, there is no need to have any fears on that account, and the appetite will come in proper time, for which patience, must be exercised. Another custom is observed by some per- sons, which is a useless one, namely, the giving of a pepper- corn to the newly-hatched chick ; but, unaware as we are of the reason advanced for this custom, it is not based upon experience or upon common sense, and we can only charac- terise it as " an old wives' fable." A still more foolish custom is occasionally found, which deserves the strongest condemnation, namely, that of tearing off the hard scale found on the beaks of all young chicks — so placed to euable them to break through the shell — and putting it down the throat of the bird. This is not only without anything to recommend it, but is, at the same time, cruel and barbarous, and also 196 Profitable Poultry Keeping, unnecessary, as the scale naturally falls off after a few days. Possibly, if we could trace it, this custom originated in some old superstition, born in an age when there was a charm in cruelty, or, when no thought was given to the sufferings of those who were weak and defenceless. When the process of hatching is entirely over, and all the birds are out, it is better not to disturb the hen, after having given her a good feed, for twenty to twenty-four hours, when some hard-boiled egg, chopped fine, mixed with an equal quantity of bread crumbs, and slightly moistened with milk, should be given to both the hen and her brood. The best plan for making the bread crumbs is to get a sieve, about ten or twelve inches in diameter, and of a moderately fine mesh. This, in use, is turned upside down, and bread rubbed through with the hands, in which way, if the loaf is not too new, nice even crumbs will be made very rapidly. When giving the first feed, it is best to put the food upon a board in front of the nest, and the hen and chickens placed near it, when the tapping of the hen's beak will be sufficient to attract the attention of the chicks, and they will soon begin to feed. No more than they eat readily should be given, and any that is left ought to be removed at once, for the best rule for feeding chicks is, little and often. Only sufficient should be moistened to serve two or three times ; and, when the weather is cold or wet, a pinch of stimulating powder will be very beneficial. Clean water in clean dishes must be given, or, what is better, warmed milk ; but shallow dishes or saucers should be used, or the birds may get drowned. We once bought some dishes which were made with a series of rings or ridges on the upper side, so that the birds could not possibly come to any harm, and the quantity of water which each held was, so small that they had to be refilled twice or thrice a day. But small fountains, with a cup at one side, are even better than these, for the birds can drink out of The Hen Coop. 197 them, but cannot stand or get into them. They are made both in ware and zinc, and can be obtained at reasonable prices. After the hen and her brood have had their first feed, they should be removed to a coop, either placed in a shed (such as we have before described), or in some warm, dry, sheltered spot, where the sun will reach. A lawn, a meadow, a wood, or, in fact, any place that is grassy, and, what we have said, will answer ; but it must be away from the ordinary hens, as they are very apt, from jealous motives, to interfere with chickens ; and, for the same reason, coops must not be too near each other, without some provision to prevent the hens fighting, which will not be to the advantage of the young broods. Coops of all patterns, shapes, and sizes can be obtained, but if cheapness be desired more than appearance, a box or a barrel is capable of being made into a good coop, by any one handy with tools. The things to be sought for in a coop are — that it shall be dry above and below, ventilated, but free from draughts, easily moved about, having laths or bars at the front, so that the chicks can get out and in, but not the hen, and have a folding shutter, so that the whole can be closed up at night. If the ground be dry and sandy in its nature, or, when the coop is in the shed, there need be no floor, as the straw used will be sufficient ; but, if it be at all damp or cold, a wooden floor should be used. A flour barrel, which can be bought for a quarter., will make two good coops, if the head be fix^d on and the barrel itself sawn in two. Laths can then be nailed on to the only open part, constituting it the front, and two or three staves can be taken out of the under sides, so that there will be no floor, or it can be raised up above the ground by wooden feet or bricks, which should always be done when a wooden floor is used. Thus in a very simple manner can a capital coop be made, and at