' " 1 1 1 1 nini i im 'u i l ii mill I I i^im r- George Washington From the painting by Rothermel AMERICAN HISTORY FOR GRAMMAR GRADES BY EVERETT BARNES, A.M. GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY D. C. HEATH & CO. 1G3 ^ / ^ ©CI.A351500 PREFACE Interesting narrative — instead of condensation of un- important facts and dates — is the best method of presenting the subject of history to children in grammar grades. It has been the author's aim in developing the essential facts of American history to awaken the interest and hold the at- tention of the pupils. In simplicity of vocabulary and style of narration, it is believed that this text will prove to be adapted to the requirements of class-room use. As the interest of the child centers mainly in the men and women who have become great historical characters, the personal element has not been sHghted. An important and valuable feature in method of treatment may be found in the correlation of American with concurrent European history. In the arrangement of subject matter, the relative his- torical importance of topics has been observed. The elabo- rate table of contents, and the summaries and questions at the end of each chapter will be found helpful to both teacher and pupil. It has been the constant purpose to inspire the children, who are to become future citizens, with love for their country and its institutions and with respect and veneration for its great patriots, soldiers, and statesmen. CONTENTS CHAPTER I Early Portugukse and Spanish Discoveries and Explorations SECTION PAGE 1. Early Mediterranean Trade Routes I 2. The Great Question i 3. Portugal the First Nation to try to find a New Route 2 4. Columbus 3 5. The Earth is Round 4 6. Columbus forms a Plan 4 7. Columbus leaves Portugal and goes to Spain 6 8. Columbus decides to leave Spain 6 g. Columbus is called back. Suc- cess 6 10. First Voyage 7 1 1 . Land sighted 9 12. Cuba and Hispaniola 10 13. First Settlement in the New World 10 14. Return to Spain 10 15. Other Voyages of Columbus ... 12 16. Second Voyage 12 17. Second Settlement 13 18. First Battle between White Men and Indians 13 19. Third Voyage 14 20. Columbus finds the Continent . . 14 21. Portuguese reach India by Sea . . 16 22. Fourth Voyage 16 23. Hunting for a Way to India ... 17 24. Castaways on Jamaica 17 25. Death of Isabella and Columbus 18 26. Americus Vespucius, 18 SECTION PAGE 27. Ponce de Leon 20 28. "The Fountain of Youth." Florida 20 2g. Balboa 21 30. Balboa discovers the Pacific 22 31. Cortes; E.xploration and Con- quest of Mexico 23 32. Troops of Cortes 23 53. The City of Mexico 24 34. Montezuma 26 35. Cortes leaves the City 26 36. Capture of the City 26 37. Ferdinand Magellan, 1519-1522 27 38. Magellan starts 27 39. Straits of Magellan 27 40. On the Pacific Ocean 28 41. Death of Magellan 29 42. Into the Atlantic Ocean again . . 29 43. What the Voyage proved 30 44. Pizarro 30 45. Pizarro tries to find Peru 30 46. He finds Peru 30 47. The Incas 31 48. Vasquez de Ayllon 31 49. Narvaez 32 50. He visits Florida 33 5 1 . All except Four perish 34 52. The Expedition of Coronado ... 35 53. Fernando de Soto 33 54. He discovers the Mississippi River 36 VI CONTENTS CHAPTER II The Voyages and Discoveries of the English, French, and Dutch SECTION PAGE 55. John and Sebastian Cabot 39 56. Sir Francis Drake 40 57. Drake visits the Pacific Coast of America 41 58. He starts across the Pacific 43 59. England becomes the Leading Power 42 60. Sir Walter Raleigh; Roanoke Island 42 61. First Attempt to found an Eng- lish Settlement in America ... 43 62. Second .\ttempt 44 63. Raleigh in Prison 45 SECTION PAGE 64. French Voyages of Discovery to the New World; John V'erra- zano 46 65. Jacques Carticr 46 66. The Huguenots 48 67. Samuel Champlain; New France 49 68. Champlain attacks the Iroquois Indians 50 6g. The Dutch in the New World; Henry Hudson 52 70. Hudson employed by Holland 52 71. Dutch Claims 53 CHAPTER III Early Inhabitants of America 72. The Mound Builders 57 79- 73. The Pueblo Indians 58 80. 74. The Cliff Dwellers 58 81. 75. The Aztecs 59 82. 76. The Indians of North America . . 60 83. 77. Mode of Living 61 84. 78. Government 62 Language 62 Religious Belief 63 Indian Warfare 64 Industries 64 Tribes 65 Present Indian Reservations ... 66 CHAPTER IV How the Spanish and the French Peopled America The First Settlers were Spanish . 6g Broad Claims of Spain 69 Spain's Claims Disputed 69 What France claimed at first ... 70 Why France did not people the Country sooner 70 The Fur Business 72 The French made Friends of the Indians 72 Algonquins and Iroquois 73 Nicolet 74 Marquette and Joliet 74 95. La .Salle 75 96. The First and Only Voyage of the Griffin 76 97. Fort Crcveccrur 77 98. La Salle reaches the Mouth of the Mississippi River 78 99. Death of La Salle 78 100. King William's War 79 loi . The French on the Gulf of Mex- ico 80 102. The French Chain of Forts ... 8i 103. Queen .\nne's War 82 CONTENTS vu CHAPTER V How THE English Peopled America SECTION PAGE 104. Jamestown 84 105. Sickness and Death 85 106. Smith has an Adventure 85 107. More Settlers come to James- town 87 108. The Starving Time 88 109. Governor Dale 88 I ID. Tobacco 89 HI. Argall kidnaps Pocahontas .... 89 112. Marriage of Pocahontas 90 1 13. Better Times 90 114. Government by the People ... 90 115. Prosperity 91 SECTION PAGE 116. Slavery 92 117. The London Company loses its Charter 92 1x8. Royal Governors 92 iig. Death of King Charles I 94 120. The Coming of the Cavaliers ... 94 121. The Puritans leave Virginia ... 94 122. The Time of the Common- wealth in England 95 123. Charles II 96 124. Trouble with the Indians 96 125. Bacon's Rebellion 97 126. Country and Climate 98 CHAPTER VI New York and New Jersey 127. The Hudson River. The Com- ing of the Dutch loi 128. A Dutch Settlement loi 129. Dutch Treaty with the Iroquois 102 130. Importance of the Hudson River 102 131. Long Island Sound and Con- necticut River 103 132. The Dutch West India Com- pany 103 133. Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island 104 134. The Patroons 105 135- War with Indians 106 136. Free Religion 107 137. New Netherland takes New Sweden . 109 138. England takes New Netherland 109 139. New York no 140. Jacob Leisler 112 141. John Peter Zenger and the Freedom of the Press 112 142. New Jersey 114 CHAPTER VII The New England Colonies 143 144. Cape Cod. The Kennebec River Settlement 116 Smith explores the New Eng- land Coast 116 145. The Puritans 117 146. The Separatists 118 147. The Pilgrims go to America 119 149. The Pilgrims work and prosper 122 150. Puritans settle Salem; Mas- sachusetts Bay Company ... 122 151. Boston 124 152. The General Court 124 153. Business 125 154. Connecticut 125 148. Treaty with the Indians 121 155. Roger Williams; Rhode Island 126 VIU CONTENTS SECTION PAGE 156. Slave Ships 128 157. Maine and New Hampshire ... 128 158. Education in New England ... 128 159. The Pequot War 129 160. The New England Confedera- tion; Population 131 161. The Navigation Laws 131 SECTION PAGE 162. Other Bad Laws 132 1O3. When New Netherland became New York 132 164. King Philip's War 134 165. Massachusetts loses its Charter 136 166. James 11 and Andros 136 167. Witchcraft in Salem 136 CHAPTER \III The English in Maryland and Othkr Colonies 168. Lord Baltimore; his Newfound- land Colony 139 169. An English Catholic Colony . . . 139 170. Settlement of Maryland 140 171. Claiborne's Rebellion 141 172. Religious Differences 142 173. The Baltimores again; Mason and Di.xon 143 174. The English in Pennsylvania; the Quakers 143 175. William Penn 144 176. Pennsylvania 145 177. Philadelphia 146 178. Germans come to Pennsylvania 146 179. Trouble with the New King ... 146 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 190. 191. The English in Delaware 147 The Carolinas 148 Duke of Albemarle 149 The Model {Government 149 Charleston 150 Tar, Turpentine and Other Products 150 Rice, Indigo, and Cotton. Negro Slavery 150 The English in Georgia 151 Oglethorpe 152 Savannah 153 Trouble with the Spaniards. . . . 154 Slavery 154 CHAPTER IX English America and How It was Held 192. Early English Settlers kept to the Coast 156 193. King George's War 156 194. English America at the Close of King George's War 157 195. Industries 158 196. Slaves 159 197. Clothing 159 198. Heating and Cooking 160 199. Houses 161 200. Religion 162 201. Education 162 202. The French prepare for War 163 203. The English begin to take the Ohio Valley 164 204. The French and Indian War . . iftO 205. Franklin tries to form a Union . 167 206. General Braddock 167 207. Braddock's Defeat 169 208. Johnson's Victory at Lake George 170 20Q. The Acadians 172 210. "The Seven Years' War" in Europe 172 211. William Pitt 173 212. Montcalm 173 213. Defeat at Ticonderoga 173 214. Capture of Louisburg. Fort Dufiuesne 173 215. Plan of Campaign for 1759. Battle of Quebec 174 216. Treaty of I'eace 175 217. Pontiac's War 176 CONTENTS IX CHAPTER X The English Colonies SECTION PAGE 2i8. Canada i7g 2ig. English Colonies lyg 220. People 179 221. How England treated her Col- onies 180 222. Money used by the Colonists 180 223. Industries 181 224. Writs of Assistance 181 225. England's Need of the Colonies 182 226. The Lords of Trade and the Colonial Governors 182 227. France no longer to be feared. . 182 SECTION PAGE 228. George III 183 229. Taxation without Representa- tion 183 230. England tries to humble the Colonies. The Stamp Act . . 183 231. Committees of Correspondence 186 232. It was the King's Fault 186 233. Tories and Whigs 186 234. First Continental Congress .... 187 235. The Fisheries 188 236. Privateers 188 237. The Minute-men 188 CHAPTER XI The Revolutionary War 238. The Rebellion against the King 190 239. Lexington and Concord 190 240. England and the Colonies at the Beginning of the Revolution . 192 241. The Second Continental Con- gress 193 242. The Siege of Boston 193 243. The Battle of Bunker Hill .... 195 244. Washington, Commander-in- Chief 196 245. Ticonderoga and Crown Point 197 246. The Attempt to take Montreal and Quebec 198 247. Dorchester Heights 198 248. War in the Carolinas 199 249. The War in New York and New Jersey 199 250. The Hessians 200 251. Independence 200 252. Washington's Movements .... 202 253. The Battle of Long Island 203 254. Retreat to Harlem 203 2SS- Washington enters New Jersey . 204 256. Battle of Trenton 205 257. Money for the Soldiers; Robert Morris 207 258. Battle of Princeton 207 259. Benjamin Franklin 208 260. The Campaign in New York State in 1777 211 261. Burgoyne's March 211 262. Bennington _n 263 St. Leger ^12 264. Howe's Army 212 265. Howe moves against Phila- delphia 212 266. Burgoyne at Saratoga 213 267. Valley Forge 214 268. The Treaty with France 215 269. English leave Philadelphia. Monmouth 215 270. The Iroquois Indians 216 271. The West 216 272. Arnold's Treason 217 273- John Paul Jones 218 274. The War in the South 219 275. Battle of Camden 220 276. Battle of King's Mountain .... 220 277. Yorktown 221 278. The Surrender of Cornwallis . . 222 279. Peace 224 280. The Treaty 224 281. The Greatness of Washington. . 225 CONTENTS CHAPTER XII Articles of Confederation — The Constitution SECTION PAGE 282. The States, from the War for Independence to 1812 228 283. Articles of Confederation 22g 284. Hard Times 231 285. Leading Men 231 286. The Ordinance of 1787 234 287. Constitution of the United States 23s 288. Slavery 235 289. Industries 236 290. The First President 236 291. Population; Character of the Country 238 292. Amendments to the Constitu- tion 238 293. Tariff 239 294. The Capital 239 295. The Census : . . . 240 296. Dei)ts, Coinage, Banking 240 297. New States 241 2g8. Parties 241 SECTION PAGE 299. The French Republic 242 300. The Cotton Gin 242 301. The National Government uses its Power 242 302. America's Chance for Greater Commerce 243 303. Our Vessels searched for Sailors 244 304. The Jay Treaty 244 305. The Spanish Treaty 244 306. A New President 244 307. France 245 308. Thomas Jefferson 246 309. New Ideas in (Jovernment .... 247 310. The Barbary States 248 311. Admission of Ohio 248 312. The Louisiana Purchase 248 313. The Oregon Country 249 314. Trouble on the Sea 250 315. Embargo Act 251 316. Election of Madison 252 317. The Non-Intercourse Act 252 CHAPTER XIII Trouble With England 318. The War of 1812 254 319. Hull's Surrender 255 320. Our Navy in 1812 256 321. The Constitution and the Guerriere 257 322. Other Naval Battles 257 323. Perry's Victory 258 324. McDonough's Victory 259 325. The British at Wa.shington . . . 259 326. The "Star-Spangled Banner" . 260 327. The Desire for Peace 260 328. Battle of New Orleans 261 329. Close of the War 262 330. Barbar>' Pirates 262 331. The Tariff 263 CHAPTER XIV From the War of 1812 to the Mexican W^\r 332. President Monroe 264 333. Florida 264 334. Rise of Slavery Question 265 335. The Missouri Compromise .... 266 336. The Growth of National Pride 266 337. Immigration 266 338. The Holy Alliance 267 339. The Monroe Doctrine 267 CONTENTS XI SECTION PAGE 340. The Tariff 267 341. Manufactures. Inventions . . . 268 342. Improvements 268 343. A New President 269 344. The Erie Canal 271 345. The Railroads 272 346. Andrew Jackson 272 347. The Nullification Doctrine .... 273 348. The SfMails System 274 349. Jackson Reelected; the United States Bank 275 350. The United States Bank and the Surplus 275 SECTION PAGE 351. Two Wings of the Democratic Party. Slavery 275 352. Election of Van Buren 276 353. The Panic 276 354. The South wants Texas 276 355. Election of Harrison 277 356. Public Lands 278 357- The Telegraph 278 358. Texas 279 359. Election of Polk 279 300. The Oregon Country 280 CHAPTER XV Slavery Causes Trouble 361. The Mexican War 283 362. The Wilmot Proviso 284 363. Election of General Taylor .... 284 364. Admission of California 284 365. Discovery of Gold 285 366. Threats of Secession 286 367. The Fugitive Slave Law 286 368. Immigration 287 369. Steam 287 370. A President from the North . . . 287 371. Cuba 289 372. The Kansas-Nebraska Act .... 290 373. Japan 291 374. Election of Buchanan 291 375. The Dred Scott Case 291 376. Abraham Lincoln 292 377. John Brown 293 378. Admission of New States 294 379. The Election of Abraham Lin- coln 294 380. Secession 294 381. Confederate States of America . 294 CHAPTER XVI The War Between the States 382. Fort Sumter 296 383. President Lincoln 296 384. The South begins the War .... 297 385. Effect of the Capture of Fort Sumter 298 386. Condition of the South 298 387. The Blockade 298 388. Preparation 299 389. Bull Run 299 390. Call for Volunteers. Gen. George B. McClellan 300 391. West Virginia 300 392. Mason and Slidell 301 393- Forts Donelson and Henry .... 301 394. Control of the Mississippi .... 303 395. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing. Corinth 303 396. The Duel of the Ironclads .... 304 397. The Monitor 305 398. New Orleans 306 399. The Draft in the South 307 400. The Blockade goes on 307 401. Privations of the South 307 402. The North 308 403. Richmond. McClellan 308 404. Second Battle of Bull Run .... 310 405. The Confederate Army Ad- vances 310 XI 1 CONTENTS SECTION PAGE 406. Antietam; Fredericksburg . . . 310 407. Third Year of the War 310 408. Slavery and the Emancipation Proclamation 312 409. Results of Emancipation 312 410. Confederate War-ships on the Sea 313 411. England and France 313 412. Exchange of Prisoners 314 413. The Draft Riots 314 414. Gettysburg 315 415. Vicksburg 316 416. Chattanooga and Chickamauga. 316 417. Lookout Mountain and Mis- sionary Ridge 318 418. English and French War- vessels for the South 318 419. Grant in Command 318 420. Grant's Plans 319 SECTION PAGE 421. The _ Wilderness; a Fighting General 319 422. Spottsylvania 320 423. Cold Harbor 320 424. Petersburg 320 425. The Shenandoah Valley 321 426. Desperate Measures 322 427. Taxes in the Confederacy 322 428. The Nation's Credit 323 429. Atlanta falls 323 430. The March to the Sea 323 431. The Elections; the Thirteenth Amendment 324 432. The South fights through Pride 325 433. Sherman marches North 325 434. Grant and Lee at Petersburg . . 326 435. Lee abandons Richmond 327 436. Lee's Surrender 327 437. What the War had cost 328 438. What the War did 329 CHAPTER XVII Reconstruction — Subsequent Events 439. The Death of Lincoln 332 459, 440. President Johnson 332 460. 441. Pardons for Southern Soldiers . m 461. 442. The Condition of the Freedmen :i3s 462. 443. The President's Policy 334 463. 444. The Civil Rights Bill 334 464. 445. The P'ourteenth Amendment . . 334 465. 446. The Ku-Klux Klan 335 466. 447. Military Government 335 467. 448. Enmity between Congress and 468. the President 336 409- 449. Mexico 336 470. 450. President Grant 338 471. 451. The Fifteenth Amendment .... 338 472- 452. The Pacific Railroad 339 473- 453. The Alabama Claims 341 474. 454. The Amnesty Act. Election. 475. Panic 342 476. 455. Resumption of Specie Paynjent; 477- Colorado admitted 342 478. 456. A Disputed Presidential Elec- 479- tion 343 480. 457. Paying the War Debt 343 481. 458. Chinese Immigration 343 482. Election of Garfield 344 Death of Garfield 344 President Arthur 345 The New Navy 345 The Brooklyn Bridge 345 President Cleveland 346 The Tariff 346 President Harrison 346 Oklahoma 347 American Republics 347 New States 347 The People's Party' 347 Cleveland Reelected 348 The Panic 348 The Tariff 348 The Monroe Doctrine 349 President McKinley 349 The War with Spain 350 The Treaty of Peace 352 American Troops in China .... 352 Second F^lection of McKinley . . 353 Death of President McKinley . 353 Cuba as a Nation 354 The Alaskan Boundary Line . . 354 CONTENTS Xlll SECTION PAGE 483. The Panama Canal 354 484. The Election of Roosevelt .... 355 485. President Taft 355 4S6. The Return of the American Battleship Fleet. . .• 356 487. The New Census 357 488. The Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution 357 489. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill 358 490. Discovery of the North Pole 358 491. The Hudson-Fulton Celebration 359 492. Aerial Navigation 359 493. Arizona and New Mexico 359 494. Notable Inventions; Achieve- ments of the Last Century; Steam as a Motive Power 359 495. The Development of Labor- Saving Machinery during the Last Century 360 496. The Atlantic Cable 362 497. The Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution 363 498. The Presidential Election of 1912 363 499. A Forecast 364 APPENDIX i The Declaration of Independence i The Constitution of the United States v Dates of Admission of the States xxi List of Presidents xxii INDEX xxiii LIST OF MAPS PAGE Map of the World, showing the United States and its Possessions (colored) Cover page 2 Map of the United States (colored) Cover page 3 Early Trade Routes to the East (in text) 3 The Voyages of Columbus (in text) 13 The Explorations of Columbus (in text) 15 Explorations of Vespucius (in text) 19 Map of Spanish Explorations (in text) 35 Explorations of the Cabots (in text) 39 Map of Raleigh's Colonies (in text) . 45 Map Showing Jacques Cartier's Voyages (in text) 48 Map of Early Voyages 54 Map to Illustrate French Explorations (in text) 71 Virginia in Early Days (in text) 87 The English Country in North America (in text) 93 The North-South Route (in text) 103 New England of the Pilgrims and Puritans (in text) 117 Holland and a Part of England (in text) n8 European Colonies in America — about 1650 133 Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey (in text) 141 Early Dutch and Swedish Settlements (in text) 148 Route of Braddock's Expedition (in text) 168 Map showing French and English Forts (in text) 171 Central North America, 1755: At the Beginning of the French and Indian War (colored) Facing 1 76 Central North America, 1763: After the French and Indian War (col- ored) Facing 1 76 Map of Boston and Bunker Hill, 1775 (in text) 194 Reference Map for the Revolution: Northern and Middle States (colored) Facing 198 Reference Map for the Revolution: Southern States (colored). . . .Facing 220 Sketch-Map of Yorktown (in text) 222 The United States at the Close of the Revolution 233 LIST OF MAPS XV PAGE Lewis and Clark's Route (in text) 249 Territorial Growth of the United States, 1 783-1867 (colored) Bclwccii 250 and 251 Route of the National Road (in text) 269 Map of the Erie Canal (in text) 271 Map Showing the Territory acquired from Mexico as the Result of the Mexican War (colored) Facing 284 The Slave States Before the War (in text) 297 Reference Map for the Civil War, 1861-65 (colored). . . .Behvcen 298 and 299 The Confederacy at the Close of 1862 (in text) 311 Map of the Vicksburg Campaign (in text) 316 The Confederacy at the Close of 1863 (in text) 319 The Confederacy at the Close of 1864 (in text) 325 The Confederacy, in the Spring of 1865 (in text) 326 Irrigation Centers of the West (in text) 340 Relief Map of the Panama Canal (in text) 355 The Westward Movement of the Center of Population of the United States (in text) 357 AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER I EARLY PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 1. Early Mediterranean Trade Routes. — Five hundred years ago Europe was the home of the white race. Except parts of Africa, where the black race dwelt, and of Asia, the home of the yellow and the brown races, the white race knew nothing of the world outside of Europe. Asia is east of Europe, and with its people the Europeans traded. They had httle or no trade with the Africans. To the west lay the Atlantic Ocean which, so far as they knew, had no end. To carry goods to Asia, or the East, small ships called car- avels were used. These sailed from Venice and Genoa, ports in the Mediterranean Sea. They went eastward, some to Alexandria, and some to the Black Sea. 2. The Great Question. — From these points goods were sent forward on the backs of camels. A number of camels with their drivers were called a caravan. The caravans with goods from the East met these ships and returned overland to ports in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf with goods from the West. Thence the goods were sent in vessels to India, by way of the Indian Ocean. The Turks lived along these land routes. They were Mahometans, while the white traders of Europe were Christians, and between them there was war. Because of this it was very dangerous to go by caravan through the Turkish country. AMERICAN HISTORY The great question for the merchants of Europe was, " How can we get to India and back without passing through the land of the Turks? " 3. Portugal the First Nation to try to find a New Route. — Portugal, a country of Europe bordering on the Atlantic, was the home of many hardy and brave sailors. For years Caravan Crossinc. thi these sailors had tried to find a way to India by going around the southern point of Africa, then known as "The Cape of Storms." "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of a king of Portugal, sent ships south along the west coast of Africa to find the way around its southern end into the Indian Ocean. Each year Portuguese sailors went farther than they had gone before. But it was not until 1487 that one of them suc- ceeded in sailing around the " Cape of Storms." This voyage was made by Bar-thol-o-mew Diaz (Dc'-ath). While sailing EARLY DISCOVERIES 3 along the western shore of Africa, he was driven south by a great storm. When the wind died away and the sea grew cahn, he sailed to the east, expecting to come in sight of land. The storm had carried his three little caravels so far to the south that when he turned east he sailed by the "Cape Eakly Trade Routes to the East of Storms" into the Indian Ocean. Turning to the north, he passed along the east coast of Africa for about six hun- dred miles. Then sailing south, he again rounded the "Cape of Storms" and bore to the north for home. He reached Portugal about Christmas, 1487. But the route was too long to be useful. Then the ques- tion was, "Can a shorter sea route than this be found?" 4. Columbus. — Others besides the wise men of Portugal were studying the question of a short water route to India. AMERICAN HISTORY Among them was Christopher Cokimbus, who was born about 1436 near Genoa, a city of Italy. When he was four- teen years old, he began to sail in the trading ships of the Mediterranean. In this way, while yet young, he became skillful in the art of sailing the small vessels of those days. 5. The Earth is Round. — Columbus, like many learned men of his time, believed that the earth is round. He thought that by sailing west across '^"^^'^^ the Atlantic Ocean, he could reach India. He thought that the earth was much smaller than it is, and that India reached much farther around it. He said that the way across the Atlantic must be a short one. He did not know that there was another body of land be- tween the western shores of Europe and the eastern coast of India. When he was about thirty-five years old he went to Lisbon, a city of Portugal. There he got some rare maps which had belonged to his father-in-law, who had been a skillful sailor. 6. Columbus forms a Plan. — His study of these maps strengthened his belief. He formed a plan to search for India by sailing west. But, being without money, he could not carry it out. He first went for aid to King John of Portugal. The king turned the matter over to a council of his wisest and most learned subjects. By their advice, he * ' Christopher Columbtts 6 AMERICAN HISTORY refused help and Columbus went away. That refusal cost Portugal the glory and profit of finding a new world. The king, did not aid Columbus, but he followed the plan that Columbus had given him. He sent a vessel of his own to find India. It sailed to the Cape Verde Islands and thence westward. It followed this course for several days, but meeting stormy weather, the sailors became frightened. They returned to Lisbon and said that the plan of Columbus was wrong, and that there could be no land in that terrible waste of waters. 7. Columbus leaves Portugal and goes to Spain. — Angry at the trickery of the king, Columbus left Lisbon for Spain about 1484, where he began a struggle for aid which was to last more than seven years. Spending two years in fol- lowing the king and queen from place to place, he at last got a hearing. They told him to appear at Salamanca, before some of the most learned men in Spain, and set forth his plans. Columbus did so, but his success was small. Only a few of those wise men thought as he did. 8. Columbus decides to leave Spain. — Five years after- ward, Columbus again tried to get help from Isabella, queen of Spain, but failed. Disappointed, he decided to apply else- where for aid. He went to a village near Palos to get his son, whom he had left there seven years before. After leaving Palos, Columbus and his son Diego, then a lad of twelve, stopped at a convent to beg for food. Here Columbus spoke of his plans and hopes with the good priest who had received him kindly. This priest, who had been the confessor of Queen Isabella, got for him an- other hearing with the king and queen. But it ended as before, and Columbus now resolved to apply for aid to France. 9. Columbus is called Back. Success. — He had set out EARLY DISCOVERIES 7 for France on mule-back, when a messenger from Isabella overtook him with an order to return. She had decided to help him. Obeying her order, Columbus went back. Plans were then made to give him the ships and men needful for Caravels of Columbus his voyage. After years of disappointment, his courage and perseverance had won success. His story shows how stead- fast purpose may overcome poverty and ridicule. 10. First Voyage. — Columbus had great trouble in get- ting together his ships and crews. Men were afraid to go on a voyage so full of dangers, which were the more dread- ful because they were unknown. But at length three small vessels were made ready, the Santa Maria (San-ta Ma-re'-a), Finta, and Nina (Neen'yah). These vessels were hardly 8 AMERICAN HISTORY seaworthy, the Santa Maria, the ship in which the commander was to sail, being the only one fully decked over. The three little ships, manned by about a hundred and twenty sailors, sailed from the harbor of Palos on the morn- ing of Friday, August 3, 1492, bound for the Canary Islands, whence they were to sail westward over the unknown sea. Some time was spent there in making repairs to one of the vessels. Then the little fleet sailed out boldly into the "Sea of Darkness." All went well for a while. But as the days passed and the distance from home grew greater, the fears of the sailors began to overcome them and their courage gave way to ter- ror. Ignorance as to where they were and how far they might have to sail added to their fright. Many of them, believing that the earth was flat, thought that they must be drawing near to the edge of the ocean, where they would surely Mariner's Compass . „ „ fall off. To guide him in his course Columbus had the mariner's compass. This had been invented and used for centuries. At one time during the voyage the needle of the compass did not point due north. This alarmed the ignorant sailors, until Columbus told them that the needle did not point to the north star, but to one near it, which was constantly mov- ing, and caused the needle at times to point somewhat to the west of north. For determining his position at sea the great discoverer had the astrolabe, an instrument which has since gone out of use. Columbus did all that he could to cheer his men. He made fun of their foolish fears. At one time they would not obey him and told him that they would throw him into the EARLY DISCOVERIES 9 sea. This state of things had been going on for a month, when signs of land were seen. A branch of a tree floated by one of the vessels, and a carved stick was picked up from the water by one of the sailors. A flock of land birds was seen flying to the southwest. All knew by these signs that land Landing of Columbus, October 12, 1492 After the picture by Dioscora Puebla. was near. Believing that the birds were flying toward land, Columbus turned his course to follow them. 11. Land Sighted. — On the evening of October 11, 1492, the watchful commander saw in the west what seemed to be a moving light. At the same time he heard from the other ships the cry of "Land!" All waited for what the break of day was to show. It was more than two months since they had left Spain, and every day had been a time of danger lo AMERICAN HISTORY and dread. As the sun rose, October 12, they saw before them a green and low-lying island. Columbus landed and, claiming the island for Spain, named it San Salvador, the Spanish words for Holy Saviour. The natives were unlike any people that the Spaniards had ever seen. They were tall and graceful, of brown or cin- namon-colored complexion. They were peaceful and kind. As Columbus thought that he had reached India, he called these natives Indians. For the same reason, he called the islands that he had found the Indies. The Indians wore gold trinkets. The Spaniards, hoping to find gold, asked them by signs where they got them. They pointed to the south. 12. Cuba and Hispaniola. — Columbus sailed away in search of the land of gold, and reached the island which the Indians called Cuba. The men landed and made several journeys inland. Columbus thought that this island was the mainland of Asia, and wondered that he did not see the great and rich cities of which he had read. He then sailed easterly along the coast of another island, which we know as Hayti, but which he called Hispaniola, or "Spanish Land." Here, on Christmas Day, his largest and best ship, the Santa Maria, was wrecked. 13. First Settlement in the New World. — ^ He left forty of his men to found a settlement on the north coast of this island. This Httle settlement was called The Nativity, or in Spanish, La Navidad. 14. Return to Spain. — Pinzon, the captain of the Pinta, had run away and started for home, and Columbus then had only one ship, the Nina. Taking leave of the little settle- ment on Hispaniola early in 1493, he set the Nina's sails for Spain. On the way he overtook the Pinta, and the two OQ ^^ Cd f-i 12 AMERICAN HISTORY little caravels sailed together until they were separated by a storm. They did not meet again until they had reached the harbor of Palos. The news of the return of Columbus caused wild excite- ment and great rejoicing. Through him Spain claimed the honor of finding a new and short route to India. At Bar- celona, where the king and queen were staying at the time, he was received with the greatest honors. 15. Other Voyages of Columbus. — Columbus made three more voyages, on the last two of which he visited the main- land of both South and Central America. He found no difficulty in procuring ships and sailors for his second voyage. The " Sea of Darkness " had been crossed. Its waste of water was no longer terrible to Spanish sailors. They now desired to learn more about this new-found land where the far West and the far East came together. They felt that further search would surely lead to the rich cities of China and India, where gold, spices, sillcs, and precious stones were plentiful. 16. Second Voyage. — Columbus left Cadiz on his sec- ond voyage in September, 1493. He commanded a fleet of three large ships and fourteen caravels, carrying fifteen hundred men. After touching the Canary Islands, the fleet set forth on its westerly course. Land was first seen early in November. This was a small island southeast of the present island of Porto Rico, and the Spaniards gave it the name Dominica. Shaping their course to the north- west and passing other small islands, they landed at Porto Rico. Leaving that port, Columbus went to the Httle colony of La Navidad, which had been founded the year before on the island of Hispaniola. The fort was in ruins and not one of the forty men left there was found. All of EARLY DISCOVERIES 13 them had been killed by the natives, with whom they had foolishly quarreled. 17. Second Settlement. — Moving farther to the east, the Spaniards built another settlement, which they named Isabella in honor of the queen. From here Columbus started with a body of armed men to explore the country. He found that Map of the Voyages of Columbus the natives lived in villages and that they also grew maize, or Indian corn. Gold was discovered and some of it was sent back to Spain. 18. First Battle between White Men and Indians. — Early the next year (1494) Columbus set out from Isa- bella in search of what he thought would be the mainland of Asia. He sailed west with three caravels and, changing his course, reached the south coast of Cuba. A little later, while in these waters, he came to the island which the natives 14 AMERICAN HISTORY called Jamaica. When the Spaniards landed on this island, they were met with a storm of arrows and javelins. But the Indians, who could not long withstand the Spaniards, fled. Columbus was greatly pleased with the beauty of this island, but since those who lived there were savages, he thought it best to keep away. So he sailed back to the southern coast of Cuba, which he followed nearly to its western end. He thought that if he held this course long enough he would reach the Indian Ocean, and passing around the Cape of Good Hope, return to Spain. His men refusing to go farther, he sailed back to Hispaniola, where he remained about two years. After having been away from Spain for nearly three years Columbus at last reached Cadiz in June, 1496. He was kindly received by the king and queen. Shortly after Columbus had left Hispaniola, his brother Bartholomew founded San Domingo on the south coast of that island. 19. Third Voyage. — The great discoverer with a fleet of six vessels started on his third voyage in May, 1498. Stop- ping at the Canary Islands, Columbus ordered that three of his ships should sail for Hispaniola. With the other three, the great admiral sailed in a southerly direction to the Cape Verde Islands. Leaving these islands and steering south- westerly, he crossed the Atlantic. By sailing in this direc- tion, on a southerly course, he thought that he might clear the coast of Cuba, and sail into the Indian Ocean. If he could do this, Spain would share with Portugal the rich trade of India, and by a shorter route. 20. Columbus finds the Continent. — About August ist Columbus reached the island of Trinidad, at the mouth of the Orinoco River on the coast of South America. From the length and the nature of the coast he knew that he had found EARLY DISCOVERIES 15 the mainland of a continent. This, he thought, must be Asia, and he beheved that somewhere there must be a strait through which he could pass to the Indian Ocean. He sailed westerly along the north coast of the continent, for about T GULF OF y^ -^^*^ M ^ - .7 «;i >• u I *• s. Land discovered by Columbus 11 " Balboa The Explorations of Columbus two hundred miles. But he did not find the strait for which he was looking. Disappointed at this, he started for His- paniola and reached San Domingo in August, 1498. He had not been there for more than two years, and he found that while he was away there had been much trouble. Some of the Spanish settlers had joined the natives and were trying to overthrow the rule of Columbus's brother Bar- tholomew. 1 6 AMERICAN HISTORY In the summer of 1500, Bobadilla was sent from Spain to take command of Hispaniola. On his arrival, he arrested Columbus and threw him into prison. The reason he gave for doing this was that Columbus had made slaves of the natives and was trying to set up a government of his own. Upon this false charge Columbus was placed on shipboard, in chains, and sent to Spain. With his chains still upon him, Columbus arrived in Cadiz. But the good Queen Isabella, shocked at the news and angry at the treatment of Columbus, ordered that he be set free and brought to her. When he saw his queen, Columbus, now an old man, burst into tears. The charges against him were dismissed and he was promised further favor. 21. The Portuguese reach India by Sea. — While Colum- bus was on his third xoyagc, the Portuguese were not idle. Vasco da Gama had made a voyage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope. He was the first to find India by sail- ing around Africa. Starting in 1497, ^^ Gama returned to Lisbon after an ab- sence of two years and told wonderful stories of the strange land he had visited. He brought home spices, ivory, pre- cious stones, and silks. This success of Portugal in finally reaching India led to the fourth voyage of Columbus. 22. Fourth Voyage. — Columbus left Cadiz on this last venture in May, 1502, in command of four caravels and one hundred and fifty men. As a new governor had been sent to Hispaniola, Columbus was forbidden to land there. It was feared that his presence might stir up trouble. He did, how- ever, enter the harbor of San Domingo in June. His purpose was to procure another caravel, for one of his boats had become unseaworthy. The new governor ordered Columbus to depart from the harbor. The great admiral, grieved at EARLY DISCOVERIES 17 such treatment, sailed southwest and came to anchor on the coast of the country now called Honduras. 23. Hunting for a Way to India. — He spent the fall of the year 1502 in coasting along the shores of that country, first to the east and then to the south. He sailed more than seven hundred miles, looking for a strait through which he might pass to the Indian Ocean. The natives had told him by signs that to the south was a "narrow way," which would bring him to a large ocean on the west coast. They meant the narrow Isthmus of Darien, and not a strait. But Columbus thinking that he was on the coast of Asia, believed that he might "round" the Malay peninsula and enter the Strait of Malacca. Columbus and his men at last began to suffer from lack of food, and he bore away for Hispaniola. Sailing to the north, the fleet was driven westerly and land was first sighted on the south coast of Cuba, north of the island of Jamaica. 24. Castaways on the Island of Jamaica. — Here the vessels were badly damaged by a severe storm, but Jamaica was finally reached. The ships were leaking and could sail no farther. They were drawn on land, and a fort was made of their timbers, in which the shipwrecked men had shelter from wind and weather. And so Columbus and his crews found themselves castaways on the coast of Jamaica. Two of the bravest men, with some natives and other Spaniards, went to the island of Hispaniola for help. Their boat was only a frail canoe, but reaching that island, they made their way to the town of San Domingo. They told the governor where Columbus was and that he was shipwrecked, but no help was sent for a year. It was a time of great danger for Columbus, when the governor of Hispaniola at last sent two AMERICAN HISTORY caravels to Jamaica, which carried the shipwrecked men to San Domingo. 25. Death of Isabella and Columbus. — Fast aging from his labors and hardships and sorrowing at the treatment he had received, Columbus returned to Spain, November, 1504. His best friend, the good Queen Isabella, died a few days after his return, and he suffered all the pains of neglect, pov- erty, and sickness. He died in IVIay, 1506, when about seventy years of age. To the day of his death, he thought that the mainland that he had twice \isited was the coast of Asia. 26. Americas Vespucius, the Flor- entine. — When Christopher Colum- bus was about six- teen years old, another Italian boy was born, who was to be famous in the story of America. Florence, a city about one hundred and fifty miles from Genoa, was his birthplace. His name was Americus Vespucius. He was of good family and when young worked for one of the leading merchants of his native city. When older, he visited Spain and made a business of ship- building and furnishing supplies for ships. He had a fair Americus Vespucius (Amerigo \'espucci) EARLY DISCOVERIES 19 A T L A N T I C education and was skillful in telling in what part of the sea the ship was, on which he was sailing. Thus his services were helpful to ship captains. In the stories of his first and third voyages, he tells that King Ferdinand of Spain sent him on his first voyage in 1497. From what he says of this voyage, it appears that he first landed on the coast of Honduras in the summer of that year. It is said that from Hon- duras, Vespucius sailed along the bend of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Passing between Cuba and Florida, he went northerly, following the coast of the present United States, per- haps as far as Chesapeake Bay. In 1499, Vespucius began his second voyage, again sail- ing in the service of Spain. This time he reached the northern coast of Brazil, in South America, which he followed northwesterly as far as Lake Maracaibo, in the western part of the country we now call Venezuela. His third and fourth voyages were made in the service of King Emanuel of Portugal. The third was the most im- portant, for he sailed his three little vessels southerly along the coast of South America. Leaving the coast he turned his course to the southeast and went as far as the cold waters of the Antarctic Ocean, whence he was driven back by float- OCEAN Explorations of Vespucius 20 AMERICAN HISTORY ing ice. He knew from the vast extent of the coast, that this land body was a great continent. On his fourth voyage, 1 503-1 504, Vespucius sailed along the coast of what is now Brazil, as far as the present city of Rio Janeiro. The name America, in honor of Americus Vespucius, was first given to Brazil and later to all of the great western continents. 27. Ponce de Leon. — Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, was a companion of Columbus on one of his voyages. He had been a brave soldier in the wars with the Moors, who had come from Africa and had for centuries overrun Spain. When De Leon reached the Indies, he was placed in com- mand of the Spanish soldiers at San Domingo. From this place he made several journeys. He went to Porto Rico, and was told by the Indians that gold could be found in its mountains. Having been made governor of that island, he treated the helpless natives with great cruelty. 28. * ' The Fountain of Youth." Florida. — It was said that in one of the neighboring islands to the north there was a wonderful spring. By bathing in it, or by drinking of its waters, old men might become young. In the year 15 13 Ponce, who was then old and feeble, sailed northwesterly from Porto Rico in search of this spring. He came to a beautiful shore that was fragrant with the odor of flowers. He landed on Easter Sunday near the present town of St. Augustine, and called the beautiful land Florida. The natives were more warlike than those of Porto Rico, and they resisted his efforts to explore their country. Return- ing to Porto Rico, he went to Spain and reported his dis- covery. This so pleased his royal master, that he appointed De Leon governor of the land that he had found. De Leon believed that the delightful countrv which he had EARLY DISCOVERIES 21 discovered was rich in gold, and in 1521 he sailed again to Florida. He took with him a large force of well-armed men and a number of horses. But the natives fought and checked his advance into their country, and in one of the battles he was wounded by an arrow. The wound caused his death in Cuba, a few months later. Landing of Ponce de Leon at Florida 29. Balboa. — There was a young Spaniard of good fam- ily who had left Spain because he was in debt and threat- ened with imprisonment, and who, at San Domingo, got into more trouble of the same kind. His name was Vasco Nunez de Balboa (Noon'-yeth da Bal-bo'a). About this time (1509), preparations were being made in Hispaniola for a visit of discovery to Central America. Balboa wished to go in order to get away from those to whom he owed money. 22 AMERICAN HISTORY He hid in one of the ships until it was well out at sea. It is said that he was carried aboard, hidden in a large barrel. As soon as he thought it safe, he came out of his hiding place. When the ships arrived at the Isthmus of Daricn, Balboa managed to place himself at the head of the com- pany, and became \ery active in ex- l)loring the country. 30. Balboa dis- covers the Pacific Ocean. — Having heen told that be- \ond the moun- tains, to the west, there was an ocean, and that gold could be found along its shores, Balboa set ( )ut with about two hundred men, to see it the story was I rue. After a time they came to a high mountain up which he went alone. When he reached the top, he saw the largest and grandest ocean in the world. The first white man to behold it, he named this vast water the South Sea. It was what we now call the Pacific Ocean. Four days afterward Balboa reached this wonderful sea. He waded into it and, with drawn Balboa Discovers the Pacific Ocean EARLY DISCOVERIES ^3 sword, declared that it belonged, by right of discovery, to the king of Spain. This happened in September, 15 13. 31. Cortes ; Exploration and Conquest of Mexico. — In 1517 Cordova, a Spanish sailor, left Cuba and visited the coast of Yucatan. In the following year, Grijalva (Gre-hal'- va), another Spanish explorer, visited the same country and sailed along its coast. These two men have been called the discoverers of Mexico. The stories they told led to the further searching out of that coun- try by Hernando Cortes. Cortes was a Spanish sol- dier who went in 1 504 from Spain to the settlement of San Domingo. From there he was sent to Cuba, in 151 1, to take part in the settlement of that island. After spending some years there, he was ordered by the governor to visit the region we now call Mexico. 32. Troops of Cortes.— He had in his army about five hundred Spanish soldiers, with some Indians from Cuba. He took with him a few small cannon. Some of his men were armed with a kind of gun called the arquebus. Others carried cross-bows, which they used with deadly effect. Some of the Spaniards had horses. The natives of Mexico, or Aztecs, as they were called, had never seen such animals. The Armor of Cortes After an engraving of the original in the National Museum, Madrid 24 AMERICAN HISTORY The horses and their riders frightened them, for they thought that rider and horse were one animal They were also greatly frightened at the noise of the cannon. Soon after landing there was a sharp battle in which Cortes defeated the natives. To fight against the deadly weapons of the strange white men, the poor Indians had only lances, jave- lins, bows and ar- rows, and heavy wooden swords. After this fight, Cortes and his men moved westward along the coast un- til a place was reached which seemed good for a settlement. Here Cortes built a small town, giving it the name (Vera Cruz) which, as a city, it bears to-day. Fearing that he would be called to Cuba by the governor of that island, Cortes sank his ships. 33. The City of Mexico. — Having been told of a city far back from the coast, Cortes set out to take it. Mov- ing westward, he began his march in the summer of 15 19. When he had covered about half of his journey, he was attacked by a large body of natives. Very few of the Span- iards were killed, while the Aztecs lost many of their best warriors. Marching on, he came to a village where a plot had been made by the natives to destroy his army by falling upon it at night. But Cortes heard of the plan in time to prepare for it, and in the battle that followed he put his foes to flight. Cannon ur TJiii Ti.ml ui Curtls There are in the naval museum at Annapolis guns captured in the Mexican War supposed to be those used by Cortes. EARLY DISCOVERIES 25 At last, the Spaniards came to the eastern shore of a lake, and looking out over its waters saw the ancient town of Mexico. The wonderful town which the Spaniards now beheld was built upon an island in the lake, and was con- nected with the mainland by three roads which ran in dif- The City of Mextco under the Conquerors From the engraving in the "Niewe Wereld" of Montanus ferent directions. The roads were four or five miles long and from twenty to thirty feet wide. 34. Montezuma. — Montezuma, the Aztec ruler of the city, sent the Spaniards gold and asked them to leave his country. But this sign of wealth made the Spaniards more eager to take the city. Montezuma, thinking it the wisest thing to do, asked them to come into the. town. The Span- iards entered, being met by Montezuma at the gates. Cortes had noticed, in his fights with the natives, that if their chief were taken, they lost heart and gave way. So he made IMontezuma his prisoner. 26 AMERICAN HISTORY Cortes was now the real ruler, and passed the winter in the very heart of the enemies' country. But he was not idle and spent the time in building small vessels, with which to retreat by way of the lake in case of sudden attack. About this time the Aztecs chose Montezuma's brother for their chief and leader, and under his command they at once began an attack upon the Spaniards. The cannon of the Spaniards did terrible work, but the natives fought from the tops of neighboring houses. 35. Cortes Leaves the City. — The Spaniards were now in great peril. Cortes, fearing that his men would have to yield for want of food, saw that he must get away. He marched his force one night to one of the roads leading out of the city. WTiile on this narrow way, he was again attacked by the maddened natives, who swarmed in their canoes on each side of it. After a deadly fight, which lasted all night, Cortes and his men forced their way to the mainland. A few days later, the natives again attacked him, but met with a crushing defeat. Cortes now wisely spent his time in winning over the natives of the country around the lake, many of whom joined his little army. Again he marched his men to the lake, where more of the natives, being friendly, joined his army. Here he spent some time in building small vessels which could be used in a fresh attack. 36. Capture of the City. — In April, 1521, he began his movement against the city. The struggle was fierce and bloody, for the natives knew they were fighting for their lives and their homes, and they were reckless in their bravery. At last, in the month of August, after terrible fighting for a period of nearly four months, the city was taken by the Spaniards. Thus the Aztec nation was conquered by Cortes, EARLY DISCOVERIES 27 Ferdinand Magellan and Mexico became a Spanish province, so to remain for about three hundred years. 37. Ferdinand Magellan, 1519-1522. — The third and fourth voyages of Americus Vespucius were made along the eastern coast of South Amer- ica. His account of one of these two voyages greatly interested other navigators, among whom was Ferdinand Magellan, who set out to find a westerly passage to India through or around South America. He offered to do this for Emanuel, who was then king of Portugal. His offer was refused. He then went to the king of Spain, who employed him. Thus, for a second time, Portugal threw away the chance of dis- covering new lands by the western route across the "Sea of Darkness." 38. Magellan Starts. — A fleet of five ships was made ready, and with Magellan as admiral, left Spain in September, 1519. There were in this little fleet about three hundred men. In about a month it had crossed the oce9,n, reaching the coast of the country now called Brazil. Continuing his way to the south, the great sailor found harbor in March, 1520, on the coast of the country now known as Patagonia. As the long winter of this region was just beginning, he anchored there for the season. 39. Straits of Magellan. — In August, which in the South- ern seas is a winter month, the cold weather was becoming less severe. Then Magellan sailed south, in search of a 28 AMERICAN HISTORY strait through which he could pass to the South Sea, as the Pacific was then called. About this time one of the ships was wrecked. The captain of another sailed away and took his vessel back to Spain. The little fleet, now reduced to three small ships, at last entered that great strait which ever since has borne the name of the brave Magellan. 40. On the Pacific Ocean. — After many hardships, Magellan, in November, 1520, sailed out upon the broad waters of the ocean which Balboa had seen seven years before from the mountains of Darien, thousands of miles to the north. This vast body of water he named the Pacific Ocean. Then came a time of great suffering and hardship; but, with a stout heart, Magellan steered for the northwest. Food and water ran short, and the crews suffered from hun- ger, thirst, and sickness. Saihng for more than three months, Magellan reached the Ladrone Islands, which lie east of the Philippines and south of Japan. He was the first to cross the Pacific. Ten days later, in March, 1521, the weary sailors reached the Philippine Islands. The finding of these islands gave them to Spain, and they were held by that nation for nearly four hundred years. 41. Death of Magellan. — Magellan was killed in the Philippines in a light between neighboring islanders in which he took part. One of his ships which was unlit for service was destroyed. The two other vessels sailed south to the Molucca or Spice Islands. After stopping there for some time, one of them, the Victory, sailed westerly, bound for home. She left the Moluccas about Christmas, 152 1, with fifty men on board, most of whom were sick and worn. 42. Into the Atlantic Ocean Again. — After a voyage of some months, spent in crossing the Indian Ocean, she at EARLY DISCOVERIES 29 last reached the Cape of Good Hope. Rounding this cape and entering the Atlantic Ocean, the little Victory, turning to the northwest, sailed for Spain. Manned by a few sick and half-starved men she reached that country in September, The "Victory" in the Strait of Magellan 1522. This voyage, the first one around the w^orld, was then the longest that had ever been made. Three years had passed since the Httle fleet left Spain. When we think of the length and the perils of this voyage, and the small size and bad condition of the vessels, we must wonder that even one of the ships reached home. 3° AMERICAN HISTORY 43. What the Voyage Proved. — From this time it was known that a vast continent lay to the westward of Europe, barring the way to the shores of Asia. There was no longer doubt that the earth is round. 44. Pizarro. — The Spanish colonists on the Isthmus of Darien, barred from exploring the rich country to the north, already conquered by Cortes and his followers, turned to the south in their search for gold. Francis Pizarro had landed on the coast near Darien, in one of the voyages made from Hispaniola. When Balboa was making his famous journey across the isthmus, one of the native chiefs told him that, far to the south, on the shores of the great ocean, was a land very rich in gold. Pizarro, hearing the remark, made up his mind that he would at some time visit that country. But he did not get the chance until some years later. 45. Pizarro tries to find Peru. — At last he decided to start on a voyage of discovery to this unknown coast. His fleet came back badly damaged by wind and weather. He tried again two years later (1526), and landed some of his men on the coast. He was still a long distance from Peru, and sent one of his ships back to Panama for more men and supplies. While he was waiting for help from Panama, one of his pilots sailed south in the remaining ship. He passed the equator and on the coast of the country we now call Ecuador captured some natives. These he carried back to Pizarro, and they told him of the extent and rich- ness of the country of the Incas, as the natives of Peru were called. The supplies from Panama arrived, and Pizarro went for- ward and landed on a small island near the coast. He had not been there long when a ship came which had been sent EARLY DISCOVERIES 31 to bring him and his men back to Panama. Pizarro refused to go. Drawing a Une upon the sand, he stepped across it and said to his men, ''Those of you who are brave enough, follow me." Sixteen of the men crossed the line. The rest returned to Panama. For the next seven months Pizarro and his men suffered much from lack of food. 46. He finds Peru. — At last a ship was sent to their aid from Panama. Embarking in this, the entire party sailed south, reached the northern coast of Peru, and landed at one of the cities of the Incas. Here the Spaniards found a people unlike any they had ever seen. They were some- what like the Aztecs, but were not so savage, and they did not kill war-captives. The Incas worshiped the sun. Leaving this place, they sailed along the coast southward about six hundred miles beyond the equator. Having found a vast and rich country for Spain, the Spaniards returned to Panama, and Pizarro went to Spain where he was received with great honor. 47. The Incas. — Before the coming of Pizarro, the Incas, a half-civilized people, had ruled over a large portion of the western and northwestern part of South America. They were skillful in building roads, and they fitted together with great exactness the huge stones with which their buildings and temples were made. The Incas used the llama as a beast of burden and were the only people of the new world to use animals for this purpose. They were rich in gold and sil- ver, of which the Spaniards took great quantities. Remains of their temples and the gold and silver ornaments used by them have been found in various places. 48. Vasquez de Ayllon. — The Spanish voyages thus far had not extended north of the southern part of North America. A Spaniard named De Ayllon [da Ah-eel-yone'], living at 32 AMERICAN HISTORY San Domingo, set out to get more slaves to work in the mines which he owned in Hispaniola. He fitted out two vessels and sailed to the northwest to visit the mainland. He first saw the coast of South CaroHna. Upon landing he was treated by the natives with great kindness. The Spaniards, however, were cruel to them. They invited a number of the natives to visit their vessels, and when they were Ruins of First Spanish Settlement in Peru aboard sailed away. But the poor captives in one of the vessels sickened and died, and the other ship was wrecked. In 1526 De Ayllon visited the James River. The natives along the coast had not forgotten him and his doings. Shortly after the Spanish landed, the Indians invited them to a great feast. The Spaniards ate and drank their fill for a number of days. At last sleep overcame them, and as they slept, the Indians killed nearly all of them. De Ayllon escaped, but died shortly afterward. 49. Narvaez. — The success of Cortes in Mexico led to EARLY DISCOVERIES 33 new efforts by other Spanish explorers. The governor of Cuba once sent a body of soldiers to Mexico to take the command from Cortes. The leader of this small army was a Spaniard named Panlilo de Narvaez (Pan'-fe-lo da Nar-va'-eth). 50. He visits Florida. — In the fight with Cortes Narvaez was badly wounded, and taken prisoner. When he was set free, he returned to Spain. In 1527 he sailed from that country to explore and conquer Florida. After spending some time at San Domingo and in Cuba, he landed with about four hundred men and some horses, on the west coast of Flor- ida in April, 1528. He thought that Florida might be as rich in gold as Mexico. Ordering his small fleet to move along the coast, he traveled inland with some of his men. His cruel and treacherous treatment of the natives angered them, and they fought him at every point. He worked back to the coast, and though he spent many weary days in searching for them could not find his ships. 51. All except Four Perish. — Some of his men built small boats, and coasted westward along the Gulf of Mexico, until they came to the mouth of the Mississippi River. They suffered severely from thirst, hunger, and hardship, dying one by one on the way, until only four were left. Narvaez was drowned, while the four that lived wandered for years among the Indians. In 1536, after eight years in the wilderness, they reached the western coast of Mexico at the Gulf of Cahfornia. There they told some of their country- men living in an outlying settlement, that in their wander- ings, they had found seven great cities of vast wealth. They had seen no such cities, but had probably visited some of the villages of the Zuiii Indians. The Zuni houses were built of stone and sun-dried clay, and were several stories high. 34 AMERICAN HISTORY They were called pueblos (pweb-los). The ruins of these villages may still be seen in the western part of New Mexico and in southern Arizona. 52. The Expedition of Coronado. — Catholic priests went among the Indians as missionaries. They built in the wilds many little chapels or churches. These chapels were called missions. Father Mark, a priest of one of these Spanish A ZuNi Pueblo from a Distance missions in Mexico, made a journey to the northeast in 1539. His companions, after their return, said that they had seen one of the "seven great cities," that Narvaez's men had told about. These stories led to an expedition made by Coronado. Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (Fran-cis'-ko Vas'-keth da Cor'-o-na-do) was, at this time, the Spanish governor of a province of Mexico. He started from the Gulf of California with about twelve hundred men, and was gone two years. He found no cities, though he visited a number of pueblos. Traveling in a northeasterly direction, he crossed the Rocky Mountains and probably passed through the country now EARLY DISCOVERIES 35 known as Colorado and Kansas. It is thought that he went nearly as far east as the Mississippi River. 53. Fernando de Soto. — When the voyages of Vespucius and Magellan showed that America was a continent barring the way to Asia, explorers began to search for a water passage sortTH , A ME K lO A l/of L'l-aba Map of Spanish Explorations through it into the Pacific Ocean. De Soto, a Spanish sol- dier and sailor, had explored the Pacific coast to see if there were straits connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. He had also been a companion of Pizarro in Peru and was one of the Spanish soldiers on the Isthmus of Darien. After years of adventure he returned to Spain with great wealth, and in 1531 was made governor of Cuba. 36 AMERICAN HISTORY 54. He discovers the Mississippi River. — In 1539 De Soto sailed from Cuba to see what he might find in Florida. He had a fleet of ten vessels which he had brought from Spain, and with him were a thousand men. He took with him a number of horses. Landing on the west coast of Florida, at Tampa Bay, he sent some of his boats along the coast nearly to Appalachee Bay. He then moved northward and spent the winter in the northwest part of Florida. Early in the next year he marched northerly to what is now the northern part of Georgia. Thence he traveled southwest, across Alabama, to the site of the present city of Mobile. He then journeyed northwest and in April, 1541, reached the Mississippi River. Crossing the river not far from where Memphis now stands, he moved south along its west- ern bank. Then, turning to the west, he crossed Arkansas. Still moving southward, the party at length reached the mouth of the Red River, where in IMay, 1542, De Soto died. He was buried in the water of the great river he had dis- covered. By this time about half of his men had sickened and died or had been killed by the Indians. After spending a year on the west bank of the Mississippi River, those who were left built small vessels, sailed down the river to the Gulf, and thence made their way to Mexico. SUMMARY 1. The closing of the overland routes to India by the Turks, about the middle of the fifteenth century, led to search by Portugal for an all-water route. 2. Da Gama, a Portuguese navigator, discovered such a route to India by sailing around Africa (1497-1499). 3. Columbus tried to find India by sailing westward, but found instead some islands belonging to an unknown continent. This amounted to his discovering the continent itself. 38 AMERICAN HISTORY 4. The honor of making this great continent known to the white race belongs to Spain, whose queen, Isabella, furnished Columbus with means for the voyage. 5. The natives of this continent were called by Columbus "Indians," a name they still bear. 6. Americus Vespucius, an Italian navigator, while employed by Portu- gal, coasted along that part of the Western continent called Brazil (1501-1502). The Western continent was named America because it was made known by Americus. 7. Ponce de Leon visits Florida (1513). 8. Balboa discovered the South Sea or Pacific Ocean (1513). 9. Magellan crosses the Pacific Ocean (1520). 10. Cortes e.xplored and conquered Mexico (1519-1521). 11. Pizarro invaded and conquered Peru (1524-1541). 12. De Soto discovers the Mississippi (1541). QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Why did it become necessary to search for an all-water route to India? 2. What country was most active at first in this search? 3. Who made the first all- water journey to India? 4. To what country did Columbus first apply for aid? 5. From what country did he secure aid? 6. What land did Columbus suppose that he had found? 7. What did he call the western islands that he found? Why? 8. What did he call the natives? 9. Why was this continent called "America"? 10. What was proved by Magellan's great voyage? 11. Did Magellan return to Spain? 12. Who e.xplored Mexico? When? 13. What were the natives of that country called? Who was their king? 14. Who discovered the "South Sea"? When? Who gave it the name, Pacific Ocean? 15. Who was Pizarro? What country did he visit? 16. What parts of America were chiefly visited by the Spanish explorers? 17. Name three explorers who visited Florida. 