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| LIBRARY OF CONGRKSS. S 
 
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THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 THE FRENCH TONGUE 
 
 IN WHICH 
 
 ALL THE PRINCIPAL DIFFICULTIES ARE EXPLAINED AGREEABLY 
 
 TO THE DECISIONS OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY. 
 
 BY M. DE L.EYIZAC. 
 
 £>dl 
 
 
 2>"ETV EDITION, REVISED Ai'I) IMPROVED. 
 
 | BY MONSIEUR ROLLIN, B A., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF AXCIEXT AND MODERN LANGUAGES, ETC., ETC» 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 WILLIAM TEGG AtfD CO,, 85, QtTEE^-STEEET, 
 CHEAPSIDE. 
 
 MDCCCLII. 
 

 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED BY JAMES NICHOLS, 
 
 HOXTON-SQUARE. 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 To add one word of eulogy to the high and well- deserved 
 reputation enjoyed by the works of M. de Levizac, both in 
 England and in France, would be a work of supereroga- 
 tion. In England, the learned author s Grammar of the 
 French Tongue has been universally adopted as the model 
 for our most celebrated scholars to follow, bearing, as it 
 does, the impress of sound practical knowledge, a perfect 
 command over the various subjects treated of, and an ele- 
 gance and purity of diction in its exercises, that indeed 
 justify the French Academy in pronouncing him one of 
 the best French grammarians, and of which no greater 
 proof could possibly be afforded than their frequent quota- 
 tion of him as a most competent authority. 
 
 To base, then, a work, containing the modern alterations 
 and amendments introduced into the French language, yet 
 at the same time preserving the original Rules, Practical 
 Examples, and Definitions, upon so fair a foundation, 
 must evidently be safe. It has also been deemed expe- 
 dient not to deviate from the subdivision of the Ele- 
 mentary part of the Grammar from the General Syntax, 
 and of the General from the Particular or more difficult 
 Syntax. 
 
 The Author, approaching his subject with the respect 
 and reverence due to its importance, has laboured care- 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 fully and minutely to point out and explain every diffi- 
 culty which the student is likely to encounter in his 
 progress, and, by the addition of Rules and Observations 
 of the highest importance, to leave his mind free from all 
 doubt or hesitation as to the proper course to pursue. 
 
 A large space has been devoted to the practical method 
 of insuring a correct Pronunciation of the French Tongue, 
 a subject of the very first consequence, and one that is 
 absolutely necessary to be well understood by the learner, 
 to render his study and attention of extensive benefit. 
 For this reason, great pains have been taken to incul- 
 cate this knowledge on his mind, and the principles laid 
 down will be found invaluable aids in arriving at per- 
 fection. 
 
 The Vocabulary inserted in the work will prove of the 
 highest utility in writing out the exercises, and its useful- 
 ness is much enhanced from the gender being attached to 
 each word. 
 
 Numerous Moral Exercises, more consonant to our pre- 
 sent parlance and customs, have been introduced, with a 
 view of perfecting the work, and of accustoming the mind 
 of the youthful learner to the phraseology of every-day 
 conversation. The difficulties which present themselves 
 from the frequent clashing of the two languages in their 
 construction, have been maturely considered and observed 
 upon, and the difference between the idioms of both 
 tongues, a subject of some magnitude, so disposed of as to 
 prevent and obviate the errors into which the learner 
 would otherwise fall, from a literal translation. Phrases 
 illustrating some of these difficulties, are placed at the end 
 of the Work, and these will afford practical proofs of the 
 points in question ; the references to the Remarks made 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 on these subjects in the body of the work, will also mate- 
 rially assist the pupil. 
 
 Some useful alterations have been made in the general 
 arrangement of the Work, calculated to lead the student 
 gradually on his path, from the simplest to the most 
 intricate portions of his study. The typographical depart- 
 ment has been carefully attended to, and the substance of 
 the Rules and Regulations clearly pointed out by Roman 
 or Italic characters, as the case required. 
 
 As it is highly necessary that the pupil should not only 
 be made acquainted with what he has to acquire, but 
 should also have facility afforded him for immediately 
 turning to any remarks on a particular subject, a copious 
 classified Table of Contents has been affixed, embracing 
 under separate heads every thing of the least utility, and 
 so ample that it may be well termed a Resume detaille 
 of the whole Work. 
 
 In these days of "literary precocity," when science, 
 developing its mighty attributes, brings distant regions to 
 our own thresholds, as it were, and a visit to our neigh- 
 bours on the other side of the Channel has become a mere 
 summer's day excursion, it is not extraordinary that 
 attempts should also be made to propel the human mind 
 at an analogous rate, and that we see gigantic notices of 
 French without a Master, and French learned in Six 
 Lessons, announced in our public journals, and exhibited 
 at every market-cross, That, from the commercial and 
 scientific relations which this mighty country maintains 
 with the whole world, a perfect knowledge of a language 
 so widely disseminated as that of the French, is of para- 
 mount importance, no one will be hardy enough to deny ; 
 but we would warn the student against the fallaciousness 
 
 a 2 
 
VI PKEFACE. 
 
 of such specious promises, and invite him who wishes to 
 attain a thorough knowledge of the grammatical difficul- 
 ties and correct pronunciation of that copious and elegant 
 tongue, to apply himself with unwearied attention to the 
 rules here laid down, allowing due time for his mind 
 to receive gradually the impress of correctness and of 
 excellence. 
 
 Sedulously and earnestly, the Author, himself a native 
 of France, has exerted his ability to render this work 
 acceptable to the student, and worthy of public patronage ; 
 and he fearlessly lays before them the results of his untir- 
 ing labours, with a firm conviction that they will receive 
 that justice ever bestowed upon works calculated to 
 remove the difficulties that strew the path of wisdom, 
 
 London, March, 1844. 
 
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 >NT 
 
 ENTS, 
 
 
 J 
 
 Page 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Definition of Grammar 
 
 1 
 
 Of Man . 
 
 47 
 
 French Alphabet 
 
 2 
 
 Of the Body 
 
 ib. 
 
 Observations on the French 
 
 
 Of the Mind and its Facul- 
 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 3 
 
 ties .... 
 
 50 
 
 Of Accentuation 
 
 ib. 
 
 Of Quadrupeds 
 
 53 
 
 The French Sounds . 
 
 4 
 
 Of Birds . 
 
 55 
 
 Additional combined Simple 
 
 
 Of Fishes . . 
 
 56 
 
 Sounds 
 
 6 
 
 Of Reptiles and Insects 
 
 51 
 
 Coalition of letters forming 
 
 
 Of Meats and Drinks 
 
 58 
 
 the Nasal Sounds . 
 
 7 
 
 Of the Dressing Apparel . 
 
 59 
 
 Further additional French 
 
 
 Of a House and Furniture 
 
 61 
 
 sounds exemplified 
 
 ib. 
 
 Of a City 
 
 63 
 
 General exceptions of the 
 
 
 Of Trades, Arts, Professions 
 
 65 
 
 Nasal Sounds 
 
 8 
 
 Of the Country, Husbandry 
 
 66 
 
 Of French Dipthongs 
 
 10 
 
 Of Flowers 
 
 ib. 
 
 Table of Ditto . 
 
 1, 
 
 Of Fruits 
 
 61 
 
 Observations on Ditto 
 
 13 
 
 Of Herbs and Plants . 
 
 68 
 
 Of Consonants 
 
 15 
 
 Of Trees and Shrubs 
 
 69 
 
 Observations on the sound 
 
 
 Promiscuous Words . 
 
 ib. 
 
 of Ch . , 
 
 16 
 
 Of Metals, etc. 
 
 70 
 
 Of the letter Y . 
 
 31 
 
 Of Colours, Precious Stones 
 
 71 
 
 Of French Monosyllables 
 
 33 
 
 Of Principal Countries 
 
 ib. 
 
 First Reading Lesson 
 
 36 
 
 Common National Names 
 
 72 
 
 Of French Dissyllables 
 
 37 
 
 Orthographical French Signs 
 
 
 Second Reading Lesson . 
 
 39 
 
 and Punctuation 
 
 73 
 
 Words of Three Syllables 
 
 ib. 
 
 Of the Apostrophe and Eli- 
 
 
 Third Reading Lesson 
 
 40 
 
 sion .... 
 
 ib. 
 
 Words of Four Syllables 
 
 ib. 
 
 Observations on Ditto 
 
 ib. 
 
 Fourth Reading Lesson 
 
 ib. 
 
 Of the Cedilla and Diaeresis 
 
 15 
 
 Words of Five and Six syl- 
 
 
 Of the Hyphen . 
 
 73 
 
 lables .... 
 
 41 
 
 Of Gender; Easy mode of 
 
 
 Fifth Reading Lesson 
 
 ib. 
 
 distinguishing the gender 
 
 
 Words of Seven and Eight 
 
 
 of a French Noun 
 
 ib. 
 
 Syllables . 
 
 42 
 
 Table of Masculine and Fe- 
 
 
 Sixth Reading Lesson 
 
 ib. 
 
 minine Terminations 
 
 11 
 
 Vocabulary, French and 
 
 
 Substantives Masculine in 
 
 
 English : 
 
 
 one sense, and Feminine 
 
 
 Of the Universe 
 
 43 
 
 in another . 
 
 78 
 
via 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Explanatory Table of the re- 
 lations between Regimens 
 and Cases . . 83 
 
 Explanation of Abbrevi- 
 ations in Exercises . 84 
 Introduction to Grammar ; 
 General Definition of the 
 Nine Parts of Speech . 86 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Substantive or Noun 88 
 Of the Gender and Number 
 
 of Substantives . . 89 
 
 How to form the Plural . 90 
 
 Observations on Ditto . 91 
 
 Exercises on the Substantive 93 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the Article . . .95 
 
 Of the Elision ; Contraction 
 
 of the Article ; Concord 
 
 of the Article with the 
 
 Noun .... 96 
 
 Of the Partitive Article, du, 
 
 de la, de /', des . .101 
 
 Of the Indefinite Article 103 
 
 Recapitulation of the Ar- 
 ticles .... 103 
 Observations upon Ditto 105 
 Promiscuous Exercises on 
 
 the Article . . .106 
 Of Negations . . 107 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the Adjective ; how to 
 form the Feminine . .109 
 
 List of Irregular Adjectives, 
 in their feminine endings 112 
 
 Substantives Adjectives which 
 change eur into rice for the 
 feminine . . . 113 
 
 Exercises on the Adjective . ib. 
 
 Page 
 Formation of the Plural of 
 Adjectives ; degrees of 
 signification in the Adjec- 
 tive .... 
 Observations on Adjectives lib 
 Agreement of the Adjective 
 
 with the Substantive . 1*21 
 Promiscuous Exercises on 
 the Article and the Adjec- 
 tive . . . .124 
 Nouns and Adjectives of 
 Number . . . .125 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of the Pronoun ; its Na- 
 ture and Classification . 128 
 
 Sect. I. — Personal Pronouns 
 of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd 
 persons .... ib. 
 
 Reflected and Reciprocal Pro- 
 nouns of the 3rd person 133 
 
 Of the Relative Pronouns 
 en and y . . . 135 
 
 Sect. II. — Of Possessive Pro- 
 nouns ; Conjunctive Pro- 
 nouns . . . .136 
 
 Possessive Relative Pronouns 138 
 
 Sect. III.-— Of Relative Ditto 140 
 „ IV.— Of Absolute Ditto 144 
 „ V. — Of Demonstrative 
 Ditto .... 146 
 
 Sect. VI.— Of Indefinite ditto 148 
 
 General Exercise on the 
 Pronouns . . .155 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Of the Verb ; its definition 157 
 Subject, Attribute, Object 
 
 or Regimen of a Verb; 
 
 its division . . . ib. 
 To distinguish the Subject 
 
 from the Regimen . .159 
 Subdivision of Verbs . 160 
 Difference between Reflected 
 
 and Reciprocal Verbs . 161 
 Moods, their definition . 163 
 Tenses, their nature . . ib. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 Page 
 
 Formation of the Future and 
 the Conditional . .165 
 
 Formation of the Imperative 166 
 
 Formation of the Imperfect 
 of the Subjunctive . 167 
 
 Of Conjugations ; their 
 terminations . . . 168 
 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary 
 verb Avoir, to have . 169 
 
 Exercises on Avoir, with a 
 negative . . . 177 
 
 Of Avoir with interrogation 
 and affirmatively . . 180 
 
 Of Avoir with interrogation 
 and negatively . .181 
 
 Conjugation of the Auxiliary 
 Verb Etre, to be . 183 
 
 Simple Negative and Inter- 
 rogative Sentences . 190 
 
 Model of the First Regular 
 Conjugation in er, Aimer, 
 to love . . . .191 
 
 Preliminary Observations on 
 the Exercises . . 192 
 
 Verbs conjugated like Aimer 201 
 
 Models of the second Regu- 
 lar Conjugation inzr, four 
 branches, flnir, sentir, ouv- 
 rir, tenir . . . . 203 
 
 Observation on the First 
 Branch . . . ib. 
 
 Observations on the Second, 
 Third, and Fourth Ditto 208 
 
 Model of the Third Regular 
 Conjugation in oir, Rece- 
 voir, to receive . .211 
 
 Observation on the Fourth 
 Regular Conjugation . 214 
 
 Model of the Fourth Regu- 
 lar Conjugation in re, five 
 branches, plaire, paraitre, 
 reduire, Plaindre, rendre 215 
 
 Of Reflective Verbs; Model 
 of a Reflective Verb, Se 
 Repentir .... 222 
 
 Table of Pronominal Verbs 227 
 
 Example of a pronominal 
 Verb used negatively . 229 
 
 Page 
 
 Example of a Pronominal 
 Verb used interrogatively 230 
 
 Example of a Pronominal 
 Verb conjugated interro- 
 gatively and negatively . 231 
 
 Of Avoir, with personal ob- 
 jective Pronouns . 232 
 
 Of Avoir, with the pronoun 
 y . ib. 
 
 Of Eire with the pronouns 
 le, en, and y . . . ib. 
 
 Conjugation of the Passive 
 Verbs .... 234 
 
 Sentences with a Negation 
 and the particle en . ib. 
 
 Same sentences interroga- 
 tively and negatively . 235 
 
 Conjugation of the Neuter 
 Verbs .... 236 
 
 Conjugation of Impersonal 
 Verbs . . . .238 
 
 List of Impersonal Verbs 
 often used in conversation 239 
 
 Various ways of construing 
 Falloir . . . 241 
 
 Conjugation of the Imper- 
 sonal Verb Y Avoir . 242 
 
 Of the Irregular Verbs ; of 
 the First Conjugation, Al- 
 ter, to go . . . 243 
 
 Conjugation of S'en Alter, 
 to go away . . . 245 
 
 Observations on Irregular 
 Verbs of the First Conju- 
 gation . . . 247 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the Se- 
 cond Conjugation in ir, 
 First branch, finir . . 249 
 
 Easy mode of finding the 
 model of any verb required ib. 
 
 Second Branch, sentir . 251 
 
 Third Branch, ouvrir . . 257 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the Third 
 Conjugations . . 258 
 
 Irregular Verbs of the Fourth 
 Conjugation, First branch, 
 Plaire ... 264 
 
 Second Branch, Paraitre . 266 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Third Branch, Reduire . 267 
 Fifth Branch, Rendre . 273 
 Table of Verbs ; Primitive 
 Tenses of the four Regu- 
 lar Conjugations . . 279 
 Primitive Tenses of the Ir- 
 regular Verbs, with some 
 Defective ones. . . 281 
 Supplement to the Verbs . 283 
 Of Regular Conjugations 284 
 Regular Conjugation in er 285 
 
 in ir, 
 
 issant, i . . . ib. 
 
 List of Verbs conjugated as 
 
 Punir . . . .286 
 Regular Conjugation in ir, 
 
 ant, i . . . . ib. 
 
 List of Verbs conj ugated as 
 
 Sentir . . . . 287 
 Regular Conjugation in oir, 
 
 ant, u . . . 288 
 
 Regular Conjugation in re, 
 
 ant, u . . . ib. 
 
 ant, t 
 
 in re, 
 
 ib. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Of Prepositions ; their va- 
 rieties and properties . 290 
 
 Prepositions of Place . ib. 
 
 of Order . 291 
 
 of Union . 292 
 
 of Opposition 293 
 
 of Separation ib. 
 
 denoting the 
 
 End . . . .294 
 
 • denoting the 
 
 Cause and Means . ib. 
 
 ■ Use of a, de, 
 
 en . .... 295 
 
 ■ ■■ joined to an 
 
 English Verb, not expres- 
 sed in French . . 298 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Of the Adverb ; its nature 
 and formation . . 299 
 
 Page 
 Compound Adverbs . 301 
 
 Distinction between an Ad- 
 verb and a Preposition . ib. 
 Adverbs of Doubt and Affir- 
 mation . . . 302 
 
 of Order, Place, or 
 
 Distance . . . 303 
 
 of Time . . 304 
 
 of Quality . . 305 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Of Conjunctions ; their 
 
 definition and properties 306 
 Use of the Conjunction Que 310 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Of Interjections . . 313 
 Recapitulation or Promis- 
 cuous Exercises on the 
 Nine parts of Speech . 314 
 
 PART II. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Definition of Syntax . 319 
 
 General Syntax. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Substantive . .319 
 
 List of Substantives having 
 no Plural ... 320 
 
 List of Substantives having 
 no singular . . . ib. 
 
 Substantives spelt alike in 
 Singular and Plural . 321 
 
 Of the formation of the Plu- 
 ral of Compound Nouns 322 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the Article . . . 324 
 Remarks upon a or an . 325 
 Comparative Table of Words 
 with and without the 
 Article . . . . 326 
 Observations on Measure, 
 Weight, etc. . . 328 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 Page 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the Adjective ; its 
 
 agreement with the Noun 329 
 Exceptions to this rule . 330 
 Agreement of the Adjective 
 
 with the last Substantive ib. 
 Adjectives or Participles se- 
 parated from their Sub- 
 stantives . . . 321 
 Adjectives of Dimension . 332 
 Regimen of the Adjective 333 
 Recapitulary Exercises on 
 Articles and Adjectives 334 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of the Pronouns; Personal 
 Pronouns . . . 336 
 
 Their various Functions in 
 the Speech . . . ib. 
 
 Pronouns acting as Subjects ib. 
 
 used Objectively 339 
 
 Me, te, moi, toi, between the 
 Imperative and the Infini- 
 tive . . . . 339 
 
 Exceptions to the same . 340 
 
 Regimen of Relative Pro- 
 nouns . . . . 341 
 
 Of Pronouns Absolute ; quel, 
 oil, used interrogatively 343 
 
 Of Demonstrative Pronouns 344 
 
 Remarks on Ce, Cette, etc. ib. 
 
 Observations on Celui-ci, 
 Celui-ld . . . 345 
 
 Of Indefinite Pronouns, First 
 Class . . . .347 
 
 Remarks on Autrui, Per- 
 sonne, Rien . . . 348 
 
 Second Class ; Quelque, 
 Chaque, Quelconque . . 350 
 
 Third Class ... 352 
 
 Remarks on Autre, V Tin et 
 V Autre .... 
 
 — on Mime, Tel, Phi- 
 
 sieurs, Tout 
 
 Fourth Class : those fol- 
 
 lowed by Que 
 
 354 
 355 
 
 358 
 
 Page 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Of the Verb; Agreement 
 with the Subject ; Exam- 
 ples of the same . . 361 
 
 Verbs having two Subjects 
 in the Plural . . 302 
 
 Verbs relating to Subjects of 
 different Persons . . ib. 
 
 Verbs having que relative for 
 Subject ... 363 
 
 Of the Regimen of Verbs, 
 direct and indiiect . . ib, 
 
 Passive 
 
 Verbs .... 365 
 
 Observation on Ditto . ib. 
 
 Rule respecting a and de . 366 
 
 On the Nature of Bloods 
 and Tenses . . . 367 
 
 Of the Indicative Mood ib. 
 
 The present, imperfect, pre- 
 terit definite, and preterit 
 indefinite Tenses . . ib. 
 
 The preterit anterior . 368 
 
 The pluperfect, future abso- 
 lute, and future anterior 369 
 
 Of the Conditional Mood ; 
 Present and Past Tenses 370 
 
 Of the Imperative Mood 
 and its Compound . ib. 
 
 Of the Subjunctive Mood; 
 Present Tense ". 371 
 
 The Imperfect, Preterit, and 
 Pluperfect Tenses 372 
 
 Of the Infinitive Mood . 373 
 
 Observation on Ditto . ib. 
 
 Of the Participle Present ; 
 its termination . . 374 
 
 Gender and Number of the 
 Participle Present . 375 
 
 Explanation of the term Ge- 
 rund . . . ib. 
 
 Of the Participle Past; its 
 Agreement with its Sub- 
 ject .... 376 
 
 Observation on Ditto . . ib. 
 
Xll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Participle Past never agrees 
 
 with its Subject when it 
 
 follows Avoir . . 377 
 Observations on this Rule 378 
 Agreement of the Participle 
 
 with its Regimen . ib. 
 
 Observation on the Regimen 
 
 before que, me, te, etc. . 379 
 Place of the Regimen of the 
 
 Participle Past . . 3S0 
 Gender of the Participle 
 
 Past . . . .381 
 Observation on the Gender 
 
 of the Participle Past ih^ 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Of Prepositions ; their Go- 
 vernment . . . 383 
 
 Place of Prepositions . 384 
 
 Use of the Article with Pre- 
 positions . . . 385 
 
 Exceptions to this Rule . ib. 
 
 Nouns governed by the Pre- 
 position En . . 386 
 
 Remarks on Eleven Prepo- 
 sitions .... ib. 
 
 Repetition of the Preposi- 
 tions . . . .387 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Of the Adverbs; their 
 place .... 388 
 
 Placing of Compound Ad- 
 verbs and Adverbial Ex- 
 pressions . . . 389 
 
 Exceptions to these Rules ib. 
 
 Adverbs modifying Adjec- 
 tives .... 390 
 
 of Quantity and Com- 
 parison .... ib. 
 
 Remarks on Bien . , ib. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Of Conjunctions ; their 
 Government . . 392 
 
 Conjunctions with the Indi- 
 cative Mood . . . 393 
 
 Page 
 Conjunctions relating to the 
 Subjunctive Mood . . 394 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PARTICULAR SYNTAX- 
 
 Explanation of Particular 
 
 Syntax 
 
 395 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Substantive ; its 
 Functions 
 
 When the Substantive is in 
 Subject 
 
 When in Apostrophe . 
 
 When in Regimen . 
 
 General Rule on Two Sub- 
 stantives .... 
 
 Observation on this Rule 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the Article 
 
 General Rules on the Place 
 of the Article 
 
 Exceptions to such Rules 
 
 General Principle . 
 
 Article placed with all Sub- 
 stantives common denot- 
 ing a whole species of 
 things .... 
 
 Observation on this Rule 
 
 Article when used in a sense 
 of Extract, etc. . 
 
 Exceptions to this Rule 
 
 Observations upon some ex- 
 pressions . 
 
 Place of the Article before 
 Nouns Proper . 
 
 Exceptions to this Rule . 
 
 Article not used before the 
 Noun .... 
 
 Article preceded by Prono- 
 minal Adjectives . 
 
 Remarks on names of Dei- 
 ties, Men, etc., and the use 
 of the Article- . . .408 
 
 ib. 
 
 395 
 396 
 397 
 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 398 
 
 ib. 
 399 
 
 400 
 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 401 
 402 
 
 ib. 
 
 403 
 404 
 
 405 
 
 407 
 
 i 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xm 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Df the Adjective ; with the 
 Article ... 409 
 
 Place of the Article when a 
 Noun is accompanied by 
 two opposite Adjectives 410 
 
 The Article used before the 
 Adjective . . . ib. 
 
 Place of the Pronominal Ad- 
 jectives mon,ton, son, etc. 412 
 
 Adjectives qualifying seve- 
 ral Substantives . . 413 
 
 Place of the Adjectives with 
 the Substantive . . 414 
 
 Exceptions to this Rule ib. 
 
 Adjectives placed after the 
 Substantive . . 415 
 
 . expressing Moral 
 
 Qualities . . .416 
 
 Regimen of Adjectives . 417 
 
 Adjectives of Number; re- 
 marks on Unieme, Cent, 
 etc 418 
 
 Use made of the Cardinal 
 Numbers for the Ordinal 419 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of the Pronoun ; Personal 
 Pronouns . . . 420 
 
 Pronouns always in Subject ib. 
 
 always in Apos- 
 trophe .... 421 
 
 — _ always in Regimen 422 
 
 Observation upon tbe Re- 
 gimen of the Verb . . ib. 
 
 Remark on le, la, les, y, and 
 en .... 423 
 
 Particular English expres- 
 sions, how construed in 
 French .... ib. 
 
 Remarks on nous, vous, moi, 
 toi, etc. . . . 424 
 
 on lui, eux, elles . 425 
 
 Cases where the Pronouns 
 die, elles, eux, lui, leur, may 
 apply to things . . 427 
 
 Page 
 
 Of the Pronoun Soi, gene- 
 rally accompanied by a 
 Preposition . . . 428 
 
 Cases where it may be em- 
 ployed without the Pre- 
 position . . . ib. 
 
 Difficulty respecting the Pro- 
 noun Le explained . . 429 
 
 Observation upon Le . 430 
 
 Upon Le when holding the 
 place of an Adjective . ib. 
 
 Observation on this Rule 431 
 
 Repetition of the Personal 
 Pronouns . . . ib. 
 
 Observation on this Rule 432 
 
 Repetition of Pronouns of 
 the Third Person . . ib. 
 
 Observation on this Rule 433 
 
 When Personal Pronouns are 
 in Subject . . ib. 
 
 When repeated before Verbs 434 
 
 Observation on this Rule . ib. 
 
 Relations of the Pronouns 
 of the third person to a 
 Noun expressed before 435 
 
 Of Possessive Pronouns ; 
 how to express them in 
 French ... 436 
 
 General Rule upon this Sub- 
 ject .... 437 
 
 Observations on such Rule lb. 
 
 Rule on the use of Posses- 
 sive Pronouns in some 
 cases .... 439 
 
 Observations on this Rule 440 
 
 Of Relative Pronouns ; sub- 
 ject and regimen of Qui 442 
 
 Observation on the Regimen 
 Direct .... ib. 
 
 Separation of Qui from its 
 antecedent . . ib. 
 
 Observations on this rule . ib. 
 
 Relation of Qui to Nouns in 
 a determinate sense . 444 
 
 Important Observations on 
 this rule . . . Ok 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Relation of Que to persons 
 and things ; its Regimen 445 
 
 Instance of Que appearing 
 to be regimen indirect . ib. 
 
 Rules regarding Lequel and 
 JDont .... 446 
 
 When we can use Auquel . ib. 
 
 Quoi, its relation to things 447 
 
 Relation of Oil, d' Ou, Par oil ib. 
 
 Of Absolute Pronouns ; rela- 
 tion of Que and Quoi . 448 
 
 Observation on Que and 
 Quoi .... 449 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns ; of 
 Ce . 450 
 
 Observations on the use of 
 Ce 451 
 
 Modes of employing Celui 453 
 
 Observation on these Modes ib. 
 
 Remarks on Ceci and Cela ib. 
 
 Indefinite Pronouns ; of On 454 
 
 Gender of Quiconque . ib. 
 
 Chacun always singular ; Re- 
 marks on the use of son, 
 sa, ses .... 455 
 
 Observations on Chacun 456 
 
 Gender of Personne when a 
 Pronoun . . . 457 
 
 Remarks on Ni V Uni V Autre ib. 
 
 Tout, where placed; some- 
 times an Adverb . 458 
 
 Important Rules on Tout ib. 
 
 Exception to such Rules ib. 
 
 Use of Quelque — que . 459 
 
 When followed by a Verb in 
 the Subjunctive . 460 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Of the Verb ; its agreement 
 with its Subject . . 461 
 
 Exceptions . . . ib. 
 
 Of the Collective Partitive 462 
 
 When the Verb is put in the 
 Plural .... 463 
 
 Observations on Infinite and 
 la Plupart . . . ib, 
 
 Page 
 Place of the Subject with 
 
 regard to the Verb . 464 
 Exceptions to this Rule . 468 
 Remarks on Interrogative 
 
 Sentences . . 466 
 Incidental Ditto ib 
 
 With an Impersonal Verb, 
 and tel, ainsi . . . 467 
 
 Remarks on the Subjunctive ib. 
 
 on when the Sub- 
 ject is followed by several 
 words . . . ib. 
 
 Government of Verbs . 468 
 
 Exception to this Rule . 469 
 
 Observation on this Rule . ib. 
 
 Verb having two regimens ib. 
 
 The Noun governed by two 
 Verbs at once . , 470 
 
 The Proper or Accidental 
 Use of Moods and Tenses 471 
 
 Of the Present . . . ib. 
 
 Of the Imperfect, the Pre- 
 terit Definite, and the Pre- 
 terit Indefinite . . 472 
 
 Observation on these Tenses 473 
 
 Of the Pluperfect . . 474 
 
 Examples of the different 
 Preterits . . . 475 
 
 Of the Supercompound and 
 the Future . . . 477 
 
 Of the Conditional-, how 
 made use of . . 478 
 
 Observation on the use of 
 the Conditional and of the 
 Future . . . ,480 
 
 General Rule on the Sub- 
 junctive . . .481 
 
 Useful Observations on do, 
 did, will, would, etc. . 482 
 
 Relations between the Ten- 
 ses of the Indicative . 484 
 
 Observation on Ditto . . ib. 
 
 Relations of the Tenses of 
 the Subjunctive to those 
 of the Indicative . . 486 
 
 Exceptions to the same . ib. 
 
 When the Second Verb is 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 Page 
 put in the Imperfect of the 
 Subjunctive . . . 487 
 
 Observation on the Preterit 
 Indefinite . . # . 488 
 
 Elegant use of the Subjunc- 
 tive .... 489 
 
 Observations on the Relative 
 Pronouns qui, que, quel, 
 dont, and ou . . ib. 
 
 Further Observations on the 
 Conditional and Subjunc- 
 tive . . . .490 
 
 Relations between the Ten- 
 ses of the different Moods ; 
 of the Indicative; Stan- 
 dard of the same . 491 
 
 to the Conditional 
 
 and of the Conditional . 492 
 of the Present of the 
 
 Indicative to the Tenses 
 of its own Mood and the 
 Conditional . . ib. 
 
 Observation on Negative 
 Sentences . . . 493 
 
 Relations to the Conditional ib. 
 
 to the Subjunctive 494 
 
 Of the Infinitive . . 495 
 
 Remarks respecting the Pre- 
 positions to and en . . ib. 
 
 Rule respecting the Parti- 
 ciple Present . . ib. 
 
 Observations on the Parti- 
 ciples .... 496 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Of the Prepositions a, de, 
 and en ; their different 
 functions . . . 497 
 
 Distinction between the Ad- 
 verb and the Preposition 498 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Of the Adverb ; of the Ne- 
 gation Ne 499 
 
 Questions examined by the 
 French Academy . ib. 
 
 Answer to the First Ques- 
 
 tion ; on the place of the 
 Negatives 
 
 • Second; when 
 
 pas should be used in pre- 
 ference to point . 
 
 Third; when 
 
 may both be omitted 
 
 • Fourth ; when 
 
 Page 
 ib. 
 
 500 
 
 501 
 
 ib. 
 
 502 
 503 
 
 505 
 
 506 
 
 ib. 
 
 507 
 
 both ought to be omitted 
 Observations on two Nega- 
 tives .... 
 When pas may be preserved 
 The verb Savoir used for 
 
 Pouvoir . . 
 Remarks on Plus an&Davan- 
 
 tage .... 
 Observation on Autant and 
 Aussi .... 
 on a la and en 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Of Grammatical Construc- 
 tion . . . t . 508 
 Remarks on Interrogative 
 
 Sentences . . . ib. 
 
 Observation on Ditto . 509 
 
 General Remarks on Sen- 
 tences . . . 510 
 How a Sentence may be 
 
 compound . . .511 
 Rule respecting Prepo- 
 sitions . . . ib. 
 Definition of Periods . ib. 
 Of Inversion . . 512 
 Observation on Inversion 513 
 Of the Ellipsis . . ib. 
 Of the Pleonasm . . 514 
 Observation on Pleonasms 515 
 Of the Syllepsis . . ib. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Of Grammatical Discor- 
 dances .... 516 
 
 Remarks on Disagreements 
 and some Examples . ib. 
 
 Of Amphibologies . . 517 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Examples of Amphibologies 
 of the first kind . . 518 
 
 Of the Second Kind . . ib. 
 
 Third Kind . ib. 
 
 Fourth Kind . . 519 
 
 Of Gallicisms . . ib. 
 
 General Principle of Galli- 
 cisms . . . . ib 
 
 Free Exercises : 
 
 1. Madame de Maintenon 
 
 to her Brother . . 522 
 
 2. The Convert, a Tale 523 
 
 3. The Good Minister 524 
 
 4. The Magnificent Pros- 
 pect . . . 525 
 
 5. A General View of 
 Nature . . . ib. 
 
 6. Another General View 
 
 of Nature . . 526 
 
 7. Cultivated Nature . 527 
 
 8. The same Subject con- 
 tinued . . . 528 
 
 9. Invocation to the God 
 
 of Nature . . . ib. 
 
 10. Sweets of an Innocent 
 Life . . . 529 
 
 11. Thoughts on Poetry . 530 
 
 12. The Same Subject con- 
 tinued . . . ib 
 
 13. The Same Subject con- 
 tinued 
 
 14. Poetical Exercise . 
 Models of Phrases on 
 
 some Difficulties in the 
 French Language : 
 
 1. Phrases in which the 
 Article is used 
 
 2. The same continued 
 
 3. Phrases in which the 
 Article is omitted 
 
 4. Continuation of the 
 Same Sentences . 
 
 5. Ditto 
 
 6. Phrases upon the Pro- 
 noun Le . 
 
 7. upon the Dif- 
 ferent Rules of the Par- 
 ticiple Past 
 
 upon the prin- 
 cipal Relations of 
 Words and Tenses 
 
 Continuation of the 
 same Phrases . 
 
 upon the Nega- 
 
 Page 
 
 531 
 532 
 
 8, 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 tive iVe 
 
 Continuation 
 
 same Phrases 
 
 of the 
 
 534 
 535 
 
 53G 
 537 
 
 538 
 
 539 
 
 540 
 541 
 
 542 
 543 
 
FRENCH PRONUNCIATION, 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE LEXICOLOGY, 
 
 THE FIRST PART Or THIS GRAMMAR. 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 Is the art of speaking and writing correctly. 
 
 To speak, is to manifest externally, by certain 
 signs, the thoughts which are combined internally 
 in the mind. The signs made use of for writing 
 are called Letters, and a collection of these, in a 
 proper order, is known under the denomination of 
 Alphabet. — (Dumarsais, Encycl. Meth. at the word 
 Alphabet.) 
 
 As we have no Alphabet of our own, we have 
 been obliged to adopt that of the Romans, which 
 had but twenty letters, as will be observed in the 
 next page. 
 
INTRODUCTION TO THE 
 
 FRENCH ALPHABET. 
 
 Roman Letters. 
 
 Pronounced. 
 
 Modern Pronunciation. 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 ah 
 
 (1) 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 bay 
 
 be 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 sat/ 
 
 ce 
 
 D 
 
 d 
 
 day 
 
 dc 
 
 E 
 
 e 
 
 a 
 
 e (2) 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
 «ff 
 
 
 G 
 
 g 
 
 j«!/f 
 
 
 H 
 
 h 
 
 hash 
 
 ft (3) 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 jeef 
 
 
 K 
 
 k* 
 
 kah 
 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 ell 
 
 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 emm 
 
 
 N 
 
 B 
 
 enn 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 pay 
 
 
 Q 
 
 q* 
 
 qui 
 
 fte 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 air 
 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 ess 
 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 tay 
 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 u% 
 
 
 V 
 
 v * 
 
 vay 
 
 
 X 
 
 X* 
 
 eeks 
 
 kse 
 
 Y 
 
 y* 
 
 e grec 
 
 
 Z 
 
 z 
 
 zed. 
 
 
 (1) In the natural way of pronouncing the alphabetic letters, a mute e must be 
 added after each consonant, and sounded very short, viz. : 6eis sounded as in the 
 English word before ; ce as in cellar ; de as in debate, and so on. 
 
 (2) e, as mute is scarcely sounded. 
 
 (3) h, its natural sound is aspirated as in the English language, and when mute, 
 it is counted for nothing in the pronunciation. 
 
 * Tc, q, v, x, y, do not belong to the Roman alphabet ; h in French is for c harsh 
 sound, as in ca, co, cu, pronounced ka, ko, ku. q gives the same sound; v has 
 nearly the sound of the /; x is used for gz, cs, and sometimes for ss ; y like A is a 
 Greek letter, often used in French instead of ii, as pays, paiis ; moyen, moiien. — 
 (Dumarsais.) 
 
 t The two consonants g and j are sounded like s in pleasure, or z in azure. 
 
 % u and q are the only letters which have no similar English sound, they must 
 be heard from the lips of a native. 
 
FRENCH SOUNDS. O 
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 ON THE FRENCH ALPHABET. 
 
 The French Alphabet contains twenty-five letters, 
 which are divided into voivels and consonants. 
 
 A vowel is the simple emission of the voice, forming 
 an articulate sound by itself. 
 
 A consonant i on the contrary, cannot be articu- 
 lated without the assistance of & vowel. (These two 
 last observations with regard to the vowels and 
 consonants, are general to any living language.) 
 
 The vowels are a, e, i, o, w, and y, which some- 
 times has the sound of one i, and sometimes of two. 
 
 The nineteen remaining letters, b, c, d, f g, h, j, 
 k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, are consonants. 
 
 OF ACCENTUATION. 
 
 Independently of the natural or primitive sounds 
 of the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, there are others pro- 
 duced by means of the accents placed upon the 
 vowels, 
 
 There are three accents, the acute (') never placed 
 but on e, as in bonte, goodness ; the grave ( v ) placed 
 over a, e, u 9 as in voila, behold; proces, laivsidt ; ou, 
 where ; the circumflex Q employed over any /o?^ 
 vowel, as platre, plaster; reve, dream; epitre, 
 epistle; apotre, apostle ; buche, log of wood. 
 
 The acute accent, which runs from right to left, 
 gives a sharp sound to the vowel, and must be pro- 
 nounced with the mouth almost closed. 
 
 The gram, on the contrary, formed from left to 
 right, gives a broad sound, obtained by disclosing 
 the teeth, and dwelling on the vowel. 
 
4 FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 The circumflex, which is the combination of the 
 . grave and the acute, is pronounced very near as the 
 grave, with this difference, that it requires more 
 time to pronounce the vowel than with the grave. 
 
 Due attention should be paid by the learner to 
 the above accents, which not only change the sounds 
 of the vowels, but sometimes the meaning of the 
 words : for instance, peche, a peach ; peehe, a sin ; 
 la, the-, la, there ; ou, or; on, where; du, of the; 
 du, owed, participle past of to owe. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF LONG AND SHOET VOWELS. 
 
 a is long in pate, dough, and short in patte, paw. 
 
 e — tempete, storm, — trompette, trumpet. 
 
 i — gite, abode, — petite, little. 
 
 o — hote, host, — hotte, wicker basket. 
 
 u — flute, flute, — dispute, dispute. 
 
 FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 The following French simple sounds may be 
 divided in three classes. In the first they are pro- 
 duced by the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, with no other 
 assistance but their respective accents. 
 
 In the second class, the simple sounds are obtained 
 by the combination of the vowels eu, on. 
 
 In the third, the simple sounds, which are also 
 called nasal, owing to their being produced a little 
 through the nose, are formed by the coalition of m 
 or n with each of the vowels, as am, em, en ; im, in ; 
 om 9 on ; um, un. 
 
FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 CLASS I. 
 Alone. 
 
 Sounds, 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Sounded as 
 
 1. a short 
 
 
 ami, friend 
 
 a in amateur 
 
 2. a long 
 
 
 pate, dough 
 
 a — bark 
 
 3. e mute 
 
 
 tenir, to hold 
 
 e — battery 
 
 4. e sharp 
 
 
 ete, summer 
 
 e — eh ! 
 
 b. e broad 
 
 
 modele, model 
 
 ail or ale 
 
 n a fbroad and! 
 6 - e (long(l)} 
 
 tete, head 
 
 e — there 
 
 7. i short 
 
 
 imiter, to imitate 
 
 i — timid 
 
 8. i long 
 
 
 gite, abode 
 
 i — field 
 
 9. o short 
 
 
 ecole, school 
 
 o — scholar 
 
 10. 6 long 
 
 
 cote, rib 
 
 o — note 
 
 11. u short (2) 
 
 
 dispute, dispute 
 
 
 12. u long 
 
 
 flute, flute 
 
 
 (1) e is generally unsounded at the end of many words, as in the above, modele, 
 tete, ecole, cote, which are pronounced the same as if they were written model, 
 tet, ecol, cot : the same must be observed sometimes in the beginning and middle 
 of certain words, as in cependant, javeline, empereur, commandement, &c, pro- 
 nounced cpendan, javlin, &c. 
 
 (2) u is always short at the end of words, as vertu, bu, connu, &c, and after the 
 consonants q and g it is generally silent, as in quatre, guerre, &c, pronounced 
 qatre, gerre, (katre, kere or care.) 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 Combined. 
 
 Combinations. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Sounded as 
 
 V 1 eu short 
 2 /; eu long 
 3" ou short 
 4 /; ou long 
 
 jeune, young 
 je&ne, fast 
 soupe, soup 
 voilte, vault 
 
 u in shun 
 ou — soup 
 
 CLASS III. 
 
 JVasaL 
 
 Combinations. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Sounded as 
 
 V'i an 
 
 ange, angel 
 
 
 encore 
 
 2"' am 
 
 ambition, ambition 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 3" f em 
 
 emploi, employment 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 A'" en 
 
 endroit, place 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 5"' in 
 
 Un, flax 
 
 en in length 
 
 6" on 
 
 long, long 
 
 on 
 
 — long 
 
 r 4 ,n un 
 
 brun, brown 
 
 un 
 
 — 
 
FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 Additional combined simple sounds belonging to the 
 three foregoing classes ; they affect chiefly the 
 beginning and the end of words. 
 
 Combinations. 
 
 4. < 
 
 ' ea 
 i ai 
 
 eai 
 I ee 
 
 oe 
 
 raie 
 5. e<jei 
 loie 
 
 9 
 
 °{ 
 
 au 
 eo 
 au 
 eau 
 
 >"eu| 
 
 ceu 
 oeu 
 eue 
 
 t Examples. 
 
 English sound. 
 
 il songea, he thought 
 
 sonshar 
 
 aigu, sharp 
 geaijay 
 annee, year 
 
 oesophage, oesophagus 
 baie, bay 
 baleine, whale 
 
 ague 
 
 shay (sharp) 
 
 arnay (sharp) 
 
 be (open) 
 barlen (open) 
 
 monnoie, money 
 
 mond (open) 
 
 aurore, dawn 
 
 
 flageolet, flageolet 
 auteur, author 
 
 fiasholay (rather soft) 
 
 dtour 
 
 marteati, hammer 
 
 marrto 
 
 eau, water 
 
 & 
 
 seeur, sister 
 
 sir (Irish sound) 
 
 noeud, knot 
 
 neil 
 
 queue, tail 
 
 keH 
 
 ie at the end of the words is sounded like bee in vie, life, amie, female friend. 
 
 oue, the mute e in this combination at the end of words is almost unsounded, 
 as in joue, cheek, iljoue, he plays, and ou has the sound of ou short, 3" second 
 class. 
 
 ao is sounded as o in some, in aoriste, pronounced oriste»an6 as o in throne, in 
 Saone, a river, pronounced Sane. * 
 
 aou is sounded as oo in mood, in Aout, August, aouteron, a reaper, pronounced 
 out (dropping the t) and oirteron ; but aouter has the sound of a short, and is pro- 
 nounced a-oiiU. 
 
FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 The following coalition of letters belongs to the 
 third class, the nasal sounds. 
 
 Combinations. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 English sound. 
 
 2'" am 
 
 jambe, leg 
 
 shanb (soft) 
 
 ]'". ean 
 
 affligeant, afflicting 
 
 afflishan 
 
 S'". em 
 
 membre, member 
 
 membre 
 
 4!'K en 
 
 entendre, to hear 
 
 antandre 
 
 aim 
 
 f essaim, swarm, faim,~\ 
 \ hunger J 
 
 essin, fin 
 
 
 ain 
 
 crainte, fear 
 
 hrint 
 
 Kill in, 
 
 ein 
 
 peinture, picture 
 
 pinture 
 
 9 ' in \ im 
 
 imp oli, impolite 
 
 inpoli (short) 
 
 ym 
 
 symbole, symbol 
 
 sainbol 
 
 ^yn 
 
 syntaxe, syntax 
 
 {pishon (sh sounded 
 I like z in azure 
 
 ain \ eon 
 
 o"', on < 
 
 pigeon, pigeon 
 
 Corn 
 
 ombre, shadow 
 
 onber 
 
 feun 
 
 a jeun, fasting 
 
 it shun (soft as above) 
 
 7'". un 
 
 \um 
 
 parfum, perfume 
 
 parefun 
 
 Caen, a town of Normandy; Laon, a town of Vile de France; faon, a fawn: and 
 paon, a peacock, are pronounced as follows: Kan, Lan, fan, pan, the nasal an 
 being sounded like an or en, 4'" third class. 
 
 Taon, ox-fly, is pronounced the same as above (tan). 
 
 FURTHER ADDITIONAL FRENCH 
 EXEMPLIFIED. 
 
 SOUNDS 
 
 Ai in raidir, to stiffen, has the sound of an e open, 
 short, redir, likewise in the word faible, weak, 
 which is pronounced feble, and in the third person 
 singular of the imperfect indicative and the condi- 
 tional, as il lisait, he did read ; il lirait, he would 
 read. 
 
 But ai has the sound of an e open, long and broad : 
 First, in the other persons of the imperfect and 
 
8 EXCEPTIONS TO THE 
 
 the conditional ; je lisais, I was reading ; ils lisaient, 
 they tvere reading: je lirais, I would or should read; 
 ils liraient, they would or should read. This obser- 
 vation is very useful to foreigners, in order that they 
 might perceive the difference of the sounds in the 
 conditional and the future : example, future, je lirai 
 (e open-short, lire) ; conditional, je lirais (e open- 
 long lire), &c. 
 
 Secondly, in the final aitre belonging to words 
 which have more than two syllables, as paraitre and 
 its compounds. 
 
 Thirdly, in the names of nations frequently spoken 
 of, as Frangais, Anglais, &c. 
 
 Moeurs, manners, which substantive has no sin- 
 gular number, is always sounded hard, as in the 
 English wT>rd hearse-, demangeaison, itch, is pro- 
 nounced demanshezon, an and on are nasal. 
 
 In Seigneur, lord, ei is sounded like e in let ; gn 
 like gn in poignant, and eur like ir in sir. 
 
 Monsieur, sir, is pronounced mosieur, the n is 
 not sounded. 
 
 Pays, country ; paysan, peasant ; abbaye, an 
 abbey ; pa is pronounced^, y sounds like ye in eye, 
 with the addition of i short befdfre the nasal sound 
 san ; payei, payeisan, abbayei. 
 
 GENERAL EXCEPTIONS OF THE NASAL SOUND. 
 
 Am, an, are not nasal when m or n are doubled, 
 as in constamment, annuaire. Am loses also its 
 nasal sound at the end of some proper names, except 
 Adam, which is pronounced Adan. 
 
 Em and en are sounded as in the English words 
 hem and men : 
 
 1. In some words taken from foreign languages : 
 
FRENCH SOUNDS 9 
 
 Jerusalem, item, hymen, Solen, amen, &c, and also 
 in decemvirat, decemvirs. 
 
 2. When double, as queje vienne, que tu soutiennes, 
 quil compremie, and in the feminine pronouns, la 
 mienne, la tienne, les siennes, and in many other 
 words, as antienne, magicienne, Vienne en Autriche 
 &c. 
 
 3. When followed immediately by a mute e, as in 
 arene, ebene,je me promene, ilegrene, it seme, &c. 
 
 Em in femme, woman, and en in enorgueillir, 
 ennoblir, and ennui, must be pronounced as if spelt 
 with a, femme, anorgueillir, annoblir, &c, and ten 
 in the second syllable of so-len-nel and derivatives, 
 sounds like «in la, article feminine, the. 
 
 Em keeps generally its nasal sound in adverbs 
 ending in emment, as, differemment, constamment, 
 eminemment. Sec. 
 
 iV in the monosyllables mon, ton, son, bon, &c, 
 ceases to be nasal when immediately followed by a 
 vowel or an h mute, as mon ami est un bon homme, 
 my friend is a simpleton, pronounced mo nami est 
 un ho nomme. 
 
 *#* The adjective bon placed before the substan- 
 tive conveys the idea of silliness, and after it, that 
 of goodness, as un homme bon, a good man. 
 
 Im and in are not nasal : * 
 
 First. In the word interim, and in proper names 
 taken from foreign languages, as Selim, Ephra'im, 
 Ibrahim, &c. ; however, the nasal sound is preserved 
 in Benjamin, Joachim. 
 
 Secondly. When m or n is followed by a vowel or 
 an h mute, as inanime, inimaginable, unanimite, 
 xnhumain, &£. 
 
 Thirdly. Whenever m or n is doubled, as in im- 
 moler, innover, immediatement, inne 9 innocent, &c. 
 
 * See examples in the Supplementary Part of this Grammar. 
 
 b2 
 
10 FRENCH DIPHTHONGS 
 
 Um is pronounced omm in some words taken from 
 the Latin, as centumvirs, album, quinquennium, 
 laudanum, geranium. 
 
 U after the consonants q and g is generally silent, 
 as in quatre, four ; guerre, war ; pronounced katre, 
 gayre, gue sounded like g in gay. 
 
 U preserves the sound of u short, when followed 
 by a mute e, or connected with the following words : 
 as, line, unihne, nn liomme, un esprit. 
 
 * % * Ien preserves the nasal sound in words ending 
 in ent or ence, and their derivatives, as patient, 
 patience, patienter, pronounced pacian, paciance, 
 pacianter. 
 
 A TABLE OF FRENCH DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 The combinations of vowels already mentioned, 
 form only indivisible and simple sounds ; but there 
 are others that give the sound of two vowels at one 
 and the same time, and by a single impulse of the 
 voice ; these are properly called diphthongs, from 
 the Greek Sifydoyyog ; cig, twice, tidoyyog, sound ; as 
 they are all formed from the simple sounds of the 
 first, second, and third classes, they are called 
 compound sounds. 
 
FROM DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 Jl 
 
 & 
 
 ^ 
 
 $ 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 So g 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 .2 TJ 
 
 •5 " 
 
 CD 03 
 
 TJ C<3 . 
 
 -f 5 S o 
 2 
 
 &, . 
 
 CO CO 
 
 h *-3 
 
 t3 
 
 Is-* . 
 
 C+-I .CO 
 
 cd 
 
 CO V 
 
 <- 5 
 
 O co 
 
 O ciO co 
 
 £h ^ 
 
 cu • 
 
 ? - « O 
 
 2 ^->.£~ 
 
 £ § 3 -3 t • 
 
 cs cd „ w.^ g 
 
 re o> 
 
 • CO 
 
 J 8S 5, S 
 
 CO 
 
 5 « 
 
 3 -g 
 
 *^ 
 
 S J = 
 
 §3« 
 
 CT CD 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 CD 
 
 > 
 
 
 C e o a c s 8 ~ s o S- H 8 
 
 & 
 &• 
 
 ^ c5 
 
 8 ^^ 
 
 -^ CD 
 
 .2.2-2 .2 9 V U I ua I.S 5 
 
 Approximative similar English sounds of the above diphthongs. 
 
 1. Deardem, open; dear man, nasal. 2. dearbl; galematea, gal is sounded like 
 #a£ in gallic. 3, neass; the sound of^'W in vieille is pretty near the same as that 
 of t7£ in brilliant, only instead of z7Z pronounce aeill. 4, etudie, open. 5, konfeee, 
 kon is nasal. 6, fi as fi in fig and tneȣ as e broad and long ; neee. 8, Konfussius, 
 Fabius, proper names, kon nasal, fa as fa in famine, s final is sounded. 9, mosseeu, 
 n and r are not to be sounded. 10, veeu, eu as ir in sir ; luksureeu. 11, naygoseean, 
 konfeean ; #0 as go in to go, an is nasal. 12, joras is sounded like lion, nasal sound 
 without the *. 13, leein, teein, reein, in nasal. 14, minteein, cleean, souieein t 
 passeean, in and an nasal, t final unsounded. 
 
12 
 
 FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 English Sounds of the above. 
 
 1, oui as the French affirmative oui, yes, pronounced wee, se as ze , the s be- 
 tween two vowels in French has generally the sound of a z ; rayshueessan, an 
 nasal ; ebleweessant, blew sounded like blue, an is nasal, and t is sounded on 
 account of the feminine gender. 2, cran shwher, g as in fig, an nasal, d unsounded, 
 j as ss in assure, eur like her without breathing out the h. 3, shmin, nasal ; bou 
 
FROM DIPHTHONGS. 13 
 
 as bu in bullock, eux, long, x unsounded. 4, anrwe, sharp, en nasal; trewe. 5, 
 shwai/t sway, Iway, the ay is sharp. 6, creway, open, mwale, open, pwdysson. 
 nasal. 7, Iway, long and open ; shwdy, sh as z in azure. 8, rooar, swar, long and 
 open. 9, shooar, long and open, the final ■? and 2 are mute: in in cr/?rais nasal. 
 10, rooash. soft. 11, shoo-on, sh soft, cm nasal, looon, nasal. 12, shooshoo, sh 
 very soft; babooin, nasal. 13, coyn, nasal, dans, sans nasal, 5 mute, sooin, nasal, 
 bzooin nasal. 14, shoo-an, Roo-an, nasal. 
 
 Observations. — oi in loi, law, voix, voice, sounding 
 as iva in was, keeps this sound, firstly, in monosyl- 
 lables, as moi, me, bois, wood ; and in the verbs of 
 two syllables ending in oire, or oitre, as croire, to 
 believe, cr oitre, to grow. Secondly in polysyllables 
 ending in oi, oie, oir, oire, and eoire, as emploi, em- 
 ployment, courroie, latchet, vouloir, to be willing, 
 observatoire, observatory, nageoire (nashooar) the fin. 
 Thirdly, in oi, oy, followed by a vowel, as ondoie- 
 ment (ondooaymen, on nasal, ay open), a private 
 christening ; royal, roy-al. Fourthly, in the middle 
 of words, as poison, poison, courtoisie, courteousness. 
 In the names of nations seldom mentioned, Danois. 
 Iroquois, Gallois. 
 
14 
 
 FRENCH SOUNDS 
 
 o 
 > 
 
 P 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 * 
 
 
 12 
 . o 
 
 
 <L> 
 
 "H~ > 
 
 cJ 
 
 rP 
 
 c ^ 
 
 bo 
 
 
 »— 1 ** ••* 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 CD ."tn ^ 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nj 
 
 r^ 
 
 r^-e ° 
 
 ' ' 
 
 O 
 
 
 ,0 
 g 
 
 bo 
 
 J1 o ^ 
 
 
 
 
 r - 
 
 ^ 
 
 £^2 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 o •- > 
 
 
 *c 
 
 t * o 
 
 cu 
 
 
 S^* 
 
 
 i.§fe 
 
 o mh ••-- r— i cu 
 
 ^2 f-( rv, 
 
 bo en c ip 
 
 -c 5 cu * 
 
 ■si 4 s 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 p & 
 
 a, ;p 
 CD CO 
 P pi4 
 
 
 ~r5 
 
 •13 ^ 1 
 
 05 . V .?5 tS> 
 
 3 v • § 
 
 s^ 
 
 bo.§K3 
 
 CD 
 
 kqSjcQ 
 
 B.Br 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *P 
 
 'sf 
 
 CU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 on 
 
 CU 
 
 rP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cu 
 
 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 3 
 
 
 ■^3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 bo 
 
 
 
 <P 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 .2 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 S 
 
 CU 
 
 CU 
 
 sCU 
 
 cu 
 
 <Qi 
 
 S3 
 
 <ofl 
 
 O 
 
 S3 
 
 > 
 
 
 o 
 
 «S 
 
 H3 
 
 1 1 
 
 I 
 
 | 
 
 \ 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 c5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +j 
 
 '■e t3 
 
 
 P 
 
 -' = 
 
 "" 
 
 '-' 
 
 "" 
 
 - J 
 
 " - 
 
 p 
 
 p 
 
 ~ 
 
 P 
 
 CU 
 
 p 
 
 
 •™- \I3 -C u 
 
 ca ^ C <S ?S « 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 15 
 
 OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 B, which has the same sound as in English, is 
 always sounded in the middle of words, as in ab- 
 diquer, sub-ve-nir, ob-vi-er, &c, and at the end of 
 foreign proper names, as Job, Caleb (kaleb), Moab ; 
 also at the end of the words, radoub, the refitting of 
 a ship, rumb, point of the compass, but it is silent 
 in plomb, lead. 
 
 When double, as in abbe and its derivatives, one 
 b only is sounded. 
 
 C has three general distinctive sounds, k, s (hard 
 sound), g, sounding as in to go. 
 
 First. Of k before a, o, u, when there is no cedilla 
 under the g, as comble, cachet, curieux, coquette, 
 coucou, recompense-, pronounced komble, &c. 
 
 Second. Of s (hard sound) before e, i, as in cire, 
 citron, cerveau, &c. ; also before a, o, u, when with 
 a cedilla under the g, as repi, facon, facade, &c. 
 
 Third. Of g hard in second and its derivatives. 
 
 C has the sound of k in the middle of words before 
 q, ca, co, cu, cl, cr, as socque, acquerir, accabler, ac- 
 climater, acclamation, accomplir, accoutrer, accre- 
 ditee* , ecclesiastique, &c, which are pronounced sok, 
 akerir, akabler, &c. ; succes, acces, accident, vaccine, 
 &c, are pronounced suk-ces, ak-ces, ak-cident, 
 vak-cine. The words peccavi and peccadille are 
 now pronounced by some, pekavi, pekadil. — (Noel 
 and ChapsaL) 
 
 The same sound k is usually heard at the end of 
 the following words, as in cognac, lac, a lake, avec, 
 bee, pic, syndic, roc, froc, estoc, due, aqueduc, arc, 
 agaric, zinc, &c, and in the singular of echec, 
 
 Likewise in croc-en-jambe, franc etourdi, du blanc 
 ait noir, and in both syllables of mic-mac, tric-trac, 
 cric-crac, ric-a-ric, bric-a-brac, and pore-epic; but c 
 is silent in croc, ac-croc arc-boutant, banc, broc, 
 
16 
 
 FRENCH SOUNDS, 
 
 clerCj marc d argent, eric, estomac,flanc, jonc, lacs, 
 toils, tabac, tronc, echecs, almanack, nor in done 
 before a consonant. 
 
 Observations. — In words ending in ct, both con- 
 sonants are generally sounded, as in tact, contact, 
 intact, exact, inexact, abject, correct, direct, infect, 
 strict , succinct ; but neither of them is sounded in 
 instinct, amict, aspect, suspect, circonspect, respect, 
 this last word sounds like k before a vowel, or an h 
 mute, as respect aux superieurs, respect humain, 
 pronounce respet kaux superieurs, respet- kumain. 
 
 JBecteur, seducteur, redacteur, humecter, injecter, 
 
 dactyle, ductile, &c, are pronounced rekteur, seduk- 
 
 teur, &c. 
 
 ( one, the most frequent, like sh 
 
 ^j t -j S in she or shake, 
 
 Ln has two sounds< xl 4 , * . ,' , , 
 
 i the other, which very seldom 
 
 f occurs, like k or ch in chimera. 
 
 First sound as sh 
 
 Chat, 
 
 Che-val, 
 
 Cher-cher, 
 
 Chiche, 
 
 Ar-chi-tecte, 
 
 eat 
 horse 
 to seek 
 stingy 
 architect 
 
 ar-chi-trave, architrave 
 chou-et-te, screech-owl 
 
 chute, fall 
 
 chu-cho-ter, to whisper. 
 &c, &c. 
 
 Second sound of ch as k in the following words 
 
 An-a-cho-rete Cha-na-an 
 
 Arch-ange Chal-da-ique 
 
 Ar-chon-tes Chal-dee 
 Ar-chi-e-pis-co- Cha-os 
 
 pal chal-co-gra-phie 
 
 Eu-cha-ris-tie ca-te-chu-me-ne 
 
 cha-las- tique chro-no-lo-gie 
 
 chi-ro-man-cie A-rach-ne 
 
 chceur 
 
 cho-le-ra 
 
 cho-ris-te 
 
 or-ches-tre 
 
 cho-re-ge 
 
 scho-li-e 
 
 scho-las- tique 
 chro-nique 
 tech-niqiie 
 cher-so-ne-se 
 chro- no-metre 
 &c, &c. 
 
 Observations on the first and second sound of CH. 
 
 This first sound is to be observed in monosyllables 
 and words of two or three syllables beginning by 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 17 
 
 cha, che, chi, cho, chu, and also in the middle of 
 some of the polysyllables, as charlatan, chicorte, &c, 
 cociienillier, Cochin-Chine, cochonnerie, &c, except 
 chu, which seems to have the first above-named 
 sound only at the beginning and the end of words, 
 as echu, dechu, parachute, fichu, &c. 
 
 But ch has the second sound when it is follow ed by 
 /, n, or r, (seldom with n) a, o, u, in words taken from 
 the Hebrew or Greek, especially in proper names, 
 as Achab, Nabuchodonosor, Anacharsis, &c, and e, 
 e, i, in several words likewise borrowed from foreign 
 languages, as Michel Ange, Machiavel, archetype, 
 Civita Vecchia, Achelous, chiliade, &c, but in this 
 last case there are so many exceptions that we must 
 refer the learner to practice alone ; for we pronounce 
 soft, asin the first sound Zachee, Joachim, archeveque, 
 archipretre, archidiacre, &c, and some even pro- 
 nounce Machiavel, Mashiavel instead of Makiavel. 
 
 Yacht "I ("Yak 
 
 U-trecht > are pronounced < U-trek 
 Maes-trich J (^Ma-estrik 
 
 Ch takes the sound of hard g in drachme, dragme, 
 ancient Greek coin, and is dropped in almanack, 
 aim ana. 
 
 D, has the same sound as in English : 
 
 First, in the middle of words, as adjectif adverbe, 
 admirable. 
 
 Second, at the end of proper names, as in David, 
 Obed, Gad, Alfred, &c, and in some other words of 
 one or two syllables, as Cid, Sud, Sund, Talmud, 
 ephod. 
 
 Third. Generally at the end of words before a 
 vowel or h mute, d takes the sound of /, as quand il 
 viendra; un grand homme\ vend-ill &c, pronounced 
 quan-til, gran-tomme, ven-til ; but d is silent in 
 bond, gond, fond, nid, nosud, muid, and pied, except 
 in de fond en comble, de pied en cap, tenir pied-a- 
 
18 FRENCH SOUNDS, 
 
 boule, avoir un pied a terre, where d final is sounded 
 as t. 
 
 D is sounded double in some few words derived 
 from the Latin, as in ad-dition, ad-duct eur, red- 
 dition. 
 
 F\& sounded in French as in English. 
 
 The final / is generally sounded as well before 
 words which begin with a consonant, as before those 
 which begin with a vowel, as soif brulante and soif 
 ardente; vif desir and vif -amour ; but it is silent in 
 clef, cerf cerf-volant, chef-d'oeuvre, which words 
 must be pronounced as follows : cle, cer, cer-volant, 
 che-d'ceuvre. It is sounded in serf slave, and in 
 the singular number of the following words : oeuf 
 nerf bceuf but it is silent in the plural, and pro- 
 nounced oeu, ner, bceu ; however, the dropping of 
 the / in the pronunciation of the above three words 
 takes place sometimes in the singular when they are 
 accompanied by a modificative adjective, as un ceuf 
 dur, un oeu dur ; un nerf delicat, un ner delica ; un 
 hoeuf sale, un boeu sale, but/ is sounded in bceuf 
 a la mode. 
 
 Flms the sound of v in the numerical word neuf 
 nine, before a vowel or h mute, as il y a neuf ans, 
 neuf hommes, pronounced neuv ans, neuv hommes ; 
 but it is sounded in neuf de coeur, de carreau, de 
 pique, de trefle (at cards), and in the adjective neuf, 
 new, both in the singular and plural number, as un 
 habit neuf, des habits neufs. 
 
 When /is doubled, one only is sounded, however, 
 in some few words, as effusion^ effectivement, effica- 
 cite, &c, it seems more proper to sound both. 
 
 rbefore a, o, u, the hard sound of g in the 
 
 G has 5 En g lish word go ; 
 
 " )and before e, i, y, the soft sound of 5 in 
 
 v pleasure, or z in azure. 
 
 The difference of the two above sounds is seen in 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 19 
 
 the French word gage, pledge, or in the English 
 for reine-claude, greengage, pronounced rene-glode*. 
 
 Examples of g hard. 
 
 garcon gangre-ne gom-me 
 
 go-guenard (joker) j guttural gustation 
 
 Examples of g soft. 
 
 gens genre gingembre gymnastique 
 
 Final g has the hard sound mjoug and in foreign 
 proper names, as Agag, Doeg, but it takes generally 
 the sound of k before a vowel or h mute, as un sang 
 aduste, un long hiver, pronounced un sank aduste, 
 un lonk hiver; un rang illustre, is also pronounced 
 un rank illustre ; but at the end of some words, g 
 is not sounded even before a vowel, as in etang, 
 faubourg, Luxembourg ; it is equally silent in doigt, 
 legs, poing, oing, hareng, seing, vingt, twenty, and 
 in the following compound words : Hour g-V abbe, 
 Bourg-la-reine, sang-sue, de sangfroid. Bourg, a 
 small town of France, and bourg-mestre, burgo- 
 master, are pronounced hourk, lourk-mestre ; but g 
 is silent in bourg, meaning a large village-market. 
 
 Observations. — In gui, the ui forms a diphthong 
 in aiguille and its derivatives, as well as in aiguiser 
 and its derivatives ; but not in anguille, an eel, gui, 
 guider, guise, &c, in which gu is sounded as gi in 
 gig or gilh 
 
 Glace, ice, gloire, glory, are sounded the same as 
 if they were spelt guelace, gueloire, hard sound. 
 
 Guadalquivir, Guadeloupe, lingual, and some few 
 others are sounded as rva in was, kwadaikevir, 
 kwadloup, linkwal. 
 
 When doubled, only one is pronounced, except 
 
 * Claude, a proper name, and secret, are pronounced klode and cekre. — (Acad ) 
 
20 FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 before ge, as in suggerer, suggestion, pronounced 
 cug-jerer, cug-jestion. 
 
 rone hard, as in the English 
 
 ~ , ' ,3 word ignorant 
 
 Gn has two sounds < d the * her jj^d, ag j Q the 
 
 v last syllable of onion. 
 Examples of the hard sound. 
 
 gnome gnostique cognation 
 
 agnus ignee stagnant 
 
 Examples of the liquid sound. 
 
 agncau 
 
 digne 
 
 regne 
 
 Bourgogne 
 
 ignorant 
 
 compagne 
 
 cigogne 
 
 magnifique 
 
 campagne 
 
 Observation. — That generally speaking, the hard 
 sound is more frequent at the beginning of words 
 than in the middle, where the liquid sound seems 
 to prevail ; however, this last observation, which is 
 to be found in the first edition of Levizac, is liable 
 to a great many exceptions, learnt only by practice. 
 
 G is silent in signet, of a book, and Itegnard, a 
 French poet, pronounced sinet, renard.* 
 
 H as in English, is sometimes aspirated and more 
 frequently mute ; for example : it is aspirated in 
 le heros, and mute in Therdisme.-\ 
 
 When h is immediately preceded by a p in the 
 words derived from Greek or Hebrew, these two 
 letters united together, are sounded as an /, for 
 instance in the following words : seraphin, Japhet, 
 Philippe, Phalaris, P liar sale, physique, philosophie, 
 sphinx, &c. 
 
 * geo in geolage, geole, geolier, geoliere, Georges, is pronounced jo as jolage, jole, 
 jolier, joliere, Jorges. 
 
 t As no fixed rule can be given on the sound of the letter h, either aspirated or 
 mute, we refer the learner to the dictionaries where it is generally marked. 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 21 
 
 Observations. — His never aspirated in the middle 
 of a word, as in Mahometan, Bohemien, bohon- 
 hupas, except when that word is the compound of 
 another beginning with an h aspirated, as in s'a- 
 heurter, deharnacher, enhamacher, senhardir, &c. 
 However, h is silent in exhausser, exhaussement. — 
 {Acad.) 
 
 H after r or t, is always silent, as rheteur, Shone, 
 rhubarhe, the, Thamise, Thomas, thym, &c. ; but it 
 is generally aspirated in the names of towns or 
 countries, as la Haye, le Havre, le Hanovre, &c. 
 
 J has always the sound of z in azure, or s in 
 pleasure, as jus, jamais, jovial, joujou, jujuhe, jeu- 
 nesse. 
 
 K is constantly sounded as in the English word 
 king. This letter occurs but very seldom in the 
 French language. 
 
 L when double and preceded by ai, ei, oui, has 
 the liquid sound, as in the English words brilliant, 
 William, seraglio. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 travailler 
 
 veiUer 
 
 grenouiUe 
 
 maille 
 
 recueillir 
 
 patrouille 
 
 baffler 
 
 fouilltr 
 
 
 The same liquid pronunciation takes place in some 
 few words where the double I is preceded only by 
 an i, asjille, guenille, quille, hriller, &c. 
 
 It has again the same sound in words ending in 
 ail, eil, ueil, and ouil, with one / only, as in travail, 
 reveil, cercueil, oeil, fenouil, and in some others 
 which end in il, as mil (in the signification of mil- 
 let,) a seed. 
 
 Observations. — In some words, as sourcil, outil, 
 chenil, haril, gentil, the letter I is unsounded, and 
 they are pronounced the same as if they were spelt 
 outi, cheni, sourci, bari, genti ; but I is always 
 
22 FRENCH SOUNDS 
 
 sounded in til and peri/, and in the plural, the s is 
 silent, as well as in /lis, a son, in which word the / 
 is also omitted in the pronunciation; but in Jil, 
 thread, it is always heard, except also the s, which 
 in the plural is equally silent. The same remark 
 applies to poil, pronounced poel, the hair of an 
 animal, and to il, Us, personal pronoun, w r here the 
 s is silent when the next word does not begin with 
 a vowel, or an h mute. 
 
 /// in the middle of words is generally liquid, and 
 the few^ exceptions to this rule are ordinarily met 
 with in words derived from the Latin, as distiller, 
 distillare, osciller, oscillare, scintiller, scintillare, &c. 
 The same observation may be applied to words 
 beginning with ill as illusive, illustris, e, illuminer, 
 ilhiminare, &c. 
 
 It may be observed that whenever a French word 
 comes from the Latin, the double / is distinctly 
 pronounced, but never with the liquid sound. 
 
 Gentilhomme, a gentleman, is pronounced with 
 the liquid sound, jantilliome, and in the plural gen- 
 tilshommes is sounded gentizome. 
 
 M. When the letter m is at the end of a word, 
 it has but the nasal sound, (see p. 5); therefore, 
 nom, parfum, /aim, are pronounced the same as if 
 they were spelt non, parfun, fain; but in most 
 foreign proper names, as Abraham, Jerusalem, 
 Stockholm, Amsterdam, &c , the m is sounded as if 
 it w^ere followed by a mute e. Again, the letter m 
 sounds like n in the middle of a word before h, p, 
 or ft, thus are pronounced embleme,emploi, embarras, 
 empire, impatience, comparaison, condamner, as if 
 they were spelt with the nasal sound, anbleme, an- 
 ploi, a^barras, rmpire, ???pacience, condazmer ; 
 except, however, some words, as amnistie, Memnon, 
 somnifere, &c, which are derived from dead Ian- 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 
 
 23 
 
 guages*. When m is double in compound words, 
 as emmener, emmailloter, the first syllable is pro- 
 nounced like the nasal particle a?i, anmener, amnail- 
 loter ; except this case, m keeps its primitive pro- 
 nunciation, as in immortel, immediatement, commi- 
 natoire, &c. Femme, woman, is sounded fa-me. — 
 (See pp. 8 and 9.) 
 
 A r final has often the nasal sound (see pp. 5, 8, 
 and 9.) Beam is pronounced bear. 
 
 Nt final in the third person plural of any French 
 verb, are constantly silent, except t, which is sounded 
 only before a vowel or h mute, as Us aiment a rire, 
 Us lurent line page. Us vivaient honor ahlement. 
 
 When n is double, one only is generally pro- 
 nounced, except in annitaire, annal, annaliste, armi- 
 hiler, annate, inne, innove, innovation, and a few 
 others. 
 
 P followed by h (see page 20, letter h). 
 
 P is generally sounded in the middle of words 
 as in 
 
 adapter 
 
 baptismal 
 
 Septuagesime 
 
 adopter 
 
 exception 
 
 septuagenaire 
 
 capter 
 
 inepte 
 
 symptome 
 
 captieux 
 
 Septembre 
 
 rapsodie 
 
 But it is silen 
 
 t in 
 
 
 bapteme 
 
 sculpter 
 
 sept 
 
 baptiser 
 
 sculpteur 
 
 septieme 
 
 baptistere 
 
 sculpture 
 
 temps 
 
 Baptiste 
 
 je romps 
 
 printemps 
 
 cheptel 
 
 tu romps 
 
 prompt 
 
 exempt 
 
 il romp 
 
 prompte 
 
 exempter 
 
 il corromp 
 
 
 and generally in 
 
 i words when be' 
 
 tween two conso 
 
 nants. — (Acad.) 
 
 
 
 * Automne is pronounced autone, and comte, a count, konte. 
 
24 
 
 FRENCH SOUNDS 
 
 Final p is always sounded in Alep^ cap, Gap, 
 
 jalap, and julep, in trop, heaucoup, when before a 
 
 vowel or h mute, but never in champ, camp, drap, 
 
 loup, sirop, and galop, which are pronounced chan, 
 
 kan, dra, &c. 
 
 In laps, relaps, and rapt, both the final consonants 
 are sounded, but p is silent in cep de vigne, pro- 
 nounced ce de vigne. 
 
 When p is double, only one is pronounced. 
 
 Q generally sounds as k in king. 
 
 [" that of k the most general, 
 before a vowel ; 
 
 Qi xl -, that of kou before a in some 
 
 u has three sounds <; ,. i ^ 
 
 j particular words ; 
 
 that of kit before e or i in 
 
 others. 
 
 i 
 
 EXAMPLES OF k. 
 
 quai 
 qualite 
 quelque 
 quiconque 
 
 wharf 
 quality 
 some 
 whatever 
 
 quolibet 
 quenouille 
 question 
 queue 
 
 pun 
 distaff 
 question 
 tail 
 
 aquatique 
 
 equateur 
 
 equation 
 
 quaere, quaker 
 
 quadrature 
 
 quadrige 
 
 equestre 
 
 liquefaction 
 
 questeur 
 
 EXAMPLES OF kou. 
 
 quadrupede 
 quadruple 
 quaterne 
 quadragenaire, 
 man of forty 
 
 EXAMPLES OF hi. 
 
 questure 
 
 quinquennium 
 
 equilatere 
 
 Qui?iquagesime, 
 
 Shrove- Sun clay 
 quadragesimal 
 aquatile 
 aquarelle 
 inquarto 
 
 equilateral 
 equitation 
 quintuple, Sfc. 
 
 In cinq, five, q is mute before a consonant and 
 sounds like k before a vowel, viz. : le cinq Avril 9 
 pronounced le cin kavril. Liquefier is sounded 
 likefie. — (Noel and Chapsal.) 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 26 
 
 R. Very few foreigners give to the French r its 
 proper sound. 
 
 R keeps its natural sound in recevoir, Tester, in- 
 teressant, &c, and it is pronounced as in the English 
 word row. 
 
 It is sounded like in air in the following words : 
 driller, fier, mer, amer, belveder, cancer, enfer, ether, 
 hier, hiver, fer, ver, pater. The same observation 
 applies to foreign proper names ending in er. 
 
 It is heard also in the words in eur, as tailleur, 
 procureur, voleur, fournisseur, except in monsieur, 
 which is pronounced mo-sieu. 
 
 It is silent in the infinitives in er when they ter- 
 minate the sense of a sentence or a part of it, or 
 when the next word begins with a consonant, as 
 parler, frapper, commander. Les jeunes ge?is 
 aiment trop a parler ; Jaime mieux obeir que com- 
 mander. 
 
 R final before a vowel or h mute is generally 
 sounded, as parler a un ami, frapper un fripon, 
 finir un ouvrage, recevoir une lettre, &c. 
 
 When double, one only is pronounced, except, 
 first, in aberration, abhorrer, errer, erreur, terreur, 
 and their derivatives. 
 
 Secondly. In words beginning with irr, as irriter, 
 irreconciliable, &c. 
 
 Thirdly. In the future and conditional of the 
 verbs acquerir, courir, mourir, and their derivatives 
 f acquerrai, je mourrais, nous courrions, &c. 
 
 In words ending in ers, ert, erd, art, ard, arts, 
 ort, ord, ords, arts, r alone is sounded, as canard, 
 renard, marts, pervers, &c. 
 
 Observation. — R final is not sounded in the two 
 following sentences : 
 
 U est le premier a vous promettre, He is the first to promise, and the 
 ct le dernier a vous tenir parole. last to keep his word 
 
 C 
 
26 
 
 FRENCH SOUNDS 
 
 Cestun homme leger et inconstant, He is a light versatile character, 
 entier en tout ce quHl veut, et sin- positive in all he undertakes, 
 gulier en tout ce quilfait. and singular in all he does. 
 
 This last observation is useful, in order to dis- 
 tinguish when the above adjectives are related to 
 feminine substantives. 
 
 fhard, as in the English word 
 
 J soft, like z as in #one, or s in 
 
 iS has two sounds^ ^ lst ?. 1 ! ' 
 )ft, lik< 
 
 rose, please. 
 
 Observation. — Shas the hard or hissing sound at 
 the beginning of words, and the soft in the middle, 
 between two vowels. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF BOTH SOUNDS. 
 
 saison sottise Suse 
 
 saisir seduisant Syracuse 
 
 S at the beginning of words, has generally its 
 natural sound as in English. 
 
 S before ch is silent in schall, Schaffliouse^ Schel- 
 ling, schiste, schisme, schismatique, scherif, (an 
 Arabic title). 
 
 Sh in s fieri f, a sheriff, is sounded as in English. 
 
 When s is followed by ce, cz, cy, the sound of only 
 one of these consonants is heard, as in scdne, science, 
 Scythie, &c, except in 
 
 convales-cence 
 efferves-cence 
 efflores-cence 
 adoles-cence 
 
 incandes-cence 
 reminis-cence 
 resipis-cence 
 mis-cible 
 
 sus-ception 
 sus-citer 
 
 and a few others, where sc are distinctly pronounced. 
 In all other combinations, sc has the sound of sk, as 
 scapulaire, scolie, scribe, esclave, scrupule, &c. 
 
 $ preserves the hissing sound in the middle of 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 
 
 27 
 
 words, where preceded or followed by a consonant, 
 as in 
 
 transe 
 
 convulsion 
 
 statistique 
 
 transit 
 
 valse 
 
 &c, &c. 
 
 Transylvanie 
 
 espace 
 
 
 hut it takes the soft sound of z in 
 
 Alsace 
 Asdrubal 
 balsamine 
 Israel 
 
 Esdras 
 Thiste 
 
 presbitere 
 transaction 
 
 transiger 
 
 transitoire 
 
 intransitif 
 
 and some few others. 
 
 As it has been already stated, 5 between two 
 vowels sounds like 0, as in maison, poison, rose, 
 /raise, amuser, Sec, except, however, in compound 
 words, where it keeps the hard sound of the initial 
 s, as in 
 
 desuetude 
 
 polysyllabe 
 
 priseance 
 
 entresol 
 
 parasol 
 
 presupposer 
 
 monosyllabe 
 
 tournesol 
 
 vraisemblable 
 
 and some derivatives. 
 For st final, see p. 30. 
 Final s is always heard in the following words : 
 
 aloes 
 
 sinus 
 
 tournevis 
 
 as 
 
 bis 
 
 dervis 
 
 bibus 
 
 jadis 
 
 laps 
 
 virus 
 
 iris 
 
 Mars 
 
 atlas 
 
 gratis 
 
 Rheims 
 
 argus 
 
 lapis 
 
 Rubens 
 
 hlocus 
 
 le lis 
 
 Gil- Bias 
 
 agnus 
 
 mats 
 
 Reguius 
 
 foetus 
 
 metis 
 
 Protesilas 
 
 calus 
 
 vis 
 
 Las- Casas 
 
 but generally speaking, final s is silent when the 
 next word begins with a consonant, as mi moms 
 
28 FRENCH SOUNDS 
 
 vous ne pouvez pas dire que je vous repete toujour* 
 
 les memes c/wses. 
 
 If before a vowel or h mute, final s is sounded 
 like z, as dans mes propres interits, pronounced 
 mes propre zinterets. 
 
 Observation. — Final s is mute mfleur de lis, and 
 in the word Christ, when preceded by that of Jesus, 
 pronounced Jesu-Chri, but it is sounded when 
 Christ is used alone, as le Christ, except in its com- 
 pound Ante-christ, where it is pronounced Ante-kri. 
 
 When s is double, the hissing sound seems a 
 little harder. 
 
 T'has two sounds, the natural as in English, and 
 the accidental, which sounds as c in civil. 
 
 Tat the beginning of a word, always preserves 
 its proper sound, even when it is followed by two 
 vowels, as Hare, tiedeur ; also in the middle, when- 
 ever followed by any other vowel than i, and in the 
 following combinations, in sti, xti, thi, as question, 
 mixtion, Mathias ; but in ti, its sound is sometimes 
 proper, sometimes accidental. 
 
 It assumes the accidental sound : first, in adjec- 
 tives ending in tial and tieux, as abbatial, captieux. 
 Secondly. In those ending in tient, and their deri- 
 vatives, as patient, patience, &c. Thirdly. In the 
 words ending in atie, ttie, aptie, otie, and utie, as 
 jjrimatie, prophetie, ineptie, Btotie, minutie, &e. 
 Fourthly. In the verbs initier and halbutier, and 
 their inflexions. Fifthly. In the names of nations 
 or persons ending in tien, as Venitien, Diocletien, 
 &c. Sixthly. In the nouns ending in tion, and their 
 derivatives, as ambition 
 
 In other words, t preserves its proper sound in 
 ti, as galimatias, chdtier, le tien, Chretien. 
 
 In sept and huit, it is sounded when they are used 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 
 
 29 
 
 by themselves, or when followed by a vowel, or 
 h mute, but never before a consonant, or h aspi- 
 rated, as sept houppelandes, huit chemises, pronounced 
 ce-houpeland, ui-chemiz*. 
 
 In vingt, it is sounded through the whole series, 
 from twenty to thirty, and before a vowel or h mute, 
 as vingt abricots, vingt homines. 
 
 In words ending in ect, as in co7*rect and direct, 
 (see p. 16 at the word observations.) 
 
 In all other words, it is sounded when followed 
 by a vowel with which it unites by euphony, as je 
 sziis tout a vous ; cest un petit homme, pronounced 
 tou-ta vou, peti-tom. — (Acad.) 
 
 When double, we pronounce but one, except in 
 atticisrne, attique, battologie, guttural, pittoresque. 
 
 Observe that ti has generally the sound of cion 
 in words ending- in tion when derived from the 
 Greek or Latin languages. The same observation 
 may apply to words ending in tie, as in democratic, 
 inertie, ineptie, &c, pronounced democracie, inercie, 
 and inepcie. 
 
 Th in French is sounded like a single t, as in theo- 
 logie, theatre, the, pronounced teologie, teatre, te. 
 
 T final is always sounded in 
 
 fat 
 
 tacet 
 
 transit 
 
 mat 
 
 Thibet 
 
 dot 
 
 pat 
 
 aconit 
 
 Astaroth 
 
 opiat 
 
 le zenith 
 
 azimut 
 
 exeat 
 
 deficit 
 
 hrut 
 
 transeat 
 
 granit 
 
 chut 
 
 vivat 
 
 introit 
 
 luth 
 
 Goliath 
 
 preterit 
 
 occiput 
 
 Both p and t are sounded in apt, rapt ; likewise 
 both s and t are articulated in 
 
 * Final t is also sounded in sept or huit when taken substantively, as le sept de 
 cjeur, le huit de carreau (at cards). — Acad. 
 
30 FRENCH SOUNDS 
 
 Le Christ 
 
 Vest 
 
 Vouest 
 
 le lest d'un vaisseau 
 
 Brest 
 
 pest 
 ioast 
 
 entre le zist et le zest (a prover- 
 bial expression.) 
 
 In words ending in art, est, ort, ourt, the t final 
 is generally silent, as well as in the conjunction et, 
 which is never sounded*. 
 
 V. This letter always preserves its proper sound, 
 and is never double. 
 
 Pronounce and write vide, vider, vidanger, instead 
 of vuide, vuider, vuidanger. 
 
 X has no proper sound. 
 
 1. Accidental sound, cs as x in axiom. 
 
 2. Accidental sound, gz, as gs in eggs. 
 
 3. Accidental sound, ss, as 5 in bliss, mossy. 
 
 4. Accidental sound, c, as xc in excellent. 
 
 5. Accidental sound, z, as z in zone. 
 
 1st sound, axe, sexe, axiome, luxe, Alexandre. 
 
 2nd sound, examen, exemple, exile, exode, ex- 
 torter, exhumer, exarque, Xenophon, Xavier. &c. 
 
 3rd sound, soixante, Uruxelles, Auxone, Auxerre. 
 
 4th sound, excellent, excellence, exceller, &c. 
 
 5th sound, deuxieme, sixihne, dixihne, dix-huit, 
 six abricots, &c. 
 
 At the end of words, x is pronounced cs in Styx, 
 phenix, index, borax, storax, onix, prefix, Pollux, 
 and other proper names. 
 
 In other words, it is not pronounced before a 
 consonant; but before a vowel or h mute, it sounds 
 z, as heureux enfant ; beaux a tongues annees, leases 
 for many years. 
 
 * This last observation on the final t applies also to the words alphabet, debet, 
 placet, and quolibet, pronounced alphabe, debe, place, kolibe ; amict is pro- 
 nounced amit, dropping the e. 
 
 The letter s in est, third person indicative present of etre, to be, is never sounded. 
 The same remark holds good for nt at the end of the third person plural of the 
 verbs, which are equally silent if not followed by a vowel or h mute, as ilscraig- 
 nent, Us veulent, Us obtiennent, pronounced craigne, veule, obtienne. 
 
FROM CONSONANTS WITH VOWELS. 
 
 31 
 
 Luxeuil, the name of a town, is pronounced 
 Lukceu. 
 
 X takes the sound of sh only in Don Quixote, 
 pronounced Don Kishot. 
 
 Of the Y 
 
 This letter when alone, as il y a, or at the begin- 
 ning of words, as yeux, yatagan, and between two 
 consonants, as acolyte, mystere, syntaxe, &c, is 
 pronounced as simple i ; but between two vowels or 
 preceded by one only, y has the sound of double ii, 
 as essay er, ab b ay e, p ay er, employer, pays, pronounced 
 pai-ier, pai-i, &c. When y is preceded by a, o, u 9 
 it gives to them the diphthong-sound of ai, oi, ui, 
 and in this case, the vowel following the y is to be 
 pronounced like one of the diphthongs ia, ie, Sec, 
 for which reason some modern grammarians have 
 been induced to place the letter y among the diph- 
 thongs : (see p. 14.) — (M. JBoissonade.) 
 
 Remark. Y is used in words before one p only, 
 as hypotliese, hyperbole, hypotheque, &c, but never 
 before double^. 
 
 Z. Proper sound ze, as z in zone, or as 5 in 
 rose. 
 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 Za-'im 
 
 Turkish soldier 
 
 zone 
 
 zone 
 
 ze-bre 
 
 zebra 
 
 
 ze-la-teur 
 
 zealot 
 
 z£le 
 
 zeal 
 
 
 zi-be-li-ne 
 
 sable 
 
 zenith 
 
 zenith 
 
 
 zi-za-ni-e 
 
 dissension 
 
 zephyr 
 
 zephyr 
 
 
 zo-di-a-que 
 
 zodiac 
 
 zero 
 
 nought 
 
 
 zo'i-le 
 
 zoilus 
 
 zig-zag 
 
 zig-zag 
 
 
 zo-o-lo-gi-e 
 
 zoology 
 
 Final z sounds in Metz and Rhodez. It is not 
 
32 FRENCH SOUNDS. 
 
 pronounced in the second person plural of verbs, 
 when followed by a consonant. 
 
 We never double this letter, except in a few words 
 taken from the Italian. 
 
 %* We close our remarks on the French pronun- 
 ciation by reminding the learner not to neglect 
 the practice of the proper sound of the letters g, 
 r, if, and even that of a and h silent, which sound 
 is frequently confused by young beginners, with 
 that of r and h aspirated. 
 
OF FRENCH MONOSYLLABLES. 
 
 33 
 
 OF THE SYLLABLES. 
 
 A syllable is a sound either simple or compound, 
 articulated at once, by a single impulse of the voice, 
 as lot, foi, moi. 
 
 READING EXERCISES. 
 
 MONOSYLLABLES, OR WORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE. 
 
 In the following table, italic letters at the end of words are not 
 sounded, except before a vowel or h mute. 
 
 A. 
 
 bloc (biok) 
 
 coeur 
 
 dans 
 
 F. 
 
 
 blanc 
 
 cor 
 
 de 
 
 
 Aout, pron. 
 
 bu 
 
 cerf 
 
 des (de) 
 
 fa 
 
 ou 
 
 but 
 
 cid 
 
 du 
 
 faim (fain) 
 
 a 
 
 
 cul 
 
 du 
 
 fare? 
 
 au 
 
 
 cour 
 
 dos 
 
 faux 
 
 au.r 
 
 C. 
 
 court 
 
 doux 
 
 fer 
 
 arc (ark) 
 
 
 creuo: 
 
 deux 
 
 feu 
 
 art 
 
 cap (kap) 
 
 ces (ce) 
 
 dru 
 
 fi 
 
 an (nas.) 
 
 ca 
 
 cri 
 
 dix (dice) 
 
 fin (nas.) 
 
 cxS 
 
 cil 
 
 coq 
 
 doigt (doi) 
 
 fleur 
 
 air 
 
 car 
 
 crin 
 
 don 
 
 fois 
 
 ail(Zliq.) 
 
 cal 
 
 cru 
 
 done 
 
 flanc 
 
 ais (e) 
 
 camp (kan) 
 
 cing 
 
 dont 
 
 fils (fi, and 
 
 arrhes pron. 
 
 ce 
 
 cuit 
 
 dot 
 
 fis before 
 
 ar 
 
 choi.r 
 
 cein£ 
 
 due 
 
 a vowel) 
 
 
 cas (ka) 
 
 croc 
 
 dur 
 
 fri* 
 
 B. 
 
 char 
 
 cran 
 
 dom 
 
 fil 
 
 
 clef (cle) 
 
 choc 
 
 dol 
 
 fort 
 
 bas 
 
 choir 
 
 club 
 
 dey 
 
 fonc? 
 
 bac (c 
 
 clos (klo) 
 
 chut r 
 
 deuil (/liq.) 
 
 fron£ 
 
 sound k) 
 
 clair 
 
 cep (ce) 
 
 den* 
 
 flu# 
 
 bai (be) 
 
 chef 
 
 cent 
 
 
 foe 
 
 bal 
 
 clerc (kler) 
 
 
 
 foi 
 
 boeuf 
 
 chsait 
 
 
 E. 
 
 foin (nas ) 
 
 blone? 
 
 champ 
 
 D. 
 
 
 for 
 
 bee (bek) 
 
 coin (nas.) 
 
 
 en 
 
 fou 
 
 brin (nas.) 
 
 cou 
 
 da 
 
 eau 
 
 four 
 
 bois 
 
 coup 
 
 dam (dan) 
 
 erse 
 
 frais 
 
 bon (nas.) 
 
 chou 
 
 dare? 
 
 est (east) 
 
 franc 
 
 bone? 
 
 cha£ 
 
 daim (dain) 
 
 eux 
 
 frein (nas. ) 
 
 bout 
 
 clou 
 
 dais (de) 
 
 
 fre* 
 
34 
 
 OF FRENCH MONOSYLLABLES. 
 
 froe 
 
 "he! 
 
 L. 
 
 mont 
 
 nef 
 
 froid 
 
 /'hem ! 
 
 
 mou 
 
 net (ne ) 
 
 fur 
 
 heur (eur) 
 
 le 
 
 mais 
 
 noeud 
 
 m 
 
 "hetre 
 
 la 
 
 mai 
 
 noir 
 
 fonts (fon) 
 
 "heu ! 
 
 les (le) 
 
 mort 
 
 
 
 /7 haim (hin) 
 
 lis 
 
 mors 
 
 0. 
 
 G 
 
 heurt 
 
 lit 
 
 mis 
 
 
 hard sound, 
 
 /'hie 
 
 lu 
 
 mail (I liq v 
 
 ceil ( liq.) 
 
 seep. 19. 
 
 ho ! (6) 
 
 las 
 
 main* 
 
 ceuf 
 
 
 "hoc 
 
 long 
 
 mal 
 
 OS 
 
 gai (ghe) 
 
 /7 haire 
 
 lait 
 
 manr 
 
 oing 
 
 gan£ 
 
 "hon 
 
 laic? 
 
 malt 
 
 o'mt 
 
 grand 
 
 7/ hors 
 
 lourd 
 
 mil 
 
 on (nas.) 
 
 gland 
 
 "hoiio? 
 
 lard 
 
 marc (mar) 
 
 ou 
 
 Gaud 
 
 ;/ haine 
 
 len* 
 
 Mars 
 
 once 
 
 gui 
 
 "haie (he) 
 
 le 
 
 me 
 
 or 
 
 gras 
 
 
 leur 
 
 mer 
 
 ort 
 
 gros 
 
 I. 
 
 leu 
 
 moeurs 
 
 ouf! 
 
 gens (jan) 
 
 if 
 
 lui 
 
 moi 
 
 ours 
 
 gris 
 
 il 
 
 loup 
 
 mois 
 
 
 gout 
 
 ils (s mute) 
 
 lac 
 
 mol 
 
 P. 
 
 glu 
 
 
 laps 
 
 mot 
 
 
 gain 
 
 J. 
 
 legs (le) 
 
 moiU 
 
 poule 
 
 gaz 
 
 joug 
 
 lest 
 
 mu 
 
 poil 
 
 geai (je) 
 
 (joughe) 
 
 loi 
 
 mur 
 
 pou/s 
 
 glas 
 
 jus (s mute) 
 
 lai (le) 
 
 mur 
 
 pou 
 
 go 
 
 jour 
 
 lynx 
 
 
 pon£ 
 
 gourd 
 
 jonc (c 
 
 loch (lok) 
 
 
 poids 
 
 gramme 
 
 mute) 
 
 lors (lor) 
 
 N. 
 
 pois 
 
 gre 
 
 je 
 
 lof 
 
 
 poLr 
 
 gres 
 
 jais (s 
 
 loin (nas.) 
 
 non 
 
 pin (nas.) 
 
 griZ 
 
 mute) 
 
 loir 
 
 ne 
 
 pain (nas.) 
 
 grog 
 
 jean 
 
 lot (16) 
 
 ni 
 
 pore 
 
 guet (ghe) 
 
 jars (s 
 
 lut 
 
 nid 
 
 pour 
 
 gue 
 
 mute) 
 
 luth (hit) 
 
 noir 
 
 pis 
 
 gueux 
 
 jas 
 
 lord (lor) 
 
 nous 
 
 pic 
 
 (gheu) 
 
 jet (je) 
 
 
 nos 
 
 pie (pi) 
 
 
 jeu# (sing. 
 
 M. 
 
 ne 
 
 peur 
 
 H. 
 
 jeu) 
 
 
 nez (ne) 
 
 plai 
 
 
 join£ 
 
 ma> 
 
 neuf 
 
 plan (nas.) 
 
 '/Ham 
 
 juin (nas. ) 
 
 mon 
 
 nerf 
 
 plan£ 
 
 •''ha ! 
 
 
 mes (me) 
 
 nom (non) 
 
 plis 
 
 ;/ han 
 
 K. 
 
 mi 
 
 nu 
 
 pleurs 
 
 'hart 
 
 
 mat 
 
 mil 
 
 plomb(plon 
 
 hast (ast) 
 
 Kan (nas.) 
 
 mat 
 
 nain (nas. ) 
 
 nas.) 
 
 "haut (ho) 
 
 Koff 
 
 main (nas.) 
 
 nard 
 
 plo£ 
 
OF FRENCH MONOSYLLABLES. 
 
 35 
 
 pare 
 
 R. 
 
 sain* (nas.) 
 
 tare? 
 
 turc (turk) 
 
 par 
 
 
 seiner (nas.) 
 
 to* 
 
 
 part 
 
 rone? 
 
 se 
 
 trop 
 
 U. 
 
 pan (nas.) 
 
 ra* 
 
 serf 
 
 tro* 
 
 
 pre 
 
 I'O* 
 
 sel 
 
 tor* 
 
 un (nas.) 
 
 pres 
 
 ro* 
 
 sec 
 
 troc 
 
 ut 
 
 pre* 
 
 ris 
 
 si 
 
 tu 
 
 us 
 
 jinx 
 
 viz 
 
 so* 
 
 trou 
 
 
 pris 
 
 mux 
 
 sous 
 
 tronc 
 
 V. 
 
 part 
 
 T'&S 
 
 sou/ 
 
 tir 
 
 
 peu 
 
 rais (re) 
 
 sort 
 
 tem/?s(nas.) 
 
 ven* (nas.) 
 
 pair 
 
 rang (nas.) 
 
 sue 
 
 tac 
 
 vous 
 
 pai# 
 
 re 
 
 sangr (nas.) 
 
 tain (nas.) 
 
 vers 
 
 pal 
 
 re 
 
 sauf 
 
 talc 
 
 ver 
 
 pas 
 
 reins (rin) 
 
 soc 
 
 tan (nas.) 
 
 vert 
 
 pat 
 
 Rhin 
 
 sau* 
 
 tan* (nas.) 
 
 vin (nas.) 
 
 peau 
 
 Rheims 
 
 s a ure 
 
 tau 
 
 van (nas.) 
 
 pec 
 
 ric 
 
 sceau (so) 
 
 tau:r 
 
 v'mgt 
 
 pers 
 
 rit 
 
 seel 
 
 te 
 
 vil 
 
 pet (pe) 
 
 rob 
 
 seau 
 
 the (te) 
 
 vif 
 
 pied (pie) 
 
 roc 
 
 seps 
 
 tein* (nas.) 
 
 vos 
 
 ploc 
 
 roi 
 
 sept (set) 
 
 tel 
 
 veau 
 
 plus 
 
 ru 
 
 seuil(/liq.) 
 
 test ou tet 
 
 vol 
 
 poin* (nas.) 
 
 ru* 
 
 seul 
 
 thon(ton) 
 
 va 
 
 poin$f(nas.) 
 
 rura 
 
 sil 
 
 thym (tin) 
 
 vain (nas.) 
 
 po. 
 
 rumb 
 
 sis 
 
 tic- 
 
 vague 
 
 preu# 
 
 
 six (ci) 
 
 tiers 
 
 (vaghe) 
 
 prompt 
 
 S. 
 
 soeur 
 
 tin 
 
 val 
 
 (nas.) 
 
 
 soif 
 
 toif 
 
 veuf 
 
 pur 
 
 son (nas.) 
 
 soin (nas.) 
 
 toi 
 
 vis 
 
 pus 
 
 sa 
 
 sol 
 
 tors 
 
 vceu 
 
 
 ses (se) 
 
 su 
 
 tour 
 
 voir 
 
 Q. 
 
 sourc? 
 
 sou 
 
 toux 
 
 voi# 
 
 
 sur 
 
 soir 
 
 trace 
 
 vrai 
 
 quane? 
 
 sur 
 
 
 train (nas.) 
 
 vu 
 
 quai (ke) 
 
 sans 
 
 T. 
 
 trai* 
 
 
 quart (kar) 
 
 sens 
 
 
 tres 
 
 Z. 
 
 que (ke) 
 
 soi 
 
 toui 
 
 treuil(Zliq.) 
 
 
 qui (ki) 
 
 soi* 
 
 ton (nas.) 
 
 tripe 
 
 zain (nas. x 
 
 quel (kel) 
 
 sac 
 
 ta 
 
 trois 
 
 zest 
 
 queue (keu) 
 
 sain (nas.) 
 
 tes (te) 
 
 trique(trik) 
 
 zinc 
 
 quoi (koa) 
 
 sein (nas.) 
 
 te 
 
 tuf 
 
 zisc 
 
36 
 
 FRENCH READING OF MONOSYLLABLES. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING MONOSYLLABLES GIVE TWO SOUNDS IN ONE 
 SYLLABLE. 
 
 del • 
 
 groin (nas.) 
 
 serre 
 
 rapt 
 
 ricn (nas.) 
 
 cieux 
 
 muid 
 
 ebbe 
 
 quartz 
 
 pieu 
 
 nuit 
 
 muse 
 
 ere 
 
 (kouartz) 
 
 mieux 
 
 liuit 
 
 seoir 
 
 sien (nas.) 
 
 tact 
 
 and a few 
 
 JDieu 
 
 vieil (1 liq.) 
 
 mien (nas.) 
 
 lieu 
 
 others. 
 
 yeux 
 
 vieux 
 
 lien (nas) 
 
 lieue 
 
 
 FIRST READING LESSON, 
 
 Where all the letters which must not be pronounced are distinguished 
 by italics. 
 
 1. Dieu est si bon, qu'il me fau 4 
 tous les jours du bien. 
 
 2. De lui je tiens tout, et sans 
 lui je ne puis rien : II sai£ tout 
 ce que je fais, et tou£ ce que je 
 dis. 
 
 3. Son ceil voi* le fond de mon 
 eceur. 
 
 4. II hait (he) le mal, et se plait 
 au bien. 
 
 5. Pres de lui, les rois sont moins 
 que rien, tant il est grand. 
 
 6. Je ne vis que par lui : je lui 
 dois ce que j 'ai de plus cher. 
 
 7. Ses (se) mains out fai£ tout ce 
 que je vois de mes yeu.r, et tout 
 ce qu'il y a de bon, de beau, et 
 de grand ici bas ; les cieu.r, Fair, 
 la mer et la terre sont ses 
 oeuvres. 
 
 8. En un mof, tout est plein de 
 son sain£ nom ; il n'esf poin£ 
 de lieu ou il ne soi£ present 
 
 God is so bountiful, that he does 
 
 me good every day. 
 I have every thing from him ; he 
 
 knows all that I do and all that 
 
 I say. 
 
 His eye penetrates into the bot- 
 tom of my heart. 
 
 He hates evil and is pleased with 
 good. 
 
 Compared to him, kings are less 
 than nothing, so much is he 
 above them. 
 
 I live but through him ; I owe 
 him all that I possess. 
 
 All that I see are the works of 
 his hands, and whatever be 
 good, fine, and grand here be- 
 low ; the heavens, the air, the 
 sea, and the earth, are also his 
 works. 
 
 In a word, every thing is filled 
 with his holy name ; there is 
 no place where he is not 
 present. 
 
OF FRENCH DISSYLLABLES. 
 
 37 
 
 ON DISSYLLABLES, 
 
 OR WORDS OF TWO SYLLABLES. 
 
 Hie following 
 
 words the gender of which is not marked with the letter h 
 
 
 are all masculine. 
 
 
 A-bus 
 
 abuse t 
 
 cer-cle 
 
 circle 
 
 a-chat 
 
 purchase 
 
 ci-seau 
 
 chisel 
 
 ac-teur 
 
 actor 
 
 ci-seaux 
 
 scissors 
 
 d-ge 
 
 age 
 
 cle-ment 
 
 clement 
 
 d-me f. 
 
 soul 
 
 cli-mat 
 
 climate 
 
 an-neau 
 
 ring 
 
 cloi-son f. 
 
 partition 
 
 ar-deur f. 
 
 ardour 
 
 co-hue f. 
 
 throng 
 
 ar-gent 
 
 money 
 
 com-mun 
 
 common 
 
 as-tre 
 
 star 
 
 com-pas 
 
 compasses 
 
 aa-cun 
 
 none 
 
 com-te 
 
 earl 
 
 a-veu 
 
 confession 
 
 con-ge 
 
 holiday 
 
 a-vis 
 
 advice 
 
 con-te 
 
 tale 
 
 au-tre 
 
 other 
 
 co-quin 
 
 rogue 
 
 bal-con 
 
 balcony 
 
 cor-deau 
 
 line 
 
 ban-que f. 
 
 bank 
 
 co-te 
 
 side 
 
 bar -que f. 
 
 a bark 
 
 cou-ple 
 
 couple 
 
 ba-teau 
 
 boat 
 
 cou-reur 
 
 runner 
 
 bd-ton 
 
 stick 
 
 cous-sin 
 
 cushion 
 
 beau-tef. 
 
 beauty 
 
 cou-vent 
 
 convent 
 
 be-gue 
 
 stammerer 
 
 cre^-me f. 
 
 cream 
 
 be-te f. 
 
 beast 
 
 cri-me 
 
 crime 
 
 beur-re 
 
 butter 
 
 crot-te f. 
 
 dirt 
 
 bi-ble f. 
 
 bible 
 
 crou-te f. 
 
 crust 
 
 bld-me 
 
 blame 
 
 da-me f. 
 
 lady 
 
 bon-heur 
 
 happiness 
 
 dan-seur 
 
 dancer 
 
 bon-te f. 
 
 goodness 
 
 de-bit 
 
 sale 
 
 bos-quet 
 
 grove 
 
 de-but 
 
 first appearance 
 
 bou-quet 
 
 nosegay 
 
 de-mie f. 
 
 half 
 
 bour-geon 
 
 bud 
 
 de-pot 
 
 deposit 
 
 bour-ru 
 
 surly 
 
 desert 
 
 wilderness 
 
 brasseur 
 
 brewer 
 
 dessert 
 
 dessert 
 
 bri-gand 
 
 robber 
 
 dis-cours 
 
 speech 
 
 brus-que 
 
 abrupt 
 
 dou-leur f. 
 
 pain 
 
 bru-te f. 
 
 brute 
 
 e-cu 
 
 crown 
 
 buf-fet 
 
 cupboard 
 
 en-clume f. 
 
 anvil 
 
 bu-reau 
 
 office 
 
 en-fant 
 
 child 
 
 bus-te 
 
 bust 
 
 e-poux 
 
 spouse 
 
 ca-deau 
 
 present 
 
 es-poir 
 
 hope 
 
 ca-fe 
 
 coffee 
 
 e-tain 
 
 pewter 
 
 ca-hot 
 
 jolt 
 
 e-cran 
 
 screen 
 
 ca-non 
 
 cannon 
 
 ex-ces 
 
 excess 
 
 ca-ve f. 
 
 cellar 
 
 fes-tin 
 
 feast 
 
 cause f. 
 
 cause 
 
 fe-te f. 
 
 festival 
 
38 
 
 OF FRENCH DISSYLLABLES. 
 
 fi-lou 
 
 pickpocket 
 
 lo-gis 
 
 dwelling 
 
 fla-con 
 
 decanter 
 
 lon-gueur f. 
 
 length 
 
 flam-beau 
 
 flambeau 
 
 mar-bre 
 
 marble 
 
 fld-te f. 
 
 flute 
 
 mar-chand 
 
 tradesman 
 
 fo-ret f. 
 
 forest 
 
 ma-ri 
 
 husband 
 
 fou-dre f . & m 
 
 . thunderbolt 
 
 me-re f. 
 
 mother 
 
 four-mi f. 
 
 ant 
 
 meu-ble 
 
 furniture 
 
 fri-pon 
 
 knave 
 
 mon-de 
 
 world 
 
 fu-reur f. 
 
 fury 
 
 mons-tre 
 
 monster 
 
 gaie-te f. 
 
 cheerfulness 
 
 mou-le 
 
 mould 
 
 gar-con 
 
 boy 
 
 mou-lin 
 
 mill 
 
 gd-teau 
 
 cake 
 
 ni-gaud 
 
 silly fellow 
 
 ga-zon 
 
 turf 
 
 nou-veau (adj.) new 
 
 gen-dre 
 
 son-in-law 
 
 ceu-vre 
 
 work 
 
 gen-re 
 
 gender 
 
 on-guent (on 
 
 " >ointnent 
 
 gi-got (jig$) 
 
 leg of mutton 
 
 gan) 
 
 gla-con 
 
 piece of ice 
 
 or-dre 
 
 order 
 
 gou-te 
 
 luncheon 
 
 ou-bli 
 
 oblivion 
 
 gout-te f. 
 
 drop 
 
 pa-rent 
 
 relation 
 
 grd-ce f. 
 
 favour 
 
 par -rain 
 
 godfather 
 
 gron-deur 
 
 grumbler 
 
 pd-te f. 
 
 dough 
 
 gru-au 
 
 oatmeal 
 
 pd-te 
 
 pie 
 
 gue-re (adv.) 
 
 little 
 
 pat-te f. 
 
 paw 
 
 guer-re f. 
 
 war 
 
 pe-che f. 
 
 fishing, peach 
 
 gueu-le f. 
 
 mouth of a beast 
 
 pe-che 
 
 sin 
 
 gui-de 
 
 guide 
 
 pe-cheur 
 
 fisherman 
 
 'hai-ne f. 
 
 hatred 
 
 pe-cheur 
 
 sinner 
 
 'hd-le 
 
 sunburning 
 
 pei-ne f. 
 
 trouble 
 
 'hal-le f. 
 
 market-hall 
 
 pein-tre 
 
 painter 
 
 'har-pe f. 
 
 harp 
 
 p£-re 
 
 father 
 
 r A«-fe f. 
 
 haste 
 
 peu-ple 
 
 people 
 
 'hau-teur f. 
 
 height 
 
 peu-reux 
 
 fearful 
 
 'ha-sard 
 
 chance 
 
 pin-te f. 
 
 pint 
 
 'he-tre 
 
 beech 
 
 plu-me f. 
 
 feather 
 
 hom-me 
 
 man 
 
 por-trait 
 
 picture 
 
 hon-neur 
 
 honour 
 
 pour-pre f. 
 
 purple 
 
 'hon-te f. 
 
 shame 
 
 prin-ce 
 
 prince 
 
 hor-reur f. 
 
 horror 
 
 pru-neau 
 
 prune 
 
 /zd-fe 
 
 landlord 
 
 ra-gout 
 
 ragout 
 
 ku-main 
 
 human 
 
 re-gle f , 
 
 rule 
 
 im-pie 
 
 impious 
 
 re-gne 
 
 reign 
 
 ju-ge 
 
 judge 
 
 rei-ne f. 
 
 queen 
 
 jour-nee f. 
 
 day 
 
 ren-te f. 
 
 annuity 
 
 lai-teux (adj.) 
 
 milky 
 
 re-ve 
 
 dream 
 
 la-quais 
 
 footman 
 
 ri-re 
 
 laughing 
 
 lar-cin 
 
 theft 
 
 rou-te f. 
 
 road 
 
 lar-geur f. 
 
 breadth 
 
 ruse f. 
 
 trick 
 
 li-queur f. 
 
 liquor 
 
 sa-bre 
 
 sabre 
 
FRENCH READING OF DISSYLLABLE 
 
 sa-lut 
 
 salute 
 
 ta-che L 
 
 spot 
 
 sou-ris f". 
 
 mouse 
 
 td-che f. 
 
 task 
 
 sa-tin 
 
 satin 
 
 tam-bour 
 
 drum 
 
 sau-ce f. 
 
 sauce 
 
 tom-beau 
 
 grave 
 
 sau-teur 
 
 tumbler 
 
 to-me 
 
 volume 
 
 se-jour 
 
 residence 
 
 tou-pie f. 
 
 top 
 
 si-gnal 
 
 signal 
 
 tour-neur 
 
 turner 
 
 si-gne 
 
 sign 
 
 trai-neau 
 
 sledge 
 
 som-bre (adj.) 
 
 dark 
 
 tro-ne 
 
 throne 
 
 sou-hait 
 
 wish 
 
 trou-peau 
 
 flock 
 
 sou-pe f. 
 
 soup 
 
 veu-ve f. 
 
 widow 
 
 sou-ris 
 
 smile 
 
 vi-gne f. 
 
 vine 
 
 su-cre 
 
 sugar 
 
 ze-le 
 
 zeal 
 
 sus-pect (adj.) 
 
 suspicious 
 
 ze-le (adj.) 
 
 zealous. 
 
 SECOND READING LESSON. 
 
 1. L'a-bus de l'ar-gen^ nous est 
 souven* fa-tal. 
 
 2. L'homme ne sau-rak trou- 
 ver un bon-heur par-fak sur la 
 terre. 
 
 3. Mal-heur a ce-lui qui faitf tort 
 a son pro-chain. 
 
 4. Les en-fans qui n'ai-me?i£ pas 
 leurs pa-rens, se-ron* mau-dite 
 de Dieu. 
 
 5. Pourquoi penser plutot a notre 
 corps qu'a notre ame, qui ne 
 doi^ jamais perir. 
 
 6. La vie n'est qu'un songe a la 
 fin duquel on trouve la mori. 
 
 7. Heureu# celui qui, etan£ seul, 
 agrt, comme s'il etait en public. 
 
 8. Sacher(che) mettre a profit ces 
 (ce) lecons de morale. 
 
 The ill-use of money is often fatal 
 
 to us. 
 Man could not find on earth a 
 
 perfect happiness. 
 
 Wo unto him who does wrong to 
 
 his neighbour. 
 Children who do not love their 
 
 parents shall be cursed by 
 
 God. 
 Why do we think sooner of our 
 
 body than of our soul, which 
 
 shall never perish. 
 Life is but a dream, at the end of 
 
 which death is to be met with. 
 Happy he, who when alone, be- 
 haves himself the same as if he 
 
 were in public. 
 Know how to profit by these 
 
 moral lessons. 
 
 WORDS OF THREE SYLLABLES. 
 
 A-ban-don 
 
 fa-bu-leux 
 
 bel-li-queux 
 
 ga-geu-re 
 
 cri-ti-qner 
 
 ha-bil-ler 
 
 da-moi-seau 
 
 in-ves-tir 
 
 e-blou-ir 
 
 ioin-tu-re 
 
 li-brai-re 
 
 ra-mas-sant 
 
 me-moi-re 
 
 suc-cu-lent 
 
 ne-bu-leux 
 
 ne--an-moms 
 o-ra-geux 
 &c, &c. 
 
40 
 
 OF THREE AND FOUR SYLLABLES. 
 
 THIRD READING LESSON. 
 
 1. Que son* done devenus ces 
 peuples orgueilleur, inhumains, 
 et bar-ba-res?... . ils ne sont 
 plus, et ces temps fabuleux ou 
 Tauguste verite n'approchai* de 
 la cou-ron-ne qu'en rougissan^, 
 se sont a jamais ecoules dans 
 d'epaisses tenebres. 
 
 2. Cependant, aujourd'hui, au 
 siecle ou nous vivons, ou les 
 sciences et les arts ont, pour 
 ainsi dire, attein£ leur apogee, 
 voyons-nous dirainuer l'audace 
 du mensonge, et la verite plus 
 libre de se montrer a la cour 
 des grands et aux palais des 
 rois? 
 
 What has then become of those 
 proud, inhuman, and barbarous 
 people ? — They are no more, 
 and these fabulous times, when 
 divine truth was approaching 
 the crown but in blushing, have 
 disappeared forever into dark- 
 ness and oblivion. 
 
 However, at this present day, in 
 our time, where arts and sci- 
 ences have almost reached 
 their highest pitch, do we per- 
 ceive less boldness in falsehood, 
 and truth with more freedom 
 dare to show herself in the 
 court of the great and the pa- 
 laces of Kings ? 
 
 WORDS OF FOUR SYLLABLES. 
 
 Ac-ca-ble-ment 
 be-ni-gne-ment 
 cer-ti-tu-de 
 da-van-ta-ge 
 e- clip- ti- que 
 
 fa-bri-ca-teur 
 go-gue-nar-der 
 he-mis-phe-re 
 ig-no-ran-ce 
 la-men- ta-ble 
 
 mi-ra-cu-leux 
 
 ob-sce-ni-te 
 
 en-te-te-ment 
 
 do-mi-na-teur 
 
 do-mi-ni-cal 
 
 FOURTH READING LESSON. 
 
 1 . Ce tyran dominateur, se voyant 
 abandonne de i'elite de la so- 
 ciete, acquis, mais trop tard, la 
 certitude accablante de son ig- 
 norance condamnable et de ses 
 fautes monstreuses. 
 
 2. Son entetement ridicule, ses 
 obscenites degoutantes, depuis 
 long-temps retentissaie?i£ dans 
 les deux hemispheres. 
 
 That unmercifully ruling tyrant, 
 perceiving that he was aban- 
 doned by the select people of 
 society, felt, but too late, the 
 dreadful consequences both of 
 his culpable ignorance and his 
 monstrous vices. 
 
 His ridiculous extravagance, join- 
 ed to his disgusting obscenities, 
 had for a long while echoed in 
 both hemispheres. 
 
OF FIVE AND SIX SYLLABLES. 
 
 41 
 
 L Une position si lamentable ne 
 pouvaif pas toujours durer ; 
 tourmente par les remords 
 poignants d'une conscience 
 justement alarmee, ce nouveau 
 Sardanapale ne sachant plus 
 quel parti prendre, s'enferme 
 dans son serail avec toutes ses 
 femmes, auxquelles il commu- 
 nique, en tremblanf, le sort 
 fatal qui lui est reserve. 
 
 Such a wretched state of things 
 had lasted but too long ; a prey 
 to the poignant remorse of a 
 justly alarmed conscience, this 
 new Sardanapalus, knowing 
 not which way to turn, went 
 and shut himself up in his se- 
 raglio with all his wives, whom 
 he apprised tremblingly with 
 the fate which was awaiting 
 him. 
 
 WORDS OF FIVE AND SIX SYLLABLES. 
 
 A-bre-vi-a-teur 
 ab-ju-ra-ti-on 
 a-ca-de-mi-que 
 blas-phe-ma-toi-re 
 
 A-ca-de-mi-ci-en 
 
 be-ne-fl-ci-aire 
 
 com-mu-ni-ca-ti-ve 
 
 des-in-te-res-se-ment 
 
 e-ga-li-sa-ti-on 
 
 fon-da-men-ta-le-ment 
 
 be-a-ti-fi-qiie 
 bes-ti-a-li-te 
 ca-te-chu-me-ne 
 con-sub-stan-ti-el 
 
 de-li-be-ra-tif 
 de-di-ea-toi-re 
 ec-cle-si-as-te 
 em-ble-ma-ti-que 
 
 gram-ma-ti-ea-le-ment 
 
 his-to-ri-o-gra-phe 
 
 in-ter-pre-ta-ti-on 
 
 la-bo-ri-eu-se-ment 
 
 me-tro-po-li-tai-ne 
 
 ne-go-ci-a-ti-on 
 
 FIFTH READING LESSOX. 
 
 I. Un auteur Francais qui mal- 
 heureusemen^ prostitua sa verve 
 et sa plume a des compositions 
 qui fon^rougir l'humanite, fit in- 
 scrire sur sa tombe les paroles 
 suivantes . " Ci-git P..., quine 
 fu^ jamais rien, pas meme aca- 
 demicien. 
 
 2 II etait neanmoins doue d'une 
 profonde erudition, et Voltaire 
 meme, son contemporain, ne 
 parlak pas plus grammaticale- 
 ment que lui. 
 
 A French author who unfortu- 
 nately polluted his pen and 
 poetical genius by writings dis- 
 graceful to mankind, ordered 
 the following inscription to be 
 engraved on his tomb ; " Here 
 lies P..., who was never any 
 thing, not even an academi- 
 cian." 
 
 He was, however, endowed with 
 a deep learning, and Voltaire 
 himself, his contemporary, did 
 not speak more grammatically 
 than he did. 
 
42 OF SEVEN, EIGHT, AND NINE SYLLABLES. 
 
 WORDS OF SEVEN, EIGHT, AND NINE 
 SYLLABLES. 
 
 Ar-ti-fi-ci-el-le-ment 
 be-a-ti-fi-ca-ti-on 
 con-sub-stan-ti-el-le-ment 
 des-a-van- ta- geu-se-ment 
 
 In-com-pre-hen-si-bi-li-te 
 ir-re-con-ci-li-a-ble-ment 
 mi-se-ri-cor-di-eu-se-ment 
 spi-ri- tu-a-li- sa- ti- on 
 de-na-tu-ra-li-sa-ti-on 
 
 in-di-vi-du-a-li-sa-ti-on 
 in-eons-ti-tu-ti-on-na-li-te 
 
 ex-com-mu-m-ca-ti-on 
 im-pe-ne-tra-bi-li-te 
 ir-re-con-ci-li-a-ble 
 per-pen-di-cu-lai-re-ment 
 
 ir-re-pre-hen-si-bi-li-te 
 a-ris-to-de-mo-cra-ti-que 
 con- sti-tu-ti-on-nel-le-ment 
 ex-tra-j u-di-ci-ai-re-ment 
 
 in-cons-ti-tu- ti-on-nel-le-ment 
 
 There are ten syllables in an-ti-cons-ti-tu-ti-on-nel-le-ment, the 
 longest word in the French language. 
 
 SIXTH READING LESSON. 
 
 1. Lepouvoir aristodemocratique 
 n'a de force qu'autantf qu'il agit 
 constitutionnellemen£ sur la 
 nation qu'il gouverne. 
 
 2. Les beatifications ainsi que les 
 excommunications foudroy- 
 antes de laCour de Rome, sont 
 bien moins frequentes actuelle- 
 ment qu'elles n'etaient autre- 
 fois, lorsque des haines irre- 
 conciliables eclaterent au sein 
 meme de l'Eglise du Christ, 
 et firent couler a grands riots, 
 le san^ de tous ceu# qui osaieiit 
 refuser de croire a l'incompre- 
 hensibilite des mysteres. 
 
 The aristodemocratic power is 
 effective only when constitu- 
 tionally used over the nation 
 which it governs. 
 
 Beatifications and thundering ex- 
 communications from the Ro- 
 mish Court, are not so frequent 
 now as they were formerly, 
 when irreconciliable hatred 
 burst even into the bosom of the 
 Church of Christ, and caused 
 floods of blood to be shed ; all 
 those who refused their belief 
 to the incomprehensibility of 
 mysteries, were its victims. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 43 
 
 A VOCABULARY, 
 
 FRENCH AND ENGLISH, 
 
 OF THE MOST USUAL WORDS COMMONLY SPOKEN IN FRENCH 
 CONVERSATION. 
 
 OF THE UNIVERSE IN GENERAL. 
 
 I. 
 
 Dieu m. 
 createur m. 
 Jesus- Christ m, 
 trinite, f. 
 saint- esprit m. 
 ange m. 
 ar change m. 
 prophete m. 
 Messie m. 
 sauveur m, 
 redempteur m. 
 Vierge Marie f. 
 apdtre m. 
 evangelisie m. 
 martyr m. 
 saz?2^ m. 
 paradis m. 
 cieZ m. 
 e/^/er m. 
 tfoz&fe m. 
 nature f. 
 univers m. 
 monde m. 
 element m. 
 
 God 
 
 creator 
 
 Jesus- Christ 
 
 trinity 
 
 Holy Ghost 
 
 angel 
 
 archangel 
 
 prophet 
 
 Messiah 
 
 saviour 
 
 redeemer 
 
 Virgin Mary 
 
 apostle 
 
 evangelist 
 
 martyr 
 
 saint 
 
 paradise 
 
 heaven 
 
 hell 
 
 devil 
 
 nature 
 
 universe 
 
 world 
 
 element 
 
 a terre f 
 
 II. 
 
 earth 
 water 
 
 lefeu m. 
 /'air m. 
 firmament m. 
 efot'^ f. 
 plancte f. 
 comete f. 
 constellation f. 
 so/ei7 m. 
 
 ra?/o?z efa soM m . 
 /«?ze f. 
 eclipse f. 
 ora^e m. 
 tonnerre m. 
 ec/air m. 
 brouillard m. 
 p/wie f. 
 arc-en- del m. 
 o?z<iee f. 
 we^e f. 
 greZe f. 
 #&zce f. 
 ce/ee f. 
 
 fire 
 
 air 
 
 sky 
 
 star 
 
 planet 
 
 comet 
 
 constellation 
 
 sun 
 
 sun-beam 
 
 moon 
 
 eclipse 
 
 storm 
 
 thunder 
 
 lightning 
 
 fog 
 
 rdin 
 
 rainbow 
 
 shower 
 
 snow 
 
 hail 
 
 ice 
 
 frost 
 
 III. 
 
 thaw 
 
 dew 
 
 creature 
 
 globe 
 
 sphere 
 
 degel m. 
 
 rosee f. 
 
 creature f. 
 
 globe m. 
 
 sphere f. 
 
 hemisphere m. hemisphere 
 
44 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 horison m. horizon 
 
 degre m. degree 
 
 longitude f. longitude 
 
 latitude f. latitude 
 
 points cardl 
 
 naux pi. 
 V orient or Vest m.east 
 le septentrion or"! ., 
 
 v cardinal points 
 
 le nord m. 
 V Occident or 
 
 Vouest m. 
 le midi or 
 
 swcZ m. 
 climat m. 
 region f. 
 continent m. 
 VEurope f. 
 7'^si'e f. 
 VAfrique f. 
 VAmerique f. 
 empire m. 
 royaume m. 
 
 west 
 
 ? 1 south 
 
 climate 
 
 region 
 
 continent 
 
 Europe 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 America 
 
 empire 
 
 kingdom 
 
 IV. 
 
 republique f. 
 paz/s m. 
 colonie f. 
 principaute f. 
 elector at m. 
 province f. 
 comte m. 
 Ifef. 
 presqu'ile or 
 
 peninsule f. 
 cap m. 
 
 promontoire m. 
 isihme m. 
 montagne f. 
 mora* m. 
 colline f. 
 Ze sommet m. 
 lapente f. or Ze 
 
 penchant m. 
 hauteur f. 
 tW/etf f. 
 vallon m. 
 afome m. 
 
 republic 
 
 country 
 
 colony 
 
 principality 
 
 electorate 
 
 province 
 
 shire or county 
 
 island 
 
 ^peninsula 
 
 cape 
 
 promontory 
 
 isthmus 
 
 mountain 
 
 mount 
 
 hill 
 
 the summit 
 
 ^the declivity 
 
 hillock 
 
 valley 
 
 dale 
 
 abyss 
 
 desert m. 
 piaine f. 
 marais m. 
 
 Wve f. 
 rivage m. 
 cote f. 
 
 rocher m. 
 rocAe f. 
 
 rocm. 
 
 Za czmg f. 
 pier re f. 
 j9o?i£ m. 
 chaussee f. 
 #we m. 
 gwai m. 
 rowte f. 
 sentier m. 
 ybsse m. 
 gravier m. 
 sa&Ze m. 
 sablon m. 
 poussiere f. 
 oceara m. 
 wzer f. 
 #o//e m. 
 oaie f. 
 rarfe f. 
 
 awse f. 
 cawaZ m. 
 detroit m. 
 cour antra, 
 maree f. 
 ^/Zw-r m. 
 reflux m. 
 vague f. 
 ^/fofc m. pi. 
 
 desert 
 plain 
 marsh or fen 
 
 bank (of a river) 
 
 shore 
 
 coast 
 
 rock j 1^ 
 
 ^3 2 
 
 ^ o o 
 
 rock 
 
 rock' 
 
 
 the top 
 
 stone 
 
 bridge 
 
 causeway 
 
 ford 
 
 wharf or quay 
 
 road 
 
 path 
 
 ditch 
 
 gravel 
 
 sand 
 
 small sand 
 
 dust 
 
 gulf 
 bay 
 road (for ships j 
 
 VI. 
 
 creek 
 
 channel 
 
 strait 
 
 current 
 
 tide 
 
 flowing 
 
 ebbing 
 
 wave 
 
 billows 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 45 
 
 ondes f. pi. 
 havre m. 
 port m. 
 lac m. 
 riviere f. 
 ifteuve m. 
 embouchure f. 
 ruisseau m. 
 debordement m. 
 deluge m. 
 inondation f. 
 ec/wse f. 
 d/<7we f. 
 eto<7 m. 
 vivier m. 
 
 surge 
 
 haven 
 
 harbour 
 
 lake 
 
 river 
 
 great river 
 
 mouth of a river 
 
 brook 
 
 overtlowing 
 
 deluge 
 
 inundation 
 
 flood-gate, sluice 
 
 dike 
 
 pond 
 
 fish-pond 
 
 VI I L 
 
 reservoir m. 
 abreuvoir m. 
 6am m. 
 citerne f. 
 fontaine f. 
 source f, 
 jDwite m. 
 pompe f. 
 bateau m. 
 barque f. 
 6ac m. 
 
 coc/?e e?'effM m 
 gabare f. 
 navire m. 
 vaisseau m. 
 paquebot m. 
 flamme f. 
 etincelle f. 
 chaleur f. 
 tfzwee f. 
 incendie m. 
 chauffage m. 
 charbon m. 
 
 VII. 
 
 water-bason 
 
 watering-place 
 
 bath 
 
 cistern 
 
 fountain 
 
 source 
 
 well 
 
 pump 
 
 boat 
 
 bark 
 
 ferry-boat 
 
 barge 
 
 lighter 
 
 ship 
 
 vessel 
 
 packet-boat 
 
 blaze 
 
 spark 
 
 heat 
 
 smoke 
 
 conflagration 
 
 fuel 
 
 coals 
 
 P i. 
 
 pi. 
 
 charbon de 
 terre m. 
 
 charbon de 
 
 bois m. 
 braise f. 
 tourbe f. 
 wo/fes f. pi. 
 60 is m. 
 6wcAe f: 
 y«#o£ m. 
 copeaux m 
 cendre f. 
 swze f. 
 yew m. 
 atmosphere f. 
 ve7?£ m. 
 zephyr m. 
 vapeur f. 
 lumiere f. 
 tenebres f. 
 chaleur f. 
 ^roie/ m. 
 «we, ?mee f. 
 nuage m. 
 m'eZ/e f. 
 humidite f. 
 semw m. 
 
 tourbiVon m. 
 ortf^e m. 
 tempete f. 
 c<?/??2e m 
 eternite f. 
 temps m. 
 szec/e m. 
 epoque f. 
 periode* f. 
 efofe f. 
 
 em m. annee f. 
 77i el's m. 
 Janvier m. 
 Fevrier m. 
 
 pit CGal 
 
 I charcoal 
 
 small coal 
 
 turf 
 
 peat 
 
 wood 
 
 log of wood 
 
 faggot 
 
 chips 
 
 ashes 
 
 soot 
 
 fire 
 
 atmosphere 
 
 wind 
 
 zephyr 
 
 vapour 
 
 light 
 
 darkness 
 
 heat 
 
 cold 
 
 cloud 
 
 cloud 
 
 blight 
 
 dampness 
 
 mildew 
 
 IX. 
 
 whirlwind 
 
 storm 
 
 tempest 
 
 calm 
 
 eternity 
 
 time 
 
 age or century 
 
 epoch 
 
 period 
 
 date 
 
 year 
 
 month 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 * Periode is of the masculine gender when it means a summit, the highest 
 pitch. 
 
46 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Mars m. 
 Avril m. 
 Mai m. 
 Jain m. 
 Juillet m . 
 ^4oz^ m. 
 Septembre m. 
 Octobre m. 
 Novembre m. 
 JDecembre, m. 
 semaine f. 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 week 
 
 X. 
 
 i?owr m. 
 Journee f. 
 aujouid'hui m. 
 demain m. 
 apres-demain 
 
 (adv.) 
 fo'er m. 
 Lundi m. 
 Mardi m. 
 Merer edi m. 
 Jeudi m. 
 Vendredi m. 
 Samedi m. 
 Dimanche m. 
 heure f. 
 demi-heure f. 
 
 quart- d'henre m 
 
 aurore f. 
 awfe f. 
 Ze ma^ra m 
 matinee f. 
 #22^' m. 
 
 day 
 
 day 
 
 to-day 
 
 to-morrow 
 
 !>after to-morrow 
 
 yesterday 
 Monday 
 Tuesday 
 Wednesday 
 Thursday 
 Friday 
 Saturday 
 Sunday 
 hour 
 
 half-an-hour 
 '* hour and a half 
 f quarter of an 
 \ hour 
 aurora 
 dawn 
 morning 
 forenoon 
 
 lapres-midi f . ") . r 
 
 ■ ^ £ Vthe afternoon 
 
 V apres-dinee 
 le soir m. 
 /« soiree f. 
 crepuscule m. 
 tiwzY f. 
 minuit m. 
 
 j 
 
 minute f. 
 
 seconde f. 
 
 moment m. 
 
 instant m. 
 
 saison f. 
 
 printemps m. 
 
 e£e m. 
 
 automnej m. & f autumn 
 
 fa'uer m. winter 
 
 carnaval m. carnival 
 
 careme m. lent 
 
 mi-car erne f. mid-lent 
 
 paque f. v. Diet. Easter 
 
 evening 
 
 twilight 
 
 night 
 
 midnight 
 
 XL 
 
 minute 
 
 second 
 
 moment 
 
 instant 
 
 seas on 
 
 spring 
 
 summer 
 
 pentecote f. 
 /a Saint-Jean^. 
 I'Avent m. 
 iVbeZ m. 
 /ete f . 
 equinox e m. 
 Ze solstice m. 
 /a canicuk f. 
 lafenaison f. 
 moisson f. 
 
 Whit Sunday 
 Midsummer 
 the Advent 
 Christmas 
 festival, holiday 
 equinox 
 the solstices 
 the dog-days 
 hay-harvest 
 harvest- time 
 
 vendues f pl| vint 
 
 vide Diet. / & 
 
 /a tate f. shearing-time 
 
 semailles f. pi. sowing-time 
 conge m. play-day 
 
 * When the word tfemie comes after the substantive, it takes the mute e, but 
 never when it is placed before it, 
 
 f Used now only in the masculine gender. 
 
 | La, feminine article, relates to the word/lfe, which is understood. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 OF 
 
 MAN. 
 
 
 
 XII. 
 
 
 
 XIII. 
 
 genre humain m. mankind 
 
 
 nain m. 
 
 dwarf 
 
 homme m. 
 
 man 
 
 
 pigmee m. 
 
 pigmy 
 
 femme f. 
 
 woman 
 
 
 Tftan m. 
 
 husband 
 
 sexe m. 
 
 sex 
 
 
 femme f. 
 
 wife 
 
 enfant m. 
 
 child 
 
 
 vez//*m. 
 
 widower 
 
 garcon m. 
 
 ' boy 
 
 
 vewve f. 
 
 widow 
 
 Jfefe f . 
 
 girl 
 
 
 orphelin m. 
 
 orphan (boy) 
 
 vierge f. 
 
 virgin 
 
 
 orpheline f. 
 
 orphan (girl) 
 
 virginite f. 
 
 virginity 
 
 
 heritier m. 
 
 heir 
 
 e?i/a?ice 
 
 infancy 
 
 
 heritiere f. 
 
 heiress 
 
 jeunesse f. 
 
 youth 
 
 
 maitre m. 
 
 master 
 
 adolescence f. 
 
 adolescence 
 
 
 maitresse f. 
 
 mistress 
 
 VVTultP 1 
 
 . .,xp ,,>, >manhood 
 maturitei.dagej 
 
 
 Aote m. 
 hotesse f. 
 
 landlord 
 landlady 
 
 vieillesse f. 
 
 old age 
 
 
 domestique m. 
 
 servant 
 
 decrepitude f. 
 
 decrepitude 
 
 
 servante f. 
 
 maid-servant 
 
 yewwe homme m. youth or lad 
 
 
 voisin m. 
 
 neighbour 
 
 jezme ^//e f. 
 
 young girl or lass 
 
 voisine f. 
 
 neighbour (fra) 
 
 vieillard m. 
 
 old man 
 
 
 compagnon m 
 
 companion 
 
 gea/tf m. 
 
 giant 
 
 
 compagne f. 
 
 companion (fm) 
 
 
 or 
 
 TH 
 
 E BODY. 
 
 
 * Words marked with an asterisk are equally used in the singular number 
 
 XIV. 
 
 corps m. 
 
 
 body 
 
 membres m. 
 
 P i. 
 
 members 
 
 frorcc m. 
 
 
 trunk 
 
 tete f. 
 
 
 head 
 
 crarce m. 
 
 
 skull 
 
 front m. 
 
 
 forehead 
 
 visage m. 
 
 
 face 
 
 rrazYs m. pi. 
 
 
 features 
 
 fl?i7 m. 
 
 
 eye 
 
 z/e?^ m. pi. 
 
 
 eyes 
 
 sourcils* m 
 
 pi 
 
 eye-brows 
 
 paupiere f. 
 
 eye-lid 
 
 nez m. 
 
 nose 
 
 narines* f. pi. 
 
 nostrils 
 
 bouche f. 
 
 mouth 
 
 levres* f. pi. 
 derc£ f. 
 
 lips 
 tooth 
 
 gencives* f. pi. 
 machoire f. 
 
 gums 
 jaw-bone 
 
 langue f. 
 palais m. 
 joues* f. pi. 
 
 tongue 
 palate 
 cheeks 
 
 fossette f. 
 menton m. 
 
 dimple 
 chin 
 
48 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 barbe f. 
 tempes* f. pi. 
 
 oreille f. 
 
 cheveux m. pi. 
 cou m. 
 gosier m. 
 sein m. 
 mamelle f. 
 ventre m. 
 ceinture f. 
 co7e m. 
 "handle f. 
 cuisses* f. pi. 
 genou m. 
 j arret m. 
 ro£w/e f. 
 jambe f. 
 W20#e£ m. 
 pz'eo? m. 
 taftm m. 
 orfoi/ m. 
 oras m. 
 cowJe m. 
 Vaisselle f. 
 epaule f. 
 7?iam f. 
 poing m. 
 poignet m. 
 doz'gtf m. 
 pouce m. 
 m'ws m. pi. 
 
 beard 
 
 temples 
 
 ear 
 
 XV. 
 
 haii- 
 neck 
 throat 
 bosom 
 breast 
 belly 
 waist 
 side 
 haunch 
 thighs 
 knee 
 ham 
 
 ball of the knee 
 leg 
 
 calf of the leg 
 foot 
 heel 
 toe 
 arm 
 elbow 
 the arm-pit 
 shoulder 
 hand 
 fist 
 wrist 
 finger 
 thumb 
 loins 
 
 XVI. 
 
 angle m. 
 cote f. 
 cerveau m. 
 cervelle f. 
 squelette m. 
 cceur m. 
 poumon m. 
 foie m. 
 rate f. 
 estomac m. 
 entrailles f. 
 