little cost; but if something better is needed any o 198 Profitable Poultry Keeping. joiner can make one to look nice, or there are plenty sold both at low and high prices. We like those best that have floors separate to facilitate cleaning, and nailed on to two pieces of scantling, the floor fitting inside the coop, and the two sides of the latter resting upon the scantling, for by this means all chance of the wet getting in is obviated. Fig. 10 is a capital example of one of these. If the coops cannot be put very wide apart, it is better to use wire runs, as these prevent the chicks wandering away and getting mixed with other broods. In fact, it is always better to use a run for Fig. 10. — Chicken ".'oop. the first week, if the coop is outside, moving it to fresh ground every day, but after then, if there is plenty of ground, the run can be dispensed with, and the hen allowed to be out also, at least for a few hours in the day. The growing stage in the life of young chickens, as in children, is the time that very largely controls their size and stamina, and therefore much depends upon the method of treatment during such growth. Unless there is a good supply of nutritious food, the strain upon the system will not be provided for, and the chicken soon Feeding Young Chicks. 199 dies, or, grows up a weedy, stunted thing, of no use to any one. We must not be thought from this to be advocating pampering or coddling, for we do not believo in such a system ; but, there is a way of feeding well in which there is no pampering, and as to coddling, whilst wo certainly think that the young chicks should be protected from the severe storms, it is much better to put them out of doors — except in severe weather — as soon as they are a week or ten days old. This, of course, does not apply to very early hatched chicks, for, as they are brought into the world at an unseasonable period, they need special treatment, and must be kept in such a house as we have already described. There is another advantage also, in giving them liberty, and that is, they can find grubs and worms, which, it must be remembered, are their natural food. But on these topics we have already said all that is needed. For the first three or four days, it is better to continue the egg and bread crumbs, of which the hen should be allowed a share, as it is necessary to get up the tone of her system, which, naturally, is much reduced during sitting, in order that she may begin to lay as soon as she gives up her charge : otherwise, if she is not well fed, there may several weeks elapse before she does this, and thus " penny wise " will be 11 pound foolish." The chicks require to be fed as soon after daylight as possible, and at intervals of two hours until the evening ; a final meal to be given by candle-light, about ten o'clock at night. If it is not possible to be up so early in the morning as this may appear to require, a little canary seed should be left overnight, where the birds can get it as soon as they are astir ; but this will not take the place of warm food and fresh milk, so that it must not be made an excuse for idleness. A bad riser is certain to be behind with his chicks — all other things being equal — compared with one who is a good getter up. 2 200 Profilablc Poultry Keeping* Inexperienced poultry keepers are vow apt to make a groat mistake in rearing chickens, by neglecting those a month old and upwards, for the younger broods. The reason of this is not difficult to realise, for, it is thought that the birds, having got so far in safety, are able to look after themselves, and do not require the same amount of attention as the younger ones ; whereas, the fact really is, that the birds at the age mentioned, need actually more care than they ever did before, or will again. Doctors tell parents that boys and girls in their teens need more support than at any other time. So it is with chicks ; and neglect at this period is attended with very serious results, more birds being lost then, than at any other stage of their growth. The cause is, that the down or nest-feathers, which have enveloped the body, are hoing shed, and the full-grown feathers taking their place, thus causing a continual drain upon the system ; it is, in fact, a first moult, and there is not the same strength to meet it as is found in adult birds. Extra warmth, additional nourishment, and careful feeding, are all most important to the well-being of the chick, and undue exposure to cold or wot will be very dangerous, and ought to be guarded against. Of course, some breeds are hardier than others, and get through this stage much more easily, but the strongest need such care as we have indicated. In fine open weather the feeding will bo the great point requiring attention, but, in bad weather, it will be a good plan