18. What Spaniard made the longest overland journey up to this time within what is now our country? Where did he go? CHAPTER II THE VOYAGES AND DISCOVERIES OF THE ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND DUTCH I. English Explorations 55. John and Sebastian Cabot. — When Columbus was trying to get aid from Spain, he sent his brother Bartholo- mew to England to see "r-"^- m f V. if Henry VII, the king of that nation, would help him. King Henry sent word to Columbus to come to England. But before Bar- tholomew got back with this message, his brother Christopher had started from Spain on his voyage of discovery. Up to that time all the great ocean voyages had been made by the sailors of either Portugal or Spain. King Henry wished Eng- land to have some share in the glory and profit of new- world discoveries. So he began looking for skillful sailors whom he might send across the Atlantic. There lived at this time, at Bristol in England, two natives r r>. / °K, ' \ Scale of MileB 5 iS 20 30 40 50 60 Explorations of the Cabots 40 AMERICAN HISTORY of Venice, highly skilled in sailing. They were father and son, and their names were John and Sebastian Cabot. King Henry employed them to find India by sailing far to the north. They ' set sail from England in a single ship. In June, 1497, they came in sight of the shore of the Western continent, probably as far north as Labrador or Newfoundland. They thought that they had found the east coast of China. Some writers say that the land first seen by them was Cape Breton Island, near Nova Scotia. A second voyage was made in 1498 by Sebastian Cabot. He sailed along the coast of our country for a long distance to the south. Some years later he made other voyages to this great western land. It was now known that the coun- try was a continent, and King Henry VIII sent him to seek a northwest passage through it or around it to India. On this voy- age he tried to enter what was later known as Hudson Bay. On the two early voyages of the Cabots, England based her claim to the northern and middle part of North America. 56. Sir Francis Drake. — For nearly eighty years after the voyages of the Cabots nothing further was done by England in seeking new lands. Then England's great navi- gator, Sir Francis Drake, was the first Englishman to sail Cabot Memorial Tower AT Bristol, England ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 41 around the globe. When a young man, Drake had made voyages along the Guinea coast of Africa, as Columbus had done a hundred years before. The Netherlands, which we know as Holland, and also as the home of the Dutch, had been under the Spanish yoke for many years. In 1567 this country broke away from Spanish rule; this led to a war in which England helped the Dutch. During the first year of the war, Drake sailed with Sir John Haw- kins against the Spaniards in Mexico. In a sea battle off the coast of Mexico, near Vera Cruz, he was defeated by the Spanish and returned to England. He later attacked other Spanish vessels and de- stroyed some of them on the coasts of South America. From one vessel he took thirty tons of silver. From a mountain on the Isthmus of Panama he saw the Pacific Ocean and resolved to make a voyage upon it. 57. Drake Visits the Pacific Coast of America. — He left England on this voyage in 1577. He passed through the Straits of Magellan to capture such Spanish vessels as he could find along the west coast of South America. He sailed to the north, along what is now Cahfornia, and called the country New Albion. It is thought that he entered the Golden Gate to San Francisco Bay. Fearing Spanish war-vessels that lay in wait for him he did not return to England by way of the Straits of IVIagellan. Spanish Treasure Ship 42 AMERICAN HISTORY 58. He starts across the Pacific Ocean. — Drake started from San Francisco Bay to cross the Pacific Ocean. He meant to get home by sailing around the south end of Africa, as Magellan's ship, the Victory, had done. His course took him to the Spice Islands, where the ships of Magellan had been nearly sixty years before. Thence he laid his course across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, and at length reached England in 1580. 59. England becomes the Leading Power. — In 1588 Spain sent against England a large fleet, called the Great Armada. Drake was vice-admiral of the Enghsh fleet that was to flght it. The Spanish fleet was defeated and nearly destroyed. This great victory made England the leading sea-power of Europe, and soon led her to plant colonies in America. Before this breaking of Spanish power upon the sea, Eng- land had sent out a number of vessels to explore this conti- nent along the Atlantic coast. Sir Martin Frobisher had tried to And a northwest passage to Asia (1576-1578) but had failed, while Sir Humphrey Gilbert had visited the coast of Newfoundland in 1583 and claimed that country for England. 60. Sir Walter Raleigh ; Roanoke Island. — The first attempts to found an English colony in North America were made by Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born in England in 1552. Raleigh obtained from the queen a grant of any country "not actually possessed of any Christian prince, nor inhabited by Christian people," that he might discover in America. This grant, or charter as it was called, was made in 1584. In that year, Raleigh sent out two vessels under the command of Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow. In July ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 43 they reached the coast of what is now North Carolina and entered the waters of Pamlico Sound. They sailed also into Albemarle Sound and found Roanoke Island, which is in the narrow strait connecting these sounds. There they spent the summer. In the fall they went back to England and told Queen Elizabeth about the beautiful coun- try they had found. The queen named this land Virginia. She was so pleased with what Raleigh had done that she made him a knight, and so it happens that he is known as Sir Walter Raleigh. 61. First Attempt to found an English Settle- ment in America. — In the following year, Raleigh tried to found a village on Roanoke Island. He sent seven ships with about two hundred Englishmen, of whom Sir Ralph Lane was to be governor. The ves- sels were nearly wrecked off the coast of North Carolina, but the island was reached early in the summer. Leaving the settlers there, the ships went back. These men were not fitted for life in a new and wild coun- try. They would not do the hard work that was needed, nor were they wise enough to make friends of the Indians. Their governor. Lane, could not make them work, and they Sir Walter Raleigh and his Son 44 AMERICAN HISTORY were soon suffering from sickness and hunger. Sir Francis Drake happened at that time to be coasting along the shore in search of Spanish ships to plunder. He visited Roanoke Island, and, pitying the starving settlers, took them back to England. 62. Second Attempt. — Raleigh sent out another company in 1587 in charge of John White as governor. These people were workmen and farmers. They meant to settle on the shore of' Chesapeake Bay, but landed at Roanoke Island. White soon went to England for more men and supplies. As England was busy in preparing to resist the coming Spanish Armada, White was for some time unable to get either men or ships. Raleigh himself was busy, for he had to help to fight the Armada. He managed, however, to send two vessels with food and tools. These ships never reached the settlement. Three years after he had left Roanoke Island, White went back, but the people he had left there were gone. The only trace of them was the word "CVoa/oaw" carved on a tree. That was the name of a neighboring island. White wished to visit this island, but was not able to do so. The weather was bad, and the captain of his ship would not wait for him. He even threatened to leave White on the deserted island. The settlers were probably either killed by the Indians or died from hardship and hunger. Among the lost were White's daughter, Mrs. Eleanor Dare, and her httle child Virginia, the first white child born in America. These failures to settle Virginia taxed Raleigh's vast fortune. It was too great an undertaking for one man. He sold his charter to a company of merchants, but for many years they did not try to make another settlement. It was said of Raleigh that he "laid the corner-stone of the ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 45 American Republic." Yet for over a hundred years after the discovery of America there were no Englishmen living here. 63. Raleigh in Prison. — In 1595 Raleigh visited Guiana in South America. When Queen Elizabeth died, in 1603, he was arrested as a traitor by order of James I, who was then king. He was sen- tenced to death and confined in a prison known as the Tower of Lon- don. While there he busied himself in writing a "History of the World." Af- ter being shut up for thirteen years he was set free and was sent to Guiana, in search of gold and other treasure. England was at peace with Spain, and he was ordered not to trouble the Spanish. One of his captains, however, with two hundred and fifty men in small boats, went up the Orinoco River to a Spanish settlement. They burnt the houses and killed the governor. Raleigh went back to England in 16 18, but he carried no gold with him. The king, angry at his failure, caused Raleigh to be sent again to the Tower, and soon afterward he was put to death. Map of Raleigh's Colonies 46 AMERICAN HISTORY II. French Explorations 64. French Voyages of Discovery to the New World; John Verrazano. — After the discoveries of the Cabots but before the voyages of Drake, Gilbert, and other English explorers, France began to gain a foothold in the New World. Her explorers confined themselves chiefly to Nova Scotia and the region of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. For years after the Cabots had made their voyages, the French, the Spanish, and the Portuguese had hshed for cod- fish off the northeastern coast of North America. Until the sixteenth century was well advanced, however, the French did nothing which would give them a claim to the main- land. In 1524 Francis I, king of France, sent John Verrazano (Var-rii-tsa'-no), an Italian navigator, on a voyage of dis- covery to North America. He reached our coast near the mouth of the Cape Fear River. Thence he followed the coast northward as far as the great island now called New- foundland. On his way he entered the bay at the mouth of the river since called the Hudson. He also visited Narra- gansett Bay and one or more islands near it. On his return to France, in the summer of 1524, he wrote a letter to the king, which gave the story of his voyage and described the appearance, mode of life, and customs of the Indians. He said in this story that the lands he had found were "never before seen of any man, either ancient or modern." 65. Jacques Cartier. — In 1534 Cartier (Car-te-a'), a French navigator, sailed from France to see what he could find in the New World. He visited Newfoundland, and sailed into the great gulf since called the St. Lawrence, FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 47 thinking that it was the long-sought passage to India. He returned to France the same year, but set out again in May, 1535, with three vessels. This time he went up the St. Lawrence River to the site of the present city of Montreal. Sailing down the river, he anchored his ships for the winter near the site of Quebec. It was a hard winter and many of his men sickened and died. He went The First View of Quebec back to France the next summer, taking some Indians with him. Because of his voyages, France claimed the country visited by him and all the land drained by the St. Lawrence River and its branches. This carried the claims of France to the country of the Great Lakes. A grant of country in the St. Lawrence region was now made by the king to a Frenchman, named Roberval. Car- tier was sent out by Roberval on a third voyage. He left France in May, 1541, with five vessels, and after a stormy voyage reached Quebec. Roberval himself was to follow later with ships and supplies. Cartier again went up the St. Lawrence River, visited what 48 AMERICAN HISTORY is now the island of Montreal, and traveled over the sur- rounding country for some distance beyond. The weather was terribly cold and his men were worn out. As Roberval did not come, he floated down the river and set sail for France. Off the coast of Newfoundland he met Roberval, who was in command of three ships carrying two hundred settlers. Map Showing Jacques Cartier's Voyages Thus; I St Voyage 2d Voj'age 3d Voyage Roberval ordered Cartier to go back to Quebec, but he disobeyed, and on a dark night made his escape and bore away for France. Roberval went on, sailed up the river, and started his settlement, but it was a failure. For more than fifty years no further attempts were made by the French to make settlements in the region they claimed. 66. The Huguenots. — In 1562, French people called Huguenots fled from France, where they had been ill treated, to settle in what later was known as South CaroHna. Two FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 49 years later, a party of Frenchmen tried to found a colony on the St. Johns River in Florida, and the following year more came to it. But this was Spanish territory, being the country that had been visited and explored by Ponce de Leon, Narvaez, and De Soto. The Spaniard, Menendez (Me-nen'-deth), marched against this French settlement in Florida, in 1565, and killed its people — men, women, and St. Augustine as founded by Menendez children. He then built a fort and started a settlem^ent which afterward became St. Augustine, the oldest town in the United States. 67. Samuel Champlain; New France. — The greatest of the French explorers was Samuel Champlain. He did more than any other man toward the settlement by the French of the country once called "New France," now named Canada. He is known as the "Father of New France." In an early voyage to this continent (1599) he visited the West Indies, Mexico, and the Isthmus of Panama. He was 50 AMERICAN HISTORY the first man to advise that a canal be cut across this narrow neck of land, which has now been done by our people. It was clear to him that this would give the short water route to India that all Europe wanted. In 1603 he made a voy- age to North America and visited the site of Quebec. Five years later he made a settlement there which afterward became one of the strongest French fortifications in our country. Three years be- fore, a settlement had been made by the French at Port Royal on the west coast of No\a Scotia, but it was not a lasting one. The Indians, in the re- gion around Quebec, were known as the Algonquins. The\- were at war with the Iroquois ( E-ro-quah') In- dians who lived to the south in the region which is now New York State. 68. Champlain attacks the Indians. — In i6oq Champlain set out to at- tack the Iroquois. He entered the lake which now bears his name with a war party of Algonquins in canoes. Near the south end of the long and narrow lake he met and defeated a large number of Indians of the Mohawk tribe. They were easily defeated, being frightened at the discharge of the firearms which Champlain and a few of his men carried. They feared the noise and smoke, and could not understand why some of their number fell dead without being struck Samvel Champlain FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 51 by anything so far as they could see. They turned and fled, followed by the Algonquins. Thus the great Iroquois were Ijeaten. They learned later how and by whom the shame of running away had been put upon them; and from that day they hated the French. A few years later, the Iroquois got guns from the Dutch on the Hudson and The Defeat of the Iroquois on Lake Champlain After the drawing by Champlain, in his " Voj^ages." learned how to use them, and then they were ready to fight the French, which they did for many years. At the time of this small but important battle in the woods near Lake Champlain, England had done but little to make good her claims to North America. She had a few starving settlers in Jamestown, but that was not a strong point of control like Quebec, and it seemed almost certain that the colony would be given up. The French, however, held the St. Lawrence, a gateway to the west, and were seeking control 52 AMERICAN HISTORY of the Indian passage-way for trade along Lake Champlain, Lake George, and the Hudson River. The Iroquois Indians prevented the French from coming south along this route and thus saved North America for the English. III. Dutch Explorations 69. The Dutch in the New World. Henry Hudson. — While Champlain was fighting the Indians on the shores of Lake Champlain, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, explored the river that bears his name. 70. Hudson employed by Hol- land. — In 1609 Holland was the leading commercial country in Europe, and Amsterdam was the busiest port in the world. She had a large trade with the East Indies by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and her merchants much desired a shorter water route for their ships to that dis- tant country. They engaged Hudson to make search for one. Hudson sailed from Amsterdam, April, 1609, in a vessel named the Half Moon. On this voyage he skirted the coast of Greenland and went south along the coast of North Amer- ica as far as what is now the state of Virginia. On his return he entered the waters now known as Delaware Bay. He also visited, at the mouth of a great river, the harbor now known as New York harbor, that Verrazano had entered long before. He sailed up that river, mistaking it for a strait IIkn'ry Hudson DUTCH EXPLORATIONS 53 that would prove to be a northwest passage to India, and went as far as the present city of Albany. On the way he often landed, and his vessel was visited by Indians. He returned to England and sent the story of his voyage to his employers at Amsterdam. Hudson left England, in her service, on his last voyage, in 1610. He sailed to the northwest and discovered Hudson Bay. He planned to spend the winter there, but his men The "Half Moon" at tiie Highlands of the Hudson After the painting by Moran. would not obey him. He, with his son and seven of his crew, were set adrift in a small boat, and the rest of the crew sailed for England. The English, learning of this cruel act from one of the men who came back, sent a vessel to search for the missing men. No trace of them was ever found. 71. Dutch Claims. — Because of this voyage of discovery made by Hudson, the Dutch claimed the country each side of the Hudson River, southwesterly to the Delaware. This country they called New Netherland. 54 AMERICAN HISTORY ATLANTIC ■6? / ) SPAIN/' (=-"/ %;m: "- AZORES- . _^__ ' madeira/ .'^ .ust.ne ^ canary is. a''-'/ j\ ipH^, T { Palos ■^J ^'Ji-. — • " COLUMBUS iiaf ^ ''^'f„^ V,' AFRICA -•■r-BA'^B OCEAN ■.;■ '■'/: < Balboa 1513 \ > v' S O-'U T H ■ ake Champlain in 1609. What country of Europe became interested, at tl/s^]^,*^ settling the Hudson River valley? What object did the Dutch have in sending settlers to this country? Where did they first settle? Was Hol- land considered an important country at this time? VV^hy? 15. Who explored the Hudson River for the Dutch? CHAPTER III EARLY INHABITANTS OF AMERICA 72. The Mound Builders. — In the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and in Florida and other parts of the United States, are curious hills and mounds. Their shape and appearance prove that they are not works of nature, but were built by man. They are of different heights, varying from Indian Mound in Madison Co., Illinois It is 99 feet high and 998 feet long, and is the largest prehistoric mound in the United States. three to ninety feet. These mounds were evidently used as burial places, or as places of defense. On digging into them, human bones have been found and also pieces of copper. Weapons, tools, pipes made of stone, kettles, jugs and other forms of pottery have been uncovered. The race of people that built them is known as the Mound Builders. 73. The Pueblo Indians. — The people that Friar Mark 58 AMERICAN HISTORY and Coronado found in the southwestern part of the United States were different from the common American Indians. They were not so fierce as the barbarous Indians, and did not delight in lighting, but lived by tilling the soil. These natives lived in houses forming a village or " pueblo." The houses were large and generally stood upon high ground. Pueblo Village, Taos, N. M. They were built in stories, each smaller than the one below. There were no doors at the ground level, and entrance was made through small holes or windows reached by ladders. When the ladders were drawn up, these houses could be used as forts in case of attack. Some pueblos are still to be found in Arizona and New Mexico. These natives were known as Pueblo Indians. The descendants of the Pueblo Indians living in those states are to-day known as the Zunis (Soon'- yees) and Moquis (Mo'-kees). They have long known how to make cloth, and tools and ornaments of copper. 74. The Cliff Dwellers. Other Indians, much like the Pueblos, but who perhaps lived before their time, were the EARLY INHABITANTS OF AMERICA 59 Cliff Dwellers. In the southwestern part of the United States are found deep gorges, made during many thousands of years by the wearing away of soil and rocks by rivers. They are called canons. Some of them are miles in length and hundreds of feet deep. On the steep sides of these canons, the Cliff Dwellers made their homes. They built small stone dwell- ings wherever a nook or cranny in the sides of the cliff gave Ruined Cliff Dwellings, Mancos Canon room for them. Remains of these houses have been found. Pottery in curious shapes and other household things have been found in them. As a race, the Cliff Dwellers have gone. 75. The Aztecs. — The Aztecs, found by Cortes in Mex- ico, lived there for centuries before his visit to their coun- try. The Aztecs and the Incas were more nearly civilized than any other natives of the American continent. What we know of the Aztecs we have learned by a study of the ruins of their temples in Mexico and Yucatan, and of the pottery, tools, and weapons that have been found where they once lived. They made good roads, though they had no beasts of bur- den, and they also built large stone pipes through which 6o AMERICAN HISTORY water flowed for long distances. Whatever they wished to take from place to place was carried by hand. Their women could spin and weave well enough to produce good cloth. They made head-dresses of bright-colored feathers. They also made mats, and were very skillful in the art of making pottery. They had axes, hatchets, and other tools made of copper. They made knives of a very hard kind of volcanic Pace of an Aztec Book glass known as obsidian. The weapons which they used were chiefly the javelin and the sword, but bows and arrows were not unknown to them. 76. The Indians of North America. — The natives that the explorers found throughout the region now known as the United States have been called Indians ever since Columbus gave them that name. They were always more savage and warlike than the natives of Mexico or those of the islands of the West Indies. They were tall and well made, and of cinnamon color. They had l)lack, coarse, straight hair, high cheek bones, and black or dark brown eyes. Their feet and hands were small and well shaped. They were not as strong as the white men, but they were more Hthe and active. EARLY INHABITANTS OF AMERICA 6i They were tireless in the pursuit of game and in fighting their enemies. They suffered heat, cold, hunger and even torture without complaint. They remembered kindnesses, but never forgave or forgot an insult or an injury. 77. Mode of Living. — Some of these Indians were savages. They had no fixed home, but traveled from place to place and lived by .hunting and fishing. Other tribes, not so savage, had local homes. These Indians hunted, fished, and raised small crops of grain and vegeta- bles. They grew maize, tobacco, squashes, and beans. The Indian women did the hard work, while the men spent their time in fighting their enemies, or in hunting and fishing. The Indians lived in wigwams. These were made by sticking poles in the ground in a circle, bending and binding their tops together, and covering this framework with skins and hides. A hole was left at the top, through which smoke might go. At the bottom of the wigwam, the covering was left unfastened so that it could serve as an entrance. The Iroquois Indians, hving chiefly in what is now New York State, made a shelter that they called the " long-house," one of which was large enough for thirty to fifty families. The framework of these houses was made of poles and was Palisaded Indian Village Algonkin village, Pomeiock, on Albemarle Sound, in 1585. 62 AMERICAN HISTORY covered with bark. Inside, each house was divided into spaces, over each of which was a hole in the roof, through which smoke might pass out from the lires by which the food was cooked. Generally, the wigwams or houses were in groups or villages. 78. Government. — A group of Indians who were related to some common ancestor formed a clan. A chief or sachem Iroquois Long House was chosen for each clan. The women as well as the men had a vote in this choice. A number of clans formed a tribe. Each tribe was ruled by a council of sachems. Each clan was named for some bird or animal, such as eagle, turtle, buffalo, or wolf. A rude picture or image of this bird or animal was called the totem of the clan. This animal was thought to be sacred and might not be killed. 79. Language. — Indians of the same clan spoke the same language, but among the members of a tribe there were dif- ferences in speech. There was no written language, but ideas were sometimes expressed in picture-writing. A picture of an arrow, for instance, would mean a warrior. The number of arrows told of the number of warriors. The way in which they pointed showed where a war party had gone. The meaning of these pictures, made upon birch bark or dried skin, was readily understood by the Indians. EARLY INHABITANTS OF AMERICA 63 80. Religious Belief. — The Indians did not worship idols as the Aztecs of Mexico did. They believed that after death the spirit of every brave would Hve forever in the Happy Hunting Ground. They believed in a Great Spirit, or Mani- tou, as they called him. They thought that the tempest, Indian Bow and Arrows the thunder, and the hghtning were signs of his wrath. To appease his anger they made offerings of tobacco, throwing it to the winds or upon the raging waters. When sick, they called the medicine man. They thought that he had power to drive out the evil spirits that caused sickness. Before going to battle they held a war dance, in which, while circhng around, they boasted of their bravery, and in wild songs told of past victories and asked the aid of the Great Spirit for further success. They broiled meat, holding it over the fire on sharpened sticks. A mixture of corn and beans, boiled in stone kettles, made them a food, called succotash. They also ate fish which were caught cither by spearing or by using fish-hooks made of bone. In winter they wore the skins of deer and the fur of other ani- mals, and moccasins of deerskin. The bow and A Tomahawk arrow and the stone hatchet served them as weapons. The arrowhead was made of flint and bound to the arrowshaft by thongs. After the coming of the white man they quickly learned the use of firearms and knives. 64 AMERICAN HISTORY 81. Indian Warfare. — In warfare the Indians were cruel and treacherous. They never fought in the open, but skulked behind trees, sometimes lying in hiding for days, in order to strike an unexpected blow. They traveled swiftly and silently, to surprise the enemy by fierce and sudden attack. They took the scalps of those killed, and the bravery of a Indian axd Canoe warrior was measured by the number of scalps taken. Some- times the Indians put their prisoners to frightful torture, burning them at the stake with slow lire. He was a great warrior who, in the agony of torture, uttered no groan or cry. At other times the prisoner ran for his life between two long lines of warriors, who struck at him with clubs and tomahawks as he passed. If he succeeded in getting through, his Ufe was spared. Sometimes a prisoner who showed great bravery was adopted into the tribe of his captors. 82. Industries. — The squaws wove baskets and mats EARLY INHABITANTS OF AMERICA 65 and baked clay into rude forms of pottery; but perhaps the most useful articles made by the Indians were the birch-bark canoe and the snowshoe. In his canoe, the Indian traveled great distances. It was so light that it could be easily carried overland, from one river or lake to another. The money of the Indians was made of colored pieces of clam shell. These when pohshed and pierced were strung A Piece of Wampum like beads or woven into belts. When a treaty was made, belts of wampum, as this money was called, were exchanged in remembrance of the event. The Indians taught many of their rude arts to the whites. They showed them that to raise maize or Indian corn in the forest, the trees must be killed, in order that their leaves should not keep out the sunlight, so needful to the growing plants. This was done by cutting off the bark in a circle, around the trunk. This was more easily done by the Indian than cutting the trees down with his stone axe. They taught the white man how to use snowshoes, and how to paddle the bark canoes without upsetting. They showed him how to follow trails, and how to learn the lessons that nature teaches in the wilderness. 83. Tribes. — The most powerful tribes east of the Mis- sissippi River were those of the Iroquois Confederacy. These masterful Indians conquered their enemies and prevented the French, in the St. Lawrence River region, from pushing south into the country which now forms the state of New York, 66 AMERICAN HISTORY ■'.^fet The Algonquins, chiefly, held all the other territory from what is now Tennessee far into Canada. South of this region, from the Mississippi to the Atlantic coast, were the Mobil- ians or Maskokis. The Dakotas lived in the country west of the Mississippi River. These great nations were divided into numerous tribes. The Indians figured largely in the later history of this country, helping at different times both French and English, as those people fought each other. 84. Present Indian Reservations. -It is said that the Indian population east of the Mississippi River was once 230,000. These Indians were driven west by the line of ,.,, white settlements, until most of them are now living on reservations, the name given for lands set apart for them. There are a number of reser- vations in the former Indian Territory, now a part of Oklahoma, upon which live the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Semi- noles; — these Indians having been removed from the Caro- Hnas, Georgia, and Florida. In 1886, the Apaches were taken from their reservations in Arizona and New Mexico and sent to the Indian Territory. The Sioux, or Dakotas, the largest and strongest tribe of Indians north of Mexico, are now living on reservations in South Dakota west of the Missouri River. These Indians once Uved in the region around the west end of Lake Superior An Indian Chief EARLY INHABITANTS OF AMERICA 67 and later in the country stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. The descendants of the Indians formerly living in New York state are now scattered on reservations through the state. Four of these are near Lake Erie, one in the center of the state and another on the St. Lawrence River. There is also a small reservation held by the Shinnecock Indians on the east end of Long Island. SUMMARY 1. Large mounds are found in various places in the United States. The people who built them are known as Mound Builders. 2. Some of the mounds were undoubtedly burial places for the dead. Others may ha\'e been used as forts or to inclose villages. 3. They are found largely in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and are of various sizes and shapes. 4. The Pueblo Indians were skillful in making their peculiar houses. They were more civilized than the other Indians and tilled the soil. Their descendants are the Moquis and Zunis of the present day. 5. Somewhat like the Pueblos were the Cliff Dwellers, whose peculiar dwellings were on the steep sides of gorges and river canons. They have passed away as a race. 6. The most highly civilized natives of the New World were the Incas of Peru and the Aztecs of Me.xico. 7. The Aztecs built temples and worshiped idols. They made good roads and built long pipe-lines for water. They made cloth and were skillful in making pottery, tools, and weapons. 8. They were conquered by the Spaniards, under Cortes, early in the six- teenth century. 9. The North American Indians lived mainly by hunting and fishing, although they raised Indian corn and some vegetables. 10. The Indians were good friends, but bitter enemies. They were cruel to captives, scalped their enemies, and tortured prisoners. 11. Their spoken language consisted of various dialects. They had no written language. 12. They had no beasts of burden or domestic animals except the dog, until the horse was introduced by the Spanish. The hard labor was done by the squaws. 68 AMERICAN HISTORY QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Who were the Mound Builders? Why were ihey so called? 2. Where were these mounds found? Of what shapes were they? WTiat has been discovered in them? 3. In what part of the country were Pueblo Indians found? What kind of houses did they build? What crops did they grow? Are there any Pueblo tribes now living? 4. Where did the ClifT Dwellers build their houses? Why did they choose such places for dwellings? 5. Where did the Aztecs live? Who was their king when Cortes conquered Mexico? What weapons did they use? Of what materials were their weapons made? Were they successful as builders? What did they build? Besides their weapons, what articles did they make? 6. At the time of the coming of the Spaniards to the mainland, what were the natives of the present United States called? Why were they so called? What was their appearance? Can you tell how a wigwam was made and of what materials? Describe the "long-house" of the Iroquois Indians. What was wampum? What was its use? Why was the canoe use- ful to the Indians in their summer travel? Upon what did the Indians depend for focxl? What crops did they raise? What was the method of Indian warfare? How did they sometimes treat their captives? Name a few of the leading tribes of Indians in this country. Where did they live? Name some of the present Indian reservations. Birch-bark Canoe CHAPTER IV HOW THE SPANISH AND THE FRENCH PEOPLED AMERICA I. How THE Spanish Peopled their Lands 85. The first Settlers were Spanish. — The Spaniards had a long start in making settlements in America. About fifty years before Jamestown was settled there were Spaniards living at St. Augustine in Florida, and long before that they were Hving in the city of Mexico. The Spanish were at Santa Fe and along the Rio Grande years before the Jamestown settlers landed. Before the people of any other nation came to America to stay, there were Spanish in the West Indies, Mexico, and parts of Central and South America. 86. Broad Claims of Spain. — Portugal and Spain were the earliest exploring nations. When search for lands in the western world began, they agreed to divide between them- selves any that they might find. They fixed upon a line which ran north and south upon the Atlantic Ocean. All unknown lands east of it were to go to Portugal and all west to Spain. They gave no thought to what other nations might do in finding new lands, or to what they might claim. North America with its islands lay west of the line, and for that reason, and also because Spanish explorers found it, Spain claimed the whole of North America as her own. 87. Spain's Claim Disputed. — England was not willing to agree to Spain's claim, neither was France nor Holland. 70 AMERICAN HISTORY Each of these nations sent men to hunt for a passage to India through or around North America. Each found parts of the continent, and each claimed that which its men had found. While the Spanish were in the West Indies, Mexico, Flor- ida, and the region of the lower Mississippi, and were pushing their way in Central and South America, Portugal was also making explorations. For a long time her efforts were directed toward reaching India by sailing around Africa. This was finally accomplished by Vasco da Gama. WTien Portugal employed Vespucius to search out new lands, she gained the country that we now call Brazil. This lay east of the Une fixed as the boundary between lands to be claimed by Spain or Portugal. Brazil was thus a Por- tuguese colony and so remained for years. It afterward be- came an empire, but is now a repubhc. II. How THE French Peopled America 88. What France claimed at First. — Verrazano and Car- tier discovered Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the St. Law- rence River. Hence, France claimed that country and all land drained by the St. Lawrence River and its branches. "However long and wide it may be," said the king of France, "that land is ours. Frenchmen shall trade and live there; French towns shall grow up there, and the country shall be called New France." Besides the St. Lawrence region, the French claimed what is now New England and the state of New York, but the Indians and the P2nglish kept them from living there. 89. Why France did not people the Country Sooner. — For more than fifty years after claiming the country, France did little in making settlements in New France because there THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 71 were wars at home among her own people. But many French- men sailed along the coast for fish, while others went into the Map to illustrate French Explorations forest for furs. Quebec was for many years an outpost from which French priests went forth to preach to the Indians, and French trappers and traders to get furs. Champlain 72 AMERICAN HISTORY himself made long trips into the wilderness, going as far west as Lake Huron. 90. The Fur Business. — In those days the northern part of North America was the richest fur country in the world. The early French visitors to America were not farmers looking for homes. They came for furs, and wasted no time in seeking for gold. The Spanish and English might search for it, but the gold they could get for furs was enough for the French. The people of Europe were eager to buy at high prices all the American furs that might be brought to them. All the colonists in North America, except the Spaniards, depended more or less on the sale of furs for a living; but the French in Canada and the Dutch just south of them made fur-getting their main business. 91. The French made Friends of the Indians. — I'he French claimed the coun- try that their explorers had found, and that their trappers and missionaries were traveling over, but, unhke the EngHsh and Spanish, they did not for many years send parties of emigrants to found colonies. Such settlements as they had made were trading posts, each with a rude fort, where Indians brought furs and listened to the teach- ings of the good priests. The Enghsh did not like the Indians, and did not try to make friends of them. They wanted open fields for farming, and cut down the forest trees to make them, and this made the red man angry because it spoiled his hunting grounds. For these reasons, as a rule, the Indians hated the English. But the French did not care for farming French Fur-trader THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 73 and depended on the forest for furs. So they did no harm to the hunting grounds and thus kept the good will of the natives. The French trappers lived with the Indians and not a few married Indian women. The priests treated the red men as fellow-beings and strove earnestly to bring them into the church. No braver or more devoted men ever lived than the earnest priests of the Society of Jesus, and those of other orders, who toiled and died among the northern Indians in the early days of the French in America. 92. The Algonquins and the Iro- quois. — The Indians of the St. Law- rence River region were known as Algonquins and were friendly to the French. To the south dwelt the Iroquois, in five tribes known as the Five Nations. They lived along the Mohawk Valley and in the northern part of what is now Pennsylvania and Ohio. They were the most powerful tribe of Indians in North America. If the French could have made friends with them they might have held Manhattan and the Hudson River, and the rest of what later became the state of New York might have been French instead of Dutch. The French, through the friendship of the Iroquois, might also have prevented the settlement by the English of the New England coast region. The Dutch, however, soon settled the Hudson River region and became friendly with the Iroquois. By teaching them the use of guns, the Dutch made them so strong that the A Jesuit Father 74 AMERICAN HISTORY French could never break through their country as Champlain had hoped to do. 93. Nicolet. — In 1634, Jean Nicolet (Nee-ko-lay), a French fur-trader of Quebec, went west to Lake Michigan and into what is now Wisconsin. When he came back, he said he had seen a river that flowed south and west. He reasoned that it must flow down a western slope to an ocean, as the St. Lawrence and other rivers flowed easterly to the Atlantic. The French had never given up their purpose of finding a way across America to India. Many of them believed that up the St. Lawrence, through the Great Lakes, and thence westward by the river which Nicolet had found, was the long-sought way. 94. Marquette and Joliet. — More than thirty years after Nicolet told his story a mission was founded by Father Mar- quette on the strait between Lake Superior and Lake Huron. Not far from where Lake Huron and Lake Michigan are joined by the Strait of Mackinac, he founded another. These missions were then the farthest outposts of the French. As yet, they had not moved south to explore the country. Nicolet 's tale had not been forgotten in Quebec. In 1673, Frontenac, the governor of New France, sent a fur-trader, named Louis Joliet (Zhol'-yay), to find the river, and Mar- quette was asked to join in the search. Marquette and Joliet went westward to the Wisconsin River, as Nicolet had done. In their canoes the party paddled down the river until it led them to a very large stream flowing south. They let the current carry them, taking note of the country, which was mostly prairie. They came to a place where a mighty stream, the Missouri River, came from the west, carrying .so much soil that its water was muddy. They passed many places where streams came THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 75 in to swell the current, some on one side and some on the other. From the east came a great river, the one which we know as the Ohio. Beyond that, they found the Arkansas River, flowing from the west, and they went a Uttle farther. DlSCO\'ERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI BY MaRQUETTE, 1673 They were on the Mississippi, one of the great rivers of the world. Most important of all, they had found the greatest and richest region of all the world lying ready to be claimed by France, through their being first to see it. 95. La Salle. — In 1673, Frontenac built Fort Frontenac on the northeastern shore of Lake Ontario. After the fort was finished he put a man named La Salle in command of it. Like most French posts, this was easily reached by Indians with their packs of furs. La Salle, who could speak several Indian languages, learned much of value from these Indians 76 AMERICAN HISTORY and went to France to get the king's help for a long trip into the middle of the continent. He came back to Fort Frontenac in 1678. 96. The First and Only Voyage of the " Griffin." — The following year, La Salle sailed in a small boat called the Griffin the length of Lake Erie and through the narrow water- way where Detroit now stands. He passed north, into Lake Huron, through the Strait of Mackinac into Lake Michigan, and across that to Green Bay. He was now at the point on the western shore of Lake Michigan where Nic- olet had visited the Indians thirty - five years before, and from which Marquette and Joliet had set out when they went to find the Mississippi. From Green Bay the Griffin was sent back to the eastern end of Lake Erie with a cargo of She was to deliver the furs La Salle furs bought from the Indians and return to Green Bay with supplies. Instead of following the course taken by Nicolet and Joliet, La Salle and his party took canoes at Green Bay and paddled to the southern shores of Lake Michigan. They went westward around the south end of this lake and, reaching a branch of the Illinois River, followed it until it led them into that stream. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 77 97. Fort CreveccBur. — At a point a little more than a hun- dred miles from Lake Michigan they came to a broad widen- ing of the Illinois River, and built a fort there which they called Fort Crevecoeur. They were far from home and knew not when or how they should return. They waited here for news of the return of the Griffin^ but none came. After a while, La Salle and a few men set out Building the " Griffin " to look for her. They struck across the country to Lake Michigan and went east by short cut to the west end of Lake Erie. From this point they paddled in canoes the length of the Lake, but could learn nothing of the Griffin. She was lost; but how, when or where, has never been known. With a party of Frenchmen and Indians, La Salle now returned to Fort Crevecoeur, but found it in ruins. The vengeful Iroquois had traveled hundreds of miles to reach the fort, had destroyed it, and killed or driven away the 78 AMERICAN HISTORY men. When La Salle reached Green Bay he found there those who had escaped. 98. La Salle reaches the Mouth of the Mississippi River. — In^682, La Salle was again searching for the JNlississippi Valley. This time he reached the great stream and followed it beyond where Marquette and Joliet had gone, to the salt water of the Gulf of Mexico. Regardless of the claims of the Spanish to this country, La Salle planted a cross, nailed to it the arms of France and declared that all the land drained by the Mississippi and its branches, east and west, belonged to France. To the great domain he gave the name of his king, Louis XIV, and called it Louisiana. France now claimed the greatest and most valuable part of North America. The French were not content to search out the course of the Mississippi to the south. In 1680, Father Hennepin was sent by La Salle to follow its windings northward to its source. He went up as far as boats could go, stopping only when he reached a great waterfall which he named the Falls of St. Anthony. In later years, the large cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul have grown up there, and the water power of the falls is now used for making many thousand barrels of flour every day. 99. Death of La Salle. — La Salle went to France and told the king what he had done. In 1684 the king directed him to make settlements along the coast of the Gulf of Mex- ico. He sailed with four ships and about three hundred men. Instead of going to the mouth of the river, the company landed four hundred miles to the west, on the coast of what is now the State of Texas, where they built a fort. A vessel was wrecked, and the jealous and treacherous captain of the ship sailed away with two others. The Indians began to THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 79 murder men of the party, and soon there were only about fifty left. Anxious to reach the Mississippi and the Illinois country, La Salle started overland in 1687, with some of his men who, blaming him for their troubles, were heartsick and sul- len. On the way one of them murdered him. Thus died La Salle at the Mouth of the Mississippi, 1682 the great French hero who had set France in a fair way to become the greatest nation in the world. 100. King William's War. — From causes that did not concern America, there was war in Europe between Eng- land and France, and the king of France thought it a good time to make trouble for the English in America. He ordered Frontenac, governor of Canada, to march against the New York country, which had long since passed from the Dutch 8o AMERICAN HISTORY to the English a^nd was now an EngHsh province. He meant to take it and make it French, thus separating the eastern English colonies from those south of New York. It was a good scheme, if it could be carried out. It would have given the French the Hudson River and the Mohawk Valley as a route to the west. The English had many more men in America than the French, but the French could call many Indians to the field to help them. Frontenac prepared to carry out his king's plan. But the Iroquois Indians saw their chance and attacked Canada, and this kept Frontenac busy at home. Unable to send an army against New York, he began to send small parties of French and Algonquins to attack outlying English settle- ments. The savages were allowed to fight in their own way, and they murdered women and children whenever they could. The people of Schenectady, in New York, and many towns in New England, were victims of savage cruelty. The people of New York and New England fought the Canadians and Indians with good effect, but the war closed in Europe and in America in 1697, leaving things in America about as they had been before. 101. The French on the Gulf of Mexico. — In 1698 a man named Iberville sailed from France with two ships, to plant colonics on the Gulf of Mexico near the mouth of the Mis- sissippi River, as La Salle had tried to do. He spent several months searching the coast for good places, and at last made a settlement at Biloxi. Thus, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the French, by settlements on the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes and on the Gulf of Mexico, claimed the land that lay between. The Spanish had only Florida and Mexico by settlement, THE FRENCH IN AMERICA and some missions in what is now known as California. The English held by settlement the ocean slope as far as the Alle- ghany Mountains, which rose as a wall to keep them out of the great inside valley. France had the best portion. She controlled both the northern outlet — the St. Lawrence — and the southern — the Mississippi. There were no railroads in those days, A French Fort on the Ohio River nor even wagon roads worth mentioning. Travel was by water, and the French held the two great waterways of the continent. All the trade between North America and Europe, except that of the Atlantic slope* was in their hands. New France bade fair to become worth a hundred times old France. 102. The French Chain of Forts. — In 1701, the French made a settlement on the strait that connects Lake Erie with Lake Huron which has since grown to be Detroit, and another on the Gulf of Mexico, more than a thousand miles away, which has grown to be the city of Mobile. They began 82 AMERICAN HISTORY carrying out a plan to plant settlements and forts in a chain from Quebec to the Gulf of Mexico. Of course, these were to be along the waterways, since there were no other routes of travel in a country so new. While there was present peace with England, the French had no doubt that they would yet have to fight for their ground, and they were preparing for the trial of arms. 103. Queen Anne's War. — In Europe, King Louis XIV of France was plotting against England and Holland, and in 1702L. war broke out again. King William III of England was dead, and in his place reigned Queen Anne. Again the Indians were set on by the French of Canada to ravage Eng- lish settlements in New England. Some towns in Massa- chusetts and Maine were attacked, and women and children were killed. Spain helped France in the contest. A fleet of French and Spanish ships attacked Charleston, South Carolina, but were driven off. The war lasted until 17 13, and when peace was made, France gave to England Nova Scotia, the Hudson Bay region, and the Newfoundland fisheries. This war is known as Queen Anne's War. For more than thirty years after Queen Anne's War there was peace between the English and the French in America. During this time, the French were getting ready for another war, for they knew that in time, there would be one. They built a strong fortress on Cape Breton Island and called it Louisburg, in honor of their king. It was thought to be one of the strongest forts in the world and was important in naval warfare because of its position at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It could also be used as a base of operations in any expeditions made by land against the English who at that time held the surrounding country. SUMMARY AND REVIEW 83 SUMMARY 1. France founded her claims to the St. Lawrence River region on the voyages of Verrazano and Cartier. 2. Champlain first got foothold in the New World for France. He founded Quebec, 1608. 3. The French engaged in the fur trade. Excepting the Iroquois, they remained friendly with the Indians. 4. Champlain defeated the Iroquois Indians, thus making them the ene- mies of the French. This prevented the French from making settle- ments to the south along the Hudson River. 5. The French made explorations to the west along the countrj' of the Ottawa River and the Great Lakes. 6. Jean Nicolet traveled as far west as Lake Michigan and Wisconsin, 1634. 7. Missions were founded on the Strait of Mackinac and Falls of St. Mary by Father Marquette. 8. Father INIarquette and Louis Joliet made an expedition down the Mis- sissippi River, 1673. 9. La SaUe finally reached the Gulf of Mexico, 1682. 10. French settlements were made on the Gulf of Mexico. 11. French settlements and forts were built along the Great Lakes. 12. Troubles between France and England led in this country to King William's War and Queen Anne's War. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. What part of this country did France claim, owing to the voyages of Verrazano and Cartier? 2. Why did not France sooner settle the regions which she had discovered in the New World? ' - - • 3. Who made the settlement at Quebec? When? 4. What was the chief business of the early French settlers? 5. Why were the Indians friendly with the French? 6. What tribes of Indians were the enemies of the French? Why? 7. Give an account of the journey of Jean Nicolet. Of Father Marquette and Louis Joliet. ij' t ' -^ 8. What other French explorer went as far south as the Gulf of Mexico? ' ^ 9. Why was his attempt to found colonies near ihfe nrouth of the Mis- sissippi unsuccessful? 7 10. Tell about King William's War. 11. After the voyages of Marquette and La Salle, what portions of this country did the French claim? 12. Give an account of Queen .\nne's War. CHAPTER V HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 104. Jamestown. — Two companies of wealthy English merchants got leave from King James I to start settlements in America. One was called the Plymouth Company and the other the London Company. The lands to be settled by the Plymouth Company lay along the coast from near the mouth of the Hudson River to the Bay of Fundy. The London Company was to make settlements between the mouth of the Potomac and that of the Cape Fear River. In December, j_6o6^ the London Company sent three ships and one hundred and live men, under command of Captain Newport, to make a settlement at- Roanoke Island. One of this comjjan}' w^as Captain John Smith, who had seen much of the Old World and whose commg to the New World was a search for adventure. He had been an active soldier and had passed through many trials and dangers. The ships entered Chesapeake Bay and passed up a broad river, which the company named the James, in honor of the king. Giving up their purpose of settling on Roanoke Island, a landing was made about fifty miles from the mouth of the river, and a settlement was begun in Mav. j6oy , which was called Jamestown. It was the first long-lived English settle- ment in America. A few days after landing, Newport and Smith went up the HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 85 .-<£^' river to visit Powhatan, the chief of ttie Indians, Hving near its headwaters. 105. Sickness and Death. — In June, Captain Newport went to England to bring more men and suppHes. Before the summer was over one half of the men of James- town had sickened and died. The governor, Wing- field, stole the food of his half-fed companions and was getting ready to run away when his evil con- duct was found out. 106. Smith has an Ad- venture. — The colonists were told when they left England that they must search for a passage through America to India. It seemed that a way might be found by following the rivers that flowed into the James from the west. They thought that beyond their sources they might find the beginnings of some that flowed into the sea on the western coast of America. So they sent Smith to find them; and with two white men and two Indians, he started in a canoe up the Chickahominy River, which ended in a swamp. Taking an Indian for a guide and leaving the rest of his party with the canoe, he went on to search for a river flowing west. He had gone but a short way when the Indians at- tacked him. He killed three of them, but was at last over- powered and taken prisoner. The Indians led him from C\PT\iN John Smith From an engraving in his " Description of New England." 86 AMERICAN HISTORY village to village as a show for the women and children, and at last brought him to Powhatan. It was several days before the Indians decided to put Smith to death. When the time came to take his life, Smith was bound and placed on his back, with his head on a block of stone. A Pocahontas Saving John Smith's Life From "A General History of Virginia," by Captain John Smith. London, 1626. brawny Indian came forward with a stone battle-ax and raised the weapon for the blow that was to dash out the white man's brains. At that instant, Pocahontas, the chief's daughter, rushed forward and throwing herself before the battle-ax, demanded that Smith's life be spared. Such was Powhatan's love for his child, that he granted her wish. HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 87 A few weeks later the Indians let Smith go, and he went back to Jamestown. Soon after this Smith was made gov- ernor of the colony. 107. More Settlers come to Jamestown. — Newport brought with him from England about one hundred and twenty more men who, like those who had come at first, would not do the rough work of making homes for themselves in the wilder- ness, but spent their time in a foolish hunt for gold. Smith then made a rule that those who would not labor should not eat. He made every man toil a certain number of hours each day. When food ran short, he got more from the Indians, and he was the only man in the settlement who could. More peo- ple for the colony were brought over by Captain Newport during this year. These were no better than those who had come before, except that among them were a few women. A new grant of land was made to the London Company in 1609. Under this grant, settlements could be made for two hundred miles north, and the same distance south, of the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. This grant gave to the company all the land west of the coast from sea to sea. A larger number of settlers were sent from England during this year, and Lord de la Warr (Delaware) was appointed governor of Virginia. Virginia in Early Days 88 AMERICAN HISTORY 108. "The Starving Time." — Before Lord Delaware arrived Smith, who had been hurt by an explosion of gun- powder, returned to England. He never came back to Jamestown, but in 1614 explored the New England coast. It was bad for the colony that he was away. Trouble with the Indians began, and corn and provisions could not be had. The following winter (1609-16 10) is known as "the starving time." When Smith left Jamestown, there were nearly five hundred people in the settlement. By the summer of the next year, sickness and hunger had brought this number down to about sixty. The few still alive had set out to leave the settlement and were on their way down the river, when they met the ships of Lord Delaware with men and supplies. They -went back to Jamestown, and the settlement was saved. 109. Governor Dale. — Delaware, who followed Smith as governor of Virginia, remained in Jamestown a few months, then went back to England in ill health, never to return. He was succeeded in 161 1 by Governor Dale, who understood what to do. He knew that some of the settlers were of the worst class of people. Those that came willingly and could pay their way did not come to stay but to hunt for gold, and they expected to get it quickly and go back. Not finding it, they had no heart for other work and spent their time in idleness. Of another class were those called indentured servants, who could not pay their passage to this country and so bound themselves, in writing, called an indenture, to work it out after getting over. They had no interest in the work and were idle. Dale made them work, and punished those who would not. Not only did Dale punish the idlers, but by changing the rules he also helped the few who would work. Up to this HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 89 time, all the food had been kept in a common storehouse, from which it was given out to all alike. The lazy were given just as much as those who worked, which caused them to shirk and discouraged the workers. To remedy this, each settler was given a farm, and he could have only what he raised. Men were allowed to own as much as a hundred acres of land, if they were able to buy it. Each man paid a small amount of corn to the company as a tax. 110. Tobacco. — In 1612, John Rolfe began to raise to- bacco, which grew wild in Virginia and which was coming into use in Europe. He was success- ful in growing it and in selling it in England at good prices. Thus began the tobacco trade of the world. 111. Argall kidnaps Pocahontas. — In spite of all that the better class could do, the colony came to want. Food was scarce, and the Indians were angry and threatening because they had been abused by the un- ruly whites in the settlement. As the whites stole from them, "they began stealing from the whites, and soon carried off some farming tools. Samuel Argall, who became governor of the colony, went up the river with his vessel to ask Powhatan for corn and to demand that the tools be returned, which was refused. Knowing the old man's love for his daughter, Argall formed a plan to kidnap her. He believed that Powhatan would yield for the sake of getting her back. So he hired an Indian to get Pocahontas to come on board his ship, and when she came he sailed away with her to Jamestown. Pocahontas go AMERICAN HISTORY 112. Marriage of Pocahontas. — As might have been expected, Powhatan was furious. He demanded that the English give her up at once, and said that he would kill every person at Jamestown if she were not set free. But when he learned that she was well treated and held in great respect by the Jamestown people, his anger cooled; and later, he was pleased when he was told that a young Englishman wished to marry her. The young Indian girl, having been baptized, was married in the church to John Rolfe. 113. Better Times. — After "the starving time," the col- ony was never in danger of being given up. A better class of people came, and better judgment was used in carrying on affairs. The colony was safe, and from this time it spread out and grew. White men had now come to North America to stay at five points far distant from one another. The Spanish were at Santa Fe and at St. Augustine; the Dutch were at the mouth of the Hudson; the French were on the St. Lawrence; and the English at Jamestown. 114. Government by the People. — In 1619, Sir George Yeardley was sent from England as governor of the James- town colony, and he brought a set of rules, called a charter, under which he was to govern. These provided that he should call a few chosen men to represent the people in mak- ing laws. Two men from each of the eleven boroughs met with the governor and his council in the Jamestown church, July 30, 161Q . The meeting was called the Assembly, and it lasted for about a week. A few laws were made, one of which was that all people should attend church regularly. The men who came from the boroughs were called Burgesses, and the Assembly, which was to meet every year, was called HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 91 the House of Burgesses. This was the beginning in America of government by the people. 115. Prosperity. — People liked the idea of living where they could govern themselves. Besides, it was now plain that money could be made in Virginia in growing tobacco. Forty thousand pounds of the leaf were now sent to England each year, and more was wanted. Rich men went to Vir- ginia to start great tobacco plantations. The forests were Jamestown in 1622 cut down, and tobacco grew where trees had stood. The planters began to go to other rivers, of which there were many along the low coast slope. Thus the settlement spread out, and the colony became Virginia rather than Jamestown. Good government and industry had brought prosperity. In 1622 there were four thousand people in the colony. By this time women were coming, and not a little of the change for the better was due to them. There were, at this time, a hundred and fifty women in the colony, and a hundred and fifty English homes with English wives and mothers were a great force for good in the new country. 92 AMERICAN HISTORY 116. Slavery. — In all the Spanish settlements there were slaves. In England from the very first there had been slaves, and so it was thought proper by the settlers in Virginia that they, too, should have slaves. It was hard for the planters to raise tobacco for want of laborers. The indentured servants were too few to do the work, and in time they would all be free, after their passage money was paid. Slaves that would always be slaves were wanted, and the colonists got them. One day in 1619, a Dutch ship from the coast of Africa came up the James River with a cargo of negroes who had been dragged away from their homes. Of the whole cargo only twenty were left, and these were sick and starving. The planters bought them for slaves. Thus negro slavery began in America. ]\Iore ships came with more negroes, and soon there were slaves in all the colonies. By the end of the century one fourth of the human beings in Virginia were negro slaves. 117. The London Company loses its Charter. — King James I began to watch the growth of the colony. The Lon- don Company had become rich and powerful by the trade in tobacco. Many of its members were in Parliament, and they opposed him in some of his plans. To punish them, he took away the charter of the company in 1624, and began to govern the colony himself. From that time, Virginia was called a royal province. While a new set of laws was being made, which would have taken self-government away from the Virginians, the king died. James's son, Charles, followed him as king and was called Charles I. His reign was full of trouble, so that he had no time to carry out the purpose of his father, and thus it hap- pened that Virginia kept its self-government. 