 } 
 
 nail 
 rib 
 
 brain 
 
 skeleton 
 heart 
 lungs 
 liver 
 spleen 
 stomach 
 pi. entrails 
 
 P i. 
 
 sang m. 
 humeurs* f. pi. 
 glande f. 
 poil m. 
 cAc«V f. 
 peaw f. 
 pores'* m. 
 nerfm. 
 artere f. 
 vezrce f. 
 05 m. 
 moelle f. 
 r/cfc f. 
 bouton m. 
 StfWft? f. 
 
 temperament m. 
 
 blood 
 
 humours 
 
 gland 
 
 hair of the body 
 
 tlesh 
 
 skin 
 
 pores 
 
 nerve 
 
 artery 
 
 vein 
 
 bone 
 
 marrow 
 
 wrinkle 
 
 pimple 
 
 health 
 
 constitution 
 
 XVII. 
 
 embonpoint m. 
 maigreur f. 
 teint m. 
 rongeur f. 
 paleur f. 
 port m. 
 demarche f. 
 o-psfe m. 
 vivacite f. 
 enjouement m. 
 0"aift? f. 
 beaute f. 
 
 charmes* m. pl.^j 
 atiraits m. pi. I 
 appas m. pi. J 
 agrement m. 
 laideur f. 
 foz7/e f. 
 vo?> f. 
 parole 
 silence m. 
 action f. 
 mouvement m, 
 repos m. 
 grimace f. 
 m, nre, m. 
 souris, sourirem. 
 
 plumpness 
 
 leanness 
 
 complexion 
 
 redness 
 
 paleness 
 
 countenance 
 
 gait 
 
 gesture 
 
 liveliness 
 
 sprightliness 
 
 gaiety 
 
 beauty 
 
 charms 
 
 agreeableness 
 
 ugliness 
 
 shape, size 
 
 voice 
 
 speech 
 
 silence 
 
 action 
 
 motion 
 
 rest 
 
 grimace 
 
 laughter 
 
 smile 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 49 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 kumeur f. crossness 
 
 soupir m. sigh 
 
 gemissement m. groan 
 assoupissementm. drowsiness 
 sleep 
 
 > dream 
 
 sommeil m. 
 songe m. 
 reve m. 
 souffle m. 
 haleine f. 
 respiration f. 
 eternument m 
 rwe f. 
 ozwe f. 
 odoTftt m. 
 <?ow£ m. 
 toucher m. 
 sentiment m. 
 obscurite f. 
 07?*&re f. 
 sow m. 
 orw# m. 
 oefewr f- 
 puanteur f. 
 saveur f. 
 
 Ibreath 
 
 sneezing 
 
 sight 
 
 hearing 
 
 smelling 
 
 taste 
 
 feeling 
 
 sense 
 
 darkness 
 
 shade 
 
 sound 
 
 noise 
 
 smell 
 
 stench 
 
 relish 
 
 sensations* f. pi. sensations 
 chatouillement m. tickling 
 plaisir m. pleasure 
 
 XIX. 
 
 joze f. 
 
 douleur f. 
 
 /ctfm f. 
 
 soz/f. 
 
 degout m. 
 
 maladie f. 
 
 waZ m. 
 
 incommodite f. 
 
 infirmite f. 
 
 indisposition f. 
 
 wia/ cfe efercte m. 
 
 wiaZ cfe I'efe m. 
 
 ma/ cwar i/ewj; m 
 
 migraine f. 
 
 vertige m. 
 
 evanouissementm swooning 
 
 defaillance ft fainting 
 
 joy 
 
 pain 
 
 hunger 
 
 thirst 
 
 surfeit 
 
 disease 
 
 ailment 
 
 illness 
 
 infirmity 
 
 disorder 
 
 tooth-ache 
 
 head-ache 
 
 sore eyes 
 
 megrim 
 
 dizziness 
 
 faiblesse f. 
 demangeaison f. 
 pesanteur f. 
 engourdisse- ] 
 ment m. \ 
 
 insomnie f. 
 coup m. 
 contre-coup m. 
 egratignure f. 
 ecorchure f. 
 entorse f. 
 
 swoon 
 itching 
 heaviness 
 
 numbness 
 
 want of sleep 
 
 blow 
 
 counter-blow 
 
 scratch 
 
 excoriation 
 
 sprain 
 
 XX. 
 
 foulure f. 
 enflure f. 
 tumeur f. 
 meurtrissure f. 
 contusion f. 
 blessure f. 
 cicatrice f. 
 w/c£re m. 
 
 gangrene f. 
 
 coupure f. 
 brulure f. 
 cor m. 
 durillon m. 
 enrouement m. 
 rhume m. 
 fow.r f. 
 coqueluche f. 
 surdite f . 
 frenesie f. 
 /o&<? f. 
 nz<7e f. 
 goutte f. 
 convulsions $. pi. 
 vapeurs f. pi. 
 fidvre f. 
 frisson m. 
 acces m. 
 
 strain 
 
 swelling 
 
 tumour 
 
 bruise 
 
 contusion 
 
 wound 
 
 scar 
 
 ulcer 
 
 f gangrene, mor- 
 
 \ tification 
 
 cut 
 
 burning 
 
 corn 
 
 callosity 
 
 hoarseness 
 
 cold 
 
 cough 
 
 hooping-cough 
 
 deafness 
 
 frenzy 
 
 lunacy 
 
 madness 
 
 gout 
 
 convulsive fits 
 
 vapours 
 
 fever 
 
 shivering 
 
 fit 
 
 XXI. 
 
 oJe&'re m. 
 crise f. 
 medecine f. 
 medtcin m. 
 
 delirium 
 crisis 
 physic 
 physician 
 
50 
 
 chirurgicn m. 
 apothicaire m. 
 accoucheur m. 
 sage-femme f. 
 consultation f. 
 ordonnance f. 
 remide m. 
 drogues f. pi. 
 poudres* f. pi. 
 pilules* f. pi. 
 saignee f. 
 lancette f. 
 gouttes* f. pi. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 surgeon 
 
 bain m. 
 
 apothecary 
 man-midwife 
 midwife 
 consultation 
 
 regime m. 
 szrcp m. 
 agonie f. 
 wzor£ f. 
 
 prescription 
 remedy 
 
 cadavre m. 
 we f. 
 
 drugs 
 powders 
 
 guerkon f. 
 rechute f. 
 
 pills 
 
 bleeding 
 
 lancet 
 
 symptome m. 
 convalescence f. 
 
 drops 
 
 
 bath 
 diet 
 sirup 
 agony 
 death 
 corpse 
 life 
 
 recovery 
 relapse 
 symptom 
 f" fair way of re- 
 \ covering 
 
 OF THE MIND AND ITS FACULTIES. 
 
 
 XXII. 
 
 connaissance f. 
 
 knowledge 
 
 
 
 penetration f. 
 
 penetration 
 
 dme f. 
 
 soul 
 
 sagacite f. 
 
 sagacity 
 
 esprit m. 
 
 mind 
 
 disposition f. 
 
 disposition 
 
 gem'g m. 
 
 genius 
 
 inclination f. 
 
 inclination 
 
 raison f. 
 
 reason 
 
 
 
 entendement m. understanding 
 
 xx: 
 
 jugement m. 
 
 judgment 
 
 
 
 se#s m. 
 
 sense 
 
 capacite f. 
 
 capacity 
 
 pensee f. 
 
 thought 
 
 memoire f. 
 
 memory 
 
 2Wee f . 
 
 idea 
 
 souvenir m. 
 
 remembrance 
 
 imagination f. 
 
 imagination 
 
 ow&Zz m. 
 
 forgetfulness 
 
 fantaisie f. 
 
 fancy 
 
 stupidite f. 
 
 stupidity 
 
 caprice m. 
 
 whim 
 
 passions* f. pi. 
 
 passions 
 
 volonte f. 
 
 will 
 
 affections* f. pi 
 
 affections 
 
 liberie I. 
 
 liberty 
 
 amour m. 
 
 love 
 
 6^/ esprit m. 
 
 wit 
 
 amours f. pi. 
 
 amours 
 
 opinion f. 
 
 opinion 
 
 ^azwe f. 
 
 hatred 
 
 sentiment m. 
 
 sentiment 
 
 c?eszr m. 
 
 desire 
 
 vmYe f. 
 
 truth 
 
 crainte, peur f. 
 
 fear 
 
 erreur f. 
 
 error 
 
 apprehension f. 
 
 apprehension 
 
 vraisemblance 
 
 f. likelihood 
 
 esperance f. 
 
 hope 
 
 probability f. 
 
 probability 
 
 confiance f. 
 
 confidence 
 
 apparence f. 
 
 appearance 
 
 "horde f. 
 
 shame 
 
 meprise f. 
 
 mistake 
 
 timidite f. 
 
 bashfulness 
 
 fo&we f. 
 
 oversight 
 
 "hardiesse f. 
 
 boldness 
 
 science f. 
 
 science 
 
 assurance f. 
 
 confidence 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 51 
 
 colire f. 
 courroux m. 
 fureur f. 
 rage f. 
 
 resseniiment m. 
 vengeance f. 
 e^ep^ m. 
 deplaisir m. 
 tristesse f. 
 chagrin m. 
 petTze f. 
 
 anger 
 
 wrath 
 
 fury 
 
 rage 
 
 resentmnnt 
 
 revenge 
 
 spite 
 
 displeasure 
 
 sadness 
 
 grief 
 
 sorrow 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 desespoir m. 
 doute m. 
 soupcon m. 
 envze f. 
 jalousie f. 
 mft'e f. 
 
 misericorde f. 
 compassion f. 
 terreur £ 
 epouvante f. 
 indignation f. 
 verta f. 
 charite f. 
 justice f. 
 temperance f. 
 sobriete f. 
 /brce f. 
 modestie f. 
 pudeur f. 
 civilite f. 
 politesse f. 
 honneteU f. 
 complaisance f. 
 douceur f. 
 6o?tfe f. 
 amitie £ 
 union f. 
 Concorde f. 
 />ai.r f. 
 tranquillite f. 
 
 despair 
 
 doubt 
 
 suspicion 
 
 envy 
 
 jealousy 
 
 pity 
 
 mercy 
 
 compassion 
 
 terror 
 
 fright 
 
 indignation 
 
 virtue 
 
 charity 
 
 justice 
 
 temperance 
 
 sobriety 
 
 fortitude 
 
 modesty 
 
 bashfulness 
 
 civility 
 
 politeness 
 
 honesty 
 
 complaisance 
 
 sweetness 
 
 goodness 
 
 friendship 
 
 union 
 
 concord 
 
 peace 
 
 tranquillity 
 
 XXV. 
 
 patience f. 
 prudence f. 
 
 patience 
 prudence 
 
 economic f. 
 kabdete f. 
 Industrie f. 
 som m. 
 diligence f. 
 exactitude f. 
 honneur m. 
 probite f. 
 desinteresse- 
 
 ment m. 
 sagesse f. 
 Constance f. 
 bienveillance f. 
 emulation f. 
 faveur f. 
 valeur f. 
 bravoure f. 
 courage m. 
 finesse f., rwse 
 adresse f. 
 chastete f. 
 innocence f. 
 liber alite f. 
 generosite f. 
 reconnaissance 
 frugalite f. 
 prosperity f. 
 adversite f. 
 
 economy 
 
 skill 
 
 industry 
 
 caifc 
 
 diligence 
 
 exactness 
 
 honour 
 
 probity 
 
 } disinterested- 
 ness 
 wisdom 
 constancy 
 benevolence 
 emulation 
 favour 
 valour 
 bravery 
 courage 
 
 f. cunning 
 skill > 
 chastity 
 innocence 
 liberality 
 generosity 
 
 f. gratitude 
 frugality 
 prosperity 
 adversity 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 mceurs f. pi. 
 bonheur m. 
 recompense f. 
 pn'-r m. 
 present m. 
 
 G?07l m. 
 pr*?£ m. 
 grace f. 
 reputation f. 
 vice m. 
 defaut m. 
 imperfection f. 
 avarice f. 
 avidite f. 
 orgueilm. 
 paresse f. 
 faineantise f. 
 
 manners 
 
 happiness 
 
 reward 
 
 prize 
 
 present 
 
 gift 
 
 loan 
 
 grace 
 
 fame 
 
 vice 
 
 defect 
 
 imperfection 
 
 avarice 
 
 greediness 
 
 pride 
 
 idleness 
 
 slothfulness 
 
52 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 lachete f. 
 nonchalance f. 
 luxe m. 
 mollesse f. 
 impurete f. 
 debauche f. 
 dissolution f. 
 liber tinage m. 
 dhordre m. 
 derSglement m- 
 viepris m. 
 raillerie f. 
 moquerie f. 
 
 sluggishness 
 
 carelessness 
 
 luxury, pomp 
 
 effeminacy 
 
 lewdness 
 
 debauchery 
 
 dissoluteness 
 
 libertinism 
 
 disorderly life 
 
 licentiousness 
 
 contempt 
 
 jest 
 
 mockery 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 medisance f. 
 
 calomnie f. 
 crime m. 
 malice f. 
 mechancete f. 
 tromperie f. 
 parjure m. 
 friponnerie f. 
 fourberie f. 
 enchantement m, 
 injustice f. 
 for£ m. 
 wswre f. 
 acAa£ m. 
 rente f. 
 froc m. 
 ^a^e m. 
 </^pd^ m. 
 contrat m. 
 marche m. 
 bassesse f. 
 impudence f. 
 effronterie f. 
 audace f. 
 temerite f. 
 poltronnerie f. 
 opinidtretef* 
 obstination f. 
 cruaute f. 
 dispute f. 
 
 {detraction i 
 slander 
 calumny 
 crime 
 malice 
 wickedness 
 deceit 
 perjury 
 knavery 
 guile, roguery 
 witchcraft 
 injustice 
 wrong 
 usury 
 purchase 
 sale 
 barter 
 pledge 
 trust 
 contract 
 bargain 
 meanness 
 impudence 
 effrontery 
 audaciousness 
 temerity 
 cowardness 
 stubbornness 
 obstinacy 
 cruelty 
 dispute 
 
 XXVIII. 
 
 querelle f. 
 brouillerie f. 
 6ct6i7 m. 
 caquet m. 
 inconstance f. 
 ingratitude f. 
 ambition f. 
 prodigalite f. 
 gourmandise f. 
 impolitesse f. 
 incivilite f. 
 dissension f. 
 impatience f. 
 imprudence f. 
 negligence f. 
 malhonnetete f. 
 deshonneur m. 
 exzY m. 
 
 bannissement m. 
 pusillanimite f. 
 trahison f. 
 perfidie f. 
 punition f. 
 chdtiment m. 
 legerete f. 
 coquetterie f. 
 badinage m. 
 larcin m. 
 voZm. 
 ^ow m. 
 
 quarrel 
 
 broil 
 
 babbling 
 
 prattling 
 
 inconstancy 
 
 ungratefulness 
 
 ambition 
 
 prodigality 
 
 gluttony 
 
 unpoliteness 
 
 incivility 
 
 dissension 
 
 impatience 
 
 imprudence 
 
 negligence 
 
 rudeness 
 
 disgrace 
 
 exile 
 
 banishment 
 
 pusillanimity 
 
 treachery 
 
 perfidiousness 
 
 punishment 
 
 chastisement 
 
 levity 
 
 coquetry 
 
 sport 
 
 robbery 
 
 theft 
 
 pickpocket 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 tromperie f. 
 ivrognerie f- 
 ivresse f. 
 assassinat m. 
 meurtre m. 
 mensonge m. 
 faussete, f. 
 cowte m. 
 servient m. 
 malheur m. 
 ^bfte f. 
 
 extravagance f. 
 coutume m. 
 
 deceit 
 
 [> drunkenness 
 
 murder 
 
 manslaughter 
 
 lie 
 
 falsehood 
 
 tale 
 
 oath 
 
 misfortune 
 
 folly 
 
 madness 
 
 custom 
 
usage m. 
 
 pratique f. 
 
 habitude f. 
 
 licence f. 
 
 exces m. 
 
 tour m. 
 
 bagatelles f. pi. trifles 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 
 use 
 
 practice 
 habit 
 licentiousness 
 
 faute f. 
 faiblesse f. 
 faible m. 
 affront m. 
 
 fault 
 
 weakness 
 foible 
 affront 
 
 excess 
 trick 
 
 outrage m. 
 insulte f. 
 
 outrage 
 insult 
 
 53 
 
 OF QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 6#e f. 
 animal m. 
 animal domes- 
 
 tique 
 bete de somme 
 
 monture f. 
 
 cheval m. 
 cavalle f. 
 jument f. 
 etalon m. 
 poulain m. 
 pouliche f. 
 fo'dief m. 
 crae m. 
 dnesse f. 
 ttworc m. 
 mulet m. 
 m«/e f. 
 6ete a comes f, 
 
 6i{$?e m. 
 taureau m. 
 vadta f. 
 genisse f. 
 aeaw m. 
 bouvillon m. 
 rewwe m. 
 brebis f. 
 mouton m. 
 fccZier m. 
 agneau m. 
 
 beast 
 animal 
 
 I tame beast 
 
 beast of burden 
 
 {beast for the 
 saddle 
 horse 
 mare 
 mare 
 stallion 
 colt 
 filly 
 pony- 
 ass 
 
 milk-ass 
 young ass 
 mule 
 she-mule 
 horned-beast 
 ox 
 
 buffalo 
 bull 
 cow 
 heifer 
 calf 
 bullock 
 rein- deer 
 ewe 
 wether 
 ram 
 lamb 
 
 chevre f. 
 6owc m. 
 chevreau m. 
 cochon m. 
 pore m. 
 pourceau m. 
 tfrm'e f. 
 cochon de lait 
 cochon d'Inde 
 verrat m. 
 sanglier m. 
 Zaie f. 
 
 marcassin m. 
 betefauve 
 cerfm, 
 biche f. 
 
 /aow m. (fan) 
 (fazm m. 
 
 daimfemelle 
 chevreuil m. 
 chevrette f. 
 chamois m. 
 Zzow m. 
 Ziorcwe f. 
 lionceau m. 
 tfgre m. 
 tigresse f. 
 omt-s m. 
 ourson m. 
 zeore m. 
 girafe f. 
 leopard m. 
 cameleopard m. 
 
 she-goat 
 
 he-goat 
 
 kid 
 
 hog 
 
 Pig 
 
 Pig 
 
 sow 
 
 sucking pig 
 
 guinea pig 
 
 boar 
 
 wild boar 
 
 wild sow 
 
 young wild boar 
 
 wild deer 
 
 stag 
 
 hind 
 
 fawn 
 
 fallow-deer 
 
 buck 
 
 doe 
 
 roe-buck 
 
 roe 
 
 chamois 
 
 lion 
 
 lioness 
 
 lion's whelp 
 
 tiger 
 
 tigress 
 
 bear 
 
 bear's cub 
 
 zebra 
 
 giraffe 
 
 leopard 
 
 cameleopard 
 
54 
 
 rhinoceros m. 
 hippopotame m. 
 elephant m. 
 chameau m. 
 dromadaire m. 
 Za/rca m. 
 buffletin m. 
 bufflonei f, 
 Az/erce f. 
 panthere f. 
 owce f. 
 licorne f. 
 eZa?i m. 
 /owp m. 
 Zowue f. 
 louveteau m. 
 /^/wa7 m. 
 renard m. 
 taisson m. 
 blaireau m. 
 castor m. 
 her mine f. 
 marte, zibeline 
 ecureuil m. 
 'herisson m. 
 pore-epic m. 
 Zowfre f. 
 rafcm m. 
 /wr«£ m. 
 fteyre m. 
 'Aase m. 
 levraut m. 
 Zapm m. 
 lapine f, 
 cAzV/z m. 
 chienne f. 
 Zece f. 
 levrier m. 
 levrette f. 
 cZo#?/e m. 
 doguin m. 
 maftTi m. 
 limier m. 
 bichon m. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 rhinoceros 
 
 epagneul m. 
 
 river-horse 
 
 basset m. 
 
 elephant 
 
 barbet m. 
 
 camel 
 
 chien d y arret 
 
 dromedary 
 
 rneute de chiens 
 
 lama 
 
 chat, matou m. 
 
 young buffalo 
 
 chatte f. 
 
 female buffalo 
 
 chaton m. 
 
 hyena 
 
 minon in. 
 
 panther 
 
 minet m. mi- 
 
 ounce 
 
 nette f. 
 
 unicorn 
 
 singe m. 
 
 elk 
 
 guenon f. 
 
 wolf 
 
 magot, babou- 
 
 she-wolf 
 
 in m. 
 
 wolf's cub 
 
 gazelle f. 
 
 lynx 
 
 belette f. 
 
 fox 
 
 putois m. 
 
 brock » 
 
 fouine f. 
 
 badger 
 
 genette f. 
 
 beaver 
 
 mwsc m. 
 
 ermine 
 
 Zoir m. 
 
 marten, sable 
 
 marmotte f. 
 
 squirrel 
 
 tawp£ f. 
 
 hedge-hog 
 
 ra£ m. 
 
 porcupine 
 
 souris f. 
 
 otter 
 
 tortue f. 
 
 rackoon 
 
 Z>e&«7 m. 5es-^ 
 
 ferret 
 
 tiaux 
 
 hare 
 
 troupeau m. 
 
 doe-hare 
 
 patre, berger m. 
 
 leveret 
 
 bergere f. 
 
 rabbit 
 
 vacher, bouvier 
 
 doe-rabbit 
 
 porcher m. 
 
 dog 
 
 chasse f. 
 
 bitch 
 
 chasseur m. 
 
 hound-bitch 
 
 braconnier m. 
 
 greyhound 
 
 gibier, m.venai-^ 
 
 greyhound-bitch 
 
 son f. 
 
 bull-dog 
 
 ^sz'Z m. 
 
 whelp 
 
 gibeciere f. 
 
 mastiff 
 
 ftVe 
 
 blood-hound 
 
 ft'rewr m. 
 
 lap-dog 
 
 garde-chasse m. 
 
 spaniel 
 
 terrier 
 
 shagged- dog 
 
 pointer 
 
 pack of hounds 
 
 cat, tom-cat 
 
 she-cat, puss 
 
 kitten 
 
 puss 
 
 J- young kitten 
 
 monkey 
 ape 
 
 " > baboon 
 
 antelope 
 
 weasel 
 
 pole- cat 
 
 pole-cat 
 
 wild- cat 
 
 musk-cat 
 
 dormouse 
 
 marmot 
 
 mole 
 
 rat 
 
 mouse 
 
 tortoise 
 
 "\ cattle 
 
 flock, herd 
 
 shepherd 
 
 shepherdess 
 
 cow-herd 
 
 swine-herd 
 
 hunting 
 
 hunter 
 
 poacher 
 
 I game 
 
 gun 
 pouch 
 shooting 
 shooter 
 
 f The French Academy spells that word -with double tin, but without giving 
 any reason for so doing. 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 or 
 
 
 Of BIRDS. 
 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 alouette f. 
 
 lark 
 
 
 
 bergeronnette 
 
 wagtail 
 
 oiseau m. 
 
 bird 
 
 alcyon or mar 
 
 ' Iking's fisher 
 
 oiselet, oisillonm. little bird 
 
 tin-pecheur 
 
 volatile f. 
 
 fowl 
 
 pivert m. 
 
 woodpecker 
 
 coq m. 
 
 cock 
 
 mesange f. 
 
 tit 
 
 poule f. 
 
 hen 
 
 pluvier m. 
 
 plover 
 
 poulet m. 
 
 chicken 
 
 roitelet m. 
 
 wren 
 
 poussin m. 
 
 young chicken 
 
 vanneau m. 
 
 lapwing 
 
 cocAe* m. 
 
 cockerel 
 
 6 m tor m. 
 
 bittern 
 
 poularde f. 
 
 pullet 
 
 becfigue m. 
 
 beccafico 
 
 chapon m. 
 
 capon 
 
 etourneau m. 
 
 starling 
 
 cog oVInde, 
 dindon m. 
 
 | turkey-cock 
 
 sansonnet m. 
 bruant m. 
 
 starling 
 yellow-hammer 
 
 diVicfe m. 
 
 turkey-hen 
 
 coucou m. 
 
 cuckoo 
 
 dindonneau m. 
 
 young turkey 
 
 freux, grollem. 
 
 rook 
 
 Oi'e f. 
 
 goose 
 
 corbeau m. 
 
 raven 
 
 jars m. 
 
 gander 
 
 corneille m. 
 
 crow 
 
 oiscm m. 
 
 gosling 
 
 /moom m. 
 
 owl 
 
 canard m. 
 
 drake 
 
 chouette f. 
 
 screech-owl 
 
 carce f. 
 
 duck 
 
 OMse f. 
 
 buzzard 
 
 caneton m. 
 
 v duckling 
 
 choucas m. 
 
 chough 
 
 canette f. 
 
 a^/e m. 
 
 eagle 
 
 pigeon m. 
 
 pigeon 
 
 aiglon m. 
 
 eaglet 
 
 colombe f. 
 
 dove 
 
 epervier m. 
 
 sparrow-hawk 
 
 sm'rc, canari m. canary-bird 
 
 emouchet m. 
 
 musket-hawk 
 
 perroquet m. 
 
 parrot 
 
 milan m. 
 
 kite 
 
 perruche f. 
 
 paroquet 
 
 faucon m. 
 
 falcon 
 
 moineau m. 
 
 J- sparrow 
 
 cormoran m. 
 
 cormorant 
 
 passereau m 
 
 plongeon m. 
 
 didapper 
 
 hirondelle f. 
 
 swallow 
 
 /zeroM m. 
 
 heron 
 
 martinet m. 
 
 martin 
 
 cigogne f. 
 
 stork 
 
 rossignol m. 
 
 nightingale 
 
 outarde f. 
 
 bustard 
 
 chardonneret m. goldfinch 
 
 pelican m. 
 
 pelican 
 
 pinson m. 
 
 chaffinch 
 
 autour m. 
 
 gos-hawk 
 
 verdier m. 
 
 greenfinch 
 
 vautour m. 
 
 vulture 
 
 bouvreuil m. 
 
 bullfinch 
 
 griffon m. 
 
 griffin 
 
 ZiVzo^ m. /mote f. linnet 
 
 huppe f. 
 
 lapwing 
 
 rouge-gorge m 
 
 redbreast, robin 
 
 mouette f. 
 
 gull 
 
 ?«er/e m. 
 
 blackbird 
 
 perdrix f. 
 
 partridge 
 
 <ym - e f. 
 
 thrush 
 
 jay 
 
 bariavelle f. 
 
 J" large red par 
 ^ tridge 
 
 £>*'e f, 
 
 magpie 
 
 perdreau m. 
 
 quail 
 
56 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 cailletcau m. 
 faisan m. 
 faisandeau m. 
 becasse f. 
 becassine f. 
 ortolan m. 
 tourterelle f. 
 gelinotte f. 
 francolin m. 
 ramier m. 
 macreuse f. 
 sarcelle f. 
 $rrwe f. 
 courlis m. 
 
 foulque m. 
 
 young quail 
 
 pheasant 
 
 young pheasant 
 
 woodcock 
 
 snipe 
 
 ortolan 
 
 turtle-dove 
 
 godwit 
 
 francoline 
 
 wood-pigeon 
 
 sea-duck 
 
 teal 
 
 crane 
 
 curlew 
 
 {coot, moor- 
 cock or hen 
 moor-hen 
 peacock 
 
 paonne f. 
 paonneau m. 
 cy^we m. 
 autruche f. 
 pintade f. 
 jfow Je bassan 
 pingoin m. 
 chauve-souris 
 chasse aux 
 oiseaux 
 appeau m. 
 gluaux m. 
 trebuchet rn. 
 filets* m. pi. 
 oiseleur m. 
 oiselier m. 
 voliere f. 
 
 pea-hen 
 
 young peacock 
 
 swan 
 
 ostrich 
 
 pintado 
 m. gannet 
 
 razor-bill 
 f. bat 
 
 V fowling 
 
 bird-call 
 
 lime twig 
 
 bird- trap 
 
 nets 
 
 bird-catcher 
 
 bird-seller 
 
 aviary 
 
 OF FISHES. 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 pozsson m. 
 
 fish 
 
 e sturgeon m. 
 
 sturgeon 
 
 turbot m. 
 
 turbot 
 
 saumon m. 
 
 salmon 
 
 rouget m. 
 
 roach 
 
 brocket m. 
 
 pike 
 
 carpe f. 
 
 carp 
 
 Zrzzzfe f. 
 
 trout 
 
 perche f. 
 
 perch 
 
 cabillaud m. 
 
 fresh cod 
 
 morue f. 
 
 stock fish 
 
 ra/e f. 
 
 skate 
 
 tanche f. 
 
 tench 
 
 eperlan m. 
 
 smelt 
 
 maquereau m. 
 
 mackerel 
 
 surmulet m. 
 
 mullet 
 
 carrelet m. 
 
 flounder 
 
 barbeau m. 
 
 barbel 
 
 a/ose m. 
 
 shad 
 
 soZe f. 
 sardine f. 
 £/zo?i m. 
 p/ze f. 
 congre m. 
 merlan m. 
 merluche f. 
 hareng m. 
 secAe f. 
 llmande f. 
 lamproie m. 
 homard, Ian- 
 
 gouste 
 ecrevisse de 
 
 mer f. 
 ecrevisse f. 
 cra&e m. 
 crevette £ 
 chevrette f. 
 anguille f. 
 anchois m. 
 
 sole 
 
 sprat 
 
 tunny 
 
 plaice 
 
 conger 
 
 whiting 
 
 haddock 
 
 herring 
 
 cuttle fish 
 
 burt, bret fish 
 
 lamprey 
 
 * lobster 
 
 crawfish 
 
 crab 
 
 prawn 
 
 shrimp 
 
 eel 
 
 anchovy 
 

 VOCABULARY. 
 
 57 
 
 goujon m. 
 
 gudgeon 
 
 
 chien marin m» 
 
 sea-dog 
 
 veron m. 
 
 minnow 
 
 
 hup marin m. 
 
 sea-wolf 
 
 lotte, barbotte f. 
 loche f. 
 
 eel-pout 
 f loach, gr 
 1 ling 
 
 9und- 
 
 herisson de 
 , mer m* 
 
 > sea-urchin 
 
 
 
 frai m. 
 
 fry- 
 
 morue saUe f. 
 
 salt-fish 
 
 
 fvetin m. 
 
 young fish 
 
 barbue f. 
 
 dab 
 
 
 Z##e f. 
 
 soft roe 
 
 marsouin m. 
 
 f sea-nog, 
 t poise 
 
 por- 
 
 a?z//s m. 
 
 spawn, hard roe 
 
 
 
 museau m. 
 
 snout 
 
 espadon m. 
 
 saw-fish 
 
 
 owzes f. 
 
 gills 
 
 porcelaine i. 
 
 sea-snail 
 
 
 nageoires f. 
 
 fins 
 
 tortue f. 
 
 tortoise 
 
 
 ecailles f. 
 
 scales 
 
 Aw#re f. 
 
 oyster 
 
 
 coquiUes f. 
 
 shells 
 
 petoncle m. 
 
 cockle 
 
 
 aretes f . 
 
 bones 
 
 wiowZe f . 
 
 muscle 
 
 
 pinces, braques 
 
 1. claws 
 
 baleine f. 
 
 whale 
 
 
 appdt, amorce 
 
 bait 
 
 cachalot m. 
 
 cachalot 
 
 
 pecheur m. 
 
 fisherman 
 
 requin m. 
 
 shark 
 
 
 pec/ie f. 
 
 fishery 
 
 dauphin m. 
 
 dolphin 
 
 
 pecAe a Za %?ie 
 
 angling 
 
 OF REPTILES AND INSECTS. 
 
 X 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 gnllon m. 
 
 cricket 
 
 
 
 perce-oreille m. 
 
 ear-wig 
 
 qrenouiUe f. 
 
 frog 
 
 &?z</?ze f. 
 
 moth 
 
 serpent m. 
 
 serpent 
 
 ciron m. 
 
 hand-worm 
 
 couleuvre f. 
 
 adder 
 
 fourmi f. 
 
 ant 
 
 vipere f. 
 
 viper 
 
 charangon m. 
 
 weevil 
 
 scorpion m. 
 
 scorpion 
 
 cloporte m. 
 
 wood-louse 
 
 aspic m» 
 
 aspick 
 
 ft'gwe m. 
 
 tick 
 
 basilic m. 
 
 basilisk 
 
 pott m. 
 
 louse 
 
 dragon m. 
 
 dragon 
 
 /ewfe f. 
 
 nit 
 
 tarentule f. 
 
 tarantula 
 
 pMce f. 
 
 flea 
 
 crapeau m. 
 
 toad 
 
 punaise f. 
 
 bug 
 
 lezard m. 
 
 lizard 
 
 chenille f. 
 
 caterpillar 
 
 sangsue f. 
 
 leech 
 
 papillon m. 
 
 butterfly 
 
 limace f. 
 
 slug 
 
 mouche f. 
 
 fly 
 
 t;er m. 
 
 worm 
 
 abeille f. 
 
 bee 
 
 ver-luisant m. 
 
 glow-worm 
 
 frelon m. 
 
 hornet 
 
 ver-coquin m. 
 
 vine-grub 
 
 bourdon m. 
 
 drone 
 
 t?er a soie m. 
 
 silk- worm 
 
 gwepe f. 
 
 wasp 
 
 escargot m. 
 
 snail 
 
 faora m. 
 
 oxfly 
 
 escarbot m. 
 
 beetle 
 
 cousin m. 
 
 gnat 
 
 D 2 
 
58 
 
 VOCABULARY* 
 
 cantharide f. 
 hannelon m. 
 sauterelle f. 
 dgale f. 
 
 araignee f. 
 to He d' araignee 
 
 Spanish-fly 
 
 cockchafer 
 
 grass-hopper 
 
 balm-cricket 
 
 spider 
 
 cobweb 
 
 essaim d'abeilles swarm of bees 
 miel m, honey 
 
 cire f. wax 
 
 rayon de miel m. honeycomb 
 ruche f. hive 
 
 fourmiliere f. ant-hill 
 
 OF MEATS AND DRINKS. 
 
 XXXIV. 
 
 nourriture f. 
 
 nourishment 
 
 alimens* m.pl. 
 
 food 
 
 vivres m. pi. 
 
 victuals 
 
 provision f. 
 
 provision 
 
 repas m. 
 
 meal 
 
 dejeuner m. 
 
 breakfast 
 
 diner m. 
 
 dinner 
 
 
 J" afternoon's 
 \ luncheon 
 
 g outer m. 
 
 souper m. 
 
 supper 
 
 collation f. 
 
 collation 
 
 /est in m. 
 
 feast 
 
 ?%«/ m. 
 
 treat 
 
 pam m. 
 
 bread 
 
 croute f. 
 
 crust 
 
 ?r«e f. 
 
 crumb 
 
 farine f. 
 
 meal 
 
 sora m. 
 
 bran 
 
 pafe f. 
 
 dough 
 
 levain m. 
 
 leaven 
 
 morceau m. 
 
 bit, morsel 
 
 tranche f. 
 
 slice 
 
 bouchee f. 
 
 mouthful 
 
 viande f. 
 
 meat 
 
 bouilli m. 
 
 boiled meat 
 
 rd£, roft' m. 
 
 roast meat 
 
 bceufm. 
 
 beef 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 mouton m. 
 
 mutton 
 
 agneau m. 
 
 lamb 
 
 veaw m. 
 
 veal 
 
 pore m. 
 
 pork 
 
 venaison f. 
 
 venison 
 
 volatile f. 
 
 fowls 
 
 gibier m. 
 
 game 
 
 </2<?o2 m. 
 
 a leg of mutton 
 
 andouilles* f. pi. chitterlings 
 
 sauscisses* f. pi. sausages 
 
 jambon m. 
 
 ham 
 
 /«r<i m, 
 
 bacon 
 
 moutarde f. 
 
 mustard 
 
 soupe f. 
 
 soup 
 
 potage m. 
 
 pottage 
 
 bouillon m. 
 
 broth 
 
 consomme m. 
 
 jelly broth 
 
 ragout m. 
 
 ragout 
 
 fricassee f. 
 
 fricassee 
 
 ^ws m. 
 
 gravy 
 
 5a wee f. 
 
 sauce 
 
 poisson m. 
 
 fish 
 
 salade f. 
 
 salad 
 
 se/ m. 
 
 salt 
 
 Awz7e f. 
 
 oil 
 
 vinaigre m« 
 
 vinegar 
 
 XXXVI. 
 
 wery'tts m, 
 
 verjuice 
 
 anchois m. 
 
 anchovies 
 
 epiees f. pi. 
 
 spices 
 
 poivre m. 
 
 pepper 
 
 gingembre m. 
 
 ginger 
 
 muscade f. 
 
 nutmeg 
 
 meets m. 
 
 mace 
 

 VOCABULARY. 
 
 
 ?!r JJ m * (c,OMS } cloves 
 
 beurre m. 
 /## m. 
 
 butter 
 milk 
 
 cannelle f. 
 
 cinnamon 
 
 creme f. 
 
 cream 
 
 oublies* f. pi. 
 
 thin cakes 
 
 02w/*m. 
 
 egg 
 
 sucre m. 
 
 sugar 
 
 coo^e f. 
 
 shell 
 
 cassonade f. 
 
 moist sugar 
 
 blanc m. 
 
 white 
 
 dessert m. 
 
 dessert 
 
 jaune m. 
 
 yolk 
 
 yhtt* m. 
 
 fruit 
 
 boisson f. 
 
 drink 
 
 joa^e m. 
 
 pie 
 
 liqueur f. 
 
 liquor 
 
 gateau m. 
 
 cake 
 
 *Mm. 
 
 tea 
 
 tourte, tarte f. 
 
 tart 
 
 co/e m. 
 
 coffee 
 
 biscuit m. 
 
 biscuit 
 
 chocolat m. 
 
 chocolate 
 
 macaron m. 
 
 macaroon 
 
 Umonade f. 
 
 lemonade 
 
 crepes m. pi. 
 
 pancakes 
 
 ponclie m. 
 
 punch 
 
 confiture f. 
 
 sweetmeats 
 
 vm m. 
 
 wine 
 
 <?e/ee f. 
 
 J ell y 
 
 oieVe f. 
 
 beer 
 
 marmelade f. 
 
 marmelade 
 
 eau-de-vie f. 
 
 brandy 
 
 conserve f. 
 
 conserve 
 
 nectar m. 
 
 nectar 
 
 tablettes f. pl.f 
 
 lozenges 
 
 ambroisie f. 
 
 ambrosia 
 
 dragees f. pi. 
 
 sugar-plumbs 
 
 cac?re m. 
 
 cyder 
 
 
 
 poire m. 
 
 perry 
 
 XXX 
 
 hgdromel m. 
 
 mead 
 
 
 
 sir op m. 
 
 syrup 
 
 pralines f. pi. 
 
 crisp-almonds 
 
 Zie f . 
 
 drugs 
 
 fromage m. 
 
 cheese 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 OF THE DRESS, APPAREL, &C. 
 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 habillement m. 
 hardes f. pi. 
 habit m. 
 veste f. ja- 
 
 quette\ f. 
 gilet m. 
 manches f. pi. 
 poches f. pi. 
 bouton m. 
 doublure f. 
 couture f. 
 
 dress 
 
 clothes 
 
 a suit of clothes 
 
 >- jacket 
 
 waistcoat 
 
 sleeves 
 
 pockets 
 
 button 
 
 lining 
 
 seam 
 
 culotte f. 
 gousset m. 
 drap m. 
 soze f. 
 velours m. 
 serge f. 
 oasiw m. 
 flanelle f. 
 e7o/fe f. 
 manteau m. 
 surtout m. 
 redingote f. 
 7m</e m. 
 
 breeches 
 
 fob 
 
 cloth 
 
 silk 
 
 velvet 
 
 surge 
 
 dimity 
 
 flannel 
 
 stuff 
 
 cloak 
 
 surtout 
 
 riding- coat 
 
 linen 
 
 Carmagnole or justaucorps, implies the same meaning as veste. 
 
eg 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 
 toile f. 
 
 linen-cloth 
 
 mitaines* f. pi 
 
 mittens 
 
 batiste f. 
 
 cambric 
 
 tabller m. 
 
 apron 
 
 mousseline f. 
 
 muslin 
 
 mules* f. pi. 
 
 1_ ,.. 
 
 /m<m m. 
 
 lawn 
 
 pantoufles^.pir 
 
 c/< emise f. 
 
 shirt 
 
 bague f. 
 
 ring 
 
 ^'afro* m. 
 
 frill 
 
 bijou m. 
 
 jewel 
 
 chemisette f. 
 
 dress-front 
 
 
 
 cravate f. 
 
 cravat 
 
 
 XL. 
 
 fozs* m. pi. 
 chaussettes* f. p] 
 
 stockings 
 f under or half- 
 ' \ stockings 
 
 bracelet m. 
 dentelle f. 
 
 bracelet 
 lace 
 
 
 blonde f. 
 
 blond lace 
 
 XXX 
 
 eventail m. 
 
 fan 
 
 
 
 manchon m. 
 
 muff 
 
 jarretieres f. pi. 
 
 garters 
 
 agrafe f. 
 
 clasp 
 
 /a?«e f. 
 
 wool 
 
 epingle f- 
 
 pin 
 
 ^ffl. 
 
 thread 
 
 aiguille f. 
 
 needle 
 
 cofora m. 
 
 cotton 
 
 eifaz m. 
 
 case 
 
 maille f. 
 
 stitch 
 
 <fe m. 
 
 thimble 
 
 frow m. 
 
 hole 
 
 masque m. 
 
 mask 
 
 chaussons* m. pi. socks 
 
 voz'/e m. 
 
 veil 
 
 guetres* f. pi. 
 
 spatterdashes 
 
 tabatidre f. 
 
 snuff-box 
 
 souliers* m, pi. 
 
 shoes 
 
 tabac m. 
 
 snuff 
 
 escarpins* m. pi 
 
 . pumps 
 
 tabac (a fumer] 
 
 )mtobacco 
 
 semelle f. 
 
 sole 
 
 bourse f. 
 
 purse 
 
 Z>oto* f. pi. 
 
 boots 
 
 argent m. 
 
 money 
 
 boucles* f. pi. 
 
 buckles 
 
 porte-feuille m. 
 
 pocket-book 
 
 cmiV m. 
 
 leather 
 
 ciseaux m. pi. 
 
 scissars 
 
 ohapeau m. 
 
 hat 
 
 crayon m. 
 
 pencil 
 
 perruque f. 
 
 wig 
 
 mouchoir m. 
 
 handkerchief 
 
 j»wpe f. 
 
 petticoat 
 
 lunettes f. pi. 
 
 spectacles 
 
 jupon m. 
 
 under petticoat 
 
 lorgnette, f. 
 
 spying-glass 
 
 sa£m m. 
 
 satin 
 
 consents f. pi. 
 
 preserves 
 
 taffetas m. 
 
 taffety 
 
 bouquet m. 
 
 nosegay 
 
 #aze f. 
 
 gauze 
 
 cawrce f. 
 
 cane 
 
 coiffure f. 
 
 head-dress 
 
 cordon m. 
 
 string 
 
 co^fe f. 
 
 hood 
 
 epee f. 
 
 sword 
 
 collier m. 
 
 necklace 
 
 montre f. 
 
 watch 
 
 boucles d'oreilles~) 
 
 6o& f. 
 
 box 
 
 f. pi.* 
 
 ,>ea,i-iiiig& 
 
 chaine f. 
 
 chain 
 
 gants* m. pi. 
 
 gloves 
 
 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 61 
 
 OF A HOUSE AND FURNITURE. 
 
 XLI. 
 
 maison f. 
 
 hdtel m. 
 
 hotellerie f. 
 chateau m. 
 palais m. 
 couronne f. 
 trone m. 
 sceptre m. 
 ai7e f. 
 
 pavilion m. 
 fondemens* m.pl. 
 wim?' m. muraille f. 
 bdtiment m. 
 materiaux m. pi, 
 pierre f. 
 brique f. 
 mortier m. 
 chaux f. 
 pldtre m. 
 ciment m. 
 tae7e f. 
 ardoise f. 
 charpente f. 
 poutre f. 
 so/ire f. 
 echelle f. 
 care f. 
 ce/fter m. 
 
 house 
 
 {nobleman's 
 house 
 inn 
 castle 
 palace 
 crown 
 throne 
 sceptre 
 wing 
 pavilion 
 foundation 
 wall 
 building 
 materials 
 stone 
 brick 
 mortar 
 lime 
 plaster 
 cement 
 tile 
 slate 
 
 timber-work 
 beam 
 joist 
 ladder 
 vault 
 cellar 
 
 XLII. 
 
 tonneau m. 
 futaille f. 
 boutique f. 
 atelier m. 
 mag asin m. 
 vestibule m. 
 saflle f. safoft m. 
 escalier m. 
 q#?ce m. 
 cuisine f. 
 
 cask 
 
 a wine vessel 
 
 shop 
 
 work-shop 
 
 warehouse 
 
 hall 
 
 parlour, saloon 
 
 stairs 
 
 office 
 
 kitchen 
 
 garde-manger m.f store-room 
 boulangerie f. bake-house 
 
 brasserie f. 
 
 brew-house 
 
 lingerie f. 
 
 laundry 
 
 ecurie f. 
 
 stable 
 
 remise f. 
 
 coach-house 
 
 pi«Ys m. 
 
 well 
 
 efo#e m. 
 
 story 
 
 appartement m. 
 
 apartment 
 
 chambre f. 
 
 room 
 
 antichambre f. 
 
 antechamber 
 
 sa//e a manger f. dining-room 
 
 sa/oft c?e cowiO ■• 
 
 y drawing-room 
 pagnie m. J & 
 
 cabinet de toi-^\ * 
 
 toe m. jdressmg-room 
 
 "r f." C ° M "}t>ed-roora 
 galerie f. gallery 
 
 cabinet m. closet 
 
 boudoir m. lady's closet 
 
 garde-robesi m. wardrobe 
 
 por^e f. 
 
 door 
 
 porte-cochere f. 
 
 gate 
 
 sezzi7 m . 
 
 threshold 
 
 jalousie f. 
 
 blind 
 
 g'o/ic? m. 
 
 hinge 
 
 marteau m. 
 
 knocker 
 
 serrure f. 
 
 lock 
 
 clei.clefi. 
 
 key 
 
 verrou m. 
 
 bolt 
 
 fenetre f. 
 
 window 
 
 v^re f. 
 
 glass 
 
 vo/e£ m. 
 
 shutter 
 
 balcon m. 
 
 balcony 
 
 store m. 
 
 shade 
 
 grenier m. 
 
 garret 
 
 £oi£ m. 
 
 roof 
 
 gouttiere f. 
 
 gutter 
 
 ??zc//e f. 
 
 trunk 
 
 &o2te f. 
 
 box 
 
 eaisse f. 
 
 chest 
 
 cassette f. 
 
 casket 
 
 cn$re m. 
 
 coffer 
 
 In the plural, des garde-manger. 
 
 X In the plural, des garde-robes 
 
r>2 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 
 logement m. 
 
 lodging 
 
 
 XL IV. 
 
 ameublemeut m 
 
 . furniture 
 
 
 
 bande de ehe- 
 
 v chimney-piece 
 
 parquet m. 
 
 inlaid fiooi 
 
 minee\ f. 
 
 plafond m. 
 
 ceiling 
 
 cheminee f. 
 
 chimney 
 
 lambris m. 
 
 wainscot 
 
 dtre m ,/bf/er m. hearth 
 
 cloison f. 
 
 partition 
 
 soufflet m. 
 
 pair of bellows 
 
 tapisserie f. 
 
 hangings 
 
 peZ/e f. 
 
 shovel 
 
 tapz's m. 
 
 carpet 
 
 
 
 /i7 m. 
 
 bed 
 
 XL 
 
 alcove f. 
 
 alcove 
 
 
 
 chalitX m. 
 
 bedstead 
 
 coqucmar m. 
 
 boiler 
 
 chevet m. 
 
 bolster 
 
 pincettes f. pi. 
 
 tongs 
 
 oreiller m. 
 
 pillow 
 
 fourgon m. 
 
 poker 
 
 paillasse f. 
 
 straw-bed 
 
 garde-cendre m. fender 
 
 matelas m- 
 
 mattress 
 
 bouilloire f. 
 
 kettle 
 
 draps* m. pi 
 
 sheets 
 
 couvercle m. 
 
 lid 
 
 couvertures* 
 
 f. pLbed-clothes 
 
 poe/e f. 
 
 frying-pan 
 
 courte-pointe 
 
 f. counterpane 
 
 poelon m. 
 
 skillet 
 
 rideau m. 
 
 curtain 
 
 casserole f. 
 
 saucepan 
 
 tringle f. 
 
 curtain-rod 
 
 foumeau m. 
 
 stove 
 
 anneau m. 
 
 ring 
 
 allumette f. 
 
 match 
 
 so/am. 
 
 sofa 
 
 pierre a fusil f 
 
 . Hint 
 
 fauteuil m. 
 
 elbow-chair 
 
 briquet m. 
 
 steel 
 
 st^e m. 
 
 seat 
 
 ^wr m. 
 
 oven 
 
 chaise f. 
 
 chair 
 
 cZom m. 
 
 nail 
 
 coussin m. 
 
 cushion 
 
 essuie-main m. 
 
 towel 
 
 armoire f. 
 
 press, cup-board 
 
 bassinoire f. 
 
 warming-pan 
 
 commode f. 
 
 chest of drawers 
 
 panier m. 
 
 V basket 
 
 trumeau m. 
 
 pier-glass 
 
 corbeiile f. 
 
 toilette f. 
 
 toilet 
 
 faience f. 
 
 del f- ware 
 
 miroir m. 
 
 looking-glass 
 
 poterie f. 
 
 earthen-ware 
 
 
 
 po£ m. 
 
 pot 
 
 
 XLV. 
 
 cruche f. 
 
 pitcher 
 
 
 
 lampe f. 
 
 lamp 
 
 peigne m. 
 
 comb 
 
 lanterne f. 
 
 lanthorn 
 
 pommade f. 
 
 pomatum 
 
 savon m. 
 
 soap 
 
 poudre f. 
 
 powder 
 
 amidon m. 
 
 starch 
 
 houppe f. 
 
 puff 
 
 &«/#£ m. 
 
 broom 
 
 parfum m. 
 
 perfume 
 
 6awc m. 
 
 bench 
 
 tableau m. 
 
 picture 
 
 tabouret m. or"l „,,_! 
 
 dessin m. 
 
 drawing 
 
 escabeau m. 
 
 >SIUU1 
 
 color is m. 
 
 colouring 
 
 plancher m. 
 
 floor 
 
 portrait m. 
 
 portrait 
 
 porcelaine f. 
 
 china-ware 
 
 pay sage m. 
 
 landscape 
 
 marchepied m. 
 
 footstool 
 
 miniature f. 
 
 miniature 
 
 t In the familiar style instead of chambranle, mantle-piece. 
 j 5ois cte fo'tf is more frequently used than chalit. 
 

 VOCABULARY. 
 
 63 
 
 chandelier m. candlestick 
 
 cuiller f. or cuil 
 
 > spoon 
 
 bobeche f. 
 
 socket 
 
 lere f. 
 
 chandeUe f. 
 
 candle 
 
 carafon m. 
 
 small decanter 
 
 bougie f. 
 
 wax-light 
 
 flacon m. 
 
 flaggon 
 
 cire f. 
 
 wax 
 
 saliere f. 
 
 salt-ceLar 
 
 mouchettes 
 
 '. pi. snuffers 
 
 hu'dier m. 
 
 oil-cruet 
 
 porte-mou- 
 
 "1 snuffer-pan or 
 J stands 
 
 moutardier m. 
 
 mustard-pot 
 
 chettes m 
 
 aiguihe f. 
 
 ewer 
 
 eteignoir m. 
 
 extinguisher 
 
 coupe f. fosse f 
 
 cup 
 
 vergettes f. 
 brosse f. 
 
 P L |brush 
 
 gobelet m. 
 
 J" goblet ortum- 
 1 bier 
 
 6w/fe£ m. 
 
 cup-board 
 
 rerre m. 
 
 glass 
 
 cabaret m. 
 
 tea-board 
 
 bouteille f. 
 
 bottle 
 
 fosse f. 
 
 cup 
 
 bouchon m. 
 
 cork 
 
 soucoupe f. 
 
 saucer 
 
 tire-bouchon m 
 
 cork-screw 
 
 theiere f. 
 
 tea-pot 
 
 carafe f. 
 
 decanter 
 
 cafetiere f. 
 
 coffee-pot 
 
 bibliotheque f. 
 
 library 
 
 chocolatiere 
 
 f. chocolate-pot 
 
 bureau m. 
 
 bureau 
 
 sucrier m. 
 
 sugar-bason 
 
 ftVozr m. 
 
 drawer 
 
 ^afte f. 
 
 bowl 
 
 cachet m. 
 
 seal 
 
 
 
 /eftre f. 
 
 letter 
 
 
 XLVI. 
 
 enveloppe f. 
 
 cover 
 
 fo&/e f. 
 
 table 
 
 adresse f. 
 
 f direction of 
 I a letter 
 
 nappe f. 
 
 cloth 
 
 signature f. 
 
 signature 
 
 serviette f. 
 
 napkin 
 
 sonnette f. 
 
 bell 
 
 assiette f. 
 
 plate 
 
 estampe f. 
 
 cut, print 
 
 /?Zatf m. 
 
 dish 
 
 meda'dle f- 
 
 medal 
 
 couteau m. 
 
 knife 
 
 pain-d-cachetei 
 
 wafer 
 
 fourchette f. 
 
 fork 
 
 
 
 
 O F A 
 
 CITY. 
 
 
 
 XLVII. 
 
 obelisque m. 
 
 obelisk 
 
 
 
 pare m. 
 
 pavement 
 
 wz'Z/e f. 
 
 town, city- 
 
 ruisseau m. 
 
 kennel, brook 
 
 village m. 
 
 village 
 
 marche m. 
 
 market 
 
 Z>oz*r# m. 
 
 borough 
 
 denrees* f. pi. 
 
 provisions 
 
 rwe f. 
 
 street 
 
 boucherie f. 
 
 meat-market 
 
 carrefour m. 
 
 cross-way 
 
 poissonneric f. 
 
 fish-market 
 
 passage m. 
 p/ace f. 
 
 passage 
 square 
 
 friperie f. 
 
 J frippery, old 
 ^ clothes 
 
 n*e7/e f. 
 
 blind-lane 
 
 edifice m. 
 
 edifice 
 
 pyr amide f. 
 
 pyramid 
 
 facade f. 
 
 front 
 
64 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 frontispice m. 
 colonne f. 
 pilastre m. 
 base f. 
 piedestal m. 
 statue f. 
 arcade f. 
 portique m. 
 cul-de-sac m. 
 aqueduc m. 
 eWme m. 
 
 frontispiece 
 
 column 
 
 pilaster 
 
 base 
 
 pedestal 
 
 statue 
 
 arcade 
 
 portico or piazza 
 
 no thoroughfare 
 
 aqueduct 
 
 dome 
 
 XLVIII. 
 
 paroisse f. parish 
 
 comedie f. play-house 
 
 theatre m. stage 
 
 coulisses f. pi. scenery 
 decorations f. pi. decorations 
 curtain 
 j tiring-room, 
 
 fc«7e f. 
 
 /oyer m. 
 
 orchestre m 
 parterre m. 
 
 \ green-room 
 
 orchestra 
 
 pit 
 
 box 
 
 XLIX 
 
 Zo<7£ f. 
 
 amphitheatre m. first gallery 
 
 paradis m. upper gallery 
 
 Mfe£ m 
 couvent m. 
 monastere m. 
 cellule f. 
 hermitage m. 
 solitude f. 
 retraite f. 
 universite f. 
 college m. 
 eco/e f. 
 pension f. 
 parlement m. 
 
 ticket 
 
 convent 
 
 monastery 
 
 cell 
 
 hermitage 
 
 solitude 
 
 retirement 
 
 university 
 
 college 
 
 school 
 
 boarding-school 
 
 parliament 
 
 /# Chambre des~\ TT r T , 
 
 P^iVs j> House of Lords 
 
 /a Chambre des\ House of Com- 
 
 Deputes J mons 
 prison f. prison 
 
 cachot m. dungeon 
 
 hopital m. hospital 
 
 affiche f. 
 infirmerie f. 
 taveme f. 
 cabaret m. 
 auberge f. 
 c^/e m. 
 enseigne f. 
 annonce f. 
 po/^ m. 
 arcAe f. 
 pilier m. 
 bateau m. 
 o/wai m. 
 bourse f. 
 banque f. 
 agiotage m. 
 douane f. 
 posfe f. 
 petite poste f. 
 tresorerie f. 
 amiraute f. 
 arsenal m. 
 faubourg m. 
 boulevards* m.pl. 
 remparts* m. pi. 
 barriere f. 
 guingette f. 
 jfor^e f. 
 verrerie f. 
 fonderie f. 
 
 bill 
 
 infirmary 
 
 tavern 
 
 public-house 
 
 inn 
 
 colFee-house 
 
 sign, board 
 
 advertisement 
 
 bridge 
 
 arch 
 
 pillar 
 
 boat 
 
 quay 
 
 exchange 
 
 bank 
 
 stock-jobbing 
 
 custom-house 
 
 general-post 
 
 penny-post 
 
 treasury 
 
 admiralty 
 
 arsenal 
 
 suburb 
 
 bulwarks 
 
 ramparts 
 
 turnpike 
 
 tea-garden 
 
 forge 
 
 glass-house 
 
 foundery 
 
 L. 
 
 voiture publique \ 
 
 diligence f. 
 carrosse m. 
 voiture f. 
 imperiale f. 
 portiere f. 
 glaces* f. pi. 
 fa'wiOft m. 
 rowe f. 
 essieu m. 
 equipage m. 
 harnois m. pi. 
 rewes f. pi. 
 
 } stage-coach 
 
 I coach, carriage 
 
 roof 
 
 door 
 
 windows 
 
 coach-pole 
 
 wheel 
 
 axle-tree 
 
 equipage 
 
 harness 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 65 
 
 bride f. 
 
 bridle 
 
 fiacre m. 
 
 hackney-coach 
 
 licou m 
 
 halter 
 
 charrette f. 
 
 cart 
 
 selle f . 
 
 saddle 
 
 four g on m. 
 
 waggon 
 
 bat m. 
 
 pack-saddle 
 
 remise f. 
 
 coach-house 
 
 arcon m , 
 
 saddle-bow 
 
 rasoir m. 
 
 razor 
 
 sangle f. 
 
 girth 
 
 cuir hi. 
 
 scrap 
 
 etriers* m. pi. 
 
 stirrups 
 
 wiowZe m. 
 
 mould 
 
 eperons* m. pi. 
 
 spurs 
 
 machine f. 
 
 machine 
 
 berline f. 
 
 berlin 
 
 moulin m. 
 
 mill 
 
 cabriolet m. 
 
 curricle, fly 
 
 interieur 
 
 inside 
 
 chaise f. 
 
 chaise 
 
 exttrieur 
 
 outside f 
 
 OF TRADES, ARTS, PROFESSIONS, &C. 
 
 LI. 
 
 boulajiger m. 
 barbier m. 
 forgeron m. 
 relieur m. 
 libraire m. 
 chaudronnier m. 
 brasseur m. 
 boucher m. 
 ebeniste m. 
 charpentier m. 
 charron m. 
 sculpteur m. 
 chimiste m. 
 carrossier m. 
 confiseur m. 
 tonnelier m. 
 corroyeur m. 
 coutelier m. 
 fourbisseur m. 
 teinturier m. 
 distillateur m. 
 droguiste m, 
 pharmacien m. 
 
 baker 
 
 barber 
 
 blacksmith 
 
 book-binder 
 
 bookseller 
 
 brazier 
 
 brewer 
 
 butcher 
 
 cabinet-maker 
 
 carpenter 
 
 cartwright 
 
 sculptor 
 
 chemist 
 
 coach-maker 
 
 confectioner 
 
 cooper 
 
 currier 
 
 cutler 
 
 sword-cut] er 
 
 dyer 
 
 distiller 
 
 druggist 
 
 apothecary. 
 
 graveur m. 
 marechal m. 
 poissonnier m. 
 fondeur m. 
 fruitier m. 
 fourreur m. 
 jardinier m. 
 doreur m. 
 verrier m. 
 vitrier m. 
 gantier m. 
 orfevre m. 
 epicier m. 
 armurier m. 
 
 chapelier m. 
 aubergiste m. 
 joaillier m. 
 menuisier m. 
 serrurier m. 
 macon m. 
 
 couturiere f. 
 
 engraver 
 
 farrier 
 
 fishmonger 
 
 founder 
 
 fruiterer 
 
 furrier 
 
 gardener 
 
 gilder 
 
 glass -maker 
 
 glazier 
 
 glover 
 
 goldsmith 
 
 grocer 
 
 armourer 
 
 LII. 
 
 hatter 
 
 innkeeper 
 
 jeweller 
 
 joiner 
 
 locksmith 
 
 bricklayer 
 fmantua-maker 
 \ sempstress 
 
 t In France the outside of a stage coach is named Za banquette, V imperials, and 
 ta rotonde ; the inside is known under the names of V interieur, le coupe. 
 
66 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 maitre d'hotel m. 
 
 mercier m. 
 
 meunier m. 
 peintre m. 
 pdtissier m. 
 paveur m. 
 colpGrteur m. 
 parfumeur m. 
 medecin m. 
 pldtrier m. 
 plombier m. 
 blanchisseuse f. 
 potier m. 
 imprimeur m. 
 se/ft'er m. 
 lingere f. 
 ccrdonnier m. 
 
 steward 
 
 f mercer, haber- 
 
 l dasher 
 miller 
 painter 
 pastry-cook 
 paviour 
 pedlar 
 perfumer 
 physician 
 plasterer 
 plumber 
 washing-woman 
 potter 
 printer 
 sadler 
 sempstress 
 shoe-maker 
 
 pelletier m. 
 forgeron m. 
 chirurgien m. 
 arpenteur m. 
 tailleur m. 
 tanneur m. 
 bijoutier m. 
 tourneur m. 
 entrepreneur m 
 tapissier m. 
 
 horloger m. 
 
 tisserand m. 
 perruquier m 
 ouvrage m. 
 ouvrier m. 
 ouvriere f. 
 
 skinner 
 
 smith 
 
 surgeon 
 
 surveyor 
 
 tailor 
 
 tanner 
 
 toy-man 
 
 turner 
 
 undertaker 
 
 upholsterer 
 f watch or clock 
 \ maker 
 
 weaver 
 
 wig-maker 
 
 work 
 
 workman 
 
 workwoman 
 
 OF THE COUNTRY, HUSBANDRY, FLOWERS, TREES, &C. 
 
 
 LIIL 
 
 enclos m. 
 chateau m. 
 
 campagne f. 
 
 country 
 
 ferre f. 
 
 chemin m. 
 
 way 
 
 cowr f. 
 
 sender m. 
 
 footpath 
 
 basse-cour f. 
 
 6owe f. 
 
 mud 
 
 colombier m. 
 
 fange f. 
 
 mire 
 
 laiterie f. 
 
 poussiere f. 
 
 dust 
 
 ecwn'e f. 
 
 bourbier m. 
 
 slough 
 
 fruiterie f. 
 
 orniere f. 
 
 cart-rut 
 
 jar din m. 
 
 hameau m. 
 
 hamlet 
 
 jardinage m. 
 
 close 
 
 castle 
 
 estate 
 
 yard 
 
 poultry-yard 
 
 pigeon-house 
 
 dairy 
 
 stable 
 
 fruit-loft 
 
 garden 
 
 gardening 
 
 fleuriste m. 
 parterre m. 
 ^/Zewr f. 
 *m f . 
 
 primevere f. 
 narcisse m. 
 jacinthe f. 
 ta&pe f. 
 
 OF FLOWERS. 
 
 
 florist 
 
 viclette f. 
 
 violet 
 
 parterre 
 flower 
 
 pensee f. 
 
 J pansey, 
 ^heartsease 
 
 crocus 
 
 marguerite f. 
 
 daisy 
 
 cowslip 
 
 imperiale f. 
 
 Turk's cap 
 
 narcissus 
 
 martagon m. 
 
 mountain lily 
 
 hyacinth 
 
 Zts m. 
 
 lily 
 
 tulip 
 
 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 67 
 
 LIV. 
 
 plate-bande f. 
 muguet m. 
 oreiUe-d'ours f. 
 anemone f. 
 renoncule f. 
 jonquille f. 
 giroflee f. 
 cezY/ez 1 m. 
 
 campanule f. ~) 
 gantelee f. J 
 rose f. 
 
 jasmin m. jasmine 
 
 tubereuse f. tuberose 
 
 chevre-feuille m. honeysuckle 
 seringat m. seringa 
 
 ZzYas m. lilach 
 
 soz/cz m. marigold 
 
 amaranthe f. amaranth 
 
 flower-border 
 
 may-lily 
 
 auricula 
 
 anemone 
 
 ranunculus 
 
 jonquil 
 
 stock, gilliflower 
 
 carnation, pink 
 
 -bell-flower 
 
 rose 
 
 pavot m. 
 coquelicot m. 
 ponceau m. 
 o/z/ez 4 m. oar' 
 
 oeaw m. 
 tournesol m. 
 camomille f. 
 helle-de-nuit f. 
 eiemelle f. 
 immortelle f. 
 balsamine f. 
 ancolie f. 
 passe-rose f, 
 hepatique f. 
 pied-d'alouette 
 pivoine f. 
 scabieuse f. 
 julienne f. 
 planche f. 
 arrosoir m. 
 
 poppy 
 
 ^blue-bottle 
 
 turnsol 
 camomile 
 great nightshade 
 
 Icassidony 
 
 balsam 
 columbine 
 hollyhock 
 hepatica 
 miarkspur 
 peony 
 scabious 
 rocket 
 bed 
 watering-pot. 
 
 LV. 
 
 amande f. 
 
 almond 
 
 pomme f. 
 
 apple 
 
 abricot m. 
 
 apricot 
 
 cerz'se f. 
 
 cherry 
 
 guigne f. 
 
 f small black 
 \ cherry 
 
 chdtaigne f. 
 
 chesnut 
 
 mar r on m. 
 
 large chesnut 
 
 groseilles* f. pi. 
 
 currants 
 
 groseille f. 
 
 gooseberry 
 
 J^zze f. 
 
 fig 
 
 aveline f. 
 
 filberts 
 
 raisin m. 
 
 grapes 
 
 prune f 
 
 plum 
 
 reine-claude f. 
 
 greengage 
 
 citron m. 
 
 lemon 
 
 onanas m. 
 
 pine apple 
 
 OF FRUITS. 
 
 
 
 rc^/Ze f. 
 
 medlar 
 
 
 mefo/z m. 
 
 melon 
 
 
 mzzre f. 
 
 mulberry 
 
 
 brugnon m. 
 
 nectarine 
 
 
 noisette f. 
 
 hazel-nut 
 
 
 orange f. 
 
 orange 
 
 ack 
 
 pecAe f., 
 
 peach 
 
 
 pozre f. 
 
 pear 
 
 
 citrouille f. 
 
 pumpkin 
 
 nut 
 
 cozVz m. 
 
 quince 
 
 
 framboise f. 
 
 raspberry 
 
 
 fraise f. 
 
 strawberry 
 
 
 ?zoz.r f. 
 
 walnut 
 
 
 epine-vinette f 
 
 barberries 
 
 
 grenade f. 
 
 pomegranate 
 
 
 o/z*z;e f. 
 
 olive 
 
 
 cerneaux m. 
 
 kernel of walnut 
 
 
 gratte-cidi m. 
 
 ^f hip, a berry from 
 L the sweei-briar 
 
 * Currants are called in French, black, red, and yellow currants, groseulcs 
 noires or cassis, groseilles rouges, et groseilles jaunes. 
 f In the plural, t/es gratte-cul. 
 
68 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 OF HERBS AND PLANTS. 
 
 LVI. 
 
 topinambour m 
 
 aloes m. 
 angelique f. 
 artichaut m. 
 asperge f. 
 melisse I. 
 basilic m. 
 yere f. 
 "haricot m. 
 poiree f. 
 betterave f. 
 bourrache f. 
 bardane f. 
 pimprenette f. 
 c/k)M m. 
 carotte f. 
 ce7m m. 
 cerfeuil m. 
 choux-fleurs 
 
 *m. pi. 
 mdches f. £1. 
 cresson m. 
 concombre m. 
 dent-de-lion m. 
 patience f. 
 chicoree f. 
 Jenouil m. 
 fougere f. 
 ai7 m. 
 calebasse f. 
 cu/tti' f. 
 Aerfo f. 
 raifort m. 
 joubarbe f. 
 #erre m. 
 
 {Jerusalem arti- 
 choke 
 aloe 
 
 angelica 
 artichoke 
 asparagus 
 balm 
 basil 
 bean 
 
 french-bean 
 beet 
 
 beet-root 
 borage 
 burdock 
 burnet 
 cabbage 
 carrot 
 celery- 
 chervil 
 
 > cauliflowers 
 
 corn-salad 
 
 cresses 
 
 cucumber 
 
 dandelion 
 
 dock 
 
 endive 
 
 fennel 
 
 fern 
 
 garlic 
 
 gourd 
 
 hemlock 
 
 herb 
 
 horse-radish 
 
 house-leek 
 
 ivy 
 
 LVII. 
 
 ZazVwe f. 
 reglisse f. 
 mauve f. 
 guimauve f. 
 marjolaine f. 
 reseda m. 
 menthe f. 
 </z« m. 
 mousse f. 
 moutarde f. 
 capucine f. 
 orft'e f. 
 ognon m. 
 persil m. 
 panais m. 
 po/s m. 
 parietaire f. 
 plante f. 
 plantain m. 
 pomme de terre i 
 courge f. 
 pourpier m. 
 rave f. 
 race's m. 
 roseau m. 
 rwe f. 
 jVmc m. 
 rhubarbe f. 
 safran m. 
 saw^e f. 
 sarriette f. 
 ciboule f. 
 echalote f. 
 sensitive f. 
 
 lettuce 
 liquorice 
 mallows 
 marsh-mallows 
 marjoram 
 mignionette 
 mint 
 misletoe 
 moss 
 mustard 
 nasturtium 
 nettle 
 onion 
 parsley- 
 parsnip 
 peas 
 pellitory 
 plant 
 plantain 
 . potato 
 pumkin 
 purslain 
 radish 
 
 Spanish radish 
 reed 
 rue 
 rush 
 rhubarb 
 saffron 
 sage 
 savory 
 scallion 
 shallot 
 sensitive-plant 
 
 7<? f . 
 poireau m. 
 
 truffle, pig-nut 
 leek 
 
 LVIII. 
 
 osei/Ze f. 
 veronique f. 
 epinards m. pi. 
 tanaisie f. 
 ivraie f. 
 estragon m. 
 
 sorrel 
 
 speedwell 
 
 spinage 
 
 tansey 
 
 tare 
 
 stragan 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 69 
 
 chardon m. 
 thym m. 
 serpolet m. 
 trifle m. 
 navet m. 
 valeriane f. 
 
 thistle 
 
 thyme 
 
 wild thyme 
 
 trefoil 
 
 turnip 
 
 valerian 
 
 vegetaux m. pi. vegetables 
 
 legumes m. pi. veg. greens 
 
 verveine f. vervain 
 
 absinthe f. wormwood 
 
 mille-feuilles f. yarrow 
 
 OF TREES AND SHRUBS. 
 
 abricotier m. 
 
 apricot tree 
 
 
 ar&re m. 
 
 tree 
 
 
 arbrisseau m. 
 
 shrub 
 
 "fow.r m. 
 
 ecorce f. 
 
 bark 
 
 ft7/ett? m. 
 
 branche f. 
 
 branch 
 
 mi/rte m. 
 
 feuVJe f. 
 
 leaf 
 
 cAewe m. 
 
 grains f. 
 
 seed 
 
 osier m. 
 
 rejeton m. 
 
 sucker 
 
 romarin m. 
 
 arbousier m. 
 
 arbutus 
 
 eglantier m. 
 
 /mze m. 
 
 ash tree 
 
 ^p27J0 f. 
 
 tremble m. 
 
 aspin 
 
 buisson m. 
 
 ''hetre m. 
 
 beech tree 
 
 aubepine f. 
 
 bouleau m. 
 
 birch tree 
 
 vigwe f. 
 
 6 wis m. 
 
 box 
 
 sawZe m. 
 
 <7ew& m. 
 
 broom 
 
 ifm. 
 
 sureaa m. 
 
 elder tree 
 
 cognassier m 
 
 o?'me m. 
 
 elm 
 
 figuier m. 
 
 sapm m. 
 
 fir tree 
 
 woz/er m. 
 
 coudrier m. 
 
 hazel tree 
 
 oranger m. 
 
 cerisier m, 
 
 cherry tree 
 
 pecker m. 
 
 chdtaignier m. 
 
 chesnut tree 
 
 pommier m. 
 
 citronnier m. 
 
 lemon tree 
 
 poirier m. 
 
 amandier m. 
 
 almond-tree. 
 
 prunier m. 
 
 LIX. 
 
 holly 
 lime tree 
 myrtle tree 
 oak 
 osier 
 rosemary 
 sweet-briar 
 thorn 
 
 thorn-bush 
 white-thorn 
 vine 
 
 willow tree 
 yew tree 
 quince tree 
 fig tree 
 walnut tree 
 orange tree 
 peach tree 
 apple tree 
 pear tree 
 plum tree 
 
 PROMISCUOUS WORDS. 
 
 grange f. 
 Aufte f. 
 chaumiere f. 
 seigneurie f. 
 c/wwe f. 
 
 barn 
 
 hut 
 
 thatched-house 
 
 manor 
 
 tithe 
 
 metairie f. farm 
 
 si//ow m. ridge, furrow 
 
 pre m. prairie f. meadow 
 arpent m. acre 
 
 fosse m. ditch 
 
70 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 champ m. 
 
 field 
 
 betail m. 
 
 cattle 
 
 pdturage m. 
 
 pasture-ground 
 
 f under m. 
 
 dung 
 
 terroir m. 
 
 soil 
 
 terreau m. 
 
 mould 
 
 pare m. 
 
 park 
 
 recolte f. 
 
 crop 
 
 "haie f. 
 
 hedge 
 
 moisson f. 
 
 harvest 
 
 bruyere f. 
 
 heath 
 
 vendange f. 
 
 vintage 
 
 /awafe f. 
 
 waste land 
 
 "houblon m. 
 
 hops 
 
 commune f. 
 
 common 
 
 #r«m m. 
 
 corn 
 
 plaine f. 
 
 plain 
 
 6/e m. 
 
 wheat 
 
 garenne f. 
 
 warren 
 
 or#e m. 
 
 barley 
 
 fondriere f. 
 
 bog 
 
 avoine f. 
 
 oats 
 
 G?W?2eS f. pi. 
 
 downs 
 
 nz m. 
 
 rice 
 
 
 
 seigle m. 
 
 rye 
 
 
 LX. 
 
 7W*7/e£ m. 
 
 millet 
 
 marais m. 
 
 marsh 
 
 /m m. 
 chanvre m. 
 
 fiax 
 
 hemp 
 
 hemp-seed 
 
 
 
 serre f. 
 serre-chaude f. 
 
 green-house 
 hot-house 
 
 chenevis m. 
 
 boulingrin m. 
 
 bowling-green 
 
 
 LXI. 
 
 berceau m. 
 
 bower 
 
 
 
 bosquet m. 
 
 grove 
 
 epi m. 
 
 ear (of corn) 
 
 gro#e f. 
 
 grotto 
 
 <7er6e f. 
 
 sheaf (of corn) 
 
 vignoble m. 
 
 vineyard 
 
 ft^e f. 
 
 stalk 
 
 pepiniere f. 
 
 nursery (trees) 
 
 tuyau m. 
 
 blade 
 
 fcwZ/is m. 
 
 coppice-wood 
 
 j?az7/e f. 
 
 straw 
 
 "hallier m. 
 
 thicket 
 
 chaume m. 
 
 stubble 
 
 pay sage m. 
 
 landscape 
 
 /om m. 
 
 hay 
 
 perspective f. 
 
 prospect 
 
 four rage m. 
 
 fodder 
 
 uwe f- 
 
 view 
 
 fermier m. 
 
 farmer 
 
 cascade f. 
 
 cascade 
 
 pay sun m. 
 
 peasant 
 
 canal m. 
 
 canal 
 
 laboureur m 
 
 ploughman 
 
 agriculture f. 
 
 agriculture 
 
 moissonneur 
 
 m. reaper 
 
 labourage m. 
 
 tillage 
 
 fauckeur m. 
 
 mower 
 
 bocage m. 
 
 grove. 
 
 berger m. 
 
 shepherd 
 
 OF METALS, &C. 
 
 or m. 
 
 gold 
 
 similor m. 
 
 pinchbeck 
 
 argent m. 
 
 silver 
 
 a /er m. 
 
 iron 
 
 vlatine m. 
 Diet. 
 
 Vplatma 
 
 j?/ d'archal m. 
 «C2er m. 
 
 wire 
 
 steel 
 
 vermeil m. 
 
 silver-gilt 
 
 fer-blanc m. 
 
 iron-tinned 
 
 cuivre m. 
 
 copper 
 
 efam m. 
 
 pewter 
 
 airain m. 
 
 brass 
 
 plomb m. 
 
 lead 
 
 Ztfzfow nu 
 
 latten-wire 
 
 mercure m. 
 
 mercury 
 
 bronze m. 
 
 bronze 
 
 vif-argent m. 
 
 quicksilver 
 
VOCABULARY. 
 
 
 Ul. 
 
 alun m. 
 
 alum 
 
 
 couperose f. 
 
 copperas 
 
 sulphur 
 
 vitriol m. 
 
 vitriol 
 
 nitre 
 
 car mm m. 
 
 carmine 
 
 saltpetre 
 
 pastel m, 
 
 pastal 
 
 bitumen 
 
 ocre f. 
 
 ochre 
 
 antimony- 
 
 vermilion m. 
 
 red-lead 
 
 arsenic 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 OF COLOURS, 
 
 
 orange m. 
 blanc m. 
 
 orange colour 
 white 
 
 rouge m. 
 jaune m. 
 
 red 
 yellow 
 
 noir m. 
 
 black 
 
 
 6rzm m. 
 
 brown 
 
 6Zew m. 
 rertf m. 
 
 blue 
 green 
 
 
 pourpre m. 
 ecarlate f. 
 
 purple 
 
 scarlet 
 
 gns m 
 
 grey 
 
 
 indigo m. 
 
 indigo 
 
 
 OF 
 
 PRECK 
 
 5US STONES. 
 
 
 diamant m. 
 topaze f. 
 
 diamond 
 topaz 
 
 
 amethyste f. 
 cornaline f. 
 
 amethyst 
 cornelian 
 
 emeraude f. 
 saphir f. 
 escarboucle f. 
 
 emerald 
 sapphire 
 carbuncle 
 
 
 0^?/^; m. 
 agathe f. 
 corail m. 
 
 onyx 
 agate 
 coral 
 
 r«6w m. 
 
 ruby 
 
 
 per/e f. 
 
 pearl 
 
 OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. 
 
 LXIII. 
 
 Abyssinia 
 Germany 
 England 
 Aiabia 
 Barbary 
 Bengal 
 
 Biledulgerid m. Biledulgerid 
 Boheme f. Bohemia 
 
 Bresil m. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Caffrerie f. 
 
 Caffraria 
 
 Canada m. 
 
 Canada 
 
 Caroline f. 
 
 Carolina 
 
 C7«7i m. 
 
 Chili 
 
 Cfcwe f. 
 
 China 
 
 Dancmarck m. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Ecosse f. 
 
 Scotland 
 
 jE?g#pfe f. 
 
 Egvpt 
 
 Espagne f. 
 
 Spain 
 
72 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 1 
 
 Ethiopie f. 
 
 Ethiopia 
 
 Monoemugi m. 
 
 Monoemugi 
 
 France f. 
 
 France 
 
 Nigritie f. 
 
 Migritia 
 
 Georgie f. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Norwege f. 
 
 Norway 
 
 Guiane f. 
 
 Guiana 
 
 Paraguay m. 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Guinee f. 
 
 Guinea 
 
 Pensylvanie f. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Hollande f. 
 
 Holland 
 
 Perou m. 
 
 Peru 
 
 Hongrie t'. 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Perse f. 
 
 Persia 
 
 /wrfe f. 
 
 India 
 
 Pologne f. 
 
 Poland 
 
 Irlande f. 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Portugal m . 
 
 Portugal 
 
 JfoZze f. 
 
 Italy 
 
 Prusse f. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Jama'tque f. 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Russie f. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Japon m. 
 
 Japan 
 
 £*. Domingue m.St. Domingo 
 
 
 
 >SWde f. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 LXIV. 
 
 Suisse f . 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 
 
 Tar tar ie f. 
 
 Tartary 
 
 /<es Pays-Pas 
 
 m. the Netherlands 
 
 Turquie f. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Malabar m. 
 
 Malabar 
 
 Virginie f. 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Maryland m. 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Zaara, m. 
 
 Zaara 
 
 Mogol m. 
 
 Mogul 
 
 Zanguebar m. 
 
 Zanguebar 
 
 Monomotapa 
 
 m. Monomotapa 
 
 
 
 COMMON NATIONAL NAMES 
 
 •4/Hcaira, e 
 Allemand, e 
 Americain, e 
 Anglais, e 
 Autrichien, ne 
 Bohemien, ne 
 Chinois, e 
 Danois, e 
 Ecossais, e 
 Espagnol, e 
 Flamand, e 
 Francois m. e. f. 
 Grec m. gwe f. 
 
 £V. 
 
 Hollandais, e 
 
 Dutch 
 
 
 Hongrois, e 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 African 
 
 Irlandais, e 
 
 Irish 
 
 German 
 
 Italien, ne 
 
 Italian 
 
 American 
 
 Japonais, e 
 
 Japanese 
 
 English 
 
 Lapon, ne 
 
 Laplander 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Norwegien, ne 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 Bohemian 
 
 Per s an, e 
 
 Persian 
 
 Chinese 
 
 Polonais, e 
 
 Pole 
 
 Dane 
 
 Portugais* e 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Prussien, ne 
 
 Prussian 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Russe m. & f. 
 
 Russian 
 
 Flemish 
 
 Suedois, e 
 
 Swede 
 
 French 
 
 Suisse, esse 
 
 Swiss 
 
 Greek 
 
 Turc,m.2urqui 
 
 f. Turkish, Turk 
 
SIGNS AND PUNCTUATION 73 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHICAL FRENCH SIGNS 
 
 AND PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Besides the accents already mentioned page 3, 
 there are some other signs frequently used in the 
 French language, viz., the apostrophe, the cedilla, 
 the dicBresis, and the hyphen ; as to the comma, 
 semicolon, colon, period, interrogation, notes of 
 admiration and exclamation, parenthesis, &c, they 
 are the same in the French as in the English 
 language; we therefore shall not say more of the 
 punctuation. 
 
 OF THE APOSTROPHE AND ELISION. 
 
 The apostrophe (') marks the suppression of a 
 vowel before another vowel or h mute, which is not 
 sounded in the pronunciation, as V amour, the love, 
 instead of le amour ; Vhistoire, the history, instead 
 of la histoire ; Vestime, the esteem, instead of la 
 estime, &c. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1 . Eleven monosyllables admit of the apostrophe, 
 viz., ce, de,je, la, le, me, ne, que, se, te, and si. 
 
 Si requires the apostrophe only before il, Us, 
 pronouns of the third person placed before the 
 verbs. 
 
 2. The apostrophe is used also after presque and 
 
/4 SIGxNS AND PUNCTUATION. 
 
 entre 9 when in composition with another word 
 beginning with a vowel, as 
 
 Entr'acte, an interlude, "\ r Entre-acte. 
 
 s'entf aider, to help one another, ' ^ J se entre-aider. 
 entr'ouvrir, to half open, ? or } entre-ouvrir. 
 
 presqu'ile, peninsula, J \ presque lie. 
 
 Except the above cases, entre and presque keep 
 the mute e 9 as in 
 
 presque egal, very near equal. 
 
 entre eux, entre eUes, between themselves. 
 
 presque entier, almost the whole. 
 
 Lorsque, when, puisque, since, quoique, although, 
 que, that, require the apostrophe before the words 
 elle, il 9 on, un 9 une, and in their compounds : as 
 
 Lor squ' elle vient, when she comes, instead of lorsque elle. 
 
 puisquHl Vaime, since he loves her, , puisque il la aime. 
 
 quoiqu'on ait dit, though they may have said, quoique on. 
 
 qu'unefemme soit vertueuse, let a woman be virtuous, que une. 
 
 It is more elegant to say and to write quoique Von 
 and si Von than quoiquon and si on ; this last ex- 
 pression si on is particularly to be avoided on 
 account of the hiatus. 
 
 3. Jusque when followed immediately by a, an, 
 ici 9 here, alors, then, aujourd'hui, to-day, requires 
 also the apostrophe, as 
 
 Jusqu'a 
 
 till to 
 
 jusqu'au 
 jusquHci 
 jusqu'alors 
 jusqu'-a-aujourd 'hui 
 
 till here 
 till then 
 till to-day ; 
 
 and not jusqu 'aigourd liui, which is never said. 
 Exceptions. — The apostrophe does not take place 
 
SIGNS AND PUNCTUATION. 75 
 
 in le and la after the imperative mood, or after the 
 adverb la, there : as 
 
 gardez-le avec vous keep him with you. 
 
 conduisez-la au bain take her to the bath. 
 
 etait-elle Id avec lui was she there with him. 
 
 The same rule must be observed with ce, de, le, la, 
 que, before huit, eight, huitaine, eight days, hui- 
 tihne, eighth, oui, yes, and onze, eleven, and its 
 derivatives, as 
 
 Le qui et le non the yes and the no. 
 
 elle a dit que oui she said yes. 
 
 U onze, le onzieme, la onzieme, the eleventh. 
 
 4. Though the elision or the suppression of an 
 ending vowel takes place only before another vowel 
 or h mute (not sounded), we must, however, except 
 the feminine adjective grande, great, which drops 
 its final mute e before a certain class of substantives 
 beginning with a consonant : as 
 
 Grand' 'chere, good cheery r grande chere 
 
 grand' chose, great thing ( j nstead Q Ag rande c \ ose 
 grand'mere, grandmother/" j grande mere 
 
 grandWue, large street J Kgrande rue 
 
 CEDILLA. 
 
 The cedilla (cedille c) is a kind of comma placed 
 under c, giving to it the sound of s hard before a, 
 o, u, as in facade, facpn, reca. 
 
 DIURESIS. 
 
 The diaeresis (") or trema are two little dots placed 
 over the vowels e, z, u, to intimate that they are to 
 be pronounced distinctly from the vowels by which 
 they are accompanied, as in na-'ivete, saba-'isme, 
 
76 OF GENDER. 
 
 Saul (proper name), cigue, hemlock, &c. ; i trtma 
 is different in its application from the y, therefore 
 it would be improper to write moien, citoien, instead 
 of moyen, citoyen, 
 
 HYPHEN. 
 
 The hyphen [-] or tiret, is particularly used in 
 connecting compound words; as in Belles-lettres, 
 tout-puissant, chef-d'oeuvre, arc-en-ciel, &c. 
 
 OF GENDER. 
 
 The French language admits only of two genders, 
 the masculine and the feminine, both in men and 
 animals, as homme, man, lion, lion, are masculine, 
 and femme, woman, lionne, lioness, are feminine. 
 As there is no neuter in French, they have been 
 obliged to apply the above generical distinction to 
 inanimate objects, thus soleil, sun, livre, book, are 
 masculine, lune, moon, table, table, are feminine. 
 In this respect English people experience as much 
 difficulty as the French for the use of shall and 
 will. However, although we share the opinion of 
 those who think that ear and practice alone are the 
 most efficient masters for learning the genders in 
 the French language, we cannot help laying down 
 the following method, which has already been much 
 approved of for its simplicity. 
 
 Easy mode of distinguishing when a French Noun 
 is masculine or feminine. 
 
 General Rule. — As we have just stated, among 
 living creatures, the males are of the masculine 
 
OF GENDER. 
 
 77 
 
 gender, and the females of the feminine ; thus 
 hom?ne, boeuf, coq, &c, man, ox, cock, are mascu- 
 line ; femme, vache, poule, &c, woman, cow, hen, 
 are feminine. 
 
 We must except from this rule reptiles, insects, 
 fishes, and many wild birds and beasts, whose 
 males and females are in French both masculine or 
 both feminine. Thus for instance, morue, cod-fish, 
 mouche, fly, hir middle, swallow, are both males and 
 females of the feminine gender, and saumon, salmon, 
 serpent, snake, moineau, sparrow, are males and 
 females of the masculine gender. Their gender, 
 like that of inanimate objects, is known by the 
 termination of their names, as follows : 
 
 MASCULINE TERMINATIONS. 
 
 1. All nouns which end in a conso- 
 nant and have any other final than 
 x, eur, and ion, and also son, pre- 
 ceded by a vowel, are masculine, as 
 well as the words ending in 
 *a as opera. 
 
 te accen-" 
 
 tuated not 
 preceded 
 by t, as in v 
 2. i . . 
 to . . 
 
 pre, meadow. 
 
 oubli, forgetfulness. 
 
 echo. 
 
 chapeau, hat. 
 
 paysage, landscape. 
 
 piege, snare. 
 
 deluge, flood. 
 
 obstacle. 
 
 vulgaire, the rabble. 
 
 royaume, kingdom. 
 
 diademe. 
 
 sophisme. 
 
 atome. 
 
 oratoire. 
 
 chene, oak. 
 and all adjectives and verbs substan- 
 tively used, as le beau, le sublime, le 
 boire, le manger, &c. 
 
 Exceptions to the masculine. 
 \.*Boisson, brebis, chair, chanson, clef, 
 
 4. age 
 
 5. ege 
 Huge . 
 
 6. acle , 
 
 7. aire 
 
 8. aume . 
 
 9. erne . 
 §isme . 
 
 10. ome . 
 
 11. oire . 
 All trees 
 
 FEMININE TERMINATIONS. 
 
 1. All nouns which end in x, eur, 
 ion, and also in son, preceded by a 
 vowel, are feminine ; as well as 
 those which end in 
 
 2. ee ; 
 
 3. te ace. 
 
 4. ie 
 
 5. ace 
 *ance 
 
 anse 
 
 6. ence 
 ense 
 
 fade , 
 
 7. ude , 
 
 8. iere 
 
 9. ure 
 
 10. lie . , 
 
 11. mme 
 
 12. nne 
 
 13. rre 
 
 14. sse 
 
 15. tte . 
 
 ,s armee. 
 bonte, goodness. 
 vie, life. 
 grace. 
 
 Xesperance, hope. 
 
 j- patience. 
 
 promenade, 
 servitude, 
 riviere. 
 
 blessure, wound. 
 chandelle. 
 pomme, apple 
 canne. 
 terre, earth 
 
 patte, paw. 
 
 Exceptions to the feminine. 
 
 1. x: choix, crucifix, flux, reflux, prix. 
 
 in eur : bonheur, chceur, cceur, des- 
 honneur, honneur, labeur, malheur, 
 pleurs, interieur, exterieur, equateur, 
 chou-fleur, secteur, and a few technical 
 terms. 
 
 * The figures prefixed to the exceptions correspond to the same numbers in the 
 foregoing termination table. 
 
78 
 
 OF GENDER. 
 
 . >nfl to Ma>cu;ine Terminations. 
 
 cour, cuiller, cuisson. dent, dot. 
 faim, f \ hart, lecon, main, 
 
 maman, mer. moiisox, mort, mousson, 
 nef, nuit, part, rancon, soif, a 
 tour*, vis. 
 
 . four mi, parol, 
 
 apres-midi. 
 3. Eau. bru, glu, peau, tribu, vertu. 
 :?, image, page*, rage, nage, 
 plage. 
 
 5. Allege, drege, Xoricege. 
 
 6. Bernac' 
 
 7. Grammaire. a f aire, aire, chair e, 
 circulaire, h.aire, perpendiculaire, 
 paire, annulaire. 
 
 S. Paume. 
 
 9. Creme, bireme. Boheme, breme. 
 
 10. Drome. 
 
 11. Gl:ire. 
 
 nage: :. poire, racloire. 
 
 X.B. — Tie words vrhieh end in a, 
 e, o, ege, acle, aume, a me, aire, admit 
 of a very fevr exceptions. 
 
 a. o. and e not preceded by a t, uge, 
 . me, have no exception. 
 
 ms to Feminine Terminations, 
 in ion : uteri 
 
 lion, camion, chorion, croupion, /anion, 
 
 .alion, gavion, horion, 1 1 
 million, morion, pion, scion, sc 
 septentrion, ialion. trillion, and a few 
 more technical ten 
 in son : poison, tison, blasor.. 
 frison. oison, peson. 
 
 2. Athenee. caducee, camee, 
 coryphee, Elysee, athee, mauso 
 
 phee, trochee, empyree. hymenee, lycee, 
 musee, pygmee. spondee, a 
 
 3. Arrete, comte. comite, cote,ete, be- 
 rJdicite. pate, traite, te, veloute, aparte, 
 the, Lethe. 
 
 Fc i-2. genie, incendie, para 
 
 ice*. 
 B \:ice. 
 6. Silence. 
 1. Prelude. 
 
 S. Cimeiiere, de Trier e. 
 y. Augure, colure, mercun. 
 mere, par jure. 
 
 quadrille, vaudeville, vermice 
 loncelle. 
 
 11. Dilemme, gramme, and its com- 
 [ vni is, as programme. &c. somme, and 
 a few others from the Greek. 
 
 12. Rerme. 
 
 13. Babeurre, becarre, beurre. eimte- 
 ta .. feurre, leurre, parterre 
 
 :. ionnerre, verre. 
 
 14. Carrosse. colosse, 2~ 
 nasse, Perm esse. 
 
 15. Amulette, squelette. 
 
 Substantives that are Masculine in one signification, 
 and Feminine in another. 
 
 Aide is masculine when it means assistant, helper, 
 as aide-de-camp, un aide-major, an adjutant ; un 
 
 aide de cuisine, a cook's mate; and feminine when 
 its meaning conveys the idea of aid, help, or support 
 from any body, as vous etes toute son aide, you are 
 all his support. 
 
 Aigle is masculine when it means an eagle (bird 
 
 Noons thus marked touris*) vary in gey: ei : :.ricn 
 
OF C4ENDER. 79 
 
 of prey), or a great genius; and feminine when it 
 denotes a standard. 
 
 Amour is masculine in prose, and either mascu- 
 line or feminine in poetry, but when used in the 
 plural number, the feminine is preferred : ?ne& 
 premieres amours, my first love ; de folles amours, 
 foolish love ; except, however, in a mythological 
 sense, for we say: les amours riants et Itgers, th 
 laughing and playful loves (little cupids). 
 
 Couleur is feminine when used to express tht 
 optical effects produced through the light from 
 external objects, as le vert est tine couleur primitive, 
 green is a primitive colour ; but in compound words, 
 as le couleur dUeau, de chair, de rose, de feu, de 
 citron, &c, couleur takes the masculine gender, 
 therefore, we say ; cette robe est dun couleur de rose 
 charmant, that gown is of a beautiful rose colour ; 
 however, to avoid affectation, we may suppress the 
 word colour, and say, cette robe est dun rose 
 charmant. 
 
 Couple is feminine when it means a brace, a pair, 
 two of a sort ; and masculine when it signifies a 
 couple, a man and wife, or two friends united 
 together by intimacy of feelings. 
 
 JDelice, orgue, are masculine in the singular and 
 feminine in the plural. 
 
 Echo, a nymph, is feminine, and masculine when 
 it expresses the repetition of a sound, as Vecho de la 
 foret est sourd a ma voix, the echo of the forest is 
 deaf to my voice. 
 
 Enfant, child, is masculine when applied to a 
 boy, and feminine to a girl; as cette jeune Jille est 
 une belle enfant, that young girl is a fine grown 
 child. 
 
 Enseigne is masculine when it means an ensign, 
 
80 OF GENDER. 
 
 an officer who carries a flag ; and feminine when 
 used for a sign-post. 
 
 Fxemple, meaning an example, model, instance, 
 is masculine ; and feminine w r hen it means a copy 
 for writing. 
 
 Foudre, masculine when it signifies a large vat, 
 a great captain, or a great orator, as un foudre de 
 guerre, un foudre d' eloquence ; but it is of either 
 gender, masculine or feminine, when it means light- 
 ning, thunderbolt, as le foudre vengeur, or la foudre 
 vengeresse. — {Acad. ) 
 
 Garde is masculine in the sense of a keeper, 
 warden ; and feminine when applied to a watch, 
 or when it means a hilt, a nurse. Garde is also 
 feminine when followed by explanatory words ; as 
 la Garde de VEmpereur, la Garde Parisienne, la 
 Garde Nationale. 
 
 Gens is masculine when followed by an adjective, 
 as gens instruits, learned people, and feminine when 
 preceded by the adjective, ce sont de honnes gens, 
 they are good people ; voila de sottes gens, there 
 are foolish people. But when the adjective tout is 
 prefixed to the word gens, the masculine gender 
 prevails, as tons les honnetes gens, all honest people. 
 
 Guide, a guide, a director, a driver, is masculine ; 
 and feminine when it means the reins in driving. 
 
 Hymne is generally masculine ; des hymnes repub- 
 Ucai7is, republican hymns ; however, according to 
 the French Academy, hymne is feminine in the 
 liturgy style ; entonner une hymne a Veglise, to sing 
 an hymn at church ; Santeuil a compose de belles 
 hymnes, Santeuil has composed beautiful hymns. 
 
 Manche, the handle of a tool, of a knife, &c, is 
 masculine ; and feminine in the sense of a sleeve, 
 or of the English Channel, as nos voisins de V autre 
 
OF GENDER. 
 
 81 
 
 cote de la Manche, our neighbours on the other side 
 of the Channel. 
 
 Manoeuvre, in a military style, to signify the 
 working of a ship, is feminine, and masculine when 
 it means a labourer, a journeyman. 
 
 As there are many other substantives of the two 
 genders, for shortness we will mention only those 
 which may occur in common conversation. 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 
 
 Cornet, a standard bearer 
 
 cornette 
 
 a crape 
 
 crepe 
 
 a drill, a piercer 
 
 foret 
 
 the rolls, a register 
 
 greffe 
 
 a book 
 
 livre 
 
 memoir, a bill 
 
 memoir e 
 
 thanks 
 
 merci 
 
 mood, mode 
 
 mode 
 
 mould, cast, form 
 
 movie 
 
 a ship-boy 
 
 mousse 
 
 the philosopher's stone 
 
 ceuvre 
 
 office, business, prayers 
 
 office 
 
 page of a prince 
 
 page 
 
 a merry andrew 
 
 paillase 
 
 a hand's breadth 
 
 palme 
 
 pantomime 
 
 pantomime 
 
 Easter, Easter-day. 
 
 pdque 
 
 a comparison 
 
 parallele 
 
 pendulum 
 
 pendule 
 
 le Perche* 
 
 perche 
 
 summit, highest pitch 
 
 periode 
 
 anybody, nobody (a pro- 1 
 noun) j 
 
 personne 
 
 spade, at cards 
 
 pique 
 
 gnatsnapper, a bird 
 
 pivoine 
 
 a plane-tree 
 
 plane 
 
 a stove, a canopy 
 
 poele 
 
 post, a military station 
 
 poste 
 
 nap, slumber 
 
 somme 
 
 fa woman's head-dress 
 ( when in dishabille 
 
 a pancake 
 
 a wood, a forest 
 
 a graft 
 
 a pound 
 
 memory 
 
 pity, mercy 
 
 fashion 
 
 muscle, a shell-fish 
 
 moss, a plant 
 
 action, an author's works 
 
 pantry, larder, buttery 
 
 page in a book 
 
 a straw-bed 
 fthe branch of a palm- 
 
 \. tree, victory 
 
 a dumb show 
 
 the Passover 
 
 a parellel line 
 
 a clock 
 
 pole ; perch, a fish 
 
 a period, epocha 
 
 a person (a noun) 
 
 a pike, a weapon 
 
 peony, a flower 
 
 plane, an implement 
 
 a frying-pan 
 
 the post for letters 
 
 sum, load, name of a river 
 
 * An ancient province in France, which forms to-day the departments of l'Orne 
 and d'Eure-et-Loir. 
 
 E 2 
 
82 
 
 OF GENDER 
 
 • 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 
 
 FEMININE. 
 
 a smile 
 
 soiiris 
 
 a mouse 
 
 a porter 
 
 Suisse 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 a tour, turn, trick 
 
 tour 
 
 tower, rook at chess 
 
 trumpeter 
 
 trompette 
 
 trumpet 
 
 the airy plains 
 
 vague 
 
 a wave surge 
 
 a vase, vessel 
 
 vase 
 
 ("trie slime in ponds, 
 I lakes, &c. 
 
 a veil 
 
 voile 
 
 a sail 
 
 The following substantives, which formerly had the two genders 
 with only one signification, are now used but in the masculine, viz. 
 automne, cigar, epiderme : the word equivoque is feminine. 
 
 Orge, barley is feminine, except in the following expressions : 
 orge monde, perle, barley in a clean and bright condition. — (Acad.) 
 
 *** The following substantives of the masculine gender, are related 
 both to male and female kind, as le corbeau* le crabe, le crapaud, 
 Vecureuil, le perroquet, le renne, le requin, le sarigue, le rhinoceros, le taon 
 (pronounced ton) ; and for the same reason, the next ones of the 
 feminine gender, are also relating both to female and male, as la 
 baleine, la becassine, la corneille, la corbine, la hyene, la fouine, la 
 grenouille, la perruche. 
 
 In order to distinguish the gender in the above substantives, the 
 words either male or femelle, ought to follow them, as un serpent male, 
 or un serpent femelle. 
 
 In French, when the name of a town ends in a feminine termi- 
 nation, as Rome, Venise, Marseilles, Toulouse, Mantoue, it is gene- 
 rally of the feminine gender, and in every other case it is masculine, 
 except, however, Jerusalem, Sion, Ilion, Albion, which are also of the 
 feminine gender. 
 
 As there are substantives with the gender of which the French 
 themselves are not very familiar, we refer the learner to the Gram- 
 mar of Gramm., vol. i. p. ISO, ninth edition, 1838. 
 
INTRODUCTION TO THE LEXICOLOGY. 83 
 
 AN EXPLANATORY TABLE 
 
 Of The RELATION BETWEEN REGIMENS and CASES. 
 
 As many persons are accustomed to use the word 
 case, where, in modern languages, except the 
 German, and perhaps some Northern languages, 
 they ought to use the word regimen, the following 
 is an explanatory table of the relation between 
 regimen and cases. This relation is not always 
 exactly just, but it is of little importance, since this 
 exactness is not absolutely requisite for the greatest 
 part of those who study the French language. 
 
 The substantive or the pronoun being subject °f\ -*r T ive 
 
 a phrase, answers to the f 
 
 The indirect regimen, preceded by the preposition ) « 
 dc, of, to the j 
 
 The indirect regimen, preceded by the preposition ~> ^ 
 a, to, to the j 
 
 The direct regimen to the Accusative. 
 
 The substantive or pronoun in an apostrophe, to \ v 
 
 The indirect regimen, preceded by the preposition \ A 
 de, from, or par, by, to the . . , | ablative. 
 
 But nevertheless I recommend to those who study 
 the French language, to avoid denominations which 
 are contrary to its genius, and not to prefer the 
 opinion of some individuals to that of all the best 
 French grammarians ; to the constant practice of 
 the University of Paris, and the opinion of the 
 French Academy. 
 
84 INTRODUCTION 
 
 EXPLANATION 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE EXERCISES. 
 
 m. stands for masculine. 
 
 f. feminine. 
 
 pi. plural. 
 
 s. or sing. singular. 
 
 or contr.} articles co "tracted. 
 
 art. article. 
 
 pr. preposition. 
 
 pron. pronoun 
 
 el. elision. 
 
 adv. adverb. 
 
 h m. h mute. 
 
 h asp. ■ h aspirated. 
 
 obj. object. 
 
 ind-1. present of the indicative. 
 
 ind-2. imperfect. 
 
 ind-3. preterit definite or perfect, 
 
 ind-4. preterit indefinite or compound of the present. 
 
 ind-5. preterit anterior or compound of the preterit. 
 
 ind-6. * pluperfect or compound of the imperfect 
 
 ind-7. future absolute. 
 
 ind-8. future anterior or compound of the future. 
 
 imp. imperative. 
 
 con-1. present of tlie conditional. 
 
 o ( first conditional past or compound of the 
 
 \ conditional. 
 
 con-3. second conditional past*. 
 
 subj-l. present of the subjunctive. 
 
 subj-2. imperfect of the subjunctive. 
 
 * That tense which is called also super-compound, as j'aurais eu parle, I should 
 have had spoken, is not of a very frequent use in the French language. 
 
TO THE LEXICOLOGY. 85 
 
 subj-3. stands for /P"*^* of the subjunctive or compound of 
 
 J \ the present subjunctive, 
 
 i • a _ ("pluperfect of the subjunctive or compound of 
 
 ■J " \ the imperfect subjunctive. 
 
 inf-1. present of the infinitive. 
 
 inf-2. participle present. 
 
 inf-3. participle past. 
 
 A * in the exercises denotes that the word under which it is 
 placed, is not expressed in French. 
 
 — denotes that the English word is spelt alike in French, or at 
 least the part under which this sign is placed. 
 
 = denotes that the French word differs from the English only 
 in its termination, as directed p. 92. 
 
 Those French words which are followed by the above signs, are 
 to take the form which they point out. 
 
 In the third part, the * is no longer placed under the word, but 
 after it in the margin. 
 
 In filling the exercises, the order of the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. 
 placed sometimes on the phrases after the French words, and 
 sometimes above, is to be observed. 
 
 In the exercises, when several English words are included between 
 a parenthesis ( ), they must be translated by the only words placed 
 under. 
 
36 INTRODUCTION 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR. 
 
 Grammar, as we have already stated page 1, is 
 the art of speaking and writing correctly. 
 
 To speak is to manifest externally, by certain 
 signs which mankind have agreed upon, the thoughts 
 which are combined internally in the mind. 
 
 Our thoughts are manifested by words either 
 spoken or written. 
 
 The signs made use of for writing are called 
 letters, and a collection of these, in order, is called 
 an Alphabet. — {See p. 1.) 
 
 GENERAL DEFINITION 
 
 OF THE NINE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 We have in French nine kinds of words, or parts 
 of speech, namely : the Substantive, the Article, the 
 Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Preposition, 
 the Adverb, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 
 
 The Substantive is a word which serves to name 
 a person or thing, as Pierre, Peter ; livre, book. 
 
 The Article is one of these words, le, la, les, the, 
 placed before common nouns; as le livre, the book ; 
 la femme, the woman ; les rois, the kings or kings. 
 
 The Adjective is a word which is added to a 
 substantive, to express the quality of a person or 
 thing ; as bon pere, good father ; beau livre, fine 
 book. 
 
TO THE LEXICOLOGY. 87 
 
 The Pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
 of a noun; as il joae, he plays; il is a pronoun, 
 because it represents a person already spoken of. 
 
 The Verb is a word, the chief use of which is to 
 express affirmation. When we say, La vertu est 
 aimable, virtue is amiable, we affirm that the quality 
 aimable belongs to la vertu ; the verb est expresses 
 that affirmation. 
 
 The Preposition is a word that serves to express 
 the relation of things one to another, and this it 
 does by joining the noun or pronoun following to 
 the word which precedes it. When we say le fruit 
 de Varbre, the fruit of the tree ; &is a preposition 
 because it expresses the relation between fruit and 
 arbre. 
 
 The Adverb is a word which is generally joined 
 to the verb or the adjective, in order to discriminate 
 their signification. When we say cet enfant parte 
 distinct ement, that child speaks distinctly, by the 
 word distinctement, we mean that he speaks one 
 way rather than another. 
 
 The Conjunction is a word that serves to connect 
 sentences. In this sentence, il pleure et rit en meme 
 temps, he cries and laughs at the same time, the 
 word et is a conjunction, because it unites the first 
 sentence il pleure, with the second il rit. 
 
 The Interjection is a word that serves to express 
 the various sentiments and sudden emotions of the 
 soul; 'ds helas ! alas! &c*. 
 
 * A more particular explanation of these nine parts of speech will 
 be illustrated in the following chapters. 
 
88 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 LEXICOLOGY OF WORDS 
 
 CONSIDERED BOTH IN THEIR NATURES AND INFLECTIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 [Henceforth we shall endeavour to proceed gradually from the 
 known to the unknown.] 
 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE OR NOUN. 
 
 The Substantive according to its general defini- 
 tion, is a word which serves to name a person or 
 thing ; as Pierre, Peter ; livre, book ; montagne, 
 mountain, &c. 
 
 There are two sorts of substantives; the substan- 
 tive common and the substantive proper. 
 
 The substantive common or appellative, is that 
 which belongs to several persons, or things of the 
 same kind; thus homme, man; oiseau, bird ; arbre 
 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 89 
 
 tree, &c, are common, because the name homme 
 belongs to all rational beings, and oiseau, to all the 
 birds, &c. 
 
 The substantive proper is that which belongs to 
 one person, or one thing only ; as, Cesar ', Cesar ; 
 la Tamise, the Thames; Paris, Paris; Londres, 
 London, &c. 
 
 These are the only two sorts of substantives ; 
 but, among the substantives common, we must dis- 
 tinguish the collectives, on account of certain laws 
 peculiar to some of them in the French language. 
 
 Collectives are those which, though in the singular 
 number, yet present to our mind the idea of several 
 objects of the same kind, as united, and forming 
 one mass or assemblage. 
 
 They are divided into two sorts, viz., those that 
 express a whole body ; as armee* army ; peuple, 
 people ; foret, forest ; and those which express only 
 a partial number ; as infinite, infinity ; la plupart, 
 the most part. The first are called general collec- 
 tives, and the others, partitive. 
 
 There is another class of substantives which are 
 called abstracts, owing to their expressing an object 
 which the mind alone can conceive, but invisible 
 and beyond the reach of our senses, as vertu, vice, 
 harmouie, infamie, &c. 
 
 OF GENDER. 
 
 In substantives we are to consider the gender and 
 number. 
 
 To the difference of the sexes must be attributed 
 the division of the genders of substantives into 
 masculine and feminine. The masculine belongs to 
 men and animals of the male kind; and the femi- 
 nine to women and animals of the female kind. 
 
90 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 This distinction being once established, it has 
 through imitation, been extended to all substantives. 
 The French language does not admit of the neuter- 
 gender, which is found in several others. 
 
 OF NUMBER. 
 
 There are two numbers, the singular when we 
 speak of one person or thing ; as un homme 9 a man ; 
 un livre, a book ; and the plural, when we speak of 
 several persons or things; as les hommes, men ; les 
 tivres, books. 
 
 Number, therefore, is the property which substan- 
 tives have of denoting either one thing or several 
 things*. 
 
 HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL. 
 
 General Ride.— The plural is formed by adding s 
 at the end of a word, as 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 le roi, the king les rois the kings 
 
 la reine, the queen les reines the queens 
 
 Exceptions. — 1st. Nouns ending in the singular, 
 in s, x 9 z 9 admit no change in the plural ; as 
 
 lefils the son 
 la voix the voice 
 le nez the nose 
 
 lesjils the sons 
 les voix the \oices 
 les nez the noses 
 
 2nd. Nouns ending in the singular, in an. eit, ou 9 
 take x in the plural ; as 
 
 * Proper names have no plural ; as Londres, London ; Paris, 
 Paris ; Milton, Milton ; la Tamise, the Thames. 
 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE 
 
 91 
 
 bateau 
 
 a boat 
 
 bateaux 
 
 boats 
 
 feu 
 
 fire 
 
 feux 
 
 fires 
 
 eaillou 
 
 stone 
 
 cailloux 
 
 stones 
 
 but trou, a hole ; clou, a nail ; filou, a pickpocket ; 
 matou, a ram-cat ; licon, a halter ; loup-garou, a 
 were- wolf; cou, neck; bamhou, concou, ecrou, the 
 nut ; foil, a fool ; sou, a penny ; toutou, a whelp ; 
 verrou, a bolt, follow the general rule, that is, they 
 take s in the plural*. 
 
 3rd. Most nouns ending in the singular in al and 
 ail, form their plural in aux ; as 
 
 mat 
 
 evil 
 
 maux 
 
 evils 
 
 animal 
 
 animal 
 
 animaux 
 
 animals 
 
 marechal 
 
 marshal 
 
 marechaua 
 
 marshals 
 
 travailf 
 
 work 
 
 travaux 
 
 works 
 
 bail 
 
 a lease 
 
 baux 
 
 leases 
 
 sous-bail 
 
 
 sous-baux 
 
 
 cor ail 
 
 coral 
 
 cor aux 
 
 corals 
 
 email 
 
 enamel 
 
 emaux 
 
 enamels 
 
 soupirail 
 
 a vent 
 
 soupiraux 
 
 vents 
 
 vantail 
 
 window-shutter 
 
 vantaux 
 
 window- shutters 
 
 but bal, ball ; pal, pale ; regal, treat ; col, callosity , 
 carnaval, carnival ; at t trail, dress or train ; camail, 
 capuchin ; detail, particulars ; evantail, a fan ; 
 epouvantail, a bugbear ; gouvernail, a rudder ; 
 mail, mallet, mall ; poitrail, the breast of a horse ; 
 portail, the front gate of, &c, : serail, seraglio, 
 follow the general rule, simply taking s. Bercail, 
 sheep-fold, has no plural. Betail, cattle ; a'ieul, 
 
 * We "have but fourteen words in French ending in aa, as follow : aloyau, baca- 
 liau, dry cod fish; boyau, cornuau, a kind of shad, etau, gluau, gruau, "hoyaa, 
 a mattock; joyau, noyau, pilau, stewed rice : sarrau, a waggoner's frock; tuyau, 
 ztnau. a sort of American quadruped having paps ; and about 250 end in eau. 
 
 t Travail takes s after I in the plural instead of aux, when it means a machine 
 with four pillars to shoe horses, or when used in the sense of a report made either 
 by a minister of state, or by a secretary to a minister of state. 
 
92 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 grandfather; ciel*, heaven; and ceil, eye, make 
 bestiaux, dieuls and a'ieux, cieux and yeux. Ail, 
 garlic, makes aulx in the plural. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Nouns of more than one syllable ending in nt, 
 formerly dropped the t in the plural ; as, enfant, 
 enfans ; commandement, commandemens : but it is 
 now usually retained ; as, enfants, commandements. 
 Monosyllables also preserve the t in the plural ; as, 
 dent, dents ; chant, chants ; gant, gants ; pont, 
 ponts: except gent and tout, which make gens and 
 tous in the plural. 
 
 Many words are alike in both languages, and 
 others differ only in their terminations. 
 
 Those which are perfectly alike have the fol- 
 lowing terminations : 
 
 -al as animal, cardinal, fatal, general, local, &c. 
 
 -ble — capable, &c, bible, &c , noble, double &c. 
 
 -ace — face, grimace, grace, place, preface, &c. 
 
 -ance — chance, complaisance, extravagance, &c 
 
 -ence — abstinence, conference, continence, &c. 
 
 -ice — artifice, auspice, edifice, justice, &c. 
 
 -acle — - miracle, oracle, obstacle, receptacle, &c. 
 
 -ade — ambuscade, cavalcade, brigade, &c. 
 
 -age — age, adage, bandage, cage, cordage, &c. 
 
 -ege — college, privilege, sacrilege, siege, sortilege, 
 
 -ge — vestige, doge, barge, charge, orange, 
 
 -ule — globule, ridicule, animalcule, &c. 
 
 _ile — bile, debile, agile, docile, ductile, &c. 
 
 -ine — carabine, doctrine, machine, &c. 
 
 -ion — action, fraction, legion, nation, &c. 
 
 -ant — constant, elegant, elephant, &c. 
 
 -ent — absent, accident, compliment, &c. 
 
 Many other English words require only the 
 change of termination, in the following manner : 
 
 * We say, des dels de lit, testers of a bed ; des ceils de bceuf, ovals. 
 
OF T1IE SUBSTANTIVE. 93 
 
 ■ary 
 •ory 
 
 ■ous 
 
 into 
 
 -aire 
 
 -oire 
 
 -ce 
 
 -te 
 
 -eux 
 
 -our 
 
 — 
 
 -eur 
 
 -or 
 
 — 
 
 -eur 
 
 -ine 
 
 — 
 
 -in 
 
 Ave 
 
 — 
 
 -if 
 
 ■ry 
 
 — 
 
 -rie 
 
 N. 
 
 B. Adjectives in 
 
 military 
 
 militaire 
 
 glory 
 
 gloire 
 
 clemency 
 
 clemence 
 
 beauty 
 
 beaute 
 
 dangerous 
 
 dangereux 
 
 favour 
 
 faveur 
 
 error 
 
 erreur 
 
 clandestine 
 
 clandestin 
 
 expressive 
 
 expressif 
 
 fury 
 
 furie 
 
 
 f-euse 
 
 ike their feminine<J -ive 
 
 
 1 -ine 
 
 -eux*] 
 -if In 
 -in J 
 
 Before writing this first exercise, the learner 
 must bear in mind the general definition of the 
 article ; 
 
 le ") before a noun masculine in the singular numbers 
 la Y „ ,, feminine „ „ „ vthe 
 
 les) before either masculine or fem. in the plural . J 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Peter; the book ; the mountain; London; the Thames ; the 
 m. montagne f. 
 
 people ; the forest ; the most part ; virtue ; vice ; the 
 peuple m. foret f. plupart f, art. f. art. m. 
 
 men ; the woman ; the women ; the kings : the good father ; the 
 m. pi. f. pi. roi m. pi. hon m. 
 
 good mother; he plays; virtue is amiable; the fruit of the 
 bonne f. il joue art. m. 
 
 tree ; that child speaks distinctly ; he cries and laughs at the 
 
 m. cet m. parle ement pleure rit en 
 
 same time. 
 mime temps. 
 
 •2. bird ; honour ; army ; infinity ; the queen , 
 
 art. art. art. art. f. 
 
 the queens; the son; the sons; the voice; the voices; the nose, 
 
 f. pi. m. m. pi. f. f. pi. m. 
 
 the noses ; boat ; boats ; fire ; fires ; 9tone ; 
 
 m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. f. 
 stones ; hole ; holes ; nail ; nails ; pickpocket ; 
 art. f. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. vn m. 
 
94 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 pickpockets ; ram-cat : ram-cats ; halter ; halters ; 
 des m pi. un m. des m. pi. un m. des m. pi. 
 
 werewolf; werewolves; evil; evils; work; works; 
 un m. des m. pi. art. m. art. m. pi. art. m. art. m.pl. 
 ball ; balls ; pale ; pales ; treat ; treats >" 
 
 art. m. art. pi. un m. des pi. un m. des pi. 
 
 callosity; callosities; local; locals*; carnival; 
 
 un m. des pi. un m. des pi. art. m. 
 
 carnivals ; trains ; particulars ; fans ; bugbears ; 
 
 art. pi. des pi. des pi, des pi. des pi. 
 
 rudders ; front-gates ; sheepfold ; cattle ; 
 
 des pi. des pi. m. sing. des pi. 
 
 grandfathers or forefathers ; heaven ; heavens ; eye ; 
 
 les aieuls ou les pi. art. m. art. pi. 
 eyes ; testers of a bed ; ovalst ; garlicks. 
 des des des 
 
 3, The beauty; the fables; the horror; the morality; the 
 f. f.pl. thm. f. 
 
 science ; the fraction ; the violence ; the machine ; the furious 
 f. f . f. f. 
 
 cardinal ; the pious seminary ; the great nation ; the fine victory ; 
 
 m. m. grande f. belle f. 
 
 the sensitive (plant) ; the famous general ; the dangerous animal ; 
 f. m m. 
 
 the monstrous elephant ; the noble generosity ; the holy bible ; the 
 
 m. f. sainte f. 
 
 conference; she is very attentive; the clemency; the destruction, 
 
 f. elle est tres f. f. f. 
 
 and the consequence ; fortune and courage ; impudence and 
 f. art. f. art. m. art. f. 
 
 vivacity ; prudence and fidelity ; he is very scrupulous ; 
 art. f. art. f. art. f. il tres m. 
 
 the sublimity and the sentiments ; energy and expressions ; 
 
 f . m. pi. art. f. art. f. pi. 
 
 the carnage was terrible ; presents sometimes are not acceptable; 
 m. fut art. m.pl. quelquefois ne sont pas — bles 
 
 every instrument is not harmonious; memory is extraordinary; 
 tout m. m. art. f. f. 
 
 complaisance is charitable, 
 art. f. f. 
 
 * Des locaux. 
 
 t Vide the note. p. 91, and p. 92 for the English terminations of the above 
 substantives. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE 95 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The Article is a small word prefixed to substan- 
 tives to determine the extent of their signification. 
 Like the Substantive, the Article may be divided 
 into three classes, definite, indefinite*, and partitive. 
 Le, la, les, die, de la, des, au, a la, aux, are definite 
 articles : un, une, are indefinite ; and da, de la, de C , 
 des, are partitive articles, when they mean a certain 
 portion or quantity of any thing ; as 
 
 du pain, some bread. des pommes, some apples. 
 
 de la viande, some meat. de V argent, some money. 
 
 As it may be observed, these different articles 
 take both genders and numbers of the substantives 
 to which they are prefixed, and except the indefinite 
 un, une, a, an, they are liable to two kinds of state, 
 viz. to elision and contraction. 
 
 DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 le before a substantive masculine in the singular, le pere, the father. 
 la feminine . . la mere, the mother 
 
 les before plural Substantives of both genders {tf^AeSers 
 du masculine singular of the 
 
 de la feminine singular of the 
 
 des both genders of the 
 
 * The definite article supposes a particular and previous knowledge of the 
 object which it is spoken of, as, la femme que fai rencontree V autre jour ; the women 
 whom I met the other day. But the indefinite article supposes only a general 
 knowledge of the subject, without any previous acquaintance with it, as, fai vu 
 une femme qui s'est moquee de moi ; I saw a woman who laughed at me. 
 
 According to the best grammarians, we have in French but one article, divided 
 into simple and compound articles ; therefore, if the above division we have just 
 made use of seems contrary to the genius of our language, w r e hope it will not give 
 to the intelligent learner a false notion on this important part of the French speech. 
 
96 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 EXERCISE ON THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The siuv the moon, and the stars, are the glory of nature 
 
 soleil m. lune f. etoile f. pi. gloire f. art. 
 
 The king, the queen, and the princes, are well pleased. The 
 
 prince m. pi. tres- satisfait pi. 
 top (of the) mountains, and the bottom of the valleys are 
 sommet m. des montagne f. pi. fond m. vallee f. pi. 
 
 equally useful. The rose, the violet, the tulip, the narcissus, 
 egalement utile pi. f. violette f. taftpe f. narcisse m, 
 
 the hyacinth, the gilliflower, the jasmine, the lily, the honeysuckle, 
 jacinthe f. girofiee f. jasmin m. &s m. chevrefeuille m. 
 
 the ranunculus, are the delight of the sight. Poetry, painting, 
 renoncule f. delice f. pi. art. vwef. art. poesie f. art. peinture f. 
 
 music, dancing, and architecture, are (sister-arts. ) Zfte 
 
 art. musique f. art. t&zrase f. art. f. soeur f. pi. 
 
 day and the night are equally necessary. 
 jour m. nuil f. egalemeut necessaires. 
 
 OF THE ELISION. 
 
 Elision is the omitting of the e in the masculine 
 article le, or the a in the feminine article /a, when 
 these articles precede a noun beginning with a 
 vowel or A mute. Thus we say, Vargent for le 
 argent, and Vhistoire for /a histoire ; but then 
 instead of the letter thus omitted, we put this little 
 mark (') called an apostrophe. — Vide pf 73. 
 
 The . . Va, Ve 9 li< to, tu, Vh mute, un m. une f. a, an, 
 
 Of the, de ta ; de te* de to, de Vu, de Vh mute, d'u?i, m. d'une f, of a. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The soul of man, without cultivation, is like a 
 
 dme f. art- hommeh.m. sans culture f. est comme 
 diamond (in the rough). The history of Spain is sometimes 
 diamantm. brut. =Um. d'Espagnef, quelquefois 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 97 
 
 anemone ; 
 
 — f . 
 
 Look at the amaranth and the 
 
 Considerez amaranthe f. el 
 
 pride are always 
 
 orgueilm. sont toujour s 
 
 Honesty, 
 
 very interesting. 
 
 fort interessante f. 
 
 what beauty ! Self-love and 
 
 quelle btaute! art. Amour-propre m. art. 
 
 the offspring of a weak mind. 
 
 partage m. foible 2 esprit I m. art. 
 
 innocence, honour, and the love of 
 
 f. art. honneur h. m. amour art. 
 esteemed. Summer, autumn, 
 
 estimes m. pi. art. ete m. art. automne m. fc* art. foyer /j m. 
 very changeable. France is separated from Italy by the 
 
 tres-vuriables pi. art. f. separee de art. Jfafte f. par 
 
 Alps, and from Spain by the Pyrenees. 
 
 Alpes, f. pi. art. f. pi. 
 
 Honnetete f. h m. art. 
 
 virtue are (very much) 
 verta f. ^rt * 
 
 and winter, are 
 
 Contraction of the Article. 
 
 Contraction is the reducing of two syllables into 
 one, and takes place with the article, when the 
 prepositions a or de precedes it, in which case, 
 instead of putting de le before a masculine singular, 
 beginning with a consonant or h aspirated, we put 
 du ; instead of a le we put au, and in the plural, in 
 nouns of both genders, either before a consonant or 
 a vowel, de les is changed into des, and a les into 
 aux. 
 
 Thus we 
 
 say 
 
 : 
 
 
 Du roi 
 
 instead of 
 
 De le roi 
 
 du heros 
 
 
 — 
 
 de le heros 
 
 au roi 
 
 
 
 
 a le roi 
 
 au heros 
 
 
 
 
 a le heros 
 
 des roi.9 
 
 
 — 
 
 de les rois 
 
 des reines 
 
 
 — 
 
 de les reines 
 
 aux rois 
 
 
 — 
 
 a les rois 
 
 aux reines 
 
 
 — 
 
 a les reines 
 
 of the king. 
 of the hero. 
 to the king. 
 to the hero, 
 of the kings, 
 of the queens, 
 to the kings. 
 to the queens. 
 
 The masculine gender ought to be preferred. 
 
98 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Silk is soft to the touch. What is agreeable to the taste 
 
 art- Soie f. douce toucher m e Ce qui gout m. 
 
 is often contrary to the health. He obeyed the orders oftheYmg. 
 
 souvent contraire a la sante f. II obeit aux ordre m. pi. 
 The warbling of birds, the murmuring of streams, 
 
 gazouillement m. oiseau m. pi. murmure m. art. ruisseau m. pi. 
 the enamel of meadows, the coolness of woods, the 
 
 email art. prairie f. pi. fraicheur f. art. bois m. pi. 
 
 fragrance of flowers, and the sweet smell of plants, 
 parfum m. art. f. pi. art. douce odeur f. art. plante f. pi. 
 
 contribute greatly to the pleasure of the mind, and to the health 
 eontribuent beaucoup plaisir m. esprit m. 
 
 of the body. A man given to pleasure was never a 
 
 corps m. Un livre art. fut2. ne 1. jamais 3. 
 
 great man. The happiness of a feeling man is to relieve the 
 grand bonheur m. un sensible 2 1 de subvenir a 
 
 wants of the poor. Shun the company of the wicked, 
 
 besoin m. pi. pauvre pi. Evitez cornpagnief* mechant 
 
 and court that of the good. The fame of the hero of 
 
 recherchez celle des honnetes gens. renommee f. de 
 
 Waterloo is immortal. 
 = = telle. 
 
 Observe that in the plural either before a con- 
 sonant or a vowel, an h mute or aspirated, aux and 
 des stand always for a les and de les, which are never 
 used 
 
 EXAMPLES* 
 
 Des palais, des heros, des ho?nmes, des animaux. 
 Auxforets, aux heros, aux honneurs, aux dmes, aux oiseaux. 
 
 JDe and a are never contracted with la before a 
 feminine substantive singular, beginning with a 
 consonant. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 99 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 De la reine, of the queen. a la reine, to the queen. 
 
 Nor are de and a contracted with le or la before 
 any substantive singular, beginning with a vowel or 
 A mute, but then the article suffers elision. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 De I' esprit, of the mind. 
 
 a Vesprit, to the mind. 
 
 de Vdme, of the soul- 
 
 de Vhistoire, of the history. 
 
 de Vhomme, of man. 
 
 a Vhomme, to man. 
 
 a Vame, to the soul. 
 
 a Vhistoire to the history. 
 
 Contraction does not take place when the adjec- 
 tive tout, all, every, intervenes between de or a and 
 *he article. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 De tout le monde, of every body. 
 
 de tous les homines, of ail men. 
 
 a tout le monde, to every body. 
 
 a tous les hommes, to all men. 
 
 de toutes les vertus, of all virtues. 
 
 a toutes les maisons, to all houses. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Death is the share of every body; but it is awful W 
 art. mort f. partage m. mats elle redoutable 
 
 all men. The hope of success strengthened the cause 
 
 esperance f. art. reussitte f. fortifia — f. 
 
 of virtue, and weakened the audaciousness of rebellion, 
 
 art. vertu f. affaiblit audace f. art. — f 
 
 Fire of imagination, strength of mind, and 
 
 art. feu m. art. — f. art. force f. art. art. 
 
 firmness of soul, are gifts of nature. We saw with 
 fermete f. d'dme des don m. pi. art. — f. Nous vimes avec 
 
 horror, that man given to avarice and voluptuousness. 
 
 horreur cet livre art. — f. a art. voluptef. 
 
100 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 More or less pain is the lot of every body. The history 
 
 Plus ou moins de peine partage m. tout le monde. 
 
 of man, under every circumstance of life, is the 
 
 art. dans toutes art. circonstance f. pi. art. vie 
 
 study of the wise. 
 etude f. sage. 
 
 1. General Rule. In French, the article always 
 agrees in gender and number with the substantive 
 to which it belongs. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le livre queje cherche, The book which I am looking for 
 
 Lafemme queje vois, The woman whom I see. 
 
 Les hommes qui eiudient, The men that study. 
 
 Les societes que je frequente, The societies which I frequent. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The father mother, brothers, sisters, 
 
 pere m. art. mere f. art. frere m.pl. art. soeur f. pi. 
 uncles, aunts, and several other relations, were 
 
 art. oncle m.pl. art. tantef. pi. plusieurs autres parent m.pl. etaient 
 
 present at the marriage ceremony. What we 
 
 — m. pi. a (du) mariage m. 2 art. celebration f. 1. Ce que nous 
 esteem is health, . frugality, liberty, vigour of 
 
 estimonsc'est&vt. art. f rug alite f. art. Hberte'f. art. vigueurf. 
 
 mind and body ; it is the love of virtue, reverence for 
 
 pr. corps ; c'est art. art. crainie f. de 
 
 the Gods, zeal for our friends, fidelity 
 
 Dieu m. pi. art. attachement m. a nos ami m. pi. art. fidelite f. 
 to all mankind, moderation in prosperity, 
 
 envers art. monde art. — f. dans art. prosperity f. art. 
 fortitude in adversity, courage, good manners, and 
 
 force f. art. adversite art. — m. art. bonnes moeurs f. pi. 
 
 the abhorrence of flattery. The horror of vice and the 
 
 horreur f. Am. art. fatterief, horreur art. m. 
 
 love of virtue are the delight of the wise. 
 amour art. delice f. pi. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 101 
 
 2. General Rule. The article and the preposi- 
 tions a and de, whether contracted or not, are inva- 
 riably to be repeated before every substantive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Z'esprit, hs graces, et la beaute nous captivent. 
 Wit, grace, and beauty captivate us. 
 Je vis hier le roi, la reine, et les princes. 
 I saw yesterday the king, queen, and princes, 
 ^'ignorance est la mere de Z'erreur, de /'admiration, et des 
 
 preventions de toute espece. 
 Ignorance is the mother of error, admiration, and prejudices 
 
 of every kind. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Innocence of manners, sincerity, obedience and 
 
 art. — f. art. mceurs pi. art. =f. art. obeissance f. 
 
 abhorrence of vice, inhabit this happy region. The 
 
 art. horreur h m. art. — m. habitent heureuse — f. 
 
 plants of the gardens, the animals of the forest, tha minerals of 
 plante jardin m. — foret f. — 
 
 the earth, the meteors of the sky, must all concur to 
 terre f. meteor e del m. doivent tous concourir a 
 
 store the mind with an inexhaustible variety. Neither 
 enrichir par inepuisable 2 =f. 1 * art. 
 
 suffering, punishment nor kindness make any im- 
 
 pede f. art. chdtiment m. * art. car esse f. pi. nefont nulle 
 pression on those minds. The lily is the emblem of 
 
 — sur dme pi. lis m. symbole m. art. 
 
 virginity, candour, innocence and purity. 
 
 = f. de art. = f. de art. — f. de art. purete f. 
 
 PARTITIVE ARTICLE. 
 
 Du, de la, de V, des, answering to the partitive 
 some, any, often understood in English, are always 
 expressed in French. 
 
102 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Je mange du pain, I eat bread. 
 
 // freud de la peine, He takes some trouble. 
 
 Nous mangeons du hachis, We eat some hash. 
 
 Elle congoit de la haine. She conceives a hatred 
 
 Vous avez de Yamitie, You have some friendship. 
 
 Vous prenez de Yhumeur, You got into an ill humour. 
 
 Nous cueillons des pommes, We gather apples. 
 
 Us vendent des oranges, They sell oranges. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Give me some bread and butter. Offer him some 
 
 Donnez-moi pain m. pr. art. beurre m. Offrez-lui 
 
 meat. Take some salt. (There is) mustard. We have 
 
 viande f. Prenez sel m. J^oz'Za pr. art. moutarde f. A'ows avons 
 
 some girkins. Shall 1 offer you some fowl? Shall I 
 
 cornichons pi. Vous offrirai-je poulet m. Vous 
 
 help you to some fruit ? I will take (with pleasure) some broth. 
 servirai-je * — m. Je prendrai volontiers bouillon m. 
 
 Bring me some bread. Pour me out some beer. Drink sow?e 
 Apportez-moi Versez-moi * foere f. Buvez 
 
 wine. Take some tea. Put (in it) some sugar and milk. 
 
 vin m. Prenez the m. Mettez-y sucre m. pr. art. laitm. 
 
 I hear some noise. There falls some hail. She has some 
 J'entends bruit m. J7 fomoe ore/e f. s. jE7/e a 
 
 pride. Have you any ink and pens ? Put some 
 
 orgueil m. ^4vez-i;ows pr. art. erccre f. pr. art. plumes pi. Mettez 
 
 oil and vinegar to the salad. Eat some lob- 
 
 te'Ze h. m. pr. art. vinaigre m. eforcs salade f. Mangez pr. art. Fo- 
 ster. He has received some gold and silver. 
 mard m. A asp. i? a reczz or m. pr. art argent m. 
 
 The partitive article, generally after a negation 
 or immediately before an adjective or any other 
 word preceding the substantive, is expressed by de 
 alone, without any distinction of gender or number, 
 as 
 
 Je bois de bon vin I drink good wine 
 
 Je rCai pas de pain I have no bread 
 
 Je ne mange jamais defromage He never eats any cheese 
 
 Ejes ont achete de beaux raisins They have bought fine grapes. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 103 
 
 INDEFINITE ARTICLE 
 
 The indefinite article is : 
 
 fem, a, an 
 
 un i] 
 d'un 
 a un 
 
 une 
 d'une 
 a une 
 
 of a or from a, an 
 to a, to an 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Un homme 
 Un lion 
 Unefemme 
 
 a man 
 
 d'un ami 
 
 a lion 
 
 d'un heros 
 
 a woman 
 
 dune action 
 
 of a friend 
 of a hero 
 of an action 
 
 The elision never takes place in the indefinite 
 article un, line, except in the partitive de placed 
 before it. 
 
 RECAPITULATION OF THE ARTICLES. 
 
 1. How to render in French the English prepo- 
 sitions of and from followed either by the definite 
 article the or by the possessive pronouns my, thy, 
 his, her, its, and by the demonstrative pronouns this, 
 these, or that, those. 
 
 We have seen that the, standing alone, is expressed 
 in French 
 
 *>y< 
 
 le before a noun masculine beginning with a con- ^ 
 sonant or 7i aspirated J 
 
 la before a noun feminine beginning with a conso- \i 
 nant or h aspirated / 
 
 V before a noun of either gender, beginning with a \ 
 vowel or h mute ^ 
 
 the sin- 
 gular 
 
 Us before nouns of both genders, without any dis- }in the plu- 
 tinction whatever $ ral 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Le livre 
 
 the book 
 
 les livres the books 
 
 la table 
 
 the table 
 
 les heros the heros 
 
 le heros 
 
 the hero 
 
 les haines the hatreds 
 
 la haine 
 
 the hatred 
 
 les oiseaux the birds 
 
 Voiseau 
 
 the bird 
 
 les antes the souls 
 
 Vdme 
 
 the soul 
 
 les histoires the histories 
 
 Yhonneur 
 
 the honour 
 
 
 Vhistoire 
 
 the history 
 
 
104 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 y fun before a noun masculine singular! without any 
 y \une before a noun feminine singular/ elision 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Un homme a man 
 nuefemme a woman 
 une armee an army 
 
 un her os a hero 
 un livre a book 
 
 une histoire a history 
 
 2. The English prepositions of or from standing 
 alone, are rendered in French by de, and to by a, 
 
 as 
 
 of or from me ... de moi 1 tome a moi. 
 