to put the coop inside the chicken-house. When the coop is outside it is better to have a wire run for the chicks, though this can be discarded after the first week, and the birds allowed to run about freely. At the end of another week the hen may be allowed out also ; but sho must be kept within an enclosure, or be watched, for, if left alone, she will probably lead them away too far, and tax their strength more than they can bear. For food, oatmeal, Spratt's, or Chamberlin's prepared meals, may be given CJioice of Food, 20 r alternately, frith some crashed hempseed, which, when they are three weeks old, can be Substituted by dari or buckwheat, both of which, and the latter especially, make capital chicken foods. Some correspondence has appeared In poultry journals of late, in which the rearing of chicks on grain alone was advocated, and some writers stated, an their experience, that it is better than soft foods. Wo believe too much pampering does takes place, but, at the same time, we think that, for early broods especially, these warm, nutritions foods are ofimmense service* Rice is a food which chicks arc wonderfully fond of, if properly prepared ; bat us it is entirely deficient in bone-forming qualities, some hour: meal should be mixed with it, or leg weakness will probably ensue. The host way to prepare it is, to put a pint of poultry rice Into three pints of water, and allow it to simmer (not boil), on the .stove or side of tin; kitchen fire, for a couple of hours, when it will be found that the rice will have swollen out and absorbed all the water. If the soil upon which the chicks are kept, contains plenty of worms and slugs, it can ho dug up a little, and there will be no need to provide any animal food ; but if it is sandy, or the birds are kept in a confined Space, then some provision must bo made in this way. Dead fowls come in \caj useful for the generation of gentles, and should ho allowed to hang a few days, when thousands of fresh flies' eggs will have been deposited. If buried in the run the maggots will soon begin to show themselves, much to the advantage of its inmates; though upon no account should a diseased fowl be used in this way. Green food should also applied, and can take any form that is most convenient. Grass is, of course, to he desired, hut not cut grass, if any- thing better can be ^ r ot. Lettuces, cabbages, and, in fact, any garden stuff of this nature may be ^iven ; and we know of one of the largest breeders in the kingdom, who puts down, in his chicken run, a barrowful of lettuce:; every morning, 202 Profitable Poultry Keeping. and he declares that he would never be able to raise such fowls as he does, were it not for this. A spare corner of the garden may very profitably be set on one side for growing lettuces, and a plentiful supply thus secured. There can be no question that the best system which can •be adopted in feeding chickens is little and often. For the first fortnight they ought to be fed every two hours, for the next month every three hours, and after that, until they reach maturity, four times a day. As already stated, the first food should be given as soon after daylight as possible, and the plan, or rather want of plan in some yards, of allowing chicks to run about three or four hours before getting their first meal, is calculated to do more harm than most people think of. The leaving of seed overnight is better than nothing, but a warm meal is very much to be preferred. In large yards, where the food takes some time to prepare, the following system, which w T e saw recommended some time ago, may be adopted with advantage : — Get a square wooden box, strongly made of thick wood, and line this out with felt, or felt carpeting — sides, bottom, and lid, so that the centre compartment may only be about one-fourth the size of the box itself, the dimensions of which must be regulated by the requirements of the owner. Last thing at night, half cook some food in a tin kettle or pan w T ith lid, made to fit the centre of the box, and put kettle and food just as it is into it. Then close the box, and next morning the food wall be found perfectly cooked, and quite hot, whenever opened. By this means, all the trouble consequent upon lighting a fire and getting water to boil will be obviated, and the chicks can be fed as soon as any one is astir, at least half an hour before food could be prepared for them. The last feed at night should be given about an hour before dusk, except to the birds less than a month old, who need a feed by candle- light, and this feed must consist of grain, as it takes longer Separation of Brood from Hen. 203 to digest than meal, and, consequently, keeps up the warmth much longer than soft food would. Intermediate meals should be varied, and it is a good plan to try and change