118. Royal Governors. — In 1627 Governor Yeardley HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 93 The English Country in North America died, and King Charles made Sir John Harvey governor. After having been robbed by Harvey the Virginians sent him home, in 1635, much to the anger of King Charles. 94 AMERICAN HISTORY The king sent him back, and he ruled until 1639. But the troubles at home that were to cost Charles his head had be- gun, and he dared not force Harvey upon the colonists any longer. He then sent Sir WilHam Berkeley as governor in 1641. Berkeley, like his master, was a tyrant. He held the lower classes in contempt, and was opposed to all that might tend to raise them in life. He was the enemy of schools and printing presses. 119. Death of King Charles I. — King James began a course of tyranny in England which his son, Charles I, carried on after the death of his father. He tried to control the religion of the English people, and he taxed them beyond rea- son. The nobles and the gentry, called Cavaliers, were with the king, while the common people, called Puritans or Round- heads, were against him. At length civil war began, and the Puritans under Oliver Cromwell defeated the Cavahers. King Charles I was tried for treason, found guilty, and be- headed in 1649. 120. The Coming of the Cavaliers. — When the king and his friends were defeated in England, many of the Cavaliers went to Virginia, where they took great tracts of land for plan- tations and built line mansions. They owned many slaves, who tilled their fields and raised the crops of tobacco which were sold in England. The plantations were on the river banks, and each had its landing, to which ships came for car- goes. Food was plentiful, but nearly all else was bought in England and jjrought in the ships that came for tobacco. 121. The Puritans leave Virginia. — There were about a thousand Puritans in Virginia, and they were so oppressed by Berkeley that, in 1649, they went to Maryland, a new Catholic colony, where for a time people of all sects were well treated. The Puritans quarreled with the Catholic founders HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 95 of the colony in after years, and growing in power secured the repeal of the Toleration Act, which had granted in Mary- land freedom of religious worship to all sects professing the Christian religion. After this, for some years, they bitterly persecuted the Catholics of that colony. 122. The Time of the Commonwealth in England. — After the death of King Charles I there was need of a strong House such as the Cavaliers built in Virginia Westover Mansion, owned by James Byrd, who held a command under Bacon in Bacon's rebelHon. ruler for England, and the Puritans placed their great leader, Cromwell, in power, calHng him Lord Protector. He began to rule in 1653 and continued in power for five years. He sent his agents to Virginia in 1653 to settle matters with the colonists. Berkeley gave up his office, and the gov- ernment was now in the hands of the Burgesses. They chose their own council and governor, and things went well with the colony, except that Catholics were persecuted, until 1658 when Lord Baltimore was restored to the proprietorship. 96 AMERICAN HISTORY 123. Charles II. — Cromwell died in 1658, after which his son ruled England for a short time, and then Charles, son of the Charles who had been beheaded, became King Charles II, in 1660. When word reached Virginia that Charles was king, the people knew that they must gain his favor; so the Burgesses at once elected Berkeley governor. Virginia was now under Cavalier control and times were bad for Puri- tans and for those of all religious sects, except the Established Church of England. The House of Burgesses, made up of friends of Berkeley, so managed that there was no elec- tion of its members for sixteen years. In this way the people were cheated out of their right to have Burgesses of their own choosing. Charles II was a tyrant and a worse king than his father. He believed with his father and his grandfather James I, that the king ruled by authority of God, and that he could do as he pleased with the people, and that what he saw fit to do was none of their business. He said that their part of government was to pay the bills, and to do the king's fight- ing for him, and ask no questions. He claimed that Virginia belonged to him to do with as he pleased. 124. Trouble with the Indians. — As long as Powhatan lived, after the marriage of his daughter Pocahontas to an Englishman, he was the friend of the settlers, and he kept his Indians from doing them very serious harm. After the death of Powhatan in 161 8, Opechancanough, his brother, became chief, and he felt it his duty to fight to save the country for his people. He made his plans with great care and spent four years in getting ready. The whites knew of no danger and allowed the Indians to come and go freely about their houses. The chief, when all was ready, divided his warriors into bands, so that an attack could be made at HOW THE ENGLISH PEOPLED AMERICA 97 the same hour on Jamestown and on all the plantations along the rivers. A few families who had been warned by friendly Indians escaped, but they had no time to warn others. By sunset of that day nearly four hundred men, women, and children had been murdered. After this day of murder, the English fought the Indians without mercy. All trade with them was stopped, and they were driven back farther and farther, and this went on for twenty-two years before the Indians made another strong fight. In 1644, they attacked some outlying settlements and killed about three hundred people. Again the English har- ried them, and there was skirmishing for some time, until the Indians, hard pressed by the English, were forced to give up forever their lands between the York and the James rivers. They went far west and north, and for the next thirty years there was no further trouble of this kind in Virginia. In 1676, the Susquehannock Indians, who lived around the head of Chesapeake Bay, were driven by another tribe as far south as the Potomac River. There they came to English settlements, and two of their number visited the English to ask for peace. They were brutally murdered. Enraged at this, the Susquehannocks attacked several settle- ments and destroyed them. 125. Bacon's Rebellion. — At length the Indians attacked a plantation owned by Nathaniel Bacon, a young lawyer, and murdered some of his servants. Angered at this. Bacon set out to put a stop to their deadly work. He first asked Governor Berkeley to allow him to act. But Berkeley re- fused and declared Bacon and his men traitors and outlaws. Then Bacon went to the Assembly, of which he was a member, and got leave to make war on the Indians. After 98 AMERICAN HISTORY this he went with about twenty of his men and made the governor consent to his plan. Though the governor had again declared him and his men outlaws, Bacon with about six hundred men killed nearly the whole tribe of Indians. As his force came back to Jamestown, the governor ran away. A little later he came back with some of his friends, but ran away again. Angry at the conduct of Berkeley and his followers, Bacon's men set fire to Jamestown and de- stroyed it. A short time afterward Bacon was taken sick and died. Not long after that Berkeley was removed by the king. 126. Country and Climate. — By this time the people had explored the country of Virginia. Rivers had been fol- lowed to their sources, and the Alleghany Mountains had been found. It was known that there was a system of rivers, running seaward across an almost level strip of land many miles wide. This carried off the abundant rainfall, and the soil, though not very rich, was fairly good. The colonists had grown used to the weather and knew what to expect as to length of season and time for planting. The climate was very mild and healthful, but not adapted to the growth of oranges, lemons, tea, coffee, and other hot climate pro- ducts. Tobacco, corn, wheat, and other grains, together with the common vegetables, throve well. It began to look as if things favored the growth in Virginia of a great branch of the English people. SUMMARY 1. The Plymouth and London companies were formed in England by English merchants, 1606. 2. (Irants of land were made by James I to these companies, 1606. 3. By a second grant or charter (1609) the land that might be settled was made to extend from sea to sea. 4. The London Company sent settlers to Jamestown, May, 1607. Bacon defies Berkeley Drawing by J. E. Kelley loo AMERICAN HISTORY 5. Captain John Smith was the most helpful man among the number. The successful English settlement at Jamestown was due to his energy and bravery. 6. The colony was saved by the coming of Lord Delaware. 7. Tobacco was the principal crop of the colony. 8. The House of Burgesses met at Jamestown church, July 30, 1619. This was the first assembly of colonists in America to make its own laws. 9. Negro slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619. 10. The London Company lost its charter in 1624. 11. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell became a power in England. During this time, 1653-1660, Virginia was ruled by the House of Burgesses. 12. Sir William Berkeley was Governor of Virginia for a second time, 1660- 1676. ■ 13. Uprisings of the Lidians against the white settlers happened in 1622 and i6zt4. 14. Bacon's Rebellion began in 1676, and ended in the burning of James- town. 15. Soil and climate of Virginia. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW I. What companies were formed by English merchants to settle Virginia? Wii^ did the first expedition sent by the London^ Company <^eave iV^ngland? Who was in charge of this expedition? \ "^^ ye-i^»-^ What man among the first colonists was very helpful 4.o their success? 4. Who was the chief of the Indians that lived near Jamestown? 5. Tell about the capture of Captain John Smith by the Indians. How was he saved from death? 6. Tell about "The Starving Time." /^l''^-'^ -^ b I i I 7. What, at an early date, became the principal crop of Virginia? V^" ^ ^ 8. What was the House of Burgesses? When did it first meet? For what purpose? ^W^^ 5 O | t /H 9. When did negro slavery begin in Virginia? / ^ ' I ID. Who were the Cavaliers? Why did they leave England and come to this country? 11. Describe the two Indian massacres. 12. What was the cause of Bacon's Rebellion? 13. What was the character of the country and climate of V'irginia? V CHAPTER VI NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 127. The Hudson River ; The Coming of the Dutch. — Hudson sent word to the Dutch merchants, who had hired him to search for a western route to India, that he had failed. But he wrote to them that he had found a country in America where the natives had plenty of fine furs which they gave freely for beads and other cheap trinkets. The Dutch mer- chants at once fitted out a ship laden with such things as they thought would please the savages, and in £6io sent her to the Hudson River for furs. The ship came back with a cargo of furs, and the voyage was very profitable. 128. A Dutch Settlement. — Soon more ships were sent over, and as early as 1614 Dutch ships were making regular trips to the Hudson River. There was need of a trading point to which the Indians could bring furs, so at the mouth of the river a few buildings were put up on the island which the Indians called Manhattan. These were built of slabs split from trunks of trees, and broad pieces of bark were lapped over one another, for roofs. This settlement the Dutch called New Amsterdam. The French were already getting furs from the Indians in the St. Lawrence River country around Montreal in the north, and the Dutch made haste to get the fur trade in the Hudson River country through their trading post at Albany. The Dutch had traded for many years in all parts of the world, and they knew that it was wise to deal fairly with sav- I02 AMERICAN HISTORY ages. So, from the first, they tried to gain the friendship of the Indians and took care to treat them well. The red men soon learned where they could exchange their fur pelts for such things as they fancied, and the fur-buyers of IManhat- tan did a great business. From very distant points the Indians came bringing the skins of the mink, the fox, the otter, and, most important of all, the beaver. They took in exchange knives, hatchets, beads, buttons, looking-glasses, gay. ribbons, and gaudy paints. 129. Dutch Treaty with the Iroquois. — A treaty of peace, which proved to be very important, was made with the Iroquois Indians in i6r7 at the present site of Albany. The treaty provided that the Dutch in exchange for furs should sell to the Iroquois guns, such as Champlain had used when he helped the Algonquins to defeat them. To show that they meant to keep peace with the Dutch, the Indians threw a tomahawk on the ground and stamped upon it until they had driven it out of sight. 130. Importance of the Hudson River. — The Hudson River flowing from the north was a waterway for Indians in canoes, just as it now is for white men in steamboats and other vessels. Beyond its source lay Lake George and Lake Champlain. Indians came south in canoes through those lakes, and entering the Hudson went down that stream to Manhattan. Not only did they come from beyond the head- waters of the Hudson, but also from the west through the Mohawk Valley. By means of the Hudson River the Dutch got the fur trade of the surrounding country. It was soon thought best to have a trading place up the river, as well as at its mouth. The shrewd Dutch chose the point near where the Mohawk River enters the Hudson, and there they built a fort and put up houses. In those NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 103 days there was no knowing what the Indians might do, and it was never safe to have a trading post with- out a fort. Both the French and the Dutch always built a fort at each trading post. 131. Long Island Sound and Connecticut River. — In 16 14, a vessel was built at Manhattan and a Dutch captain, named Adrian Block, sailed through Long Island Sound and discov- ered the Connecticut River and some islands, one of which now bears his name. This gave the Dutch a right to claim the country drained by the Connecticut. They gave the name New Netherland to the country which lay along the coast from the Connecticut on the north to the Delaware on the south and they claimed this country as their own. 132. The Dutch West India Company. — In 1^62^ wealthy men in Holland formed a company to send out trading vessels to this I04 AMERICAN HISTORY country to buy and sell goods and make settlements. This company was called the Dutch West India Company. The government gave it full control of the New Netherland coun- try, and it began to plant settlements on the Connecticut, the Hudson, and the Delaware rivers. It built a fort on the Delaware nearly opposite where Philadelphia now stands. Shortly after the forming of the Dutch West India Com- pany, settlements were made near New Amsterdam. In 1623, a party of Walloons settled at Wallabout Bay, on the £ohg Island shore, opposite Manhattan Island. The Walloons were French-speaking people, who, in order to escape religious persecution, had fled from Belgium to Holland, whence, on the invitation of the West India Company, they had come to America. Other Dutch settlements were made later, on Long Island, at Gowanus and Breuckelen (Brooklyn) southwest of Wallabout Bay, and at the village of Bushwick,a short distance east of the Wallabout settlement, while Flatbush was settled in 1 65 1. There were also Dutch settlements on Staten Island and along the Hudson River in what is now New Jersey. 133. Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island. — As the fur trade grew and the company prospered, the settlements grew, and the company sent over Peter Minuit as governor of New Netherland. From that time, as long as New Netherland remained subject to Holland, the company kept a governor at New Amsterdam. These governors, Peter Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller, William Kieft, and Peter Stuyvesant were controlled under the laws of Holland, by the directors of the company. Minuit looked over the bay, where all the ships of the world might lie safe from storms, and saw before him the Hudson River and the vast range of country whose trade it com- manded. He saw that the East River led to the trade of Long NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY loS Island Sound, and to that of all the region which could be reached by the Connecticut River and other rivers flowing into the sound. It was clear to him that the company had a wonderful center for trade. Knowing that Manhattan Island would in the future be of great value, he bought it from the Indians. He paid them what they thought was a large Purchase of Manhattan Island from the Red Men price, giving beads, buttons, and other trifles, which cost the company about twenty-four dollars. 134. The Patroons. — The directors in Holland voted to give great stretches of land in New Netherland to such of their number as chose to take them. Each one might take up a tract of land sixteen miles long, fronting on one side of any river in New Netherland, or he could take half on each side of a river. The tract might run back from the river as far as the owner liked. io6 AMERICAN HISTORY Each of these landholders brought from Holland fifty per- sons to live upon his ground and till the soil. He was obliged to bring horses, cows, and other farm animals, and such farm tools as might be needed. The landholder was called a Patroon, and governed the people on his land. A number of wealthy members of the company came to New Netherland and took up great tracts of land, on the Hud- son and the Delaware rivers. By thus bringing in so many farmers and im- proving the country, they gave the colony some strength. Then began the cutting down of forest trees, the plant- ing of fields, and the building of good solid houses. After trial of the patroon plan for ten years, it was found that poor men had no chance to farm for themselves. Then many grants of small farms were made to those who could not afford to work large ones. This had a good effect, and the colony grew in numbers and in strength. As the years passed, the people came to dislike the rule of the governors sent over by the home company, and they chafed under the control of the patroons. In the Massachusetts colony, not far away, the people by vote in town meeting made their own laws." The people of New Netherland knew this, and thought that they should have the same right. 135. War with Indians. — At one time the company sent over as governor a man named William Kieft. Among his other evil deeds, he broke faith with the Indians. When a Dutch Patroon or Landed Proprietor NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 107 party of them, chased by another tribe, came to the Dutch for safety, he promised to protect them. Yet, when they were asleep at night, he let his men fall upon and brutally murder nearly all of the party, even the women and children. This horrible deed roused the Indians to revenge, and, in 1641, they began a war upon the Dutch which lasted four years. Great loss of life and property followed, and the New Amsterdam in 1656 From Van der Donck's Map of New Netherland, 1656. cost of carrying on the war fell on the people, for which they blamed Governor Kieft. They said that the attack on the Indians should not have been made, and that there would have been no war if a voice in affairs had been given to them such as the people of Massachusetts had. At this time many people went away from New Amsterdam, and at length there were left about two hundred only. These made such com- plaints to the company in Holland, that in 1647 ^ ^^w governor was sent to them. He was Peter Stuyvesant, a one-legged war veteran, the last of the Dutch governors at New Amsterdam. 136. Free Religion. — The Dutch, in matters of religion, were a free-minded people. It was to Holland that the io8 AMERICAN HISTORY Pilgrims went from England, before they sailed for Plymouth, and there they were far better treated than they had been at home. In New Netherland the Dutch showed the same willingness to let people follow any religious belief that pleased them. For this reason, people of many sects came as immi- grants to New Amsterdam. In 1647 Stuyvesant allowed the people to appoint a com- mittee of nine citizens to consider public matters, though he The Old Wall, New York. Built in 1623. From "Wall Street in History," by Mrs. Martha J. Lamb. did not agree to follow their advice. Little as this was, it was a step toward self-government such as the settlers in all the English colonies were enjoying. Following up this gain, the people pleaded with the company in Holland with such force that, in 1653, New Amsterdam was allowed to have a city government. There were now from eight hundred to a thousand dwellers in the town. It was at about this time that a wall was built across the island from the East River to the North River, as a defense against Indians or any other enemy that might attack from the land side. This wall was made of heavy high posts set closely, side by side, and building it for a town of so few NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 109 people was a great undertaking. It ran where Wall Street now is. The town lay between the wall and the water, around the point of the island. 137. New Netherland takes New Sweden. — There was a colony of Swedes on the Delaware River, and Governor Stuyvesant wanted no colony of another nation, on land that was a part of New Netherland. In 1655, Sweden was at war in Europe and the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam thought it was a good time to attack the Swedish colony on the Delaware River. So he sent a fleet and took possession. He left the Swedes in peace only after they had agreed to be subject to the government of New Netherland. By this time, many of the EngHsh had moved from Massachusetts and settled on the Connecticut River and along the shores of Long Island Sound on land claimed by the Dutch. Stuyvesant tried to make them come under his rule, but they refused, and he did not think it wise to try to compel them. 138. England takes New Netherland. — England claimed nearly all the Atlantic coast, and had settlements in both the northern and southern parts. After the downfall of Spanish sea power, Holland became England's great rival for the trade of the world. The Dutch claimed much of the best part of North America. Their settlements in the New World separated those of England from each other, and they held the best harbor in the world. More than that, they had a very profitable fur trade. Such a state of things would never do; England must have an unbroken country along the Atlantic coast of America; England must have the fur trade; England must have New Netherland. So said the English king. England's claim was a weak one. The Cabots in her no AMERICAN HISTORY 1 employ had sailed along the coast, more than a century and a half before, and on that fact she based her claims. Peter Stuyvesant receiving the Demands of the English In 4^64. although there was peace between England and Holland, King Charles II of England sent a fleet to take New Amsterdam. The Dutch were too weak to resist. Without a shot being fired, New Amsterdam and all the rest of New Netherland, including the Swedish settlement on the Delaware, fell under English rule. NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY iii 139. New York. — This was easily brought about. Stuy- vesant stormed and raved; but he had been a tyrant. The people hated him, and they felt sure that they would be better off under the English than under the Dutch. They were quite willing that the change should be made. The Dutch flag came down, the Enghsh flag went up, and New Amster- dam became New York. It was so named after James, Duke of York, and brother of the king. King Charles II had given the Dutch holdings in America to James. Fort Orange, up the North River, was now called Albany, for James was Duke of Albany as well as Duke of York. The whole colony was called New York instead of New Netherland. New York, with its ten thousand people, was governed now by the English under the Duke of York and Albany, as it had been by the Dutch West India Company. He sent out a governor, but did not give the people much voice in affairs. In 1683, King Charles II appointed Thomas Dongan governor of the colony of New York. The Duke of York, afterwards King James II, consented that Governor Dongan might take steps for the election of a General Assembly, which, acting with the governor and his council, was to determine what laws were to be made for the government of the colony. The General Assembly met, and among other acts, passed the " Charter of Liberties," or Dongan's charter. It granted freedom in voting and in matters of religion, and provided that no tax should be levied upon the colonists except by the "People met in General Assembly," acting with the consent of the governor and his council. When the Duke of York became James II, he revoked this charter, and the form of popular government, so happily be- gun, came to an end. The General Assembly was shortly afterward dissolved, and the government was then in the 112 AMERICAN HISTORY hands of Governor Dongan and his council, until he was recalled in 1688. The government of the colony continued from this time to the close of the Revolutionary War in the hands of Royal governors sent from England. In 1685 the Duke of York became King James II of Eng- land; he then attached New York to the colonies of New England, and appointed Edmund Andros as governor. 140. Jacob Leisler. — In 1688 James II was driven from the throne and Wilham III became king. Jacob Leisler, a merchant of New York, proclaiming that govern- ment under James II was at an end, seized the fort and declared that he would not surrender it except to a governor to be appointed by ^ the new English king, Wil- liam III. The king, upon learning of this, appointed as governor of the colony an unlit man whose name was William Sloughter. In the meantime (1690) Leisler, falsely declaring that he had been appointed lieutenant-governor of the colony, became somewhat tyrannical in his conduct. The com- mander of an English ship which had arrived at New York, demanded the surrender of the fort in the king's name, but Leisler refused to surrender to anyone except Governor Sloughter. An attempt was made to take the fort, and some on each side were killed. When Governor Sloughter arrived, Leisler and a few others were tried for treason and sentenced to be hanged. Only Leisler and his son-in-law were executed, and their fate was probably undeserved. Jacob Leisler's House NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 113 141 . John Peter Zenger and the Freedom of the Press. — John Peter Zenger, the editor of a newspaper published in New York (1734), angered Governor Cosby by printing state- ments about his unlawful acts in interfering with courts and The Stadthuys, New York, 1679 After Brevoort's drawing. ("Stadthuys" is Dutch for "statehouse.") judges, without the consent of the Assembly, and in thus depriving the people of their right to fair trials. In fact, Zenger attacked almost every branch of Cosby's government. He was thrown into prison on charges of libel brought by the governor, and remained there for about eight months. This caused great excitement in the colony. Zenger was defended at his trial by Andrew Hamilton, an old but able Philadelphia lawyer. The defense was that what had been published was true, while the prosecution claimed that it was unlawful to publish anything against the authorities, true or false. After an exciting trial, Zenger was acquitted, and to the old Quaker lawyer, Hamilton, were given the 114 AMERICAN HISTORY greatest honors for his skilful conduct of the case, resulting, as it did, in establishing the right of free speech. After William III became king, war raged between France and England for seven years, and caused lighting between the northern Enghsh colonies and the French of Canada. The Canadians, with their Indian allies made trouble for the people of New York, but had gained no ground when peace was declared. 142. New Jersey — When the English took New Neth- erland from the Dutch, they took the country between the Hudson River and the Delaware as a part of it. Up to that time there was no name for that country. King Charles II had given what is now New York and New Jersey to his brother James. James then granted the land which lay between the Hudson and the Delaware, to Carteret and Berkeley. One of these men had been governor of the Island of Jersey, part of England, and King James named the country that he had sold, New Jersey. Berkeley, one of the owners, finally sold the western part, his share, to some Quakers, who founded the city of Burling- ton. Five years after the founding of Burlington in West Jersey, East Jersey was bought by a company in which were many Quakers, one of whom was William Penn. In 1702 the owners of New Jersey gave up the colony to the king. Then the colony had for governor whoever happened to be governor of New York. But at length the colony had its own governor until the great rebellion against England, called the Revolution, succeeded, and then it became one of the United States. SUMMARY AND REVIEW 115 SUMMARY 1. Henry Hudson sent word to the Dutch that he had found a part of the New World where furs could be found in plenty. 2. The Dutch founded a trading post on Manhattan Island (1614). To this they gave the name of New Amsterdam. 3. The Dutch made a treaty of peace with the Iroquois and were thus able to secure furs from them. 4. The Dutch West India Company was formed in 162 1, to settle and control the country extending from the Connecticut to the Delaware rivers. This region was called by the Dutch New Netherland. 5. Peter Minuit, the first Dutch governor, bought Manhattan Island from the Indians. 6. The Patroon system proved a failure. 7. Peter Stuyvesant became governor of New Amsterdam in 1647. 8. The Swedish settlement on the Delaware was taken by the Dutch in 1655- 9. The English took possession of New Netherland in 1664. 10. The country between the Delaware and Hudson rivers became the colony of New Jersey in 1702. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. On account of what trade was the Hudson River country valuable to the Dutch? \ (:> / ^' '" { , ; , 2. When did they first found a trading post? What did they call this trading post? Why? 3. Why did the Dutch find it easy to trade with the Indians? 4. Why was the Dutch West India Company formed? Over what region in this country was it to have control? ({x'^x- ' --^ /» Of 5. Who was the first Dutch governor at New Amsterdam? The last? \^w-i.Xr'^^M^'*' 6. Why was the Patroon system a failure? / , r^.<,-_ 1 7'~^tr 7. What colony on the Delaware surrendered to the Dutch? When? ' ^ 8. When did the English take possession of New Netherlana? To whom did Charles II grant-. New Netherland? What was New Amsterdam / IM/' 'Ip now called? Y^ '^^^^ ' . •' -^ ^ Q. To whom was New Jersey first granted? By whom? ^ ■'* — ~*^ CHAPTER VTI THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 143. Cape Cod. The Kennebec River Settlement. — In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold sailed from England to the north- ern part of the queen's coast in America, and discovered a cape which he nanied Cape Cod. Other Englishmen went to that section to trade with the Indians and to catch cod- fish, so that the people of England came to know something about the North Virginia country. In the year that the London Company sent Captain Newport to the James River, the Plymouth Company sent Sir George Popham with a large band of emigrants, to the Kennebec River in what is now Maine. But Popham 's men could not stand the severe winters of the north, and they did not like the rocky and barren soil; so they gave up the settlement within a year, and went back to England. 144. Smith explores the New England Coast. — Gosnold had otr. li talked with Captain John Smith about the North Virginia country. Smith said that if he had a chance, he would go to that coast and explore it. After Smith had left Jamestown, he returned to this country and visited the coast, from Cape Cod to the Penobscot River, and named that region New England. In doing this, he followed the fashion of the time, when nations in Europe gave their own names to the parts of America discovered by them. Thus, there were New Spain, New France, New Netherland, New Sweden, and New England. Since then all these" except New England have lost their old names. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 117 145. The Puritans. — In 15 17 a religious movement was started in Europe from which sprang the forming of Protes- tant churches. Some nations, hke England and Holland,, became Protestant, while others, like France and Spain, remained Catholic. In France and England the people % -"f^'-A. New England of the Pilgrims and Puritans were divided, and there was much feeling between those of different beliefs. This was very true of England, where there were many Catholics who were disliked and persecuted by the Protestants. The latter formed what was called the Church of England. Within this church were members called Puritans, determined to bring about certain changes in forms of worship. At this period the kings of England were of the Church of ii8 AMERICAN HISTORY England, and they abused their subjects in religious mat- ters quite as much as they did in other ways. Those were hard days for the CathoHcs in England, and their persecu- tion there led them a few years later to found the colony of Maryland. 146. The Separatists. — Among the Puritans were some, called Separatists, who had left the Church of England and Map oi' Holland and a Part of England had their own ways of worship. The anger of King James and his friends fell on the Separatists, and they fled from England. They were not wanted in any Catholic country so, in 1608, they went to Holland where they were well treated. They were living there when the Plymouth Company was looking for strong, hard-working men to make a colony in North Virginia. These Puritans on the other side of the North Sea in Holland, called Separatists, were a church com- pany, with their minister, fathers, mothers, and children. Though they were far from England, they were proud of being English; they loved the language and the ways of THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 119 their countrymen. It grieved them to think that they and their children and grandchildren were to live among the Dutch, and as time went on, were to lose their language and become as Dutch people. They wanted to go where they could be English, and yet be free from abuse by the king and his party. They had heard of America, and had been told of Jamestown. They would have gone there, but they knew that the king and his church ruled the colony, and that men and women there attended the Church of England services. They had heard of the Dutch settlements on the Hudson and had been invited to go there, but there they would be among the Dutch. Not that they disliked the Dutch; they knew they were good people, but they wanted their children to grow up among English people. They knew that the king wanted a colony in the cold north, and that the Plymouth Company wanted men, women, and children to go there. After spending twelve years in Holland, they went back to England to join the company of Pilgrims about to leave that country for the New World. 147. The Pilgrims go to America. — The Separatist Puri- tans sailed from Plymouth, England, September 6, 1620 , in a little ship called the Mayflower. There^^were one hundred and two in the party — men, women, and children — though not all were Separatists. They now began to call themselves Pilgrims, because they were wanderers. The Pilgrims meant to land not very far from the Dutch settlement, but they were driven out of their course and went to the coast of New England. Coming to a httle bay marked on their map as Plymouth, they landed and made a settlement, ^Dec ember 22, 1620. December is a very cold month in New England. To come I20 AMERICAN HISTORY from the mild climate of Holland and to make a home on a bleak, wind-swept hillside, in the dead of a New England winter, with no food on shore and so little in the ship that the sailors needed it all, caused suffering that might well break the courage of the bravest soldier that ever went to battle. But these men, women, and children, many of whom were starved and ill, did this and never flinched. Signing the Co^rPACT in the Cabin of the " MAYFLO^VER " Before landing, the Pilgrims drew up and signed a set of rules. These rules were known as the " Mayflower Compact." It bound them to loyalty to the king and to the making of "just and equal laws for the general good of the colony." Thus they- began with self-government, every man having an equal share in managing the affairs of the colony. They chose John Carver as governor for one year. But before spring came, he and his wife and son had perished from the awful hardship of the winter. Then William Bradford was elected governor. By spring more than half of the Pilgrims had died and those who still lived were sick and feeble. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 121 148. Treaty with the Indians. — Governor Carver had made a treaty with the Indians, and thus the colony was safe from the savages. The Indians, being used kindly, kept this treaty for fifty years. As there was less abuse of the Indians than there had been at Jamestown, so there was less need of fighting men, though Plymouth The "Mayflower" in Plymouth Harbor After the painting by Hallsall had its fighter in Myles Standish, even as Jamestown had in John Smith. The Mayflower lay in the harbor until spring, and then went back to England. Of all the Pilgrims that were left alive, not one asked to be taken back. In the spring an Indian, named Squanto, came to the Pilgrims and told them that he was nearly the last of the Indians who had lived in the region around Plymouth, most of whom had been killed by a strange disease. He had been kidnapped some years before and carried to Europe, but 122 AMERICAN HISTORY had made his way back. He taught the settlers how to plant corn and showed them how to dig clams at the beach. The Pilgrims might have starved had it not been for Squanto. Massasoit was one of the chiefs who had made a treaty with Governor Carver. He was as much to them as Powhatan had been to the Jamestown settlers. 149. The Pilgrims Work and Prosper. — The Plymouth settlers were deeply in debt for the expense of their trip, but they set about paying it with great vigor. The May- flower made trips bringing supplies and immigrants, and taking back furs, clapboards, and such other things as the settlers could send to help pay the debt. The soil was poor; they knew but little of farming, and their harvests were small. They suffered for food, but in a few years their industry showed its effect and they had food in plenty. In ten or twelve years there were ten or twelve hundred people in Plymouth. By that time more settlers were coming to other points on the coast not far away, and the settlement of New England was well started. 150. Puritans settle Salem; Massachusetts Bay Com- pany. — The trouble in England that caused the Pilgrims to leave the country grew worse as the years went on. In 1625 King James died, and his son Charles became King Charles I. Like his father, he believed that he was king by the will of God, and that Englishmen and all that they had were subject to his will. He was worse than his father had been, and the Puritan party in England, which he had cruelly per- secuted, now becoming great and powerful, opposed him. Among the Puritans at home were now many men of great wealth and high standing, who were ready to come to America to escape persecution. They were not known as Separatists, but as Non-conformists. They would not, as 124 AMERICAN HISTORY did the Pilgrims, separate entirely from the Church of Eng- land, but they refused to conform to all its methods of wor- ship. They were so pleased with the success of the Plymouth colony that they formed a new company, and a party, under a leader named Endicott, came over and settled at a place on the Massachusetts coast which they called Salem. Soon afterward, the company, with many new members, got from the king a charter which gave it more rights and a much better standing. It was now called the Massachusetts Bay Company. The king was very kind to the company. The Puritans of England were now making him feel uneasy, and he was glad to get as many of them as he could to leave England. 151. Boston. — In 1630 a great Puritan movement to Mas- sachusetts began, and Boston was settled. As the Puritans kept coming, other towns were started, and soon people were living at many outlying points. Massachusetts began to fill as Virginia did in later years. By 1640 there were twenty thousand English people in Massachusetts. Besides the settlement at Boston, there were people living in the neigh- boring towns of Charlestown, Roxbury, Dorchester, Water- town, and in other places. All were prospering, and John Smith's name for the country seemed a good one, for indeed a new England had sprung up in America. Under King Charles's charter, the governor and other officers of the company could be elected in Massachusetts. The officers of other companies were elected or appointed by the king in England. John Winthrop was the first governor. 152. The General Court. — The settlers who came to Mas- sachusetts did not come each for himself; they came as par- ties, and each started a church and a town for itself. The parish and the town were one. The Puritans in Massachu- THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 125 W^t setts were a bigoted people. They would have no religion there but their own. None but Puritans were wanted, and un- less a man belonged to the church, he could not vote. The church was a part of the government as much as it was in Eng- land, only it was a different church. The meeting-house was used for both church ser- vices and town meetings, and the minister was a most important person. After a while, there were so many people and towns that a General Assembly was formed, much like that of Vir- ginia. It was called the General Court. 153. Business. — Most of the soil of New Eng- land has always been poor. The winters are long, the summers short, and such farming as brought wealth to the settlers of Jamestown could not be done in Massachu- setts. At best, only such crops could be raised as would serve to feed the people of the colony. The goods sent away for sale were mainly salted fish and lumber. After a while the people started shipbuilding, and began to trade .with distant countries. They also engaged in whale fishing. 154. Connecticut. — Adrian Block, sailing from the Dutch settlement on Manhattan Island, had explored and discovered the Connecticut River as early as 16 14. Nearly twenty years later (1633) the Dutch built a fort and trading station on that river where Hartford now stands. This was on land ■ -fir izJ?^. HJ' First Town House in Boston, 1658 126 AMERICAN HISTORY claimed by the English, and to stop the Dutch from settling and getting control of the Connecticut Valley, a fort was built by Governor Winthrop at Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut River (1635). In 1636 there were two parties in Massachusetts. One held that the government should be in the hands of a few of the wisest and best men, while the other claimed that the majority should rule, as was the plan at the start. These different views caused the formation of a party of about a hundred men, women, and children, under MinisterJiooker, who led them west into a beautiful valley where settlements were made at Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford, on the Connecticut River. These three settlements comprised the Connecticut Colony, which in 1639 adopted a written constitution that provided that all the people should choose their own governor and council. In 1638 a colon y oLPuxiJLans-irom England set- tled what _ is ji OWL New Haven. This settlement and a few neighboring towns were known as the New Haven Colony, in which only members of the church were allowed to vote. In a few years (i^j^) the Connecticut colonies united under the name of Connecticut and obtained from Charles II a very liberal charter which allowed the continuance of rule by the people. 155. Roger Williams; Rhode Island. — It was the law in JNlassachusetts that all people had to pay taxes though only church members could vote. There were other laws that seemed unfair. Among those who thought the laws unjust was Roger Williams, a young minister of Salem. Though he knew that his course would bring down on him the wrath of those who ruled the town, he boldly stated that the people and the church were wrong in many things, and that they ought to change the laws. He also took up the cause THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 127 of the poor Indian, and declared that taking his lands from him was robbery and theft. What Williams said about religious freedom might not have caused trouble, for many Puritans thought as he did. But what he said about the Indian and his land was very Roger Williams welcomed by the Indi.ans likely to offend the king, who claimed that all America was his to give away or to sell, and the Puritans feared to stir up his anger. So, more to save themselves than to punish Wilhams, they made him leave the colony. He knew that the Narragansett Indians were friendly to him, and he went to them, through the forest in the depth of winter. In ,163^5^ at the head of Narragansett Bay, he started a settlement which was the beginning of the colony of Rhode Island. He said that G63 had provided for him, so he named this settlement Providence. He built there the first Baptist church in America. 128 AMERICAN HISTORY 156. Slave Ships. — About this time the people of the seaport towns were building vessels. One of these, the Desire, built at Marblehead, went to Africa and brought back a load of slaves. The negroes were sold to people of New England. Afterward slave ships from New England ports often went to Africa to bring back negroes, who were sold in all the colonies. 157. Maine and New Hampshire. — About twenty years after Popham's attempted settlement on the Kennebec, and about six years after Plymouth was settled, the country lying north and east of Massachusetts was granted by the king to two Englishmen, Mason and Gorges. They divided it, Mason calling his part New Hampshire and Gorges call- ing his Maine. Settlements were made at Biddeford and at Portland. After Gorges died, in 1677, his heirs sold Maine to Massachusetts. New Hampshire became a part of Mas- sachusetts and so remained until 1680, when Charles II made it a separate colony. 158. Education in New England. — The Puritans both in England and in America always wanted schools. In this they differed greatly from the English settlers in the South. In 16^6 the General Court of Massachusetts founded a college at Newtown, afterward called Cambridge, to which Rev. John Harvard gave his lil^rar}' and a sum of money. From that time it was called Harvard College. Three years laicr, there was a printing press at Cambridge, the first in America, except that the Spanish, a hundred years before, had a printing press and newspaper in the city of Mexico. About 1639 a law was passed in Massachusetts that each town must have a free public school. This was the beginning of the great American free school system. 159. The Pequot War. — Between Narragansett Bay and THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 129 the Hudson River dwelt three tribes of Indians, the Pequots, the Mohegans, and the Narragansetts. The Mohegans and the Narragansetts were not friendly to the powerful and fierce Pequots, whose home was in the eastern part of Connecticut. In 1636 the Pequots murdered a party of traders led by Cap- tain Stone of Virginia. To punish the Pequots, the Mas- A Prospect of the Colledges in Cambridge in New England" After an early picture in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society sachusetts colony sent John Endicott of Salem against them with a fleet of five small vessels, carrying nearly a hundred men. The fleet made its way to the mouth of the Pequot River, where a landing was made. The Indians fell back, followed by the whites, the running fight being one of arrows against muskets. The Indian village of Pequot town was destroyed and a few Indians were killed. There was a fort built by the English at Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut River, where the Indians lay in wait, day after day, to kill such of the small garrison as they could catch outside The}- hung about every settlement and I30 AMERICAN HISTORY killed or captured every one who strayed within their reach. They also carried away all the farm animals they could get. Runners were sent by the Pequots to the other tribes to get them to unite to kill all the English in the country. If the other tribes had joined them, the Indians might have destroyed every settlement. Fight with the Pequots Connecticut raised a force of nearly a hundred men, some of whom were from Massachusetts. This was joined by some Mohegan Indians, old foes of the Pequots. Early in June, 1637, this force marched against the Pequots who were found in a fort which they had built for safety. The onset was made just ])efore daylight. The English broke in, fired the wigwams, and shot the Indians as they rushed out. They killed more than four hundred — men, women, and children. Thus, in a day, the great Pequot tribe was almost entirely destroyed. This terrible example had such THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 131 effect on all the Indians of New England that it was forty years before any of the tribes again made war on the whites. 160. The New Engl and Confede ration ; Population; Death of ICing CKarles I.—- One of the lessons the Pequot War taught was that the colonies of New England must stand together. Other Indian wars might come. The Dutch might try to take the Connecticut Valley from the English settlers. The French might come down from Canada to take the whole country, which they said was theirs. So, in 164^ for their own protection, all the colonies, except Rhode Island, formed a union. The union did not make any one colony subject to any of the others. Each still had full control of its own affairs, but meetings were often held to talk over and agree upon things for the good of all. In New England there were then about twenty-five thousand people — one in five being American-born. This was about the time the Puritans of England rose in war against King Charles I. King Charles was so busy at home that he could not meddle with things in America. He gave up several plans which would have hurt the New England colonies. At the end of the war, he lost his life, and those plans were never carried out. 161. The Navigation Laws. — The welfare of England seemed to depend on her shipping business, which extended all over the world. As the Dutch were in the same busi- ness and were getting the ocean-carrying trade away from the English, Cromwell thought something should be done. In 165 1 laws were passed that none but English ships should be allowed to bring goods to England. This shut out the Dutch vessels from English trade and kept it for those of the EngHsh. These laws were called the Navigation Laws. 162. Other Bad Laws. — After Cromwell's rule ended, 132 AMERICAN HISTORY Charles II added to the Na\'igation Laws some new ones that bore very heavily on the New England colonies. Laws were made that forbade the colonies to send their tobacco to any country but England. Of course, if they could sell only to the English, the Enghsh would pay just what they pleased. The colonists soon found that they could not get enough for tobacco to pay for raising it. This law nearly ruined the planters of Virginia and made many of them enemies to the king. Another law forbade the people of the colonies to buy goods of any country but England. It forbade the colonies to trade with one another for such goods as each made. Thus the colonists were forced to buy from Englishmen the things that they must have, at any price the English chose to ask. An- other law forbade the colonists to make any articles for their own use, when such articles could be bought in England. 163. When New Netherland became New York. — In 1664, the people of New England were pleased at the action of King Charles II in taking New Netherland from the Dutch. It put an end to the claim the Dutch had always made to the Connecticut River country, and it gave to England an un- broken strip of country all along the coast. The colonies of New England and Virginia welcomed New York as a sister English colony, and Englishmen began to go there, though the people of New York were mainly Dutch. It pleased the colonies when King Charles gave to some of his friends a vast tract of land south of Virginia, which they named Caro- lina. It began to look as though England was getting a firm hold on the Atlantic coast. 164. King Philip's War. — The Indians who hved about Plymouth were the Pocanokets, by some called the Wam- panoags. They dwelt along the shore as far as Narragansett EUROPEAN COLONIES--ABOUT 1650 134 AMERICAN HISTORY . Bay. Very soon after the landing of the Pilgrims, the Wampanoags, through their chief, Massasoit, made a treaty with the English. Both Massasoit and the people of Plymouth kept the treaty for many years. In 1660, Massasoit, grown old and feeble, died. He left two sons, Wamsutta and Metacomet. The two young Indians, seeing how strong the English were growing, felt that it would be wise to be at peace with them as their father had been. They went to Plymouth, and Metacomet made a treaty with the Colonists. To show their good faith, they said that they would take English names, and asked the white men to say what they should be. The English said that Metacomet should be called Philip, and Wamsutta should be called Alexander. Alexander died soon afterward and Philip became chief. He made a new treaty with the English that the Pocanokets should be peaceful and friendly. But, however well Philip meant to keep his word, he could not control his young men. Some of them began to fight the English, and the war began before Philip was ready for it. In the spring of 1675^ the little town of Swansea was at- tacked by the Indians and several men were killed. At once, the English rallied and marched against Philip and his men. The Indians lied across an arm of Narragansett Bay, burning and killing as they went, and made their way into 1.he middle of Massachusetts. There Philip was joined by Indians from other tribes, and the work of destroying outly- ing settlements began. Deerfield and other little towns were burned, and many men, women, and children were murdered. As winter came on, Philip began to work back to Rhode Island to get the Narragansetts to join him. Canonchet was chief of the Narragansetts. The two tribes had never been very friendly. But the Mohegans THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 135 were helping the EngHsh against Phihp, and Canonchet hated them because, years before, they had killed his father. So he took sides with the Pocanokets, and the two tribes pre- pared to pass the winter and take the warpath in the spring. King Philip signing the treaty of 167 i After the engraving of F. T. Merrill Canonchet knew of a good place to build a fort and the Indians went there. It was in the middle of a swamp, not far from the west bank of the mouth of Narragansett Bay. Around the camp, they built a fence of logs. Within this circle, more than three thousand of them- built their wigwams and stored their corn. It was then December, 1675. The war had raged since early spring, but the English did not let the Indians rest. One bitter cold day Governor Winslow of Plymouth, with a thousand soldiers, attacked the fort. After several hours' fighting, the fence was broken through, and the EngHsh rushed in. Then the battle was hand to hand. Soon 136 AMERICAN HISTORY the wigwams were on lire, and the Indians were defeated. About a thousand were killed, and the rest, among whom were Philip and Canonchet, escaped. Philip was afterward shot by an Indian who was helping the English. 165. Massachusetts loses its Charter. — Many people of Massachusetts did not obey the navigation laws. They bought and sold goods wherever they pleased. They were also very determined about managing their own affairs. King Charles II began to quarrel with Massachusetts. In 1684, he declared the charter of Massachusetts void, and thus the Massachusetts Bay Company came to its end. Before Charles could show what he meant to do, he died, and his brother James II became king. 166. James II and Andres. — Jiimes II at once began to stir up things in the colonies. In 1686, he made Sir Edmund Andros governor of New York, New Jersey, and the New England colonies, and told him to seize the charters of Con- necticut and Rhode Island. When that had been done all the colonies would be without charters, and King James could deal with them, through Andros, just as he pleased. Andros, however, failed to get the charter of Connecticut. The most he could do was to declare that the government of that colony was ended. Andros governed very harshly and unfairly, but when King James was driven from his throne, the people of Bos- ton put Andros in prison until they sent him to England. 167. Witchcraft in Salem. — In 1692, numbers of innocent people in Salem were charged with being witches, which meant that they were supposed to be under the influence of evil spirits. Old or deformed persons were generally accused of causing sickness or other misfortunes, and after a mere form of trial were put to death. Before this nonsense ended, ^^^. THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 137 nineteen people were hanged, among them a clergyman noted for his good deeds. One of the victims was a man more than eighty years old, who was crushed to death with heavy weights. William III, who reigned after James II, was a good king, one of the best Eng- land ever had. He was just and fair, as far as he could be, not only to the people in England, but to those of the colonies. He ^^ °^^ ^"^^^^ ^^ ^'^^^^ ruled Holland as well as England, so that during his reign those two nations were at peace. He died in 1702, and ''Good Queen Anne" began her reign. During his reign the New England colonies prospered, and none more than Massachusetts, under its new charter, which united it with Plymouth colony and Maine. SUMMARY 1. The Plymouth Company attempted to make a settlement in Maine in 1607. This attempt ended in failure. 2. Captain John Smith explored the New England coast from Cape Cod to the Penobscot River in 1614. 3. The Pilgrims land at Plymouth in 1620. 4. Massachusetts Bay Company settled at Salem, 1626. Boston was settled in 1630. 5. The English from Massachusetts made a settlement on the Connecticut River at Hartford in 1636. In 1638, the Puritans settled New Haven. 6. Roger Williams started a settlement at Providence, Rhode Island, 1635. 7. Maine became part of Alassachusetts in 1677. 8. The Pequot War ended in 1637, in the almost entire destruction of that tribe. 9. The Navigation Laws and other harsh measures passed in England bore heavily upon the colonies. 138 AMERICAN HISTORY 10. England took possession of New Nethcrland in 1664. 11. King Philip's War took place 1675-1670. By it the Pocanoket and the Narragansett tribes were destroyed. 12. Charles II took away the charter of the Massachusetts Hay Company in 1684. 13. Sir Edmund .\ndros was sent over to be governor of New York, New Jersey, and the New England colonies in 1686. 14. Witchcraft in Salem. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Was any attempt made by England to plant a settlement^ our north- ern coast before the landing of the Pilgrims? What «)rn^ajiy'vit>4)4Bi'^-^- n^s atte vpt? On what part of the coast did it try to mak(|a settlej- ' ment? ^ - -^jXt-vj^*-^ 2. Who explored our New England eOast si-x^^feirs before the landing~5r~"~ the Pilgrims? -^-^W ^^/^^^ 3. When did the Pilgrims first lancfon our shores? When were Boston// 3^ and Salem settled? r /t 33 /4r>t,^\XPT/x^ 4. When were the settlements made in the Connecticut Valley? Where? 1 By whom? Gi«A^>^.«^_. ^:xJi.vyA. J l^ ^ <, ^ A r^jt-U) IdJUo^ 5. Who started the first English settlement in Rhode Island? ' ^^^^^ .;,j,p,^»-^ 6. To whom was the country north and east of Massachusetts granted? ^O-f^^ What was this country called? When did Maine become part of '-^ Massachusetts? ' ■^ "^ 7 / ^ . '- 7. What caused the Pequot War? Give an account of it. 8. What laws were passed in England that were unjust to the colonies? Q. When did New Netherland become an ICnglish colony?! e I? 'y 10. What was the cause of King Philip's War? (}ive an account of it. . 11. When did the Massachusetts Bay Company lose its charter? Why? It-' 12. Whom did Charles II send over as governor of the New England col- onies? 6^>v^Jly-^>vr* I C 5' 4 13. What was meant by the Salem Witchcraft? CHAPTER VIII THE ENGLISH IN MARYLAND AND OTHER COLONIES 168. Lord Baltimore ; his Newfoundland Colony. — In 162 1 , King James I gave an estate in Ireland, called Baltimore, to George Calvert, who for this reason was called I '~^rd Bal- timore. Two years later the king gave him a .ract of land in Newfoundland. But as there was no use in trying to make a colony so far north, in 1629, Calvert wrote to James's son, Charles I, who was then king, and asked for land near the Jamestown settlement, where the climate was mild. 169. An English Catholic Colony. — Calvert was a Cath- ohc and had many strong friends among the CathoHcs of England, who had been persecuted in that country by the Protestants for many years. Charles I promised him the grant for which he had asked. The name of the king's wife was Henrietta Maria, and in her honor the new colony was called Maryland. While Maryland was a CathoUc colony, and a refuge for persecuted Catholics, people of all behefs were welcome there. Maryland was the f^r^t English colony: where _geople could follow any religion the;^ pleased. The grant made to Calvert lay on the north side of the Potomac River, from its source to its mouth and north of a line extending ■ from that point, across the bay to the ocean. This gave Calvert both sides of the upper half of Chesapeake Bay, as far north as the fortieth parallel of latitude. It was not until 1632, after George Calvert's death, that 140 AMERICAN HISTORY the grant was made to his son Cecil, who was the second Lord Baltimore, and the first Proprietor of Maryland. Maryland had a government different from that of Vir- ginia, on the other side of the Potomac. Cecil Calvert was the owner, and he could govern as the owner of a farm could control things about his place. He could make laws, set up courts, pardon convicts, issue coins, and in all things do much as a king might. Such colonies were called propri- etary colonies, because they belonged to own- ers or proprietors. Of course, the owners and all under them were subject to the king. Calvert sent two Indian arrows each year to the king, to show that he held himself to be one of the king's loyal subjects. 170. Settlement of Maryland. — The first settlement was A Maryland Shilling made,, in 16^, when two ships from England, with over three hundred people, sailed up Chesapeake Bay. They landed at a place which was called St. Mary's. Lord Baltimore was not with these settlers, but in his stead he sent his brother, Leonard Calvert. At once, the building of houses and the planting of fields began. The Indians were friendly, for they were well treated, and the friendship was never broken. The people of Virginia were much displeased to have the new colony settle where it did. They claimed that the Mary- land grant took land which belonged to the Jamestown col- ony. Indeed, there were Virginia people already living within its bounds and trading there. James I, the father of King ENGLISH IN MARYLAND 141 Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey Charles I, had taken away the Virginia charter. Otherwise, the Maryland grant could not have been made; and the Virginians had expected to have their old charter back at the hands of King Charles. They now saw that there was no hope of getting back the Maryland country. 171. Claiborne's Rebellion. — Among the Virginians was a planter, William Claiborne, who used_to_go^jwith_otheraJ:o Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, to trade with the Indians. He had a small trading post there, and although Kent Island was a part of Maryland, he would not give it up. He 142 AMERICAN HISTORY declared that the Maryland people must keep away from that island. The Virginians and those living in Maryland before Baltimore's settlers came, sided with Claiborne, and there was sharp fighting before the matter was settled. It ended in Kent Island remaining a part of Maryland under Baltimore's rule. 172. Religious Differences. — Many Puritans driven from Virginia and some Church of England people went to Mary- JJaltimoke in 1752 land and settled where the city of Annapolis now stands. These Puritans were very troublesome in the early days of Maryland. They had been sent out of Virginia because they would not conform to the usages and ceremonies of the Church of England. In Maryland they continued to stir up trouble by opposing the government of Lord Baltimore. In 1649, the Toleration Act was passed, which provided for free- dom of" feli]^ai&worship. ^At few "years later the Puritan party succeeded in securing the repeal of the Toleration Act and began a bitter persecution of Catholics, who were denied ENGLISH IN MARYLAND 143 the right to vote, hold office, or worship in pubHc. In 1692, during the reign of King WiUiam III, the authority of the Church of England was established in Maryland. After the people of Maryland had wrangled among themselves for many years, King William III made the colony a royal province in 1692. 173. The Baltimores again ; Mason and Dixon . — In 1715, under the fifth Lord Baltimore, Maryland again became a proprietary colony and so remained until the Revolution. The city of Baltimore was not laid out until 1729. There was a dispute for many years between Maryland and Pennsylvania about the boundary line between the two colonies. This dispute was finally (1767) settled, when the boundary line between the two colonies was fixed by two surveyors. Mason and Dixon. This boundary, known as Mason and Dixon's line, was about three hundred miles in length and later marked the division between the slave and the free states. Except for the many quarrels among the people, Maryland was always prosperous, for there were many waterways, and the chmate and soil were good. The chief crops were corn and tobacco. 