 But when followed by the definite article the, they 
 are expressed in the following manner : 
 
 of or 
 from 4 
 the, by 
 
 to the, 
 by 
 
 du before a noun masculine singular beginning with, a con- 
 sonant or h aspirated 
 
 de la before a noun feminine singular beginning with a 
 consonant 
 
 de V before any noun beginning with, a vowel or h mute 
 
 des before any noun in the plural 
 
 ' au before a noun masculine singular beginning with a con- 
 sonant or h aspirated 
 
 a la before a noun feminine singular beginning with a con- 
 sonant 
 
 a V before any noun beginning with, a vowel or h mute 
 
 aux before any noun in the plural number 
 
 3. With the indefinite articles or an, thus: 
 
 r r ^ (oVun before a noun masculine 
 
 of or from a, by { dme before & nQun feminine 
 
 , (a un before a noun masculine 
 ~ une before a noun feminine 
 
 a ' b >'{a 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 [05 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Du pare of the park 
 de la riviere of the river 
 de Vesprit of the mind 
 des carrosses of the coaches 
 au pare to the park 
 
 a la riviere to the river 
 
 a Vesprit 
 aux carrosses 
 d'un jour 
 d'une nuit 
 a im jour 
 a line nuit 
 
 to the mind 
 to the coaches 
 of a day 
 of a night 
 to a day 
 to a night 
 
 4. The same prepositions, when followed by the 
 possessive pronouns my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, 
 and their, are rendered thus : 
 
 of 
 from 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sin 
 
 nilar 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 m. &f. 
 
 
 'my 
 
 
 
 mon 
 
 ma 
 
 mes 
 
 
 thy 
 
 
 
 ton 
 
 ta 
 
 tes 
 
 n 
 
 his, her, 
 our 
 
 or its 
 
 > by de < 
 
 son 
 notre 
 
 sa 
 nofre 
 
 ses 
 
 7LOS 
 
 
 your 
 
 
 
 votre 
 
 votre 
 
 vos 
 
 
 their 
 
 J 
 
 
 leur 
 
 leur 
 
 leurs 
 
 fe 
 
 1 
 
 imon 
 
 ma 
 
 mes 
 
 
 
 ton 
 
 ta 
 
 tes 
 
 to 
 
 his, her, 
 our 
 
 or its 
 
 > by£ < 
 
 son 
 notre 
 
 sa 
 notre 
 
 ses 
 
 UGS 
 
 
 your 
 
 
 
 votre 
 
 votre 
 
 vos 
 
 
 , their 
 
 Ohs 
 
 ervatio 
 
 •leur 
 US. 
 
 leur 
 
 leurs 
 
 Mon, ton, son, ma, ta, sa, agree in gender with 
 the substantive to which they are joined ; except, 
 however, before a feminine substantive, beginning 
 with a vowel or an h mute, in which case, mon, ton, 
 son are used instead of ma, ta, sa, in order to avoid 
 the harsh sound that would result from the meeting 
 of the vowels. Thus we say: 
 
 Mon dme 9 my soul 
 
 ton epee, thy sword 
 
 son humeur, his or her humour ) 
 
 f2 
 
 ~\ fma dme 
 
 ^instead oH ta epee 
 
 vsa humeur 
 
106 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Again, when of or from are followed by the 
 demonstrative this or that, these or those : 
 
 from or of this or that, by de 
 to this or that, by a 
 
 ce before a noun masculine beginning 
 with a consonant or h aspirated 
 
 cet before a noun masculine beginning 
 with a vowel or h mute 
 
 cette before a noun feminine, without 
 any elision 
 
 from or of these or those, by de ces'] before nouns plural of both 
 to these or those, by a ces J genders 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 de mon pere 
 a ta mere 
 de son fr ere 
 de notre ville 
 a votre maison 
 a leur travail 
 
 of my father 
 to thy mother 
 of his brother 
 of our town 
 to your house 
 to their work 
 
 de cette terrasse from this terrace 
 de ce lieu of that place 
 
 of this man 
 of this year 
 fof or from these 
 I trees 
 
 de cet homme 
 de cette annee 
 
 de ces arbres 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISE UPON THE ARTICLE. 
 
 1. The palace of the king; of the queen; of the man; of the 
 
 m. pr. art. m. f. pi. 
 
 men ; to the king ; to the queen ; to the man ; to the men ; 
 
 pi. pr. art. m. f. m. pi. 
 
 from a balcony ; from a window ; of a prince ; to a princess ; 
 pr. art. m. pr. art. fenetre f. pr. art. m. f. 
 
 of the gardens : of the evening ; to the courtiers ; of a table ; 
 
 pi. pr. art. soir m. pr. art. courtisan m. pr. art. f. 
 to the master; to a lady; of the soul; of the horse; to a cat ; 
 pr. art. maitrem. dame f. f. pr. art. chevalm. dial m. 
 
 of the houses ; of a carpet ; from a basket ; to an orchard. 
 f. el. tapis m. el. panier m. verger m. 
 
 2. I have an orange which I will give to a friend whom you 
 
 J'ai f. que je donrurai m. que vous 
 
 know. I have been to church and you to the playhouse. We 
 connaissez ete Veglise pr. art. spectacle m. Nous 
 
 shall have to-morrow some good oysters, new laid eggs, and some 
 aurons demain part. huitresf.nl. desceufo\.frais et part. eL 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 107 
 
 excellent wine. You went from London to Southampton by the 
 
 — vin m. Vous alldtes pr. — dres pr. — par 
 
 railway. I read the life of a hero. I come from a very fine 
 
 chemindefer.m. Je lis vief. Jeviens pr. el. tres-beau 
 
 country. It is a tale told by an idiot. Silence and contempt 
 
 pays. Oest conic fait par — m. art. — art. mepris m. 
 are the only vengeance which a gentleman ought to take of 
 sont seule f. qu' galant homme devrait * tirer pr. el. 
 
 a fool ; see the fable of the ass and the wild boar. 
 
 sot m. voyez f. arte m. et du sanglier. 
 
 3. Of my clothes; of thy handkerchief ; of his pocket; of your 
 
 habit m. pi. mouchoirm. pocheL 
 
 letters ; of our treasure ; to their house ; of this steeple ; of his 
 lettre f. pi. ■ tresor m. f. ce docker 
 
 hatred; of that hero; of this tower; from these models; of my 
 f. asp. h ce m. cette tour ces modele pi. 
 
 sister ; of my friendship ; to your relations ; the top of this 
 sceur f. amitie f. parents sommet 
 
 mountain ; to his friend ; of these pleasures ; of our duties ; to 
 montagnef. ces plaisirm. pi. efetfozrm.pl. 
 
 their connexions ; from his acquaintances ; to my neighbours ; 
 liaison, f. pi. connaissance f. pi. voisin m. pi. 
 
 to her honour. 
 
 honneur m. h m. 
 
 OF NEGATIONS. 
 
 In the following negative modes of speech, the 
 caret points out the place which the French verb 
 must occupy, whenever it is not in the infinitive 
 mood. 
 
108 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Not 
 
 never 
 nothing 
 
 ne A pas 
 ne A point 
 ne a jamais 
 ne a Tien 
 
 nobody ne A personnel' 
 
 not a jot ne a goutte 
 
 i fne a nulle 
 no where < 
 
 ^ part 
 
 je ne suis pas, fyc. I am not, &c. 
 
 nous n'avons 1 , 
 
 V we have not 
 point J 
 
 il ne joue jamais he never plays 
 
 vous ne dites 1 ., . 
 
 r^ f y° u sa y notniT1 g 
 
 ^enevoie^.l I see nobody 
 
 fldonotseeatall, or 
 
 ,;> ne vois it/owtftf < I see not in the 
 
 L least 
 
 je ne vais nulle\ T , 
 
 J . Y I go no where 
 
 In compound tenses, the anxiliary verb parts the 
 negative ?ie from the particles pas or point, jamais, 
 &c, that accompany it, as nous n&\ oris point parte, 
 we have not spoken ; on w'auroit jamais cru, one 
 could never have believed*. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I do not say ; I have not said ; I have never seen ; 1 never 
 * dis ai dit ai vu 
 
 (tell a falsehood) ; I do nothing ; I have done nothing ; is he not 
 
 mens fais fait est-il 
 
 arrived ? does he not come ? I see nothing ; has he never seen ? he 
 arrive * 2 wea? 1 t?ots a-£- vm 
 
 never loses his time ; that (is worth) nothing ; I met nobody, 
 perd temps m. cela vaut rencontrai 
 
 The French grammarians generally divide the 
 article as follows: 
 
 Simple ... le, la, les 
 
 compound . . . du, a la, au, aux* 
 
 * The addition of pas or point to the negative particle ne, must not be con- 
 sidered as a second negation, but only as a complementary part of it. 
 
 * See the note, p. 95. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 109 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The Adjective is a part of speech which accom- 
 panies a substantive to express either its good 
 or bad quality, as 
 
 bon pere good father bonne mere good mother 
 
 mauvais livre bad book mauvaise file bad girl 
 
 These words bon, bonne, mauvais, mauvaise, are 
 adjectives, as they express the qualities, either 
 good or bad, of the above substantives. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 A word is known to be an adjective when it can 
 be properly joined with the word personne, or the 
 word chose ; thus, habile, skilful ; and agreable, 
 agreeable, are adjectives, because we can say per- 
 sonne habile, skilful person, chose agreable, agreeable 
 thing. 
 
 In French, the adjective takes the gender and 
 number of the substantive to which it relates. 
 
 How to form the Feminine in the French Adjectives. 
 
 First General Rule. — All adjectives ending in the 
 singular in a mute e are alike for both genders. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Un homme aimable, tranquille, et an amiable, tranquil, and faith- 
 
 fidele ful man 
 
 une femme aimable, tranquille, et an amiable, quiet, and faithful 
 
 fidele woman 
 
110 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Second General Rule — 
 
 -Whenever the adjective 
 
 does not en 
 
 d in a mute 
 
 e, the mute 
 
 e is added to 
 
 form its feminine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 masc. 
 
 
 fem. 
 
 
 cagol 
 
 
 cagoi 
 
 e 
 
 bigot 
 
 clos 
 
 
 close 
 
 
 closed 
 
 cru 
 
 
 crue 
 
 
 row 
 
 devot 
 
 
 devote 
 
 devout 
 
 Espagnol 
 
 
 Espagnole 
 
 Spaniard 
 
 idiot 
 
 
 idiote 
 
 idiot 
 
 mauvais 
 
 
 mauvaise 
 
 bad 
 
 mechant 
 
 
 mechante 
 
 wicked 
 
 niais 
 
 
 niah 
 
 e 
 
 silly 
 
 poll 
 
 
 polie 
 
 
 polite 
 
 pret 
 
 
 prete 
 
 
 ready 
 
 -prudent 
 
 
 prudente 
 
 prudent 
 
 ras 
 
 
 rase 
 
 
 shorn 
 
 savant 
 
 
 savante 
 
 learning 
 
 sense 
 
 
 sensee 
 
 sensible 
 
 tortu 
 
 
 tortue 
 
 crooked 
 
 *ccncret 
 
 
 concrete 
 
 concrete 
 
 * sec ret 
 
 national 
 
 
 un 
 
 meilleur 
 
 *discret 
 
 Espagno 
 
 
 Musulman 
 
 mineur 
 
 *indiscret 
 
 sextil 
 
 
 coquin 
 
 majeur 
 
 *inquiet 
 
 bissextil 
 
 
 Mahometan 
 
 posterieur 
 
 *complet 
 
 civil 
 
 
 aucun 
 
 superieur 
 
 *incomplet 
 
 incivil 
 
 
 anterieur 
 
 ulterieur 
 
 *suret 
 
 subtil 
 
 
 citerieur 
 
 prieur 
 
 filial 
 
 vil 
 
 
 exterieur 
 
 
 fatal 
 
 viril 
 
 
 interieur 
 
 
 venal 
 
 volatil 
 
 
 inferieur 
 
 
 and perhaps a few others in eur, which awaken an idea of opposi- 
 tion or comparison. 
 
 Auteur, docteur, dispos. imprimeur, professeur, chatain, have no feminine 
 gender; however, auteur and docteur are sometimes applied to the feminine 
 gender, for we say des femmes auteurs and des femmes docteurs. It must be ob- 
 served that a substantive of the masculine gender, taken adjectively, although 
 applied to the feminine, remains unchanged, as mme. Deshoulieres fut un poete 
 distingue; Mile, T . . . sera un artiste renomme. 
 
 First Particular Rule. — Most adjectives ending 
 
 * Those adjectives marked with an asterisk require the grave accent on the 
 penultimate e in the formation of their feminine, as it may be seen in concret, m. 
 concrete f* 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 in el, eil, ul, an, ten, on, ais, es, os, as, et, and ot, 
 form their feminine by doubling the last consonant, 
 with the addition of the e mute*, as 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 m. 
 
 f. 
 
 m. f. 
 
 m. f. 
 
 cruel 
 
 —le 
 
 gras 
 
 — se 
 
 *bel —le 
 
 sujet — te 
 
 pareil 
 
 —le 
 
 epais 
 
 — se 
 
 *nouvel — le 
 
 replet — te 
 
 vermeil 
 
 —le 
 
 expres 
 
 — se 
 
 *fol — le 
 
 douillet — te 
 
 nul 
 
 —le 
 
 gros 
 
 — se 
 
 *mol — le 
 
 profes — se 
 
 paysan 
 
 — ne 
 
 net 
 
 —te 
 
 ' vieil — le 
 
 bas — se 
 
 ancien 
 
 — ne 
 
 sot 
 
 —te 
 
 las — se 
 
 metis — se 
 
 bon 
 
 — ne 
 
 gentil 
 
 —le 
 
 muet — te 
 
 vieillot — te 
 
 * These five adjectives, bel, nouvel, &c., take the final I in the masculine before 
 a vowel oxh mute, as un bel homme, un nouvel apparte merit ; but before a conso- 
 nant or h aspirated, they make beau, nouveau, &c. 
 
 Second Particular Rule. — Adjectives ending in/, 
 change this letter into ve, as 
 
 mast*. 
 href 
 
 actif 
 naif 
 
 neuf 
 
 fern. 
 breve 
 active 
 naive 
 neuve 
 
 short 
 action 
 ingenuous 
 new 
 
 Third Particular Rule. — Adjectives ending in 
 eux, oux, eur, change x or r into se as 
 
 fern. 
 
 
 
 honteuse 
 
 
 shameful 
 
 vertueuse 
 
 
 virtuous 
 
 jalouse 
 
 
 jealous 
 
 epouse 
 
 trompeuse 
 
 menteuse 
 
 
 spouse 
 
 deceitful 
 
 liar 
 
 parleuse 
 
 
 talkative 
 
 joueuse 
 ' chanteuse 
 I cantatrice 
 
 and\ 
 
 gambler 
 singer 
 
 masc. 
 honteux 
 vertueux 
 
 jahux 
 
 \epoux 
 trompeur 
 menteur 
 
 \parleur 
 
 \ jo near 
 
 f chant eur 
 
 Cantatrice applies to a person of great repute in the art of singing. 
 
 t Epoux, parleur, joueur, and chanteur are called substantives adjectives. 
 
 * Observe that adjectives ending in in do not double the n as divin, divine, 
 fin, fine, chagrin, chagrine, libertin, libertine, &c. 
 
112 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES IN THEIR FEMININE 
 TERMINATIONS. 
 
 Kiasc. 
 
 absous 
 acteur 
 accusateur 
 admirateur 
 bailleur 
 beau 
 benin 
 blanc 
 coi 
 
 caduc 
 defendeur 
 \demandeur 
 doux 
 
 enchanteur 
 executeur 
 faux 
 favori 
 fou 
 frais 
 franc 
 Grec 
 liberateur 
 long" 
 malin 
 lecteur 
 jouvenceau 
 jumeau 
 mou 
 
 nouveau 
 Xpecheur 
 persecuteur 
 public 
 
 fern. 
 
 absoute 
 actnce 
 accusatr'ice 
 admiratrice 
 bailleresse 
 belle 
 benigne 
 blanche 
 coite 
 cad u que 
 defenderesse 
 demander esse 
 douce 
 
 enchanteresse 
 executvice 
 fausse 
 favorite 
 foWe 
 fraiche 
 franche 
 Grecque 
 Jiberatrice 
 long we 
 maligne 
 leetnce 
 jouvenceWe 
 jumeWe 
 mo\\e 
 nouvelle 
 pechexesse 
 persecutvice 
 publique 
 
 absolved 
 
 actor 
 
 accuser 
 
 admirer 
 
 granter 
 
 fine 
 
 benign 
 
 white 
 
 still, quiet 
 
 frail 
 
 defendant 
 
 plaintiff 
 
 sweet, mild 
 
 charmer 
 
 executor 
 
 false 
 
 favourite 
 
 mad 
 
 fresh 
 
 frank 
 
 Greek 
 
 deliverer 
 
 long 
 
 malignant 
 
 lecturer 
 
 stripling 
 
 twin 
 
 soft 
 
 new 
 
 sinner 
 
 persecutor 
 
 public 
 
 * Bailleur makes bailleresse for the feminine in the sense of granter of a lease, 
 and batlleuse in the signification of a yawner. 
 
 f Demandeur, demandeiesse, plaintiff; demandeur, demandeuse asker. 
 f Pecheur, pecheuse, fisher. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 113 
 
 masc. 
 
 rem. 
 
 
 roux 
 
 sec 
 
 tiers 
 
 rousse 
 
 seche 
 
 tierce 
 
 red 
 dry 
 third, &c. 
 
 traitre 
 Turc 
 
 traitresse 
 Turque 
 
 traitor 
 Turkish 
 
 vengeur 
 vieux 
 
 venyeresse 
 vieille 
 
 avenger 
 old 
 
 A List of Substantives Adjectives which change eur 
 into rice for the feminine. 
 
 administrateur 
 
 corrupteur 
 
 fauteur 
 
 perturbateur 
 
 admoniteur 
 
 curateur 
 
 fornicateur 
 
 procurateur 
 
 adorateur 
 
 debiteur 
 
 generateur 
 
 protecteur 
 
 adulateur 
 
 delateur 
 
 instigateur 
 
 reconciiiateur 
 
 ambassadeur 
 
 destructeur 
 
 inoculateur 
 
 reformateur 
 
 approbateur 
 
 dilaniateur 
 
 introducteur 
 
 speculateur 
 
 bienfaiteur 
 
 dictateur 
 
 instituteur 
 
 seducteur 
 
 calomniateur 
 
 directeur 
 
 inventeur 
 
 testateur 
 
 coadjuteur 
 
 dispensateur 
 
 legislateur 
 
 tuteur 
 
 conciliateur 
 
 dissipateur 
 
 liberateur 
 
 violateur 
 
 eonducteur 
 
 dissimulateur 
 
 moderateur 
 
 usurpateur 
 
 conservateur 
 
 distributeur 
 
 moteur 
 
 zelateur 
 
 consolateur 
 
 doxiateur 
 
 operateur 
 
 
 co-operateur 
 
 executeur 
 
 persecuteur 
 
 
 
 Ohserv 
 
 ation. 
 
 
 The adjectives, or rather the substantives adjec- 
 tives ending in eur which make their feminine in 
 euse, are mostly derived from the verbs ; those 
 which make eur into rice for the feminine, come 
 generally from the Latin language. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 She is decent. This house is well situated. This pear is 
 
 Elle — Cette maison f. bien situe poire f. 
 
 too ripe. She is tall and well formed. This story is very 
 
 trop mur grand bien fait histoire f. tres- 
 
114 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 entertaining. This person is very volatile. This mountain is 
 
 amusant personne f. bien leger montagne f. 
 
 steep. This road is not very safe. The door is not open. 
 
 escarpe route f. sur porte f. ouvert 
 
 This room is dark. This street is too narrow. It is an ancient 
 
 chambre f. obscur. rue f. etroit Ce 
 
 custom. She has carnation. lips. His memory will be 
 
 coutume f. a art. vermeil 2 levre i. pi. 1. Sa = f. sera 
 
 immortal. His manners are natural. The engagement was warm. 
 
 — te/ Ses manieres f. pi. wai/* action f. yitf vi/* 
 
 (That is) an original thought. This cloth is the best of all. 
 
 voila neu/2 pensee f. 1 etoff'e f. meilleur f. pi. 
 
 They are delusive promises. He seduces by his fawning 
 
 Ce des trompeur 2 promesse f. pi. 1 seduit par flatteur 2 
 
 manners. The delightful valley of Tempe is in 
 
 manieres f. pi. 1. delicieux vallec f. Tempe dans art. 
 
 Thessaly. 
 = f. 
 
 The grass is very thick. That soup is very good, but too fat. 
 herbe f. soupe f. mazs frqp 
 
 It is a foolish undertaking. There is no truth in all that. 
 sot entreprise f. // rCy a nul verite f. dans tout cela. 
 This water is not clean. It is a very s£% history. It is in the 
 eauf. net Ce 2 folS = f . 1 a 
 
 newest fashion. It is a fine statue. The law is express upon that 
 nouveau mode f. beau = f. hi f. swr 
 
 point. He lives in a state of luxurious idleness. This wax is not 
 — m. // vit dans * " ynou oisivete f. cire f. 
 
 very white. She is as jftw,* as a rose. The paint on that 
 
 * comme — f. peinture f. de 
 
 wainscot is not dry. His answer is a mere evasion. The thing 
 lambris m. reponse f. franc defaite f. cAose f. 
 
 is public. That plant possesses a pernicious property. She is of 
 herbe f. a ma/m 2 qualite f. 1. a * 
 
 a benevolent character. The avenging thunderbolt smote that 
 
 benin 2 humeur f. vengeur 2 foudre f. I frappa 
 
 impious wretch. He extended to us a protecting hand. This 
 impie m. * tendit 2 * wows 1 — teur 2 wiaiVi f. I 
 
 woman is jealous and deceitful. His temper is mild. This 
 femme f. jaloux faux Son humeur f. doux 
 
 colour is too red. These old clothes are good for nothing. 
 couleur f. trop roux hardes f. pi. ne a rien 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE, 115 
 
 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF FRENCH ADJECTIVES. 
 
 General Rule. — Every adjective, of whatever ter- 
 mination, forms its plural by the mere addition of 
 s, either in the masculine or the feminine, as bon, 
 bons ; bonne, bomies ; poli^ polls; polie, polies. 
 This rule is without any exception as to the femi- 
 nine termination ; but the masculine has the two 
 following: 
 
 Exceptions. — 1st. The adjectives ending in s or #, 
 do not change their termination in the plural mas- 
 culine, as gros, gras, hideux, hideous, &c. 
 
 2nd. Those ending in au, take x in the plural, 
 and those ending in al, change this termination into 
 aux, as beau, beaux ; nouveau, nouveaux ; egal, 
 equal, egaux ; general, general, gentraux. 
 
 But several adjectives ending in al have no plural 
 masculine, as 
 
 beneficial of a benefice 
 
 brumal winterly 
 
 diametral diametral 
 
 experimental experimental 
 
 mental mentJil 
 
 patronal patronal 
 
 zodiacal /belonging to 
 
 zodiacal <^ the zodiac> 
 
 Fatal, filial, final, nasal, natal, virginal, which 
 are regular in the feminine gender, form their 
 plural masculine by the addition of s to the singular, 
 as fatal, m. sing., fatals, m. pi. ; filial, filials, &c. ; 
 but boreal, canonial, labial, lingual, lustral, medical, 
 vocal, that are also regular in the feminine gender, 
 follow the general rule of the substantives ending in 
 al, that is, they drop the I in the singular, and add 
 ux in the plural masculine, as boreal, m. sing., 
 boreaux, m. pi. — [Acad.) 
 
 The adjective tout, all, makes tous in the plural. 
 The monosyllables and words of two syllables, form 
 their plural like the substantive, {vide page 90.) 
 
116 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 They are envious and jealous. Those fowls are big and fat 
 lis — poulet m. pi. 
 
 Owls are frightful birds (There are) some 
 
 art. Hibou m. pi. des hideux 2 oiseau m. pi. Voild de 
 
 beautiful jewels. The two new operas have succeeded. 
 
 beau bijou m. pi. deux nouveau — m. pi. ont reussi 
 
 Men are only equal in the infirmities of nature. The 
 art. 2 ne 1 que 4 3 par — art. — f. 
 
 general officers are assembled. This fruit is excellent. 
 
 — 2 officiers m. pi. 1 — ble — m. pi sont — 
 
 His proficiency is slow, but solid. All his friends have been 
 Ses progress m. pi. sont solide. ami m. pi. ont ete 
 
 very glad to see him. Those ladies are tired with walking. You 
 bien aise de voir 2 \e 1 dame f. pi. las de marcher Vous 
 
 have powerful enemies, but their efforts will be vain and 
 avez de ennemi m. pi. mais leurs — m. pi. seront — 
 
 useless. The four cardinal points are the east, 
 
 inutile quatre point m. pi. 1 orient m. art. 
 
 west, south and north. 
 
 Occident m. art. midi m. art. nord m. 
 
 DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION IN THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Adjectives have three degrees of signification, 
 viz. the positive, the comparative, and the super- 
 lative. 
 
 The positive is the adjective itself, without any 
 increase or diminution, as beau, belle, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 A child gentle, aimable, and docile, is beloved by every body. 
 enfant m. doux aimable — aime de tout le mondc 
 
 An ingenuous candour, an amiable simplicity and a lively, 
 
 ingenu 2 candeur f. I simplicite f. piquant 2 
 
 (engaging artlessness) are all the charm of youth. The 
 
 naivete f. 1 charme m, art. jeunesse f. 
 
 sight of an agreeable landscape is a varied and rapid source of 
 
 vue f. — reable paysage m. varie 2 rapide 3 f. 1 de 
 
 delightful sensations. 
 delicieux 2 f. pi. I 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 117 
 
 2. The comparative is the adjective denoting com- 
 parison between two things. When two things are 
 compared, the one is either superior or inferior, or 
 equal to the other; hence three sorts of comparison, 
 viz. superiority, inferiority, and equality. 
 
 The comparative of superiority is formed by 
 putting plus, more, before the adjective, as la rose 
 est plus belle que la violette, the rose is more beau- 
 tiful than the violet ; que is expressed in English by 
 than. 
 
 The republic of Athens was more illustrious than that of 
 republique f. Athenes a ete illustre celle 
 
 Lacedemon. Homer was, perhaps, a greater genius than Virgil ; 
 Lacedemone. Homere etait peut.-etre grand genie Virgile 
 
 but Virgil had a more nice, and more refined taste than Homer. 
 mais avait fin 2 delicat 3 gout m. 1 — h ni. 
 
 Milton appears (to me) to be more sublime than all the other 
 
 — parait 2 me 1 * — autre 1 
 epic poets. 
 
 epique 3 poele m. pi. 2 
 
 The comparative of inferiority is formed by 
 putting moins, less, or ne si, not so, before the ad- 
 jective, as la violette est moms belle que la rose, the 
 violet is less beautiful than the rose ; or, la violette 
 nest pas si belle que la rose, the violet is not so 
 beautiful as the rose; in the last example, que is 
 rendered in English by as. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Shipwreck and death are less fatal than the pleasures 
 art. Navfrage m. art. mort f. funede pi. art. pi. 
 
 which attack virtue. Gross vice and brutish 
 
 qui attaquent art. f. art. grossier 2 — m. 1 art. brutal 2 
 impudence are not, sometimes, so dangerous as a modest beauty. 
 
 — f . 1 quelquejois dangereux — te 2 beaute f. 1 
 
118 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The violet is less glittering to the eye than the lily : a true 
 — tte f. brillant f. ceil m. pi. lis m. * veritable 2 
 
 emblem of modesty and pride. Autumn is not 
 
 cmbleme 1 art. = f. art. orgueilm. art. automne m. & f. 
 
 so varied as spring, but it is richer. 
 
 variei. art. printempsm. elle riche 
 
 The comparative of equality is formed by putting 
 aussi, as, before the adjective ; as la tulipe est aussi 
 belle que la rose, the tulip is as beautiful as the rose ; 
 que is also expressed by as. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Pope's images are as perfect as his style is harmo- 
 De Pope 2 art. f. pi. 1 parfait f. pi. son — m. harmo- 
 
 nious. Delicacy of taste is a gift of nature as scarce 
 
 rdeux. art. delicatesse f. art. don m. art. — rare 
 
 as true genius. The phases of life in youth and 
 
 art. vrai genie m. phase f. pi. art. art. f. pr. art. 
 
 age appear as different as the face of nature in 
 
 (dge avance) ont une apparence f. f. art. 
 
 spring and winter, 
 
 art. printemps m. pr. art. hiver h m. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 The word que, -than, serves to join the two objects 
 compared. 
 
 These three adjectives, meilleur, better, moindre, 
 less, pire, worse, express by themselves a compa- 
 rison. 
 
 Meilleur is the comparative of bon, good^ and is 
 instead of plus bon 9 which is not used, although we 
 say aussi bon and moms bon. 
 
 Moindre is the comparative of petit, little, and is 
 instead of plus petit, which is also used. 
 
 Pire is the comparative of mauvais, bad, and is 
 instead of plus mauvais, which is equally used. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 119 
 
 As the comparative adverbs mieux, pis, and moms 
 are generally rendered by the same English words, 
 better, worse, and less, it may be advisable to 
 subjoin here those comparative adverbs, with their 
 positives, that the difference of meaning may serve 
 as a distinction. 
 
 Mieux, better, is the comparative of bien, well, and 
 is used instead of plus bien, more well, which is said 
 in neither language. 
 
 Pis is the comparative of mal, badly, and is used 
 for plus mal, worse, which is also employed. 
 
 Moins is the comparative of peu 9 little, and is 
 used for plus peu, which is never said. 
 
 EXAMPLES IN BOTH CASES. 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Cejruit-la est bon, mats celui-ci est That fruit is good, but this Is 
 
 meilleur better 
 
 Sa condition est mauvaise, mais His condition is bad, but it has 
 
 elle a ele pire been worse 
 
 Ma depense est petite, mais la voire My expense is small, but yours is 
 
 est moindre smaller 
 
 ADVERBS*. 
 
 II se conduit bien, mais sa sceur se He behaves well, but his sister 
 
 conduit mieux behaves better 
 
 11 s'est toujours mal porte, mais a He has always been unwell, but 
 
 present il est pis que jamais now he is worse than ever 
 
 Sije parle peu, vous parlez encore If I speak little, you speak still 
 
 moins less 
 
 His reasoning is not better than yours. Your style is 
 Son raisonnement rn. le votre Votre m. 
 
 * In the syntax of Adverbs, there are some useful observations upon mieux 
 jns, and moins. 
 
120 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 (a great deal) better than that of his brother. The thickness oi 
 de beaucoup* celui epaisseur f. 
 
 this wall is less than that of the next wall. This column is 
 
 ce murm. celle voisin 2 1 cette colonne f. 
 
 less than the other in height and size. The remedy is 
 
 autre en hauteur f. pr. grosseur f. remede m. 
 
 worse than the disease. Your horse is worse than mine. He is 
 malm. m. le mien va 
 
 worse to-day than yesterday. 
 
 adv. 
 
 3. The adjective is in the superlative, when it 
 expresses the quality in a very high, or in the 
 highest degree ; hence we have two sorts of super- 
 latives, the one absolute, and the other relative. 
 
 The superlative absolute is formed by putting 
 tres,fort, bien, very, extremement, extremely, &c, 
 before the adjective, as Londres est une tres-belle 
 ville, London is a very fine city; Paris est extre- 
 mement peuple, Paris is exceedingly populous. We 
 call it absolute, because it does not express any 
 relation to another thing. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 That landscape is much varied, very far extended, and infinitely 
 Ce pay sage m. * etendre infiniment 
 
 agreeable on every side. The Alps are very high and very steep 
 
 de tout cote m. f. pi. hautL pi. escarpe f. -pi. 
 
 The style of Fenelon is very rich and very agreeable, but it is some- 
 
 — m. de — H quelque- 
 
 times prolix ; that of Bossuet is extremely lofty, but it is sometimes 
 
 fois — xe celui eleve 
 
 narsh and rough. Fenelon, in painting nature, (would wish) 
 
 dur rude en peignant art. — - voudrait 
 
 to render all its beauties ; but Bossuet never paints 
 
 * en rendre * art. f. pi. ne 1 jamais 4 peint 3 
 
 it but in a mass. 
 
 la 2 que en * masse, 
 
 * Bien superieur a celui de son frere, far superior to that of his brother, is a 
 better expression than " de beaucoup meilieur." 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 121 
 
 The superlative relative is formed by putting the 
 article le, either in its natural or contracted state, 
 before the comparatives meilleur, 7noindre,pire, and 
 the adverbs plus and moins, as Londres est la plus 
 belle des villes, London is the finest of cities ; je 
 pre/ere line maison de campagne au plus beau des 
 palais, I prefer a country-house to the finest palace. 
 We call it relative because it expresses a relation to 
 another thing. Plus or moins, with the article, are 
 repeated before every adjective. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The most beautiful comparison that is perhaps, 
 
 f. comparaisoni. que il y ait subj.-l peut-etre 
 in any language, is that which Pope has drawn from the Alps, 
 dans aucun f . langue f. celle que tire f. de pi. 
 
 in his Essay on Criticism. The picture of HippolitHs' 
 
 dans son Essai sur art. Critique f. tableau m. 1 d'ffippolite 3 de 
 
 death, in Racine's Phedra, is, in the opinion of 
 
 art. f. 2. -pt.de 2 art. Phedre 1 a jugement m. 
 
 many persons of taste, the finest piece of descriptive 
 
 bien des personne f. pi. de morceau m. de descriptiff. 2 
 
 and imitative poetry among the modern writers. The least 
 
 imitatifi. 3 f. 1 parmi moderne pi. 
 
 excusable of all errors is that which is wilful. 
 
 — art. = eurs f. celle qui volontaire. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE 
 SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 Rule I. The adjective always agrees in gender 
 and number with the substantive to which it relates. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Le bon pere the good father I de beaux jar dins fine gardens 
 
 la bonne mere the good mother | de belles promenades fine walks 
 
 G 
 
122 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Bon is in the masculine singular because pere is 
 masculine, and in the singular , bonne is in the 
 feminine singular because mere is feminine and in 
 the singular; beaux is in the masculine plural, 
 because jardins is masculine and in the plural, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Hills covered with trees, loaded with fruit, 
 
 Des coteau m. pi. couvert de arbre m. pi. charge de n*. pi. 
 
 already ripe, and spread over with odoriferous plants ; a pure 
 
 deja mur * * de odoriferant 2 plante f. pi. 1 2 
 
 water, which rolls its limpid crystal in the midst of mea- 
 eau f. qui route son limpide 2 cristal 1 a contr. milieu m. prai- 
 dows enamelled with flowers ; a gloomy forest, whose 
 rie f. pi. emaille de fieur f. pi. sombre foret f. dont art. 
 delicious coolness carries into the senses an enchanting 
 
 = 2 fraicheur f. 2 porfe */aras sews m. pi. enchanteur 2 
 calmness ; (every thing) interests the heart, every thing attaches 
 calme m. 1. tout inter esse cceur m. attache 2 
 
 it in this abode full ? of allurements. Fly, inconsiderate 
 
 V\ dans ce sejour m. plein d'attraitm. pi. Fuyez, inconsidere 2 
 
 youth, fly from the enchanting allurements of a uam world ; 
 jeunesse f . 1 * — tewr 2 attrait 1 — 2 monde m. 1 
 
 its perfidious sweets are a 5/ow poison, which would destroy 
 ses per fide 2 douceur f. pi. 1 lent 2 m. 1 gwi deiruiralt 
 
 in your soul the noble enthusiasm of goodness, and 
 
 dans dme enthousiasme m. art. contr. bien m. 
 
 the precious seeds of sublime virtues, 
 pre'cieux germe m. art. 2 verta 1 
 
 Rule II. When the adjective relates to two sub- 
 stantives singular of the same gender, it ought to 
 be put in the plural, and agree with them in gender. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 he roi et le berger sont egaux apres la morL 
 
 The king and the shepherd are equal after death. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 123 
 
 Uprightness and piety are very much esteemed, even by 
 art. droiture f. art. piete * estime f. pi. mime 
 
 the wicked. A man in the most elevated 
 
 de mediant pi. * art. the dans plus eleve 2 art. etat 1 
 
 and a man in the most abject situation, are equally 
 
 * art. the — 2 art. etat m. 1 egalement 
 
 precious in the eyes of God. Pilpay and Confucius are very 
 
 a contr. m. pi. Dieu. — — 
 
 illustrious among the nations of Asia. 
 = parmi peuple m. pi. art. Asie. 
 
 Rule III. When the two substantives to which 
 the adjective relates are of different genders, this 
 adjective is to be put in the masculine plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Mon pere et ma mere sont contents. 
 My lather and mother are contented. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 His* probity and disinterestedness are known (every where. ) 
 
 Sa probite f. son desinteressement m. connu partout 
 The love of life, and the fear of death, are natural to 
 amour m. art. vie craintei. art. mortf. naturel 
 
 man. Ignorance and self-love are equally pre- 
 
 art* art. — art. amour-propre pre- 
 
 sumptuous. My sister and brother were very attentive to the 
 sumptueux. f. mon out ete atientif contr. 
 
 instructions of their masters. 
 — leur maitre m. pi. 
 
 * The articles and possessive pronouns are generally repeated in 'French before 
 every substantive. 
 
124 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLE AND THE 
 ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The Faults of Infancy.* 
 Defaut m. pi. art. Enfance f. 
 
 The amiable Louisa, and her young brother Charles, were 
 Louise son jeune — etaient 
 
 gentle, sensible, and clever. To the most interesting person, 
 douce wr. r — spirituel — ssante 2 art. figure f. 1 
 
 Louisa joined all the modesty, the happy candour, and 
 
 Us joignaient Louise =» f. heureux ingenuite f. 
 
 artless graces of her sex ; and Charles, the vivacity, the fire, 
 naif '2 les — 1 sen sexem. =f. feum. 
 
 and manly gracefulness of his. But these advantages, 
 
 art. male agrement m. pi. du sien. cet wr. avantage m. pi. 
 
 the precious gifts of nature, were obscured by 
 
 * 2 dons 1 art. etaient un peu obscurci par des 
 
 great defects. They were both inclined to 
 
 essentiel 2 defaut m. pi. 1 etaient lun et V autre enclin art. 
 
 idleness ; and, when they were contradicted liable to fits 
 par 'esse f. lorsqu'on les contrariait sujetpl- des acces 
 
 of pouting and ill humour. Faults are diseases of 
 
 de bouderie f. de mauvais humeur f. art. faute des maladie 
 
 the soul ; the cure of which is the work of time. 
 guerison f. 2 dont 1 ouvrage art. temps m. 
 
 In good dispositions, it is generally the fruit of the develope- 
 Dans les dmes bien nees elle d'ordinaire fruit m. — m. 
 
 ment of reason, and the desire of pleasing. Though their 
 art. raison f. de contr. — r plaire. Quaque leur 
 
 parents were persuaded (of this), they employed to 
 
 — m. -pi. fussent 2 persuade 3 en 1 employaient ind- pour 
 
 hasten it, an expedient which succeeded. If they were 
 
 hater 2 la 1 moyen qui leur reussit ind-3. * 2 etaient 1 
 satisfied with them, contentment and joy were painted in 
 content 2 de eux 2 art. satisfaction f. avt.joie f. ind.-2 peint sur 
 their countenances; if dissatisfied, they did not 
 
 visage m. pi. * en etaient-ils mecontent ne les 
 
 * The learner before writing the above exercise, ought to be already pretty 
 well acquainted with the s,im pie tenses ol the verb to be. 
 
 t Wr. shows that the foregoing word is printed wrong on purpose. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 125 
 
 scold, but they received them with a sorrowful air, 
 
 grondaient pas recevaient 2 les ] avec triste 2 regard m. 1 
 
 a dejected countenance, and every sign of chagrin and 
 
 abattu 2 maintien m. 1 tout art. slgnem. pi. art. m. 
 
 trouble. Louisa and Charles were naturally good and 
 de art. douleur f. ind. 2 naturellement 
 
 sensible ; they could not long resist the idea of 
 
 ne pouvaient long -temps 2 resister 1 a Videe de 
 having afflicted such tender parents ; they felt their fault, 
 avoir afflige des si lendre 2 1 sentaient faute f. 
 
 burst into tears, and asked pardon. All was irame- 
 fondaient en larme f. pi. demandaient — m. 2 ind. -2 me- 
 
 diately forgotten, and contentment returned to them. 
 
 sitot 1 oublie art. contentement renaissait autour de eux 
 
 It was by this means that these amiable children soon 
 Ce ind.-l-3par ces moyen m. pi. que enfans m. pi. bientot 
 
 became models of docility, complaisance, and 
 
 devinrent 3 1 des rnodele m. pi. de = f. pr. — f. pr. 
 
 application. 
 
 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER. 
 
 Numbers are divided into five classes, viz. cardinal, ordinal, collective 
 distributive, and proportional. 
 
 CARDINAL 
 NUMBER. 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBER. 
 
 NUMERICAL COLLEC- 
 TIVE NOUNS. 
 
 1 un, une 
 
 premier 
 
 first 
 
 unite, unit 
 
 2 deux 
 
 deuxieme, second 
 
 2nd 
 
 couple, pair e, couple 
 
 3 trois 
 
 tvohieme 
 
 3rd 
 
 trio 
 
 4 quatre 
 
 quatrieW 
 
 4th 
 
 (deux couples, two cou- 
 ( pies 
 
 5 cinq 
 
 cinquieme 
 
 5th 
 
 
126 
 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 CARDINAL 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBER. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 
 
 6 six 
 
 sixieme 
 
 6th 
 
 7 sept 
 
 septieme 
 
 7th 
 
 8 buit 
 
 huitieme 
 
 8th 
 
 9 neu/ 
 
 neuvieme 
 
 9th 
 
 10 dix 
 
 dixieme 
 
 10th 
 
 11 onzt? 
 
 onzieme 
 
 11th 
 
 12 douz<? 
 
 douzieme 
 
 12th 
 
 13 treize 
 
 tveizieme 
 
 13th 
 
 14 quatorze 
 
 quatorzzewe 
 
 14th 
 
 15 quinze 
 
 qninzi^TRe 
 
 15th 
 
 16 seize 
 
 seizieme 
 
 16th 
 
 17 dix-sept 
 
 dix-septieW 
 
 17th 
 
 18 dix-huit 
 
 dix-huitieme 
 
 18th 
 
 19 dix-nei/ 
 
 d\x-r\euvieme 
 
 19th 
 
 20 vingt 
 
 \mgtieme 
 
 20th 
 
 21 vingt-et-un 
 
 vmgt-et-mrieme 
 
 21st 
 
 22 vingt-deux 
 
 vingt-deuxieme, &( 
 
 j. 22d 
 
 30 trente 
 
 trejitieme 
 
 80th 
 
 Q1 trente-et- > 
 ^ un, &c. J 
 
 40 quarante 
 
 trente-umewie 
 
 31st 
 
 quarantine 
 
 40th 
 
 et-un, &c. j 
 
 quarante-umeme 
 
 41st 
 
 50 cinquante 
 
 cinquantiewze 
 
 50th 
 
 ~. cin quant eO 
 ^ et-un, &c.J 
 
 cinquante-umewie 
 
 51st 
 
 60 soixante 
 
 soixantoeme 
 
 60th 
 
 £, soixante- ") 
 bl et-un, &c. J 
 
 soixarte-um'eW 
 
 61st 
 
 70 soixante-dix 
 
 soi xante- dixz erne 
 
 7t0h 
 
 71 soixante-onze 
 
 soixante-onzzewe 
 
 71st 
 
 80 quatre-vingt 
 
 quatre- vingtzem.? 
 
 80th 
 
 S1 quatre- -* 
 c vingt-un J 
 
 quatre-\ingt-iin2eme81st 
 
 quatre- « 
 vmgt-dix J 
 
 quatre-vingt-dix- 
 
 
 ieme 
 
 90th 
 
 g, quatre- "1 
 vingt-onzej 
 
 quatre-vingt-onz- 
 
 
 ieme 
 
 91st 
 
 NUMERICAL COLLEC- 
 TIVE NOUNS. 
 
 {demi-douzame, half-a- 
 dozen 
 
 huitaine, week 
 
 {neuvaine, nine days of 
 prayer 
 dixaine, half a score 
 
 douzaine, dozen 
 
 quiiizaine, fortnight 
 
 vingiaine, a score 
 
 {trentaine, a score and 
 a half 
 
 quarantaine, two score 
 
 {dvquantaine, two 
 score and a half 
 
 soixantaine, three score 
 
 — four score 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 127 
 
 CARDINAL 
 NUMBER. 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBER. 
 
 NUMERICAL COLLEC- 
 TIVE NOUNS. 
 
 100 cent 
 
 centieme 100th 
 
 1 centaine, 1 hundred 
 
 101 cent " 1 
 1U1 un, &c/ 
 
 OQ0 deux- 1 
 
 cents J 
 
 1000 mille 
 
 cent- unitize, &c. 101st 
 
 
 deux-centieme 200th 
 
 2 centaines, 2 hundred 
 
 millieme 1 000th 
 
 1 millier, 1 thousand 
 
 «**> a } 
 
 deux-milheme, 
 &c. 2000th 
 
 2 milliers, 2 thousand 
 
 10 '°o° mm, } 
 
 dix-milhme 10,000th 
 
 1 myriade, 1 myriad 
 
 1,000,000 million 
 
 milliomme millionth 
 
 1 million, 1 million 
 
 Un milliard, or billion, a thousand millions, un trillion, &c. 
 
 The formation of the ordinal number from the 
 cardinal, does not require any explanation, except 
 that -unibne is only found in compound numbers, 
 where premie?* and second are inadmissible. 
 
 When mentioning the days of the month, the 
 French make use of the cardinal instead of the 
 ordinal number, and say le onze d'Avril, not le 
 onzibne, &c, le vingUcinq du mois prochain, and not 
 le vingt-cinquieme, &c, except, however, that instead 
 of Vim du mois, they say le premier, the first day of, 
 &c, and sometimes le second, though not so well, 
 for le deux; but this mode proceeds no farther. 
 
 Cent never takes s in the plural when followed by 
 another number. — (See partic. Syntax of the adjec- 
 tive ; of number, p. 418.) 
 
 Mille never takes s in the plural, thus, vingt 
 mille is twenty thousand, and not vingt milles, 
 which would mean twenty miles ; arid when men- 
 tioning the Christian iEra, it is customary to curtail 
 this word into mil, and to write, for example, Van 
 mil huit cent quar ant e- deux, and never Van mille, &c. 
 
128 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 There are many other numerical expressions used 
 in poetry, music, games, &c. as distique, tercet, qua- 
 train, sixain, huitain, &c, solo, duo, trio, quatuor, 
 quinque, quinte, octave, &c, beset, sonnez, &c. 
 
 Un millier is very often employed for one thou- 
 sand weight, but quintal is never used except in the 
 sense of one hundred weight. 
 
 The distributive numbers are those which express 
 the different parts of a whole, as la rnoitie, the half, 
 le quart, the quarter ; an cinquieme, a fifth, &c. 
 
 The proportional denote the progressive increase 
 of things, as le double, the double ; le triple, the 
 treble ; le centuple, a hundred-fold, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 OF THE PRONOUN. 
 
 The Pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
 of a noun. 
 
 There are different kinds of pronouns, viz. per- 
 sonal, possessive, relative, absolute, demonstrative, 
 and indefinite. 
 
 § i. 
 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal pronouns are those which denote the 
 persons. 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 129 
 
 There are three persons ; the first is that who 
 speaks ; the second is that to whom one speaks ; 
 and the third, that of whom one speaks. 
 
 The pronouns of the first person areje, I, moi, 
 me, for the singular, and nous, we or us, for the 
 plural. They are of both genders, that is, mascu- 
 line if it be a man that speaks, and feminine if it be 
 a woman ; as, je me promene, I walk ; regardez-moi, 
 look at me; parlez de moi, speak of me ; nous nous 
 promenons, we are walking. 
 
 Observe that me is used instead of a moi, or moi, 
 as il me dit, that is, il dit a moi ; il me regarde, 
 that is, il regarde moi, he looks at me. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In general, je and me are put before the verb, 
 moi after it, and nous before, but sometimes after it 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I cast my eyes upon the objects which surrounded 
 portai ind.-3 vue f. sur objet qui environnaient 2 
 
 me, and saw with pleasure that all was calm and tranquil. Do 
 me 1 je vis avec que md.-2calme — Ue 
 
 you not see in all the features of my father that he is 
 
 2 pas 3 ne voyez 1 dans trait m. pi. que 
 
 satisfied with me ? We have told the truth. What were they 
 
 content de moi avons dit veritei. Que * on 2 
 
 saying of us ? If we desire to be happy, we must not 
 disait 1 Si desirons de ne devons pas nous 
 
 deviate from the path of virtue. 
 ecarter de contr. chemin m. art. 
 
 The pronouns of the second person are tu, thou ; 
 te, toi, thee, for the singular, and votes, you, for the 
 plural. They are of both genders, that is, mascu- 
 line if it be a man to whom one speaks, and femi- 
 
 g2 
 
130 CF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 nine, if it be a woman ; as tu te promene, thou 
 walkest; regarde-toi, look at thee ; on parte de toi, 
 one speaks of thee ; vous vous promenez, you walk. 
 
 Observe that te instead of a toi, or toi, as on te 
 dit, that is, on dit a toi, one tells thee ; on te regarde, 
 that is, on regarde toi, one looks at thee. 
 
 Through politeness, we say, vous, you, instead of 
 tu, thou, in the singular, as vous etes Men bon et 
 Men honnete, you are very good and very polite. 
 This last observation applies also to the English 
 language. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In general, tu and te are put before the verb ; 
 toi after ; and vous before, but sometimes after it. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Thou art greater than I : and from thee I have (at once) 
 
 es moi toi ai en meme temps 2 
 
 derived humility and wisdom. I (was telling) thee that 
 
 appris 1 art. = f. art. sagesse f. Je 1 disais 3 te 2 que 
 
 dancing is to the body what taste is to the mind. You 
 
 art. danse f. m. ce que art. m. m. 
 
 have shown us great talents ; when shall you show us 
 avez2montreS I de — m. quand 3 montrerez2 1 de 
 
 great virtues ? How amiable you are ! How good you are to have 
 f. pi. Que 3 12 2 1 de vous 
 
 thought of us! It was said of you the other day, that you 
 £tre occupe On disait autre jour m. vous 
 
 intended to spend a winter in London (in order to) see every 
 vous proposiez de passer m. a — res pour voir tout 
 
 thing curious which that city affords. 
 ce 5 que 1 cette 3 ville 3 offre de 4. 
 
 The pronouns of the third person are il, he ; elle, 
 she ; luh to him or her ; le, him, it ; la, her, it, for 
 the singular ; and Us, elles, they ; eux, les, them ; 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUN3. 131 
 
 leur, to them, for the plural. 77, le, Us, and eux, 
 are always masculine ; elle, la, and elles, always 
 feminine ; lui, leur, and les, masculine or feminine, 
 according to the gender of the person spoken of. 
 
 Observe that lui is instead of a lid, a elle, as je 
 lid par le, may signify je parle a lui, I speak to him, 
 or je parle a elle, I speak to her. Le is for lui, and 
 la for elle, asje le vois, that is, je vois lui, I see him ; 
 je la vois, that i$,je vois elle, I see her. Leur is for 
 a eux, a elles, &sje leur parle, may signify je parle a 
 eux, I speak to them (men), je parle a elles, I speak 
 to them (women). Les is for eux or elles, as je les 
 vois, may signify je vois eux, I see them (men) ; or 
 je vois elles, 1 see them (women). 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. All the personal pronouns je, tu, il, nous, vous, 
 Us, and elle, elles, when subjects, are put after the 
 verb in interrogations, as 
 
 (7'e I 
 
 ) tu th 
 
 Z Ul hi 
 
 {.elk sh 
 
 I dois-]e payer? must I pay? 
 i thou as-tu dit ? hast thou said? 
 
 " | il he chante-t-il blen ? does he sing well ?* 
 <-elle she travaille-t-eWe? does she work? 
 
 The same observation applies to nous, vous, Us, 
 elles, as irons-nous? shall we go? viendrez-vous? 
 will you come? chantent-ils? &c. 
 
 2. All personal pronouns, when subjects, are 
 placed before their verbs, except in interrogative 
 sentences, and most of them likewise when objects 
 precede them, except m the imperative affirmative ; 
 but the objective, eux, elles, lui for le, and moi, toi, 
 soi, with one exception of this last, in soi-disant, 
 
 * The letter t between two hyphens, is placed there by euphony, for the sake of 
 softening the sound. 
 
132 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 styling himself, are invariably placed after the verbs 
 by which they are governed. 
 
 //, elle, Us, elles, and the objective pronouns are, 
 in general, to be placed before the verb, except 
 in some cases, which will be mentioned in due time. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 He loved them, because they were mild, attentive, and grate- 
 aimait m. parceque ind.-2 doux, = recon- 
 
 ful. He (was saying) to them, do you not know that the 
 naissant disait 2 1*2 savez 1 que 
 
 property of merit is to excite envy? She often exhorted 
 
 propre m. art. mfaite de — ter art. envie f. souvent 2 exhortait 
 me to the study the most useful, that of the human heart. They 
 
 etude f. utile celle 2 coeur 1 
 
 make us love virtue, more by their examples than by their 
 
 font 2 1 aimer art. par leurs exemple 
 
 words. What has been said of them? Did they speak of 
 parole f. pi. Que I on 3 2 * dit eux * on 2 parlait 1 
 
 them ? Do you not see her ? With what pleasure she plays. 
 elles * 4 ne 1 uoz/ez 3 2 gweZ Jo we. 
 
 Rule. The pronouns il, elle 3 Us, elles, ought to 
 be in the same gender and number as the nouns of 
 which they supply the place. 
 
 Thus, in speaking of the rose, say elle a un 
 parfum exquis, aussi est-elle la Jleur la plus recher- 
 chee, it has an exquisite perfume, and therefore it is 
 the most sought after of all the flowers, because the 
 pronoun elle relates to rose, which is feminine and 
 in the singular ; and in speaking of several ladies 
 replete with amiable qualities, say, elles out autant 
 de modestie que de beaute, d'esprit et de grace, they 
 have as much modesty as they have beauty, wit, 
 and graces ; because the pronoun elles relates to 
 dames, which is feminine, and in the plural. 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 133 
 
 (Look at) that magnificent building; it unites gracefulness 
 
 Regardez ce magnifique bdtiment m. reunit art. grace f. 
 to beauty, and elegance to simplicity. Ignorance is 
 
 art. = art. — f. art. = art. — f. 
 
 jealous, presumptuous, and vain ; it sees difficulties in nothing, 
 jaloux — tueux — elle ne voit de f. pi. a rien 
 
 is surprised at nothing, and stops at nothing. Let us 
 
 elle ne s'etonne de ne sarrete 
 
 gather these roses : Heavens ! what a sweet perfume they exhale ! 
 cueillons ce — Ciel ! quel * doux parfum f. exhalent 
 
 Never judge from appearances, they are often deceitful : the 
 Ne jamais jug ez sur les apparence f. pi, f. trompeur 
 
 wise man examines them, and does not decide upon them, 
 sage * examine 2 les 1 * ne se decide d'apres que 
 
 till he has had time to fix his judgment. 
 lorsque a eu art, de fixer jugement. 
 
 REFLECTED AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS OF THE 
 THIRD PERSON. 
 
 Singular* 
 
 r . ("with a preposi- 
 S0l \ tion 
 
 \ governed by the 
 
 verb 
 
 se for 
 
 fa soi, a lui- 
 [ meme 
 
 a elle-meme 
 
 ha- 
 
 9. / se 
 
 '•£' \ i soL or 
 
 O \se ..A ' a 
 | (. meme 
 
 j jsoi, or elle- 
 
 "\ meme 
 
 Examples. 
 
 \chacun tire k soi \ eye ,7 °" e d™" t0 
 J (. himself 
 
 CVegoismefaUqu^on C e ^ 0tism makes a 
 
 \ ne voit %ue< P erso \ , se , e 
 
 I soi / n( £ e but hm ~ 
 
 V self 
 
 fil se donne des The gives himself 
 
 X louanges \ praises 
 
 J elle se fait Ufa- j she imposes on 
 
 \ sion \ herself 
 
 >il se perd he ruins himself 
 
 Xelle sejlatte she flatters herself 
 
134 
 
 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 for 
 
 Plural, 
 a eux-memes 
 
 .. a elles-memes 
 
 .. Tun a t autre 
 
 . » eux-memes 
 .. elles-memes 
 
 . . Tun et I" autre 
 
 ( les wis, les 
 ' ' \ autres 
 
 {its s'attribuent la 
 gloire de, Sfc. 
 
 elles se prescri- 
 vent pour regie 
 de, 8fc. 
 
 Us s'entredonnent, 
 ou sefont des ca 
 deaux 
 
 fils se sont desho- 
 
 \ nores 
 
 Examples. 
 
 rthey attribute to 
 
 < themselves the 
 
 i glory of, &c- 
 
 they prescribe to 
 
 themselves as a 
 
 rule to, &c. 
 
 {' 
 ; } 
 
 they exchange gifts 
 
 {they have disgraced 
 themselves 
 
 dies se sont flatties I thf T havl ! fla,tered 
 J tnemselves 
 
 lis s'entr'aident 
 
 [les rats, dii-on s'era- 
 | tre-devorent 
 
 \ 
 
 {they help one ano- 
 ther 
 {rats, it is said, eat 
 each other 
 
 Remark. Se is always placed before the verb, 
 and soi after a preposition. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 In a thousand instances we do not watch sufficiently over 
 
 * mille occasion f. on * veiUe assez sur 
 
 ourselves. The glory of the world (passes away) in an instant. 
 
 soi = f. mondem. s'evanouit en — m. 
 
 He gives himself (a great deal) of trouble. She tires herself. 
 
 donne se heaucoup peine f. lasse se 
 
 People should (very seldom) speak of themselves. Virtue is 
 
 On doit rarement parler soi art. f. 
 
 amiable in itself. We must take upon ourselves the care of our 
 de soi On doit prendre sur soi soin m. ses 
 
 own affairs. 
 propre affaire f. pi. 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 135 
 
 OF THE PRONOUN RELATIVE en. 
 
 en for | 
 
 de hi of bim 
 
 (Telle of her 
 
 of them 
 
 d'elles of them 
 
 de cela* 
 
 "of that 
 or of it 
 
 aVici hence 
 
 de la thence 
 
 I 
 
 CvoiL 
 Con 
 
 \ » 
 
 v- si 
 
 { 
 
 Cvous G 
 v en v 
 
 cet komme vous 
 plait, vous en 
 parlez souvent 
 
 -je ne crois pas 
 cette Jemme sin- 
 cere ; je m'en 
 me fie 
 
 ces fruits parais- 
 sent bons, j'en 
 manger ais volon- 
 tiers 
 
 Cvoild de belles oran- 
 voulez-vous 
 men donner ? 
 
 ne m a pas 
 -ompe,fen suis 
 sur 
 
 il arriva ici comme 
 fen partais 
 
 [vous allez a Pa- 
 et monsieur 
 en vient 
 
 fthat man pleases 
 ■s you, you speak 
 v of him often 
 f X do not believe 
 J that woman sin- 
 1 cere, I distrust 
 ^ her 
 
 rthese fruits look 
 J good, I should 
 J like to eat some 
 >■ of them 
 /-these are beauti- 
 ) ful oranges, will 
 j you give me 
 v. some ? 
 
 Cl have not been 
 < imposed upon, I 
 (. am sure of it. 
 The arrived here as 
 ■I I was setting off 
 v. from hence. 
 ryou are going to 
 J Paris, this gen- 
 ") tleman comes 
 v. from thence. 
 
 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN, OR ADVERB y. 
 
 Yfor 
 
 a lui to him 
 
 a eUe to her 
 
 a eux to them 
 
 a elles to them 
 
 {c'est un honnete 
 homme,fiez-vous y 
 {cette raison est so- 
 lide, je m'y rends 
 fees argumens sont 
 \ pressa?is,je n'y vois 
 ^point de replique 
 faccablede vos civi- 
 J lites, je ne sais 
 ) comment y re- 
 ^ pondre 
 
 fhe is an honest 
 t man, trust to him 
 /that reason is good, 
 L I yield to it 
 /-these arguments 
 3 are cogent, I see 
 (. no reply to them 
 floaded with your 
 J civilities, 1 do not 
 J know how to ac- 
 ^ knowledge them 
 
136 
 
 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 a cela to it 
 
 y for/ id 
 
 m 
 
 here 
 
 there 
 
 rfai eprouve cette 
 J perte quand fy 
 (^ pensais le moins 
 Cnous partons de 
 -\ Londres quand 
 V. vous y venez 
 C&est un endroit 
 •\ charmant, je 
 v compte m'y fixer 
 
 I experienced that 
 loss when I least 
 thought of it. 
 we set off from 
 London when you 
 come hither 
 it is a fine place, I 
 intend to settle 
 there 
 
 Remark. Y and en are always put before the 
 verb, except with the imperative affirmative, in the 
 first and second persons. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 They speak (a great deal) of it. You like French 
 
 On parle beaucoup aimez art. Francais 2 
 
 authors ; you are always speaking of them. That is a delicate 
 auteur 1 * 2 parlez 1 Ce delicate 
 
 affair; the success of it is doubtful. See them; I consent to 
 = f . 1 success m. douteux Voyez 1 consens 3 
 
 it} but do not trust them. That is a fine appointment ; he had 
 
 * 1 5 vous 2fiez 4 y 3 Ce charge f. * 
 
 long aspired to it. He has done it, but he will get 
 
 depuis long- temps 3 — rait 2 1 a fait ne 1 gagnera 3 
 
 nothing % it. 
 
 rien 4 y 2 
 
 §ii. 
 
 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 These pronouns denote the possession. When we 
 say man habit, my coat ; votre maison, your house ; 
 son jar din, his or her garden ; it is the same as 
 saying V habit qui est a moi, the coat which belongs 
 to me ; la maison qui est a vous, the house which 
 
OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 137 
 
 belongs to you ; le jar din qui est a lid or a elle, the 
 garden which belongs to him or to her. 
 
 There are two sorts of possessive pronouns, the 
 conjunctive and the relative. 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS RELATING TO ONE PERSON. 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural, 
 
 ("first person mon m. 
 
 for the - } second ■ ■ ton m. 
 
 v. third son m. 
 
 ma f. 
 ta f. 
 sa f. 
 
 mes m. f. my 
 tes m. f. thy 
 ses m. f. his, her, its 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS RELATING TO SEVERAL PERSONS. 
 
 Singular 
 
 C first person notre m. f. 
 
 for the-! second voire m. f. 
 
 (.third leur m. f. 
 
 Plural 
 
 nos m. f. our 
 
 vos m. f. your 
 
 leurs m. f. their 
 
 N. B. — These possessive pronouns in French 
 always agree in gender and number with the object 
 possessed, and not with the possessor as in English, 
 for which reason they must be repeated before every 
 noun. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mon pere, ma mire, et mes freres 
 sont a la campagne avec vos 
 amis et leurs enfans 
 
 Mon cousin est alle consoler sa 
 sceur, qui a perdu son fils 
 
 My father, mother, and brothers 
 are in the country, with your 
 friends and their children 
 
 My cousin is gone to visit and 
 console his sister, who has lost 
 her son 
 
 Mon, ton, son, are also used before a noun femi- 
 nine, when beginning with a vowel or h mute ; thus, 
 mon dine, my soul ; ton humeur, thy humour ; son 
 amitie, his friendship ; must be said instead of ma 
 dme, ta humeur, sa amitie. 
 
138 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 My principles, my love of retirement, my taste for 
 
 — pe gout m. pour art. retraite f. amour m. 
 
 (every thing) that (is connected) with learning, and my 
 
 tout ce qui tient a art. instruction 
 
 detestation of all spirit of party, (everything) has induced me 
 haine f. h asp. pour esprit parti tout a porte 
 
 to prefer a life passed in the closet, to the active life of 
 
 preferer * art. vie f. * de * cabinet = 2 f . 1 
 
 the world. Do not think, my daughter, that thy candour, thy in ge- 
 rm pense que = f. inge- 
 nuousness, thy taste, so delicate and so refined, and even thy graces, 
 nuitef. m. — cat Jin meme — 
 can shelter thee from censure. His wit, 
 puissent mettre a Vabri de art. — f esprit m. 
 
 his talents, his honesty and even his (good nature) make him 
 
 — m. honnetete f. h m. meme. bonhomie f. font 
 beloved by every body. Our constancy and our efforts will 
 
 aimer de tout le monde = f . — m. * 
 
 (at last) surmount all obstacles. I see nothing that 
 
 enfin 2 surmonteront 1 art. — m. pi. vois 2 we 1 rien 3 que 
 can (be censured) in your conduct. Their taste for the 
 on puisse reprendre dans conduite f. pour 
 
 fantastical, the monstrous and the marvellous, gives to all their 
 bizarre m. monstrueux m. merveilleux m. donne 
 
 compositions, although very fine in themselves, an air of defor- 
 
 — f. quoique en elles-memes — m. diffor- 
 mity, w T hich shocks at first sight. 
 
 mite f. qui choque a art. coup d'ozil 
 
 POSSESSIVE RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATING ONLY TO ONE PERSON, 
 m. S. f. S. 
 
 1st person le mien la mienne 
 
 2nd — le tien la tienne 
 
 3rd le sien la sienne 
 
 m. pi. 
 
 f.pi. 
 
 
 les miens 
 
 les miennes 
 
 mine 
 
 les dens 
 
 les tiennes 
 
 thine 
 
 les siens 
 
 les siennes 
 
 his her its 
 
OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. J 39 
 
 POSSESSIVE RELATIVE PRONOUNS RELATING TO SEVERAL PERSONS. 
 
 m. s. 
 first person le notre 
 
 f. s. 
 la notre 
 
 pi. of both genders 
 Its notres ours 
 
 second le voire 
 
 third le leur 
 
 la votre 
 la leur 
 
 les votres yours 
 les leurs theirs 
 
 N. B. — The real use of these pronouns is to spare 
 the repetition of the nouns, which have been ex- 
 pressed a little before*. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Avez-vous toujours votre cheval? Have you still your horse? I 
 je nai plus le mien, have disposed of mine 
 
 Is it your temper or hers that hinders you from living well 
 ce humeur f. qui empeche de vivre 
 
 together ? If it be yours, it is easy for you to remedy it, 
 
 ensemble ce est il 2 aise 3 * 1 de porter remede y 
 
 by mastering (your temper) ; if it be hers, redouble your 
 en prenant sur vous-meme ce redoublez de * 
 
 complaisance, attention, and good behaviour; it is very 
 — de — de procede m. pi. il ires- 
 
 seldom that this method (proves unsuccessful). If my friends 
 rare ce moyen ne reussisse pas Si 
 
 had served me with the same zeal as yours, it is very certain 
 avaient servi mime zele m. que il tres-sur 
 
 that I (should have) succeeded : but yours have been all fire, and 
 
 aurais reussi ont ete de 
 
 mine all ice. All the pictures which we expected from Rome 
 
 de glace tableau m. que attendions 
 
 are arrived; there are some that are a little damaged; but yours, 
 arrives il y en a qui pen endommages 
 
 his, and mine are in good condition. We know perfectly well 
 en etatm. savons parfaitement * 
 
 * Therefore, we cannot begin writing a letter in these words : fai recu la votre, 
 8)C, I have received yours, &c, because the word letter has not yet been expressed. 
 
140 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 what are your amusements in town, and I assure you, we 
 
 quels — a art. ville f. — que 
 
 are very far from envying you them ; but if you knew 
 sommes bien eloigne pi. envier 3 1 2 connaissiez 
 
 ours in the country, it (is most likely) you 
 
 quels sont a campagne f. il y a toute apparence que 
 
 (would not be long) in giving them the preference. You have 
 ne tarderiez pas a donner leur — f. avez 
 
 opened your heart to me with that noble frankness w r hich so well 
 
 ouvert — franchise qui si 2 3 
 
 becomes an honest man ; this confidence well deserves mine. 
 
 sied 1 a honnete conjiance f. 2 merile 1 
 
 Remark. When vous is used instead of tu, then 
 votre, vos, must take the place of ton, ta, tes ; and le 
 votre, la votre^ les votres, be used for le tien, la tienne, 
 les tie?is, les Henries. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Que vous ressemblez peu a vos an- How little you resemble your 
 
 cetres ! ancestors ! 
 
 Quand vous aurez entendu nos When you have heard our reasons, 
 
 raisons, nous ecouterons les votres we will listen to yours 
 
 § in. 
 
 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Relative pronouns are those which relate to a 
 noun preceding them ; when we say, Vhomme qui 
 joue, the man who plays, qui relates to the substan- 
 tive homme. The word to which qui relates, is 
 called antecedent ; in the above example, Vhomme 
 is the antecedent of the relative qui* 
 
 There are six relative pronouns, viz., qui, who or 
 
 * The antecedent of the relative qui, may be either a noun or pronoun. 
 
OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 14] 
 
 which, or that; que, whom or which, or that; 
 lequel, which, dont, whose, or of w T hich ; quoi, what, 
 and oil, where, whither, &c. 
 
 Qui and que are of both genders and numbers 
 
 Rule. The relative pronouns qui and que always 
 agree with their antecedents in gender, number, 
 and person. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Moi qui* suis son fils I who am his son. 
 
 toi qui est sijeune thou who art so young 
 
 Venfant quijoue the child who plays 
 
 nous qui etudions we who study 
 
 vous qui riez you who laugh 
 
 les livres qui instruisent the books which instruct 
 
 In the first example, qui is in the singular, and 
 of the first person, because the pronoun moi is in 
 the singular, and of the first person. In the second, 
 it is in the singular, and of the second person, for 
 a similar reason ; and moreover, it is masculine if 
 it be a boy that is spoken to, and feminine if it be 
 a girl, &c. 
 
 It is the same with que ;f Venfant que je demande, 
 the child whom I ask; la promenade que Jaime, 
 the walk which I like ; les homines quejestime, the 
 men whom I esteem, &c. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I who did not suspect (so much) falsehood, cunning, 
 
 Moi * soupgonnais pas taut de faussete f. pr. ruse f. 
 
 and perfidy, in a man whom I loved, blindly followed his 
 
 pr. perfidie f. aimais, je aveuglement 2 suivis 1 ses 
 
 counsels. Thou who art candour and innocence itself, 
 
 conseil m. pi. art. — dcur art. — meme 
 
 * Qui is subject of the verb following, t Que is the object of the verb following. 
 Qui as subject, governs the verb. Que as object is governed by the verb. 
 
142 OR RELATIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 confide not too lightly. The great empire of the Egyptians 
 
 ne te confie pas trop — Eyyptien 
 
 which Sesostris founded, and which was (as it were) detached 
 
 obj. — fonda ind.-3 subj. ind.-3 comme detache 
 
 from all others was not of long duration. We who know 
 
 art. nefut pas — duree f. connaissons 
 
 the value of time ought to make a good use (of it), 
 
 prix m. art. temps nous devons hid. -1 * /aire 2 emploi en 1 
 
 instead of wasting it in idleness and frivolity. What 
 
 ou lieu de perdre 2 le 1 dans art. oisivete f. art. inutilite quoi 
 
 is it you, my daughter, who would wish that I should love you 
 ce fille voudriez aimais 2 1 
 
 less? The greatest men, who were the ornament and glory 
 
 moins 3 furent ornement art. yloire 
 
 of Greece, Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, even Lycurgus and 
 
 art. Grece f. Homere, Pythagore, Platon, Lycurgue 
 
 Solon, those two celebrated legislators, went to learn 
 
 — ces celebre legislateur allerent * apprendre art. 
 
 wisdom in Egypt. (Everything) in the universe alters and 
 sagesse f. en Egypte. tout univers s'altere 
 
 perishes, but the writings which genius has dictated, shall 
 
 perit ecrit que le — ie a dicte pi. 
 
 be immortal. The art of rendering the bodies sound and robust, 
 
 — tel rendre corps sain —te 
 
 which our carelessness has made us lose, was well known to 
 obj. nonchalance f. 2 fait 3 1 perdre etait connu de 
 
 the ancients. A power which terror and force have 
 
 pi. ancien puissance f. obj. art. terreur f. art. — f. ont 
 
 founded cannot be of long duration. 
 fonde f. ne pent — f. 
 
 Lequel takes both genders and numbers, according 
 to circumstances; les places auquelles il aspire, the 
 places to which he aspires ; les revenus sar lesquels 
 vons comptez, the incomes upon which you reckon. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The article le is so strictly united with the word 
 queh that they form together but one and the same 
 word, either in its natural or in its contracted state ; 
 
OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 143 
 
 we say, lequel, duquel, auquel, in the masculine sin- 
 gular; laquelle, de laquelle, a laquelle, in the femi- 
 nine singular ; lesquels, desquels, aux quels, for the 
 masculine plural ; and lesquelles, desquelles, aux- 
 quelles, for the feminine plural. 
 
 Dont is for de qui, or duquel. Uhomme dont 
 (de qui) vous parlez, the man of whom you speak ; 
 la Tamise dont (de laquelle) le lit, &c, the Thames, 
 of which the channel, &c. ; it is of both genders and 
 of both numbers, relating either to animate or 
 inanimate things. 
 
 Persons of a middle condition have not the same need 
 art. f. pi. commun 2 — f . I rCont pas meme besoin m. 
 
 of being cautioned against the dangers to which ele- 
 
 inf. 1 precautionne f. pi. contre eeueilm. pi. art. 
 
 vation and authority expose those who are destined to 
 
 — f. art. autorite 1. exposent ceux destine pi. 
 
 govern mankind. The protection on which he relied 
 
 gouverne art. homme pi. — f . sur comptait ind.-2 
 
 has been too weak. It is a condition without which he will do 
 ete trop faible Ce — f. f. il ne vout 1 3 
 
 nothing. The satire which you have mentioned to me, (has not 
 rien 2 f. dont 1 avez parle 4*2 n'a pas 
 
 even) the merit of malignity. It is the thing (in the) world 
 
 meme — te art. mechancete f. c'est f. du 
 
 that I least care for. 
 
 dont le moins 2je me soucie 1 * 
 
 Qicoi is for lequel or laquelle, preceded by a 
 preposition ; la chose a quoi (a laquelle) on pense le 
 moins, the thing of w^hich we think the least. 
 
 N. B. — Quoi never relates to pronouns. 
 
 Ou, dou, and par ou, are of both genders and 
 numbers, according to circumstances, as voila 
 le but ou il tend, that is the butt of his aim ; cest 
 une chose d'oii depend le honheur public, it is a thing 
 
144 OF ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 
 
 upon which public happiness depends; les lieiix par 
 oil il a passe, the places through which he has 
 passed. 
 
 That after which a true philosopher sighs most ardently 
 
 Ce quoi — phe soupire art. ardemment 
 
 is to spread that sentiment of universal benevolence which 
 
 de repandre ce — de — set bienveillance f. subj. 
 
 should unite and (bring together) all men. The only moments 
 devrait unir rapprocher art. seul instant m. pi. 
 
 which he can spare to his pleasure, are those which he devotes 
 
 qu'il a de librcs pour ceux obj. consacre 
 
 to study. 
 
 art. etude 
 
 § iv, 
 
 ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Absolute pronouns are so called, because they 
 never have any relation to an antecedent ; they are 
 generally used in an interrogation. These are, qui, 
 que, quel, quoi, and lequel, m., laquelle, f. 
 
 Qui is for quelle personne, what person ; or qui 
 est-ce qui, who is it that ; as qui vous a dit cela ? 
 who told you that? that is, qui est-ce qui, or quelle 
 per sonne vous a dit cela ? 
 
 Que and quoi are for quelle chose, what thing ; as 
 que (quelle chose) diUon ? what do they say ? a quoi 
 (a quelle chose) s'occupe-t-on ? what are they about? 
 If they be followed by an adjective, the word de is 
 put before that adjective, as Que dii-on denouveau ? 
 what news is there ? Quoi de plus amusant et de plus 
 instructif? what more amusing and instructive ? 
 
 N. B.- — Qui applies only to persons, and que and 
 quoi to things. 
 
OF ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 145 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Who will not agree that life has few real pleasures, and 
 
 convenir que art. f. peu de vrai 
 
 many dreadful pains ? What have you read in that book 
 beaucoup* de affreux 2 f. pi. 1 lu ce m. 
 
 that can have raised in your soul agitation and enthu- 
 
 puisse avoir porie art. — art. enthou- 
 
 siasm? In what did you find them occupied? What have you 
 siasme a * trouvdtes-vous 2 1 occwpem.pl. 
 
 remarked good, beautiful, and sublime in Hesiod, Homer, 
 remarque de pr. beau pr. — Hesiode, — re 
 
 Theocritus and Sophocles? What more brilliant, and, at the same 
 
 Theocrite Sophocle Quoi de hrillant en * 
 
 time, more false than the expressions of a man, who has (a great 
 de — beau- 
 
 deal) of wit, but wants judgment? What more blind 
 coup de esprit qui manque de de aveugle 
 
 than envy or hatred? 
 
 art. envie ou art. haine h asp. 
 
 Quel always precedes a substantive, with which 
 it agrees in gender and number : it generally 
 expresses admiration. Quelle instabilite dans les 
 choses huma'mes! what instability in human affairs ! 
 
 Lequel, duquel, auquel, &c, are used to make a 
 distinction between several objects. 
 
 What then must have been that extraordinary man (to whom) 
 Quel 1 done 3 doit 2 cet extraordinaire 2 1 auquel 
 
 seven cities dispute the glory of having given birth ? 
 
 ville f. pi. se sont dispute de inf.-l art. jour m 
 
 What gracefulness, what delicacy, what harmony, what colouring, 
 grace f. delicate sse = coloris m. 
 
 what beautiful lines in Racine ! Which do you prefer of those 
 vers m. lequel * 2 prefer ez de 
 
 pictures ? I cannot tell you. 
 tableau m. pi. je ne saurais dire 3 1 le 2 
 
 * We say beaucoup de and Men des. 
 H 
 
146 OF DEMONSTATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, &C. 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns are those which point, 
 as it were, to the objects spoken of. These are 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m. f. 
 
 ce, cet* cette this or that 
 
 celui celle this or that 
 
 celui-ci celle-ci this 
 
 celui-ld celle-ld that 
 
 rj zz si tiiesewno P iurai ' 
 
 m. f. 
 
 ces ces these or those 
 
 ceux celles these or those 
 
 ceux-ci celles-ci these 
 
 ceux-ld celles-ld those 
 
 {ce before a consonant ce livre this book 
 
 ce ... an h aspirated ce heros that hero 
 
 cet ... a vowel cet enfant this child 
 
 cet ... an h mute cet homme that man 
 
 fern. cette ... any feminine noun cette femme that woman 
 
 cette time that soul 
 
 cette histoire that history 
 
 ces before any noun plural") ces hommes these men 
 
 of both genders . j ces femmes these women 
 
 f when without a noun,"! (qui est-ce ? "| who is it ? 
 
 j < intimates a person, Vas < ce que je vous >what I tell 
 
 l_ or thing spoken of J (_ dis est vrai J is true 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Nothing is so opposite to that true eloquence, the office 
 Ne 2 Hen 1 oppose veritable — f. fonction f. 2 
 
 (of which) is to ennoble (everything), as the use of 
 
 1 del ennoblir 3 tout 2 * que emploi m. 
 
 those refined thoughts, and hunting after those light, airy, 
 
 fin 2 pensee f . 1 art. recherche f. de leger 2 delie 3 
 
 unsolid ideas, which, like a leaf of beaten metal, 
 
 sans consistance 4 idee f. 1 comme feuille f. battu 2 — m. 1 
 
 acquire brightness only by losing part of*their soli- 
 
 ne pr en vent de art. eclat m. que en perdant art. 
 
OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. \<\J 
 
 dity. This man has nothing in common with that hero. This 
 
 = t, h m. de commun h asp, 1 
 
 long restrained hatred broke, and was the unhappy 
 
 longtemps 3 contenu 4 haine f. 2 eclata Jut malheureux 
 source of those dreadful events. It is a great pleasure 
 
 — f. terrible evenement m. pi. Ce plaisir m. 
 to me. It was a great pain to us. 
 fut deplaisir m. nous. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Of ce and the personal pronoun lid, we have 
 made celui, which makes celle in the feminine 
 singular, ceux in the masculine plural, and celles in 
 the feminine plural. It is not a demonstrative 
 pronoun of itself, but only when it is joined to the 
 two following ones, ci and la, as celui-ci, celui-la, m., 
 celle-ci, celle-la, f. 
 
 N. B. — The first denotes the nearest object, and 
 the second, the farthest. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 m . - 7 *. . i, ,v .. f This pleases, and that captivates 
 
 Celui-ci plait et celle- la captive < , \ T , • , -, r x 
 
 ^ F \ (relating to man and woman) 
 
 2. The pronouns celui, celles, ceux, &c, followed 
 by a pronoun relative, are expressed in English, by 
 the pronouns personal, he, she, they, &c 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The season of one year is, for man the same as that 
 saison f. annee f. art. que 
 
 of the preceding year, the same as that of all ages. The 
 
 precedent 2 1 art. — 
 
 pleasures 6f the wise resemble in nothing those of a dissi- 
 art. contr. m. ne ressemblent en 3 am. dissi- 
 
148 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 pated man. He that (suffers himself) to be ruled by his passions, 
 
 pe 2 1 Celui qui se laisse * * dominer — 
 
 must renounce happiness. This stuff shall fit (won- 
 
 doit renoncer a art. contr. bonheur m. etoffe-ci f. siera 2 d 
 
 derfully well) upon you. I desire you to stay there. That 
 
 merveille 3*1 — que * demeuriez Id 
 
 action is (to blame). This scene is calculated to interest 
 
 — f. Id digne de blame — f . ci fait f. pour inter esser 
 
 all men, but that cannot succeed, 
 art. Id ne saurait reussir 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Ci and la joined to ce, form the two other demon- 
 stratives ceci and cela, which are used by themselves ; 
 but, when they are in opposition, ceci denotes the 
 nearest object, and cela, the farthest. Ceci n'est 
 que risible, mais cela me parait atroce, this is only 
 laughable, but that seems to me atrocious. 
 
 The body perishes, the soul is immortal ; yet all the cares 
 
 perit f. cependant soinm. 
 
 are for that while we neglect this. What means this? 
 
 m. tandis que nfyUgeons f. Que veut dire 
 
 That is true. It is not that. This is low and mean, but that is 
 
 Ce 2 1 bas rampant 
 
 grand and sublime.' 
 
 § VI. 
 
 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Indefinite pronouns have a vague and indeter- 
 minate signification, 4 
 They are of four sorts. 
 
OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 
 
 149 
 
 FIRST CLASS. 
 
 Those that are never joined to a Substantive, 
 
 one 
 a man 
 
 somebody 
 people 
 they 
 we 
 
 you 
 
 they 
 
 on aime a se flatter 
 
 {on rCest pas toujours 
 maitre de soi 
 
 on n'est pas toujours 
 maitresse oValler oil* 
 on veut 
 
 ron 
 
 i I 
 
 on frappe a la porte 
 
 on pense et *Ton dit 
 
 trfa-haut 
 on raconte diver sement 
 
 cette histoire 
 on acquiert V experience 
 
 ' ses depens 
 
 fon trouve partout des 
 I importuns 
 
 on previent qu'on n 9 a 
 point eu Vintention de, 
 &c. 
 
 {quand on vous dit que 
 *l'on cGmpte sur vous 
 
 si *l'on vous blame 
 
 *on le hue, on a 
 t 
 
 {on 
 
 { 
 { 
 
 rsi *l'c 
 J si * 
 ( tori 
 
 one is apt to flatter one's self 
 
 {a man is not always mas- 
 ter of his own temper 
 fit is not always in the 
 J power of a woman 
 I to go where she 
 v. wishes 
 
 f somebody knocks at the 
 \ door 
 
 {people think and say 
 openly 
 I they relate that story dif- 
 \ ferently 
 
 {we acquire experience at 
 our own expense 
 ryou will find trouble- 
 J some people every- 
 (_ where 
 
 CI beg to observe that 
 •\ I had no intention to, 
 I &c. 
 
 J when 1" tell you that I 
 (^ depend upon you 
 
 fif they blame you and 
 -J praise him, they are 
 v. wrong 
 
 Quelqu'un 
 
 Quic onque 
 Chacun 
 
 rone 
 
 J somebody 
 (some one 
 
 C whoever 
 \ whosoever 
 
 5 each 
 
 ( every one 
 
 } 
 
 quelquhin m'a dit, somebody told me 
 
 ^| quiconque connait les hommes, apprend 
 V a s'en defter, whoever knows 
 
 J mankind, learns to distrust them 
 \chacun s'en plaint, every one com- 
 5 plains of him 
 
 For euphony. 
 
150 
 
 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Autrui 
 
 Personne 
 Rien 
 
 other people 
 
 others 
 
 S nobody 
 \ no one 
 
 C nothing 
 
 < not any thing 
 
 C any thing 
 
 'nenviez pas le bien d'autrui, do not 
 covet the property of others 
 
 nefaites pas a autrui, ce que vous ne 
 voudriez pas quon vous fit, do not 
 do to others, what you would not 
 have done to you 
 
 {lafierte ne convient a personne, pride 
 becomes nobody 
 rrun ne lui plait, nothing pleases him 
 \y a-t-U rien qui puisse lui plaire? is 
 ) there anything that can please 
 (. him? 
 
 They always require the verb in the third person 
 singular. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 U is put, by euphony, before on, when preceded 
 by et, on, or st, unless immediately followed by le, 
 la* les. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF BOTH CASES. 
 
 On pense et Ton dit tout haut 
 
 People think and say aloud 
 
 Le lieu ou Ton va 
 
 The place where they are going 
 
 Si Fon venait 
 
 If they were coming 
 
 > instead of / 
 
 ret on dit 
 
 si on venait 
 
 But followed by le, la, les, we say : 
 
 Et on la lira 
 Ou on le verra 
 Si on les aimait 
 
 and people will read it 
 
 or it will be seen 
 
 if they were loving them 
 
 1 S V{ 
 
 > instead of \ l\ 
 
 ) U'< 
 
 Von la 
 'on le 
 'on les 
 
 N. B. — The same observation takes place, as 
 above, when on is followed by the initial c fre- 
 quently repeated, as 
 
 On apprend plus aisement les choses 
 que Von comprend bien, que celles 
 qu e Von ne comprend qu'd demi 
 
 We learn more easily what we 
 understand thoroughly, than 
 what we understand but little 
 
OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 151 
 
 If you (behave yourself) (in that manner) what will people 
 vous conduisez ainsi * on2 
 
 say of you? It (is thought) that this news is true. They 
 dira-t 1 On croit nouvelle f. 
 
 write me word from Ispahan that thou hast left Persia, and 
 
 ecrit * — as quitte art. Perse f. 
 
 art now at Paris. One cannot read Telemachus, 
 
 que tu es actuellement a ne pent lire Telemaque m. 
 
 without becoming better; we there find (everywhere) a mild 
 
 sans devenir meilleur on y trouve partout doux 
 
 philosophy, noble and elevated sentiments ; we there find in 
 
 = f. des — 2 eleve 3 — 1 y voif a* 
 
 every line the effusions of a noble soul, and we admire 
 chaque ligne epanchement m. beau f. des 
 
 precepts calculated to effect the happiness of the world, 
 precepte pi. propre /aire honheur m. monde m. 
 
 N. B. — The foregoing indefinite pronouns will be better explained 
 and exemplified in the Syntax of the same. 
 
 SECOND CLASS. 
 
 Those which are always joined to a Noun. 
 
 These are quelque, some, any; chaque, each, 
 every ; quelconque, whoever, whatever ; certain, 
 certain, some ; un, a; an. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Quelques historiens sont impar- some historians are impartial 
 
 tiaux 
 
 Chaque peuple a ses his et ses each people have both laws and 
 
 coutumes manners of their own 
 
 11 n'y a raison quelconque qui no reason whatever can oblige 
 
 puisse Vy obliger him to it 
 
 Certain auteur dont fai oublie le certain author whose name I have 
 
 nom forgotten 
 
 Certaines femmes qui paraissent some women modest in appear- 
 
 modestes ance 
 
 Un ami veritable, est un tresor a true friend is a precious trea- 
 
 precieux sure 
 
152 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Some enlightened people among the Egyptians preserve 
 Certain eclaire 2 esprits 1 parmi Egyptians conscrvaient 
 
 the idea of a First Being, whose attributes they represented 
 
 idee etre art. — but m. 1 representaient 2 
 
 under various symbols ; this (is proved) by the fol- 
 
 lows different symbole m. pi. cest ce que prouve * cetie 
 lowing inscription upon a temple : I am all that has been, is. and 
 
 * — f. de — m. ce qui 
 
 shall be ; no mortal ever removed the veil that covers 
 
 ne2mortel2 1 lever ind.-4 voile m. qui couvre 2 
 me. Every nation has (in its turn) shone on the theatre of the 
 
 1 — f. a son tour 2 brille 1 
 
 world. There is no reason whatever that can bring him 
 
 qui puisse subj.-l determiner 2 
 to it. Some figures appear monstrous and deformed, considered 
 Vy 1 f. pi. paraissent monstrueux difforme — dere 
 
 separately, or too near ; but, if they are put in their proper light 
 separement de trop pres on les met * jour m. 
 
 and place, the true point of view restores their 
 
 a leur — — m. de leur rend * art. 
 
 beauty and grace. 
 = art. — 
 
 THIRD CLASS. 
 
 Those which are sometimes joined to Nouns and 
 sometimes not. 
 
 These are nul 9 no, none ; pas tin, no, not one ; 
 ancun, no, none ; autre, other ; meme, same ; tel, 
 such, like ; plusieurs, several, many ; tout, all, 
 every, everything. 
 
 When joined to a substantive, the above inde- 
 finite pronouns follow the rule of adjectives ; and 
 
OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 153 
 
 when standing alone, they are accompanied by the 
 preposition de 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Adjective. 
 Nulle raison ne peut le convaincre No reason can convince him 
 
 Pronoun. 
 Nul oVeux ne Pa rencontre None of them have met him 
 
 Adjective. 
 Je n'ai aucun moyen de reussir I have not any means of sue- 
 
 ceeding 
 
 Pronoun. 
 Aucune d'elles n'etait presente None of them were present 
 
 * 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 None likes to see himself as he is. There is no 
 Personne n'aime a voir 2 se 1 tel que H n'y a aucun. 
 
 expression, no truth of design and colouring, no stroke of 
 
 — f. verite de dessin m. pr. coloris m. trait m. 
 
 genius in that great work. He is so ignorant, and, at the same 
 
 m. ce ouvrage — en * 
 
 time, so obstinate, that he will never be convinced by any rea- 
 obstine ne se rendra jamais a rat- 
 
 soning. None of his works will (be handed down) to 
 
 sonnement m, de ouvrage passera art. 
 
 posterity, He is as learned as any one. Not one of these 
 
 = aussi savant qui que ce soit de 
 
 engravings announces a great skill. « 
 
 gravure f. annonce talent 
 
 FOURTH CLASS. 
 
 Those which are followed by Que. 
 
 As qui que, whoever, whosoever; qnoi que, what- 
 ever ; quel que, whoever, whatever ; tel que, such as ; 
 
 h ^ 
 
154 
 
 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 quel que, que, whatever, however ; tout que, how- 
 ever. 
 
 Qui que 
 
 Quoi que 
 
 Quel que 
 
 tu sois, je ne te crains pas, whoever thou mayst be I do 
 
 not fear thee 
 ce soit,je veux le voir, whoever it may be, I will see him 
 | ce soit qui vienne, diies que je n'y suis pas, whosoever comes, 
 
 say I am not at home 
 
 r vousfassiez, il ne vous ecoutera pas, whatever you may do, 
 
 he will not listen to you 
 ce soit quHl imagine, il rCen viendra pas a bout, whatever he 
 
 may imagine, he will not succeed 
 ce soit qui lux arrive, il est toujour s le meme, whatever hap- 
 ^ pens to him he is always the same 
 
 'soit cet homme, or cet homme quelqu'il soit, ne Saurait me 
 
 plaire, whoever that man may be, he could not please 
 
 me 
 raison que vous donniez, vous aurez toujour s tort, whatever 
 
 reason you may give, you will always be in the wrong 
 puissant que vous soyez, vous ne serez jamais content, 
 
 however powerful you may be, you will never be 
 
 contented 
 
 fvous desirez, such as you like 
 
 \nous le voulons, such as we wish it to be 
 
 Tel que 
 
 Tout savant qu'il est, however learned he may be 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Passenger, whoever thou art, contemplate with a religious respect 
 
 Passant i tu sois — pie = 2 — m. 
 
 this monument erected by gratitude ; it is the tomb of a 
 
 — m. eleve art. reconnaissance f. ce tombeaum. 
 
 lust and beneficent man. How can he hope to be loved, 
 — 2 bienfaisant 3 1 Comment peut-il esperer de aime 
 
 who has regard for no one else ? Whatever he may do 
 lui n'a Regards pour personne Quoi que * fasse 1 
 
 or say, he will find it very difficult to destroy prejudices 
 qu'Udise aura * Men de la peine detruire des — jugem.pl. 
 
 so deeply rooted. A mind vain, presumptuous, and incon- 
 
 prqfondement enracine = sans 
 
 sistent, will never succeed in anything whatever, 
 consistance ne reussira jamais en quoi que ce soit 
 
EXERCISE CN THE PRONOUNS. 155 
 
 A GENERAL EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 THE EVENING WALK. 
 
 On a fine summer evening, my brother, my sister, and 
 Dans de ete soiree f.-l 
 
 myself (were walking) (by the side) of a wood, not 
 
 moi nous nous promenions ind.-2 le long bois m. qui n'est 
 
 far distant from the castle which we inhabit. We (were 
 pas bien eloigne contr. chateau obj. habitons 
 
 contemplating) with rapture, the majestic scenery which 
 contemplions transport 2 scene f. 1 obj, art. 
 
 nature exhibits at the approach of night, when we perceived 
 
 — deploie approche f. art. nuit f. apercumes 
 at the foot of an ancient oak, a boy of the most interesting 
 a pr. art. pied m. vieux chene m. enfant m. — ressant 2 
 
 figure. His beauty, his air of ingenuity and candour, his 
 
 art. — f . 1 = f . — m. pr. 
 
 graces struck us, and we approached him. What ' 
 
 — frappdrent 2 nous 1 nous nous approchdmes de 
 
 alone here, my boy? said we. Whence art thou? Whence 
 
 id lui dimes d'oil 
 
 comest thou ? What art thou doing here alone ? I am not alone, 
 viens * 2 fais 1 13 2 
 
 answered he smiling ; I am not alone ; but I was fatigued, and 
 repondiU d'un air riant ind.-2 fatigue 
 
 I have sat myself under the shade of this tree, while my 
 
 je me suis assis a ombre arbre m. tandis que 
 
 mother is busy gathering simples to give some alie- 
 f. occupe a cueillir des — pour apporter quelque sou- 
 
 viation to the pains which her old father suffers. Ah ! 
 lagement contr. douleur f. pi. obj. 2 endure 1 
 
 (how many) troubles my good mamma has! (How many) 
 que de peine f. pi. 2 eprouve 1 que 
 
 troubles ! Did you know them, there is not one of you 
 d' inquietudes Si * 1 connaissiez 3 2 U n't/ a aucun de 
 
 that would not be touched with pity,, and who could refuse 
 subj = * ne fut — die de pitie lui refusdt subj . 2 
 
 the tribute of your tears. We said to him, lovely child, thy 
 un tribut * larme 1 dimes & hi 2 aimabie ton 
 
156 EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 ingenuity, candour. innocence, (every thing) interests 
 
 = pron. pron. tout interesse 2 
 
 us in thy misfortunes and those of thy mother. Relate 
 1 a malheur m. pi. pr. ceux de Raconte sing. 
 
 them to us, whatever they be; fear not to affli<* us. 
 * nous quels quils soient ne crains pas de affiiger 2 1 
 (Woe be) to whoever cannot (be affected) by the misfortunes of 
 malheur quiconque ne sait s'attendrir sur mal pi. des 
 
 others. He immediately related the history of his mother, with an 
 2 aussitot 1 raconta = 
 
 expression, a naivete, a grace, altogether affecting. Our hearts 
 — f. f. — f. tout-d-fait touchant 
 
 felt the liveliest emotions; tears (trickled down oui 
 
 eprouverent vif — f. pi. nos coulerent 
 
 cheeks), and we gave him what little money we had 
 
 donndmes 2 lui 1 U peu de argent que avions 
 
 about us. (In the mean time), the mother returned. (As soon as) 
 sur cependant revint des que 
 
 he saw her, he exclaimed, run, mamma, run ; see 
 
 apergut 2 la I s'ecria ind.-3 accours sing. — man vois sin. 
 
 what these good little folks have given me; I have related (to 
 ce que gens f. pi. ont 2 donne I je ai raconte 
 
 them) thy misfortunes; they have been affected (at them), and 
 leur 2 malheurs m. 1 ont 3 ete touche pi. en 
 
 their sensibility (has not been satisfied) with shedding tears. 
 
 = f . we 1 pas 3 s'est 2 bornee a pr. art. 
 
 See, mamma ! ah ! see what they have given me. The mother 
 regarde ce que 
 
 was (moved to the heart) ; she thanked us, and 
 
 fut ind.-3 attendrie renter eta 2 ind.-3 1 nous 
 
 said, generous, sensible souls, the good action which you (have 
 dit 3 — reux2et — 3 1 f . — f. obj. venez 
 
 just been doing) will not be lost. He who sees (everything), 
 ind.-l defaire ne sera pas perdu f. Celui voit tout 
 
 and judges of every thing, will not let it go unre- 
 
 juge de * ne la laissera pas * sans recorn- 
 
 warded. 
 pense 
 
 N. B. — The above indefinite pronouns-adjectives will be bettei 
 explained and exemplified in the Syntax of the same. 
 
OF THE VERB. 157 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 Its Definition. 
 
 The Verb is that part of speech by which we 
 express the affirmation of an existing state, of a 
 good or bad quality, or of an action either performed 
 or received. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 Of existing state je mis, I am 
 
 Of good and bad\ la vertu est aimable, virtue is amiable 
 
 qualities ) le vice est honteux, vice is shameful 
 
 Of an action done 1 j'aime Dieu, I love God 
 
 or received J je suis aime de Dieu, I am loved by God. 
 
 Subject, Attribute, Object, or Regimeti of a Verb. 
 
 1. The Subject or nominative of a verb, is that 
 which does or performs the action expressed by the 
 verb. 
 
 2. The Attribute is nothing but the expression of 
 the good or bad quality belonging to the subject, 
 and affirmed by the verb etre, to be. 
 
 3. The Object or Regimen of a verb, is quite the 
 opposite of the subject ; its function is merely to 
 receive the action performed by the subject and 
 expressed by the verb. 
 
158 OF THE VERB. 
 
 Division. 
 
 There are but three sorts of verbs, viz., substan- 
 tive, transitive, and intransitive, 
 
 1. The verb etre, to be, which is also called 
 auxiliary, when used in the compound tenses of 
 another verb, is the only one which bears the name 
 of substantive, because from its nature it expresses 
 the state or manner of existing relatively to any 
 substantive. 
 
 2. The transitive or active verbs, are those which 
 express an action done by their subjects, and received 
 by their objects or regimens, as 
 
 les enfants aiment hs fruits children are fond of fruits 
 les hommes admirent la vertu men admire virtue 
 
 in the two above examples the subjects enfants and 
 hommes both perform the actions of loving and 
 admiring expressed by the verbs aiment and admi- 
 rent, whilst the objects or regimens fruits and vertu 
 are both receivers of this same action. 
 
 3. The intransitive or neuter, are those which 
 express an action performed by a subject, but with- 
 out any direct object to receive it, as dormir, to sleep, 
 languir, to pine. In French, a transitive or active 
 verb, is known when you may put the word quel- 
 quCun or quelque chose, somebody or something after 
 it; and for the same reason, an intransitive or 
 neuter verb, is known when you cannot use either 
 of the two above words, somebody or something 
 after it; for instance, aimer, to love, is an active 
 verb, because you may say, aimer quelquun ou 
 quelque chose, to love somebody or something; but 
 as you cannot properly say, dormir quelquhin, 
 
OF THE VERB 159 
 
 dormir quelque chose, to sleep somebody, to sleep 
 something, you must infer that dormir, to sleep, is 
 a neuter verb. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In French, the personal pronounsje, tu, il, nous, 
 vous, &c, are the essential words through which we 
 may recognise whether any part of speech is a verb 
 or not. 
 
 Hoiv to distinguish the Subject from the Regimen. 
 
 The nominative or subject of any verb, in French, 
 is known by putting the following question, qui 
 est-ce qui ? who ? and the object or regimen of an 
 active verb, by qu est-ce que f what ? for instance, I 
 want to know through the above method, both the 
 subject and object of the following proposition ; 
 nous aimons la verite, we love truth ; qui est-ce qui 
 aime ? w T ho is loving ? nous, we, is the answer ; 
 therefore I infer that nous is the subject or nomi- 
 native of the active verb aimer, to love. Now, to 
 know the regimen of the same proposition, I ask, 
 qu est-ce que nous aimons ? what do we love ? as la 
 verite, truth, will be the answer, I conclude that the 
 very word verite must be the regimen of the same 
 active verb, aimer, to love. 
 
 The regimen of an active verb is generally placed 
 after the verb (when it is not a pronoun), as j 'aime 
 mon pere, I love my father ; ma soeur sait sa leqon, 
 my sister knows her lesson ; but the regimen is 
 placed before the verb when it is a pronoun, as je 
 t'aime, I love thee, instead of: j'ai?ne toi; il nous 
 aime, he loves us, instead of il aime nous. 
 
 Grammarians admit of another regimen, which 
 
160 OF THE VERB. 
 
 they call indirect, but as it is always preceded by 
 a preposition, it is rather the regimen of the pre- 
 position than that of the verb. — {See the syntax of 
 the Verbs, p. 364.) 
 
 Subdivisio?i of Verbs. 
 
 Besides the substantive, transitive, and intran- 
 sitive verbs, there are some others, known under 
 the name of passive, pronominal, and impersonal. 
 
 1. A passive verb, is that which presents the 
 subject as receiving the effect of an action expressed 
 by an active verb, and the object as doing it. 
 
 The difference between a passive and an active 
 verb is, that in the former, the subject which 
 performs the act, receives or suffers it in the latter, 
 hence, by the transposition both of the subject and 
 object, an active verb becomes a passive one, and 
 vice versa ; for instance, if I say le feu brule le bois, 
 fire burns the wood, by the transposition of the 
 subject le feu > and the object le bois, I shall have 
 the following passive proposition without altering 
 the active sense in the former, le bois est brule par 
 lefeu, the wood is burnt by the fire. 
 
 2. The pronominal verbs, are those which are 
 conjugated through all their tenses with a double 
 pronoun belonging to the same person, as je me 
 jiatte, I flatter myself; elle se tue, she kills herself. 
 
 N. B. — It is to be observed, in the foregoing 
 examples, that though the pronouns je me, elle se, 
 belong to the same individual, je, elle, are subjects 
 and me, se, the objects of the verbs flatter and tuer. 
 
 3. Pronominal verbs are divided into three 
 classes: 1. In passively pronominal; 2. In re- 
 flected ; 3. In reciprocal. 
 
OF THE VERB. 161 
 
 The pronominal passive verbs, are those which 
 have inanimate things for their subjects, as 
 
 le poison se glisse dans les veines poison insinuates itself through 
 
 the veins 
 ^occasion se presente an opportunity offers itself 
 
 cette maison se hue trop cher that house lets too dear 
 
 In fact, it is easy to understand that the sense in 
 the above examples is merely passive, for jjoison by 
 itself, has no power to act through the veins, no 
 more than the opportunity to offer itself, or the 
 house to do the action of letting itself ; therefore 
 the true meaning of these propositions is as follows : 
 
 Poison is insinuated, &c. 
 
 The opportunity is presented, &c. 
 
 This house is to be let, &c. 
 
 Difference between Reflected and Reciprocal Verbs. 
 
 A reflected verb, is that whose subject is an 
 animate thing in the singular number, as ma soeur 
 s y est noyee, my sister has drowned herself. 
 
 A reciprocal verb, is that which expresses the 
 action of several subjects together, acting recipro- 
 cally one upon another, as ces homines se battaient, 
 et se disaient des injures, those men were fighting 
 together and insulting one another. 
 
 4. The impersonal verb, is that which is never used 
 but in the third person singular. Pleuvoir, to rain, 
 is an impersonal verb, because it has only the third 
 person singular through all its tenses : ilpleut, it 
 rains ; il pleuvait, it was raining or it did rain, &c. 
 
 To know whether a verb is impersonal or not, it 
 requires only to try to conjugate it with the per- 
 sonal pronouns je, tu 9 il, &c, for instance, no one 
 
162 OF THE VERB. 
 
 can, with propriety, conjugate pleuvoir as follows : 
 I rain, thou rainst, &c. 
 
 N. B. — Any active verb may be conjugated pro- 
 no minally. 
 
 The greatest part of the French verbs are regular, 
 but nevertheless, there are some irregular and others 
 defective. 
 
 Regular verbs, are those which, through all their 
 tenses, have terminations conformable to those of 
 the verb which serves them as a model or paradigm. 
 
 Irregular verbs are those to which the termina- 
 tion of the verb serving as a model, do not conform 
 through all their tenses. 
 
 Defective verbs, are those which are wanting in 
 certain tenses or persons, not allowed by usage. 
 
 The terminations of the verb vary according to 
 the different persons, numbers, tenses, and moods. 
 
 There are in verbs, two numbers, the singular and 
 plural, and in each number, three persons. 
 
 1. The first person, that who speaks, is designated 
 by ye, I, in the singular, and by nous, we, in the 
 plural ; as je pense, I think ; nous pensons, we 
 think. 
 
 2. The second, which is the person spoken to, is 
 expressed by tu, thou, in the singular, and by vous, 
 you, in the plural ; as tu paries, thou speakest ; 
 vous parlez, you speak. 
 
 3. The third, being the person spoken of, is 
 marked by il, he, or elle, she, in the singular ; and 
 by Us or elles, they, in the plural ; as il or elle 
 pense, he or she thinks ; Us or elles pensent, they 
 think. 
 
 Observe that all substantives are in the third 
 person, when not addressed or spoken to. 
 
OF THE VERB 163 
 
 MOODS. 
 
 There are five 7noods, or modes of conjugating 
 verbs. 
 
 1. The indicative, which simply indicates and 
 asserts an action in a direct manner, as faime, I 
 love. 
 
 2. The conditional affirms a thing, but with a 
 condition, as j aimerais si, tyc, I should love if, &c. 
 
 3. The imperative, that is used for commanding, 
 exhorting, requesting, or reproving; as aime, love 
 thou ; aimons, let us love. 
 
 4. The subjunctive, which without expressing the 
 affirmative, supposes it, but with a dependance upon 
 something before mentioned; as vous voulez quit 
 aime, you wish that he may love ; que nous aimions, 
 that we may love. 
 
 Observe that this mood is always governed by an 
 antecedent, implying either necessity, desire, or 
 fear, &c. 
 
 5. The infinitive mood affirms, in an indefinite 
 manner, without either number or person ; as aimer, 
 to love ; avoir aime, to have loved. 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 There are three tenses, namely the present, which 
 declares a thing now existing or doing, as je lis, 
 I read : the past or preterit, denoting that the thing 
 has been done, as je his, I read : the future, de- 
 noting that the thing will be done, as je lirai, I 
 shall read. These three above tenses, are subdivided 
 into simple and compound tenses, each of them 
 known under a particular denomination, as will be 
 seen afterwards. 
 
164 OF THE VERB. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 The simple tenses are those which are conjugated 
 without the auxiliaries etre, to be, or avoir, to have, 
 as je chante, I sing ; je dormais, I was sleeping ; 
 fapercevrai, I shall or will perceive, &c. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 The compound tenses are those which cannot be 
 conjugated without the assistance of one of the 
 auxiliaries avoir or etre, asfai aime, I have loved ; 
 je sais admire* I am admired. 
 
 The simple tenses are again subdivided into 
 primitive and derived tenses. 
 
 PRIMITIVE TENSES. 
 
 The primitive tenses, through which are formed 
 all the other derived ones in the four conjugations, 
 are called primitive, owing to their having no deri- 
 vation whatever. 
 
 DERIVED TENSES. 
 
 The derived tenses, are those which are formed 
 by the primitive ones. 
 
 There are in French five primitive tenses, namely : 
 
 The present of the infinitive mood ; 
 
 The present participle ; 
 
 The participle past ; 
 
 The present of the indicative mood ; 
 
 And the preterit definite. 
 
 N. B. — The knowledge of the derivation of tenses 
 is necessary, in order to conjugate well the French 
 
OF THE VERB. 
 
 165 
 
 verbs, therefore it will be advisable for the master 
 to acquaint the learner with the practice of the 
 above theory on the formation of French verbs. 
 
 Formation of the Future and Conditional. 
 
 L The future simple or absolute is formed from 
 the present infinitive by adding ai in the three first 
 conjugations, and by changing e into ai in the 
 fourth ; as 
 
 
 future 
 
 
 future 
 
 1st conj. aimer faimer-ai 
 2nd ... finir je finir -ai 
 
 3rd conj. pre voir je prevoir-ai 
 4th . . . rendre je rendr-ai 
 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 
 
 First Conjugation. 
 
 
 Envoyer 
 
 Aller 
 
 Essayer 
 
 future 
 fenverrai 
 jHrai 
 fessaierai 
 
 Employer 
 Appuyer 
 
 future 
 
 j'emploierai 
 j f appuierai 
 
 
 Second C 
 
 onjugation. 
 
 
 Tenir 
 Venir 
 Courir 
 
 je tiendrai 
 je viendrai 
 je courrai 
 
 Cueillir 
 Mourir 
 Acquerir 
 
 je cueillerai 
 je mourrai 
 j'acquerrai 
 
 
 Third Co 
 
 njugation. 
 
 
 Recevoir 
 
 Avoir 
 
 Echoir 
 
 Pouvoir 
 
 Savoir 
 
 je recevrai 
 j'aurai 
 fecherrai 
 je pourrai 
 je saurai 
 
 Vouloir 
 
 Mouvoir 
 
 Devoir 
 
 Valoir 
 
 Falloir 
 
 je voudrai 
 je mouvrai 
 je devrai 
 je vaudrai 
 ilfaudra 
 
 S'asseoir 
 Voir 
 
 Cjem'asseeyrai or 
 \ je m'assierai 
 je verrai 
 
 Pleuvoir 
 
 (il pleuvra (im- 
 \ personal 
 
 
 Fourth C 
 
 mjugation. 
 
 
 Faire 
 
 jeferai 
 
 &tre 
 
 je serai 
 
 2 The conditional present 5 like the future, is also 
 
166 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 formed from the present of the infinitive mood, but, 
 in order to have no exceptions, we will form it from 
 the future itself, by changing the last syllable rat 
 into rais, as 
 
 fut. 
 
 eond. 
 
 fut. 
 
 cond. 
 
 j'aime-rai 
 je fini-rai 
 
 f aime-rais 
 jejini-rais 
 
 je recev-rai 
 je rend-rai 
 
 je recev-rais 
 je rend-rais 
 
 Formation of the Imperative. 
 
 The second person singular of the imperative is 
 similar to the first person singular of the present 
 indicative, by suppressing the pronoun je, except 
 however alter, to go; savoir, to know ; and the two 
 auxiliaries avoir and etre. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In the verbs in er 9 and in those which end in a 
 mute e in the first person singular of the present 
 indicative, as fouvre, I open ; je souffre, I suffer. 
 The second person singular in the imperative takes 
 an s after the mute e, when followed by the pro- 
 nouns en or y. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The following sentences 
 
 porte un livre carry a book 
 
 ouvre la porte a ton frere open thou the door to thy brother 
 
 are correct, but were the above verbs followed by 
 en or y, we should say : 
 
 portes-en a ton frere 
 apportes-y des livres 
 
 carry thou some to thy brother 
 bring thou some books thither 
 
OF THE VERB. J 67 
 
 je veux entrer dans cette chambre, I want to go into that room, 
 
 ouvres-en la porte open thou the door of it 
 
 tu as fait unefaute, souffres-en la thou hast committed a fault, thou 
 
 peine must suffer for it 
 
 However, we say without the final 5 
 
 donne en cette occasion des give thou on this occasion some 
 preuves de ton zele proofs of thy zeal 
 
 because in this case, en is a preposition. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. The third person singular in the imperative, 
 and the third person singular in the subjunctive 
 present, are always alike. 
 
 2. The first and second persons plural in the 
 present of the subjunctive, are similar to the first 
 and second persons plural in the imperfect indi- 
 cative. 
 
 Formation of the Imperfect of the Subjunctive. 
 
 The imperfect of the subjunctive mood, is formed 
 from the preterit definite of the indicative, by 
 changing ai into asse for the first conjugation, as 
 
 pret. faim-ai imp. subj. quefaim-asse 
 
 and by adding only se to the preterit for the three 
 other conjugations, as 
 
 pret. 
 
 imp. subj. 
 
 pret. 
 
 imp. subj. 
 
 je finis 
 
 que je finis-se 
 
 je rendis 
 
 que je rendis- s 
 
 je regus 
 
 que je regus-se 
 
 
 
 There is no exception. 
 
168 OF THE VERB, 
 
 OF CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 To conjugate a verb, is to recite it with all its 
 different inflections. 
 
 The French have four conjugations, which are 
 easily distinguished by the termination of the 
 present of the infinitive. 
 
 The first ends in er as parler, aimer, chanter, &c. 
 
 second ... ir ... finir, sentir, ouvrir, tenir, &c. 
 
 third ... oir ... recevoir, apercevoir, devoir, &c. 
 
 fourth ... re ... rendre, prendre, plane, nuire, &c. 
 
 As the French have not a sufficient number of 
 inflections in their verbs to represent the great 
 variety of their tenses, they supply this deficiency 
 with the two auxiliary verbs, avoir, to have, and 
 etre, to be. 
 
 These two last verbs, avoir and etre, are of a 
 very frequent use, especially in French conversation. 
 It will be observed that the verb etre, loses its ex- 
 clusive quality of a substantive verb when employed 
 in the compound tenses of another verb. As to the 
 verb to have, which is also an auxiliary when in 
 composition with the past participle of another verb, 
 it is a true active verb from its nature ; as fax un 
 livre, I have a book ; by asking the questions who ? 
 and what? (see p. 159, ) one could easily find out 
 both the subject and object of the foregoing sentence. 
 
OF THE VERB. 
 
 J 69 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 VERB AVOIR, TO HAVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 to have 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 past, or compound of the present 
 avoir eu to have had 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 ayant having 
 
 PAST. 
 
 eu m. eue f. had 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 ayant eu 
 
 having had 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 devant avoir being about to have 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 I PRETERIT INDEFINITE, Or Com- 
 
 i 
 
 jai 
 tu as 
 
 U or elle a 
 nous avons 
 vous avez 
 its or elks out 
 
 I have 
 thou hast 
 he or she has 
 we have 
 you have 
 they have 
 
 pound of the Present. 
 
 I have had 
 thou hast had 
 he has had 
 we have had 
 you have had 
 they have had 
 
 j ai eu 
 tu as eu 
 il a eu 
 
 nous avons eu 
 vous avez eu 
 Us ont eu 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In the following exercises, the learner is to put 
 des between the auxiliary and the substantive, if that 
 substantive be in the plural ; du, if it be in the 
 masculine singular, and beginning with a consonant . 
 
170 OF THE VERB. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 pluperfect, or Compound of the 
 
 
 
 imperfect. 
 
 j'avais 
 
 I had, or did ^ 
 
 j'avais eu I had had 
 
 tu avals 
 
 thou hadst or 
 
 
 tu avais eu thou hadst had 
 
 
 didst 
 
 Cr 1 
 
 
 il avait 
 
 he had, or did 
 
 < 
 
 il avait eu he had had 
 
 nous avions 
 
 we had, or did 
 
 a 
 
 nous avions eu we had had 
 
 vous aviez 
 
 you had, or did 
 
 
 vous aviez eu you had had 
 
 its avaient 
 
 they had, or did/ 
 
 
 Us avaient eu they had had 
 
 de la, if it be in the feminine singular, and begin- 
 ning with a consonant ; and de l\ if it be in the 
 singular for both genders, and beginning with a 
 vowel or h mute. The plural of the substantives 
 in these exercises is formed by the simple addition 
 of an s. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I have books. 
 
 livre m. pi. 
 She has sweetness. 
 douceur f. 
 
 have virtues. They have modesty. 
 vertu f. pi. f. modestie f. 
 
 Thou hast friends. He has honesty. 
 
 ami m. pi. honnetete t'Jm. 
 
 We have credit. You have riches. They 
 — m. richesse f. pL m. 
 
 preterit indefinite, or Compound of the Present. 
 
 1 have had pleasure. Thou hast had gold. He has had 
 plaisir m. or m. 
 
 patience. She has had beauty. We have had honours. You 
 
 — f. beaute f. honneur m. pi. 
 
 have had friendship. They have had sentiments. They have had 
 
 amitie f. m. — m. pi. f. 
 
 sensibility. 
 sensibilite f. 
 
 imperfect. 
 
 I had ambition. Thou hadst wealth. He had sincerity. She 
 — f. bien m. sincerite f. 
 
OF THE VEKB. - 171 
 
 had graces. We liad oranges. You had pears. They had 
 grace f. pi. orange f. pi. poire f. pi. 
 
 apples. They had lemons. 
 pomme f. pi. f. citron m. pi. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In the following exercises, we have added an 
 adjective to the substantive, upon which the learner 
 is to make no change in the observation on the 
 preceding exercise, if the adjective be placed after 
 the substantive ; but, if it be placed before, then he 
 is only to make use of de, when the adjective begins 
 with a consonant, and of d\ when it begins with a 
 vowel or h mute. He ought also to notice, that the 
 adjective must agree in gender and number with the 
 substantive ; that the feminine of adjectives is 
 formed by the addition of e mute, when it has not 
 this termination, and sometimes by doubling the last 
 consonant and adding e ; and that the plural is 
 formed by the addition of s in the singular. We 
 shall subjoin the figures 1 and 2, to mark the place 
 of the adjective and the substantive, and the letter 
 d after the adjective, when the last consonant is to 
 be doubled. 
 
 pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 
 
 I had had good paper. Thou hadst had very black ink. He 
 bon* papier m. fort noir 2 encre f. 1 
 
 had had excellent fruit. She had had uncommon graces. We 
 
 — m. pi. rare 2 — f. pi. 1 
 
 had had good pens. You had had honest proceedings. They 
 
 plume f. pi. honnete 2 procede m. pi. 1 
 
 had had immense treasures. They had had charming flowers. 
 — tresor m. pi. f. charmant fieur f. pi. 
 
 * Whenever the French adjective is of one or two syllables, as in English, it 
 is generally put before the substantive, and de is used instead of des, for both 
 numbers. 
 
172 OF THE VERB. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSE?. I COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 preterit anterior, or compound 
 
 
 
 of the preterit. 
 
 feus 
 
 I had 
 
 feus eu I had had 
 
 tu eus 
 
 thou hadst 
 
 tu eus eu thou hadst had 
 
 il eut 
 
 he had 
 
 il eut eu he had had 
 
 nous eumes 
 
 we had 
 
 nous eumes eu we had had 
 
 vous eutes 
 
 you had 
 
 vous eutes eu you had had 
 
 Us eurent 
 
 they had 
 
 ils eurent eu they had had 
 
 preterit definite. 
 
 I had plums. Thou hadst cherries. He had strawberries. 
 prune f. pi. cerise f. pi. fraise f. pi. 
 
 (She had pine-apples. We had almonds. You had goose- 
 ananas m. pi. amande f. pi. gro- 
 
 berries. They had raspberries. They had grapes. 
 seille f. pi. m. framboise f. pi. f. raisin m. pi. 
 
 preterit anterior, or Compound of the Preterit. 
 
 I had had apricots. Thou hadst had nectarines. He had had 
 abricot m, pi. brugnon m. pi. 
 
 walnuts. She had had hazel-nuts. We had had chesnuts. 
 noix f. pi. noisette f. pi. chdtaigne f. pi. 
 
 You had had figs. They had had medlars. They had had 
 figue f. pi. m. nefle f. pi. f. 
 
 filberts. 
 aveline f. pi. 
 
 N. B. — The learner must bear in mind that sub- 
 stantives ending in x, 5, or z, in the singular 
 number, take no additional letter in the plural. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 I shall have very ripe grapes. Thou wilt have exquisite 
 bien mur 2 1 exquis 2 
 
 melons. He will have succulent peaches. We shall have 
 melon m. pi. 1 — peche f. pi. 1 
 
SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 
 COMPOU 
 FUTURE ANTE 
 
 SD TENSES. 
 
 FUTURE 
 
 ABSOLUTE. 
 
 rior, or compound 
 
 
 
 of the future. 
 
 f aural 
 
 T shall, or will 
 
 
 faurai eu 
 
 I shall or will , 
 
 
 tu auras 
 
 thou shalt, or 
 wilt 
 
 
 tu auras eu 
 
 thou wilt 
 
 BO 
 < 
 
 il aura 
 
 he will 
 
 § 
 
 il aura eu 
 
 he will 
 
 >Z 
 
 nous aurons 
 
 we shall 
 
 ft 
 
 nous aurons eu 
 
 we shall 
 
 M 
 
 vous aurez 
 
 you will 
 
 
 vous aurez eu 
 
 you will 
 
 P^ 
 
 ils auront 
 
 they will t 
 
 
 ils auront eu 
 
 they will ■* 
 
 
 
 CONDI! 
 
 TONAL. 
 
 
 f aurais 
 
 I should, could\ 
 or would 
 
 
 faurais eu 
 
 I should 
 
 tu aurais 
 
 thou shouldst 
 
 — 
 
 tu aurais eu 
 
 thou shouldst f § 
 
 il aurait 
 
 he should 
 
 < 
 
 il aurait eu 
 
 he should r^ 
 
 nous aurions 
 
 we should 
 
 fl> 
 
 nous aurions eh 
 
 we should 1 §f 
 
 vous auriez 
 
 you should 
 
 
 vous auriez eu 
 
 you should' J ^ 
 
 ils auraient 
 
 • 
 
 they should j 
 
 
 ils auraient eu 
 
 they should 
 
 large buildings. You will have fine habits. They will 
 grand bdtiment m. pi. superbe habit m. pi. 
 
 have ready money. 
 comptant 2 argent m. 1 
 
 future anterior, or Compound of the Future. 
 
 I shall have had wise counsels. Thou wilt have had ridiculous 
 sage conseil m. pi. ridicule* 2 
 
 ideas. She will have had poignant griefs We shall 
 
 idee f. pi. 1 cuisant 2 chagrin m. pi. 1 
 
 have had true and real pleasures. You will have had unavailing 
 vrai 2 et reel 3 m. pi. 1 inutile 2 
 
 cares. They will have had horrid pains. 
 
 soin m. pi. 1 horrible 2 peine f. pi. 1 
 
 N. B. — We say also, in the conditional past, 
 JTeusse eu, tu eusses eu, il eut eu, nous eussions eu, 
 vous eussiezeu, ils eussent eu, I should have had, &c. 
 
 * Adjectives ending in a mute e in the singular masculine, are the same 
 for the feminine gender hut tbev take the s in the plural like other adjectives. 
 
174 OF THE VERB. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Aie have (thou) 
 
 qu'il ait let him have 
 
 ayons let us have 
 
 atjez have (ye) 
 
 qiCils aient or \ 1^.^-1. i 
 
 * ,7 7 . . Y let them have 
 qu elles aient ) 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The English auxiliaries should, ivould, and could, 
 of the conditional, are not to be considered as 
 essentially and necessarily appertaining to those 
 tenses, so that, I should have, ought always to be 
 translated by jaurais, and vice versa. It will be 
 seen hereafter that it is not so ; but, at present, we 
 shall make use of those auxiliaries, merely to indicate 
 what tense the exercise is on. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I should have studious pupils. Thou shouldst have 
 
 applique '2 eleve m. pi. 1 
 precious engravings. He would have beautiful pictures. We 
 vrecieux-se gravure f. pi. beau tableau m. pi. 
 
 should have glory. You would have pretty playthings. They 
 
 gloire f. joli joujou m. pi. 
 
 should have delightful days. 
 
 delicieux 2 jour m. pi. 1 
 
 past, or Corn-pound of the Conditional, 
 
 I should have had formidable rivals. Thou wouldst 
 
 redoutable 2 rival-aux m. pi. 1 
 have had powerful enemies. He would have had just supe- 
 puissant 2 ennemi m. pi. 1 juste 2 
 
 riors. We should have had dignities. You would have 
 
 superieur m. pi. dignitei. pi. 
 
 had fortune. They would have had experience. 
 f. f. 
 
OF THE VERB 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 175 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 que j aie 
 
 que tu aies 
 
 quHl ait 
 que nous ayons 
 que vous.ayez 
 quHls aient 
 
 that I have, or\ 
 
 may 
 that thou 
 
 mayst 
 that he may 
 that we may 
 that you may 
 that they mayj 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 preterit, or Compound of the 
 Present* 
 
 quefaieeu that I may \ 
 
 que tu aies eu that thou 
 
 mayst 
 qiCil ait eu that he may 
 
 que nous ayons ewthat we may 
 que vous ayez eu that you may 
 quHls aient that they may, 
 
 Observations. 
 
 The imperative has no first person singular. 
 
 All second persons singular of the French verbs 
 end with an s, except, sometimes, in the impe- 
 rative. 
 
 In the following exercises, the verb will be fol- 
 lowed by several substantives, and in this case, each 
 of these substantives is to be preceded by the 
 proper article and preposition agreeing with it. 
 The learner must also know that a or an, which 
 will sometimes be found before the substantive, is to 
 be rendered by un, if the substantive be masculine, 
 and by ime, if it be feminine, but without the elision 
 of the mute e. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Have complaisance, attention, and politeness. Let him have 
 Sing. — f. egard m. pi. politesse f. 
 
 success. Let us have courage and firmness. Have ye 
 
 du success m. — m. art. fermete f. 
 
 magnanimity. Let them have manners and conduct. 
 
 art. magnanimite f. f. art. moeurs f. pi art. conduite. 
 
176 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 1 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 quefeiisse that I had, or. 
 
 que tu eusses that thou 1 
 
 quHl eut that he 
 
 que nous eussions that we 
 
 que vous eussiez that you 
 
 quHls eussent that they > 
 
 pluperfect, or Compound of 
 the Imperfect. 
 
 quefeusseeu that I 
 que tu eusses eu that thou 
 qu'il eut eu that he 
 
 que nous eussions that we 
 
 eu 
 que vous eussiez that you 
 
 eu 
 quHls eussent eu that they 
 
 The subjunctive is always preceded by que. 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may have a tender friend. That thou mayst have a good 
 tendre ami m. 
 
 watch. That he may have elevated sentiments. That we may 
 montre f. eleve 2 — m. 1 
 
 have fine weather. That you may have delightful landscapes. 
 
 un temps m. delicieux art. pay sage m. pi. 
 
 That they may have a good master and (be grateful.) 
 
 maitre m, art. reconnaissance f. 
 
 preterit, or Compound of the Present 
 
 'That I may have had wine, beer, and cider. That thou mayst 
 vin m. Mere f. cidre m. 
 
 have had a good horse, and a fine dog. That he may have had 
 
 cheval m. chien m. 
 
 enlightened judges. That we may have had snow, rain and 
 
 eclair e 2 juge m. pi. 1 neige f. pluie f. 
 
 wind. That you may have had a great dining-room, a beautiful 
 vent m. saUe-a-manger f. superbe 
 
 drawing-room, a pretty dressing-room, and a charming 
 salon de compagnie m. joli cabinet de toilette m. 
 
 bed-room. They they may have had vast possessions, 
 
 chambre a coucher f. vaste — f. pi. 
 
 fine meadows, and delightful groves. 
 belle prairie f. pi. 2 bois m. pi. I 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 177 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might have a sword, a musket, and pistols. That 
 
 epee f. fusil m. art. pistolet m. pi. 
 thou mightst have a knife, a spoon, and a fork. That he 
 
 couleau m. cuiller f. fourchette f. 
 
 might have a penknife, pencils, and good models (to 
 
 canif m. pinceau m. pi. art. modilem. pi. 
 
 follow). That we might have a coach a good house, and 
 
 carrosse m. maison f. art. 
 
 furniture, simple but elegant. That you might have health and 
 meuble m. pi. mais sante f. 
 
 great respect. That they might have fruitful lands. 
 un consideration f. fertile 2 terre f.-pl. 1 
 
 pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 
 
 That I might have had friendship. That thou mightst have had 
 
 amitie f. 
 gloves, boots, and horses. That he might have had zealous 
 gant m. pi. botte f. pi. chevaux zele 2 
 
 and faithful servants. That we might have had line clothes, 
 
 fidele 3 domestique 1 habit m. 
 
 precious jewels, and magnificent furniture. That you might have 
 bijou m. pi. magnifiqne 2 meubles 1 
 
 had warm friends. That they might have had greatness of 
 
 chaud 2 1 art. grandeur f. 
 
 soul and pity. 
 d'dme pitief. 
 
 SENTENCES ON THE SAME VERB, WITH A NEGATIVE 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In these sentences, the learner is only to put de 
 or cT before the substantive, according as it begins 
 with a consonant or a vowel ; likewise, he is to put 
 ne between the personal pronoun and the verb, and 
 pas or point after the verb, in the simple tenses, and 
 between the verb and the participle, in the com- 
 pound tenses \ as 
 
 i2 
 
178 OF AUXILIARY VERES. 
 
 Je rial pas de livres I have no books 
 
 Tu rtavais pas de bien Thou hadst no wealth 
 
 Elle rCeut pas oVhonnetete She has no honesty 
 
 Nous rCavons pas eu oVamitie We have had no friendship 
 
 Vous n'aviez pas eu de puissans You had not had powerful friends 
 
 amis 
 
 lis riauront pas oVennemis redouta- They will not have formidable 
 
 ables enemies 
 
 exercise. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present. 
 I have no precious medals. We have no useless things. 
 
 — cieux viedaille f. pi. inutile 2 chose f. pi. 1 
 
 preterit indefinite, or Compound of the Present. 
 
 I have had no constancy. We have had no generosity- 
 Constance f. generosite i. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Thou hadst not a beautiful park. You had no good cucumbers. 
 pare m. concomhre m. pi. 
 
 pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 
 
 He had had no fine houses. They had had no money, 
 f. pi. m. 
 
 preterit definite. 
 He had not a skilful gardener. They had no carpets. 
 
 habile jardinier m. tapis m. pi. 
 
 preterit anterior or Compound of the Preterit. 
 
 Thou hadst had no complaisance. You had had no great talents. 
 — f. — m. pi. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 I shall have no great affairs. We shall not have uncommon 
 affaire f. pi. rare 2 
 
 cuts. 
 estampe f. pi. 1 
 
 future anterior, or Compound of the Future 
 
 Thou shalt have had no consolations. You shall not have had 
 
 f. P i. 
 
 quiet days. 
 ^anquiUe 2 m. pi. 1 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 179 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 He should not have bad pictures. They should have no 
 mauvais tableau m. pi, 
 leisure. 
 ioisir m. 
 
 past, or Compound of the Conditional. 
 
 \ should have had no griefs. We should have had no 
 
 chagrin m. pi. de 
 
 troubles. 
 peine f. pi. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Have no impatience. Let him not have absurd ideas. Let us 
 Sing. — f. absurde 1 
 
 not have dangerous connections. Have no such whims. Let 
 
 dangereux-se liaison f. pi. tel caprice ra. pi. 
 
 them not have so whimsical a project. 
 si bizarre 2 projet m. 1 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may have no protectors. That we may have no success. 
 protecteur m. pi. succes m. 
 
 preterit, or Compound of the Present 
 That he may have had no perseverance. That they may have had 
 
 no valour. 
 bravoure f. 
 
 imperfect. 
 
 That thou mightst have no principles of taste. That you 
 principe m. pi. gout m. 
 might not have a just reward. 
 
 recompense f. 
 
 pluperfect, or Compound of the Imperfect. 
 
 That I might have had good advices. That we might have had 
 avis m. pi. 
 no news. 
 nouvelle f. pi. 
 
180 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 THE VERB AVOIR, WITH INTERROGATION AND 
 AFFIRMATIVELY. 
 
 To form the interrogation, the learner is to put 
 the personal pronoun after the verb in simple- tenses, 
 and between the verb and the participle in the 
 compound tenses, joining them with a hyphen ; and 
 when the verb ends with a vowel, he is to put 
 between the verb and the pronoun a /, preceded and 
 followed by a hyphen, thus (-£-). For the rest, he 
 ought to attend to what has been said in the obser- 
 vations made before the exercises on the verb. 
 
 Ai-je des livres ? Have I books ? 
 
 avais-tu du Men ? hadst thou wealth ? 
 
 eut-elle de Vhonnetete? had she honesty? 
 
 avons-nous eu de bons conseils? have we had good counsels ? 
 
 aviez-vous eu de la prudence ? have you had prudence ? 
 
 aura-t-il de V argent ? will he have money ? 
 
 aura-t-elle eu des protecteurs ? will she have had protectors ? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Hast thou needles ? Have you coloured maps ? 
 
 aiguille f. pi. enlumine* 2 carte f. pi. 1 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 Have I had pens ? Have we had convenient houses ? 
 plume f. pi. commode 2 f. pi. 1 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Had she silk ? Had they large buildings ? 
 soie f. grand m. pi. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Had she had pins ? Had they had extensive fields ? 
 
 epingle f. pi. spacieux 2 champ m. pi. i 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 Had he good shoes ? Had they looking-glasses ? 
 
 Soulier m. pi. miroir m. pi. 
 
 * Masculine adjectives ending in e in the singular, form their feminine by adding 
 a mute e,thus enlumine m. enlumince fern. 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. l8l 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERJOR. 
 
 Hadst thou had lace ? Had you had odoriferous shrubs ? 
 
 dentelle 1 odoriferant 2 arbuste m. pi. 1 
 
 FUTURE AESOLUTE. 
 
 Shall I have gold, silver, andplatina? Shall we have good-luck ? 
 m. argent m. platine m. bonheur m, 
 
 FUTURE PAST. 
 
 Will she have had joy ? Will they have had company? 
 joie f. compagnie f. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Shouldst thou have happy moments? Should you have good 
 heureux m. pi. 
 wine and nice cordials ? 
 
 fin 2 liqueur f. pi. 1 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Should he have had uncommon fruits? Should they have had 
 recherches 2 — 1 
 rich clothes ? 
 
 THE SAME VERB WITH INTERROGATION AND 
 NEGATIVELY. 
 
 In this form of sentences, the learner ought to 
 conform to what we have said in the two preceding 
 observations on negative and interrogative sen- 
 tences, with affirmation, but always placing pas or 
 point after the pronoun, whether in simple or 
 compound tenses, and ne at the beginning of sen- 
 tences, as 
 
 N'ai-je pas des Uvres ? Have I no books ? 
 
 n'avais-tu pas des amis? hadst thou no friends ? 
 
 rta-t-elle -point* a" esprit ? has she no wit ? 
 
 n'avons-nous pas eu de bons pro- have we not had good proceeding ? 
 
 cedes ? 
 
 n'aviez-vous pas eu de nouvelles had you not had new gowns ? 
 
 robes ? 
 
 * As point expresses the French negation much stronger than pas, the prepo- 
 sition de takes the place of the article de le, de la, des; but we may say n'a-t-elle 
 pas de V esprit ? de Vamitie? de Vhonneur? de la haine? etc. 
 
182 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 iCaura-t-il pas des ressources ? will he have no resources ? 
 
 rfaurontelles pas eu de conso- will they have had no consola- 
 laiions ? tions ? 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Hast thou no diamonds? Have you passions too violent? 
 diamant m. pi. f. pi. trop — te 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 Hast thou not had contempt and even hatred for that man ? 
 mepris m. meme haine f. h asp. pour cet 
 Have you not had better examples ? 
 meilleur exertple m. pi. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Had he not a rigid censor? Had they not immoderate 
 severed, censeur m. 1 effrene2 
 
 desires ? 
 desir m. pi. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Had 1 not had other views? Had we not had amethysts, 
 autre vue f. pi. amethiste f. pi. 
 
 rubies, and topazes ? 
 ruhis m. pi topaz e f. pi. 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 Had I no great wrongs ? Had we no perfidious friends ? 
 tort m. pi. perfide 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 Had he not had too (far-fetched) expressions ? Had they not had 
 recherche 2 — f. pi. 1 
 
 excellent models ? 
 — 2 modele m. pi. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Wilt thou not have a more regular conduct? Will you not 
 plus regie 2 conduite f. 1 
 have fashionable gowns ? 
 a la mode 2 robe f. pi. 1 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Shall I have had no sweetmeats ? Shall we not have had a good 
 confitures f. pi. 
 
 preacher ? 
 ■prMicateur m. 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 183 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Should she not have clear and just ideas ? Would they not have a 
 clair 2 — 3 1 
 more extensive knowledge? 
 
 etendu connaissance f. pi. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Should she have had no decency? Should they have had no 
 decence f. 
 
 rectitude^ 
 droiture f. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The auxiliary verb avoir serves not only to con- 
 jugate itself, in the compound tenses, but also to 
 conjugate the compound tenses of the verb etre, the 
 active, the impersonal, and almost all the neuter 
 verbs. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 A 
 
 AUXILIARY VERB, ETRE, TO BE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Sire 
 
 to be 
 
 | avoir ete 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 to have been 
 
 eianc 
 ete 
 
 being 
 
 PAST. 
 
 been 
 
 > ay ant ett 
 
 having been 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 devant etre about to be 
 
 
184 
 
 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 SIMPLE 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRETERIT 
 
 INDEFINITE. 
 
 je suis 
 
 I am 
 
 fai ete 
 
 I have been 
 
 tu es 
 
 thou art 
 
 tu as He 
 
 thou hast been 
 
 il or elle e<t 
 
 he or she is 
 
 il a ete 
 
 he has been 
 
 nous sommes 
 
 we are 
 
 nous avons He 
 
 we have been 
 
 vous etes 
 
 you are 
 
 vous avez ete 
 
 you have been 
 
 ils or ettes sont 
 
 they are 
 
 ils ont ete 
 
 they have been 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 fetais 
 
 I was 
 
 f avals ete 
 
 I had been 
 
 tu etais 
 
 thou wast 
 
 tu avais ete 
 
 thou hadst been 
 
 il etait 
 
 he was 
 
 il avait ete 
 
 he had been 
 
 nous etions 
 
 we were 
 
 nous avions ete 
 
 we had been 
 
 vous etiez 
 
 you were 
 
 vous aviez ete 
 
 you had been 
 
 ils etaient 
 
 they were 
 
 ils avaient ete 
 
 they had been 
 
 
 Obsen 
 
 nation. 
 