the food as much as possible, as by this means the appetite is tempted and growth encouraged. A bad feeder can never be anything but a bad thriver, and, change of diet by tempting the appetite, is the best method of inducing the birds to eat heartily. Overfeeding must, however, be carefully avoided, and food should be removed as soon as the birds are satisfied, never being allowed to stand about. When the chicks are about six to eight weeks old, the hen will begin to get restless and neglect them, when she should at once be returned to the laying house, and the chicks then put into a separate house and run. If the weather is at all cold or stormy, cold mothers may be provided, or, if not, broad shelves covered with dry sand or earth will answer best. These cold mothers are simply wooden frames across which canvas is stretched, and on the underside of this canvas, strips of flannel, or thin felt, is stitched, so that when raised up or fitted into grooved ends, the chickens get under and are protected from the cold. Generally, however, there is no need for anything of this kind, as the hen remains long enough with her brood, to enable them to do without further pro- tection ; but, as we stated at the beginning of this chapter, care and attention are specially necessary at this stage of a chicken's existence ; it is better to be on the safe side, and, as there is no artificial heat in a mother such as we have described, there the birds are not coddled by the use of it. Plenty of room should also be given, and we prefer, whenever possible, to divide our chickens, which can easily be done by means of the movable poultry-houses, recommended in the chapter dealing with the subject. The older chicks are very prone to ill-treat the younger ones, and it is for the sake of these latter, as well as to prevent overcrowding, that we 204 Profitable Poultry Keeping. adopt this plan. The giving of room allows the chicks to run and fly about, which develops their wing and breast muscles, keeps them in health, and assists their growth. Nothing is more miserable than to see chickens, from a month to three months old, cooped up in a small run. No wonder they grow slowly, and are always small and stunted in appearance. As we have given a detailed acount tf the various incuba- tors now offered for sale, together with a brief history of the question of artificial incubation itself, it is necessary that we should say something about artificial rearing, for one would naturally appear to depend upon the other. All poultry keepers have at some period been troubled with bad sitters, and, also, with clumsy, negligent mothers, the latter especially, being very annoying. It is, doubtless, very provoking to have a setting of eggs spoiled, but it is even more annoying, when they have been hatched, and the chicks are running about strong and lively, to find some crushed to death, and others dying for want of proper attention from the hen. Hence many attempts have been made, to solve the problem of rear- ing by artificial means. These artificial mothers were in use by a few persons, a considerable time before incubators arrived at anything like their present stage of perfection, and, as might naturally be expected, they are now very largely used. At first the makers of incubators fitted them to their machines, but this, we believe, helped to make the latter even more unsuccessful than they otherwise might have been, for when any chickens were brought out, they were necessarily kept in runs a foot or two square, and, of course, indoors, so that in a few days they died off, from want of fresh air and proper exercise. The first step towards success was in the separation alto- gether of the mother from the incubator, and they have, since this has been done, been found most successful. At Incubators. 205 first sheepskins were used, with the wool downwards, and ahove the skin there was a hot-water tank, but the chickens were very often hung in the wool, and they, therefore, never became really popular. The first to win anything like popular favour, was a contrivance similar to the one just named, but, with the important exception, that flannel strips were used instead of the sheepskin, and, as there were capital arrangements made for heating, ventilating, and cleaning, much real success was attained by it. The present writer reared large numbers of chickens during several seasons in these machines ; and, as at that time the incubators were unsatisfactory, hens were used for hatching, but, as the artificial system of rearing presented so many advantages over the natural one, the chicks were taken from the hens, when a day old, and placed in the artificial mother. The demand for these mothers was but small, and that kept up the price, so that only a few persons went in for them. When