TO HIS GRACE GEORGE GRANVILLE, DUKE OF SUTHERLAND, WITH THE GREATEST RESPECT OF J. BOSWORTH. / f \) o NOTES ON THE ALPHABETS. ■ u T. ??™°? character is aUU generoUy used in Holland for printing tile Scriptures, and books for the lower orders. 2. Sounded like k, before i 3. F has the precise sound of tile Bng. /; and though V 18 said to be softer, it is generally pro- nounced in Ger. and Dm. as/; thus, Tast/os<, vin- gor a finger, vin a fin, &c. 4. Instead of curling the lips, as when enunciating the Sng, w, or oo, let them remain in a horizontal or natural position, and tlien try to pronounce water nearly like valcr, and you have tlie exact sound of the Ger. and J>ut. i<\ nb well as the Dun v. lalrk 4)f ^l|r^n:Wt<& 5. The Dill, e 1 and of s before f. / .tsthesr.unilof t before a, o,u, • ,.j.,sta.s,n£„y. 6. In Z)a(. d l.as the t.uun.1 of i at the end of words: in Dtiii. when rf concludes a word, stands between two ,„«el^. or is doubled, it has a softer sound. Uke Xoi an angel, and X„yf a lynx, arc pronounced an'-ge-los and lunx. 13 In the Russian alphabet tlie following letters ate very peculiar and difficult to pronounce, sch, U, yer, yu, yu- 14. The Persians use the Arabic alphabet with the addiUon of j pe, s-che, ( — fghaf, and_J ihe. 15. In Sanscrit, the Grammar of Sir Charles Wil- kins, and tlie invaluable DicUonary of Sir Graves C. Haughton have been generally followed. The ori- ental arrangement of the alphabet is this. Surds. Sonants. Gutturah ka' kha gaghanga j-atatals cha chha ja jha ngS or nya Cerebrals tk' fha da dlia na Dentals ta fha da dha na Labials pa p'ha ba bha ma Semitoweuya ra la va Sibilants sa sha saha U 1 ; i« never written but atthe beginning of words, being Sways LdShi every consonant. The other vowels, and Uie diphthongs are written s Fomed by doubling the tongue far '>^l' °°^f palate, so as to produce a hollow sound. Bopp caus^ them Unguals. .. , j ; fcOnly used in the Vedas, and l the surd, or Wehih II. 1 is said to resetablc S©UND ®r WITH THE THE 1, ETlE^S. 3 . __ Dairk DM'isk- Tctljmdjuc feitn^w /r«A =— ^n,i. Ueireu Fre^ieh A,,Z» Hifki/. BJ ^•» a. "l»^ . . 6(" c'^- <■ 1 Cc f= 4 _ ' qn .=^ cha ST olilM? >T.^,f? '. \ '. I I ■r Xx Xi" Cd. (^.«yt«tt 1 . _ - a VorVA _ d day _ . \- - - 3 6 <9"i i-« ^ ^"« ><.,+ 44 q)6 AS i,i,ih 1 aa ? dha S , lUmki. ^iKrruire. if- - e e: ?? ^\>lk _ di. S dh,-. ET j e© «i"e e e - f I i J ( TT ?<.r;f-^ f /«■ .. _ 1 ;■ : p> 5-"f f** i. C F $"$ R Qi ^ i J"-!""- - 1 »<- . . 1^3 Hn Pp nw ^^ TQ pa T pM ^ p« y««Ar» - *f " ri. T 1 9f»«^- \ ■ - ^'tf q d h PorVft p ri #ri -^ r rars . '»? r % t Rit P'f ?! O •n 8 sir. , 1 - _ . 