 
 As the adjective in French takes gender and 
 number, it must be put in the masculine or femi- 
 nine, the singular or plural, as the pronoun subject 
 may require; and the adverb which will be found 
 in the following exercises, ought to precede the 
 adjective. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I am very glad. Thou art quite amiable. He is very lively. 
 
 bien aise tout-a-fait ires gai 
 
 She is very lively. We are happy. You are always just. They 
 f. heureux toujour s m. 
 
 are witty. They are witty. 
 spirituel pi. f. 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 I have been too violent. Thou hast been thoughtless and trifling, 
 f. — f. etourdi frivole 
 
 She has been modest, amiable, and sensible. We have been cir- 
 modeste aimable — cir- 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 185 
 
 SI1V 
 
 IPLE TENSES. 
 ERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRET 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 jefus 
 
 I was 
 
 feus ete I had been 
 
 tufas 
 
 thou wast 
 
 tu eus ete thou hadst been 
 
 ilfut 
 
 he was 
 
 il eut ete he had been 
 
 nous fumes 
 
 we were 
 
 nous eumes ete we had been 
 
 vousfutes 
 
 you were 
 
 vous eutes ete you had been 
 
 ils furent 
 
 they were 
 
 ils eurent ete they had been 
 
 cumspect and prudent. You have been arrogant and proud. They 
 
 conspect — f. — fier f. 
 
 have been great and magnanimous. 
 — nime 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I was very busy. Thou wast often dissipated. He was 
 f. fort occupe f. souvent dissipe 
 
 sometimes lazy. She was pretty. We were quiet. 
 
 quelquefois paresseu.v joli f. tranquille* 
 
 You were sad. They were laborious. They were discreet. 
 triste m. laborieux f. discret 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 T had been inconsiderate, and perhaps imprudent. Thou hadst 
 inconsidere peut-etre — 
 
 been envious and jealous. She had been enterprising and vain. 
 
 envieux jaloux entreprenant — 
 
 We had been presumptuous and bold. You had been avaricious. 
 presomptueux hardi avaricieux 
 
 They had been weak and timid. 
 f. faible timide 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 I was always constant. Thou wast wise and sedate. He was 
 — sage pose 
 
 ingenious. She was faithful. We were firm and courageous. 
 
 ingenieux fidele k ferme courageux 
 
 You were good and beneficent. They were vicious, They were 
 
 bienfaisant m. vicieux f. 
 
 charitable. 
 
 * Tranquille and rebellehave the same termination for both genders. 
 
186 
 
 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 FUTURE 
 
 ABSOLUTE. 
 
 FUTURE 
 
 ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 je serai 
 
 I shall or will be 
 
 faurai ete 
 
 I shall or will\ 
 
 
 
 
 have 
 
 
 tu seras 
 
 thou wilt be 
 
 tu auras ete 
 
 thou wilt have 
 
 c 
 
 il sera 
 
 he will be 
 
 il aura 6te 
 
 he will have 
 
 
 nous serons 
 
 we shall be 
 
 nous aurons ete 
 
 we shall have 
 
 
 vous serez 
 
 you shall be 
 
 vous aurez ete 
 
 you will have 
 
 
 ils seront 
 
 they shall be 
 
 ils auront ete 
 
 they will have 
 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 I had been grateful. Thou hadst been reasonable and virtuous. 
 reconnaissant raisonnable vertueux 
 
 He had been liberal. We had been valiant. You had been uneasy, 
 — vaillant inquiet 
 
 morose, and peevish. They had been inconstant and guilty. 
 bourru chagrin — coupable 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 I shall be modest and shy. Thou wilt always be pettish, 
 
 — te reserve quinteux 
 
 obstinate, and captious. She will be civil and polite. We 
 opinidtre pointilleux honnete poli 
 
 shall be mild and complaisant. You will then always be mad and 
 doux — done fou 
 
 rash. They will be ridiculous. 
 temeraire ridicule 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 I shall have been deceived. Thou wilt have been artful and 
 trompe artificieux 
 
 crafty. He will have been tedious and troublesome. We shall 
 ruse ennuyeux importun 
 
 have been morose. You will have been illustrious and famous. 
 — iUustre fameux 
 
 They will have been reprehensible. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 I should be invincible. Thou wouldst be malicious and mcorn- 
 — malicieux — 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 187 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 je serais 
 
 I should, would, 
 or could be 
 
 faurais ete I should -» 
 
 tu serais 
 
 thou wouldst be 
 
 tu aurais ete thou wouldst 
 
 il serait 
 
 he would be 
 
 il aurait ete he would 
 
 nous serious 
 
 we should be 
 
 nous aurions ete we should 
 
 vous seriez 
 
 you should be 
 
 vous auriez ete you should 
 
 Us seraient 
 
 they would be 
 
 IMPER 
 
 ils auraient ete they would J 
 &TIVE. 
 
 
 Sois 
 
 Be (thou) 
 
 
 quit soit 
 
 let him be 
 
 
 soyons 
 
 let us be 
 
 
 soyez 
 
 be (ye) 
 
 
 qu'ils soient, or\ 
 qvCelles soient j 
 
 let them be 
 
 gible. She would be quick and lovely. We should be victorious- 
 vif agreable victorieux 
 
 You would be learned, skilful, and ingenious. They would be 
 savant habile — nieux m 
 
 crafty and greedy. 
 astucieux avare 
 
 I should have been secret and (very close). Thou wouldst 
 
 impenetrable 
 have been frolicsome and a jeerer. He would have been quick 
 espiigle * goguenard. prompt 
 
 and impetuous. We should have been silly and simple. 
 
 impetueux sot niais 
 
 You would have been inconsequent. They would have been 
 
 excusable 
 
 Observation, 
 
 We say also, in the conditional past feusse ete, 
 tu eusses ete, il eut ete, nous eussions ete, vous eussiez 
 ttL ils emsent ete. 
 
188 
 
 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 que je so is 
 que tu sois 
 
 qxCil soit 
 que nous soyons 
 que vous soyez 
 quHls soient 
 
 that I may be 
 that thou mayst 
 
 be 
 that he may be 
 that we may be 
 that you may be 
 that they may be 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 quejefusse 
 que tu fusses 
 
 qu'ilfut 
 
 that I might be 
 that thou mightst 
 
 be 
 that he might be 
 
 que nousfussions that we might be 
 que vousfussiez that you might be 
 juHls fussent that they might be 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 quefaie He that I may \ 
 
 que tu aies ete that thou 
 
 mayst 
 quHl ait ete that he may ^ 
 
 que nous ayons ete that we may 
 que vous ayez ete that you may 
 qu'ils aient ete that they may 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 quefeusse ete that I might \ 
 que tu eusses ete that thou 
 mightst 
 qxCil eut ete that he might 
 
 que nous eussions that we might 
 
 ete 
 que vous eussiez that you might 
 
 ete 
 qu'ils eussent ete that theymight 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Be just, liberal, honest, and disinterested. Let him be metho- 
 Sing. desinteresse metho- 
 
 dical and clear. Let her be gentle, chaste, and good. Let us be 
 dique doux 
 
 equitable, humane, and prudent. Be sober, constant, and moderate. 
 
 — humain — sobre — modere 
 
 Let them be simple and judicious. Let them be sprightly, witty, 
 m. — judicieux f. vif 
 
 and amiable. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may always be steady in my principles. That thou 
 inebranlable dans — cipes 
 
 mayst be invariable. That he may be docile and grateful. That we 
 
 may be perfect. That you may be saving and careful. That 
 
 parfait econome soigneux 
 
 they may be punctual. 
 ponctuel 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 189 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 That I may have been grossly duped and deceived. That 
 grossierement dupe trompe 
 
 thou mayst have been ungrateful and perjured. That he may have 
 
 ingrat parjure 
 
 been inconstant and deceitful. That we may have been so credulous. 
 
 — trompeur si credule 
 
 That you may have been suspicious. That they may have been 
 
 soupconneux 
 ferocious and barbarous. 
 fercce barbare 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That] I might be proud and haughty. That thou mightst be 
 orgueilleux hautain 
 
 perfidious arid rebel, That she might be fickle, vain, and imper- 
 
 perfide rebeUe leger — — 
 
 tinent. That we might be flatterers, mean and cringing. That 
 
 flatteur bas rampant 
 
 you might be hasty and cross. That they might be scornful 
 brusque bourru dedaigneux 
 
 and arrogant. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 That I might have been so foolish and so stupid. That thou 
 imbecile stupide 
 
 mightst have been so awkward. That she might have been so 
 maladroit 
 unreasonable. That we might have been so uncivil. That 
 deraisonnable malhonnete 
 
 you might have been so sharp and waspish. That they might 
 
 mordant si caustique 
 
 have been (puffed up) with pride. 
 bouffis de orgueil 
 
190 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 Simple Negative Sentences, intermixed with Interro- 
 gative ones, either Affirmative or Negative. 
 
 Observe that the personal pronouns which serve 
 for interrogation, and the two negative words ne 
 and pas, preserve the same place with the auxiliary 
 verb etre as with avoir. In all these phrases, the 
 adjective is the last word. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I am not satisfied with him. Are we discreet enough ? 
 content de hi 2 assez 1 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 I have not always been so condescending. Have we been less 
 
 facile moins 
 
 distrustful ? 
 defiant 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Didst thou not ask too much ? You were not complaisant. 
 etre trop exigeant — 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Had he been respectful ? Had they not been too fiery ? 
 respectueux bouillant 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 Was she fickle ? Were they not imprudent and malignant ? 
 volage f. — malin irr. adj. 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 Hadst thou not been too rigid? You had not been (far distant). 
 rigide eloigne 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 I shall never be froward. Shall we always be unhappy ? 
 reviche rnalheureux 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR*. 
 
 Wilt thou not have been too merry ? Will you not have been 
 
 enjoue 
 justly punished ? 
 justement 2 puni 1 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 191 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Would he be disdainful? Would they not be too indulgent ? 
 dedaigneux — 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Would she have been too sanguine. Would they have been haughty, 
 — altier 
 
 Observation . 
 
 The auxiliary verb etre serves to conjugate the 
 passive verbs through all their tenses, the compound 
 tenses of the reflective verbs, and those of about 
 fifty neuter verbs. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION 
 
 in er y 
 AIM-ER, TO LOVE. 
 
 MODEL OF ALL THE REGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 aim-ev to love [ avoir aim-e to have loved 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. ^ 
 
 aim ' mt PA sx ving \ a y ant aim - k havin s loved 
 
 aim-e m. -ee f. loved J 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 devant aim-er being about to love 
 
192 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 jai-me 
 
 I love 
 
 fai aim-e I have loved 
 
 tu aim-es 
 
 thou lovest 
 
 tu as aim-e thou hast loved 
 
 il aim-e 
 
 he loves 
 
 il a aim-e he has loved 
 
 nous aim-orxs 
 
 we love 
 
 nous avons aim-e we have loved 
 
 vous aim-ez* 
 
 you love 
 
 vous avez aim-e you have loved 
 
 Us aim-ent 
 
 they love 
 
 Us out aim-e they have loved 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOLLOWING 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 Henceforth, we shall intermix simple phrases 
 with interrogative and negative ones; upon which 
 the learner must observe : 
 
 1. That he is to give to the verb of the sentence 
 the termination of the verb aimer , as 
 
 nitive Mood Present. 
 Aim-er, to love Parl-ev, to speak 
 
 Indicative Mood Present. 
 
 f aim-e I love je parl-e I speak 
 
 tu aim-es thou lovest tuparl-es thouspeakest 
 
 il aim-e he loves il parl-e he speaks 
 
 nous aim- ons we love nous pa? I- ons we speak 
 
 vous aim-ez you love vous parl-ez you speak 
 
 Us aim-ent they love Us parl-ent they speak 
 
 And so on through the whole verb. 
 
 2. That when there is an adverb, he ought to place 
 it after the verb, in simple tenses, and between the 
 auxiliary and the participle, in compound tenses, 
 w r hich is a general rule for all the verbs, when that 
 adverb is only a single word, except in a few r 
 instances, which shall be mentioned in their proper 
 place. 
 
 * The learner must call to mind that though we say, through politeness, vous 
 instead of tu, in speaking to a single person, in writing we never give the mark of 
 the plural to any adjective or participle relating to vous, unless applied to more 
 than one, therefore we say in speaking to one person, vous etes aimable and not 
 aimables. 
 
OF REGULAR VEKBS. 193 
 
 3. That whenever he shall find, in the interro- 
 gative phrases, a substantive in subject, he is to put 
 that substantive at the head of the sentence, leaving 
 the pronoun, which serves for the interrogation, in 
 the place already pointed out; as man frere est-il 
 venu ? is my brother come ? 
 
 4. That he must conform to the observations on 
 the exercises on the verb avoir, when de is to be 
 placed between the verb and the substantive. 
 
 5. That he is to translate my, thy, his, her, or its, 
 by mon, ton, son, before a masculine singular, or a 
 feminine beginning with a vowel or h mute ; by ma, 
 ta, sa, before a feminine singular, beginning with a 
 consonant ; and by mes, tes, ses, before a plural of 
 both genders ; and our, your, their, by notre, voire, 
 leur, before a singular, and nos, vos, leurs, before a 
 plural*. 
 
 6. That he is to translate this or that, before a 
 substantive by ce, before a substantive masculine 
 beginning with a consonant ; by cet, before a sub- 
 stantive masculine beginning with a vowel or h mute ; 
 by cette, before a noun feminine ; and these or those 
 by ces. 
 
 7. That though, in English, the article the is 
 often understood, yet it ought always to be ex- 
 pressed in French after the verb. 
 
 * It must be remembered that by euphony we say mon, ton, son, instead of ma 
 ta, sa, before a feminine substantive beginning with a vowel or h mute, as men 
 time, son humeur, instead of ma drne, sa humeur. 
 
194 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 j aim-ais 
 tu aim-ais 
 il aim- ait 
 nous aim-ions 
 vous aim-iez 
 its aim-aient 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I did love 
 thou didst love 
 he did love 
 we did love 
 you did love 
 they did love 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 j'avais aim-e I had loved 
 tu avais aim-e thou hadst loved 
 il avait aim-e he had loved 
 nous avions aim-e we had loved 
 vous aviez aim-e you had loved 
 Us avaient aim-e they had loved 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT*. 
 
 I willingly give that plaything to your sister. Dost thou not 
 volontiers dormer joujou m. soeur f. 
 
 incense thy enemies ? He does not propose a salutary advice to his 
 irriter * proposer salutaire 2 in. 1 
 
 friends. We sincerely love peace and tranquillity. Do 
 
 sincdrement art. f. art. = f. 
 
 you admire the spectacle of nature ? Do they not comfort the 
 admirer — art. — f. * consoler 
 
 afflicted ? 
 afflige m. pi. 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 I have (given up) my favourite horse to my cousin. Hast 
 ceder favori 2 cheval m. 1 — m. 
 
 thou not exchanged watches with thy sister? Has he given 
 changer de montre f. 1 
 
 fine engravings to his pupil? We have spoken (a long- while) of 
 de gravure f. pi. eleve parler long -temps 
 
 your adventure. Have you not insisted too much upon that point ? 
 
 * sur — m. 
 
 aventure f. 
 Have they prepared their 
 preparer 
 
 insister 
 ball dresses? 
 de bal 2 habit m. pi. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 _ incessantly thought of my misfortunes. 
 sans cesse penser a malheur m. pi. 
 
 Didst thou dread 
 * redouter 
 
 * Henceforth, trie learner will observe that in the following exercises, all the 
 verbs will be found in the present of the infinitive mood, as the above, donner, to 
 give , but it is the pupil's part to put the verb in its right tense according to the 
 English expression ; in this instance, donner must be altered into the first person 
 singular of the Indicative mood, je donne, I give. 
 
OF REGULAR VERES. 
 
 195 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 j aim-ox 
 tu aim-3.s 
 il aim-Si 
 nous aim-ames 
 vous aim-ates 
 ils aim- e rent 
 
 1 loved 
 
 thou lovedst 
 he loved 
 we loved 
 you loved 
 they loved 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 j'eus aim-e I had loved 
 
 tu ens aim-e thou hadst loved 
 
 il eut aim-e he had loved 
 
 nous eumes aim-e we had loved 
 vous eutes aim-e you had loved 
 ils eurent aim-e they had loved 
 
 his presence and firmness? Did she not accuse her friend of 
 
 f. -pvon. fermete f. * accuser arnief. 
 
 levity ? We did not protect that bad man. You despised a 
 legerete f. * proteger* mediant mepriser 
 
 vain erudition. Did the Romans disdain so weak an enemy? 
 2 If. * dedaigner faible 2 m. 1 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 I had drained an unwholesome marsh. Hadst thou not 
 dessecher mal sain 2 marais 1 
 
 married a man rich, but, unluckily, without education ? Had 
 epouser malheureusement sans — f. 
 
 he rejected these advantageous offers? We had not 
 
 rejeter\ avantageux 2 offre f pi. 1 
 
 long listened to the singing of the birds. Had you already 
 long-temps ecouter * chant oiseau m. pi. deja 
 
 studied geography and history? Had they not procured 
 
 etudier art. geographie f. art. histoire procurer 2 
 
 him a company of cavalry, horses, and arms ? 
 
 lui 1 compagnie f. cavalerie de art. pr. art. arme f. pi. 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 Did I not gladly give peaches and flowers 
 
 * avec plaisir de art. peche f. pi. pr.-art fleur f. pi. 
 
 to my neighbours? Thou forgettest an essential circumstance. 
 
 voisin m. pi. oublier essentiel d 2 cir Constance f. 
 
 Did he not relate that charming history with (a great deal) of 
 
 * raconter =f. beaucoupX 
 grace ? Did we not show courage, constancy, 
 
 * montrer de art. cont. m. pr.-art. f. 
 
 * See p. 201, remarks on the verbs ending in eger. 
 
 1 See p. 201, observations on verbs ending in eter, as the above rejeter. 
 X Beaucoup, plus, moins, are never followed by des, but by de or d' ; except bien, 
 which requires after it the articles du, de la, de V, des. 
 
196 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 ; aim-erai 
 tu aim-eras 
 il aim-era, 
 nous aim-erons 
 vous aim-erez 
 Us ai m-eront 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 T shall love 
 thou shalt love 
 he shall love 
 we shall love 
 you shall love 
 they shall love 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 f aurai aime I shall have 
 tu auras aim-e thou shalt have 
 il aura aime he shall have 
 nous a ur oris aim-e we shall have 
 vous aurez aim-e you shall have 
 Us auront aim-e they shall have 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PEESENT. 
 
 /aim-erah I should love 
 
 tu aim-erais thou shouldst love 
 
 il aim- erait he should love 
 
 nous aim- erioris we should love 
 vous aim-eriez you should love 
 Us aim-emient they should love 
 
 PAST. 
 
 faurais aim-e I should \ 
 tu aurais aim-e thou shouldst/ p* 
 
 il aurait aim-e he should ' S 
 
 nous aur ions aime we should (^ 
 
 vous auriez aim-e you should I J§ 
 
 Us auraient aim-e they should ) °* 
 
 and experience ? Did you visit the grotto and the grove ? 
 
 pr.-art. f. * visiter grotte f. bois m. 
 
 They did not generously forgive their enemies. 
 * genereusement pardonner a 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 1 had soon wasted mv money, and exhausted my resources. 
 hientdt manger m. epuiser — f. pi. 
 
 I lads t thou very soon reinforced thy party? Had not Alexander 
 * vite renforcer parti m. 2 Alexandre 1 
 
 soon surmounted all obstacles ? We had not soon enough shut 
 
 surmonter tous art. — m. pi. tot 2 assez \fermer 
 
 the shutters, and (laid down) the curtains. Had you not 
 
 baisser rideau m. pi. 
 
 In the twinkling of an eye, they had dispersed the 
 * un coup * ozil disperser 
 
 volet m. pi. 
 quickly done? 
 achever 
 
 mob. 
 populace f. 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE.* 
 
 I shall relieve the poor. Wilt thou faithfully keep that 
 
 soulager pauvre m. pi. fidelement garder 
 
 secret? Will he not consult enlightened judges ? We shall 
 
 — m. consulter de art. 2 juge 1 
 
 * See p.165 how to form the future and conditional. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 197 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Aim- e* Love (thou) 
 
 qu'il aim-e let him love 
 
 aim- ons let us love 
 
 aim-ez love (ye) 
 
 qu'ils aim-eut let them love 
 
 not prefer pleasure to glory and riches to honour. 
 
 prefer er art. m. art. = art. art. 
 
 By such a conduct, will you not afflict your father and 
 
 tel 2 1 conduite f. 3 a ffl l 9 er pron. 
 
 mother? Will they astonish their hearers? 
 
 etonner auditeur m. pi. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 I shall soon have finished this book. By thy submission, shalt 
 achever soumission f. 
 
 thou not have appeased his anger? Will he have triumphed ovei 
 
 apaiser colere f. triompher de 
 
 his enemies? We, perhaps, shall not have rewarded enough the 
 ennemi recompenser 2 1 
 
 merit of this good man. Will you not have run to his as- 
 merite m. de bien 2 1 volar re- 
 
 sistance ? Will they have brought money? 
 
 cours m. apporter de art. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Should I form conjectures without number? Thou 
 
 former de art. — f. pi. nombre m. 
 
 shouldst not avoid so great a danger. Would he not unravel 
 
 eviter 2 1 — 3 dibrouiUer 
 
 that business ? We would (drive away) the importunate. Would 
 
 affaire f. chasser importun m. pi. 
 
 you not discover that atrocious plot? They would not unfold 
 
 devoiler atroce 2 complot m. 1 demeler 
 the clue of that intrigue. 
 fil m. — f. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I should have liked hunting, fishing, and the country 
 
 aimer art. chasse f. art. peche f. campagne f. 
 
 * The second person singular of the imperative, takes s after e before y and en, 
 as portes-en a ton frere, carry some to thy brother ; apportes y tes livres, bring thy 
 books thither. 
 
198 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 quefaim-e 
 que tu aim-es 
 
 that I may 
 that thou 
 
 mayst 
 that he may 
 
 quHl aim-e 
 
 que nous aim-ions that we may 
 
 que vous aim-iez that you may 
 qu'ils aim-ent that they may. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 que faie aim-e that I may 
 que tu aies aim-e that thou 
 
 mayst 
 quil ait aim-e that he may 
 que nous ayons that we may 
 
 aim-e 
 que vous ayez that you may 
 
 aim-e 
 quHls aient aim-e that they may. 
 
 if, etc. Wouldst thou not have played, if, etc. ? Would he not have 
 
 jouer 
 bowed to the company, if, etc. ? Would we gladly have praised his 
 saluer * f. louer 
 
 pride and incivility? You would have awakened every 
 
 m. pron. malhonnetete f. 
 
 body. Would they have paid their debts. 
 monde payer dettei'. pL 
 
 eveiller tout le 
 
 Observation. 
 
 We say also, in the conditional \)diSt,feusse aime, 
 tu eusses alme, il eilt aime, ?wus eussions aime, vous 
 eussiez crime, Us eussent crime. 
 
 N. B. — There are a second pluperfect, f avals eu 
 aime, tu avals eu alme, etc. ; a third future, f aural 
 eu alme, tu auras eu aime, etc. ; and a third condi- 
 tional, jaurals eu alme, tu aurals eu aime, etc. 
 But these tenses are seldom used, because such a 
 precision is not often necessary. 
 
 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 In 
 
 Dans 
 
 every 
 tout 
 
 tes 
 
 action, 
 
 - f. pi. 
 
 consult 
 consulter 
 
 the 
 
 light of 
 lumiere f. 
 
 art. 
 
 reason. 
 raison f. 
 
 Let him love 
 
 art. 
 
 iustice, 
 
 _f. 
 
 peace, 
 art. — f. 
 
 and 
 
 virtue, 
 art. vertu 
 
 Let 
 
 us not 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 199 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 que fai?n-asse that I might 
 que tu ai?n-asses that thou 
 mightst 
 quHl aim-at that he mightF 
 
 que nous aim-as- that we might) 
 
 sions 
 que vous aim-as- that you mightl 
 
 siez 
 quHls aim-assent that theymightj 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 quefeusse aim-e that I might ^ 
 que tueusses aim-e that thou 
 mightst 
 quHleut aim-e that he might 
 que nous eussions that we might 
 
 aim-e 
 que vous eussiez that you might 
 
 aim-e 
 qu'ils eussent aimethat they might 
 
 cease to work. Do not omit so useful and interesting 
 cesser* de travailler negliger de art. 2 si 3 
 
 details. Let them sacrifice their interest to the public good. 
 — m. pi. 1 sacrifier interet — 2 bien m. 1 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may not always listen to a severe censor of my defects. 
 * — 2 censeur V defautm.ipl. 
 That thou mayst find real friends. That he may adorn his 
 
 trouver de vrai parer 
 
 speeches with the graces of a pure diction. That she may remain 
 
 discours de — — 2 — f . 1 Tester 
 
 in her boudoir. That we may so hastily condemn the world. 
 
 — m. legerement condamner monde m. 
 
 That you may pout incessantly- That they may work more 
 
 bouder plus 
 
 willingly. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 That I may have caressed insolence, and flattered pride. 
 caresser art. — f. flatter art. 
 
 IMPERATIVE, conjugated with a Negative. 
 
 Ne cesse pas 
 
 quHl ne cesse pas 
 
 ne cessons pas or point 
 
 ne cessez pas or point 
 
 qu'ils ne cessent pas or point 
 
 Cease thou not 
 let him not cease 
 let us not cease 
 cease ye not 
 let them not cease 
 
200 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 That thou mayst have added nothing to that work. That he may 
 
 ajouter ne rien* 
 have carried despair into his soul That we may have 
 
 porter art. desespoir dans 
 blamed a conduct so prudent and so wise. That you may not have 
 bldmer f. — 
 
 exasperated so petulant a character. That they may have not 
 
 exasperer — 2 caractdre m. 1 
 
 (taken advantage) of the circumstances. 
 prcfiter circonstance f. pi. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not copy his example. That thou mightst 
 imiter exemple m. 
 
 (give up) perfidious friends. That he might inhabit a 
 
 abandonner de art. habiter 
 
 hut instead of a palace. That we might not fall at the 
 chaumiere f. au lieu palais m. tomber a contr. 
 
 feet of an illegitimate king. That you might respect the laws 
 pied m. {[legitime 2 1 respecter hi f. pi. 
 
 of your country. That they might not speak at random. 
 
 pays m. parler a tort et a travers* 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not have burnt that work. That thou mightst 
 bruler ouvrage m. 
 
 not have contemplated the beauties of the country. That he might 
 
 contempler campagne 
 
 have perfected his natural qualities. That we might not have 
 — -fectionner naturel 2 qualite f. pi. 
 gained the victory. That you might have enchanted the public 
 remporter victoire f. enchanter — m. 
 
 That they might have struck their enemies with fear. 
 jrapper de crainte 
 
 * Ne before the auxiliary avoir, and rien immediately after it. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 201 
 
 Thus are conjugated, like aimer, all the regular 
 verbs which end in er in the present of the infinitive 
 mood, such as 
 
 estim-ev 
 
 achev-er 
 
 mang-er 
 
 cachet-ex 
 
 pri-ex 
 
 jou-er 
 
 men-ex 
 
 partag-ex 
 
 essay -er 
 
 cri-er 
 
 bru-ler 
 
 pes-tr 
 
 appel-ex 
 
 employ -ex 
 
 etc. etc 
 
 remu-ev 
 
 enlev-ex 
 
 amoncel-ex 
 
 appuy-ex 
 
 
 rapport-ex 
 
 ador-ex 
 
 jet-ex 
 
 mendi-ex 
 
 
 In verbs ending in -ger, when e is followed by 
 the vowels a or o, the e is preserved, as mang-e&xit, 
 jug-eons, je neglig-e&\, instead of mang-&nt,jug-ons, 
 je neglig-&i. 
 
 2. In verbs ending in -cer, a cedilla is put under c 
 when followed by a or o, as sucons,plaqons,feffacai, 
 to prevent the bad sound sucon (sukon). 
 
 3. In verbs ending in oyer and uyer, the y is 
 changed into i before a mute e, as femploie, il 
 essuie, j'appule-rai, il nettoie-rait ; instead o{j' em- 
 ploye, etc. This change likewise extends to verbs 
 in ayer and eyer, as il paie, fessaier-&i, elle grasseye, 
 or grasseie, to lisp, to speak thick. 
 
 4. In verbs ending in eler and eter, the Zand t are 
 doubled when followed by an e mute, as app-elev, 
 il app-e\\e ; j-eter, jejetter-ai 
 
 5. In interrogations, the first person singular of 
 the present indicative changes e mute into acute t, 
 and likewise in some verbs of the second conjugation 
 ending in vrir, frir, and lir, as negligd-je t aime-je? 
 offre-je ? cueille-je ? instead of aime-je ? offre-je ? 
 
 6. In the verbs in ayer, oyer, uyer, as essayer, to 
 try; employer, to employ; appuyer, to lean upon; 
 y is followed by i in the two first persons plural of 
 the imperfect indicative, in order to recognise them 
 from the same persons of the present indicative, as, 
 present indicative, nous essayons, vous essayez ; 
 
 k 2 
 
202 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 imperfect indicative, nous essay-ions, vous essay-iez, 
 nous employ-ions, vous appuy-iez. — [Acad.) 
 
 In the verbs in ier, as prier, to pray ; crier, to cry ; 
 etc., the i is doubled in the two first persons plural 
 of the imperfect indicative and of the subjunctive 
 mood present, for the same reasons as above ; thus, 
 we write : nous jjriions, we were praying ; vous 
 priiez, you were praying ; que nous criions, que vous 
 criiez, that we or you may cry. 
 
 7. E in the penultima of infinitives ending in 
 ever, ener, ecer, eser, when mute by its position, as 
 in achever, to achieve ; amener, to bring , depecer, 
 to carve out; peser, to weigh, takes the grave 
 accent whenever it is followed in the same word by 
 another final mute e, as in facheve, tie enleves, il 
 amene, Us depecent, pese, quails menent, etc. 
 
 N. B. — The above observation about doubling the 
 z, or putting it after y in the first and second 
 persons plural of the imperfect indicative and sub- 
 junctive mood present, applies also to all verbs 
 whose present participle ends in yant or iant, as 
 croyant, fuyant, voyant 9 riant, etc. 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION 
 IN IB. 
 
 This conjugation is divided into four branches, 
 which are distinguished both by the first person 
 singular and plural of the present of the indicative. 
 
 In the subsequent tables, we shall not insert the 
 compound tenses, because they are the same in all 
 the verbs. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS 
 
 203 
 
 PARADIGMS, OR MODELS. 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 1st. per. sing. 
 
 -is 
 
 plur. -issons 
 
 to finish 
 
 fin-ix 
 
 finishing 
 finissant 
 
 finished 
 fin-i m. -ie f. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 1st. per. sing. 
 
 -s 
 
 plur. -tons 
 
 to feel 
 
 sent-ir 
 
 BRANCH III. 
 
 1st per. sing. 
 
 -e 
 
 plur. -ons 
 
 to open 
 
 ouvr-iv 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 feeling 
 sent-smz 
 
 opening 
 ouvr-ant 
 
 PAST. 
 
 felt opened 
 
 BRANCH IV. 
 
 1st. per. sing. 
 
 -iens 
 
 plur. -enons 
 
 to hold 
 
 ten-ii 
 
 holding 
 ten-vent 
 
 held 
 
 sent-i m. -ie f. ouv-ei'tm. -te f ten-n m. -ue f. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The learner is to give to the verb of the phrase 
 the termination of the verb finir, as 
 
 iFSn-ir 
 
 je fin-is 
 
 tu fin-is 
 
 il fin-it 
 
 nous fin-issons 
 
 vous fin-issez 
 
 ils /m-issent 
 
 Embett-h 
 femb ell-is 
 tu embell-is 
 il embell-it 
 nous embell-issons 
 vous embell-issez 
 ils embett-issent 
 
 Flech-iv 
 jefiech-is 
 tuflech-is 
 ilflech-it 
 nous fiech-issons 
 vous fiech-issez 
 Us flech-issent 
 
 And so on through all the tenses. 
 
 We shall no longer put an asterisk under the 
 emphatical verb do, of the negative and interrogative 
 phrases. 
 
204 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 BRANCH III. 
 
 BRANCH IV. 
 
 I finish 
 
 I feel 
 
 I open 
 
 I hold 
 
 je fin-is 
 
 je sens 
 
 j'ouvr-e 
 
 je tiens 
 
 tu fin-is 
 
 tu sens 
 
 tu ouvr-es 
 
 tu tiens 
 
 i I fin-it 
 
 il sen-t 
 
 il ouvr-e 
 
 il tien-t 
 
 nous ym-issons 
 
 nous sent-ons 
 
 nous onyr-ons 
 
 nous ten- on s 
 
 vous fin-issez 
 
 vous sent-ez 
 
 vous ouvr-ez 
 
 vous ten-ez 
 
 ils fin-issent 
 
 ils sent-ent 
 
 ils ouvr -ent 
 
 ils tien-r\eiit 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 I did finish 
 
 I did feel 
 
 I did open 
 
 I did hold 
 
 je fin-issais 
 
 je sent-ais 
 
 jvuvr-ais 
 
 je ten-ais 
 
 tu /n-issais 
 
 tu sent-ais 
 
 tu ouvr-ais 
 
 tu ten-ais 
 
 ilfin-issait 
 
 il sent-ait 
 
 il euvr-ait 
 
 il ten-ait 
 
 nous fin-issions 
 
 nous sent-ions 
 
 nous ouvr-ions 
 
 nons ten-ions 
 
 vous fin-issiez 
 
 vous sent-iez 
 
 vous ouvr-iez 
 
 vous ten-iez 
 
 ib fin-issaient 
 
 ils sent-aieut 
 
 ils ouvr-aient 
 
 ils tew-aient 
 
 exercises on the First Branch. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I choose this picture. Dost thou never obey the first 
 choisir tableuu m. obeir a art. premier 
 
 impulse ? Does he thus define that word ? Do we not enrich 
 mouvement ainsi definir mot m. enrichir 
 
 our mind with the beautiful descriptions of the best poets? 
 
 de — f. pi. meilleur poete m. pi. 
 
 Do you not pity his sorrows ? They (are finishing) at this 
 
 compatir a mal m. pi. ind. pres. dans le 
 
 moment. 
 — m. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I did forearm his soul against the dangers of seduction. 
 
 premunir contre — art. — f. 
 
 Thou didst not weaken his prejudices. Did the wise Socrates 
 
 affaiblir prejuge m. pi. sage Socrate 
 
 applaud the follies of the young Alcibiades ? Did we not fre- 
 
 applaudir a travels m. pi. jeune Alcibiade Jre- 
 
 quently warn our friends of the bad state of their affairs ? You 
 
 quemment avertir contr. etat ~-re 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 20c 
 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 BRANCH III. 
 
 ' BRANCH IV. 
 
 I finished 
 
 I felt 
 
 I opened 
 
 I held 
 
 je fin-is 
 
 je sent-is 
 
 j 'ou v?*-is 
 
 je tin-s 
 
 tu Jin-is 
 
 tu sent-is 
 
 tu ouvr-is 
 
 tu tl?t-$ 
 
 il fin-it 
 
 il sent-it 
 
 il ouvr-it 
 
 il tin- 1 
 
 nous fin-imes 
 
 nous sent-imes 
 
 nous ouvi^-imes 
 
 nous tt?i-wes 
 
 vous fin-ites 
 
 vous sent-ltes 
 
 vous ouvr-ites 
 
 vous tin-tes 
 
 ils fin-irent 
 
 Us sent-irent 
 
 ils ouvr-iient 
 
 ils tin-rent 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 
 I shall finish 
 
 I shall feel 
 
 I shall open 
 
 I shall hold 
 
 je fin- irai 
 
 je sent-irai 
 
 fouvr-imi 
 
 je tiendr-ai 
 
 tufin-ir as 
 
 tu sent-iras 
 
 tu ouvr-iras 
 
 tu tiendr-as 
 
 ilfin-ira. 
 
 il sent-ira 
 
 il ouvrr-ira, 
 
 il tiendr-a, 
 
 nous fin-irons 
 
 nous sent-irons 
 
 nous ouvr-ii'OJis 
 
 nous tiendr-ons 
 
 vous fin-irez 
 
 vous sent-irez 
 
 vous ouvr-irez 
 
 vous tiendr-ez 
 
 Us fin-iront 
 
 ils sent-iront 
 
 ils ouvr-iiowt 
 
 ils tiendr-ont 
 
 did not cure their wounds Did they not invade an immense 
 
 guerir blessure f. pi. envahir — 2 
 
 country ? 
 pays 1 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 I softened my father by my submission. Didst thou not demolish 
 flechir soum — f. demolir 
 
 thy house ? He did not succeed, through thoughtlessness. Did not 
 
 f. reussir par etourderie f. 
 
 Alexander sully his glory by his pride ? We never betrayed 
 
 *ternir ne 1 jamais 3 tralur 2 
 
 that important secret. You did not free your mind from the 
 
 — 2 1 in. affranchir contr. pi. 
 
 shackles of prejudices. Bid the ancient philosophers enjoy 
 
 chaine f. pi. art. in. pi. philosophe m. pi. jouir 
 
 great consideration ? 
 de un — f. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Shall I succeed in this business? Wilt thou not (clear up) my 
 reussir affaire f. eclair cir 
 
 doubts ? Will he not embellish his country seat ? We shall 
 
 chute in. pi. embellir maison de campagne f. 
 
 * See p. 193, third observation. 
 
206 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 I should finish 
 jefin-ir&is 
 tu jfm-irais 
 ilfin-irait 
 ?wus Jin-'mons 
 vousfin-iviez 
 ils jfr/i-iraient 
 
 Finish (thou) 
 fin- is 
 
 qu'il ^ra-isse 
 jfoi-issons 
 Jin-issez 
 qu'ils Jin-issent 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 BRANCH II. BRANCH I] 
 
 I should feel 
 
 je sent-irais 
 tu sent-irais 
 il sent- i rait 
 nous se?^-irions 
 vous sent-iriez 
 ils siHl-iraient 
 
 I should open 
 fouvr-mis 
 tu ouvr-ira-is 
 il owvr-irait 
 nous oM^r-irions 
 vous ouvr-iriez 
 ils owt;r-iraient 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Feel (thou) 
 sens 
 
 quil sent-e 
 sent -ons 
 sent-ez 
 qu'ils sent-eJit 
 
 Open (thou) 
 
 ouvr-e 
 qvHil ouvr-e 
 ouvr-ons 
 ouvr-ez 
 qu'ils ouvr-ent 
 
 BRANCH IV. 
 
 I should hold 
 je tiendr-ais 
 tu tiendr-ais 
 il tiendr-ait 
 nous tiendr-ions 
 vous tiendr-iez 
 ils tiendr-aient 
 
 Hold (thou) 
 tien-s 
 
 qu'il tien-ne 
 ten-ons 
 ten-ez 
 qu'ils tien-nent 
 
 not sully 
 
 ternir 
 
 Will 
 
 the 
 
 splendour 
 eclat m. 
 
 of 
 
 life by an 
 vie f. 
 
 unworthy action. 
 indigne 2 — f . 1 
 you not adorn your mind with the splendour of the 
 embellir de briUant art. 
 
 imagery of Fenelon? Will they enrich their country by their 
 image f . pi. de — p ays 
 
 industry ? 
 Industrie 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 I should still cherish life. Couldst thou soften that 
 
 cherir art. attendrir 
 
 flinty heart? Could this physician cure that cruel disease ? 
 de rocher 2 cozur m. 1 medecin guerir — maladie f. 
 
 Should we not fulfil our promise ? You would not perish through 
 
 remplir promesse f. perir de 
 
 misery. Would men always (grow old) without* growing wiser 
 misere f. art. vieillir devenir 
 
 if they reflected on the shortness of life ? 
 reflechir ind.-2 sur brievete f. art. f. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Do not defile thy imagination with those images. Let her unite 
 salir — par ■ * unir 
 
 * After the preposition as, in, by, from, of, after, without, &c., the French always 
 use the present of the infinitive instead of the gerund or present participle. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 207 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 BRANCH III. 
 
 BRANCH IV. 
 
 That 
 
 That 
 
 That 
 
 That 
 
 I may finish 
 
 I may feel 
 
 I may open 
 
 I may hold 
 
 que je fin-isse 
 
 que je sent-e 
 
 quej'ouvr-e 
 
 que je tien-ne 
 
 que tufiji-isses 
 
 que tu sent-es 
 
 que tu ouvr-es 
 
 que tu tien-nes 
 
 qu'il fin-isse 
 
 qu'il sent-e 
 
 qxCil ouvr-e 
 
 qu'il tien-ne 
 
 que nous fin- 
 
 que nous sent- 
 
 que nous ouvr- 
 
 que nous ten- 
 
 issions 
 
 ions 
 
 ions 
 
 ions 
 
 que vous fin- 
 
 que vous sent- 
 
 que vous ouvr. 
 
 que vous ten-iez 
 
 issiez 
 
 iez 
 
 iez 
 
 
 qu Us fin-issent 
 
 qu'ils sent-ent 
 
 IMPEI 
 
 qu'ils ouvr-ent 
 
 tFECT. 
 
 qu'ils Hen-nent 
 
 That 
 
 That 
 
 That 
 
 That 
 
 I might finish 
 
 I might feel 
 
 I might open 
 
 I might hold 
 
 que je fin-isse 
 
 que je sent-isse 
 
 que j'ouvr -isse 
 
 queje tin- sse 
 
 que tu fin-isses 
 
 que tu sent-isses 
 
 que tu ouvr-isses 
 
 que tu tin-sses 
 
 qu'il fin-It 
 
 qu'il sent-it 
 
 qu'il ouvr-it 
 
 qu'il tin-t 
 
 que nousfin- 
 
 que nous sent- 
 
 que nous ouvr- 
 
 que nous tin- 
 
 issions 
 
 issions 
 
 issions 
 
 ssions 
 
 que vousfin- 
 
 que vous sent- 
 
 que vous ouvr- 
 
 que vous tin- 
 
 issiez 
 
 issiez 
 
 issiez 
 
 ssiez 
 
 qu'ils fin-issent 
 
 qu'ils sent-issent 
 
 qu'ils ouvr -issent 
 
 qu'ils tin-ssent 
 
 gracefulness to beauty. Let us feed the poor. Shudder 
 art. grace f. art. nourrir pauvre Fremir 
 
 with fear and shame. Let them (grow pale) at the recol- 
 
 de crainte pr. honte h asp. pdlir a sou- 
 
 lection of their crimes. 
 venir m. — 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may never* blemish my reputation. That thou mayst 
 fletrir — f. 
 
 shorten that work. That he may not enjoy his glory. That 
 raccourcir jouir de f. 
 
 we may not supply the wants of the poor. That you may 
 fournir a besoin m, pi. 
 
 * Ne jamais, never, requires ne before the veib and jamais after, in the simple 
 
 tenses. 
 
208 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 That they may establish wise and just 
 
 etablir de art. 2 3 
 
 punish the guilty. 
 punir coupable 
 laws. 
 1 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might stun the whole neighbourhood. That thou 
 etourdir 2 tout 1 voisinage m. 
 mightst (swallow up) so many riches. That idleness might not 
 engloutir tant de art. paresse f. 
 
 blunt his genius. That we might disobey the laws. That you 
 engourdir m. desobeir a 
 
 might not dazzle the eyes of a vain and fickle world. That they 
 
 eblouir ceil — 2 leger 3 1 
 
 might weaken the force of their reasons. 
 affaiblir — f. raisonnement 
 
 exercises on the Second, Third, and Fourth Branches. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The learner must observe to give to the verbs of 
 the second branch the terminations of the verb 
 sentir, as 
 
 
 Sen-tiY 
 
 
 Sor- tir 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 je sens 
 
 nous sen-tons 
 
 je sors 
 
 nous sor-tons 
 
 tu sens 
 
 vous sen-tez 
 
 tu sors 
 
 vous sor-tez 
 
 il sen~t Us sent-ent il sor-t ils sor-tent 
 
 to the verbs of the third branch the terminations of 
 the verb ouvrir, as 
 
 Ouvr-'w 
 
 j ouvr-e 
 tu ouvr-es 
 il ouvr-e 
 
 nous ouvr-ons 
 vous ouvr-ez 
 ils ouvr-ent 
 
 f°ff r -e 
 tu offr-es 
 il offr-e 
 
 Ojfr-ir 
 
 nous offr-ons 
 vous offr-ez 
 ils offr- en t 
 
 and to the verbs of the fourth branch, the termina- 
 tions of the verb ienh\ as 
 
 T-enir 
 
 je t-iens 
 tu t-iens 
 il £-ient 
 
 nous tenons 
 vous t-enez 
 ils tf-iennent 
 
 F-enir 
 
 je ?;-iens 
 tu v-iens 
 il v-ieut 
 
 nous i;-enons 
 vous i;-enez 
 Us r-iennent 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 209 
 
 and so on through all the tenses. He must observe 
 also, that tenir and all its derivatives are conjugated 
 with avoir, in their compound tenses, whereas venir 
 and its derivatives, excepting contrevenir and sub- 
 venir, are conjugated with etre in the same tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I feel all the unpleasantness of your situation. Whence comest 
 desagrement m. — - d'oii venir 
 
 thou ? Does he (go out) so soon ? Do we not (set off) for the 
 sortir tot 2* partir* 
 
 country? Do you not (tell a lie)? They (act contrary) to your 
 campagne f. 2* mentir contrevenir 
 
 orders. 
 ordre m. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I served my friends warmly. Didst f not thou amuse him 
 servir^ avec chaleur entretenir 
 
 with fair promises ? He complied at last with the wishes of his 
 de beau f. pi. consentir enfin a desir m. pi. 
 
 family. Did we sleep then ? Did you not belie your cha- 
 famille f. doi*mir\\ alors 2* dementir ca- 
 
 racter ? Did they often (come out) from the bottom of their 
 ractire souvent sortir contr. fond m. 
 
 mountains ? 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 I foresaw that terrible catastrophe. Thou didst not (come 
 
 pressentir — 2 — f . 1 re- 
 again) as thou hadst promised. Did he not (go back) imme- 
 
 venir 2 promis 3 le 1 2* repartir sur le 
 
 diately? Did we go out of the city before him? Did you not 
 
 champ ville f. avant lul 
 
 agree to that condition? They served their country with 
 
 consentir — f. pays 
 courage. 
 
 * The figures 2, 3, 4, with an asterisk, refer to the branch which the verb 
 belongs to. 
 
 f See p. 363 where to place the regimen of verbs. 
 % See its formation upon sentir, p. 204 
 II Bormir is also irregular, see p. 287 
 
210 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Shall I not obtain this of you ? Wilt thou go out this evening ? 
 obtenir cela de 
 
 He will not sleep quietly. Shall we comply with that ridi- 
 tranquillement a 
 
 culous bargain? (To a certainty) with time and 
 
 marche m. a coup sur avec de art. pr.-art. 
 
 patience, you will compass your end. What ! they will 
 
 — f. venir a bout de dessein quoi \ 
 
 not serve their friends., 
 serviront 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 I would open the door and the window. Wouldst thou not 
 porte f. fenetre f. 
 
 intervene in that affair? Would he (set off again) so soon? We 
 
 intervenir 2* repartir 
 
 should not easily (get out) of this scrape. Could you 
 
 aisement sortir mauvais pas m. 
 
 smell the perfume of this garden? Could they foresee their 
 sentir parfum m. pressintir 
 
 misfortune ? 
 malheur 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Support thy character in good and bad fortune. 
 
 soutenir art. pr.-art. mauvais — f. 
 
 Let him come and receive the reward of his labours. Let 
 
 * recevoir recompense f. travail m. pi. 
 
 us gain glory by our perseverance. Do not main- 
 
 obtenir de art. par — f. sow- 
 
 tain so absurd an opinion. Let them maintain their authority. 
 tenir — del 1 maintenir autorite f. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may prevent such dangerous enemies. I will not 
 
 prevenir de art. si 2 1 veux 
 
 that thou go out this morning. That he may not obtain his 
 sub.-l matin m. parvenir a 
 
 ends. That we may become just, honest, and virtuous. That 
 fin f. pi. devenir 
 
 you may return covered with laurels. That they may agree 
 
 revenir convert de laurier m. pi. convenir 
 
 about the conditions, 
 de • — 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 211 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not (bring about) my designs. That thou 
 venir a bout de projet m. pL 
 mightst (tell a lie) on set purpose. That he might not 
 
 2* mentir de premedite 2 dessein 1 
 bear his disgrace with firmness. That we might belong to 
 soutenir — f. fermete appartenir 
 
 that great king. That you might renounce your errors and 
 
 revenh de pr.-pron. 
 
 prejudices. That they might hold the most absurd ideas. 
 tenir a 2 1 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION 
 in oir, 
 RECEV- OIR, TO RECEIVE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Recev-oiv to receive 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. 
 
 recev-ant receiving | rec-u m. -ue f. received 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The learner is to give to the verbs of this conju- 
 gation the terminations of the verb recevoir, as 
 
 JRecev- 
 
 oir 
 
 , to receive 
 
 Dev- 
 
 oir, to owe 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 je reg-ois 
 
 
 nous rec-evons 
 
 je d-ois 
 
 nous c?-evons 
 
 tu rec-ois 
 
 
 vous rec-evez 
 
 tu d-ois 
 
 vous J-evez 
 
 il rec-oit 
 
 
 Us rec-oivent 
 
 il d-oit 
 
 ils (f-oivent 
 
 and so on through all the tenses. 
 
212 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 present, I receive 
 
 je rec-ois* nous rec-evons 
 
 tu rec-ois vous rec-evez 
 
 il rec-oit Us rec -oi vent 
 
 imperfect, I did receive. 
 
 je recev- ais nous recev-icms 
 
 tu recev-ais vous recev-iez 
 
 il recev-ait Us recev-aient 
 
 preterit, I received 
 
 je rec-us nous reg-umes 
 
 tu rec-us vous rec-utes 
 
 il rcc-ut Us rec -urent 
 
 future, I shall receive 
 
 je recev-rai 
 tu recev-ras 
 il recev- ra 
 
 nous recev -vows 
 vous recev -rez 
 Us recev-ront 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 INDICATIVE, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I perceive the summit of the Alps covered with perpetual 
 
 apercevoir sommet Alpes f. pi. 3 couvrir de eternel 2 
 
 snow. Dost thou receive his advice with respect and 
 
 neige £ pi. 1 avis m. pi. avec — 
 
 gratitude ? Does he understand well that rule so simple ? We do 
 concevoir bien regie f. — 
 
 owe a large sum. Do you not perceive the snare ? Ought 
 devoir gros somme f. apercevoir piege m. devoir 4 des 
 
 firm and courageous men thus to yield to circumstances ? 
 
 2 3 1 ainsi 6 ceder 5 art. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Did I not receive him kindly ? Did he see the castle 
 
 2 le I avec amitie apercevoir chateau 
 
 from such a distance ? We did not receive our income. Did you 
 
 si * loin percevoir revenu m. pi. 
 
 not receive great civilities ? Did they conceive all the 
 
 recevoir de honnetete f. pi. concevoir 
 
 blackness of their crimes ? 
 noirceur f. — 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 I perceived him walking in the moonshine. Did he 
 
 2 le I qui se promenait a clair de la lune m. 
 
 conceive a great esteem for that honest man ? Did we not im- 
 concevoir estime f. de bien 2 1 
 
 In verbs ending in cevoir, the c takes a cedilla (c) when followed by o or u. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 213 
 
 conditional, I should receive 
 
 je recev-r&is 
 tu recev-r&is 
 il recev-i&it 
 
 nous recev-nons 
 vous recev-riez 
 ils recev- raient 
 
 imperative, Receive (thou) 
 
 rec-ois rec-evons 
 
 qu'il rec-oive rec-evez 
 
 quHls rec-oivent 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 present, that I may receive 
 
 que je ?*ec-oive 
 que tu rec- oives 
 qiCil rec-oive 
 
 que nous recev- 
 
 ions 
 que vous recev-iez 
 quHls rec-oivent 
 
 imperfect, that I might receive 
 
 queje rec- usse que nous rec- 
 que tu rt e-usses ussions 
 quHl reg-ut que vous rec- 
 
 ussiez 
 qu'ils rec-ussetit 
 
 mediately perceive the snare ? You did not receive his letters in 
 
 httre f. pi. a 
 
 time. Did they conceive the depth of his plan ? 
 profondeur f. — m. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Shall I receive visits to-day? He will not discover 
 
 de art. visite f. pi. aujourdliui apercevoir 
 
 the spire of his village. We shall conceive_ well-founded 
 
 docker m. — m. de art. fonde2 
 
 hopes. Will you never conceive so luminous a principle ? 
 
 esperance f. pi. 1 2 1 
 
 Shall men always owe their misfortunes to their faults ? 
 art. m. pi. faute f. pi. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Should I receive the offers of my enemy? Should he thus (give 
 
 devoir s'aban- 
 
 himselfup)to despair? Should we conceive such abstract 
 
 donner art. desespoir m. 1 de si abstrait 2 
 
 ideas ? You would easily perceive so gross a trick. Would they 
 
 1 f. grossier ruse f. 
 
 not receive their friend with tenderness ? 
 tendresse f. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Conceive the horror of his situation. Let him receive this 
 
 horreur f, — f. 
 
 mark of confidence with gratitude. Let us never owe (any thing) 
 marque f. confiance 2 1 rien 
 
214 OF REGULAR VERBS, 
 
 Receive no more of his letters. Let them at last perceive tneir 
 
 2 I 3 de en fin 2 I 
 
 errors. 
 — eurs 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may receive consolations. That he may not con 
 
 de art. — 
 
 ceive a thought so well developed. That we may always receive 
 pensee f. deueloppe de 
 
 false news. That you may not perceive the dangers of 
 
 nouvelle f. pi. art. 
 
 books contrary to good manners. That they may not collect 
 contre * art. moeurs f. pi. percevoir 
 
 unjust taxes. 
 de injuste 2 f. pi. 1 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might conceive such a project. That he might perceive 
 
 pro jet 
 
 the secret designs of the enemy's general. That we might not 
 
 cache 2 dessein 1 2*1 
 
 receive every body with civility. That you might not conceive 
 
 honnetete 
 the depth of this book. That they might not perceive the masts 
 f. mdtm. pi. 
 
 of the ship. 
 
 vaisseau m. 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION 
 IN RE. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 This conjugation has five branches : the first is 
 in aire, the second in aitre, the third in ire, the 
 fourth in aindre, eindre, and vindre, and the fifth in 
 dre, ere. pre, ire, and vre. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 215 
 
 PARADIGMS, OR MODELS. 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT, 
 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 BRANCH III. j BRANCH IV. 
 
 BRANCH V. 
 
 To please 
 P/aire 
 
 To appear 
 Parai-tve 
 
 To reduce 
 
 Redu-ixe 
 
 To pity 
 Plain-dre 
 
 To render 
 Ren-dre 
 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 pleasing 
 plai-saut 
 
 appearing | reducing pitying 
 paraissant j redui-sant j p/ai-gnant | 
 
 PAST. 
 
 rendering 
 ren-dant 
 
 pleased 
 p7-u m. -ue f j 
 
 appeared reduced pitied 
 par-M -ue f. j red-nit -uite j plain-t -te | 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 rendered 
 rerc-du -ue f 
 
 I please 
 
 
 appear reduce pity 
 
 render 
 
 je plai-s 
 tu plai-s 
 il plai-t 
 
 
 par-ais 
 par-ais 
 par-ait 
 
 redui-s 
 redui-s 
 redui-t 
 
 plains 
 plains 
 plain-t 
 
 ren-ds 
 mi-ds 
 ren-d 
 
 nous plai-sons 
 
 
 par-aissons 
 
 redui-sons 
 
 plai-gnons 
 
 ?*en-dons 
 
 vous plai-sez 
 Us plaisent 
 
 
 par-aissez 
 par- aissent 
 
 reduisez 
 redui-sent 
 
 plai-gnez 
 plai-gnent 
 
 rew-dez 
 ren-dent 
 
 Observation. 
 The learner is to give to the verbs of every branch 
 the terminations of their models, as 
 
 to destroy 
 
 reci-uire detr-nive 
 
 je red-nis je detr-uis 
 
 exercises on the First, Second, and Third Branches. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 know his fiery and impetuous temper. Does not 
 
 to conceal 
 pZ-aire f-aire 
 je pl-ais je t-a\s 
 
 to know 
 par- aitre cora;z-aitre 
 je par-ais je conn-ais 
 
 2*connaitre bouillant 2 
 
 caractere m. 1 
 
216 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 BRANCH in. 
 
 BRANCH IV. 
 
 BRANCH v. 
 
 I did please 
 
 appear 
 
 reduce 
 
 pity ^ 
 
 render 
 
 je plai-sais 
 
 par-aissais 
 
 redui-suis 
 
 plai-gna\s 
 
 ren-d'd\s 
 
 tu plai-sais 
 
 par-aiss'dis 
 
 redui-sais 
 
 plai-gn dis 
 
 ren-ddis 
 
 il plai- sait 
 
 par-aissait 
 
 redui-s&it 
 
 plai-gwdit 
 
 re«-dait 
 
 nous plai-s\or\s 
 
 /wr-aissions 
 
 redui-sxous 
 
 plai-gn\ons 
 
 rew-dions 
 
 vons plai-siez 
 
 joar-aissiez 
 
 redui~s)ez 
 
 plai-guiez 
 
 rew-diez 
 
 ih plai-sdient 
 
 par-aiss&ient 
 
 redui-sdient 
 
 plai-gnment 
 
 : mj-daient 
 
 
 TRETERIT. 
 
 
 I pleased 
 
 appeared 
 
 reduced 
 
 pitied 
 
 rendered 
 
 je pl-us 
 
 pa?-- us 
 
 redui-sis 
 
 plai-gnis 
 
 ?*ew-dis 
 
 tu pl-us 
 
 paj'-us 
 
 redui-sis 
 
 piai-gms 
 
 ren-dis 
 
 il pl-ut 
 
 par-ut 
 
 reduusit 
 
 plai-gmt 
 
 ren-dit 
 
 nous pl-umes 
 
 par-umes 
 
 redui-simes 
 
 p/ai-gmmes 
 
 ?*ew-dimes 
 
 vous pl-utes 
 
 par-utes 
 
 redui-sites 
 
 plai-gnites 
 
 re??-dites 
 
 Us pl-urent 
 
 par-ureut 
 
 redui-sirent 
 
 plai-gmrent 
 
 mi-dirent 
 
 virtue please every body? Are we not instructing youth? You 
 a * 3* instruire art. f. 
 
 seduce your hearers by your modest exterior. Do they 
 
 S'seduire auditeur m. pi. — 2 exierieur m. I 
 
 acknowledge their errors ? 
 2* reconnaitre 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I did not displease by my conduct. Did he at last acknowledge 
 
 f. reconnaiire 
 
 his injustice? We did not appear convinced. Did you know 
 f. paraitre convaincu pi. 
 
 that charming landscape ? They led people into error, 
 
 m. 3* induire art. en 
 
 Did I not soon know his intentions ? Did he not (do away) 
 
 — 3* ditruire 
 
 his prepossessions ? We led our friend back to his country - 
 
 prevention f. pi. reconduire * de 
 
 house. Did you conduct your children from truth to 
 
 campagne 2 f . 1 conduire de en 
 
 truth? Did those frightful spectres appear again? 
 
 effrayant 2 m. pi. apparaitrc de nouveau 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 217 
 
 
 .FUTURE. 
 
 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 BRANCH III. 
 
 BRANCH IV- 
 
 BRANCH v. 
 
 I shall please 
 
 appear 
 
 reduce 
 
 pity ^ 
 
 render 
 
 je phi-rai 
 
 par-aitrai 
 
 ridui- rai 
 
 plain-drai 
 
 rew-drai 
 
 tu plai-ras 
 
 par-aitras 
 
 redui-vas 
 
 ph.in-dras 
 
 ren-d ras 
 
 U plai-ra. 
 
 par-altra. 
 
 redui-ra, 
 
 plain-dra. 
 
 ren-dra. 
 
 nous plcti-rons 
 
 par-attrons 
 
 redui-rons 
 
 plain-drons 
 
 ren-drcms 
 
 vous plai-rez 
 
 par-aitrez 
 
 redui-rez 
 
 plain-drez 
 
 ren-drez 
 
 Us plai-ront 
 
 par-altront 
 
 redui-r ont 
 
 plain-dvout 
 
 rerc-dront 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 
 I should please 
 
 appear 
 
 reduce 
 
 pity 
 
 render 
 
 je plai-r&is 
 
 par-aitrais 
 
 redui -rais 
 
 plain-drais 
 
 ren- drais 
 
 tu plai-rsds 
 
 par-aitrais 
 
 redui-ra,is 
 
 plain- drais 
 
 ren- drais 
 
 il plat-rait 
 
 par-aitva.it 
 
 redui-Tait 
 
 plain-drait 
 
 rera-drait 
 
 nous plai-rions 
 
 par-aitnons 
 
 redui-rions 
 
 plain -drions 
 
 ren- drions 
 
 vous plai-riez 
 
 p<2?*-aitriez 
 
 redui-nez 
 
 plain-dviez 
 
 raz-driez 
 
 Us plai-Tdient 
 
 joaraitraient^ 
 
 redui-raient 
 
 p/aiwdraient 
 
 rerc-draient 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 I shall draw an opposite consequence. Will not a thought; 
 deduire contraire 2 — If. f. 
 
 true, grand, and well expressed, please at all times ? We shall 
 
 exprime dans art. m. pi. 
 
 (make our appearance) on this great theatre next month. 
 
 paraitre sur — m. art. prochain2moism. 1 
 
 Will you know your things again ? Will they always reduce 
 
 2* reconnaitre effet m. pi. * 
 our duties to beneficence? 
 
 devoir m. pi. art. bienfaisance f. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 I should (carry on) the undertaking with success. Could sin- 
 conduire entreprise f. 
 
 cerity displease the man (of sense)? Should we build our house 
 
 == a sense 3* construire 
 
 upon that plan ? Would you reduce your child to despair ? 
 
 — m. art. m. 
 
 Would they introduce an unknown person into the world ?, 
 introduire inconnu m. * 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Know the powers of thy mind, before thou write. Let him 
 force f. avant de * ecrire 
 
218 
 
 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 BRANCH I. 
 
 BRANCH II. 
 
 BRANCH III. 
 
 BRANCH IV. 
 
 BRANCH V. 
 
 Please (thou) 
 
 appear 
 
 reduce 
 
 pity 
 
 render 
 
 2nd p. sin. plai-s 
 
 i par-a\s 
 
 redui-s 
 
 plains 
 
 ren-ds 
 
 quHl plai-se 
 
 par-aisse 
 
 redui-se 
 
 plai-gne 
 
 ren-de 
 
 plai-sons 
 
 par-aissons 
 
 redui- sons 
 
 plai- gnons 
 
 ren-dons 
 
 plai-sez 
 
 par-aissez 
 
 redui- sez 
 
 plai-gnez 
 
 ren-dez 
 
 qu'ils plai-sent 
 
 par-aissent 
 
 redui-sent 
 
 plai-gnent 
 
 ren-dent 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 That I may please 
 
 appear 
 
 reduce 
 
 pity 
 
 render 
 
 queje plai-se 
 
 joar-aisse 
 
 redui-se 
 
 plai-gne 
 
 ren-de 
 
 que tu plai-ses 
 
 par-aisses 
 
 redui-ses 
 
 plai-gnes 
 
 ren-des 
 
 qu'il plai-se 
 
 par -aisse 
 
 redui-se 
 
 plai-gne 
 
 ren-de 
 
 que nous plai-sions 
 
 potr-aissions 
 
 redui-sions 
 
 plai-gn\ons 
 
 ren-dions 
 
 que vous plai-siez 
 
 par-aissiez 
 
 redui-siez 
 
 plai-gniez 
 
 ren-diez 
 
 qu'ils plai-sent 
 
 joar-aissent 
 
 redui-sent 
 
 plai-gnent 
 
 ren-dent 
 
 
 imperfect, That I might 
 
 
 please 
 
 appear 
 
 reduce 
 
 pity 
 
 render 
 
 queje pl-usse 
 
 par-usse 
 
 redui- sisse 
 
 plai-gnisse 
 
 ren-d is se 
 
 que tu pl-usses 
 
 par-usses 
 
 redui-sisses 
 
 plai-gnisses 
 
 mi-disses 
 
 quilpl-ut 
 
 par-iit 
 
 redui-sit 
 
 plai-gmt 
 
 ren-dit 
 
 que nous p/-ussions 
 
 par-ussions 
 
 reduisissions 
 
 plai-gnis- 
 
 m/-dissions 
 
 que vous pl-ussiez 
 
 par-ussiez 
 
 redui-sissiez 
 
 sions 
 
 mz-dissiez 
 
 quHls pl-ussent 
 
 joar-ussent 
 
 redui-sissent 
 
 p/azgnissiez 
 
 mi-dissent 
 
 
 
 p/mgnissent 
 
 
 not lead the ignorant into error. Let us please by our gentie- 
 
 induire — m. pi. en dou- 
 
 ness and civility. Sweet illusions, vain phantoms, 
 
 ceur f. pron. honnetete f. doux — f. pi. fantome m. pi. 
 
 vanish. Let them appear. 
 disparaitre 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may please every body, is impossible. That he may 
 
 a ce — 
 
 lead his pupil step by step to a perfect knowledge of the art 
 
 conduire eleve pas a connaissance f. — 
 
 of speaking and writing. That we may entice by an enchanting 
 
 parler pr. seduire enchanteur 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 219 
 
 style. That you may not appear timid, That they may not increase 
 — m. — de accroitre* 
 
 our sufferings. 
 peine 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might acknowledge the truth. That he might not displease 
 
 connaitre 
 
 by his haughtiness. That we might conduct him to court. 
 
 hauteur f. h asp. conduire art. cour f. 
 
 That you might know your real friends. That they might not 
 
 vrai f. 
 
 appear so scornful and vain. 
 
 dedaigneux si — f. pi. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The learner is to give to the verbs in eindre and 
 oindre the terminations of the verb plaindre ; as 
 
 />/-aindre 
 je pl-zins 
 nous pl-Eiignoiis 
 
 jj-eindre, to paint 
 je p-eins 
 nous p-eignons 
 
 j- oindre, to join 
 jej-oms 
 nous j-oignons 
 
 and to the verbs in cre 3 pre, tre, and v re, the ter-. 
 minations of the verb rendre, as 
 
 ren-dre 
 je ren-ds 
 nous ren-dons 
 
 repon-dve, to answer 
 je repon- ds 
 nous repon-aons 
 
 exercises on the Fourth and Fifth Branches. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I wait his return with impatience. Does he fear 
 5* attendre retour m. — 4* craindre art. 
 
 death ? We do not force you to adopt this opinion. Do 
 
 f. 4* contraindre 2 1 de adopter — f. 
 
 you not confound these notions one with another ? Do 
 
 5* confondre — f • art. art. 
 
 they not waste their time about trifles ? 
 
 5* perdre a de ait. bagatelle f. pi. 
 
 * This verb is conjugated like par-aitie, the only difference is the letter o 
 instead of the letter a in the penultima. 
 
220 OF REGULAR VERBS. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I was pitying those sad victims of the revolution. This 
 
 plaindre trhte victime f. pi. — f. 
 
 dog did not bite. We did join our sighs and 
 chien m. 5* mordre joindre soupir m. pi. pron. 
 
 tears. Were you painting an historical subject? Did 
 
 larme f. pi. peindre d'histoire 2 tableau m. 1 
 
 they throw the graces of expression into their speeches ? 
 repandre* art. discours 
 
 PRETERIT, 
 
 I aimed at an honest end. Did he extinguish the fire of a 
 5* tendre a 2 but m. 1 4* eteindre 
 
 disordered imagination ? Did we sell our incense to the pride of 
 deregle 2 — f. 5* vendre encens 
 
 a blockhead ? Did you feign to think as a madman ? Did they 
 
 sot 4*feindre de en * fou 
 
 not (come down) at the first summons ? 
 5* descendre a sommation f. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Shall I hear the music of the new opera? Will he 
 
 5* entendre musique f. — m. 
 
 constrain the officers to join their respective corps? Shall 
 4* contraindre officier joindre respectif2. — 1 
 
 we describe all the horror of this terrible night ? Will you 
 
 4* depeindre f. — 2 nuit f. 1 
 
 not new compose a work so full of charming ideas? They will 
 
 5* refondre plein 
 
 assiduously correspond with their friends. 
 assidument 5* correspondre 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 Should I, by these means, gain the desired end? 
 
 mot/en m. 4* atteindre a desire 2 1 
 
 Would he wait with (so much) patience ? Should we sell 
 
 5* attendre tant de — 5* vendre 
 
 our liberty? Would you oblige young people to live 
 
 — te 4* astreindre de art. gens pi. vivre 
 
 as you do ? They should dread the public's censure. 
 
 comme * 4* craindre 4 5 de 3 art. 1 — f . 2 
 
 * The final andre, though differing from -endre, in its etymology, has the same 
 nasal sound. 
 
OF REGULAR VERBS. 221 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Expect not happiness from external objects ; it is 
 
 5* attendre art. bonheur m. art. exterieur 2 objet 1 il 
 
 in thyself. Let not thy melancholy paint (every thing) in 
 en tci que 14 2 mdancolie 3 f. 5 tout 
 
 black. Let us not descend to useless particulars. 
 
 noir 5* descendre dans de art. 2 detail m. pi. 1 
 
 Ye sovereigns ! make the people happy ! Let them acknowledge 
 * souverain pi. rendre repondre 
 
 (so much) goodness. 
 a de bonte f. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That 1 may fear that cloud of enemies. That he may not 
 
 nuee f. 
 
 answer such absurd criticism. That we may confound the 
 
 repondre a un si critique f. 5* confondre 
 
 arts with the sciences. That you may have the same end in view. 
 
 — — * 2 tendre a 1 
 
 That they may not (be subj ect) to any body. 
 dependre de personne 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not melt into tears. That he might (draw a 
 5*fondre en 
 picture of) distressed virtue. That we might affect 
 
 peindre art. malheureux 2 1 4*feindre de 
 
 such low sentiments. That you might hear their justi- 
 art. si has 2 — 1 5* entendre 
 
 fi cation. That they might (wait for) the opinion of sensible 
 
 — o* attendre — art. sense 
 
 persons. 
 
 f.pi. 
 
222 
 
 OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 Reflective verbs are conjugated after the model 
 which we give here, and according to the forms 
 of the conjugation to which they belong. The 
 compound tenses are conjugated with etre, and the 
 participle is put according to the gender and number, 
 either in the masculine or feminine, in the singular 
 or plural. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Se Repentir To Repent 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT. i PAST. 
 
 se repentant repenting j repenti m. -ie f. repented 
 INDICATIVE, 
 
 
 SB 
 
 1PLE TENSES. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 
 1" repent 
 
 .ie 
 
 me 
 
 repens 
 
 tu 
 
 te 
 
 repens 
 
 il 
 
 se 
 
 repent 
 
 elle 
 
 se 
 
 repent 
 
 nous 
 
 nous 
 
 repentons 
 
 vous 
 
 vous 
 
 repentez 
 
 ils 
 
 se 
 
 repentent 
 
 elles 
 
 se 
 
 repentent 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 / have repented 
 
 tu 
 il 
 
 elle 
 
 nous 
 
 vous 
 
 ils 
 
 elles 
 
 l repenti m. 
 V or 
 \ repentze f. 
 
 me suis 
 
 f es 
 
 s' est 
 
 s' est 
 
 nous sommes \ 
 
 vous etes f repentis m 
 
 se sont 
 
 se sont 
 
 Y or 
 J repentzes f 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Here we should recollect that all reflective verbs 
 are conjugated with two pronouns of the same 
 
OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 223 
 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT 
 
 
 / did repent 
 
 
 / had repented 
 
 tu 
 
 me repentais 
 te repentais 
 
 tu 
 
 m' etais -\ 
 
 ,, s. • ) repenti m. 
 
 t etais f r 
 
 il 
 
 se repentait 
 
 il 
 
 elle 
 
 s' etait C j.* r 
 * etait Jrepentwf. 
 
 nous 
 
 nous repentions 
 
 nous 
 
 nous etions ^ repe ntis m. 
 
 vous 
 
 vous repentiez 
 
 vous 
 
 vous etiez I or 
 
 ils 
 
 se repentaient 
 
 ils 
 elles 
 
 S' etaient J re penties f. 
 
 s' etaient J 
 
 person ; thatje is always followed by me ; tu by te; 
 iL elle, ils, elles, by se ; nous by nous ; and vous by 
 vous. In interrogative sentences, the pronoun in 
 subject is the only one that is put after the verb; 
 and in those that are simply negative, ne is put 
 between the two pronouns. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 I walk every night in the moon-shine. Do we not 
 
 Se promener tout art. soir m. pi. au clair de la lune 
 nurse ourselves too much? 
 s'ecouter * 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 Did not Lucretia (put herself to death) ? Ladies, have you been 
 Lucrece se donner la mort Mesdames 
 walking long ? 
 long-temps 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I incessantly encumbered myself with (other people's) 
 sans cesse se tourmenter pour autrui 2 art. 
 
 affairs ? Did you not laugh at us ? 
 f. pi. 1 se moquer de 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 We had condemned ourselves. They (had missed their way) by 
 se condamner s'egarer 
 
 their own fault. 
 
224 
 
 OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 PRETEkIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 / repented. 
 
 
 I had repented. 
 
 tu 
 il 
 
 me repentis 
 te repentis 
 se repentit 
 
 tu 
 il 
 elle 
 
 
 nous 
 vous 
 ils 
 
 nous repentimes 
 vous repentites 
 se repentirent 
 
 nous 
 vous 
 ils 
 elles 
 
 nous fumes \ repentis nu 
 vous futes f or 
 se furent Uepenties f 
 se furent J 
 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 I shall repent 
 
 
 I shall have repented* 
 
 tu 
 il 
 
 me repentirai 
 te repentiras 
 se repentira 
 
 tu 
 il 
 elle 
 
 me serai ^ t[ m# 
 te seras I r 
 
 se sera l repentie f. 
 se sera J r 
 
 nous 
 vous 
 ils 
 
 nous repentirons 
 vous repentirez 
 se repentiront 
 
 nous 
 vous 
 ils 
 
 elles 
 
 nous serons ^ rep entism. 
 vous serez f r 0J . 
 
 se seront f rep erit^ f. 
 se seront J 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 He did not trine with the public (with impunity). Did they 
 se moquer de impunement 
 
 not applaud themselves for their own follies ? 
 s'applaudir de sottise f. pi. 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 When she had remembered her fault, she was quite 
 
 5* se souvenir de faute f. ind.-3 tout 
 
 ashamed. When you had amused yourself enough you 
 
 honteux f. h asp. s'amuser assez 
 
 went away. 
 se retirer ind.-3 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Will not these flowers fade ? I shall not walk this evening 
 fieur f. sefietrir 1 soir 
 
 in the park. 
 
OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 225 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 
 I should repent 
 
 
 I should have repented 
 
 je 
 
 tu 
 il 
 
 me repentirais 
 te repentirais 
 se repentirait 
 
 
 je me 
 tu te 
 il se 
 elle se 
 
 serais ^ rep enti m. 
 serais I or 
 serait {repent^ f. 
 serait / 
 
 nous 
 
 nous repentirions 
 
 
 nous nous 
 
 senons ^ repentis m 
 
 vous 
 
 ils 
 
 vous repentiriez 
 se repentiraient 
 
 
 vous vous 
 ils se 
 elles se 
 
 seriez f or 
 seraient i repenties f. 
 serai ent J 
 
 
 1MPER 
 
 ATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 Repent 
 
 {thou) 
 
 
 
 repens-foi 
 qu'il se repente 
 
 repentons-wows 
 repentez-i>OMS 
 qu'ils se repentent 
 
 
 SUBJU> 
 
 [CTIVE. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 
 That I may repent 
 
 
 Thatl 
 
 may have repented 
 
 que* 
 
 tu 
 il 
 
 me repente 
 te repentes 
 se repente 
 
 
 que 
 je me 
 tu te 
 il se 
 elle se 
 
 sois -\ 
 
 sois \ re P entl m> 
 
 soit J re P entte f - 
 
 nous 
 vous 
 ils 
 
 nous repentions 
 vous repentiez 
 se repentent 
 
 
 nous nous 
 vous vous 
 ils se 
 elles se 
 
 soyons *\ 
 
 soyez /wpentism. 
 
 soient f or . c 
 soient J'epenbMf. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 Shall I have misunderstood? Will you have prided yourselves 
 se meprendre^ 1* s'enorgueillir 
 
 on this trifling advantage ? 
 de faible avant — m. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Would you (ruin your character) by such an action ? Would they 
 se deshonorer tel — f. 
 
 * Que is to be repeated before each person in the subjunctive mood. 
 f Irregular, like prendre, see p. 275. 
 
 L 2 
 
226 OF REFLECTIVE VERES. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might repent 
 
 que 
 
 je me repentisse 
 
 tu te repentisses 
 
 il se repentit 
 
 nous nous repentissions 
 vous vous repentissiez 
 ils se repentissent 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 That I might have repented 
 que 
 
 je me fusse ~\ 
 
 tu te fusses /repenti m 
 
 il se fut ( Cr c 
 
 elles se fut J re P en ^ f- 
 
 nous nous fussions"\ 
 
 vous vous fussiez \ re P ends m 
 
 ils se fussent f °' ■ r 
 
 elles se fussent ) re P ente f 
 
 (take advantage) of their birth and riches in doing 
 
 se prevaloir* naissance f. pron. pour inf.-l. 
 
 violence to our inclinations ? 
 sentiment m. pi. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Should I not have remembered my promise? Could his hap- 
 4* se souvenir de promesse f . 
 piness have so soon vanished ? 
 tot 1* s'evanouir 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 man ! remember that thou art mortal. Let us give to ourselves 
 
 se rendre * 
 an exact account of our actions. Rest yourselves under the 
 2 compte m. 1 — se reposer a 
 
 shade of that oak. 
 ombre f. chene m. 
 
 [But if the imperative sentence be with a negative, the pronoun is 
 placed before the verb, yet after the negative ne, and toi is changed 
 intofe.] 
 
 Be thou never blind to thy own defects. Let us not deceive 
 * s'aveugler sur defaut 3* se seduire 
 
 ourselves. Let us not pride ourselves on gifts of fortune. 
 
 de art. — 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 1 wish them to accustom themselves early to 
 desirer que ils * s'habituer de bonne heure 
 work. 
 
 art. 
 
 * Like valoir, irregular, see p. 263. 
 
OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 227 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 That you may have been so grossly mistaken. 
 
 grossierement se meprendre irr. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That he might walk oftener, 
 
 plus souvent 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 That thou mightst have started (at the sight of) so wretched 
 s'effrayer de voir malheureux 2 
 
 a man. 
 1 
 
 As there is some difficulty in conjugating prono- 
 minal verbs, some few are here selected, and will 
 prove advantageous to practice. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION in -er. 
 
 s'alarmer 
 se flatter 
 
 s'ingerer 
 
 s'occuper 
 
 se hater 
 se depecher 
 se promener 
 se eoucher 
 " alter se 
 se lever 
 sarroger 
 
 se procurer 
 
 se visiter 
 
 s'enrhumer 
 
 s'enrouer 
 
 s'ennuyer* 
 
 s'orienter 
 
 s'attribuer 
 
 tfentf aider 
 
 to be alarmed 
 
 {to flatter one's- 
 self 
 {to intermeddle 
 with 
 {to busy one's- 
 self about 
 to make haste 
 to be quick at 
 to take a walk 
 to lie down 
 to go to bed " 
 to get up 
 to arrogate 
 
 {to provide 
 one's-self 
 {to visit each 
 other 
 to catch cold 
 to grow hoarse 
 to be weary 
 fto consider 
 \ where one is 
 to assume 
 
 {to help one an- 
 other 
 
 1 See p. 248, conjugation of irregular verbs. 
 
 s'habituer 
 s'evertuer 
 s'imaginer 
 
 se tourmenier 
 sHmpatienter 
 
 s y epargner 
 
 se reposer 
 se mefier 
 se defier 
 seformaliser 
 se reconcilier 
 se confesser 
 s'avouer 
 sHmmortaliser 
 
 se dorloter 
 
 se blesser 
 se laver 
 sliabiller 
 
 s'emanciper 
 
 to get used to 
 to labour to 
 to fancy 
 
 {to torment 
 one's-seif 
 ito fret, to lose 
 patience 
 to spare one's- 
 self 
 to take rest 
 to mistrust 
 to distrust 
 to take offence 
 to be reconciled 
 to confess 
 to avow 
 to immortalise 
 
 {to make much 
 of one's-self 
 to bind one's-self 
 to hurt one's-self 
 to wash 
 to dress 
 
 {to take too 
 much liberty 
 
228 
 
 OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 N. B.— The figures B 1, B 2, B 3, B 4, B 5, 
 
 indicate the respective branch to which the verb 
 is to be referred, and the asterisk refers to the 
 conjugation of irregular verbs* 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION in -zr. 
 
 B 1. s'assoupir 
 B 2. se ressentir 
 B 4. s'abstenir 
 
 * se servir 
 B 4. se souvenir 
 
 * s'endormir 
 
 * se reeueillir to meditate 
 B 1. s'evanouir to faint away 
 
 to grow sleepy 
 to resent 
 to abstain 
 to make use of 
 to remember 
 to fail asleep 
 
 B 1 . s'applaudir to applaud 
 
 r> i -• fto secure to 
 
 B 1. se nantir < , 1X . 
 
 t one s-self 
 
 * s'enquerir to inquire 
 
 B 3. s'entr'ouvrir to open 
 
 B 1. s'enorgueillir to grow proud 
 
 B 1. se rejouir to rejoiee 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION in -oir. 
 
 s'apercevoir to perceive 
 
 fto make appli 
 
 *sepourvoir j ca{ion ^ 
 
 ._ ^ 7 • fto avail one's- 
 
 * se prevaloir 1 -,? 
 
 * s'asseoir to sit down 
 
 * se voir to see each other 
 
 * s'emouvoir 
 
 * s'entrevoir 
 
 'to move, to 
 L affect 
 f to meet one 
 [ another 
 
 ^ fto be pleased 
 
 se savoir are •< ., r , ir 
 
 y \ with one s-self 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION in -re. 
 
 „ K ,„. , fto defend one's- 
 B o. se aefendre < j* 
 
 B 1. se fazre to be silent 
 
 B 2. se repaitre to feed upon 
 
 T3 j . fto conduct 
 
 B 3. se conduire < n , ip 
 
 ^ ones-selr 
 
 B 5. se morfondre to grow cold 
 
 t^ c , fto lose one's- 
 
 B 5. se perdre < ir 
 
 B 4. se con- \ f to constrain 
 traindre J \ one's-self 
 
 B 5. se rendre 
 
 B 5. se rendre 
 compte 
 
 to surrender 
 to give an ac- 
 count to one's- 
 self 
 se prescrire to prescribe 
 B 2. se mecon- \ f to forget one's- 
 raai^re j \ self 
 
 to sav to one's- 
 self 
 
 * se dire 
 
 f 
 
 ■}{' 
 
OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 229 
 
 EXAMPLE OF A PRONOMINAL VERB USED NEGA- 
 TIVELY. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Not to remember 
 Nepas se souvenir 
 
 Ne 
 
 COMPOUND TENSER 
 
 PAST. 
 
 Not to have remembered 
 Nepas s' etre souvenu 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Not remembering Not having remembered 
 
 v souvenant pas I Ne s' etant pas souvenu 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 i" do not remember 
 
 je ne me souviens 
 tu ne te souviens 
 il ne se souvient 
 
 nous ne nous souvenons 
 vous ne vous souvenez 
 
 pas 
 pas 
 pas 
 
 pas 
 
 pas 
 
 ils ne se souviennent pas 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 / did not remember 
 
 je ne me souvenais pas 
 tu ne te souvenais pas 
 etc. etc. 
 
 I have not remembered 
 
 j e ne me suis pas~\ sou- 
 
 tu ne V es pas I venu 
 
 il ne s' est pas f or 
 
 elle ne s' est pas J ue f. 
 nous ne nous sommes^an sou- 
 
 vous ne vous etes pas t venua 
 
 ils ne se sont pas t or 
 
 elles ne se sont pas) ues f. 
 
 tu 
 
 pasJ 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 / had not remembered 
 
 ne m* etais pas \ sou- 
 pas j venu 
 
 net 
 
 etais 
 etc. etc. 
 
 je 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 / remembered not 
 je ne me souvins pas 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 / shall or will not remember 
 je ne me souviendrai pas 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 i" should not remember 
 je ne me souviendrais pas 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 / had not remembered 
 ne me fus pas souvenu 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 I shall or will not have remembered 
 je ne me serai pas souvenu 
 
 PAST. 
 
 / should not have remembered 
 je ne me serais pas souvenu 
 
230 
 
 OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may not remember 
 que je ne me souvienne pas 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not remember. 
 que je ne me souvenisse pas 
 
 PAST. 
 
 That I should liot have remembered 
 que je we me sois pas souvenu 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 That I might not have remembered 
 que je ne me fusse pas souvenu 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 ne te souviens pas remember (thou) not 
 
 qu'il ne se souvienne pas 
 ne nous souvenons pas 
 
 ne vous souvenez pas 
 
 qu'ils ne se souviennent pas 
 
 let him not remember 
 let us not remember 
 remember ye not 
 let them not remember 
 
 We say in French se ressouvenir de quelque chose 
 and se rappeler quelque chose, to remember some- 
 thing; se ressouvenir is always followed by the 
 preposition de, but not se rappeler. 
 
 OF A PRONOMINAL VERB USED INTERROGATIVELY. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Do I remember 
 
 me souviens-je 
 te souviens-tu 
 se souvient-il 
 
 nous souvenons-nous 
 vous souvenez-vous 
 se souviennent-ils 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Was I remembering 
 
 me 
 te 
 
 souvenais-j e 
 souvenais-tu 
 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 
 Have I remembered 
 
 me 
 t 
 
 s' 
 
 suis-j e 
 es-tu 
 est-il 
 est-elle 
 
 souvenu 
 souvenu 
 souvenu 
 souvenwe 
 
 nous sommes-nous souvenus 
 vous etes-vous souvenus 
 se sont-ils souvenus 
 
 se sont-elles souvenues 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Mad I remembered 
 
 m etais-je 
 t' etais-tu 
 
 souvenu 
 souvenu 
 
OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 231 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 Did I remember 
 
 
 Had I remembered 
 
 me 
 
 souvins-je 
 
 me 
 
 fus-je souvenu 
 
 te 
 
 souvins-tu 
 
 te 
 
 fus-tu souvenu 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 
 Shall I remember 
 
 
 Shall I have remembered 
 
 me 
 
 souviendrai-je 
 
 me 
 
 serai- je souvenu 
 
 te 
 
 souviendras-tu 
 
 CONDI1 
 
 te 
 
 seras-tu souvenu 
 JAL. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PAST. 
 
 
 Should I remember 
 
 
 Should I have remembered 
 
 me 
 
 souviendrais-je 
 
 me 
 
 serais-je souvenu 
 
 te 
 
 souviendrais-tu 
 
 te 
 
 serais-tu souvenu 
 
 N. B. — The subjunctive mood is not used inter- 
 rogatively. 
 
 OF A PRONOMINAL VERB CONJUGATED INTERROGA- 
 TIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 
 
 >S"endormir to fall asleep 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 
 Do I not fall asleep 
 
 Have I not fallen asleep 
 
 ne m" 
 
 endors-je pas? 
 
 ne me 
 
 suis-je pas \ 
 
 ne V 
 
 endors-tu pas ? 
 
 ne V 
 
 es-tu pas 
 
 ne s' 
 
 endort-il pas ? 
 
 ne s* 
 
 est-il pas 
 
 
 
 ne s* 
 
 est-elle pas 
 
 ne nous 
 
 endormons-nous pas? 
 
 ne nous 
 
 sommes-nous pas 
 
 ne vous 
 
 endormez-vous pas ? 
 
 ne vous 
 
 etes-vous pas 
 
 ne s' 
 
 endorment-ils pas? 
 
 ne se 
 
 sont-ils pas 
 
 
 
 ne se 
 
 sont-elles pas j 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Was I not falling asleep 
 ne m! endormais-je pas 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 Had I not fallen asleep 
 ne ?tt'etais-j e pas endormi 
 
 And so on through all the verb, except in the 
 subjunctive mood. 
 
232 
 
 OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 I have it 
 
 / AacZ ?zo£ ^em 
 
 Had I some 
 
 je Z'ai 
 tu /'as 
 il /'a 
 
 je ne Z^5 avais /)as 
 tu ne les avais pas 
 etc. etc. 
 
 en eus-je 
 en eus-tu 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 nous Z'avons 
 
 
 
 vous Z'avez 
 ils ^ont 
 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE {Affirmative.) 
 
 Have it m. Have it f. 
 
 aie le aie la 
 qu'il Z'ait qu'elle fait 
 
 ayons le ayons Za 
 ayez le ayez Zcr 
 qu'ils Z'aient qu'elles Z'aient 
 
 IMPERATIVE {Negative.) 
 
 Do not have it 
 
 Do not have them 
 
 Do not have any 
 
 ne Z'aie pas 
 
 <* u '}\? r \ne Z'ait pas 
 qu'elle J r 
 
 ne les aie pas 
 
 qu'il ne les ait pas 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 n'en aie pas 
 
 qu'il n'en ait pas 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 ne Z'ayons pas 
 ne Z'ayez pas 
 
 
 
 Avoir WITH THE PRONOUN t/. 
 
 N'avez-vous pasfroid aux mains ? Oui, fy aifroid 
 Are not your hands cold ? Yes, they are 
 
 Affirmative 
 
 j' t/ ai froid 
 tu y as froid 
 il y a froid 
 
 Interrogative 
 
 y ai-je froid 
 y as-tu froid 
 y a-t-il froid 
 
 Neg. and Inter. 
 
 n y y ai-je pas froid 
 rty as-tu pas froid 
 n'z/ a-t-il pas froid 
 
 J^^re WITH THE PRONOUN le. 
 
 I am so lam not so 
 
 je le suis je ne le suis pas 
 
 tu Z' es tu ne Z' es pas 
 
 il I est il we V est pas 
 
 nous Ze sommes nous ne le sommes pas 
 
 vous V etes vous ne V etes pas 
 
 ils le sont ils ne Ze sont pas 
 
OF PRONOMINAL VERBS, 
 
 233 
 
 Am I so 
 
 le suis-je 
 
 V es-tu 
 
 /' est-il 
 
 le sommes-nous 
 
 /' etes-vous 
 
 le sont-ils 
 
 Am I not sc 
 
 ne le suis-je pas 
 
 ne l' es-tu pas 
 
 ne V est-il pas 
 
 ne le sommes-nous pas 
 ne V etes-vous pas 
 ne le sont-ils pas 
 
 WITH THE PRONOUN en. 
 
 I am sorry for it 
 
 j' en suis fache 
 tu en es fache 
 il en est fache 
 
 Interrogative 
 
 en suis-je fache 
 en es-tu fache 
 en est-il fache 
 
 Negative 
 
 j e n'en suis pas fache 
 tu n'en es pas fache 
 il n'en est pas fache 
 
 Neg. and Inteiv 
 
 n'en suis-j e pas fache 
 nen es-tu pas fache 
 n'en est-il pas fache 
 
 WITH THE PRONOUN y. 
 
 Affirmative, I am there 
 
 y y suis 
 tu y es 
 il y est 
 
 Interrogative, Am I there 
 
 y suis-je 
 y es-tu 
 y est-il 
 
 Negative, lam not there 
 
 je n'y suis pas 
 tu n'y es pas 
 il n'y est pas 
 
 Neg. & Int. Am I not there 
 
 n'y suis-j e pas 
 ny es-tu pas 
 n'y est-il pas 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Affirmative, Be there 
 sois-y 
 qu'il 3/ soit 
 soyons-y 
 soyez-y 
 qu'ils y soient 
 
 Negative, Do not be there 
 
 n'y sois pas 
 qu'il n'y soit pas 
 n'y soyons pas 
 n'y soyez pas 
 qu'ils n'y soient pas 
 
234 uF PASSIVE VERBS. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PASSIVE VERBS. 
 
 There is only one conjugation for all passive 
 verbs. To conjugate them, we have only to add to 
 the tenses of the verb etre the participle past of the 
 verb active, in the masculine or feminine, in the 
 singular or plural, according to the gender or 
 number of the substantive or pronoun which the 
 participle is related to, as 
 
 Singular. 
 je sums aime or aimee I am loved 
 
 tu etais estime or estimee thou wast esteemed 
 
 Ufut cheri he was beloved 
 
 e lie fat chirie she was beloved 
 
 vous auriez ttt apercu or apercue you would have been perceived 
 
 Plural. 
 nous avons ete louts or louees we have been praised 
 
 vous eutes ete rechercMs or re- you had been sought after 
 
 cherchies 
 Us seraient craints et respectes they would be feared and re- 
 
 spected 
 
 and so on through all the tenses of the verb etre. 
 
 The above Sentences with a Negative and the 
 Particle en. 
 
 Singular. 
 je n'en suis pas aime I am not loved by him or them 
 
 tu w'en etais pas estime thou wast not esteemed by him 
 
 il n'enfut pas cheri he was not cherished by her 
 
 vous n'en auriez pas ete apercu you would not have been per- 
 ceived by them 
 Plural. 
 nous w'en avons pas ete louts we have not been praised for it 
 
 vous n'en eutes pas ete recherchis you had not been sought after 
 Us w'en seraient ni craints ni re- they would be neither feared nor 
 species •fc-s^sp.ted by them 
 
OF PASSIVE VERBS. 285 
 
 INTERROGATIVELY AND NEGATIVELY. 
 
 Singular. 
 n'en suis-je pas aime ? am I not loved by him, her, &c. ? 
 
 tt'en etais-tu pas estimt ? wast thou not esteemed for it ? 
 
 n'en fut-elle pas cherie ? was she not beloved by him ? 
 
 w'en auriez-vous pas He apercu ?■ would you not have been per- 
 ceived by him ? 
 
 Plural. 
 ra'en avons-nous pas He hues ? have we not been praised by them? 
 
 n'eneutes-vous pas eterecherchesf had you not been sought after? 
 n'en seraient-ils pas craints etre- would they not be feared and 
 spectes 9 respected by them ? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. I am loved by every body. My mother was much revered, 
 
 de tout le monde 
 and my father feared and respected. That king was beloved by 
 
 Ce ind.-2 
 
 his people. I hope we shall be praised ; but you 
 
 esperer que ] en 2 3 1 pron. 
 
 will be blamed for it. I wish the doors were opened, 
 
 3 4 2 desirer cond. - 1 que sub. -2 past par. f. 
 
 and the windows shut. Thou hadst been apprised of it 
 
 fermer inf.~3 f. 1 ind.-3 informer inf .-3 2 
 when he had been bitten by the mad dog. I suspect the 
 
 eire ind. -3 mordre inf.-3 2 1 m. douter que 
 
 artifice will have been discovered. Suppose the lights 
 
 m. subj.-3 decouvrir inf -3 Suppose que 4 
 
 had been put out ? 
 
 on I 2 avoir sub.-l * 3 eteindre inf. -3 
 
 2. That young lady is so mild, so polite, and so kind, that 
 
 demoiselle doux bon que, 
 
 she is beloved by every body. He performed with (so much) 
 
 f. de jouer ind -3 tant de 
 
 skill that he was universally applauded. He is known by 
 
 que ind-3 inf. -3 ne connaitre 
 
 nobody. How many countries, unknown to the ancients, have 
 
 que de pays des * 
 
 been discovered by modern navigators ? 
 inf-3 2 1 
 
236 
 
 OF NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 Neuter verbs are those which cannot have a 
 direct regimen ; they are conjugated with the 
 auxiliary verb avoir in their compound tenses, 
 excepting the following which take etre; those 
 marked with an asterisk take either, according to 
 
 their signification. 
 
 aller 
 
 to go 
 
 venir 
 
 to come 
 
 accourvr 
 
 to run to 
 
 revenir 
 
 to come back 
 
 arriver 
 
 to arrive 
 
 devenir 
 
 to become 
 
 jchoir 
 
 to fall 
 
 redevenir 
 
 to become again 
 
 dechoir* 
 
 to decay- 
 
 avenir 
 
 to happen 
 
 echoir* 
 
 to become due 
 
 intervenir 
 
 to intervene 
 
 monter* 
 
 to go up 
 
 par venir 
 
 to attain 
 
 descendre* 
 
 to go down 
 
 provenir 
 
 to come from 
 
 remonter* 
 
 to go up again 
 
 survenir 
 
 to befal 
 
 redescendre 
 
 to go down again 
 
 disconvenir 
 
 to deny, disown 
 
 entrer* 
 
 to enter 
 
 naitre 
 
 to be born 
 
 rentrer* 
 
 to come in again 
 
 mourir 
 
 to die 
 
 retourner 
 
 to return 
 
 deceder* 
 
 to die 
 
 tomber 
 
 to fall 
 
 eclore* 
 
 fto be hatched, 
 \ to blow 
 
 retomber 
 
 to fall again 
 
 partir 
 
 to set out 
 
 accoucher* 
 
 fto be brought 
 \ to bed 
 
 repartir 
 
 to set out again 
 
 
 rester 
 
 to stay- 
 
 demeurer* 
 
 to stay, remain 
 
 echapper* 
 
 to escape 
 
 apparaitre* 
 
 to appear 
 
 expirer* 
 
 to expire 
 
 perir* 
 
 to perish 
 
 passer* 
 
 to pass away 
 
 resulter* 
 
 to result 
 
 sortir* 
 
 to go out 
 
 convenir* 
 
 to agree, to suit 
 
 ressortir 
 
 to go out again 
 
 contrevenir* 
 
 to contravene 
 
 aborder* 
 
 to land, &c. 
 
 
 
 Observation. 
 The participles of the neuter verbs which take 
 
 t Used only in the infinitive mood, and seldom in the past participle. 
 
OF NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 237 
 
 etre for auxiliary, must agree in gender and num- 
 ber with their subject, as 
 
 I have fallen 
 when thou badst come 
 he had arrived before me 
 she had already arrived 
 my sister had set off before him 
 we shall have returned 
 )u when you shall have come down 
 
 f they would have set off again 
 
 je suis tombe or tombee 
 
 quand tu fus venu or venue 
 
 il etait arrive avant moi 
 
 elle etait deja arrivee 
 
 ma sceur etait partie avant lui 
 
 nous serons revenue or revenues 
 
 quand vous serez descendus 
 
 descendues 
 Us seraient repartis 
 dies seraient reparties 
 vos sceurs etaient sorties, sont-elles 
 
 a present r entrees ? 
 cela lui est echu en partage 
 cette maison wi'a convenu et je suis 
 
 convenu du prix 
 il n'en est pas disconvenu 
 cette chose m'est echappee de la 
 
 memoire, de la main 
 la treve est expiree 
 les delais sont expires 
 elle a expire dans les bras de sa 
 
 mere 
 qu'di-Uil resulte de la? qu'en est-il 
 
 resulte ? 
 tous ceux qui etaient sur ce vais- 
 
 seau out peri, ou sont peris 
 a.-t-on descendu le vin a la cave ? 
 
 le barometre a descendu de quatre 
 
 degres pendant la journee 
 les actions ont monte beaucoup 
 je w'ai pas remonte ma montre 
 il a monte quatre fois a sa chambre 
 
 pendant la journee 
 il est monte dans sa chambre, et ily 
 
 est reste 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 They came to see us with the greatest haste. When 
 
 ind.-4 * voir empressement Quand 
 
 did they arrive? That estate fell to his 
 
 esUce que arriver ind.-4 terre f. lui est echu en * 
 
 lot. He fell from his horse, but happily received 
 
 partage tomber ind.-4 * il — ind.-4 
 
 only a slight contusion on the knee. 
 ne que leger — f. a genou m. 
 
 your sisters went out, are they 
 now come baek ? 
 
 that fell to his lot 
 
 that house suited me and I have 
 agreed about the price 
 
 he did not deny it 
 
 that thing escaped from my me- 
 mory, dropped from my hand 
 
 the truce has expired 
 
 the delays have expired 
 
 she expired in the arms of her 
 mother 
 
 what has been the result or con- 
 sequence of it ? 
 
 all those that were on board of 
 that ship have perished 
 
 have they carried down the wine 
 into the cellar 
 
 the barometer fell four degrees 
 during the day 
 
 the stocks rose very much 
 
 I have not wound up my watch 
 
 he went up to his room four 
 times in the course of the day 
 
 he is gone up to his room, and 
 has remained there 
 
238 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 CONJ (JGATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERB 
 FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. 
 
 avoir fallu 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Falloir to be necessary 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 to have been, &c. \ fallu, ay ant fallu having been, &c. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 it must or it is necessary 
 ilfaut 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 it was necessary 
 ilfallait 
 
 PRETERIT DEFINITE. 
 
 it was necessary 
 ilfallut 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 it will be necessary 
 ilfaudra 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 it would be necessary 
 ilfaudrait 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 it has been necessary 
 il a fallu 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 it bad been necessary 
 il avait fallu 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 it had been necessary 
 il eat fallu 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 it will have been necessary 
 il aura fallu 
 
 it would have been necessary 
 il aurait fallu 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 that it may be necessary 
 quHl faille 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 that it might be necessary 
 qxCilfallut 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 that it may have been necessary 
 qu'il ait fallu 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 that it might have been necessary 
 qu'il eut fallu 
 
OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 239 
 
 Observation. 
 
 II denotes an impersonal verb as in fallow, used 
 only in the third person singular, when a noun or 
 substantive cannot properly supply its place ; for 
 instance, in speaking of a child, we say, il joue, he 
 plays ; the verb here il joue, is not impersonal 
 because in the room of the word il, we may put 
 V enfant, the child, and say V enfant joue, the child 
 plays ; but such substitution cannot take place 
 when the verb is truly impersonal. We here sub- 
 join a list of those which are frequently used in 
 common conversation. 
 
 ilpleut 
 
 il neige 
 
 il grele 
 
 il tonne 
 
 il eclaire 
 *il gele 
 *il degele 
 
 il arrive 
 
 il sied 
 
 il bruine 
 
 il importe 
 
 il semble 
 
 il parent 
 
 il suffit que 
 
 il convient 
 
 il s'ensuit que 
 
 il est a-propos 
 
 ilfaut 
 
 ily a 
 
 Observation. 
 The above impersonal verbs are all conjugated in 
 the third person singular like falloir, but by re- 
 ferring to the conjugation which they belong to ; 
 for instance, those in er to the first, in ir to the 
 second, in oir to the third, and in re to the fourth. 
 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 it rains fro 
 
 m pleuvoir 
 
 it snows 
 
 neiger 
 
 it hails 
 
 greler 
 
 it thunders 
 
 tonner 
 
 it lightens 
 
 eclairer 
 
 it freezes 
 
 geler 
 
 it thaws 
 
 degeler 
 
 it happens 
 
 arriver 
 
 it is becoming 
 
 seoir (obsolete) 
 
 it drizzles 
 
 bruiner 
 
 it matters 
 
 importer 
 
 it seems 
 
 sembler 
 
 it appears 
 
 paraitre 
 
 it suffices 
 
 sujfire 
 
 it becomes 
 
 convenir 
 
 it follows 
 
 s'ensuivre 
 
 it is proper 
 
 etre 
 
 it is necessary 
 
 falloir 
 
 there is or are 
 
 avoir 
 
 * These verbs having appeler for their paradigm, ought to double the letter I 
 when followed by an e mute, as il gelle, U degette. — Noel and Chapsah 
 
240 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 In the following exercises upon the verbs, the 
 tenses will no longer be marked separately; the 
 learner must refer to the explanatory table of 
 abbreviations, page 2/9. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Does it rain this morning? Did it hail last 
 
 pleuvoir matin m. greler ind. -4 art. dernier 2 
 
 night ? It does not snow. I thought it had thundered. 
 
 f. I veiger croyais que tonner ind. -6 
 
 Does it not lighten ? The wind has thawed the river. Is 
 
 eclairer degeler inf.-3 riviere f. fait- 
 
 it cold or warm ? It is horribly cold. Do you think it 
 il froid chaud faire horriblement croire que 
 
 freezes? Must he fall? That is 
 
 geler falloir ind. -7 que succomber subj. -1 decela4 il y avoir 1 
 ten years ago. It is a remarkable thing. It was a terrible hur- 
 2 an pi. 3 * ce ce ind.-2 — 2 ou- 
 
 ricane. It is ten o'clock. There are few real talents. It (was 
 ragan 1 il heure pi. il y a peu de — il ne 
 
 not my friend's fault) that it was not so. It will freeze 
 tenir a mon ami la chose subj .-2 ne ainsi 
 
 long. I do not think it ; it seems, on the contrary, that it 
 long-temps le crois a contraire 
 
 thaws. It happened as they feared. It is fit to act so. 
 arriver ind. -3 ce que on ind. -2 convenir de 
 
 It (was of great importance) to succeed. Would it be proper to 
 
 importer beaucoup m. 2 de etre apropos de 
 
 write to your friends ? It appears that he has not attended to 
 
 s'occuper de 
 that business. Perhaps it (would be) better to (give up) the 
 
 vaudrait * abandonner 
 
 undertaking. It was sufficient to know his opinion. There 
 entreprise suffire ind.-2 
 
 was yesterday a council of war. 
 ind-3 hier conseil 
 
OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 241 
 
 VARIOUS WAYS OF CONSTRUING FciUoir. 
 
 Ilfaut que it is requisite or necessary that 
 Ilmefaut I must or I want 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ilfaut que je vende ma maison, it is necessary that I may sell my 
 
 or house 
 
 il mefaut vendre ma maison I must sell my house 
 
 ilmefaut une grammaire I want a grammar 
 
 N.B. — II faut que with the subjunctive mood, is 
 a better construction than il me faut followed by 
 the infinitive. I want may be also translated by 
 j'ai besoin de, which expression conveys the same 
 meaning as il mefaut followed by a substantive. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 You must speak to him about that affair. It was necessary for 
 subj.-l de f. ind.-2 que * 
 
 him to consent to that bargain. We were obliged to (set out) 
 il * subj.-2 marc he m. ind.-3 partir subj. -2 
 
 immediately. Children should learn every day something by 
 
 sur le champ art. cond.-l sub.-2 
 
 heart. Shall I suffer patiently such an insult? Re must have 
 
 ind.-7 subj.-l 2 1 cond.-2 * 
 
 been a blockhead not to understand such easy rules, 
 
 subj. -2 sot 2 pour 1 comprendre inf. -1 des si 2 3 regie f. 1 
 
 (How much) do you want? He does what is requisite. Do that 
 
 combien fait faites 
 
 as it (shoidd be). What must he have for his trouble ? You are 
 
 ind.-l que 2 lui 1 * peine f. 
 
 the man I want. Do not give me any more bread, I have 
 
 que * de en 
 
 already more than I want. I need not ask you whether you will 
 deja ne vCen * inf.-l si 
 
 come. I do not think that it is necessary to be a conjuror to 
 
 crois il subj.-l * sorcier pour 
 
 guess his motives. I could not suspect that I ought to ask 
 deviner motif pouvais soupconner subj. -2 * inf.-] 
 
 pardon for a fault I have not committed. 
 
 — de faute f. que commise 
 
 M 
 
242 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERB, Y Avoir, There to be 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Present 
 
 y avoir 
 
 there to be 
 
 Past 
 
 y avoir eu 
 
 there to have been 
 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present 
 
 y ayant 
 
 there being 
 
 Past 
 
 y ayant eu 
 
 there having been 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 Present 
 
 ily a 
 
 there is or there are 
 
 Preterit Indef. 
 
 ily a eu 
 
 there has been, or there have 
 been 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 il y avait 
 
 there was or there were 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 il y avait eu 
 
 there had been 
 
 Preterit def. 
 
 il y exit 
 
 there was or there were 
 
 Preterit ant. 
 
 il y eut eu 
 
 there had been 
 
 Future Absolute 
 
 ily aura 
 
 there will be 
 
 Future Anterior 
 
 il y aura eu 
 
 there will have been 
 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Present 
 
 ily aurait 
 
 there would be 
 
 Past 
 
 ily aurait eu 
 
 there would have been 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present 
 
 qu'ily ait 
 
 that there may be 
 
 Preterit 
 
 qu'ii y ait eu 
 
 that there may have been 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 quHl y eut 
 
 that there might be 
 
 Pluperfect 
 
 quHl y eut eu 
 
 that there might have been 
 
 N.B. — This verb in English may be used in the 
 plural ; in French it is always in the singular. 
 
 exercise. 
 There must be a great difference of age between those two 
 il doit — f. 
 
 persons. There being (so many) vicious people in this world, 
 tant de — 2 gens m. pi. 1 
 
 is it astonishing that there are so many persons who become the 
 etonnant subj.-l devenir 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 243 
 
 victims of the corruption of the age ? It is a thousand 
 
 perversite f. siecle m. * mille a parier 
 
 to one that he will not succeed. There would be more 
 
 contre reussir d e 
 
 happiness if (every one) knew how to moderate his desires. I 
 
 bonheur chacun savait * * moderer desir 
 
 did not think that there could be (any thing) to blame in his 
 
 croyais subj.-2 rien reprendre 
 
 conduct. There would not be so many duels, did people reflect 
 
 conduite f. — si Von reflechir 
 
 that one of the first obligations of a Christian is to forgive 
 ind. -2 f. — f. Chretien depardonner 
 
 injuries. Could there be a king more happy than this, who 
 art. pourrait-il celui 
 
 has always been the father of his subjects ? 
 
 sujet 
 
 OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 The only irregular verbs of the first conjugation 
 are aller and envoy er. 
 
 ALLEK TO GO. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Togo 
 AUer 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 To have gone 
 avoir ete* etre alle m. allee f. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 going gone 
 
 aUant eti alle m. allee f. 
 
244 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 I go 
 je vais 
 tu vas 
 il va 
 
 ?wus allons 
 vous allez 
 Us vont 
 
 I have gone 
 je suis alle 
 tu es alle 
 il est alle 
 nous sommes aUes 
 vous etes alles 
 Us sont alles 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 I did go 
 j'allais 
 
 I had gone 
 jHais alle 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. 
 
 I went 
 faUai OTJefus 
 
 I had gone 
 jefus alle 
 
 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 FUTURE ANTERIOR. 
 
 I will go 
 
 I should have gone 
 
 jHrai 
 
 je serai alle 
 
 CONDI! 
 
 10NAL. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 I should go 
 
 I should have gone 
 
 firais 
 
 je serais alle 
 
 1MPER 
 
 ATIVE. 
 
 Singular 
 va go (thou) 
 quHl aille let him go 
 
 Plural 
 allons let us go 
 allez go ye 
 quHls aillent let them go 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 That I may go 
 
 que j y aille 
 que tu allies 
 quHl aille 
 que nous aUions 
 que vous alliez 
 quHls aillent 
 
 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. 
 
 I may have gone 
 
 queje sois alle 
 que tu sois alle 
 quHl soit alle 
 que nous soyons aUes 
 que vous soyez alles 
 quHl soient alles 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 245 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 That I might go 
 que fallasse 
 que tu allasses 
 qu'il alldt 
 
 que nous allassions 
 que vous allassiez 
 qu'ils allassent 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 That I might have gone 
 
 que je. fosse alle 
 
 que tu fosses alle 
 
 quilfot alle 
 
 que nousfossions alles 
 
 que vous fossiez alles 
 
 quHlsfussent alles 
 
 Observation. 
 
 We sometimes use, through custom, the preterit 
 
 definite of the indicative and the imperfect of the 
 
 subjunctive of the verb etre, instead of the same 
 
 tenses of the verb aller, asjefus, tufus, etc., que 
 
 je fusse, que tu fusses, etc. 
 
 S'EN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES. COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 s'en aller to go {away) 
 
 s'en allant going (away) < 
 
 PAST 
 
 s'en etre alle to have gone (away) 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 en alle gone (away) 
 
 s'en etant allee having gone away 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 en) vais or vas 
 en) vas 
 
 en) va 
 
 je (m 
 tu (T 
 
 elle J C * 
 nous (nous en) allons 
 vous (vous en) allez 
 ils or\, , N 
 
 elles/O "Ovont 
 
 je (m' 
 tu (i 
 il or | ( 
 
 s'~ 
 
 } 
 
 alle or 
 allee 
 
 en) suis 
 en) es 
 
 elle . e ") est 
 
 nous (nous en) sommes "\ 
 
 vous (vous en) etes (alles or 
 
 ils or\., v f allees 
 
 elles/O e ^ sont J 
 
246 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 SIMPLE TENSES 
 
 . 
 
 COM] 
 
 je (m' 
 
 >OUND TENSES. 
 
 je (m 1 en) allais 
 
 ere) 6tais 
 
 alle 
 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 
 
 je (m' en) allai 
 
 1 je (•" 
 FUTURE. 
 
 ere) fus 
 
 alle 
 
 je (nC en) irai 
 
 1 je O' 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 ere) serai 
 
 alle 
 
 je (m' en) irais 
 
 1 je O' 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 en) serais 
 
 alle 
 
 AFFIRMATIVE 
 
 
 NEGATIVE 
 
 
 va (£' en) 
 qu'il (V en) aille 
 allons (nous en) 
 allez (vows ere) 
 qu'ils (s' ere) aillent 
 
 
 ree (V en) va ^ 
 qu'il we (V ere) aille / 
 
 ree (nous en) allons ^pas 
 ne (vous en) allez 4 
 qu'ils ree (s' en) aillefrit } 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 
 que 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 
 je (m' en) aille 
 tu (f en) ailles 
 
 elleT }(*' cre ^ aille 
 
 j je (nC 
 |tu (f 
 iil or ~) , , 
 ■ jelle }( s 
 
 ere) sois 
 ere) sois 
 
 en) soit 
 
 (alle or 
 C allee 
 
 nous (reores ere) allions 
 vous (vous en) alliez 
 
 |nous (nous en) soyons 
 vous (vous en) soyez 
 
 ( allesor 
 
 eUeT}^' en) aillent 
 
 lils or\, , 
 lelles J^ S 
 
 ere) soient 
 
 t allees 
 
 que 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 
 je (w*' ew) alias se 
 
 1 je O' 
 
 en) fusse 
 
 alle 
 
 
 EXERC 
 
 HSE. 
 
 
 - 
 
 Will you go this evening into the country? Perhaps. I am 
 soir a campagne f. 
 
 going before to pay some visits, and if I be early 
 
 auparavant * faire ind- 1 dehomieheure 2 
 
 (at liberty) I shall certainly go home. Go thither with 
 
 libre 1 - s'en alter chez-moi 
 
 thy brother. Go and do that errand. Go thither and put 
 
 * faire commission f. * meitre 
 
 every thing in order. Let him go to church on holy- 
 
 en art. eglise f. * art. jour pi. de 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 247 
 
 days. By keeping those flowers too long in the same water they 
 
 fete garder f. 
 
 will stink. I shall send spring flowers to those ladies. 
 
 de art. printanier 2 f.-pl. dame f.-pl. 
 
 I would go to Rome, if I could. We would (send back) our 
 
 pouvoir ind.-2 r envoy er 
 
 horses. Let us not lightly judge of intentions. Did they 
 
 leghement art. — 
 
 not neglect their friends ? They threatened with their anger. He 
 negliger menacer de colore f. 
 
 spends his estate extravagantly. The bees were there 
 
 employer bien en foV.es depenses abeille f. -pi. * y 
 
 (sucking) the cups of the flowers. Why do they go away 
 sucer ind.-2 calice pourquoi 
 
 so soon ? My brother and sister went yesterday to Windsor 
 
 pron. 
 I shall not go (any more) a hunting. 
 plus a * art. chasse f. 
 
 Observation, 
 
 Je fits, fai ete, j' avals ete, faurais ete, are not 
 synonymes of fallal, je suis alle, fetals alle, je 
 serais alle. The former serve to express the fact of 
 having gone, and the latter the fact of being gone ; 
 for instance, il est alle en Amerique, he is gone to 
 America, means that the person who is gone is not 
 yet returned ; but in the following sentence, il a 
 ete en Amerique, he has been in America, conveys 
 the idea of having returned from the place men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The imperative va takes an 5 by euphony when 
 followed by y or by en, as vas-y, go thither ; vas en 
 savolr des nouvelles, go to hear some tidings of it ; 
 however, it takes no s when y is followed by a verb, 
 as va y donner ordre, go and order that affair. — See 
 p. 249. 
 
 Puer, to stink, is defective ; it has no preterit of 
 the indicative nor the imperfect of the subjunctive. 
 
 The verbs in oyer, ayer, as we have already 
 
248 
 
 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 observed, have an irregularity only in the spelling, 
 
 the y in some forms being changed into t, as 
 
 Envoyer To send 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Pres. Envoyer — Part. Pres. envoyant — Past envoye m. ee f. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Pres, 
 
 j'envoi -e 
 
 es 
 
 e 
 
 envoy-ons 
 
 yez 
 
 envo-ieni 
 
 Imp. 
 
 yenvoy-ais 
 
 ais 
 
 ait 
 
 envoy-ions 
 
 iez 
 
 aient 
 
 Fret 
 
 j'envoy-ai 
 
 as 
 
 a 
 
 envoy-dmes 
 
 dtes 
 
 erent 
 
 Put. 
 
 yenver-rai 
 
 ras 
 
 ra 
 
 envev-rons 
 
 rez 
 
 ront 
 
 Con. 
 
 j 'enver- rais 
 
 rais 
 
 rait 
 
 envev-rions 
 
 riez 
 
 raient 
 
 que 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 j' envoi- e 
 
 es 
 
 e 
 
 envoy -ions 
 
 iez 
 
 ient 
 
 Imp. 
 
 'y envoy -asse 
 
 asses 
 
 at 
 
 envoy-ass ions assiez 
 
 assent 
 
 IMPERATIVE, 
 envoi-c, qu'il envoi-e, envoy-ows, envoy-ez, qu'ils envo-ient 
 
 Payer, To Pay. 
 
 This verb and all those which in the present 
 participle end in yant, as essay er 9 to try ; appnyer, 
 to lean upon ; take also, like envoyer, the addi- 
 tional i after the y in the first and second persons 
 plural of the imperfect indicative and of the sub- 
 junctive present; the y is altered into i in the 
 tenses where y precedes a mute e. 
 
 Inf. Payer — Part. pres. payant — Past, paye m. ee f. 
 
 Ind. pres, Je paie, tu paies, it paie, nous payons, vous payez, ils 
 
 paient 
 Imp. Je payais, tu pavais, il payait, nous nay-io?is, vous pay-zee, 
 
 ils ipay-aient 
 Pret. Je payai, tu payas, il paya, nous payames, vous payates, 
 
 ils pay erent 
 I'iit. Je paz-erai, tu paz-eras, il pai-era, nous paz-erons, vous 
 
 paz-erez, ils paz-eront 
 Cond. Je paz-erais, tu pat-erais, il pa?'-erait, nous paz-eiions, 
 
 vous paz-eriez, lis paz-eraient 
 Imp. Paie, qifil paie payons, payez, qu'ils paient 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 249 
 
 Sub, prcs. Que je paie, que tu paies, qu'il paie, que nous paj^-zons, 
 
 que vous pay-iez, qu'ils pai-ent 
 Imp. Que je payasse, que tu payasse, qu'il payat, que nous 
 
 payassions, que vous payassiez, qu'ils payassent 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Ployer, to bend ; employer, to employ, are con- 
 jugated like envoy er, except in the future and the 
 conditional, where they follow the termination of 
 payer, as fut. je ploierai, jemploierai, etc.; cond. 
 je ploierais, f emploierais , etc. 
 
 In reference to the observation on the verbs 
 porter, apporter, and alter, followed by en or y in 
 the imperative, see p. 247- 
 
 For the verbs in ger, keeping the mute e before 
 a or o, and those in cer taking the cedilla under c 
 when followed by the above two vowels a or o, see 
 p. 201. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION 
 IN IE. 
 
 branch i. Finir. 
 
 The learner must bear in mind that the charac- 
 teristic or predominant letter of any verb is always 
 that which begins the last syllable of the infinitive 
 mood present, for instance, in sen-tir and ser-vir, t 
 and v are the chief letters which prevail through 
 the whole of these two verbs. This remark will be 
 very useful in order to find out easily the very 
 paradigm branch of any verb looked for. 
 
 How to use the above method. 
 I want to know w r hether sentir is the true para- 
 digm branch for servir ; perceiving that v is the 
 initial letter of the last syllable of the infinitive 
 
 m 2 
 
250 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 servir, and t in sentir, I substitute v for the letter t, 
 and add it to the radical ser in the present indi- 
 cative whenever I see that t is added to the radical 
 sen in seiitir. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Paradigm, Sentir Servir, verb looked for 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 je sen-s nous sen-tons je ser-s nous ser-vons 
 
 tu sen-s vous sen-fez tu ser-s vous sev-vez 
 
 il sen-t ils sen-tent il ser-£ ils ser-vent 
 
 T being the characteristic letter V being the characteristic letter 
 
 Were I not to know how to make any proper 
 substitution in the letters of the termination, I 
 would have said nous sen-tons, nous ser-tons, and so 
 on, in order to conjugate servir exactly as its para- 
 digm sentir. Many learners have made the same 
 mistake for want of knowing the unchangeable root 
 and the predominant or figurative letter of the 
 variable termination of a verb. 
 
 Benir, to bless, is regular through all its tenses, 
 but has two participles past ; the one regular, as 
 benie entre toutes les femmes, blessed among all 
 women ; and the other irregular, when speaking of 
 things consecrated by the prayers of the church. 
 In that case, we say benit 9 benite ; as pain benit, 
 hallowed bread ; eau benite, holy water. 
 
 Fleurir, to blossom, used in its proper sense, is 
 regular, but used figuratively, that is, meaning to 
 flourish, to be in repute, honour, esteem 9 the parti- 
 ciple present makes always florissant, and the third 
 persons of the imperfect of the indicative often 
 make florissait, Jlorissaient . 
 
 , Hair, to hate. In the present of the indicative, 
 the three persons singular, je hais, tu hais 9 il halt, 
 and in the imperative the second person singular 
 hais, are pronounced as a vowel, having the sound 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 251 
 
 of e grave open, je hes, tu hes, il het, hes, whilst in 
 all other forms, the letters ai form two syllables 
 and have each their proper sound ; as nous ha-isso?is\ 
 vous ha-issez, je ha-issais, je ha-'is, je ha-irai, ha-'i, 
 etc. 
 
 Gesir, to lie, is a defective verb, and has only 
 preserved gisant, git, nous gisons, ils gisent, il 
 gisait, used in familiar discourse or poetry, and 
 particularly in monumental inscriptions : Ci-git 
 Piron, qui lie fut jamais rien, pas meme acade- 
 micien. 
 
 EXERCISE ON B 1. 
 
 May the name of that good king be blessed from generation to 
 nom m. — en 
 
 generation. These trees (were in blossom) twice every 
 
 — ind.-2 deux fois tout art. 
 
 year. The arts and sciences flourished at Athens in the time 
 an pi. art. a Athines du 
 
 of Pericles. Horace and Virgil (were in repute) under the reign 
 — — Virgile ind-2 sous regne 
 
 of Augustus. We discovered from the top of the mountain a vast 
 Auguste decouvrir haut 
 
 plain full of flowery meadows. The empire of the Baby- 
 plaine f. rempli de fteurissant pre m. pi. Baby- 
 
 lonians was long a flourishing one. We did not hate the 
 
 ionien assez long -temps * * 
 
 man, but his vices. Does she sincerely hate that vain pomp and 
 
 pompe f. 
 all the paraphernalia of grandeur? 
 appareil art. — 
 
 Branch ii. Sentir. 
 
 Bouillir, to boil, is irregular only in the three 
 persons singular of the present of the indicative,^ 
 bous, tu boas, il bout, and in the second person sin- 
 gular of the imperative, bans. It is regular else- 
 
252 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 where, nous bouillons, je bouillais, je bouillis, je 
 bouillirai) que je bouille, que je bouillisse, bouillant, 
 bouilli, ie. This verb, in its proper sense, is but 
 seldom used, except in the third persons, either 
 singular or plural, and in the infinitive preceded by 
 the verb /aire. 
 
 N. B. — Ebouillir, to boil down, and rebouillir, to 
 boil again, are conjugated in the same manner. 
 The first is commonly used only in compound tenses 
 and the infinitive mood ; as cette sauce est trop 
 ebouillie, this sauce is boiled down too much. 
 
 Courir, To Run 
 Inf. pres. Courir — Part, pres. courant — Past, couru 
 Ind. pres, Iran, je cours, tu cours, il court, nous courons, vous 
 
 courez, ils courent 
 Imp. I did run, je courais, tu courais, etc. 
 
 Pret. Iran or did run, je eou-rws, tu cou-rws, il con-rut, nous 
 
 cow-rumes, vous cou-rutes, ils cou-rurent 
 Put. I shall run, je couv-rai, tu cour-ras, il cour-ra, nous 
 
 cour-j'ons, etc. 
 Cond. I should run, je cour-rais, tu cour-rais, etc. 
 Imp. Run (thou), cours, qu'il coure, courons, courez, qu'ils 
 
 courent 
 Sub. pres. That I may run, que je coure, que tu coures, qu'il coure, 
 
 que nous courions, que vous couriez, qu'ils courent 
 Imp. That I might run, que je cou-russe, tu cou-russes, ii 
 
 co\i-rut, nous cou- r us sions, vous coxx-russiez, ils cou- 
 
 russent 
 
 In the same manner are conjugated accourir, to 
 run to ; concourir, to concur ; discourir, to discourse ; 
 encourir, to incur ; parcourir, to run over ; recoarir, 
 to have recourse ; and secourir, to assist. The two 
 rr of the future and the conditional are distinctly 
 pronounced. 
 
 Faillir, to fail. The authors of the dictionary of 
 the French Academy give all the tenses of this 
 verb, observing only that the greater part of them 
 are obsolete. It is now only used in the present of 
 the infinitive faillir, and participle past failli, in the 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 253 
 
 preterit definite je faillis, ta faillis, il faillit, nous 
 faillimes, vous faillites, Us faiilirent, and in the 
 compound tenses, fai failli, feus failli, f avals 
 failli, etc. 
 
 Conjugate dtfaillir in the same manner. 
 
 Fuir, To Fly, to Run Away, 
 
 Part. pres. fuyant — Past, fui, ie 
 
 Ind. pres. fills, fuis, fuit, fuyons, fuyez, fuient 
 
 Imp. fuyais — Pret. fuis — Fut. fuirai — Cond. fuirais 
 
 Imp. fuis, fuie, fuyons, fuyez, fuient 
 
 Sub. pres. fuie, fuies, fuie, fuyions, fuyiez, fuient — Imp. fuisse 
 
 Mourir To die 
 Part. pres. mourant — Past, mort, morte 
 Ind. pres. meurs, meurs, meurt, mourons, mourez, meurent 
 Imp. mourais — Pret. mourus — Fut. je mourrai 
 
 Imp. meurs, meure, mourons, mourez, meurent 
 
 Cond. mourrais 
 
 Sub. pres. meure, meures, meure, mourions, mouriez, meurent 
 Imp. mourusse 
 
 Observation. 
 
 S'enfuir, to run away, is conjugated like fuir. 
 Mourir takes the auxiliary etre. Se mourir sig- 
 nifies to be at the point of death ; it is only used 
 in the present and imperfect of the indicative. 
 
 EXERCISE on B. 2. 
 
 Take that water off the fire, it boils too fast. Do not 
 r ether f. de dessus m. f. fort 
 
 let the pot (boil away) so much. That sauce is boiled away 
 laisser 2 — m. 4 3 tant 2 f. 
 
 too much. Boil that meat again; it has not boiled long enough. 
 
 * faites rebouillir viande f. f. * assez 
 
 He runs faster than I. He ran about uselessly all the 
 
 vite moi ind.-4 * inutilement 
 
 morning. We ran at the voice of that honest man, and assisted 
 matinee f. f. 2 
 
 him. The moment he saw us in danger, he ran to us and delivered 
 1 des que vit en * delivrer 
 
 us. By so whimsical a conduct, should we not concur to our 
 ind.-3 bizarre 
 
254 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 destruction ? He discoursed so long on the immortality of the 
 
 perte f. sur immortalite 
 
 soul, and the certainty of another life, that he did not leave 
 
 certitude f. laisser ind-3. 
 
 (any thing) unsaid. If we (were to act) thus, we should cer- 
 
 rien en arriere agir ind. -2 ainsi 
 
 tainly incur the displeasure of our parents. I would not have 
 
 disgrace f . 
 recourse to so base a method. Will men always run after 
 has raoyen m. art. 
 
 chimeras ? He (was like) to lose his life in that ren- 
 chimfoe f. pi. Jaillir ind.-3 * perdre * art. ren- 
 
 counter. He (was near) falling into the snare which was laid for 
 contre f. faillir ind-4 dGnner in. on avait tendu 
 
 him. She is dying. He died with grief. May he die in the peace 
 lui se de 
 
 of the Lord. Would he not avoid the flatterers if he knew 
 Seigneur m. fair fiatteur m. pi. ind. *2 
 
 all their falsehood ? 
 faussete f. 
 
 Acquerir, To Acquire 
 
 Part. pres. acquerant — Past, acquis m. ise f. 
 
 Ind. pres. acquiers, acquiers, acquiert, acquerons, acquerez, 
 
 acquierent 
 Imp. acquerais — Tret, acquis — Fut. acquerrai 
 
 Cond. acquerrais 
 
 Imp. acquiers, acquiere, acquerons, acquerez, acquierent 
 
 Sub. pres. acquiere, acquieres, acquiere, acquerions, acqueriez, 
 
 acquierent — Imp. acquisse 
 
 S'enquerir, to enquire, an active verb in its origin, 
 but now a reflect one, is conjugated in the same 
 manner as acquerir. It is not obsolete as some 
 foreign grammarians say, but used only in familiar 
 conversation. It takes the auxiliary etre in com- 
 pound tenses. 
 
 Querir, to fetcb ? is used in this form only, and 
 
 * Though se'nquerir is not ohsolete, however, it is better to use the pronominal 
 verb s'informer, as je me suis informe de cet homme-la, I have inquired about that 
 man. We say likewise prendre des informations sur le compte de quelqu'un, to 
 inform of somebody. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 255 
 
 after the verbs envoyer, venir, aller; as envoyez 
 querir, send for; allez querir, go and fetch. This 
 verb is confined to familiar conversation. 
 
 Requerir, to request, to require, is used through 
 all its tenses, but particularly in its compound 
 tenses; it is conjugated as acquerir. 
 
 Conquerir, to conquer, is conjugated in the same 
 manner, but it is almost obsolete in all simple 
 tenses except the preterit definite of the indicative, 
 je co?iquis, tie co?iquis, il co?iquit 9 nous conquimes, 
 etc., and the imperfect of the subjunctive, que je 
 co?iquisse 9 que tu conquisses, qu'il conquit, que nous 
 conquissions 9 etc. It is very much used in the 
 compound tenses. 
 
 Ou'ir, to hear, obsolete in several tenses. It is 
 only used in the present of the infinitive ou'ir, and 
 participle past ou'i ; in the preterit definite of the 
 indicative, jou'is, tu ou'is 9 il ou'it 3 nous ouimes, etc. 
 and the imperfect of the subjunctive, que fou'isse, 
 que tu ou'isses, qiiil ou'it, que nous ou'issions, etc. 
 Its principal use is in the compound tenses, but 
 then it is generally accompanied by another 
 verb : as je l 9 ai, or je V avals ou'i dire, I have, or I 
 had heard it said. 
 
 Vetir, To Clothe 
 
 Part. pres. vetant — Past, vetu m. ue f. 
 
 Ind. pres. vets*, vets*, vet*, vetons, vetez, vetent 
 
 Imp. vetais — Pret. vetis— i<W. vetirai — Cond. vetirais 
 
 Imp. vets*, vete*; vetons*, vetez*, vetent* 
 
 Sub. pres. vete, vetes, vete, vetions, etc. — Imp. vetisse 
 
 Observations. 
 
 This verb is oftener used as a reflective verb, se 
 vetir. It may, according to the French Academy, 
 be used through all its tenses, but seldom in the 
 forms marked with an asterisk # . 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner revetir, to invest, 
 
256 of irregltlar verbs. 
 
 which is used through all its tenses, and devetir, to 
 divest, which is principally used as a reflective verb, 
 and in some forms only. 
 
 Sortir, to go out ; ressortir, to go out again, and 
 repartir, to reply or to set off again, are conjugated 
 likesentir; but sortir, to obtain, to have, (a law- 
 term) ; ressortir, to resort, and repartir, to share, 
 are conjugated like finir. Sortir in the latter sense 
 is not used in all its tenses. 
 
 exercise on Acquerir, S'enquerir, etc. 
 
 Every day he acquired celebrity by 
 
 art. jour m. pi. pr. art. = pr. art. 
 
 works done to fix the attention of an enlightened public. 
 
 ouvragem.ipl. fait pour — 2 1 
 
 That I would acquire riches at the expense of my honesty ! 
 
 subj.-2 pr. art. depens m. pi. pro bite f. 
 
 He had acquired by his merit a great influence on the opinion of his 
 
 f. 
 contemporaries. I have enquired about that man every where, 
 
 contemporain Id 
 
 and have not been able (to hear any thing of him). Send for 
 
 je rt pu en avoir des nouvelles querir or chercher 
 
 the physician and follow exactly his advice. Who has re- 
 
 medecin suivez qui est-ce qui 3 
 
 quested it of you? He dressed himself in haste and went 
 — or iprier 4 en 2 * 1 se vetir a art. hate 
 
 out immediately. I wish she would dress the children 
 
 voudrais que vetir sub. -2 
 
 with more care. If his fortune permitted him, he would 
 
 de petmettait 3 le 1 hi 2 
 
 clothe all the poor of his parish. Two servants clothed him 
 
 paroisse f. domestique revetir 2 1 
 
 with his ducal mantle. He only passed for a traveller, but 
 de 2 manteau m. 1 ne ind.-2 que 
 
 lately he has taken the character of an envoy. I have 
 depuis peu revetir* un * envoy e 
 
 * We say also in that sense porter or prendre le titre instead of revetir le carac- 
 tere de which is equally good grammar. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VEBRS. 257 
 
 heard that important news. Sesostris, king of Egypt, cob- 
 ouir dire* 2 nouvelle f. 1 
 
 quered a great part of Asia. The formidable empire which 
 
 Alexander conquered did not last longer than his life, 
 
 ind. -6 durer ind.-3 plus long-temps 
 
 Branch hi. Ouvrir. 
 
 Cueillir, To Gather. 
 Part. pres. Cueillant — Past, cueilli m. ie f. 
 Ind. pres. cueille, cueilles, cueille, cueillons, cueillez, cueillent 
 Imp. cueillais — Pret. cueillis — Fut. cueillerai 
 
 Cond, cueillerais 
 
 Imp. cueille, cueille, cueillons, cueillez, cueillent 
 
 Sub J. pres. cueille — Imp. cueillisse 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner accueillir, to 
 make welcome, and recueillir, to collect. 
 
 Saillir, to project, is commonly used in the two 
 participles, saillant and sailli, nevertheless, it is 
 sometimes used in the following forms of the third 
 person, il saille, il saillait, saillera, saillerait, quit 
 saille, quil saillit : but saillir, to gush out, does not 
 belong to this branch ; it is a regular verb, conju- 
 gated like Jinir, je saillis, tu saillis, Us saillissent, 
 etc. Its principal use is in the third persons. 
 
 Assaillir, To Assault 
 Part. pres. Assaillant — Past, assailli m. ie f. 
 
 Ind. pres. assaille — Imp. assaillais — Pret. assaillis — Fat. assaillirai 
 Cond. assaillirais — Imp. assaille, assaille, assaillons, etc. 
 Sub. pres> assaille — Imp. assaillisse 
 
 Tressaillir, to start, is conjugated like assaillir , 
 except in the future and the conditional, where it 
 makes je tressaillerai, je tressaillerais, etc. Je 
 tressaillirai is a fault, contrary to the present 
 
 * Apprendre\\QXQ is preferable to ouir dire ; j'aiappris cetle nouvelle important e, 
 I have heard, etc. 
 
258 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 practice ; this verb, like ciieillir, is irregular in the 
 future and conditional. 
 
 exercise on Branch 3. 
 I will gather with pleasure some of these flowers and 
 
 * pr. pron. 
 
 fruits, since you wish to have some. Do not gather these 
 
 puisque etre bien aise en 
 
 peaches, before they are ripe. That is a country where they 
 
 f. pi. av ant que ne sub.-l mar Ce pays oil on 
 
 neither reap corn, nor (gather) grapes. We shall gather 
 
 ne recueillir ni bled ni * vin recueillir 
 
 in ancient history important and valuable facts. He received 
 
 2 1 de art. — 2 precieux 3 fait 1 accueillir 2 
 
 us in the most polite manner. Poverty, misery, 
 
 1 de 2 maniere f. 1 art. f. art. f. art. 
 
 sickness, persecution, in a word, all the misfortunes in the 
 
 maladief. art. — f. en malheur m. pi. de 
 
 world (have fallen upon) him. If you will give six inches to 
 
 accueillir* ind.-l powcem.pl. 
 
 that cornice, it will project too much. That balcony projected 
 
 corniche f. f. * balcon m. ind.-2 
 
 too much ; it darkened the dining-room, When Moses struck 
 * obscurcir ind.-2 quand Mo'ise frapper 
 
 the rock there gushed out of it a spring of (fresh 
 ind. -3 rocher m. il jaillir ind.-3 2 en 1 source f. 
 
 running) water. The blood gushed from his vein with impetu- 
 vif'2 f. 1 ind.-2 veine f. = 
 
 osity. We shall assault the enemy tomorrow in their entrenchments. 
 
 pi, demain retranchement 
 
 Were we not overtaken by a horrible storm ? At every word 
 ind. -3 assailli tempete f. a chaque que 
 
 they said to him concerning his son, the good (old man) leaped for 
 on 2*1 de vieillard ind. -2 de 
 
 joy. Shall you not shudder with fear? 
 joie tressaillir peur 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 Avoir, to have, of which we have given the 
 
 * Here arriver is to be preferred to accueillir, as lui sont arrives, have falleu 
 upon him. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 259 
 
 conjugation, page 169, r avoir, to have again, and 
 se ravoir, to recover, are only used in the present 
 infinitive. 
 