incubators a few years ago became more easily worked, there came with the demand for them, one also for the mothers, especially as many who might have thought it cruel to separate the hen and her chickens, could have no such feelings with respect to machine-hatched birds, and all the makers of the former have been compelled to provide the latter also. These are generally made very similar, both in appearance and methods of working. There are, therefore, the hydro or hot water mothers, and, also, those in which there is a continuous burning lamp ; but, whilst we in great measure prefer the former method for incubators, the mothers upon this system are rather troublesome when kept out in the open, as boiling water has to be carried to them twice or thrice a day, and this, in many cases, involves an amount of trouble which becomes a serious burden. To obviate the diffi- culty, some of the hydro-mothers have a lamp and circulating boiler fitted to them, so that by lighting the former, for an 206 Profitable Poultry Keeping. hour or two every day, the heat is kept up. This is much to be preferred to the other plan, and saves unnecessary trouble, but the lamp must be so protected so as not to be easily blown out. One of the best mothers we know of, is made by Messrs. Tomlinson & Co., Birmingham, Eug., called "The AVinged Brooder." It is fitted with a continuous burning lamp, so arranged that it can scarcely be affected by wind, or anything else, outside. At the sides are flaps or wings closing in at THE "ACME" IN-DOOR REARERc Fig. 11. — Owen's "Acme" In-door Rearer. night, and it can be fitted with outside cover and runs, so that, altogether, it is a most useful appliance. Another very good one, of which Fig. 11 is an illustration, is that made by Mr. John Owen, of the Minories, London. This is provided with a lamp and has a covered run. It can also be fitted with a cover so that it can be used in the open. Mr. Jas. Watson, of Kilwinning, Scotland, has a very good one also, and all the other makers send out mothers more or less near to our ideal. At first it was the custom to keep the mothers in houses or sheds, but that was found to be a bad plan. It may be advi- sable to do this for the first few days, and hence the value of a small chicken nursery made by Messrs. Tomlinson and Co., but we do not approve of the plan for older birds. Chicks need, and must have, plenty of fresh air, and the only shelters Out-door "Rearers" 207 we should use, after they are a week old, except very early in the season, are the covers sold with most machines, which protect the mothers from wet, and give the birds a dry run. This is shown in the Christy out- door rearers (fig. 12). These, as will be seen, have wooden sides and glass tops, and Fig. 12. — Christy's Out-door Rearer. can have wooden floors, or not, as may be desired. They have doors, so that the chickens can be allowed out or kept in, as the attendant may think best, and generally are easily moved about, so that the birds may have fresh ground every day. During the first week the chicks should be kept in the chicken house, but after that, unless the weather be excep- tionally severe, they are much better outside. The run should always be dry below and changed every day, with fresh sand or dry earth thickly covering the floor, if it be a wooden one. Pure air and cleanliness are essential to success, and, for this reason, the mother should every day be lifted out of its place, so that all vapours and foul air can get away, and, 2o8 Profitable Poultry Keeping. at the same time, the whole should be thoroughly cleaned. Where there is flannel for the chicks to nestle amongst, this should be taken out and purified, by having plenty of dry earth well shaken through it. The heat also needs to be well looked after, as many poultry keepers make a great mis- take in having their machines too hot, which is a much greater evil than a little cold would be. Mothers should never be allowed to go above 80 degs., and, except in summer, below 65 degs., but the margin between these two is sufficient for the variations of the weather. It is true that the chicks will not get so close to the tank, if hotter, but too much heat makes them tender, and it is to be remembered, that the heat from their own bodies increases the temperature, so that in summer if the mother was 80 degs. before they went into it, it would probably be ten or fifteen degs. higher after they had been in for a time. The best test is to put the hand against the bottom of the tank, when it may be accepted as all right if just warm and comfortable, but if the hand cannot be kept against the metal it is too hot. Overcrowding is also very dangerous, aui we would not be inclined to put more than forty chicks a week old, or twenty-five above that age, into one