174. The English in Pennsylvania; the Quakers. — While the Puritans were fighting Charles I in England, a sect grew up there which others called Quakers, while they called themselves Friends. The first Quakers were simple people of the lower classes, but their beliefs were such that many joined them. A Quaker of the 17TH Century 144 AMERICAN HISTORY They were not only opposed to the ways of the Church of England, but were also Separatists from all churches. Because they thought it wrong, they would not take an oath when called to court as witnesses. They held that in the sight of God one person is just as good as another, so they would not take their hats off to any one, not even to the king. They would not go to law, even though wrong were done them. Though no braver people ever lived, they would not fight, even to defend them- selves. Their dress was very plain and simple. 175. William Penn. — Among the friends of King Charles I was Admiral Penn, who had won from the Spanish for England the Island of Jamaica. He had a son William who at col- lege happened to meet Quakers, and became one himself. After that, he did not obey the rules of the college, and his father was very angry with him. But William Penn was very much in earnest, and he kept on preaching the simple faith of the Friends. In England thousands of them were thrown into prison. They began to go to the colonies in America. But wherever they went, they were abused. They were whipped, imprisoned, tortured, and sometimes hanged. In Boston, four Quakers were thus put to death. William Penn and other rich Quakers bought the western part of New Jersey, and made a settlement which is now the city of Burlington. Wu.l.lAM I'KNN at 22 ENGLISH IN PENNSYLVANIA 145 176. Pennsylvania. — Encouraged by the growth of the Burlington colony, Penn sought another place where a Quaker settlement could be planted. His father was now dead, and the king owed a large sum of money to Penn, as the heir of the admiral. In payment Penn asked the king to give him a tract of land in America. The king agreed to this, and in p6Sj; gave him forty-eight thousand square miles of land, known as Pennsylvania. The land fronted on the Delaware River north of Maryland and Delaware, and r'an westward a great distance. Reduced Facsimile of Part or the Roy.al Deed given to Penn Penn made a treaty with the Indians, whom he used so well that he never had any trouble with them. His great landhold was a place to which suffering Quakers could flee for peace and safety. In the charter of Pennsylvania, which he himself wrote, he declared that all men who suffered abuse for their religion, no matter what it was, could come there and be free. He was under the charter the proprietor of Pennsylvania, and the owner of the land, but he left the government to the settlers to be carried on by a council and assembly, chosen by themselves. The laws were mild and fair. One was that no one should make fun of another for his religious faith. Another was that every child should learn a trade. Indians charged with crimes, should be tried by jury. To make sure that there 146 AMERICAN HISTORY would be fair play, half of the jury were to be Indians. Yet another was that prisons should be for the reform of criminals instead of mere places of punishment. 177. Philadelphia. — In j.682 , Penn chose a site for a town, with the Delaware on the front and the Schuylkill at the rear. The streets ran from river to river, crossed at right angles by other streets so that there were many squares. He named the town Philadelphia, a word which means City of Brotherly Love. At first the houses were rudely built, the better ones being of hewn logs. Many did not have houses during the first winter, but lived in caves dug in the high bank along the river. No other city in the colonies grew so rapidly as Phila- delphia. About thirty vessels came there the first year with settlers. It soon became the greatest city in English America, and was such for a hundred years. 178. Germans come to Pennsylvania. — In Penn's time, there were many people in Germany who, while not Quakers, were still very much like them in their behefs. They knew Penn, for he had preached among them, and when they heard of his colony, they flocked to it. There was a time in later years when fully a third of the people of Pennsylvania were Germans. One company of Germans, skilled in mak- ing linen, came and settled near Philadelphia. They called their place Germantown. From that day, Germantown has been a center for cloth making. Long ago Philadelphia spread out and surrounded it, so that it is now a part of that great city. 179. Trouble with the New King. — After James II was driven from the throne, Penn was charged with being friendly to him, and was removed as governor of Pennsylvania, but two years later, control was given back to him. ENGLISH IN DELAWARE 147 Penn died in 17 18, and his sons were then owners of the colony. They were not as just in their deahngs with the people as their father had been, and there were many dis- putes, until Pennsylvania became one of the United States, and as a State bought the interests of the Penns. First Town Hall and Court House in Philadelphia 180. The English in Delaware. — The first lasting settle- ments in what we know as Delaware were made by the S wedes ^in j: 6 58 ^ The Dutch had made a settlement seven years bef5fe that, but the Indians drove them away. The pres- ent city of Wilmington is the outgrowth of the Swedish set- tlement made there, which the people named, for their queen, Christina. They called the country about Christina, New Sweden, and they lived for many miles along the Delaware. The settlement was within the bounds of New Netherland, and in less than twenty years after its founding it was cap- 148 AMERICAN HISTORY tured by the Dutch, who sent a fleet from New Amsterdam for that purpose. Thus the colony was under the Dutch from 1655 to 1664, when it was taken from the Dutch by the EngHsh, by order of King Charles II. Thenceforth it was under English control. As soon as it became English, there was strife between Maryland and Penn- sylvania as to which colony should have it. Penn wanted it because it would gi\e to Pennsylvania a sea front, which was badly needed, while Maryland wanted it because it would square out the colony. Penn got it at last, mainly be- cause he was a friend of the king and because he could pay for it, and thus it be- came really a part of Penn- sylvania. Up to that time it had been known as the "Three Counties on the Delaware. "Territories of Pennsylvania." After some years, the people of Delaware had something to say for themselves in the matter. The result was that Delaware had a governor of its own for a while. But in 1693, the little colony was again joined to Pennsylvania, and it remained so for ten years. Another change then made Delaware in part a colony by itself, though under the gover- nor of Pennsylvania. It so remained until both Pennsylvania and Delaware became States of our nation. 181. The Carolinas. — South of Virginia the surface of Map showing Early Dutch and Swedish Settlements Penn called it the ENGLISH IN THE CAROLINAS 140 the land is much as it is in Virginia. There is the same long, low slope of soil, which continues from the rise of the mountains to the sea and far under it. Along the coast are many low islands formed by the action of the ocean, which carved them out from the sandy soil that had once been part of the mainland. Roanoke Island, where Raleigh's col- ony failed, was one of these. 182. Duke of Albemarle. — In 1663. Charles H gave this area south of Virgmia to some of his friends. One of them was the Duke of Albe- marle. He gave them much such ownership and control of the country, as his father years before had given to Calvert over Maryland, and as he had given to Penn over Pennsyl- vania. The name given to the Albe- ^^ English Cavalier of THE 17TH Century marie grant was Carolina. There were some settlers in Carolina when the king gave it to the Duke of Albemarle and his friends, and they formed a colony which was called Albemarle. Soon afterward more colonists came and settled on the bay at the mouth of Cape Fear River. This settlement was called Clarendon. 183. The Model Government. — The owners of Carolina tried a new plan of government which they called the Grand Model. A set of laws was made which put all power in the hands of a few nobles and left the common people httle better than slaves. They could not vote or own land. The laborers living on a great plantation were not allowed to leave it. If the plantation was sold, they were sold with it, and had I50 AMERICAN HISTORY to obey the new owner. The whole plan was foolish and the people overthrew it. 184. Charleston. — In a few years, people came from Eng- land and settled on a tongue of land between the Ashley and the Cooper rivers. This settlement was named for the king — Charles town. Years afterward, the settlement was moved a few miles to a better place, and the name became Charlestown. In our time the place is known as the city of Charleston. 185. Tar, Turpentine and Other Products. — Beginning in Virginia, there is a strip of yellow pine forest many miles wide which runs through the Carolinas and across Georgia parallel to the coast for hundreds of miles. In the days of the settlement of those states, it was the most valuable pine forest in the world. It is there still, though it has been worked even to this day for lumber, tar, pitch, and turpen- tine. The early settlers found this pine forest a means of earning their living, and many came to the Carolinas, and later to Georgia, because of it. Besides the making of pine- tree products, the growing of tobacco was an important business, and after a while the raising of rice and cotton became the great business of Georgia and the Carohnas, as the growing of tobacco was of Virginia. 186. Rice, Indigo, and Cotton. Negro Slavery. — Charles- ton has always been the leading port of the Carohnas. One day a ship came into that port from Africa, and the captain gave a friend a small lot of rice, which he had brought across the sea, to be planted. The soil and climate were suitable for raising rice, and Carolina rice has been considered the best in the world. Its growth has spread along the seacoast slope to Texas, where great quantities are grown every year. Nearly fifty years afterward it was found that indigo grew ENGLISH IN GEORGIA 151 well in the Carolinas, and that became a great and paying crop. Indigo was once one of the most valuable of dyes. But chemists have found how to make the dye without the plant, so it is no longer grown. Later still it was found that the low sandy islands along the coast, and many of the low flats of the mainland near the sea produced the best cotton in the world. The famous sea-island cotton of the Carolinas is known everywhere. As the people began growing rice, indigo, and cotton, there was need for field-workers who could stand the very hot weather of the Carolina summers. White men could not, so negroes were brought from Africa and sold as slaves. The slave trade was a money-making business for many years, and ships belonging to the ports of the colonies along the coast, from Salem to Charleston, brought cargo after cargo of them. At length, there were more negro slaves along the lowlands of the Carohnas than there were white people. In 1729, King George II bought out the owners of the col- ony and made two provinces of it, North Carolina and South Carolina. They remained royal provinces until about fifty years later they became States of our Union. 187. The English in Georgia. — There had been for many years trouble between the people of the Carolinas and the Spanish of Florida, over claims to the country that lay between them, and Indian war upon the settlers had come from the schemes of the Spanish in the South. The king of England, George II, felt the need of a new colony south of South CaroHna to keep the Spaniards from coming north, as the Massachus:tts and New York colonies had kept the French from coming south. Times were hard in England, and her jails were full of men who were shut up because they could not pay their 152 AMERICAN HISTORY debts. In those days the law was very cruel to such unlucky people. To be thrown into jail for debt was often to be put into prison for life. 188. Oglethorpe. — There was a man in England whose heart went out to the poor debtors. He wanted to do some- k 41 ^.___^T:;;::,f!|:^-'m^^^^^ ■^"^ma.' ^ King's Bench Prison, London A poor debtor's prison of the eighteenth century thing to help them. He was a member of Parliament, and the king was his friend. His name was Oglethorpe. He said to the king that he would form a colony south of South Carolina to bar the Spanish. He would bring there such poor debtors as were set free from EngHsh jails. The king and Parliament favored this plan, and the colony was founded. The king gave the land, and Parliament gave a large sum of money. It was named for the king, Georgia. This was the last colony planted in America by the English. ENGLISH IN GEORGIA 153 189. Savannah. — In jjjirr a settlement was made at Savannah, in the heart oTthe country claimed by the Span- iards! Forts were built, and soon the king sent some Scotch Highlander soldiers to serve in them. Then Augusta was settled, and people began to come to other points. Oglethorpe was strongly opposed to drunkenness and slavery and he would have no liquors or slaves in Georgia. Early Savannah, Georgia From a London print dated 1741 He said that liquor made fools of men, and that slavery robbed white men of a chance to work and made them idle. He knew how idleness had led to crime, misery, and death in Virginia a century before. The settlement of Georgia, like that of Maryland and Pennsylvania, was intended for the good of the oppressed and persecuted, yet no Roman Cathohcs were allowed to live in the colony. As Roger WiUiams and Calvert and Penn had done, Ogle- thorpe bought the land from the Indians and made friends with them. The good intent of Oglethorpe in founding his colony gained for it the friendship of many of the best people of England. 154 AMERICAN HISTORY 190. Trouble with the Spaniards. — The Spanish of Flor- ida were not willing to give up the land which the English king had turned over to Oglethorpe and there was more or less fighting between the Georgia people and the Spanish for years, but at length Florida was given to England by Spain, at the end of the French and Indian War, and after that there was no more trouble of that kind. 191. Slavery. — Oglethorpe's plan of government, however, was a failure, owing to the fact that the proprietor would not consent to the employment of slave labor. Settlement after settlement was abandoned for this reason, as white men could not work in the fields on account of the extreme heat. At length slaves were employed in the cotton and tobacco fields. It was noticed that mulberry trees grew in Georgia, and that they might make silk the settlers brought silkworms to feed on the leaves. Large lots of it were sent to England, and the queen wore a dress made of Georgia silk. But the people found that they could make money faster in raising cotton, tobacco, and rice, and silk-making was, after many years, given up. In 1752, Georgia became a province of England, and so remained until it became one of the United States. SUMMARY 1. George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, was granted a tract of land in Newfoundland in 1623 by James I. 2. Calvert later (1629) asked Charles I for a grant of land near Jamestown. This was made (1632), and his son Cecil Calvert, second Lord Balti- more, sent colonists to Chesapeake Bay in 1634. They founded the colony of Maryland. 3. William Claiborne interfered with the Maryland colonists by claiming Kent Island, which was within the limits of the colony. 4. The colony of Pennsylvania was started by settlers who were sent over by William Penn. The colonists started the building of Philadelphia in 1682. SUMMARY AND REVIEW 155 5. The Swedes settled Delaware in 1638. 6. The land south of Virginia was granted to the Duke of Albemarle and others by King Charles II in 1663. This tract was called Carolina. 7. North and South Carolina were made two separate provinces in 1729. 8. Georgia was settled in 1732. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW "-^^ ^ 1. To whom was a grant of land in Newfoundland madefm 1623? By whom? 2. When did English colonists land in Chesapeake Bay to found what is now Maryland? To whom was this grant made? By whom? 3. Give an account of Claiborne's Rebellioa. / >- / 4. When was the colony of Pennsylvania started? By whom? When did the colonists begin to build the city of Philadelohia? In what sect was William Penn interested? \ 'o o ^ ^ ^ - . . 5. By^whom was Delaware | fii^t permanently settled? When? Who con- f'<^ \ Wb qiiered the Swedes?" How long did the Dutch hold Delaware? Who gained control after the Dutch? j^^3 I /^ ( Qj ■, 6. When was the grant of Carolina made? By whom? L/H-^Ua / ' i. '-'Vi.-v^^ "tj^lj^ When were North and South Carolina formed as two separate provinces? I ^ 8. What was the laafr-^dlbny to be established? Who was its founder? "^ "2 ^ Why was Oglethorpe's plan of government a failure? James Edward Oglethorpe After the painting by Ravenet CHAPTER EX ENGLISH AMERICA AND HOW IT WAS HELD 192. Early English Settlers kept to the Coast. — For many years England cared little about the country far back from the coast. There was good land there and plenty of forests, and mines might be found in the mountains. It was well known where the Alleghany Mountains were. But there were no roads by which to get goods out, so of what use was it to go far back from the sea into the mountains, or beyond them, to raise crops or dig iron or make lumber? Thus it was that, in 1689, the EngHsh had on the Atlan- tic slope of the Alleghany Mountains more than enough land for their needs and they were making use of only the part near the coast. They would have built mills at the falls, but the home laws that forbade the making of goods in America prevented such enterprise. Ports from which to send out vessels, and land to till for crops to load the ves- sels, were all of America that the EngHsh settlers could use as yet. If a colonist traveled west, he first toiled over the mountains and then went down the farther slope, into a beautiful country. The French claimed that region. The English saw, however, that in time to come the land beyond the mountains might support a great English people, and they meant to keep it. 193. King George's War. — After Queen Anne's death there was a line of kings of England, who were German. George I was followed by George II. So thoroughly German were HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 157 they that neither of them could speak good EngHsh. During the reign of King George I X,_iQ--j:3 ^ ^ war witVi the FrpnrVi again broke out. Again the French set the Indians on the Enghsh settlers, many of whom they murdered. Roused to fury by these murders by Indians led by French officers, the A Pioneer House in Kentucky New Englanders again attacked the French, and this time they took Louisburg, which the French thought would with- stand the world. At the close of the war, England gave it back to France by_tl]£.,treaty_j[ ^i 7 48 . The siege of Louis- burg taught the English colonists to fight, and to know that they could fight — things which afterward became important. 194. English America at the Close of King George's War. — By this time the settlers had spread out from the Atlantic coast to the head waters of the rivers. They had not gone far away from the streams, for the boat was the great means of travel. There were as yet few roads. Some rovers had crossed the mountains, but not many. There were a few 158 AMERICAN HISTORY settlers in what is now Kentucky and Tennessee. There were about a million and a quarter of people in the settle- ments, two thirds of whom came from England, Ireland, and Scotland. One fifth of the people were negro slaves, most of whom lived south of Pennsylvania. WTiile the colonies were British only, three fourths of the white people in them were British. The rest were Germans, French, Dutch, Swedes, and Negroes. There was not much travel between the colonies, hence the people of each knew but little about the others. The colonies were somewhat jealous of one another, perhaps be- cause of this lack of acquaintance. 195. Industries. — The New England forests were full of excellent ship timber, and the coast had many fine harbors, so the people there were largely engaged in shipbuilding. Their vessels were useful for trade with the West Indies and other lands. They shipped a great deal of lumber. White pine, of the best grade, was then plentiful from Rhode Island to Maine. The best white pine trees were reserved by the English government for masts for the royal navy. A day's work was from sunrise to sunset, and often in win- ter more than that. Wages were very low, not more than one fourth as high as they now are for shorter days of work. There were tanneries in New England for making leather, and distilleries for making rum. Molasses from the West Indies was made into rum, which was sent to Africa and exchanged for negroes. The negroes were sold as slaves in the colonies and in the West Indies. The slave trade was a money-making business in those days. Nearly every- body North and South, except the Quakers, thought slavery was right. HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 159 The people of New England sent out many ships to catch whales. They found them in Long Island Sound and in Hudson Bay. Paying but little attention to the EngHsh Navigation Laws, they also sent trad- ing ships to all parts of the world. In some years, as many as two hun- dred vessels were built in New Eng- land. The New Englanders as a rule became fishermen, shipbuilders, or merchants. Those who tilled the soil made their own farm implements. 196. Slaves. — The keeping of slaves never paid as well in the Northern colonies as in the South, so there never was as much of it. About one tenth of the people of New York and less than that in New England were negro slaves. In the South there were nearly as many slaves as white people and in South Carolina, more. 197. Clothing. — In the early days of the colonies, most of the comforts of life were unknown. Such cloth as was used was woven on hand looms. It was made from threads of flax or wool, for cotton was hardly known. The flax was grown upon the farm, and the wool was cut from sheep that fed in the home pastures. Both the flax and the wool were carded and spun into threads by hand. There were no fac- An Old-fashionkd Loom i6o AMERICAN HISTORY tories for the making of cloth. The women of the household were kept very busy providing the garments of the family. Such a thing as knitting or sewing by machine had never been heard of. All the machinery then used in the making of stockings, was four knitting nee- dles. The rich peo- ple had cloth, trim- mings, and finery brought from Eng- land. The work- ingmen made much use of leather for breeches, and for aprons to protect their clothes when laboring. 198. Heating and Cooking. — Stoves were unknown in the early colonial days. Rooms were warmed by means of fireplaces, and in these the cooking was done. There was a swinging bar in the fireplace, called a crane, from which kettles hung, so that the water in them might boil from the fire below on the hearth. There were also kettles with long legs, that were placed over live coals. In them meat was boiled. Some were so deep that meat could be roasted or bread baked in them. Others had covers into which live coals could be put in order to throw the heat downward. Thus there could be fire bbth above and below whatever was being cooked. Most of the bread was baked in a brick oven. A fierce wood fire was kept in it until the thick walls had taken up much heat. Then the coals and A Colonial Kitchen HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD i6i Tinder Box, P'lint, and Steel ashes were brushed out, the dough put in, in proper dishes, and the door closed. The heat from the brick walls baked the dough into bread. There were no matches. When people went to bed, they dug a hole in the ashes on the hearth, and in it put live coals, covering them carefully. In the morning, these were raked out still smoldering. Then kindlings were laid over them, and by blowing the coals with the bellows a flame was soon started. If the fire went out, one of the boys was sent to a neighbor's "to borrow fire," which was brought home, as live coals, in a dish covered with ashes. If fire could not be borrowed, a blaze was started by means of flint and steel. Very dry scrapings of old wood, bark, or linen, called tinder, were made ready, a piece of flint was struck on steel, until a spark fell on the tinder and started it to smoldering. From this a fire was started with the bellows. For dishes, wood was used, though there were, among those who could afford them, many pewter plates. 199. Houses. — The houses were mostly made of logs hewn square and laid one above the other, with the spaces between them filled with clay. Very few bricks were used, and these were brought from across the sea. The roofs were of long split shingles. Sometimes, long grass or straw so laid that the rain would follow down the slope without wetting through, was used for roofing. Such roofs were called thatched roofs. Few houses had board floors. The bare earth trodden hard l62 AMERICAN HISTORY served as a floor. A house with glass windows was not often seen. Glass was very costly then. Paper well greased was used instead. It let in the light fairly well, much as ground glass does in our day. For light in the evening, candles were used and after 1750, lamps, filled with whale oil. Log Houses of Early Settlers 200. Religion. — Since England was a Protestant coun- try, most people who came from there to America were Prot- estants. These were mainly of two kinds: those belonging to the Church of England, or to the Episcopal church; and Puritans, or those of the Congregational church. In most of the colonics, the English government supported and en- forced the Episcopal church service. Catholics, Quakers, and people of other beliefs, were at times badly treated in all the colonies, except Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. 201. Education. — As a rule, the people were in favor of schools and of the spreading of knowledge by means of print- HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 163 ing, and this was especially true in New England. In those, colonies, there were free pubhc schools as early as 1647, ^-^^ it was thought disgraceful for children not to know how to read and write and cipher. There were a few public schools in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, but none in Virginia and the other Southern colo- nies. Except in New York and New England there was no public school system in the colonies until after the Revolutionary War. 202. The French prepare for War. — After King George's War, the French had their plans and knew that peace would not last. One great effort was to be made to crush England, and the French were preparing for it. They built forts to hold the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. They worked hard because they saw that English fur-traders were crossing the mountains and getting into the Ohio River country. By 1730, to be ready for the war whenever it might come, the French had more than sixty of these forts and had made treaties with many of the Indian tribes. The French country was very thinly peopled; the Eng- lish country was small, but it was ten times as thickly settled as that of the French. The French were not growing up with the country as the Enghsh were. 203. The English begin to take the Ohio Valley. — It was now nearly a hundred and fifty years since the English came A Dame School 1 64 AMERICAN HISTORY to America and they had begun to value the land that lay beyond the mountains. Trappers and hunters had come back from their trips, again and again, to tell of the won- derful country they had seen. Then the colonists began to remember that the grants from England to the colonies, in times past, were for land stretching across the continent, and they felt, as the EngHsh at home did, that it was time to begin to use it. In 1748, the Ohio Land Company was formed in Virginia, to take up land beyond the mountains in the valley of the Ohio, and to trade with the Indians in that country. King George II gave it a grant of six hundred thousand acres. Well might the French expect war, when the English king was giving away the best land in the country they called their own, and when English traders were trying to get the fur trade away from them. Two years later, the Ohio Company sent some men across the mountains to survey the land and set up boundary marks. They went as far as the place on the Ohio River where Louis- ville now stands. The French heard of this move and took steps to put a stop to it. They sent a party which made prisoners of the surveyors. They also broke up a trading post that the English had made. To Dinwiddle, the governor of Virginia, the land com- pany complained of what the French had done. In 1753, he sent out a young man named George Washington, who was an officer of the militia, to investigate and report. There was need of haste, so, though it was winter, young Washing- ton set out at once. He traveled over mountains, through thick forests and swamps, and across rivers, which at that season were raging torrents full of broken ice. He had hundreds of miles to go. His errand was to order the French HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 165 away, to learn just what they were doing, and to make friends with the Indians. The best way, in those days, to get to the Ohio River country from the east was to follow the Ohio downstream from where it begins. The best way to reach the Ohio River was to strike the Allegheny River, which flows south, or the Monongahela, which flows north, and follow the current to the place where the two rivers come to- gether to form the Ohio. Both the English and the French knew that the meeting point of these two rivers was the most important place in that country. Each knew that the one who held it could keep the other out of the Ohio Valley beyond. Washington, when he returned to Virginia, told Governor Dinwiddle and the Land Company that they ought to build a fort there as soon as possible; for if they did not, the French would. Soon afterward, a party was sent from Virginia to build the fort. But before they had half finished it, the French came down the Allegheny River in boats, drove them away, and completed the fort, which they named Fort Duquesne. 204. The French and Indian War. — Fearing such a move by the French, Virginia had sent a regiment to hold the fort that was being built by the company's men. Washington, though not its commander, was with the regiment. Runners Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia i66 AMERICAN HISTORY who had started east with the news of what the French had done, met the Virginia force not far away, and told what had happened. Then Washington, with a number of men, pushed ahead. He had not gone far, when he came to a party of French soldiers who had heard of the Virginians, and who, like his own party, were out to see what was happening. The French acted as though they meant to fight, and with- out waiting further, Wash- ington lired on them and killed some of them. The French leader was among those who fell. Thus, Ma y 28, 1754, began the war between the English and the French, that was to settle which should give way to the other in America. The part of the war that was fought in America, is known in history as the French and Indian War, because it was fought by the French and the Indians against the English. The French were in strong force at Fort Duquesne, and Painting by Chas. W. Peale. George Washington at the Age of Thirty In the Uniform of \' irginia Colonel HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 167 when they heard of the fight and the death of their officer, they sent several hundred men to attack the Virginians who had turned back. Washington, who was now in command, fell back and built a stockade, intending to wait there for the wagons that were on their way with supplies. The wagons did not come, and the soldiers suffered so much from hun- ger that he called his camp Fort Necessity. The French and Indians were more than double his force, and when they surrounded his stockade, he surrendered. But before doing so, he made the French agree that he and his men might return to Virginia with their arms. 205. Franklin tries to form a Union. — There was in Phil- adelphia, at that time, a man of New England birth, who was long-headed and wise. This was shown later when he proved to be one of the greatest statesmen in America. His name was Benjamin Franklin. He had read of the good effects of the old New England Confederation, under which the colonies had helped each other so much, and he pro- posed that all the colonies should form a Union, under which to fight the French. The Union was to be headed by a President, who was to have considerable power. But the colonies were too jealous of one another to make such a union. If they had favored it, it could not have been carried out, because England would not consent. 206. General Braddock. — In 1755, England sent one of her bravest soldiers, General Edward Braddock, to America with two regiments. These were troops that had done brave fighting in wars in Europe. When England sent Brad- dock, France sent a fleet to America with a force of troops under command of General Dieskau. It chanced that very early in the war, Braddock and Dieskau were killed. Knowing of the sailing of the French fleet, England 1 68 AMERICAN HISTORY sent out a fleet, under Admiral Boscawen, to fight it. He met the French fleet off Newfoundland and gave it battle. He took three ships, and would have destroyed all the French vessels, had \ IXW YORK not a fog come up, under cover of which they escaped. Gen. Braddock thought he knew ah about fighting, and so he did, about the kind that was done in Europe. But the French and the Americans had learned from the Indians ways of fighting that the soldiers of Europe did not understand. Braddock said he would make short work of any French and Indian skulkers that might come before his trained regulars. His first move was to march to the west, to take Fort Duqucsne. George Washington was one of his aides. Braddock's troops started from Alexandria, which is now a little town near where the city of Washington has since grown. When Braddock set out for the Ohio River, Dieskau with an army came south from Canada to Lake George. 207, Braddock's Defeat. — Major George Washington urged Braddock to push on, with as great speed as possible, so that they might reach Fort Duquesne before the French could get ready to fight. But Braddock would take no advice Route of Braddock's Expedition" HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 169 from those whom he and his gaudy officers called Virginia countrymen. He made his men march over mountains and through woods and swamps as though they were on parade. He wasted weeks in making roads and smooth- ing the way for his troops. His pro- gress was slow for want of wagons and horses. But Benjamin Franklin came forward and saved the under- taking by pledging his own fortune to the Pennsylvania farmers in pay- ment for teams that they supplied. Braddock went on, and after many days drew near Fort Duquesne. He should have kept scouts ahead to see if the enemy w^as before him, but he did not do this. When the column was within ten miles of the fort, and as the men were pushing their way through the forest, the attack came. The Indian war whoop sounded, and bullets began to pour on the poor English soldiers, from the underbrush on either side. From behind trees and rocks, and out of little gullies, came the deadly Braddock suri'rised by an Ambuscade lyo AMERICAN HISTORY rain of lead, while the bewildered soldiers could scarcely see the enemy. The Virginians did as their foe did. They each took a tree, a log, or a hole in the ground for cover, and with only their heads in sight, peered out for the enemy. The British soldiers, if they had been allowed to do so, would have fought, each for himself. But their oflEicers made them stand in line. The French and the Indians picked them off, one by one, until such as were still alive broke ranks and fled. Braddock was brave, but it is of no use to be brave, if bravery and folly go together. He was badly wounded, and died soon after the fight. Two horses were shot under Washington and four bullets went through his clothes. The few of Braddock 's army who were left retreated to Philadelphia. The Indians followed, and, for a long time, ravaged the villages and farms in the western part of Vir- ginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. One of the English plans had failed. Another had been made, which was to advance on Canada at the same time that Braddock went to the Ohio. This was to be done by going north through Lake Champlain. To do this, the French fort at Crown Point on the lake must be taken. 208. Johnson's Victory at Lake George. — There was a battle near the head of Lake George in which the English, under General Johnson, won a victory. The French under Dieskau came from Crown Point to meet the English, and were driven back. In the fight, Dieskau got his death wound. This was a few weeks after Braddock's defeat. General William Johnson was an Irishman who owned a great tract of land in the Mohawk Valley, where he carried on a large fur trade, and was very friendly with the Mohawk Indians. He had married the daughter of a Mohawk HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 171 chief. The Mohawks were one of the Five Nations, or more correctly the Six Nations, for the Tuscaroras from the Carohnas, had joined the Iroquois Confed- eracy of New York State. The Six Na- tions were friendly to the English in this war, and fought against their old foes, the French. A large party of them went with Johnson and helped him. Map showing French and English Forts Johnson did not follow the enemy, or take Crown Point. Instead, he built a fort near the battlefield, which he called Fort William Henry. The French now built another fort, between Lake George and Lake Champlain, which they called Ticonderoga. The only French victory during this year 172 AMERICAN HISTORY (1756) was the taking of the Enghsh Forts at Oswego by the Marquis Montcalm who had succeeded Dieskau. Another plan of the English was to take the French strong- hold of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, and thus be able to hold Acadia and New Brunswick. Much of Acadia had been held by England since Queen Anne's War. 209. The Acadians. — During the year, in which Braddock had failed and Johnson had partly succeeded, Acadia had been overrun by the English. Because the six thousand French people living there would not promise to be faithful to the English, they were m^oved away and scattered among the Enghsh colonies. Many went to Louisiana and joined the French there. To keep them from coming back, their homes were destroyed. It seemed hard to move them from their homes by force, but the English knew that if they were left in this part of the country, they would fight for the French. War is at best full of cruel things. The story of the Aca- dians is told in Longfellow's poem, ''Evangeline." 210. "The Seven Years' War" in Europe. — So far, Httle fighting outside of America had been done by the Enghsh and French. But in 1756 war broke out in Europe, and even between the colonies of England and France in far- away India. Prussia, under that wonderful soldier King Frederick the Great, had become stronger as a European nation. .Against Prussia were Austria, Russia, and France. England sided with Prussia. Thus began what is known in European history as " The Seven Years' War." Afterw^ard Spain entered the war against Prussia and England. Then Eng- land captured Havana in Cuba, and the Philippine Islands, which had belonged to Spain ever since Magellan found them. England was likely to lose America, and be crushed in Europe, by the four nations that were fighting her and Prussia. HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 173 211. William Pitt. — William Pitt, an able and honest man, now became prime minister of England. He was one of England's greatest statesmen. He put good men in com- mand in America, and gave the colonial troops an equal footing with the English regulars, while at the same time he pushed the war in Europe. 212. Montcalm. — The French now made Montcalm, one of their best generals, commander-in-chief in America. He at- once began to win victories from the unfit commanders of the English forces. One of these was the taking of Fort Wil- liam Henry in 1757. The Indians with him murdered most of the English after they had surrendered. 213. Defeat at Ticonderoga. — In 1758, General George Howe, sent to America by Pitt, went with an army to take the French fort Ticonderoga, near Lake George. In a slight skirmish he was killed. Then Abercrombie, who was not much of a soldier, in a very unskillful attack on the fort, was defeated with terrible loss. The Indians said that one of their old women would have done better as a general. 214. Capture of Louisburg and Fort Duquesne. — A few days after Abercrombie's defeat, General Wolfe, with the help of Amherst, took the great French fortress of Louisburg, that had been taken by New England troops in King George's War and then given back to the French. A month later. Fort Frontenac, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, was taken from the French. From the defeat of Braddock to the year 1758, the Indians had been working havoc in the mountainous parts of Vir- ginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. Nothing had been done toward a second movement against Fort Duquesne. But now an army was made up of colonists from these three colonies and from the Carolinas to capture the fort, and the 174 AMERICAN HISTORY English general, Forbes, took command. Washington went with him and helped him greatly. The fort was taken, and its name was changed to Fort Pitt. The place is now the great city of Pittsburgh. 215. Plan of Campaign for 1759 ; Battle of Quebec. — In 1759, the tireless Pitt, besides attending to the war in Europe, determined to take Quebec. He sent John- 'son by the Niagara route to attack Montreal, and Wolfe to take Quebec by going up the St. Lawrence in ships. In the meantime, Amherst, after he had taken forts Crown Point and Ticonderoga, was to go north by Lake Champlain to help Wolfe. These, and the French forts at Niagara, were soon taken. The great Montcalm defended Quebec; the great Wolfe attacked it. For months Wolfe tried in vain to gain a point from which to attack. Winter was coming, and Amherst had not arrived. The city is situated on a steep and rocky hill overlooking the river. It had a strong fort to protect it, and unless the English could reach the plain at the top, there was not even a chance to fight. At last, a path was found and one night Wolfe moved the troops there by boats, and in darkness and silence, they climbed to the plain, and dragged some of their cannon after them. When day broke, such of the English army as had climbed the cliff was drawn up in line, less than a mile from the city. Hurrying forth to attack, before Wolfe could get the rest of his men up, Montcalm led out his troops and gave battle. The fight was furious, and both generals lost their lives. But the English won. The city surrendered September;^, if^g. England now held Quebec, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Fort Duquesne, Niagara, and Louisburg. About a year later, a strong movement was made against HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 175 Montreal, and that city surrendered. The French and Indian War in America was over. New France was a thing of the past. 216. Treaty of Peace. — The Seven Years' War was ended by treaty in __i^6^. Under the treaty, France gave to Spain all her holdings west of the Mississippi, and the city of New Orleans, so that the Spanish thus controlled the great river. To England, went all the French terri- tory east of the Mississippi, except two little islands south of Newfoundland, which were fishing stations. Thus the English had taken those parts of America settled by both the Dutch and the French. Florida, which had belonged to Spain, was given to Eng- land in exchange for Ha- vana and the Philippine Islands. It was stated in the treaty that French should be the language of the people of Canada, and so it is, in the older part, to this day. North America now belonged to England and Spain; and thus, in 1763, began a new period for the English in America. The war in Europe left Frederick the Great victorious, and made England the most powerful nation in the world. Climbing the Bluffs at Quebec 176 AMERICAN HISTORY 217. Pontiac's War. — After the French and Indian War, but before a treaty of peace was made, the Enghsh sent Major Rogers, with a party of his rangers, into the western country, to take charge of the French forts there. He car- ried written orders from the French, to those in command of the forts, to give them up. Rogers was met before he reached Fort Detroit by a chief, who asked him what his business was in that country. Rogers told him that the English now owned all the land that had once belonged to the French. He told the chief that he was on his way to take charge of Fort Detroit, and all other French forts in the western country. "Stay where you are until to-morrow," said the chief. "I am Pontiac, and this is my country. The French may have yielded it to the English, but the Indians have not." Rogers kept his camp until the next day. In the morning Pontiac came to him. " I have been the friend of the French," said he, " but they are beaten. I will be the friend of the Eng- lish, if they treat me well." Then the pipe of peace was smoked, and there was peace between the Enghsh and the Indians, who until then had been their foes. However, in 1761, the English heard that there was a plot among the Indians to make war upon them. On a certain day in May, 1763, the Indians in the western country were to attack the forts and settlements there. At the appointed time, the Indians all through the West, without a word of warning, fell upon the English. In a day, the whole West was in the horror of an Indian war. Pontiac himself with a large force tried to take Fort Detroit, but failed in the attempt. An Indian girl had told the commander of the fort that the Indians meant te take it by surprise, and the soldiers were ready. CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1755 AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1763 AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. (ACCORDING TO PEACE OF PARIS) HOW ENGLISH AMERICA WAS HELD 177 Other forts were taken. Only four out of twelve escaped, one of which was Fort Pitt. But the English rallied, and soon began sending troops to beat off the savages. In 1763, a treaty was made between the English and the French, and then the French government caused the Indians to see that there was no hope of French help coming to them, and a year later the war ended. To Sir William Johnson, who had defeated Dieskau at Lake George, was largely due the fail- ure of the great Indian uprising led by Pontiac. In a meeting of Indians of the important northwestern tribes, held at Fort Detroit in 1761, promises of peace with the English had been given to Johnson. These promises were not kept by the Indians because they had been cheated in their dealings with dishonest English traders. When Pontiac began to plan the attack against the Eng- lish, Sir William Johnson prevented the Indians of the Six Nations, excepting the westerly tribe of Senecas, from join- ing in the fight that was to come. After Pontiac's attack upon the English forts, all hope of getting help from other Indian tribes was destroyed by treaties which Johnson made with the Indians in a great council held at Fort Niagara in 1764. More than two thousand Indians, who came from the Mississippi River country and from as far east as Nova Scotia, were present at this great gathering. In Detroit dur- ing the following year, Pontiac, seeing that all hope of success was gone, made a formal treaty of peace with the English. In 1766, a meeting of chiefs was held at Oswego, at which Sir William Johnson and Pontiac were present, and the treaty made at Detroit, the year before, was confirmed. Three years later, Pontiac was murdered by an Indian near St. Louis. This was the last great war made by the Indians against the EngUsh. 178 AMERICAN HISTORY SUMMARY 1. The English, confined to the coast, began to see the value for settlement of the land that lay beyond the mountain ranges, to the west. 2. King George's War. 3. Name some of the industries of New England. 4. The formation of the Ohio Company led the English to attempt the building of forts, on ground claimed by French. This caused trouble between the French and the English colonists, that ended in the war known as the French and Indian War. 5. General Braddock and Washington march against Fort Duquesne in 1755. The expedition ended in failure and in the death of Brad- dock. 6. Fort William Henry, built by Sir William Johnson, at the head of Lake George was taken by Montcalm in 1757. 7. The English were defeated at Fort Ticonderoga in 1758. A few days later Wolfe took Louisburg, the French fortress on Cape Breton Island. 8. Fort Duquesne was taken from the French by General Forbes, in 1758. 9. General Wolfe took Quebec in 1759, thus ending the war. Montreal was taken a year later. The French power in America was thus broken. 10. Pontiac urged the Indians to make war on the English. Pontiac's War was ended by treaty made with him at Detroit in 1765. 11. Treaty of peace between the French and the EngHsh was made in 1763. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. For what purpose was the Ohio Company formed? 2. Name the colonial wars which occurred in this country before the French and Indian War. Tell about King George's War. f ^ '^ f 3. When did the English attempt to build a fort in the Ohio Valley? What name was given to this fort by the French after they had completed it? 4. To what war did the attempt by the English to settle the Ohio country lead? 5. Who attempted, in 1755, to take Fort Duquesne? Was the attempt successful? Why not? 6. Give an account of some of the chief events of the French and Indian war. Name some of the leading generals on each side. 7. Why did the English fail to take Fort Ticonderoga in 1758? 8. What battle ended the war? Q. Give an account of Pontiac's War. CHAPTER X THE ENGLISH • COLONIES 218. Canada.— In 1763, four years after the fall of Quebec, France gave Canada to England. Thus the Enghsh ruled a region in America whose inhabitants were French in man- ners, customs, and ways of living. Though they yielded, the Canadians were still French at heart, and hoped that France might regain her power in America. 219. English Colonies. — Affairs in the colonies were much as they had been before. There was no longer danger from France on the north, or from Spain on the south, nor, after Pontiac's War, was there any fear of the Indians. 220. People. — ■ At the close of the French and Indian War, there were in the old colonies about 1,500,000 white people. There were scattered over the country about 350,000 negro slaves. Slavery existed from Massachusetts to Georgia, though nearly all the slaves were in the South, where the climate is warm. They worked in the fields, raising tobacco, rice, and other warm-climate crops. The settled portions of Enghsh America lay along the coast, and were far removed from one another. Most of the people lived along the rivers, or at tide-water, for the water- ways were the highways of travel. There was in each of the colonies a strong feeling of independence, and even of jealousy of the others. James Otis of Massachusetts, who was one of the greatest of the Revolutionary patriots, wrote, in 1765, "Were these colonies left to themselves to-morrow, i8o AMERICAN HISTORY America would be a mere shambles of blood and confusion before little petty states could be settled." From time to time, the people in every colony had com- plained of ill-treatment by governors sent from England. By the test of warfare, against the French and Indians, the col- onists had learned that they could fight. In each colony, self-government by the people had been tried, and the result was good. They had found that there was no need for kings. Yet they had no thought of breaking away from the mother country. 221. How England Treated her Colonies. — The colonists were forbidden to buy or sell in any country except England, or to make goods for themselves. This was done by enforcing the old and long forgotten Navigation Laws which had been passed in the time of Charles II, and even earlier. There was but little manufacturing among the colonists, even of goods for home use. Clay, and the fuel to bake it into bricks, could be found in boundless quantities in America, but the colonists were not permitted to make bricks. Under the laws of England, bricks for American homes were bought in Eng- land. The colonists were forbidden to trade with other nations — and with each other. Every- thing was forbidden by law that would prevent Englishmen at home from making money out of the needs of the colonies. 222. Money Used by the Colonists. — English coins were used by the colonists and business was done in pounds^ shil- PlXE-TREE ShIL11\i, THE ENGLISH COLONIES i»i lings, and pence. But coin was scarce and trade was carried on largely by exchange of goods. Some colonies made coins of their own. In 1652, there was in Boston a mint where shillings, six-penny, and three-penny coins of silver were made. 223. Industries. — As early as 1620, glass was made in Jamestown, and a httle later a grist-mill was built there. In TbeAMERICAN WE E KLY M E RCUR K From Thurfday Oader i, to Thurfday Otiofcr?, 17^0. Reduced Facsimile of the Heading of an Early Issue OF the First Newspaper in Philadelphia 1642 cast-iron was made in Massachusetts. The first print- ing press was set up in Massachusetts in 1639, and in 1665 the Bible was printed in the Indian language. A newspaper, called The News-Letter, was printed in Boston as early as 1704, and soon afterward there were newspapers in Phil- adelphia and New York. Before 1775, newspapers were com- mon, and there were printing presses in all the colonies. Farming was the chief industry, much tobacco being grown in Virginia, while potatoes and corn were raised in New Eng- land. 224. Writs of Assistance. — In spite of Enghsh laws, the colonists bought goods of countries other than England. When ships from those countries reached our ports with i82 AMERICAN HISTORY needed goods, offered at less than English prices, the Ameri- can merchants bought them. On goods so bought they paid no taxes to England. Bringing taxed goods into a country without paying taxes on them is smuggling. Merchants in England complained that they were losing trade in America because of smuggling, and in 1761 England tried to prevent it. To do this, customs officers were to seize such goods as had been smuggled. To enable them to find the goods "Writs of Assistance" were issued which were warrants, giving the officers power to search private houses. The colonists were angered by these visits, and the officers were resisted. 225. England's Need of the Colonies. — England had been liberal with her colonies, yet she had been kind only so far as kindness was gainful, and she did not always act with far- seeing wisdom. She had felt, however, that it would be dangerous to get the ill-will of the colonies, for, at any time, their help might be needed. And it had been needed; for without their aid England could not have taken Canada. 226. The Lords of Trade and the Colonial Governors. — England dealt with her colonies through a body of men in Parliament known as " The Lords of Trade." The governors of the colonies made to this body reports, which were not always true. Thus the "Lords of Trade" were often mis- led, and were made to beheve that the colonists were not loyal to the home government. In this way an unjust feeling against the colonists grew up in England. 227. France no Longer to be Feared. — The English Par- liament had often tried to bring its subjects in America under better control. It had never thought it wise to use force, because France had always stood ready to take advantage of quarrels between the colonists and the mother country. THE ENGLISH COLONIES 183 King George III But France was not then to be feared, either in America or Europe, and England in deahng with her colonies did not fear any rival nation. 228. George IIL — In 1760 George III, a man of twenty-one, had come to the English throne. He was jealous of the power of Parhament and he determined to lessen it. He schemed and plot- ted and became very much disliked by his subjects. The greatest, wisest, and fairest- minded of England's statesmen were against him. He cared little for the rights of Englishmen in England, and less for the rights of those in America. 229. Taxation without Representation. — The French and Indian War had been costly. Yet the colonies had borne more than one-half of its burden, both in money and in lives. Massachusetts alone had furnished and supported seven thou- sand soldiers. Yet the king proposed to tax the colonies still more, and to do it against their will. The money gained from this tax was to be used in paying England's share of the war debt, and to support a standing Enghsh army in America. The Englishmen in America did not object to paying taxes provided they might share in determining their amount and the purpose for which they were to be raised. They said that they would not pay taxes unless they were represented in the English Parliament. They declared, '\Taxation without representation is tyranny." 230. England Tries to Humble the Colonies; the Stamp Act. — The spirit shown by these Englishmen beyond the 1 84 AMERICAN HISTORY sea, annoyed the king and his party. Then it was that the old Navigation Laws were put into force, and new laws were made even more hurtful to the colonists. One of these laws, passed in 1765, was called "The Stamp Act." Under it England caused great quantities of stamps to be printed, which were to be sold to the colonists at from one penny to as high as ten pounds each. No legal or business paper was binding unless it bore one of these stamps. Even newspapers were to be stamped. Most of the people in the colonies were very angry when the stamps were sent here, and refused to buy them. Bands of patriots called " Sons of Liberty" were formed in every colony to oppose the Stamp Act and to resist British tyranny. In various places they planted huge poles in the ground, calling them "Liberty Poles." A number of these poles in New York were cut down by British soldiers, but they were set up again as fast as they were cut down. Everywhere in the colonies the "Sons of Liberty" opposed English rule and were the first to ask for independence and armed resistance. When the royal governor of New York had threatened to order his soldiers to fire on them, his effigy was carried through the streets in his own carriage, and both were burned in his presence. The Stamp Act was in force for a year, and during that time the anger of the people grew. The colonies sent agents to New York to meet in a Congress which was to plan a course of action against England. The Congress prepared a state- ment called "A Declaration of Rights." This stated that while the people of the colonies were Englishmen, they were subject to the crown as much as other Englishmen and no more. The statement also declared that, by right, they ought to enjoy all the liberties and privileges given to dwellers in England. The people of England had, by this time, begun to THE ENGLISH COLONIES 185 see that the Stamp Act was most unjust to their distant friends in America, and at length Parliament repealed it. In 1768 the Assembly of Massachusetts sent a letter to the other colonies, asserting the rights of the people. It called Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly After the painting by A. Chappel upon all to resist unjust tax laws. The replies from all the colonies were alike, in promising to stand by Massachusetts. At about this time, the people of Virginia, spurred by the eloquence of Patrick Henry and led by George Washington, agreed to use no goods on which a duty had been paid to Eng- land. Other colonies followed this course, and soon the mer- chants of England felt the effect of it. So loudly did they complain that the duty taxes in America were killing their trade, that all the tax laws were repealed, except one. That was kept in force, to show that England claimed the right to lay such taxes. It was thought that the colonists would willingly pay a trifling tax on tea, and that they would 1 86 AMERICAN HISTORY thus admit that a revenue tax was just. But England was mistaken in this matter. When an English ship arrived at Boston with a cargo of tea, a number of men disguised as In- dians, who became known as the Boston Tea Party, boarded her and threw the tea overboard. Ships with tea sent to other ports were not allowed to unload their cargoes except in Charleston, South Carolina, where the tea, after being unloaded, was allowed to spoil. At Annapolis the people forced one shipmaster to burn both ship and cargo. 231. Committees of Correspondence. — During the stir about the duties, and before cargoes of tea reached America, the people of Massachusetts formed Committees of Corre- spondence. It was the duty of these to write letters from Boston to the towns, and from the towns to Boston, three or four times a week. Mounted men carried these letters. The plan worked so well that soon there were Committees of Correspondence in nearly all the colonies, and thus each colony knew what was going on in all the others. 232. It was the King's Fault. — In all the unfairness that had been shown, it was not England that oppressed the colonies. Her best and wisest statesmen said that such harsh laws were wrong. It was the young and headstrong king, who abused the colonies. Since wise and good men would not help him in his course, he called to his aid those who had more craft and selfishness than honesty. He spent a large part of the vast fortune left him by his father, in brib- ing members of Parliament to do his will. Some, who would not take money, he gained by giving them high offices. 233o Tories and Whigs, — The king's followers were called Tories, and the English people, who were against him and his party, were known as Whigs. Thus there were two political parties in England. As in England, so it was in THE ENGLISH COLONIES 187 America. The Tories in the colonies took sides with the king, and favored the Stamp Act, while their neighbors, the Whigs, were against the Stamp Act, and all else that cut off their rights as Englishmen. Had the great Whig party in England been in power with Edmund Burke as its leader, it would have checked the king in his foolish course. As things were, the course of the king and his followers became a matter of words in England, and of arms in Amer- ica. The angry king was by this time more intent on forcing the colonists to submit to his will, than he was on getting money from them. To his mind the colonists were rebels, and they must be punished. 234. First Continental Congress. — In 1774 it was plain that there was danger of war. It was thought wise to call an- other Congress of all the colonies, to consider what should be done. The men appointed met at Philadel- phia late in the year, each colony except Georgia having its agents at hand. This meeting was called the Continental Congress. Its members felt that the time had come when all patriots should act together. Massachusetts was in open rebellion against the king. The British general, Gage, fearing attack, was build- ing earth-works to defend Boston. The Congress, hoping Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, 1774 Where the first Continental Congress met 1 88 AMERICAN HISTORY for peace, sent a respectful message to the king, pleading that he would treat his colonists fairly. He refused to read it. This first Continental Congress lasted for nearly two months. The Congress had no power to make laws; it could only advise. It did advise that all unite in putting pressure on the people of England, in the hope that thus the king might be reached. It sent word to the colonists asking them to agree to buy nothing from England, and to send no goods of any kind to England. The effect was soon felt in England, whose colonies were of value to her for the trade they gave her, and the result was such as the colonists had expected. The distress in England that came from the loss of trade gave the Whig party new strength. 235. The Fisheries. — The king then caused Parhament to pass a law forbidding the colonists to fish on the Newfound- land banks. This hurt New England, for its people were largely engaged in catching codfish off the Newfoundland cgast. Their little vessels lay idle at the wharves, and they had no means of earning their bread. 236. Privateers. — The colonists then turned their fishing vessels into armed sea-rovers,.to seize English merchant ships and their cargoes. In a short time there were thousands of fishermen, the best sailors in the world, ravaging British commerce on the sea. Such vessels, called privateers, since they were owned by private persons, would have been pirate craft in times of peace, if their owners had not been em- powered by Congress to seize the enemy's ships. 237. The Minute-men. — The people of Massachusetts and other parts of New England were preparing for war, but thought it wise to wait for England to strike the first blow. They meant that the world should see that they were forced to fight to defend themselves. THE ENGLISH COLONIES 189 Men in all the towns formed companies that met, nightly, for drill. Each man held himself ready to rush to the field as a soldier, at a minute s notice. Thus, while there was no camp of soldiers, there was a patriot army of several thousand men, ready for instant service. Those who belonged to this force were called Minute-men. There were many veterans of the French wars still living, and they taught military drill to those younger men who had never been soldiers. Like Massa- chusetts, other colonies prepared for war. SUMMARY 1. After the French and Indian War, England began to oppress her colonies in America. 2. The colonists claimed the right to buy goods wherever they pleased. 3. To escape" severe taxation, the colonists practiced smuggling. 4. Under "Writs of Assistance," houses were searched by tax officers for smuggled goods. 5. The " Stamp Act." Anger of the colonists. 6. Massachusetts takes a firm stand. 7. First Continental Congress, 1774. The colonists say that they will buy no more goods from England. 8. The "Minute- men." QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. How did England propose to make money from her American colonies? 2. What was "smuggling"? Why was it practiced? 3. For what purpose were "Writs of Assistance" issued? 4. What was meant by "Taxation without Representation"? 5. W^hat was the purpose of the "Stamp Act"? 6. What colony was most active in opposing the measures of Parliament? 7. WTien did the first Continental Congress meet? Where? What was its purpose? What did England do in return for some of the measures passed by this Congress? 