 Choir, to fall, defective, and hardly ever used but 
 in this form and the participle past, chu. 
 
 De choir, To Decay, 
 PAKT.past. Dechu m. ue f. — No participle present, 
 Ind. pres. dechois, dechois, dechoit, dechoyons, etc. 
 Imp. None — Pret. dechus — Fut. decherrai — Cond. decherrais 
 
 Imp. dechois, dechoie, dechoyons, dechoyez, dechoient 
 
 Sub. pres. dechoie — Imp, dechusse 
 
 Echoir, to fall, has only the third person of the' 
 present of the indicative now in use, il echoit, or 
 echet ; no imperfect. *Fechus, fecherrai, fecherrais ; 
 no imperative, no present of the subjunctive; que 
 jechusse; infinitive, echoir, pres. part, echeant; 
 past part, echu m. ue f. 
 
 These three verbs, choir, dechoir, and echoir, are 
 conjugated with etre or avoir, in their compound 
 tenses. 
 
 Falloir, must, impersonal, of which we have 
 given the conjugation p. 288, 
 
 exercise on Choir j Bechoir, ete. 
 
 Take care of falling. How has he fallen into poverty? 
 
 Prendre garde inf.-l Comment en pauvrete 
 
 Since the publication of his last work, he is much (fallen off) 
 
 depuis dernier dechoir* 
 
 in the esteem of the public. If he do not alter his conduct, he 
 
 changer de * 
 
 will fall off every day in his reputation and credit. 
 
 dechoir ovperdre de jour en jour de — f. pr. art. — 
 
 He has dipped in the lottery, and he hopes that a good prize 
 
 mis a loterie f. * art. lot ra. 
 
 will fall (to his share). That bill of exchange has expired. The 
 
 echoir lui lettre f. change 
 
 first term expires at Midsummer. You have drawn on me 
 
 terme m. a la Saint Jean. tirer sur moi 
 
 a bill of exchange ; when is it payable ? I did not believe that I 
 
 ind. -7 echoir inf. -3 croyais il 
 
 * Or perd beaucoup dans — tomber en discredit dans. 
 
260 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 must so soon have taken that journey. He must have 
 
 subj.-2 /aire voyage m. ind -4 que 
 
 sunk under the efforts of (so many) enemies. 
 
 succomber subj. -2 tant de 
 
 Mouvoir, To Move, 
 Part. pres. mouvant — Past, mu m. ue f. 
 Ind. pres. meus, meus, meut, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent 
 Imp. mouvais — Pret. mus — Put. mouvrai — Cond. mouvrais 
 
 Imp. meus, meuve, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent 
 
 Sub. pres. meuve — Imp. musse 
 
 N.B.— Conjugate in the same manner, emouvoir, 
 to stir up, to move, and promouvoir, to promote. 
 
 Pleuvoir, to rain, impersonal. II pleut, il 
 pleuvait, il plut, il pleuvra, il pleuvrait, qu'il 
 pleuve, qu'il plut. 
 
 exercise on Mouvoir. 
 
 The spring which moves the whole machine is very ingenious, 
 ressort m. 2 tout 1 — f. = 
 
 though very simple. It was passion which moved him to that 
 quoique — Ce art. — f. ind. -4 
 
 action. Can you doubt that the soul, though it is spiritual, 
 
 — f. pouvez f. * * ne 
 
 moves the body at pleasure ? That is a man whom nothing 
 subj.-l a sa volontS ce ne 2 rien 1 
 
 moves. We had scarcely lost sight of land, when 
 
 imouvoir a peine perdu vue f . 3 2 art. terre f. 1 que 
 
 there arose a violent tempest. We were moved with 
 
 il s'emouvoir ind. -3 grande tempete f. emus de 
 
 fear and pity. When the famous d'Aguesseau was promoted 
 crainte f. pr, pitie f. quand celebre — 
 
 to the dignity of chancellor, all France showed the 
 
 chancelier art. — en temoigner ind.-3 
 
 greatest joy. That bishop well deserved, by his talents and by his 
 
 f. eveque ind. -2 — 
 
 virtues, that the king should promote him to the dignity of primate, 
 subj. -2 == f. primat 
 
 The people think that it rains frogs and 
 
 sing, croit de art. grenouille f. pi. de art. 
 
 insects at certain seasons. It will not rain to-day, but I 
 hisecte m. pi-, en temps, pi. aujourd'hui 
 
 (am fearful) of its raining to-morrow. 
 crains que * il ne subj.-l 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 261 
 
 Pouvoir, To be able. 
 Part. pres. pouvant — past, pu 
 
 Ind pres, puis or peux, peux, peut, pouvous, pouvez, peuvent 
 Imp. pouvais— Pret. pus — Fut. pourrai — Cond. pourrais 
 
 Imp. Wanting. — Sub. pres. puisse — Imp. pusse 
 
 S avoir, To Know. 
 Part. pres. sachant — past, su m. ue f. 
 Ind. pres. sais or sai, sais, sait, savons, savez, savent 
 Imp. savais — Pret. sus — Fut. saurai — Cond. saurais 
 
 Imp. sache, sache, sachons, sachez, sachent 
 
 Sub. pres. sache, saches, etc. — Imp. susse 
 
 Seoir, to become, to befit, is not used in the 
 infinitive, except sometimes in the participle 
 present seyant. In the other moods, it is only used 
 in the third persons of some simple tenses, il sied, 
 Us sitent, il seyait, il siera> il sierait, quil site. It 
 is without preterit in the indicative, without im- 
 perfect in the subjunctive, and without compound 
 tenses. But seoir, to sit, is used only in these two 
 forms, seant and sis of the infinitive. 
 
 Asseoir, oftener used as a reflective verb. 
 
 S'asseoir, To Sit Down. 
 
 P art. pres. s'asseyant — past, assis m. ise f. 
 
 Ind. pres. m'assieds, t'assieds, s'assied, nous asseyons, etc. 
 
 Imp. m'asseyais — Pret. m'assis — Fut. m'assierai or m'asseyerai 
 
 Cond. je m'assierais or m'asseyerais 
 
 Imp. assieds, s'asseye, asseyons, asseyez, asseyent 
 
 Sub. pres. m'asseye — Imp. m'assisse 
 
 N.B. — The compound verb rasseoir, meaning 
 either to sit again, to compose, or to sit down again, 
 is conjugated in the same manner. 
 
 exercise ou Pouvoir, Savoir, etc. 
 
 When he arrived at home, he could do no more. The 
 
 ind.-4 (with etre) chez-lui n'en in&.-2 * * plus 
 minister had (so many) people at his audience, that I could not 
 ministre ind.-2 taut de monde a — ind.-3 
 
 speak to him. Shall you (be afraid) that he will not (gain 
 
 2 1 * 2 craignez 1 pouvoir subj.-l venir 
 
262 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 his end) in that affair? I know that he is not your friend, but I 
 
 a bout de f. de pi. 
 
 know likewise that he is a man of probity. Let them know that 
 
 aussi bieu 
 
 their pardon depends on their submission. I eould wish 
 
 grace dependre de desirer cond.-l 
 
 that he knew a little better his lessons. Let us see if this 
 subj.-2 lecon f. pi. voyons 
 
 new-fashioned gown become you, or become you not. Be 
 d'un gout nouveau 2 robe f. 1 
 
 assured that colours too gaudy will not become you. The 
 
 art. f. voyant ind.-7 
 
 head-dress which that lady wore (was very unbecoming her). 
 
 coiffure f. que porter ind.-2 seoir mat 
 
 These colours become you so well, it (would be wrong 
 
 part. pres. vous avoir tort cond.-l 
 
 to wear others. Set that child in this arm-chair, and 
 
 de en porter de asseoir m. fauteuil m. 
 
 take care lest he fall. - I will sit down on the top of that 
 prendre garde que ne subj.-l s* asseoir sommet 
 
 hill, whence I shall discover a prospect as magnificent as varied. 
 cdteau m. decouvrir schie f. 
 
 We were seated on the banks of the Thames, whence we (were 
 
 bord m pi. Thamise f. 
 
 contemplating) those myriads of vessels, which bring, every 
 
 ind.-2 millier vaisseau apporter art. 
 
 year, the riches of the two hemispheres. 
 
 Voir, To See, 
 Part. pres. voyant— past vu m. ue f. 
 Ind. pres. vois, vois, voit, voyons, voyez, voient 
 Imp. voyais — Pret. vis — Fut. verrai — Cond. verrais 
 
 Imp. vois, voie, voyons, voyez, voient 
 
 Sub. pres. voie — Imp. visse 
 
 Mevoir, to see again, and e?itrevoir, to have a 
 glimpse of, are conjugated in the same manner; 
 but prtvoir, to foresee, has a difference in the future 
 and the conditional, where it makes je prevoirai, tu 
 prtvoiras, etc.,Jeprevoirais, tu prevoirais, etc. 
 
 Pourvoir 9 to provide, has likewise some dif- 
 ferences ; it makes in the preterit definite, je 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 263 
 
 pourvus, tu pourvus, etc. ; in the future je pour- 
 voirai) etc. ; in the conditional je pourvoirais, etc.; 
 and in the imperfect of the subjunctive queje pour- 
 vusse, que tu pourvusses, etc. 
 
 Surseoir, to supersede, though compound of 
 seoir, is conjugated like voir, except in the future 
 and conditional where it makes je surseoirai, tu 
 siwseoiras, etc.,je surseoirais, tu surseoirais, etc. 
 
 Valoir, To be Worth. 
 Part. pres. valant — past, valu m. ue f. 
 Ind. pres. vaux, vaux, vaut, valons, etc. 
 
 Imp. valais — Pret. valus — Fat. vaudrai — Cond. vaudrais 
 
 Imp. vaux, vaille, valons, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. vaille — Imp. valusse 
 
 Revaloir, to return like for like, and equivaloir, 
 to be equivalent, scarcely used in the infinitive 
 mood, are conjugated in the same manner. The 
 contrary assertion of some foreign grammarians is 
 not founded ; but prevaloir, to prevail, makes in 
 the present of the subjunctive que je prevale, que tu 
 prevales, quil prevalent, que nous prevalions, etc. 
 
 Vouloir, To be Willing. 
 
 PaPvT. pres. voulant — past, voulu m. ue f. 
 Ind. pres, veux, veux, veut, voulons 
 
 Imp. voulais — Pret. voulus — Fut. voudrai — Cond. voudrais 
 
 Imp. Wanting — Sub. pres. voudrais — Imp. voulusse. Veuillez 
 
 is often used in conversation. 
 
 exercise on Voir, etc. 
 
 See the admirable order of the universe ; does it not announce a 
 2 1 
 
 supreme architect ? Has he again seen with pleasure his country 
 
 2 architecte m. 1 pays 
 
 and his friends? (Had he had a glimpse of) the dawn of 
 
 entrevoir aurore 
 
 this fine day? To finish their affairs, it would be necessary for 
 
 pour que 
 
 them (to see one another). I clearly foresaw (from that time), all 
 Us s "entrevoir subj.-2 bien dis brs 
 
264 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 the obstacles that he would have to surmount. Would you have 
 
 surmonter ind.-2 
 the judge (put off) the execution of the arrest that he had 
 que surseoir subj. -2 — arret m. 
 
 decreed ? I shall not put off the pursuit of that affair. If 
 rendu poursuite f. pi. art. 
 
 men do not provide (for it), God will provide for it. Should this 
 
 2 y 1 2 1 
 
 book be good for nothing ? You have not paid for this ground 
 valoir 2 * Tie 1 rien * terre f. 
 
 more than it is worth ; (are you afraid) that it is not worth six 
 
 f. ne craignez que ne subj.-l 
 
 hundred pounds sterling? Let us take arbitrators. One 
 
 livre f. pi. prenons de art. arbitre 
 
 ounce of gold is equivalent to fifteen ounces of silver. Doubt not 
 once f . 
 
 that reason and truth will prevail at last. I can and 
 
 art. art. * ne subj.-l a la longue 
 
 will tell the truth. If you are willing, he will be willing 
 pron. dire le le 
 
 too. 
 aussi 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 branch i. Plaire. 
 
 Braire, to bray, defective, is only used in the 
 present of the infinitive ; in the third persons of 
 the present and the future of the indicative, il brait, 
 Us braient, il braira, Us brairont ; and the present 
 of the conditional, Us brairait, Us brairaient ; never- 
 theless it may be used with propriety in the other 
 persons when a comparison with an ass requires it. 
 
 Faire, To Do, to Make. 
 Part, pres. Faisant — past fait m. te f. 
 iND.p/es. fais, fais, fait, faisons, faites, font 
 Imp, faisais — Pret. fis — Fut. ferai — Cond. ferais 
 
 Imp. fais, fasse, faisons, faites, fassent 
 
 Sub. pres. fasse — Imp. fisse 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 265 
 
 In the same manner are conjugated contrefaire, 
 to counterfeit, to mimic ; defaire, to undo ; refaire, 
 to do again, salisfaire, to satisfy ; surf aire, to exact, 
 to ask too much ; and redefaire, to undo again. 
 The four following verbs f orf aire, to trespass ; mal- 
 faire, to do ill ; mefaire, to misdo ; and parfaire, to 
 perfect, are only used in this form and the participle 
 past, for/ait, malfait, me/ait, and parfaiL 
 
 Traire, To Milk (defective). 
 
 P Ab,t. pres. Tray ant — past, trait 
 
 Ind. pres. trais, trais, trait, trayons, trayez, traient 
 
 Imp. trayais — No Pret.—Fut. trairai — Cond. trairais 
 
 Imp. trais, traie, trayons, trayez, traient 
 
 Sub. pres. traie — No imperfect 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner attraire, to allure ; 
 abstraire^ to abstract, used only in this form and 
 the participle past, in the present and the future of 
 the indicative, and the present of the conditional ; 
 distraire, to divert from ; extraire, to extract ; ren- 
 traire, to darn ; retraire, to redeem ; and soustraire, 
 to subtract, to take from. The chief use of all 
 these verbs is in the compound tenses ; nevertheless, 
 some of them may be used in the simple tenses 
 which they have. 
 
 exercise on Faire, etc. 
 
 What will you have him do ? Do not make (so 
 
 Que * que il subj.-l 
 
 much) noise. Do they never ask too much? That woman 
 
 de bruit surfaire 
 
 mimicked all the persons whom she had seen ; that levity ren- 
 
 ind.-3 f. pi. que ind.-6 f. pi. legerete 
 
 dered her odious. It was with difficulty that he (got rid) of the 
 rendit 2 1 f. ind. -3 peine que se defaire 
 
 false opinions which had been given him in his infancy. Would 
 
 — f. on * f. pi. 2 lui 1 
 
 it be possible that we should not again make a journey to 
 
 subj.-2art. * voyage de 
 N 
 
266 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Paris, Rome, and Naples? He says that you have offended him, 
 
 pr. pr. dit 2 offenser 3 1 
 
 and that, if you do not satisfy him quickly, he will find the 
 
 2 1 promptement 
 means of satisfying himself. Every night, she milked 
 moyen sing. se lui-meme art. soir ind. -2 
 
 her sheep, which gave her abundant and wholesome milk. Have 
 
 brebis ind. -2 lui un 2 3 lait m. 1 
 
 you milked your goats ? Are "the cows milked ? Salt is 
 chevre f. pi. a-t-on vache f. pi. 2 1 art. sel m. 
 
 good to entice pigeons. You will never know the 
 
 pour attraire art, m. pi. ind. -7 connaitre 
 
 nature of bodies, if you abstract not their necessary qualities 
 
 art. accessoire 2 1 
 
 from those which are inherent (in them). The least thing distracts 
 f. pi. f. pi. leur moindre 
 
 him. Will you not extract that charming passage? Have you 
 
 — m. 
 
 darned your gown? Should he not redeem that land? What! 
 rentraire retraire 
 
 would you have me withdraw those guilty persons 
 
 ind.-l * queje soustr aire subj. -1 coupable m. pi. 
 
 from the rigour of the laws ? 
 
 a f. 
 
 branch ii. Paraitre. 
 
 Naitre, To be Born. 
 
 Part. pres, naissant — past, ne m. ee f. 
 
 Ind. pres. nais, naissons — Imp, naissais — Pret. naquis — Fut. naitrai 
 
 Cond. naitrais — Imp. nais, naisse, naissons, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. naisse — Imp. naquisse 
 
 This verb is conjugated in its compound tenses 
 with etre. 
 
 Renaitre, to be born again, is conjugated in the 
 same manner. 
 
 Paitre, to Graze. 
 Part. pres. paissant— past, pu, only used in that familiar phrase, il a 
 pu, he has fed 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 267 
 
 Ind. pres. pais — Imp. paissais — No preterit definite — Fut. paitrai 
 Cond. paitrais — Imp. pais, paisse, etc. — Sub. pres. paisse— No 
 
 imperfect 
 
 Repaitre, to feed, to bait, is conjugated in the 
 same manner, but it has all its tenses. It makes 
 in the preterit definite of the indicative je repus, tu 
 repus, if reput, nous repumes, etc. ; and in the 
 imperfect of the subjunctive, que je repusse, que tu 
 repusses, quit reput, que nous repressions, etc. It is 
 oi'tener used figuratively. 
 
 exercise on B. 2, Nattre, Paitre, etc. 
 Was not Virgil born at Mantua? It is from that poisoned 
 ind.-3 Mantoue ce empoisonne 
 
 source that have arisen all the cruel wars which have desolated 
 
 f. que naitre f. pi. f. pi. desoler 
 
 the universe. The fable says that, as soon as Hercules had 
 
 f. dit aussitot que Her cute h m. 
 
 (cut off) one of the heads of hydra, others sprang 
 
 couper tete f. pi. art. hydre f. d'autres 2 il en renai- 
 
 up. While their united flocks fed on the 
 
 tre ind -2 1 tandis que reuni troupeau m. pi. paitre * ind. -2 
 
 tender and flowery grass, they sang under the shade of a 
 
 2 fleuri 3 herhe f. 1 chanter ind. -2 a 
 
 tree the sweets of a rural life. Your horses have not 
 
 art. douceur f. champetre f. 
 
 fed to-day ; you must have them fed. That 
 
 repaltre d'aujouriPhui * il * faire inf-1 
 
 is a man who thirsts after nothing but blood and slaughter. 
 7ie se repaitre de2 * que 1 pr. carnage m. 
 
 branch in. Reduire. 
 
 Entire, to rustle, defective, being only used in 
 this form ; in the participle present, bruyant, which 
 is oftener used as a mere adjective, desflots hruyants; 
 and in the third persons of the imperfect of the 
 indicative, il bruyait, Us bruyaient. 
 
268 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Luire, to shine, luisant, lui, and reluire, to shine, 
 to glitter; reluisant, rehii, are only irregular in the 
 participle past, which does not end in t ; these two 
 verbs have neither the preterit definite of the indi- 
 cative nor the imperfect of the subjunctive, at least, 
 in use. JVnire, to hurt, has the same irregularity ; 
 its participle past is nui 9 but it has all the tenses. 
 
 Circonscire, to circumcise, irregular only in the 
 participle past, circoncis ; in the preterit definite je 
 circoncis, tu circoncis, etc. ; and in the imperfect of 
 the subjunctive, que je circoncisse, que tu circon- 
 cisses, etc. 
 
 Confire, to Pickle. 
 
 Part. pres. confisant — past, confit m. te f. 
 
 Ikd. pres. confis — Imp. confisais — PreL confis— i<W. confirai 
 
 Cond. confirais — Imp. confis, confise, etc. 
 
 Sub- pres. eonfise — Imp. confisse 
 
 Suffire, to suffice, is conjugated like confire, 
 except in the participle past, where it makes suffi. 
 
 exercise on Bruire, Confire, etc. 
 
 The thunder which roared from afar announced a 
 
 tonnerre rn. bruire* ind.-2 dans art. lointain ind.-2 
 
 dreadful storm. They heard roaring the waves of an agitated 
 on inf. -2 flot m. pi. agite 
 
 sea. That street is too noisy for those who love retirement 
 mer f. rue f. bruyant art. retraite 
 
 and study. I have a glimpse of something that shines 
 
 art. quelque chose 
 
 through those trees. A ray of hope shone upon us in the 
 au travers de rayon m. ind.-4 * a 
 
 midst of the misfortunes which overwhelmed us. Every thing is 
 milieu malheur m. pi. accabler 
 
 well rubbed in that house; every thing shines, even to the 
 frotte y rehire jusqiCd 
 
 * Bruire is better applied to the noise of the wind or of the waves than to 
 thunder, for we generally say le tonnerre gronde. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 269 
 
 floor. Would he not have hurt you in that affair? Jesus 
 
 plancher m. * cond.-2 
 
 Christ was circumcised eight days after his birth. Will you 
 
 naissance f. * 
 preserve these peaches with sugar, with honey, or with 
 
 confire a art. sucre m. art. miel m. art. 
 
 brandy? Have you pickled cucumbers purs- 
 
 er de vie f. de art. concombre m. pi. pr. art. pour- 
 
 lane, and sea fennel ? If he lose his lawsuit, all his 
 
 pier m. pr. art. perce-pierre f. perd proces 
 
 property will not suffice. 
 bien 
 
 Dire, to Say. 
 Part. pres. disant — past, dit m. dite f. 
 
 Ind. pres- dis — Imp. disais — Pret. dis — Fut. dirai — Cond. dirais 
 Imp. dis. dise, disons, etc. — Sub. pres. dise — Imp. disse 
 
 Observation. 
 Conjugate redire, to say again, in the same 
 manner ; also the other compounds of dire, viz. 
 dedire, to unsay ; contredire, to contradict ; inter- 
 dire, to forbid ; mtdire, to slander ; and predire, to 
 foretel, except that the second person plural of the 
 present of the indicative is regular ; vous dedisez, 
 contredisez, interdisez, medisez, predisez*. Maudire, 
 to curse, varies by taking two ss in the following 
 forms ; first, second, and third persons plural of 
 the indicative present, nous maudissons, vous mau- 
 dissez, Us maudissent ; third person singular and 
 first, second, and third persons plural of the impe- 
 rative, qu'il maudisse, maudissons, maudissez, qu'ils 
 maudissent ; the subjunctive present, which re- 
 sembles the subjunctive imperfect except the third 
 person singular of the latter, which makes quit 
 maudit ; que je maudisse, que tu maudisses, etc. 
 
 Ecrire, to Write, 
 Part. pres. ecrivant— past, ecrit m. te f. 
 Ind. pres. ecris — Imp. e'crivais — Pret. ecrivis — Fut. ecrirai 
 Cond. ecrirais — Imp. ecris, e*crive, ecrivons, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. ecrive — Imp. ecrivisse 
 
 * The same observation applies to the above five verbs at the second person 
 plural of the Imperative mood, as unsay ye, dedisez, contredisez, etc. etc. — French 
 Academy, 
 
270 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner circonscrire, to 
 circumscribe ; dtcrire, to describe ; inscrire, to in- 
 scribe; prescrire, to prescribe; proscrire, to pro- 
 scribe; souscrire, to subscribe; and trcmscrire, to 
 transcribe. 
 
 Lire, to Read. 
 Part. pres. lisant— past, lu m. lue f. 
 
 Ind. pres. lis — Imp. lisais — Pret lus — Fut. lirai — Cond. lirais 
 Imp. lis, lise, etc. — Sub. pres. lise — Imp. lusse 
 
 The same irregularities are found in retire^ to 
 read over again, and elire, to elect. 
 
 Rire, to Laugh, 
 Part. pres. riant — past ri 
 
 Ind. pres. ris — Imp. rials — Pret. ris — Fut, rirai — Cond. rirais 
 Imp. ris, rie, rions, etc. — Sub. pres. rie — Imp. risse 
 
 Sourire, to smile, is conjugated in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Frire, to fry, defective, having only in the infi- 
 nitive that form and the participle past/n7; in the 
 indicative these three forms of the present, je fris, 
 tufris, il frit ; all the persons of the future and the 
 conditional, je frirai, nous frirons ; tufrirais, vous 
 fririez, etc. ; and in the imperative the form fris. 
 To supply the deficiency of the other forms, we 
 make use of the verb faire and the infinitive frire, 
 as faisant frire 9 je faisais frire, je fis frire, etc. ; 
 this verb is used through all its compound tenses. 
 
 exercise on Dire, etc. 
 
 Always speak truth, but with discretion. Never contradict 
 dire art. f. 
 (any one) in public. You thought to have served me in 
 per sonne en — croire ind. -4 * * inf.- 1 2 en 
 
 speaking thus : well, (let it be so) ; you shall not be contra- 
 parler ainsi eh bien soit en de- 
 
 dicted. What ! would you prohibit him all communication with 
 dire quoi * ind.- 1 interdire 2 hi 1 — 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERES. 271 
 
 his friends. That woman who slandered every one, soon lost 
 
 ind.-2 de perdre ind.-£ 
 
 all kind of consideration. You had foretold that event. Let us 
 
 curse no one ; let us remember that our law forbids to curse 
 
 nepersonne* se rappeler defendre de 
 
 even those who persecute us. Write every day the reflections 
 
 perse* cuter 2 1 art. pi. 
 
 which you make on the books which you read. Did he not read 
 that interesting history with a great deal of pleasure? God is an 
 
 2 1 
 
 infinite being, who is circumscribed neither by time nor 
 2 etre m. I ne ni art. ni pr. 
 
 place. Shall you not describe in that episode the dreadful 
 art. lieu m. pi. m. horrible 
 
 tempest which assailed your hero ? Have those soles and 
 
 faire frire — pron. 
 
 whitings fried. If you wish to form your taste, read over and 
 
 merlan vouloir * * 
 
 over again, unceasingly, the ancients. He was elected by a great 
 
 relire sans cesse ind.-4 elu a 
 
 majority of voices. We have laughed heartily and have 
 
 majorite f. de bon coeur nous 
 
 resolved to (goon). He did not answer him. (any thing) 
 
 esolu de continuer repondre ind.-3 lui Hen 
 
 but he smiled at him, as a sign of approbation, in the kindest 
 ind.-8 * ltd en * — de gracieux 2 
 
 manner. 
 air m. 1 
 
 Boire, to Drink. 
 Part. pres. buvant — past, bu m. bue f. 
 
 Ind. pres. bois, buvons, etc. — Imp. buvais — Pret. bus — Fut. boirai 
 Cond. boirais — Imp. bois, boive, buvons, buvez, boivent 
 
 Sue. pres. boive — Imp. busse 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner reboire. This 
 verb is of so little use that it was omitted in the old 
 edition of the dictionary of the French academy. 
 
 Clore, to close, out of use, except in the three 
 persons singular of the present of the indicative, 
 
 * See p.349- 
 
272 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 je clos, tu clos, il dot ; in the future, je clorai, tu 
 dor as, etc., and the conditional, je clorais, tu do- 
 rais, etc. : and in the second person singular of the 
 imperative, dos. 
 
 Endure, to enclose, is defective in the same 
 tenses. 
 
 Edore, to be hatched, to blow like a flower, de- 
 fective, has in the infinitive only this form, and the 
 participle past, eclosm. se f. ; in the indicative the 
 two third persons of the present, il eclot, Us eclosent ; 
 of the future, il eclora, Us ecloront ; of the con- 
 ditional, il eclorait, Us edoraient ; and in the sub- 
 junctive the two third persons quit edose, quits 
 edosent. The compound tenses which are much 
 used are constructed with etre, 
 
 Conclure, to Conclude. 
 Part. pres. concluant — past conclu m. ue f. 
 
 Ind. pres. conclus — Imp, concluais — Pret. conclus— Fut. conclurai 
 Cond. conclurais — Imp. conclus, conclue, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. conclue — Imp, conclusse 
 
 N. B. — Exclure, to exclude, is conjugated like 
 co?idure, except that the participle past is exclue or 
 exdus m. se f. 
 
 Croire, to Believe, 
 Part, pres, croyant— past, cm m. crue f. 
 Ind. pres. crois — Imp. croyais — Pret. crus — iut. croirai 
 Cond. croirais — Imp. crois, croie, croyons, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres, croie — Imp. crusse 
 
 exercise on Boire, Clore, etc. 
 
 Seated under the shade of palm trees, they were milking their 
 assis a art. palmier pi. * ind.-2 
 
 goats and ewes, and merrily drinking that nectar 
 
 cMvre f. pi pron. brebis f.-pl. avecjoie 2 ind. -2 1 m. 
 
 which (was renewed) every day. Should they not have 
 se renouveler ind.-2 art. pi. n'auraienUils pas 
 
 drunk with ice? This window does not shut well ; when you 
 cond.-2 a art. f. f. 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 273 
 
 hare made some repairs, it will shut better. He had scarcely 
 ind.-8 reparation f. pi. f. mieux a peine 
 
 closed his eyes, when the noise which they made at his door 
 ind.-6 que que on ind.-3 a 
 
 awoke him. Have they not inclosed the suburbs in the 
 reveiller ind.-3 on fauxbourg m. pi. 
 
 city ? Will you enclose your park with a wall or a hedge ? Put 
 ville f. de mur m. pr. haie f. mettez 
 
 the eggs of those silk -worms in the sun, that they may 
 
 aitfm.jA. uer-a-sozem.pl. a soleil m. 
 
 hatch. Those flowers, just blown, spread the sweetest 
 subj.-l f. 1 nouvdlement repandre doux 
 
 perfume. When did they conclude this treaty? His enemies 
 parfum m. ind.-4 traite m. 
 
 managed so well, that he was unanimously excluded from his 
 
 faire ind-3 unanimement 
 
 company. Did you think me capable of so black an act? 
 ccmpagme f. croire ind.-4 noir trait m. 
 
 Branch v. Rendre. 
 
 Resoudre, to resolve, a compound of the old verb 
 soudre, to solve, quite out of use : 
 
 Part. pres. resolvant — Past resolu m.-lue f. — or resous m. no fem. 
 Ind. pres. resous, resolvons, etc. — Imp. resolvais — Bret, resolus 
 Fut. resoudrai — Cond. resoudrais — Imp. resous, resolve, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres, resolve — Imp. resolusse 
 
 N. B. — This verb has two participles past, viz. 
 resolu, when it means decided, and resous, when it 
 means reduced into ; in this last sense it has no 
 feminine. 
 
 Absoudre, to absolve, defective, is conjugated 
 like resoudre ; it has neither preterit definite in the 
 indicative, nor imperfect in the subjunctive ; its 
 participle past is absous for the masculine, and 
 absoute for the feminine. 
 
 Dissoudre, to dissolve, is conjugated like absoudre, 
 n2 
 
274 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 it lias the same irregularities, and wants the same 
 tenses. 
 
 Coudre, to Sew, 
 
 Part. pres. cousant — past, cousu m. cousue f. 
 Ind. pres. couds, cousons, etc — Imp. cousais — Pret. cousis 
 Fut. coudrai — Cond. coudrais — Imp. couds., couse, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. couse — cousisse 
 
 N. B. — Dzcoudre, to unsew, and recoudre, to sew 
 over again, are conjugated in the same manner. 
 
 Mettre, to Put. 
 Part. pres. mettant — past, mis m. mise f. 
 Ind. pres. mets, mettons, etc — Imp. mettais — Pret. mis 
 Fut. mettrai — Cond. mettrais — Imp. mets, mette, etc. 
 
 Subj. pres. mette — Imp. misse 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner admettre, to 
 admit; commettre, to commit; compromettre, to 
 compromise ; demettre, to turn out, to disjoint ; 
 o?nettre 9 to omit; permettre, to permit; pro?nettre, 
 to promise ; remettre, to put again, to restore ; 
 soumettre, to submit; transmettre, to transmit ; and 
 s'entremettre, to intermeddle. 
 
 exercise on B. 5, Resou&re, etc. 
 
 The wood which is burned resolves itself into ashes and 
 bois m. on bruler ind.- 1 se resoudre en cendre f. pr. 
 
 smoke. Have they resolved on peace or war ? The fog 
 fumee f. on * art. f. art. f. houillardm. 
 
 has resolved into rain. Could that judge thus lightly absolve 
 se resoudre inf.-4 pluie f. se legerement cond.-l 
 
 the guilty ? Strong waters dissolve metals. My 
 
 coupable m. pi. art. fort 2 f. pi. art. 
 
 daughter was sewing all day yesterday. Does he set a great 
 fille f. ind.-3 * hier m. mettre 
 
 value upon riches ? I never admitted those principles. Has he 
 prix m. a art. 
 committed that fault? If he would believe me, he would resign 
 
 faute f. ind.*2 se demettre 
 
 his charge in favour of his son. He put his 
 cond- 1 de f. en faveur se demettre * art 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 275 
 
 arm (out of joint) yesterday. I will omit nothing that depends 
 bras m. * de rien de ce dependre 
 
 on me to serve you. God frequently permits the 
 
 ind. -7 de pour que 
 
 wicked to prosper. Put .his book in its place again. 
 
 mediant m. pi. * prosper er subj.-l remettre a * 
 
 Under whatever form of government you (may live), re- 
 
 quelque gouvernement m. que 
 
 member that your first duty is to be submissive to the laws. It 
 
 devoir m. de sournis 
 
 frequently happens that fathers transmit to their children their 
 
 arriver art. 
 
 vices and their virtues. He has for a long while interfered 
 
 * * -temps s'entremettre 
 
 with public affairs : but his endeavours have not been crowned 
 de art. effort couronner 
 
 with success. 
 de art. m, 
 
 Moudre, to Grind. 
 
 Part. pres, moulant — Past, moulu 
 
 Ind. pres. mouds — Imp. moulais — Fret, moulus — Fut. moudrai 
 
 Cond. moudrais — Imp. mouds, qu'il moule, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. moule — Imp. moulusse 
 
 In the same manner are conjugated emoudre, to 
 grind (knives, razors, etc.) ; and remoudre, to grind 
 again. 
 
 Prendre, to Take. 
 
 Part. pres. prenant — Past, pris m. se f. 
 Ind. pres. prends — Imp. prenais — Pret. pris — Fut. prendrai 
 Cond. prendrais — Imp. prends, prenne, prenons, etc. 
 
 SuB.pres. prenne — Imp. prisse 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner apprendre, to 
 learn ; comprendre, to apprehend, to understand ; 
 deprendre, to loose, to part ; desappre?idre, to 
 unlearn ; se meprendre, to mistake, to be deceived ; 
 entreprendre, to undertake; reprendre, to take 
 again, to reply : and surprendre, to surprise. 
 
276 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 Rompre, to Break. 
 
 Part. pres. rompant — past, rompu m. ue f. 
 
 Ind. pres. romps — Imp. rompais — Pret. rompis — Fut. romprai 
 
 Cond. romprais — Imp. romps, rompe, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. rompe — Imp. rompisse 
 
 In the same manner are conjugated corrornpre, 
 to corrupt, and interrompre, to interrupt. 
 
 exercise on Moudre, Prendre, etc. 
 
 I took great pains ; but, at last I ground all the coffee, 
 
 ind. -3 beaucoup de sing, enfin 
 
 Grind these razors with care. Those knives (are just) ground. 
 
 rasoir m. couteaum. venir d'etre 
 
 This grain is not sufficiently ground, it should be ground 
 
 assez falloir ind.-l le inf.-l 
 
 again. I wish that you would take courage. What news have 
 
 vouloir — 
 
 you learnt ? Philosophy comprehends logic, ethics, 
 
 f. art. art. logique f. art. morale £ 
 
 physics, and metaphysics. It is (with difficulty) that 
 
 art. physique f. art. metaphysique f. Ce difficilement que 
 
 he (gets off) from his opinions. He has forgotten all that 
 
 se deprendre* — desapprendre ce que 
 
 he knew. I fear you will undertake a task above your 
 
 ind. -2 que subj.-l tdche f. au-dessus de 
 
 strength. Could he have been mistaken so grossly ? I reproved 
 f. pi. cond.-2 grossierement reprendre 
 
 him continually of his faults, but (to no purpose). We sur- 
 ind.-2 sam cesse defaut inutilement 
 
 prised the enemy and cut them in pieces. In the middle of the 
 pi. tailler en a 
 
 road, the axletree of our carriage (broke down.) Bad 
 
 chemin essieu m. carrosse se rompre art. 
 
 company corrupts the minds of young people. WTiy do you 
 f. pi. gens pourquoi 
 
 interrupt your brother when you see him busy ? 
 quand occupe 
 
 * Deprendre being now very little used, it is better to employ either the verba 
 se detacher or se departir, etc. — Noel and Chapsal 
 
OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 277 
 
 Suivre, to Follow. 
 Part. pres. suivant— Past, suivi m. ie f. 
 Ind. pres. suis — Imp. suivais — Pret. suivis — Fut. suivrai 
 Cond. suivrais — Imp. suis, suive, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. suiye — Imp. suivisse 
 
 S'ensuivre, to ensue, and poursuivre^ to pursue, 
 are conjugated in the same manner, 
 
 Vaincre, to Conquer. 
 
 Part. pres. vainquant — Past, vaincu m. ue f. 
 
 Ind. pres. vaincs* — Imp. vainquais* — Pret. vainquis — Fut. vaincrai 
 Cond. vainerais — Imp. vaincs*, vainque, vainquons*, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. vainque* — Imp. vainquisse 
 
 N. B.— All the tenses of this verb marked with 
 an asterisk are very little used. Conjugate in the 
 same manner convaincre, to convince. These two 
 verbs are irregular, only because the c is changed 
 into qu before a, e, i 9 o. Convaincre is used through 
 all its tenses and persons. 
 
 Battre, to Beat. 
 
 Part. pres. battant — Past battu 
 
 Ind. pres. bats — Imp. battais — Pret. battis — Fut. battrai 
 
 Cond. battrais — Imp. bats, batte, etc. 
 
 Sub. pres. batte — Imp. battisse 
 
 Ahattre, to pull down ; combative, to fight ; 
 s'ehattre, to rejoice (an old word, almost out of use), 
 and rebattre, to beat again, to repeat, are conju- 
 gated in the same manner. 
 
 Etre, to be, which has already been conjugated 
 through, p. 183. 
 
 Vivre, to Live. 
 Part. pres. vivant — past, vecu 
 
 Ind. pres. vis — Imp. vivais — Pret. VQcns—'Fut. vivrai 
 Cond. vivrais — Imp. vis, vive 
 
 Sub. pres. vive — Imp. vecusse 
 
 Conjugate in the same manner revivre, to revive, 
 and survivre, to survive. 
 
278 OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 (For a long while) we followed that method, which was only 
 
 Long-temps 2 ind.-3 1 f. ind.-2 ne que 
 
 fit to mislead us. What (is the consequence) ? See the errors 
 
 propre egarer que s'ensuivre 
 
 which have sprung from that proposition, which ap- 
 
 s'ensuivre ind.-4 f. pi. — f. 
 
 peared so true. We followed our road, when some cries 
 
 ind.-2 ind.-2 chemin lorsque de art. cri m. pi. 
 
 which came from the midst of the forest, carried 
 
 * sortir inf. -3 fond m. porter ind.-3 art. 
 terror into our souls. The Greeks vanquished the Persians at 
 
 ejjroi m. Grec Perse a 
 
 Marathon, Salamis, Platea, and Mycale. I have, at last, con- 
 
 pr. Salamine, pr. Platee pr. 
 
 vinced him, by such powerful reasons, of the enormity of his 
 
 de art. si fort 2 f. pi. I = 
 
 fault, that I (have no doubt) but he will repair it. It 
 
 faute f. ne douter nullement que ne reparer subj.-l Ce 
 
 is during winter that they thrash the corn in cold countries. 
 
 pendant art. on froid 2 pays 1 
 
 The enemies were so well beaten in that engagement, that they were 
 
 rencontre f. 
 
 forced to abandon thirty leagues of the country. The cannon 
 
 de lieue f. * pays 
 
 (threw down) the tower. They fought with unexampled 
 
 abattre ind.-3 ind.-2 art. sans exemple 
 
 fury, when a panic terror made them take flight 
 
 acharnement m. panique f. ind.-3 lew art. fuite f. 
 
 and dispersed them in an instant. Beat these mattresses 
 
 rehattre fnatelas m. pi. 
 
 again. Happy those who live in solitude ! Long live 
 
 * art. retraite f. que 1 4 subj.-l 3 
 that good king ! He did not long survive a person who was so 
 
 2 long-temps ind.-3 a f. 
 
 dear to him. Fathers live again in their children. He was in 
 
 art. 
 a strange dejection of mind ; the news which he has received, 
 
 accablement f. £ 
 
 has revived him. 
 faire revivre 
 
TABLE OF VERBS. 
 
 279 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 The two following tables exhibit the primitive 
 tenses of the regular and irregular verbs, and some 
 of the defective, with the pages where the other 
 tenses are to be found; it will prove useful to 
 consult them. 
 
 TABLE OF THE PRIMITIVE TENSES OF THE FOUR 
 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 IN FIN. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PAST. PRESENT. 
 
 PRET. DEF. 
 
 Parler 
 
 P&rlant 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 1 Parle J Je parle 
 
 Je parlai 
 
 Pa?e 
 I 191 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 Tunir 
 
 Sentir 
 
 Mentir 
 
 Se repentir 
 
 Pai-frV 
 
 Sortir 
 
 Dormir 
 
 SernV 
 
 Ouvrtr 
 
 Couv rir 
 
 Oftrir 
 
 Soufirir 
 
 Tenir 
 
 Venir 
 
 Yxxnissant 
 
 Sent ant 
 
 Mentant 
 
 Se ienenta?it 
 
 Parte nt 
 
 Soitant 
 
 Dormant 
 
 Servant 
 
 Ouvrant 
 
 Couvrant 
 
 OtTrant 
 
 SouffV ant 
 
 Tenant 
 
 Venant 
 
 Fn?ii 
 Senti 
 Menti 
 
 Repent 
 
 Par** 
 
 Sorti 
 
 Dorm* 
 
 Servi 
 
 OvLvert 
 
 Convert 
 
 OfTert 
 
 Souffert 
 
 Tenu 
 
 Venu 
 
 Je pun is 
 Je sens 
 Je me ns 
 Je me repent 
 Je pars 
 Je sors 
 Je dor* 
 Je sers 
 J'ouvre 
 Je couvre 
 J'ofire 
 Je souffrc 
 Je tiens 
 Je viens 
 
 Je rmnis 
 Je sentis 
 Je menu's 
 Je me repentw 
 Je park's 
 Je sortis 
 Je dormis 
 Je servis 
 J'ouvris 
 Je couvm 
 J'ofire* 
 Je souffm 
 Je tins 
 Je vins 
 
 203 
 203 
 203 
 
 222 
 
 203 
 
 Receuoir 
 Devoir 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 Kecevant 
 Devant 
 
 Regit 
 Du 
 
 Je repot* 
 Je dois 
 
 Je re cms 
 Je dus 
 
 211 
 Z12 
 
280 
 
 TABLE OF VERBS. 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRESENT | PAST. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. PRET. DEE. 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 Repandre 
 
 Bepan&ant 
 
 Repandw 
 
 Je repandj 
 
 Rendre 
 
 Ren da nt 
 
 Rendw 
 
 Je rend* 
 
 Fondre 
 
 Fondant 
 
 Fondw 
 
 Je fond 5 
 
 Repondre 
 
 Repondarctf 
 
 Repondw 
 
 Je reponds 
 
 Tondre 
 
 Tondant 
 
 Tondtt 
 
 Je tonds 
 
 Perd/e 
 
 Perdawtf 
 
 Perdw 
 
 Je perds 
 
 Mordre 
 
 Mordant 
 
 Mordw 
 
 Je mords 
 
 Tordre 
 
 Toidant 
 
 Tordw 
 
 Je tord* 
 
 Vlaire 
 
 Vlaisant 
 
 Pitt 
 
 Je plais 
 
 Taire 
 
 Taisant 
 
 Tu 
 
 Je Xais 
 
 Taiaztre 
 
 Paraissant 
 
 Paru 
 
 Je parais 
 
 Croitre 
 
 Croissant 
 
 Crw 
 
 Je crois 
 
 Connaitre 
 
 Connaissant 
 
 Connw 
 
 Je connaz's 
 
 Hepaitre 
 
 Kepaissant 
 
 Repw 
 
 Je re-pais 
 
 Reduire 
 
 Re&uisant 
 
 Redm'£ 
 
 Je reduis 
 
 Instruire 
 
 Instiuisant 
 
 Instrmtf 
 
 J'instruis 
 
 Craindre 
 
 Craignant 
 
 Craint 
 
 Je crains 
 
 Peindre 
 
 Peignant 
 
 Feint 
 
 Je peiw* 
 
 Joindre 
 
 Joignant 
 
 Joint 
 
 Je joins 
 
 Je repandzs 
 Je rendzs 
 Je fondis 
 Je repondz's 
 Je tondz's 
 Je perdz* 
 Je moid is 
 Je tordzs 
 Je plus 
 Je tus 
 Je para* 
 Je crus 
 Je connws 
 Je repw* 
 Je reduim 
 J'instruisz* 
 Je cvaignis 
 Je peignis 
 Je ]o\gnis 
 
 Vagi 
 
 215 
 
 PRIMITIVE TENSES OF THE IRREGULAR WITH SOME 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 Aller j Allant | Alle | Je vais j J'allai 
 
 SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 J 243 
 
 Fleurir j 
 Hair 
 
 Fleurissant 
 Florissant 
 
 | Fleuri 
 
 Je ileuris 
 
 Je fleuris 
 
 250 
 
 Haissant 
 
 Hai 
 
 Je hais 
 
 Je hais 
 
 250 
 
 Gesir* 
 
 Gisant 
 
 
 11 git 
 
 
 251 
 
 Bouillir 
 
 Bouillant 
 
 Rouilli 
 
 Je Lous 
 
 Je bouillis 
 
 251 
 
 j£bouillir 
 
 
 J^bouilli 
 
 
 
 252 
 
 Courir 
 
 Courant 
 
 Couru 
 
 Je cours 
 
 Je eourus 
 
 252 
 
 Faillir 
 
 Faillant* 
 
 Failli 
 
 Je faux* 
 
 Je faillis 
 
 252 
 
 Defaillir 
 
 
 Defailii 
 
 Nous defaillons 
 
 Je defaillis 
 
 253 
 
 Fuir 
 
 Fuyant 
 
 Fui 
 
 Je fuis 
 
 Je fuis 
 
 253 
 
 Mourir 
 
 Mourant 
 
 Mort 
 
 Je meurs 
 
 Je mourus 
 
 253 
 
 Aequerir 
 
 Acquerant 
 
 Acquis 
 
 J'acquiers 
 
 J'acquis 
 
 254 
 
 Conquerir 
 
 Conquerant 
 
 Conquis 
 
 Je conquiers 
 
 Je conquis 
 
 255 
 
 Ou'ir 
 
 Oyant* 
 
 Oui 
 
 
 J'ouis 
 
 255 
 
 Vetir 
 
 Vetant 
 
 Vetu 
 
 Je vets 
 
 Je vetis 
 
 255 
 
 Revetir 
 
 Revetant 
 
 Revetu 
 
 Je revets 
 
 Je revetis 
 
 255 
 
 Cueillir 
 
 Cueillant 
 
 Cueilli 
 
 Je cueille 
 
 Je cueillis 
 
 257 
 
 Saillir 
 
 Saillant 
 
 Sailli 
 
 11 saille 
 
 11 saiTlit 
 
 257 
 
 Tressaillir 
 
 Tressaillant 
 
 Tress ailli 
 
 Je tiessaille 
 
 Je tressaillis 
 
 257 
 
 N.B.— The tenses marked with an asterisk are obsolete. 
 
TABLE OF VERBS. 
 
 281 
 
 IN FIN. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRESENT. j PAST. 
 
 PRESENT. PRET. DEF. 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 Ayant 
 
 Echeant 
 
 Mouvant 
 
 Pleuvant 
 
 Pouvant 
 
 Sachant 
 
 Seyant 
 
 Seant 
 
 As seyant 
 
 Voyant 
 
 Prevoyant 
 
 Pourvoyant 
 
 Valant 
 
 Voulant 
 
 Eu 
 
 Chu 
 
 Dechu 
 
 Echu 
 
 Fallu 
 
 Mu 
 
 Promu 
 
 Plu 
 
 Pu 
 
 Su 
 
 Sis 
 
 Assis 
 
 Sursis 
 
 Vu 
 
 Prevu 
 
 Pourvu 
 
 Valu 
 
 Vouiu 
 
 J'ai 
 
 Je dechois 
 II echoit 
 II faut 
 Je mens 
 
 II pleut 
 Je puis 
 Je sais 
 II sied 
 
 J'assieds 
 Je sursois 
 Je vois 
 Je prevois 
 Je pourvois 
 Je vaux 
 Je veux 
 
 J'eus 
 
 Je dechus 
 J'echus 
 II fallut 
 Je mus 
 Je promus* 
 II plut 
 Je pus 
 Je sus 
 
 J'assis 
 Je sursis 
 Je vis 
 Je previs 
 Je pourvus 
 Je valus 
 Je voulus 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 Solvant* 
 
 Resolvant 
 
 /resous \ 
 (.resolu J 
 Absous 
 
 Je resous 
 
 Je resolus 
 
 Absolvant 
 
 J'absous 
 
 
 Dissolvant 
 
 Dissous 
 
 Je dissous 
 
 
 Cousant 
 
 Cousu 
 
 Je couds 
 11 sourd 
 
 Je cousis 
 
 Mettant 
 
 Mis 
 
 Je mets 
 
 Je mis 
 
 Mouiant 
 
 Moulu 
 
 Je mouds 
 
 Je moulus 
 
 Pre nan t 
 
 Pris 
 
 Je prends 
 
 Je pris 
 
 Romp ant 
 
 Rompu 
 
 Jo romps 
 
 Je rompis 
 
 Suivant 
 
 Suivi 
 
 Je suis 
 
 Je suivis 
 
 S'ensuivant 
 
 Ensuivi 
 
 11 s'ensuit 
 
 11 s'ensuivit 
 
 Vainquant 
 
 Vaincu 
 
 Je vaincs* 
 
 Je vainquis 
 
 Battant 
 
 Battu 
 
 Je bats 
 
 Je battis 
 
 Etant 
 
 Eve 
 
 Je suis 
 
 Je fus 
 
 Vivant 
 
 Veeu 
 
 Je vis 
 
 11 brait 
 
 Je vecus 
 
 Faisant 
 
 Fait 
 
 Je i'ais 
 
 Je fis 
 
 Trayant 
 
 Trait 
 
 Je trais 
 
 
 Naissant 
 
 Ne 
 
 Je nais 
 
 Je naquis 
 
 Renaissant 
 
 
 Je renais 
 
 Je renaquis* 
 
 Paissant 
 
 Pu 
 
 Je pais 
 
 
 Bruyant 
 
 
 
 
 Luisant 
 
 Lui 
 
 Je luis 
 
 
 Nuisant 
 
 Nui 
 
 Je nuis 
 
 Je nuisis 
 
 Conusant 
 
 Confit 
 
 Je confis 
 
 Je confis 
 
 Suffisant 
 
 Suffi 
 
 Je suffis 
 
 Je suffis 
 
 The tenses marked with an asterisk are obsolete. 
 
282 
 
 TABLE OF VERBS. 
 
 INFIN. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRESENT | PAST. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRET. DEF. 
 
 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION continued ; 
 
 Page 
 
 Circoncire 
 
 Circoncisant 
 
 Circoncis 
 
 Je circoncis 
 
 Je circoncis 
 
 268 
 
 Dire 
 
 Disant 
 
 Dit 
 
 Je dis 
 
 Je dis 
 
 269 
 
 Med ire 
 
 Medisant 
 
 Medit 
 
 Je medis 
 
 Je medis 
 
 269 
 
 Mau dire 
 
 Maudissant 
 
 Maudit 
 
 Je raaudis 
 
 Je maudis 
 
 269 
 
 Ecrire 
 
 Ecrivant 
 
 Ecrit 
 
 J'ecris 
 
 J'ecrivis 
 
 269 
 
 Lire 
 
 Lisant 
 
 Lu 
 
 Je lis 
 
 Je lus 
 
 270 
 
 Rire 
 
 Riant 
 
 Ri 
 
 Je ris 
 
 Je ris 
 
 270 
 
 Frire 
 
 
 Frit 
 
 Je fris 
 
 
 270 
 
 Boire 
 
 Buy ant 
 
 Bu 
 
 Je Lois 
 
 Je bus 
 
 271 
 
 Clore, clorre 
 
 
 Clos 
 
 Je clos 
 
 
 271 
 
 Conclure 
 
 Concluant 
 
 Conclu 
 
 Je conclus 
 
 Je conclus 
 
 272 
 
 Exclure 
 
 Excluant 
 
 /Excluor 
 \ exclus 
 Cm 
 
 ■J J'exclus 
 Je crois 
 
 J'exclus 
 
 272 
 
 Croire 
 
 Croyant 
 
 Je cms 
 
 272 
 
 Poindre 
 
 
 
 11 point 
 
 
 
 N.B. 
 
 -The derivative tenses will be found with the primitives to which we have 
 given references. 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE A r EEBS. 283 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 
 
 %* We hope the Pupil will find great assistance from the following 
 method of conjugating French Verbs. 
 
 PARADIGM 
 
 Showing the identity of French Verbs in the ending of Syllables. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Pres. er ir oir re parler, agir, devoir, rendre 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 Pres. ant for every verb parlant, agissant, devant, rendant 
 
 re m. ee f. i m. ie f.-\ 
 
 Past. < u m. ue f. s m. se f. Kparle, agi, du,fait, mis, rendu 
 
 t t. m. tef.J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 
 J e 
 
 tu 
 
 il 
 
 nous 
 
 vous ils 
 
 
 1. 
 
 e 
 
 es 
 
 e 
 
 ons 
 
 ez ent 
 
 faime, es, e, I love 
 
 2, 
 
 s 
 
 g 
 
 t 
 
 oris 
 
 ez ent 
 
 je sens s, t, I feel 
 
 3. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 t 
 
 ons 
 
 ez ent 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 je veux, x, t, I am willing 
 
 i. 
 
 ais 
 
 ais 
 
 ait 
 
 ions 
 
 iez aient 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 je parlais,je sentais 
 
 1 
 
 ai 
 
 as 
 
 a 
 
 ames 
 
 ates erent 
 
 je parlai^j^aimai 
 
 •2. 
 
 is 
 
 is 
 
 it 
 
 imes 
 
 ites irent 
 
 fagis,jefis 
 
 3. 
 
 us 
 
 us 
 
 ut 
 
 umes 
 
 utes urent 
 
 je recus, jefus 
 
 4. 
 
 ins 
 
 ins 
 
 int 
 
 inmes 
 
 intes inrent 
 
 je tins, je vins 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 1. rai ras ra rons rez rout je devrai, j' aimer ai 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 1. rais rais rait rions riez raient je devrais, j'aimerais 
 
284 SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 je tu il nous vous ils Compound Tenses, 
 
 I. e es e ions iez ent que faime, queje sente 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 1. sse sses t ssions ssiez ssent que faimasse, sentisse 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 1. e qu'il qu'ils parle, qu'il parle 
 
 2. s e ons ez ent lis, qu'il Use 
 
 Observe that this general rule suffers exceptions, 
 as it may have been perceived in some persons of 
 the verbs avoir, etre, aller, dire, /aire, convaincre, 
 and vaincre. 
 
 OF REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Two things are to be observed in the conjugation 
 of a verb ; viz. the radical and final letters. A 
 regular verb keeps its radical letters throughout the 
 conjugation. 
 
 The radical letters of a verb are those which 
 precede the final, which are common to all the 
 verbs of the same conjugation, and consequently 
 varying their terminations according to circum- 
 stances, whilst the radical remain unchangeable : 
 for instance, in aimer, to love, sentir, to feel, the 
 syllables aim and sent are the radical letters, and er 
 and ir the final ones ; therefore to conjugate a verb 
 after any paradigm or model, it is necessary to 
 observe what are the radical letters in the two verbs 
 and add to the radical the final or termination which 
 is wanted. 
 
 Let us suppose for instance, that we want to find 
 out the first person plural of the future of the verb 
 aimer, having parler for paradigm. I observe that 
 the above two verbs both end in er, having for their 
 radical the one aim and the other pari ; then I look 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 
 
 285 
 
 for the conjugation of parler as being the paradigm, 
 and find parlerons, the very tense wanted ; now if 
 I take off' the final erons and carry it to the radical 
 aim, I shall have dimerous, or the first person 
 plural of the future I wanted to find out. 
 
 i. regular conjugation in er, ant, e. 
 
 As the termination of er, ant, e, of the first re- 
 gular conjugation offers no difficulty, we shall omit 
 it and pass to the second. 
 
 ii. regular conjugation in ir, issant, L 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Punir Part, pres. punissant — Past, pimi m. ief. is and ies pi 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 je til il nous vous 
 
 Pres. pun-is is it issons issez 
 
 Imp. pun-issais issais issait issions issiez 
 
 Pret. pun-is is it imes ites 
 
 Put. pun-irai iras ira irons irez 
 
 Con. pun-irais irais irait irions iriez 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 que 
 Pres. pun-isse isses isse issions issiez 
 Imp. pun-isse isses it issions issiez 
 Imp. pun- is isse issons issez 
 
 ils Com. Tenses, 
 issent j'ai puni 
 issaient f avals puni 
 irent feus puni 
 iront faurai puni 
 iraient faurais puni 
 
 que 
 issent faie puni 
 issent feusse puni 
 issent 
 
 About two hundred verbs in civ, dir,gir, mir, nir, 
 tir, etc., are conjugated in the same manner. 
 
 The following table is a list of the most useful 
 verbs of the second conjugation, which being re- 
 gular, are all conjugated like the paradigm punir. 
 
286 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 
 
 abolir 
 
 to abolish 
 
 fournir 
 
 to furnish 
 
 abrutir 
 
 to besot 
 
 *fleurir 
 
 to flourish 
 
 accomplir 
 
 to accomplish 
 
 fremir 
 
 to shudder 
 
 adoucir 
 
 to sweeten 
 
 garantir 
 
 to warrant 
 
 offer mir 
 
 to strengthen 
 
 
 f to garnish 
 I to furnish 
 
 agir 
 
 to act 
 
 garnxr 
 
 aigrir 
 
 to anger 
 
 gemir 
 
 to groan 
 
 amortir 
 
 to quench 
 
 guerir 
 
 to cure 
 
 aneantir 
 
 to annihilate 
 
 *hair 
 
 to hate 
 
 appauvrir 
 
 to grow poor 
 
 invest ir 
 
 to invest 
 
 applaudir 
 
 to applaud 
 
 jouir 
 
 to enjoy 
 
 assortir 
 
 to match 
 
 langidr 
 
 to languish 
 
 assouvir 
 
 to satisfy 
 
 compdtir 
 
 to commiseraie 
 
 as&ujettir 
 
 to subject 
 
 murir 
 
 to ripen 
 
 avertir 
 
 to warn 
 
 meurtrir 
 
 to bruise 
 
 bannir 
 
 to banish 
 
 munir 
 
 to stare 
 
 bdtir 
 
 to build 
 
 nourrir 
 
 to nourish 
 
 *benir 
 
 to bless 
 
 obeir 
 
 to obey 
 
 blanchir 
 
 to whiten 
 
 pdlir 
 
 to grow pale 
 
 cherir 
 
 to cherish 
 
 perir 
 
 to perish 
 
 choisir 
 
 to choose 
 
 polir 
 
 to polish 
 
 convertir 
 
 to convert 
 
 pourrir 
 
 to rot 
 
 diver tir 
 
 to divert 
 
 refroidir 
 
 to grow cold 
 
 eblouir 
 
 to dazzle 
 
 rejouir 
 
 to rejoice 
 
 eclair civ 
 
 to clear 
 
 remplir 
 
 to fill 
 
 elargir 
 
 to widen 
 
 resplendir 
 
 to shine 
 
 endurcir 
 
 to harden 
 
 retentir 
 
 to resound 
 
 engloutir 
 
 to swallow up 
 
 reussir 
 
 to succeed 
 
 enrichir 
 
 to enrich 
 
 saisir 
 
 to seize 
 
 ensevelir 
 
 to shroud, bury 
 
 subir 
 
 to undergo 
 
 etrecir 
 
 to straighten 
 
 terrdr 
 
 to tarnish 
 
 etablir 
 
 to establish 
 
 vieillir 
 
 to grow old 
 
 sevanouir 
 
 to swoon 
 
 unlr 
 
 to unite 
 
 finir 
 
 to finish 
 
 
 
 Benir, fleurir, and hair, have some irregularities, see p. 250, irregular verbs. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 REGULAR CONJUGATION IN ir, (lilt* i. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Sentir — Part. pres. sentant- — Past, senti m. ie f. is, ies pi 
 INDICATIVE. 
 je tu il nous vous ils Com. Ten. 
 
 tons 
 
 tez tent j'ai senti 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 
 
 287 
 
 Imp. 
 Fret. 
 
 Fat 
 
 COND. 
 
 sent-ais 
 sent-is 
 sent-irai 
 , sent-irais 
 
 ais ait ions 
 is it imes 
 if as ira irons 
 irais irait irions 
 
 iez 
 ites 
 irez 
 
 iriez 
 
 aient 
 irent 
 iront 
 iraient 
 
 favais senti 
 feus senti 
 f aurai senti 
 faurais senti 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 que 
 sent-e 
 sent-isse 
 
 es e ions 
 isses it issions 
 
 iez 
 
 issiez 
 
 ent 
 
 issent 
 
 que 
 faie senti 
 feusse senti 
 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 sen- 
 
 s te tons 
 
 tez 
 
 tent 
 
 
 The verbs of this conjugation ending in tir in 
 the infinitive, drop the t in the first and second 
 persons singular of the present indicative, as sortir^ 
 to go out ; Ind. pres. je sors, tu sors, il sort. The 
 other verbs drop the letter which precedes ir in the 
 three persons singular of the same tense as above. 
 Example, servir, to serve ; Ind. pres.jesers, tu sers, 
 il sert. 
 
 The following are conjugated like sentir : 
 
 INFIN. FART. PRES. COM. PRES. 
 
 to consent consentir ... ...consentant * j"ai consenti 
 
 to give one thelie ...dementir dementant j'ai dementi 
 
 to disoblige desservir desservant j'ai desservi 
 
 to sleep dormir dormant j'ai dormi 
 
 to lull asleep endormir endormant j'ai endormi 
 
 to fall asleep s'endormir ...s'endormant ...je me suis endormi 
 
 to lie .mentir mentant j'ai menti 
 
 tosetout partir partant .je suis parti 
 
 to foresee pressentir . . .pressentant ...j'ai pressenti 
 
 to sleep again redormir redormant j'ai redormi 
 
 to fall asleep again .se rendormir ,se rendormant .je me suisrendormi 
 
 to set out again repartir repartant \ bo ^. J ® € ^ and 
 
 to repent se repentir ...se repentant ...je me suis repenti 
 
 to resent ressentir ressentant j'ai res senti 
 
 to go out again ...ressortir ressortant je suis ressorti 
 
 to serve servir servant j'ai servi 
 
 to make use of se servir de ..se servant de ...je me suis servi de 
 
 {both je suis and 
 j'ai sorti 
 
 to go out sortir 
 
 .sortant., 
 
288 
 
 SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 
 
 III. REGULAR CONJUGATION IN OJ>, Wit, U m. U€ f. 
 
 us m. pi., ues f. pi. 
 
 The third regular conjugation recevoir, to receive, 
 or devoir, to owe, does not offer more difficulty than 
 the first. Concevoir, to conceive ; apercevoir, to 
 perceive ; decevoir, to deceive, are regular and con- 
 jugated like recevoir or devoir. Observe that there 
 is no circumflex accent on redu, past participle of 
 redevoir, to owe again, but only on clu, past par- 
 ticiple of devoir. 
 
 
 IV. REGULAR CONJUGATION 
 
 in re, 
 
 ant, u. 
 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 
 
 Vendre — Part 
 
 . pres 
 
 vendant — Past, vendu m. ue 
 
 f. us, ues pi. 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Put. 
 
 Con. 
 
 vend-s 
 
 vend-ais 
 
 vend-is 
 
 vend-rai 
 
 vend-rais 
 
 tu 
 s 
 
 ais 
 is 
 ras 
 rais 
 
 il nous vous 
 vend ons ez 
 ait ions iez 
 it imes ites 
 ra rons rez 
 rait rions riez 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 ils 
 
 ent 
 
 aient 
 
 irent 
 
 ront 
 
 raient 
 
 Com. Tenses. 
 fai vendu 
 favais vendu 
 feus vendu 
 faurai vendu 
 faurais vendu 
 
 Pres. 
 Imp. 
 
 que 
 vend-e 
 vend-isse 
 
 es 
 
 isses 
 
 e ions iez 
 it issionsissiez 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 ent 
 
 issent 
 
 que 
 faie vendu 
 feusse vendu 
 
 
 vend- 
 
 s 
 
 e ons ez 
 
 ent 
 
 
 REGULAR CONJUGATION IN W, UlSant, Ult 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 Reduire — Part. pres. reduisant — Past, reduit m. tef. uits, uites pi. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 j e tu il nous vous ils Com. ^Tenses. 
 
 Pres. redu-is is it isons isez isent fai reduit 
 
SUPPLEMENT TO THE VERBS. 
 
 289 
 
 INDICATIVE continued. 
 
 
 je 
 
 tu 
 
 il nous vous 
 
 ils 
 
 Com. Tenses, 
 
 Imp. 
 
 redui-sais 
 
 sais 
 
 sait sions siez 
 
 saient 
 
 favais reduit 
 
 Pret 
 
 redui-sis 
 
 sis 
 
 sit simes sites 
 
 sirent 
 
 feus reduit 
 
 Fut. 
 
 redui-rai 
 
 ras 
 
 ra rons rez 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 ront 
 
 faurai reduit 
 
 
 redui-rais 
 
 rais 
 
 rait rions riez 
 
 raient 
 
 faurais reduit 
 
 redui- 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 i sons sez sent 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 que 
 Pres. redui-se ses se sions siez 
 Imp, redui-sisse sisses sit sissions sissie 
 
 sent 
 sissent 
 
 que 
 fate reduit 
 feusse reduit 
 
 Verbs in this conjugation ending in gnant in the 
 present participle, as joindre, to join ; peindre, to 
 paint; co?itrai?idre, to constrain ; etc., take g before 
 the letter n in the three persons plural of the indi- 
 cative present; in the whole of the imperfect, etc. 
 —(See the fourth conjugation of verbs, p. 215.) 
 
290 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions are words which serve to express the 
 relations of things one to another, and this they do 
 by joining the noun or pronoun following to the 
 word that precedes them. When we say le fruit de 
 Varbre, the fruit of the tree, de expresses the rela- 
 tion between fruit and arhre. When we say utile a 
 Vhomme, useful to man, a makes the noun homme 
 relate to the adjective utile. De and a are prepo- 
 sitions, and the word which follows them is called 
 the regimen of the preposition. 
 
 These words are prepositions, because they are 
 generally placed before the noun which they 
 govern. 
 
 There are different kinds of prepositions ; the 
 principal ones are as follows : 
 
 Those denoting place are : 
 
 1st. Chez, at. // est chez-lui, he is at home. 
 
 2ndly. Dans, in. II se promene dans le jardin, 
 he is walking in the garden. 
 
 3rdly. Devant, before. B est toujours devant mes 
 yeux, he is always before my eyes. 
 
 4thly. Derriere, behind. // ne regarde jamais 
 derriere lui, he never looks behind him. 
 
 5thly. Parmi, among. Que de fous parmi les 
 hommes! How many fools among men ! 
 
 6thly. Sous, under. La taupe vit sous terre, the 
 mole lives under ground. 
 
 7thly. Sur, upon, on. II a le chapeau sur la 
 tete, he has his hat on (his head). 
 
 8thly. Vers, towards. Laimant se tourne vers le 
 nord, the loadstone points towards the north. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 291 
 
 exercise on the foregoing Prepositions. 
 
 We find less real happiness in an elevated condition than in a 
 On de bonheur 2. — f . 1 
 
 middling state. One is never truly easy but at home. 
 
 moyen 2 1 veritablement tranquille que soi 
 
 He walked before me to serve me as a guide. There was a de- 
 
 marcher pour de * — ind.-2 
 
 lightful grove behind his house. Among (so many) different na- 
 
 2 bosquet 1 tant de 2 
 
 tions, there is not one that has not a religious worship. 
 
 1 y en avoir subj.-l 2 culte m. art. 
 
 Nature displays her riches with magnificence under the torrid 
 
 deployer — torride 2 
 
 zone. Eternal snows (are to be seen) on the summit of 
 
 f. 1. de art. 3 5 f. pi. 4 on I voir 2 ind.-l sommet 
 
 the Alps. Towards the north, nature presents a gloomy and 
 
 art. triste 2 
 
 savage prospect. 
 3 aspect m. ] 
 
 Those denoting the order are : 
 
 1st. Avant, before. La nouvelle est arrivee avant 
 le courrier, the news is come before the courier. 
 
 2ndly. Apres, after. II est trop vain pour marcher 
 apres les autres, he is too proud to walk after other 
 people. 
 
 3rdly. Entre, between. Elle a son enfant entre 
 les b?*as, she holds her child between (in) her arms. 
 
 4thly. Depuis, since, from. Depuis la creation 
 jusqua nous, from the creation to the present time. 
 
 5thly. Des, from. Des son enfance, from his 
 infancy ; des sa source, from its source. 
 
 exercise on Avant, Apres, etc. 
 
 We (were up) before daylight, (in order to) enjoy the 
 se lever ind.-6 art. * pour de 
 
 magnificent spectacle of the rising sun. After such great 
 magnifique 2 m. 1 levant 2 1 de si 
 
 faults, it only remained for us to repair them (as well as 
 
 faute f. pi. ne r ester ind 2 * que reparer de notre 
 
292 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 we could). Between those two mountains is a hollow deep 
 mieux creux 2 et profond 3 
 
 road. Many very astonishing events (have taken place) 
 
 chemin m. 1 * de art. 2 1 il se passer ind. -4 
 
 tftt/Atit these ten years. .From the earliest infancy I have had an ab- 
 depuis * tendre * 
 
 horrence of lying- 
 
 horreur art. mensonge m. 
 
 Those denoting union are : 
 
 1st. Avec, with. II faut savoir avec qui on se 
 lie, we ought to know the persons with whom we 
 associate. 
 
 2ndly. Durant, during. Durant la guerre, 
 during the war ; durant Vtte, during the summer. 
 This preposition expresses a continued duration. 
 
 3rdly. Pendant, during, in. Pendant Vhiver, in 
 the winter time ; pendant la paix, in time of peace. 
 This preposition denotes a duration limited, re- 
 stricted to a given time. 
 
 4thly. Outre, beside. Outre des qualites aimables, 
 il faut encore, etc., beside aimiable qualities, there 
 ought still, etc. 
 
 Bthly. Suivant, according. Je me deciderai sui- 
 vant les circonstances, I shall determine according 
 to circumstances. 
 
 6thly. Selon, according, by. Le sage se conduit 
 selon les maximes de la raison, a wise man acts 
 according to the dictates of reason. 
 
 exercise on Avec, Durant, etc. 
 
 With wit, politeness, and a little readiness to oblige, 
 
 de art. pr. art. peu de prevenance a 
 
 one generally succeeds in the world. We are fit for medita- 
 
 On propre a art. — f. 
 
 tion during winter. In the course o/that siege, the commandant of 
 
 siege m. — 
 
 the city made some very lucky sallies. Beside the exterior 
 ind.-3 de art. heureux sortie f. pi. 2 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 293 
 
 advantages of figure, and the graces of deportment, she pos- 
 
 1 art. — art. maintien 
 
 sesses an excellent heart, a just mind, and a sensible soul. Always 
 avoir 2 12 1 2 1 
 
 behave yourself according to the maxims which I have inculcated 
 se conduire f. pi. inculquer 
 
 on you. 
 
 Those denoting opposition are : 
 
 1st. Contre, against. Je plade contre lui, I 
 plead against him. 
 
 2ndly. Malgre, in spite of. // Va fait malgre 
 moi, he has done it in spite of me. 
 
 3rdly. Nonobstant, notwithstanding. Nonobstant 
 ce qiCon lui a dit, notwithstanding what has been 
 said to him. 
 
 exercise on the three foregoing Prepositions. 
 
 We cannot long act (out of) our own character ; notwith- 
 savoir cond.-l agir contre * 
 
 standing all the pains we take to disguise it, it shows itself 
 que pour se montrer 
 
 and betrays us on many occasions. In vain we dissemble 
 
 trahir en bien de art. nous avoir beau faire 
 
 in spite of ourselves, we are known at last. 
 
 a la longue 
 
 Those denoting separation are : 
 
 1st. Saris, without. Des troupes sans chefs, 
 troops without, commanders. 
 
 2ndly. Excepte, except. Excepte quelques mal- 
 henreux, except some wretches. 
 
 3rdly. Hors, except, save. Tout est perdu hors 
 Vhonneur, all is lost save honour. 
 
 4th ly. Uormis, except, but. Tous sont entrts 
 hormis mon frere, they are all come in but, except, 
 my brother. 
 
294 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 exercise on Sans, Excepte, etc. 
 (Had it not been for) your care, I should have been ignorant all 
 sans pi. un 
 
 my life-time. All the philosophers of antiquity, except a few 
 * art. = tres- 
 
 have held the world to be eternal. All laid down 
 petit nombre croire * * mettre bas 
 
 their arms, except two regiments, who preferred making their 
 
 * art. sefaire 
 
 way through the enemy. Everything is absurd and ridi- 
 jour au tr avers de pi. 
 
 culous in that work, except a chapter or two. 
 ouvrage m. 
 
 Those denoting the end are : 
 
 1st. Envers, towards, to. II est charitable envers 
 les pauvres, he is charitable to the poor. 
 
 2ndly. Touchant, respecting. // a ecrit touchant 
 cette affaire, he has written respecting that business. 
 
 3rdly. Pour, for. II travaille pour lebien public, 
 he labours for the public good. 
 
 exercise on the three above Prepositions. 
 I have written to you concerning that business in which I take the 
 most lively interest, and as I know your benevolence towards the 
 
 vif 2 1 bienveillance f, 
 
 unfortunate, I (make not the least doubt) that you (will carefully 
 malhcureux ne douter nuUement donner tons vos 
 
 attend) (to it), (not so much) for the satisfaction of obliging 
 soins subj.-l y moins inf.-l 
 
 me, as for the pleasure of justifying innocence and confounding 
 justifier art. pr. confondre 
 
 calumny, 
 art. f. 
 
 Those denoting the cause and the means are : 
 1st. Par, by. 17 Va fitchi par ses prieres, he has 
 
 softened him by his prayers. 
 
 2ndly. Moyennant^ by means, for, J7 reussira 
 
 rnoyennant vos avis, he will succeed by means of 
 
 your counsels. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 295 
 
 3rdly. Attendu, on account of, for. 27 ne penf 
 partir attendu les vents contraires, he cannot sail os 
 account of contrary winds. 
 
 exercise on the foregoing Prepositions. 
 
 Is there any man that has never been softened by 
 Y avoir aucun subj.-l fiechir subj.-3 art. 
 
 tears, or disarmed by submission? Through the precautions 
 
 ni desarmer art. — 
 
 which we took, we avoided the rocks of that dangerous coast. 
 que ind.-3 ecueil m. pi. 2 cote f. I 
 
 Owing to the bad state of my father's health, I shall not travel 
 
 voyager 
 this year. 
 annee f. 
 
 The use of the three following ones is much 
 varied and very extensive. 
 
 A generally denotes the end and limit of a rela- 
 tion. It denotes the place we are going to, the end 
 we have in view ; aller a JLondres, to go to London ; 
 courir a sa perte, to run to one's ruin ; aspirer a la 
 gloire, to seek after glory. It also denotes the place 
 we are at ; etre a Rome, to be at Rome ; time, a 
 ?nidi, at twelve o'clock; circumstances, a ce sujet, 
 on this subject ; the manner, supplier a mains 
 jointes, to beg hard ; and by analogy, peindre a 
 I'huile, to paint in oil colours ; the state we are m, 
 etre a son aise, to be at ease ; the quality of things, 
 bas a troisfils, three thread stockings ; the end and 
 the use of a thing, une table a manger ^ the dining 
 table ; the disposition of a person, homme a reussir, 
 a man (capable) to succeed ; and by analogy, crime 
 a ne pas pardonner, a crime not to be forgotten, 
 etc. 
 
 exercise on a. 
 
 Fathers ! give good counsels, and still better examples to 
 de encore 2 pr. meilleur 1 
 
296 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 your children. A good minister only aims at the glory of well 
 
 ne aspirer que a 
 serving his country. When we were in the country, we devoted 
 servir pays ind.-2 a campagne f. consacrer 
 
 the morning to study, we (took a walk) at noon, and at 
 ind.-2 art. se promener ind.-2 midi 
 
 three or four o'clock, we went a hunting or fishing. 
 
 heure ind.-2 art. chasse f. pr. art. peche f. 
 
 Michael Angelo has painted a great deal in fresco. It is a bed with 
 Michel Angelo fresque Ce lit m. 
 
 ivory posts and hind's feet. That man, with his gloomy 
 colonne d'ivoire pr. pied de biche * sombre 2 
 
 looks and blunt deportment, seems to me fit only 
 
 regard m. 1 pr. art. brusque 2 maintien m. 1 ne que 
 
 to serve as a bugbear. 
 de * ipouvantail 
 
 De generally denotes the place where we come 
 from, the point where a thing begins, from which 
 it is extracted, from which it takes its name ; as je 
 viens de France , I come from France ; dun bout a 
 V autre, from one end to the other. It also expresses 
 the relations of appurtenance, le palais du roi, the 
 king's palace ; les facultes de fame, the faculties of 
 the soul ; homme d? esprit, a man of wit ; femme de 
 sens, a woman of sense; a part of a whole, moitie 
 de 9 the half of; quart de, the fourth part of; the 
 state, mourir de /aim, de soif, to die of hunger, of 
 thirst ; the means, vivre de fruits, to live upon fruit ; 
 sauter dejoie, to jump for joy, etc. 
 
 exercise on De. 
 
 I come from London, where I have spent a week very agree- 
 ou passer huit jours 
 
 ably. From one end of the horizon to the other, the sky was 
 
 bout m. m. del m. 
 
 covered with thick and black clouds. The marble of 
 
 tpais 2 noir 3 nuage m. pi. 1 
 
 Paros is not finer than that which we get from Carrara. Mon- 
 
 nous vient Carrare 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 297 
 
 taigne, Mad. de Sevigne, and la Fontaine, were writers of 
 
 ind. -2 de art. ecrivain uti 
 truly original genius. One half of the terrestrial world is covered 
 
 2 3 1 terrestre globe m. 
 
 with water, and above a (third part) of the rest is (without inha- 
 
 plus de tiers m. inhabite 
 
 bitants), either through extreme heat or through excessive 
 ou par un 2 chaleur f. I un — 2 
 
 cold. In that happy retreat, we lived on the milk of our 
 froid m. 1 asile ind.-2 
 
 flocks, and the delicious fruits of our orchards. 
 brebis pr. — 2 I verger m. pi. 
 
 En generally relates to time and place ; etre en 
 Angleterre, to be in England ; aller en Italie, to 
 go to Italy. It also denotes the state ; etre en bonne 
 same, to be in good health ; en pais, at peace ; en 
 guerre^ at war ; the cause, il T a fait en haine de lui, 
 he did it through hatred for him, etc. 
 
 exercise on En. 
 
 He had for a (long while) lived in France, of which he 
 3 * depuis 1 * long-temps 2 vivre ind.-2 
 was passionately fond; the troubles which agitated that 
 aimer passionnement le sejour ind. -2 — ind. -4 
 
 fine kingdom obliged him to retire to Switzerland, whence he 
 
 royaume m. ind.-4 de se retirer Suisse d'ou 
 
 soon after set off for Italy. We weie at peace, and 
 
 se rendre ind. -4 ind. 2 pron. 
 
 enjoyed all its charms, when ambition rekindled the torch 
 ind.-2 de art. ralhtmer ind. -3 feu 
 
 of war, and forced us to put our frontiers into a state of 
 
 art. ind. -3 de mettre frontier es f. pi. * 
 
 defence. The savage is almost continually at war; he cannot 
 
 presque toujours 
 remain in quiet. He has acted, on this occasion, like a great 
 
 repos dans or en 
 
 man. 
 
 o2 
 
298 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions joined to an English verb and which 
 are not expressed in French : 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 
 to pull down 
 
 abattre 
 
 to take away 
 
 oter, enlever 
 
 to give up 
 
 abandonner 
 
 to comment upon 
 
 paraphraser 
 
 to seal up 
 
 cacheter 
 
 to bring back 
 
 ramener 
 
 to fill up 
 
 comhler 
 
 to find out 
 
 trouver 
 
 to tear off 
 
 dechirer 
 
 to go up 
 
 monter 
 
 to root out 
 
 deraciner 
 
 to go down 
 
 descendre 
 
 to fly away 
 
 s'envoler 
 
 to come in 
 
 entrer 
 
 to wipe off 
 
 epoudrer 
 
 to go out 
 
 sortir 
 
 to faint away 
 
 s'evanouir 
 
 to look at 
 
 regarder 
 
 to turn out 
 
 expulser 
 
 to look for 
 
 chercher 
 
 to get up 
 
 se lever 
 
 to wonder at 
 
 admirer 
 
 to send for 
 
 mander 
 
 to wait for 
 
 attendre, etc 
 
 
 Observations. 
 
 
 Verbs composed with a preposition. 
 
 The English give to many of their verbs a signi- 
 fication quite opposite to the primitive one, by pre- 
 fixing to them the preposition unor dis ; the French 
 give it by prefixing des to the words which begin 
 with a vowel or h mute, and de to those which 
 begin with a consonant. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 border 
 dehor der 
 compter 
 decompter 
 
 to border 
 to zmborder 
 to count 
 to discount 
 
 approuver 
 desapprouver 
 honorer 
 dishonorer 
 
 to approve 
 to disapprove 
 to honour 
 to dishonour 
 
 The English put the word again after a verb to 
 express the reiteration of a thing ; the French 
 express it by prefixing the preposition re to the 
 verb when it begins with a consonant, and r only 
 when it begins with a vowel or h mute. 
 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 appeler 
 
 to call 
 
 demander to ask 
 
 Tappeler 
 
 to call again 
 
 redemander to ask agai 
 
 kabitter 
 
 to dress 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 xhabiUer 
 
 to dress again 
 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 299 
 
 CPAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 The Adverb is a word indeclinable, which is 
 generally joined to the verb or the adjective in 
 order to determine its signification. When we say 
 cet enfant parle distinct ement, that child speaks dis- 
 tinctly, by the word distinct entente w r e give to under- 
 stand that he speaks one way rather than another. 
 
 There are adjectives which are sometimes used 
 as adverbs, as il chant Juste, he sings right ; elle 
 chant e faux, she sings out of tune ; its ne voient pas 
 clair 9 they do not see clear ; cette Jieur sent hon, 
 this flower has a good smell, etc. The adjectives 
 juste, faux, clair, and bon, are here used as 
 adverbs. 
 
 Most of the French adjectives become adverbs 
 by altering their final according to the three fol- 
 lowing rules. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Adjectives which end in ant or ent become ad- 
 verbs by changing the final ant in amment^ and ent 
 into eminent, as constant, prudent, patient, adjec- 
 tives : const amment, prudemment, patiemment, ad- 
 verbs. The only exceptions are lentement and 
 prtsentement , from the adjectives lent and present. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Adjectives which end in a vowel become adverbs 
 by adding ment to the final, as sage, poli, ingenu, 
 adjectives ; sagement, poliment, ingtnument, ad- 
 verbs. The adjectives beau, foil, nouveau, andmou, 
 become adverbs by adding ment to their feminine 
 
300 
 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 belle, folle, nouvelle, and molle ; bellenient,follement, 
 nouvellement, mollement. 
 
 Exception. — Impuni makes impunement, and 
 tr (litre* traitreusement. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Adjectives which end neither with a vowel nor in 
 ant or ent in the masculine singular, become ad- 
 verbs by adding ment to their feminine termination, 
 as grand, doux, heureux, adjectives masculine ; 
 grande, douce^ heureuse, adjectives feminine; grande- 
 ment, doucement, heureusement, adverbs. 
 
 Exception. — Gentil makes genthnent, prettily. 
 
 The e which precedes ment is generally mute in 
 adverbs formed from adjectives, except however 
 the following, which take t instead of the mute e f 
 as 
 
 aveuglement 
 commodement 
 
 blindly 
 commodiously 
 
 enormement 
 opirddtrement 
 
 enormously 
 obstinately 
 
 incommodement 
 
 communement 
 
 confusement 
 
 expressement 
 
 conformement 
 
 incommodiously 
 
 commonly 
 
 diffusedly 
 
 expressedly 
 
 conformably 
 
 importunement 
 ohscurement 
 precisement 
 profondement 
 
 importunately 
 obscurely 
 precisely 
 deeply 
 
 and a few others which may be learnt by practice. 
 
 N.B. — It must be observed that the e sharp in 
 the adverb ement, generally comes from the adjec- 
 tives which have that e acute in their masculine, as 
 aise, easy ; adverb aisement ; mod'trt, moderate ; 
 adverb modtrtment ; and so forth. 
 
 Observation. 
 The following are not derived from adjectives : 
 
 eomment 
 
 how 
 
 profusement 
 
 lavishly 
 
 incessament 
 
 presently 
 
 nuitammi nt 
 
 by night 
 
 notamment 
 
 especially 
 
 sciemment 
 
 knowingly 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 301 
 
 Adverbs denoting manner, and a few others have, 
 like adjectives, the three degrees of comparison, as 
 profondement, aussi, plus, or mains profondement, 
 fort, Men, or tres profondement, and le plus pro- 
 fondement. 
 
 The following are irregular ; 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 bien well 
 
 mieux better 
 
 le mieux the best 
 
 mal bad 
 
 pis worse 
 
 le pis the worst 
 
 peu little 
 
 moins less 
 
 le moins the least 
 
 COMPOUND ADVERBS. 
 
 Compound adverbs in adverbial French locution, 
 consist of the assemblage of several words, which 
 being put together, have the signification of ad- 
 verbs, as 
 
 a contre-sens 
 
 a contre-temps 
 
 mal-a-propos 
 
 tout-a-coup 
 
 tout-a-faii 
 
 tour-a-tour 
 
 peu-a-peu 
 
 wrong sense 
 
 untimely 
 
 unseasonably 
 
 unexpectedly 
 
 entirely 
 
 by turn 
 
 little by little 
 
 a peu-prds 
 
 de temps en temps 
 
 tout-a-lheure 
 
 sens dessus-dessous 
 
 pele-mele 
 
 a Pamiable 
 
 thereabout 
 
 now & then 
 
 presently 
 
 topsy-turvy 
 
 confusedly 
 
 amicably 
 
 How to distinguish an Adverb from a Preposition. 
 
 The difference between an adverb and a prepo- 
 sition is known by the regimen, which is either ex- 
 pressed or understood after the preposition, whilst 
 the adverb stands always alone, and never followed 
 by any other word related to it, as 
 
 U est arrive avant moi he has arrived before me 
 
 vous creusez trop avant you dig too deeply 
 
 In the first sentence, avant is a preposition fol- 
 lowed by its regimen moi, and in the second, it is 
 an adverb of place, after which there is no other 
 word. 
 
302 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 exercise on the foregoing Rules. 
 
 Bourdaloue and Massillon have both spoken very 
 
 — — Vun et V autre 
 
 eloquently on evangelical truths; but the former has principally 
 evangelique 2 1 
 
 (proposed to himself) to convince the mind ; the latter has gene- 
 se proposer convaincre 
 
 rally had in view to touch the heart. Several of la Bruyere's cha- 
 en vue de 
 
 racters are as finely drawn, as delicately expressed. Buffon is one 
 finement trace 
 
 of the best writers of the last age: he thinks deeply, draws 
 
 siecle m. peindre 
 
 strongly, and expresses himself nobly. Corneille and Racine are the 
 two best French tragic writers ; the former's pieces are 
 
 3 tragique 2 po'ete 1 art. 1 
 
 strongly, but incorrectly written ; the latter's are more regularly 
 
 2 3 1 celles 
 
 fine, more purely expressed, and more delicately imagined. 
 beau pense 
 
 Adverbs of Doubt and Affirmation. 
 
 There are still various sorts of adverbs. 
 1st. Those denoting affirmation, as certes, cer- 
 tainly ; oui, yes ; soit, be it so ; volontiers, willingly. 
 Doubt. Peut-etre, perhaps. 
 Denial. Non, ne, ne pas, ne point, no, not. 
 
 exercise on the above. 
 
 Certainly, either I mistake, or the business passed 
 
 ou se tromper ind.-l se passer ind.-l 
 
 (in that manner). Do you think that he listens willingly to this 
 
 ainsi ecouter 
 
 proposition ? Have you ever read in Racine the famous scene of 
 Phaedra's delirium? Yes, I have, and I own it is one of the 
 delire m, la lu que 
 
 finest of the French theatre, Perhaps you will discover, on a 
 2 m, 1 dans 
 
 second perusal of la Fontaine's fables, beauties which you 
 
 lecture f. de art. que 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 303 
 
 had not perceived at first. Will you have some? No. Will 
 
 apercevoir f. pi. a art. f. 2 * en 1 2 
 
 you not have some ? The man who is willing to do good 
 
 rCen * pas 3 vouloir * * art. 
 
 is not stopped by any obstacle. I will pay him what 
 
 arrete aucun pas is not expressed lui ce que 
 
 I owe, but not all at once. 
 lui non pas dsni.foisf. 
 
 Adverbs of Order, Place, or Distance. 
 
 2ndly. Some denote the order or rank, as pre- 
 mierement, first ; secondement, secondly, etc. ; 
 d'abord, at first ; apres, after ; avant, auparavant, 
 before, etc. 
 
 3rdly. Others denote the place or distance, viz. 
 for the place, ou^ where ; ici, here ; la, there ; deqa 3 
 on this side ; dela, on that side ; partoitt, every- 
 where ; for the distance, pres, near; loin, far; 
 proche, nigh, etc. 
 
 exercise on the above. 
 
 We ought first to avoid doing evil ; aftenvards we 
 
 falloir ind.-l * de inf.-l art. 
 
 ought to do good. Read books of instruction first, and af- 
 
 * art. 1 art. 3 4 2 
 
 terwards you may pass to those of entertainment. If you will 
 
 * ind.-7 agreement vouloir s'en 
 
 go, settle first what is to be done. The painter had 
 aller regler auparavant ind.-l falloir * * inf.-l 
 (brought together) in the same picture several different objects; 
 
 rassemhler un tableau 
 
 there, a troop of Bacchants ; here, a troop of young people ; there, a 
 
 gens 
 sacrifice ; here, a disputation of philosophers. Sesostris carried 
 — te f. pousser 
 
 his conquests farther than Alexander did since. Call upon your 
 
 conquete ne ind.-l depuis passer chez 
 
 cousin ; he lives near (this place). I cannot see that, if I be not 
 loger 2 ici 1 ind.-l 
 
 near it. When he knew where he was, he began 
 
 aupres * quand savoir ind.-3 ind.-2 commencer ind.-3 
 
304 OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 to fear the consequences of his imprudence. The wicked is, 
 suite — ] 
 
 wherever he goes, agitated with remorse. Contemplate {at a dis- 
 
 tourmente de remords de 
 
 tance) the high mountains, if you wish to discover prospects 
 
 loin • vouloir * de art. site m. 
 
 varied and always new. 
 
 Adverbs of Time. 
 
 4thly. There are some that denote the time, 
 either in a determinate, or in an indeterminate 
 manner. Those denoting a determinate time are 
 for the present, maintenqni, now ; a present, at 
 present; actuellement, this moment, etc. For the 
 past, hier, yesterday ; avant-hier, the day before 
 yesterday ; autrefois, formerly, etc. And for the 
 future, demain, to-morrow ; apres-demain, the day 
 after to-morrow, etc. Those denoting an indeter- 
 minate time are, souvent, often ; d ordinaire, most 
 times; quelquefois, sometimes; matin, early; tot, 
 soon ; tard, late, etc. 
 
 exercise on the above Adverbs. 
 
 I have finished the work as you desired me; what do 
 achever que ordonner ind.-6 que 
 
 you wish me to do now? Formerly, education was neg- 
 
 2 vouloir 1 que 3 je * subj.-l — 
 
 lected ; it is wow (very much) attended to; it is (to be hoped) 
 
 on 1 4 beaucoup 3 s'occuper en2 falloir esperer 
 that new views will soon (be adopted). They grieved 
 
 on 1 5 3 2 adopter ind.- 7 de 4 on s'affligerind.-Z 
 
 (at it) yesterday ; now they laugh (at it], ; to-morrow it will no 
 
 en rire en on 
 
 longer be thought of. It is one of those accidents which it is 
 plus penser ind.-7 y 
 sometimes impossible to avoid. The dew incommoded me (very 
 
 de serein m. ind.-4 
 
 much) ; 1 shall not {in future) walk so late, Rude and 
 
 desormais malhonnete 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 305 
 
 coarse criticism generally (does greater injury) to the per- 
 
 grossier art. f. oVordinaire nuire plus 
 
 son who (permits himself) to exercise it, than to him who is the 
 se permettre * * celui 
 
 object (of it.) 
 en 
 
 Adverbs of Quantity. 
 
 5thly. Some express quantity ; as peu, little ; 
 assez, enough; trop, too much; beaucoup, much, 
 very much ; ta?it, so much, etc. 
 
 And, lastly, some express comparison ; as plus, 
 more; moins, less; aussi, so; autant, as much, etc. 
 
 exercise on the above Adverbs* 
 
 There are many people who have pretensions ; but very 
 y avoir beaucoup de * a * — 
 
 few who have well founded ones. To (bestow too much em- 
 qui en ind.-l * defondi f. pi. * * * 1 * 
 
 bellishment upon) a subject, frequently betrays a want of judgment 
 embellir 2 * souvent 2 etre 1 faute 
 
 and taste. One very often finds a listlessness in the midst of the 
 
 art. ennui a 
 most noisy pleasures. She is a giddy and thoughtless woman, 
 
 bruyant 2 1, Ce leger 2 inconsequent 3 1 
 
 who speaks much and reflects little. She has so much goodness, 
 
 reflechir de 
 
 that it is impossible not to love her. These stuffs are beautiful ; 
 
 etqffe f . 
 consequently cost dear. This book is valuable, but there are 
 
 aussi elles couter cher 
 some others as good. If he has done that, I can do (as much). 
 
 en * de en autant 
 
 What I say to you (about it) is meant less to give you 
 
 en ce * pour faire de art. 
 
 pain, than to warn you of what is said. She is 
 
 averiir art. propos pi. que on tenir avoir 
 
 six years younger than her brother. Nobody has more interest 
 
 de moins ne de 
 
 than you (have in the success) of the thing. You do not 
 
 a ce que reussir subj.-l 2 * 1 
 
306 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 offer enough for this gander; give something more. The more 
 offrir de de * 1 
 
 ignorant we are, the less so we (believe ourselves). 
 
 4 b?i 2 S * 1 le 4 2 croire 3 Vetre 5 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 The conjunction is a word which serves to con- 
 nect sentences. When we say, il pleure et rit en 
 meme temps, he cries and laughs at the same time, 
 this word et unites the first sentence il pleure with 
 the second il rit. Likewise, when we say, Pierre 
 et Paul rient, Peter and Paul laugh ; the word et 
 unites these two sentences into one, Pierre rit and 
 Paul rit. 
 
 There are different kinds of conjunctions. 
 
 1st, To unite two nouns or two verbs under the 
 same affirmation, or under the same negation ; et is 
 used for the affirmation, and ni, neither, nor, for 
 the negation. 
 
 2ndly. To denote an alternative, or distinction 
 between objects, we make use of ou, either, or; 
 soit que, whether, or; tantot, sometimes, etc. 
 
 3rdly. To restrict an idea, sinon, but, except ; 
 quoique, encore que, though, although ; a moins que, 
 unless, till. 
 
 exercise on the above Conjunctions. 
 
 Gold and silver are metals less useful than iron. 
 
 art. art. de art. art. 
 
 To listen with joy to a slanderer, and to applaud him, is to 
 
 * medisont * lui ce * 
 
 revive the serpent who stings, that he may sting more effec- 
 
 rechauffer piquer a fin que plus sure- 
 
 tually. I like neither the flatterer nor the wicked. Those who have 
 
 ment ni flatteur ni 
 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 307 
 
 never suffered, know nothing ; they know neither good nor 
 
 savoir connaitre art. bien pi. 
 
 evil. You may choose either a happy mediocrity, or a 
 art. mal pi. avoir a choisir de = f. de 
 
 sphere more elevated, but exposed to many dangers. He is an 
 
 f. bien de art. — Ce 
 
 inconsistent man ; he is sometimes of one opinion, and sometimes 
 sans consistance 2 1 tantot avis 
 
 of another. I have (nothing more) to say to you, only that I will 
 
 ne autre chose sinon que 1 3 
 
 have it so. I shall not yet pass to the perusal of the authors of 
 
 * 2 * encore lecture f. 
 
 the second c4ass, unless you advise me to do so. 
 
 or die m. ne conseiller subj.-l 1 * * 
 
 4thly. To express the opposition of an object to 
 another; mats, but; cependant, yet, nevertheless; 
 neanmoins, for all that, however ; pourtant, how- 
 soever, though ; toutefois, Men que, although. 
 These last five conjunctions have almost the same 
 meaning. 
 
 5th!y. To express a condition; si, if; sinon que, 
 except that ; a moins que, unless, till ; pourvu que, 
 save that ; a condition que, upon the condition that. 
 
 6thly. To express consent ; a la verite, indeed : a 
 la bonne heure, very well ; quand, when ; non que, 
 not that ; quoique, encore que, etc., though, for all 
 that. 
 
 7thly. To explain something ; savoir, dest-a-dire, 
 viz., that is to say; comme, as. 
 
 The serpent bites : it is only a bite ; but from this bite the 
 ce ne que morsure f. 
 
 venom communicates itself to the whole body : the slanderer speaks ; 
 venin 
 
 it is but a word, but this word resounds everywhere. (That is) 
 
 ne que parole f. retentir voild 
 
 certainly a superb picture ; nevertheless, there is some incorrectness 
 tableau incorrection 
 
308 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 in the design. Although Homer, according to Horace, slumbers 
 de * dessin sommeiller subj.l 
 
 (at times), he is nevertheless, the first of all poets. You will 
 quelquefois 1 en 34 ne 2 pas moins art. 
 
 succeed, provided you act with vigour. We surmount 
 
 pourvu que agir subj.-l 
 every obstacle, when it (is question) of gratifying our passions; 
 
 art. — pi. s'agir satisfaire 
 
 the least difficulty stops us, when it (is necessary) to combat them. 
 
 s'agir de 
 We have within us two faculties seldom united, viz. imagination 
 
 en art. 
 
 and judgment, 
 art. 
 
 8thly. To express relation or parity between two 
 propositions; comme, as ; ainsi, thus, so; de meme, 
 as, just as; ainsi que, as; autant que, as much as; 
 si que, so as ; etc. 
 
 9thly. To express augmentation or diminution; 
 1st. for augmentation ; d'ailleurs, besides, moreover; 
 outre que, besides that ; deplus, au surplus, besides, 
 furthermore ; 2nd. for diminution ; au moins, du 
 moins, pour le moms, at least. 
 
 lOthly. To express the cause or the wherefore of 
 a thing ; car, for ; comme, as ; parceque, besides ; 
 puisque, since ; pour, that, in order that, etc. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The most beautiful flowers last but a moment ; thus 
 
 durer ne que art. 2 
 
 human life passes away. The (greatest part) of mankind have 
 
 4 3 1 * plupart f. art. homme pi. pi. 
 
 like plants, hidden qualities that chance discovers. 
 
 art. de art. cache propriete art. has ard fair e decouvrir 
 
 Madame de Sevigne's letters are models of elegance, 
 
 art. de art. pr. 
 
 simplicity, and taste ; besides, they are replete with interesting 
 
 — pr. plein de 2 
 
 anecdotes. Nothing more entertaining than history ; besides 
 1 de amusant art. 
 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 309 
 
 nothing is more instructive. Circumstances show 
 
 de conusant art. occasion pi. faire connaitre 
 
 us to others, and still more to ourselves. I shall always advise 
 
 encore conseiller 
 
 you to take the ancients as your guides ; at least, quit but 
 de pour * s'eearter 2 de 5 ne 1 
 
 seldom the way which they have traced for you. We 
 que 3 4 6 route que 2 tracer f . 3 * 1 
 
 must, at least, know the general principles of a language, before 
 falloir inf.-l de 
 
 {we take upon ourselves) to teach it. Certain people hate 
 * se meter de * enseigner 2 1 f. gens 
 
 grandeur, because it lowers and humiliates 
 
 art. — f. ob. pron. rabaisser ob. pron. 
 
 them, and makes them feel the privation of the advantages 
 
 les que elle leur bien pi. 
 
 which they love. 
 
 llthly. To draw a conclusion; or, now; done, 
 then ; par consequent, consequently ; cest pourquoi, 
 therefore. 
 
 12thly. To express some circumstance of order or 
 time ; quand, lorsque, when ; pendant que, tandis 
 que, etc., whilst, while; tant que, as long as; de- 
 puis que, ever since ; avant que, before ; des que, 
 aussitot que, d'abord que, as soon as ; a peine que, 
 hardly, scarcely ; apres que, after that ; enfin, in 
 fine, finally, to conclude, etc. 
 
 13thly. To express the passage from one circum- 
 stance to another ; car, for ; en effet, indeed, in 
 effect; au reste, besides, otherwise; a propos, now 
 I think of it ; apres tout, after all. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 We ought to love what is amiable ; now, virtue is ami- 
 * falloir ind.-l * art. 
 
 able; therefore we ought to love virtue. We ought to practice 
 
 * ilfaut * * falloir * 
 
 what the gospel commands us ; now it commands us not only to 
 evangilem. 2 1 non de 
 
310 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 forgive our enemies, but also to love them. Despre'aux was 
 pardonner a encore de 2 I 
 
 extremely exact in not coming late, when he was in- 
 
 de la plus grande exactitude f. a inf.-l trop 
 
 vited to dinner; he said that all the faults of those who (are 
 
 ind.-2 defaut se /aire 
 
 waited for) present themselves to those who wait 
 
 attendre (active voice) 1 aitendre 3 
 
 for them. The pride, which possesses us, visible as it is, es- 
 
 * 2 tout que 
 
 capes our eyes, while it manifests itself to the eyes of the public, 
 
 a 
 and displeases every one. After we had examined that 
 
 choquer a art. esprit pi. iud.-5 
 
 singular effect, we (enquired into) its causes. We had hardly 
 
 1 2 rechercher 2 en art. ind.-2 
 
 done, when he came in. Pride counterpoises all our imperfections, 
 finir que entrer conire-peser misere pi. 
 
 for whether it hides them, or whether it discovers them, it glories 
 
 soit que cacher que se glorijier 
 
 in knowing them. None but an Englishman can (be a 
 
 de inf.-l y avoir ne que qui subj.-l 
 
 judge of) Shakespear ; for what foreigner is sufficiently versed in 
 
 juger 
 the English language to discover the sublime beauties of that 
 pour 
 
 author ? 
 
 The conjunction que serves to conduct the sense 
 to its complement. It is always placed between 
 two ideas, the first of which must always be fol- 
 lowed by another, in order to complete the sense ; 
 as il est tres-important que tout le monde soit in- 
 struit, it is of great importance that every body 
 should be well instructed. It differs from the 
 relative pronoun que, inasmuch as it can never be 
 turned into lequel, laqueile. The conjunction que 
 is generally repeated before every member of a 
 period. 
 
 The conjunction que also serves to complete a 
 comparison. UAsie est plus grande que V Europe, 
 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 311 
 
 Asia is larger than Europe. 2ndly, to express a 
 restriction in negative sentences ; on ne parle que de 
 la nouvelle victoire, they talk of nothing but the 
 new victory. — (See the syntax of conjunctions. 
 p. 503.) 
 
 exercise on Que. 
 As long as I live, this image will be before my eyes ; and, 
 
 ioute ma vie — f. peint 
 
 if ever the gods permit me to reign, I shall not forget, after so ter- 
 
 faire * 
 
 rible an example, that a king is not worthy of com- 
 
 mas not expressed) 
 manding, nor happy in his power, (but in proportion as) he sub- 
 et puissance f. quautant que sou- 
 
 jects it to reason. I am very glad to see that you do not love 
 mettre art. de 
 
 flattery, and that one (runs no risk) in speaking to you with sin- 
 
 ne hasarder rien a inf.-l 
 
 cerity. We have everything to fear from his wisdom, even more 
 
 encore 
 than from his power. What men style greatness, glory, power, 
 
 appeler 
 
 deep policy, is to the eyes of God but misery, weakness, and 
 prqfond politique f. n 1 
 vanity. 
 
 The conjunction que also serves to give more 
 force and grace, more vivacity and precision to 
 sentences. 
 
 1st. In elliptical turns, quil vive, may he live ; 
 that is, /e souhaite quil vive, I wish he may live. 
 
 2ndly. When it is put for a moins que, avant que, 
 sans que, as cela ne finira pas quil ne vienne, there 
 will be no end to it unless he come. 
 
 3rdly. When it is used instead of des que, aussitot 
 que, si, as qitil fasse le moindre exces, it est malade, 
 if he but indulge in a little excess, he is ill. 
 
 4thly. When it is put for jusqita ce que, as at- 
 tendez quil vienne, wait till he come. 
 
 5thly. When for pourquoi, as que ne se corrige-t- 
 il f why does he not reform ? 
 
312 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 exercise continued on Que. 
 
 May they understand, at last, that without internal peace there 
 
 art. 1 
 is no happiness ! May she be as happy as she deserves to be. 
 
 point de de 2 
 
 Never write before you have thoroughly examined 
 
 le 1 subj.-l sous toutes ses faces 2 1 
 
 the subject which you propose to treat. Let him but hear 
 
 3 se proposer de * entendre 
 
 the least noise, his terrified imagination presents to him nothing 
 
 but monsters. Do not sift this question, before I can 
 
 nequede approfondir we sub.- 1 
 
 (be your guide). Do not go out till your brother come? 
 vous mettre sur la vote ne rentrer 
 
 in. Why does he not (take advantage) of his youth, in order to 
 
 profiter 
 acquire the knowledge he wants ? 
 
 connaissances dont avoir besoin 
 
 6thly When it is used instead of comme or 
 parceque, as mediant qiiil est, wicked as he is. 
 
 7thiy. When it is put for combien, and then it 
 denotes admiration and the sudden emotions of the 
 soul, as que Dieu est grand! how great is the Al- 
 mighty ! queje Faime .' how I love him ! 
 
 Another very frequent use of this conjunction is 
 to put it for comme, parceque, puisque, quand, 
 quoique, si, etc., when to prepositions beginning 
 with these words, others are added under the same 
 regimen, by means of the conjunction et, as si Fon 
 aimait son pays, et qiton dtsirdt smcerement sa gloire, 
 on se conduirait de maniere, etc. ; if we loved our 
 country, and sincerely wished its glory, we should 
 act so as ? etc. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Full as he was of his prejudices, he would not agree to any 
 rempli ind.-3 convenir de 
 
OF INTERJECTIONS. 313 
 
 thing. Full of self-love (as he is), expect nothing good (from 
 
 petri 13 2 de 
 
 him). How beautiful is that cultivated nature ! How, through the 
 
 en 5 4 13 2 par 
 
 cares of man, it is brilliantly and pompously adorned ! Had 
 
 magnifiquement paree si de 
 
 profound philosophers presided at the formation of languages, 
 
 a art. 
 
 and had they carefully examined the elements of speech, 
 
 que avec soin art. discours 
 
 not only in their relations (to one another) but also in themselves, 
 non rapport entr'eux encore en 
 
 it is not (to be doubted) that languages would ofTer prin- 
 
 douteux art. subj.-2 de art. 
 
 ciples more simple, and at the same time, more luminous. 
 en mime 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Interjections are words which serve to express 
 the various sentiments and sudden emotions of the 
 soul. They have no fixed place in speech, but show 
 themselves accordingly as the sentiment that pro- 
 duces them comes to manifest itself externally. 
 The only thing to be attended to, is not to place 
 them between words which custom has made inse- 
 parable. There are interjections for every affection 
 of the mind, viz. 
 
 ["surprise ouais 
 
 \pain and grief ... aye! ah! helas ! ouf! Mon Dieu! etc, 
 
 \fear ha! he! 
 
 Jjoy and desire ... ah ! bon ! 6 ! 
 
 Fori aversion fi ! fi done ! oh oh ! 
 
 jderision oh! eh! zest! 
 
 /consent certes ! soit ! volontiers ! 
 
 /admiration oh! o! 
 
 \ astonishment ... oh! bon Dieu! misericorde ! 
 P 
 
1 14 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 {qare ! alerte ! hold ! tout beau ! chut ! hem I 
 hold he! 
 encouragement... oh! allons ! courage! 
 
 calling hold! ho! 
 
 silence chut! paix! st! 
 
 ! applauding bravo ! vivat ! 
 
 I encoring bis, bis ! encore, encore ! 
 
 i disgust pouah, pouah ! 
 
 For 
 
 RECAPITULATION ; 
 
 PROMISCUOUS EXERCISE ON THE NINE PARTS OF 
 SPEECH. 
 
 THE GOOD MOTHER. 
 
 1. What a fine morning ! said the amiable Charlotte to her 
 matinee f. ind.-3 
 brother George. Come, let us go into the garden and enjoy the 
 
 * inf.-l du 
 
 magnificent sight of a rich and fruitful nature. We will 
 spectacle m. 2 3 1 
 
 gather there the freshest and sweetest flowers. We will 
 
 cueilUr 3 ?/2 frais 2 art.-adv. odorant 3 f. pi. 1 
 
 make a nosegay which we will offer to mamma. You know 
 
 bouquet m. maman savoir que 
 
 she loves flowers. This attention will give her pleasure. Ah ! 
 art. f. — /aire lui 
 
 brother, it will obtain us a smile, a caress, perhaps even a 
 mon f. valoir sourire m. f. 
 
 kiss. Ah ! sister, replied George, your project delights 
 baiser m. ma repondre ind.-3 enchanter 
 
 me ; let us run, let us fly, that we may offer her | when she 
 
 courir voler afin de * * lui a son 
 
 rises | this homage of our gratitude and our love. Full of this 
 lever pr. plein 
 
 idea, Charlotte and George hastened into the garden. 
 
 se hater ind.-3 de se rendre 
 Charlotte gathered violets, jessamine, and young 
 
 ind.-3 pr. art pr. art. pr. de 
 
RECAPITULATION. 315 
 
 rose buds which had but just begun to open their 
 
 2 bouton m. 1 ne commencer que ind. -2 entfouvrir de 
 
 purple cups, while George prepared green sprigs of 
 
 pourpre 2 calice 1 ind. -2 art. verdoyant 2 jet m. 1 
 
 myrtle and thyme, designed to support flowers. Never had 
 myrie pr. tkym destine soutenir art. 1 ind.-2 3 
 
 these amiable children worked with | so much | zeal and ardour. 
 2 travailler tant de zele pr. 
 
 Satisfaction and pleasure were painted in all their 
 
 art. — f. art. qui ind.-2 peint 
 
 features, sparkled in their eyes, and still added to their beauty. 
 trait m. petiller ind. -2 encore 2 1 
 
 2. While they ]°*were employing themselves | in this manner, j 
 s'occuper ind.-2 ainsi 
 
 their mother, who had seen them in the garden, came to join 
 
 ind.-2 apercu ind.-3 * joindre 
 
 them. J As soon as | they perceived her, they flew to her, and 
 
 des que ind.-3 ind. -3 elle lid 
 
 said : Ah ! mamma, how glad we are to see you ! how | impa- 
 
 que aise 2 I de tarder ind. -2 
 
 tient we were | for this pleasure. In the pleasing expectation 
 
 a notre impatience d 'avoir ce dou.v attente f. 
 
 | of it, ] we were preparing this nosegay for you. What satisfac- 
 
 * ind. -2 * f. 
 
 tion should we have had in presenting it to you ! | Look at j 
 
 ne cond.-2 pas a 1 offrir 4 3*2 voir 
 
 these rose buds, these violets, this jessamine, this myrtle, and this 
 thyme. Well, we designed them for you. These flowers, 
 
 eh bien destiner ind. -2 * 
 
 coming from us, would have been dear to you. When you wore 
 
 cond.-2 cher en * porter inf. -2 
 
 thern, you would have said : My children were occupied about 
 
 cond.-2 s'occuper ind.-2 de 
 
 me, while I slept. I am always as present to their minds as to 
 
 dormir ind -2 
 their hearts. They love me, and it is by giving me every day 
 
 ce en art. pi. de 
 
 new proofs of their love, that they acknowledge the care 
 
 preuve f. reconnaitre soin m. pi. que 
 
 I have taken of them in their childhood and all the marks of ten- 
 derness I ( never fail | to give them. 
 que ne cesser de leur 
 
316 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 3. My dear children, replied the mother, embracing 
 
 repondre ind.-3 en embrasser 
 
 them, how charming you render all my days ! Your gratitude, 
 
 quel charme repandre sur * 
 
 your tenderness, your attentions to me make me forget my for- 
 
 pour oublier an- 
 
 mer misfortunes, and open my heart again to the soft impressions 
 cien malheur m. fouvrir * — f. 
 
 of pleasure. May Heaven continue to bless my 
 
 art. pouvoir subj.-l art. continuer a 
 
 labours ! May it be your guide and (your) support in the ca- 
 soin pouvoir — car- 
 
 reer which | will soon be opened | to you ! May it com- 
 riere f. aller ind.-l s'ouvrir devant mettre le 
 
 plete its kindness by preserving you from the dangers to 
 comble a bienfait pi. en gar antir inf. -2 de m. pi. 
 
 which you cannot fail to be soon exposed ! Alas ! I shudder | at 
 
 ne pas tarder ind.-7 * fremir 
 
 it | beforehand, my dear children ; the moment is come when you 
 en d'avance oil 
 
 must enter the world. Your figure, your birth, and your 
 devoir dans naissance 
 
 riches call you | to it, | and assure you a distinguished rank. 
 appeler y assurer 2 m, 1 
 
 1 cannot always be your guide. Young and inexperienced, you 
 ind.-7 sans experience 
 
 | will find yourselves | surrounded by every kind of seduction. 
 aller ind.-l se trouver — pi. 
 
 Everything, even vice, offers itself there in an ami- 
 
 jusque a art. m. y sous * de art. 
 
 able form, and almost always under the shape of pleasure, which 
 
 pi. image art. 
 
 has | so many | allurements for youth. They will try to 
 
 tant de attrait pi. art. jeunesse f. on chercher 
 
 mislead you, to corrupt you ; they will | make use of | artifice, 
 
 egarer employer art. — 
 
 raillery, and even of ridicule, and, if it is necessary, 
 
 art. art. meme 2 * art. 
 
 they will take also the mask of virtue. If you yield 
 
 jusque a masque m. art. se laisser aUer 
 
 to the first impressions, you are lost. The poison of example 
 — f. art. 
 
RECAPITULATION. 317 
 
 will insinuate itself into your hearts, will alter the innocence 
 se glisser alt ever 2 
 
 and purity | of them, [ and will substitute violent pas- 
 
 art, en 1 de art. dechirant — 
 
 sions for the gentle affections which have hitherto made 
 
 f. pi. jusqu'a present 
 
 you happy. 
 voire bonheur. 
 
 4. Do not believe, my dear children, that in placing before your 
 
 en mettre sous 
 eyes a picture of the dangers of the world, my intention is 
 
 art. tableau m. — subj.-l 
 
 to prohibit you every kind of pleasure. God forbid. 
 
 interdire espdce f. a neplaire subj.-l art. 
 
 Pleasure is necessary to man ; without it, our existence would 
 
 art. hi 
 
 be dreadful ; | and therefore [ Providence, always attentive to 
 
 affreux aussi art. 
 
 our wants, has multiplied its sources in ourselves and 
 
 besoin en t-elle * art. en 
 
 around us. But, in tasting the pleasures of the world, never | give 
 hors de en gouter se 
 
 yourselves up | to them | entirely. Take care that they do not 
 
 livrer y * avoir 
 
 govern you ; know how to quit them, the moment they 
 
 dominer savoir * * 2 1 de que 
 
 have | too much | empire over you. It is the only way to 
 
 prendre ind.-7 trop de ce de 
 
 enjoy voluptuously that delicious pleasure that we cannot find 
 
 avec volupte de 
 but in ourselves, and which has its source in a just and pure 
 que en dans droit 2 3 
 
 conscience. Ah ! why cannot I give you all my experience ? Why 
 
 — f . 1 que — ■ f. 
 
 cannot you read like me in the abyss of hearts ? With what 
 
 abime art. 
 astonishment would you not often see chagrin, agitation, and 
 
 art. — m. art. — 
 trouble, disguised under the appearance of joy and 
 art. — m. deguise sous apparence pi. art. pr. art. 
 
 calmness ; hatred and envy, hid under the air of con- 
 calme m. art. f. art. f. cache art. con- 
 
 fidence and friendship ; indifference and egotism, af- 
 
 Jiance f. pr. art. art. art. egoisme 
 
318 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 fecting the most lively interest ; the most dreadful and 
 
 vif art. -adv. 
 
 perfidious plots contrived coolly and in the dark ; in a 
 
 trame f. pi. ourdi de sangfroid tenebres f. pi. 
 
 word, the most odious vices endeavouring to show themselves 
 
 2 art. 1 s'efforcer de 
 
 under the features of their opposite virtues. In the 
 
 traits qui leur etre oppose 2 art. 1 
 
 world, there is but one spring ; that is self-interest. 
 
 ne que seul mobile m. ce art. personnel 2 1 
 Towards that every action is directed ; every 
 
 c'est a lui que art. pi, se rapporter (by the active) 
 
 thing tends to that as to its object. I know very well, my dear 
 
 lui Jin f. savoir 
 
 children, that your hearts will not be infected by this vice. The 
 
 de 
 
 sentiments of universal benevolence with which I | have always | 
 
 2 bienveillance 1 ne point cesser de 
 
 inspired you, and of which 1 have seen you give [ so many | proofs, 
 
 inf.-l tant de preuve 
 
 | remove beforehand every fear | I could have | upon that subject ; 
 
 rassurer d'avance 2 me 1 sur point m. 
 
 but will you not yield to others not less dangerous ? Cruel idea ! 
 de non f. 
 
 terrible uncertainty ! If this misfortune were to happen, ah ! my 
 affreux f. * * arriver ind.-2 
 
 dear children, instead of being the joy and consolation of my 
 
 art. — f. 
 
 life, you would be the torment, the shame, and the disgrace | of it. [ 
 
 13 4 5 opprobre en 2 
 
 You would empoison my days, and you would. bring death 
 
 empoisonner porter art. f. 
 
 into the very bosom which gave you life. But whither is 
 meme 2 sein m. 1 ind -3 art. oil * 
 
 my tenderness for you carrying me ? No, my children, no, I have 
 emporter non 
 
 nothing to fear, you love me too much to | be willing | to afflict 
 
 * pour voidoir * 
 
 me so cruelly ; and I shall have the pleasure, | as long as | I live, of 
 
 tant que ind. -7 
 seeing you walk in the ways of honour and virtue, 
 inf.-l art art. 
 
PART II. 
 
 THE SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax is the regular construction of the different 
 parts of speech, conformably to the rules of gram- 
 mar and the genius of a language. 
 
 Construction supposes three things in every 
 tongue : the choice of words 5 their concord, and their 
 arrangement i these objects will be found fully ex- 
 plained in the following rules. 
 
 As words may be considered both in their general 
 and particular construction, we will divide the 
 Syntax into two parts, viz. the General and the 
 Particular. 
 
 GENERAL SYNTAX. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 §1- 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 In the etymological part of this grammar, p-90, 
 it has been observed that proper names had no 
 plural, which number belongs only to common 
 names ; however, there are some of these that are 
 never used in the plural. 
 
 1st. The names of metals, considered in them- 
 selves and in their original state, as or, gold ; 
 platine, platina. 
 
320 
 
 GENEItni. SYNTAX 
 
 2ndly. The names of virtues and vices, as cnas- 
 tete, chastity ; ivrognerie, drunkenness, 
 
 3rdly. Some words relating to man, either in a 
 physical or moral sense, as route, hearing ; I'odorat, 
 smelling ; le sang, blood ; sommeil, sleep ; pauvrete, 
 poverty. 
 
 4thly. The infinitive of verbs and adjectives used 
 substantively, when usage does not allow them to 
 be accompanied by an adjective, as le lever, rising ; 
 le coucher, setting ; le beau, the beautiful ; le vrai, 
 the true, and a few others which cannot be reduced 
 to any particular class. 
 
 The following substantives have commonly no 
 plural, or are generally used in the singular. 
 
 Vabsinthe 
 
 wormwood 
 
 le miel 
 
 honey 
 
 Vartillerie 
 
 artillery- 
 
 la mollesse 
 
 effeminacy 
 
 le courroux 
 
 wrath 
 
 la noblesse 
 
 nobility 
 
 la disettp 
 
 scarcity 
 
 le pourpre 
 
 red fever 
 
 Venfance 
 
 infancy 
 
 le prochain • 
 
 our neighbour 
 
 Vestime 
 
 esteem 
 
 la renommee 
 
 fame 
 
 Vencens 
 
 incense 
 
 le repos 
 
 rest 
 
 t eucharistie 
 
 eucharist 
 
 le salut 
 
 salvation 
 
 la f aim 
 
 hunger 
 
 la soif 
 
 thirst 
 
 la gloire 
 
 glory 
 
 la vieillesse 
 
 old age 
 
 lajeunessc 
 
 youth 
 
 la viriiite 
 
 manhood 
 
 le lait 
 
 milk 
 
 
 
 Some others have no s 
 
 ingular, as : 
 
 
 les accordailles 
 
 espousals 
 
 les con fins 
 
 the confines 
 
 les annales 
 
 annals 
 
 les decombres 
 
 \ rubbish 
 
 les ancetres 
 
 ancestors 
 
 les depens 
 
 cost 
 
 les armoiries 
 
 coat of arms 
 
 les ecrouelles 
 
 the king's evil 
 
 les arrerages 
 
 arrears 
 
 les entraves 
 
 shackles 
 
 les arrhes 
 
 earnest-money 
 
 les entraiUes 
 
 bowels 
 
 les atours 
 
 elegant dress 
 
 les fiancaiUes 
 
 betrothing 
 
 les bestiaux 
 
 cattle 
 
 lesfrais 
 
 expenses 
 
 les broussailles 
 
 briars 
 
 les funer allies 
 
 funerals 
 
 les calendes 
 
 calends 
 
 les gens 
 
 people 
 
 les catacombes 
 
 catacombs 
 
 les mater iaux 
 
 materials 
 
 les ciseaux 
 
 scissars 
 
 les mocurs 
 
 manners 
 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 
 
 321 
 
 Us mouchettes 
 les munitions 
 les obseques 
 les pleurs 
 les proches 
 
 snuffers 
 
 ammunition 
 
 obsequies 
 
 tears 
 
 relations 
 
 les premiers 
 les represaiUes 
 les vivres 
 les tenebres 
 
 first-fruits 
 reprisals 
 victuals 
 darkness 
 
 les mathematiques mathematics 
 
 The following substantives are spelt alike both 
 in the singular and plural number. 
 
 as 
 avis 
 
 abatis 
 
 absces 
 ais 
 
 ablais 
 
 acces 
 
 anus 
 
 has 
 
 biais 
 
 bo is 
 
 bras 
 
 brebis 
 
 buis 
 
 cabas 
 
 canevas 
 
 cas 
 
 cens 
 
 cervelas 
 
 chamois 
 
 choix 
 
 croix 
 
 cliquetis 
 
 clos 
 
 commis 
 
 compromis 
 
 creux 
 
 courroux 
 
 corps 
 
 cours 
 
 chassis 
 
 debours 
 
 debris 
 
 dais 
 
 ace 
 advice 
 
 {the cutting off 
 tree branches 
 abscess 
 board 
 
 {corn cut, and 
 still lying 
 access 
 anus 
 
 stockings 
 bias 
 wood 
 arm 
 sheep 
 box tree 
 a frail 
 canvas 
 case 
 
 quit-rent 
 kind of sausage 
 wild-goat 
 choice 
 cross 
 
 {clashing of 
 swords 
 small enclosure 
 clerk 
 
 compromise 
 hollow 
 wrath 
 body 
 course 
 sash, frame 
 money advanced 
 waste 
 canopy 
 
 
 ^estimate of 
 
 devis 
 
 < building ex- 
 
 
 (. penses 
 
 excis 
 
 excess 
 
 flux 
 
 flux 
 
 fis 
 
 son 
 
 fonds 
 
 funds 
 
 fracas 
 
 crash 
 
 faix 
 
 burden 
 
 faux 
 
 scythe 
 
 qlas 
 
 tolling of a bell 
 
 ^gens 
 
 people 
 
 gdehis 
 
 plash 
 
 hautbois 
 
 hautboy 
 
 houx 
 
 holly 
 
 hachis 
 
 hash 
 
 jus 
 
 juice 
 
 legs 
 
 legacy 
 
 lambris 
 
 wainscot 
 
 laquais 
 
 footman 
 
 lis 
 
 lily 
 
 matelas 
 
 mattress 
 
 mois 
 
 month 
 
 mors 
 
 horse-bit 
 
 mepris 
 
 contempt 
 
 mets 
 
 J dish, dressed 
 \ meats, etc. 
 
 noix 
 
 walnut 
 
 nez 
 
 nose 
 
 OS 
 
 bone 
 
 ours 
 
 a bear 
 
 pas 
 
 step 
 
 puits 
 
 a well 
 
 paix 
 
 peace 
 
 palais 
 
 palace 
 
 pays 
 
 country 
 
 panaris 
 
 whitlow 
 
 p2 
 
322 
 
 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 panais 
 
 parsnip 
 
 sour is 
 
 mouse 
 
 paradis 
 
 paradise 
 
 sucds 
 
 success 
 
 prix 
 
 price 
 
 sursis 
 
 delay 
 
 pais 
 
 pea 
 
 sens 
 
 sense 
 
 poids 
 
 weight 
 
 sur/aux 
 
 over-assessmen 
 
 poix 
 
 pitch 
 
 taffetas 
 
 taffeta 
 
 poids 
 
 pulse 
 
 tadlis 
 
 copse 
 
 pis 
 
 udder 
 
 tarn is 
 
 a seive 
 
 pus 
 
 matter 
 
 tapis 
 
 carpet 
 
 prods 
 
 law- suit 
 
 (as 
 
 a heap 
 
 propos 
 
 words 
 
 taux 
 
 rate 
 
 rabais 
 
 fall 
 
 temps 
 
 time 
 
 rebus 
 
 rebus, pun 
 
 tiers 
 
 ;hird 
 
 refus 
 
 refusal 
 
 toux 
 
 cough 
 
 rlz 
 
 rice 
 
 tracas 
 
 bustle 
 
 ris 
 
 laughter 
 
 travers 
 
 breadth 
 
 rela is 
 
 relay 
 
 treillis 
 
 sackcloth 
 
 reflux 
 
 reflux 
 
 trepas 
 
 death 
 
 remords 
 
 remorse 
 
 vernis 
 
 varnish 
 
 rendez-vous 
 
 appointment 
 
 vers 
 
 verse, poetry 
 
 repas 
 
 repast 
 
 vis 
 
 screw 
 
 repos 
 
 rest 
 
 voix 
 
 voice 
 
 ruhte 
 
 ruby 
 
 
 
 § II. OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 
 
 Formation of their Plural. 
 
 Rule I. When a word. is compound of a substan- 
 tive and an adjective, both take the mark of the 
 plural, as 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 un gentil-homme a nobleman des gentils-hommes 
 un arc-boutant a buttress des arcs-boutans 
 
 The adjective demi is an exception, as des demi- 
 dieux, des demUlivres. 
 
 Rule II. When a word is composed of a substan- 
 tive and a pronoun, both take the mark of the 
 plural, as 
 
 Singular 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 Monsieur 
 
 Sir 
 
 Messieurs 
 
 Madame 
 
 Madam 
 
 Mesdames 
 
 Mademoiselle 
 
 Miss 
 
 MesdemoiseUes 
 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 323 
 
 Rule III. When a word is composed of two 
 substantives not separated by a preposition, both 
 take also the mark of the plural, as 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 un garde-marine a midshipman des gardes-marines 
 
 un garde-role Master of the Rolls des gardes-roles 
 
 N. B. — When the word garde relates to persons, 
 it is not derived from a verb, and consequently 
 takes the mark of the plural ; but if it relates to 
 things, as un garde-manger, a larder, neither of the 
 two substantives takes the mark of the plural, we 
 say des garde-manger. 
 
 Rule IV. When a word is composed of two sub- 
 stantives separated by a preposition, the first only 
 takes the mark of the plural, as 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 un arc-en-ciel a rainbow des arcs-en-ciel 
 
 un chef-d'oeuvre a masterpiece des chefs-d'oeuvre 
 
 Rule V. When a word is composed of a substan- 
 tive and a verb, or a preposition, the substantive 
 alone takes the mark of the plural, as 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 un avant-coureur a forerunner des avant-eoureurs 
 
 un essuie-maitis a towel des essuie-mains 
 
 Un passe-partout, a master-key, being composed 
 of a verb and an adverb, does not take the mark of 
 the plural, we say des passe-partout. 
 
 EXERCISE ON SUBSTANTIVE AND COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 Gold is the most pure, the most precious, the most 
 art. parfait 
 
 ductile, and after platina, the heaviest of all metals. Chastity 
 
 pesant art. 
 
 is an obligation of all times, all ages, and all conditions. 
 * art. pr. art. pr. art. etat m. pi. 
 
 Intoxication, which proceeds from beer, is of longer duration 
 art. ivresse venir art. 
 
324 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 thai: that which proceeds from wine. It is the sense of 
 
 art. ce art 
 
 feeling, which teaches to guard against the errors of sight, 
 toucher apprendre se garantir de art. 
 
 Sleep is the image of death. Early learn 
 
 art. art. de bonne heure 2 apprendre 1 
 
 to distinguish truth from falsehood* That is more bitter than 
 — guer art. vrai art. faux amer 
 
 wormwood. Dignity of mind was formerly 
 
 de art. absinthe art. elevation art. sentiment m. pi. ind.-2 
 
 the (distinguishing mark of) noblemen. One of the but- 
 ce qui * distinguer art. arc- 
 
 tresses of the vault has fallen. He is always making 
 boutant m. pi. tomber * fait de art. 
 
 {cock and bull stories.) The Tartars always form the scouts 
 coq-d-Vdne m. pi Tartare etre avant-courevr 
 
 of an army. The fish-carriers did not arrive in time. This 
 m. pi. chasse-maree m. pi. ind -3 a 
 
 door is only fastened with a latch; and all (the persons) 
 
 ne que fermer a * art. loquet m. * ceux 
 
 in the house have each their key. 
 
 de passe-partout m. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 § I. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 We have already stated in speaking of the article, 
 (p. 95), that French grammarians generally admit 
 but of one article divided into simple and compound, 
 and un m. une f., a, an, which we call the indefinite 
 article, is nothing but the compound article used in 
 an indefinite sense; however, as foreigners are 
 sometimes at a loss how to translate it into French, 
 we shall endeavour to remove that difficulty by the 
 following explanation. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 325 
 
 When A or An is to be Suppressed or Expressed in 
 French. 
 A or an preceded by the verb to be, is suppressed 
 in French when the sense of the word to which a 
 or an relates, is not extended by some other expla- 
 natory words following it, as 
 
 Je suis Frangais I am a Frenchman 
 
 Vous etes Anglaise You are an Englishwoman 
 
 but if the sense of the proposition is developed by 
 additional words following the substantive, then a 
 or an must be expressed, as 
 
 Je suis un Frangais d'une illustre I am a Frenchman of an illus- 
 
 famule trious family 
 
 Je suis une princesse tres-mal- I am a very unfortunate princess 
 
 heureuse 
 
 A or an is likewise expressed in French when the 
 verb etre is preceded by the demonstrative ce, as 
 c est un trisor pour safamille, he is a treasure to his 
 family. 
 
 Before substantives expressing the quality of a 
 preceding noun, a, an is not expressed, as le Due 
 d'York, prince du sang, the Duke of York, a 
 prince of the blood. 
 
 N. B. — The above observation applies also to the 
 definite article the, as Telemaque^ Jils d Ulysse^ roi 
 d'ltaque, Telemachus, the son of Ulysses, king of 
 Ithaca. 
 
 EXERCISE ON THE ARTICLE. 
 
 I am a Frenchman and a merchant ; after having (been at) the 
 
 negotiant inf.-l parcouru 
 
 most famous (trading towns) in the Levant, my commercial con- 
 
 = echelle f. pi. — m. les affaires de mon 
 
 cerns have brought me here. I am an unhappy Frenchman 
 
 commerce conduire 
 
 who, a striking example of the vicissitudes of fortune, seek 
 * memorable 2 1 — art. chercher 
 
326 
 
 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 an asylum where I may end my clays in peace. He was a man 
 
 asile m. puisse finir ce 
 
 of uncommon probity and of tried virtue ; (as a) reward 
 
 un rare 2 f. 1 un eprouve 2 1 pour le recompenser 
 
 for the services he had rendered to the church and state, 
 
 de que m. pi. eglise pr. art. 
 
 the king has made him a bishop. Neoptolemus had hardly told 
 
 eveque Neoptoleme eut a peine dit 
 me, that he was a Greek, when I (cried out) : O enchanting 
 
 que s'ecrier ind.-3 doux 
 
 words, after so many years of silence and unceasing 
 
 parole f. pi. de sans consolation 2 pr- 
 
 pain ! O my son, what misfortune, what storm, or rather what 
 
 1 malheur m. tempete f. plutot 
 
 propitious wind has brought you hither to end my woes ? He 
 favorable 2 I conduire pour mal m. pi. 
 
 replied, I am of the island of Scyros, I am returning thither ; 
 repondre ind.-3 He retoumer y 
 
 (I am said) (to be) the son of Achilles. 
 
 on dit que ind.-l 
 
 § n. 
 
 The following table, in which the same words are 
 exhibited, with and without the article, as well as 
 the sentences at the end of this grammar, will show 
 that constant practice will be found the best master. 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE. 
 
 WITH THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The writings of Cicero are full 
 
 of the soundest 2 ideas 1 
 Divest yourself of the prejudices 
 
 se defaire prejuge 
 
 of childhood 
 The different kinds of animals 
 
 that are upon the earth 
 He enters into a detail of the 
 
 rules of a good grammar 
 He affects circumlocutions 
 chercher de detour 
 
 WITHOUT THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The writings of Cicero are full 
 
 of sound 2 ideas 1 
 
 Have no prejudice (with regard 
 to) this question. 
 sur 
 
 There are different kinds of ani- 
 mals upon the earth 
 
 He enters into a long detail of 
 frivolous 2 rules 1 
 
 He affects long 1 circumlocutions 
 2 in order to explain the sim- 
 plest 2 things 1 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 3'27 
 
 WITH THE ARTICLE. 
 
 He loads his memory with the 
 
 verses of Virgil and the phrases 
 
 of Cicero 
 Essays supported by strong 2 
 
 discours soutenu 
 
 expressions 1 
 He has collected precepts of mo- 
 recueillir sur 
 
 rality 
 
 mceurs pi. 
 Make use of the tokens we 
 
 se servir signe (dont) 
 
 agreed upon. 
 
 etre convenu 
 The choice of studies, proper, etc. 
 
 Knowledge has always been 
 connaissance pi. 
 
 the object of the esteem, the 
 
 praise, and the admiration of 
 
 eloge pi. 
 
 men 
 The riches of the mind can only 
 
 (be acquired) by study 
 
 ne que s'acquerir 
 The gifts of fortune are uncertain 
 
 fragiles 
 The connexion of proofs makes 
 enchalnement preuve 
 
 them please and persuade 
 qu'eUes 
 It is by meditation upon what 
 
 we read, that we acquire fresh 
 
 2 knowledge 1 
 
 connaissance pi. 
 The advantages of memory 
 
 The memory of facts is the most 
 showy 
 brillant 
 The aim of good masters should 
 devoir 
 be to cultivate the mind and 
 ind.-l de 
 reason of their pupils 
 
 WITHOUT THE ARTICLE. 
 
 He loads his memory with in- 
 sipid 3 verses 1 and phrases 2 
 
 Essays supported by lively 1 ex- 
 vive 
 pressions 2 
 A collection of precepts hi morals 
 * recueil sur 
 
 We are obliged to use some ex- 
 terior 2 signs 1, in order to 
 make ourselves understood 
 nous entendre 
 
 He has made a choice of boohs 
 which are, etc. 
 
 It is an object of esteem, of 
 
 ce 
 
 praise, and admiration 
 
 There is in Peru a prodigious 
 le Perou 
 abundance of useless 2 riches I 
 
 Gifts of fortune 
 
 JBien 
 
 There is in this book an admi- 
 rable connexion of solid 2 
 proofs 1 
 
 It is by meditation that we ac- 
 quire fresh 1 knowledge 2 
 nouveau 
 
 There are different kinds of me- 
 
 mory 
 He has only a memory of facts 
 
 He has an air of pedantry that 
 ton m. maitre 
 shocks you at first sight 
 abord 
 
328 
 
 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 WITH THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The taste of mankind is liable to 
 homme pi. 
 
 great changes 
 He has no need of the lessons you 
 
 wish to give him 
 France, Spain, England, etc. 
 