machine. Nor is it wise to keep them in it too long ; for, if healthy and strong, they may, when five or six weeks old, be transferred to the cold mother, which, as we have already described, is simply one without any water tank or heating arrangements. The state of the weather and the strength of the birds will, however, largely decide this question. As to teaching the birds to eat, which the hen does, this only needs to be done with the first brood. The way to proceed is to put some food on a piece of board, and tap the same with a pencil or piece of stick, to which imitation of the hen's pecking the chicks will readily answer. Later broods can have an older chick put with them, and it will in this respect act a maternal part. Hatching under Ttirkeys. 209 In many parts of France, turkeys are very largely used for the hatching and rearing of chickens, the advantage of these birds being their docility, their capability for covering a large number of eggs, and caring for a large number of chickens. It is no uncommon sight to see turkeys, with fifty or sixty chicks, being driven in the morning to a wood adjacent to the residence of their owner, where they are left all day in charge of decrepit old women or young children. In some instances, the chicks have been hatched in incubators, but this is generally in those districts where there are hatching factories, if we may use the term, at which places egg hatch- ing is conducted on a large scale, the peasants taking their eggs to be incubated, and paying a percentage of the chickens for the trouble. But in England, also, many persons have used turkeys with very good results. There are, however, several things necessary to make this plan a success. In the first place, it is necessary to have ground enough, as putting a turkey with half a hundred chicks upon a small piece of land would be a failure, for there would not be moving room, and the ground would soon get contaminated. But, on the other hand, if an unlimited run be given, the turkey must be watched, or she will lead the chicks astray and overtax their strength. It is true she may be cooped, but after the first ten days this is not advisable, and the best plan is to keep her in a fenced run. Where this can be done, turkeys will be found to answer admirably, but, of course, the houses or coops used for them need to be well ventilated and roomy ; especially so, in fact, because of the larger number of birds to be kept therein. They are very easily managed, and the way to get one to take charge of a brood, is to allow it to sit on potatoes for a few days, and then the chicks may be put under her at night. We have seldom known one refuse accepting a charge of this kind ; but, in order to be on the safe side, it is as well to put only a few in at first If she attempts to 210 Profitable Poultry Keeping. injure them, they must he removed, hut if not, all may he given to her, and she will he delighted to have so large a family, nursing them in most respects better than an ordinary hen would or even could. When this system of rearing is adopted, special care will have to he given to the weakly ones, and any so found, should at once be removed where they will not be crowded, and can have individual attention. When the birds are a month old, if of a strong, hardy breed, the largest may be removed to a cold mother, and this will give more room to the rest. As soon as all appear to be grown enough, they may be taken away and a fresh batch given to the turkey, which will rear a couple of hundred in a season in this way without the least objection. From first to last the necessity for drink should never be forgotten. Water is the natural drink of all poultry. It should be pure and fresh, the drinking vessels being filled at least daily, and, whenever filled, carefully emptied and cleansed. There are numerous convenient forms of drink- ing fountains, but in the use of them there is a constant temptation for the attendant to neglect to empty them, but to simply fill them afresh. These should never be used for milk, which is excellent for chickens and fowls of all ages ; but this should be presented in shallow pans, so protected that the chicks cannot get into them. Food and Feeding. 2 1 1 CHAPTER XVIII. FOOD AND FEEDING. Food the Fuel of all Life— Effect of Bad Food — Effect of Over-feediDg — Food for Fowls in Confinement not to be same as when at Liberty — "What is Needed in Food — Qualities of the Grains — Barley — Oats — Wheat — Maize — Buckwheat — Pulse — Rice — Bone-meal— Water. The question is often asked, especially by new beginners in poultry-keeping, what is the best food for poultry, and the matter is of such great importance, that we wish to deal with it fully, so that our readers may know what is the best food for poultry under the conditions in which their fowls live. That food must have a very great influence upon the health and success of the birds, will be acknowledged at once by all, for it is virtually the fuel which keeps the engine going, and any neglect to supply this fuel, or the supplying of improper fuel, means that the machine will not work properly, and that there will be a great loss of power. This is the case with all animals, and the attention which has been paid to the question of feeding by scientific men during late }e 147 ,, Sitters and moth r3 76 Cross-breeding ... 