8. Who were the "Minute-men"? Why were they so called? Statue of the Minute-man at Concord CHAPTER XI THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 238. The Rebellion against the King. — In 1775 Parlia- ment declared that there was rebelHon in Massachusetts. To put it down, a fleet was sent to Boston with thousands of soldiers, and General Gage, who had regular British troops in that city, was getting ready for action. Many patriots had left Boston to escape from Tories, as many Tories had gone to that place to avoid the patriots. Samuel Adams and John Hancock, leaders against the king, were wanted by General Gage, and, if he had caught them, their fate would have been sad. 239. J^exington and Concord. — Through Tory- spies out- side the city. Gage knew what was going on in the country. He thus learned that by a quick dash to Lexington and Con- cord, he might capture Adams and Hancock and destroy arms and supplies that were stored there. At midnight, April 18, 1775, he sent a force from Boston toward Lexington. But, if Tories outside could send word in, patriots inside could send word out. Paul Revere saw what was being done, and made that ride of which Longfellow tells in his poem. The Minute-men were roused and began to gather. When the British column reached Lexington, in the gray of the dawn, there was a group of them on the village green. The king's troops fired on them, kilKng and wounding several. The soldiers then marched a few miles farther toward Con- cord. But so many Minute-men were in sight, that the British colonel prudently sent to Boston for more troops. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 191 At Concord were more Minute-men, coming from all direc- tions. At Concord bridge they attacked two hundred "red- coats," as the British in their scarlet uniforms were called, and drove back such as they did not kill. '#ti*^ The Battle of Lexington After a drawing by two Connecticut soldiers who were in the battle From outlying villages and farms, the Minute-men gathered along the road from Lexington to Boston. They had no general in command, and every man was his own officer. After leaving Lexington the British fared badly. Few, if any, of the British soldiers would have reached Boston, had not the troops that had been sent for come to meet them and help them to safety. The Minute-men camped that night near Cambridge, and that camp remained until the British army was driven from Boston. Thus began the war of The American Revolution. Many a horseman set out with news that the war had begun. 192 AMERICAN HISTORY It was not Boston's war; it was not the war of Massachusetts; it was Pennsylvania's war; it was Virginia's war; it was the war of all the colonies. For ten years, a portion, perhaps half, of the Americans, had sought in peaceful ways, and sometimes in ways that were hardly peaceful, to get their just rights. Now they united to fight for them, and to fight hard. The king had struck the first blow, had killed the first men, and the blow had been paid back quickly with the killing of many men. The patriots were to fight now against the soldiers of the king, and against the Tories who were rallying to the royal flag. 240. England and the Colonies at the Beginning of the Revolution. — The colonies were poor, having lost men and money in the French and Indian War. They were far apart, so that it was hard to bring together the men who were will- ing to fight. There was, as yet, no strong feeling of union among them, and they had not overcome the feeling that each colony was for itself and none for all. Many people sided with the king, and were ready to fight their neighbors. England was as strong as the colonies were weak — the strongest nation in the world. The richest of nations, she had three times as many people as the colonies. Her merchant ships were the best; her navy ruled the sea; and she had a large army that had won great victories in Europe. It seemed foolhardy for the weak colonies to brave the anger of England's king. Yet, England could not afford a war. The long and costly struggle to gain Canada had left her in debt. She needed years of peace in which to grow strong. To fight the colonies, she would be obliged to move troops and sup- plies thousands of miles across the sea. This would cost more than it would to grant their just demands. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 193 241 . The Second Continental Congress. — In May, lyy;, the Second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, with John HancocY of Mas sachusetts - ^ :s-tts~ president! InT the first Congress, there had been hope that fair treatment might be gained; now there was a state of war. The time for plead- ing had passed and the duty of this Congress was to carry on the war. It was difficult for the colonists to learn that in union there is strength. From its begin- ning in doubt and fear, to its ending in victory, this Congress was a scene of petty schemings, through which single colonies Flag of the United Colonies sought advantages. The Kttle 1775-1777 colonies wanted as much power as the big ones, and the latter wished to control the former. There was so much wrangling that the cause of the patriots was set back for years. Such union as there was among the colonies, during the war, came from the outside pressure of a great common danger more than from brotherly spirit within. For a time, it was left for each colony to do what it pleased in fighting the king; but at length. Congress acted as though there were a union, and voted to raise an army of 20,000 men, to be paid by the United Colonies, and to be called the Con- tinental Army. Thus began the first real National Army. A National Navy was provided for and it was ordered that thirteen war-ships be built. A National Commander-in- Chief was appointed, and National Money was ordered, called Continental Currency. 242. The Siege of Boston. — A few days after the battle of Lexington, the little camp of patriots near Cambridge grew to an army of 15,000 men, and laid siege to Boston. The 194 AMERICAN HISTORY patriots meant to capture, drive out, or destroy the British army. Men were coming on foot from distant colonies to join the Cambridge army. Earth-works were being built around Boston from which to fight General Gage's men. Boston is on a peninsula and a strip of land joins it with the mainland. This little strip was fortified by the British at one end, and by the Conti- nentals at the other. On the main land around the city — which was then very small — are various hills, and from some of these cannon might send shot to reach the troops within. Two of these hills are higher than the others. One, in Charlestown, near Bunker Hill, was called Breed's Hill, and the other, to the south of Boston, was called Dorchester Heights. By the middle of June, Gage's forces numbered about ten thousand men. He saw that he must seize Breed's Hill and Dorchester Heights, and fortify them, for it was plain that if he did not, the Continentals would, and would then compel him to leave the city. While he was getting ready the Con- Map of Boston and Bunker Hill, 1775 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 195 tinentals went to Breed's Hill in the night and built some fairly good breast-works. At sunrise the next . morning, June 17, 1775, the British saw what was going on and opened fire on the hill from their warships. The Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775 Boston Battery Charlestown British troops attacking From a contemporary print 243. The Battle of Bunker Hill. — Colonel Prescott's thou- sand Minute-men kept cool and Gage soon saw that something more than long-range cannon fire was needed to drive them away. More than a third of his men moved over to Charlestown to take the hill. Meanwhile, the Continentals had been busy in strengthening their earth-works, and in getting more men into them. On came the British while all was silent behind the breast- works. The courage shown on both sides was wonderful. To march, as those British soldiers did, straight up to the works, so near that each one felt that the man who was aim- ing at him could not miss, required a nerve as steady as was ever shown on a battlefield. 196 AMERICAN HISTORY The word was given, " Fire I " There were a few seconds of the rattle of musketry; a cloud of smoke floated back; powder- horns were hfted; bullets were rammed home. This was inside the works. Outside, lay the harvest rows of death. The advancing hnc had melted. It was broken as a wave is broken when it strikes the rocks. The British soldiers who had come on in martial pride fell back in terror. Again urged on, threatened, beaten with swords, the British formed and charged. Again the cool marksmen be- hind the breast-works swept them out of life. Now came a time of danger to the Minute-men. Their powder was gone, and if the British should charge again, they would win. More troops came from Boston, and the third charge was made. It swept the patriots from the hill, and they fell back to escape capture. It was a costly victory for the British, who lost eleven hundred and fifty-four; ' the Continentals, four hundred and forty-nine. Among the patriots who were killed was General Warren, who, had he hved, might have become as famous as Washington. Among the British dead lay Major Pitcairn, who had ordered his men to fire on the Minute-men at Lexington. The battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill proved what the world had refused to believe, that the Continental sol- diers, both in attack and in defense, could stand against any troops. in the world. The art of war as followed in Indian fighting, and in the struggle against the French, had been well learned by the hardy New Englanders, and they had become better soldiers than they knew. It was shown, and the showing has been many times repeated, that, as a fighter, the American soldier has no superior. 244. Washington, Commander-in-Chief. — Two days be- fore this battle, John Adams of Massachusetts rose in THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 197 Congress and said, "Mr. President: We need a Commander- in-Chief in the great war upon which we are entering, to plan our campaigns and direct our armies. Who is better fitted than George Washington of Virginia?" Washington was appointed General-in-Chief of the Continental Army, June 15? i775> ^i^d at once went to Cambridge, to take command. Washington in Command of the Continental Army By order of Congress, troops from the colonies of the far South were sent to Cambridge, so that it might appear that the army was truly a Continental army, and not simply a body of New England troops. Washington's task was not easy, since there was httle dis- cipHne among the Continentals. The jealousy among the colonies showed itself in camp, and each soldier seemed to think first of his colony, and then of the cause. There were wranghngs for rank, and for preferment, and there had been no firm authority to enforce order among the men. 245. Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — Meantime, others than the troops before Boston were busy. In old forts at 198 AMERICAN HISTORY Ticonderoga and Crown Point there were cannon taken from the French in the war a few years before. These forts had been taken by hardy farmers led by Allen and Stark^inMay, and by the time the snows of winter came, rude sleds had been made and hundreds of oxen were slowly dragging pre- cious loads of cannon, powder, and ball toward Cambridge. Stores of powder were also coming from far-away Georgia. 246. The Attempt to take Montreal and Quebec. — It was planned by the British, that while the Continental army was besieging Gage in Boston, a British force should come south from Canada into the colony of New York. Washington learned of this, and decided to attack Montreal and Quebec. He sent General Montgomery with a small force by way of Lake Champlain to take Montreal, which was done. At the same time, Benedict Arnold was sent with a still smaller force, through the woods of Maine, to take Quebec, where Montgomery was to join him after taking Montreal. Arnold's men suffered much on the way and were delayed in reaching Quebec. A httle more than half of them got there, and were joined by Montgomery's force. The attack on Quebec was made on the last day of the }'ear 1775, and it failed. Mont- gomery was killed and Arnold badly wounded. Montgomery was a young Irishman who had fought bravely in the French and Indian War. His monument stands in St. Paul's churchyard, New York City. 247. Dorchester Heights. — General Gage, after taking Breed's Hill, neglected to take Dorchester Heights, and Gen- eral Howe, who followed him in command, was equally neg- lectful. Washington, now supplied with heavy cannon, had been firing on the city from various works around it. While the British, bewildered by the firing, kept marching about from point to point, to meet possible attacks from REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION NORTHERN AND MIDDLE STATES. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 199 Washington's forces, he moved two thousand men to Dor- :hester Heights, which he fortified and planted with cannon. The British had taken one New England hill, and had [earned in sorrow what such victories cost. Howe thought it svould be better to give up the city than to attack Dorchester Heights. It was therefore arranged that if Howe would with- draw from Boston, Washington would withhold his fire and let him go. The British troops, with a great many Tories, went aboard ship and sailed for Hahfax, March 17, 1776. The next day Washington entered the city with his troops. No armed enemy has ever set foot in Boston since. 248. War in the Carolinas. — Baffled in New England, the king decided to wage war in other colonies. Before Washing- ton took Boston, a fleet bearing an army was sent from that port to meet another from England, under Sir Peter Parker. These were to move against the Carolinas, where the descend- ants of the Scotch Highlanders who had settled in that local- ity were mostly Tories. It was the plan that an armed force af these was to join British troops landing from the fleet. A body of patriot troops, however, defeated the Tory force and captured all its stores. Learning of this, Sir Peter tried in June, 1776, to take Charleston, South Carolina. But, no enemy has ever been able to take Charleston by attack from sea, and both fleet and army were soundly whipped. 249. The War in New York and New Jersey. — When the British ships had passed from sight, bearing troops from Bos- ton to HaHfax, Washington made ready to move his army to New York. He knew that the British generals would try to control the Hudson River, and thus separate New England from the rest of the colonies. He saw that the next fighting would be in or about the city of New York, and he meant to be there with his men. 200 AMERICAN HISTORY While the Americans were fighting for their rights, they did not cease trying to obtain them by milder measures. As late as August, 1775, the Congress sent a messenger to plead with the king and Parliament for consideration. The king would not even read the petition. 250. The Hessians. — Some unfit men, whom fate had made rulers over petty provinces in Germany, were in need of money and ordered their regiments to go to America to fight for the British king in a quarrel which was not theirs. Thus, for money, they sent thousands of Hessian soldiers away to be killed. • 251. Independence. — The coming of the Hessians made the Americans very angry. They had been fighting for their rights under the king. They now began to declare for Inde- pendence. They would have nothing to do with such a king, but would start the colonies as a new nation, or a number of new nations. "We must fight it through," said a patriot to Benjamin Franklin, as together they signed the Declaration of Independence; "we must hang together." "if we do not hang together," said Franklin, "we shall surely hang separately." In the early part of 1776, there was much talk of making the struggle a war for independence. Wise men among the patriots saw that this was advisable. There was joy in France over the trouble that England was having with her colonies, and hope that she would be humbled. The French had not forgotten their defeat by England and were not idle. French spies were in America; French money had been sent to keep up the rebellion. It was understood that, at the proper time, France might openly help the Americans, even at the expense of war with England. If the colonies were a nation, fighting another nation, France 202 AMERICAN HISTORY might feel free to take sides with them, and leading Ameri- cans were not slow to say that the colonies ought to declare themselves forever free from English control. It was seen that the time to act had come, and, in June, a committee was appointed to prepare a Declaration of Inde- pendence, and another to prepare laws for the government of the nation, to be called, "Articles of Confederation." Thomas Jefferson was a member of the first committee, and wrote the Declaration. It was adopted by Congress in 1776, July 4, the day we now celebrate as our greatest holiday. The act of Congress in thus declaring the colonies to be a nation was hailed with great rejoicing. The Continental soldiers in New York City were formed in parade and the Declaration was read to them. The king's statue, made of lead, stood on Bowling Green. It was pulled down, chopped up, and cast into bullets. There were now no British colonies in America. They had become states. They were united to defend themselves. They were the United States of America. 252. Washington's Movements. — While Congress was giving its time to the making of a nation, Washington and his men were struggling at New York against a powerful English army helped by a strong British war fleet. Washington had arrived in New York in April, and in June, Howe had come from Halifax with the troops that Washington had driven out of Boston, and had encamped on Staten Island. A little later, Howe's brother, Admiral Howe, had come to New York with the British fleet. The plan of the British was to gain control of the Hudson River and the Lake Champlain valley, and thus fence off rebellious New England from the rest of the colonies. Upon a number of hills southwest of Brooklyn, over which THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 203 the city has since spread, Washington built earth-works. He also built works north of New York, and in a general way prepared for defensive fighting for the Hudson River, should he be driven back from Long Island. 253. The Battle of Long Island. — Late in August, Howe crossed from Staten Island to Long Island, defeated The Battle of Long Island Retreat of the Americans under General Sterling After a painting by Chappel the Americans, and drove them back to Brooklyn Heights, Dreading to attack the entrenchments, Howe sought to sur- round the Americans with his greater force and lay siege to their works. In Washington's army, there were men from New England who were skillful boatmen. To them was given the task of ferrying the troops across the East River from Brooklyn to New York. On August 29, 1776, a foggy night, such as is common in New York Harbor, the Ameri- can army escaping capture was moved to Manhattan Island. 254. Retreat to Harlem. — Pressed now by a much stronger force, Washington, checking his pursuers with great skill, 204 AMERICAN HISTORY fell slowly back. He had built on Harlem Heights a fort called Fort Washington. Seeing that he could not hold it, he ordered his troops to leave it, but his orders were not obeyed. The fort was taken by the British and a large part of the garrison was captured. It was now the middle of November. For weeks Wash- ington had held the enemy in check, there being some severe fighting at White Plains. Fort Washington and Fort Lee, on opposite sides of the Hudson, had been built to keep the British fleet from going up the river. Soon after the fall of Fort Washington, Fort Lee was abandoned. The loss of these forts gave control of the lower Hudson to the British, but works had been built at West Point, so strong that the fleet could not pass them, and so the Hudson, as a whole, was still held by the Americans. Though driven away from New York City with heavy loss, Washington still held what he had been lighting for. The fort at West Point was now the key to the Hudson River, and was the most impor- tant point in the whole country. 255. Washington Enters New Jersey. — Washington crossed the Hudson into New Jersey with a portion of his army. His plan was to escape the enemy on the New York side, and, at the same time, be ready to check General Corn- waUis in New Jersey, whose force threatened Philadelphia. He ordered his second in command. General Charles Lee, to bring over the rest of the army to help him. Unknown to Washington, or to the patriots, Lee was a traitor. He did not come with his command, and Washington gave up his plan of fighting Cornwallis. Instead of winning a victory as he had hoped, Washington with his part of the army fell back across New Jersey, pressed by the British troops. He crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 205 while Lee's command crossed into New Jersey and remained in the northern part of the state to defend the Hudson. Lee was taken prisoner by the British soon after this, and it was a long time before he was exchanged. The king was gaining ground against the patriots and CornwaUis's army was driving Washington's. People in New Jersey were giving up to the king; men by hundreds were deserting from Washington's army, because they were worn out and discouraged. Congress, fearful of capture, moved from Philadelphia to Baltimore. At the end of the year, the time for which many of the soldiers had enlisted would have passed, and many who would not desert, could then feel free to go to their homes. Thus Washington's army became small and weak, and would soon be still smaller and weaker. Something must be done, and done quickly, or the rebellion would be crushed, and the Declaration of Indepen- dence be made a by- word. It was now December, and near Christmas time. Wash- ington's little force was on the Pennsylvania side of the Del- aware River, while the troops of Cornwallis were on the New Jersey side, and a force of Hessians was at Trenton. 256. Battle of Trenton. — Washington had wisely seized all the boats along the Delaware for many miles. Thus he could cross the river at will, while the British could not. It was the custom of the Hessian people to have a good time at Christmas, with much eating and drinking. Christ- mas night that year was bitter cold, and the Delaware was full of floating ice. There was no Christmas cheer in Wash- ington's camp. His men, half-shod, half-clothed, half-fed, were plodding along through snow and sleet, over frozen ground, to the river, which they crossed in boats. All suf- fered much, and some perished from the cold. On the 2o6 AMERICAN HISTORY morning after Christmas, they were at Trenton and rushed to the attack. The Hessians, unfit to fight, quickly gave up. More than a thousand prisoners were taken and a wealth of war supplies, worth more to the patriots than gold. Washington Cki THE Delaware In this battle, General Greene of Rhode Island was very helpful, foreshowing the skill that was yet to make him famous as Washington's right arm, in the fighting that was to come. There was also a young soldier there, James Monroe, who was one day to be President of the nation for which he was fighting. Moving quickly, Washington recrossed the river with the captured Hessians and the spoils of war. It was a wonderful victory. It put new hope into the hearts of the patriot soldiers. ''Wg will stay," they cried, 'even though our time of service ends at New Year's Day. Get for us a little of the money that is due and we will stand by the general that can work wonders with us." THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 207 257. Money for the Soldiers; Robert Morris. — In Philadelphia there lived a very wealthy man named Robert Morris. His heart was in the cause. Washington begged him to raise some money for the soldiers. With what he gave himself and what he got from his friends, Morris raised $50,000 and sent it to Washington, who paid it to his men. Robert Morris was born in England, but came to America when he v/as about thirteen years old. At the beginning of the Revolutionary War, he was one of the richest merchants in Philadelphia. He was a mem- ber of the Continental Congress and one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He obtained large sums of money for the Continental Army and in this way was of ^"'^^'^^ ^^"^"^^^ great help in the campaign against Cornwallis. After the war, he framed a plan for paying off the pubhc debt of the United States, but it failed because the different states would not agree to it. Robert Morris was one of the framers of our national Constitution and nominated Washington for president of the Constitutional Convention. After Wash- ington was elected President, he offered the place of Secretary of the Treasury to Morris, which the latter dechned. When an old man, this great patriot lost his fortune, and under the laws of that period, suffered imprisonment for debt. 258. Battle of Princeton. — W' ashington soon went back to Trenton and encamped. Cornwallis began to close in on Washington with his troops, and at length fronted him with 2o8 AMERICAN HISTORY a much greater force at Trenton. One night, January 2, 1777, he saw Washington's campfires twinkhng in the dark- ness, and said, "l will bag the old fox in the morning." With the coming of daylight the British advanced in battle lines, to take an easy victory. But, the "old fox" and his men had vanished, even as they had vanished from Brooklyn Heights. Leaving a few men to keep up the camp fires, and to make a noise as of digging, so as to deceive the enemy, Washington had moved away early in the night, and at day- break had attacked the British troops at Princeton. Instead of fighting a hopeless battle at Trenton, he won a briUiant victory at Princeton and captured a great number of prisoners. Washington's second victory forced the British to give up their purpose of taking Philadelphia, and made them fall back to New York. He had regained New Jersey, and he now threatened the British at New York. The Hudson River was now, more than ever, safely in the hands of the Americans. 259. Benjamin Franklin. — Soon after the Declaration of Independence, Franklin went to France to seek help for the new nation. While Cornwalhs was chasing Washington, and the Americans seemed ready to give up, France was not inchned to give open aid. But after the victories of Trenton and Princeton, Franklin began to make headway in his work. Officers skilled in the art of war began coming to America, to serve under Washington — Lafayette, Baron De Kalb, Baron Steuben, Kosciusko, and others less famous. Money was loaned to Congress freely by France and Holland, and Franklin was promised further help. In many ways, Benjamin Franklin was the greatest American of the i8th century. As patriot and statesman, he was active and public- spirited, wise and prudent. Born in Boston, in 1706, the son of a candle-maker, he went at an early age to Philadelphia, THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 209 where he founded a newspaper. Soon afterward he began publishing Poor Richard's Almanac, which became widely known. Postmaster at Philadelphia, he later became deputy- postmaster of the colonies, and for many years was a member of the Provincial Assembly of Pennsylvania. At the beginning of the French and Indian War, Franklin had prepared a "Plan of Union" of all the colonies, which was, however, rejected by the Colonial Congress sitting at Albany. The services and counsel of this wise man were as help- ful to England during the French and Indian War, as to the colonists during the struggle for independence from the mother country. This great statesman was the defender of the rights of the common people. Sent by the Pennsylvania Assembly, he appeared for the first time in England in 1752, to demand that in raising money for public purposes the land owned by the proprietors of that colony should bear its just share of tax- ation. At the request of several colonies, he visited England twelve years later, and protested not only against the pro- posed Stamp Act, but against all taxing of the colonies with- out their consent. To his efforts was largely due the repeal of the Stamp Act. He earnestly tried to prevent war be- tween Great Britain and the colonies. He was one of the makers and signers of the Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Franklin 2IO AMERICAN HISTORY During the Revolutionary War, Franklin was in France as an agent of this country, and was successful in procuring, by treaty, that help from the French people which was so neces- sary to us during the war. When our independence was won, he was one of the signers of the treaty between this country Franklin at the Coikt oi- Im< am e and England. Later, as a member of the executive council, he acted as governor of Pennsylvania, and was one of the framers of our Constitution. Not only a sincere and steadfast patriot, the many-sided Franklin was a searching student of the wonders of nature, as well as a skillful inventor. He proved that lightning and electricity are the same force. He introduced the lightning- rod and invented the Franklin stove. For his activities in science and statesmanship, he was honored both here and abroad. After many years of ceaseless activity and useful- ness, he died in Philadelphia in 1790. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 211 260. The Campaign in New York State in 1777. — The British troops had been driven from New England, had failed to get control of the Hudson, and to take Philadelphia; nor had they gained a foothold in the South. In 1777 the king's war managers planned to gain control of the Hudson and to carry the war into New England. They had ceased to consider the rebels a weak enemy, and they pre- pared to make their mightiest effort to conquer them. One army, under General Burgoyne, was to make its way south from Canada, by way of Lake Champlain to Albany, at the head of navigation on the Hudson. Another, under Colonel St. Leger, was to go by vessel up the St. Lawrence into Lake Ontario, and thence make its way eastward through the Mohawk Valley to Albany. Yet another army, under General William Howe, was to move from New York City, and make its way north to Albany. £31. Burgoyne's March. — Burgoyne's army was the best that the Enghsh had in the field. He started with eight thou- sand men, and was joined by a body of several hundred Indians. He landed and easily took Fort Ticonderoga, and then tried to overtake the Americans, who were retreating to Fort George. General Schuyler, with a small army of Amer- icans, felled great trees across the roads, and in every way delayed the advance of the British, who for three weeks made scarcely a mile a day. At length Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, but both men and horses were suffering from starvation and weariness. 262. Bennington. — There were at Bennington, not far away, large stores of supplies for the American troops. Burgoyne sent a thousand Hessian troops to Bennington to take the supplies, and to get the Tories there to join his force. The farmers, under Stark, met the Hessians at 212 AMERICAN HISTORY Bennington, and killed or captured nearly all of them, August i6, 1777. Instead of the Tories joining Burgoyne, many of them, maddened by the dreadful deeds of his Indian alhes, joined the American army. 263. St. Leger. — • St. Leger's army had made its way down the Mohawk Valley to Fort Schuyler, later called Fort Stanwix. Finding it too strong to be carried by assault, St. Leger and his troops surrounded it and tried to starve out its defenders. This gave the patriots of that part of the country a chance to gather, and a force under General Herkimer marched to attack St. Leger's command. While the besieging force was weakened by the absence of those who had gone to fight Herkimer, the Americans in the fort rushed out and overran St. Leger's camp, carrying back into the fort much plunder. Schuyler, facing Burgoyne, heard of the danger to Fort Schuyler, and sent to its aid a small force under General Arnold. Arnold by a shrewd trick, caused St. Leger to think that he was about to be overwhelmed by a great army. His Indians ran away, and St. Leger with his troops followed, not stopping until all were safe in Canada. 264. Howe's Army. — Howe's army, that was to come up the Hudson, was needed, for St. Leger's force had vanished, and Burgoyne's was in great trouble, and yet far from Albany, where the armies were to meet. This army, had it gone forward as expected, might have saved Burgoyne and St. Leger from attack. Through a blunder in England, Howe had not received his orders to go up the Hudson, and so decided to move on Philadelphia. 265. Howe Moves against Philadelphia. — The war-ships carried Howe's force of 18,000 men up Chesapeake Bay to Maryland, and from there he marched on Philadelphia. But THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 213 Washington had been busy and his army stood between Howe and Philadelphia. Howe advanced, but was checked by Washington on the Brandywine River, at a crossing called Chad's Ford. After a severe battle, in which the British suffered most, their stronger force compelled Washington to fall .back, and Howe entered Philadelphia in September, 1777. i HBI^^ 1 St ^ H^w i 1 m im ■n^ ^**t^'^ ^^^^ij^ i^^^^i ^i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i 1 a^ ■ wM ^^^^^H Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga Washington attacked Howe at Germantown, near Philadel- phia, October 4, and though he did not win a victory, he taught Howe that he could spare no troops for New York. Howe's failure to go to the help of Burgoyne sealed the fate of Burgoyne's army, now hard pressed by Schuyler's forces. 266. Burgoyne at Saratoga. — On September ig, Burgoyne in a battle near Saratoga made a desperate attempt to fight his way clear. Neither army gained a victory, and on October 7, Burgoyne tried again, with no better success. He fell back to Saratoga and there, on the 17th, he surrendered. General Gates, a political plotter, had been placed by Con- 214 AMERICAN HISTORY gress in command of the American troops, so the surrender was made to him. The credit of the victory was really due to Schuyler, and to Arnold and Morgan, who served under him. 267. Valley Forge. — Winter was coming, and Washington went into winter quarters with his men at a place called Wasiiixc.ton and Lafayette at Vai.i.ey Forge Valley Forge, about twenty miles from Philadelphia. There he could watch Howe* and attack him if he moved. It was a hard winter, and while the British troops were well clad and well housed in Philadelphia, Washington's men, living in huts, and only half supplied with food and clothes, suffered terribly. There are worse things than fighting, to bear in army life. The heroism of the Continental soldiers was more severely tested by that dreadful winter than by all the fighting of the war. The winter was not wasted. Among the skillful officers who had come from Europe to help the Americans, vy^as Baron Steuben. During the winter he drilled the American troops, and made every man a far better and more skillful soldier. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 215 268. The Treaty with France. — The year 1778 opened full of promise to the Americans. Frankhn had succeeded in his effort to get aid from France, and a treaty had been made, in February, between that country and the United States, under which the two nations were to fight England. France lent great sums of money, and sent a fleet and a small army to America, to fight under the command of Washington. France also caused Spain to declare war against England. Thus, England was now fighting against three nations. There was sorrow in England and joy in America. Then it was that our first national song was heard, and "Yankee Doodle" was sung in every village and in every camp. The king of England now ceased to be arrogant and pleaded for peace. He would forgive the rebels, and grant all that the colonies wanted. He was told that he would be fought in America until he had withdrawn his last soldier. 269. English Leave Philadelphia ; Monmouth. — Gen- eral Clinton had taken the place of General Howe at Phila- delphia. He knew that if his army remained there until the French arrived, Washington would attack him, and that with a French fleet in the Delaware, he would be forced to surren- der. In June, 1778, he started with 17,000 men for New York, but Washington caught his retreating army at Monmouth, New Jersey, and gave battle. General Charles Lee, who had been captured by the British, had been exchanged, and Wash- ington, not knowing his treachery, had given him his old command. At Monmouth, Lee disobeyed orders and Clin- ton's army escaped to New York. Lee was driven out of the army, but not until many years after peace was declared was it known what a traitor he had been. The fight at Mon- mouth was the last important battle that took place in the North. 2l6 AMERICAN HISTORY Washington, following Clinton, crossed the Hudson and en- camped at White Plains. Then, for nearly two years, he con- tinued to watch and to threaten the English army at New York, while the war went on at other points. 270. The Iroquois Indians. — The Iroquois Indians in the Revolution fought on the side of the English and Tories. They had fought with St. Leger and Burgoyne, and in 1778, in parts of New York state and Pennsylvania, they had attacked the colonists with horrible sav- agery. In 1779, Washington sent an army to punish these Indians, and their homes were destroyed. This left them ex- posed to a severe winter and they fled to Canada, where hardships and sickness were so severe that their power was broken. 271. The West. — Virginia had always claimed territory beyond the mountains in the West. Foreseeing that Eng- land was to be beaten in the war, Patrick Henry, who was governor of that state, sent a force under command of George Rogers Clarke to hold these lands, that they might be claimed from England when peace should be declared. Clarke captured some forts in the West that had been taken from the French, years before, but were now held by a few Brit- ish troops. Among these were Fort Vincennes in what is now Indiana, and the fort at Kaskaskia on the Mississippi River. Thus the West was won; for as Governor Henry had foreseen, it came to the young nation when peace was George Rogers Clark THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 217 declared, because it was held by the Americans. The Mis- sissippi River, instead of the Alleghany Mountains, became the western boundary of the early United States. 272. Arnold's Treason. — The worst traitor to the patriot cause was Charles Lee, and another betrayer of his country was a man who, in the early part of the war, was one of its greatest heroes. General Benedict Arnold. He was the hero of Quebec, drove St. Leger back to Canada, and more than any other, brought about the surrender of Burgoyne. He carried stars that were badges of honor, and he was admired and loved by Washington, who had placed him in command of Philadelphia. Charges were made that his accounts with the government were not correct, and after trial by court- martial, he was sentenced to be reprimanded by Washington, who performed this unpleasant task as gently as possible. Congress had not treated Arnold fairly, placing inferior men ahead of him in rank, and at one time withholding his pay for a year. Angry at this treatment, he became bitter in his feelings toward his country, and sought revenge. The British wanted control of the Hudson River, which could be had by holding the fort at West Point. Arnold promised to get command of it and contrive that they should capture it. He asked Washington to give him command of West Poiirt, and Washington granted his request. According to the bar- gain made with them, Arnold arranged for its capture by the British. For his treachery he was to receive a large sum of money and was to be made a colonel in the British army. A young British officer. Major Andre, was sent by the Eng- lish general to arrange for the taking of the fort. He was arrested near Tarry town, on his way back to New York, after a talk with Arnold, and papers concerning the plot were 2l8 AMERICAN HISTORY found upon him. Arnold, discovering that his treason was known, fled from the fort to a British ship in the river, and escaped. During the rest of the war he fought on the Brit- ish side. After the war, the unfortunate man spent the rest of his hfe in lonehness, sorrow, and remorse, and died in Lon- don without friends. Andre was hanged as a spy. Battle between the "Bon Homme Richard" and the "Serapis" 273. John Paul Jones. — Little fighting was done on the ocean in the early years of the war, although the thirteen vessels ordered by Congress, in 1775, had been built. The citizens of New Hampshire furnished a ship called the Ran- ger, which, under command of John Paul Jones, did much damage to England's shipping. The French had fitted up and armed a merchant vessel which they named the Bon Homme Richard, and Jones was made captain of it. The Bon Homme Richard was not a strong lighting craft, but what she lacked in strength was more than made up by the stout-heartedness of her commander. Cruising THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 219 off the east coast of England, the Bon Homme Richard fell in with a British war-ship, the Serapis, and Jones ran his ship alongside and lashed the two together. Thus the battle became a hand-to-hand fight. "Do you surrender?" shouted the Enghsh captain. "I have not yet begun to light," answered Jones, though his ' The Siege of Charleston After the painting by A. Chappel rigging was in tatters, his timbers shattered, and his decks covered with dead. An accidental explosion of powder on board the Serapis killed many of her men and her captain surrendered. So badly was the Richard damaged, that Jones went aboard the Serapis and the Richard sank. 274. The War in the South. — In 1778 the British landed in Georgia, took Savannah and some smaller towns, and in a short time the state was under their control. In 1780 a large part of the British army of the North, under CUnton and 2 20 AMERICAN HISTORY Cornwallis, was sent south by sea, and landed at Savannah. Thence the army moved to Charleston, which was taken with three thousand prisoners. This was the first important suc- cess that had come to the British for a long time, and Clin- ton went back to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. Small bands of patriots commanded by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, who knew every foot of forest, field, and swamp of that wild country, constantly annoyed the British. The work of these roving bands was valuable, not only because of the trouble it made for the enemy, but also on account of the spirit which it stirred up among the people. This prevented them from giving up and swearing allegiance to the king. Washington, knowing how needful it was to help the patriots in South Carolina and Georgia, wished to send one of his best generals there with troops from the North. He chose General Greene for this purpose, but General Gates went to Congress, and succeeded in getting himself appointed in place of Greene. 275. Battle of Camden. — Gates went south and Cornwal- lis defeated his army at Camden, South Carolina, in August, 1780. Baron De Kalb fought gallantly, but Gates ran away and at length the patriots were forced from the field. Gates had brought upon the Americans one of the worst defeats that they had as yet sustained. Encouraged by this victory, the British forced the fighting and by early fall had subdued South Carolina more fully than ever. The Tories had rallied for the king and there was bitter strife between them and the patriots of the state. 276. Battle of King's Mountain. — Moving to North Caro- lina, Cornwallis raised a force of about twelve hundred men, and sent them into the mountainous parts of South and North Carolina to rally the Tories there. The backwoods REFERENCE MAP FOR THE REVOLUTION SOUTHERN STATES THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 221 hunters and farmers attacked this force at King's Mountain, in South Carolina, defeating it disastrously. On hearing of this defeat, Cornwallis moved back into South Carohna. Taught a lesson by the defeat of Gates, Congress now allowed Washington to send General Nathaniel Greene to take charge in the South. Greene had only about two thousand men, half clad, and with few weapons. Thus, at the beginning of 1781, Washington, waiting for a chance to strike, was watching Clinton in the North, and Greene, his best general, with an almost hopeless task before him, was in the South. Knowing that Cornwallis proposed moving into North Carohna, Greene, dividing his small force, sent Morgan against him in one direction, while he took another. Tarle- ton, the ablest ofhcer that Cornwallis had, was sent to look for Morgan, who defeated him at the battle of Cowpens. Cornwallis now began to pursue Greene's weak force, which had been joined by Morgan's band. Greene fell back across North Carolina into Virginia, where he received reinforce- ments, and coming back to North Carolina fought Cornwal- lis at Guilford Court House. Though the British were not driven from the field, they suffered a severe loss and fell back to the coast at Wilmington, whence they moved to Virginia. Greene in a few months had regained all of the South except Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah. 277. Yorktown. — Cornwallis retreated into Virginia, to join Arnold, the traitor, who was in command of a force there. Opposed to Arnold, was a force of patriots under Lafayette. Cornwallis took command of the British troops and thought prudent to fall back to the coast, so that in case of need, the British fleet could help him. He went to Yorktown on Ches- apeake Bay, which he fortified, and waited there. 222 AMERICAN HISTORY It was now October, 1781, and there were British forces at Savannah, Charleston, Yorktown, and New York. Greene was looking after the forces in the South, Washington was attending to those at New York, La- fayette was closing in on the force at Yorktown, and a French fleet bearing an army was com- ing from France. 278. " The Sur- render of Cornwallis. — Washington gave up his purpose of at- tacking Clinton and started south. This was one of the swift and sudden moves, such as he had made for Trenton and Princeton. Sketch-map of Yorktown AA = French and American batteries BB = French batteries C = British redoubt RRR = French ships The great general knew that Lafayette had penned Corn- wallis in at Yorktown. He also knew that a French fleet, that would keep the British fleet from helping Cornwallis, would soon be in the bay. If he hurried his men there to help Lafayette, Cornwallis must lose his army, even as Burgoyne had lost his. The French ships, having driven off a British fleet sent from New York, met Washington at the head of Chesapeake Bay and carried his men to Yorktown. The army of Cornwallis was doomed. The force in front of it was too strong to be 2 24 AMERICAN HISTORY broken through; the French fleet kept it from receiving sup- plies by sea; and it must either fight a hopeless battle, or stay in its works and starve. On October 19, 1781, Cornvvallis surrendered his army of about seven thousand rrien. 279. Peace. — Washington could now easily take New York, and the king and his advisers knew it. The British troops remained in Charleston, Savannah, and New York for many months; but the fighting was over and arrangements for a settlement were being made. On the igth of April, 1783, exactly eight years from the day when the British fired on the Minute-men at Lexington, the Continental army was disbanded by order of Congress. 280. The Treaty. — In the peace settlement, there were many things to be considered. France and Spain were par- ties to the war. Each had much to say as to the terms of peace and wanted her share of the spoils. France wanted to regain at least some of the territory she had lost in the French and Indian War. She had hopes also that some of the lands west of the mountains might come to her, and she did not favor giving it all to the United States. But the American statesmen, Franklin, Adams, and Jay, gained what they demanded, as follows: I St. The new nation was to be absolutely independent of England. 2d. The Mississippi River was to be the western boundary. 3d. The fishermen of New England and all the rest of the country were to be free to fish, as much as they might choose, on the Banks of Newfoundland. Florida was given to Spain. What was then known as Florida took in the whole of the peninsula and the land for many miles back from the coast along the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi River. As Spain already held the land west THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 225 of the great river, she was then the neighbor of the United States on the south and west. England, holding Canada, was neighbor on the north, the eastern front of the United States being the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. The treaty of peace was signed, at Paris, France, September 3, 1783. 281. The Greatness of Washington. — George Washington, our first President, was born in Virginia, February 22, 1732. In early life he was a public surveyor, and as such gained a knowledge of the surrounding country which was later of much value to him when he led his soldiers through the wilderness. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress and was chosen commander-in-chief of the Continental armies. His untiring energy caused the British to evacuate Boston, while the battles of Trenton and Princeton stamped him as one of the greatest generals in the history of war. After the surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga, he was the victim of a base plot to deprive him of his command. This happened when, with heroic patience and bravery, he was holding to- gether his starving and freezing soldiers at Valley Forge. He gave his service to his country without pay, asking only that his necessary expenses might be paid. As time passes we are better able to measure the greatness of Washington. His genius as a soldier had won him success against the skill of England's best generals, commanding her best troops, and armed with the best weapons then known. His greatness as a man enabled him to overcome treachery, slander, and lack of support. His second in command, forced on him by a weak Congress, was a traitor; his unpaid and starving troops were often inclined to leave him. There were jealousies in his army between troops from different colonies; and quarrels among his officers, many of whom, unfit for their positions, had been appointed by Congress against his wishes. 2 26 AMERICAN HISTORY Never before, in the history of war, have the great qualities of any one man shone forth more grandly than did those of Washington in the great rebellion which his genius and devo- tion turned into a great Revolution. SUMMARY 1. The British troops at Boston. 2. Gage sends a force to Lexington and Concord to destroy supplies. 3. Skirmish with the Minute-men at Lexington. 4. The British are attacked by the Minute-men at Concord Bridge and flee. 5. Gage is besieged in Boston. 6. Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point with great stores of supplies are taken. 7. The second Continental Congress meets at Philadelphia. 8. The Battle of Bunker Hill, a dearly bought British victory. 9. Washington is made Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. 10. Attempt to take Quebec and Montreal. The attack on Quebec fails. 11. The British driven from Boston. 12. British attempt to take the Carolinas ends in failure. 13. Washington moves his troops to Brookl\-n. 14. The king hires Hessian soldiers. 15. Congress adopts The Declaration of Independence. Fourth of July. 16. Battle of Long Island; Washington defeated. 17. Washington retreats to the Harlem River. ^ 18. Battle of Trenton. 19. Escape of Washington's army. Battle of Princeton. 20. Promise of aid from France. 21. British campaign. Surrender of Burgoyne. 22. The British take Philadelphia. 23. Valley Forge. 24. France aids the colonies. 25. The British give up Philadelphia. 26. George Rogers Clarke occupies the Northwest Territory. 27. John Paul Jones defeats the British on the sea. 28. General Arnold turns traitor and tries to deliver West Point to the British. 29. The British victory over General Gates at Camden. 30. British defeats in South Carolina. 31. Greene and Comwallis at Guilford Court House. Cornwallis retreats. 32. Greene drives the British out of the Carolinas. 2,2,. Cornwallis retires to Yorktown. 34. Surrender of Cornwallis. Treaty of Peace. End of the War. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 227 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Why was General Gage sent to occupy Boston with British troops? Why did he send some of his force to Lexington and Concord? 2. What two forts were taken by the patriot soldiers in the northern part of New York State, shortly after the fight at Concord and Lexington? In what war had these forts been taken before? 3. Why was the capture of these forts important to the patriots? 4. When did the second Continental Congress meet? Where? . What was done by this Congress? --^^^^*-<— ^ / ■ - /. . -,.^<_,,^__ 5. Give an account of the first great battle of the war. qs. ^ . j -j 7 6. Give an account of the movemenj against Quebec and Montreal. '•^■■'*^^ 7. When were the British driven out ofBoston? How did they go and to what place? /f - ■ '-y , -^ , ,> 8. Who were the Hessians? J^ -7 i, C~~^ 9. What two battles were won in the winter of 1 776-1 777 by the Americans? Why were these victories important? 10. What leading American citizen was in France, seeking aid for his country? 11. What was the British plan of campaign for 1777? Name three British ; generals who were to take part in the campaign. What was each to do? r\ f 2_^jL,^^f^^^3X was the result of this British campaign? What American generals t_U<:^(^- ,-1**^-.^^ ' were opposed to the British during this campaign? Where did the y 'Ja^ principal fighting occur? • yi. Why did Howe fail to do his part in the campaign? Where did he go? Who _ ' ^^''^^^ opposed him? What battle was fought? ' " ^'^ """Js^i ' ' ' ^■^^^^'^*-*' "* -^^^^ 13. Where was Washington's army encamped during the winteroTi 7 7 7^7 7'S^ *^ Who did valuable work in drilling Washington's soldiers during that winter? 14. Why did George Rogers Clarke go west with troops? Did he succeed? 15. What prominent American general became a traitor to his country? When? What fort did he try to surrender to the British? Whj' was the position of that fort important? 16. Give an account of John Paul Jones's greatest sea fight. 17. What American general was first sent to the Carolinas to drive out the British? Was he successful? Who was put in his place? 18. !^me nv6 mportant battles occurring in South Carolina. Oii^^iij^orth Carolina. _ix , ' * [ 19. When did Cornwallis surrender? Where? To whom? What treaty was Kr I.', /\igned ending the war? When? Where? What was settled by this \ treaty? What territory went to Spain by this treaty? What nation held the land west of the Mississippi River at the close of the war? ''M* CHAPTER XII ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION — THE CONSTITUTION 282. The States, after the War for Independence to the War of 1812. — Most of the people in these new states spoke English. There were, however, Dutch in New York, and scattered throughout the country were people who had come from different parts of Europe. Throughout the states there were differences in occupations and manner of living, owing to differences in climate and character of country. There were no large plantations in the North as there were in the larger stretches of level country in the hot South. The climate in the northern states prevented the cultivation of rice and cotton, and thus, slave-labor not being needed there, slavery was gradually abohshed in that section of the country. The people of the New England states were ship builders, fishermen, manufacturers, merchants, and farmers, while those of the South were planters and owners of slaves. There were disputes between the people of New England and those of the southern states with regard to the carrying trade. New England, which was a ship-building section, wanted to secure all of the business of carrying goods in ships by excluding British vessels from American ports. The south- ern states, on the other hand, desired that cotton, rice, and other products of that region, should be shipped in the vessels of any nation that wished to buy them. Tariff taxes were also laid upon goods carried for sale from one state to another, — and this caused ill-feehng between the different states. The eastern states were willing to give to Spain control ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 229 of the lower Mississippi River in return for the trade of that country and her colonies. Those Americans living on the banks of that river objected to this, as it shut off their goods from being carried to the sea, except upon such terms as the Spanish might choose. This caused ill-feehng between the people of the East and those of the West. Trouble between states also arose because certain states, which had large harbors for shipping, laid taxes upon goods coming to their ports and intended for other states. 283. Articles of Confederation. — From the time of the Declaration of Independence to about the close of the war, the states, in so far as they formed a nation, were governed by the Continental Congress. The Congress had been simply meetings of men sent by the several states to speak for them. There were no strong laws by which it could control. No state could be made to obey Congress. As the war went on, it began to appear that there was need of a stronger union, to prevent the states from drifting apart. Without stronger bonds, there could be no United States such as the Declaration of Independence named. In 1776 a committee of Congress drew up a plan of Union of the states called The Articles of Confederation. Many states were slow in ratifying the Articles of Confederation owing to disputes about claims to land west of the Alleghany Mountains. The states making no claims to such land said that it should be allotted to all the states ahke. This diffi- culty was met when the states claiming these lands finally ceded them to the United States. Under the Articles of Con- federation Congress alone had the power of making treaties, yet it could not enforce them, if the states withheld their consent. Under them Congress had not much more power over the states than it had before. It could declare war, 230 AMERICAN HISTORY but it could not raise troops. It could declare a tax, but it could not collect it. As one great statesman well said, "Congress could declare anything, but could do nothing." After the war, when Congress wanted money with which to pay the troops, it had no power to compel the states to furnish it. The Articles of Confederation provided for no Supreme Federal Court, and the Congress consisted of only one body, representing not the people, but the several states. Each state had only one vote, no matter how many delegates it might have in Congress. The Confederation Congress could take no action without the consent of nine states, and the Articles of Confederation could not be changed or amended without the consent of all the states. Where there had been thirteen colonies, each one independent of the others, there were now thirteen states, almost as independent of one another as they had been before. The common danger of war had kept the states together, but now that the war had ended, they were busy with their own interests and lost respect for the Congress that had no power. Some of the states at times even failed to send del- egates to Congress. This lessened the chance of Congress having the nine votes necessary to pass any measure, and made it almost impossible for the Articles to be amended. Neither before nor after the adoption of the Articles of Con- federation did Congress have more than slight control over the states. And yet the Articles had been framed to make a "perpetual union" of the states. Most of the suffering of the troops during the war was due to the refusal of the states to supply money when it was called for by Congress. The United States, as far as they were united, had no President or officer to serve as a general governor of the nation. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 231 Copper Cent struck soon after the Peace 284. Hard Times. — Money was scarce; hard times came. State after state began to issue paper money, as they had done during the war. The national money had become worthless, and the money of the states was not much better. England placed heavy taxes on all goods from the United States, thus injuring American commerce, while, under the Articles of Confederation, the United States Congress had no power, unless by con- sent of all the states, to tax English goods coming to this coun- try. The nation was deeply in debt, and so was each state. So also were nearly all the business men. Hundreds of houses and farms were seized by the sheriffs and sold for taxes or for debts, and worthy people, for no fault of their own, lost their property. There was such a strong feeling against high taxes and worthless money that riots occurred in some parts of the country. Daniel Shays of Massachusetts, who had been a captain in the Continental Army, raised a force of about a thousand men and going to Springfield, Mass., tried to seize the arms and ammunition at the national armory. This showed that the people were ready to fight against distressful taxes. 285. Leading Men. — Washington was as free with his advice, as a citizen, as he had been with his services as a soldier. People began to see that he was as great as a states- man, as he had been as a general. As he had been first in war, he was now first in peace, and more than ever he had come to stand first in the hearts of his countrymen. He declared that only a strong central government could save the country. 232 AMERICAN HISTORY There were others than Washington who were great men. Alexander Hamilton of New York was one; James Madison of Virginia and Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania were others. John Jay was another; Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Independence, was yet another. Alexander Hamilton was born in one of the islands of the West Indies in 1757. When fifteen years of age he came to the American colonies. After attending school in New Jersey, he entered Kings, now Columbia College, in New York City. There were many Tories in New York at that time who were very bitter in their feelings toward the American patriots. While a student in New York, and still under twenty years of age, young Hamilton made an eloquent and patriotic speech in defence of American liberty. This speech at once stamped him as a youth of much promise and brought him into i)ublic notice. He served as a lieutenant in the battle of Long Island, covering the retreat of the Americans with great skill. He was with Washington at Trenton and Princeton, and led a desperate and successful charge at the siege of Yorktown. He was for a time secretary and aide to the commander-in- chief. Hamilton was a great leader in the cause of Ameri- can independence, becoming after the war a lawyer and a member of the Confederation Congress. He was a delegate to the convention which framed our national Constitution and did more than any one else to secure its passage and Alexander Hamilton ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 233 31 E X I c The United States at the Close oe the Revolution 234 AMERICAN HISTORY ratification. In this effort he was ably helped by James Madison and John Jay. He became secretary of the treasury in Washington's cabinet and proposed a scheme for raising money for public expenses, which was in use for many years. He used his influence to defeat Aaron Burr for the Presi- dency in 1800, and for the governorship of the state of New York in 1804. This so angered Burr that he sent a challenge to Hamilton to fight a duel. The two men met at Weehawken, on the shore of the Hudson River opposite New York City. Hamilton was killed and the entire nation mourned his loss. His grave is in Trinity churchyard, New York City. 286. The Ordinance of 1787. — One question before Con- gress was: What shall be done with the great country reach- ing to the Mississippi west of the mountains? By the treaty of peace, England had given up her claim to this vast stretch of land. Some of the states remembered that, as colonies, they had owned lands beyond the mountains. The people of Virginia said that their state reached to the Mississippi River, and a like claim was made by the people of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Connecticut claimed a wide strip west of Pennsylvania, reaching to the great river, and Massachusetts claimed another lying north of that of Con- necticut. New York also had claims to western lands. One by one, the states gave up their land to the nation, until nearly all the country west of the Alleghanies, east of the Mississippi, and north of the Ohio, belonged to the United States. Much of this great extent of land was rich and fertile, and people began to settle there. They urged Con- gress to make laws for that country, and in 1787 Congress passed the Ordinance of 1787 for the Government of the Northwest Territory. What was then the Northwest Terri- tory is now the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and THE CONSTITUTION 235 Wisconsin. Among other things it was settled: That there should be no slavery in that territory; that all living there should enjoy absolute freedom of religion; that pubHc schools should be built and means found for keeping them up; that when there were people enough, the territory should be divided into states, which should be admitted into the Union of the United States. This was the wisest and most important law that the old Confederation Congress, 1781 to 1789, passed. 