 The Island of Japan 
 He comes from China 
 He arrives from America 
 The extent of Persia 
 
 He is returned from the East 
 Indies, from Asia, etc. 
 
 He lives in Peru, in Japan, in 
 a 
 the Indies, in Jamaica, etc. 
 
 The politeness of France 
 
 The circumference of England 
 
 The interest of Spain 
 
 The invention of printing is at- 
 tributed to Germany 
 
 He comes from French Flanders 
 
 WITHOUT THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Society of chosen 2 men 1 
 
 He has no need of lessons 
 avoir besoin 
 
 Kingdom of France, of Spain, of 
 England, etc. 
 
 Island of Candia 
 
 He comes from Poland 
 
 He arrives from Italy 
 
 He is gone to Persia 
 en 
 
 He is returned from Spain, 
 from Persia, etc. 
 
 He lives in Italy, in France, in 
 London, in Avignon, etc. 
 a 
 
 The fashions of France 
 
 The horses of England 
 
 The wines of Spain 
 
 The empire of Germany is divi- 
 ded into a great number of 
 states 
 
 He comes from Flanders 
 
 §iii. 
 
 On Measure, Weight, etc. 
 
 Instead of the indefinite article a or an, before 
 nouns of measure, weight, and purchase, as, wheat 
 is sold for a crown a bushel ; butter sells for six- 
 pence a pound ; wine sold yesterday for forty 
 crowns a hogshead, 'tis more than a groat a bottle ; 
 the French use the definite article, as le Me se vend 
 tin ecu le boisseau; le beurre se vend six sous la 
 livre ; le vin se vendit hier quarante ecus le muid, 
 dest plus de quatre sous la bouteille. 
 
 If relating to time, a or an is expressed by the 
 preposition par, as tant par semaine 9 so much a 
 week. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 329 
 
 hen the pronoun quel is used to express admi- 
 ation the indefinite article is never expressed, as 
 quelle beaute ! what a beauty ! 
 
 When the adverbs more and less are repeated to 
 express a comparison, they must be preceded by the 
 article, as the more difficult a thing is, the more 
 honourable it is; in French, the article is omitted, 
 as plus une chose est difficile, plus elle est honorable. 
 
 exercise on Measure, etc. 
 
 Corn sells for eight shillings a bushel. Veal and 
 
 art. ble m. se vendre * schelling boisseau art. veau 
 
 mutton cost ten pence a pound. This lace is sold at half 
 art. couter sou livre f. f. se vendre * demi 2 
 
 a guinea an ell. The best French wines are sold at from eight 
 1 f. aune de France 2 1 ind.-l 
 
 to ten shillings a bottle. My father goes to Ireland four or 
 
 bouteillet va en Irlande 
 
 five times a year. He gives his son seven shillings a day. It (is 
 
 fois an a 2 
 
 necessary), if you desire to (improve fast), that you should 
 falloir 1 * faire des pr ogres rapides 3 
 
 take a lesson three times a week. The more I contemplate 
 preniez * 
 
 those precious remains of antiquity, the more I am struck with 
 = reste m. pi. art. = frappe de 
 
 wonder. What a beautiful morning ! come, let us go and 
 etonnement matinee f. 
 
 walk into the fields. 
 se promener champ m. pi. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 French adjectives, as it may be seen page 109, 
 agree in gender and number with the substantives 
 which they qualify, and generally follow ; this rule, 
 
330 
 
 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 though a general one, suffers the three following 
 exceptions, demi, nu, and feu, which agree with 
 their substantives according to their being placed 
 before or after them. 
 
 When demi and nu precede the noun, they are 
 undeclined, and when they follow it, they agree 
 with it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 After 
 
 Before 
 
 une demi-livre half a pound 
 une demi-heure half an hour 
 un demi-cent half a hundred 
 
 ,. . , • Tone pound and 
 une livre et demie < h if 
 
 deux Jieures «<j half past two 
 
 demie > r 
 
 trois cents et demie 300 and a half 
 
 nu-p 
 nu-tete 
 
 les pieds nus 
 la fete nue 
 
 bare feet 
 bare head 
 
 Feu is unchangeable when preceding the article, 
 but it is declined when following it, as feu la reine 
 and lafeue reine, the late queen. 
 
 N.B. — Demi in the above examples, agrees with 
 the substantive, but only in gender. 
 
 When the adjectives has, low ; bon, good ; court, 
 short, are taken adverbially, they remain undeclined 
 (see p. 299, on the adverb.) 
 
 §i. 
 
 Agreement of the Adjective with the last Substantive. 
 
 When an adjective or a past participle is applied 
 to qualify several substantives, it may agree with 
 the last, especially if they are nearly synonymous. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 he has an absolute power and 
 authority 
 
 he found the ponds and rivers 
 frozen over 
 
 he has afforded, in the examina- 
 tion of that concern, an asto- 
 nishing proof of judgment 
 and application 
 
 il a un pouvoir et une autorite ab- 
 
 solue 
 il trouva les etangs et les rivieres 
 
 glacees 
 il a apporte, dans Vexamen de cette 
 
 affaire, un discernement et une 
 
 application etonnante 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 331 
 
 In this last sentence the adjective agrees with the 
 substantive application as being the last v/ord to 
 which the attention of the mind seems to be more 
 particularly directed. 
 
 §n. 
 
 Adjectives or Participles separated from their 
 Substantives. 
 
 When an adjective or participle refers to several 
 substantives either animate or inanimate, but sepa- 
 rated from them, it is always put in the plural femi- 
 nine if the substantives are feminine, and in the 
 plural masculine if the substantives are masculine 
 or of different genders. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la rose et la tulipe sont egales en the rose and the tulip are equal 
 
 beaute in beauty 
 
 son courage et sa hardiesse me his courage and boldness seem 
 
 paraissent etonnans astonishing to me 
 
 exercise on the Adjective. 
 
 He ran through the streets like a madman, bare-foot and bare- 
 ind.-2 * rue f. pi. 
 
 headed. His legs were bare. Give me half a guinea, and 
 
 tete il * art. jambef. 2 avoir I 
 
 then you (will only owe) me a guinea and a half. I shall be at 
 * ne devoir plus que chez- 
 
 home in half an hour. Come before half past one. The late 
 
 moi dans 2 une heure et 1 2 1 
 
 queen was idolized. The late queen was universally regretted. 
 
 hid. -3 adore 
 His impetuosity and courage, long restrained, soon surmounted 
 
 pron. enchaine ind.-3 
 
 all obstacles. The imagination and genius of Ariosto, 
 
 art. art. VArioste 
 
 although irregular in their course, yet interest, (hurry along). 
 quoique marche neanmoins attacher entralner 
 
 and captivate the reader, who can never be tired of admiring them. 
 lecteur se lasser inf.-l 
 
332 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 There are in Gessner's idylls sentiments and a grace 
 
 2 art. idijlle 1 de art. 
 
 altogether affecting. The good taste of the Egyptians (from that 
 tout-a-fait touchant des 
 
 time) made them love solidity and unadorned regularity. In 
 
 lors ind.-3 leur art. = tout nu 2 =1 
 
 those climates, the dry and the rainy monsoons divide the 
 sec pluvieux mousson f. pi. se diviser 
 
 year. 
 annee 
 
 § Hi. 
 
 Adjectives of Dimension, showing the difference of 
 construction between the English and French 
 languages. 
 
 1. In French, the word which expresses dimen- 
 sion is placed first, if it be an adjective, and the 
 preposition de is added to it as a regimen ; as une 
 tour haute de deux cents pieds, a tower two hundred 
 feet high. But if the word which expresses dimen- 
 sion or measure be a substantive or an adjective 
 used substantively, it is put the last in the sentence, 
 with the preposition de repeated either before the 
 noun of measure or dimension, and numerical ad- 
 jectives, as 
 
 une tour de deux cents pieds de haut a tower two hundred feet high 
 
 or de hauteur 
 une table de six pieds de long or a table six feet long 
 
 longueur 
 
 2. The French make use of the verb avoir when 
 there are two constructions, as 
 
 les murs d' Alger ont douze pieds d'epaisseur et trente de hauteur 
 
 or 
 les murs d' Alger ont douze pieds d'epaisseur sur tiente de hauteur 
 the walls of Algiers are twelve feet thick and thirty feet high 
 
 3. In comparative sentences to express difference, 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 333 
 
 the English sentence is often construed thus : she 
 is taller than her sister by the whole head; but in 
 French we say : elle est plus grande que sa soeur de 
 toute la tele. 
 
 exercise on the Difference of Construction. 
 
 This trunk, which is six feet long, is very convenient. You will be stopped in 
 coffre m. commode arrets 
 
 your march by a river three hundred feet broad. This observatory, which is twelve 
 
 f. = 
 
 hundred feet high, is very proper for knowing the true position of the stars. It 
 
 inf.-l astre m. pi. ce 
 
 is a terrace a hundred and eighty feet broad, and twelve hundred feet long. The 
 terrace f. large 
 
 walls of our garden are twenty feet high and three broad. It is one of the finest 
 mur m. pi. 
 
 stones that was ever seen ; it is twenty feet long and six thick. This ditch 
 
 on ait jamais vices longueur epaisseur fosse 1 m. 
 
 is nine feet six inches deep and six feet broad. My son is taller than 
 
 ponce m. pi. profondeur f. 
 yours by two inches. 
 
 §IV. 
 
 Regimen of the Adjectives. 
 
 There are some adjectives in French which have 
 no signification but when followed by another word 5 
 as pret a, ready to ; capable de, capable of. 
 
 Rule. — To join a noun to an adjective that pre- 
 cedes it, we put de or a between that adjective and 
 the noun ; then the noun is called the regimen of the 
 adjective. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 digne de recompense worthy of reward. 
 
 content de son sort satisfied with his lot 
 
 utile a rhomme useful to man 
 
 propre a la guerre fit for war 
 
 Recompense is the regimen of the adjective digne, 
 because it is joined to that adjective by the word de. 
 Uhomme is the regimen of the adjective utile, because 
 it is joined to that adjective by the word a. 
 
334 GENERAL SYNTAX. 
 
 exercise on the Regimen of the Adjectives. 
 Virtuous men are always worthy of esteem. A weak mind is liable to 
 art. veriueux 2 1 tovjours estime f. faible 2 1m. sujet 
 
 many contradictions. A heart free from cares enjoys the greatest possible 
 Men des — f pi. cceur m. Ubre de soin m. pi. jouit de 1 — 3 
 
 felicity. Voltaire was always greedy of praise, and insatiable of glory, 
 = f. 2 — fat avide louange f. pi. — — 
 
 Rousseau, endowed with a strong and fiery imagination, was all his (life-time) 
 
 — done de fort 2 bouillant 3 — f. 1 vie f. 
 
 subject to frequent fit? of misanthropy, and liable to all the variations 
 enclin a de — acces m. pi. = sujet — f. pi. 
 
 attendant upon it. 
 qui en sont la suite 
 
 RECAPITULATORY EXERCISE ON THE ARTICLE AND THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 The young Orphan in England. 
 orpheline f. 
 
 Though scarcely twenty-three years old, Clotilda B— , a young and interesting 
 
 * 2 agedef.l —de * 
 
 orphan, displays, in her features and in her whole appearance, profound grief 
 
 deceler m&.-l 2 1 ensemble m. 3 art. 1 
 
 and sadness, which has had but (too great an effect) upon her feeble and 
 
 art. 2 ne * que trop influe' 
 
 languishing health. Unhappily for her, her early education was committed to 
 
 premier 2 — f . 1 
 the hands (of strangers.) (Brought up,) from the age of thirteen or fourteen years, 
 des itrangeres eleve'e des a 
 
 in the midst of a large town, among a class of people whom she did not 
 
 ville f. une sociite de gens * 
 
 know, the timid and tender Clotilda soon saw herself surrounded on all 
 ind.-2 3 voir ind.-3 2 1 de 
 
 sides with perils and dangers, which so often prove fatal to innocence. Her 
 
 e'cueil m. pi. pr. * * 
 
 modest countenance, her simple and open manners, together with her immovable 
 maintien m. 2 naif 3 1 jointes a immuable 
 
 attachment to the religion of her ancestors, fortified her against the 
 
 primunir ind.-3 
 seduction and scandal of bad examples. Thus nothing could shake the firm 
 
 art. des aussi ibranler 
 
 resolution which she had taken of remaining faithful and constant to her duties. 
 
 — f. prise inf.-l 
 
 A resigned victim to her unhappy fate, she suffers without daring to 
 * 2 = f . 1 sort m. oser inf.-l * 
 
 complain: and (it is only) in secret, and (undercover) of night, that she can 
 se plaindre ce rC est qiC a la faveur art. nuit f. 
 
 give free course to her sobs and sighs. "Happy, a thousand times 
 
 art. = m. sanglot pi. prep. pro. soupirs. * f>is 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 335 
 
 happy," cried she, "the girl who has never been, like me, deprived of 
 ind.-2 Ulle f. n' jamais comme moi priver inf.-3 
 
 (a mother's) tenderness and solicitude! Death then seemed to 
 
 maternel 3 art. 1 pr. art = f. 2 art morti. sembler ind.-2 2 * 
 
 me desirable; and, (once only, 1 — I still shudder when I think (of 
 1 digne d'envie ane seide fois encore 2 fremir ind.-l 1 
 
 it. — in the paroxysm of my grief and despair, I had the 
 
 y acces m. douleur f. prep. pron. dhespoir 
 
 weakness to call it to my aid, to deliver me (from the) torments 
 
 faiblesse f. de 2 f. 1 secours m. pour =2 1 des 
 
 and the moral tortures to which I was subjected : cruel that it is, it 
 des 2 — f. pi. 1. auxquelles en proie art. f. * 
 
 stopped its ears, and let me cry on. But my last 
 
 se toucher ind.-3 les oreiUes laisser ind.-3 2 1 crier mf.-l * 
 
 hour had not yet struck; and (next day,) as usual, 
 
 heure f. rC etre ind.-2 sonne le lendemain comme a V ordinaire 
 
 I awoke amid tears and groans." 
 
 m'eveiUai dans art. larme pi. art. gemissement pi. 
 Clotilda was in her eighteenth year, when she thought, for a 
 ind.-2 anndef. lorsque croire ind.-3 * 
 
 moment, that she perceived an end of her long sufferings : false security I 
 
 — m. * * apercevoir inf.-l a, = f. 
 
 dangerous illusion! This glimmeiing of hope, alas! was only the 
 
 — f. lueur f. n' in d.- 2 que 
 
 forerunner of the storm which threatened her. She who ought to 
 
 avant-coureur m. orage menacer ind.-2 2 1 celle ind.-2 * 
 
 (have been; a second mother to her, and who had misled her with the 
 
 ctre inf.-l 2 pour 1 seduite par 
 
 vain hope of a brilliant future, (was not ashamed) to let unjust and inju- 
 fol espoir avenir m. n'eut pas honte de 2 
 
 rious suspicions hover over her conduct, though irreproachable. Then, 
 
 soupgon m. pi. planer sur = f. 1 
 
 under the pretence of making her expiate a fault which she had not (been 
 
 * inf.-l 2 lui 1 a 
 
 willing) to commit, she sends her away from the town, to a kind of 
 voulu * envoyer ind.-l hors de dans * * 
 
 boarding-school, where, during two years of strict captivity, (according to) 
 maison d'education d' une = f. d'apres 
 
 her barbarous orders, all communication is denied her with the persons 
 
 2 = pi. 1 2 interdite 3 1 
 
 who (might have) afforded her any consolation. At length, restored 
 
 pouvoir ind.-2 apporUr inf.-l soulagement m. 
 
 to liberty and to her afflicted family, Providence, whose designs are 
 
 art = f. desole 2 = f. 1 art. — f. dont art. dessein pi. 
 
 impenetrable, has allowed (her to land on) this hospitable island, where she 
 
 qu'elle aborddt dans hospitalier 
 
 lives peaceably (on the) fruit of her labour, surrounded with the attentions 
 
 du tfavail m. entoure de * prevenance pi. 
 
 and the regard due to misfortune and persecuted virtue, 
 
 pr. * cgard pi, art. infortune f. pr. art. 2 = f. 1 
 
336 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 OF THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 § I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Their various functions in the Speech. 
 
 Personal pronouns have the three functions 
 which we have remarked in substantives, but with 
 this difference, that some are always in subject, 
 two only used in apostrophe, some others always in 
 regimen, and lastly others, sometimes in subject 
 and sometimes in regimen. 
 
 Those which are always in subject are je, tu, il, 
 Us, asje parte, tujoues, il aime, Us samusent. 
 
 The two which are used in apostrophe are tot and 
 vous, either by themselves or preceded by the inter- 
 jection O ! — (See p. 421 , particular syntax of the 
 Pronoun.) 
 
 Personal Pronouns acting as Subjects. 
 
 Rule. — When personal pronouns act as subjects, 
 the person who speaks always names himself last, 
 and the person addressed is generally named first. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 vous et moi nous irons a la campagne you and I will go into the country 
 nous irons ce soir a la promenade, we will take a walk this evening, 
 vous, votrefrere, et moi you, your brother, and I 
 
 For the pronouns of the third person, il 9 Us, elle, 
 elleS) see p. 130. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 My sister and I were walking by the last rays of the 
 
 nous * ind.-2 a rayons m. pi. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 337 
 
 setting sun, and we were saying, what a mild splendour does it 
 couchant 2 1 * disions eclat m. * 2 
 
 still spread over all nature ! In the long winter even- 
 pas 3 4 ne repand 1 art. de 2 soi- 
 ings, my father, my brothers, and I used (to spend) two 
 ree f. pi. 1 nous passer ind.-2 
 hours in the library, and to read there, (in order to) (un- 
 
 bibliotheque f. nous lisons y pour 
 
 bend oar minds) from the serious studies of the day, those amiable 
 
 se delasser =21 2 
 
 poets who interest most the heart, by the charms of a lively ima- 
 
 1 le plus riant 2 
 
 gination, and make us love truth, by disguising it under the 
 1 art. en deguiser inf. -3 
 
 mask of an ingenious fiction. You and your friend shall ac- 
 trait m. pi. = 2 f . 1 
 
 company me to the museum, where we shall study nature in her 
 — pagner musee m. ou 
 
 three kingdoms. 
 regne m. pi. 
 
 Pronouns used Objectively. 
 
 Rule I. — The pronouns me, te 9 se, ltd, leur, le, la 9 
 les, y, and en, are generally placed before the verbs ; 
 also nous, vons, lux, without a preposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 U me dit 
 je le vois 
 je les ecoute 
 
 Us se blessent 
 
 je lui parle 
 
 he tells me 
 
 1 see him 
 
 I listen to them 
 
 {they hurt 
 themselves 
 I speak to him 
 
 il nous aime he loves us 
 
 vous la craignez you fear her 
 
 j'y songerai I will think of it 
 
 •, • • f I am ravished 
 /en suis ravi 
 
 {I am r 
 at it 
 
 (As soon as) he had explained tows the maxims of Socrates, 
 Des que expliquer ind.-5 * Socrate 
 
 he said : You see that it is not without reason he (is looked 
 
 ind.-3 ce que on le regarde 
 
 upon) as truly wise. He was continually saying to me : yet a 
 
 un vrai ind,-2 * 
 
 Jittle patience, and you will disarm even envy itself. You 
 de desarmer * art. 
 
 Q 
 
338 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 have, no doubt, (some foundation) for reproaching him with his 
 etre sans doute fonde a inf.-l hi de * 
 
 faults ; but is there (any man) on earth that is exempt 
 art. m. pi. quelqu'un art. qui subj.-l 
 
 {from them) ? To please her, you must never flatter her. To aban- 
 
 en Pour lui * * 
 
 don one's self to metaphysical abstractions, is to plunge into 
 
 des metaphysique 2 — 1 ce * sejeter 
 an unfathomable abyss. 
 
 satis fond 2 abime m. 1. 
 
 Rule II. — Moi, toi, soi, nous, vous, lui, eux, elle, 
 and elles are placed after verbs when preceded by 
 a preposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 cela depend de moi that depends-on me 
 
 je pense a toi I think of thee 
 
 on s'occupe trop de soi We are too attentive to our- 
 
 selves 
 que dites-vous d'eux What do you say of them 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 My father loved me so tenderly, that he thought of none but 
 
 ind.-2 penser ind.-2 a ne que 
 
 me, (was wholly taken up) with me, and saw none but me in the 
 
 ne s'occuper ind.-2 que de ind -2 
 
 universe. If you wish to obtain that favour, you must speak to him 
 
 de * 
 
 himself. It depended on you to excel your rivals, but you 
 
 ind.-2 de de Vemporter sur 
 
 would not. Philip, father of Alexander, being ad- 
 
 le vouloir ind.-4 Philippe 2 comme on con 
 
 vised to expel from his dominions a man, who (had been 
 
 seillait a 1 de chasser etat m. pi. 
 
 speaking) ill of him ; I shall take care not to do that, said he, 
 parler ind.-6 se garder bien * * * en ind. -3 
 
 he would go and slander me every where. 
 * medire de 
 
 Mule III. — With the first and second persons plu- 
 ral, and second person singular of the imperative 
 affirmative, moi, toi, nous, vous, lui, leur, eux, elle 9 
 elles, le, la, les, y, and en, are placed after verbs ; 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 339 
 
 but with a negation, or in the third person singular 
 or plural of the imperative, me, te, se, nous, vous, 
 lui, leur, le, la, les, y and en are placed before the 
 verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Affirmative^ 
 dites-moi tell me 
 
 donnez-m'en give me some 
 
 songez-y think of it 
 
 Negative. 
 ne me dites pas do not tell me 
 ne w'en donnez do not give me 
 
 point any 
 
 riy songez point do not think of it 
 
 Me, te ; moi, toi, between the Imperative and the 
 Infinitive 
 
 Between an imperative neuter and an infinitive 
 active, me, te are used as being regimens of the 
 infinitive only, as 
 
 venez me parler come and speak to me (venez parler a moi) 
 va te coucher go to bed (va coucher toi) 
 
 but if the imperative belongs to an active verb, then 
 toi, moi are used instead of te, me, as 
 
 laissez-moi travailler let me work 
 
 /ais-toi coiffer get thy hair dressed 
 
 Observe that moi, toi, placed after the imperative 
 and followed by the particle en, are changed into 
 me, te, as 
 
 donnez-m'en give me some | retourne-fen go back 
 
 When two imperatives are joined together by the 
 conjunctions et, ou, the second imperative may have 
 its objective pronoun before it, as 
 
 polissez-le sans cesse etle repollssez polish and repolish it continually 
 gardez les ou les renvoyez keep them or send them back 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Listen to me, do not condemn me without a hearing. Complain 
 ecouter * * m'ecouter se plaindre 
 
340 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 thou hast just cause of complaint; however, do not complain too 
 un sujet plainte 
 
 bitterly of the injustice of mankind. Give some. Do not 
 
 amerement art. homme pi. 
 
 give any. Think {of it). Do not think of it. 
 
 y 
 
 Rule IV\ — Should several pronouns accompany 
 a verb, me, te, se, nous, vous, must be placed first ; 
 le, la, les 9 before lui, leur, and y before en, which is 
 always the last. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 pretez-moi ce livre ; je vous le ren- lend me that book ; I will return 
 drai demain ; si vous me le it you to-morrow ; if you re- 
 refusez,je saurai m'en passer fuse me, I can make shift 
 
 without it 
 aurez-vous la force de le leur dire ? will you have resolution enough 
 
 to mention it to them ? 
 il rCapas voulu vous y mener he will not take you there 
 
 je vous y en porter ai I will bring you some there 
 
 Exception. — With the imperative affirmative, le, 
 la, les, are always placed first, as donnez-le-moi 9 
 give it me ; offrez-la~lui, offer it to him ; conduisez- 
 les-y, conduct them thither ; moi is placed after y, 
 as menez-y-moi, take me thither ; but nous is placed 
 before y, as menez~nous-y , take us thither. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 You wish to make a present to your sister. (There is) a beau- 
 vouloir * voila 
 
 tiful fan ; you should present her with it. ( How many) 
 
 evantail m. devoir cond. -2 offrir lui * que de 
 
 people are there (destitute of) merit and without occupation, (who 
 gens * * sans 
 
 would be mere nothings) in society, did not gaming intro- 
 ne tenir a rien cond.-l art. si art. jeu m. intro- 
 
 duce them (into it). I shall speak to them (about it), and give 
 duire ind -2 y en je rendre 
 
 you a faithful account of it It is certain that old 
 
 ind.-7 exact 2 compte m. 1 art. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 341 
 
 Geronte has refused his daughter to Valere ; but because he does 
 not give her to him, it does not follow that he will give her to 
 
 s'ensuivre 
 you. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Mime is sometimes added to the pronouns moi 9 
 toi, soi, nous, vous, eux, lui, elle, elles, in order to 
 specify more particularly the person or thing: spoken 
 of. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Us se sont perdus eux-m ernes they have ruined themselves 
 
 elles y sont allees elles-m ernes they went there by themselves 
 
 je Vai vu moi-meme de mes propres I saw him myself with my own 
 
 ye ax eyes 
 
 §ii. 
 
 Regimen of Relative Tronouns. 
 
 We have seen (p. 141), that the relative qui in 
 subject, relating either to persons or things, though 
 unchangeable, always agrees with its antecedent, 
 which it follows immediately, and the verb deter- 
 mines its signification ; but when it is in regimen, 
 it is expressed by que, do?it, de qui, duquel, de 
 laquelle, des quels, desquelles, and even by de quoi. 
 
 N. B. — Qui is always used as the subject of any 
 verb, and que as the object of an active verb. 
 
 Rule I. — Que, relative, is of the number and 
 gender of its antecedent. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 c'est moi que Von demande it is I whom they ask for 
 
 c'est toi qu'ora appelle it is thou whom they call 
 
 laftinme queje vols si bien paree the woman whom I see so well 
 
 dressed 
 
 c'est nous que vous offensez it is we whom you offend 
 
 vest vous queje cherche it is you I am seeking 
 
 les dames que vous voyez the ladies whom you see 
 
342 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 Dont is sometimes used instead of de qui, duquel, 
 de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, and even de quoi. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Vhomme dont vous parkz est parti the man of whom you are speak- 
 ing is gone 
 la tour dont nous apergevons les the tower whose battlements we 
 
 creneaux doit etre trh-elevee perceived must be very high 
 
 ce dont je vous ai parle V autre jour what I was speaking to you of 
 
 rCa pas reussi the other day did not succeed 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. That qui, que, and dont may apply to persons 
 and things ; but qui preceded by a preposition never 
 applies to things ; in this case lequel, duquel, 
 auquel, etc. must be used. 
 
 *2. Lequel, laquelle, etc. apply both to persons and 
 things; but quoi applies only to things. — (See 
 page 143.) 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 / whom temptation surrounded on every side, I 
 
 art. seduction f . environner ind. -2 de tout part f. pi. je 
 
 fell into the snare. It is thou whom the public voice calls to 
 
 tombai dans piege m. ce 2 f . 1 appeler 
 
 that employ. A power which terror and force have 
 
 place f. puissance f. art. = f. art. — f. 
 
 founded, cannot be of long duration. It is we whom they perse- 
 fonde f. ne peut duree f. Von pour- 
 
 cute with unexampled rage. You whom every body 
 
 suivre avec une sans exemple 2 fureur f. 1 tout le monde 
 
 respects, hasten to (come forward), (Everything) in the uni- 
 respecter se hater de paraitre tout dans uni- 
 
 verse alters and perishes ; but the writings which genius has 
 vers m s* alter er perir ecrit m. pi. art. genie m. 
 
 dictated, shall be immortal. 
 diets m. p3. —td 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 343 
 
 §in. 
 
 OF PRONOUNS ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Quel, Oil, used Interrogatively . 
 
 In interrogations, or after a verb, quel is used ta 
 ask the name or qualities of a person or thing. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 quel homme est-ce ? what man is it ? 
 
 quel temps fait-il ? what weather is it ? 
 
 je ne sais quel homme c'est I don't know what man it is 
 
 il salt quel parti prendre He knows what steps to pursue 
 
 The adverb ou is employed as a relative pronoun, 
 and also as a kind of absolute pronoun. 
 
 Oit signifies en quel endroit, in what place, or a 
 quoi, to what, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ou allez-vous? where are you going? 
 
 ou cela nous menera-t-il? where will that take us ? 
 
 f ignore ou Ion me conduit I don't know where they are 
 
 taking me 
 il ria pas prevu ou cette cqnduite he did not foresee where such a 
 le menerait conduct would lead him 
 
 Remark I.- — Ou preceded by the preposition de, 
 marks the place or cause spoken of. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 d'ch vient-il ? where does he come from ? 
 
 d'ou sa haine procede-t-elle ? whence proceeds his hatred? 
 
 voila d'ou. il vient it was there he came from 
 
 le mat me vient d'ou fattendais the evil proceeds from that quar- 
 mon remede ter whence I had expected a 
 
 remedy 
 
 Remark II. — Par ou signifies through what place, 
 or by what means. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 par ou avez-vous passe"? which way did you come ? 
 
344 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 par ou me tirerai-je daffaire ? which way shall I extricate my- 
 
 self? 
 voila par ou fed passe that is the way I came 
 
 je ne sais par ou je me tireraid'qf- I don't know which way I shall 
 /aire extricate myself 
 
 These pronouns are only interrogative when at 
 the beginning of a sentence, consequently the most 
 proper name for them is that of pronouns absolute. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 What grace, what delicacy, what harmony, what colouring, 
 
 grace f. delicatesse f. = f. colons m. 
 
 what beautiful lines in Racine ! What then must have been that 
 
 vers m. — 1 done S doit 2 
 
 extraordinary man, to whom seven cities contested the glory 
 = 2 — se sont dispute — f. 
 
 of having given birth ? He does not know what model to 
 
 avoir donne art. jour m. * savoir modele m. * 
 
 follow. I have told you what man it is. Which of those ladies 
 suivre ce f. dames f. 
 
 do you think the most amiable ? Choose which of those two pic- 
 * 2 tr ouver 1 f. Choisir m. 4 5 6 Ma- 
 
 tures you like best. Where am I? He knows not 
 
 bleau m. 7 1 aimer 2 art. mieux 3 en savoir 
 
 where he is. He is gone I don't know where. Where does he 
 en alle ne savoir de * lui 
 
 get that pride? (It is) from there he derives his origin. 
 vient orgueilm. voila de tirer origine Par 
 
 {Which way) did you come? (That is) {the road) I came. 
 
 etes-vous arrive voila par oil venir ind-<* 
 
 §iv. 
 
 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 We have seen (page 146) that ce joined to a noun 
 takes its gender and number, and that as it does the 
 office of article, it ought to follow the same laws of 
 repitition. 
 
 Ce 9 Cette, Ces> joined to Adverbs. 
 
 When ce, cette, ces, are joined to the adverbs of 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 345 
 
 place ci, here, and la, there, it is to point out in a 
 more precise manner the thing spoken of; the de- 
 monstrative pronoun is then placed before the 
 substantive, and ci and la after it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ce livre-ci this book I eel hnmme-Xk that man 
 
 cette fleur-ci this flower j ces femmes-lk those women 
 
 Celui, celle, ceux, celles, must be followed by the 
 preposition de, when placed before a substantive, 
 and by a pronoun relative when placed before a 
 verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 les maladies de lame sont plus dan- the disorders of the mind are 
 
 gereuses que celles du corps more dangerous than those of 
 
 the body 
 
 Vhomme dont je vous ai parle, est the man of whom I spoke to you 
 
 celui que vous voyez is he whom you see 
 
 de toutes les choses du monde, e'est of all the things in the world, it 
 
 celle quefaime le moins is that which I like least 
 
 Remark. — The pronouns celui, celle, ceux, celles, 
 followed by a pronoun relative, are expressed in 
 English by the personal pronouns he, she, they, or 
 fey that tvhich, those which, such as, etc. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The pleasures of the wise resemble in nothing those of a dis- 
 ressembler 2 3 1 4 a dis- 
 
 sipated man. He that suffers himself to (be ruled) by his passions? 
 sipe 2 1 se laisse * dominer 
 
 must renounce happiness. This stuff will become you won- 
 
 doit renoncer a art. bonheur m. etoffe-ci f. * siera a mer- 
 
 derfully. That action is worthy of blame. This scene is calcu- 
 
 veille — f. -la blame — f. -ci 
 
 lated to interest all men, but that cannot succeed, 
 faite pour interesser art. -la ne saurait reussir 
 
 Celui-ci, this — Celui-la, that. 
 
 Celui-ci and celui- la take the gender and number 
 
 q 2 
 
346 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 of the substantives they represent. When in oppo- 
 sition, celui-ci marks the nearest object, and celui- 
 la the remotest. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 celui-ci plait, mats celui-la captive this pleases, but that captivates 
 
 Ci and la are joined to ce, and form two demon- 
 strative pronouns ceci and cela, the first signifies 
 cette chose-ci, this object ; the second, cette chose-la, 
 that object. 
 
 They may be used singly, but when in opposition 
 eeci expresses the nearest objeet, and cela the 
 remotest. 
 
 je rCaime point ceci, donnez-moi I don't like this, give me that 
 cela 
 
 Remark. — When cela is alone and not in oppo- 
 sition with the pronoun ceci, they both refer to an 
 object pointed to. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 que dites-vous de cela ? what do you say of that ? 
 
 cela est fort beau that is very handsome 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 (Here are) certainly two charming prospects; this has some- 
 
 voild certainement beau perspective f. pi. quel- 
 
 thing more cheerful, but many people think that 
 
 quechose de riant bien de art. personne f. pi. trouver 
 
 more striking and more majestic. The body perishes, the soul 
 
 imposant majestueux m. perir f. 
 
 is immortal ; yet all our cares are for that, while we neg- 
 — tel cependant soin tandis que neg- 
 
 lect this. What means this? That is true. It is not that 
 liger veut dire ce 
 
 This is low and mean, but that is grand and sublime. 
 bas rampant — — 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS 347 
 
 § v. 
 
 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 Those that are never joined to a Substantive. — P. 149. 
 
 Quelqiiun means un, u?ie, one. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 nous attendons des hommes, il en we expect men, some one will 
 
 viendra quelqu'un come 
 
 plusieurs femmes m'ont promis de several ladies have promised me 
 
 venir, il en viendra quelqu'une to come, some one of them will 
 
 come 
 
 Quelqiiun taken absolutely and substantively, is 
 of both genders, and means une personne, a person. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 / attends id quelqu'un I wait here for somebody 
 
 Quelques-uns signifies plusieurs dans un plus grand 
 nombre, several out of a great number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 quelques-uns assurent some people affirm 
 
 entre les nouvelles qui! a debitees, il among the reports he has circu- 
 y en a quelques-unes de vraies lated several are true 
 
 Quiconque, whoever, signifies quelque personne 
 que ce soil, qui que ce soil, any person whatever. 
 It takes no plural, and is used in speaking of per- 
 sons only. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 ce discours s'adresse a quiconque this speech is addressed to who- 
 est coupable ever is guilty 
 
 Chacwi, each, every one, is used distributively or 
 collectively. It has no plural. 
 
 Distributively, it means chaque personne, chaque 
 chose, each person, or thing. It is then used also 
 in the feminine, and requires the preposition de 
 after it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 chacun de nous vit a sa mode each of us lives as he pleases 
 
 voyez seper anient chacune de ces look at each of these medals 
 medailles separately 
 
348 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 Collectively it signifies toute personne, every 
 person. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 chacun a ses defauts every body has his faults 
 
 EXERCISE ON THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Can any one (be still ignorant) that it is from the earliest 
 pourrait-il 2 1 ignorer encore ce des tendre 
 
 infancy, we ought to form the mind, the heart, and the taste? 
 enfance f. on doit * former 
 
 Will not some one of these ladies be of the party? Some people like 
 
 * f. partie f. aimer 
 
 to read (every thing new). (These are) beautiful pictures ; I 
 
 toutes les nouveautes voild de superbe tableau m. 
 
 could wish to buy some. Whoever has studied the principles 
 
 vouloir en * acheter — pes 
 
 of an art, knows that it (is only) (by length of time) and by 
 — m. savoir ce iiest que a la longue 
 
 deep reflections, that he can succeed in making it his 
 de profond reflexion f. reussir a se2 rendre 4 leS * 
 
 own. All the ladies at the ball were very finely dressed 
 propre 5 hal m. ind.-2 * snperbement pare 
 
 and each differently. Every one should, for (the 
 
 avait une parure differente devrait pour 
 
 sake of) his own happiness, listen only to the voice of rea- 
 
 * propre m. necouter que * voix f. art. rai- 
 son and of truth. What is the price of each of these medals * 
 son f. art. veritef, prixm. f. medaille f 
 
 Autrui, Personne, Rien. 
 
 1. Autrui means les autres perso?ines, other 
 people ; it is never accompanied by an adjective, has 
 no plural, and is never used without being preceded 
 by a preposition. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la cha.rite se rejouit du bonheur charity rejoices in the happiness 
 d'autrui of others 
 
 2. Personne is always masculine and singular ; it 
 means nul qui que ce soil, ncbody whosoever. 
 Then it is preceded or followed by the negative ne 9 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 349 
 
 placed after personne if this word stands before the 
 verb ; and before the verb if personne is placed 
 after it. The same observation applies to rien. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 il nefaut nuire a personne we must injure nobody 
 
 personne n'est assure de vivre nobody is certain of living till 
 jusqu'au lendemain to-morrow 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 1. In answers the negative is understood, as y a- 
 t-il quelquun ici ? Is there any body here ? Per- 
 sonne^ nobody. Personne means il riy a personne, 
 there is nobody here. 
 
 2. In interrogations without negation, or in ex- 
 pressing doubt, personne signifies quelqu'un, anybody. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 personne oserait-il nier 9 would any body dare deny ? 
 
 je doute que personne soit assez I doubt whether any body be bold 
 hardi enough 
 
 3. Personne placed in the second member of a 
 comparison, means any body. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 cette place lui convient mieux qu'a that place suits him better than 
 personne any body 
 
 liien, nothing, is masculine and singular, it is 
 used with or without a negation ; with a negation, 
 it means nulle chose, nothing. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 il ne s'attache a rien de solide he applies himself to nothing 
 
 fixed 
 
 Without a negation, it means quelque chose, 
 something. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 je doute que rien soit plus propre I doubt whether any thing be 
 a /aire impression que f etc. more suited to make an im- 
 
 pression than, etc. 
 
350 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 In answers the negation is understood, que vous 
 a coute cela? Rien. How much did you pay for it? 
 Nothing, 
 
 It requires the preposition de before the adjective 
 or participle that follows it, then the verb and the 
 negation are understood, as rieu de beau que le vrai, 
 nothing is noble but truth. 
 
 exercise on Autrui, Personne, etc. 
 
 To most men the misfortunes of others are but a 
 
 pour la plupart de art. mat m. ne que * 
 
 dream. Do not to others what you would not wish (to be done 
 
 songe m. vouloir qu on vous 
 
 to you). No one knows whether he deserves love or hatred. 
 
 Jit savoir si est digne de de 
 
 An egotist loves nobody, not even his own children : in the 
 
 egoiste pas meme propre dans 
 
 whole universe he sees no one but himself. He is more than {any 
 
 * univers ne voit * que lui seul 
 
 body) worthy of the confidence (with which) the king honours him. 
 
 digne confiance f. dont honorer 
 
 I doubt whether any one ever painted nature, in its ami- 
 que ait jamais peint art. , — f. 
 
 able simplicity, better than the sentimental Gessner. Has any body 
 = f. • sensible — * 2 
 
 called on me this morning ? Nobody. There was nothing but 
 est-ilvenulchez matin m. ind.-2 que 
 
 what was great in the designs and works of the 
 
 * de * grand dans dessein m. pi. art. ouvrage m. pi. 
 
 Egyptians. I doubt whether there is any thing better calcu- 
 
 — tiens que subj.-l 2 1 plus 
 
 lated to exalt the soul than the contemplation of the wonders of 
 propre — f. merveille f. 
 
 nature, 
 art. — f. 
 
 SECOND CLASS. 
 
 Those which are always joined to a Substantive. — Page 151. 
 
 Quelque, Chaque, Quelconque. 
 Quelque, some, signifies un, une eutre phisieurs, 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 351 
 
 one out of several ; it is of both genders and may 
 take the sign of the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 addressez-vous a quelque autre apply to somebody else 
 personne 
 
 Chaque, each, every, is of both genders ; it has no 
 plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 chaque pays a ses coutumes each country has its customs 
 
 Quelconque, aucun, any ; quel que ce soit, what- 
 ever it be ; quel quil soit, whoever lie be, is of both 
 genders, and always follows a substantive ; with a 
 negative, it is always singular. 
 
 il ne vent se soumettre a aucune au- he will submit to no authority 
 torite quelconque whatever 
 
 Certain signifies quelque, certain, some. In this 
 sense it is used of persons and things ; it always 
 precedes the substantive. 
 
 fai out dire a certain homme, a un I have heard some man say 
 certain homme 
 
 Un, une, a or an, used for quelque, certain, some 
 person or some thing, takes the gender of the sub- 
 stantive which it accompanies. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 fai vu un homme qui courait I saw a man who was running 
 
 je me suis promene dans line grande I walked in a large fine meadow 
 et belle prairie 
 
 exercise on the Second Class. 
 
 If you want to succeed in your undertaking, I advise you to 
 
 desirer * reussir entreprise f. conseiller 
 
 apply to some one well acquainted with your business. 
 s'adresser quelqu' qui 2 connaitre subj -1 1 * f. 
 
352 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 We were reading not long ago in a moral work, that every 
 
 lire ind.-2 il rfy a pas lony-temps 1 de 3 2 1 
 
 ruling prince should have a good and sound knowledge 
 regnant 3 2 devoir con d.-l 2prqfonde solide connaissance f. 1 
 of the human heart. Whatever may be his future conduct through 
 pr. art. 2 1 m. dans 
 
 the world, he will never be looked upon as an honest 
 
 m. ne 1 jamais 3 passer 2 pour 5 ind.-7 * 
 
 man (any longer). Your daughter, Madam, is so stubborn and be- 
 plus 4 entete f. en 
 
 sides so positive, that for (any thing) in the world, she 
 
 meme temps entiere a pr. art. 
 
 will yield to no authority whatever. Have we not often 
 ne se rendre a 
 
 heard certain foreigners boasting in this country of 
 entendre inf. -3 sevanter leur 
 
 riches and comforts, however poor they might 
 
 pr. and pro. aisance tres pauvre 2 
 
 have been. I was walking alone in the middle of 
 
 1 se promener ind. a pr. art. 
 
 a large and fine tract of woodland, when to my great surprise, 
 el. grand etendue f. etonnement m. 
 
 I chanced to meet a poor black boy clothed with rags 
 
 par hazard rencontrer ind.-3 couvrir inf. -3 de 
 
 and almost reduced to starvation. 
 mourir inf.-3 de 
 
 THIRD CLASS. 
 
 Those which are sometimes joined to a Substantive and sometimes not. — 
 
 Page 152. 
 
 Nul and pas un, no, not any, not one, are em- 
 ployed either alone or in conjunction with a sub- 
 stantive. They are accompanied by the particle ?ie, 
 must agree in gender with the noun to which they 
 relate, and may be followed by the preposition de. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 nul de tous ceux qui y out ete n'en not one of those who went there 
 
 est revenu has returned 
 
 pas un ne croit cette nouvelle not one believes that intelli- 
 gence 
 
 je n'en ai nulle connaissance T have no knowledge of it 
 
 il rty a pas une seule personne qui there is not a single person that 
 
 le croit believes it 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 353 
 
 Anemia accompanied by a negation, signifies nul 9 
 no, not any. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 vqus rtavez aucun moyen de reussir you have no means of succeeding 
 dans cette affaire in that affair 
 
 This pronoun is only used in the plural when 
 before substantives, which in some particular sense, 
 are better employed in the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 it h 'a fait aucunes dispositions he has made no dispositions 
 
 Remark. — Aucun is used without a negation in 
 interrogative sentences, or those which express 
 doubt or exclusion. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 aucun homme fut-il jamais plus was ever any man more success- 
 
 heureux ful ? 
 
 on doute qu'&ucune de ces affaires they doubt whether any of those 
 
 reussisse affairs will succeed 
 
 le plus beau morceau d'eloquence the finest piece of eloquence 
 
 quil y ait dans aucune langue, that exists in any language, 
 
 etc. etc. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I do really pity the man who has not any friend upon 
 * sincirement plaindre 2 ne I aucun 
 
 whom he may rely to support him in a foreign land. 
 
 pouvoir subj.-l compter pour secourir 2 1 
 There was not a single individual to witness the case 
 
 rty avoir pas pour etre temoin de 
 
 when he ran away with Mrs. B 's diamonds. You have 
 
 emporter ind.-3 * de 2 art. 1 ri avoir 
 
 no reason to complain ; indeed, I do not know any one happier 
 pas lieu de se plaindre 
 than you are. My old uncle died in the year 1840, towards 
 
 * mourir ind.-4 * 
 
 the (latter end) of May, at the advanced age of ninety-five, 
 
 art. fin f. * ans 
 
 without having made any previous dispositions in favour of his 
 inf. -I mf, -3 aucun — f, pi. en 
 
354 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 family. May he rest in peace ! No one of his relatives 
 
 que reposer subj.-l en 
 will ever remember him : at all events, I will not. Has 
 
 se ressouvenir de quant a moi rty penser plus ind.-l 
 
 ever any man been more comfortable than he, who had not a single 
 
 instant of illness during the whole period of his life ; but where 
 
 le cours 
 is he now ? I doubt whether he is likely to be as sue- 
 
 douter que etre subj.-l * * * aussi lieu- 
 
 cessful in the undiscovered country, from whose bourn no traveller 
 
 reux ce 2 m. 1 d'oic * 
 
 till now, has yet returned, as he was in this world, where 
 
 rCetre revenir inf.-3 que ind. -2 
 
 every thing used to go according to his wishes. 
 
 * marcher ind. -2 au gre de 
 
 Autre, FUn V Autre. 
 
 Autre, other, expresses a difference between one 
 and several objects, as quelle autre chose souhaitez- 
 vous de moi? What else do you wish of me ? 
 
 Remark. — Autre is sometimes used to express an 
 indeterminate person, as jaime mieux que vous 
 Fappreniez de tout autre que de moi, I had rather 
 you learn it of any other person than of me. 
 
 Un is sometimes opposed to autre, in which case 
 these two words are preceded by the article, adopt 
 the gender and number of the substantive to which 
 they relate, and form the pronouns Vun V autre, Fun 
 et F autre, and ni Fun ni F autre. 
 
 Uun F autre, each other, one another, applies to 
 persons and things ; it takes both gender and num- 
 ber. If there be any preposition, it must be placed 
 before the last. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ilfaut se secourir Pun Pautre we ought to assist each other 
 
 les passions s'entendent les unes our passions have a relation with 
 
 avec les autres ; si Von se laisse each other ; if we indulge 
 
 alter aux unes, on attire bientot some, the others will soon fol- 
 
 les autres low 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 355 
 
 Vun et V autre, both, require the verb to be in the 
 plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 l'une et l'autre sont bonnes both are good 
 
 Ni Vun ni V autre, neither, require the verb in 
 the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 ni Tun ni l'autre n'ont fait leur neither has done his duty 
 devoir 
 
 Ask another. Would any other have been so self- 
 
 demandre a * aurait-il eu * assez oVamour 
 
 conceited as to think that his private opinion could counter- 
 
 propre * pour penser particulier 2 — f . I put ' ba- 
 
 balance the public sentiment? Reason and faith equally 
 
 lancer 2 opinion f, 1 art. raisGu f. art.^bi f. 2 
 
 demonstrate that we were created for another life. They speak 
 demontrer 1 creer ind.-4 f. 
 
 ill of one another. The happiness of the people constitutes that of 
 mat m. faire 
 
 the prince ; their true interests are connected with each other. 
 
 — m. inter et m. lie a pi. pi. art. 
 
 Presumption and pride easily insinuated themselves into the 
 
 presumption f. art. orgueil 2 se glisser 1 
 
 heart; if we allow one the entrance, it is much to (be feared) 
 
 m. Von y donne a 2 f . 3 * entree 1 bien craindre 
 
 that we shall soon (abandon ourselves) to the other. Both re- 
 on * bientot 2 ne se livre 1 rap- 
 
 late the same story, though neither believes it to be true. 
 porter fait m. ne penser que * soit 
 
 Meme> Tel, Plusieurs, Tout. 
 
 Le meme signifies qui 'it est pas d autre, which is 
 not different. It is of both genders, and takes the 
 plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 c'est le merae homme it is the same man 
 
 la meme personne the same person 
 
356 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 ce sont Ies memes raisons they are the same reasons 
 
 ce poeme est le meme que celui this poem is the same that I was 
 dontje vous ai parle mentioning to you 
 
 Tel means pared, semblable, de meme, such, like, 
 similar. It takes both genders and both numbers. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 un tel projet ne saurait reussir such a scheme cannot succeed 
 
 il rCy a pas de tels animaux, de there are no such animals, no 
 telles coutumes such customs 
 
 When not joined to a noun, it either preserves 
 its proper signification, or it expresses a person in- 
 determinately. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 vous ne sauriez me persuader rien you cannot persuade me of any 
 
 de tel such thing 
 
 tel fait des liberalites, qui ne paye the same man is liberal in giving 
 
 ses dettes who does not pay his debts 
 
 Plusieurs, several, is plural, and of both genders. 
 It relates to persons and things. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 plusieurs motifs Vont determine several reasons determined him 
 
 je crois cela pour plusieurs rai- I believe that for several reasons 
 
 sons 
 
 parmi un si grand nombre de gens, out of so great a number of per- 
 il y en eut plusieurs qui s'y op- sons several objected to it 
 poserent 
 
 When plusieurs is used absolutely as a substan- 
 tive, it always means plusieurs personnes, several 
 persons. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 plusieurs aiment mieux mourir many would rather die than for- 
 que de perdre leur reputation feit their character 
 
 Tous not joined to a substantive signifies toutes 
 chases, all things ; toute sorte de chases, every kind 
 of things. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 357 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 tous nous abandonne au moment de every thing forsakes ns at the 
 la mort ; il ne nous reste que nos moment of death : we retain 
 bonnes ceuvres nothing but our good works 
 
 When accompanied by a substantive, it is used 
 either collectively or distributively. 
 
 Collectively, tout signifies the totality of a thing, 
 and is then followed by the article, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 tout Vunivers the whole universe 
 
 tous les corps celestes all the celestial bodies 
 
 Distributively, tout signifies chaque, each ; in 
 this signification it is not accompanied by the ar- 
 ticle. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 tout bien est desirable every good is desirable 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Does he always maintain the same principles ? Yes, they are ab- 
 soutenir — pe oui ce 
 
 solutely the same. That general is the same that commanded 
 — ment pi. — — der art. 
 
 last year. Such a conduct is inexplicable. There are no 
 
 dernier 2 annee f . 1 2 1 conduite f. — 
 
 such customs in this country. I never heard (any 
 
 de coutumes f. pays m. ai entendu dire 
 
 thing) similar. The same man sows who often reaps nothing. 
 rien de * * semer recueillir 
 
 I this morning received several letters. Among those manu- 
 
 1 3 matin 4 ind.-4 2 torcf.pl. — 
 
 scripts, there are several much esteemed. Many by 
 
 crits qu'on beaucoup 2 estime 1 en 
 
 endeavouring to injure others, injure themselves more than 
 
 s'efforcer de nuire a art. se nuire a 
 
 they think. AU is in God and God is in all. The whole 
 
 ne penser en 
 
 course of his life has been distinguished by generous actions, 
 cours m. f. marque des =2 — f . 1 
 
 Every vice is odious. 
 — m. = 
 
358 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 FOURTH CLASS. 
 Those which are followed by Que. — Page 153* 
 
 Qui que, whoever, signifies quelque personne que, 
 whatever person ; it requires the verb following to 
 be in the subjunctive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 qui que ce soil qui ait fait cela, whoever has done that is a man 
 
 Jest un habile homme of talent 
 
 qui que je sois whoever I may be 
 
 qui que (fait ete whoever it may have been 
 
 qui que c'eut ete whoever it might have been 
 
 qui que ce puisse etre whoever it may be 
 
 Qui que followed by ce soil, used with a negative, 
 signifies aucune personne, nobody, as je ii!y trouve N 
 qui que ce soil, I find nobody there. 
 
 Quoi que, whatever it be, signifies quelque chose 
 que, whatever thing ; it requires also the verb fol- 
 lowing to be in the subjunctive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 quoi qu' ilfasse, on qtfil dise, on whatever he does or says, he is 
 
 se defie de lui distrusted 
 
 quoi que vous disiez, je le ferai whatever you may say, I will do 
 
 it 
 
 Quoi que followed by ce soit, used with a negation, 
 signifies aucune chose, not any thing. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 sans application, on ne peut reussir without application it is impos- 
 es quoi que ce soit sible to succeed in any thing 
 
 whatever 
 
 Quel que signifies de quelque sorte, de quelque 
 espece que ce soil, of whatever sort or kind it may 
 be, when relating to things, or qui que ce soit, who- 
 ever it may be, when relating to persons. It takes 
 both gender and number, and requires the sub- 
 junctive. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 359 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 quelles que soient vos affaires, whatever business you may have, 
 
 venez come 
 
 je rien excepte personne, quel qa'tt I except nobody, whoever he may 
 
 soit be 
 
 Remark. — Lequel que, whosoever, whichsoever, 
 is also used, as lequel des trois que vous choississiez, 
 pen mimporte, whichever of the three you choose, 
 I care little. It may also relate to persons or 
 things. 
 
 Quelque — que is of both genders ; when united to 
 a substantive, it signifies quel que soit le, quelle que 
 soit la, etc., whatever be the, etc. It has both num- 
 bers, and requires the substantive. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 quelque raison qu'on lui apporte, whatever reason is adduced, he 
 il iCen croit rien believes nothing about it 
 
 quelques efforts que vous fassiez, whatever attempts you may make, 
 vous ne reussirez point you will never succeed 
 
 When united to an adjective, it signifies a quelque 
 point que, however great a degree ; it then takes 
 neither gender nor number. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 quelque belle quelle puisse etre, however beautiful she may be, 
 elle ne doit pas etre vaine she ought not to be vain 
 
 quelque puissans quHls soient, je ne however powerful they may be, 
 les crains point I am not afraid of them 
 
 Tel que, such as, is used in speaking of persons 
 or things ; it takes both genders and numbers. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 c'est un homme tel quHl le faut he is j ust such a man as you want 
 
 Tout — que signifies quoique, encore que, though ; 
 quelque, however ; then tout is considered as an 
 adverb, is employed with adjectives of every kind, 
 and even with some substantives. 
 
360 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 tout artificieux qu'ils sont, je doute artful as they are, I doubt whe- 
 
 quele public soit long -temps leur ther the public will be long 
 
 dupe their dupe 
 
 toutefemme qu'elle est woman as she is 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Whatever a frivolous world may think of you, never 
 
 pouvoir subj.-l 
 swerve from the path of truth and virtue. Whatever 
 se detourner se?itierm, art. 
 
 efforts you make, I doubt whether you are likely to succeed. 
 
 subj.-l que pouvoir subj.-l * inf.-l 
 
 Whatever events may happen, he has taken his 
 
 qui pou voir subj.-l arriver inf.-l j 
 
 resolution. Let the laws be what they may, we must always 
 parti m. f. pi. subj-1 falloir ind.-l 
 
 respect them. The man who descends into himself only to 
 
 ne rentrer en que pour 
 
 perceive his own defects and correct them, is ashamed to 
 y demeler se corriger 2 en 1 avoir honte ind.-l 
 
 see himself, such as he is. However surprising that phenomenon 
 tel tout phenomene m. 
 
 is, it is not against the (ordinary course) of nature. 
 contre ordre art. — f. 
 
 2. Whatever you may say, my good lady, you will never succeed 
 
 * ne jamais ind.-4 
 
 in making me believe that these two (very) white front teeth 
 2 1 inf. -4 1 qui sont si 3 4 incisive 2 1 
 
 are (your own); but, let me tell you that whoever 
 
 subj.-l naturel f. pi. permettre que imp. subj.-l 2 1 
 has put them in, is far from being a man of talent, 
 
 3 arranger inf. -3 4 2 * vous 1 loin de inf.-l 
 and every time I see you laughing or even smiling, I cannot 
 aussi que 2 1 inf.-l inf.-l ne pouvoir 
 
 help saying that your dentist is either an ignorant man or 
 
 s'empecher de inf.-l * 
 
 a deceitful fellow. No one should be allowed 
 
 * a 2 ne devoir cond.-l imper. etre permettre 
 
 to cheat the public, especially those who 
 
 inf. -3 1 de en imposer a a ceux or a celles 
 
 want to supply the defects of nature. 
 
 a pr. art. 
 
OF THE VERB. 361 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 Agreemeyit of the Verb with the Subject. 
 
 We have already seen that the subject is that 
 of which something is affirmed, and it may always 
 easily be known, the answer to this question, qui 
 est-ce qui? who or what is it? always pointing* it 
 out, so as never to be mistaken. When we say, 
 Pierre vit, Peter lives ; Voiseau vole, the bird flies ; 
 if we ask qui est-ce qui vit? who is it that lives? 
 qui est-ce qui vole ? what is it that flies ? the answers 
 Pierre and Voiseau, show that Pierre and Voiseau 
 are the subjects of the verbs vit and vole. 
 
 Rule. — The verb ought to be of the same number 
 and person as its subject. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 je ris I laugh nous parlons we speak 
 
 tujoues thou playest vous plaisantez you jest 
 
 il aime he loves ils sontfou they are mad 
 
 la vertu est aimable virtue is amiable 
 
 Ris is in the singular number, and the first 
 person, because je, its subject, is in the singular 
 and the first person. Joues is in the singular and 
 the second person, because tu is in the singular and 
 the second person, etc. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The freest of all men is he who can be free 
 
 libre art. celui pouvoir ind.-l 
 
 even in slavery itself. Are we not often blind to 
 
 mime art. esclavage m. * s'aveugler ind.-l sur 
 
 our defects? All men (are inclined) to laziness, but the 
 defaut art. tendre ind.-l art. 
 
 R 
 
362 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 savages of hot countries are the laziest of all men. Do you 
 
 art. chaud 2 pays 1 
 think of imposing long on the credulity of the public ? Thou 
 * en imposer long-temps a credulite f. — m. 
 
 canst not deny that he is a great man. 
 pouvoir nier wesubj.-l 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. When a verb has two subjects in the singular 
 number, this verb is put in the plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 mon pete et ma mire mHaiment ten- my father and mother loved me 
 drement tenderly 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 His uprightness and honesty, make him (sought after) by 
 
 droiture f. pron. honnetete /aire rechercher 
 
 every body. Strength of body and of soul meet not 
 
 art. f. art. celle se rencontrer 
 
 always together. A good heart and a noble soul are precious 
 
 ensemble beau (de) art. 
 
 gifts of nature. 
 don m. pi. art — f. 
 
 2. When a verb relates to subjects of different 
 persons, it agrees with the first in preference to the 
 other two, and with the second in preference to the 
 third. We first name the person to whom we are 
 speaking, and always name ourselves last. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 vous, votrefrere, et moi, nous lisons you, your brother, and I, read 
 
 ensemble la brochure nouvelle together the new pamphlet 
 
 vous et votre ami, vous viendrez you and your friend, you will 
 
 avec moi come with me 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 You, your friend, and I, have each a different opinion. In our 
 
 chacun 2 — f . 1 
 
 childhood, you and I (were pleased) with playing together. Nei- 
 enfance f. se plaire ind. -2 a inf.-l ni 
 
 ther I, nor (any one else) has been able to understand (any thing) 
 m d'autres ne pouvoir ind. -4 * comprendre rien 
 
OF THE VERB. 363 
 
 in that sentence. (Take good care) you and your brother, not 
 a phrase f. se garder bien * 
 
 to give way to the impetuosity of your tempers. 
 de s'abandonner = caractere m. 
 
 3. When a verb has qui relative for its subject, it 
 is put in the same number and person as the noun 
 or pronoun to which qui relates. — (See the same 
 rule, p. 141). 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 est-ce mol qui ai dit cette nouvelle ? is it I who told this news ? 
 est-ce nous qui lemons voulu ? is it we who desired it ? 
 
 les hommes qui aiment sincerement those who sincerely love virtue 
 la vertu sont heureux are happy 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 He that complains most of men, is not always he that 
 Celui se plaindre le plus art. 
 
 (has most reason) to complain (of them). You that wish to 
 etre le plus fonde 2 en I vouloir * 
 
 enrich your mind with thoughts strongly conceived and nobly 
 enrichir de f. fortement rendu noblement 
 
 expressed, read the works of Homer and Plato. 
 exprime Homfoe art. Platon 
 
 See the exercise, p. 124. 
 
 Of the Regimen of Verbs. 
 
 We have said (p. 158) that an active verb was 
 that after which we might put quelquun or quelque 
 chose] likewise, that the word which is put after 
 the verb is called the regimen of that verb. We 
 then observed that this regimen might be known by 
 asking the question qu est-ce que ? This regimen we 
 call direct, and it may be either a noun or a pro- 
 noun.* 
 
 Rule. — When the regimen of the active verb is 
 a noun, it is always placed after the verb ; when it 
 is a pronoun, it is generally placed before it. 
 
 * The regimen of an active verb is called direct because it is not preceded by 
 any preposition which would prevent the direct action expressed by the verb. — 
 See p. 445. Particular Syntax of Pronouns. 
 
364 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 EXAMPLES, 
 
 ma mere aime tous ses enfans my mother lo^es all her children 
 
 je vous aime, and not as in English I love you 
 
 faime vous 
 
 il m'aime, and not il aime moi he loves me 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 He has discovered to all other nations his ambitious 
 
 montrer art. * peuple m. pi. = 2 
 
 design of enslaving them, and has left us 
 
 m. I mettre dans Vesclavage inf.-l ne laisser 
 
 no means of defending our liberty, but by endeavouring to 
 aucun moyen inf.-l = f . que en tdcher inf. -3 de 
 
 overturn his new kingdom. Homer represents Nestor as one that 
 renverser royaume m. celui 
 
 restrained the boiling wrath of Achilles, the pride of Aga- 
 moderer ind. 2 bouillant courroux m. 
 
 memnon, the fierceness of Ajax, and the impetuous courage of 
 
 JierteL =2 — 1 
 
 Biomede. He dared not (lift up) his eyes, lest they 
 Diomede oser ind.-2 lever * art. de peur de * 
 
 should meet those of his friend, whose very silence 
 
 * rencontrer inf.-l ceu.v art. meme 2 — m. 1 
 
 condemned him. He caresses them because he loves them. 
 
 ind.-2 
 
 Beside this regimen direct, some active verbs 
 may have a second, which is called indirect, and is 
 marked by the words a or de, as il a fait un present 
 a sa sceur, he has made a present to his sister ; il 
 accuse son ami d" imprudence, he accuses his friend 
 of imprudence. 
 
 This second regimen is known by the answer to 
 these questions; a qui? to whom? a quoi? to 
 what? as a qui a-t-il fait un present? to whom did 
 he make a present ? a sa sceur, to his sister. De 
 quoi accuse-t-il son ami ? of what does he accuse his 
 friend? d'imprudence, of imprudence. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 By submitting to the yoke of Asia, Greece (would have 
 en suhir inf.- * joug m. art. art. 
 
OF THE VERB. 365 
 
 thought virtue subjected to voluptuousness, the 
 
 croire cond -2 art. 2 assujettir inf.- 1 art. volupte f. 
 mind to the body, and courage to a foolish strength, which 
 
 art. — m. un in sense 2 f. 
 
 consisted only in the multitude. Three hundred Lacedemonians 
 
 ind.~2 — f. — niens 
 
 ran to Thermopylae to certain death, content, in 
 
 courir ind.-3 art. pi. un assure 2 f. 1 en 
 
 dying, to have killed (in defence) of their country, an infinite 
 
 de immoler * a 2 
 
 number of barbarians, and to have left to their countrymen the 
 
 1 barbare de laisser compatriot e 
 
 example of an unheard of bravery. You knew -the impor- 
 
 ino ui 2 * hardiesse f. 1 savoir ind.-2 — f. 
 
 tance which your parents attached to the success of that affair, 
 que ind.-2 reussite f. f. 
 
 why (have you not hastened) to announce it (to them). 
 pourquoi sHmpresser ind.-4 de 3 f . 1 2 
 
 Regimen of Passive Verbs. 
 
 The regimen of passive verbs is de or par, before 
 the noun or pronoun that follows them, as la souris 
 est mangee par le chat, the mouse is eaten by the 
 cat ; un enfant sage est aime de tout le ntonde, a 
 good child is loved by every body. 
 
 Observation. — We ought never to use the word 
 par, by, before Dieu, God. We say, les mechants 
 seront punis de Dieu, which, in order to avoid 
 making use of by, may be thus construed in 
 English, God will punish the wicked. 
 
 The city of Troy was taken, plundered, and destroyed by the 
 Troie pris f. saccage f. detruit f. 
 
 confederate Greeks, 1184 before the Christian sera: this event 
 confedere 2 1 ans avant 2 ere f. 
 
 has been celebrated by the two greatest poets of Greece and 
 
 art. art. 
 
 Italy. You will only be loved, esteemed, and (sought after) by men 
 ni rechercher de 
 
366 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 (in proportion as) you join the qualities of the heart to 
 que autant que joindre ind. 7 
 
 those of the mind. God punished the 
 
 f. pi. pr. 3 punir (passive voice ind. -3 2) peuple 
 
 Jews every time that, deaf to the voice of the prophets, 
 Juif \ toutes les fois sourdm.^A. f. pr ophite 
 
 they fell into idolatry and. impiety, 
 
 sing, tomber ind.-3 dans art. = art. = 
 
 Some few neuter verbs have no regimen, as 
 dormir, to sleep ; but many of them have an indi- 
 rect one. 
 
 Rule. — We put a or de before the noun or pro- 
 noun that follows the neuter verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 tout genre oVexces nuit a la sanie every kind of excess is hurtful to 
 
 health 
 il midit de tout le monde he slanders every body 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 This sentiment has pleased the king and all the nation. In 
 — m. a a — f. dans 
 
 his retirement, he (has the full enjoyment) of the faculties of his 
 
 retraile f. jouir tout f. pi. 
 
 soul. To slander (any one) is to assassinate him in cold 
 
 medire de quelqu'un c'est * 2 1 de 2 
 
 blood. The honest man seldom (permits himself) to jest 
 
 sang 1 rarement se permettre de * art. plaisan- 
 
 because he knows the most innocent jests may 
 
 eerie f. pi. parceque savoir que f. pi. * pouvoir 
 
 sometimes hurt the reputation. It is only in retirement that 
 quelquefois nuire a — f. ne que 
 
 one truly enjoys one's self. His work has pleased 
 
 on v entablement 2 jouir 1 de soi a 
 
 every one, because it joins to real utility the allurements 
 
 art. monde joindre un 2 f . 1 agrement m. pi. 
 
 of style, and the beauty of sentiments, 
 art. m. = f . — 
 
 We have seen that the reflective verbs have for 
 their regimen the personal pronouns me, te, se, tious 
 
OF THE VERB. 367 
 
 and vous, and that this regimen is sometimes direct, 
 and sometimes indirect. — (See tlie exercise p. 22L) 
 
 OF THE NATURE AND USE OF MOODS AND TENSES. 
 
 Of the Indicative. 
 
 The indicative is the manner of expressing the 
 different tenses with simple affirmation only. It 
 contains eight tenses, viz. the present, the imperfect, 
 the preterit definite, the preterit indefinite, the 
 preterit anterior, the pluperfect^ the future simple, 
 and the future anterior. 
 
 1 . The present denotes that a thing is, or is doing, 
 at the time when it is mentioned, asfazme, I love; 
 ilsjouent, they play. 
 
 2. The imperfect denotes the past with regard to 
 the present ; it shows that a thing was present at a 
 time which is past ; je soupais quand il entra, I was 
 supping when he came in. 
 
 3. The preterit definite denotes a thing done at a 
 time which is entirely past ; jecrivis hier a Rome, 
 I wrote yesterday to Rome. The time is precisely 
 determined.* 
 
 4. The preterit indefinite denotes a thing either 
 done at a time which is past, but not particularly 
 determined, as il m'a fait un vrai plaisir en venant 
 me voir, he has given me real pleasure by coming to 
 see me; or at a time past, though still unfinished, 
 asfaivu cette semaine beaucoup de rnonde, I have 
 seen many people this week. 
 
 * Therefore we could not say, fecrivis ce matin, aujourd'hui, cette semaine, 
 ce mois-ci, cette annee-ci, because the time mentioned is not quite elapsed. — (See 
 Particular Syntax of Verbs, p. 473 ). 
 
368 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 My sister is in her chamber, where she (is occupied) in reading 
 f. oil s'occuper a inf.- 1 
 
 ancient history, the study (of which) pleases her extremely. 
 
 2 1 2 dont 1 2 lui 1 infiniment art. 
 
 Benefits bestowed are (so many) trophies 
 
 bienfait que on repandre ind- 1 autant de art. trophee que on 
 
 erected in the heart of those whose felicity (has been promoted) 
 s'eriger m. 1 art. = f. 4 on 2 f aire ind.-l 3 
 
 (by them). The great Corneille was occupied in his cabinet 
 
 — a 
 
 tracing the plan of one of his tragedies, when a servant, terrified, 
 inf.-l f« tout effraye 
 
 came to tell him that his house was on fire : 
 
 ind. -3 * lui * art. 3 prendre a ind.-6 2 * art. 1 
 
 go and find my wife, replied he ; I do not understand 
 
 * trouver repondre ind. -3 entendre rien a 
 
 the economy of the family. Some Hungarian noblemen re- 
 affaire pi. menage m. de art. Hongrois 2 seigneur 1 se 
 volted against the Emperor Sigismund ; this prince heard 
 revolter ind.-3 = — mond apprendre 
 it, and marched fiercely against them : Which, among 
 ind. -3 fierement au devant de d'entre 
 you, said he (to them), will (lay hands) upon his king 
 ind.-3 2 3 1 meitre 1 la main, 3 4 
 first? If there be one bold enough, let him advance. This 
 art. 2 en un hardi2 1 
 
 noble firmness struck the rebels (with awe}, who returned 
 en imposer a seditieux * rentrer 
 
 immediately to their duty. I have travelled through almost all 
 
 aussitot dans le devoir voyager dans 
 
 Europe, and I have visited the most celebrated places in Asia 
 
 lieu de art. 
 and Africa ; if, on one side, I admired the master-pieces of 
 
 pr.-art. de ind. -4 chef-d'oeuvre 
 
 art, which the protection of enlightened governments has 
 art. L — art. 2 -—1 
 
 promoted in every kind, on the other, I shed tears, (in seeing) 
 faire naitre en genre m. ind. -4 sur 
 
 the ravages of ignorance and barbarism. 
 
 — art. — pr.-art. barbarie f. 
 
 5. The preterit anterior denotes that a thing was 
 
OF THE VERB. 369 
 
 done at a time which is past, and is either definite 
 or indefinite. They differ as the two preterits, defi- 
 nite and indefinite. J'eus fini de diner hier a midi, 
 I had finished dining yesterday at twelve o'clock ; 
 fax eu fini de dejeuner ce matin a dix heures, I 
 had finished breakfast this morning at ten o'clock. 
 
 6. The pluperfect denotes that a thing was done 
 before another, which was done itself at a time past ; 
 
 f avals soupe quand il entra, I had supped when he 
 came in. 
 
 7. The future absolute denotes that a thing will 
 be, or will be done, at a time which is not yet come ; 
 
 jirai demain a la campagne, I shall go to-morrow 
 into the country. 
 
 8. The future anterior denotes that when a thing- 
 shall happen, another will then have been ; quand 
 faurai fini> je sortirai, when I shall have doue, or 
 when I have done, I shall go out. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I had done yesterday at noon. I went out (as soon as) I had 
 midi sortir ind.-4 des que 
 
 dined. As soon as Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, he had no longer 
 
 passer plus 
 
 to deliberate ; he was obliged to conquer or to die. I had finished 
 
 devoir ind.- * vaincre * 
 the task that he had imposed upon me, when he came in. Those 
 
 tdche f. imposer f. * 
 
 who had contributed most to his elevation on the throne of his 
 
 le plus — - 
 
 ancestors, were those who laboured with the most eagerness to 
 
 travailler de acharnement 
 
 precipitate him (from it). I shall shortly go into the country, 
 
 4 2 3 en ne point tarder a a 
 
 where I intend to (collect plants); in order to (make myself 
 se proposer de herb or is er mi -\ se 
 
 perfect) in the knowledge of botany. When I have 
 
 perfectionner art. botanique 
 
 done reading the divine writings of Homer and 
 
 achever ind.- de inf.-l ecrit m. — e pr. 
 
 r2 
 
370 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 Virgil, and my mind has imbibed their beauties, I 
 
 — e que se penetrer ind.-8 de 
 
 shall read the other epic poets. 
 ind.-7 2 I 
 
 Of the Conditional, 
 
 The conditional is the manner of expressing the 
 affirmation, with dependance upon some condition; 
 it has two tenses, viz. the present and t\\e past. 
 
 The present of the conditional denotes, according 
 to circumstances, either that a thing would be, or 
 would be done upon certain conditions ; as je ferais 
 votre affaire avant peu, si elle dependait uniquement 
 de moi, I would settle your business before long, if 
 it only depended upon me. 
 
 The past of the conditional denotes that a thing 
 would have been at a time which is past upon some 
 conditions ; faurais or feusse fait votre affaire si 
 vons men aviez, or men eussiez parle, I would have 
 settled your business if you had mentioned it to me. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 What were not the felicity of man, if he always sought his 
 quel cond.-l = f . chercher ind -2 
 
 happiness in himself? I should be glad to see you united, happy, and 
 
 en 
 comfortable. A dupe to my imagination, I should have been lost 
 
 tranquille * de s'egarer 
 
 (but for) you, in my search after truth. Enquire whe- 
 
 sans * art. recherche f. de art. s informer 
 
 ther he would have consented to those conditions, in case 
 
 consentir — dans art. que 
 
 he should have thought himself able to fulfil them. 
 se cr aire subj- 4 de remplir2 1 
 
 Of the Imperative. 
 
 The imperative in verbs, is the manner of ex- 
 pressing, beside the affirmation, the act of com- 
 manding, exhorting, or entreating. It has but one 
 
OF THE VERB. 371 
 
 tense, which denotes the present, with relation to 
 the act of commanding, and the future, with regard 
 to the thing commanded; faites cela, do that. 
 
 N. B. — A sort of compound of the imperative, as 
 ayez dine avant queje revienne, have dined before I 
 return, very seldom occurs. 
 
 Be not fond of praise, but seek virtue, that lead? 
 
 passionne pour art- art. attire 
 
 to it. Let him know that, unless virtue guide us, our 
 
 savoir a moins que art. ne 
 
 choice must be wrong. Let us not be deceived by the 
 
 devoir ind.-l mauvais se laisser prendre a 
 
 first appearances of things ; but let us (give ourselves) time 
 
 art. se dormer art. 
 
 to fix our judgment. Arbiters of the destinies of men, do good, 
 de arbitre — nee art. 
 
 if you wish to be happy; do good, if you wish that your memory 
 * = f. 
 
 should be honoured ; do good, if you wish that heaven should 
 subj.-l art. 
 
 open to you its eternal gates. Let them never forget that the 
 
 subj.-l 2 porte f. 1 
 
 truly free man is he, who, void of all fears, and (of) all 
 
 veritablement 2 3 1 degage f. 5 
 
 desires, is subject only to the gods and reason, 
 
 m. 3 ne soumis que pr. art. f. 
 
 Of the Subjunctive. 
 
 The subjunctive is the manner of expressing the 
 affirmation, with dependance upon something that 
 precedes*. It has four tenses, viz. the present or 
 future, the imperfect, the preterit, and the pluperfect 
 
 The present expressing sometimes a future event, 
 being under the same form, is distinguished only by 
 circumstances. When we say il faut que je vous 
 aime Men pour supporter toute vos inegalites, I must 
 
 * Thus je voudrais qu'il lut, I should like him to read, forms sense, but qvJil 
 lUt, that he might read, standing alone, does not form any whatever. 
 
372 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 love you very much indeed to bear with all your 
 inequalities, it is evident that je voits aime denotes 
 the present tense. But if we say, je doute quit 
 vienne, I doubt whether he will come, the words it 
 vienne are evidently for il viendra* 
 
 The imperfect of the subjunctive most commonly 
 expresses a past action, but it is likewise susceptible 
 of a future signification. If to these words il est 
 partly he is gone, we answer je ne croyais pas quit 
 partit, I did not think he would go, this tense 
 expresses a time past ; but if the same answer be 
 made to these words, il partira, he will go, then it 
 certainly is a future. 
 
 The preterit has likewise these two significations, 
 il a falhi que jaie passee chez lui, I was obliged to 
 call on him, is a past ; but je nentreprendrai pas 
 cette affaire^ que je naie consulte, I will not under- 
 take that business before I have consulted, is a 
 future. 
 
 It is the same with the pluperfect ; this sentence, 
 je ne croyais pas que voits eussiez si tot fait, I did 
 not think you would have done so soon, expresses 
 the past ; but this,je voudrais que vous eussiez fait 
 avant mon retour, I wish you might have done 
 before I come back, expresses the future. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Men must be (very much) blinded by their passions, 
 
 art. 3 il 1 que 2 subj,-l bien — 2 
 
 not to acknowledge that they ought to love one 
 
 2 pour 1 devoir ind.-l * s y aimer art. pi. art. 
 
 another, as parts of a whole ; and as the members of our body 
 
 pi. art. tout 2 
 
 would do, if (every one) had its particular vitality. You asked 
 ] cond.-l chacun viei. prier ind.-4 
 
 him to come with us ; but I doubt whether he will have that com- 
 
 de que subj.-l 
 
 * This distinction ought not to perplex the English, learner, since in that sense 
 they use the future — he will come. 
 
OF THE VERB. 373 
 
 plaisance. I could not persuade myself that he was so vain as 
 — f. ind.-2 subj.-2 * 
 
 to aspire to that place. Though every body says so, I do not 
 pour — f. subj.-l le 
 
 believe that he is gone to Rome. (Is it possible) that he 
 subj.-l se pouvoir 
 
 should let slip so good an opportunity to cover himself with im- 
 laisser subj.-3 beau occasion f. de se couvrir de un 
 
 mortal glory? I should have desired that he had profited by his 
 
 == f. subj.-4 de 
 
 abode in the country to perfect himself in the study of phi- 
 sejour a se perfectionner art. 
 
 losophy. 
 
 Of the Infinitive, 
 
 The infinitive is, in verbs, the manner of ex- 
 pressing without affirmation, or of expressing affir- 
 mation indefinitely. It denotes the action, or state, 
 in general, and consequently is not susceptible of 
 either numbers or persons. 
 
 The infinitive denotes, of itself, neither present, 
 past, nor future, nevertheless it is considered as 
 denoting those tenses when it follows other verbs. 
 The present always expresses a present, relative to 
 the preceding verb, je le vois, je le vis, je le vervain 
 venir, I see, I saw, I shall see him come (coming). 
 The past always expresses a past, relative to the 
 verb that precedes it je crois,je croyais V avoir vu 
 venir, I think, I thought I had seen him coming 
 To express a future, the infinitive must be preceded 
 by the infinitive of the verb devoir, as je croyais 
 devoir y alter, I thought I was to go thither. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 The infinitive also expresses a future after the 
 verbs promettre, esptrer, compter, sattendre, and 
 meuacer, as it promet de venir (quit viendra), he 
 
374 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 promises to come (that he will come) ; il menace de 
 sy rendre (quil sy rendra), he threatens to go 
 (that he will go) thither. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 We only shut our eyes to truth, because we fear to see 
 
 ne art. que parce que 
 
 ourselves as we are. We were yet far from the castle, when 
 
 tel que ind.-2 encore 
 
 one of our friends came to join us. I did not think I ought to set 
 
 ind.-3 * * inf.-l * 
 
 out so soon. He promises every day that he will amend, but 
 
 art. de * se cor tiger 
 
 I do not rely upon his promises. They talk of a secret ex- 
 compter promesse f. pi. on 2 
 
 pedition ; he hopes to be (in it). He relies upon seeing you 
 — f . 1 * 2 en 1 compter * inf.-l au 
 
 very soon, to terminate amicably his affair with you. You 
 premier jour pour a I amiable 
 
 expected to take a journey this year; but your father has 
 s'attendre ind.-2 defaire voyage m. 
 
 changed his mind. He threatens to punish severely, if we fall 
 de * avis de sever ement re- 
 
 again into the same error. 
 tomber faute 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 The participle partakes of the properties both of 
 a verb and an adjective ; of a verb, as it has its 
 signification and regimen, of an adjective, as it ex- 
 presses the quality of a person or thing. 
 
 There are two participles, the participle present, 
 and the participle past. 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT 
 
 The participle present in all verbs terminates in 
 a?it, as aimant , Jinissant , recevant, rendant. 
 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 375 
 
 Rule. — The participle present takes neither gen- 
 der nor number when it expresses an action, as 
 une montagne^ or des montagnes dominant sur des 
 plaines i?nmenses 3 a mountain, or mountains com- 
 manding immense plains ; un homme, des fwmmes, 
 une fenmie, des femmes lisant, parlant, ?narchant, a 
 man, men, a woman, women reading, speaking, 
 walking. But when, like an adjecthe, it expresses 
 a quality, it takes both the gender and number of 
 its substantive, as un homme obligeant, an obliging 
 man ; une femme obligeanfe, an obliging woman ; 
 des tableaux parlants, speaking portraits ; la religion 
 dominante, the established religion ; a la nuit torn- 
 bante, at night fall. 
 
 What some grammarians call gerund, is nothing 
 but the participle present, to which the word en 
 is prefixed; on se forme V esprit en lisant de 
 hons livres, we form our minds .by reading good 
 books. 
 
 EXERCISE ON THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 
 
 That mountain being very high, and thus commanding a vast 
 
 eleve ainsi dominer sur grand 
 
 extent of country, was very well calculated for our observations. 
 
 etendue pays ind.-2 * propre a, 
 
 This woman is of a good disposition, obliging every one, when- 
 
 caractere m. tout le monde quand 
 
 ever she (has it in her power). They go cringing before the great 
 
 le pouvoir ramper devant pi. 
 
 that they may be insolent to their equals. The state of pure 
 afin de * * inf.-l pi. avec egal 
 
 nature is the savage living in the desert, but living in his family, 
 
 famille f, 
 knowing his children, loving them, (making use) of speech, and 
 coimaitre user art. parole 
 
 (making himself understood). An agreeable languor impercep- 
 sefaire entendre 2 langueur f. 1 insensible- 
 
 tibly (laying hold) of my senses, suspended the activity of my 
 merit s'emparer 
 
376 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 soul, and I fell (asleep). Time is a real blunderer, 
 
 s'endormir ind -3 art. vrai brouillon 
 
 placing, replacing, ordering, disordering, impressing, erasing, ap- 
 mettre remettre ranger deranger imprimer effacer ap- 
 proaching, removing, and making all things, good and bad ; and 
 
 procher eloigner rendre f. pi. 
 
 almost always (impossible to be known again.) 
 
 quasi meconnaissable 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLE PAST. 
 
 We have seen in the conjugations that the parti- 
 ciple past has various terminations, as aime,ftni^ 
 requ, ouvert, dissous, etc. 
 
 This participle either agrees with its subject, or 
 its regimen. 
 
 Agreement of the Participle Past with its Subject. 
 
 Ride I. — The participle past, when it is accom- 
 panied by the auxiliary verb etre, agrees with its 
 subject in gender and number; that is, we add to it 
 e, if the subject be feminine, and s, if it be in the 
 plural. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 nionfrere est tombe my brother is fallen down 
 
 mesfrires sont tombes my brothers are fallen down 
 
 ma sceur est tombee my sister is fallen down 
 
 mes soeurs sont tombees my sisters are fallen down 
 
 la nuit sera bientot passee the night will soon be over 
 
 les spectacles sontfrequentes the theatres are frequented 
 
 cettefleur est fort recherchee this flower is much sought after 
 
 ils sont fort estimes they are very much esteemed 
 
 Observation. 
 
 In the compound tenses of reflective verbs, the 
 participle agrees with the regimen, and not with 
 the subject. In this sentence, je me suis promenee^ 
 promenee agrees with the regimen me if relating to 
 a female ; but in this, Lucrece s'est donne la mort, 
 the participle donne takes no gender, because se is 
 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 377 
 
 'for a sot: in this case, as it will be seen hereafter, 
 the participle takes neither gender nor number 
 owing to its being indirect. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Fire arms were not known to the ancients. Ishmael, 
 art. arme a feu f. pi. ind.-4 connu de Ismail 
 
 the son of Abraham, is known among the Arabs, as the man from 
 
 * parmi Arabe celui 
 
 whom they are sprung, and circumcision has remained (with 
 sortir art. f. etre demeure leur 
 
 them) as the mark of their origin. Heaven is that permanent 
 
 f. art. — 2 
 
 city, wherein the just are to be received after this life. In 
 cite f. 1 oil pi. devoir * apres de 
 
 Abraham's time, the threatenings of the true God were dreaded 
 2 art. 1 menace f. p]. ind.-2 redoute 
 
 by Pharaoh, king of Egypt ; but, in the time of Moses, all the 
 
 Pharaon Mo'ise 
 
 nations were perverted, and the world, which God had made to 
 
 f. pi. perverti pour 
 
 manifest his power, was become a temple of idols. That 
 
 puissance f. devenu 
 
 dreadful crisis, which threatened the state with instant destruc- 
 
 crise f. ind.-2 de prochain 2 f . i 
 
 tion was happily soon over. She is come to bring us all 
 heureusement passs * 
 
 kinds of refreshments. Sciences have always been pro- 
 
 sorte f. pi. rqfraichissement art. f. pi. pro- 
 
 tected by enlightened governments. 
 tege art. eclaire 2 1 
 
 Rule II. — -The participle past, when it follows 
 the verb avoir, never agrees with its subject. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 monfrere a ecrit my brother has written 
 
 mesjreres ont ecrit my brothers have written 
 
 ma soeur a ecrit my sister has written 
 
 mes saeurs ont ecrit my sisters have written 
 
 les Amazones ont acquis de la ce- the Amazons have acquired cele- 
 
 lebrite bri ty 
 
 j'ai contraint les soldats a marcher I have forced the soldiers to 
 
 march 
 
378 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 Observations. 
 
 The participle ett is the only one, in the French 
 language, that never varies. We say it or die a 
 ete, he or she has been ; its or elles ont ete, they 
 have been. 
 
 N. B. — The same observation may apply to neu- 
 ter verbs which are conjugated with avoir in their 
 compound tenses, as it or elle a dormi, he or she has 
 slept ; Us or elles ont nui, they have annoyed. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The Romans successively triumphed over the most warlike 
 Romain success ivement ind.-4 de beUiqueux 2 
 
 nations. Lampridius relates that Adrian erected to Jesus 
 
 1 Adrien elever ind.-6 
 
 Christ some temples, which (were still to be seen) in his 
 
 de art. en encore 2 voir ind.-2 1 de 
 
 time. Happy those princes who have never (made use) of their 
 * art. user 
 
 power but to do good ! We have spent the whole day in 
 pouvoir que pour art. 2 1 journee f. a 
 
 tormenting ourselves. One has seldom seen a great stock of 
 inf.-l 2 nous 1 rarement fonds m. 
 
 good sense in a man of imagination. The errors of Descartes proved 
 sens a — — * 
 
 very useful to Newton. 
 beaucoup servir ind.-4 — 
 
 Agreement of the Participle Past with its Regimen . 
 
 Rule I. — The participle past always agrees with 
 its regimen direct, when that regimen is placed 
 before the participle, whether the auxiliary verb 
 that accompanies it be avoir or etre. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 les ecoliers que j'ai eus ont fait de the pupils whom I have had have 
 
 grands progres made a rapid progress 
 
 Lucrece s'est tuee Lucretia has killed herself 
 
 i'ai renvoye les livres que vous I have sent back the books which 
 
 nCaviez pretes you had lent me 
 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 379 
 
 que de soins je me suis donnes what pains I have taken 
 
 quelle affaire avez-vous entreprise ? what business have you under- 
 taken ? 
 quand la race de Cain se Jut mul- when the race of Cain had mul- 
 
 tipliee tiplied 
 
 ces yeux que rCont emus ni soupirs those eyes which neither sighs or 
 
 ni terreur terror have moved 
 
 le dieu Mercure est un de ceux que the god Mercury is one of those 
 
 ks anciens ont le plus multiplies whom the ancients have mul- 
 
 tiplied the most 
 
 Observation. — The regimen put before the par- 
 ticiple is, in general, one of these pronouns, que, me, 
 te, se, le, la, les, nous and votes ; but it is sometimes 
 a noun joined to the pronoun quel, or preceded by 
 the word of quantity que, as may be seen in the 
 before-mentioned examples. 
 
 All the letters which I have received, confirm that important 
 f. pi. conjirmer 2 
 
 news. The agitated life which I have led till now, makes 
 
 1 agite 2 f . 1 mener jusqud present 2 
 
 me sigh for retirement. The difficulties which the aca- 
 
 1 soupirer apres art. retraite f. f. pi. 
 
 demies (have proposed to one another) do not seem easy to (be 
 
 sefaire ind.-4 paraiire aise 
 
 resolved). The sciences which you have studied, (will prove) infi- 
 resoudre f. pi. etre 2 
 
 nitely useful (to you). The death which Lucretia gave herself 
 
 3 4*1 f. se donner ind.-4 
 
 has (made her immortal). The cities which those nations have 
 
 la immortalise/ ind..4 f. pi. peuple 
 
 (built to themselves) are but a heap of huts. The persons 
 
 se bdtir ne que amas chaumiere f. pi. 
 
 whom you have instructed appear to me possessed of reason and 
 
 plein pr. 
 
 taste. Nothing can equal the ardour of the troops which I have 
 
 egaler f. pi. 
 
 seen (setting off). The chimeras which she has got in her head, 
 inf.-l ckimere f. pi. se mettre * art. 
 
380 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 (are beyond) all belief. What steps have I not taken! 
 
 passer croyance f. demarche f. pi. /aire 
 
 What fortunes has not this revolution overthrown I What tears has 
 f. pi. 2 — f . 1 renverser que de f. pi. 2 
 
 she not shed; what sighs has she not heaved! The Amazons 
 3 1 verser m. pi. pousser f. pi. 
 
 made themselves famous by their courage. The city of London has 
 se rendre ind.-4 celebre — f. 
 
 (made itself), by its commerce, the metropolis of the universe. I 
 devenir — m. 
 
 have thought her agitated by the furies. This day is one of those 
 
 croire m. pi. 
 
 which they have consecrated to tears. The language in which 
 
 consacrer art. langue f. * 
 
 Cicero and Virgil have written^ will last in their works. I could 
 Ciceron vivre par * 
 
 have wished to avoid those details, but I thought 
 
 vouloir * eviter d'entrer dans croire ind.-4 
 
 them necessary. The tribunes demanded of Clodius the execution 
 tribun m. pi. ind.-3 a — 
 
 of the promise which the consul Valerius had given them. 
 
 leur 
 
 Rule II. — The participle past never agrees with 
 its regimen indirect, nor with its regimen direct, if 
 that regimen is placed after it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la lettre dontje vous ai parte the letter which I have mentioned 
 
 to you 
 
 la perte et les profits auxquels il a the loss and profits in which he 
 
 participe has participated 
 
 les academies se sont fait des objec- the academies have proposed ob- 
 
 tions jections to one another 
 
 vous avez instruit ces personnes a you have taught these persons to 
 
 dessiner draw 
 
 Lucrece s'est donne la mort Lucretia has put herself to death 
 
 Observation. — We have in French about 600 
 verbs which have no regimen direct, 550 of which 
 are conjugated with the auxiliary verb avoir. 
 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 381 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The persons whose visit you had announced to me, are not 
 1 art. f.-5 2 4 3 
 
 come. Men built cities. The Amazons acquired 
 
 art. se bdtir ind.-4e?e art. ind.-4 
 
 great celebrity. 1 have forced the soldiers to march. That 
 beaucoup de = contraindre 
 
 woman has given herself fine gowns. Letters and writing 
 
 se donner de art. 4 art. ecriture 5 
 
 were invented to represent speech. She has cut two 
 on 1 a 2 3 powr peindre art. se couper 
 
 (of her) fingers. Titus had wccfe his wife mistress of his 
 
 * doigt m. pi. rendre 
 
 riches. I have given myself a great deal of trouble. Com- 
 
 bien * bien art. peine f. art. 
 
 merce has made this city flourishing. They have appointed them- 
 m. rendre f. fiorissant se donner 
 
 selves a rendezvous. 
 
 * 
 
 Rule III. — The participle past takes neither 
 gender nor number, either when the participle and 
 the auxiliary verb to which it is joined are used im- 
 personally, or when that participle is followed by a 
 verb, which governs the nouns or pronouns pre- 
 ceding it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 les chaleurs excessives qu'il a fait the excessive heats whieh we 
 cet ete ont beaucoup nui a la have had this summer, have 
 recolte done great injury to the har- 
 
 vest 
 quelle fdcheuse aventure vous est-il what unpleasant adventure have 
 
 a rive ? you met with ? 
 
 la maison que fai fait bdtir the house which I have ordered 
 
 to be built 
 imitez les vertus que vous avez en- imitate the virtues which you have 
 
 tendu louer heard praised 
 
 les mathematiques que vous rCavez the mathematics which you would 
 
 pas voulu que j'etudiasse not permit me to study 
 
 elle s'est lai&se seduire she has suffered herself to be 
 
 seduced 
 
 Observations. 
 To make a right application of the second part of 
 
382 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 this rule, we ought to examine whether we can put 
 the regimen immediately after the participle. As 
 we cannot say : fat fait la maison, vous avez entendu 
 les vertus, vous riavez pas voulu les matfiematiques, 
 it follows that the regimen belongs to the second 
 verb. Sometimes, however, the regimen may 
 relate either to the participle, or to the verb, ac- 
 cording to the meaning of the speaker. For 
 instance, we ought to say je V ax vu peindre, meaning 
 I saw her picture drawn, and je Tai vue peindre, 
 meaning, I saw her painting. 
 
 Sometimes it happens too, that in sentences 
 which are almost the same, the regimen in one 
 belongs to the participle, and in the other to the 
 following verb; for instance, we ought to answer 
 this question, avez-vous entendu chanter la nouvelle 
 actrice ? Have you heard the new actress sing ? Out, 
 je Vai entendue chanter, yes, I have ; but this ques- 
 tion, avez-vous entendu chanter la nouvelle ariette ? 
 Have you heard the new song? must be answered, 
 oui,je Uai entendu chanter, yes, I have. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The great changes which (have taken place) in admi- 
 changement y avoir ind.-l art. 
 
 nistration, have astonished many people. The heavy rains 
 
 — bien des personne grand pluie f. pi 
 
 which we have had in the spring, have been the cause of many 
 * il faire ind.-4 
 diseases. The scarcity which there was last winter, has 
 
 maladie f. pi. disettef. ind.-4 art. dernier 2 1 
 
 afforded the opportunity of doing much good. What^ news have 
 donner occasion inf.- 1 bien etre il 
 
 come to you ? The scholars whom you taught to read, have made 
 venu ind—4 de 
 
 great progress. The figures which you have learned to draw 
 
 apprendre dessiner 
 
 are of great beauty. We ought never to swerve from the 
 un = faUoir ind.-l * s' eloigner 
 
OF THE PARTICIPLE. 383 
 
 good path which we have begun to pursue. The measures 
 
 route f. on suivre mesure f. pi. 
 
 which you advised me to adopt have not succeeded. The 
 conseiller iud.-4 de prendre 
 rule which I have begun to explain seems to me very easy to 
 regie f. expliquer a 
 
 be understood. You see that I have not been mistaken on the 
 * saisir se tromper ind.-4 
 
 affairs which I had foreseen you would have in hand. How very 
 
 que * * combien 
 
 few ships have been built in England within these fifteen years. 
 pen de se construire ind.-4 depuis * 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 We have seen, in giving the definition of the 
 preposition (p. 290), that its chief use was to put 
 into a state of relation the two terms between which 
 stands the preposition. 
 
 In this chapter we will consider the prepositions 
 relatively to their government, their use with the 
 article, and their repetition before substantives. 
 
 §i- 
 
 Of the Government of Prepositions. 
 
 Some prepositions govern nouns without the 
 help of another preposition, as 
 
 devant la maison before the house 
 
 hormis son jr ere except his brother 
 
 sans son epee without his sword 
 
 others govern the nouns with the help of the pre- 
 position de, as 
 
 pres de la maison near the house 
 
 a Vinsu de son fr ere unknown to his brother 
 
 au-dessus du pont above the bridge 
 
384 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 These four, jusque, par rapport, quant, and sanf, 
 govern the preposition a, as 
 
 jusqu\tu mois prochuin till the next month 
 
 quant a moi as for me 
 
 Practice alone can teach these different regimens. 
 
 Rule. — A noun may be governed by two prepo- 
 sitions, provided they do not require different 
 regimens ; we may say 
 
 celui qui ecrit sehn les circonstances he who writes according to cir- 
 pour et contre un parti, est un cumstances, both for and 
 homme weprisable against a party, is a vsry con- 
 
 temptible man 
 
 but it would be wrong to say 
 
 celui qui ecrit en faveur et contre un parti, etc. 
 
 because en faveur requires the preposition de 
 
 Rule. — Prepositions which, with their regimen, 
 express a circumstance, are generally placed as 
 nearly as possible to the word to which, that cir- 
 cumstance relates. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 on voit des persomies qui, avec we see persons who, with a great 
 
 beaucoup d'esprit, commettent deal of wit, commit very great 
 
 de tres-grandes f aides faults 
 
 fax envoye a- la poste/es lettres que I have sent to the post-office the 
 
 vous avez ecrites letters which you have written 
 
 vroyez-vous pouvoir ramener par do you think you can reclaim, by 
 
 la douceur ces esprits egares ? gentleness, those mistaken 
 
 people ? 
 
 If we change the place of these prepositions, we 
 shall find that the sentences will become equivocal. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 I was near the (Royal Exchange) when that poor man fell 
 ind.-'2 Bourse f. tomber ind.-3 
 
 senseless on the ground. Did you not appear before the 
 
 pave m. * 3 nel pas 4paraitre inf. -3 2 
 magistrates a fortnight ago ? You are quite mis- 
 
 y avoir quinze jours imper. > * * grandement se 
 
OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 38,: 
 
 taken. Truly, you mean that I labour under 
 
 se tromper ind.-l vouloir dire on m 'avoir ind.-l induire 
 
 a mistake ; yes, Sir. I am very happy to hear it ; as for 
 en erreur inf. -3 de apprendre le quant a 
 
 me, I am not so proud, and a little more candid, therefore, I will tell 
 
 fier sincere 
 
 you confidentially, that my case* has been put off till the next 
 
 affaire f. r envoy er inf. -3 a 2 
 
 month. What do you think of our Voltaire ? 1 believe he was 
 1 que ce ind.-2 
 
 a very learned, but contemptible author. Why ? Because he 
 1 3 tres 2 
 
 wrote both for and against religion. Then it is here the 
 ecrire ind.-4 * art. 
 
 case to say, that a man however learned he may be, sometimes com- 
 
 de 
 mits very great errors. A misguided child would sooner be brought 
 de f. 2 1 2 rentrerl 
 
 back to his duty by lenient than by harsh means. 
 
 daw * art. m. art douceur f. art. rigueurf. * 
 
 §n. 
 
 The Use of the Article with Prepositions. 
 
 Some prepositions require the article before their 
 regimen ; others do not ; and others again, some- 
 times admit, sometimes reject it. 
 
 Rule I. — When the following prepositions are 
 followed by a substantive, they generally require 
 the article after them 
 
 avant 
 apres 
 chex 
 dans 
 
 depuis 
 devant 
 derriere 
 durant 
 
 envers 
 excepte 
 hors 
 hormis 
 
 nonobstant 
 parmi 
 pendant 
 pour 
 
 selon 
 suivant 
 touchant 
 vers 
 
 avant Vaurore I chez le prince 
 apres la promenade \ dans la maison 
 
 | envers les pauvres 
 J devant Veglise, etc. 
 
 There are a few exceptions, 
 
 as 
 
 avant terme 
 avant midi 
 
 1 avt 
 \ a P 
 
 int diner 
 res diner 
 
 S 
 
 1 pour lit 
 | depuis r 
 
 une paillasse 
 ri/tuit, etc. 
 
386 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 Rule II. — A noun governed by the preposition 
 en, is not, in general, preceded by the article, as 
 
 en ville, en campagne, en extase, en songe, en pieces, etc. 
 
 Remark. — Uarmte est entree en campagne, means 
 the army has taken the field ; but Mr. N. est alle a 
 la campagne, means Mr. N. is gone into the 
 country. 
 
 Rule III. — These eleven prepositions, a, de, avec, 
 contre, entre, malgre, outre, par, pour, sur, sans, 
 sometimes admit, sometimes reject the article before 
 their regimen. 
 
 If we say with the article, in a definite sense : 
 
 jouer sur le velours 
 
 St. Paul veut de la subordination entre ]&femme et le mari 
 sans les passions oil serait le merite ? 
 
 we say without the article, in an indefinite sense : 
 
 etre sur pied ; un peu defacons ne gate rien entre mari etfemme 
 vivre sans passions, &est vivre sans plaisirs et sans peines 
 
 I am sorry to say that I shall not have time to come and 
 de vous dire art. de * 
 
 see you before the latter end of the next week. Indeed, 
 
 2 1 dernier. jour pi. pr. art. 2 f. 1 
 
 you must be very much engaged. Pray 
 
 2 falloir que 1 imper. subj.-l bien * occuper inf.-Sje vousprie 3 
 tell me how you spend your time in the country ? I go to bed 
 1 2 passer a f. aller se coucher 
 
 early, and get up before day-break, then I have a good run, and 
 
 se lever alors faire course f. 
 
 after my walk, I come home, where I eat a hearty break- 
 
 ma f. revenir a art. maison f. faire excellent 
 
 fast. And after your breakfast ? I never take any thing else 
 m. 1 ne prendre * 2 1 
 
 before noon, and wait patiently till dinner time. And 
 
 pro. attendre jusqu'au * 
 
OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 387 
 
 after dinner, do you go out again ? I take a ride, and sometimes 
 
 ressortir monter a cheval 
 
 [ come to town, where I have the pleasure of seeing you. 
 alter en de inf -1 
 
 Repetition of the Prepositions. 
 
 Rule I. — The prepositions de, a, e?i, and some 
 other monosyllable prepositions, must be repeated 
 before all the nouns which they govern, as 
 
 voyons qui I'emportera de vous, de 
 lui, ou de moi 
 
 die a de Vhonnetete, de la douceur, 
 des graces, et de V esprit 
 
 la hi, que Dieu a gravee au fond 
 de mon cceur, rrtinstruit de tout 
 ce que je dois a Vauteur de man 
 etre, au prochain, a moi-meme 
 
 en Asie, en Europe, en Afrique, 
 et jusqu'en Amerique, on trouve 
 le mime prejuge 
 
 let us see which of us will excel, 
 you, he, or I 
 
 she has politeness, sweetness, 
 grace, and abilities 
 
 the law which God has deeply 
 engraven on my heart, instructs 
 me in every thing I owe to the 
 author of my being, to my 
 neighbour, and to myself 
 
 in Asia, in Europe, in Africa, and 
 even in America, we find the 
 same prejudice 
 
 Rule II. — The other prepositions, especially those 
 of two syllables, are generally repeated before 
 nouns which have meanings totally different ; but 
 not in general, before nouns, that are nearly sy no- 
 il imous. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 rlen n'est moins selon Dieu et selon 
 
 le monde 
 cette action est contre Vhonneur et 
 
 contre toute espece de principes 
 
 But we ought to say 
 
 ilperdsa jeunesse dans la mollesse 
 
 et la volupte 
 notre hi ne condamne personne sans 
 
 V avoir entendu et examine 
 
 nothing is less according to God 
 and according to the world 
 
 that action is contrary to honour, 
 and to every kind of principle 
 
 he wastes his youth in effeminacy 
 
 and pleasure 
 our laws condemn nobody without 
 
 having heard and examined 
 
 him 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The eastern question which was laid be- 
 
 1 d'orient 3 — f . 2 s'agiter pres. ind. comp. with to he 
 
388 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 tvveen Mebemet Ali, the Pacha of Egypt, and the great Sultan oi 
 
 * 
 
 Constantinople, was of so serious a nature, that it has induced 
 
 — 14 grave 52 — f . 3 f . engager inf. -3 
 
 the four powers, viz. : England, Russia, Austria, and 
 
 puissance * art. art. — ie f. art. Autriche art. 
 
 Prussia, to sign between (themselves) the famous treaty of July, in 
 
 — e elles 
 
 order to check the ambition of the Turkish governor. I was 
 a fin de reprimer — f. pr. art. 2 — neur 1 
 
 afraid (it would have kindled) a general war, not only 
 
 craindre ind.-2 quHl rtenfut resulte f. hid. -7 2 f 1 
 
 in Europe, but also in Asia, Africa, and perhaps in America. 
 
 — — ie prep. — que — ique 
 
 The present Sultaness is said to have politeness, 
 
 que 2 3 Sultane on dire ir\d.~l 1 ind.-l 4 pr. art. f. 
 
 sweetness, grace, and abilities. Could you 
 
 pr. art. f. pr. art. f. pr. art. esprit m. >* 3 
 
 believe it, any crowned head is always (every thing) ; 
 croire cond.-l 2 1 tout le I 3 f.-pl. 2 parfait 
 
 it is lovely, beautiful, amiable, wonderful, and often against truth, 
 f. pi. agreable 
 justice, and equity, it unites all the good qualities. Such is the 
 
 f. pi. reunir — te f* 
 
 world. (In my estimation) (there are a good many) who far 
 
 selon moi y en avoir beaucoup imper. 
 
 from acting according to God and their conscience, act always 
 de inf.-l — ind.-l 
 
 contrary to honour, and to every kind of principle. 
 
 contre * art. prep. * tout espece f. — pe 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE ADVERBS. 
 
 Place of Adverhs. 
 
 Rule I. — With the simple tenses, the adverb is 
 generally placed after the verb, and with the com- 
 
OF THE ADVERBS. 389 
 
 pound tenses, between the auxiliary and the par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I'hcmme le plus eclaire est ordinaire- the man who is most learned is 
 
 ment celui qui pense le plus generally he who thinks most 
 
 modestement de lui-meme modestly of himself 
 
 avez-vous jamais vu un pedant plus have you ever seen a pedant more 
 
 absurde el plus vain ? absurd and more vain ? 
 
 Compound adverbs, and adverbial expressions are 
 placed always after the verb, as 
 
 c'est a la mode that is fashionable 
 
 il a agi avec prudence he has acted prudently 
 
 Adverbs denoting time in an indeterminate man- 
 ner, are likewise placed after the verb, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 il eutfallu se lever plus matin it would have been necessary to 
 
 rise earlier 
 on a vu cela autrefois that has been seen formerly 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. Adverbs of order, and those which express a 
 determinate time, are placed either before or after 
 the verb. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 nous devons premierement faire we ought first, to do our duty ; 
 
 noire devoir; secondement, secondly, enjoy lawful plea- 
 
 chercher les plaisirs permis sures 
 
 aujourd'hui ilfait beau ; il pleuvra to-day, it is fine ; it will rain per- 
 
 peuUetre demain haps to-morrow 
 
 2. The adverbs comment, oil, (foil, par ou, com- 
 Men, pourquoi, quand, are always placed before the 
 verb which they modify. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 comment vous portez-vous ? how do you do ? 
 
 oil allez-vous ? whither are you going ? 
 
 il ne sail comment s'y prendre he does not know how to set 
 
 about it 
 
GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 Rule II. — When an adverb modifies an adjective, 
 it is placed before that adjective. 
 
 c'est une femme fort belle, tres- 
 sensible, et infniiment sage 
 
 she is a woman very beautiful, 
 of great sensibility, and infi- 
 nitely prudent 
 
 Rule III. — Adverbs of quantity and comparison, 
 and the three adverbs of time, souvent, toujours, 
 jamais, are placed before the other adverbs. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 si poliment, fort poliment 
 
 tres-heureusement 
 
 le plus adroitement 
 
 ils ne seront jamais etroitement unis 
 
 ils sont toujours ensemble 
 
 so politely, very politely 
 
 very happily 
 
 the most skilfully 
 
 they never will be intimately 
 
 united 
 they are always together 
 
 c'est souvent a Vimproviste quHl he often comes unexpectedly 
 
 Souvent may, however, be preceded by an adverb 
 of quantity or comparison, as si souvent, assez 
 souvent, fort souvent, plus souvent, moins souvent, 
 trop souvent. 
 
 Remark. — When adverbs of quantity and com- 
 parison meet together in a sentence, the following 
 is the order which custom has established. 
 
 si peu 
 
 | Men peu 
 
 beaucoup* trop 
 
 tant mieux 
 
 trop peu. 
 
 Men plus 
 
 beaucoup plus 
 
 tant pis 
 
 tres peu 
 
 { Men davantage 
 
 beaucoup moins 
 
 etc. 
 
 When bien is before another adverb, it means very, 
 much, etc. as in the preceding and following 
 examples. 
 
 Men assez quite enough I frapper Men fort strike very hard 
 
 bien mains much less | bien tard very late 
 
 * Beaucoup is not susceptible of being modified by any adverb preceding, thus 
 tres beaucoup, trop beaucoup, etc. is never said. 
 
OF THE ADVERBS. 391 
 
 but when it is placed after the abverb, it signifies 
 well, as 
 
 assez bien pretty well fort bien very well 
 
 moins bien not so well aussi bien as well 
 
 The above rules have been sufficiently exem- 
 plified in page 305. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Whosoever (is not aware of) his own ignorance, ought to 
 
 nepas reconnaitre * — £ . devoir cond.-l 
 
 go to school again. Have you not always some non- 
 
 retourner a art. m. * quelque niai- 
 
 sense or other to talk about. Oh ! I see, sir, that truth 
 
 serie f . 2 * nouveau 1 conter art. f. 2 
 
 perhaps offends you, (if such is the case) I really do 
 
 1 blesser 3 s'iZ en est ainsi 1 sincerement 5 * en 3 
 
 beg your pardon, but before parting, allow me to 
 
 demander 4 bien 2 — 6 de nous separer de 
 
 tell you, that I have never met in my life a more absurd, 
 
 2 1 rencontrer inf. -3 de f. 1 — eS 
 
 vain, and conceited pedagogue than the individual whom I 
 
 adv. — adv. svffisant — 2 que — auquel 
 
 am addressing at this moment. Begone, and never let 
 
 s'adresser md.-l dans — m. se retirer impera. ne jamais 
 me see your face again. Between you and me, my good 
 
 revoir subj.-l * * 
 
 friend, a quarrel should be quite out of fashion, (it was not) 
 
 f. saison f. rten etrepas ind.-2 
 
 so formerly in dark ages, but now at (this present state) 
 
 ces temps de barbarie aujourd'hui ail centre 
 
 of an enlightened civilisation, especially in this country, a challenge 
 2 -f. 1 3 
 
 might be dangerously proposed, and if accepted (very 
 
 y avoir du danger 1 cond.-l de inf.-l 2 avoir lieu ind.-2 
 
 likely attended by very) unpleasant consequences ; for 
 
 en pouvoir etre cond.-l 2 fatal 3 art. suite f. pi. 1 par 
 
 instance, look at the Lord C — and the poor Captain T — : but 
 exemple voir * capitaine aussi 
 
 I most earnestly hope that nothing of the kind will happen 
 bien sincerement desirer * semblable * rtavriver subj.-l 
 
 between you and me • till now, we have been together on the most 
 
 dans 
 
392 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 friendly terms, and I trust we shall ever continue co 
 ttroit intimite f. esperer que toujours 
 
 love each other like two brothers. Farewell. 
 Maimer 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 Government of Conjunctions. 
 
 The conjunctions which unite sentences to one 
 another, are followed, either by the infinitive, the 
 indicative, or the subjunctive. 
 
 Conjunctions followed by an infinitive, are first, 
 those which are distinct from prepositions only, 
 because they are followed by a verb, as il faut se 
 reposer apres avoir travaillL one ought to rest after 
 having laboured. Secondly, those which have the 
 preposition de after them, as je travaille a/in de 
 vous surpasses I work that I may surpass you. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 They were going to spend a few days in town, only 
 
 ne * ind.-2 * passer * quelques a art. que 
 
 that they might find themselves with more pleasure in 
 
 •pour * * se retrouver inf.-l de art. 
 
 their charming solitude. Many persons work only (in order to) 
 
 ne que afi?i de 
 acquire consideration and riches ; but the honest 
 
 de art. — pr. art. 2 et 
 
 sensible man spends so much time in study, only to be 
 
 ne employer tant de a art que pour 
 
 useful to his fellow- creatures. I (shall make known) to you the 
 semblahles devoiler 
 
 plot which your enemies have laid in darkness, in order 
 
 trame f. ourdir art. tenebres f . pi. 
 
 to warn you against their artifices. 
 premunir 
 
OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 6V3 
 
 With the Indicative Mood. 
 
 Those that govern the indicative are: Men entendu 
 que, a conditio?! que, a la charge que, de meme que, 
 ainsi que, aussi bien que, autant que, non plus que, 
 outre que, parce que, attendu que, vu que, puisque, 
 lorsque, pendant que, tandis que, durant que, tant 
 que, peut-etre que, to which may be added comme, 
 comme-si, quand, pourquoi, etc. These conjunctions 
 are followed by the indicative, because the principal 
 sentence which they are uniting with the incidental 
 one, expresses the affirmation in a direct, positive, 
 and independent manner. 
 
 Observation. — There are six conjunctions the use 
 of which varies according to the meaning expressed 
 by the principal sentence, viz. si non que, si ce nest 
 que, de sorte que, en sorte que, tellement que, 
 de manure que. We say je ne lid ai repondu 
 autre chose, si non que j avals execute ses ordres, I 
 made him no other answer, but that I had executed 
 his orders ; because the first verb expresses a posi- 
 tive affirmation. But we ought to say, je ne veux 
 autre chose, si non que vous travailliez avec plus 
 d'ardeur, I desire nothing else, but that you should 
 work with greater ardour. 
 
 N. B. — In the first sentence jai repondu expresses 
 a positive affirmation, and in the second, je veux 
 expresses a command or desire. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 When you have a more extended knowledge of geometry and 
 ind.-7 2 art. geometric f. 
 
 algebra, I shall give you a few lessons on astronomy and 
 pr. art. algebre f, * quelque de astronomie 
 
 optics. Form your mind, heart, and taste, while you 
 
 pr. optique pron. pron. 
 
 are still young. Do not keep truth captive, though you 
 
 encore retenir art. quand 
 
 s2 
 
394 GENERAL SYNTAX 
 
 should (draw upon you) a cloud of enemies. I will give 
 devoir cond.-l s'attirer nttee f. 
 
 you this tine picture upon condition that you will keep it as a 
 tableau m. a — conserver 
 
 testimony of my friendship. 
 temoignage m. 
 
 The conjunctions which govern the subjunctive 
 are soii que, sans que, quoique,jusqiia ce que, encore 
 que, a moms que, pourvu que> suppose que, au cas 
 que, avant que, non pas que, afin que, de peur que, 
 de crainte que, and a few others. They are followed 
 by the subjunctive because they always follow a 
 principal sentence implying doubt, wish, ignorance. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 You know too well the value of time, to make 
 
 connaitre prix m. art. pour que etre 2 
 
 it necessary to tell you to (make a good use of it.) Study only 
 il 1 de de bien employer 
 
 great models, lest those which are but middling should 
 art. de peur que * mediocre ne 
 
 spoil your taste, before it be entirely formed, I (make not 
 gdter subj.-l ne 
 
 the least doubt) that your method will succeed, provided it be 
 douter nullement f. ne * subj.-l f. 
 
 well known. Several phenomena of nature are easy (to be 
 
 art. (by the 
 
 explained^, supposing the principle of universal gravitation to 
 
 active) art. 2 f. 1 * 
 
 be true, 
 subj.-l 
 
PARTICULAR SYNTAX. 395 
 
 PART III. 
 
 PARTICULAR OR IDIOMATICAL SYNTAX 
 
 OF 
 
 THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 In this third part, the Particular Syntax, the learner 
 being supposed to have thoroughly understood the 
 two foregoing ones, will find very little assistance 
 in the following exercises ; therefore, we should 
 advise him to pay more and more attention to his 
 grammatical rules, and now and then, when he 
 meets with some difficulties, to make use of a good 
 French and English Dictionary. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE, 
 
 The substantive has three functions in the dis- 
 course ; it is in subject, apostrophe 9 or regimen. 
 
 The substantive is in subject, whenever it is that 
 of which something is affirmed. When we say 
 Voiseau vole, the bird flies ; le lion ne vole pas, the 
 lion does not fly ; the substantives oiseau and lion 
 are subjects, because it is affirmed of the first that 
 it flies, and of the second that it does not fly. 
 
396 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 It is to the substantive in subject that every thing 
 relates in the sentence. In this : un homme juste 
 et ferme nest tbranle ni par les clameurs dune popu- 
 lace iujuste, ni par les menaces dun fier tyran ; 
 quand meme le monde brise stcroulerait, il en serait 
 frappt, mais non pas emu, the adjectives juste and 
 ferme modify the substantive subject homme, and 
 all the rest modify un homme juste et ferme. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. A king, who is inaccessible to men, is inaccessible to truth 
 also, and passes his life in a savage (2) inhuman (3) grandeur (I) ; 
 as he is continually afraid of being imposed upon, he always una- 
 voidably is and deserves to be so ; besides, he is at the mercy of slan- 
 derers and tale-bearers, a base malicious tribe who feed upon venom, 
 and invent evil rather than cease to injure. 
 
 2. The good which a man does is never lost ; if men forget it, the 
 gods remember and reward it. 
 
 (I.) Also, le aussi) inhuman, et farouche; as he is afraid, craignant; being 
 imposed upon, etre trompe; is, le etre; to, de ; so, le; besides, de plus; tale- 
 bearers, rapporteur ; tribe, nation ; feed upon, se nourrir de ; to injure, de nuire. 
 
 (2.) A man, on; remember, s'en souvenir. 
 
 The substantive is in apostrophe whenever it is 
 the person or thing addressed to, as rots, peuples, 
 terre, mer, et vous cieux, ecoutez-moi! In this sen- 
 tence, the substantives rois, peuples, terre, mer, and 
 cieux, are in apostrophe. 
 
 Observation. — It is only in a strongly marked 
 oratorical impulse that the speech is directed to 
 inanimate beings. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF A BEAUTIFUL APOSTROPHE. 
 
 O Hippias ! Hippias ! I shall never see thee again ! O my dear 
 Hippias ! it is T, cruel and relentless, who taught thee to despise 
 death. Cruel Gods ! ye prolonged my life only that I might see the 
 death of Hippias ! O my dear child, whom I had brought up with so 
 much care, I shall see thee no more. O dear shade ! cull me to the 
 banks of the Styx ; the light grows hateful to me : it is thou only, 
 my dear Hippias, whom I wish to see again. Hippias ! Hippias! O 
 my dear Hippias ! all I now live for is to pay my last duty to thy 
 ashes. 
 
OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 397 
 
 Never, ne plus ; again * ; and * relentless, moi impitoyable ; taught, apprendre 
 ind.-4; prolonged, prolonger ind.-l .; only that I, etc., pour me fair e ; brought up, 
 nonrrir, ind.-4; with so, etc., et qui me couter ind.-4; shade, ombre; hanks, 
 rive ; grows hateful, etre odieux; all I., is to, ne vivre que pour; pay, rendre; 
 ashes, cendre. 
 
 The substantive is in regimen when it is governed 
 by another word ; now a substantive may be go- 
 verned either by another substantive, by an adjec- 
 tive, by a verb, or by a preposition, as la loi de 
 Dieu, the law of God ; utile a lhom?ne 9 useful to 
 man ; aimer son prochain, to love one's neighbour; 
 chez son plre, at his father's. 
 
 N.B. — We shall speak, in its proper place, of the 
 regimen of adjectives, verbs, and prepositions, and 
 confine ourselves here to what relates to the sub- 
 stantive. 
 
 In French, a substantive cannot be governed by 
 another substantive, but by the help of a prepo- 
 sition. This preposition is generally rfe, as la dif- 
 Jiculte de Ventreprise, the difficulty of the under- 
 taking ; but sometimes also, a and pour are made 
 use of, as V abandon a ses passions 9 the giving way 
 to one's passions ; le gout pour le plaisir, propensity 
 for pleasure. 
 
 General Rule. — Of two substantives, of which 
 the one is governing and the other governed, it is 
 the governing one that generally goes before the 
 other. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 la beaute des sentimens, la violence the beauty of sentiments, the 
 
 des passions, la grandeur des violence of passions, the gran- 
 
 evmemens, et les succes mira- fleur of events, and the pro- 
 
 culeux des grandes epees des digious successes of the great 
 
 heros, tout cela m'entraine comme swords of heroes, all this trans- 
 
 une petite fille ports me like a little girl 
 
 Observation. — We shall, in the next chapter, 
 mention those cases in which this order is inverted ; 
 we shall only observe here that this same order is 
 
398 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 not followed in English in two instances; first, 
 when two substantives are joined by an s and an 
 apostrophe, placed after the first, thus \s, as the 
 king's palace; secondly, when the two substantives 
 form a compound word, as silk-stockings. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1 . The plants of the gardens, the animals of the forest, the minerals of 
 the earth, the meteors of the sky, must all concur to store the mind 
 with inexhaustible 2 variety ! 
 
 2. Nothing was heard but the warbling of birds or the soft breath 
 of the zephyrs sporting in the branches of the trees, or the murmur of 
 a lucid 2 rill 1 , falling from the rocks, or the songs of the young 
 swains who attended Apollo. 
 
 3. A smiling boy was at the same time caressing a lap-dog, which 
 is his mother' s favourite because it pleases the child. 
 
 4. There are several gold and silver mines in this beautiful country, 
 but the inhabitants, plain, and happy in their plainness, do not even 
 deign to reckon gold and silver among their riches. 
 
 (1.) Must, devoir) concur, concourir a; store with, enrichir par ; inexhaustible, 
 inepuisable. 
 
 (2.) Nothing.. but, on ne plus que; breath, haleine; sporting (which sported), 
 se jouer ind. 3; branches, rameaux ; lucid rill, eau claire; falling (which fell); 
 swains, berger; attended, suivre ind. -2. 
 
 (3) Boy, enfant; smiling, d'un air riant; was caressing, caresser ind.- 2 ; lap- 
 dog, bichon ; pleases, amuser. 
 
 (4.) There are, y avoir; plain, simple; plainness, simplicity ; deign, daigner; 
 to * reckon, compter ; among, parmi. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 We liave already established as a general rule, 
 that the article always agrees in gender and num- 
 ber with the substantive which it precedes. We 
 shall here give two more. 
 
 General Rules. 
 
 1 . In French the article always agrees in gender 
 and number with the substantive to which it belongs. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 399 
 
 2. When the article is used, it ought to be re- 
 peated before every one of the substantives, whe- 
 ther in subject or in regimen. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 l'esprit, la grace, et la beaute wit, grace, and beauty captivate 
 
 nous captivent us 
 
 Vignorance est la mere de l'erreur, ignorance is the mother of error, 
 
 de l'admiration, et des pre- admiration, and prejudices of 
 
 ventions de toute espece all kinds 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Innocence of manners, sincerity, obedience, and a horror of vice, 
 inhabit this happy region. 
 
 2. The silence of the night, the calmness of the sea, the trembling 
 light of the moon shed on the surface of tbe water, and the dusky 
 azure of the sky, besprinkled with glittering stars, served to heighten 
 the beauty of the scene. 
 
 (1.) Manners, moeurs; a * art. ,• region, pays. 
 
 (2.) Trembling, tremblant; shed on, repandu sur ; dusky, sombre; besprinkled 
 with, parseme de) heighten, rehausser; scene, spectacle. 
 
 3. The place of the article, every time it is used, 
 is always before the substantives, so that if they be 
 preceded by an adjective, even modified by an 
 adverb, it ought to be placed at the head, but 
 nevertheless, after the prepositions, if there be 
 any. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la plus riche heritie're ne fait pas the richest heiress does not al- 
 toujours la plus aimable femme ways make the most amiable 
 
 wife 
 
 dans les beaux jours de la litre- in tbe bright days of French lite- 
 rature Franchise, on respectait rature, religion and the king 
 egalement la religion et le roi were equally respected 
 
 Exception. — The adjective tout, and these qua- 
 lities, monsieur, madame, monseigneur, displace the 
 article, which, in this case, takes its station between 
 these words and the substantives. We ought to say : 
 tout le monde, monsieur le due, madame la comtesse, 
 monseigneur I'archeveque de, etc. 
 
400 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. A true poet estimates the happiness and misery of every con- 
 dition, observes the power of all the passions in all their combinations, 
 and traces the changes of the human mind, as they are modified by 
 various institutions and accidental influences of climate and custom, 
 from the sprightliness of infancy to the despondence of decrepitude. 
 
 2. Almost all the passions which operate with great violence on 
 the mind, and drive it to the most dangerous extremes, concurred in 
 raising and fomenting this unhappy quarrel. 
 
 (1.) Estimates, apprecier; as, a mesure que ; various, art. divers; custom, cou- 
 tume\>\.) from, depuis; sprightliness, vivucite; to, jusqu'a ; despondence, abatie- 
 ment. 
 
 (2.) Operate, agir ; great, beaucoup de; drive, porter a; raising, faire naitre; 
 fomenting, fomenter. 
 
 General Principle. 
 
 We ought to use the article before all substantives 
 common, taken in a determinate sense, unless there 
 be another word performing the same office ; but it 
 is not to be used before those that are taken in an 
 indeterminate sense. 
 
 This being premised ? we shall now point out the 
 cases in which we ought to make use of the article. 
 
 Rule I. — The article essentially accompanies all 
 substantives common which denote a whole species 
 of things, or determinate things. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1'homme se repalt trop souvent de man too often feeds himself with 
 
 chimeres chimeras 
 
 les hommes a imagination sont men of a fanciful disposition are 
 
 toujour 's malheureux always unhappy 
 
 1'homme dont vous parlez est tres- the man you speak of is very 
 
 instruit learned 
 
 In the first example the word homme is taken in 
 a general sense ; it denotes a collective universality. 
 In the second, les hommes a imagination denote a 
 particular class only. In the third, V homme denotes 
 but one individual, it being restricted by the inci- 
 dental proposition dont vous parlez. 
 
 Observation. — In English, the article is not used 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 401 
 
 before substantives taken in a general sense, as man 
 was born for society ; nor before those denoting a 
 less general class, as men of genius, women of sound 
 understanding ; nor again before some substantives 
 wliich are taken rather in a determinate than in a 
 general sense, as I shall go to court this evening. 
 
 1. Elegance, the most visible image of fine taste, the moment it 
 appears, is universally admired ; men disagree about the other con- 
 stituent parts of beauty, but they all unite without hesitation to 
 acknowledge the power of elegance. 
 
 2. Men 2 of superior genius, while 1 they * see 3 the rest of man- 
 kind painfully struggling to comprehend obvious truths, glance 
 themselves through * the most remote 2 consequences 1 like light- 
 ning through * a path that cannot be traced. 
 
 3. The man who lives under an habitual sense of the divine 
 presence, keeps up a perpetual cheerfulness of temper, and enjoys, 
 every moment, the satisfaction of thinking himself in company with 
 his dearest and best of friends. 
 
 (1.) (From) the moment, {du) ; (that) elegance the most, etc. appears, {quel'); 
 it f. is, etc. ; fine, delicat; appears, se montrer; disagree about, differer sur; con- 
 stituent (which constitute); hesitation, hesiter. 
 
 (2.) While men of (a) superior genius see, etc., they glance, etc. ; while, tandis 
 que; struggling, se tour menter pour ; glance, penetrer d'un coup-d'ceil ; lightning, 
 foudre f. ; path, espace ; be traced, en mesurer. 
 
 (3.) Under, dans; sense, conviction; keep up, conserver ; perpetual, constant; 
 cheerfulness, gaite ; temper, caractere; enjoys, jouir de : of thinking, se croire; 
 with, de. 
 
 Rule II. — The article is put before substantives 
 taken in a sense of extract, or denoting only a part 
 of a kind ; but it is omitted if they be preceded by 
 an adjective or a word of quantity. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 du pain et de l'eau me feraient some bread and water would 
 
 pluisir please me 
 
 je vis hier des savans, qui ne pen- I yesterday saw some learned 
 sent pas comme vous men, who do not think as you 
 
 do 
 fachetai hier beaucoup de livres I bought yesterday many books 
 que de livres fachetai hier ! how many books did I not buy 
 
 yesterday ! 
 
 Observation. — Among tlie words of quantity must 
 
402 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 be reckoned plus, mains, pas, point, and jamais . 
 il riy eat jamais plies de lumieres, there never were 
 more lights ; il y a mains d habitants a Paris qita 
 Landres, there are fewer inhabitants in Paris than 
 in London ; je ne manque pas oVamis, 1 do not want 
 friends. 
 
 Exception. — Bien is the only word of quantity 
 that ought to be followed by the article. We say, 
 il a bien de V esprit, he has a great deal of wit ; elle 
 a Men de la grace, she has a great deal of graceful- 
 ness about her. 
 
 Observation, — The sense of extract is marked in 
 English by the word some, or any, either expressed 
 or understood, which answers to quelques, a par- 
 titive adjective, and consequently to du, des, which 
 are elegantly used instead of quelques. 
 
 These expressions, des petits-maitres, des sages- 
 femmes, des petits-pdtes, etc., are not exceptions, 
 because in such cases, the substantives are so far 
 united with the adjectives as to form but one and 
 the same word. We ought likewise to say, le 
 propre des belles actions, les sentimens des anciens 
 philosophes, etc , because in these parts of expres- 
 sions, the substantives are taken in a general sense. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. We could not cast our eyes on either shore, without seeing 
 opulent cities, country-houses agreeably situated, lands yearly covered 
 with a golden 2 harvest 1, meadows full of flocks and herds, husband- 
 men bending under the weight of the fruits, and shepherds who made 1 
 all the echoes 5 round them 6 repeat 2 the sweet sounds 3 of their 
 pipes and flutes 4. 
 
 2. Provence and Languedoc produce oranges, lemons, figs, olives, 
 almonds, chesmds, peaches, apricots, and grapes of an uncommon 
 sweetness. 
 
 3. The man who has never seen this pure light, is as * blind as one 
 who is born blind ; he dies without having seen any thing ; at most, 
 he perceives but glimmering and false lights, vain shadows and phantoms 
 that have nothing of reality. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 403 
 
 4. Among the Romans, those who were convicted of having used 
 illicit 2 or unworthy 2 means 1 to obtain command, were excluded 
 from it for ever. 
 
 5. Those who govern are like the celestial 2 bodies 1, which have 
 great splendour and no rest. 
 
 6. What beauty, sweetness, modesty, and at the same time, what 
 nobleness and greatness of soul ! 
 
 7. Themistocles, in order to ruin Aristides, made use of many ma- 
 noeuvres which would have covered him with infamy in the eyes of 
 posterity, had not 3 the eminent services 1 which he rendered his 
 country 2 blotted out 4 that stain. 
 
 8. The consequences of great passions are blindness of mind and 
 depravity of heart. 
 
 9. Noblemen should never forget that their high birth imposes 
 great duties on * them. 
 
 (1.) Could, pouvoir, ind.-2 ; shore, rivage : seeing, apergevoir ; yearly, tous les arts : 
 covered with, qui se couvrir de; flocks and herds, troupeau:' husbandmen, la- 
 boureur; bending, qui etre accable; weight, poids ; shepherds, bergers ; pipes, 
 chalumeau ; round them, d'alentour. 
 
 (3.) Who is born blind, aveugle-ne; having, ri avoir inf.-2 ; without, ne jamais; 
 any thing, Hen; at most, tout au plus; perceives, apergevoir; glimmering, 
 sombre ; lights, lueur ; reality, reel. 
 
 (4. ) Used, se servir {etre) ; for, pour ; command, emploi ; means, moyens ; were, 
 ind -2 ; from it, en. 
 
 (5.) A great, beaucoup de; splendour, eclat; no rest (that have no rest), repos. 
 
 (6 ) What, que de. 
 
 (7.) Ruin, perdre; made use of many, employer Men ; covered with, cond.-3-cfe ; 
 infamy, opprobre; in, a; had not, si; rendered, ind.-3-a, blotted out, effacer 
 cond.-3; stain, tache. 
 
 9.) Noblemen, gentilkomme; should, devoir, ind.-l 
 
 Rule III. — This article is put before proper 
 names of countries, regions, rivers, winds, and 
 mountains. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la France a les Pyrennees et la France is bounded on the south 
 Mediterranee au sud, la Suisse by the Pyrenees and the Medi» 
 et la Savoie a Test, les Pays- terranean, on the east by Swit- 
 Bas au nord, et l'ocean a l'ouest zeriand and Savoy, on the north 
 
 by the Netherlands, and on the 
 west by the ocean 
 la Tamise, le Rhone, 1'aquilon, the Thames, the Rhone, the north 
 les Alpes, le Cantal wind, the Alps, the Cantel 
 
 Observation. — We say by apposition, le mont 
 Parnasse, le mont Valerien, etc., lejleuve Don, etc.; 
 but we say, la montagne de Tarare, etc. ; la riviere 
 de Seine, etc. We ought not to say, le Jleuve du 
 11 hone, but simply le Rhone. 
 
404 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Europe is bounded on the north by the Frozen Ocean ; on the 
 south, by the Mediterranean sea, which separates it from Africa - f on 
 the east, by the continent of Asia; on the west, by the Atlantic 
 Ocean. It contains the following 2 states 1 : on the north, Norway, 
 Sweden, Denmark, and Russia ; in the middle, Poland, Prussia, Ger- 
 many, the United Provinces, the Netherlands, France, Switzerland, Bo- 
 hemia, Hungary, the British Isles ; on the south, Spain, Portugal, 
 Italy, Turkey in Europe. 
 
 2. The principal rivers in Europe are : the Wolga, the Don or 
 Tonais, and the Boristhenes or Nieper in Muscovy ; the Danube, the 
 Rhine, and the Elbe in Germany ; the Vistula or Wezel in Poland ; 
 the Loire, tbe Seine, the Rhone, and the Garonne in France ; the 
 Ebro, the Tagus, and the Douro in Spain ; the Po in Italy ; the 
 Thames and the Severn in England ; and the Shannon in Ireland. 
 
 3. The principal mountains in Europe are the Daarne-ficlds be- 
 tween Norway and Sweden ; Mount Krapel between Poland and 
 Hungary; the Pyrennean mountains between France and Spain: the 
 Alps, which divide France and Germany from Italy. 
 
 4. The bleak north wind never blows here, and the heat of sum- 
 mer is tempered by the cooling zephyrs, which come to refresh the 
 air towards the middle of the day. 
 
 (1.) Bounded, borne) on, a; north, nord ; frozen ocean, mer glaciate', south, 
 sud or midi ; Mediterranean sea. Mediterranee ; east, est or orient ; west, ouest or 
 Occident) Norway, Norvege; Sweden, Suede; Denmark, Danemarc; Poland, 
 Pologne; Prussia, Prusse-, Germany, Allemagne; Netherlands, Pays-Bas; Swit- 
 zerland, Suisse ; Bohemia, Boheme ; Hungary, la Hongrie ; British Isles, ties Brit- 
 tanniques ; Turkey in, Turquie de. 
 
 (2.) Tagus, Tage; Thames, Tamise. 
 
 (4.) Bleak, rigoureux; north wind, aquilon; heat, ardeur ; cooling, rafrai- 
 chissant ; to refresh, adoucir. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 We do not use the article before the names of 
 countries, 
 
 1. When those countries have the names of their 
 capitals, as Naples est un pays delicieux, Naples is 
 a delightful country. 
 
 2. When those names are governed by the prepo- 
 sition en, as il est en France, lie is in France ; il est 
 en Espagne, he is in Spain. 
 
 3. When those names are governed by some 
 preceding noun, as vins de France, French wines; 
 noblesse d Angleterre, the English nobility. 
 
OP THE ARTICLE. 405 
 
 4. Lastly, when we speak of those countries as of 
 places we come, or are set off from, as je viens de 
 France, I come from France ; f arrive d'ltalie, I 
 am just arrived from Italy. But in this case, when 
 we speak of the four parts of the world, the present 
 practice is to make use of the article, as je viens 
 de V Amerique, j 'arrive de fAsie. 
 
 1. Naples may be called a paradise, from its beauty and fertility. 
 From this track 2 some suppose 1 Virgil took the model of the 
 Elysian 2 Fields 1. 
 
 2. I have been prisoner in Egypt, as a * Phoenician : under that 
 name I have long suffered, and under that name I have been set at 
 liberty. 
 
 3. He has received wines from France and Spain, silks from Italy, 
 oil from Provence, wool from England. 
 
 4. We set sail from Holland to go to the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 5. I was but just arrivedyrowi Russia, when I had the misfortune 
 to lose my father. 
 
 6. I had set off from America when my brother arrived there. 
 
 (1.) From, a cause de] from this track, que c'est la ou\ some suppose, quelques 
 personnes penser. 
 
 (2.) Prisoner, captif; under (it is under); and under (and it is under). 
 (4,) Set sail, partir ; to go, se rendre. 
 (5.) I was but just, ne faire que. 
 (6.) Set off, partir-, there, y. 
 
 The article is also used before the names of coun- 
 tries, either distant or little known, as la Chine, 
 China ; le Japon, Japan ; le Mexique, Mexico ; and 
 before those which have been formed from common 
 nouns, as le Havre, le Perche, la Fleche, etc. 
 
 Observation. — In English, the article is generally 
 omitted before names of countries. 
 
 Cases in which the Article is not used before the 
 Nouns. 
 