4 ,126 Bronchitis .... 231 Cross v. pure-bred Fowls . 70 126 Bumblefoot . . . 234 Buying hirdi .... 158 ,, eggs for hitting 158 Details in management, Import- ance of 241 Diarrhoea .... 236 Caponising Fowls . . , 228 Diphtheria .... 236 Catarrh ..... 2:55 Diseases of Poultry . . . 232 Cayuga Ducks . . . . 140 Dominique Fowls . . . 89 Chicken house, Floor for . . 67 Dorking Fowls .... 89 „ „ Position of . 66 Dressing Fowls, French system ,, , , Size of , 68 of 226 256 Index. PAGE Duck farms 134 Game Fowls . . • . Ducks, Breeding, hatching, and Gapes ..... rearing .... 143 Geese, Bree Is of . ,, Feeding of 145 ,, in Norfolk ,, in small runs . 142 ,, Management of . . „ not to be kept with hens . 133 General-utility Fowls ,, wa^er neede.l for breeders 133 Gradual commencement bc^t Dust-bath, The . 52, 17 2, 244 Gravel and grass runs Ground, Selection of . . . Egg organs, Affections of . 237 Eggs, airing during incubation . 171 Hamburgh Fowls . . , , Consumption of 14 Hatching boxes „ Formation of . . , 190 ,, Management during ,, How to secure early 217 Health and condition ,, Packing .... 247 Hobby, Poultry-keeping ofien a ,, Preservation of 246 Houses, Aspect of ,, Prices of 15 , , and runs, S ze of . . ,, Testing the . 172 ,, Cheap. . . . „ Value of fresh . 1G, 18 ,, Cost of ,, elaborate ones not needed . Farms, The best plan for . fc7 ,, Floors in . Farm-yard mongrels . 3 25 ,, Foundation for . . Fattening, Methods of 221 ,, Framework for . . Feather-eating . 237 ,, good ones required . Feeding of breeding stock . 1G1 ,, Importance of . . Fencing for runs . . , 54 „ in gardens . . Fertile eggs, When to expect t 161 ,, Materials for . . Floor for chicken-house 67 on wb.ee' s . . • Food, Effect of bad . , 203 ,, Position of Chicken ,, for fowls in confinemen t ,, Saving of timber. and at liberty . 210 ,, Separate ,, for sitting hens 172 ,, Tenant's fixtures . „ quali'ies of the variou 3 ,, too larg-^ oV>jectionab'e. grains . 211 „ Ventilatior in „ the fuel of all life . . 207 Walls of . ,, What is needed ia . , 210 ., Windows and doors in . Fowls suitable for fattening . 221 Housing of Ducks, The . . . France, Farms in 14 Hydro-incubator, The . . French Fowls . . 93 French table Fowls, Superiority r of ... . . 220 In-breeding, Evils ot . • Fruit trees in runs . . 59 Incubation Artificial Index. Incubation, Period of • Incubator, The Hydro ,, Owen's Tabular ,, Arnold's Egg Oven ,, Hearson's Champion „ New Centennial „ Perfect Hatcher „ Thermostatic Incubators, Advice to workers of „ American . PAGE 1/4 180 184 1S4 185 186 isr 187 187 186 Killing Fowls .... 225 Lings ban Fowls • . .104 Leghorn Fowls . . . .107 Malay Fowls . . . .111 Mania, The Poultry . . .11 Manure, The value of Poultry' . 244 Minorca Fowls . . . .Ill Mongrel?, Farm-yard . . j.28 Mothers, Artificial . . .200 Muscovy Ducks . . .141 Nest boxes .... 50 Nest?, Making the . . . 168 Non-sitting breeds ... 75 Number of hens to cock bird . 160 Ornamental Ducks . . .142 Over-feeding, Effect of . . 209 Packing eggs . . . .247 Parent", Influence of . . 154 Paris, Poultry in . .16 Pay ? Does Poultry-keeping . 22 Pekin Ducks . . . .139 Peiches .... Pleasure in keeping Poultry Plymouth Rock Fowls Polish Fowls . Poultry, Diseas' s of . ,, keeping, Recent increase cf interest in ,, Who may keep . ,, Who should not keep Preservation of Eggs Profit, Aids to secure Eats, Provision against Rearing Chickens Rouen Ducks . Roup Runs and fencing Runs, Changing tie ,, Size of . 2 57 PACK 48 20 117 117 232 13 18 19 246 62 67 189 138 239 54 243 2L-33 Sale of eggs and CLicken3 Scotch Grey Fowls . Selection, Errors in . Sheds . . . Silky Fowls . Sitters and motheis . Sitting Hen, The Sitting Hens, Food for ,, ,, Place for Space required for Fowls Spanish Fowls . Stock birds, Importance of in selection of . Stocks, Improving present Suburban Residents . . 129 . 118 . 69 . 35 . 121 . 76 104-170 . 172 . 166 . 53 . 121 care 153 131 21 75 220 Table Fowls .... , , , , Superiority of French Testing sex and fertility of eggs, Supposed ways of . .190 258 Index, PAGE Testing the eggs . . .712 Turkeys as rearers . . .205 ,, Breeds and management 150 „ Fattening . . .152 Water Wild Duck Yard, Dividing the Yards, Plans fpr PAGE 210-219 . 136 29 . 23 f ■ I I H ■ ^ > V a q x * \Y%, '