287. Constitution of the United States. — As the weakness of the Articles of Confederation became clearly seen, it was determined to change them. This result .was reached at a convention held at Annapolis in 1786, at which, however, delegates from only a few states were present. This conven- tion urged that a meeting of delegates from all the states should be held for the purpose of changing the Articles of Confederation. In the latter part of May, 1787, men sent by their states met at Philadelphia to plan for improvements in the Articles of Confederation, and Washington was chosen president of the meeting. Instead of changing the Articles, the convention after four months' work framed a body of laws which was to take the place of them. This new body of laws was called The Constitution of the United States. Con- gress declared on September 13, 1788, nine states having agreed to it, that the Constitution was in force. Later all the states ratified it, Rhode Island and North CaroUna being the last to do so. 288. Slavery. — There were many in the United States who had long believed that slavery was an evil, and in some states it had been declared unlawful. In 1780 Massachu- setts took such action, and the freeing of the slaves was begun in Pennsylvania. At about this time New Hampshire forbade 236 AMERICAN HISTORY slavery, and so did Rhode Island and Connecticut. The feeUng against slavery was strong in all the states. The law that forbade slavery in the Northwest Territory was voted for by members of Congress from the southern states, as well as by those from states that had taken action against slavery. Some of the makers of the Constitution wanted the bring- ing of slaves to this country forbidden, but others objected to this. So it was agreed that the Constitution should not prohibit the slave trade until 1808. But it was not stated that even then it should be forbidden. 289. Industries. — Blessed by liberty and peace, the people of the United States began to prosper. Farming went on in all the states, and since the war manufacturing, no longer kept down by England, had increased. In 1783 clock-mak- ing began in Connecticut, where it is still an important indus- try. In that year the first woolen-goods factory was built, at Newburyport, Mass. At the same time the making of cotton sewing-thread began at Pawtucket, R.I., where it is still carried on. In 1784 an American ship made a voyage to China, which was the beginning of a great American ocean trade. 290. The First President. ^ Under the Constitution, the nation was to have a President; and who was so worthy to have that honor as George Washington? He was elected President, with John Adams as Vice-President, in February, 1789. New York City was then the capital of the United States, and Washington went to New York to take office. On April 30, 1789, he stood on the balcony of Federal Hall, where now stands the Sub-Treasury building in Wall Street, New York City, and took the oath of office. The men whom the President chooses as his immediate advisers and who are the heads of the various departments of the government, THE CONSTITUTION 237 form what is called the President's cabinet. The first National Congress formed the Departments of State, Treas- ury, War, and the ofhce of Attorney- General. President Washington's cabinet was made up of the men whom he chose as heads of these departments. They were as Secretaries of Washington taking the Oath as President State, Treasury, War, and as Attorney-General — Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Henry Knox, and Edmund J. Randolph. Other departments have been added to the foregoing from time to time until there are now ten in all, each headed by a cabinet officer. The six additional departments are those of the Navy, Post-Ofhce, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor. 238 AMERICAN HISTORY 291. Population; Character of the Country. — When Wash- ington became President there were less than four milhon people living in our country, and of these about one-seventh were slaves. All, except perhaps a hundred thousand, dwelt east of the Alleghany Mountains. Indians lived in the West, and in all the states the land was largely covered with forests. The cities were small, Philadelphia being the largest, with forty-five thousand people. The United States started as a new nation in a new country, and no other nation ever had such promise of wealth and greatness. Here was endless land, never touched by the plow, so rich that it would yield ample harvests for centuries. Here was a coast, hundreds of miles long, with the best harbors in the world. Here were great rivers, on which the riches of the land might be floated to the sea. Here was water power for machinery, that could be made to do as much work as could be done by millions of horses. The forests would yield lumber to supply the world, and the hills were filled with the ores of iron, copper, lead, and the precious metals. , ' As the country gave promise of great things, so did the people. They were bred from the best stock of the human race. They were gifted with good qualities. They were inventive, quick to see the bounties of nature, and skilful in making use of them. 292. Amendments to the Constitution. — It could not be expected that the Constitution as it was at first drawn would prove perfect. It was found that there were ways in which it could be made better. During Washington's Presidency ten amendments or additions were made to the Constitution as others have been since. The reasons for this are plain. Some of the states were a great distance from others. There were differences in climate, in ways of Hving, and in thinking THE CONSTITUTION 239 in the different states. Thus the people could not agree as well about the Constitution as they would have done had all lived in one state. There were few roads, and travel was mainly by water. People who lived far apart, since they saw and knew so little of one another, were more interested, each in his own state and its affairs, than in a plan for the government of all the states. Thus, to meet the wants of the different states, and to make more sure the success of the nation, seven more amendments to the Constitution have been made at later times. 293. Tariff. — England meant to prevent the new nation from succeeding in manufactures and commerce, because such prosperity would injure her trade. The English wished to sell in America, and at the same time prevent Americans from selling in England. American statesmen declared that the young industries of this country should be "protected," and that taxes should be laid on goods from Europe, to make them more costly. This would cause buyers in this country to choose American-made goods, as being cheaper, and would give American manufacturers a better chance to sell. The taxes collected would be useful in paying the expenses of the government and in lessening the national debt. Tariff laws were passed in 1789, and thus began the "protective tariff" that has been such a matter of dispute in the politics of our country ever since. 294. The Capital. — It was thought best that the capital of the nation should be near the center of the country. The first Congress decided that after the year 1800 Washington should be the capital city, Philadelphia being the capital until that time. It was not believed that the population would extend so far westward as it has. No one thought that the 240 AMERICAN HISTORY United States would be more than an Atlantic-slope country, and Washington lay midway between Maine and Georgia. 295, The Census. — According to the Constitution, the number of Representatives in Congress from each state is fixed by its population. To carry out this law the population of each state must be determined from time to time. So Washington from the Potomac in 1800 the census was established, which provides for a counting of the people of the entire country once in ten years. The first census was taken in 1790, and since then a census has been taken every ten years. 296. Debts ; Coinage ; Banking. — During the war. Con- gress had borrowed great sums of money in our own country, and had also borrowed heavily from France and Holland. The notes given by the nation had fallen in value, because of doubt that they would be paid. " But they were the nation's notes, and honor demanded that they should be met. The payment of the debt was a great political question. It was finally decided that all the country's debts should be paid. THE CONSTITUTION 241 The nation needed a system of coinage and, abandoning the EngHsh system of pounds, shilHngs, and pence, estabhshed a decimal system, using for its money cents, dimes, and dollars. Up to the time of the issue of American coins, the Spanish silver dollar had been in common use as a trading coin. In 1792 a mint for making coins was established at Philadel- phia, and also a national bank called the Bank of the United States, with branches in the leading cities of the country. The question of having a national bank was made a matter of politics, many people believing that the Constitution gave the government no power to found one. 297. New States. — During Washington's first term of office, Vermont, which had been claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, was admitted to the Union as a state. The western part of North Carolina, known as Tennessee, and the western part of Virginia, called Kentucky, were also joined to the Union. 298. Parties. — As people became used to the new form of government differences of opinion arose and there sprang up two great parties. One, the ^deral party, believed that the nation should have greater power than the separate states. The other, the Repubhcan party, held that the nation had little authority over state affairs. This party was later called the Democratic-Republican party. The first party held that the nation was an indivisible union of states to be governed as a whole. The other inclined to the behef that the people of the United States, as a whole, could not bind the individual states by any agreement, if one or more of these states should decide to break it. This difference of opinion never ceased until, after many years, it was decided by a terrible war that this nation is not a mere partnership of states. 242 AMERICAN HISTORY 299. The French Republic. ^- In 1789 there was a rev- olution in France, when the people overthrew the kingly- government and established a republic. The States-Rights or Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson, was in full sympathy with the French Revolutionists and held that, since the French had helped us in our Revolu- tion, we should help them. It was not wise for the United States to go very far in support of the French people in all that they were doing. So thought Washington and Hamilton and their followers, the party in power; for by this time, Washington had been re-elected and was now serving his second term as President. France, the republic, had declared war against England and Spain, and demanded that the United States should join in fighting those nations. The Democratic party, led by Jefferson, favored the de- mands of the French, but the Federalists opposed them. In 1793, President Washington issued a Proclamation of Neutral- ity to the effect that the United States would not meddle with the affairs of nations in Europe. 300. The Cotton Gin. — There was not much profit in growing cotton in those days, because of the slow and tedious labor of separating the fibre from the seeds. In 1793 an ingenious New Englander, named Eli Whitney, was in the South where he saw slaves picking cotton from the seed by hand. He made a machine which he called a cotton- gin, by means of which hundreds of pounds of fibre could be separated from the seeds each day. This invention made cotton-growing very profitable and thus fixed slavery firmly in the South, because larger cotton crops could be profitably raised, and thus more slaves were needed. 301. The National Government Uses its Power. — The government needed money, and among other taxes, was one THE CONSTITUTION 243 on whiskey. Raising corn and making it into whiskey was the only way in which some farmers could get money. The tax on whiskey ruined their business, and they declared that they would not pay it. It was a matter between men of the state of Pennsylvania and the general government. It was to be seen whether the nation could enforce its laws in a state. The nation's officers were at first driven away, while others, sent by the President to explain, were not given a hear- ing. At length an army of fif- teen thousand men was sent to Pennsylvania, and at this show of force the farmers gave way. The national government had shown that it could not only make a law, but could enforce it in a state. 302. America's Chance for Greater Commerce. — The war between France and England went on, and each nation swept the commerce of the other from the sea. The carrying of goods was done largely by American vessels, and they were very busy, earning great profits for their owners. Many were used to carry food-stuffs to the two nations. Wages paid to American seamen were higher than those paid by English shipowners. Many' Enghsh sailors deserted, and took service on American vessels. This made British merchant-ships and naval vessels shorthanded. Cotton Gin The upper figure shows Whitney's invention. The lower figure shows a later one. 244 AMERICAN HISTORY 303. Our Vessels Searched for Sailors. — England did not like to lose her sailors and she tried to stop their enter- ing service on American ships. English cruisers halted and searched all American vessels to see if there might be British deserters on board. If there were any sturdy, strong- looking sailors on the American vessels, the British naval officers took them, whether they were deserters or not. The course of England made the followers of Jefferson more eager for war in behalf of France. 304. The Jay Treaty. — In 1794 Washington tried to stop the "impressment" of our seamen, by a treaty with England known as the "Jay Treaty." It was not a fair settlement, and left some matters in dispute, England still holding that she had the right to search our ships for supposed English deserters. Jefferson and his party urged war; but Washing- ton was wiser and war was avoided. 305. The Spanish Treaty. — The Mississippi River flowed for many miles through the Spanish country, and it was only by it that the American farmers in its valley could send products to the sea. The Spaniards would not let the goods go through, but in 1795 a treaty was made with Spain which opened the way for our western products to reach the sea. 306. A New President. — Washington might have been chosen President a third time but refused to hold the office again and retired to private life. In his farewell address, he charged his countrymen to preserve the Union, to keep it strictly honest in all its dealings, and to have nothing to do with the affairs of European nations. He advised the for- mation of a national militia, and also declared that pubHc education was of the first importance and urged the forming of "institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge." He died at Mount Vernon in 1799. THE CONSTITUTION 245 John Adams Washington was followed as President by John Adams of Massachusetts, a statesman whose ideas of the way the country should be governed were like those of the great man he succeeded. Thomas Jefferson was the new Vice-President. During President Adams' ad- ministration Acts were passed by Congress which were not liked by the Democratic-Repub- lican party, whose leader was Thomas Jefferson. Under one of these, the President could order any foreigner who, in his opinion, was working against the government to leave the country. By another Act, any one who spoke or wrote too freely or severely about our government might be fined or imprisoned. This destroyed freedom of speech and the liberty of the press. These Acts made President xA.dams and the Federalist party very unpop- ular. The legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia declared that Congress, under the Constitution, had no right to pass such laws, and that each state could decide for itself whether laws passed by Congress were in accord with the Constitu- tion or not. 307. France. — When Adams became President, France was governed by a committee of live called the Directory, and the American minister had been ordered to leave that country. This caused great anger, and some Americans said that war should be declared against France. But it was the part of wisdom for the young nation to gain strength, rather than to fight and lose it. 246 AMERICAN HISTORY President Adams sent John Marshall and Eldridge Gerry to Paris to join the American minister Pinckney, who had been ordered from France. They were to meet the Directory and, if possible, arrange for peace. Upon reaching Paris they were called upon by agents of the Directory and told that America must lend France a large amount of money or further talk would be useless. It now seemed that war with France was at hand, and the nation began to prepare for it. Washington was made com- mander-in-chief and the government created a navy. Naval vessels were built and strong merchant-vessels were bought and made into war-ships. The French, seeing that they were likely to have serious trouble, promised to receive any minister whom the President might send to France to represent our country. 308. Thomas Jefferson. — Thomas Jefferson,, third Presi- dent of the United States, was born in Virginia in 1743. He became a lawyer, and when the Revolutionary War began was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. As a member of the Continental Congress, he wrote and was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He was opposed to slavery and placed in the Declaration a clause to the effect that it was an evil; this, however, was stricken out. At the close of the Revolutionary War, Jefferson was governor of Virginia, and later became a member of the Confederation Congress. Among important measures which we owe to him, are the plan for the government of the Northwest Territory and the bill for the decimal system of currency. Jefferson was minister to France for four years, when he returned in 1789 to become secretary of state under President Washington. He was the founder of the Demo- cratic-Republican party and was opposed to Alexander Ham- THE CONSTITUTION 247 ilton, the leader of the Federal party. Thomas Jefferson was not a powerful speaker, but was keen and scholarly. He and John Adams lived fifty years after signing the Decla- ration of Independence, each dying on July 4, 1826. 309. New Ideas in Gov- ernment. — The election of Thomas Jefferson as Presi- dent in 1800 was a victory of the common people over those inclined to be aristo- cratic. Jefferson was a democrat, and carried on the affairs of government in a very simple manner. Instead of riding from the White House to the Capitol in a stately carriage, as Washington and Adams had done, he walked; and perhaps he was liked all the better for it. There was an absence of court form and cer- emony at the White House while Jefferson was President. He believed in cutting down expenses. He said that a nation, like a business firm, should save its money, pay its debts, and practice economy. "What need is there to spend so much on the army and navy?" said he. ''We are not at war, and are not likely to be, if we are peaceable. The trouble with France is over, and we do not need a large navy." This was not the spirit that Washington had shown, when he said, "In time of peace, prepare for war." Jefferson made the nation weak as a fighting power, but he kept down expenses, and paid off a large part of the national debt. Thomas JhrrtRSox 248 AMERICAN HISTORY 310. The Barbary States. — The people living on the African shores of the IMcditcrranean Sea, in the Barbary States — Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli, and Morocco — had long been in the practice of capturing the ships of the people of Europe, and making slaves of the sailors and passengers. Some nations of Europe and even the United States ^ad paid money to the robbers every year in order that their ships might not be attacked. In 1801 Tripoli demanded that a larger tribute be paid by the United States. This was refused, and when the Bashaw of Tripoli declared war, a fleet under Commodore Edward Preble was sent to the Mediterranean in 1803, and there was sharp fighting during the two years following. On one occasion an American frigate, the Philadelphia, ran aground in the harbor of Tripoli, and was taken l^y the enemy. Stephen Decatur of Maryland, a young naval Hcutenant in command of a small vessel, ran into the port one night and surprised the Tripohtan crew of the Philadelphia. After a few minutes of fierce fighting, the crew were killed, and Decatur, setting tire to the ship and completely destroying it, retreated without losing a man. By 1805 the Bashaw had had fighting enough and a treaty of peace was made. 311. Ohio. — In 1803 Ohio came into the Union as the seventeenth state, the first to be made out of the Northwest Territory. 312. The Louisiana Purchase. — In 1800 Spain sold the country west of the Mississippi River to France, and Jefferson, determined to settle the question of the right of way down the river to the sea, sought to buy the city of New Orleans. It is doubtful whether Napoleon Bonaparte, the French ruler, would have sold the city and have thus loosened his grip on the mouth of the river had there not been grave danger of THE CONSTITUTION 249 war between France and England. Needing money for war, Napoleon told his minister of state to offer to the American commissioners not only the city of New Orleans but the whole of the French territory west of the Mississippi River. The offer was made and accepted at a price of fifteen millions of dollars. For this sum the United States had gained a new country as large as all it had before. After this purchase our country was bounded on the west by the Lewis and Clark's Route Rocky Mountains and the Mexican possessions. This terri- tory includes Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, part of Kansas, Montana, nearly all of Oklahoma and Minnesota, and large parts of Wyoming and Colorado. 313. The Oregon Country. — A vast country lay north and west of the nation's boundary Hne, in and beyond the region of the Rocky Mountains. In 1804 a band of explorers, known as the Lewis and Clark party, left St. Louis, then a little log-cabin town, lying on the Mississippi a short distance below the mouth of the Missouri, and made their way up 250 AMERICAN HISTORY that river, which had been unexplored ever since it had been seen by Father Marquette and La Salle. At length, crossing the mountains beyond the source of the Missouri River, they came to another river flowing toward the northwest which, fed by many branches, grew larger as it flowed. It was the Columbia River, and following this they at last found themselves on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. On this journey of Lewis and Clark was based the claim of the United States which, in later years, brought the nation ownership of the great Oregon country, from which have been made the states of Washington, Idaho, and Oregon. The explorers were gone two years and a half, returning with their wonderful story in 1806. In 1804 Jefferson was elected to serve a second term as President. The country had prospered and he was greatly liked by the people. 314. Trouble on the Sea. — The war with England that Bonaparte foresaw came and was waged fiercely. On the land, France gained; on the sea, England, with her great navy, had the advantage. Each nation tried to injure the other by ruining its trade. They took each other's vessels; each declared ports to be closed against the other. Our nation was prospering. If we could remain at peace, we could gain strength and wealth, for the war in Europe gave the commerce of the ocean to our ships. We took no part in the war. So well did the shipping business pay, that American captains gave higher wages to sailors than they could get for service in British ships, and many deserted from English merchantmen and war-ships, to engage in service on American vessels. England complained that Americans were hiring English deserters from her naw, and said that she would take them NOTi:. The UnUod States seized part of West Florida in 1810, and part in IS12. from Greenwich 82 E,.I),.Ser«».8,JSDg:r„N.Y, THE CONSTITUTION 251 wherever she found them, even if it were on board American war-ships. Her naval officers kept up their practice of search- ing American vessels on the sea, and taking by force such deserters as were found aboard. Wanting men so much, the English ship captains claimed as" deserters, line-looking men on American ships, who had never served in the English navy and therefore could not be deserters. Hundreds of manly American sailors were thus seized and made to serve in English war-ships against their will. The American people took for their motto, " Free trade and sailors' rights." It meant the right to trade freely on the sea, and the right to have their sailors protected from English outrage. In 1807 the frigate Chesapeake, one of our war-ships, was met not far from our shores by the British war-ship The Leopard. The British captain declared that there were four British deserters on the Chesapeake and that they must be given up. The captain of the Chesapeake refused, and The Leopard opened fire. It was a time of peace for the United States, and the Chesapeake was unpre- pared to fight. Her captain made no attempt to resist The Leopard, and his ship was boarded and the men taken ofif. American ships were carrying goods to England and France alike, when each of these nations began to seize such of them as it could catch going with goods to the other. Soon the business of carrying goods by sea became very risky and un- profitable and was given up, because our nation was too weak to fight and protect it. 315. Embargo Act. — At this point, JefTerson and some of his advisers thought of a scheme to bring France and England to terms. An act was passed by Congress, called the Em- bargo Act, which forbade American vessels to leave our ports. 252 AMERICAN HISTORY This plan of shutting otT the French and Enghsh from needed American suppHes injured their trade and also that of the Americans. The great business of the New England states was the shipping trade; and the outlook was very- gloomy when vessels owned by New England people lay in idleness at the wharves. 316. Election of Madison. — At the close of Jefferson's second term, he might have been elected again. But, like Washington, he believed that no man should hold the Presi- dency for three terms, and retired to private life. James Madison followed Jefferson as President, beginning his term in 1809. 317. Non-Intercourse Act. — Soon after Madison took ofifice the Embargo Act was repealed, and a new law, the Non-Intercourse Act, took its place. It allowed American vessels to trade with all nations except England and France. Soon our ships were on the seas, laden with our goods, but both England and France continued to seize them. SUMMARY 1. The Continental Congress lacks authority over the states. 2. A committee appointed to draft laws for a new government. Articles of Confederation. 3. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. 4. Ordinance of 1787. 5. Constitution of the United States adopted. 6. Slavery. Opposition to it in all the states. 7. The first President. 8. Constitution defective. Amendments made. 9. First tariff laws. 10. City of Washington, the new Capital. 11. The making of coin begins. Bank of the United States. 12. The political parties. 13. War of I'Vance against England. The United States remains neutral. 14. The cotton gin; its effect. THE CONSTITUTION 253 22. 23- 24- 25- 26. Internal revenue, whiskey tax. England searches our ships at sea. A new President, John Adams. Quarrel with France. Thomas Jefferson, third Pres- ident. Economy and sim- plicity. War with Barbary pirates. Ohio admitted. The Louisiana Purchase. Oregon Country. England still searches our ships. Embargo Act against England. James Madison, fourth Pres- ident. Non-Int;ercourse Act. James Madison QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Why were the Articles of Confederation passed? 2. Did they give Congress sufficient power? 3. Name some defects in the Articles of Confederation. 4. W^hy was there ill-feeling between different states and sections of the country? 5. What was done to secure a better form of government and to form a "more perfect union" of the states? 6. What was the Ordinance of 1787? 7. At the close of the Revolutionary War, what was the feeling with regard to slavery? 8. How many amendments were made to the Constitution during Wash- ington's term? 9. What were the tariff laws of 1789? Why were they passed? 10. What were the two early political parties? ^ 11. What was the Proclamation of Neutrahty? Why was it made? \ ' /--— ^ 12. How did the invention of the cotton-gin affect slavery? 13. Why did England search our vessels on the high seas? 14. What was the French Directory? How did they treat our minister to France? 15. Who were the Barbary pirates? 16. What was the most important event in Jefferson's first administration? 17. Who explored the Oregon Country? / o" O '-f 18. What was the "Embargo"? The "Non-Intercourse Act"? CHAPTER XIII TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 318. The War of 1812. — England and France held to their evil course toward our country during Madison's first term. By this time, fully a thousand of our trading vessels had been taken by the English navy, and thousands of Ameri- can sailors were serving against their will in English war-ships. Insults and outrages from Eng- land could be borne no longer, and though the United States was in no condition for fight- ing, war was declared against England in June, 1812. It was a mistake. It was a case in which righteous anger overcame judgment. Some hot-blooded young statesmen from the southern states, among whom were Henry Clay of Kentucky, and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, urged that war be declared, and they had their way. The country was even less prepared for war than had been supposed. It lacked skilful officers to plan and direct the fighting. The great man of America was dead, and the country sadly missed his counsel in peace, and his genius in war. The war went against the Americans at first, and failure- after failure marked the progress of the earlier campaigns. John C. Calhoun TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 255 Among the army commanders were a few able men, such as Generals Scott, Harrison, and Andrew Jackson, but the army was small and made up largely of volunteers. The navy, too, was small, but it was good. Taught by sad experi- ence the need of a navy, Congress, since Jefferson's time, had provided for the building of vessels. Among naval com- manders were Preble, Rogers, Decatur , Bainbridge, and Hull, who had made themselves famous in the war with the pirates of the Barbary States. In 181 2 the state of Louisiana was admitted to the Union. It was only a very small part of the great Province of Loui- siana, that had been bought from France. During the war the presidential election of 181 2 took place, and Madison was elected for a second term. Detroit in 181 i 319. Hull's Surrender. — On July 12, 1812, the American army, led by General William Hull, a veteran who had fought under Washington, crossed the Detroit River into Canada. Hull told the Canadians that he would not harm them if they remained quiet; that his fight was against England and not against them. Many of the Canadians deserted and joined his army. He was about to march against a fort on the De- troit River, when, suddenly changing his mind, he retreated to the American side of the river. Some one had told him 256 AMERICAN HISTORY that a large force of British and Indians was coming to attack him. Soon afterward Hull surrendered his force to a British army, much to the disgust of his officers and men. For his shortcomings he was tried and sentenced to death, but was not executed. It appeared that he had been careless but had acted in good faith, though with bad judgment. With Hull's surrender we lost an army, and the country from Detroit to Fort Dearborn, which stood where Chicago now stands. We also lost control of the Great Lakes. A second unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada was made during this year. 320. Our Navy in 1812. ~ The United States frigate Constitution was one of the best vessels in our navy. Her commander, Isaac Hull, was a nephew of General William Hull, who had surrendered at Detroit. Hull sailed from Chesapeake Bay for New York, and was pursued by a fleet of English war- vessels, which was overhaul- ing him, when the wind died out. He manned small boats with his strongest oarsmen that they might tow the ship along, and the enemy did the same with their vessels. The British began to gain, and it seemed that they would surely capture the Constitution. But Hull put into a boat an anchor at the end of a long cable, and tokl his men to row the length of the cable and drop the anchor. As it caught the bottom, the men began to wind in the cable with the windlass, and thus the ship was pulled ahead. Again and again was this done, and steadily the ship gained on her pursuers, when suddenly a squall arose. Calling in his boats, the com- mander spread sail, and when the squall struck, the noble vessel plunged ahead like a race-horse. Before the squall reached the British ships, Hull was making good headway. The thick rain hid his ship from the British crews, and when the storm cleared, she was out of sight. TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 257 321. The "Constitution" and the " Guerriere." — Later, Hull, cruising in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, sighted the Guer- riere, one of the ships that had pursued him. It was a chance for a fair fight, and in thirty minutes the fire of the Consti- tution had so badly smashed the Guerriere, and had killed so many of her crew, that she surrendered. She was so badly shattered that she could not be taken to port, so Hull blew her up and sank her. The Americans lost seven men, while the British loss was seventy. The Consti- tution was little dam- aged, and from that day was known as " Old Ironsides." '^^^ " Constitution " 322. Other Naval Battles. — Captain Hull was succeeded in command of the Constitution, by Captain Wilham Bain- bridge, a man well worthy of the honor. On the last day of the year 181 2, Bainbridge, while cruising near the coast of Brazil, met the British frigate Java, and captured her after a two hours' fight. He took off such of her crew as were left, and destroyed her. The American war-ship Wasp, while sailing near the West Indies, fell in with the British naval vessel Frolic, and gave battle. Scarcely had the fight begun, when the Frolic lay a shattered hulk, with her crew nearly all killed 258 AMERICAN HISTORY or disabled. Unfortunately for the Wasp, however, a big British battle-ship came up and took both the Wasp and her victim to Bermuda. The Hornet under Captain James Lawrence, while cruising off the coast of South America, met the British brig Peacock and sank her. In June, 1813, Lawrence, in command of the Chesapeake, was challenged by the commander of the British ship Shan- non, to sail out from Boston and fight. In the engagement Lawrence was mortally wounded and surrendered his ship after very fierce fighting. His ship was taken to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where Lawrence died a few days later. His body was afterward buried in the graveyard of Trinity Church, New York City. Of eighteen fights against British vessels the Americans had won fifteen. The world was surprised at the victories of the American navy, for England had long been called "The Mistress of the Seas." 323. Perry's Victory. — There was naval fighting on the lakes, as well as on the high seas. Oliver Hazard Perry, twenty-seven years old, a skilful naval oflficer, was ordered to Lake Erie to build a fleet of ships with which to fight the British, and to drive them from the lake. Perry went to the shore of the lake with a force of workers, and in the fall of 18 13 built a number of small vessels. These, with a ship that he had taken from the British, and three small schooners that he had bought, made a fleet of nine vessels. Sailing in search of the British fleet in September, he cap- tured, after a desperate fight, all of the vessels of the enemy, and thus regained the lakes for the United States. Never before in all her history had England lost a whole fleet. This victory made the British abandon Detroit and the country along the southern shore of the lake. TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 259 324. McDonough's Victory on Lake Champlain. — A year later, in September, 1814, another lake victory was won by the Americans. A British army marched south from Canada, along the west shore of long and narrow Lake Cham- Perry at the Battle of Lake Erie plain. With it, along the lake, sailed a fleet of English war- vessels. The Americans had a few war-vessels on the lake, under command of Commodore McDonough. He skilfully arranged his few ships in such a way that the British fleet would fight at a disadvantage, and in not much more than two hours it was defeated. Without the fleet, the British army could not go on, so it turned about and made its way back to Canada. McDonough's victory saved New York State from invasion. 325. The British at Washington. — Late in the summer of 18 14, the British landed five thousand men on the shore of 26o AMERICAN HISTORY Chesapeake Bay, and made a dash for Washington. Six thousand Americans, untrained in arms, tried to stay the advance of the British, but they were quickly put to flight. The British entered the city and at once set fire to the Capitol and destroyed it. They then burned the President's house, the treasury building, and other government buildings. They said that they destroyed these goverrmient buildings to punish the Americans, who had, early in the war, burned some public buildings in Canada. 326. The Star-Spangled Banner. — The British soon left Washington, and their next move was an attempt to take Baltimore. The fleet attacked Fort McHenry which de- fended the city, and although it was furiously bombarded, it withstood the attack. During the fighting at Baltimore, a patriotic citizen, held as a prisoner on one of the English vessels, wrote " The Star-Spangled Banner," which soon became and has since remained one of America's favorite patriotic songs. 327. The Desire for Peace. — The war became burdensome since its cost was very great. Many Americans believed that it was needless, and that the country had been drawn into it by those who did not have the foresight to count the cost, or judge of the outcome. Many who had been in favor of the war now tired of strife, and there was a general desire for peace. England, too, was tired of the war and, with a strong feeHng for peace on both sides, there was a desire that the nations should come to an understanding. By this time England had defeated France and crushed the power of Bonaparte. She could now tunn all her strength against the United States. At once the greater part of her vast navy crossed the sea to the American coast, and her ships prevented American war-vessels from leaving our ports. TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 261 There was now no chance for ship-tO:ship fighting. If an American naval vessel put to sea, she was sure to meet half a dozen British war-ships. 328. Battle of New Orleans. — Bad management, as a rule, had been shown by the leaders of the American armies, The Battle of New Orleans After the painting by Billings and American soldiers had been unable to contend against the troops of the enemy. In but one instance did the Ameri- cans win a glorious victory, and that was so late in the war that peace had been concluded before the battle was fought. It was the battle of New Orleans. In the fall of 1814 the British sent a very strong fleet, bearing an army, to take New Orleans and to gain command of the Mississippi River. Gen- eral Andrew Jackson commanded the American forces in the South, and upon him fell the duty of defending the city. On December 24, 18 14, the treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, in Belgium, and the report, with orders to stop all fighting, was sent at once to America. But before the news 262 AMERICAN HISTORY reached this country, the battle of New Orleans had been fought, Tanuarv _8, i8i^ . The army sent to New Orleans numbered twelve thousand of England's best soldiers. The six thousand men commanded by Jackson were nearly all raw miUtiamen, many of whom had never been in battle. On Jackson's earthworks were about a dozen cannon. All that it was necessary for the Americans to do in order to win victory, was to hold their ground. At daybreak, January 8, 1815, the assault was made. The invaders came on like British soldiers, and, like British soldiers, they came again and again. For three hours they endured the deadly fire of the Americans and then gave up the hopeless task of taking the earthworks. The British lost twenty-five hundred men and many officers, among whom was the gallant General Pakenham, their commander. The American loss was very small. It was a wasted battle; it was a needless victory, for the war was over. 329. Close of the War. — The war left the relations be- tween the two countries much as they had been before. In some ways it had benefited the United States, since it made our people feel that this nation was able to defend itself, and that the rights of sailors on our vessels would be respected. During the war articles that we needed were made in this country and the Americans became more interested in home manufactures. 330. Barbary Pirates. — During our war with England, the pirates of the Barbary States began to prey upon our mer- chant ships in the Mediterranean Sea. At the close of the war a fleet was sent to the Mediterranean, under Commodore Decatur, to put a stop to this practice. In a very short time these people were subdued and they have never troubled us since. TROUBLE WITH ENGLAND 263 331. The Tariff. — Soon after the war the merchants of Europe began to ship cargoes of goods to be sold in America. They were needed, and were sold to us for lower prices than our manufacturers could supply them. It seemed that the doors of our factories would soon be closed, because people bought foreign goods at lower prices than they could buy those made in our own country. To prevent this and to protect our home industries, a tariff was laid on foreign-made goods. SUMMARY 1. The second war with England. 2. Second election of James Madison. 3. Louisiana admitted. 4. Hull's surrender. 5. The Constitution fights the Guerriere. 6. Other naval battles. 7. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 8. Commodore McDonough's victory. 9. Capture of the city of Washington. 10. Battle of New Orleans; end of the war. 11. New Tariff Law. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. What was the chief cause of the War of 181 2? 2. Name and give an account of some of the land battles. Of some of the naval fights. 3. What battle ended the war? Give an account of it. 4. Why was a protective tariff law passed after the war? CHAPTER XIV FROM THE WAR OF 1812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 332. President Monroe. — In 1816 James Monroe of Virginia, who had fought for his country with Washington, was elected President. The bitter wranghngs between parties had ceased; the country was prosper- ous; it was a period of good feel- ing. Monroe was elected for a second term in 1820. 333. Florida. — Between our country and the sea upon the south, lay what is now the state of Florida, which at that time was owned by Spain. There was war between the United States and some of the Indians in the South, and, whenever our soldiers went after them, these Indians ran across the hne and escaped into Florida. General Jackson, being again in command in the war with the Indians, did not hesitate to follow the savage war parties into Florida. He took the town of Pensacola, and hanged two Englishmen who were helping the Indians. His head- strong course offended Spain, and there was danger of war. President Monroe and his advisers saw that it would save much trouble if Florida should be made a part of our country. If it could be purchased, even by paying a large price for it. James Monroe FROM 1812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 265 war, which would be much more costly, might be prevented. So the Government bought Florida from Spain, in 1819, for five million dollars. The country was fast recovering from the War of 181 2, and many people moved to the West. Before Monroe's term ended, Illinois, Mississippi, and Alabama were admitted to the Union as states. Illinois was a free state, while Missis- sippi and Alabama allowed the ownership of slaves. 334. Rise of Slavery Question. — There had by this time arisen a great difference of opinion with regard to slavery. Power to decide for or against slavery lay in the two branches of Congress. The number of slave states was equal to that of the free states. By the call of states in the Senate, slavery and freedom stood evenly matched, two senators to a state. In the House of Representatives, however, the free states had many more members than the slave states, for they had grown so fast in population that they had many more congressmen. Wise men saw that there was a struggle coming between those who favored and those who opposed slavery. Hence there was a desire on the one side to have new states admitted to the Union as free states, and on the other to have them come in with slavery. In 18 18 the people of Missouri Territory asked that a part of it be made a state of the Union. No one objected to the admission of the new state, but there was much said as to whether it should be slave or free. Congress was divided on the question, and thus began the contest over slavery which ended, nearly half a century later, in a terrible war. The people in the North, generally, opposed slavery, while those of the South were now in favor of it. The question was not whether slavery was an evil, but whether it should be extended into states yet to be admitted. Its enemies hoped, 266 AMERICAN HISTORY and its friends feared, that if it was not allowed to spread, slavery would die. This difference of opinion set the people of one part of the country against those of the other. 335. The Missouri Compromise. — After much strife, Missouri was made a state with slavery, and Maine was admitted without slavery. Thus the number of slave and free states remained equal. An agreement was made, which became law, that all future states admitted from territory in the Louisiana Purchase lying north of the line of the southern boundary of Missouri, should be free. The law was called the Missouri Compromise, and it was thought that the slav- ery question was forever settled; but it was not. Hatred of slavery grew stronger in the North, while in the South the people became more lirmly fixed in the belief that slavery was a great benefit to both the black and white races. South- ern statesmen, sure that slavery brought prosperity, made all other questions give way to it, holding it to be the very life of the welfare of the South. Thinking that the North meant finally to destroy slavery, the southern people began to do what they could to save and strengthen it. 336. The Growth of National Pride. — At first, patriotism seemed bounded by state lines, but those colony-bred people who had been devoted to their states, more than to their nation, were passing away. Their children, familiar with the nation and its greatness, were taking their places. Men going abroad, especially those from the northern part of the country, no longer called themselves citizens of New York, or of Pennsylvania, but of the United States. The pride of the people of the new states was in the nation, as a Union of States, rather than in the state in which they Hved. 337. Immigration. — Immigrants were rapidly coming to America. These new-comers, who had found prosperity FROM 1812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 267 and happiness, loved the young nation that had welcomed them and whose laws protected them, and delighted in its growing majesty and power. 338. The Holy Alliance. — About this time Mexico and some provinces in South America rebelled against the author- ity of Spain and became republics. The idea of self-govern- ment was spreading, and rulers in Europe became alarmed. To check government by the people, the kings of Austria, Russia, and Prussia banded together in defense of kingly power. This union was called The Holy Alliance. It was believed, among other things, that the Alliance meant to restore to Spain the provinces she had lost in America, and it was feared that Russia was to be helped in gaining more power in North America. In those days Alaska belonged to Russia and was called Russian America. The Holy Alliance was a danger to the United States. 339. The Monroe Doctrine. — President Monroe saw that the scheme of the three monarchs might in the future work harm to the United States. In his message to Congress in 1823, he stated that our nation should take no part in the wars of European countries. He also said that we should at all times look upon attempts of European powers to colonize any part of the Western Hemisphere, as threatening our welfare, and that any such attempt would show an unfriendly feeling toward the United States. It was also stated by President Monroe that attempts on the part of European nations to oppress the people of any republic in this hemi- sphere, whose independence we had recognized, would be regarded as an unfriendly act. 340. The Tariff. — During Monroe's administration Eng- land, to help her colonies in India in their purpose to raise cotton, laid a tariff on American cotton to keep it out of Eng- 268 AMERICAN HISTORY lish ports. At the same time, cotton from India was sent to England free from duty, that it might have a better chance to be sold. This tariff hurt the cotton-growers of the south- ern states, since they had been raising cotton, sending it to England to be sold, and then buying in England the very cloth made from that cotton. Now with the added tax they could not sell their cotton to Enghsh mill-owners. To keep English cloth from our market, as the English kept American cotton from theirs, a tariff was laid, higher than before, on cloth brought from England to this country. This resulted in the building of American mills and factories for the manu- facture of cloth, and from that time, not only cloth but hundreds of other needful things have been made more and more in this country. 341. Manufactures ; Inventions. — When people live in towns they have new needs and make new efforts. Better roads, houses, streets, parks, and other things to make life more comfortable come with the growth of towns and of manufacturing. There was so much work to be done in America that there were not hands enough to do it, and Americans began to invent faster ways of doing work. The inventive ability of the American people has been encouraged by the government, and the granting of patents to inventors began as early as 1780. These secure to the inventor the profits of his invention, and from that time our nation has led the world in great inventions. Our manu- facturing interests also have grown, until in the making of an endless variety of goods, and in the prosperity that comes from being busy, our country very much excels any other country in the world. 342. Improvements. — ^ As a wise farmer improves his farm by building walls and fences, removing rocks, draining FROM 1812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 269 swamps, and leveling roads, so do a wise people improve their country. Under President Monroe the work of building great highways between cities and across states, commenced. The best known means of moving goods during Monroe's administration was by boats and wagons. Settlement in the West grew rapidly, owing to the building of these great cross-country highways, upon which travel through the wild Route of the National Road and unbroken wilderness was much easier than it had been before. One of these roads was the Cumberland Road, ex- tending from the Potomac to the Ohio River, upon which wagon trains carrying the goods and families of settlers were constantly moving westward. Another great national road from the Ohio to the Mississippi River was built later. Railroads were unknown and much money was spent by the general government in building these great highways. More was expended by states and towns, and this work has been continued. Canals had long been in use in Europe, and it was seen that they were needed in America. The state of New York had begun work on a great canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson River, and during Monroe's administration this work had been nearly finished. 343. A New President. — In 1824 John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, a former President, was elected to succeed 270 AMERICAN HISTORY John Quincy Adams Monroe, and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina was chosen as Vice-President. In this election the other candidates for the Presidency were Henry Clay of Kentucky, the speaker of the House of Representatives, and Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. Jackson came very near being elected, and believed that Clay and his friends had defeated him for the Presidency by using their strength and influence in favor of Adams. The fact that Adams appointed Clay secretary of state gave some color to this belief. There was much bitter feeling about the matter, and in speak- ing of it the words " bargain and corruption" were freely used by the friends of Jackson, who at once set about preparing to elect him to the Presidency during the next campaign. In the struggle of the election the time of good feeling in politics ceased, and there was more or less bitterness between the parties during Adams's term. There was a great dilYer- ence of opinion as to the tariff, and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, who had at first favored the protective tariff because he thought it would benefit his state, now saw that it would not. He believed that his state must always be a farming country with few manufactures. He was the great leader of the South, and from the time that he took his stand against a protective tariff, the South has been mainly in favor of letting in foreign goods without tax, or the admission of such goods at a low tax, laid only to get money to pay the expenses of government. FROM 1 812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 271 344. The Erie Canal. — By 1825 the Erie Canal, three hundred and sixty miles long, had been finished. It had cost a vast sum of money, but it proved to be worth many times its cost. Before the canal was completed, freight on a barrel of flour from Buffalo to Albany had been ten dollars; Map of the Erie Canal afterward it fell to thirty cents. Goods could then be brought from the country about Lakes Michigan and Superior to BufYalo, thence moved by this canal to the Hudson and to New York City, and shipped anywhere from that port. New York City began to grow, and soon became the largest city on our continent. A stream of canal boats, drawn by mules and horses, kept pouring the wealth of the West into New York, and a counter stream carried a wealth of manhood to people the great West. Land, the best in the world, was to be had at almost nothing an acre, and from the eastern states and England the home- seekers went to the West by way of the Erie Canal. !72 AMERICAN HISTORY 345. The Railroads. — A new means of moving goods and men, one that was to advance the nation wonderfully, the railroad, was in use before the close of Adams's term. A road with iron rails was built from Baltimore, thirteen miles west- ward. From it has A Railroad Train in 1831 grown the great Baltimore and Ohio system; other rail- roads were soon built — one in New Jersey and one in South Carohna. Steam-cars and steam -boats were the coming agents of greatness for the country. In colo- nial times, it took six days to travel from Philadelphia to Boston, a journey which steam has reduced to as many hours. Commerce, in the early days, was confined to the exchange of goods between the American coast-region and Europe. Now, an American commerce, greater than that of all the world then, and greater than all that now crosses the Atlantic, plies shuttle-like, by boat and car, within the limits of our own country, east and west, north and south. 346. Andrew Jackson. — Ours was no longer an Atlantic- slope country, since a great part of it lay west of the Alle- ghany Mountains, where many people lived. Until this time the Presidency had fallen to men who lived near the sea. It was now claimed that that great honor should be given to FROM 1 812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 273 Andrew Jackson, a man of the West, who lived in Tennessee, and who four years before had been defeated for that office. His friends now rallied for him and he became President. The parents of Andrew Jackson had been Irish immigrants, who with their son lived at one time in a log cabin. Jackson had been a rugged back- woodsman, afterward a soldier, and was now a statesman. What he had done at New Or- leans and in Florida was well known, and the common people liked him. He was stern, simple, rugged, honest, fearless, self- willed, and obstinate. People called him "Old Hickory," for they likened his character- istics to the toughness of the hickory tree. He was a Democrat, voted for by the Democrats of the North and South, and was opposed to a high tariff. 347. The Nullification Doctrine. — During Jackson's term the question whether the nation was superior to a state was again presented by the course of South Carolina. In 1832 a new tariff bill was passed, and Calhoun declared that the national government had no right to tax goods coming from Europe to the people of his state. He contended that a Andrew Jackson From the painting by Chappel 2 74 AMERICAN HISTORY state could declare such laws of the nation as it did not like, of no effect. This was the NuUification Doctrine. The people of South Carolina proceeded to put the theory of Calhoun in force, and to carry out the threats they had made. They declared, in convention, that the tariff law as passed by Congress was of no force in South Carolina — that it was null and void. They insisted that no duties should be collected on foreign goods coming into their state, and that, if force was used to collect them, it would leave the Union. This was the theory of States Rights and meant that South Carolina had the right to decide what laws of the general government she would obey. The people of the slave states followed the lead of South Carolina, more or less, as that state supported the stand of Calhoun, its gifted son. The same old claim that had wrought such mischief when the nation was forming was now urged again, that this country was a group of states acting together by mutual consent, instead of a great nation, one and indivisible. The President declared that South Carolina must obey the law, and sent troops and naval vessels to that state to compel the people to obey. The duties were collected in Charleston, as in all other southern seaport cities, and South Carolina did not leave the Union. 348. The Spoils System. — Jackson believed that when a political party had won a Presidential election, the men of the other party who were in office should be turned out. The successful party alone were to enjoy the honors and the profits of holding office. The salaries of offices were, he thought, in a sense spoils won by the victorious party, as spoils might be won in war; and he said, " To the victors belong the spoils." He put men of his own party into office throughout the coun- try, a plan which was followed by all parties for many years. FROM 1S12 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 275 It caused elections to become largely mere scrambles for office, and caused the offices to be filled by men who, while shrewd politicians, were unfit for their duties. 349. Jackson Reelected ; the United States Bank. — In 1832 Jackson was reelected. He believed in himself, and if he thought that he was right, he cared nothing for what others might think. Most people thought that the United States Bank, which had branches in many cities, and in which the government money was kept, was a desirable institution. The President thought otherwise, and believed that the men controlling the bank had used their great power in politics to defeat him when he first failed to be elected, and that they had sought to prevent his last election. He ordered that the government money should be withdrawn from the bank, which was done, and the bank was closed. 350. The United States Bank and the Surplus. — In breaking up the Bank of the United States and causing the government money to be deposited in various state banks, the President made another mistake; for some of the money was lost. The nation was out of debt, there being a large amount of surplus money in the treasury, which was divided among the states, and some of it was wasted, causing finan- cial distress. While Jackson was President, two new states came into the Union, Arkansas as a slave, and Michigan as a free state. The states were still even on the slavery question, thirteen for it to thirteen against it. 351. Two Wings of the Democratic Party; Slavery. — The Democratic party was strong in the South, where people believed in slavery and states rights. One wing of the party held that a state might at any time leave the Union and become an independent republic. The other contended that 276 AMERICAN HISTORY this is a nation with power greater than that of any state. "The states," said Jackson, "are in the Union and have no right to withdraw from it." In those times of danger, Jack- son also said, "The Union: it must and shall be preserved." During Jackson's two terms, the people of the South and those of the North drifted apart and a bitter feehng sprang up between them, caused by slavery and the difference of opinion about it. There was much talk in the South against the Union, and Jackson said that there was treason in the hearts of many. He was also right in saying that the time would come when the Union would be broken because of slavery. 352. Election of Van Bu- ren. — In 1836 Martin Van Buren of New York was elected President. He was descended from one of the old Dutch families, and had been governor of that state. He was the first Democrat to be elected from a northern state. 353. The Panic. — In 1837 ^^e result of one of Jackson's mistakes appeared. The dividing of the nation's money among the states and depositing it in state banks, had made money so plentiful that it had led to unwise deahngs, and during Van Buren's administration came the panic that such a pohcy was sure to bring. 354. The South Wants Texas. - - There was a growing demand among the friends of slavery in the South for more territory from which to make slave states. They meant Martin Van Buren FROM 1812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 277 that, in some way, there should be more slave than free states, so that there would be more senators in Congress in favor of slavery. They wanted the nation to take Texas as a terri- tory, and knew that when it came into the Union it would be a slave state. Van Buren opposed the annexation of Texas, and the southern people disliked him. William Henry Harrison 355. Election of Harrison. — In the presidential election of 1840 the Whigs, who were opposed to the policies of Jackson, elected William Henry Harrison of Ohio, defeating Van Buren, who had been nominated by the Democratic party. Perhaps the Democrats would have elected their candidate, had not the Whigs named for Vice-President, John Tyler of V'irginia, a Democrat, for whom many Democratic votes were cast. Harrison, like Jackson, was a man of the people, who had shown himself to be a good fighter in warfare against the Indians. After a month of service as President, Harrison died, and the country had a Democratic President. 278 AMERICAN HISTORY 356. Public Lands. — There was yet land for many thou- sands of farms in the West, and in 1841 Congress passed a law that it might be sold to settlers at a dollar and a quarter an acre, provided the buyer would live upon the land and raise crops from it. This offer, together with the fact that there were hard times in Europe, increased immigration. Every ocean steamer, and hundreds of saiUng vessels, brought stout-hearted men and women to this country. Their sons and grandsons are now prosperous and honored citizens of the western states that they helped to build. By this time nearly all the public land east of the' Mississippi had been taken, and the Louisiana Purchase region was filling up with people. 357. The Telegraph. After Franklin had discovered that lightning is a result of electricity, people had thought no The I*"irst Telegraph Message in the Morse .\lphabet more about it. But one ingenious man, named Morse, had been trying to make this strange force useful. He found a way to send messages by electricity, through long distances, so quickly that their passage would take very little, if any, time. During Tyler's term, Morse asked Congress to give money enough to put up a line of wires from Washington to Baltimore. He said that, with such wires and the instru- ments he had invented, he could send messages from one city to the other in a few seconds. The money was appropriated, and he built the first telegraph line in the world. Messages are now sent through the air without wires, and by wireless telegraphy captains of ships communicate with one another, though they are hundreds of miles apart. FROM 1812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 279 358. Texas. — The Republic of Mexico, once a province of Spain, consisted of several states, one of which was Texas, adjoining the United States, and many Americans had settled there on lands granted to them by the government of Mexico. These settlers were mainly from the southern states and they took their slaves with them. So well did they prosper that soon there were more Americans than Mexicans in Texas. At length, Mexico passed a law prohibiting slavery in all the Mexican states, and when the Mexicans sought to put the law into force in Texas, these Americans resisted their authority, and Texas, seceding from Mexico, became an inde- pendent republic. Mexico tried to put down the rebellion, but the Americans under General Houston defeated the Mexican troops and, in 1837, Texas was recognized as a republic by the United States. 359. Election of Polk. — In 1844 James K. Polk of Ten- nessee, a Democrat, was elected President. The chief question ^^""^^ ^ ^°^^ before the country then was whether the RepubHc of Texas should be annexed to the United States. This question was settled by the admission of this state to the Union in 1845, President Tyler, at the close of his administration, signing the resolution of Congress admitting Texas as a slave state. Mexico had never admitted that Texas was an independent repubhc, and, as a nation, felt that the United States had acted very unfairly in causing Texas to secede, and in after- ward making it a part of the United States. ' 28o AMERICAN HISTORY It was the people of the southern states, rather than those of the North, who had brought about the secession and annexation of Texas. Slavery needed more room in which to spread, and the far-seeing statesmen of the South thought that they could make of Texas several slave states. In this plan they failed, for the people of Texas refused to have their great republic divided into small states. Florida, purchased during President Monroe's term, was admitted as a state during the same year. Both Texas and Florida were slave states, but Iowa and Wisconsin were admitted as free states a little later, and thus there were still as many free as there were slave states. 