 Rule I. — The article is omitted before nouns 
 common, when in using them, we do not say any- 
 thing on the extent of their signification. 
 
406 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 le sage rCa ni amour ni haine the wise man has neither love nor 
 
 hatred 
 
 Us ont renverse religion, morale, they have overturned religion, 
 gouvernement. sciences, beaux- morality, government, sciences, 
 arts, en un mot, tout ce qui fait fine arts ; in a word, every 
 la gloire et la force oVun etat thing which makes the glory 
 
 and strength of a state. 
 
 Hence, we do not put the article before nouns : 
 i. When they are in the form of a title or an 
 address, as preface, preface ; livre premier, book 
 the first ; chapitre dix, chapter the tenth ; il demeure 
 rue Piccadilly^ he lives in Piccadilly ; quartier St. 
 James, St. James'. 
 
 2. When they are governed by the preposition 
 en, as regarder en piiie, to look with pity ; vivre en 
 roi, to live like, or as a king. 
 
 3. When they are joined to the verbs avoir or 
 /aire, as avoir peur, to be afraid ; /aire pitie, to look 
 pitiful. 
 
 4. When they are used as an apostrophe or inter- 
 jection, as courage, soldats, tenez ferme ! courage, 
 soldiers, stand firm ! 
 
 5. When they serve to qualify a noun that pre- 
 cedes them, as il est quelquefois plus qiihomme, he 
 is sometimes more than man ; Monseigneur le due 
 d'York, prince du sang royal d'Angleterre, his 
 Royal Highness the Duke of York, prince of the 
 blood royal of England. 
 
 6« The article is not put before the substantive 
 beginning an incidental sentence, which is a reflec- 
 tion upon what has been said, as 
 
 tons les peuples de la terre ont une all the nations of the earth have 
 idee plus on moins developpee an idea more or less developed 
 d'un Etre Supreme; preuveevi- of a Supreme Being; an evi- 
 dente quele peckeorigine! n'apas dent proof that original sin 
 tout-a-fait obscurci Ventendement has not totally obscured the 
 
 understanding. 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 407 
 
 7. When they are under the government of the 
 words genre, espece, sorte, and such like, as sorte de 
 fruity a sort of fruit ; genre cfouvrage, a kind of 
 work. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 The highways are bordered with laurels, pomegranates, jessamines, 
 and other trees which * are * always green, and always in bloom. 
 The mountains are covered with flocks, which yield a fine wool 
 which * is * sought after by all the known 2 nations 1 of the world. 
 
 2. The fleets of Solomon made, under the conduct of the Phoe- 
 nicians, frequent voyages to the land of Ophir and Tharsis (of the 
 kingdom of Sophala, in Ethiopia), whence they returned at the end 
 of three years, laden with gold, silver, ivory, precious 2 stones 1, and 
 other kinds of merchandize. 
 
 3. Cosily furniture 2 is not allowed there 1, nor magnificent attire, 
 nor sumptuous feasts, nor gilded palaces. 
 
 4. We considered with pleasure the extensive fields covered w 7 ith 
 yellow ears of com, rich gifts of the fruitful Ceres. 
 
 5. He was in a kind of ecstacy, when he perceived us. 
 
 6. In the most corrupt age, he lived and died as a wise man*. 
 
 7. Are you surprised that the worthiest 2 men 1 are but men, and 
 betray some remains of the weakness of humanity, among the in- 
 numerable snares and difficulties which are inseparable from royalty. 
 
 8. He looked pitiful when we saw him after his disgrace. 
 
 9. Hear then, O nations full of valour ! and you O chiefs, so wise 
 and so united ! hear what I have * to * offer you. 
 
 10. Out of this cavern issued, from time to time, a black 2 thick 3 
 smoke 1, which made a sort of night at mid-day. 
 
 (1.) Highways, chemin; with, de; laurels, lauriers; pomegranates, grenadiers ; 
 in bloom, fleurir; yield, fournir ; wool, laine, pi. ; sought after, recherche. 
 
 (2.) Fleets, flotte ; made, ind.-2 ; whence, d'ou; returned, revenir; end, bout; 
 laden, charge; stones, pierre. 
 
 (3.) Is not allowed there, on riy soujfre ni; furniture, meuble; costly, precieux ; 
 attire, ornement; feasts, re-pas-. 
 
 (4.) Extensive, vaste ; fields, campagne ; yellow, jaune ; ears, epi. 
 
 (5.) In a kind of, comme en. 
 
 (6.) Age, siecle. 
 
 (7.) Betray, montrer ; remains, reste; snares, piege; difficulties, embarras. 
 
 (8.) He looked pitiful, il nous fair e piiie. 
 
 (10 ) Out of, de; issued, sortir ; black and thick, noir et epais; smoke, fumee; 
 mid-day, milieu dujour. 
 
 Rule IL — The article is not used, either before 
 nouns preceded by the pronominal adjectives mon, 
 ton, son, notre, votre^ leur, ce, nul, aiccim, chaque, 
 tout (used for chaque), certain, plusieurs, tel, or 
 before those which are preceded by a cardinal num- 
 ber, without any relation whatever. 
 
408 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 nos mceurs mettent le prix a nos our manners set a value to our 
 
 richesses riches 
 
 toute nation a ses loix each nation has its laws 
 
 cent ignorans doivent-ils lem- are a hundred blockheads to get 
 
 porter sur un homme instruit the advantage oi one learned 
 
 man ? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. That good father was happy in his children, and his children 
 were happy in him. 
 
 2. These imitative 2 sounds 7 are the integral parts of all languages, 
 and as their * fundamental basis. 
 
 3. Every man has his foibles, his moments of humour, even his 
 irregularities. 
 
 4. Each plant has virtues which are peculiar to it, the knowledge 2 
 of which 1 could not but be infinitely useful. 
 
 5. In ajl his instructions he is careful to remember that grammar, 
 logic, and rhetoric are three sisters that ought never to be disjoined. 
 
 (2.) Are the integral parts, etre fondu ; of, dans; and as, et Us en sont comme. 
 (4.) Peculiar, propres; to it, lui; could, cond.-l ; not but be, ne que. 
 (5.) He is careful to remember, ne point per dre devue; ought, on devoir, ind.-2 ; 
 to be disjoined, separer. 
 
 Rule III. — Proper names of deities, men, animals, 
 towns, and particular places, are without the article, 
 but they take it when they are used in a limited 
 sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Dieu a cree le ciel et la terre God has made heaven and earth 
 
 Jupiter etait le premier des dieux Jupiter was the first of the gods 
 
 Bucephale etait le cheval d'Alex- Bucephalus was Alexander's 
 
 andre horse 
 
 Rome est une ville oVune grande Rome is a city of great beauty, 
 
 beaute 
 
 But we ought to say, le Dieu des Chretiens, the 
 God of Christians; le Dieu de paix, the God of 
 peace; le Jupiter d'Homere, Homer's Jupiter; le 
 Bucephale d Alexandre, Alexander's Bucephalus ; 
 Vancienne R.ome> ancient Rome ; la Rome moderne, 
 modern Rome. 
 
 If, in imitation of the Italians, we use the article 
 before the names of painters and poets of that 
 nation, except Michel- Ange and Raphael^ it is 
 
OF THE ARTICLE. 409 
 
 because the expression is elliptical, the words 
 peintre, poete, or seigneur, being understood. 
 
 1. Jupiter, son of Saturn and Cibele or Ops, after having deposed 
 his father from the throne, divided the paternal * inheritance with 
 his two brothers Neptune and Pluto. 
 
 On a dispute at a feast of the gods, between Juno, Pallas, and 
 Venus, for the pre-eminence of beauty, Jupiter not being able to 
 bring them to an agreement, referred the decision to Paris, a shep- 
 herd of Mount Ida, with directions that a golden apple should be 
 given to the fairest. Paris assigned to Venus the golden * reward *. 
 
 3. God said : let there * be light, and there * was light. 
 
 4. The Apollo di Belvidere and the Venus di Medicis are precious 
 remains of antiquity. 
 
 5. May and September are the two finest months of the year in 
 the south of France. 
 
 6. The God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, was the only true God. 
 
 (1.) Deposed, chasser ; divided, enpartayer; inheritance, heritage. 
 
 (2.) On, dans-, at a feast, qu'ily eut a, unfestin; being able, pouvoir; to bring 
 to an agreement, accorder ; referred, renvoyer; directions, ordre; that a golden 
 apple, etc, to give a golden apple to ; assigned, adjuger le ; reward, prix 
 
 (3.) (Light be and light was). 
 
 (6.) Only, seul. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 §1- 
 
 Of the Adjective with the Article. 
 
 Rule I. — Adjectives taken substantively are, as 
 substantives common, accompanied by the article, 
 if the use made of them require it. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 les fous inventent les modes, et les fools invent the fashions, and the 
 sages s y y conforment wise conform to them 
 
 T 
 
410 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Were the learned of antiquity to come to life again, they would 
 be much astonished at the extent of our knowledge. 
 
 2. The ignorant have, in a * strong dose of presumption, what 
 they want in real science, and that is the reason they are admired by 
 fools. 
 
 (1 ) Were the, si les; to come again, revenir, ind.-2 ; life, monde ; at, de ; know- 
 ledge, cunnaissance pi. 
 
 (2.) They want, il leur manquer; that, ce; the reason, ce qui fait que-, they are 
 admired, etc., say (the fools admire them). 
 
 Rule II. — When a noun is accompanied by two 
 adjectives expressing opposite qualities, the article 
 ought to be repeated before every adjective. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 les vieux et les nouveaux soldats the old and the new soldiers are 
 
 sont remplls d'ardeur replete with ardour 
 
 il faut frequenter la bonne com- we ought to frequent good and 
 
 pagnie etfuir la mauvaise shun bad company 
 
 Observation. — This rule ought to be strictly at- 
 tended to when the qualities expressed by the 
 adjectives are opposite ; but those qualities may be 
 either nearly synonimous, or merely different, 
 without being opposite. In the first instance, the 
 article is not repeated, as le sage et pieux Ftnelon ; 
 in the second, it is perhaps better to repeat it, as 
 le sensible et Cingenieux Fenelon. 
 
 N.B. — In French, the substantive must be joined 
 to the first adjective when governed by different 
 words. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The wise man preserves the same tranquillity of mind in good 
 or bad fortune. 
 
 2. The man who is jealous of his reputation frequents good, and 
 shuns bad company. 
 
 3. Grand and strong thoughts always were the fruit of genius. 
 
 (1.) The wise man, le sage-, preserves, conserver. 
 (2.) Shuns, fruiter. 
 
 Rule III. — The article is used before the adjec- 
 tive which is joined to a proper name. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE, 411 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 le sublime Bossuet the sublime Bossuet 
 
 le vertueux Fenelon the virtuous Fenelon 
 
 le tendre Racine the tender Racine 
 
 Louis le gros Louis the fat 
 
 Louis le juste Louis the just 
 
 Louis le grand Louis the great 
 
 Observation. — The adjective which is joined to a 
 proper name, either precedes or follows the name. 
 If it precede it, it expresses a quality which may be 
 common to many; if it follow it, it expresses a dis- 
 tinctive quality. These two expressions, le savant 
 Varron, and Varron le savant, do not convey the 
 same meaning; in the first, we merely give to 
 Varron the quality of savant; in the second, we 
 give to understand that there are several persons of 
 the name of Varron, and that the one we mean is 
 distinguished for his learning. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The great Corneille astonishes by beauties of the first order, and 
 by faults of the worst taste. If the tender Racine does not often 
 rise so high, at least, he bears himself well, and possesses the art ot 
 always interesting the heart. 
 
 2. The more we read the fables of the good and artless La Fon- 
 taine, the more we are convinced that they are the book of all ages 
 and the manual of the man of taste. 
 
 3. It was only under the reign of Louis the just (XIII) that good 
 taste began to show itself in France ; but it was under that of Louis 
 the great that it was carried to perfection. 
 
 (1.) By, par des; bears himself well, se soutenir ; possesses, avoir. 
 
 (2.) The more, plus ; we, on ; are convinced, on se convainere; manual, manuel 
 
 (3.) Only, ne que; show itself, se montrer ; carried, porter a. 
 
 Mule IV. — When a superlative adjective is placed 
 before the substantive, the article serves for both ; 
 if after, the article is to be repeated before each. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 les plus habiles gens font quelquefois les plus grossieres fautes, 
 
 or 
 les gens les plus habiles font quelquefois lesfautes les plus grossieres 
 the cleverest men sometimes commit the grossest blunders 
 
412 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. It has been said of the Telemachus of the virtuous Fenelon, 
 that it is the most useful 2 present 1 the muses have made to man ; 
 for, could the happiness of mankind be produced by a poem, it would 
 be by that. 
 
 2. The most still 2 water 1 often conceals the most dangerous 2 
 abyss 1. 
 
 (1.) It has been* said, on dire; present, don que; could, si pouvoir ind.-2 ; be 
 produced, naitre de ; would, naitre (repeated cond.-l). 
 (2.) Still, tranquille; abyss, gouffre. 
 
 § II. 
 
 The pronominal adjectives mon, ton, son, notre, 
 voire, leur, placed before comparative adverbs, 
 perform the function of the article, and consequently 
 raise the comparative to the degree of superlative 
 relative, as cest mon meilleur ami, he is my best 
 friend ; that is, c'est le meilleur de mes amis, he is 
 the best of my friends. 
 
 Observation. — It appears by the last expression 
 that the superlative relative sometimes relates to a 
 substantive not expressed, but understood ; a happy 
 turn which unites elegance with precision. It is 
 very elegant to say Vhiver est la plus triste des 
 saisons, winter is the dullest of the seasons. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The spectacle of nature, in its infinite variety, made our 
 purest delight and our sweetest occupation. 
 
 2. Their most agreeable pastime was that of reading useful books. 
 
 3. Your longest days w T ill always be those which you lose in idle- 
 ness and luxury. 
 
 4. Our most cruel enemies are the men that flatter us, and our 
 best friends those who tell us of our faults. 
 
 5. Athalia is the most perfect of Racine's tragedies, and TartufTe 
 the finest of Moliere's comedies. 
 
 6. Politeness and gentleness disarm the most insensible, and 
 soften the most ferocious heart. 
 
 7. It is to the tenderest and most virtuous mother that I dedicate 
 this book. 
 
 8. It is the work of the most absurd pedant that exists. 
 
 (1.) Made, faire ind.-2. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 413 
 
 (f .) Pastime, passe-temps ; reading, lecture. 
 
 (3.) Lose, perdre ; idleness, oisivete ; luxury, mollesse. 
 
 (4.) Tell us, eclair er sur ; faults, defaut. 
 
 (6.) Politeness, honnetete', gentleness, douceur; soften, adoucir. 
 
 (7.) Dedicate, dedier. 
 
 § HI- 
 
 When an adjective serves to qualify several sub- 
 stantives, these substantives are either in subject or 
 in regimen. 
 
 If in subject, the adjective is always in the plural, 
 whatever be the nature of the substantives, as le 
 travail, la patience, la fermete et le courage, joints 
 ensemble, lejirent triompher de ses ennemis, labour, 
 patience, firmness, and courage, joined together, 
 made him triumph over his enemies. 
 
 If in regimen, we must distinguish the substan- 
 tives of persons and the substantives of things. 
 With the first, the law of agreement is to be ob- 
 served ; with the second, usage allows to make the 
 adjective agree with the last only, as il avait les 
 yeux et la bouche ouverte, he had his eyes and mouth 
 open. — (See General Syntax of the Adjective, p.333 ) 
 
 Observation, — With respect to the noun followed 
 by several adjectives expressing sorts of the same 
 kind, some grammarians will have the substantive 
 to be put in the plural, while each adjective remains 
 in the singular ; but such an opinion seems contrary 
 to the rules of syntax ; thus this sentence, les 
 langues Franqaise et Anglaise sont fort cultivees, is 
 not to be preferred to the following : la langue 
 Franqaise et V Anglaise sont fort cultivees. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. His impetuosity and courage, long restrained, soon surmounted 
 all obstacles. 
 
 2. The imagination and genius of Ariosto, although irregular in 
 their march, yet attach, carry along, and captivate the reader, who 
 can never be tired of admiring them. 
 
414 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 3. There are in Gessner's Idyls, sentiments and a gracefulness 
 altogether affecting. 
 
 4. The good taste of the Egyptians, from that time, made them 
 love solidity and naked regularity. 
 
 5. In those climates, the dry and the rainy monsoons divide the 
 year between them. 
 
 (].) Restrained, enchainer. 
 
 (2.) Yet, neanmoins ; carry along, entrainer ; be tired, selasser. 
 
 (3.) Altogether, tout-a-fait; affecting, touchant. 
 
 (4.) From that time, deslors; naked, tout nu. 
 
 (5.) Dry, sec, monsoons, mousson f. ; divide between them, separtager. 
 
 §IV. 
 
 The Place of the Adjectives. 
 
 Rule I.— Before the substantive we place the 
 pronominal adjectives, adjectives of number, and in 
 general the following sixteen, viz. beau, ban, brave, 
 cher, chetif, grand, gros, jewie, mauvais, mechant, 
 meilleur y moindre, petit, saint, vieux, and vrai. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 mon pere my father vieille femme old woman 
 
 quel homme what man dix guinees ten guineas 
 
 plusieurs qfficiers several officers six arbres six trees 
 
 grand homme great man etc. etc. 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1st. We ought to except the pronoun quelconque? 
 as raison quelconque, reason whatever. 
 
 2nd. The adjectives of number joined to proper 
 names, pronouns, and substantives in quotation and 
 without the article, as George trois, George the 
 Third; ltd, dixieme, he, the tenth; chapitre dix, 
 chapter the tenth; page trente, page thirty. 
 
 3rd. The sixteen adjectives before mentioned, 
 when they are joined by a conjunction to another 
 adjective, which is to be placed after the substan- 
 tive, as c est une femme grande et bienfaite^ she is a 
 woman tall and well made. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 415 
 
 Observation. — In English, two, or even several 
 adjectives may qualify a substantive, without being- 
 joined by a conjunction, but in French, they must 
 be united by a conjunction, as cest un homme 
 aimable et poll, he is an amiable well-behaved man, 
 except when usage allows the substantive to be 
 placed between two adjectives, as cest un grand 
 homme sec et robuste, he is a tall raw-boned robust 
 man. 
 
 1. Ages have been, when & great man was a sort of prodigy pro- 
 duced by an error of nature. 
 
 2. In almost all nations, the great geniusses that have adorned 
 them were contemporaries. 
 
 3. Young people, says Horace, are supple to the impressions of 
 vice, lavish, presumptuous, and equally fiery and light in their pas- 
 sions ; old people, on the contrary, are covetous, dilatory, timid, ever 
 alarmed about the future, always complaining, hard to please, pane- 
 gyrists of times past, censors of the present, and great givers of 
 advice. 
 
 4. What man was ever satisfied with his fortune, and dissatisfied 
 with his wit ? 
 
 o. Thirty chambers which have a communication one with another, 
 and each of them an iron door, with six huge bolts, are the place 
 where he shuts himself up. 
 
 (1.) Have been, il y avoir ; when, ou ; produced, enfanter. 
 
 (2.) In, chez ; nations, peuple; adorned, illustrer, hid. -4. 
 
 (3.) People, gens ; supple, souple ; lavish, prodigue ', fiery, vif; covetous, avare , 
 dilatory, temporiseur ; about, sur ; complaining, plaintif; hard, difficile; please, 
 contenter ; givers, donneur. 
 
 (4.) Dissatisfied, mecontent. 
 
 (5.) Have a communication, communiquer ; each of them, dont chacun avoir ; 
 huge, gros ; bolts, verrou ; shuts himself, se renfermer. 
 
 Mule II. — In genera], we place after the substan- 
 tive those adjectives which are formed of the 
 participle present of verbs, as ouvrage divertissant, 
 entertaining work ; and always those formed of the 
 participle past, as figure arrondie, round figure ; 
 those denoting the form, the shape, as table ovale, 
 oval table ; the colour, maison blanche, white house ; 
 the savour, the taste, herbe amere, bitter herb; the 
 
416 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 sound, orgue harmonieux, harmonious organ ; an 
 idea of action, procureur actif, active attorney; or 
 an effect produced, coutume abusive, abusive cus- 
 tom ; a quality relative to the nature of a thing, 
 ordre grammatical, grammatical order; or, to the 
 species of a thing, qualite occulte, occult quality ; 
 those of nation, generosite Anglaise, English gene- 
 rosity ; those ending in esque, il, ule, ic, ique, as 
 style burlesque, burlesque style ; jargon puerile 
 childish jargon; fern me credule, credulous woman; 
 Men public, public welfare; ris sardonique, sardonic 
 laughter, and perhaps a few others: but in this, 
 usage is to be consulted as our only guide. 
 
 EXERCISE- 
 
 1. An affected simplicity is a nice cheat. 
 
 2. The lively images of Theocritus, Virgil, and Gessner, carry into 
 the soul a soft sensibility. 
 
 3. In that antique palace are to be seen neither wreathed columns, 
 nor gilded wainscots, nor precious basso-relievos, nor ceilings curi- 
 ously painted, nor grotesque figures of animals, which never had 
 existence but in the imagination of a child or a madman. 
 
 4. If human life is exposed to many troubles, it is also susceptible 
 of many pleasures. 
 
 5. A ridiculous man is seldom so by halves. 
 
 6. Spanish manners have, at first sight, something harsh and 
 savage. 
 
 7. French urbanity was become a proverb sanoTigforeign nations. 
 
 (1.) Nice, delicat; cheat, imposture. 
 
 (2.) Lively, riant; carry, porter ;■ soft, doux. 
 
 (3.) Are to be seen, on ne ni; wreathed, torse', wainscots, lambris; basso-re- 
 lievos, bas-relief; ceilings, plafond; curiously, artistement; jiever, ne jamais; 
 had existence, exister. 
 
 (4.) Many, bien de; troubles, peine. 
 
 (5.) So, le ; by halves, a demi. 
 
 (6.) Spanish, Espagnol ; manners, mceurs. 
 7.) Become, passer en; among, ckez. 
 
 Mule III. — Although it should seem that we may 
 place indifferently before or after the substantives 
 those adjectives that express moral qualities, either 
 good or bad, nevertheless it is taste alone, and an 
 ear exercised by that nice taste, that can assign the 
 proper place they are to hold. 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 417 
 
 In conversation, or in familiar loose style, it may 
 be indifferent to say femme ahnable, or aimable 
 femme ; talens sublimes, or sublimes talens, etc. ; but 
 in dignified and elegant style, the place of the 
 adjectives may, in a great variety of ways, affect 
 me beauty of a sentence. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. An amiable woman gives to every thing she says an inexpressible 
 gracefulness ; the more we hear, the more we wish to hear her. 
 
 2. The majestic eloquence of Bossuet is like a river, which carries 
 away every thing in the rapidity of its course. 
 
 3. The sublime compositions of Rubens have made an English 
 traveller say that this famous painter was born in Flanders, through 
 a mistake of nature. 
 
 (1.) Gives to, repandr e sur ; inexpressible, inexprimable ; we,o»; her, la, must 
 be repeated before each verb. 
 (2.) Majestic, majestueux ; river, fleuve ; carries away, entrainer. 
 (3,) Say, dire a; famous, celebre; through, par. 
 
 §V. 
 
 Regimen of Adjectives. 
 
 A noun may be under the regimen of two ad- 
 jectives, provided those adjectives do not require 
 different regimens. Thus we say, cet homme est 
 utile et cher a sa famille, that man is useful and 
 dear to his family ; but we cannot say, cet homme 
 est utile et cheri de sa famUle, that man is useful 
 and beloved by his family, because the adjective 
 utile does not govern the preposition de. 
 
 1. A young man whose actions are all regulated by honour, and 
 whose only aim is perfection in every thing, is beloved and sought 
 after by every body. 
 
 2. Cardinal Richelieu was all his lifetime feared and hated by the 
 great whom he had humbled, 
 
 3. A young lady, gentle, civil, and decent, who sees in the advan- 
 tages of birth, riches, wit, and beauty, nothing but incitements to 
 virtue, is very certain of being beloved and esteemed by every 
 body. 
 
 t2 
 
418 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 (1.) (Honour regulates all, etc.) ; (who has no other aim.) 
 (2.) By, de; humbled, humilier. 
 
 (3.) Young lady, de mo iselle; nothing but, ne que; incitements, encouragement ; 
 certain, assure. 
 
 §VI. 
 
 Adjectives of Number. 
 
 Unihne is used only after vingt, trente, quarante, 
 cinquante, soixante, quatre-vingt, cent, and mille. 
 Cest la vingt-unieme fois, it is the twenty-first 
 time. 
 
 We now say : vingt-un, or vingt et un ; trente-un, 
 or trente et un, and so on to quatre-vingt; but we 
 always say, trente-deux, quarante-trois, cinquante- 
 qttatre, etc. The series from soixante to quatre- 
 vingt took formerly the conjunction et between the 
 two numbers, but it is now become obsolete, and it 
 would be a fault to use that conjunction from quatre- 
 vingt to cent. 
 
 Cent, in the plural, takes the s, except when fol- 
 lowed by another noun of number, as its etaient 
 deux cents, they were two hundred ; but we say Us 
 etaient deux-cent-dix, they were two hundred and 
 ten ; trois cents hommes, three hundred men. Vingt 
 in quatre-vingt and six-vingt, also takes the s when 
 followed by a substantive, as quatre-vingts homines, 
 eighty-men ; six-vingts abricots, six score apricots. 
 Nevertheless, we say quatre-vingt-dix hommes. The 
 ordinal numbers, collective and distributive, always 
 take the mark of the plural : les premieres douzaines, 
 the first dozens ; les quatre cinquiemes, the four 
 fifths. 
 
 In the marking of dates, we write mil, as mil sept 
 cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf one thousand seven hun- 
 dred and ninety-nine. Everywhere else we write 
 mille, which never takes the mark of the plural> as 
 
OF THE ADJECTIVE. 419 
 
 dix mille homines, ten thousand men ; qaatre mille 
 chevaux, four thousand horses. 
 
 Observation. — Cent and mille are used indefinitely, 
 as il lui fit cent caresses, he made him a hundred 
 (many) caresses; faites-lui mille amities, show him 
 a thousand (a great many) civilities. 
 
 1. It was the thirty-first year after so glorious a peace, when the 
 war broke out again with a fury of which history offers few examples. 
 
 2. They were only three hundred, and in spite of their inferiority 
 they attacked the enemy, heat and dispersed them. 
 
 *2, He has sold his country house for two thousand five hundred 
 and fifty pounds. 
 
 4. Choose in your nursery eighty fruit-trees and ninety dwarf- 
 trees ; divide them into dozens, and put in the two first dozens of 
 each sort these whose fruits are the most esteemed. 
 
 5. When Louis the Fourteenth made his entry into Strasbourg, 
 the Swiss deputies being come to see him, le Tellier, archbishop of 
 Rheims, who saw among them the bishop of Basle, said to his neigh- 
 bour : That bishop is apparently a wretched man. — How, replied 
 the other, he has a hundred thousand French livres a year. — Oh I 
 oh ! said the archbishop, he is then an honest man ; and he showed 
 him a thousand civilities. 
 
 (1.) Year, annee; when, que; broke out again, se rallumer 
 
 (2.) Only, ne que; in spite of, malgre. 
 
 (3.) For, * ; pounds, livre sterling 
 
 (4.) Nurserj', pepiniere ; fruit-trees, pied d'arbre fruitier; dwarf-trees, arbre 
 nain. 
 
 (5.) Swiss (oi the Swiss) ; that bishop, etc., e'est un miserable apparemment que 
 ceteveque; French, *; a year, de rente; showed, faire; civilities, caresse. 
 
 N. B. — We say le onze, du onze, au onze, sur les 
 onze heures, sur les une fieure, pronouncing the 
 words onze and une as if they were written with an 
 h aspirated. Neuf, nine, is pronounced neuv, as il 
 a neuv ans, he is nine years old** 
 
 We make use of the cardinal numbers instead of 
 the ordinal: 
 
 1st. In speaking of the hours and current years, 
 as il est trois heures, it is three o'clock ; Van mil sept 
 
 * Now we write in the plural number, vingt-et-un jours passes, vingt-et-un ans 
 accomplis, vingt-et-un chevaux enharnaches, as we say vingi-cinqans sormes. — (Le- 
 vizac, de Latouche, de Wailly, Restaut.) 
 
420 particular syntax 
 
 cent-dix, the year one thousand seven hundred and 
 ten. 
 
 2nd. In speaking of all the days of the month, 
 except the first, we say, le vingt de Mars, the 
 twentieth of March ; but we ought to say, le premier 
 de Mars, the first of March. 
 
 3rd. In speaking of sovereigns and princes, as 
 Louis Seize, George Trois ; we are to except the 
 first two of the series, as Henri premier, George 
 second. We also say, Charles-quint, Sixte-quint, 
 instead of Charles cinq Empereur, and Sixte cinq 
 Pape. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. They made in the parish and in the neighbouring places a col- 
 lection which produced a hundred and twenty-one guineas. 
 
 2. William, surnamed the Conqueror, king of England and duke 
 of Normandy, was one of the greatest generals of the eleventh cen- 
 tury ; he was born at Falaise, and was the natural son of Robert, 
 duke of Normandy, and of Arlotte, a furrier's daughter. 
 
 3. Make haste ; it will soon be ten o'clock. We shall have a 
 good deal of difficulty to arrive in time. 
 
 4. The winter was so hard in one thousand seven hundred and 
 nine, that there was but one olive tree which resisted it, in a plain 
 where there had been more than ten thousand. 
 
 5. It was the twenty-first of January, one thousand seven hundred 
 and ninety- three, that the unhappy Louis the sixteenth was con- 
 ducted to the scaffold. 
 
 (1.) They, on; collection, quete. 
 
 (2.) William, Guillaume; century, siecle; furrier, fourreur. 
 
 (3.) Make haste, sedepecher; have a good deal of difficulty, avoir blende la peine* 
 
 (4.) Hard, rude; but, ne que', olive tree, olivier; it, * ; been, *. 
 
 (5.) Scaffold, echafaud. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 421 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF THE PRONOUN. 
 
 §1- 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Personal pronouns have the three functions 
 which we have remarked in substantives, but with 
 this difference, that some are always in subject, two 
 only used in apostrophe, some others always in 
 regimen, and lastly, others sometimes in subject and 
 sometimes in regimen. 
 
 Those which are always in subject are je, tu, il, 
 Us, asje parte, tu joues, il aime, ils s'amusent. 
 
 Observe that Je, tu, etc. are separated from the 
 verb only by personal pronouns acting as a regimen 
 or by the negative ne. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 je ne lul en veux rien dire I will say nothing to him about it 
 
 tu en apprendras des nouvelles thou wilt hear news of it 
 
 il nous raconta son histoire he told us his history 
 
 ils sont revenus a Vimproviste they are come unexpectedly 
 
 The two which are used in apostrophe are tot and 
 votes, either by themselves, or preceded by the in- 
 terjection O ! as 6 toi, dont V innocence rev tie la 
 beaute, toi qui dans un age encore si tendre, etc., 
 O thou, whose innocence heightens the beauty, thou 
 who at an age still so tender, etc. ; illustres com- 
 pagnons de mes malheurs, 6 vous, etc., illustrious 
 companions of my misfortunes, O ye, etc. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The better to bear the irksomeness of captivity and solitude, I 
 sought for books ; for I was overwhelmed with melancholy for want 
 of some instructions to cherish and support my mind. 
 
 2. Since thou art more obdurate and unjust than thy father, mayst 
 thou suffer evils more lasting and cruel than his. 
 
422 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 3. What ! say they, do not men die fast enough without destroying 
 each other ? Life is so short, and yet it seems that it appears too 
 long to them. Are they sent into the world to tear each other in 
 pieces, and to make themselves mutually wretched? 
 
 4. O thou ! my son, my dear son, ease my heart ; restore me what 
 is dearer to me than my life. Restore me my lost son, and restore 
 thyself to thyself. 
 
 5. O ye, who hear me with so much attention, believe not that I 
 despise men ; no, no, I am sensible how glorious it is to toil to 
 make them virtuous and happy; but these toils are full of anxieties 
 and dangers. 
 
 (1.) To bear, pour supporter ; irksomeness, ennui', overwhelmed with, accable 
 de : for want, faute ; cherish, qui put nourrir ; support, soutenir. 
 
 (2.) Obdurate, dur ; (plus repeated before every adjective); mayst, pouvoir; 
 lasting, long. 
 
 (3.) Die fast enough, etre assez mortel; destroying, se donner encore une mort 
 precipitec ; sent, * ; world, terre ; tear in pieces, se dechirer ; make themselves, 
 se rendre. 
 
 (4.) Ease, soulager; restore, rendre ; lost (whom 1 have lost), perdre. 
 
 (5.) I am sensible, savoir; glorious, grand; to toil, travailler a; toil, travail. 
 
 Those which are always in regimen are me, te, se, 
 leur, le, la, les, y, and en, as je me trompe, I am 
 mistaken ; il se promene, he is walking ; nous leur 
 parlous, we are speaking to them ; je my rendrai, 
 I shall repair thither, etc. 
 
 Observation.- — A verb may have two regimens, 
 the one direct and the other indirect, as we have 
 already seen. The regimen is direct, when the word 
 governed is the object of the action expressed by the 
 verb. It is indirect, when the word governed is the 
 end of that action. In this sentence, fenvoie ce livre 
 a mon frere, ce livre is the object, and a mon frere, 
 the end. The first is always without any preposition, 
 either expressed or understood; but the second is 
 preceded by one of these prepositions a or de, always 
 expressed if it be a noun, and either expressed or 
 understood if it be a pronoun; by a, if we mean the 
 end aimed at by the action, and by de, if we want to 
 express where that action comes from, or begins at. 
 These being premised, 
 
 Leur* is always in direct regimen, because, being 
 
 * The objective pronoun leur either before or after a verb is unchangeable. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 423 
 
 used instead of a eux, it includes the preposition a, 
 SiSje leur parle is instead of je parle a eux or a elles. 
 Me, te, se, are sometimes the object direct, as il 
 maborde, that is, il aborde mot, he accosts me; and 
 sometimes the indirect one, as il me tend la main, 
 which is for il tend la main a moi, he presents me 
 his hand. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. He has been speaking to them with such force as has astonished 
 them. 
 
 2. Women ought to be very attentive, for a mere appearance is 
 sometimes more prejudicial to them than a real fault. 
 
 3. He comes up to me with a smiling air, and pressing my hand 
 says : my friend, I expect you to-morrow at my house. 
 
 4. He said to me : wilt thou torment thyself incessantly for ad- 
 vantages, the enjoyment of which could not render thee more happy ? 
 Cast thy eyes around thee ; see how every thing smileth at thee, 
 and seemeth to invite thee to prefer a retired and tranquil life to the 
 tumultuous pleasures of a vain w r orld. 
 
 5. The ambitious man agitates, torments, and consumes himself, 
 to obtain the places or the honours to which he aspires, and when 
 he has obtained them, he is not yet satisfied. 
 
 (1.) Such force as, une force qui. 
 
 (2.) Mere,* simple ; is more prejudicial, j aire plus de tort. 
 
 (3.) Comes up.. with, aborder ..de; pressing, eerrer ; my, la; at my house, 
 chez moi. 
 
 (4.) Advantages, des Mens; could, savoir, cond.-l ; cast, porter; smileth, 
 sourire. 
 
 (5.) Man, * ; himself, se (which is repeated before every verb) ; to, pour. 
 
 Remark. — Le, la, les, are always direct, as 
 
 je le vois,je la wis for je vois lui,je vois elle (I see him or her) 
 je les vois „ je vois eux,je vois elles (I see them.) 
 
 but y and en are always indirect, as 
 
 je n'y en fends rien for je rCentends rien a cela (to it) 
 ces fruits sont bons, en voulez-vous? for voulez-vous oVeux (of them)? 
 avez-vous recu de V argent ? oui, j'en ai recu for un pen, une certaine 
 somme or quantite d'argent 
 
 Observation. — The following English expressions 
 either in affirmative or negative interrogations, 
 when answering any questions : as " Yes, I have or 
 I do ;" " No, I have not or I do not;" are construed 
 
424 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 in French by the repetition of the verb in the 
 question. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 avez-vous ecr it voire theme? oui,je have you written your exercise? 
 
 Vai ecrit yes, I have 
 
 avez-vous recu de Vargent? non,je have you received any money? 
 
 rien ai point recu no, I have not 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. I have known him since his childhood, and I always loved him 
 on account of the goodness of his character. 
 
 2. This woman is always occupied in doing good works ; one sees 
 her constantly consoling the unhappy, assisting the poor, reconciling 
 enemies, and constituting the happiness of every one around her. 
 
 3. The more you live with men, the more you will be convinced 
 that it is necessary to know them well before you form a connection 
 with them. 
 
 4. Enjoy the pleasures of the world, I consent to it; but never 
 give yourself up to them. 
 
 5. I shall never consent to that foolish scheme ; do not mention 
 it any more. 
 
 6. Have you received some copies of the new work ? Yes, I have 
 (received some). 
 
 (1.) Have known, connaUre, ind.-l ; loved, ind.-4 ; on account, a cause. 
 
 (2.) In, a; works, ceuvres, f. pi.; constantly, sans cesse; constituting, faire ; 
 every one, tout ce ; around, qui environne. 
 
 (3.) Live, ind.-7; be convinced, se convaincre ; "before, avant de; you, * ; form 
 a connection, se Her. 
 
 (4.) Enjoy, jouir de ; give yourself up, se livrer. 
 
 (5.) Scheme, entreprise; mention, parler ; any, *. 
 
 (6.) Copies, exemplaire. 
 
 Those which are sometimes in subject, and some- 
 times in regimen, are nous, vous, moi, tot, lid, elle, 
 eux, elles. 
 
 JVous and vous may be subject, object direct or 
 indirect, as nous pensons (subject), aimez-nous 
 (object direct), donnez-nous (indirect), etc. 
 
 Observation. — Vous^ used instead of tie, requires 
 the verb to be in the plural, but the adjective that 
 follows remains in the singular, as vous serez estime, 
 si vous etes sage, you will be esteemed if you be 
 good. 
 
 In general, moi, toi, lui, eux, are only in subject 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 425 
 
 either in expletives, when we wish to give more 
 force to the discourse, as moi, qui voulais partir aux 
 depens de ses jours, I, who wanted to set off at the 
 risk of her life ; il Va dit lui-meme, he has said so 
 himself, etc. ; or in those distributive sentences 
 where we want to assign the part which different 
 persons have in an action, &s'mes freres et mon 
 cousin in out secouru ; eux mont releve et lui ma 
 pause, my brothers and cousin have assisted me ; 
 they have taken me up, and he has bound up my 
 wounds ; or in sentences like this, Penelope, sa 
 femme, et moi qui suis son fils, Penelope, his wife, 
 and I who am his son, etc. — (Fenelon.) 
 
 Moi and toi can be the direct object, in expositive 
 sentences, only after the verb etre, as cest moi qui 
 le dit, it is I that say it; dest toi qui Vas fait, it is 
 thou who hast done it. To be the indirect object, 
 they must be preceded by a preposition, as on parte 
 de moi, on rit de toi ; but they may be either object 
 direct or indirect in imperative sentences, as aimez- 
 moi (direct object), parlez-moi (indirect), occupe- 
 toi (direct object), donne-toi la peine de (indirect). 
 
 Lui is direct object only as an expletive, as je le 
 verrai lui-meme ; its natural function is to be the 
 indirect regimen, as Je lui donne, parlez-lui, instead 
 of je donne a lui, parlez a lui. 
 
 Eux, elle, elles, are also direct objects as exple- 
 tives, as je la verrai elle-meme, je les verrai eux- 
 mSmes; to be the indirect objects, they must be 
 preceded by a preposition, as je vais a eux, I come 
 to them ; cela depend d'elle, that depends upon her. 
 
 EXSRCISE. 
 
 1. In the education of youth, we should propose to ourselves to 
 cultivate, to polish their understanding, and thus to enable them to 
 fulfil with dignity the different stations assigned them ; but above 
 all, we ought to instruct them in that religious worship which God 
 requires of them. 
 
428 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 2. What ! you would suffer yourself to be overwhelmed by adver- 
 sity ! 
 
 3. I ! that I should stoop to the man who has embrued his hands 
 in the blood of his king ! 
 
 4. Thou ! thou wouldst take that undertaking upon thyself ! 
 Can'st thou think of it ? 
 
 5. Your two brothers and mine take charge of the enterprise ; 
 they find the money, and he will manage the work. 
 
 6. It is I who engaged him to undertake this journey. 
 
 7. It is thou who hast brought this misfortune on thyself. 
 
 8. When you are at Rome, write to me as often as you can, and 
 give me an account of every thing that can interest me. 
 
 9. He told it to thee thyself. 
 
 10. Fortune, like a traveller, shifts from inn to inn ; if she lodge 
 to-day with me, to-morrow, perhaps, she will lodge with thee. 
 
 11. Whom dost thou think we were talking of? It was of thee. 
 
 12. In the world, one thinks only of one's self; one is only occu- 
 pied about one's self. 
 
 13. Descartes deserves immortal praises, because it is he who has 
 made reason triumph over authority, in philosophy. 
 
 14. He is displeasing to himself. 
 
 15. She is never satisfied with herself. 
 
 16. The indiscreet often betray themselves. 
 
 17. Saumaise, speaking of the English authors, said that he had 
 learned more from them than from any other. 
 
 18. To love a person, is to render him, on every occasion, all the 
 services in our power, and to afford him, in society, every comfort 
 that depends upon us. 
 
 (1) Youth, jeunes gens; their (to them) the understanding, esprit; enable, 
 disposer; stations, place ; assigned them (which are); worship, culte; requires, 
 demander. 
 
 (2.) Suffer yourself, se laisser, cond.-l ; to be overwhelmed, abattre. 
 
 (3.) Stoop to, s'abaisser devant, subj.-l ; imbrued, souiller. 
 
 (4.) Take upon thyself, se charger ; canst, * ; of it, y. 
 
 (5.) Take charge, se charger; find, fournir ; money, fonds, pi. ; manage, conduire 
 
 (6.) Engaged, ind. -4; undertake, faire. 
 
 (7.) Hast brought on thyself, s'attirer, ind. -4. 
 
 (8.) Are, ind. -7; can, ind.-7, give, faire; an account, le detail. 
 
 (9.) Told, dire, ind.-4. 
 
 (10.) Shifts from inn to inn, changer d'auberge; with, chez ; she will lodge, ce 
 etre. 
 
 (11.) Were talking, parler, subj.-2, 
 
 (12.) Thinks, penser a; only, ne que; occupied about, s'occuper de. 
 
 (13.) Triumpb over, iriompher de. 
 
 (14.) Is displeasing, se deplaire. 
 
 (16.) Betray, se trahir. 
 
 (18 ) In our pov/er, dont on etre capable; afford, procurer a; comfort, agremeni', 
 depends upon, dependre de. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 427 
 
 §1- 
 
 Cases where the Pronouns elle, elles, eux, lui, 
 leur, may apply to things. 
 
 The personal pronouns elle and elles, when in 
 regimen, generally apply to persons only. We say, 
 speaking of a woman, je mapprochai (Telle, je 
 massis pres a" elle ; but we say, speaking of a table, 
 je men approchai,je massis aupres. 
 
 But when these pronouns are governed by the 
 prepositions avec, apres, a, de, pour, en, etc, they 
 may very well be applied to things. We say, 
 speaking of a river, cette riviere est si rapide, quand 
 elle deborde, quelle entraine avec elle tout ce quelle 
 rencontre ; elle ne laisse apres elle que du sable et des 
 cailloux, that river is so rapid, when it overflows, 
 that it carries with it every thing it meets with in 
 its course ; it leaves nothing behind but sand and 
 pebbles. 
 
 And speaking of an enemy's camp, nous mar- 
 chdmes a elle, we marched up to it. We cannot 
 even express ourselves any other way. 
 
 In speaking of things, reasons, truth, etc., we 
 say also, ces choses sont bonnes d'elles-memes, these 
 things are good in themselves ; Jaime la verite au 
 point queje sacrifirais tout pour elle, I love truth to 
 that degree that I would sacrifice every thing to it ; 
 ces raisons sont solides en elles-memes, those reasons 
 are solid in themselves. 
 
 But after the verb etre, they ought to be applied 
 only to persons, as cest a elle, cest d* elles que je 
 parte, c'est elle-meme qui vient. 
 
 The same may be said of the pronouns eux, lui, 
 and leur, which are also generally applied to persons 
 only, yet custom allows sometimes to deviate from 
 that rule ; however, we ought never to apply to 
 
428 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 things the pronouns elle, dies, eux, lui, and leur, 
 but when usage does not allow us to replace them 
 with the pronouns y and en. 
 
 1. Virtue is the first of blessings ; it is from it alone we are to 
 expect happiness. 
 
 •2. The labyrinth had been built upon the lake of Meris, and they 
 had given it a prospect proportioned to its grandeur. 
 
 3. Mountains are frequented on account of the air one breathes 
 on them , how many people are indebted to them for the recovery 
 of their health. 
 
 4. This book costs me dear, but I am indebted to it for my in- 
 struction. 
 
 5. Self-love is captious ; we, however, take it for our guide ; to 
 it are all our actions directed, and from it we take counsel. 
 
 6. These arguments, although very solid in themselves, yet made 
 no impression upon him, so strong a chain is habit. 
 
 7. These reasons convinced me, and from them I took my deter- 
 mination. 
 
 8. I leave you the care of that bird ; do not forget to give it 
 water. 
 
 (1.) Blessings, Men; are, devoir. 
 
 (2.) Had been built, on bdtir, ind.-6 ; prospect, vue. 
 
 (3.) On account, a cause; breathes, respirer; on them, y ; are indebted for, 
 devoir ; recovery, retablissement. 
 
 (5.) We (it is he that we); to it (it is to it that we direct all, etc.); direct, rap- 
 porter ; from it (and it is from it that, etc.) 
 
 (6.) No, neaucun; so strong, etc. (so much habit is a, etc); habit, habitude. 
 
 (7.) And from (and it is), d'apres; took my determination, se decider. 
 
 §11. 
 
 Of the Pronoun soi. 
 
 Soi is generally accompanied by a preposition^ 
 and is used indeterminately when speaking of per- 
 sons, as on doit rarement purler de soi, one ought 
 to speak very seldom of one's-self. In this case, it 
 is the indirect regimen, but it may be employed 
 without a preposition 
 
 1. With the verb etre, as en cher chant a tromper 
 les autres, cest souvent soi qiion trompe, or on est 
 souvent trompe soi-meme, in attempting to deceive 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS, 429 
 
 others, we frequently deceive ourselves. In this 
 case soi is the subject. 
 
 2. After ne que, or by opposition, as 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 rC aimer que soi c'est etre mauvais to love only one's- self, is to be a 
 
 citoyen bad citizen 
 
 penser ainsi, c'est s'aveugler soi- to think in this manner, is to 
 
 mime blind one's-self , 
 
 In these examples soi is the regimen, but when 
 tie soi and en soi are used in a definite sense in 
 speaking of things, they mean de sa nature and 
 dans sa nature. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. To excuse in one's-self the follies which one cannot excuse in 
 others, is to prefer being a fool one's-self to seeing others so. 
 
 2. We ought to despise no one ; how often have we not been in 
 need of one more insignificant than ourselves? 
 
 3. If we did not attend so much to ourselves, there would be less 
 egotism in the world. 
 
 4. Vice is odious in itself. 
 
 5. The loadstone attracts iron to itself. 
 
 (1.) Follies, sotiises ; others, autrui; prefer, aimer mieuz; to seeing, que de 
 voir ; so, tel. 
 
 (2.) We ought, falloir ; we, on; have been in need, avoir besoin; insignificant, 
 petit. 
 
 (3.) We, on; attend to, s'occuper de; egotism, egoisme. 
 
 (5.) Loadstone, aimant. 
 
 §111. 
 
 Difficulty respecting the Pronoun le explained. 
 
 Le, la, les, are sometimes used as pronouns, and 
 sometimes as articles. The article is always fol- 
 lowed by a noun, le roi 9 la reine, les hommes, 
 whereas the pronoun is always joined to a verb, je 
 le connais^je la respecte^je les estime. 
 
 The pronoun le may supply the place of a sub- 
 stantive, of an adjective, or even of a member of a 
 sentence. 
 
480 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 There is no difficulty when it relates to a whole 
 member of a sentence, it is always then in the mas- 
 culine singular, as on doit s accommoder a Vhumeur 
 des autres autant quon le petit, we ought to accom- 
 modate ourselves to the humour of others as much 
 as we can (do it). 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The laws of nature and decency oblige us equally to defend 
 the honour and interest of our parents, when we can do it without 
 injustice. 
 
 2. We ought not to condemn, after their death, those that have 
 not been condemned during their life-time. 
 
 (1.) Decency, bienseance. 
 
 (2.) We ought, fa lloir ; condemned, le; time *. 
 
 Neither is there any difficulty when le supplies 
 the place of a substantive, it being evident that it 
 then takes the gender and number of that sub- 
 stantive, as madame, etes-vous la mere de cet enfant ? 
 Old, je la suis, Madam, are you the mother of that 
 child? Yes, I am. Mesdames, etes-vous les parentes 
 dont Monsieur ma parte ? Qui, nous les sommes. 
 
 Observation. — Though the word relating to the 
 interrogative sentences, in the following exercises, 
 is not expressed in English, yet it must always be 
 in French ; this word is le, which takes either 
 gender or number according to its relation. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Was that your idea ? Can you doubt that it was ? 
 
 2. Are you Mrs. Such-a-one ? Yes, I am. 
 
 3. Are those your servants ? Yes, they are. 
 
 (1.) Idea, pensee; that it was, ce etre, subj.-2, la. 
 (2.) Mrs. Madame; such-a-one, un tel. 
 (3.) Those, ce la ; they, ce. 
 
 It only remains therefore to establish the follow- 
 ing rule. 
 
 Mule. — The pronoun le takes neither gender nor 
 number, when holding the place of an adjective. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 431 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Madame, etes-vous enrhumee ? — Oui, je le suis 
 
 Mesdames, etes-vous contentes de ce discours ? — Oui, nous le sommes 
 
 Fut-il jamais unefemme plus malheureuse queje le suis ! 
 
 Observation. — This rule is observed when the 
 substantives are used adjectively, as Madame, etes- 
 vous mere? — Qui, je le ,suis. Mesdames, etes-vous 
 parentes? — Qui, nous le sommes. Elle est fille, et 
 le sera toute la vie. But not if the adjectives be 
 used substantively, as Madame, etes-vous la malade ? 
 Oui, je la suis. Therefore this question, etes-vous 
 fille de M. le Due ? is to be answered, oui, je le suis ; 
 and this, etes-vous la fille de M. le Due? — Out, je la 
 suis. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Ladies, are you glad to have seen the new piece ? Yes, we are. 
 
 2. I, a slave ! I, born to command ! alas ! it is but too true that I 
 am so. 
 
 3. She was jealous of her authority, and she ought to be so. 
 
 4. Was there ever a girl more unhappy, and treated with more 
 ridicule than I am ? 
 
 5. You have found me amiable ; why have I ceased to appear so 
 to you ? 
 
 6. Have we ever been so quiet as we are? 
 
 7. Madam, are you married ? Yes, I am. 
 8- Madam, are you the bride ? Yes, I am. 
 
 (2.) Slave, esclave; but, ne que. 
 
 (3.) Ought, devoir, ind.-2. 
 
 (4.) With more ridicule, plus ridiculement. 
 
 N.B. — The same rule is to be observed in super- 
 latives absolute, as 
 
 la lune ne nous eclaire pas autant the moon does not give us so 
 
 que le soleil, quand meme elle est much light as the sun, even 
 
 la plus brillante or quand elle when it shines brightest 
 brille le plus* 
 
 §iv. 
 
 Repetition of the Personal Pronouns. 
 Rule I. — The pronouns of the first and second 
 
 * In the above N.B. quand elle donne meme le plus de lumiere, would be bettef 
 than quand meme elle est la plus brillante, which turn would offend a French ear. 
 
432 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 persons, when in subject, ought to be repeated 
 befora all the verbs, when those verbs are in different 
 tenses, and it is always better to repeat them, even 
 when the verbs are in the same tense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 je soutiens et je soutiendrai toujour s I maintain, and (I) will always 
 
 maintain 
 
 vous dites, et vous avez toujours you say, and (you) have always 
 
 dit said 
 
 accable de douleur,je m'ecriai et je overwhelmed with sorrow, I ex- 
 
 dis claimed and (I) said 
 
 nous nous promenions sur lehautdu we were walking upon the sum- 
 
 rocher, et nous voyions sous nos mit of the rock, and (we were) 
 
 pieds, etc. seeing under our feet, etc. 
 
 Observation. — We ought, in all cases, to repeat 
 these pronouns, though the tenses of the verbs do 
 not change, when the first is followed by a regimen, 
 as vous aimerez le Seigneur votre Dieu, et vous ob- 
 server ez sa loi, you shall love the Lord your God, 
 and (you shall) observe his law. 
 
 This rule is not followed iri English. 
 
 1. My dear child, I love you, and I shall never cease to love you ; 
 but it is that love itself that I have for you which obliges me to 
 correct you for your faults, and to punish you when you deserve it. 
 
 2. I heard and admired these words, which comforted me a little, 
 but my mind was not free enough to make him a reply. 
 
 3. Thou wast young and thou aimedst without doubt at the glory 
 of surpassing thy comrades. 
 
 4. God has said : You shall love your enemies, bless those that 
 curse you, do good to those that persecute you, and pray for those 
 who slander you. What a difference between this morality and that 
 of philosophers ! 
 
 (1.) To, a. 
 
 (2.) Heard, ecouter, ind.-2. ; words, discours ; my mind (I had not the mind, 
 «tc.) ; to make a reply, repondre a. 
 
 (3.) Aimedst at, aspirer a ; surpassing, Vemporter sur. 
 
 (4.) Curse, maudire; slander, calomnier; between, de; and that, * h cells. 
 
 Rule. — The pronouns of the third person, when 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 433 
 
 in subject, are hardly ever to be repeated before 
 verbs, when those verbs are in the same tense, and 
 they may be repeated or not, when the verbs are in 
 different tenses. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la bonne grace ne gate rien ; elle a graceful manner spoils nothing ; 
 
 ajoute a la beaute, releve la mo- it adds to beauty, heightens 
 
 destie, et y donne du lustre modesty, and gives it lustre 
 
 il n'a jamais rien valu et ne vaudra he never was good for any thing, 
 
 jamais rien and never will be 
 
 U est arrive ce matin, et il rep artir a he is arrived this morning, and 
 
 ce soir (he) will set off again this 
 
 evening 
 
 Observation, — We have said hardly ever, because 
 perspicuity requires the repetition of the pronoun 
 when the second verb, beside the conjunction et 9 is 
 preceded by a preposition, which, with its regimen, 
 forms a long incidental phrase, as 
 
 il fond sur son ennemi, et apr&s Vavoir saisi d'une main victorieuse, il le 
 renverse, comme le cruel aquilon abat les tendres moissons qui dorent la 
 campagne. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. He took the strongest cities, conquered the most considerable 
 provinces, and overturned the most powerful empires. 
 
 2. He takes a hatchet, cuts quite off the mast which was already 
 broken, throws it into the sea, jumps upon it amidst the furious 
 billows, calls me by my name, and encourages me to follow him. 
 
 3- He marshals the soldiers, marches at their head, advances in 
 good order towards the enemy, attacks them, breaks them, and 
 after having entirely routed them, (he) cuts them in pieces. 
 
 (1.) Overturned, renverser. 
 
 (2.) Hatchet, hdche f. ; cuts quite off, achever de couper ; broken, rompre ; throws, 
 jeter; jumps upon it, s'elancer dessus; billows, onde. 
 
 (3.) Marshals, ranger en bataille ; breaks, renverser ; entirely routed, achever de 
 mettre en desordre ; cuts, tailler. 
 
 Rule III. — The personal pronouns, when in sub- 
 ject, of whatever person they may be, must always 
 be repeated before the verbs, either when we pass 
 from affirmation to negation, and vice versa, or when 
 the verbs are joined by any conjunction except et 
 and ni* 
 
 u 
 
434 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 il veut et il ne veut pas he wills and he wills not 
 
 il donne d'excellens principes, he lays down excellent principles 
 parceqiCil salt que les progres because he knows that upon 
 ulterieurs en dependent them depends every further 
 
 progress 
 
 but we say, il donne et refoit, he gives and receives ; 
 il ne donne ni ne recoit, he neither gives nor 
 receives. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. It is inconceivable how whimsical she is : from one moment to 
 the other she wills and she wills not. 
 
 2. The Jews are forbidden to work on the Sabbath ; they are as 
 if chained down in their sleep ; they light no fire and carry no 
 water. 
 
 3. Since eight days nearly she neither eats nor drinks. 
 
 4. The soldier was not repressed by authority, but, stopped through 
 satiety and shame. 
 
 (1.) (She is of a whimsical cast inconceivable); whimsical cast, bizarrerie f. 
 (2.) (It is forbidden to) forbidden, defendre ; sabbath, jour du sabbat; light, 
 allumer; if* ; chained down, enchaine; sleep, repos. 
 (3.) Nearly, pres de. 
 (4.) Repressed, reprimer ; stopped, s'arreter ; through, par. 3 
 
 Rule IV. — Pronouns, when in regimen, are re- 
 peated before all the verbs. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Videe de ses malheurs lepoursuit, le the idea of his misfortunes pur- 
 tourmente, et Vaccable sues (him), torments (him), 
 
 and overwhelms him 
 
 il nous ennuie et nous obsede sans he wearies (us) and torments us 
 cesse incessantly 
 
 Observation.— The pronoun in regimen is not 
 repeated before such compound verbs as express the 
 repetition of the same action, as je vous le dis et 
 redis, il le fait et refait sans cesse ; this, however, 
 is the case only when the verbs are in the same 
 tense. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. It is taste that selects the expressions, that combines, arranges, 
 and varies them, so as to produce the greatest effect. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 435 
 
 2. Horace answered bis stupid critics not so much to instruct 
 them as to show their ignorance, and let them see that they did not 
 even know what poetry was. 
 
 3. Man embellishes nature herself; he cultivates, extends, and 
 polishes it. 
 
 (1.) (Repeat qui before every verb); so as to, de maniere, a ce que; (they 
 produce). 
 
 (2.) Stupid, sot; not so much, moins; (to show (to them) their, etc.); let see. 
 faire entendre ; was, c'elait que. 
 
 §V. 
 
 Relation of the Pronouns of the third Person to a 
 Noun expressed before. 
 
 Rule. — The pronouns of the third person, il, Us, 
 elle, elles 9 le, la, les, must always relate to a noun, 
 in subject or regimen, taken in a definite sense; 
 but they must not be made to relate, either to a 
 subject and regimen at the same time, or to a noun 
 taken in an indefinite sense, or to a noun that has 
 not before been expressed in the same sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la rose est la reine desjteurs, aussi the rose is the queen of flowers, 
 elle est Vembleme de la beaute therefore it is the emblem of 
 
 beauty 
 faime l'ananas ; il est exquis I like the pine-apple ; it is ex- 
 
 quisite 
 
 But we cannot say, Racine a imite Euripide en 
 tout ce qu'\\ a de plus beau dans sa PhMre, Racine 
 has imitated Euripides in all that he has (is) most 
 beautiful in his Phedra ; because, as the pronoun 
 il may relate either to Racine or to Euripides, the 
 sentence is equivocal. Neither can we say, le legal 
 publia une sentence d'interdit ; il dura trois mois, 
 the legate published a sentence of interdiction; it 
 lasted three months ; because il cannot, from the 
 construction of the sentence, relate to inter dit. 
 Again, it is not altogether correct to say, nulle paix 
 
436 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 pour Vimpie ; il la cherche, elle fuit, no peace for 
 the wicked; he seeks it, it flies; because, from the 
 construction, the pronouns la and elle seem to be 
 used for nnlle paix, whereas, according to the 
 meaning, they supply the place of the substantive 
 paix, which is the opposite state. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Poetry embraces all sorts of subjects ; it takes in every thing 
 that is most brilliant in history ; it enters the fields of philosophy : 
 it soars to the skies ; it plunges into the abyss ; it penetrates even 
 to the dead ; it makes the universe its domain, and if this world be 
 not sufficient, it creates new ones which it embellishes with enchant- 
 ing abodes, which it peoples with a thousand various inhabitants. 
 
 2. Egypt aimed at grandeur, and wanted to strike the eyes at a 
 distance, but always pleasing them by the justness of proportions. 
 
 3. Egjrpt, satisfied with its own country, where every thing was 
 in abundance, thought not of conquests ; it extended itself in another 
 manner, by sending colonies to every part of the globe, and with 
 them, politeness and laws. 
 
 4. The Messiah is expected by the Hebrews ; he comes and calls 
 the Gentiles, as had been announced by the prophecies ; the people 
 that acknowledges him as come, is incorporated with the people that 
 expected him, without a single moment of interruption between the 
 two. 
 
 (1.) Subjects, matiere ; takes in, se charger de ; that is, y avoir de ; the fields (in) ; 
 soars, s'elancer dans ; plunges, s'enfoncer ; to. ckez ; (its domain of the universe) ; 
 be sufficient, suffire ; ones * monde repeated ; enchanting, enchante ; abodes, 
 demeure ; various, divers. 
 
 (2.) Grandeur, grand ; wanted, vouloir; to, *; pleasing (in), contenter. 
 
 (3.) Was in abundance, abonder; thought, songer ; by (in); part of the globe, 
 terre. 
 
 (4.) Gentiles, Gentil; (the prophecies had announced it) ; acknowledges, recon- 
 naitre\ with, a; without, sans que y avoir, subj.-l ; single, seul. 
 
 II 
 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 How to express hi French son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, 
 relating to Inanimate things. 
 
 The possessive pronouns son, sa, ses, tear, leurs, 
 may relate either to persons or to things personified, 
 or simply to things. If they relate to persons or 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 437 
 
 personified things, there is no difficulty, son, sa, ses, 
 etc. must be used and never supplied by any other 
 words; but if they relate only to inanimate things, 
 the following rule must be attended to. 
 
 General Hide. — The possessive adjectives or pro- 
 nouns son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, when relating to 
 inanimate things, are used in a sentence, only when 
 the name or pronoun of the thing referred to is 
 expressed in the same proposition where is placed 
 the possessive pronoun; for instance, we say, V An- 
 gleterre etend son commerce par toute la terre, 
 England extends her trade over the whole globe. 
 
 In the above example, the possessive pronoun 
 son relates to an inanimate thing (Angleterre) ex- 
 pressed in the same proposition ; but for the same 
 reason, we cannot say la ville de Londres est belle 9 
 f admire ses rues magnifiques, the town of London 
 is beautiful, I admire its magnificent streets ; be- 
 cause in this last sentence, the phrase including two 
 propositions, it is only in the first that the name of 
 the thing {Londres) has been expressed, but not in 
 the second, where the pronoun ses is to be found ; 
 therefore we ought to say, la ville de Londres est 
 belle, fen admire les rues magnifiques, the town of 
 London is beautiful, I admire the magnificent streets 
 (of it) ; however, if the possessive pronouns are im- 
 mediately preceded by a preposition, in that case 
 our last observation does not stand good, and son, 
 sa, ses, etc., are to be used, as la ville de Londres 
 est belle, f admire la magnificence de ses rues; in this 
 example ses is preceded by the preposition de. 
 Observations. 
 
 1. On all other occasions, when son, sa, ses, leur, 
 leurs apply to inanimate things, the particle en 
 placed immediately before the verb must be sub 
 stituted. 
 
438 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 2. The definite article le, la, les, and the particle 
 e?i 9 are substituted to son, sa, ses, etc., whenever the 
 sense of the proposition may bear the change without 
 any impropriety, therefore, instead of saying in 
 speaking of a house, son exterieur est agreable, its 
 outside is agreeable; in speaking of a town, Jaime 
 ses environs, I like its vicinity ; and in speaking of 
 trees, leurs fruits so?it excellents, their fruits are 
 excellent; we may say very well without any injury 
 to the sense, V exterieur en est agr table ; fen admire 
 les environs; les fruits en sont excellents. But in 
 the two following sentences, the alteration of en to 
 son, sa, ses, etc., could not take place without incon- 
 venience to the sense, as in speaking of London, we 
 should say ses bdtimens reguliers plaisent au premier 
 coup-d'ceil, its regular buildings please at the first 
 sight, but not les bdtimens reguliers en plaisent ; son 
 commerce produit oVimmenses ressources, its trade 
 produces immense resources, but not le commerce 
 en produit tf immense, etc. 
 
 . EXERCISE. 
 
 1. A new custom was a phenomenon in Egypt, for which reason 
 there never was a people that preserved so long its customs, its laws, 
 and even its ceremonies. 
 
 2. Solomon abandons himself to the love of women ; his under- 
 standing declines, his heart weakens, and his piety degenerates into 
 idolatry. 
 
 3. That superb temple was upon the summit of a hill ; its columns 
 were of Parian marble, and its gates of gold. 
 
 4. The Laocoon is one ot the finest statues in France ; not only 
 the whole, but all its features, even the least, are admirable. 
 
 5. The Thames is a magnificent river; its channel is so wide and 
 so deep below London Bridge, that several thousands of vessels lie 
 at their ease in it. 
 
 6. This fine country is justly admired by foreigners ; its climate is 
 delightful, its soil fruitful, its laws wise, and its government just and 
 moderate. 
 
 . The trees of that orchard are well exposed, yet its fruits are 
 bad enough. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 439 
 
 8. The Seine has its source in Burgundy, and its mouth at Havre- 
 de- Grace. 
 
 9. The pyramids of Egypt astonish, both by the enormity of their 
 mass and the justness of their proportions. 
 
 10. Egypt alone could erect monuments for posterity ; its obelisks 
 are still to this day, as much for their beauty as for their height, thfc 
 principal ornament of Rome. 
 
 11. History and geography are a mutual light to each other; a 
 perfect knowledge of them ought to enter into the plan of a good 
 education. 
 
 (1.) Phenomenon, prodige ; for which reason, aussi; preserved, subj.-3. 
 (2.) Declines, baisser; weakens, s'affaiblir. 
 (3.) Summit, haut; hill, colline ; Parian, de Paros. 
 (4.) The whole, V ensemble ; even, jusqu'a. 
 (5.) Channel, lit; below, au dessous de; lie at, etre a. 
 (6.) Justly, avec raison ; soil, sol. 
 (7.) Orchard, verger; yet, cependant. 
 (8.) Mouth, embouchure; Havre, le Havre, 
 (9.) Both, egalement: (et elegantly repeated). 
 
 (10.) Could, il appartenir a ind.-2; alone, ne que; erect, dresser; to this dfe~ 
 aujourd'hui ; as much for, autantpar ; height, hauteur. 
 
 (11.) Are a mutual light, s' eclair er Vun par V autre ; a, * ; of them (their.) 
 
 When there exists any doubt whether the pos- 
 sessive pronoun ought to be used or not, the fol- 
 lowing is the rule : 
 
 The article, instead of the possessive pronoun, 
 must be put before a noun forming the regimen, 
 when a pronoun which is either subject or regimen, 
 sufficiently supplies the place of that possessive 
 without ambiguity, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 fai mal a la tete my head aches 
 
 je me suis coupe le doigt I have cut my finger 
 
 ilfaudra hi amputer lajambe it will be necessary to cut off his 
 
 leg 
 vous leur marchez sur les pieds you tread upon their feet 
 
 1 . For the whole winter, he has had sore eyes. 
 
 2. I had a fall yesterday, and I hurt the loins and head. 
 
 3. Furious, he gets off from the midst of us, and runs with the 
 utmost swiftness, like a horse that is become unruly. 
 
 4. In this sanguinary battle, he received a wound by a shot in his 
 right arm, and another in his left leg ; by dint of care his arm was 
 saved, but it was necessary to cut off his leg. 
 
 (1.) For, pendant; has had sore, avoir mal a. 
 
440 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 2.) Had a fall, se laisser totnber; hurt, se faire mul a. 
 
 (3.) With the utmost swiftness, a perte d'haleine; like, tel que', is become un- 
 ruly, prendre le mors aux dents. 
 
 (4 ) A wound by a shot, un coup de feu ; arm, bras ; leg, jambe; by dint, & force; 
 his arm, etc. (they saved the arm to him); was necessary, falloir. 
 
 But should either the personal pronoun, or cir- 
 cumstances, not remove all equivocation, then the 
 possessive pronoun ought to be joined to the noun. 
 We ought to say, je vols que ma jambe s'enfle, I see 
 that my leg is swelling, because I may see the leg 
 of another person swelling. For the same reason, 
 we ought to say, il ltd donna sa main a baiser, he 
 ga^e him his hand to kiss; elle a donne hardiment 
 son bras an chirurgieyi^ she boldly gave her arm to 
 the surgeon. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. In this interview, they made each other presents ; she gave him 
 her portrait, and he gave her his finest diamond. 
 
 2. A young surgeon was disposed to bleed the great Conde' ; this 
 prince said to him smiling: Tremble you not to bleed me? I, my 
 Lord, no, certainly; it is not I, it is you who ought to tremble. 
 The prince, charmed with the reply, immediately gave him his arm. 
 
 (1.) Interview, entrevue; made each other, se faire mutuellement, 
 (2.) Was disposed, se disposer ; bleed, saigner; smiling, d'un air riant; it is not 
 I, (it is not to me) ; it is you, (it is to you) ; who ought, * de ; reply, repartie. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. Although verbs which are conjugated with two 
 pronouns of the same person remove every kind of 
 amphibology, at least in general, yet custom autho- 
 rises some proverbial expressions in which the pos- 
 sessive pronoun seems to be useless, as il se tient 
 ferme sur ses pieds, he stands firm upon his feet 
 
 (legs), always find himself on his legs. 
 
 2. Custom likewise authorises certain pleonasms, 
 which seem to make exceptions to this rule, as je 
 Vai vu de mes propres yeux, I have seen it with my 
 own eyes. 
 
 3. When we speak of an habitual complaint, we 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 441 
 
 ought to use the possessive pronoun, as sa migraine 
 Va repris, his headache is come upon him again. 
 
 4. We never make use of the possessive pronouns 
 before a noun which is to be followed by qui or que, 
 and a pronoun of the same person as those pos- 
 sessives. Thus, we ought to say.j'ai recti la lettre 
 que vous raavez tcrite, I have received the letter 
 which you wrote to me. It would be wrong to say 
 votre lettre que vous, etc. Foreigners are apt to 
 offend against this rule. 
 
 The possessive pronouns perform the office of the 
 article and are regulated by the same laws ; they 
 ought, therefore, to be repeated before all the sub- 
 stantives in subject or regimen, and before the 
 adjectives which express different qualities, as son 
 pere, sa mere, et ses freres sont de retour, his father, 
 mother, and brothers are come back ; je lui at 
 montre mes plus beaux et mes plus vilains habits, I 
 have shown him my finest and my ugliest dresses. 
 This rule which is not always observed in English, 
 is common in French to all adjective pronouns. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Whatever he may do, he always tinds himself on his legs. 
 
 2. Can you yet doubt the truth of what I tell you ? Would you 
 ask a stronger proof than that I give you ; it is that I heard it, yes, 
 heard it with my own ears. 
 
 3. My gout does not allow me a moment's repose. 
 
 4. It is in vain that I exhort you to work and to study ; yaw idle- 
 ness, that cruel disease which disorders you, renders useless all the 
 exhortations of interest and friendship. 
 
 5. If you wish to be beloved, fail not to perform the promises you 
 have just made. 
 
 6. In the retreat that I have chosen for myself, my study and — 
 garden are my greatest delight. 
 
 7. He brought me into his laboratory, and showed me his large 
 and — small vessels. 
 
 (1.) Finds himself, se trouver. 
 
 (2.) Can, cond.-l ; doubt, douter de; ask, exiger; heard, entendre, 
 
 (3.) Allow, laisser, 
 
 (4.) It is in vain, je avoir beau ; that I, * ; disorders, travailler. 
 
 v2 
 
442 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 (5.) Fail not, napas manquer. 
 
 (G.) For myself (to me); study, cabinet. 
 
 (7 ) Brought, mener ; laboratory, laboratoire ; vessels, vaisseau. 
 
 III. 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Qui, in subject,, may very properly relate to 
 persons and to things, as Vhomme qui joue perd son 
 temps, the man who gambles loses his time ; le livre 
 qui plait le plus nest pas toujour s le plus utile, the 
 book which pleases most is not always the most 
 useful. But, when it is in regimen, it can only be 
 said of persons or of things personified, whether the 
 regimen be direct or indirect, as quand on est delicat 
 et sage dans ses gouts, onne s attache pas sans savoir 
 qui Von aime, he who is wise and discriminate in his 
 feelings, does not form an attachment without 
 knowing whom he loves; 1'homme a qui appartiera 
 ce beaujardin, est tres-riche, the man to whom this 
 fine garden belongs is very rich ; la femme de qui 
 vous parlez, the woman of whom you are speaking. 
 
 Observation, — When the regimen indirect is ex- 
 pressed by the preposition de, we ought to prefer 
 dont to de qui. It is better to say, la femme dont 
 vous parlez, but it is only when the relative is to be 
 followed by a personal pronoun. 
 
 Rule I. — Qui must not be separated from its ante- 
 cedent, when that antecedent is a noun. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 un jeunehomme qui est docile aux a young man who is docile to the 
 
 conseils qu'on lui donne, et qui counsels which are given him, 
 
 dime den recevoir, aura infailli- and who loves to receive them, 
 
 blement du merite will infallibly have merit 
 
 Observation, — In some phrases, qui may be sepa- 
 rated from the substantive by a certain number of 
 words ; it is when the sense forces it to be referred 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 443 
 
 to that substantive, as il afallu, avant toute chose, 
 vous faire lire dans Vecriture saint e Phistoire du 
 peuple de Dieu, qui fait le fondement de la religion. 
 This sentence is very correct, because, as du peuple 
 determines the kind of history, and de Dieu the 
 kind of people, the mind necessarily goes back to 
 the substantive histoire, to which it refers the inci- 
 dental phrase. 
 
 Qui, however, may be separated from its ante- 
 cedent, when this antecedent is a pronoun in regimen 
 direct, as il la trouva qui pleurait a chaudes larmes, 
 he found her crying bitterly ; je le vois qui joue, I 
 see him playing ; because, in this case, the place 
 of the pronoun is before the verb, and it is the same 
 as saying, il trouva elle qui pleurait, etc. ; je vois 
 lui qui joue. Also in these kind of sentences, which 
 are real gallicisms, ceux-la ne sont pas les plus mal- 
 heureux qui se plaignent le plus, those are not the 
 most unhappy who complain the most. 
 
 1. A young man who loves vanity of dress, like a woman, is un- 
 worthy of wisdom and glory ; glory is only due to a heart that knows 
 how to suffer pain and trample upon pleasure. 
 
 2. Thyself, O my son, my dear son, thou thyself that now enjoyest 
 a youth so lively and so fruitful in pleasures, remember that this 
 fine age is but a flower which will be dried up as soon as open. 
 
 3. Men pass away like flowers, which open in the morning, and at 
 night are withered and trampled under foot. 
 
 4. You must have a man that loves nothing but truth and you, that 
 will speak the truth in spite of you, that will force all your entrench- 
 ments ; and that necessary man is the very same whom you have 
 sent into exile. 
 
 5. We perceived him waiting for us, quietly seated under the shade 
 of a tree. 
 
 (1.) Vanity of dress, se parer vainement ; how to, *; trample upon, fouler aux 
 pieds. 
 
 (2.) Remember, se souvenir ; dried up, seeker ; open, eclore. 
 
 (3.) Open, s'epanouir; and (which); withered, fietrir. 
 
 (4.) You must have, ilfalloir; nothing but, ne que; will (change the future into 
 the present of the subjunctive) ; entrenchments, retrancliement ; sent into exile, 
 exiler. 
 
 (5.) Waiting for (who waited), attendre; under, a. 
 
444 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 Rule II. — The relative qui must always relate to 
 a noun taken in a determinate sense. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Ihomme est un animal raisonnable, qui, etc. 
 il me regut avec une politesse, qui, etc. 
 
 But we cannot say Vhommeest animal raisonnable, 
 qui, etc. ; il me regut avec politesse, qui, etc. 
 
 Observation. — Though in many phrases, the de- 
 termination of the nouns is not expressed, yet it is 
 clearly understood. Thus, all these phrases are 
 correct : il ria point de livre qui ne soit de son choix, 
 he has not a book that is not of his own selecting ; 
 y a-t-il ville dans le royaume qui soit plus favor isee? 
 is there a city in the kingdom that is more favoured? 
 il ny a pas homme qui soit assure d'une heure de 
 vie, there is no man (not a man) that is sure of an 
 hour's life ; il se conduit en homme qui connait le 
 monde, he behaves himself like a man who knows 
 the world; il est accable tfemauxqui ne lui laissent 
 pas un instant de repos, he is overwhelmed with 
 evils that do not allow him a moment's rest ; cest 
 une sorte de fruit qui ne murit pas en Europe, it 
 is a sort of fruit (a fruit) that does not ripen in 
 Europe. From the translation of all the above 
 examples, it is evident that livre, ville, Iwmme, 
 maux, are really determined, the meaning being, 
 il napas un livre qui, etc., y a-t-il une ville qui, 
 etc., and as to the word sorte, we have seen that it 
 also determines the word fruit. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. He received us with such goodness, civility, and grace, as 
 charmed us, and made us forget all we had suffered. 
 
 2. There is no city in the world where there are more riches and 
 a greater population. 
 
 3. Is there a man can say : I shall live to-morrow? 
 
 i. He has no friend but would make for him every kind of 
 sacrifice. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 445 
 
 5. Ke is surrounded by enemies who are continually observing him, 
 and would very much wish to find him in fault. 
 
 6. In his retreat he lives as a sage, who knows mankind and mis- 
 trusts them. 
 
 7. The pine-apple is a sort of fruit that in Europe ripens only in 
 ho:- houses. 
 
 8. That man is a sort of pedant, who takes words for ideas, and 
 facts confusedly heaped up for knowledge. 
 
 (1.) Such, .as, un. .qui. 
 
 (2.) There are, subj. 
 
 {'o ) Man (who) ; can, subj. 
 
 (4.) Would make, si.bj.-2. 
 
 (5.] To, * 
 
 (6.) As a> en; mistrusts, se defter de. 
 
 (7.) Hot-houses, serre chaude. 
 
 "8.) Heaped up, entasser. 
 
 Que relates to persons and things in all cases, 
 It is always regimen direct in a preposition, and 
 cannot be without an antecedent expressed, which 
 it generally follows, as rhomme que je vols, la 
 peche quejg mange. We say generally, because in 
 some instances it may be separated from the ante- 
 cedent by a certain number of words ; it is when the 
 mind necessarily goes back to that antecedent, as 
 in this sentence of Flechier's : Quest-ce quune 
 armee ? Cest un corps anime dune infinite de passions 
 differ elites, qu'zm homme habile fait mouvoir pour la 
 defense de la patrie. 
 
 Observation. — There are instances where que 
 appears to be regimen indirect, as it seems to be 
 used instead of a qui or dont, as dest a vous que je 
 parle; cest de lid que je parley de la f aeon que/ai 
 dit la chose. But in this case que is a conjunction. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The God whom the Hebrews and Christians have always 
 served, has nothing in common with the deities full of imperfection 
 and even of vice, worshipped by the rest of the world 
 
 2. Epopaea is not the panegyric of a hero which is proposed as a 
 pattern, but the recital of a great and illustrious action, which is 
 exhibited for imitation. 
 
 3. The good ivhicn we hope for shows itself to us, and flies away 
 like an empty dream, which a man's awakening causes to vanish, to 
 
446 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 teach us that the very things which we think we (hold fast in our 
 hands), may slip away in an instant. 
 
 4. Plato says, that in writing, we ought to hide ourselves, to dis- 
 appear, to make the world forget us, that we may produce nothing 
 but the truths we wish to impress, and the passions we wish to 
 purify. 
 
 (1.) (That the rest of the -world worshipped). 
 
 (2.) Is proposed, on propose', pattern, module, exhibited, donner; imitation, 
 example. 
 
 (3.) Flies away, s'envoler; a man's awaking, reveil; causes, faire; we hold 
 fast, * tenir le mieux; in our hands, * ; slip away, echapper a I'. 
 
 (4.) To make the world forget, se faire oublier; that we may produce, pour ne 
 produire que; we, on; wish, vouloir; impress, persuader. 
 
 Lequel and dont relate both to persons and things. 
 It is a general rule that we ought never to use 
 lequel, either as a subject or object, but when it is 
 to avoid amphibology ; for, whenever the sense is 
 sufficient to remove it, we must make use of qui or 
 que ; this is conformable to the present practice. 
 
 Lequel, with the preposition de, is either followed 
 or preceded by a noun, which it unites to the prin- 
 cipal sentence. If it be followed by the noun, we 
 ought to prefer dont to duquel, both for persons and 
 things ; thus we say, la Tamise dont le lit, and not 
 de laquelle ; le prince dont la protection, and not 
 duquel ; but in speaking of persons, de qui is still 
 better than dont, and in this last example, we should 
 prefer le prince de qui la protection. If lequel be 
 preceded by the noun, we can only make use of 
 duquel when speaking of things, as la Tamise, dans 
 le lit de laquelle, and it is always better to use it 
 when speaking of persons, as le prince a la pro- 
 tection duquel ; de qui would not be so well. 
 
 With the preposition a, we can only make use of 
 auquel when speaking of things, as les places aux- 
 quelles il aspire ; but we ought to prefer a qui when 
 speaking of persons, as les rois a qui on doit oheir ; 
 auxquels would not do so well. 
 
 It is easy to see that the relative qui, preceded by 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 447 
 
 a preposition, never relates to things, but to persons 
 only. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The grand principle on which the whole turns is, that all the 
 world is but one republic, of which God is the common father, and 
 every nation, as it were, one great family. 
 
 2. Homer, whose genius is grand and sublime like nature, is the 
 greatest poet, and perhaps the most profound moralist of antiquity. 
 
 3. The celebrated Zenobia, whose noble firmness you have ad- 
 mired, preferred to die with the title of queen rather than to accept 
 the advantageous offers which Aurelian made her. 
 
 4. The Alps, on the summit of which the astonished eye discovers 
 perpetual snow and ice, present at sun-set, the most imposing and 
 most magnificent spectacle. 
 
 5. A king, to whose solicitude we owe a good lav/, has laboured 
 more towards his own glory than if he had conquered the universe. 
 
 6. The ambitious man sees nothing but pleasure in the possession 
 of the places to which he aspires with so much ardour, instead of 
 seeing the troubles that are inseparable from them. 
 
 7. Kings, whom religion imposes upon us as a duty to obey, are, 
 upon earth, the true image of the providence of God. 
 
 (1.) Turns, rouler ; all, *; as it were, comme. 
 
 (3.) Preferred rather, aimer mieux. 
 
 (4.) Sun-set, soleil couchant. 
 
 (5.) Towards, pour. 
 
 (6.) Instead of, au lieu de. 
 
 (7.) Whom (to); imposes upon as a duty, faire un devoir. 
 
 Quoi can never relate but to things. It follows 
 the word to which it relates, and is always preceded 
 by a preposition, as la chose a quoi on pense; voila 
 les conditions sans quoi la chose ne peut se faire \ 
 this turn is still to be met with in some writers, 
 but duquel and auquel are much better, for quoi has 
 a vague signification, for which reason it is never 
 used with any degree of propriety but when it relates 
 to a vague and indefinite subject, such as ce or rien, 
 as c'est de quoi je moccupe sans cesse ; il ny a rien 
 a quoiy^ sois plus dispose. 
 
 Ou, d'oii, par oil, never relate but to things. We 
 never use them but when the nouns to which they 
 relate express some kind of motion or of rest, at 
 
448 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 least metaphorically, as voila le but ou il tend, that 
 is the end he aims at ; cest une chose d'ou depend le 
 b on heur public, it is a thing upon which the public 
 happiness depends ; les lieux par ou il a passe, the 
 places through which he has passed. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. What a young man, who begins the world, ought principally to 
 attend to, is not to give it a high opinion of his understanding, but to 
 get himself many friends by the qualities of his heart. 
 
 2. A youth lost in uselessness, softness, and voluptuousness, pre- 
 pares for us nothing but sorrows and disgusts in old age ; this, 
 nevertheless, is what we little think of when we are young. 
 
 3. There is nothing by which we show ourselves more affected than 
 the loss of fortune, although being frail and perishable by its nature, 
 it cannot contribute to our happiness. 
 
 4. A grove in which I brave the ardour of the dog-star, a retired 
 valley where I can meditate in peace, a high hill, whence my eye 
 extends over immense plains, are the places where I spend the hap- 
 piest moments of my life. 
 
 (1 ) To what, ce a, begins, entrer dans; to attend, s'attacher: it, y. opinion, 
 idee; understanding, esprit; to get himself, sefaire. 
 (2.) Softness, mollesse ; of which (to). 
 
 (3.) By, a; we, on; affected, sensible; frail, frele; cannot, subj. 
 (4.) Dog-star, canicule; spend, passe. 
 
 IV. 
 
 ABSOLUTE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Qui relates to persons only ; it presents to the 
 mind nothing but a vague undetermined idea, as 
 qui sera assez hardi pour Vattaquer ? Who will be 
 bold enough to attack him ? It is used in the femi- 
 nine and in the plural, as qui est cette personne ? 
 Who is that person ? Qui sont ces femmes ? Who 
 are those women ? 
 
 Que and quoi relate to things only, as que pouvait 
 la valeur en ce combat funeste ? What could valour 
 do in that fatal combat? A quoi pensez-vous? What 
 are you thinking of? Que is sometimes used for a 
 quoi> de quoi, as que sert la science sans la vertu f 
 What avails learning without virtue? Que sert a 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 449 
 
 Vavare cV avoir des tresors? What use is it to the 
 miser to possess treasures? that is, a quoi sert, etc., 
 de quoi sert, etc. 
 
 Quoi sometimes relates to a whole sentence, and 
 in this case, it is the only expression authorised by 
 usage, as la vie passe commeun songe ; cest cependant 
 a quoi on ne pense guere. 
 
 Observation. — Que and quoi govern the prepo- 
 sition de before the adjective that follows them, as 
 que dit-on de nouveau ? Quoi de plus agreable ? 
 Que governs it likewise before the substantives. 
 
 Quel relates both to persons and things, as quel 
 homrne peut se promettre un bonheur constant ? 
 Quelle grace ! quelle beaute ! mais quelle modestie I 
 
 Oil, d % ou, par oil, never relate but to things. 
 
 1. Who could ever persuade himself, did not daily experience 
 convince us of it, that out of a hundred persons there are ninety who 
 sacrifice to the enjoyment of the present all the best founded hopes 
 of the time to come ? 
 
 2. Who would not love virtue for its own sake, could we but see 
 it in all its beauty ? 
 
 3. WAatf is an army ? A body animated with an infinite number 
 of different passions, which a skilful man puts into motion for the 
 defence of the country. 
 
 4. He who did not know how to apply himself in his youth, does 
 not know what to do in mature age. 
 
 5. He was a wise legislator who, having given to his nation laws 
 calculated to make them good and happy, made them swear not to 
 violate any of those laws during his absence ; after which, he went 
 away, exiled himself from his country, aud died poor in a foreign 
 land. 
 
 6. What people of antiquity ever had better laws than the 
 Egyptians? What other nation ever undertook to erect monuments 
 calculated to triumph over both time and barbarism? 
 
 7. What more instructing and entertaining than to read celebrated 
 authors in their own language ! Whatbeauty, what delicacy, and grace, 
 which cannot be conveyed into a translation, are not discovered in 
 them ! 
 
 8. When Menage had published his book of the origin of the 
 French language, Christina, queen of Sweden, said, " Menage is the 
 most troublesome man in the world ; he cannot let one word go 
 
450 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 without its passport; he must know whence it comes, where it has 
 passed through, and whither it is going. 
 
 (1.) Out of, sur; time to come, avenir. 
 
 (2.) Its own sake, elle-meme; could we, on pouvoir, ind.-2. 
 
 (3.) With, de; infinite number, infinite; puts into motion, /aire mouvoir ; 
 country, patrie. 
 
 (4.) How, *; what (to); to do, s'occuper; mature, mur. 
 
 (5.) Nation, concitoyen; calculated, prop re; not to violate (that they would not) ; 
 went away, partir. 
 
 6.) Calculated to, fait pour; both, egalement. 
 
 (7.) Delicacy, finesse; which cannot, que on; be conveyed, faire passer; are 
 not (active voice) on. 
 
 (8.) When, apresque; troublesome, incommode ; cannot, ne saurait ; go, passer; 
 must, vouloir ; is going, alter. 
 
 V. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 We have seen that ce, joined to a noun, takes its 
 gender and number, and that as it does the office of 
 article, it ought to follow the same laws of repetition. 
 It is also joined to the verb etre, and to a relative 
 pronoun. 
 
 Ce, joined to the verb etre, always governs this 
 verb in the singular except when it is followed by 
 the third person plural. We say, cestmoi, cest toi, 
 cest lui, cest nous, cest vous, but we ought to say, 
 ce sont eux, ce so?it elles, cefurent vos ancetres, qui, 
 etc. 
 
 Ce is often used for a person or thing before- 
 mentioned, and in this case it is for il or elle. We 
 must always make use of ce when the verb etre is 
 followed by a substantive, taken in a determinate 
 sense, that is, accompanied by the article or the 
 adjective un, as lisez Homlre et Virgile, ce sont les 
 plus grands poetes de Vantiquite, read Homer and 
 Virgil, they are the best poets of antiquity. La 
 douceur, Vqffabilite, et une ceriaine urbanite dis- 
 tinguent Vhomme qui vit dans le grand monde ; ce 
 sont la les marques auxquelles on le reco?inait, gen- 
 tleness, affability, and a certain urbanity, distinguish 
 the man that lives in the great world ; those are the 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 451 
 
 marks by which he may be known. Avez-vous lu 
 Platon ? dest un des plus beaux genies de Vantiquite, 
 have you read Plato ? He is one of the greatest 
 geniuses of antiquity. But when the verb etre is 
 followed by an adjective, or by a substantive taken 
 adjectively, we ought to make use of il, elle, as lisez 
 Demosthene et Ciceron ; ils sont tres-eloquens. J'ai 
 vu Thopital de Greenwich ; il est inagiiiflque et 
 digne d'une grande nation, Compteriez-vous sur 
 Valerel Ig?iorez-vous qu'il est homme a ne jamais 
 revenir de ses premieres idees? Would you rely upon 
 Valere ? Do you not know that he is that kind 
 of man that will never give up his first ideas ? As 
 no such distinction is made in English, the learner 
 ought particularly to attend to this rule. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. It is we, who have drawn that misfortune upon us, through our 
 thoughtlessness and imprudence. 
 
 2. It was the Egyptians that first observed the course of the stars, 
 regulated the year, and invented arithmetic. 
 
 3. Peruse attentively Plato and Cicero ; they are the two philo- 
 sophers of antiquity who have given us the most sound and luminous 
 ideas upon morality. 
 
 4. If you be intended for the pulpit, read over and over again 
 Bourdaloue and Massillon ; they are both very eloquent, but the aim 
 of the former is to convince, and that of the latter to persuade. 
 
 (1.) Upon, *; thoughtlessness, i 
 (3.) Sound, sain; morality, morale. 
 (4.) Are intended for, se destiner a ; pulpit, chaire; read over and over again, 
 lire ei retire sans cesse ; aim, but. 
 
 Ce, joined to a relative pronoun, relates to things 
 only. It is always masculine singular, because it 
 only denotes a vague object, which is not sufficiently 
 specified to know its gender and number, as ce qui 
 flatte est plus dangereux que ce qui offense, what 
 flatters is more dangerous than what offends. 
 
 Observation. — Ce, joined to the relative pronouns, 
 qui, que, dont, and qitoi, has, in some instances, a 
 construction which is peculiar to itself. Ce and the 
 
452 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 relative pronoun that follows it, form with the verb 
 which they precede, the subject of another phrase, 
 of which the verb is always etre. Now etre may be 
 followed by another verb, an adjective, or a noun. 
 
 When it is followed by another verb, the demon- 
 strative ce is to be repeated, as cecpiej'aime le plus, 
 c'est d'etre senl, what I like most is to be alone. 
 
 When it is followed by an adjective, the demon- 
 strative is not repeated, as ce dont vous venez de me 
 parler est horrible, what you have been mentioning 
 to me is horrid. 
 
 When it is followed by a substantive, the demon- 
 strative may either be repeated or not, at pleasure, 
 except in the case of a plural or a personal pronoun. 
 Thus, we may say, ce que je dis est, or, c'est la 
 verite, what I say is truth, though the former is 
 better ; but we ought to say, ce qui mindigne, ce 
 sont les injustices qiHon ne cesse de /aire, what pro- 
 vokes me, are the injuries w r hich are continually 
 committed ; ce qui marrache an sentiment qui 
 maccable, c'est vous, what alleviates the grief that 
 oppresses me, is you. Most of these rules essentially 
 contribute to the elegance of language. 
 
 1. What is astonishing is not always what is pleasing. 
 
 2. What the miser thinks least of, is to enjoy his riches. 
 
 3. What pleases us in the writings of the ancients is, to see that 
 they have taken nature as a model, and that they have painted her 
 with a noble simplicity. 
 
 4. What that good king has done for the happiness of his people 
 deserves to be handed down to the latest posterity. 
 
 5. What constitutes poetry is not the exact number and regulated 
 cadence of syllables, but it is the sentiment which animates every 
 thing, lively tiction, bold figures, the beauty and variety of imagery ; 
 it is enthusiasm, fire, impetuosity, force, a something in the words 
 and thoughts which nature alone can impart. 
 
 6. What we justly admire in Shakespear are those characters 
 always in nature and always supported. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 453 
 
 7. What keeps me attached to life, is you, my son, whose tender 
 age has still need of my cares and counsels. 
 
 (1.) Is astonishing, etonner; is pleasing, plaire. 
 (2.) What (that to which) ; miser, avare; to, de. 
 (3.) As a, pour. 
 
 (4.) Deserves, etre digne; to be handed down, etre transmis a. 
 (5.) Constitutes, faire; exact, fixe ; a something, unje ne sais quoi ; impart, 
 ionner. 
 (6.) We, on; those*; supported, soutenu. 
 (7,) Keeps attached, attacher. 
 
 There are two ways of employing celui. In the 
 first, it is followed by a noun preceded by the pre- 
 position de, and then it applies both to persons and 
 things, as celui de vous qui, etc., whichever of you 
 that, etc. ; or, in speaking of a grotesque figure, elle 
 ressemble a celles de Calot, it is like those of Calot. 
 In the second instance, it is followed by qui, que, or 
 dont, and then applies more generally to persons, 
 as celui qui ne pense qua lid seul, dispense les autres 
 dy penser, he who thinks of nobody but himself, 
 exempts others from thinking of him. 
 
 Observation. — In this last instance, we sometimes 
 omit celui, and this turn gives strength and elegance 
 to the expression, as qui veut trop se faire craindre 
 se fait rarement aimer. 
 
 Ceci and cela apply only to things. 
 
 Observation. — In familiar style, custom authorises 
 us to say, in speaking of a child, or of country 
 people amusing themselves, cela est heureux I for 
 [ils sont heureux). 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1 . Whichever of you shall be found to excel the others both in mind 
 and body, shall be acknowledged king of the island. 
 
 2. There are admirable pictures ; these are after the manner of 
 Rubens, and those after the manner of Van-Huisum. 
 
 3. Why are the statues of our most celebrated sculptors, notwith- 
 standing the perfection to which the arts have been carried, so much 
 inferior to those of the ancients ? 
 
 4. He, whose soul blazing, as it were, with fire divine, shall repre- 
 sent to himself the whole of nature, and shall breathe into the 
 objects that spirit of life which animates them, those affecting traits 
 which seduce and ravish us, shall be a man of real genius. 
 
454 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 5. He that judges of others from himself, is liable to many 
 mistakes. 
 
 6. He that is easily offended, discovers his weak side, and affords 
 his enemies an opportunity of taking advantage of it. 
 
 7. He who loves none but himself, deserves not to be loved by 
 others. 
 
 (1.) Be found to excel, onjuger vainqueur ; both in, et pour. 
 
 (2 ) There are, voila de ; are after, etre dans; manner, genre. 
 
 (3.) Have been carried (an active voice); inferior, au-dessous. 
 
 (4.) Blazing with, enfiamme de ; the whole of, tout-, shall breathe into, repandre 
 sur; affecting, touchant; real, vrai. 
 
 (5.) From, d'apres; liable, expose; mistakes, meprise. 
 
 (6.) Is offended, s'offenser; weak side, faible; affords, fournir a; of taking 
 advantage, profiter. 
 
 VI. 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 On, always in subject, denotes a sort of a third 
 person vague and indeterminate. It is, by its nature 
 masculine singular, and can only apply to persons. 
 However, it may sometimes apply to a feminine and 
 to a plural, as when a woman says, on nest pas 
 toujours maitresse de so7i temps, one is not always 
 mistress of her time ; or in this expression, on se 
 hattit en desesperes, they fought desperately. The 
 French Academy admits of these expressions. 
 
 This pronoun is repeated before all the verbs of 
 sentence, but care ought to be taken to make it 
 refer to one and the same subject; thus, this sen- 
 tence, on croit etre aime et Von ne vous aime pas, is 
 incorrect, we ought to say, on croit etre aime et on 
 ne Vest pas. 
 
 Quiconque generally masculine, sometimes relates 
 to the feminine gender, as quiconque de vous, Mes- 
 dames, sera assez forte pour, etc. Nevertheless, we 
 ought to use the proper expression and say, celle 
 devous, Mesdames, qui sera assez forte pour, etc, 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Do you really think, said Amelia to Lucilla, that when a woman 
 is pretty, she is ignorant of it? No, she knows it very well, but by 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 455 
 
 a refinement of coquetry common enough, she feigns not to perceive 
 it. 
 
 2. We are not slaves, to receive such treatment. 
 
 3. Do you know what they do here ? They eat, they drink, they 
 dance, they play, they walk, in a word, they kill time in the gayest 
 manner possible. 
 
 4. Whoever of you is bold enough to slander me, I will make him 
 repent it. 
 
 5. Whoever of you is attentive and discreet, shall receive a recom- 
 pense that will flatter her. 
 
 (1.) Really, de bonne foi ; Lucilla, Lucile; woman, on; she, etc, on; is igno- 
 rant of, ignorer de ; feigns, faire semblant ; perceive, s'aperce voir, inf.- 1. 
 
 (2.) We, on; slaves, {des) esclave; to receive, pour essuyer de. 
 
 (3.) They (always by), on; in the gayest manner, le plus gaiment; possible, 
 (that they can). 
 
 (4.) Is, ind.-7; to slander, pour medire de; it (of it). 
 
 (5.) That will, * fait pour. 
 
 Chacun, though always singular, may be followed 
 sometimes by so?i, sa, ses, and sometimes by leur, 
 leurs. 
 
 There is no difficulty in those phrases where 
 chacun does not belong to a plural number ; we then 
 make use of son, sa, ses, as donnez a chacun sa part, 
 give to each his share ; que chacun songe a ses 
 affaires, let every one mind his own business. 
 
 But in phrases where chacun belongs to a plural 
 number, the following rule must be carefully at- 
 tended to. 
 
 Rule. — In phrases where chacun is contrasted 
 with a plural to which it belongs, we make use of 
 son, sa, ses, when chacun is placed after the regimen, 
 but we ought to make use of leur, leurs, when 
 chacun is placed before the regimen. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 remettez ces medaittes, chacune en return those medals, each into its 
 
 sa place proper place 
 
 les hommes devraient s'aimer, chacun men ought to love one another, 
 
 pour son propre inter et each for his own interest 
 
 But we ought to say, les hommes devraient avoir 
 chacun pour leur propre inter et, de V amour les wis 
 pour les autres. 
 
456 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 The form of the latter part of the preceding sen- 
 tence would not be adopted in English, in which 
 each for his own interest, each being always deemed 
 singular, would be preferred. 
 
 Observation. — In phrases where chacun is con- 
 trasted with a plural, there are two senses, the col- 
 lective and the distributive. When chacun is placed 
 after the regimen, the collective sense expressed by 
 the plural is finished, and the distributive chacun 
 must do the office which is peculiar to it, by consi- 
 dering the whole kind separated into individuals ; 
 but when chacun is placed before the regimen, the 
 collective sense is not completed, and consequently 
 it ought to be carried on to the end. This is the 
 opinion of the French Academy. 
 
 We put in the plural the pronoun which is to be 
 after chacun, as la reine dit elle-meme aux deputes 
 quil etait temps quits sen retournassent chacun 
 chez-eux. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Go into my library, and put the books which have been sent 
 back to me, each into its place. 
 
 2. They have all brought offerings to the temple, every one accord- 
 ing to his means and devotion. 
 
 3. Thierry charged Uncelenus to carry his orders to the mutineers 
 and to make them retire each under his colours. 
 
 4. Each of them has brought his offering and fulfilled his duty of 
 religion. 
 
 5. Had Ronsard and Balzac each in his manner of writing, a suf- 
 ficient degree of good, to form after them any very great men in verse 
 and in prose ? 
 
 6. After a day so usefully spent, we went back, each to his own 
 home. 
 
 7. Minds that possess any justness, examine things with attention 
 in order to give a fair judgment of them; and they place each of 
 them in the rank it ought to occupy. 
 
 (1.) Sent back, renvoyer. 
 
 (2.) Offerings, offrande. 
 
 (3.) To carry, aller porter ; mutineers, mutin. 
 
 (4.) (They have brought each their, etc. ;) fulfilled, remplir. 
 
 (5.) Manner of writing, genre; a sufficient degree, astez. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 457 
 
 (6.) Day, journee ; went "back, retourner ; to, chez with pron. personal. 
 (7.) Possess, avoir de; give a fair judgment, juger avec connaissance ; place, 
 mettre ; to occupy, avoir. 
 
 Personne^ used as a pronoun, is always masculine, 
 therefore the adjective relating to it must be of the 
 same gender, as personne iiest aussi heureux quelle, 
 nobody is so happy as she is. 
 
 L'un et T autre require the verb they govern to be 
 in the plural. — (See p. 855, General Syntax of the 
 Pronouns.) 
 
 Ni Fun hi F autre govern the verb in the plural 
 when both may at the same time receive the action 
 expressed by the verb ; however, the two following 
 modes are authorised : 
 
 ni Pun ni l'autre n ontfait leur devoir, or 
 ni Tun ni l'autre ri 'a fait son devoir 
 
 But when the action applies only to a single 
 object, the verb must be in the singular, as ni Fun 
 ni V autre nest mon pere ; ni Tun ni V autre ne sera 
 nomme a cette ambassade. When ni Fun ni V autre 
 stand after the verb, the verb is always in the plural, 
 as its ne sont morts ni Fun ni F autre. 
 
 1. Nobody is so severe, so virtuous in public, as tbose women who 
 have the least restraint in private. 
 
 2. Nobody could be happier than she ; but in consequence of 
 that levity which you know she has, she has lost all the advantages 
 that she had received from nature and education. 
 
 3. Racine and Fenelon will be always the delight of sensible 
 hearts ; both possessed in the highest degree the art of exciting in 
 us at their pleasure the most tender and the most lively emotions. 
 
 4. Balzac and Voltaire enjoyed in their time great celebrity, but 
 neither has been read since good taste has made the native and 
 simple graces to be preferred to the bombast of the first and the 
 affectation of the second. 
 
 (1.) Some, certain ; have the least restraint, etre le moins retenu. 
 
 (2.) Could, ind.-2; the, (a); levity. legerete; she has (to her). 
 
 (3.) Always, dam tons les temps; both, Vun et V autre; in, d; pleasure, gre. 
 
 (4.) Enjoyed, ind.-4; neither, ni Vun ni l'autre; has been read (are read no 
 more); native, du naturel-, simple, de la simplicity ; be preferred (active voice) ; 
 bombast, bouffisure. 
 
 X 
 
458 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 Tout, when in regimen direct, is placed after the 
 verb, in simple tenses, and between the auxiliary 
 and the participle in compound tenses, as il avoue 
 tout ; il a tout avoue. But when it is in regimen 
 indirect, it is always placed after the verb, either in 
 simple or compound tenses, as il rit de tout; il a 
 pense a tout. N. B. — Itien follows the same order 
 of construction. 
 
 Tout is sometimes used as an adverb, and merely 
 as an expletive, as il lui dit tout froidement , he told 
 him (quite) coolly. Sometimes also, instead of 
 quoique, tres, entierement, quelque, and in such case, 
 it is subject to the following rules : 
 
 Rule I. — Tout, used instead of one of the above 
 three words, does not alter its number before an 
 adjective masculine, as les enfans, tout aimables 
 quils sont, children, all-amiable as they are; Us 
 sont tout interdits, they are quite disconcerted. 
 
 Rule II. — Tout, used for one of the above three 
 words, takes neither gender nor number before an 
 adjective feminine, beginning with a vowel or h 
 mute, but it takes both gender and number before 
 an adjective feminine beginning with a consonant ; 
 we say, la vertu tout austere quelle parait ; ces 
 images tout amusantes quelles sout ; but we ought 
 to say, cest une tete toute vide ; ces dames, toutes 
 belles, toutes spirituelles quelles sont 
 
 Exception* — Tout takes neither gender nor num- 
 ber before an adjective feminine beginning with a 
 consonant, when it is immediately followed by an 
 adverb ; thus we say, cesfleurs sont tout aussi fraiches 
 que celles que vous avez ; ces dames sont, tout ainsi, 
 tout comme vous, belles, jeunes, et spirituelles. In 
 this sense, tout is but a mere expletive. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Children, amiable as they are, have, nevertheless, many faults 
 which it is of importance to correct. 
 
OF THE PRONOUNS. 459 
 
 2. The philosophers of antiquity, although very much enlightened, 
 have given us but very confused ideas of the deity, and very vague 
 notions about the principal duties of the law of nature. 
 
 3. These flowers, inodorous as they are, are not the less sought 
 after. 
 
 4. Virtue, austere as it is, makes us enjoy real pleasures. 
 
 5. Fables, although very entertaining, yet do not truly interest us 
 but when they convey to us instruction under the veil of an ingenious 
 allegory. 
 
 6. Although that absurd pedant is an incessant scribbler, yet his 
 head is altogether empty. 
 
 7. Far be from us those maxims of flattery, that kings are born 
 with knowledge, and that their privileged souls come out of God's 
 hands all wise and all learned. 
 
 8. Those fountains glide quite gently through a mead enamelled 
 with flowers. 
 
 9. These peaches are quite as good as those of the south of 
 France. 
 
 (1.) Have nevertheless, ne laisser pas d'avoir\; of importance, essentiel. 
 
 (2.) Of nature, naturel. 
 
 (3.) Inodorous, inodore. 
 
 (4.) Enjoy, gouter de. 
 
 (5.) Very, * ; convey, offrir. 
 
 (6.) Incessant, infatigable; scribbler, ecrivailleur; (he has not less his head) ; 
 altogether, tout. 
 
 (7.) Far be, loin; are bom, naitre; with knowledge, habile-, come out, sortir; 
 learned, savant. 
 
 (8 ) Glide, cooler ; gently, doucement ; through a mead, sur un gazon. 
 
 (9.) South, midi. 
 
 Quelque — que is used as follows : 
 
 1. If there be any adjective between quelque and 
 que, then quelque does not take the mark of the 
 plural. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 les rois, quelque puissants qu'ils kings, howsoever powerful they 
 soient, ne doivent pas oublier may be, ought not to forget 
 qu'ils sont hommes that they are men 
 
 Quelque follows the same rule when before an 
 adjective immediately followed by a substantive in 
 the plural, as 
 
 on estime peu les egoistes quelque egotists are very little thought of, 
 bonnes qualites qu'ils aient d'ail- whatever good qualities they 
 kurs* may have besides 
 
 * Wailly's Grammar, page 95. 
 
460 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 quelque belles choses que vows whatever fine things you may 
 
 disiez, etc.* have to say, etc. 
 
 quelque grands torts qu'ora leur however great be the wrongs at- 
 
 aitribuei tnbuted to them 
 
 2. If there is any substantive between quelque 
 and que, in that case quelque takes the number of 
 the substantive. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 quelques richesses que vous ayez whatever riches you may possess 
 
 When quelque is immediately followed by a verb 
 in the subjunctive, then it must be written in two 
 separate words, quel or quelle que, quels or quelles 
 que. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 quelle que soit notre force 
 quelles que soient vos richesses 
 voire puissance quelle qu'elle soit 
 
 1. Wliatever talents you may possess, whatever advantages you may 
 have received from nature and education, with whatever perfections 
 you may be endowed, expect not the suffrages but of a small number 
 of men. 
 
 2. Whatever great services you may have rendered mankind, rather 
 depend upon their ingratitude than their acknowledgment. 
 
 3. Howsoever useful, howsoever well composed the works which you 
 have published, yet think not that you will immediately gather the 
 fruit of your labours ; it is but by slow degrees that light introduces 
 itself among men. The course of time is swift ; but it seems to lag 
 when it brings reason and truth along with it. 
 
 4. Whatever may be the obstacles which ignorance, prejudice, and 
 envy oppose to the true principles of an art, yet we ought never to 
 be deterred from propagating them ; the sun does not cease to shine 
 because its light hurts the eyes of night-birds. 
 
 5. Whatever be your birth, whatever be your riches and dignities, 
 remember that you are frustrating the views of Providence if you do 
 not make use of them for the good of mankind. 
 
 (1.) Possess, avoir; have received, tenir; with, *; be endowed, posseder; 
 expect, s'attendre a. 
 
 (2.) Rather depend, compter plutot , acknowledgment, reconnaissance. 
 
 (3.) Immediately, de suite-, gather, recueillir ; by slow degrees, avec lenteur; 
 among, chez , swift, rapide ; to lag. se trainer ; along with it, a sa suite. 
 
 (4.) We, on ; to be deterred, se rebuter ; propagating, repandre ; shine, iclairer ; 
 its (the article) ; hurts, blesser ; night-birds, oiseau de nuit. 
 
 (5.) Are frustrating, frustrer', (to do good to mankind). 
 
 * Wailly's Grammar page 321. f Mannontel's Grammar, page 89 
 
OF THE VERB. 461 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE VERB. 
 
 Agreement of the Verb with its Subject. 
 
 We have seen that we are to put in the plural the 
 verb which has for its subject two subjects in the 
 singular, but to this rule we must make the fol- 
 lowing 
 
 Exceptions. 
 
 1. Though a verb may relate to two subjects in 
 the singular, yet we put that verb in the singular 
 when the two subjects are joined together by the 
 conjunction ou, comme, aussi Men que, autant que, 
 etc. — (See what has been said about Vun et T autre, 
 p. 445.) 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la seduction ou la terreur l'& en- either seduction or terror has 
 
 traine dans le -parti des rebelles drawn him into the party of 
 
 the rebels 
 
 le roi aussi bien que son ministere, the king, as well as his ministry, 
 
 veut le bien public wishes for the public good 
 
 son honnetete, autant que son es- his honesty, as much as his wit, 
 
 prit, le fait rechercher makes him courted 
 
 Venvie, comme Vambition, est une envy, like ambition, is a blind 
 
 passion aveugle passion 
 
 Observation. — With ou, it is the last substantive 
 that determines the agreement, but with the others 
 it is the first. 
 
 2. The verb is likewise put in the singular, not- 
 withstanding the plurals that precede it, either when 
 there is an expression which collects all the sub- 
 stantives into one, such as tout, ce, rien, etc., or 
 when the conjunction adversative mats is placed 
 before the last substantive. 
 
46:2 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Mens, dignites, honneurs* tout dis- riches, dignities, honours, every 
 
 parait a la tnort thing vanishes before death 
 
 jeux, conversations, spectacles, rien games, conversations, spectacles, 
 
 ne la distrait nothing diverts her 
 
 perfidies, noirceurs, incendies, was- perfidies, enormities, conflagra- 
 
 sacres, ce w'est la qu'une faible tions, massacres, that is but a 
 
 image, etc. feeble representation, etc. 
 
 non settlement toutes ses richesses it not only all his riches and all his 
 
 tous ses honneurs, mais toute sa honours, but all his virtue 
 
 vertu s'evanouit vanishes 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Either fear or impotency prevented them from moving. 
 
 2. The fear of death, or rather the love of life began to revive in 
 his bosom. 
 
 3. Alcibiades, as well as Plato, was among the disciples of 
 Socrates. 
 
 4. Lycurgus, like Solon, was a wise legislator. 
 
 5. Euripides, as much as Sophocles, contributed to the glory of 
 the Athenians. 
 
 6. Riches, dignities, honours, glory, pleasure, every thing loses its 
 charms from the moment we possess it, because none of these things 
 can fill the heart of man. 
 
 7. The gentle zephyrs which preserved, in that place, notwith- 
 standing the scorching heat of the sun, a delightful coolness ; springs 
 gliding, with a sweet murmur, through meadows strewed with 
 amaranths and violets ; a thousand springing flowers which enamelled 
 evergreen carpets : a wood of those tufted trees that bear golden 
 apples, and the blossom of which, renewed every season, yields the 
 sweetest of all perfumes; the warbling of birds, the continual 
 prospect of a fruitful country ; in a word, nothing of what till then 
 had made him happy, could allay the sentiment of his grief. 
 
 (1.) Jmpotency, impuissance ; moving, remuer, 
 
 (2.) Began to revive, se reveiller ; in (the bottom of) his bosom. 
 
 (3.) Among, au nombre de. 
 
 (6.) We, on; none, rien; those things, tout cela. 
 
 (7.) Preserved, entretenir; scorching heat, ardeur; strewed with, semer de, 
 springing, naissant; carpets, tapis; tufted, touffu; golden (of gold); renewed, 
 (which renews), se renouveller; every season (in); yields, repandre; prospect, 
 spectacle; allay, Varracher a; his, *, the article. 
 
 Of the Collective Partitive. 
 The collectives general have nothing to dis- 
 tinguish them from substantives common, with 
 regard to the laws of agreement ; but the collectives 
 partitive apparently break through those laws in 
 some instances, therefore we shall give the following 
 
OF THE VERB. 463 
 
 Rule. — The verb which relates to a collective 
 partitive, is put in the plural when that partitive is 
 followed by the preposition de and a plural ; but it 
 is put in the singular, either when the partitive is 
 followed by a regimen singular, or when it expresses 
 a determinate quality, or lastly, when it presents 
 an idea independent on the plural which follows it. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 la plupart des hommes sont Men the greatest part of men are very 
 
 prompts dans leurs jug emens hasty in their judgments 
 
 bien des philosophes se sont many philosophers have been 
 
 trompes mistaken 
 
 but we ought to say 
 
 une infinite de peuple est accourue an immense number of people is 
 
 (regimen singular) come up (flocked together) 
 
 la moitie des soldats a p6ri, (de- one half of the soldiers has 
 
 terminate quality) perished 
 
 le plus grand nombre des troupes the greatest number of the troops 
 
 a peri (idea independent on has perished 
 
 the plural) 
 
 Thus then, we see that the substantives partitive 
 la plupart, une infinite, une foule, un nombre, la 
 plus grande partie, une sorte, etc., and the words 
 signifying quantity, such as pen, beaucoup, assez, 
 mains , plus, trop, tant, combien, and que used for 
 combien, followed by a noun joined to them by the 
 preposition de, have not the least influence over the 
 verb, and that consequently, it is not with them that 
 the verb agrees but with the noun which follows 
 them. 
 
 Observation, — The words infinite and la plupart, 
 used by themselves, require the verb in the plural, 
 as une infinite pensent, la plupart sont d'avis. 
 
 1. Many persons experience that human life is, everywhere, a 
 state in which much is to be endured and little to be enjoyed. 
 
464 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 2. Many poets think that poetry is the art of uniting pleasure 
 with truth, by calling imagination to the help of reason. 
 
 3. Few persons reflect that time, like money, niriy be lost by unsea- 
 sonable avarice. 
 
 4. So many years of familiarity were chains of iron which linked 
 me to those men, who beset me every hour. 
 
 o. How many wise men have thought that to seclude one's-self 
 from the world, was to pull out the teeth of devouring animals, and 
 to take away from the wicked the use of his poignard, from calumny 
 its poisons, and from envy its serpents ! 
 
 6. A company of young Phoenicians of an uncommon beauty, clad 
 in fine linen, whiter than snow, danced a long while the dances of 
 their own country, then those of Egypt, and lastly, those of Greece. 
 
 7. A troop of nymphs, crowned with flowers, whose lovely tresses 
 flowed over their shoulders and waved with the wind, swam in 
 shoals behind it. 
 
 8. At the time of the invasion of Spain by the Moors, an innu- 
 merable multitude of people retired into the Asturias, and there pro- 
 claimed Pelagius king. 
 
 9. A third part of the enemy remained on the field of battle ; the 
 rest surrendered at discretion. 
 
 10. The innumerable crowd of carriages which are to be seen in 
 London during winter, astonishes foreigners. 
 
 11. The issue of the business which I have mentioned cannot but 
 interest you. 
 
 (1.) Much is (one has a great deal of pains, and little of real enjoyments). 
 
 (2.) By, en. 
 
 (3.) Unseasonable, hors de propos. 
 
 (4.) Familiarity, habitude ; linked, Iter ; beset, obseder. 
 
 (5.) To seclude one's-self, se retirer; pull out, arrachera; to take away from, 
 oter a. 
 
 (6.) Company, troupe; clad in, et vetu de; own, *. 
 
 (7.) Tresses, cheveu; flowed, pendre; waved, flotter; with, au gre de; swam, 
 nager; shoals, joule ; it (her car.) 
 
 (8.) Moors, Maure ; retired, se retirer ; Asturias, Asturies ; Pelagius, Pelage. 
 
 (9.) A third part, un tiers; enemy, pi. ; surrendered, se rendre. 
 
 (10.) Crowd, quantite; which are (active voice on). 
 
 (11.) Issue, suite; business, plural. 
 
 Place of the Subject with regard to the Verb. 
 
 We have seen that the subject of a verb is either 
 a noun or a pronoun, and that this subject ought 
 always to be expressed in French ; it now only 
 remains to know its place relatively to the verb. 
 
 Rule. — The subject, whether noun or pronoun % is 
 generally placed before the verb. 
 
OF THE VERR 465 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Fambition efTrenee de quelques the unbridled ambition of a few 
 
 hommes a, dans tous les temps men has, in all ages, been the 
 
 He la vraie cause des revolutions true cause of the revolutions 
 
 des etats of empires 
 
 quand nous nageons dans Vabon- when we swim in abundance, we 
 
 dance, il est bien rare que nous seldom think of the miseries 
 
 nous occupions des maux of others 
 d'autrui 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Youth is full of presumption ; it hopes every thing from its 
 own self ; although frail, it thinks itself all- sufficient, and that it has 
 nothing to fear. 
 
 2. Commerce is like certain springs ; if you attempt to divert their 
 course, you dry them up. 
 
 3. It is enough that falsehood is falsehood, to be unworthy of a 
 man who speaks in the presence of God, and who owes every thing 
 to truth. 
 
 4. The ambition and avarice of man are the sources of his unhap- 
 piness. 
 
 5. They punished, in Crete, three vices which have remained 
 unpunished in all other nations : ingratitude, dissimulation, and 
 avarice. 
 
 6. Like a lion of Numidia, stung by cruel hunger, and rushing 
 upon a flock of feeble sheep, he tears, he slays, he swims in blood. 
 
 (1.) Full of presumption, presomptueux ; hopes, se promettre; itself all-suffi- 
 cient, pouvoir tout; that it has, inf.-l. 
 
 (2.) Springs, source ; attempt, vouloir; to,*; dry up, fair e tar ir. 
 
 (3.) It is enough, suffire; falsehood, mensonge; is, subj. ; in, en. 
 
 (5,) Punished, ind.-2 ; have remained, etre; in, chez. 
 
 (6.) Like, semblable a ; stung by, etc. (that cruel hunger stings), devorer ; 
 rushing (which rushes upon), entrer dans ; tears, dechirer; slays, egorger. 
 
 Exceptions, 
 
 In the following interrogative phrases, the ques- 
 tion is made either with a pronoun or a noun; if 
 with a pronoun, this is always placed after the verb, 
 as que dit-on ? Irai-je a la campagne ? de qui parle- 
 t-on? If with a noun, the noun is sometimes placed 
 before, and sometimes after the verb ; it stands 
 before, when the pronoun personal which answers 
 to it, asks the question, as cette nouvelle est-elle sure? 
 Les hommes se rendent-ils toujours a la raison ? 
 It stands after, when a pronoun absolute, or an 
 
 x2 
 
466 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 interrogative adverb, is placed at the beginning of 
 the phrase, as que (lit votre ami ? A quoi s'occupe 
 voire frere ? Ou demeure votre cousin ? 
 
 Remark. — In interrogative sentences, when the 
 verb which precedes il, elle, on, ends with a vowel, 
 the letter -t- is put, by euphony, between that verb 
 and the pronoun, as arrive-t-il? Fiendra-t-elle? 
 Aime-t-on les vauriens ? 
 
 If je stands after a verb ending with e mute, that 
 e is changed into e acute, as aime-je? puisse-je? 
 But when the transposition of je after the verb 
 becomes harsh, euphony then requires another turn, 
 so instead of cours-je? dors-je? which would be 
 intolerable, we must say, est-ce que je cours ? Est-ce 
 qaeje dors? 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Have you forgotten all that Providence has done for you ! Kow 
 have you escaped the shafts of your enemies ? How have you been 
 preserved from the dangers which surrounded you on all sides? 
 Could you be so blind as not to acknowledge and adore the all- 
 powerful hand that has miraculously saved you. 
 
 2. What will posterity say of you, if, instead of devoting to the 
 happiness of mankind the great talents which you have received 
 from nature, you make use of them only to deceive and corrupt 
 them ? 
 
 3. Do not the misfortunes which we experience often turn out 
 prosperities ? 
 
 4. Why are the works of nature so perfect ? Because each work is 
 a whole, and because she labours upon an eternal plan, from which 
 she never deviates. Why, on the contrary, are the productions of 
 man so imperfect? It is because the human mind, being unable to 
 create any thing, and incapable of embracing the universe at a single 
 glance, can produce only after having been fecundated by experience 
 and meditation. 
 
 (1.) Escaped, echapper a; shafts, trait; preserved, garantiry on all sides, de 
 toutes parts ; so as, assez pour ; saved, co,nserver. 
 
 (2.) Devoting, consacrer ; deceive, egarer. 
 
 (3.) Experience, eprouver; turn out, tourner en. 
 
 (4.) Because (it is); being unable, ne pouvoir; incapable (being not able); at, 
 de ; glance, vue ; can, * ; fecundated, feconde. 
 
 2. In the incidental sentence which expresses 
 
OF THE VERB. 467 
 
 that we are quoting somebody's words, as je meurs 
 innocent, a dit Louis XVL, I die innocent, said 
 Louis XVI. ; je le veux bien, dit-il, I am very 
 willing, said he. 
 
 3. With an impersonal verb, and these words, 
 tel, ainsi. II est arrive nn grand malheur, (there 
 has happened) a great misfortune has happened ; 
 tel ttait Vacharnement du soldat, que, etc., such was 
 the eager fury of the soldier, that, etc.; ainsi finit 
 cette sanglante tragedie, thus ended that bloody 
 tragedy. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. True glory, said he, is founded in humanity ; whoever prefers 
 his own glory to the feelings of humanity, is a monster of pride and 
 not a man. 
 
 2. There have happened, for these ten years, so many events, out 
 of all probability, that posterity will find it very difficult to credit 
 them. 
 
 3. Such was the incorruptible Phocion, who answered to the deputies 
 of Alexander, who were telling him that this powerful monarch 
 loved him as the only honest man : Well then, let him allow me to 
 be and appear so. 
 
 4. Thus ended, by the humiliation of Athens, that dreadful war of 
 twenty-seven years, to which ambition gave rise, which hatred made 
 atrocious, and which was as fatal to the Greeks as their ancient con- 
 federation had proved advantageous to them. 
 
 (1.) Is founded, ne se trouver pas hors de; feelings, sentiment. 
 
 (2.) There hai T e happened, il se passer; for, depicts; these, *; probability, 
 vraisembla?ice ; will find very difficult, avoir bien de la peine; to credit, ajouter 
 foi. 
 
 (3.) The, ce; loved, cherir , honest man, homme de bien; well, ho\ then {done 
 to be placed after allow); to be so, etre tel: and to appear so, paraitre le. 
 
 (4.) Ended (was terminated); to, *; gave rise, faire naitre ; made, rendre; 
 had proved, etre. 
 
 4. When the subjunctive is used to express a 
 wish, or for quand meme and a conditional, as 
 puissent tous les peuples se convaincre de cette verite, 
 may all nations be convinced of this truth ; dusse-je 
 y ptrir, firai, were I to perish there, I will go. 
 
 5. When the subject is followed by several words 
 which are dependent upon it, and form an incidental 
 proposition, which, by its length, might make us 
 
468 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 lose sight of the relation of the verb to the subject ; 
 clearness here requires that the subject should be 
 so displaced. 
 
 Sometimes, however, this displacing of the subject 
 is only the effect of taste. This happens when we 
 wish to avoid an unharmonious cadence, or, when 
 in the middle of a speech, an orator wishes, to rouse 
 the attention of his hearers by a bold and unex- 
 pected turn. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Grant the Gods that you may never experience such mis- 
 fortunes ! 
 
 2. May you, O wise old man ! in a repose varied by sweet occu- 
 pations, enjoy the past, lay hold of the present, and charm your 
 latter days with the hope of eternal felicity. 
 
 3. What is not in the power of the Gods ! Were you at the bottom 
 of the abyss, the power of Jupiter could draw you from it ; were 
 you in Olymyus, seeing the stars under your feet, Jupiter could 
 plunge you to the bottom of the abyss, or precipitate you into the 
 names of black Tartarus. 
 
 4. There, through meadows enamelled with (lowers, glide a 
 thousand various rivulets, distributing every wheie a pure (and) 
 limpid water. 
 
 5. Already, for the honour of France, had come into adminis- 
 tration a man, greater for his understanding and virtues than by his 
 dignities. 
 
 (1.) Grant, faire; experience, eprouver de. 
 (2.) Old man, vieillard; lay hold of, saisir; with, de. 
 (3.) Power, puissa nee ; could, pouvoir; stars, astre. 
 
 (4.) Through, au milieu de; with, de; glide, serpenter ; rivulets, ruisseau; 
 distributing (which distribute). 
 (5.) Had come, etreentre; administration (of affairs) ; understanding, esprit. 
 
 Government of Verbs. 
 
 We have already observed that the regimen of a 
 verb, when it is a noun, is generally placed after 
 the verb : but to this rule we have one exception 
 besides those which we shall mention in the next 
 chapter. 
 
 Exception. — In an interrogative sentence, the 
 
OF THE VERB. 469 
 
 regimen is placed before the verb, when it is joined 
 to an absolute pronoun, as quel oh jet voyez-vous? 
 What object do you see ? a quelle science vous 
 appliquez-vous? To what science do you apply 
 yourself? De quelle affaire vous occupez-vous ? About 
 what business are you employed ? 
 
 Observation. — In French, a verb can never have 
 two regimens direct ; therefore, when a verb has 
 two regimens, one of them must necessarily be pre- 
 ceded by the words a or de. Donnez ce livre a 
 voire frere, give that book to your brother; on a 
 accuse Ciceron d imprudence et de faiblesse, they have 
 accused Cicero of imprudence and weakness. 
 
 According to the natural chain of ideas, it should 
 seem that the direct object ought to be placed before 
 the indirect; nevertheless, as the clearness of the 
 sentence does not allow it in all cases, we are to 
 observe this 
 
 Rule. — When a verb has two regimens, the 
 shorter is generally placed first; but, if they be of 
 equal length, the regimen direct ought to be placed 
 before the indirect. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 les hypocrites s'etudient a parer le hypocrites make it their study to 
 vice des dehors de la vertu adorn vice with the outside of 
 
 virtue 
 les hypocrites s'etudient a parer des hypocrites make it their study to 
 dehors de la vertu les vices les adorn with the outside of vir- 
 plus honteux et les plus decries tue, the most shameful and 
 
 most odious vices 
 Vambition sacrifie le present a ambition sacrifices the present to 
 Vavenir, mais la volupte sacrifie the future, but voluptuousness 
 1'avenir au present sacrifices the future to the 
 
 present 
 
 1. Famous examples teach us, that God has hurled down from their 
 thrones princes who contemned his laivs ; he reduced to the condition of 
 beasts the haughty Nebuchadnezzar, who ivanted to usurp divine honours, 
 
 2. Miserable the man who feeds his mind with chimeras. 
 
470 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 3. Our interest should prompt us to prefer virtue to vice, wisdom 
 to voluptuousness, and modesty to vanity. 
 
 (1.) Teach, apprendre; hurled down, renverser ; haughty, super be ; wanted, 
 vouloir. 
 
 (2.) Feeds, repaitre. 
 
 (3.) Should, devoir, ind.-l ; prompt, porter. 
 
 Rule. — A noun may be governed at once by two 
 verbs, provided those verbs do not require different 
 regimens. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 on doit aimer et respecter les rois we ought to love and respect 
 
 kings 
 ce general attaqua et prit la ville that general attacked and took 
 
 the city 
 
 But we must not say, cet officier at aqua et se 
 rendit maitre de la ville, that officer attacked and 
 made himself master of the city. We ought to 
 give a different turn to the sentence, by placing the 
 noun after the first verb, and en before the second, 
 as cet officier attaqua la ville et s'en rendit maitre, 
 that officer attacked the citv and made himself 
 master of it. 
 
 This, in fact, is strictly conformable to the genius 
 of the English language; for instance, to say he 
 laughs at 9 and cares not for, the criticisms of the 
 ignorant, is a turn very common, but very inelegant. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Luxury is like a torrent, which carries away and overturns every 
 thing it meets. 
 
 2. Nothing can resist the action of time ; in the long run, it 
 undermines, alters, or destroys every thing. 
 
 3. Among the Spartans, public education had two objects ; the 
 first, to harden their bodies by fatigue ; the second, to excite and 
 nourish in their minds the love of their country, and an enthusiasm 
 for great things. 
 
 (].) Carries away, entrainer; every where, renverser ; every thing, tout ce que. 
 (2.) Can, * ; in the long run, a la tongue; undermined, miner. 
 (3) Among the Spartans, a Sparte; to, de; harden, endurcir ; by, a; their 
 must always be rendered by the article ; for, de. 
 
OF THE VERB. 471 
 
 OF THE USE, PROPER OR ACCIDENTAL, OF MOODS 
 AND TENSES. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 The present is used to express an actual state, as 
 je suis ici, I am here ; an invariable state, as Dieu 
 est de toute eiernite, God is from all eternity; a 
 future near at hand, as il est demain fete, to-morrow 
 is a holiday ; or even a preterit, when we mean to 
 make a sort of a representative picture of what 
 would have been a mere narration. Thus, we find 
 in Racine, jai vu votre malheureux fils traine par 
 ses chevaux, I have seen your unhappy son drawn 
 by his horses ; but suddenly passing from the pre- 
 terit to the present, he adds, il veut les rappeler, 
 et sa voix les effraie, he wishes to recal them, and 
 his voice frightens them. 
 
 N. B. — In English, the verb to be is frequently 
 used with the participle present, as I am reading.* 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. He is in his chamber, where he is relaxing his mind from the 
 fatigue of business, by some instructive and agreeable reading. 
 "2. Truth, eternal by its nature, is immutable as God himself. 
 
 3. I never let a day pass without devoting an hour or two to the 
 reading of the ancients. 
 
 4. Is it this week that the new piece comes out ? 
 
 5. The armies were in sight ; nothing was heard on all sides but 
 dreadful cries : the engagement began. Immediately a cloud of 
 arrows darkens the air and covers the combatants ; nothing is heard 
 but the doleful cries of the dying, or the clattering of the arms of 
 those who fall in the conflict; the earth groans beneath a heap of 
 dead bodies, and rivers of blood stream everywhere ; there is nothing 
 in this confused throng of men enraged against one another, but 
 slaughter, despair, revenge, and brutal fury. 
 
 (1.) Is relaxing, delasser; reading, lecture. 
 (2.) By, de; immutable, immuable. 
 (3.) Let, *; devoting, consacrer. 
 
 * I am translating, I shall be writing ; such construction is to be translated in 
 French by the verb, put in the tense expressed by the verb to be ; thus, I am 
 leading, must be expressed byje lis ; I shall be writing, by fecrirai, 
 
472 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 (4.) Comes out, on donner. 
 
 (5.) Sight, presence, ind.-2 ; nothing was, etc., on ne que, ind.-2 ; the engage- 
 ment began, on en venir aux mains, ind.-3; cloud, nuee ; arrows, trait ; darkens, 
 obscurcir; nothing is, etc., on ne plus que; doleful, ptaintif; clattering, bruit; 
 conflict, melee: groans, gemir; beneath, sous ; heap, monceau ; rivers, ruisseau \ 
 stream, couler ; there is nothing in, etc., ce Uredans; throng, amas; enraged, 
 acharne; slaughter, massacre. 
 
 The imperfect is used : 1 . To denote an action 
 often repeated at a time which is past, as quand 
 fetais a Paris, fallais souvent aux Champs Ely sees, 
 when I was in Paris, I often went to the Elysian 
 Fields. 2nd. For a past which has no relation to 
 the present, especially in narrations, as Rome etait 
 dabord gouverme par des rois, Rome was at first 
 governed by kings*. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. When I was at Paris, I went every morning to take a walk in 
 the Champs Elysees, or the JBois de Boulogne ; afterwards, I came 
 home, where I was busy till dinner, either in reading or writing ; and 
 in the evening, I generally went to divert myself at the French 
 Theatre or the Opera. 
 
 2. When I ivas in the flower of my age, like the light butterfly, I 
 fluttered from object to object without being able to fix myself to 
 any thing : eager after pleasure, I seized every thing that presented 
 its image ; alas ! how far was I then from foreseeing that I should 
 deplore with so much bitterness the loss of this precious time ! 
 
 3. Shortly after Abraham, the knowledge of the true God appeared 
 again in Palestine and Egypt. Melchisedec, king of Salem, was the 
 pontiff of the most high 2 God 1. Abimelech, king of Gerar, and 
 his successor of the same name, feared God, swore in his name, and 
 admiredhis power. But in Moses' time, they adored even the beasts 
 and reptiles ; all was God but God himself. 
 
 (1.) Tak a walk, se promener ; in, a; come home, rentrer chez soi; was busy, 
 s'occuper ; reading (by the verb); divert myself, se delasser ; French Theatre, 
 Comedie Francaise. 
 
 (2.) Butterfly, papillon; fluttered, voter; being able, pouvoir; eager after, 
 avide de; its image, era art. image; how, que ; with so much bitterness (so bitterly.) 
 
 (3.) Swore, jurer ; they, on; even,jusqu'a; but, excepte. 
 
 In French, the preterit definite and the preterit 
 indefinite, are not used indifferently one for the 
 other. 
 
 * Observe that even in the narrative style the imperfect must be subordinated 
 to what has been said before and also to what follows. The above sentence being 
 isolated, should require the preterit rather than the imperfect. 
 
OF THE VERB. 473 
 
 We make use of the preterit definite, when speak- 
 ing of a time which is entirely past, and of which 
 nothing is left, as je fis un voyage a Bath le mots 
 dernier, I took a journey to Bath last month ; fecri- 
 vis hier a Home, I wrote yesterday to Rome. That 
 nothing of that time may remain, there must be the 
 interval of at least one day ; this is most in use in 
 historical style. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Amenophis conceived the design of making his son a conqueror. 
 He set about it, after the manner of the Egyptians, that is, with great 
 ideas. All the children who were born on the same day as Sesostris, 
 were brought to court by order of the king : he had them educated as 
 his own children, and with the same care as Sesostris. When he 
 was grown up, he got him to make his apprenticeship in a war against 
 the Arabs ; this young prince learned there to bear hunger and thirst, 
 and subdued that nation till then invincible. He afterwards attacked 
 Lybia and conquered it. After these successes, he formed the project 
 to subdue the whole world. In consequence of this, he entered 
 Ethiopia, which he made tributary. He continued his victories in 
 Asia. Jerusalem was the first to feel the force of his arms ; the 
 rash Rehoboam could not resist him, and Sesostris carried away the 
 riches of Solomon. He penetrated into the Indies, farther than Her- 
 cules and Bacchus, and farther than Alexander did afterward. The 
 Scythians obeyed him as far as the Tanais ; Armenia and Cappadocia 
 were subject to him. In a word, he extended his empire from the 
 Ganges to the Danube. 
 
 (1.) Making, faire de; set about it, s'y prendre; after, a ; ideas, pensee ; on,*, 
 brought, amener; had. educated, faire hlever ; grown up, grand; got to make, 
 faire faire; apprenticeship, apprentissage ; in, par; of this, *; entered, entrer 
 dans; made, rendre ; as far as, jusqu'a ; Cappadocia, Cappadoce. 
 
 The preterit indefinite is used either for a past 
 indeterminate or for a past of which something still 
 remains, as fai voyage en Italie, I have travelled in 
 Italy ; fai dejeiine ce matin a Londres et dine a 
 Richmond, I breakfasted this morning in London, 
 and dined at Richmond. 
 
 Observation. — Some writers and persons that 
 speak well, make use, in many instances, of either 
 the preterit definite, or the preterit indefinite, to 
 express a time entirely past; they say, fai ecrit or 
 
<9 
 
 474 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 fecrivis hier ; fai tte or je fas malade la semaine 
 derniere. But, however general this practice may 
 be, it is better to give to these preterits their true 
 destination. 
 
 The preterit indefinite is sometimes used instead 
 of a future near at hand, as avez-vous bientot fini 
 Have you soon done ? Oul 9 fai fini dans le moment, 
 yes, I have done in a moment. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Enflamed with the desire of knowing mankind, I have travelled 
 not only to the most polished nations, but even to the most savage. 
 1 have observed them in the different degrees of civilisation, from 
 the state of pure nature to the most perfect state of society, and 
 wherever I went, the result was the same ; that is to say, 1 have 
 everywhere seen beings occupied in drying the different sources of 
 happiness that nature had put in their way. 
 