360. The Oregon Country. — During President Polk's term there was a strong desire that the northwestern bound- ary of the country should be defined. The boundary line between the Oregon country and the British part of North America had not yet been determined. The land that lay between latitude 46° north and 54° 40' north was claimed by both England and the United States. There was an agreement of long standing that the people of both nations might live there. This agreement was to end after one year's notice given by either party to the other. By 1845 there were more than seven thousand Americans in this region, and notice was given by the United States that the agreement was to end in 1846. A settlement was made by which the parallel of 49° north latitude was to become the boundary line. Jefferson thought that the Alleghany Mountains would always be the western boundary of the United States. After- ward, it was thought that the Rocky Mountains would be our western limit. Now, it was settled that our country extended to the Pacific, and later still, in our own time, we FROM 1812 TO THE MEXICAN WAR 281 have gained island territory on the other side of the Pacific Ocean. When Oregon was given a territorial government, in 1848, Congress declared that there should never Be slavery within the Hmits of the new territory. 9- 10. II. 12. 13- 14. IS- 16. '17- 18. 19. SUMMARY A new President, James Monroe. Purchase of Florida. Admission of the states of Illinois, Mississippi, and Alabama. Disputes over slavery. The Missouri ,-' ''"'' -- "'" . '~^:~*--' " ' Compromise. Immigration in- creases. The Holy Alli- ance. The Monroe Doc- trine. Protective tariff. Growth of manu- facturing and invention. John Quincy Adams, President. Nullification in South Carolina. Completion of the Erie Canal. First railroads. President Andrew Jackson. The Nullification Doctrine. The Spoils System. Jackson re-elected. Difference on the States Rights question becomes dangerous. The United States Bank. Arkansas and Michigan admitted as states. Two wings of the Democratic Party. Martin Van Buren of New York becomes President. Panic of 1837. President Harrison. The public lands. Birthplace or Andrew Jackson 282 AMERICAN HISTORY 27. The telegraph. 28. Texas. 29. President James K. Polk. 30. Texas and Florida admitted (1845). 31. Fixing the national boundariq^. The Oregon country. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW / , vC^--^^ '^ 1. What territory did the Nation gain under President Monroe? 2. What was the Missouri Compromise? The Holy Alliance? The Mon- roe Doctrine? 3. What was the South Carolina Nullification Doctrine? 4. What great public work was completed in New York state in 1825? When and where were the first railroads built? 5. What was the Spoils System? 6. Name a great invention made during President Tyler's administration. /J. What Mexican territory became a republic? When did this republic "^ ) become a state? Why did the statesmen of the South want several states made from this territory? 8. When was the northern boundary of the United States fixed? / ' ( b Zachary Taylor CHAPTER XV SLAVERY CAUSES TROUBLE 361. The Mexican War. — After Texas had been admitted to the Union, the United States claimed that the western boundary of the state was the Rio Grande River. Mexico declared that the state of Texas, one of the states of Mexico, had never extended west to the Rio Grande. Little atten- tion was given by the United States to the claims of Mexico, and President Polk ordered General Taylor to march troops to the strip of land in dispute. Mexico resisted the invaders and there were some slight clashes of small bodies of troops. A small Mexican force defeated a small American force, kiUing a few men. The President sent a message to Congress in which he said that Mexico had shed the blood of Americans, and Congress declared war. Mexico fought bravely and did all she could to oppose the invaders, but she was overmatched. General Taylor, with his stronger army, better prepared for fighting, was too power- ful for the home-defenders of Mexico, and he won every battle. After the battle of Buena Vista, he came home with glory enough to gain the Presidency at the next election. While Taylor had been active in Mexico with one army, General Winfield Scott had been busy with another, and he too was a victor in every battle. The Americans finally captured the City of Mexico, in the fall of 1847, and the war was ended. 284 AMERICAN HISTORY By the treaty of peace, 1848, Mexico yielded the strip of land first claimed; and, partly by conquest and partly by purchase, then and later, the United States gained a great country north and west of Texas, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean and northward to the Oregon country. The territory thus acquired is now California, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, and part of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. 362. The Wilmot Proviso. — The land that the United States gained from Mexico was free territory, for Mexico had made it so by law. The question arose whether it should so remain. As early as 1846, Wilmot, a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, proposed that the Ordinance of 1787, that made the Northwest Territory free, should apply to any territory gained from Mexico. This bill was called "The Wilmot Proviso." It was opposed by the slavery party, and failed to become a law. The South meant that new states made from that territory should be slave states. Nearly all the people of the North were strongly in favor of preventing slavery in new states. Talk about the matter divided the people into two parties — one for slavery in the territories, and the other against it. 363. Election of General Taylor. — ^ In the election of 1848, General Zachary Taylor, a Whig, who had distinguished himself in the Mexican War, became President. President Taylor died in July, 1850, and Millard Fillmore, the Vice- President, became President. 364. Admission of California. — The thirty states of the Union were equally divided on the slavery question in the territories. When California sought to be admitted as a new state, the question was, whether she should be a slave state or a free state. P A C 1 MAP SHOWING THE TERRITORY ACQUIRED FROM MEXICO AS THE RESULT OF > THE MEXICAN WAR 117 Longitude West 107 from Greenwich SLAVERY CAUSES TROUBLE 285 365. Discovery of Gold. — ^Not very far from San Francisco Bay, where hundreds of years before, Drake and other rovers had sailed, Mr. Sutter had built a mill. His hired men were digging a ditch in the gravelly soil when one of them saw a little lump of something of dull reddish-yellow color. He View of San Francisco in 1847 picked it up; it was heavy. He pounded it; it was soft. They gathered around him and tested it. It was gold. More gold was found in other places, and the word went forth to the world, "Gold is abundant in California." Men flocked to this new territory from all parts of the world, but mainly from the northern states, and in 1849 there were a hundred thousand there. Slaves were not needed in a coun- try where there were no large plantations and where the chief activity was gold mining, and therefore the Californians, most of whom were people who had come from the free states, 286 AMERICAN HISTORY wrote a constitution for a state which shut out slavery, and asked for admission to the Union. There were many debates in Congress as to whether Cahfornia should be ad- mitted as a free state. Finally, by the Compromise of 1850, it was settled, among other things, that Cahfornia should come into the Union as a free state. It was also settled that the question of slavery in other parts of the territory acquired from IVIexico should be left to the people who might be living there when the territory was made into states. 366. Threats of Secession. — People of the South began to talk of taking their states out of the Union. Answering them, people of the North said that it would be better for free states to be out of the Union than to continue in it with slave states. There were foolish people, in both parts of the country, who babbled of secession whenever they could not have their own way. In 1850 there were great debates in Congress on the slavery question, and speeches that still stand as models of oratory were made on both sides. Old statesmen passed away and new ones came. Calhoun, the great champion of the South, died, and to take his place as leader for the rights of the states was Jefferson Davis of Mississippi. During the great debates, California became a state; and now the free states had the lead, never to lose it. 367. The Fugitive Slave Law. — An important law passed in 1850 was, that the officials of a free state should allow the arrest and return of run-away slaves that might be found within its bounds. Many people of the North, pitying poor black wretches escaping from slavery, aided them as they fled through northern states to Canada, which, as English soil, was a land of freedom. The slavery-haters of the North despised the Fugitive SLAVERY CAUSES TROUBLE 287 Slave Law. So general was the feeling against it that but few black fugitives were caught and sent back into slavery. 368. Immigration. — There had been a great famine in Ireland and people came by tens of thousands from that land of want to this land of plenty. Others came from other parts of Europe and population was growing very fast. The northwestern part of the Louisiana Purchase was filling with people, while few of the newcom- ers went to the southern states. 369. Steam. — By 1852 the use of steam for power was growing general. There were ten thousand miles of railroad, and hundreds of steamboats were busy on the rivers and lakes, while many great steamships were running from our harbors to those of Europe. 370. A President from the North. — ^ In 1852 the Democrats elected as President a northern man, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire. He was opposed by the Whigs, in what proved to be their last contest. Two great Whig leaders, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, passed away while the contest for the Presidency was going on. Henry Clay was born in Virginia in 1777. His father, a poor clergyman, died when the boy, Henry, was quite young. After his father's death, Clay attended a log-cabin school. Later he worked in a store, and afterward was appointed clerk of one of the Virginia courts. He studied law and at twenty years of age was admitted to the bar. He then moved to Kentucky, and became a member of the leg- islature of that state. In 1806 he became a United States Franklin Pierce AMERICAN HISTORY senator. He was afterward elected to the House of Repre- sentatives and was a number of times its speaker. Clay was secretary of state under President John Quincy Adams. __ Three times defeated for the Presidency, Henry Clay is known as the great "Pa- cificator." His compromise measures became laws at critical periods of our his- tory. He was an able supporter of the Missouri Compromise and was the author of the compromise measure of 1833 which lowered the tariff, thus preventing the trouble into which South Carolina was drifting, by reason of that state's support of the nullification doctrine. He was also the author and supporter of the com- promise measures of 1850. Dishked by Andrew Jackson, and disappointed in his own ambitions, he yet gave his best sersdces to his country. He died in Washington, D.C., in 1852. Daniel Webster was born in New Hampshire in 1782. He studied law and became a leading member of the Massachu- setts bar. He was first elected to Congress in 1805, and was later in the United States Senate, an associate of those two great statesmen, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Webster was one of the world's great speakers. His reply to Senator Hayne of South Carolina is one of the greatest masterpieces of oratory in the English language. In this great speech, Mr. Webster, among other things, defended the Federal Union of the states as against the theory of States Rights. Henry Clay SLAVERY CAUSES TROUBLE 289 Webster was secretary of state in President Harrison's cabinet, but resigned that office during President Tyler's administration. Opposed to the annexation of Texas and to Webster replying to Hayne the Mexican War, he became secretary of state under Presi- dent Fillmore. In a famous speech which he made in March, 1850, the people of the North considered that he favored slavery in CaHfornia, and for this reason, he lost much of his influence in the northern states. He was a member of the House of Representatives when Henry Clay was speaker, and unlike Clay, he opposed the War of 181 2. He was offered the nomination of Vice-President in 1848, but de- chned it. Webster was also defeated for the nomination for President in 1852, and died during that year. 371. Cuba. — The southern people desired more territory in the South for slave states. Several could have been made 290 AMERICAN HISTORY in Cuba, if it had been part of the United States. Texas had been taken from Mexico for slavery; why could not Cuba be taken from Spain? Schemes were put on foot in the South to start a rebelHon in Cuba against Spain. This, it was hoped, might lead to the United States taking such action as would bring on a war with Spain. It was believed that such a war would give us Cuba, and that island, once gained, could be made to give slavery new power. Parties were sent from southern ports to help others in Cuba to start civil war; but they failed, and the Cuban leaders were shot by order of the Spanish government. 372. The Kansas-Nebraska Act. — There was a great area, a part of the Louisiana Purchase, lying on both sides of the Platte River, called the Platte Territory. In 1854 Congress passed a law which divided the Platte Territory into two organized territories — Kansas and Nebraska, and permitted the people living in these territories to decide, when they asked for statehood, whether they should have slavery or not. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise. Many Democrats, feeling themselves dishonored by the course of their party, left it. The Whig party, formerly the party opposed to the views of Andrew Jackson, became the Republican party and many Democrats joined it. The South sent settlers to Kansas, that they might at the proper time out-vote the men who wanted it to become a free state. The North began sending men there to out-vote the slavery men. There was a race between the North and the South, to see which should get more men into the new territory. On election day, large numbers of slavery men came from Missouri and Arkansas, and cast votes for slavery. Their votes made it appear that slavery had won, and that when SLAVERY CAUSES TROUBLE 291 admitted, Kansas was to be a slave state. Kansas at length became a state of the Union, free from slavery. The Kansas contest made the Republican party stronger, and very greatly weakened the Democratic party. 373. Japan. — The Kansas excitement did not prevent the national government from attending to other things. Japan had always held aloof from all nations and had no trade with foreign countries. In those days any article made in Japan was a great curiosity, because so few of them ever got out of that country. Our people wanted to trade with James Buchanan Japan; and in 1852 Commo- dore Perry, son of the hero of Lake Erie, was sent to Japan with a fleet to pay a friendly visit. A treaty of commerce was made, and from that day, Japan, copying American ideas and methods, has advanced, until it is now the foremost nation of Asia. 374. Election of Buchanan. — In the election of 1856 the new Repubhcan party, which had become quite strong, opposed the Democratic party, but was defeated. James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, Democrat, was elected President. 375. The Dred Scott Case. — For some time a case had been pending in the United States Supreme Court concerning a slave named Dred Scott. Very soon after Buchanan be- came President, the Court decided the case, and in doing so laid down some new points of law. One of these was that a slave could neither sue in the courts, nor be sued.. Another 292 AMERICAN HISTORY was that a slave was the property of his owner, who could take him anywhere in the United States, and keep him as a slave. Yet another was that the Missouri Compromise Law never had any force, even before it was repealed. The Dred Scott decision seemed to put an end to the slavery question by making slavery lawful everywhere. The enemies of slav- ery were shocked, while its friends declared that all states and territo- ries had been de- clared open to slav- ery by the decision of the highest court. 376. Abraham Lin- coln. — Stephen A. Douglas, Democrat, senator from Illinois, was the leader of such Democrats as beHeved that the Union should not be dissolved. In 1858 he sought re-election to the Senate, and his opponent was a man of the people, a Republican, named Abraham Lincoln. The two men met each other in debate, at various places in Illinois, and dis- cussed whether the people of a territory should decide the question of slavery. Douglas wanted to be the next Pres- ident and in the debate Lincoln put some questions to him. Abraham Lincoln SLAVERY CAUSES TROUBLE 293 If he answered in one way, he would make enemies of the northern Democrats, and would lose the senatorship. If he answered in another, he would make friends of them and would be elected to the Senate. He favored the northern Democrats in his answer, and was elected. Lincoln was beaten, but Douglas had made enemies of the Democrats of the slave states, who would never vote for him for President. The wonderful skill and statesmanship shown by Lincoln in the debates with Douglas made him favorably known to Republicans everywhere, and brought him forward as their candidate for President in the election of i860. 377. John Brown. — The people of the South were always in more or less fear of an uprising of slaves. There were a few people in the North who favored the idea of slave-risings in the South. Of these few was John Brown, who was at first a farmer in New York state and later went with his sons to Kansas. There he and his sons fought those who tried to carry the territory for slavery by force. Brown thought that if he could stir up the slaves of Virginia to fight their masters, the Southern peo- ple would be so terrified at the thought of further risings that they would be willing to free their slaves. The old man went to Harper's Ferry with a small party, in the fall of 1859, and tried to start an uprising of slaves. He failed, and was soon afterward tried for murder and hanged. Harper's Ferry in 1859 294 AMERICAN HISTORY 378. Admission of New States. — During Buchanan's administration Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas were admitted as free states. Even with the Dred Scott decision to help slavery, it could spread no farther. It must stay where it was, and if so confined, it must die. The states now stood nineteen to fifteen against the spread of slavery. 379. The Election of Abraham Lincoln. — The Democratic convention to name a man for the Presidency met at Charleston, S.C. Northern Democrats nominated Stephen A. Douglas, while the southern disunion Democrats nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. The Democratic party was now divided and neither wing could win in the election. The Republican convention was held at Chicago. Abraham Lincoln was nominated for President, and was elected. 380. Secession. — The people of the South firmly beheved that they had the right to take their states out of the Union. The people of the North as firmly believed that no state had a right to leave the Union, and that secession was treason. South Carolina took the lead, as she had done before when- ever there had been talk of disunion. Without waiting to see what the nation would do under its new President, South Carolina declared, in convention, while Buchanan was yet President, that she was an independent state, and spoke of the United States as a foreign country. 381. Confederate States of America. — While Buchanan was yet President the people of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded from the Union. When Lincoln became President, the seceding states had formed a new Union of their own, which they called the Confederate States of America. They elected as president, Jefferson Davis, who, since the death of Calhoun, had been the leader of the slavery wing of the Democratic party. SLAVERY CAUSES TROUBLE 295 SUMMARY 1. Disputes about the southwest boundary line between Texas and Mexico are made the pretext for a war with Mexico. 2. Two leading American generals of the Mexican War were Winfield Scott and Zachary Taylor. The latter became President. 3. The Nation gains a vast territory from Mexico as a result of the war. 4. Wilmot Proviso. 5. California becomes a free state. 6. Threats of secession. 7. Death of President Taylor. President Fillmore. 8. The Fugitive Slave Law. 9. President Pierce. 10. Unlawful interference with affairs in Cuba. 11. The Kansas-Nebraska Act repeals the Missouri Compromise. Kansas admitted as a free state. 12. Japan. 13. President Buchanan. 14. The Dred Scott Case. 15. The Lincoln-Douglas debates. 16. John Brown's Raid. 17. Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas admitted. 18. President Abraham Lincoln. 19. Secession. Confederate States of America. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Wliat led to the Mexican War? 2. What territory did we gain as a result of this war? 3. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 4. What was the Fugitive Slave Law? 5. How was it regarded by the people of the North? 6. Why was it desired by the people of the South that Cuba should become a part of the United States? 7. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Act? To what events did it lead in Kansas? 8. Who went to Japan to open trade with the United States? With what success? 9. What was the effect of the Dred Scott decision? 10. What citizen of Illinois began to oppose the extension of slavery? 11. Which was the first state to secede? How many states seceded from the Union? What did they call themselves? CHAPTER XVI THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 382. Fort Sumter. — For the defense of Charleston, S.C, the United States had, years before, built a fort upon an island in the harbor. This was Fort Sumter, named for a Revolutionary hero of the state. At the time of the secession . of South Carolina, the forts of . -^ " "'*' ' Charleston harbor were manned by a few United States soldiers. Carolina demanded that the United States give up these forts, including Fort Sumter. When an Fort Slmtkk , , , i ,i unarmed vessel, sent by the gov- ernment with food for the soldiers in Fort Sumter, drew near the island, she was fired upon by the batteries on the shore. Thus the state had begun war on the United States. 383. President Lincoln. — In his inaugural address Lin- coln said that he had no right to interfere with slavery, di- rectly or indirectly, and that he had no purpose to do so. He declared that no state could rightfully withdraw from the Union. He promised that he would use the power placed in him as President " to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the Government." He told those present who were known to be in favor of secession, that the government would not assail the South; that there could be no conflict unless it was forced on the government. There were many in the North, including General Scott, THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES =97 commander-in-chief of the army, who thought it would be wise to allow the seceding states to withdraw from the Union. The Slave States before the War 384. The South Begins the War. — Major Anderson, commanding Fort Sumter, was calling for food for his men, when the President ordered that the nation's soldiers, in the nation's fort, should be fed. As soon as the President's order was known, the president of the Confederate States demanded the surrender of Fort Sumter and, on Major Anderson's refusal, the shore batteries opened fire. Within two days the weak garrison was over- come, and the American flag was hauled down in surrender. Four years, to a day, from the lowering of our national flag at Fort Sumter, the same shot-torn emblem of greatness was raised again in victory. The brave defenders of the South were vanquished, their states desolated, the flower of their youth laid in early graves, and slavery was dead. 298 AMERICAN HISTORY 385. Effect of the Capture of Fort Sumter. — As the news of the capture of Fort Sumter flashed over the country, North and South, patriotism broke into flame. In the South, the young men rushed to camp. In the North, the President called for seventy-five thousand volunteer soldiers, and from Maine to Texas, men made ready for war. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also seceded, and there were then eleven States in the Southern Confederacy. The border states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware were slave states but did not leave the Union. Richmond, capital of Virginia, be- came the capital of the Confederate States. 386. Condition of the South. — The South was unprepared for war. It takes more than men to carry on war, for those who fight must be armed, clothed, and fed by those who stay at home. The South raised cotton and tobacco, but was not a manufacturing country. It had always depended on its crops for its needs and had traded largely with Europe. It meant to trade cotton for arms, clothes, -and everything that its soldiers needed in the field. 387. The Blockade. — To get supplies and to send out privateers, the South needed open harbors and ports. Lin- coln, seeing how important it was that the ports of the South should be closed to commerce, sent war-ships to blockade the harbors. No vessel could go into or out of a southern port except by running through the lire of Union war-ships. The A Southern Planter THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 299 blockade soon brought the South to severe want for the necessities of life as well as for things needful in warfare. Some vessels ran the blockade successfully, but many were captured and some were sunk. More than fifteen hundred were taken or sunk during the war. Because it could not be sent out of the country, cotton was as cheap as five cents a pound in Charleston, while EngHsh manufacturers were offering two dollars and a half a pound for it in Liverpool, England. The blockade finally broke down the Confederacy and made its war a failure. 388. Preparation. — Now came a period of getting ready. Troops were driUing — North and South. The people on both sides grew restless. "Why do not our soldiers fight?" asked those of the North. "Why do not our soldiers whip the Yan- kees?" asked those of the South. "On to Washington! " said one. "On to Richmond!" said the other. Both were over-sure; both had much to learn. 389. Bull Run. — In July, 1861, General McDowell with a Union army was in front of Washington, while General Beauregard with a much smaller Confederate force stood guard over Richmond, about thirty miles southwest of Wash- ington, near a little stream called Bull Run. From this point he could defend Richmond or attack Washington. General McDowell marched against Beauregard and engaged his force at Bull Run, July 21. The Confederates, ably led by "Stonewall" Jackson and Generals Beauregard and Johnston, were constantly receiving re-enforcements, while the expected Union Soldier in Uniform 300 AMERICAN HISTORY help for the Federal troops did not arrive. In the afternoon a spirited attack was made by the Confederates on the flank and rear of the Federal forces. The Union army was routed and retreated in mad haste to Washington. The defeat at Bull Run taught the North that war is a serious thing, and that victories in the field can not be won without careful planning by able generals in command of trained soldiers. 390. Call for Volunteers; General George B. McClellan. — President Lincoln at once called for half a miUion volun- teers, for it was now clear that there was to be a great war. In the early days of the war, General Scott, who had won fame in the Mexican War, was in command of the Union armies. But in November, 1861, a younger man, fresh from his studies of war in Europe, Gen- eral George B. McClellan, was placed in charge. It had been the first care of the President to see that the slave states that had not seceded were kept in the Union. In each of these states, however, were many who favored secession and joined the Confederate Army, while Missouri, for instance, sent men to both armies by thousands. Union control of the border slave states, especially in Kentucky and Missouri, was not gained without much fighting. By the end of 1 86 1, the Confederacy was beset by land and sea and was struggling to defend itself. 391. West Virginia. — The people in Virginia were gener- ally in favor of the Union, but the politicians dragged them George B. McClellan THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 301 into the Confederacy. In the mountainous western part of the state slavery was not profitable, the cHmate and soil not being good for such crops as required slave labor. There the people did not join the Confederacy, and after Virginia seceded from the Union, West Virginia was made a separate state in 1863. ' 392. Mason and Slidell. — The South could not send cotton to be sold out of the country, and thus was crippled for want of money. As the colonies had gained the help of France against England in the Revolution, so the Confed- erate states, in their struggle for independence, sought the help not only of France but of England also. They sent two of their ablest men to Europe to get help from these nations. Before these messengers. Mason and Slidell, reached Europe, the English vessel on which they sailed was stopped by an American war-ship and they were taken off and held as prisoners. In thus removing men from the vessel of a foreign nation the United States did what England had done before the War of 181 2. England was as angry now as America had been years before, and steps were taken toward making war on the United States. Mason and Slidell were set free, however, with the understanding that, thereafter, neither nation was to search the vessels of the other. 393. Forts Donelson and Henry. — In the northwestern part of Tennessee there are two rivers, the Tennessee and the Cumberland, which were important routes for steamboat Robert E. Lee 302 AMERICAN HISTORY traffic. The Confederates controlled these rivers by means of Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland. The Union armies under General U. S. Grant, after some severe fighting, captured these forts early Taking the Ramparts at Fort Donelson in 1862. Much help was given by the Union gunboats in the rivers, commanded by Commodore Foote. Many prisoners and great stores of war supplies, which the Confederates much needed, fell into the hands of our army. The Confederates soon surrendered Columbus on the Mississippi, not far away. The command of the Mississippi and its branches was as important, in this war, as that of the Hudson had been in the war of the Revolution; but the great river was not yet under Federal control, for, farther south was another strong fort, THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 303 known as Island Number Ten. Grant's victories caused the Confederates to abandon thousands of square miles of territory which they had hoped to hold. The outside pressure of the Union Armies was forcing the Confederacy back within itself. 394. Control of the Mississippi. — It was the purpose of President Lincoln to keep the South from getting materials from outside. The Confederacy was blockaded along the coast, but arms and other war supplies could be brought in by way of Mexico and from the country on the west, across the Mississippi River. To shut off these supphes it was needful that the Mississippi should be held by Union soldiers and Union gunboats. As soon as control of the Mississippi River should be gained, the Confederacy would be cut in two, and it would be difhcult for the Confederates to move men and supplies, for there were but few railroads in that region. Whichever side held the western rivers, had a great advantage over the other. 395. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing ; Corinth. — • Next in importance to the rivers were the railroads, and to get control of these was the purpose of General Grant, who began to move toward Corinth, in the northeast part of the state of Mississippi, where several railroads centered. The Confederates had good generals who knew what Grant wanted, and meant to block his movement. When he started up the Tennessee River toward Corinth, General A. S. John- ston, one of the ablest generals of the Confederacy, advanced toward Grant's army. As Grant halted to rest his men and to wait for General Buell to join him with his army, Johnston, with a greater force, fell upon him with furious attack. Every Confederate soldier knew as well as his great leader how much depended on victory. Grant's army was driven 304 AMERICAN HISTORY back, but Johnston, in the moment of apparent victory, was killed. Then Beauregard, who had whipped the Union Army at Bull Run in the East, took command. "We will finish our victory in the morning," said Beauregard. "Our hardest fighting comes to-morrow," said Grant. That night Buell came up to help Grant, and in the morning, April 7, 1862, the fight went on again. By nightfall the Union Army was victorious in the hardest fought battle of the war in the West. The day after the defeat at Pittsburg Landing, the Con- federates gave up Island Number Ten. Then the Mississippi River was controlled by the Federal forces as far south as Vicksburg. The victory at Pittsburg Landing made the fall of Corinth sure, and in May it surrendered. 396. The Duel of the Ironclads. — In the early days of the war General Scott caused forts to be built around Washington, and Fortress Monroe, in Virginia, was well manned with Federal troops. When Virginia seceded, the state govern- ment seized the Navy Yard at Portsmouth and the Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, but not until both had been destroyed as far as could be done, by the Federal officers in charge. At the Navy Yard several war- vessels were sunk to prevent their capture, among them the steam frigate Merrimac, which the Confederates afterward raised and made into a a war- vessel of a new kind. They built on the Merrimac sides of heavy iron, which sloped upward from the water. No cannon ball could strike them squarely; every shot that might hit would glance off and be harmless. When the craft was done they named her the Virginia and thought that with her they would be able to break through the blockade of Union war- vessels. While the South was building the Virginia the North THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 305 was also building an iron-sheathed vessel to meet the former when she should be completed. There was to be a greater duel between two war- vessels than the world had yet seen. 397. The " Monitor ." — The Monitor, built by Captain John Ericsson, was a vessel lying so low that her deck was but The " Monitor " and the " Virginia " two or three feet above water level. Her sides were of timber several feet thick, covered on the outside with heavy iron plates which no cannon ball could pierce. Her deck, plated with iron, was so fiat and low that no shot could harm it. Built upon the deck was an enclosure shaped like a cheese- box, made of thick iron, and within this turret, as it was called, were two heavy guns. The turret could be made to turn, by machinery, so that the guns might be pointed in any direction. The revolving turret was the idea of a skilful inventor, Theodore R. Timby, who died in Brooklyn in 191 1. On March 8, 1862, the Virginia came down from Norfolk and fought the wooden ships at Hampton Roads. She struck 3o6 AMERICAN HISTORY the noble Cumberland with her iron prow, and cut the ves- sel half-way through. She set the Congress on fire and destroyed her. The Virginia started the next day to resume her work, but during the night the Monitor had arrived, and the two vessels opened fire upon each other. It was iron against iron now, and the Virginia after a fearful fight returned to Norfolk, never to fight again. The Monitor saved the rest of the Union war- vessels; saved the Northern cities; saved the blockade; saved the Union. A little later, when the Union armies marched for Richmond, Norfolk was taken; but before it fell, the Confederates destroyed the Virginia. The Monitor was later lost at sea while cruising off the coast of North Carolina. The fight at Hampton Roads taught the world that wooden war-ships were useless and for this reason the encounter of the two iron-clads stands as one of the most important sea- battles in history. 398. New Orleans. — The South in 1862, the second year of the war, still held the lower part of the Mississippi River. Grant, with the armies and the gunboats, was gaining the river from the northward; another force must enter at its mouth and work up-stream. In the spring a fleet under Commodore Farragut, bearing an army, sailed against New Orleans. The Confederates made skilful plans for the defense of the river and city. After four days of fighting, however, the Federals prevailed, and the city of New Orleans was taken. The loss of the outlet of the Mississippi Valley hurt the cause of the Confederacy, not only in America but in Europe. France and England would now think twice before siding with the South. The South had then but two strongholds on the river, THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 307 Port Hudson and Vicksburg. Farragut moved up the stream with his vessels to attack them, but it was necessary for him to wait for the army. These strongholds could be taken only by the navy and the army fighting together. 399. The Draft in the South. — By the spring of 1862 no more volunteers for the Confederate armies were to be had. Then the Confederate Congress passed a law which drew into the army all men between eighteen and thirty-five years of age. By the fall of the same year, all men under forty-five years of age were made to join the army. 400. The Blockade Goes On. — ^The North was pressing the blockade, but there were not enough ships to watch properly all the ports of the Confederacy. Besides, it was dangerous for vessels to lie outside, on the ocean, exposed to the terrible storms of the Atlantic, with no near harbors to run into in case of need. It was therefore thought best to capture some of the seaports, which might be used by Union vessels as harbors of refuge. The ships blockading them might then be sent to watch other ports. So, one after another, the seaports were taken. 401. Privations of the South. — By this time every south- ern seaport except Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington had been taken. The South could have no trade with Europe but such as might be made by means of steamers steahng by the watchful Union war-ships that lay in wait for them oflf A Pair of Wooden-soled Shoes Worn by a Confederate soldier in latter part of the war 3o8 AMERICAN HISTORY these three ports. The blockade bore heavily upon the southern people. Tea, coffee, and salt were very hard to get. There were but few medicines to be had, either for the armies or for the people. The southern soldiers had to find clothing for themselves as best they could; and thousands of them wore captured Union uniforms. The southern people gave their carpets to be made into blankets for the soldiers. Coarse homespun cloth, woven on hand-looms as in colonial times, became common; and so did wooden-soled shoes like those worn in Europe by the peasants. Meat became very scarce and costly, especially after the Union armies and gunboats had taken the Mississippi River, so that cattle from Texas could not be had. There were bread riots in some of the southern cities, which were put down by military force. In Richmond, President Davis himself, by threats of having the troops fire on it, scattered a mob which was demanding bread. The courage of the south- ern people, and especially that of the southern women, during this terrible period was marvelous. 402. The North. — The North, a land of plenty, felt no pinch of poverty or famine. Volunteers had been called for, again and again, and every year brought a new host of youth to the proper age for service, and these took their places willingly, to fight for the Union. Immigrants kept coming from Europe, and many of them entered the Union armies to fight for their adopted country. The North had many more men in the field than the South. 403. Richmond; McClellan. — General McClcllan, with a hundred thousand men, went to Fortress Monroe and from there set out for Richmond. The Confederate generals were more active than McClellan. The last day of May and the first day of June, 1862, saw a vigorous attack on his THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 309 force which had marched toward Richmond. This attack ended much to the advantage of the Confederates. McClellan, cut off from his suppHes, had to fight to get away. For seven days the Confederates kept after him, in a series of terrific fights known as the Seven Days' Battle, but they were checked at last at Malvern Hill, July i, and Richmond in 1862 McClellan's army reached the James River, where the gun- boats could help keep back the foe. From there the army was moved to Washington; and thus the second attempt to take Richmond had ended in failure. McClellan had shown that, while weak in attack, he was a genius at defense, for his retreat was masterful. But what the nation wanted was a general who could make the enemy retreat. So Hal- leck, who had been in command over Grant in the West, was called to Washington to be general-in-chief. General Pope, who had a good record, was put in command of the army that was to make the third attempt to take Richmond. 3IO AMERICAN HISTORY 404. Second Battle of Bull Run. — Pope was as much too rash as McClellan had been too cautious. Long before he could get to Richmond, the Confederate General " Stonewall" Jackson slipped in behind him and got his supplies of ammuni- tion and food. The two armies came together very near the old Bull Run battle-ground, and for the third time the Union Army was defeated, and it fell back to Washington. 405. The Confederate Army Advances. — The Confed- erate commander, General Robert E. Lee, thought it time for his army to advance. " Maryland is a slave state. There must be many friends of the South there. Perhaps they are ready to join a Confederate Army, if it comes to them victo- rious. If we rush through Maryland with an army growing stronger every day, and can win a northern city or two, we may end the war." So said the wise men of the Confederacy, as Lee set forth with sixty thousand men. 406. Antietam; Fredericksburg. ^ McClellan's army was thrown across Lee's front to check him, and there was a battle at Antietam, Maryland, September 17, 1862. Lee's army fell back after a terrible fight. McClellan failed to follow, and the next day the Confederate forces crossed the Potomac and marched back into Virginia. The President now set McClellan aside and gave the command to General Burnside. Then began the fourth march on Richmond, and at Fred- ericksburg, December 13, the Union Army was beaten again, as it seemed fated to be whenever it started toward Richmond. 407. Third Year of the War. — General Hooker was placed in command in January, 1863, and Burnsid,c went back to his corps. General Hooker determined to attempt to take Richmond by marching up the Rappahannock River. He had a much larger army than Lee, and the two forces met at Chancellorsville, a short distance west of the fateful field THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 3" of Fredericksburg, on the south bank of the Rappahannock. The Federal forces met with another crushing defeat through a masterly attack on their flank by "Stonewall" Jackson. Thomas J. (" Stonewall") Jackson, a native of Virginia, was one of the ablest commanders of the Confederate forces, being "the most striking figure of the war on the Southern side." The Confederacy at the Close of 1862 As an able general and a military genius he ranks with Gen- erals Robert E. Lee and Joseph E. Johnston, whom Virginia also gave to the Confederate army. His steadiness and bravery in the first battle of Bull Run, when a part of the Confederate forces were retreating, earned for him the name of "Stonewall," for his brigade, instead of retreating, calmly awaited the attack, standing in line as firm as a stone wall. Lee considered that Jackson was his most able general, and the latter distinguished himself at the second battle of Bull Run, at Antietam, and at Fredericksburg. After the battle of Chancellorsville (May, 1863) while returning from a recon- 312 AMERICAN HISTORY noitering expedition with a few of his escort, General Jackson was shot by his own men, who mistook him and his aids for a small Federal force. 408. Slavery and the Emancipation Proclamation. — Presi- dent Lincoln said that his great object was to restore the Union, and neither to save nor de- stroy slavery. He declared that he would save the Union without free- ing any slaves if he could; that if by freeing all the slaves he could save the Union, he would, or, that if by freeing some, and leaving others in bondage, he could save the Union, he would do that. What to do with slavery was a grave question. The President finally proclaimed that, if the people in the seceded states did V^;^ " Stonewall " Jackson "^hi^ not lay down their arms by the first day of 1863, he would declare that all their slaves should be forever free. On the first day of January, 1863, President Lincoln de- clared that, in all parts of the country where there was war against the Union, slavery should exist no more. 409. Results of Emancipation. — The slaves became rest- less. As fast as they could, they ran away into the Union hnes. Those that were left did not work as well as they had done before. Confederate soldiers now did much of the work about the camps, on the march, and at the breastworks, that before this time had been done by slaves. There were fewer Confederates now on the firing line. In another way emancipation helped the Union cause, for many negroes, North and South, became soldiers in the Union Army. THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 313 ,A>i^ ^ nrca::^ ffj^t^ fun^^^, <**.--' •^'- " Who had command of the Union forces at the Second 'Battle of Bull Run? What was the result of this fight? What movement to the north was made by General Lee? What battle did he fight? With what result? 13 14. Qj^x^ J}j^^ V- '-i^'h THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES IS succeeded 331 General t.3 Where was General Burnside defeated? Who Burnside? ^^v.•T--lou»-»^ ^ mm ;^'-*s\^^i-.in'^ «, ^ Confederate Battle Flag CHAPTER XVII RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 439. The Death of Lincoln. — In the hour of victory the great heart of the President was filled with pity for the South. At a cabinet meeting, April 14, which proved to be his last, Mr. Lincoln said, "I hope there will be no persecution, no bloody work, after the war is over. No one need expect me to take any part in hanging or kiUing these men, even the worst of them. Enough lives have been sacri- ficed." That night he was murdered by John Wilkes Booth, an actor, who in his senseless rage at the defeat of the Confederate cause killed the tender-hearted Lincoln, and thus robbed the South, in its time of need, of its best and most powerful friend. Two other Presidents have lost their lives at the hands of assassins: President Garfield (1881) and President McKinley (1901). 440. President Johnson. — In this most critical time the nation was without a President. For this reason haste was shown, and, three hours after Lincoln's death, the Vice-Presi- dent, Andrew Johnson, took the oath of office as President of the United States. Now that the Confederacy was crushed, the states that had Andrew Johnson RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 333 tried to leave the Union were without governments. To restore them to their proper places and to good government, was a very hard thing to do. Lincoln could have done the work better than any other man. President Johnson sought to restore the states at once to the Union. He intended to do it by himself, as being independent of Congress. 441. Pardons for Southern Soldiers. — Late in May, President Johnson issued a "Proclamation of Amnesty and Pardon" to all persons — except a few — who had fought for the South, on their taking the oath of loyalty to the Con- stitution. Those who were excepted were invited to apply for special pardon. Never, in all history, had a people defeated in war been given such generous treatment. Johnson seemed to be doing as President Lincoln would have done, had he lived. Many of those excepted asked for pardon; and none were refused. During the summer several of the southern states set up state governments, which repealed the acts by which they had seceded. Each legislature voted that the Confederate war debt should not be paid, and each state ratified the Thirteenth Amendment prohibiting slavery. Then the Presi- dent told them that they were states in the Union again, as they were before they seceded. The states elected Senators and Representatives to the National Congress under President Johnson's policy; but when Congress met in the fall, these men were not admitted. Congress said that the President had no right to give the seceded states such standing in the Union as he had assumed to give them. 442. The Condition of the Freedmen. — It was a bitter thing to the people of the South that the cause of slavery, for which they had fought so desperately, was lost. This feeling was increased by the lawless behavior of many of the freed- 334 AMERICAN HISTORY men. Although the negroes were now free, they were also ignorant and unfit to govern themselves. There were many- white rascals, or "scalawags," as they were called in the South, who played upon the ignorance, fear, and vanity of the black man. The "scalawags" aroused race hatred between the white and black people and did much to lead the ignorant negro into crime and violence. During "scalawag" rule in the Southern states there was a period of great danger both to life and property. 443; The President's Policy. — President Johnson, now the friend of the South, soon became its champion. He was as fully under the influence of the South as any Democratic President ever had been. He had forsaken the Republican party that elected him, as completely as Tyler had years before forsaken the Whig party that elected him. Paying no attention to the counsels of those who had put down the rebellion, he went ahead by himself to grant favors to the South, under what he called " My policy." 444. The Civil Rights Bill. — In i866 Congress passed a law called the X4^■il Rights Bill. Its purpose was to protect the negroes from abuse iiTffi^outh, and to give them the rights of white men under the United States law. By this bill the negroes or freedmen were declared to be citizens of the United States, having the same rights as white citizens, in every state and territory. 445. The Fourteenth Amendment. — In i866, to prevent a possible repeal of the Civil Rights Bill, Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which made .the negroes citizens. It also provided that the national debt should be paid; but that no debt incurred by the Confed- eracy should be paid. It also prohibited certain persons in the states that had seceded from holding office. RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 335 Other laws concerning the building up of the Union were passed by Congress. The President, seeming to resent the course of Congress in not leaving all such matters to him, vetoed almost every such law. But the laws were passed over his veto. In 1866, Tennessee came into the Union, after ratifying the Fourteenth Amendment. The other seceded states would not ratify and were not then admitted. 446. The Ku-Klux Klan. — ^A secret society, called the Klu-Klux Klan, had sprung up in Tennessee, the purpose of which was to prevent rule and voting by negroes who were under the control of designing rascals from the North, called "Carpet-baggers." To effect this the members of the Klan made it their business to spread terror among the negroes so that they could control them. They rode at night in armed bands, hideously disguised, and dragged negroes from their beds and flogged them. They murdered many of them, and also some white men. In 187 1 Congress passed a law known as the Enforcement Act, under which the President might use the military force, and take other strong measures to secure peace and order. Under this law the Ku-Klux Klan was broken up, and better conditions in the South prevailed. 447. Military Government. — Congress passed a law, in 1867, over the President's veto, which divided the South into five districts, each of which was placed under military govern- ment. This law was known as the Military Reconstruction Law. It was passed because there were no legal governments in the Southern states, and in order that peace and good order might be enforced. The carrying out of this and some later laws checked the Ku-Klux outrages somewhat, but they did not end for some years. 336 AMERICAN HISTORY In 1868 all the states but Virginia, IMississippi, and Texas had formed their governments, and ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, and their Senators and Representatives were in Congress. In 1870, the last state had taken the required course; and all the late Confederate states were in good standing as states of the Union, and were represented in Congress in 187 1. 448. Enmity Between Congress and the President. — The President insisted on defying Congress, while Congress in many ways checked the President. In 1867 it was feared that the President intended to strengthen his power by removing oflficials and appointing to their places men friendly to him and his policy. To prevent this, Congress passed a law under which the President could not remove any of the higher officials without the consent of the Senate. It was called the Tenure of Office Law. In defiance of Congress and of the law it had passed, Presi- dent Johnson removed the secretary of war, and appointed another man to the place. The new man remained until Congress met and refused to confirm the President's appoint- ment. Then the former secretary of war returned to the office. At this the President ordered his man to hold the office. For thus trying to override an Act of Congress, the President was charged with committing a crime and was tried by the Senate, sitting as a court. He was found not guilty by a very close vote, one vote saving him from impeachment. 449. Mexico. — ^When the war commenced, and the power of the United States to uphold the Monroe Doctrine seemed to be gone, the Emperor of France thought it a good time to start a monarchy in North America. He quarreled with Mexico, and sent troops there. Later he sent more until he had about sixty thousand French troops in Mexico. 338 AMERICAN HISTORY The Mexican government was overthrown, and a brother of the Emperor of Austria was made Emperor of Mexico. France was warned by the United States that no monarchy would be allowed in Mexico; but the warnings were not heeded. In 1867 a very pointed request from the United States that French troops be withdrawn from Mexico was heeded, and the troops went back to France. After that the Mexicans overthrew the Emperor Maximilian, and he was put to death. Mex- ico is still a republic. In 1867 Nebraska was admitted as a State of the Union. In the same year, Russian America was bought by the United States. Its name was changed to Alaska. 450. President Grant. — As the end of the presidential term drew near, the Republicans named for President, General Grant; while the Democrats named Horatio Seymour of New York, a man who had been governor of that state. Grant was elected. 451 . The Fifteenth Amendment. — A few days before Grant took office, Congress proposed the Fifteenth Amend- ment to the Constitution. The Amendment is a short one, giving to the negroes lately in slavery the right to vote. It was more than a year before the Amendment was ratified and became a part of the Constitution. Thus the Thirteenth Amendment gave the slave freedom Ulysses S. Grant RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 339 (1865), the Fourteenth gave him the rights of a citizen (1868), and the Fifteenth (1870) protected him as a voter. The three Amendments settled forever the slavery question. They stand as showing the results of the war. Since the close of the war the "New South " has built up manufactures in many Completion of the Pacific Railroad Meeting of the locomotives of the Union and of the Central Pacific Railroads. From a photograph of its leading cities. A most important change for the better has been made by the chance given to the negroes to learn trades and improved methods of crop-raising. 452. The Pacific Railroad. — In 1863 a railroad was begun from the Missouri River to the Pacific coast, railroads having already been built from the Atlantic coast to the great river. In 1869 the Pacific road was completed so that a train could 340 AMERICAN HISTORY cross the continent. A train ran from New York to San Francisco. Since then several other lines to the Pacific have been built. These roads and their branches have brought into use millions of acres of good land that was worthless until, by these roads, crops could be sent to market. This land, much of it in regions of little rainfall, has been made fertile by irriga- tion. In this way, water is carried in ditches for great distances over land upon which crops could not otherwise be raised. In certain parts of the West, from Idaho, Da- kota, and Oregon on the North to Texas in the South, are large cattle and sheep ranches. When ready for the mar- ket, the animals are driven to stations on one of the great rail- roads and thence shipped to Chicago and other large cities of the West. They are there slaughtered and the meat sent to other parts of the country. So great a country as the United States could hardly be held together, as one nation, were it not that railroads make traffic easy between its distant parts. Before the building of the Pacific railroads, it took one hundred and ten days to go from Omaha to San Francisco. These railroads have Irrigation Centers of the West RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 341 opened to settlement the vast stretches of the West and have been the cause of the growth of large cities in one of the most important sections of our country. 453. The "Alabama" Claims. — The nation was fast recovering from the war; the fighting was over, and the settlements that followed the war were finished. Now there was a chance to take up and settle some things that had not yet been attended to. One of these was the matter of the war-vessels allowed by England during the war to go to sea from her ports in order to destroy our merchant vessels. The United States held England to account for the damage that those vessels had done, and made claim.s for payment. These claims were known as the Alabama claims because they were based on damages inflicted by that vessel. In 1870 President Grant took the matter in hand. He made no appeal to England, but in his message to Congress he proposed that our government determine the claims which our citizens had against England, and pay them. Then the claimant against England would be the Government of the United States. He said that notice of this action should be sent to the English government. The President's course showed England that our govern- ment was in earnest. War was raging in Europe between Germany and France, and England might be drawn into the contest. She saw that she must settle the claims of the United States, and agree that there should be no more sending out of such ships as the Alabama, by either nation against the other. She saw that if she did not settle these claims, she might suffer in some future war by having our nation treat her as she had treated us. The prospect of having her commerce swept from the sea by American-built Alabamas, whenever she might be at war with any other nation, was not 342 AMERICAN HISTORY a pleasant one; and England settled the account. She paid many millions of dollars, and a treaty was made which put a stop forever to the building by either nation of ships as the Alabama to prey upon the merchant vessels of the other. 454. The Amnesty Act ; Election ; Panic. — In j8^ Con- gress passed the Amnesty Act, which gave to all Southern soldiers, except about three hundred of the leaders, their poUtical rights. In 1872 General Grant was elected for a second term as President. He was opposed by Horace Greeley, a RepubU- can editor of New York, who was named for the office by the Democratic party, and also by a wing of the Republican party called the Liberal Republicans. During the following year, a great business panic swept the country. 455. Resumption of Specie Payment ; Colorado Admitted. — From the early days of the war, coins of silver and gold had been out of circulation. For money, bills were used, ranging from five cents upward. The premium on gold and silver money, that is the value of coin above that of paper money, had steadily grown less, but was still considerable in 1875. At this time Congress passed a law, to take efTect in 1879, that the government should resume payments in coin. It was believed that with the certainty of such payments at a set time, the difference in value between paper money and coin would gradually disappear. As had been expected, the difference in the purchasing power of greenbacks and gold lessened as 1879 drew near; and when the appointed day came, the difference disappeared and paper currency and coin had the same value. Since that time, the government and the banks, when pa}'ing money, have given people their choice between paper bills and gold. ' In 1876 Colorado came into the Union as a state. RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 343 456. A Disputed Presidential Election. — In 1876 the Republicans named for President, Rutherford B. Hayes, who had been a general in the Union Army. The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden of New York. The election was very close, and the result was for a time in doubt. The Democrats had expected to carry all the south- ern states, and they claimed that they had done so in this case. The Republicans claimed to have carried South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. It was finally decided that General Hayes had been elected to the Presidency. . - 457. Paying the War Debt. — So prosperous had the nation become that it began pay- ing the national debt as soon as the war ended. By the beginning of 1879, four hundred million dollars had been paid. No other nation had ever paid its public debts so rapidly. 458. Chinese Immigration. — The rapid growth of popu- lation in California, under the influence of the Pacific railroad, and the many chances for wealth which that state offered, created a great need for laborers. Labor was very cheap in China, and soon Chinese laborers began to cross the ocean in great numbers to work in California. They were paid very low wages, and yet received several times as much as they earned in their own country. Their coming was encouraged by those who employed labor. They came under a treaty between China and the United Rutherford B. Hayes 344 AMERICAN HISTORY States, which provided that the citizens of either country might visit the other country, but could not become citizens. These coolies, as they were called, worked at wages much lower than Americans could live upon. The presence in California of many thousands of coolies and the likelihood that many more would come were harmful to the state. The matter of the shutting out of Chinese laborers became a ques- tion of importance during the term of President Hayes. '^t^ \:-" -i% P^'^^^ James A. Garfield Chester A. Arthur 459. Election of Garfield. — In 1880 James A. Garfield, who had been a general in the Union Army, was elected by the Republican party to the Presidency. General Hancock, another famous Union soldier, was named by the Democrats. Both parties showed by their platform that they opposed Chinese immigration. During Garfield's term a treaty was made with China, under which the coming of Chinese laborers to this country was very much lessened. 460. Death of Garfield. — President Garfield was opposed to the theory that had prevailed since the time of President Jackson, that to the victors in a political contest belong the RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 345 spoils of office. He was beset by politicans to appoint their friends to office. In many cases he refused to comply with their wishes. The two Senators from New York asked that a certain man be given an important national office, and the President refused to appoint him. Then both Senators resigned. The many disputes about appointments to office crazed an office-seeker, who had failed to get the place he desired, and he shot the President, at Washington, July 2, 1 88 1. President Garfield hved until September 19, following. 461. President Arthur. — The death of the President made the Vice-President, Chester A. Arthur of New York, Presi- dent of the United States. The death of Garfield drew public attention to the evils of office-scrambling that fol- lowed each election, and led to the passage, in 1883, of an Act of Congress called the Civil Service Act. Under this Act those appointed to certain offices must have first passed an examination as to their fitness. It also protects good men in office from being discharged, and from being made to pay money for party purposes. 462. The New Navy. — When the war ended the United States possessed the most powerful navy in the world. In 1883, however, the war-ships of the nation had so far decayed, or were so much exceeded in power by the ships built later by other nations, that it was thought wise to begin the build- ing of new vessels of a better type. From that beginnmg has grown the great American Navy of to-day. 463. The Brooklyn Bridge. — In 1883, after sixteen years of building, the Brooklyn bridge, the greatest structure of its kind then known, was finished. It was thought to be ample for traffic between New York and Brooklyn. But several other bridges, besides some tunnels under the river, are now in use, and all are taxed to their full capacity. 346 AMERICAN HISTORY 464. President Cleveland. — In 1884 the Democrats of the country elected their candidate; and Grover Cleveland of New York became President, the first Democrat to hold that office since the days of Buchanan. In 1885 a law was passed for- bidding the making of contracts under which people of other coun- tries might be brought to the United States to work. 465. The Tarifif. — The high tariff, wliich had been in force for many years, had yielded so much money to the government that all 'I of the national debt that was due had been paid, and there was a surplus in the treasury. It could not be used to pay more of the debt because the creditors of the government, drawing in- terest on what the government owed them, would not take the cash for the bonds they held. Many people thought that the surplus should be used in works of a national char- acter, especially for education in the South. The Demo- cratic party favored reducing the tariff so that there would be less money coming to the government. As Cleveland's term drew near its end, the tariff became a great question, and on it turned the election of 1888. 466. President Harrison. — The Democrats named Grover Cleveland for a second term, while the RepubUcans nomi- nated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, grandson of former President Harrison. Harrison was elected. Early in Harrison's term, a tariff bill prepared by William McKinley of Ohio was passed and became a law. Grover Cleveland RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 347 467. Oklahoma. — In 1889 the government bought from the Indians a large part of their land in Indian Territory, which they called Oklahoma, and opened it for settlement under the homestead law. Multitudes of people rushed to Oklahoma and took up land. So great has been the growth of population there that Oklahoma, including all of the former Indian Territory, is now a state, ad- mitted in 1907. 468. American Republics. — During the same year a meeting of representatives of the Ameri- can republics of Mexico, Central America, and South America was held. Arrangements were made whereby disputes between those nations could be settled without war. 469. New States. — In 1889 North Dakota, South Da- kota, Montana, and Washington were admitted to the Union as States. In 1890 Idaho was admitted. Its constitution gave to women the right to vote and hold office. Since then, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Washington, California, Oregon, Kansas, and Arizona have given the same rights to women. 470. The People's Party. — During Harrison's term the farmers in all parts of the country formed a political party called the People's party. The new party demanded that Congress pass a bill for the free coinage of silver, at the ratio of 16 of silver to i of gold by weight; that is, that a silver dollar should weigh just 16 times as much as a gold dollar. This would enable the mine owners, and others having silver, to get it coined by the government without expense. The Benjamin Harrison 348 AMERICAN HISTORY bill failed, but in its stead one was enacted which directed that the secretary of the treasury should jjurchase publicly, each month, four and a half million ounces of silver at the market price, and coin a large part of it into dollars. It was assumed by some that this monthly purchase of silver by the govern- ment would advance the price of the metal; but it had no such effect. Silver still declined in value, until at length a silver dollar came to be worth less than half as much as a gold one, reckoned by the market value of the metal in each. 471. Cleveland Reelected. — In 1892 the RepubUcans named Harrison for a second term as President. The People's party had a candidate, and the Democrats nominated Cleve- land, who was elected. The election gave complete control of the Presidency, Senate, and House of Representatives to the Democratic party. 472. The Panic. — The folly of the silver law showed its effects fully in 1893. Foreign holders of national bonds, fearful that the government would seek to pay them in silver dollars, worth only sixty-seven cents each, began to sell them. They sold them at low prices, fearing that if they waited they would get less. People who had government notes, fearful that they would have to take cheap silver dollars in pa}'ment, rushed to get them paid. This took the gold that the govern- ment had, and it began to look as though the nation would soon have nothing but its tons of silver dollars with which to pay. There came a terrible panic, and times were hard. At length the silver law was repealed. But hard times lasted through Cleveland's term and a part of that of his successor. 473. The Tarifif. — The Democrats now passed a tariff bill known as the Wilson Bill. Under the new tariff the receipts of the government fell off. Up to this time, ever since the war, there had been a rapid payment of the national RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 349 debt. The debt now began to grow, and it did not stop until it had increased two hundred and fifty million dollars. 474. The Monroe Doctrine. — The United States will not allow territory to be gained in America by any monarchy in Europe. That is the Monroe Doctrine. In 1895 Great Britain had a dispute with Venezuela over the boundary hne between that country and some British territory which ad- joined it. Weak Venezuela proposed that the question of the boundary be decided by outside parties. The United States urged that the matter be settled as Venezuela desired. It soon appeared that if Great Britain attempted to seize Vene- zuelan territory there was likely to be a war between that nation and our own. But wisdom pre- vailed, and the matter of the boundary line was settled, and the affair ended pleasantl}-. This settlement stands as a notable example of the modern method of setthng national dif- ferences. It shows that nations, as well as men, may come to agreement by ways of peace. 475. President McKinley. — In 1896 both the Democratic party and the People's party named Wm. J. Bryan of Nebraska for President. The main demand of both was for free coinage of silver on the basis of fifty or sixty cents worth of silver being made into a coin by the government, for any citizen who might bring it to the mint. The coin was to be called a dollar and to pass as such. The RepubKcan party nominated Wilham McKinley of William McKinley 350 AMERICAN HISTORY Ohio, author of the McKinley Tariff Law, who was opposed to the free coinage of silver. Mr. McKinley was elected. In 1896 Utah became a state of the Union. In 1897 the Dingley Tariff Bill was passed, so framed as to make the tariff }'ield enough money to pay the running expenses of the government. In 1898 the Hawaiian Islands, in the far Pacific, were annexed to the United States. U. S. Battleship " Maine '' 476. The War with Spain. — The people of Cuba had for some time been in rebellion against Spain, which for centuries had held the island as a province. The war was waged sav- agely by both Cubans and Spaniards. Naturally the people of the United States felt well disposed toward the native Cubans, and this made Spain feel sullenly angry with us. Early in 1898 an American naval vessel, the Maine, was sent to Havana, so that there might be a refuge there for such Americans as might have to flee from mob violence. The visit of the ship was a friendly one. While she la}' in the harbor, the Maine was blown up by an explosion of dyna- mite and was destroyed, with nearly all her crew. RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 351 It was believed by the American people that this deed was done by the Spanish officers, and there was a strong feeling against Spain. In April Congress passed an Act directing the President to compel Spain to give Cuba her independence. Spain refused to receive the notice sent by the United States, and Congress declared war, April 19, 1898. The natives in the Philippine Islands, subject to Spain, were at this time in rebellion ; so that Spain while engaged in put- ting down one rebelhon in Cuba, and another on the other side of the globe, was now facing war with the United States. At once the Cuban ports were blockaded by our naval vessels, and Commodore Dewey, commanding our naval squadron in the far Pacific, was ordered to attack the Spanish fleet at Manila, the chief port of the Philippine Islands. Dewey went to Manila and destroyed the Spanish fleet. The victory gave to the United States control of the Spanish possessions in the Pacific Ocean, and made our nation a power in the Eastern Hemisphere. Troops were sent to hold the islands. Spain sent a large part of her home naval fleet to Cuba, to be in a position to attack the American war-ships or American seacoast cities, as chance might decide. The vessels entered the harbor of Santiago, Cuba. As soon as it was known where Spain's war-ships were, the United States naval squadron stood guard over the harbor, so that they could not come out without a battle. Shutting up the Spanish fleet made the seaport cities of our country safe, and also enabled transport ships to carry soldiers and suppKes to Cuba in safety. The American army that had reached Cuba soon drove the Spanish forces into Santiago and threatened to attack the ships in the harbor with land batteries. Knowing that 352 AMERICAN HISTORY the ships would be destroyed if they stayed in port, the Spanish made a desperate attempt to escape by running their vessels through the fleet which was watching for them outside. The attempt failed; and, in a three hours' fight, the Spanish war-ships were all destroyed. With her two best naval squadrons lost, Spain saw no chance to succeed by further fighting; so she gave up Santiago and asked for peace. 477. The Treaty of Peace. — The treaty of peace was signed in December, 1898. The war had lasted about four months, and the Americans had lost about four hundred men. No American war-ship had been seriously damaged. By the treaty Cuba became a free country independent of Spain, to govern herself under the protection of the United States. Porto Rico, an island of the West Indies, Guam, one of the Ladrone Islands, and the Philippines, all came to the United States. Thus Spain, leader in exploring the western world, and at one time having more land than all other na- tions, parted wath her last western holdings, and with them the Philippines in the Eastern Hemisphere, which she had held ever since Magellan's voyage. Little did men of Wash- ington's time foresee that our country was yet to extend west- ward, first to the Rocky Mountains; then to the Pacific; then to the far side of that greatest of oceans, even to Asia. 478. American Troops in China. — In 1900 a rebellion broke out in China, and many people from Japan, Europe, and the United States were murdered. Others were in danger, and troops were sent from Great Britain, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, and the United States to protect them. The invasion was successful after some fighting. In the settlement, each of the invading nations, except the United States, proposed to take territory from China. The RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 353 United States insisted on fair play, and would not take land from the unfortunate nation. The stand that our nation took resulted in an arrangement under which China kept her territory and all the nations were allowed to trade in China. 479. Second Election of Mc- Kinley. — In 1900 McKinley was elected President for a second term. Theodore Roose- velt of New York was elected Vice-President. During the year the Hawaiian Islands were given territorial government. In the Philip- pines there was trouble with the natives, who fought for indepen- dence against the United States, as they had done against Spain. In 1 90 1 the Cubans formed a government modeled on that of the United States. It provided for control by the United States, in the future, should such control be necessary. In the Philippines, the rebel leader, Aguinaldo, was cap- tured. Learning of the good intentions of the United States, he advised his followers to cease fighting and place themselves under the American government. This ended the war in the Islands, except such fighting as has been carried on since by native bandits and outlaws. 480. Death of President McKinley. — In September, 1901, President McKinley was murdered. The wretch who com- mitted the deed was a low-bred, ignorant young man, a son of PoUsh immigrants who came to America to find freedom. Copyright, Pach Bros. Theodore Roosevelt 354 AMERICAN HISTORY The murderer was arrested at once, and after a trial was put to death. Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in as President immediately after the death of McKinley, and at once began his duties. 481. Cuba as a Nation. — In 1902 the American flag was withdrawn from Cuba, and that Republic took its place among the nations. Its first President was Tomas E. Palma. 482. The Alaskan Boundary Line. — The boundary line between Russian America and the English possessions in North America was established in 1825. The line was not very closely defined, because, in that frozen region, land was thought to have so Httle value that it would not pay to take great pains in dividing it. But after Russian America was bought by the United States and was named Alaska, the Americans found that, in the Yukon and Klondike regions, gold was plentiful. Some of the gold-bearing land was very near the Hne that divides Alaska from Canada. It was now desired by both govern- ments that the line be laid out very carefully, to show which nation owned the gold-fields. The matter was referred to a commission of six men, and in 1903 they gave their decision. It mainly favored the claims of the United States. 483. The Panama Canal. — The war with Spain, and its results, made it plain that the United States needed a canal across the isthmus that connects the two American conti- nents. Such a canal would give our naval vessels a short cut from ocean to ocean in case of war, and would enable our ships of commerce to make quick and safe passage at all times. The great commerce that we are to have in the future with Asia will make the isthmus-canal the most important water-way in the world. The United States is building the canal and is to control and defend it, though RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 355 it is to be open to the ships of all nations. The work is going on very rapidly, and will be completed in 191 5. 484. The Election of Roosevelt. — In 1904 Theodore Roosevelt was elected President. An important question during Roosevelt's term was the checking of the increasing power of corporations and trusts controlhng immense capital. War began between Russia and Japan in February, 1904. In the following year, President Roosevelt brought about a meeting of commissioners of the two nations, at Portsmouth, N. H. This meeting resulted in a treaty of peace between Russia and Japan. In 1907-8 it appeared that the interests of the United States in the Pacific Ocean had grown so vast since the Span- ish War as to make it fitting that our nation should be represented on that ocean, by a powerful fleet. Accordingly one of the strongest fleets of warships that ever sailed was sent from our Atlantic to our Pacific coast, by a voyage around South America. 485. President Taft. — The year 1908 being a presidential year, the Republican National Convention met at Chicago. WilHam Howard Taft of Ohio and James S. Sherman of New York were the nominees of the party. The Democrats Copyright, Underwood & Underwood Relief Map of the Panama Canal 356 AMERICAN HISTORY held their convention at Denver. William J. Bryan of Nebraska and John W. Kern of Indiana were the nominees. Taft and Sherman were elected. President Taft had long experience in the service of our government. In 1900 he was appointed president of the United States PhiUppine Com- mission. During the following year he was made the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands. In 1908 he was secre- tary of war in President Roose- \'elt\s cabinet. 486. The Return of the American Battleship Fleet. — In February, 1909, the Ameri- can battleship fleet which left our shores late in 1907 com- pleted the circumnavigation of the globe. This great armored fleet of sixteen battleships carried as crews and officers nearly fifteen thousand men. By this voyage our fleet gave foreign nations evidence of the strength of the naval power of the United States. The trip also proved that the Ameri- can navy, manned by disciplined crews and skilled officers, was able to cruise for great distances with speed and certainty. It took about fourteen months to complete the voyage, and the fleets during that time traveled nearly forty-five thousand miles. On the westward journey, the battleships steamed along the coast of South America, and passing through the Strait of Magellan, reached San Francisco during the summer of 1908. The fleet went thence to Manila, visiting William H. Taft RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 357 on its way the Hawaiian Islands and Japan. It returned to this country by way of the Suez Canal and the Mediterra- nean Sea. 487. The New Census. — A counting or census of the popu- lation of our country has been made every ten years since 1790. The enumeration beginning in 19 10 is the thirteenth census. The new census bill was passed by Congress early in 1909. This bill provided for a special test as to the fitness of those who would be census takers. Taking the national 87 86 85 84 81 ai TJ 0)HI Columbu -^ bColumbus\ rcinfinnalA l-i, ii hs-^^lvania"''"'"*' ^ : 1...A ,lS4iT>tM6or'irfrcld I^ 182^ / K'^NTtJ^f KY ^ic.'iwj^^n^^J- / -^Vl,,RGlNIA (i|: TyCenter of Population AMedian Point. 8C S-. The Westward Movement of the Center of Population OF the United States census makes necessary the employment of many thousands of men and the spending of millions of dollars. The work is in charge of an officer styled the Director of the Census. The thirteenth census showed a population of about ninety- two million people. Emigration to our shores from Euro- pean countries is constantly adding to our population. Twelve thousand immigrants arrived here during a single day in April, 1909. These people came principally from Southern Europe, although all nations of Europe were represented. 488. The Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. — Con- gress proposed before the end of the summer session (1909) 358 AMERICAN HISTORY a new amendment to the Constitution. By January, 1913, this amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the states. The purpose of the sixteenth amend- ment is to give to Congress the power to tax incomes. Dur- ing President Cleveland's second administration. Congress had passed such a law, but it was finally declared uncon- stitutional by the United States Supreme Court. Hence it' was necessary to amend the Constitution before such a tax could be levied. 489. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill. — In our country the tariff has always been a matter of great importance and a leading question between the two prominent political parties. A new tariff law, called the Payne-Aldrich Bill, was enacted in August, 1909. It raised the rates of duties on some goods and lowered them on others. This tariff bill, like all other tariff laws, has proved satisfactory to some of the people and unsatisfactory to others. 490. Discovery of the North Pole. — During the first week in September, 1909, a dispatch was received from one of the Shetland Islands stating that Dr. Frederick A. Cook of Brooklyn, N. Y., had discovered the North Pole on April 21, 1908. A few days later a dispatch was received from Labra- dor signed by the noted Arctic explorer. Commander Peary of the United States Navy. Peary's dispatch read, "Stars and Stripes nailed to the Pole." Commander Peary reached the Pole April 6, 1909. Dr. Cook reached Denmark and was received at Copenhagen with great enthusiasm. After a long delay his proofs were submitted to the University of Copen- hagen, and upon examination by that institution were pro- nounced insufficient. The National Geographical Society of America has decided that Commander Peary reached the North Pole on the date named. RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 359 491. The Hudson-Fulton Celebration. — During the fall of 1909 a monster celebration was held in the vicinity of New York City to commemorate the third voyage of Henry Hudson (1609), and the discovery by Robert Fulton of the application of steam power to the propulsion of boats (1807). It was one of the greatest spectacular events in the history of our country and attracted world-wide attention. Repro- ductions of the Half Moon and the Clermont, convoyed by the battleships of many nations, joined in the naval parade along the Hudson River. There were also numerous land parades in which floats represented important historical events in our growth as a nation. 492. Aerial Navigation. — Progress was made during the year 1909 in the improvement of aeroplanes. One of these machines has traveled a distance of ten miles at a speed rate of more than forty miles an hour. Mr. Edison, the great inventor, has prophesied that in the very near future, aerial navigation will be safe and practicable. 493. Arizona and New Mexico Admitted to the Union. — The only remaining territories within the United States, Arizona and New Mexico, were admitted to statehood early in the year 191 2. The total number of States is now forty-eight and two new stars were added to our flag July 4, 1912. 494. Notable Inventions; Achievements of the Last Century ; Steam as a Motive Power. — The use of steam as a power for moving boats was first made in 1807 by Robert Fulton, who traveled from New York to Albany in the Cler- mont. His discovery of the application of steam power to the propulsion of boats was one of the. most important ever made. In 181 1 the first steamboat ran on western rivers between Pittsburgh and New Orleans. Soon afterward, the 360 AMERICAN HISTORY first steam ferryboat in America was in operation between New York and Hoboken, while in 1819, the steamship Savan- nah crossed the ocean from Savannah to Liverpool in the then wonderfully quick time of twenty-six days. As early as 1837 there were two hundred and fifty steamboats plying up and down the Mississippi River and its branches. The The " Savannah " The first steamship that crossed the Atlantic Cunard Steamship Company was sending its steamers across the Atlantic, and one of them surprised the world by making the passage in less than thirteen and a half days. The trip is now made in about one third of that time. 495. The Development of Labor-saving Machinery during the Last Century. - The cotton-gin was one of the most important inventions of the preceding century, but later inventors have been busy. By 1840, the McCormick reaper was in use. By the middle of the century, stockings were knitted by curious machines moved by steam power. The chck of the steel knitting needles in the hands of the busy housewife could still be heard, however, in thousands of homes, just as it was in colonial times. RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 361 In 1846 EHas Howe invented a machine to sew cloth. It was a wonderful invention. Every garment that is worn in the civilized parts of the world is made more cheaply because of it. Great strides have been made in the applications of elec- tricity since Morse's invention of the telegraph, and, in 1876, the telephone came into use and electric lighting for the illumination of streets and buildings had been placed in operation. In 1885 the long-distance telephone was perfected and cars run by electricity were built. In 1897 the practice of telegraphing without wires was begun, and now messages may be sent in this manner for great distances. Early in the last century carding, spinning, and weaving ' were done by machines run by water-power, though home- weaving continued to be the method of cloth manufacture for many years. In those days the spinning-wheel and the hand-loom were parts of the furniture of nearly all house- holds. Farmers raised their own wool and flax, and their wives made the family clothing from them. Methods of manufacturing and agriculture have been greatly improved by the invention and perfection of labor-saving machinery. The United States is now the greatest manufacturing nation in the world and produces more agricultural products than any other country. This has been made possible by im- proved farm and factory machinery. Ploughing, reaping, and threshing, once done by hand, at great expense of time, are now accomplished by the use of machines adapted to such work. The old method of printing by hand-presses has been superseded by the far more rapid work of huge printing presses and type-setting machines. By means of these 362 AMERICAN HISTORY presses thousands of copies of newspapers may be printed and folded in an hour's time. Steam shovels and hoisting-cranes speedily perform the work formerly requiring hundreds of laborers. Electricity has also worked its marvels in lightening labor and saving time. 496. The Atlantic Cable. — As early as 1851 cables in successful operation had been laid under the EngHsh Channel and also across the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Oceanic communi- cation by cable was made possible by Morse's invention of the telegraph. In 1858 a message was sent across the Atlantic Ocean from the Queen of England to the President of the United States, by means of a cable which had been laid under the ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland. In less than a month, however, it was found impossible to transmit messages, and no further attempt was made to lay a cable for several years. In 1866 a cable was laid from the west coast of Ireland to Newfoundland, and one lost in midocean the previous year was recovered and connected with the Newfoundland coast. With some interruptions of service, we have had cable com- munication with Europe ever since, there now being many trans-Atlantic cables in operation. The steamer, The Great Eastern, then the largest vessel afloat and specially fitted for the purpose, laid the first cables (1865-1866) which were in interrupted use for a number of years. We owe the successful completion of the Atlantic cable to the enterprise and energy of Cyrus W. Field, who organized construction companies, raised money, and gave his best energies for many years to the vast enterprise which he brought to a successful conclusion. By means of the trans-Atlantic cables business between RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 363 this country and Europe is transacted in a few hours, while foreign news is soon known and published in our daily news- papers. 497. The Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution. — Congress in 191 1 proposed another additional amendment to the Constitution which provides that United States senators are to be chosen by popular vote instead of being elected by the various state leg- islatures. This amendment has been ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the states and has thus become a law. 498. The Presidential Elec- tion of 1912. — In the Presi- dential campaign of 191 2, the Republican National Conven- tion met at Chicago in June. After a hard struggle between the followers of President Taft and Theodore Roosevelt, the former was nominated with Vice-President Sherman to lead the Republican national ticket. At the close of the convention about one hundred of the delegates with other friends of Colonel Roosevelt formed the Progressive party and named Roosevelt for President. Arrangements were then made for holding a formal con- vention. The first national convention of the party assembled at Chicago in August. Theodore Roosevelt and Gov. Hiram W. Johnson of California were nominated for President and Vice-President. Copyright, Marceau WooDRow Wilson 364 AMERICAN HISTORY The delegates of the Democratic National Convention met at Baltimore in June, continuing in session until July 3. On the forty-sixth ballot Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey was nominated for the Presidency. Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana was nominated for Vice-President. The SociaHst and Prohibition parties also presented candi- dates for the Presidency. Vice-President Sherman, who was the candidate of the RepubHcan party for reelection, died a few days before the election. In the election the Democratic party was successful, car- rying forty-one states for Wilson and Marshall. 499. A Forecast. — The United States as a nation has done more for the advancement of the world than any other nation in history. Its work has only begun. It is now the leading nation .of the world. During the next generation great world movements, that will stand out in history, will take place in Asia. The in- fluence of the United States in these movements will be potent for good, for the United States is now a world force. Boys and girls of the proper age to study this history are destined to live in a period of greater opportunity than any that their forefathers ever knew. More will be required of them, when they become men and women, than has been required of their forefathers. The United States will shape the destiny of the world; and those who are now boys and girls will, in a few years, control the United States. SUMMARY 1. The death of Lincoln. 2. President Johnson ; his policy. 3. The Civil Rights Bill. 4. The Fourteenth Amendment. 366 AMERICAN HISTORY 5. The South under mililury government. 6. President Johnson impeached. 7. France in Mexico. Maximilian. 8. Nebraska admitted. 9. Alaska purchased. 10. General Grant elected President. 11. The Fifteenth Amendment. 12. The Pacific Railroad. 13. The ^/a/w;«a Claims. 14. Colorado admitted. 15. A disputed Presidential election. 16. Chinese immigration. 17. Election of Garfield; his death. 18. President Arthur. 19. The new navy. 20. Grover Cleveland becomes President. 21. The tarilT. 22. President Harrison elected. 23. Oklahoma becomes a Territory in 1889; a State in 1907. 24. New States admitted : North and South Dakota, Montana, Washing- ton and Idaho. 25. Cleveland reelected. New TarilT Bill. 26. The Venezuela dispute. 27. William McKinley becomes President. 28. Utah admitted (1896). 29. The Hawaii Islands annexed. 30. The war with Spain. 31. The Panama Canal. 32. Election of President Roosevelt. :i:i. President-elect Taft. \ 34. The Democratic Convention. j 1 35. The Inauguration of President Taft. 1 \ 36. The Return of the American Battleship Fleet. I 37. The New Census Bill. Growth of our Country in population. I 38. The Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 39. The new TarifT Bill. | 40. The Discovery of the North Pole. 41. The Hudson-Fulton Celebration. I 42. Aerial Navigation. , 43. Admission of the States of .\rizona and New Mexico. ; 44. Notable Inventions and .\chievements of the last century. RECONSTRUCTION; SUBSEQUENT EVENTS 367 45. The Development of Labor-saving Machinery During the Last Century. 46. The Atlantic Cable. 47. The Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution. 48. The Presidential Election of 191 2. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 1. Who succeeded Lincoln as President? 2. What was one of Johnson's first official acts? 3. What important laws were passed by Congress during Johnson's admin- istration? 4. What was the Ku-Klux Klan? What was done to suppress it? 5. What Federal law did Johnson override? With what result? 6. Who was Maximilian? What did he attempt to do? 7. What was the Fifteenth Amendment? 8. Why was the Pacific Railroad important? 9. How were the Alabama claims settled? 10. What was the Enforcement Act? 11. Why were Chinese immigrants undesirable? 12. Who was elected President in 1880? 13. Who succeeded him? 14. Who was the first Democratic President since Buchanan's time? 15. Who was elected President in 1888? 16. When was Oklahoma admitted as a State? 17. Was Cleveland reelected? When? 18. When was McKinley first elected? . ^ ^ C^ 19. Give an account of the war with Spain? n[ ' 7 20. How will the Panama Canal be useful? 2 1 . When did Roosevelt first become President? I ^ ^ ( 22. Who was elected President in 1908? 23. Who were the nominees of the Democratic party? 24. What great voyage was made by our battleships? How long did this voyage take? Name some of the principal places visited by this fleet. 25. When was the new Census Bill passed? Who has charge of the taking of the census? What is our present estimated population? From what countries of Europe do most of our immigrants now come? 26. What are the new amendments of the Constitution? What must be done by the Legislatures of how many States, in order that these proposed amendments may become a part of the Constitution? 368 AMERICAN HISTORY 27. What is the effect of the new Tariff Bill of 1909? 28. Tell about the conflicting claims to the discovery of the North Pole. 29. Ciive an account of the Hudson-Fulton celebration. 30. What is meant by aerial navigation? 31. What were the last two States admitted to the Union? 32. Who was elected President in 191 2? S3. Name some notable inventions and achievements of the last century -^ APPENDIX DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress, July 4, 1776 A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States OF America, in Congress Assembled When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just po\\'ers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that gov- ernments long established should not be changed for light and tran- sient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to wliich they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such governmer^t, and to pro\nde new guards for their future securitj\ Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated i ii APPENDIX injuries and usurpations, all havinji; in dirocl. object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To i)rove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 1. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. 2. He has forbidden his governors to i)ass laws of immediate and pressing importance, imless susjjcnded in their operations till his assent should be obtained and, when so suspended, he has utterly' neglected to attend to them. 3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, un- comfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole puri)ose of fatiguing them into compliance with his mea.sures. 5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opjwsing, with manly firmness, liis invasions on the rights of the peoj)le. 6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative j)owers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. 7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreign- ers; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 8. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 11. He has kept among us in times of i)ea(H', standing armies, with- out the consent of our Legislatures. 12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. 13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation; 14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among as; DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE iii 15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States; 16. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the workl; 17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of a trial by jury; 19. For transporting us bej'ond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses; 20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighbor- ing province, establisliing therein an arbitrary government, and en- larging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; 21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; 22. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 23. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 25. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mer- cenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, al- ready begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paral- leled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 26. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the execu- tioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 27. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has en- deavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attemjjts by their legis- latures to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have iv APPENDIX reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the tics of our common kindred to dis- avow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our con- nections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good peoj)lc of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved, and that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliancie on the pro- tection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. APPENDIX THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Preamble We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- mon defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. The Legislative Department Section I. Congress in General All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representa- tives. Section II. House of Representatives 1st Clause. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of tho several States, and the elec- tors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 2d Clause. No person shall be a representative who shaU not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. \ Sd Clause. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and, excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of rep- V y\ APPENDIX resentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massa- chusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 4th Clause. \^Tien vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacan- cies. 5th Clause. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section ITT. The Senate. 1st Clause. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of fwo senators from each State, shosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. 2d Clause. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be jnto three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. Sd Clause. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4ih Clause. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5th Clause. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi- dent pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6th Clause. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. WTien sitting for that purpose, they shall all be on oath or affirmation. "UTien the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without th^ concurrence of twO" thirds of the members present. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Vll 7th Clause. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party con- victed shall nevertheless be liab'e and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Section IV. Both Houses. 1st Clause, The times, places, and manner of holding elections for sen- ators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legis- lature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 2d Clause. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section V. The Houses Separately. 1st Clause. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. M Clause. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. Sd Clause. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- ment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4th Clause. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section VI. Privileges and Disabilities of Members. 1st Clause. The senators and representatives shall receive a compen- sation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treas- ury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from viii APPENDIX the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2d Clause. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Section VII. Mode of passing Laws. 1st Clause. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. M Clause. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representar tives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceetl to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Sd Clause. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre- scribed in the case of a bill. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix Section VIII. Powers granted io Congress. The Congress shall have power — 1st Clause. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, t<:) pay the debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; Sd Clause. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; Sd Clause. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 4th Clause. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 5th Clause. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 6th Clause. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; 7th Clause. To establish post-offices and post-roads; 8th Clause. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by secur- ing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 9th Clause. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 10th Clause. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations; 11th Clause. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 12th Clause. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 13th Clause. To provide and maintain a navy; I4ih Clause: To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; 15th Clause. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 16th Clause. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia accord- ing to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 17th Clause. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States; and to exercise like authority over all X APPENDIX places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — and 18th Clause. To make all laws M'hich shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Section IX. Powers denied to the United States. 1st Clause. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2(1 Clause. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the pubhc safety may require it. Sd Clause. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 4th Clause. No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 6th Clause. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 6th Clause. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 7th Clause. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in conse- quence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 8th Clause. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, with- out the consent of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. Section X. Powers denied to the States. 1st Clause. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- tion; gr-ant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing ROPOSED BY CONGRESS AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. Article I. Freedom of Religion. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or o-" the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Article II. Right to hear Arms. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Article III. Quartering Soldiers on Citizens. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Article IV. Search Warrants. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article V. Trial for Crime. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any ])erson be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be com- pelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xvii Article VI. Rights of Accused Persons. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein. the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the aucc- sation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compul- soiy process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. Article VII. Suits at Common Law. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. Article VIII. Excessive Bail. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and imusual punishments inflicted. Article IX. Rights Retained by the People. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be con- strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article X. Reserved Rights of the States. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Article XL The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit, in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Article XII. 1st Clause. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons xviii APPENDIX voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; the Prcsitlent of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the_ person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such major- ity, then from the persons having the highest munbers, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vict*-Presi- dent shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other consti- tutional disability of the President. 2d Clause. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice- President; a quorinn for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. Sd Clause. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- dent shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Article XIII. Section I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- ment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Article XIV. Section I. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xix States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of per- sons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-Presi- dent of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representa- tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Sec. III. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com- fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sec. V. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by approjjriate legis- lation, the provisions of this article. Article XV. Section I. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec. II. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. XX APPENDIX ARTICLE XVI. The Congress shall have power to lay antl collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the sev- eral States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII. Section I. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. Section II. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided that the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. Section III. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. DATE OF ADMISSION OF THE STATES 1. Delaware f Dec. 7, 1787 2. Pennsylvania ^ g Dec. 12, 1787 3. New Jersey . K'. "^ Dec. 18, 1787 4. Georgia ^ .tj Jan. 2, 1788 5. Connecticut . .^^ g Jan. 9, 1788 6. Massachusetts ' o Feb. 6, 1788 7. Maryland .<" ^ ] April 28, 1788 8. South Carolina *^ ■%■ May 23, 1788 9. New Hampshire ^. -^ June 21, 1788 10. Virginia .■<: eg June 25, 1788 11. New York k<^ '^ July 26,1788 12. North Carolina *T'. tf Nov. 21, 1789 ]J. Rhode Island . .!-<' [ May 29, 1790 14. Vermont March 4, 1791 15. Kentucky June 1, 1792 16. Tennessee June 1, 1796 17. Ohio Feb. 19, 1803 18. Louisiana April 8, 1812 19. Indiana Dec. 11, 1816 20. Mississippi Dec. 10, 1817 21. Illinois Dec. 3, 1818 22. Alabama Dec. 14, 1819 23. Maine March 15, 1820 24. Missouri Aug. 10, 1821 25. Arkansas June 15, 1836 26. Michigan Jan. 26, 1837 27. Florida March 3, 1845 28. Texas Dec. 29, 1845 29. Iowa Dec. 28, 1846 30. Wisconsin May 29, 1848 31. California Sept. 9, 1850 32. Minnesota May 11, 1858 33. Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 34. Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 35. West Virginia June 19, 18G3 36. Nevada Oct. 31, 1864 37. Nebraska March 1, 1867 38. Colorado Aug. 1, 1876 39. North Dakota Nov. 3, 1889 40. South Dakota Nov. 3, 1889 41. Montana Nov. 8, 1889 42. Washington Nov. 11, 1889 43. Idaho July 3, 1890 44. Wyoming July 10, 1890 45. Utah Jan. 4, 1S96 46. Oklahoma Nov. 16, 1907 47. New Mexico Jan. 6, 1912 48. Arizona Feb. 14, 1912 xxi LIST OF PRESIDENTS 1 789-1 797 George Washington of Virginia 1 797-1801 John Adams of IMassachusetts 1 801-1809 THOiLA.s Jefferson of \'irginia 1809-1817 James Madison of Virginia 1817-1825 James Monroe of Virginia 1825-1829 John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts 1829-1837 Andrew Jackson of Tennessee 1 83 7-1 84 1 Martin Van Buren of New York 1 84 1 William H. Harrison of Ohio 1 841-1845 John Tyler of Virginia 184 5-1 849 James K. Polk of Tennessee 1 849-1 850 Zachary Taylor of Louisiana 1850-1853 Millard Fillmore of New York .1853-1857 Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire 1857-1861 James Buchanan of Pennsylvania 1861-1865 Abraham Lincoln of Illinois T865-1869 Andrew Johnson of Tennessee 1869-1877 Ulysses S. Grant of Illinois 1877-1881 Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio 1 88 1 James A. Garfield of Ohio 1881-1885 Chester A. Arthur of New York 1885-1889 Grover Cleveland of New York 1889-1893 Benjamin Harrison of Indiana 1893-1897 Grover Cleveland of New York 1897-1901 William McKinley of Ohio 1901-1909 Theodore Roosevelt of New York 1909-1913 William H. Taft of Ohio 1913- WooDROW Wilson of New Jersey INDEX Abercrombie, General, 173 Acadiaus, The, 172 Adams, John, 196, 224, 236, 245-247 Adams, John Quincy, 269, 288 Adams, Samuel, 190 Aerial Navigation, 359 Aguinaldo, 353 Alabama, 265 Alabama, The, 313, 314 Alabama Claims, The, 341 Alaska, 338, 354 Alaskan Boundary Line, The, 354 Albemarle, Duke of, 149 Algiers, 248 Algonquins, The, 50, 51, 66, 73, 102 Alien Act, The, 245 Allen, Colonel Ethan, 198 Alliance, The Holy, 207 Amendment, Thirteenth, 324, 329, 333, 338; Fourteenth, 334, 336, 339; Fif- teenth, 338, 339; Sixteenth, 357, 358; Seventeenth, 363 Amendments, Constitutional, 238, 239 American Battleship Fleet, The, 355, 356 American Repmblics, 347 Amherst, General, 173, 174 Amidas, Philip, 42 Amnesty Act, 342 Amnesty Proclamation, 333 Amsterdam, New, loi, 104, 107, 108, 109, no. III Anderson, Major, 297 Andre, Major, 217, 218 Andros, Edmund, 112, 136 Antietam, 310 Annapolis, 186 Anne, Queen, 82, 137 Appomattox Court House, 327 Argall, Samuel, 89 Arizona, 347, 359 Arkansas, 275 Armada, The Spanish, 42, 44 Army, The Continental, 193 Arnold, Benedict, 198, 212, 217, 221 Arthur, Chester A., 345 Articles of Confederation, 202, 228, 229 Assembly, The General, 90, in Atlanta, The Capture of, 323 Atlantic Cable, The, 362 Ayllon, Vasquez de, 31 Aztecs, The, 23, 24, 25, 26, 59, 60 Bacon's Rebellion, 97, 98 Bainbridge, Captain, 255, 257 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 22, 23 Baltimore, Attack on, 260 Baltimore, The City of, 139, 143 Bank of the United States, 241, 274, 275 Banking, 240 Barbary Pirates, The, 262 Barbary States, The, 248 Barlow, Arthur, 42 Beauregard, General, 299, 304 Bennington, Battle of, 211 Berkeley, Sir William, 94, 98 Block, Adrian, 103, 154 Blockade of the South, The, 298, 299, 307 Bobadilla, 16 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 260 Bon Homme Richard, The, 218, 219 Booth, John Wilkes, 332 Boscawen, Admiral, 168 Boston, 124, 193 Boston Tea Party, The, 186 Braddock, General, 167-170 Bradford, William, 120 Bragg, General Braxton, 317 Brandywine, The Battle of the, 213 Breckenridge, General John C, 294 Breed's Hill, 194 Brooklyn Bridge, The, 345 Brown, John, 293, 294 Bryan, William J., 349, 356 Buchanan, James, 291 Buell, General, 303, 304 Buena Vista, Battle of, 283 XXIV INDEX Bull Run, Batlle of, 2gg, 310 Bunker Hill, Battle of, 195 Burgesses, The House of, 90, 91 Burgoyne, Gen. John, 211 Burke, Edmund, 189 Burnside, Gen. A. E., jio, 320 Burr, Aaron, 234 Cabinet, The President's, 237 Cabot, John and Sebastian, 39, 40, 46, 109 Calhoun, John C, 254, 270, 273, 286, 294 California, 284, 286, 347 Calvert, Cecil, 140 Calvert, George, 139 Calvert, Leonard, 140 Cambridge, 191, 193, 194, 197 Camden, Battle of, 220 Canada, 179 Canal, The Erie, 269, 271 Canonchet, 134, 136 Carolinas, 148-151 Carolinas, War, 199 "Carpet-baggers," The, 335 Cartier Jacques, 46-48, 70 Carver, John, 120 Catholics, The, 94, 95, 117, 118, 139, 142, 14.?. 153 Cavaliers, The, 94-06 Cedar Creek, The Battle of, 324 Census, The, 240, 357 Chad's Ford, The Battle of, 213 Champlain, Lake, 259 Champlaiii, Samuel, 49-51, 71, 74, 102 Chancellorsville, The Battle of, 310 Charles I, 92-94, 131, i39. 141 Charles II, 96, no, in, 114, 126, 128, 132, 136, 148 Charleston, S. C, 150, 199, 221, 296, 326 Charlestown, 194, 195 Chattanooga, 317 Chesapeake, The, 251, 258 Chicago, 256 Chickamauga, 317 China, American Troops in, 352 Chinese Immigration, 343 Civil Rights Bill, The, 334 Civil War, The Cost of, 328 Claiborne's Rebellion, 141 Clark, George Rogers, 216 Clay, Henry, 254, 270, 287-289 Cleveland, Grover, 346, 348 Cliff Dwellers, The, 58 Clinton, Sir Henrj', 215, 219 Coinage, 240, 241 Cold Harbor, 320 Colonies, The American, 180 Colorado, 342 Columbia, S. C, 326 Colutnbia, The, 129 Columbus, Christopher, 3-18, 39, 41 Columbus, Ky., 302 Committees of Correspondence, 186 Commonwealth, The, 95 Compromise of 1850, The, 285, 2S6 Concord, Battle of, 190 Confederate States of America, The, 294, Confederation, The New England, 131, 167 Connecticut Colony, The, 126 Connecticut River, The, 103, 109, 125, 132 Congress, First Continental, 187; Second Continental Congress, 193 Congress, The Stamp Act, 184 Constitution, The, 256, 257 Constitution of the United States, The, 228, 235 Cook, Frederick A., 358 Cordova, 23 Corinth, 303 Cornwallis, Gen. Charles, 204, 220-222 Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 34, 58 Cortes, Hernando, 23-26 Cotton-gin, The, 242 Cowpens, The, 221 Crevecttur, Fort, 77 Cromwell, Oliver, 94-96, 131 Crown Point, 197 Cuba, 280, 290, 352, 353, 354 Cumberland Road, The, 269 Dakota, North, 347 Dakota, South, 347 Dale, Governor, 88 Dare, Virginia, 44 Davis, Jeflerson, 286, 294 Dearborn, Fort, 256 Debt, The National, 240 Decatur, Stephen, 248, 255 Declaration of Independence, 200, 202 Declaration of Rights, 184 Deerfield, 134 Dekalb, Baron, 220 Delaware, Lord, 87, 88 Delaware, The Settlement of, 147, 148 INDEX XXV Democratic Party, The, 241, 242 Detroit, 257, 258 Detroit, Fort, 176, 177 Dewey, Admiral, 351 Diaz, Bartholomew, 3 Dieskau, General, 167, 168, 170, 177 Dingley Tariff, The, 350 Dinwiddie, Governor, 164, 165 Directory, The French, 245 Donelson, Fort, 301, 302 Dongan, Thomas, 1 1 1 Dongan's Charter, iii Dorchester Heights, 104, 198 Douglas, Stephen A., 292-294 Draft, The, 307 Draft Riot, The, 314, 315 Drake, Sir Francis, 40-42, 44 Dred Scott Decision, The, 291, 292 Duquesne, Fort, 165, 166, 168, 169, 173, 174 Dutch West India Company, The, 55, 103, 104 Early, Gen. Jubal A., 3^2 Education in New England, 128; Educa- tion, 162 Edward, Fort, 211 Elizabeth, Queen, 43, 45 Emancipation, 312, 325 Emanuel, King, ig, 27 Embargo Act, The, 251, 252 Endicott, John, 124, 129 Enforcement Act, The, 335 Ericsson, Captain John, 305 Erie Canal, The, 269, 271 Farragiit, Commodore, 306, 323 Federal Party, The, 241, 245 Field, Cyrus W., 362 Fillmore, .Millard, 286 Fisheries, The Newfoundland, 188 Five Nations, The, 73, 171 Florida, 20, 21, 33, 69, 175, 264, 280 Florida, The, 313, 314 Foote, Commodore, 302 Forbes, General, 174 Fortress Monroe, 254, 256, 263 Franklin Benjamin, 167, 169, 200, 208- 210, 224 Frederick the Great, 172, 175 Fredricksburg, The Battle of, 310 Freedmen, The. 333 French Republic, The, 242 French Territory, 80, 81, 163, 164 French and Indian War, The, 165-175 Friar Mark, 34, 57 Frobisher, Martin, 42 Frolic, The, 257 Frontenac, Fort, 75, 76, 173 Fugitive Slave Law, The, 286 Fulton, Robert, 148, 182, 359 Gage, General, 187, 190 Gama, Vasco da, 16, 70 Garfield, James A., 332, 344 Gates, Gen. Horatio, 213, 220 George I, 156 George II, 151, 156, 157, 164 George III, 183 George, Fort, 211 Georgia, 151-154 Germantown, 213 Gerry, Elbridge, 246 Gettysburg, The Battle of, 315 Ghent, Treaty of, 261 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 42 Gold, The Discovery of, 284, 285 Gorges, Sir Fernando, 128 Gosnold, Bartholomew, 116 Governors, Royal, 92 Grant, Gen. U. S., 302-304, 318-320, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 338, 343, 341, Great Eastern, The, 362 Greeley, Horace, 342 Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 206, 220, 221 Griffin, The First Voyage of the, 76 Gryalva, 23 Guam, Island of, 352 Guerriire, The, 257 Guilford Court House, 221 Halifax, 199, 258 Halleck, General, 309 Hamilton, Alexander, 232, 234 Hampton Roads, 305, 306 Hancock, John, 190, 193 Hancock, General W. S., 344 Harlem, Retreat to, 203 Harper's Ferry, 293 Harrison, Benjamin F., 346, 347 Harrison, Gen. W. H., 255, 277 Hartford, 125, 126 Harvard College, 128 Harvey, Sir John, 93, 94 XXVI INDEX Havana, 175 Hawaiian Islands, The, 350, 353, 357 Hawkins, Sir John, 41 Hayes, Rutherford B., 343 Hennepin, Father, 78 Henrietta Maria, Queen, 139 Henrv VII, 39, 40 Henry VIII, 40 Henry, Fort, 301, 302 Henry, Patrick, 185, 216 Herkimer, General, 212 Hessians, The, 200, 205, 206, 211 Hood, tlen. John B., s^.i, 324 Hooker, Gen. Joseph, 310, 320 Hornet, The, 258 Houston, Gen. Samuel, 279 Howe, Elias, 361 Howe, Gen. George, 173 Howe, Admiral Richard, 202 Howe, Sir William, 199, 202, 203, 211, 212 Hudson, Henry, 52, 53, 55 Hudson-Fulton Celebration, The, 359 Hudson River, The, 52, 53, 55, loi, 102 Hudson River, Control of the, 199, 202, 302 • ' Huguenots, The, 48 Hull, Captain Isaac, 255, 256 Hull, Gen. William, 255, 256 Iberville, 80 Idaho, 347 Illinois, 265 Immigration, 267, 287 Im])eachmcnt of Andrew Johnson, The, 336 Incas, The, 31, 59 Independence, Declaration of, 200, 202 Indian Massacres, 96, 97 Indians of North America, The, 60-67 Industries, The Beginning of, 181, 236 Inventions, 268, 359 Iowa, 280 Iroquois, The, 50, 51, 6r, 73, 80, 102, 216 Isabella, Queen, 6, 7, 16, 18 Island Number Ten, 303, 304 Jackson, Andrew, 255, 261, 264, 270, 272, 273, 274 Jackson, Gen. "Stonewall," 299, 310, 311, 321 Jamaica, Island of, 17, 18, 144 James I, 45, 84, 92, 94, 96, 118, 139, 140 James II, iii, 112, 136, 146 Jamestown, 84-98 Japan, 291, 355, 357 Japanese Commissioners, The, 355 Java, The, 257 Jay, John, 224 Jay Treaty, The, 244 Jefferson, Thomas, 245, 246, 247 Johnson, Andrew, 324, 332, 2>ii, 334. 335. 336 Johnson, Hiram W., Governor of Cali- fornia, 363 Johnson, Sir William, 170-172, 177 Johnston, Gen. A. L., 303 Johnston, Gen. Jos. E., 299, 319, 325 Joliet, Louis, 74, 76, 78 Jones, John Paul, 218 Kaskaskia, 2 1 6 Kan.sas, 290, 291, 294, 347 Kansas-Nebraska Act, The, 290 Kcarsarge, The, 314 Kennebec River, The, 116 Kent Island, 141, 142 Kentucky, 241 Kern, John W., 356 Kieft, Governor, 106, 107 King George's War, 156, 157 King Philip's War, 132-136 King William's War, 79, 80 King's Mountain, The Baltic of, 220, 221 Klondike Region, The, 354 Kosciusko, 208 Ku Klux Klan, The', 335 Ladrone Islands, The, 352 Lafayette, Marquis de, 221, 222 Lane, Sir Ralph, 43 La Salle, 75-79 Lawrence, Captain James, 258 Lee, Gen. Charles, 204, 205, 215 Lee, Fort, 204 Lee, Gen. Robert E., 310, 316, 318, 320-322, 325, 326, 327, 328 Leister, Jacob, 112 Leon, Juan Ponce de, 20, 21 Leopard, The, 251 Lewis and Clark F.xpedition, 249, 250 Lexington, Battle of, 190 Lincoln, Abraham, 292-294, 296, 319, 324, 332 London Company, The, 84, 87 INDEX XXVll Long Island, Battle of, 203 Lookout Mountain, Battle of, 318 Lords of Trade, The, 182 Louisburg, 82, 157, 172, 173, 174 Louisiana, 78, 255 Louisiana Purchase, The, 248, 249, 266 Lynchburg, Va., 327 McClellan, Gen. George B., 300, 30S, 309, 320, 324 McCormick Reaper, The, 360 McDonough, Commodore, 259 McDowell, General, 299, 320 McKinley, William, 332, 349, 350, 353 Machinery, Labor-Saving, 360 Madison, James, 232, 234, 252 Magellan, Ferdinand, 27, 28, 352 Maine, 128, 266 Maine, The, 350 Malvern Hill, 309 Manhattan Island, 55, 101-104 Manila, 351, 356 Manufactures, 268 Mariner's Compass, The, 8 Marion, Gen. Francis, 220 Marquette, Father, 74, 76, 78 Marshall, John, 246 Marshall, Thomas R., Vice-President, 364 Maryland, 94, 95, 118, 139-143 Mason, John, 128 Mason and Di.xon's Line, 143 Mason and Slidell Affair, The, 300 Massachusetts, 128 Massachusetts Assembly, The, 185 Massachusetts Bay Company, The, 122, 124, 136 Massasoit, 122, 134 Maximilian, The Emperor, 33S Mayflower, The, 119-122 Meade, Gen. George G., 315 Menendez, 49 Alerrimac, The, 304 Mexican War, The, 283 Mexico, 279, 283, 336, 338 Mexico, The Ancient City of, 24-26 Michigan, 275 Military Reconstruction Law, The, 335 Minnesota, 294 Minuit, Peter, 104 Minute Men, The, 188 Missionary Ridge, 317, 318 Mississippi, 265 Mississippi River, The, 35, 36, 75, 78 Mississippi River, Control of, 303 Missouri Compromise, The, 266, 288 Missouri Territory, 2O5 Mobile, 323 Model, The Grand, 149 Mohegans, The, 129, 130 Money, Colonial, 180 Monitor, The, 305, 306 Monmouth, Battle of, 21=; Monroe, James, 206, 264, 267, 269 Monroe Doctrine, The, 267, 349 Montana, 347 Montcalm, Marquis de, 172-174 Montezuma, 25 Montgomery, Richard, 198 Montreal, 47, 48, 174, 175 Montreal, Attack on, 198 Moors, The, 20 Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 221 Morocco, 248 Morris, Robert, 207 Morse, Samuel F. B., 27S, 361, 362 Mound Builders, The, 57 Narragansetts, The, 127, 129, 134 Narvaez, Pantilo de, 32, i;^, 49 Navigation Laws, The, 131, 159 Na\'y, The New, 345 Nebraska, 338 Necessity, Fort, 167 Neutrality Proclamation, The, 242 Newfoundland, 40, 70, 139 New Hampshire, 128 New Haven Colony, The, 126 New Jersey, 114, 204 New Mexico, 359 New Netherland, 103-106, 108-111, 132, 136 Newport, Captain Christopher, 84, 85, 87 New Orleans, 261, 262, 306 New Sweden, 109, 116, 147 New York, 199 New York City, 181, 199, 202, 203, 204 Niagara, Treaty of, 177 Nicolet, Jean, 74, 76 Non-Intercourse Act, The, 252 North Pole, The Discovery of, 358 Northwest Territory, The, 234, 235 Nullification, 273, 274, 288 XXVlll INDEX Oglethorpe, Governor, 152-154 Ohio, 248 Ohio Land Company, The, 164, 165 Oivlahoma, 347 Old Ironsides, 257 Opechancanough, 96 Orange, Fort, 55, iii Ordinance of 1787, The, 234 Oregon, 294, 347 Oregon County, The, 249, 250, 280, 281 Pacific Ocean, The Discovery of, 22 Pacific Raihoad, The, 339, 340 Pakenham, General, 262 Palraa, Tomas E., 354 Panama Canal, The, 354, 355 Panics, Financial, 276, 348 Paris, Treaty of (1763). i7S. (17S3) 224, Parker, Sir Peter, igg Parliament, The English, 182, 183, 185, 200 Parties, Political, 241, 275 Patents, 268 Patroons, The, 105, 106 Peacock, The, 258 Peary, Commander, The Discoverer of the North Pole, 358 Pemberton, Gen. John C, 316, 318 Penn, Admiral, 144 Penn, William, 114, 144-147 Pennsylvania, 145, 146 Pensacola, 264 People's Party, The, 347 Pequot Indians, The, 129, 130 Pequot War, The, 129, 130 Perry, Oliver Hazard, 258, 291 Peru, 30, 31 I'etursburg, 320, 322, 326 I'hiladclphia, 145-147, 187, 193, 205, 207- 209, 211, 212 Philadelphia, The, 248 Philippine Islands, The, 175, 352, 353 Pickens, Gen. Andrew, 220 Pierce, Franklin, 267 Pilgrims, The, iig-122 Pinckney, Charles C, 246 Pitcairn, Major, 196 Pitt, Fort, 174-177 Pitt, William, 173-174 Pittsburgh, 174 Pittsburg Landing, 304 Pizarro, Francis, 30-31, 35 Platte Territory, The, 290 Plymouth. 119, 121, 122 Plj-mouth Company, The, 84 Pocahontas, 86, 89, 90 Pocanokets, The, 132 Polk, James K., 279 Pontiac's War, 176, 177 Popham, Sir George, 116 Pope, General, 309, 320 Population of the United States, 357 Port Hudson, 307, 316 Porto Rico, 12, 20, 352 Port Royal, 50 Port.smouth, N. H., 355 Portsmouth, Va., 304 Portuguese Navigation, Early, 2, 3 Powhatan, 85, 86, 89, 90, 96 I'rcble, Commodore Edward, 24S, 255 Prescott, Colonel, 195 Presidential Election of 1912, The, 363 Prince Henry, The Navigator, 2 Princeton, Battle of, 207 Privateers, 188 Protestants, The, 117 Providence, R.I., 127 Pro\iso, The Wilmot, 284 Public Lands, 278 Public Schools, Free, 128, 163 Pueblo Indians, The, 57, 58 Puritans, The, 94, 11 7-1 19, 122, 124, 125, 142. 143 Quakers, The, 114, 143-146, 162 Quebec, 47, 48, 50, 51, 74, 174 Quebec, Attack on, 198 Queen Anne's War, 82 Railroads, 272 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 42-45 Rebellion, The Whiskey, 242 Reconstruction, The Period of, 332 Revere, Paul, 190 Revolutionary War, The, 190 Rhode Island, 126, 127, 131, 162 Rithmonfl, 308-310 Roanoke Island, 42-44, 84 Roberval, 47, 48 Rogers, Major, 176 Rolfe, John, 89, 90 Roosevelt, Theodore, 353, 355, 363 Rosecrans, Gen. W. S., 317 INDEX XXIX Roundheads, The, g4 Russia, 267, 355 Russian America, 338, 354 St. Augustine, 49, 69, 90 St. Lawrence Region, The, 70, 73 St. Leger, Colonel, 211, 212 Salamanca, 6 Salem, 122, 124 Salem Witchcraft, The, 136, 137 San Salvador, 10 Santa Fe, 69, 90 Santiago, 351 Saratoga, 213 Savannah, 153, 219, 221, 324, 325 Savannah, The, 360 Saybrook, 126, 129 "Scalawags," The, 334 Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 211, 212 Scott, Gen. Winfield, 255, 283, 300 Seamen, Impressment of, 244, 251 Sedition Act, The, 245 Secession, 286, 294 Separatists, The, 118 Serapis, The, 219 "Seven Days' Battle," The, 309 Seymour, Horatio, 338 Shannon, The, 258 Shay's Rebellion, 231 Shenandoah Valley, The, 321 Sheridan, Gen. Philip H., 322, 324 Sherman, James S., Vice-President, 355- 3,(^3,, 364 Sherman, Gen. W. T., 319, 324, 325, 326 Shiloh, The Battle of, 303 Six Nations, The, 171 Slave Ships, 128 Slavery, 92, 128, 150, 154, 158, 159, 230, 23s, 236, 265, 27s, 281, 283, 286 Sloughter, Governor William, 112 Smith, Captain John, 84-88, 116 Sons of Liberty, The, 184 Soto, Fernando de, 35, 36, 49 Spain, Treaty with, 244 Spanish Claims to Lands, 69, 70 Specie Payment, Resumption of, 342 Spoils System, The, 275 SfX)ttsylvania, 320 Stack, Gen. John, 198, 211 Stamp Act, The, 183 Standish, Captain Myles, 121 Stanwi.x, Fort, 212 "Star-Spangled Banner," The, 260 "Starving Time," The, 88 States Rights, 275, 294 Steam, Use of, 287-359 Steuben, Baron von, 214 Stuyvesant, Peter, 107-109, iii Sumter, Fort, 296-298, 326 Smnter, Gen. Thomas, 220 Taft, William H., 355, 356, 363 Tariff, The, 239, 263, 267, 268, 346, 348, 350, 358 Tarleton, General, 221 Taxation, 183 Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 283, 284, 286 Tea Tax, The, 185 Telegraph, The, 278 Telephone, The, 361 Tennessee, 241, 335 Tenure of Office Act, The, 336 Texas, 276, 277, 279, 290 The Seven Years' War in Europe, 172 Thomas, Gen. George H., 317, 318, 324 Ticonderoga, 171, 173, 174, 197 Tilden, Samuel J., 343 Timby, Theodore R., 305 Toleration Act, The, 142 Tories, The, 186, 199 Trade Routes, Early, i Treaty, with France, 215; of Paris, 175, 224; with Spain, 244, 352; of Ghent, 224; with Mexico, 284 Trenton, Battle of, 205 Tripoli, 248 Tunis, 248 Turks, The, i, 2 Tuscaroras, The, 171 Tyler, John, 277, 334 Utah, 347, 350 Valley Forge, 214 Van Buren, Martin, 276 Van Twlller, Wouter, 104 Venezuela, 349 Vera Cruz, 24, 41 Vermont, 241 V^errazano, John, 46, 70 Vespucius, Americus, 18-20, 35, 70 Vicksburg, 304, 316 Vincennes, Fort, 216 XXX INDEX Virginia, 43 Virginia, Secession of, 300, 301 Virginia, The, 305, 306 Walloons, The, 104 Wampanoags, The, 132 War of 1S12, The, 254 War, The Spanish, 350 War Debt, Paying the, 343 Warren, General, 196 Washington, City of, 239, 259, 260 Washington, Fort, 204 Washington, George, 164-168, 174, 185, ig6, 198, 199, 202, 204, 225, 236, 244, 254 Washington, State of, 347 Wasp, The, 257 Webster, Daniel, 287, 288, 289 West Point, 204, 217 West Virginia, 300 Wethersfield, 126 Whigs, The, 186 White, John, 144 White Plains, 204, 216 Whitney, Eli, 242 "Wilderness," The Battles of, 319, 320 Wilson, Woodrow, 264 Windsor, Conn., 126 Winslow, Governor Edward, 135 William III, 82, 112, 137, 143 William Henry, Fort, 171, 173 Williams, Roger, 126, 127 Wilmington, N.C., 221, 325 Winchester, 324 Winthrop, John, 124 Wisconsin, 280 Wolfe, General, 173, 174 Woman Suffrage, 347 Writs of Assistance, 181 Wyoming, 347 Yeardley, Sir George, 90, 92 Yorktown, 221, 222 Yukon Region, The, 354 Zenger, John Peter, 113 Zuiiis, The, ss, 58 BORNEO. 7d; i>