 2. I travelled this year in Italy, where I had an opportunity of 
 seeing several master-pieces of antiquity, and where I made a valu- 
 able collection of scarce medals. I there admired the perfection to 
 which they have brought architecture, painting, and music ; but what 
 pleased me most there, is the beauty of the climate of Naples. 
 
 (1.) With, de; mankind, homme; polished nations, peuple police ; savage na- 
 tions, nations sauvage ; from, depuis ; to, jusqu'a ; wherever I went, dans tons les 
 pays ; the result was the same (I had the same result) ; in drying, a tarir ; in their 
 way, a leur portee. 
 
 (2.) An *; opportunity, occasion; master -pieces, chef-d'oeuvre; scarce, rare; 
 pleased me most, faire le plus de plaisir. 
 
 The two preterits anterior are made use of in the 
 same manner as the two preceding preterits, but 
 they are always accompanied by a conjunction or 
 an adverb of time, &sje suis sorti des que fai eu dint^ 
 I went out as soon as I had dined ; feus Jini hier a 
 niidi, I had done yesterday at noon. 
 
 The pluperfect denotes that a thing was done 
 before another, which was itself done at a time 
 which is past, as f avals soupe quand 11 entra, I had 
 supped when he came in. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. As soon as I had examined this phenomenon, I tried to find out 
 
 its causes. 
 
OF THE VERB. 475 
 
 2. As soon as we had crossed the river, we found ourselves in a 
 wood, where there was not a single pathway traced. 
 
 3. As soon as the great Sesostris had had his ambition 2 satisfied 1, 
 by the conquest of so many empires, he returned into Egypt, where 
 he devoted the whole of the day to administer exact justice to his 
 people, and in the evening, he refreshed himself by holding con- 
 ferences with the most honest people of his kingdom. 
 
 4. I had only received, like most of the grandees, an education in 
 which I had imbibed nothing but sentiments of pride and insensibility; 
 that is, they had done every thing in their power to stifle in me the 
 happy and beneficent dispositions which I had received from nature. 
 
 (1.) As soon as, des que; tried to find out, en rechercher. 
 
 (2.) Crossed, traverser ; found ourselves, se trouver engage; pathway, sentier de. 
 
 (3.) The whole of the day, jour entier ; administer, rendre ; refreshed, delasser ; 
 by holding conferences, a s'entretenir ; people, gens. 
 
 (4.) Grandee, grand; imbibed, puiser; they, on; in their power (that was in 
 their power), pouvoir ; stifle, etouffer ; beneficent, bienfaisant. 
 
 Foreigners find the use of these different preterits 
 attended with great difficulty, but this is owing to 
 their not being sufficiently acquainted with the 
 nature of the relation which they express ; the fol- 
 lowing extract will better exemplify the foregoing 
 rules on the use of the different tenses of the indi- 
 cative mood. 
 
 We read in Marmontel : 
 
 Celicour, a Vdge de quinze ans, Celicour, at the age of fifteen, had 
 avait ete dans le monde ce qiTon been in the world what is called 
 appelle un petit prodige a little prodigy 
 
 The author employs the form of the pluperfect, 
 because he speaks of a period of time anterior to 
 all those which he is going to mention, and which 
 are themselves anterior to the time in which he is 
 relating the story. 
 
 il faisait des vers les plus galans du he composed the most agreeable 
 monde ; il n'y avait pas dans le love-verses imaginable ; there 
 voisinage une jolie femme qu'il was not a pretty woman in the 
 n'eut celebree ; c'etait dommage neighbourhood that he had not 
 de laisser tant de talens enfouis celebrated ; it was a pity to let 
 dans une petite ville, Paris devait so many talents be buried in a 
 en etre le theatre little town ; Paris was the the- 
 
 atre that ought to have exhi- 
 bited them. 
 
476 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 Here the author makes use of the imperfect, 
 because he speaks of a period of time which was 
 present with regard to that which he lias already 
 mentioned ; he expresses the actual state of Celi- 
 cour at that period. 
 
 et Von fit si Men, que son pere se and they contrived matters so that 
 resolut de Vy envoyer his father determined to send 
 
 him thither 
 
 Now, the author passes to the preterit definite, 
 because he is no longer speaking of what Celicour 
 was used to do, but of what he did at a time past, 
 and of which nothing is left. 
 
 ce pere etait un honnete homme, qui this father was a good sort of a 
 aimait I esprit sans en avoir, et man, who was fond of wit, 
 qui admirait, sans savoir pour- without having any, and ad- 
 quoi, tout ce qui venait de la ca- mired, without knowing why, 
 pitale. II avait meme des rela- every thing that came from the 
 tions litteraires, et du nombre de metropolis. Nay, he even had 
 ses correspondans etait un con- some literary connexions, and 
 noisseur nomme M. de Fintac among his correspondents was 
 
 a connoisseur of the name of 
 Fintac. 
 
 Here again, the author resumes the form of the 
 imperfect, because he is now speaking of the ha- 
 bitual state of Celicour's father in his little town, 
 and because the author, in this passage, merely 
 relates what that father was doing, at a time past, 
 which has no kind of relation to the present. 
 
 ce fut principalement a lux que Ce- it was particularly to him that 
 licourfut recommande Celicour was recommended 
 
 The form of the preterit definite is now resumed, 
 because this is an action passed, at a time of which 
 nothing is left, etc. Would foreigners take the 
 trouble thus to decompound the phrases, we make 
 no doubt that they would soon get into the habit of 
 using our preterits according to their true meaning. 
 
OF THE VERB. 477 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. God, who had created his angels in holiness, would have their 
 happiness to depend upon themselves ; they might insure their feli- 
 city by giving themselves willingly to their Creator, but they de- 
 lighted in themselves and not in God: immediately those spirits of 
 light became spirits of darkness. 
 
 2. There is a letter which Philocles has written to a friend of his 
 about his project of making himself king of Carpathus. I have 
 perused that letter, and it seemed to me to be the hand of Philocles. 
 They had perfectly imitated his writing. This letter threw me into 
 a strange surprise : I read it again and again, and could not persuade 
 myself that it was written by Philocles, when I recalled to my mind 
 the affecting marks which he had given me of his disinterestedness 
 and integrity. 
 
 3. Those who had shewn the greatest zeal for the state and my 
 person, did not think themselves obliged to undeceive me after so 
 terrible an example. I myself was afraid lest truth should break 
 through the cloud, and reach me in spite of all my flatterers. I 
 
 felt within myself that it would have raised in me a bitter remorse. 
 My effeminacy, and the dominion which a treacherous minister had 
 gained over me, threw me into a kind of despair of ever recovering 
 my liberty. 
 
 (1.) Have their happiness to depend (that their happiness) dependre subj.-2 ; 
 might, pouvoir ; delighted in, se plaire en ; of light, lumineux ; darkness, 
 tenebres. 
 
 (2.) There is, voila ; about, sur; Carpathus, CarpatJiie; to be, * de ■ they, on ; 
 again and again, sans cesse ; -written by, de ; as I recalled (recalling) ; integrity, 
 bonne foi. 
 
 (3.) Think not themselves obliged to, se croire dispense de; was afraid lest, 
 craindre que; break through, percer, subj.-2: reach, parvenir jusqu'a ; in spite 
 of, malgre; raised in, causer a; effeminacy, mollesse; dominion, ascendant; 
 treacherous, perfide ; gained, prendre ; threw, plonger. 
 
 Grammarians have also distinguished two pre- 
 terits, which they have called super compound \ those 
 are, feus eu dine, favais eu dine. Bat these tenses 
 are very seldom used, since it sometimes happens 
 that the first presents the same meaning as the pre- 
 terit anterior definite, and the second the same as 
 the pluperfect. 
 
 The difference between the two future tenses is, 
 that the period of time, expressed by the future 
 absolute, may or may not be determined, asjirai, 
 or firai demain a la campagne, while in the future 
 anterior, the time is necessarily determined, as 
 fauraifini, quand vous arriverez. 
 
478 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Remember that youth is but a flower, which will he dried up 
 almost as soon as open. Thou wilt see thyself gradually changed 
 The lively graces, the sweet pleasures, strength, health, and joy, will 
 vanish like a fine dream ; nothing but the sad remembrance of 
 them will be left thee. « 
 
 2. I shall, next year, take a journey into Greece, and I am pre- 
 paring myself to it by reading that of the young Anacharsis. 
 
 3. When you have read the celebrated discourse of Bossuet on 
 universal history, and studied in it the causes of the grandeur and 
 the fall of states, you will be less astonished at revolutions, more 
 or less sudden, that the modern empires have experienced, which 
 appeared to you in the most flourishing state. 
 
 (1.) Open, colore; gradually, insensiblement ; lively, riant) nothing will be left, 
 il en r ester. 
 
 (2.) Take, faire; reading, lecture de. 
 
 (8.) Have read, ind.-8; and, que vous, ind -3 ; in it, y; fall, chute; sudden, 
 subite', (that have experienced the modern states, which, etc.); appeared, ind.-2. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 There are two different ways of expressing the 
 conditional past, and this difference ought to be 
 properly attended to. The first denotes in a more 
 precise manner, the period of time in which an 
 action would have been undertaken, and the second 
 that in which it would have been completed ; 
 f aurais fait, means I would have set myself about 
 doing, and jeusse fait, means the thing would be 
 done. 
 
 We make use of the conditional : 
 
 1. To express a wish, as je serais or f aurais ett 
 content de reussir dans cette affaire, I should like, 
 or I should have liked to have succeeded in that 
 business. 
 
 2. With si, if, whether, which expresses a doubt, 
 as demandez lui sil serait venu avec nous, suppose 
 qu'il neut pas eu affaire, ask him whether he would 
 have come with us, had he not been busy. 
 
 3. Before, or after the imperfect, or pluperfect of 
 the indicative, as nous nous epargnerions Men des 
 
OF THE VERB. 479 
 
 peines, si nous savions tnoderer nos desirs, we would 
 save ourselves a deal of trouble did we know how 
 to moderate our desires ; vous auriez ete plus heureux 
 si vous aviez suivi mes conseils, you would have 
 been more happy, if you had followed my advice. 
 
 4. With quand, used instead of si or quoique, but 
 then the verbs must be in the same conditional, as 
 quand Vavare possederait tout Vor du monde, il ne 
 serait pas encore content, were the miser to possess 
 all the gold in the world, still he would not be 
 satisfied. 
 
 5. Lastly, for various tenses of the indicative, as 
 croiriez-vous votrefils ingrat ? Could you think your 
 son ungrateful? which means, croyez-voas, etc.; 
 V auriez-vous soupqonne d\in tel vice ? Could you 
 have suspected him of such a vice? which means, 
 Favez-vous, etc. ; pourquoi violerait-il un des devoirs 
 les plus saints? Why should he violate one of the 
 most sacred duties ? which means, pourquoi vio- 
 lera-t-il, etc. 
 
 1. If it were even possible for men always to act conformably to 
 equity, as it is the multitude that must judge their conduct, the 
 wicked world would always blame and contradict them from malig- 
 nity, and the good sometimes from mistake. 
 
 2. What false steps I should have made without you, at my 
 entrance into the world ! 
 
 3. But for your counsels, I should have failed in this undertaking. 
 
 4. How satisfied I should have been, if you had sooner informed 
 me of your happiness. 
 
 5. If we gave to infancy none but just and clear notions, there 
 would be a much less considerable number of false minds in the world. 
 
 6. Had Alexander conquered the whole world, his ambition would 
 not have been satisfied ; he would still have found himself confined in it. 
 
 7. Could you believe him vain enough to aspire to that high degree 
 of honour ? 
 
 8. Could you ever have thought him capable of deserting the good 
 cause, to go and side with the rebels ? 
 
 9. Would you renounce being useful to the present generation 
 because envy fastens on you ? 
 
480 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 (1.) If even, quand meme; were, eond.-l ; for men (that men); to act, subj.-2; 
 judge, juger de ; would blame, ind.-7; contradict, crouer, ind.-7. 
 (2.) What, que de ; steps, demarche. 
 (3.) But for, satis; failed, echouer. 
 (4.) How, que. 
 
 (6.) (When Alexander would have conquered) ; confined, trap a Vetroit. 
 (8.) Deserting, abandonner ; to go and side, se ranger sous lea drapeaux de. 
 (9.) Renounce, renoncer a; fastens, s' attacker ; on you. a vos pas. 
 
 Observation on the use of the Conditional and 
 Future, 
 
 Foreigners are very apt to use the future or the 
 conditional after si, when meaning suppose que. 
 They s&y,firai demain a la campagne, s'il fera beau, 
 I shall go to-morrow into the country, if it be fine 
 weather ; vous auriez vu le roi, si vous seriez venu, 
 you would have seen the king if you had come. 
 The impropriety of this construction will be obviated 
 by the following 
 
 Rule. — When a verb is preceded by si, meaning 
 suppose que, we use the present instead of the 
 future absolute ; the preterit indefinite instead of 
 the future anterior ; the imperfect instead of the 
 conditional present, and the pluperfect instead of 
 the conditional past. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J'irai demain a la campagne s'il I shall go to-morrow into the 
 
 fait beau country if it be fine weather 
 
 il aura eu lavantage, s'il a suivi lie will have had the advantage 
 
 vos conceits if he has followed your advice 
 
 /? serais content si je vous voyais I should be pleased if I saw you 
 
 applique applying to study 
 
 faurais °ts content, si je vous I should have been pleased if I 
 
 avais vu applique had seen you intent on your 
 
 studies 
 
 Observation. — This rule is not observed, either 
 when si implies doubt, uncertainty, as je ne sais s'il 
 \ viendra, or with the second conditional past, as 
 vous meussiez trouve si vous fussiez venu ce matin. 
 
OF THE VERB. 48 i 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. A young man who is just entering the career of letters, will 
 conciliate the benevolence of the public, if he consider his first suc- 
 cesses only as an encouragement to do better. 
 
 2. That absurd criticism will have amused only fools or evil-minded 
 people, if one have observed the spirit that pervades the whole, and 
 the manner in which it is written. 
 
 3. Life would be attended with many more sweets and charms, if 
 men. instead of tearing one another in pieces, did but forma, society of 
 brethren. 
 
 4. The Athenians would have found in the young Alcibiades the 
 only man capable of insuring their superiority in Greece, had not 
 that vain thoughtless people forced him, through an unjust, or at 
 least, imprudent condemnation, to banish himself from his country. 
 
 5. I know not ivhellier reason will soon triumph over prejudice and 
 ignorance, but 1 am certain it will be so sooner or later. 
 
 6. Rome had never attained that high degree of splendour and 
 glory which astonishes us, had it not extended its conquests as much 
 by its policy as by its arms. 
 
 (1.) Is just entering, debuter; career, carriere ; will conciliate, s'attirer ■ con- 
 sider, regarder. 
 
 (2.) Fools, sot; evil-minded people, mediant; observed, faire attention; per- 
 vades the whole, regner dun bout a I'autre. 
 
 (3.) Attended with, avoir; tearing one another to pieces, Centre dechirer. 
 
 (4.) Superiority, preponderance ; thoughtless, leger. 
 
 (5. Know, savoir. 
 
 (6. ) Attained, parvenir a ; policy, politique. 
 
 Subjunctive, 
 
 We have said that there are conjunctions which 
 govern the indicative, and others which govern the 
 subjunctive. We call principal proposition the 
 phrase after which the conjunction is placed, and 
 incidental or subordinate proposition, that which is 
 placed after the conjunction. In this sentence, je 
 crois que vous aimez ajouer,je crois is the principal 
 proposition, and vous aimez a jouer, is the subor- 
 dinate proposition ; que is the conjunction that 
 unites the two phrases. 
 
 General Rule. — The verb of the subordinate pro- 
 position must be put in the indicative, when the 
 verb of the principal proposition expresses affirma- 
 tion, in a direct, positive, and independent manner ; 
 
 Y 
 
482 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 but it is put in the subjunctive when that of the 
 principal proposition expresses doubt, wish, fear, or 
 uncertainty. 
 
 We say, ye sais quil est surpris, I know he is sur- 
 prised* je crois quil viendra, I believe he will come. 
 But we ought to say, je doute quil soit surpris, I 
 doubt his being surprised ; je doute quil vienne, I 
 doubt his coming; je souhaite quil reussisse, I wish 
 he may succeed ; je tremble qutil ne succombe, I 
 tremble lest he should fail. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. The glory which has been ascribed to them (Egyptians) of 
 being the most grateful of all men shows that they were likewise the 
 most sociable. 
 
 2. In Egypt, if they proved that the conduct of a dead man had 
 been bad, they condemned his memory, and he was denied burial. 
 
 3. I am sure that, with moderation, gentleness, and civility, you 
 will disarm even envy itself. 
 
 4. The new philosophers say that colour is a sensation of the soul. 
 
 5. I believe you are as honest and disinterested as you seem to be. 
 
 6. I doubt whether the Romans would ever have triumphed over 
 the Gauls, if the different chiefs of this warlike people had not been 
 disunited. 
 
 7. I could wish that the love which we ought to have one for 
 another, were the principle of all our actions, as it is the basis of all 
 virtues. 
 
 8- Fear, lest it should be said that you feed upon chimeras, and that 
 you take the shadow for the reality. 
 
 9. The new philosophers will have colour to be a sensation of the 
 soul. 
 
 10. I will have you to be as honest and disinterested as you seem 
 to be. 
 
 (1.) Which has, etc., on; ascribed, donner; grateful, reconnaissant. 
 
 (2.) They, on; man * ; was denied, priver de; burial, sepulture. 
 
 (3.) Civility, honneiete. 
 
 (4.) Sensation, sentiment, 
 
 (5.) Seem, paraitre le. 
 
 (8.) It, on ne; feed upon, se repaitre de, 
 
 (9.) Colour to be (that colour be). 
 
 Useful Observations. 
 Do, did, will, would, should, can, coidd, may, and 
 
OF THE VERB. 483 
 
 might, are sometimes signs of tenses, and sometimes 
 they are real verbs. 
 
 When do and did are joined to a verb, they are 
 mere expletives, denoting interrogation, negation, 
 or merely emphasis, and are not expressed in French. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I do love faime 
 
 I did love faimais or faimai 
 
 Do I love ? aime-je ? 
 
 Did I love ? aimais-je or aimai-je ? 
 
 I do not love je n'aimepas 
 
 I did not love je rCaimais pas ox je naimai pas 
 
 But when they are followed by a noun, a pro- 
 noun, or any other word, then they are real verbs, 
 and mean /aire. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 do me that favour faites-moi ce plaisir 
 
 he did it il lefit 
 
 he did more than could have been il fit 'plus qu'on n'eutpu esperei 
 expected 
 
 Should is the sign of the conditional when it 
 expresses a condition. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 1 should like a country life if my f aimer ais la vie champetre, si mes 
 affairs would permit me to affaires me permettaient de suivre 
 indulge my inclination mon gout 
 
 But when it expresses a duty or obligation, it is 
 a verb, and is expressed by the verb devoir, as 
 
 we should never swerve from the nous ne devrions jamais nous ecarter 
 path of virtue du sentier de la vertu 
 
 Can, could, may, and might, in almost every 
 instance, may be rendered by the verb pouvoir. 
 
 Do, did) shall, will, etc., are sometimes used 
 elliptically in the answers to interrogative sentences. 
 The answer in French is made by repeating the 
 
484 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 verb, accompanied with a pronoun expressing the 
 idea of the interrogative sentence, as 
 
 will you do your exercise to-day ? ferez-vous votre theme aujourd'hui ? 
 Yes, 1 will Oui, je leferai 
 
 Relations between the Tenses of the Indicative. 
 
 Rule. — When the first verb is in the imperfect, 
 the preterit, or the pluperfect, and the second 
 denotes a transient action, this second verb is put 
 in the imperfect, if we mean to express a present, 
 asjV croyais que vous aimiez V etude, I thought you 
 loved study ; in the pluperfect, if we mean to express 
 a past, as il massura quil navait jamais taut ri, he 
 assured me that he had never laughed so much ; 
 and in the present of the conditional, if we mean to 
 express a future absolute, as Plat on disait que les 
 peuples seraient heureux, si la sagesse ttait le seul 
 objet des ministres, Plato said that nations would be 
 more happy, if wisdom were the sole object of 
 ministers. 
 
 But, although the first verb may be in some of 
 these tenses, yet the second is always put in the 
 present, when this second verb expresses a thing 
 which is true at all times, as je vous disais, je vous 
 ai dit, je vous avais dit, que la sante fait la felicite 
 du corps, et le savoir celle de Fame, I told you, I 
 have told you, I had told you, that health consti- 
 tutes the happiness of the body, and knowledge that 
 of the soul. 
 
 Observation. — In phrases where the imperfect is 
 preceded by que, it denotes sometimes a past, some- 
 times a present. It denotes a past when the verb, 
 which is joined to it by the conjunction que, is in 
 the present or the future, as vous savez or vous 
 saurez que le peuple Romain etait aussi avide qu'am- 
 bitieux, you know, or you will know, or you must 
 
OF THE VERB. 485 
 
 know, that the Romans were a people as greedy as 
 ambitious. But it denotes a present, when the verb 
 which precedes it is in the imperfect, one of the 
 preterits, or the pluperfect, as on disait, on a dit, on 
 avait dit que Phocion etait le plus grand et le plus 
 honnete homme de son temps, it was said, it has been 
 said, it had been said, that Phocion was the greatest 
 and most honest man of his age ; des quon eut appris 
 a Athenes qu Alcibiade etait a Lacedemone on se 
 repentit de la precipitation avec la quelle on V avait 
 condamne, as soon as they had heard at Athens that 
 Alcibiades was at Lacedemon, they repented the 
 blind haste with which they had condemned him. 
 
 Nevertheless, the imperfect denotes a past in this 
 ]ast instance, when it denotes an action which was 
 past before that which is expressed by the first verb, 
 as si vous aviez lu Vhlstoire des temps heroiques, vous 
 sauriez que ces hommes dont on a fait des demi-dieux, 
 etaient des chefs ftroces et barbares, dignes a peine 
 du nom d homme, had you read the history of heroic 
 times, you would know that those men who have 
 been made demi-gods of, were ferocious and bar- 
 barous chiefs, scarcely deserving the name of man. 
 
 1. I thought you were not ignorant that, to teach others the prin- 
 ciples of an art or science, one needs to have experience and skill. 
 
 2. I had been told that your sweetest occupation was to form your 
 taste, your heart, and your understanding. 
 
 3. Darius, in his flight, being reduced to the necessity of drinking 
 water muddy and infected by dead bodies, affirmed that he never had 
 drunk with so much pleasure. 
 
 4. Care has been taken to inculcate to me, from infancy, that / 
 should succeed in the world, only in proportion as I should join to the 
 desire of pleasing, a great deal of gentleness and civility. 
 
 5. Ovid has said, that study softens the manners and rubs off every 
 thing that is found in us rude and barbarous. 
 
 6. You know that those pretended heroes whom Pagan antiquity 
 has made Gods of, were only barbarous and ferocious kings, who 
 
486 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 overran the earth, not so much to conquer as to ravish it, and who 
 left every where traces of their fury and of their vices. 
 
 7. It has been said of Pericles, that his eloquence was like a thun- 
 derbolt, which nothing could resist. 
 
 8. As soon as Aristides had said that the proposition of Themis- 
 tocles ivas unjust, the whole people exclaimed that they must not 
 think of it any longer. 
 
 9. Had you read the history of the early ages, you would know that 
 Egypt was the most enlightened country in the universe, and whence 
 knowlege spread into Greece and the neighbouring countries. 
 
 (1.) Were ignorant, ignorer ; teach, instruire dans; needs, avoir besoin; skill, 
 habilete. 
 
 (2.) I had, etc. (by the active voice), on. 
 
 (3.) Flight, deroute; being*; muddy, bourbeux. 
 
 (4.) Care has, etc. (active voice), on avoir; in proportion, autant; civility, hon- 
 netete. 
 
 (5.) Rubs off, effacer', is found, se trouver de. 
 
 (6 ) Overran, parcourir ; not so much, moins. 
 
 (7.) It, on; thunderbolt, foudre, m. ; which (to). 
 
 (8.) Exclaimed, s' eerier ; they must, falloir, ind.-2 ; any longer, plus. 
 
 (9.) Ages, temps; whence, celui d'ou; neighbouring, circonvoisin ; countries, 
 lieu. 
 
 Relations which the Tenses of the Subjunctive have 
 to those of the Indicative. 
 
 Rule I. — When the verb of the principal propo- 
 sition is in the present or the future, we put in the 
 present of the subjunctive, that of the subordinate 
 proposition, if we mean to express a present or a 
 future ; but we put it in the preterit if we mean to 
 express a past. 
 
 We say, il faut que celui qui parte se mette a 
 portee de celui qui Vecoute, he that speaks should 
 accommodate himself to the understanding of him 
 that listens; il voudra que votre frere soit de la 
 partie, he will want your brother to be of the party, 
 but we ought to say, pour setre tleve a ce point de 
 grandeur, il faut que Rome ait eu une suite non 
 interrompue de grands hommes, to have risen to that 
 degree of grandeur, Rome must have had an unin- 
 terrupted succession of great men. 
 
 Exception. — Though the first verb be in the 
 present, yet we may put the second in the imperfect 
 
OF THE VERB. 487 
 
 or pluperfect of the subjunctive, when some con- 
 ditional expression is to come into the sentence, as 
 il nest point cThomme, quelque merit e quit ait, qui ne 
 fut tres-mortifie, sil savait tout ce quon pense de lui^ 
 there is no man, whatever merit he may have, that 
 would not feel very much mortified were he to 
 know all that is thought of him ; je douie que voire 
 frlre eut reussi sans voire assistance, I doubt 
 whether your brother would have succeeded, had it 
 not been for your assistance. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. He who wishes to teach an art, must know it thoroughly : he 
 must give none but clear, precise, and well-digested notions of it ; 
 he must instil them, one by one, into the minds of his pupils, and, 
 above all, he must not overburthen their memory with useless or 
 insignificant rules. 
 
 2. He must yield to the force of truth, when they shall have suffered 
 it to appear in its real light. 
 
 3. There is no work, however perfect people may suppose it, that 
 has not been liable to criticism, if it have been examined with 
 severity and in every point of view. 
 
 4. I doubt whether his piece would have had the suffrage of the 
 connoisseurs, if he had not determined to make the changes you 
 judged necessary in it. 
 
 (1.) (It must that he who, etc. know it); he must (not repeated), que-, instil, 
 /aire enirer ; overburthen, surcharger. 
 
 (2 ) (It must, ind.-7, that he) yield, se rendre ; suffered, permettre ; it to appear 
 (that it appear) ; real, tout. 
 
 (3.) Has been liable, preier, subj.-2 ; with severity, a la rigueur ; in, sans; 
 point of view, face. 
 
 (4.) Had decided, se decider; in it, y (which must be placed before make). 
 
 Rule II. — When the first verb is in the imperfect, 
 either of the preterits, the pluperfect, or either of 
 the conditionals, we put the second in the imperfect 
 of the subjunctive, if we mean to express a present 
 or a future ; but we put it in the pluperfect if we 
 mean to express a past. 
 
 We say, je voulais, fai voulu, feus voulu, je vou- 
 drais, or feusse voulu que vous finissiez cette affaire ; 
 but we ought to say je ne savaispas, je nai pas su. 
 etc., que vous eussiez etudie les mathematiques. 
 
488 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 Observation. — With the preterit indefinite, we 
 may put the second verb in the present, if it express 
 an action which is, or may be done at all times, as 
 Dieu a entoure les yeux de (uniques foists minces, 
 transparentes an dehors, afiyi qiion puisse voir a 
 travers, God has surrounded the eyes with very thin 
 tunics, transparent on the outside, that we may see 
 through ; and in the preterit if we mean to express 
 a past, as il a fallu qu'\\ ait sollicite ses juges, he 
 was obliged to solicit his judges. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. M. de Turerme never would buy any thing on credit of 
 tradesmen, for fear, said he, they should lose a great part of it, if he 
 happened to be killed. All the workmen who were employed for 
 his house, had orders to bring in their bills before he set out for the 
 campaign, and they were regularly paid. 
 
 2. It would be better for a man who truly loves himself to lose his 
 life, than to forfeit his honour by some base and shameful action. 
 
 3. Lycurgus in one of his laws, had forbidden the lighting of those 
 who came out of a feast in the evening, that the fear of not being 
 able to reach their homes should prevent them from getting drunk. 
 
 4. People used the bark of trees or skins to write upon before 
 paper was known. 
 
 5. Go and ask that old man : for whom are you planting ? he will 
 answer you, for the immortal Gods, who have ordered, both that I 
 should profit by the labour of those that have preceded me, and that 
 those who should come after me, should profit by mine. 
 
 (1.) Would, vouloir; buy on credit, prendre a credit; of, chez; "happened, 
 venir ; were employed, travailler ; "bills, memoir e ; he, on, 
 
 (2.) To lose (that he would lose) ; forfeit, ternir. 
 
 (3*) In, par; the lighting, eclairer, subj.-2; that, afin que; reach their houses, 
 se rendre chez ; getting drunk, s'enivrer. 
 
 (4.) People, on ; bark, ecorce ; skins, peau ; known, en usage. 
 
 (3.) Have ordered, vouloir; both (by et repeated); by, de. 
 
 In general, we put the second verb in the sub- 
 junctive in interrogative and negative sentences, as 
 quel est Tinsense qui tienne pour sur quil vivra 
 demain ? vous ne vous persuadiez pas que les c hoses 
 pussent tourner si mal. 
 
 We also put in the subjunctive the verb which 
 follows a superlative relative, and in general after 
 an impersonal verb, as le meilleur cortege quun 
 prince puisse avoir, cest le cceur de ses sujets. 
 
OF THE VERB. 489 
 
 The use of the subjunctive is very elegant in 
 elliptical turns, in which we omit the principal pro- 
 position, as quil vive (je souhaite quil), may he 
 live ! quil se soit oublie jusqua ce point ! (je suis 
 surpris quil), that he should so far forget himself! 
 qui rriaime me suive ! (je veux que celui qui) whoever 
 loves me, let him follow me ; heureux Vhomme qui 
 peut, ne fut-ce que dans sa vieillesse,jouir de toute 
 la force de sa raison I (quand ce ne serait que), 
 happy the man that can, were it but in his old age, 
 enjoy the whole strength of his reason. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Is there any one who does not feel that nothing is more degrading 
 in a writer than the pains he takes to express ordinary or common 
 things in a singular and pompous style. 
 
 2. Do you think that, in forming the republic of bees, God has not 
 had in view to teach kings to command with gentleness, and subjects 
 to obey with love? 
 
 3. You will never be at peace, either with yourself or with others 
 unless you seriously apply yourself to restrain your natural impe- 
 tuosity. 
 
 (1.) Is degrading in, dtyrader; in, de. 
 (2.) Bees, abeille; had in view, vouloir. 
 (3 ) Be at peace, avoir lapaix. 
 
 Observation. — The relative pronouns qui, que, quel, 
 dont, and oil, govern the subjunctive in the like 
 circumstances. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 1. Who is the writer that does not sometimes experience moments 
 of sterility and languor ? 
 
 2. There is not in the heart of man, a good impulse that God does 
 not produce. 
 
 3. Choose a retreat where you may be quiet, a post whence you 
 may defend yourself. 
 
 4. The reward the most flattering that a man can gather from his 
 labours, is the esteem of an enlightened public. 
 
 5. May he live, reign, and long make the happiness of a nation 
 which he loves and that adores him ! 
 
 6. That he should thus degr?4e himself, is what posterity will 
 find very difficult to believe. 
 
 y2 
 
490 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 7. A man just and firm is not shaken, either by the clamours of an 
 inconsiderate mob, or by the threats of an imperious tyrant : though 
 the whole world were to tumble into ruins, he would be struck by it, 
 but not moved. 
 
 (2.) Impulse, mouvement. 
 (J.) May, pouvoir. 
 
 (5.) {May he repeated before every verb). 
 (6.) Find difficult, avoir de la peine', believe, se persuader. 
 
 (7.) Is shaken, ebranler; inconsiderate, insense; mob, populace; imperious, 
 fier ; though * ; were, devoir ; to tumble into ruins, s'ecrouler. 
 
 Further Observations on the Conditional and 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 We have said that the English auxiliaries should, 
 would, could, may and might, were not to be con- 
 sidered as essentially and necessarily appertaining 
 to the conditional and subjunctive. Indeed, it 
 seldom happens that the French tenses answer to 
 the English tenses as marked in the conjugation?, 
 at least in subordinate propositions, though they 
 may in the principal ones ; for instance, I wish you 
 would come to-night, cannot be translated hyje 
 souhaite ywevous viendrez ce soir, because when the 
 verb of the principal proposition is in the present, 
 the verb of the subordinate proposition is put in the 
 present of the subjunctive, if we mean to express a 
 future ; therefore we must say, je souhaite que vous 
 veniez. — (See Rule I.); or, if we put the first verb 
 in either of the conditionals, the second is put in the 
 imperfect of the subjunctive, therefore, we may 
 also say, je voudrais que vous vinssiez. — (See Rulell.) 
 Now, in the first translation, que vous veniez is 
 marked in the model of conjugation by that you 
 may come, and in the second, que vous vinssiez by 
 that you might come, neither of which is in the 
 examples given. 
 
 Again, il n'y a personne qui le croze, cannot be 
 translated by there is nobody who may believe it, 
 
OF THE VERB. 491 
 
 although may is the mark of the subjunctive in the 
 model, but we mean, there is nobody that believes 
 it, or simply, nobody believes it. 
 
 RELATIONS BETWEEN THE TENSES OF THE DIFFERENT 
 MOODS. 
 
 Relations of the Indicative. 
 The imperfect corresponds to three tenses. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 C quand vous ecriviez 
 je lisais*\ quand vous aviez ecrit 
 Cquand vous ecrivites 
 
 The preterit anterior corresponds to the preterit 
 definite, as quand feus lu> vous entrdtes. 
 
 The pluperfect corresponds to the preterit 
 definite, to the preterit indefinite, to the preterit 
 anterior, and to the imperfect. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 f quand vous entrdtes 
 
 ., ■ 7 ) quand vous eles entre 
 ; avais Lu<^ » ~, , ^ 
 
 J ) quand vous Jutes entre 
 
 Kquand vous entriez 
 
 Observation. — The super-compound tenses are 
 seldom used, but the precision and perspicuity of 
 the expression sometimes require them. 
 
 The preterit indefinite anterior or super-com- 
 pound corresponds to the preterit indefinite, as 
 quand fax eu dine, vous etes entre. 
 
 With si for suppose que, the future absolute cor- 
 responds to the present, and the future anterior to 
 the preterit indefinite. 
 
 STANDARDS. 
 
 vous partirez, sije veux 
 
 il sera parti, si vous Vavez voulu 
 
492 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 Relations to the Conditional and of the Conditional. 
 
 The pluperfect super-compound corresponds to 
 the conditional past, as si favais etc plutot fini, je 
 serais sorti. 
 
 The conditional past super-compound corresponds 
 to the pluperfect, as faurais eu acheve ma lecture 
 avant vous, sije navais pas etc interrompu. 
 
 With si for suppose que, the conditional present 
 corresponds to the imperfect, and the first condi- 
 tional past to the pluperfect, or to the second con- 
 ditional past. 
 
 STANDARDS. 
 vous partiriez, sije le voulais 
 
 .. (si je lavais vovlu 
 vous senez parti < :< „ 7 
 
 r LSije leusse voulu 
 
 The tenses of the conditional present, and of the 
 two conditional past, correspond also to themselves. 
 
 STANDARDS. 
 
 quand Vavare possederait tout Vor du monde, il ne seruit ^gs encore 
 
 content 
 quand Alexandra aurait conquis tout Vunivers, il n'aurait pas ete 
 
 content 
 vousfussiez parti, sije Veusse voulu 
 
 We have seen that, when two verbs are joined by 
 the conjunction que, we put the second verb some- 
 times in the indicative and sometimes in the sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 Relations of the Present of the Indicative to the 
 Tenses of its own Mood and of the Conditional, * 
 
 This tense corresponds to itself, to the future 
 absolute, to the imperfect, to the preterit definite, 
 to the preterit indefinite, to the pluperfect, and to 
 the three conditional. 
 
OF THE VERB. 493 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 ivous partez aujourd'hui 
 vous partirez demain 
 vous partirez hier 
 vous parities hier 
 m.vous etes parti ce matin 
 \vous etiez parti hier, quand, etc. 
 jvous partiriez aujourd'huL si, etc. 
 I vous seriez parti hier, si, etc. 
 [yousfussiez parti plutot si, etc. 
 
 Observation. — The same correspondence takes 
 place, when the sentence is negative, except for the 
 present absolute of the indicative, which is re- 
 placed by the present of the subjunctive. We 
 cannot say, on ne dit pas que vous partez aujourd'hui, 
 the genius of our language requires that we should 
 say, on ne dit pas que vous partiez aujourd'hui. 
 
 The imperfect, the preterit definite, the preterit 
 indefinite, and the pluperfect, correspond either to 
 the imperfect or to the pluperfect. 
 
 STANDARDS. 
 
 on disait *\ ( ,. • j,» • 
 
 ,- f I \ vous partiez auj our dnui 
 
 'isait -\ ( 
 
 * I r 
 
 ..da \^ ue ) 
 
 wait dit ) v. u 
 
 on a u„ 
 
 •,,.,) f vous etiez parti 
 
 on avait ditf V r 
 
 The future absolute and the future anterior cor- 
 respond to the preterit indefinite. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 on dira ~» .. 
 
 j., >que vous avez menti 
 on aura dit J * 
 
 Relations to the Conditional. 
 
 The imperfect, the preterit definite, the preterit 
 indefinite, the pluperfect, and the conditional past, 
 correspond to the conditional past. 
 
494 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 je croyais ) 
 
 fai cru 
 
 je crus \ que vous seriez parti 
 
 favais cru 
 
 faurais cru j 
 
 Relations to the Subjunctive. 
 
 The present, the future absolute, and the future 
 anterior of the indicative, correspond to the present 
 of the subjunctive. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 il veut "J 
 
 il voudra Vque vous partiez 
 
 il aura voulu J 
 
 The imperfect, the preterit definite, the preterit 
 indefinite, the pluperfect, and the second conditional 
 past, correspond to the imperfect of the subjunctive. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 je voulais 
 
 je voulus 
 
 j'ai voulu \ que vous partissiez 
 
 j'avais voulu 
 
 j'eusse voulu 
 
 The conditional present corresponds either to t lie 
 imperfect, or to the pluperfect of the subjunctive. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 7 . f vous partissiez 
 
 ie voudrais que\ v ■ .• 
 
 J * ivous jussiez parti 
 
 The future past corresponds to the preterit of the 
 subjunctive, as il aura voulu qxCil soit parti. 
 
 The first and the second conditionals correspond 
 to the pluperfect of the subjunctive. 
 
 STANDARD. 
 
 i aura is voulu\ r • *• 
 
 % 7 > que vous fussiez parti 
 
 j eusse voulu ) * J l 
 
OF THE VERB. 495 
 
 N. B. — The numerous relations between teises 
 are learnt by practice and study. 
 
 Of the Infinitive. 
 
 The preposition to before an infinitive, is, accord- 
 ing to circumstances, rendered either by pour, by a, 
 or by de, and sometimes it is not expressed at all. 
 
 When to means in order to, it is expressed in 
 French by pour, as he came to speak to me (in order 
 to), il vint pour me parler. 
 
 The participle present is used in English both as 
 a substantive and an adjective 9 and frequently 
 instead of the present of the infinitive. 
 
 his ruling passion is hunting sa passion dominante est la chasse 
 
 prevent him from doing mischief empechez-le de faire le mal 
 
 there is a pleasure in silencing il y a plaisir a fermer la bouche 
 
 great talkers aux grands parleurs 
 
 Sometimes it must be expressed by the relative 
 qui, especially when a different mode might cause 
 an ambiguity, as I met them riding post, je les ai 
 rencontres qui couraient la poste- 
 
 Sometimes it is expressed by the conjunction que.. 
 when the participle present is preceded by a pos- 
 sessive pronoun, as the fear of his coming vexed us, 
 la crainte qu'il ne vient, nous tourmentait ; I doubt 
 his being faithful,^ doute qu'il soitfidele, etc. 
 
 Observe that in French, the preposition en alone 
 is followed by the participle present ; all other pre- 
 positions require the present of the infinitive. 
 
 Foreigners are apt to make a mistake in the use 
 of the participle present, because they do not con- 
 sider that, as it expresses an incidental proposition, 
 it must evidently relate to the word which it 
 restrains and modifies. 
 
 Rule. — The participle present always forming a 
 phrase incidental and subordinate to another, must 
 
496 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 necessarily relate to ^ the subject of the principal 
 phrase, when it is not preceded by another verb. 
 
 In this sentence, ,/e ne puis vous accompagner a la 
 campagne, ayant des affaires qui exigent ici ma 
 presence, I cannot accompany you into the country, 
 having some business that requires my presence 
 here ; the participle present ayant relates to the 
 subject je, since the subordinate proposition formed 
 by ayant, could have no kind of relation to the 
 principal proposition, if it could not be resolved into 
 this, parceque fai des affaires qui, etc. ; but in this 
 sentence, combien voyons-7ious de gens, qui, connais- 
 sant leprix du temps, le per dent mal-a-propos ! how 
 many people do we see, who, knowing* the value of 
 time, waste it improperly ! connaissant relates to the 
 substantive gens, because it is the word which it 
 restrains and modifies, and because the relative qui, 
 placed between that substantive in regimen and the 
 participle present, obviate every kind of equivo- 
 cation. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 1. We ought never to use two participles together 
 without joining them with a conjunction, as dest un 
 homme aimant et craiguant Dieu, he is a man loving 
 and fearing God. 
 
 2. We ought never to put the relative en, either 
 before a participle present or before a gerund. We 
 cannot say 5t /e vous ai remis monfils entre les mains, 
 en voulant faire quelque chose de bon 9 because there 
 would be an equivocation, for the meaning is not, 
 as I wish to do something good, or, as I wish to do 
 well, 1 have put my son into your hands, but I have 
 put my son into your hands, as Itvish to make some- 
 thing of him; we should say, voulant en faire, etc. 
 
 likewise, this sentence would be improper, le 
 
OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 497 
 
 prince tempere la ngueur clu pouvoir, en en parta- 
 geant les fonctions, on account of the repetition of 
 the word en, taken under two different acceptions, 
 viz. en preposition and en relative ; we must, there- 
 fore, adopt another turn, such as cest en partageant 
 les fonctions du pouvoir, quun prince en tempere la 
 rigueur. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE PREPOSITIONS A, De, and En. 
 
 The function of the three above prepositions is, 
 to put into a state of relation the two terms between 
 which they are placed, either by their primitive and 
 proper meaning, or by a sense of figure and extent ; 
 so that in this last case, they are merely prepositions 
 serving to unite the two terms, whence it happens 
 that they often express, either the same relations 
 that others do, or opposite relations ; for instance, 
 in these two sentences, approchez-vous du feu, come 
 near the fire ; eloignez-vous du feu, go from the fire, 
 de merely establishes a relation between the two 
 terms, without expressing in the first, the relation 
 of approximation, and in the second, the relation of 
 distance. In order, therefore, to form a just idea 
 of these three prepositions, it is of importance to 
 consider only their primitive and proper signification. 
 
 En and dans have nearly the same meaning, but 
 these prepositions differ in this, that the former 
 always carries with it an indeterminate idea, as Sire 
 en Angleterre ; and the latter always presents a 
 determinate one, as etre dans la province de Mid- 
 dlesex. 
 
 We no longer say, en Vdge, en honneur, but we 
 ought to say, a Vdge, a V honneur. 
 
498 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 Distinction between the Adverb and the Preposition. 
 
 We must not mistake prepositions for adverbs ; 
 prepositions are always followed by a regimen, either 
 expressed or understood — adverbs never. The same 
 word may be both a preposition and an adverb. 
 Avant is a preposition in this phrase, avant le jour, 
 before day -light ; but it is an adverb in this, riallez 
 pas si avant, do not go so forward. 
 
 There is the same difference between autour and 
 alentour ; we say, tous les grands etaient autour du 
 trone, all the grandees stood round the throne; but 
 we ought to say, le roi etait sur son trone, et les 
 g7*ands etaient alentour, the king was upon his 
 throne and the grandees stood round. 
 
 Avant and auparavant are not used one for the 
 other. Avant is followed by a regimen, as avant 
 Pdques, before Easter ; avant ce temps, before that 
 time. Auparavant is followed by no regimen, as 
 sivous partez, venez me voir auparavant, if you set 
 off, come and see me before. 
 
 Pret a and pres de are not the same expression. 
 Pret is an adjective, je suis pret a /aire ce que vous 
 voudriez, I am ready to do what you please ; pres is 
 a preposition, mon ouvrage est pres d'etre fini, my 
 work is nearly finished. 
 
 Au travers and a travers differ in this: the first 
 is followed by the preposition de, as Use fit jour au 
 travers des ennemis ; the second is not, as il se Jit 
 jour a travers les ennemis, he fought his way through 
 the enemies. 
 
 Some good writers, even modern ones, use avant 
 and devant indifferently, but they are wrong. 
 Avant denotes priority of time and order, as il est 
 arrive avant moi, T article se ?net avant le nom. 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 499 
 
 Devant is used for en presence, vis-a-vis, as il a varu 
 devant lejuge ; il loge devant Veglise. 
 
 Observation. — Devant is also sometimes a prepo- 
 sition marking order, and is the opposite of apres, 
 as il a le pas devant moi, he has precedence of me; 
 si vous etes presse, courez devant, if you are in a 
 hurry, run before. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE ADVERB. 
 On the Negative ne. 
 
 Negation is expressed in French by ne, either by 
 itself, or accompanied by pas or jjoint, upon which 
 the French Academy has examined four questions: 
 
 1. Where is the place of the negatives ? 
 
 2. When are we to make use of pas in preference 
 to point, and vice versa ? 
 
 3. When may we omit both ? 
 
 4. When ought we to omit both ? 
 
 As this subject is of very material importance, 
 we shall treat it upon the plan of the Academy, and 
 agreeably to their views. 
 
 FIRST QUESTION. 
 
 Where is the place of the negatives ? 
 
 Ne is always placed before the verb, but the place 
 of pas and point is variable. When the verb is in 
 the infinitive, they are placed indifferently before or 
 after it, for we say, pour ne point voir, or pour ne 
 voir pas. In the other moods, except the impera- 
 tive, the tenses are either simple or compound ; in 
 the simple tenses, pas or point is placed after the 
 
500 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 verb : il ne parle pas ; ne parle-t-il pas ? In the 
 compound tenses, it is placed between the auxiliary 
 and the participle : il ria ]ms parle ; n'a-t-il pas 
 parle? In the imperative, it is placed after the 
 verb: ne badinez pas ; ne votes en allez pas. 
 
 SECOND QUESTION. 
 
 When are we to make use of pas in preference to 
 point, and vice versa ? 
 
 Point is a stronger negative than pas; besides, it 
 denotes something permanent, il ne lit point, means, 
 he never reads. Pas denotes something accidental, 
 il ne lit pas, means, he does not read now, or, he is 
 not reading. Point de denotes an unreserved 
 negation ; to say, il lia point d? esprit, is to say, he 
 has no wit at all. Pas de allows a liberty of making 
 a reserve ; to say, il ria pas d 'esprit, is to say, he 
 has nothing of what can be called wit. 
 
 Hence the Academy conclude that pas comes 
 better, 1. Before plus, moms, si, aidant, and other 
 comparative words, as Milton nest pas moins sub- 
 lime quHomere, Milton is not less sublime than 
 Homer. 2. Before nouns of number, as il n'y a 
 pas dix ans, it is not ten years ago. 
 
 It is elegant to make use of point, 1. At the end 
 of a sentence, as on s'amusait a ses depens, et il ne 
 sen apperfet ait point, they were amusing themselves 
 at his expense, and he did not perceive it. 2. In 
 elliptical sentences, as je croyais avoir affaire a un 
 honnete homme; mais point, I thought I had to deal 
 with an honest man; but no. 3. In the answers 
 to interrogative sentences, as irez-vous ce soir an 
 pare? point, shall you go this evening to the park ? 
 no. 
 
 The Academy also observe, that when pas or 
 point is introduced into interrogative sentences, it is 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 501 
 
 with meanings somewhat different. We make use 
 of point when we have some doubt in our minds, as 
 rt avez-vous point ete /a? have you not been there? 
 Bat we make use of pas when we are persuaded ; 
 thus, n' avez-vous pas ete la ? answers to this English 
 expression, but you have been there, have you not? 
 
 THIKD QUESTION. 
 
 When may we omit both pas and point?. 
 
 We may suppress them, 1st , after the words 
 cesser, oser, and pouvoir, but this omission is only 
 for the sake of elegance, as 
 
 je ne cesse de nCen occuper I am incessantly about it 
 
 je n'ose vous en parler I dare not speak to you about it 
 
 je nepuis y penser sansfremir I cannot think of it without shud- 
 
 dering 
 
 We likewise say, but only in conversation, ne bougez, 
 do not stir. 2nd. In these kinds of expressions : 
 
 y a-t-il un homme dont elle ne is there a man that she does not 
 
 medise ? slander ? 
 
 avez-vous un ami qui ne soit des have you a friend that is not 
 
 miens ? mine ? 
 
 FOURTH QUESTION. 
 
 When ought we to omit both pas and point ? 
 
 We omit them, 1st., when the extent which we 
 mean to give to the negative is sufficiently declared, 
 either by the words which restrict it, or by words 
 which exclude all restriction, or lastly, by words 
 which denote the smaller parts of a whole, and 
 which are without article. 
 
 In the first instance, we say 
 
 je ne sors guere I go out but seldom 
 
 je ne sortirai de trois jours I shall not go out for these three 
 
 days 
 
502 
 
 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 In the second instance, we say 
 
 je riy vais jamais 
 je riy pense plus 
 nul ne sait sHl est digne & amour ou 
 
 de haine 
 ri employ ez aucun de ces stratagemes 
 il ne plait a personne 
 rien ri est plus charmant 
 je n'y pense nullement 
 
 I never go thither 
 
 I think no more of it 
 
 nobody knows whether he be 
 
 deserving of love or hatred 
 use none of these stratagems 
 he pleases nobody 
 nothing is more charming 
 I do not think of it at ail 
 
 In the third instance, we say 
 
 il n'y voit goutte he cannot see at all 
 
 je rien ai cueilli brin I did not gather a bit 
 
 il ne dit mot he speaks not a word 
 
 but, if to mot we join an adjective of number, we 
 must add pas, as 
 
 il ne dit pas un mot qui riinteresse 
 
 dans ce discours il riy a pas trois 
 mots a reprendre 
 
 he speaks not a word but what is 
 
 interesting 
 in that speech there are not three 
 
 words to find fault with 
 
 We likewise make use of pas with the preposition 
 de, as 
 
 tine fait pas de demarche inutile he does not take any useless step 
 
 Observation. — If, after the sentences we have just 
 mentioned, either the conjunction que, or a relative 
 pronoun should introduce a negative sentence, then 
 we omit pas and point, as 
 
 je nefais jamais d'exces queje rien 
 
 sois incommode 
 je ne vois personne qui ne vous hue 
 
 I never commit any excess with- 
 out being ill after it 
 
 I see nobody but what commends 
 you 
 
 2nd. When two negatives are joined by ni, as je 
 ne Vaime ni ne Festime, I neither love nor esteem 
 him ; and when the conjunction ni is repeated, 
 either in the subject as niVor ni la grandeur ne 
 nous rendent heureux, neither gold nor greatness 
 can make us happy : or in the attribute, as il nest 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 503 
 
 ni prudent ni sage, he is neither prudent nor wise : 
 or in the regimen, as il n'a ni defies ni proces, he 
 has neither debts nor lawsuits. 
 
 Observation. — We may preserve pas, when ni is 
 not repeated, and when it is separated from the first 
 negative by a certain number of words, as 
 
 je rtaime pas ce vain etalage d'eru- I do not like that vain display 
 dition, prodiguee sans choix et of erudition, lavished without 
 sans gout, ni ce luxe de mots qui choice and without taste, nor 
 ne disent rien that pomp of words which 
 
 have no meaning 
 
 3rd. With ne que, used instead of settlement ; 
 with the verb which follows que, used instead of 
 pourquoi ; with a moins que, or si used instead of it : 
 
 une jeunesse qui se livre a ses pas- youth which abandons itself to 
 
 sions, ne transmet a la vieillesse its passions, transmits to old 
 
 quun corps use age nothing but a worn-out 
 
 body 
 
 que rtetes vous aussipose que votive why are you not as sedate as your 
 
 frere ? brother ? 
 
 je ne sortirai pas, a moins que vous I shall not go out, unless you 
 
 ne veniez me prendre come to fetch me 
 
 je iCirai pas chez-lui, s'il ne m-y I shall not go to his house, if he 
 
 engage does not invite me (to it) 
 
 4th. When before the conjunction que 9 the word 
 rien is understood, as il ne fait que rire, he does 
 nothing but laugh ; or when that conjunction may- 
 be changed into sinon or si ce nest que, as il ne tient 
 qua vous de reussir, it only depends on you to 
 succeed, that is, the success wholly depends upon 
 you ; trop de maitres a la fois ne servent qu'a em- 
 brouiller V esprit, too many masters at once only 
 serve to perplex the mind. 
 
 5 th. With a verb in the preterit, preceded by the 
 conjunction depuis que, or by the verb il y a 
 denoting a certain duration of time, as 
 
504 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 comment vous etes-vous parte depuis how have you been since I have 
 
 queje ne vous ai vu seen you ? 
 
 ily a trois mois ouej :ne vous aivu I have not seen you for these 
 
 three months 
 
 Observation. — But we do not omit them when 
 the verb is in the present, as 
 
 comment vit-il depuis que nous ne how does he live since we do not 
 
 le voyons point? see him ? 
 
 il y a six mois que nous ne le we have not seen him these six 
 
 voyons point months 
 
 6th. In phrases where the conjunction que is 
 preceded by the comparative adverbs plus, moms, 
 mieux, etc., or some other equivalent, as 
 
 on meprise ceux qui parknt autre- we despise those who speak dif- 
 ment quits ne pensent ferently from what they think 
 
 il ecrit mieux quHl ne parle he writes better than he speaks 
 
 c'est pire qu'on ne le disait it is worse than was said 
 
 c'est autre chose que je ne croyais it is different from what I thought 
 
 peu s'enfaut qu'on ne m'ait trompe I have been very near being de- 
 ceived 
 
 7th. In sentences united by the conjunction que 
 to the verbs douter, desesptrer, nier, and disconvenir, 
 forming a negative member of a sentence, as 
 
 je ne doute pas quit ne vienne I doubt not that he will come 
 
 ne desesperez pas que ce moyen ne do not despair of the success of 
 
 vous reussisse these means 
 
 je ne nie pas or je ne disconviens I do not deny, or I do not dispute 
 
 pas que cela ne soit that it is so 
 
 Observation. — The Academy say, that after the 
 last two verbs, ne may be omitted, as je ne nie pas, 
 orje ne disconviens pas que cela soit. 
 
 8th. With the verb united by the conjunction que 
 to the verbs empecher and prendre garde, meaning, 
 to have a care, as 
 
 j'empecherai bien que vous ne soyez I shall prevent your being of the 
 
 du nombre number 
 
 prsnez garde qu'on ne vous seduise have a care that they do not se- 
 duce you 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 505 
 
 Observation. — The Academy make the remark 
 that in the above acceptation, prendre garde is fol- 
 lowed by a subjunctive ; but when it means to 
 reflect, we make use of the indicative, and of pas or 
 point, as 
 
 prenez garde que vous ne nCentendez mind, reflect, consider that you do 
 pas not understand what I mean 
 
 9th. With the verb united with the conjunction 
 que, to the verb craindre, and those of the same 
 meaning, when we do not wish the thing expressed 
 by the second verb, as 
 
 il craint que son frere ne Vaban- he is afraid that his brother 
 
 donne should forsake him 
 
 je crains que mon ami ne meure I fear my friend will die 
 
 Butjoasis not omitted when we wish the thing 
 expressed by the second verb, as 
 
 je crains que mon pere rtarrive pas I am afraid my father will not 
 
 come 
 
 10th. With the verb which follows de penr que, 
 de crainte que, in the same case as with craindre ; 
 thus, when we say, de crainte qu 9 il ne perde son 
 process, we wish that he may win it ; and de crainte 
 qiiil ne soit pas puni, we wish that he may be 
 punished. 
 
 11th. After savoir, whenever it has the meaning 
 of pouvoir, asje ne saurais en venir a bout, I cannot 
 bring it about; when it means etre incertain, it is 
 best to omit them, as je ne sais oil le prendre, I do 
 not know where to find him ; il ne sait ce qiiil dit, 
 he does not know what he says. 
 
 Observations. — But we ought to make use of pas 
 or point when savoir is taken in its true meaning, 
 -dsje ne sais pas le Francais, I do not know French. 
 
 z 
 
506 PARTICULAR SYNTAX 
 
 12th. We also say, ne vous deplaise, ne vous en 
 deplaise, by your leave, under favour. 
 
 Plus and davantage are not used one for the 
 other ; plus is followed by the preposition de, or 
 the conjunction que> as 
 
 il a plus de brillant que de solide he has more brilliancy than soli- 
 dity 
 
 il se fie plus a ses lumieres qu'a he relies more upon his own 
 celles des autres knowledge than upon that of 
 
 others 
 
 Davantage is never followed by the preposition 
 de, and is used alone and at the end of sentences, 
 as 
 
 la science est estimable, mais la vertu learning is estimable, but virtue 
 est davantage is still more so 
 
 It is incorrect to make use of davantage for le plus, 
 we ought to say, 
 
 de toutes lesfleurs d'un parterre, la of all the flowers of a parterre 
 rose est celle qui me plait le plus the rose is that which pleases 
 
 me most 
 
 Si, aussi, tant, and autant, are always followed 
 by the conjunction que-, si and aussi are joined to 
 adjectives and participles ; tant and autant to sub- 
 stantives and verbs. 
 
 VAngleterre ri est pas si grande que England is not so large as France 
 
 la France 
 il est aussi estime qu'aime he is as much esteemed as he is 
 
 loved 
 elle a autant de beaute que de vertu she has as much beauty as she 
 
 has virtue 
 
 Observation. — We may, nevertheless, substitute 
 autant for aussi, when preceded by one of the ad- 
 jectives, and followed by que and the other adjective, 
 as il est modeste autant que sage. 
 
 Aussi and autant are used in affirmative sentences, 
 si and tant in negative or interrogative ones ; the 
 
OF THE ADVERB. 507 
 
 last two are, however, the only ones that can be used 
 in affirmative sentences, when they are put for 
 tellement, as 
 
 il est devenu si gros, qu'il a de la he is become so stout that he can 
 
 peine a marcher hardly walk 
 
 il a tant couru quHl en est hors he has been running so fast that 
 
 dlialeine he is out of breath 
 
 We must not confound a la campagne and en 
 campagne \ the latter never applies but to the 
 movement of the troops, as 
 
 Varmee est en campagne the army has taken the field 
 
 but we ought to say 
 
 j'ai passe Vete a la campagne I have spent the summer in the 
 
 country 
 
 Jamais takes sometimes the preposition a, as 
 soyez a jamais heureux, be for ever happy ; and 
 toujours takes the preposition pour, as cest pour 
 toujours, it is for ever. 
 
508 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Grammatical construction, in the French language, 
 is the order which the genius of that language has 
 assigned, in discourse, to the nine sorts of words 
 which we have distinguished. Some persons mis- 
 take it for syntax, but there is this difference, viz. 
 that syntax consists in the rules which we are to 
 observe in order to express the relations of words 
 one to another, whereas grammatical construction 
 consists in the various arrangements which we may 
 allow ourselves to make, while observing the rules 
 of syntax. Now, this construction is irrevocably 
 fixed, not only as the phrases may be interrogative, 
 imperative, or expositive, but also as each of these 
 kinds may be affirmative or negative. 
 
 In interrogative sentences with affirmation, the 
 subject is either a noun or a pronoun. 
 
 If the subject be a noun, this is the order of the 
 words : the noun, the verb, the corresponding per- 
 sonal pronoun, the adverb (if any), and the regimen 
 in the simple tenses, or in the compound tenses, 
 the pronoun and the adverb between the auxiliary 
 and the participle, as 
 
 les lumidres sont-elles un bienpour are sciences a benefit to nations ? 
 les peuples ? ont-ellesjamais con- have they ever contributed to 
 tribue a leur bonheurl their happiness ? 
 
 If the subject be a pronoun, the verb begins the 
 series, and the other words follow it in the same 
 order which we have pointed out, as 
 
 vous plairez-vous toujours a me- will you always take a pleasure 
 
 dire ? in slandering ? 
 
 aurez-vous bientot fini? shall you have soon done ? 
 
OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 509 
 
 N.B. — When the verb is reflected, the pronoun 
 in regimen begins the series, as may be seen in the 
 first instance, because this pronoun always preserves 
 its place before the verb, except in imperative sen- 
 tences, with affirmation. 
 
 In interrogative sentences, with negation, the 
 same order holds, but we place ne before the verb, 
 and pas or point after the verb, with the charac- 
 teristic of the interrogation in the simple tenses, 
 and between the auxiliary and the participle in the 
 compound tenses, as 
 
 votre frere ne viendra^Uil pas de- will not your brother come to- 
 
 main? morrow? 
 
 n'aurez-vous pas bientdtfini ? shall you not have done soon ? 
 
 Observation. — There are in French several other 
 ways of making an interrogation. 1st. With an 
 absolute pronoun, as qui vous a dit cela? or qui 
 est-ce qui vous a dit cela ? who told you that ? 
 2nd. With the demonstrative pronoun ce, as est-ce 
 vous ? is it you ? est-ce quil pleut ? does it rain ? 
 3rd. With an adverb of interrogation, as pourquoi 
 ne vient-il pas ? why does he not come? comment 
 vous trouvez-vous? how do you find yourself? 
 Hence, we see that the absolute pronouns and the 
 interrogative adverbs are always at the head of the 
 sentence, but the demonstrative pronoun always 
 comes after the verb. 
 
 Sentences are imperative, when, in speaking, we 
 command, exhort, entreat, or forbid. 
 
 In imperative sentences, with affirmation, the 
 verb is always the first in the first two persons, but 
 in the third, it never comes but after the conjunction 
 que, and the noun or pronoun, as 
 
 aUons-la let us go thither 
 
 venez id come hither 
 
 quHls y aitteni let them go thither 
 
 que Pierre aille a Londres let Peter go to London 
 
510 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 In those with negation, ne and pas are placed as in 
 interrogative sentences. 
 
 As to the place of the pronouns, see p. 337. 
 
 Sentences are expositive when we speak without 
 either interrogating or commanding. This is the 
 order of the words in those which are affirmative : 
 the subject, the verb, the adverb, the participle, the 
 regimen, as 
 
 vra bon prince merite V amour de ses a good prince deserves the love 
 
 sujets et Vestime de tous les of his subjects, and the esteem 
 
 peuples of all nations 
 
 Cesar eut inutilement passe le Ru~ Cesar would have crossed the 
 
 bicon, sHl y eut eu de son temps Rubicon to no purpose, had 
 
 des Fabius there been Fabius' in his time 
 
 The negative sentences differ from this construction 
 only as ne is always placed before the verb, and pas 
 or point either after the verb, or between the aux- 
 iliary and the participle, as 
 
 un homme riche nefait pas toujour s a rich man does not always do all 
 
 le Men qu'il pour rait the good he might 
 
 Ciceron rt eut pus peuUetre ete un Cicero would not perhaps have 
 
 si grand orateur, si le desir de been so great an orator, had not 
 
 s'elever aux premieres digniies the desire of raising himself to 
 
 neut enflamme son dme the first dignities inflamed his 
 
 soul 
 
 For the place of the pronouns in regimen, see 
 p. 341. 
 
 Sentences are either simple or compound. They 
 are simple, when they contain only one subject and 
 one attribute, as vous lisez, you read ; votes etes 
 jeune, you are young. They are compound when 
 they compare several subjects to one attribute, or 
 several attributes to one subject, or several attri- 
 butes to several subjects, or several subjects to 
 several attributes. This sentence, Pierre et Paul 
 sont heureux, is compound by several subjects ; this, 
 cette femme est jolie, spiritaelle, et sensible, is com- 
 
OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 51 I 
 
 pound by several attributes ; and this other, Pierre 
 et Paul sont spirituels et savans, is compound at 
 once by several subjects and several attributes. 
 The simple sentence contains but one judgment; 
 the compound sentence contains several. 
 
 A sentence may be compound in various other 
 ways ; by the subject, by the verb, or by the attri- 
 bute. 
 
 By the subject, when the subject is restricted by 
 an incidental proposition, as Dieu qui est bo?i. 
 
 By the verb, when this verb is modified by some 
 circumstance of time, order, etc., as Dieu qui est 
 bon n ahandonne jamais. 
 
 By the attribute, when this attribute is modified 
 by a regimen which is itself restricted, as Dieu qui 
 est bon ri 'ahandonne jamais les homines qui met tent 
 sincerement leur confiance en lui. 
 
 These simple or compound sentences may be 
 joined to others by a conjunction, as quand on aime 
 V etude, le temps passe, sans quon sen appergoive, 
 when one loves study, time flies without one's per 
 ceiving it. The two partial phrases form but one. 
 
 Pule. — When a proposition is composed of two 
 partial phrases, joined by a preposition, harmony 
 and perspicuity generally require the shortest to go 
 first. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 quand les passions nous quittent, when our passions leave us, we 
 
 nous nous flattens en vain que in vain natter ourselves that it 
 
 c'est nous qui les qulttons is we that leave them 
 
 on n'est point a plaindre, quand, au he is not to be pitied who, for 
 
 defautdebiens reels, on trouve le want of real pleasures, finds 
 
 moyende s'occuper dechinieres means to amuse himself with 
 
 chimeras 
 
 Periods result from the union of several partial 
 phrases, the whole of which makes a complete sense. 
 Periods, to be clear, require the shortest phrases to 
 
512 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 be placed first. The following example of tins is 
 taken from Flechier. 
 
 N'attendez pas, Messieurs, 
 
 1. Que j'ouvre une scene tragi que ; 
 
 2. Que je represente ce grand hornme etendu sur ses propres 
 trophees ; 
 
 4. Que je de'couvre ce corps pale et sanglant, aupres duquel fume 
 encore la foudre qui l'a irappe ; 
 
 4. Que je fasse crier son sang comme celui d'Abel, et que j'expose 
 a vos yeux les images de la religion et de la patrie eploree. 
 
 This beautiful period is composed of four mem- 
 bers, which go on gradually increasing. It is a 
 rule not to give more than four members to a 
 period, and to avoid multiplying incidental propo- 
 sitions. Obscurity in the style is generally owing 
 to those propositions, which divert the attention 
 from the principal propositions, and make us lose 
 sight of them. 
 
 The construction which we have mentioned is 
 called direct or regular, because the words are 
 placed in those sentences according to the order 
 which we have pointed out ; but this order may be 
 altered in certain cases, and then, we say that the 
 construction is indirect or irregular ; now it may be 
 irregular, by inversion, by ellipsis, by pleonasm, or 
 by syllepsis ; these are what we call the four figures 
 of words. 
 
 OF INVERSION. 
 
 Inversion is the transposition of a word into a 
 place different from that which we have assigned it. 
 We ought never to make use of it but when it 
 throws more clearness, energy, or harmony upon 
 the language ; for, it is bad construction whenever 
 the relation of the correlatives is not easily 
 perceived. 
 
OP GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION* 513 
 
 There are two kinds of inversion : the one, which 
 by its boldness, seems to be confined to poetry ; the 
 other, which is of ordinary use even in prose. We 
 speak here of the latter kind only. 
 
 The following are those which are authorised by 
 custom : 
 
 1st. We may very well place after the verb the 
 subject by which it is governed, as tout ce qui lux 
 promet Tamitie des Homains, all that the friendship 
 of the Romans promises him. 
 
 Observation. — This inversion is a rule of the art 
 of speaking and writing, whenever the subject is 
 modified by an incidental proposition, long enough 
 to make us lose sight of the relation of the verb 
 governed to the subject governing. 
 
 2nd. We may also very properly place before the 
 governing, the noun governed by the prepositions 
 de and a, as dune voix entrecoupee de sang lots 9 Us 
 secritrent, in a voice interrupted by sobs, they 
 exclaimed ; a tant d injures qua-t-elle repondu ? to 
 so much abuse, what answer did she give ? 
 
 We also very elegantly place before the verb the 
 prepositions apres, dans, par, sous, contre, etc., with 
 what is to follow them, as well as the conjunctions 
 si, quand, parceque, puisse, quoique, lorsque, etc., as 
 par la loi du corps, je tiens a ce rnonde qui passe, by 
 the law of the body, I am linked with this transient 
 world ; puisquil le veut, quit lefasse, since he will 
 have it so, let him do it. 
 
 OF THE ELLIPSIS. 
 
 Ellipsis is the omission of a word, or even several 
 words, which are necessary to make the construction 
 full and complete. That the ellipsis may be good, 
 
 z 2 
 
514 OF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 the mind must be able easily to supply the value of 
 the words omitted, as j % accepter ais les offres de 
 Darius , sifetais Alexandre ; et moi aussi, si Jetais 
 Parmenion, I would accept the offers of Darius, if 
 I were Alexander; and so would I, if I were Pai- 
 menion. Here the mind easily supplies the words 
 je les accepterais in the second member. 
 
 The ellipsis is very common in the answers to 
 interrogative sentences, as quand viendrez-vous ? 
 demain, when will you come? to-morrow; that is, 
 je viendrai demain. 
 
 In order to know whether an ellipsis be good, the 
 words that are understood must be supplied. It is 
 exact, whenever the construction full and complete 
 makes up the sense denoted by the words that are 
 joined and by the circumstances ; otherwise, it is not 
 exact. 
 
 OF THE PLEONASM. 
 
 Pleonasm, in general, is a superabundance in the 
 expression. To be good, it must be authorised by 
 usage, and we may with truth affirm, that usage 
 authorises only those which either give a greater 
 degree of energy to discourse, or express in a clearer 
 manner the inward sentiment with which we are 
 affected. Et que ma fait a moi ceite Troie ouje 
 cours ? je me meurs ; sil ue veut pas vovs le dire,je 
 vans le dirai, moi ; je Vai vu de mes propres yeux ; 
 je Vai entendu de mes propres oreilles : a moi in the 
 first instance ; me, in the second ; moi 9 in the third ; 
 de mes propres yeux, in the fourth ; and de mes 
 propres oreilles, in the fifth, are there merely for the 
 sake of energy, or to manifest an inward sentiment; 
 but these manners of speaking are sanctioned by 
 custom. 
 
CF GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 515 
 
 N.B. — The above sentences will not bear an 
 English translation with a pleonasm, except the last 
 two. 
 
 Observation. — We must not mistake for pleonasms 
 those words which are merely expletive, as cest une 
 affaire ou il y va du salut de Vetat, it is an affair in 
 which the safety of the state is concerned ; which is 
 better than cest une affaire oil il va, etc., by omitting 
 y which is useless on account of oil ; but those are 
 expressions from which we are not allowed to take 
 away any thing.— Academy . 
 
 OF THE SYLLEPSIS. 
 
 The Syllepsis takes place whenever we make a 
 word figure more with the idea we have of it, than 
 with the word to which it relates. 
 
 There is a syllepsis in these expressions : il est 
 onze heures ; Van milsept-cent-quatre-vingt-dix-neuf* 
 When we make use of it, the mind, merely intent 
 upon a precise meaning, pays no attention to either 
 the number or the gender of heiire and an. 
 
 There is likewise a syllepsis in these sentences : 
 je crains quit ne vienne ; fempecherai quil ne vons 
 nuise ; jai pear quil ne irioublie, etc. Full of a 
 wish that the event may not take place, we are 
 willing to do all we can that nothing should put an 
 obstacle to that wish ; this is the cause of the intro- 
 duction of the negative; and, although it is useless 
 to complete the sense, yet we must preserve it, as 
 we have already mentioned. 
 
 There is again a syllepsis, and a very elegant one, 
 in sentences like the following ones : 
 
 Racine has said : 
 
 Entre le peuple et vous, vous prendrez Dieu pour juge; 
 Vous souvenant, mon fils, que cache sous ce lin, 
 Comme eux vous lutes pauvre, et com me eux orphelin 
 
516 OF GRAMMATICAL DISCORDANCES. 
 
 The poet forgets that he has been using the word 
 peuple ; nothing remains in his mind but despauvres 
 and des orphelins, and it is with that idea of which 
 he is full that he makes the pronoun eux agree. 
 For the same reason, Bossuet and Mezengui have 
 said, the former, quand le peuple Hebreu entra da?is 
 la terre promise, tout y celebrait leurs ancetres; and 
 the latter, Mo'ise eut recours au Seigneur, et lux dit : 
 que ferai-je a ce peuple? bientot iis me lapideront. 
 Leurs and Us are for les Hebreux. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF GRAMMATICAL DISCORDANCES, AMPHIBOLOGIES^ 
 AND GALLICISMS. 
 
 We have chiefly to take notice of two vicious con- 
 structions, which are contrary to the principles 
 which we have established in the preceding chapters, 
 viz. grammatical disagreements and amphibologies. 
 
 1. In general, there is disagreement in discourse, 
 when the words which compose the various members 
 of a sentence or a period, do not agree one with 
 another, either because they are construed against 
 analogy, or because they bring together dissimilar 
 ideas, between which the mind perceives oppo- 
 sition, or can see no manner of affinity. 
 
 The following examples will serve to illustrate 
 this matter. 
 
 This sentence, notre reputation ne depend pas des 
 louanges quon nous donne, mais des actions louables 
 que nous faisons, is not correct, because the first 
 member being negative, and the second affirmative, 
 cannot come under the government of the same 
 verb. We ought to say, notre reputation depend, 
 non des louanges quon nous donne, mais des actions^ 
 
OF AMPHIBOLOGIES. 517 
 
 etc., our reputation depends, not upon the praises 
 which are bestowed on us, but upon the praise- 
 worthy actions which we are doing. 
 
 This other, sa reponse est die tee, ainsi que son 
 silence, is also incorrect, because the participle 
 dictee, being used in the feminine in the first mem- 
 ber, cannot be understood in the masculine in the 
 second. 
 
 But the most common disagreements are those 
 which arise from the wrong use of the tenses. 
 
 We find one of this kind in this sentence, il 
 regarde voire malheur comme une punition du pen de 
 complaisance que vous avez eue pour lui, dans le 
 temps quHl vous pria, etc., because the two preterits, 
 definite and indefinite, cannot well come in together ; 
 it should be, que vous eutes pour lui dans le temps 
 quit vous pria. 
 
 There is another in this sentence, on en ressentit 
 autant de joie que d'une victoire complete dans un 
 autre temps, because the verb cannot be understood 
 after the que which serves for the comparison, when 
 that verb is to be in a different tense ; it should Ije, 
 on en ressentit autant de joie quon en aurait res- 
 sentit, etc. 
 
 This line of Racine, 
 
 Le Hot qui l'apporta recule epouvante, 
 
 is also incorrect, because the form of the present 
 cannot come in with that of the preterit definite ; 
 it should have been, qui Va apportL 
 
 OF AMPHIBOLOGIES. 
 
 There is amphibology in discourse, when a sen- 
 tence is so construed as to be susceptible of two 
 
518 OF AMPHIBOLOGIES. 
 
 different interpretations ; it ought to be carefully 
 avoided. As we speak only to be understood, 
 perspicuity is the first and most essential quality of 
 language ; we should always recollect that what is 
 not clearly expressed is not French. 
 
 Amphibologies are occasioned, 1st. By the us^ 
 of the moods of tenses. 2nd. By the personal 
 pronouns il, le, la, etc. 3rd. By the possessive 
 pronouns son, sa, ses, etc. 4th. By nouns not being 
 in the places they ought to occupy. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of an Amphibology of the First kind. 
 
 Qu'ai je fait, pour venir accabler en ces lieux 
 Un heros, sur qui seul j'ai pu tourner les yeux? 
 
 Pour venir makes amphibology, because we do 
 not know whether it relates to the person who 
 speaks, or to the person spoken to ; it should have 
 been, pour que vous veniez. 
 
 EXAMPLE 
 
 Of an Amphibology of the Second hind. 
 
 Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses 
 de Crassus hi firent eroire qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de ces 
 deux grands hommes. 
 
 This sentence is vicious in its construction, 
 because the pronouns il and lui seem to relate to 
 Cesar, although the sense obliges us to refer them 
 to Crassus. 
 
 Of an Amphibology of the Third kind. 
 
 Valere alia chez Leandre ; il y trouva sonfils. 
 
 The pronoun son is equivocal, because we do not 
 know to which it relates, to Valere or to Leandre. 
 
OF GALLICISMS. 519 
 
 Of an Amphibology of the Fourth kind. 
 J'ai envoy e les lettres que j'ai ecrites a la poste. 
 
 A la poste, thus placed, is equivocal, because we 
 do not know whether it is meant that the letters 
 have been written at the post-office, or sent to the 
 post-office. 
 
 OF GALLICISMS. 
 
 In the Grammaire Philosophique et Litteraire, 
 four sorts of gallicisms have been distinguished ; we 
 shall only mention here those of construction. 
 
 The gallicisms of construction are, in general, 
 irregularities and deviations from the customary 
 rules of syntax; there are some, however, which 
 are mere ellipses, and others which can only be 
 attributed to the unaccountable whims of usage. 
 
 General Principle. — Every gallicism of construc- 
 tion which obscures the meaning of the sentence, 
 ought to be proscribed. We are only to preserve 
 those which do not lessen its perspicuity by the 
 irregularity of the construction, and which are, at 
 the same time, sanctioned by long practice. 
 
 According to this principle, we now reject this 
 elliptic gallicism, et quainsi ne soit, meaning ce que 
 je vous dis est si vrai que, because it obscured the 
 sentence, although it was sanctioned by usage. 
 For instance, fetais dans ce jar din, et qu'ainsi ne 
 soit, voila une jieur quefai cueillie, that is ? et pour 
 preave de cela, voila line flair, etc., which it is not 
 easy to apprehend ; for this reason, Moliere and 
 La Fontaine are, at least we think so, the last great 
 writers that have used this expression. 
 
 One of the most common gallicisms is that in 
 
520 OF GALLICISMS. 
 
 which we introduce the impersonal verb ily a, used 
 for il est, il existe. These expressions, il y avait une 
 *ois un roi. il y a cent a parier contre un, are gal- 
 licisms. There are two in the following one : il riy 
 a pas jusquaux enfans qui ne sen melent, even 
 children will meddle with it (will do it). 
 
 These sentences, il nest rien moins que genereux, 
 he is far from being generous ; vous avez beau dire, 
 you may say what you please, but, etc. ; a ce quil 
 me semble, by what I can see, as the matter appears 
 to me, etc. ; nous voila a nous lamenter, we began 
 to lament, here we are lamenting, crying, etc. ; 
 quest-ce que de nous ! what wretched beings we 
 are ! etc., are also gallicisms. 
 
 The use which we make of the preposition en in 
 many sentences, is still another source of gallicisms ; 
 some of this kind will be found in the following 
 expressions, a qui en avez-vous ? whom are you 
 angry at ? ou en veut-il venir ? what does he aim at ? 
 what would he be at ? what does he mean? il lid en 
 veut, he owes him a spite, a grudge, etc. The pre- 
 position en changes also sometimes, the signification 
 of verbs, and then gives rise to gallicisms. 
 
 The conjunction que produces as great a number 
 of gallicisms, as dest une terrible jjassion que lejeu, 
 gaming is a terrible passion ; c'est done en vain que 
 je travaille, it is in vain then that I work: ce n'est 
 was trop que cela, that is not too much, it is not too 
 much ; so, il nest que d avoir du courage, there is 
 nothing like having some courage. 
 
 Many others will be found in the use which we 
 make of the prepositions a, de, dans, apres, etc., but 
 we have said enough on this subject. 
 
 Gallicisms are of very great use in the simple 
 style, therefore La Fontaine and Madame de Sevigne 
 abound in them. The middling style has not so 
 
OF GALLICISMS. 521 
 
 many, and we find but few in the solemn oratorical 
 style, and these even of a peculiar nature. We shall 
 here insert two examples of gallicism in the sub- 
 lime, both taken from the tragedy of Iphigenia, by 
 Racine : 
 
 Avez-vous pu penser qu'au sang d' Agamemnon 
 Achille preferat une fille sans nom ? 
 Qui de tout son destin ce qu'elle a pu comprendre, 
 C'est qu'elle sort d'un sang, etc. 
 
 and 
 
 Je ne sais qui m'arrete et retient mon courroux, 
 Que par un prompt avis de tour ce qui se passe 
 Je ne coure des dieux divulguer la menace. 
 
 In the first sentence, qui is in subject, though 
 without a verb relative; and in the second, je ne 
 sais qui rriarrete que je ne coure, is contrary to the 
 rules of common construction. " But," says 
 Vaugelas, "those extraordinary phrases, far from 
 being vicious, possess so much the more graceful- 
 ness, as they are more peculiar to each language/' 
 
522 
 
 FREE EXERCISES. 
 
 MADAME DE MAINTENON TO HER BROTHER. 
 
 We can only be 1 unhappy by our own fault ; this shall always 
 be my text, and my reply to your lamentation. Recollect 2, my dear 
 brother, the voyage of America, the misfortunes of our father, of 
 our infancy, and our youth 3 ; and you will bless Providence instead 
 of murmuring against fortune. Ten years ago, we were both very 
 far (below our present situation 4), and our hopes were so feeble 5, 
 that we limited our wishes to a (revenue of three thousand livres 6.) 
 At present, we have four times that sum 7, and our desires are not 
 yet satisfied ! We enjoy that happy mediocrity which you have so 
 often extolled 8 ; let us be content. If possessions 9 come to us, 
 let us receive them from the hand of God, but let not our views be 
 10 extravagant 11. We have (every thing necessary) 12 and com- 
 fortable 13 ; all the rest is avarice 14 ; all these desires of greatness 
 spring from 15 a restless heart. Your debts are all paid, and you 
 may live elegantly 16 without contracting more 17. What have you 
 to desire? Must 18 schemes 19 of wealth and ambition occasion 20 
 the loss of your repose and your health ? Read the life of St. Louis ; 
 you will see how unequal 21 the greatness of this world is to the 
 desires of the human heart; God only can satisfy them 22. I 
 repeat it, you are only unhappy by your own fault. Your uneasiness 
 23 destroys your health, which you ought, to preserve, if it were 24 
 only because I love you. Watch 25 your temper 26; if you can 
 render it less splenetic 27 and less gloomy, (you will have gained a 
 
 1. On ne etre..que. 2. Songer a. 3 The misfortunes of our infancy and those 
 of our, etc. 4. Du point ou nous sommes aujourd'hui. 5. Si peu de chose. 
 6. Trois mille livres de rente, 7. That sum, en.. plus. 8. Have so often ex- 
 tolled, vanter si fort, ind.-2. 9. Posssesions, Mens. 10. Let us not have views. 
 11. Trop vaste. 12. Le necessaire. 13. Le commode. 14. Avarice, cupidite. 
 15. Spring from, partir du vide de. 16. Delicieusement. 17. Contracting more, 
 en faire de nouvelles. 18. Must, faut-il que. 19. Projet. 20. Occasion, coilter, 
 suhj.-l. 21. Unequal, au-dessous de. 22. Satisfy them, le rassasier. 23. Unea- 
 siness, inquietude, pi. 24. If it were, quand ce etre, cond.-l. 25. Travailler sur. 
 
FREE EXERCISES. 523 
 
 great advantage) 28. This is not the work of reflection only; 
 exercise, amusement, and a regulated life, (are necessary for the 
 purpose 29). You cannot think well (whilst your health is affected 
 30); when the body is debilitated 31, the mind is without vigour. 
 Adieu ! write to me more frequently and in a style less gloomy. 
 
 26. Humeur. 27. Bilieux. 28. Ce etre un grand point de gagne. 29. II y faut 
 de. 30. Tant que vous se porter mal. 31. Debilitated, dans Vabattement. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE CONVERT. 
 
 AN EASTERN TALE. 
 
 Divine Mercy 1 had brought a vicious man into a society of sages, 
 whose morals were holy and pure. He was touched by their virtues, 
 it was not long 2 before 3 he imitated them and lost his old habits ; 
 he became just, sober, patient, laborious, and beneficent. His deeds 
 nobody could deny, but they were attributed 4 to odious motives. 
 They praised his good actions without loving his person ; they would 
 always judge him by what he had been, not by what he was become. 
 This injustice penetrated him with grief; he shed tears into the 
 bosom of an ancient sage, more just and more humane than the 
 others. " O my son," said the old man to him, " thou art better 
 than thy reputation ; be thankful to God for it. Happy the man 
 who can say, my enemies and my rivals censure in me vices of which 
 I am not guilty. What matters 5 it, if thou art good, that men 
 pursue thee as wicked ? Hast thou not to comfort thee, the two best 
 witnesses of thy actions, God and thy conscience." 
 
 Saint- Lambert. 
 
 1. Misericorde. 2. Ne pas tarder. 3. A inf.-l. 4. On donner des motifs. 
 5. Importer. 
 
 Mr. de Montausier has written a letter to Monseigneur upon the 
 taking of Bhilipsbourg, which very much pleases me. * ; Monseig- 
 neur, I do not compliment you upon the capture of Philipsbourg ; 
 you had a good army, bombs, cannon, and Vauban ; neither shall I 
 compliment you upon your valour, for that is an hereditary virtue in 
 your family ; but I rejoice that you are liberal, generous, humane, 
 and that you know how to recompense the services of those who 
 behave well ; it is for this that I congratulate you.'* 
 
 SiviGNE. 
 
524 FREE EXERCISES 
 
 III. 
 
 THE GOOD MINISTER. 
 
 AN EASTERN FABLE. 
 
 The gxeat Aaron Raschild began to suspect that his vizir Giaf'ar 
 was not deserving of the confidence which he had reposed in him. 
 The women of Aaron, the inhabitants of Bagdad, the courtiers, the 
 dervishes, were censuring the vizir with bitterness. The Calif loved 
 Giafar ; he would not condemn him upon the clamours of the city 
 and the court ; he visited his empire ; every where he saw the land 
 well cultivated, the country smiling, the cottages opulent, the useful 
 arts honoured, and youth full of gaiety. He visited his fortified 
 cities and sea-ports ; he saw numerous ships, which threatened the 
 coasts of Africa and of Asia; he saw warriors disciplined and 
 content ; these warriors, the seamen, and the country people ex- 
 claimed : " O God, pour thy blessings upon the faithful, by giving 
 them a calif like Aaron, and a vizir like Giafar." The Calif, affected 
 by these exclamations, enters a mosque, falls upon his knees, and 
 cries out : " Great God, I return thee thanks ; thou hast given 
 me a vizir of whom my courtiers speak ill, and my people speak 
 well." 
 
 Saint- Lam bert. 
 
 Providence conducts us with so much goodness through the dif- 
 ferent periods of our life, that we (do not perceive our progress). 1 
 This loss comes on easily 2, it is imperceptible, it is the shadow of 
 the sun-dial whose motion we do not see. If, at twenty years of 
 age, we could see 3 in a mirror the face we shall have at three-score, 
 we (should be shocked at the contrast), 4 and terrified at our own 
 figure ; but it is day by day that we advance; we are to-day as we 
 were yesterday, and shall be to-morrow as we are to-day ; so we go 
 on without feeling it, and this is a miracle of that Providence w r hich 
 I adore. 
 
 Sevigne, 
 
 1. Ne le sentir quasi pas. 2. Doucement. 3. On nous faire voir. 4. Tomber 
 a la renverse 
 
FREE EXERCISES. 525 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE xMAGNIFICENT PROSPECT. 
 
 This beautiful house was on the declivity of a hill, from whence 
 one beheld the sea, sometimes clear and smooth as glass, sometimes 
 idly 1 irritated against the rocks on which it broke, bellowing 2 and 
 swelling its waves like mountains. From another side was seen a 
 river, in which were islands bordered with blooming limes and lofty 
 poplars, which raised their haughty heads even to the clouds* The 
 several channels which formed those islands, seemed sporting 3 in 
 the plain. Some rolled their limpid waters with rapidity ; some had 
 a peaceful and sleepy stream ; others, by long windings, ran back 
 again to re-ascend as it were to their source, and seemed not to have 
 power to leave these enchanting borders. At a distance were seen 
 hills and mountains, which lost themselves in the clouds, and formed 
 by their fantastic figure, as delightful a horizon (as the eye could 
 wish to behold 4). The neighbouring mountains were covered with 
 verdant (vine branches 5) hanging in festoons : the grapes, brighter 
 than purple, could not conceal themselves under the leaves, and the 
 vine 6 was overloaded with its fruit. The fig, the olive, the pome- 
 granate, and all other trees, overspread the plain, and made it a 
 large garden. 
 
 Fenelon. 
 
 Long hopes wear out 7 joy, as long maladies wear out grief. 
 All philosophic systems are good only when one (has no use 8) 
 for them. Sevigne. 
 
 1. Follement. 2. En gemir. 3. Se jouer. 4. A souhait pour le plaisir de. 
 5. Pampre, m. 6. Vigne, f. 7. User. 8. N'en avoir que faire. 
 
 V. 
 
 A GENERAL VIEW OF NATURE. 
 
 With what magnificence does nature shine 1 upon earth ! A pure 
 light, extending from east to west, gilds successively the two hemis- 
 pheres of this globe ; an element transparent and light, surrounds 
 it ; a gentle fecundating heat animates, gives being 2 to the seeds 
 of life ; salubrious spring waters contribute to their preservation 
 and growth ; (rising ground 3) distributed in the lands, stop the 
 vapours of the air, make these springs inexhaustible and always new ; 
 
526 FREE EXERCISES. 
 
 immense cavities made to receive them divide the continents. The 
 extent of the sea is as great as that of the earth ; it is not a cold, 
 barren element ; it is a new empire as rich, as populous as the first. 
 The finger of God has marked their boundaries. 
 
 The earth, rising above the level of the sea, is secure 4 from its 
 irruptions ; its surface, enamelled with flowers, adorned with a 
 verdure constantly renewed, peopled with thousands and thousands 
 of species of different animals, is a place of rest, a delightful abode, 
 where man placed in order to second nature, presides over all 
 beings. The only one among all, capable of knowing and worthy of 
 admiring, God has made him spectator of the universe, and a witness 
 of his wonders. The divine spark with which he is animated, makes 
 him participate in the divine mysteries ; it is by this light that he 
 thinks and reflects ; by it he sees and reads in the book of the 
 universe, as in a copy of the Deity. 
 
 Nature is the exterior throne of divine magnificence ; the man 
 who contemplates, who studies it, rises by degrees to the interior 
 throne of Omnipotence. Made to adore the Creator, he commands 
 all creatures ; vassal of Heaven, king of the earth, he ennobles, 
 peoples, enriches it ; he establishes among the living beings order, 
 subordination, harmony; he embellishes nature herself; he culti- 
 vates, extends, and polishes it ; lops off the thistle and the briar, 
 and multiplies the grape and the rose. 
 
 BUFFON. 
 
 1. Ne briller pas. 2. Faire eel ore. 3. Imminences. 4. A l'abri de. 
 
 VI. 
 
 ANOTHER GENERAL VIEW OF NATURE. 
 
 Trees, shrubs, and plants are the ornaments and clothing 1 of the 
 earth. Nothing is so melancholy 2 as the prospect of a country 
 naked and bare 3, exhibiting to the eyes nothing but stones, mud, 
 and sand : but, vivified by nature, and clad 4 in its nuptial robe, 
 amidst the course of waters and the singing of birds, the earth pre- 
 sents to man, in the harmony of the three kingdoms, a spectacle 
 full of life, interest, and charms, the only spectacle in the world of 
 w T hich his eyes and heart are never weary. 5 
 
 The more a contemplative man's soul is fraught with sensibility 6, 
 the more he yields to the ecstacies which this harmony produces in 
 him. A soft and deep melancholy then takes possession of his 
 senses, and, in an ebriety of delights, he loses himself in the immen- 
 sity of that beautiful system, with which he feels himself identified. 
 
FREE EXERCISES. 527 
 
 Then, every particular object escapes him, he sees and feels nothing 
 but in the whole. Some particular circumstance must contract his 
 idea and circumscribe his imagination, before 7 he can observe by 
 parcels that universe which he was endeavouring to embrace. 
 
 J. J. Rousseau. 
 
 1. Vetement. 2. Triste. 3. Pele. 4. Revetu. 5. Se lasser. 6. Contempla- 
 teur avoir Tame sensible 7. Pour qu'il. 
 
 VII. 
 
 CULTIVATED NATURE. 
 
 How beautiful is that cultivated nature ! How, through the cares 
 of man, it is brilliant and pompously adorned ! He himself is its 
 chief ornament — its noblest production ; by multiplying himself he 
 multiplies the most precious germ ; she also seems to multiply 
 herself with him ; by his art he (brings forth to light 1) all that she 
 concealed 2 in her bosom. How many unknown treasures ! how 
 many new riches ! flowers, fruits, seeds brought to perfection, mul- 
 tiplied to infinity ; the useful species of animals transported, pro- 
 pagated, increased without number ; the noxious species reduced, 
 confined, banished ; gold, and iron more necessary than gold, 
 extracted from the bowels of the earth ; torrents confined 3, rivers 
 directed, contracted 4; the sea itself subjected, surveyed 5, crossed 
 from one hemisphere to the other ; the earth accessible in every 
 part, and every where rendered as lively as fruitful ; in the vallies, 
 delightful meadows ; in the plains, rich pastures and still richer 
 harvests ; hills covered with vines and fruits, their summits covered 
 with useful trees and young forests ; deserts changed into cities 
 inhabited by an immense people, which continually circulating, 
 spreads itself from those centres to the extremities ; roads opened 
 and frequented, communications established every where as so many 
 witnesses of the strength and union of society ; a thousand other 
 monuments of power and glory sufficiently demonstrate that man, 
 possessing dominion over the earth, has changed, renewed the whole 
 of its surface ; and that, at all times, he shares the empire with 
 nature. 
 
 1. Mettre au jour. 2. Receler. 3. Contenu. 4. Resserre. 5. Reconnu. 
 
528 FREE EXERCISES. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 Nevertheless, man only reigns by right of conquest ; he rather 
 enjoys than possesses, and he can preserve but by dint of cares con- 
 tinually renewed. If they cease, every thing droops, every thing 
 alters, every thing changes and again returns 1 under the hand of 
 nature ; she re-assumes her rights, erases the work of man, covers 
 with dust and moss his most pompous monuments, destroys them in 
 time, and leaves him nothing but the regret of having lost, through 
 his fault, what his ancestors had conquered by their labours. Those 
 times, in which man loses his dominion, those barbarous 2 ages 
 during which every thing is seen to perish, are always prepared by 
 war, and accompanied by scarcity and depopulation. Man, who can 
 do nothing but by number, who is strong only by reunion, who can 
 be happy but by peace, is mad enough to arm himself for his mis- 
 fortune, and to fight for his ruin. Impelled by insatiable avidity, 
 blinded by ambition still more insatiable, he renounces all feelings of 
 humanity, turns all his strength against himself, seeks for mutual 
 destruction, actually 3 destroys himself; and, after those days of 
 blood and carnage, when the smoke of glory has vanished, he con- 
 templates, with a sad look, the earth wasted, the arts buried, the 
 nations dispersed, the people weakened, his own happiness ruined, 
 and his real power annihilated. 
 
 Buffon. 
 
 1. Rentrer. 2. De barbarie. 3. En effet. 
 
 IX. 
 
 INVOCATION TO THE GOD OF NATURE. 
 
 Almighty God, whose presence alone supports nature, and main 
 tains the harmony of the laws of the universe ; Thou, who from the 
 immovable throne of the empyrean, seest the celestial spheres roll 
 under thy feet, without shock and without confusion ; who, from the 
 bosom of repose, reproducest every moment their immense move- 
 ments, and alone governest in profound peace, that infinite number 
 of heavens and worlds, restore, restore at length, tranquillity to the 
 agitated earth ! let it be silent at thy voice ; let discord and war 
 cease the sound of their proud clamours! God of goodness, author 
 of all beings, thy paternal looks take in 1 all the objects of the 
 creation; but man is thy chosen being; thou h*ast enlivened 2 his 
 soul with a ray of thy immortal light ; complete the measure of thy 
 
FREE EXERCISES* 529 
 
 kindness, by penetrating his heart with a ray of thy love ; this divine 
 sentiment, diffusing itself every where, will reconcile opposite 
 natures ; man will no longer dread the sight of man ; his hand will 
 no longer wield the murderous steel 3 ; the devouring fire of war 
 will no longer dry up 4 the source of generations ; the human 
 species now weakened, mutilated, mowed down in the blossom, will 
 spring anew 5 and multiply without number ; nature, overwhelmed 
 under the weight of scourges 6, will soon re-assume, with a new life, 
 its former fruitfulness ; and we, beneficent God, will second it, we 
 will cultivate it, we will contemplate it incessantly, that we may 
 every moment offer thee anew tribute of gratitude and admiration. 
 
 Buffon. 
 
 1. Embrasser. 2. Eclairer. 3. Le fer. .armer sa main. 4. Tarir. 5. Germer 
 de nouveau. 6. Fleau. 
 
 X. 
 
 Happy they who are disgusted with 1 violent pleasures, and know 
 how to be contented 2 with the sweets of an innocent life ! Happy 
 they who delight in being instructed 3, and who take a pleasure 4 in 
 cultivating their minds with knowledge ! On whatever part adverse 
 fortune may throw them, they always carry entertainment with them, 
 and the disquiet which preys upon others, even in the midst of 
 pleasure, is unknown to those who can employ themselves in reading. 
 Happy they who love to read, and are not like me deprived of it. 
 As these thoughts were revolving in my mind, I went into a gloomy 
 forest, where I immediately perceived an old man holding a book in 
 his hand. The forehead of this old man was large, bald, and a little 
 wrinkled; a white beard hung down to his girdle ; his stature was 
 tall and majestic, his complexion still fresh and ruddy, his eyes lively 
 and piercing, his voice sweet, his words plain and charming. I never 
 saw so venerable an old man. He was a priest of Apollo, and offi- 
 ciated 5 in a marble temple, which the kings of Egypt had dedicated 
 to that god in this forest. The book which he held in his hand was 
 a collection of hymns in honour of the gods. He accosts me in a 
 friendly manner, and we discourse together. He related things past 
 so w r ell that they seemed present, and yet with such brevity that his 
 accounts never tired me. He foresaw the future by his profound 
 knowledge, which made him know men, and the designs of which 
 they are capable. With all this wisdom he was cheerful and com- 
 plaisant, and the sprightliest youth has not so many graces as this 
 man had in so advanced an age ; he accordingly loved young men 
 when they were tractable 6, and had a relish for application and 
 virtue. Fenelon. 
 
 1. Se degouter de. 2. Se contenter de. 3. S'instruire. 4. Se plaire. 5. Servir. 
 6. Docile, 
 
 2a 
 
530 FREE EXERCISES. 
 
 XL 
 THOUGHTS ON POETRY. 
 
 Wherever I went, I found that poetry was considered as the 
 highest learning 1, and regarded 2 with a veneration somewhat ap- 
 proaching to that which man would pay to angelic nature. 
 
 It yet fills me with wonder that, in almost all countries, the most 
 ancient poets are considered as the best ; whether it be that every 
 other kind of knowledge is an acquisition gradually attained, and 
 poetry is a gift conferred at once : or that the first poetry of every 
 nation surprised them as a novelty, and retained the credit by con- 
 sent, which it received by accident at first; or whether, as the 
 province 3 of poetry is to describe nature and passion, which are 
 always the same, the first writers took possession of the most striking 
 objects for description, and the most probable occurrences for 
 fiction, and left nothing to those that followed them, but transcription 
 4 of the same events, and new combinations 5 of the same images. 
 Whatever be the reason, it is commonly observed that the early 
 writers are in possession of nature, and their followers of art ; that 
 the first excel in strength and invention, and the latter in elegance 
 and refinement. 
 
 I was desirous to add my name to this illustrious fraternity. I 
 read all the poets of Persia and Arabia, and was able to repeat by 
 memory the volumes that are suspended in the mosque of Mecca. 
 But I soon found that no man was ever great by imitation. My 
 desire of excellence impelled me to transfer my attention to nature and 
 to life. Nature was to be my subject, and men to be my auditors ; 
 I could never describe what I had not seen ; I could not hope to 
 move those with delight or terror 6 whose interests and opinions I 
 did not understand. 
 
 XII. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 Being now resolved to be a poet, I saw every thing with a new 
 purpose; my sphere of attention was suddenly magnified ; no kind 
 of knowledge was to be overlooked. I ranged mountains and 
 deserts for images and resemblances 7, and pictured upon my mind 
 every tree of the forest and flower of the valley. I observed with 
 
 1. Part of literature. 2. Was looked upon as a kind of heavenly emanation. 
 3. The aim. 4. But to copy. 5. And to make new combinations. 6. To awake 
 delight or terror in those, whose, etc. 7. To gather images and resemblances. 
 
FREE EXERCISES. 331 
 
 equal care the crags of the rock and the pinnacles of the palace. 
 Sometimes, I wandered along the mazes of the rivulet, and some- 
 times, watched the changes of the summer clouds. To a poet 
 nothing can be useless. Whatever is beautiful, and whatever is 
 dreadful, must be familiar to his imagination: he must be con- 
 versant 8 with all that is awfully vast or elegantly little. The plants 
 of the garden, the animals of the wood, the minerals of the earth, 
 and the meteors of the sky, must all concur to store his mind with 
 inexhaustible variety ; for every idea is useful for the enforcement 
 or decoration 9 of moral or religious truth, and he who knows most 
 will have most power of diversifying his scenes, and gratifying his 
 reader with remote allusions and unexpected instruction. 
 
 All the appearances of nature, I was, therefore, careful to study 10, 
 and every country which I have surveyed has contributed something 
 to my poetical powers. 
 
 In so wide a survey, interrupted the prince, you must surely have 
 left much unobserved. I have lived, till now, within the circuit of 
 these mountains, and yet cannot walk abroad without the sight of 
 something which I had never beheld before or never heeded. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 The business of a poet, said Imlac, is to examine, not the indi- 
 vidual, but the species : to remark general properties and large ap- 
 pearances 11 ; he does not number the streaks of the tulip, or describe 
 the different shades in the verdure of the forest. He is to exhibit 
 in his portraits of nature, such prominent and striking features ]2, 
 as recal the original to every mind, and must neglect the minuter 
 discriminations 13, which one may have remarked and another neg- 
 lected, for those characteristics 14 which are alike obvious to vigi- 
 lance and carelessness. 
 
 But the knowledge of nature is only half the task of a poet ; he 
 must be acquainted likewise with all the modes of life 15. His 
 character requires that he estimate the happiness and misery of every 
 condition : observe the power of all the passions, in all their com- 
 binations, and trace the changes of the human mind, as they are 
 modified by various institutions and accidental influences of climate 
 or custom, from the sprightliness of infancy to the despondence of 
 decrepitude. He must divest himself of the prejudices of his age or 
 country; he must consider right and wrong in their abstracted and 
 
 8. He must observe. 9. To enforce, or set off the moral, etc. 10. I was studying 
 with care all the, etc. 11. And appearances at large. 12. Of those features pro- 
 minent and striking, which, etc. 13. These small differences. 14. And to apply 
 himsell to characterise, etc. 15. All the different aspects of human life, etc. 
 
532 FREE EXERCISES. 
 
 invariable state ; he must disregard present laws and opinions, and 
 rise to general and transcendant truths, which will always be the 
 same ; he must, therefore, content himself with the slow progress of 
 his name, contemn the applause of his own time, and commit his 
 claims to the justice of posterity. He must write as the interpreter 
 of nature, and the legislator of mankind, and consider himself as 
 presiding over the thoughts and manners of future generations, as a 
 being superior to time and place. 
 
 His labour is not yet at an end ; he must know many languages 
 and many sciences ; and, that his style may be worthy of his thoughts, 
 must, by incessant practice, familiarise to himself every delicacy of 
 speech and grace ol harmony. 
 
 S. Johnson. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Observation. 
 
 As it is chiefly in poetry that the English lan- 
 guage differs from the French, we now propose 
 showing to the English learner how he is to proceed 
 in order to transport into the French tongue the 
 beauties of his poets. At the bottom of the page 
 will be found the decomposition of the sentences, 
 accommodated to the genius of the French, so as 
 nearly to point out the very expressions to be made 
 use of in the translation. To look for elegance, 
 perhaps even for grammatical precision, would be 
 useless ; we never intended it. 
 
 First follow nature, and your judgment frame 
 
 By her just standard, which is still the same; 
 
 Unerring nature still divinely bright, 
 
 One clear, unchang'd, and universal light, 
 
 Life, force, and beauty, must to all impart ; I 
 
 At once the source, and end, and test of art. 2 
 
 Art, from that fund, each just supply provides : 
 
 Works without show, and without pomp presides ; 
 
 1. Light clear, immutable and universal nature, which never errs, and shines 
 always with a divine splendour, must impart to all she does, life, force, and 
 beauty. 
 
 2. She is at once the source, etc. 
 
FREE EXERCISES. 533 
 
 In some fair body thus th'informing soul 
 
 With spirit feeds, with vigour fills the whole. 
 
 Each motion guides; and every nerve sustains ; 
 
 Itself unseen, but in th'effect remains. 3 
 
 Some, to whom heav'n in wit has been profuse, 
 
 Want as much more to turn it to its use : 
 
 For wit and judgment often are at strife, 
 
 Tho' meant each others aid, like man and wife. 4 
 
 *Tis more to guide, than spur the muse's steed ; 
 
 Restrain his fury, than provoke his speed. 5 
 
 The winged courser, like a gen'rous horse, 
 
 Shows most true mettle, when you check its course: G 
 
 Pope. 
 
 3. So, in a fair body, unseen itself, but always sensible by its effects, the soul 
 continually acting, feeds the whole with spirits, fills it with vigour, guides every 
 motion of it, and sustains every nerve. 
 
 4. Some to whom heaven has given wit with profusion, want as much yet t*. 
 know the use they ought to make of it ; for wit and judgment, though made, like 
 man and wife, to aid each other, are often in opposition. 
 
 5. #It is more difficult to guide than spur the courser of the muses, and to 
 restrain its ardour than provoke its impetuosity. 
 
 6. The winged courser is like a generous horse ; the more we try to stop it in 
 its rapid course, the more it shows unconquersbte vigour. 
 
534 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 
 
 SOxME DIFFICULTIES OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 
 
 De Phrases dans lesquelles on 
 doit faire usage de Particle. 
 
 L'homme est sujet a bien des vicis- 
 situdes, See R. I, p. 400* 
 Les honimes d'un vrai genie sont 
 
 rares. lb. 
 Les hommes a imagination sont 
 
 rarement heureux. lb. 
 L'homme dont vous parlez est un 
 
 de mes amis. lb. 
 La vie est un melange de biens ei de 
 
 maux. lb. 
 La perfection en tout genre est le 
 
 but auquel on doit tendre. lb. 
 La beaute, les graces, et l'esprit, 
 
 sont des avantages bien precieux 
 
 quand Us sont releves par la mo- 
 
 destie. G, R. I and II, pp. 398 
 
 and 399 
 Voila des tableaux d'une grande 
 
 beaute. R. II, p. 401 
 Faites-vous des principes dont vous 
 
 ne vous ecartiez jamais. lb. 
 Cet arbre porte des fruits exceltens. 
 
 lb. 
 Ces raisons sont des conjectures 
 
 bienfaibles. lb. 
 Servez-vous des termes etablis par 
 
 r usage. lb. 
 On doit eviter lair de 1'arTectation. 
 
 lb. 
 Le Jupiter de Phidias etait oVune 
 
 grande beaute. R. Ill, p. 408 
 
 Of Phrases in which the Article 
 is used, 
 
 Man is liable to a variety of 
 
 changes 
 Men of real genius are scarce 
 
 Men of chimerical fancy are sel- 
 dom happy 
 
 The man you speak of is a friend 
 of mine 
 
 Life is a compound of good and 
 evil 
 
 Perfection in every thing ought 
 to be our object 
 
 Beauty, gracefulness, and wit, are 
 valuable endowments when 
 adorned by modesty 
 
 These are very beautiful pictures 
 
 Establish rules for yourself and 
 never deviate from them 
 
 This tree bears very excellent 
 fruit 
 
 These reasons are very idle con- 
 jectures 
 
 Use the expressions established 
 by custom 
 
 We ought to avoid the appearance 
 of affectation 
 
 The Jupiter of Phidias was ex- 
 tremely beautiful 
 
 * In these phrases, the letter R. at the end signifies Rule ; G. R., General 
 Rule; Obs., Observation; Ex., Exception; Sect Section. 
 
EXAMPLES OF PHRASES. 
 
 535 
 
 II. 
 
 Continuation des m ernes Phrases. 
 
 La memoire est le tresor de l'esprit, 
 le fruit de l'attention, et de la 
 reflexion. R. II, p. 401 
 
 J'achetai hier des gravures pre- 
 cieuses et rares. lb. 
 
 La France est le -plus beau pays de 
 V Europe. R. Ill, p. 403 
 
 L'interet de PAllemagne etait op. 
 pose a celui de la Russie. lb. 
 
 La longueur de l'Angleterre du 
 nord au sud est de 360 miles, et 
 en largeur de Vest a I'ouest est de 
 300. lb. 
 
 // arrive de la Chine, du Japon, et 
 des Indes Orientales, etc. lb. 
 
 77 arrive de l'Amerique, de la Bar- 
 bade, de la Jamaique, etc. lb. 
 
 11 vient de la Flandre Franchise, 
 lb. 
 
 II s" est etabli dans la province de 
 Middlesex. lb. 
 
 Des petits-maitres sont des etres 
 insupportables dans la societe. 
 Obs. upon R. II, p. 402 
 
 Cest Vopinion des nouveaux phi- 
 losophies. Obs. upon R. I, 
 p. 400 
 
 Elle a bien de la grace dans tout 
 ce qu'ellefait. Ex. upon R. II, 
 p. 402 
 
 Cette etoffe se vend une guinee 
 l'aune. Sect. 3, p. 328 
 
 Ce vin coute 70 livres sterlings la 
 piece, lb. 
 
 II. 
 
 The same Phrases continued. 
 
 Memory is the treasure of the 
 mind, the result of attention 
 and reflexion 
 
 I yesterday bought some valuable 
 and scarce engravings 
 
 France is the finest country in 
 Europe 
 
 The German interest was con- 
 trary to the Russian 
 
 The length of England from 
 north to south is 300 miles, and 
 its breadth from east to west 
 is 300 
 
 He comes from China, Japan, and 
 the East Indies, etc. 
 
 He comes from America, Bar- 
 badoes, Jamaica, etc. 
 
 He comes from French Flanders 
 
 He has fixed himself in the 
 county of Middlesex 
 
 Coxcombs are unsufferable be- 
 ings in society 
 
 It is the opinion of the new phi- 
 losophers 
 
 She does every thing most grace- 
 fully 
 
 This stuff sells at a guinea the 
 
 ell 
 This wine costs seventy pounds 
 
 the hogshead 
 
 III. 
 
 De Phrases dans lesquelles on ne 
 doit pas faire usage de l'article. 
 
 Nos connaissances doivent etre tirees 
 de principes evidens. R. II, 
 p. 401 
 
 Cet arbre porte d'excellens fruits, 
 lb. 
 
 III. 
 
 Of Phrases in which the Article is 
 omitted. 
 
 Our knowledge ought to be de- 
 rived from evident principles 
 
 This tree produces 
 fruit 
 
 excellent 
 
536 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 
 
 Ces raisons sont de faibles con- 
 jectures. R. II, p. 401 
 
 Eoitez tout ce qui a un air d 'affec- 
 tation. R. I, p. 405 
 
 Ces exemples peuvent servir de 
 modeles. lb. 
 
 11 a une grande presence d'esprit. 
 
 Ib *. 
 La memoire de raison et d'esprit 
 
 est plus utile que les autres sortes 
 
 de memoire. lb. 
 Peu de persormes reflechissent sur 
 
 la rapidite de la vie. R. II, 
 
 p. 401 
 Que d'evenemens inconcevables se 
 
 sont succedes les uns aux autres. 
 
 lb. 
 H y a plus d'esprit mais moins de 
 
 connaissances dans ce sidcle que 
 
 dans le siecle dernier. lb. 
 On ne vit jamais autant d'effron- 
 
 terie. lb. 
 Jepris hier beaucoup de peine pour 
 
 rien. lb. 
 Can die est une des ties les plus agr en- 
 ables de la Mediterranee~ Ex. 
 
 p. 404 
 II arrive de Perse, eHtalie, d'Es- 
 
 pagne, etc. lb. 
 II est revenu de Suisse, d'Alle- 
 
 magne, etc. lb. 
 Les vins de Fronce,seront chers ceite 
 
 annee ; les vignes ont coule. lb. 
 
 V empire d'Allemagne est compose 
 de grands et de petits etats. lb. 
 
 Les chevaux cPAngleterre sont ex- 
 cellens. lb. 
 
 Apres mon depart de Suisse, je me 
 retirai a Rome. lb. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Continuation des memes Phrases. 
 
 Vo2(s trouverez ce passage page 
 ] 20, livre premier, chapitre dix. 
 R. I, pp. 405 and 406 
 
 // s'est r^ire en Angleterre. lb. 
 
 These reasons are idle conjee- 
 tures 
 
 Avoid whatever bears the ap- 
 pearance of affectation 
 
 These examples may serve as 
 models 
 
 He has great presence of mind 
 
 The memory of reason and the 
 mind is more useful than any 
 other kind of memory 
 
 Few people reflect on the rapidity 
 of life 
 
 How many inconceivable events 
 have followed in succession 
 
 There is more wit, but less know- 
 ledge in this age than in the 
 last 
 
 So much assurance never was 
 met with 
 
 I took a great deal of trouble 
 yesterday about nothing 
 
 Candia is one of the most agree- 
 able islands in the Mediter- 
 ranean 
 
 He comes from Persia, Italy, 
 Spain, etc. 
 
 He is returned from Switzerland, 
 Germany, etc. 
 
 French wines will be dear this 
 year: the vines have been 
 blasted 
 
 The German empire is composed 
 of great and small states 
 
 The English horses are excellent 
 
 After leaving Switzerland. I re- 
 tired to Rome. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Continuation of the same Phrases. 
 
 You will find this passage in page 
 120, first book, chapter tenth 
 
 He has retired to England 
 
ON SOME DIFFICULTIES.. 
 
 537 
 
 21 vit dans sa retraite en vrai phi- 
 losophy R. I, pp. 405 and 406 
 
 Quand il reflechit sur sa conduite, 
 il en eut honte. lb. 
 
 Qest un homme qui cherche fortune, 
 lb. 
 
 Il entend malice a tout. lb. 
 
 Ne portez en vie a personne. lb. 
 
 Si vous promettezy tenez parole. 
 lb. 
 
 Dans les affaires importantes ne 
 vous decidez jamais sans prendre 
 conseil. lb. 
 
 Courage, soldats, tenons fermes ; 
 la victoire est a nous. lb. 
 
 Cette femme n'a ni grace ni beaute. 
 lb. 
 
 Monseigneur le due de, etc., prince 
 du sang, alia hier a la campagne. 
 
 Montr e taut defaiblesse, e'est n'etre 
 pas homme. lb. 
 
 Cet homme est une espece de misan- 
 thrope dant les brusqueries sont 
 quelquefois tres-plaisa?ites 
 
 U ananas est une sortede fruit tres- 
 commun aux Antilles. lb. 
 
 Cest un genre de vie qui ne me 
 plait point. lb. 
 
 He lives in his retreat like a real 
 
 philosopher 
 When he reflected on his conduct, 
 
 he was ashamed of it 
 He is a man that seeks to make 
 
 a fortune 
 He puts a malicious construction 
 
 on every thing 
 ' Envy nobody 
 If you promise, keep to your 
 
 word 
 In matters of consequence never 
 
 decide without advice 
 Cheer up, soldiers, let us continue 
 
 firm ; the day is our own 
 This woman is destitute both of 
 
 grace and beauty 
 The duke of, etc., a prince of the 
 
 blood, went yesterday to the 
 
 country 
 To show so much weakness is not 
 
 acting like a man 
 This man is a kind of misanthro- 
 pist whose oddities are some- 
 times comical 
 The pine-apple is a kind of fruit 
 
 very common in the Antilles 
 It is a style of life that is not 
 
 agreeable to me 
 
 V. V. 
 
 Continuation des memes Phrases. The same Sentences continued. 
 
 Cette dame plait a tout le monde par- 
 son honneteteets a douceur. R. II, 
 p. 407 
 
 Tout homme a des defauts plus ou 
 moins sensibles. lb. 
 
 Cette conduite augmentait, chaque 
 jour, le nombre de ses amis. lb. 
 
 Tous les biens nous viennent de 
 Dieu, lb. 
 
 Venus etait la deesse de la beaute, 
 etla mere de V amour et des graces. 
 R. Ill, p. 408 
 
 Selon les pa'iens, Jupiter etait le 
 premier des Dieux lb. 
 
 This lady pleases every one by 
 her good breeding and mildness 
 
 Every man has defects more or 
 
 less obvious 
 This behaviour daily increased 
 
 the number of his friends 
 Every blessing comes from God 
 
 Venus was the goddess of beauty 
 and the mother of love and the 
 graces 
 
 According to the heathens, Ju- 
 piter was the first of the gods 
 
538 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 
 
 Apollon etait frere jumeau de 
 
 Diane. R. Ill, p. 408 
 Rubens a ete un grand peintre. lb. 
 Homere et Virgile sont les deux 
 
 plus grands poetes epiques. lb. 
 Londres est la plus belle ville que 
 
 je connaisse. lb. 
 L'eau de riviere est douce, et Veau 
 
 de mer est salee. lb. 
 Oest un excellent poisson de mer. 
 
 Ib ; 
 Voila une superbe table de marbre. 
 
 lb. 
 L'eau de Seine est celle qu'on pre- 
 
 fire a Paris. lb. 
 Pauvrete rCest pas vice. lb. 
 Citoyens, etrangers, grands, peu- 
 
 ples, se sont montres sensibles a 
 
 cetteperte. lb 
 
 Apollo was twin brother to Diana 
 
 Rubens was a great painter 
 Homer and Virgil are the two 
 
 greatest epic poets 
 London is the finest city that I 
 
 know 
 River water is soft and sea water 
 
 is salt 
 It is an excellent sea fish 
 
 There is a superb marble table 
 
 The water of the Seine is pre- 
 ferred at Paris 
 
 Poverty is not a vice 
 
 Citizens, strangers, grandees, 
 people, have shown themselves 
 sensible of this loss 
 
 VI. 
 
 VI. 
 
 De Phrases sur le Pronoun Le. Of Phrases upon the Pronoun Le. 
 
 Est-ce la voire opinion? ne dou- 
 
 tez point que ce ne la soit. Sect. 
 
 Ill, p. 429 
 Sont-ce la vos domestiques? oui 
 
 ce les sont. lb. 
 Mesdames, etes-vous les etrangeres 
 
 qu'on nCa annoncees ? oui, nous 
 
 les sommes. lb. 
 Madame, etes-vous la malade pour 
 
 laquelle on nCa appele? oui, je 
 
 la suis. lb. 
 Madame, etes-vous la mere de cet 
 
 enfant ? oui, je la suis. lb. 
 Mesdames, etes-vous contentes de 
 
 cette musique? oui, nous le 
 
 sommes. lb. 
 Pile est malheureuse, et je crains 
 
 Men qu'elle ne le soit toute la vie. 
 
 lb. 
 Madame, etes-vous me*re ? oui, je 
 
 le suis. lb. 
 Madame, etes-vous malade ? oui, 
 
 je le suis* lb. 
 
 Is that your opinion? do not 
 question it 
 
 Are those your servants? yes, 
 
 they are 
 Ladies, are you the strangers that 
 
 have been announced to me ? 
 
 yes, we are 
 Madam, are you the sick person, 
 
 for whom 1 have been called ? 
 
 yes, I am 
 Madam, are you the mother of 
 
 this child ? yes, I am 
 Ladies, are you pleased with this 
 
 music ? yes, we are 
 
 She is unhappy, and I much fear 
 that she will continue so for 
 life 
 
 Madam, are you a mother ? yes, 
 I am 
 
 Madam, are you sick ? yes, I am 
 
ON SOME DIFFICULTIES. 
 
 539 
 
 Madame, depuis quel temps etes- 
 vous mariee ? je le suis depuis 
 un an. Sect. Ill, p. 429 
 
 Y a-t-il long -temps que vous etes 
 arrivee ? je le suis depuis quinze 
 jours. lb. 
 
 Aristote croyait que le monde etait 
 de toute eternite ; mais Platon 
 ne le croyait pas. lb. 
 
 Quoique cettefemme montre plus de 
 fermete que les autres, elle rtest 
 pas cela la moins afflige'e. lb. 
 
 Cettefemme a Vart de repandre des 
 larmes dans le temps' meme qu'elle 
 est le moins affligee. lb. 
 
 VII. 
 
 De Phrases sur les differentes 
 Regies du Participle Passe. 
 
 La nouvelle piece a-t-elle ete ap- 
 
 plaudie ? R. I, p. 376 
 Vos parens y seront-ils arrives a 
 
 temps ? lb. 
 Elle s'est donne de belles robes. 
 
 Obs. p. 376 
 Elles nous ont apporte de superbes 
 
 ceillets. R. II, p. 377 
 Cette ruse ne lui a pas reussi. lb. 
 
 La vie tranquille que fai menee 
 depuis dix ans, a beaucoup con- 
 tribue a me faire oublier mes 
 malheurs. R. I, p. 378 
 
 Les lettres que fat revues m'ont 
 beaucoup afflige. lb. 
 
 Que de peines vous vous etes don- 
 nees. lb. 
 
 Quelle tache vous etes-vous impo- 
 see. lb. 
 
 C'est une satyre que fai retrouvee 
 dans mes papier s. lb. 
 
 Les lettres qyCa ecntes Pline le 
 Jeune, quelque agreables qu' elles 
 soient, se ressentent neanmoins un 
 pen de la decadence du gout parmi 
 les Romains. lb. 
 
 Madam, how long have you been 
 married? a year 
 
 Is it long since you arrived ? a 
 fortnight 
 
 Aristotle believed the world to 
 have been from all eternity, 
 but Plato did not 
 
 Although this woman shows 
 more resolution than the others 
 she is nevertheless not the less 
 afflicted 
 
 This woman has the art of shed- 
 ding tears, when she is the least 
 afflicted 
 
 VII. 
 
 Of Phrases upon the different Rules 
 of the Participle Past. 
 
 Did the new piece meet with ap- 
 plause ? 
 
 Will your relations arrive there 
 in time ? 
 
 She has given herself fine gowns 
 
 They have brought us beautiful 
 pinks 
 
 He has not succeeded in this 
 stratagem 
 
 The quiet life I have led these 
 ten years has greatly contri- 
 buted to make me forget my 
 misfortunes 
 
 The letters I have received have 
 greatly afflicted me 
 
 What a deal of trouble you have 
 given yourself 
 
 What a task you have imposed 
 upon yourself 
 
 It is a satire that I have again 
 met with in my papers 
 
 The letters which the Younger 
 Pliny has written, however 
 agreeable they may be, savour 
 nevertheless a little of the de- 
 cline of taste among the Ro- 
 mans 
 
540 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PHRASES. 
 
 Je ne serais pas entreavec vous dans 
 
 tous ces details de grammaire, si 
 
 je tie les avais cms necessaires* 
 
 Obs., p. 378 
 L'Egypte^etait vendue celebre par 
 
 la sag esse de ses his long -temps 
 
 av ant que la Grece sortit de la 
 
 barbarie. lb. 
 Q*est une des plus grandes mer- 
 
 veilles qu'on ait vues. lb. 
 Uhomme delettres dont vous m' avez 
 
 parle, a un gout exquis. R II, 
 
 p. 380 
 Vous avez tres-bien instruit vos 
 
 eleves. lb. 
 Lucrice s'est donne" la mort. 1 b. 
 La secheresse quHl y a eu au 
 
 printemps a fait perir tous les 
 fruits. R. Ill, p. 381 
 Je rCai point reussi malgre les con- 
 
 seils que vous mi! avez conseille 
 
 de prendre. lb. 
 Quelle aventure vous est-il arrive ? 
 
 lb. 
 Cette femme s'est proposee pour 
 
 modele a ses enfans. Obs, , p. 382 
 Cette femme s'est propose d'enseig- 
 
 ner la geographie et Vhistoire a 
 
 ses enfans. lb 
 
 VIII. 
 
 De Phrases sur les Principaux 
 Rapports des Modes et des 
 Temps.* 
 
 Je Vattendais depuis long -temps* 
 
 quand U vint mejoindre 
 II sortait au moment meme quefen- 
 
 trais 
 Je commengais a avoir des craintes 
 
 sur la reussite de voire affaire, 
 
 lorsquefai recu voire lettre 
 Des que feus fait quelques visites 
 
 indispensables, je rentrai chez- 
 
 moi, et je ne sortis plus 
 
 I would not have entered into 
 these grammatical details with 
 you, had I not thought them 
 necessary 
 
 Egypt had become celebrated for 
 the wisdom of its laws long 
 before Greece had emerged 
 from barbarism 
 
 It is one of the greatest wonders 
 that has ever been seen 
 
 The man of letters you spoke to 
 me of has an excellent taste 
 
 You have instructed your pupils 
 
 extremely well 
 Lucretia killed herself 
 The dry weather that we had in 
 
 the spring has destroyed all the 
 
 fruit 
 I have not succeeded, notwith- 
 standing the steps you advised 
 
 me to take 
 What adventure have you met 
 
 with ? 
 This woman proposed herself as 
 
 a model for her children 
 This woman proposed to teach 
 
 geography and history to her 
 
 children 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Of Phrases upon the Principal 
 Helations of Words and Tenses. 
 
 I had waited a long time for him, 
 when he came to me 
 
 He was going out at the time I 
 was entering 
 
 I was beginning to be apprehen- 
 sive of the success of your 
 business when I received your 
 letter 
 
 As soon as I had paid some in- 
 dispensable visits, I went home 
 and did not go out afterwards 
 
 * See on the use of Moods and Tenses, and the Relations of different Tenses 
 and different Moods, from page 471 to page 496. 
 
ON SOME DIFFICULTIES. 
 
 541 
 
 J'avais deja tout prepare pour mon 
 depart, lorsque des affaires im- 
 prevues nrCont force a le differer 
 de quelques jours 
 
 Vous etiez deja sorti, quand je me 
 
 presentai chez-vous 
 J'avais deja litre a I 'impression 
 
 mon ouvrage, lorsque vous me 
 
 demandiez, si je le donnerais 
 
 bientot au public 
 Lorsque j'ai eu termine mon affaire 
 
 vous avez commence la voire 
 Lorsque j'eus eu dejeune,je montai 
 
 a cheval, et je fas a Londres 
 Lorsque j'aurai hi la nouvelle piece 
 
 je vous dirai avec franchise ce 
 
 que j'en pense 
 Iriez-vous a Rome si vous le pou- 
 
 viez? oui.j'irais 
 Auriez-vous consenti a ces condi- 
 tions, si on vous les avait pro- 
 
 posees ? 
 Irez-vous demain a Londres, si vous 
 
 le pouvez ? oui,jirai 
 E sera surement parti, si vous lavez 
 
 voulu 
 Vous eussiez laisse echapper une 
 
 occasion si favorable, si Von ne 
 
 vous exit averti a temps 
 
 IX, 
 
 Continuation des memes Phrases. 
 
 On dit que vous partez aujourd'hui 
 pour Paris 
 
 Tout le monde soutient que vous ac- 
 cepter ez la place qu'on vous off re 
 
 On soupgonne que vous aviez hier 
 
 recu cette agreable nouvelle quand 
 
 on vous rencontra 
 Beaucoup de vos amis croient que 
 
 vous partltes hier pour la cam- 
 
 pagne 
 
 Le brttit se repand que vous avez 
 fait une grosse perte 
 
 I had already made every prepa- 
 ration for my departure, when 
 some unexpected business oc- 
 curred, that obliged me to defer 
 it for some days 
 
 You were already gone out when 
 I called upon you 
 
 My work had been sent to be 
 printed when you asked me if 
 I should soon bring it out 
 
 When my business was over you 
 began yours 
 
 When I had done breakfast I got 
 on horseback and went to 
 London 
 
 When I have read the new piece 
 I will candidly give you my 
 opinion of it 
 
 Would you go to Rome if it were 
 in your power ? yes, T would 
 
 Would you have agreed to these 
 terms, had they been proposed 
 to you ? 
 
 Shall you go to London to-mor- 
 row if you can ? Yes, I shall 
 
 He would certainly have set out, if 
 you wished it 
 
 You would have let so favourable 
 an opportunity slip, had you 
 not been warned in time 
 
 IX. 
 
 The same Phrases continued. 
 
 It is said that you set off to-day 
 for Paris 
 
 Every one maintains that you 
 will accept of the place that is 
 offered to you 
 
 It is suspected that you had re- 
 ceived this agreeable intelli- 
 gence when you were met 
 yesterday 
 
 Many of your friends believe that 
 you set out yesterday for the 
 country 
 
 There is a report that you have 
 met with a considerable loss 
 
542 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PHRASES 
 
 J'apprends a IHnstant que vous 
 fussiez parti ily a trois jours, si 
 des engagements, que vous aviez 
 contractus depuis long-temps, ne 
 vous avaient retenu 
 
 N'est-ilpas vrai que vous partiriez 
 aujourd'hui si vous le pouviez ? 
 
 Est-il vrai que vous seriez parti 
 depuis long-temps pour la cam- 
 pagne, si voire amour pour les 
 arts ne vous avait retenu a la 
 ville ? 
 
 Je ne crois pas que vous partiez, 
 quoique tout le monde I 'assure. 
 
 Je ne croyais pas quit fut shot de 
 retour 
 
 Ilafallu qu'il ait eu affaire a Men 
 d$s personnes 
 
 Je doute que votre ami fut venu a 
 bout de sesprojets s'il n'avait pas 
 ete fortement proteye 
 
 II n J est point dhomme, quelque me- 
 rite qu'il ait, qui nefut tres-mor- 
 tifie, s'il savait tout ce qu'on 
 pense de lui 
 
 Vous ne vous persuadiez pas que 
 les affaires pussent si mat tourner 
 
 I have this moment learnt that 
 you would have set out three 
 days since, had not engage- 
 ments which you had formed 
 long ago, detained you 
 
 Is it not true that you would set 
 out to-day if you could ? 
 
 Is it true that you would have 
 set out for the country long 
 since, had not your love for the 
 arts detained you in town 
 
 I do not imagine that you will set 
 out although everybody asserts 
 it 
 
 I did not think he had returned 
 so soon 
 
 He must have had business with 
 a great many people 
 
 I doubt that your friend would 
 have succeeded in his plans had 
 he not been strongly patronised 
 
 There is not a man, whatever 
 merit he may possess, that 
 would not be very much mor- 
 tified were he to know every 
 thing that is thought of him 
 
 You never persuaded yourself 
 that matters could have taken 
 so unfortunate a turn 
 
 X. 
 
 De Phrases sur le Negative Ne. 
 II i\ y y a pas beaucoup d' argent chez 
 
 les gens de lettres. A. 2, p. 500 
 27 r\y a point de ressource dans 
 
 une personne qui na point d'es- 
 
 prit. lb. 
 C'est a tort que vous taccusez de 
 
 jouer ,- je vous assure quHl ne 
 
 joue point- lb. 
 Entrez dans le salon ; vous pourrez 
 
 lui purler -, it ne joue pas lb. 
 Si pour avoir du Men, il en coute a 
 
 la proMte, je n'en veux point. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Mien rfest sur avec les capricieux : 
 vous croyez etrebien enfaveur; 
 
 X. 
 
 Of Phrases upon the Negative ne. 
 
 There is not much money to be 
 found among men of letters 
 
 There are no resources in a per- 
 son without sense 
 
 \ou accuse him wrongfully of 
 gaming : I assure you he never 
 games 
 
 Go into the room, you may speak 
 
 to him ; he is not playing 
 I do not wish to make a fortune 
 
 if it can only be done at the 
 
 expense of honour 
 Nothing is certain with capricious 
 
 people : you think yourself in 
 
ON SOME DIFFICULTIES. 
 
 543 
 
 point du tout, Vinstant de la plus 
 
 belle humeur est suivie de la plus 
 
 fdcheuse. lb. 
 Vous ne cessez de nous repeter les 
 
 mimes choses. Q. Ill, p. 101 
 Je nauiais ose vous en parler le 
 
 premier. lb. 
 
 Malgre ses protections, il iTa pu 
 reussir dans ses projets. lb. 
 
 Cet ouvrage serait fort bon, n'etait 
 pour la negligence du style. lb. 
 
 Y-a-il quelqyCun dont elle ne me- 
 
 dise. lb. 
 J'aipris tant de gout pour une vie 
 
 retiree que je ne sors presque 
 
 jamais. Q. IV, p. 501. 
 Voila ce qui s'est passe ; n'en par- 
 
 lez a personne. lb. 
 JMon parti est pris ; ne nVen par- 
 
 lez plus. lb. 
 Wemployez aucun de ces moyens ; 
 
 ils sont indignes de vous. Id. 
 
 Rien n'est plusjoli> lb. 
 
 Je ne dis rien que je ne pense. 
 
 lb. p. 502 
 Je ne fais jamais oVexces que je 
 
 n'en sois incommode. lb. 
 
 XL 
 
 Continuation des memes Phrases. 
 
 C est un homme pour quije n'ai ni 
 amour, ni estime. lb. 
 
 7/ rv'est ni assez prudent ni assez 
 eclair e. lb. 
 
 Je vous assure que je ne le fre~ 
 quente ni ne le vois. lb. 
 
 Ne /aire que parcourir les diffe- 
 rentes branches des connaissances 
 humaines sans s'arreter a aucune, 
 c'est moins chercher a sHnstruire 
 qu'd tuer le temps, lb. 503 
 
 Que n'etes-vous toujours aussi 
 complaisant? lb. 
 
 favour ; by no means : the 
 
 moment of the best humour is 
 
 followed by that of the worst 
 You are constantly repeating the 
 
 same things to us 
 I should not have dared to have 
 
 been the first to speak to you 
 
 of it 
 With all his interest he has not 
 
 been able to succeed in his 
 
 plans 
 This work would be very good, 
 
 were it not for the negligence 
 
 of the style 
 Is there any one she dares not 
 
 slander? 
 I have acquired so great a taste 
 
 for retirement, that I seldom 
 
 go abroad 
 This is what has passed : do not 
 
 speak of it to any one 
 My resolution is fixed : talk to 
 
 me no more of it 
 Do not employ any of these 
 
 measures, they are unworthy 
 
 of you, 
 Nothing is more beautiful 
 I never speak but what I think 
 
 I never commit an excess without 
 suffering by it 
 
 XL 
 
 Continuation of the same Phrases. 
 
 He is a man for whom I have 
 neither love nor esteem 
 
 He is neither sufficiently prudent 
 nor enlightened 
 
 I assure you I neither frequent 
 him nor see him 
 
 To go through the different 
 branches of human knowledge 
 only without fixing upon any 
 one of them, is not to seek lor 
 instruction but to kill time 
 
 Why are you not at all times 
 equally complaisant? 
 
544 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PHRASES. 
 
 line lefera pas, a moins que vous 
 
 ne/'z/ engagiez. Q. IV, p. 503 
 // rCira pas si vous ne I en priez. 
 
 lb. 
 II nous a menaces de se venger ; 
 
 nous n'avons fait qu'e?i rire. lb. 
 Trop d> insouciance ne peut que 
 
 nuire. lb. 
 Que devenez-vous ? il y a trois 
 
 mois que nous ne vows avons vu. 
 
 lb. 
 Comment vous etes-vous porte de- 
 
 puis que nous ne vows auows vm ? 
 C'est Men pire gw'tm ne le disait. 
 
 lb. p. 504 
 Pen s'en faut que je n'aie donne 
 
 tete baissee. dans le piege. lb. 
 Dites la verite en toute occasion ; on 
 
 meprise toujours ceux qui patient 
 
 autrement qu'ils ne pensent. lb. 
 Ne desesperez pas que la verite ne 
 
 sefassejour a la longue. lb. 
 Je ne disconviens pas que la 
 
 chose ne soit ainsi. lb. 
 Prenez garde qu'on ne vous en- 
 
 tralne dans quelque fausse de- 
 marche, lb. 
 e/'empecherai bien qu'on ne vous 
 
 nuise dans cette affaire. lb. 
 // craint qu'on ne le soupgonnt 
 
 d' avoir trempe dans ce complot, 
 
 lb. p. 505 
 On lui a donne d'exceilens conseits, 
 
 de crainte qu'i'Z ne mangudt loc- 
 
 casion de faire connaltre ce quHl 
 
 est en etat de faire. lb. 
 J'y ai long -temps travaille ; je ne 
 
 saurais en venir a bout. lb. 
 Vous feriez mieux de vous (aire ; 
 
 vous ne savez ce que vous dites. 
 
 lb. 
 Vous ne sauriez me faire un plus 
 
 grand plaisir. lb. 
 
 He will not do it unless you per- 
 suade him to it 
 
 He will not go, if you do not 
 request it of him 
 
 He has threatened us with ven- 
 geance; we only laughed at him 
 
 Too great supineness cannot but 
 be hurtful 
 
 What has become of you ? We 
 have not t een you these three 
 months 
 
 How have you been since w r e saw 
 you? 
 
 It is much worse th was said 
 
 I was near falling blindly into the 
 
 snare 
 Tell the truth on all occasions ; 
 
 those who speak what they do 
 
 not think are always despised 
 Do not despair that the truth will 
 
 appear in time 
 I admit that it is so 
 
 Take care that you are not misled 
 
 I shall prevent them from doing 
 you any harm in this business 
 
 He is apprehensive that he is sus- 
 pected of being concerned in 
 this plot 
 
 Th£y have given him excellent 
 advice, lest he should lose the 
 opportunity of showing w r hat 
 he was capable of doing 
 
 I have been long employed about 
 it ; I cannot accomplish it 
 
 You had better be silent, you do 
 not know what you are saying 
 
 You cannot give me greater plea- 
 sure 
 
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