6 s s s » H Cc If I^M u? s)i *; ^Ivi* y »'■* yex h , ^ yikwhoU . o X si-x . . XX X _ Of «M yuW Sc y yw - 1 Y^ y i JM _ j yair VJ i ya n ■ z «««; - ^« . _ Z /. y z" % 5 : 33 - zii -i i .',iio^lMtAn m 33' OAiVA HNiil IS gjih tiH. 34> OAS ^frlNS? Al*< VAS? f 35. Ai*4>Ai * * * * QA! QAh ifN iMli An AiVAM, ' I. KidgA AlKh KA6 ' iXVAKA SA AA-rA AeiK NA BAXTIbK Tom. II, • pro r^cp: 17. * * * itr A QAh IN ANdVA AAiXe. * 18. QAKAi MAr Mli^^AAlM MA 19. m 12; VIS SI A AinKANS AK riK r*s ^A^1^eAIlf^ is 61 riA^iAn IK j:K 20. QABAi rK6 ^ mAA ri|: i'MMA AKArKGi iNA *> hAHK^A l^tlNINS ^ 21. m PAginK. AK rAgiiiKAis A) * Legere'volult ngfler * pro I^KA^QIS, quod fe occurrit, - ponentis, Ihre, ^ Error amanuenfis, pro ^• PAUL! Epiftola ad Romanos* Gap. XL 33. * * * * QAh VITliKHQlS* njTs 33. • • * ♦ &fcieilti*Dei: OMVA flNnSSniAAxaA '■ SlA STAn^S Quam inenarrabUia funt judicia is QAh tlNlSlAAlSTldAl Vir$lS is ! ejus, & non adfequends viae ejus ! 34- OAS AOK n]:KnmI»A i:KA«i»i 34. Quis enim cognovit intd- «l:INS? AltP^An OAS IMMA KArmeiS ledlum domini ? aut quis ei confi. VAS ? liarius fuit ?■ • 35. Ai4»(J>Ati (3AS TfMMA J:KnM«:^5l 35. Aut "quis ci prius dedit? }:«•«» Q>Vh IrKAriAAAl^An IMMA. Et retribuctur ilH. ' 36. nST6 nS TfMMA QAh *PAlKh IMA 36. QuonUm ex illo^ & per il- QAh I'M i'MMA AAAA iMMnh vnAtfinS lum, & in. illo omnia. lUi gloria i^nAlVAM. AM6N. in fcciila;; Arrien. AP, xlr. BiAqA Nrt IZVIS ]SK52KQhS I. Ro^ *eil?r'«Jf!riKr^i per [6IN rcJjS nSriJSAM A6IKA mlfericordliam Dei, exhibere corpo- iVAKA SAna UHpANA_ VeihANA VAI- ra veftra fiioftiam vivam, fanftam, [AA-rAA6lKAiaANA''ril>A AW^A*l»AhTA- beneplacentem Deo, rationabilem lA KA^JTINASSn *l^VAJ^AA- cultum ve ftrUm. Tom. JI, Lllillll 2. NX W, pro rxtS. k pro SinA. • pro I:AnimS. « pro rx»J»A * p«> iSiVAKAHA. I M^ A6IK SIQIIM IN 5- Ita multi unum corpus fumw* ^^OAKS/iZnh ANiJlAK. Chrido; attamen unufquifque aitdr, NdVAlK^QA nl^S AK 17. * * * in confpeau Dei, iK^QA MAnNB a A- fed etiam in confpedu hominum omnium. 1 VAIK^AN nS 12: VIS 18. Si potuerit fieri ex vobis, Ml^j^M rAVA'K^I hA- cum omnibus hominibus pacem ha- bentes. .BANS rAVKlSAW^AwS 19. Non vos ipfos vindicanto. C*, STA* tliVAlK * * * diledi, fed date locum ir^ Dei ; r A^K MIS f:KAV^ITJJ Scriptum eft enim, Mihi vindidba,' -AriAcVA aiil>ltl> ^A. ut retribuam j Ego retribuam, dic?t dominus. ^52 fr'IQAi^cV i tI)6lNAA 20. Si efurierit inimicum tuum, "lil> QAKAl ^AilKSQAl cibum da illi, & fi fitierit, potu're- ITA AtlK TAMQANdS fice ilium 5 hoc enim faciens, carbo CIKIS/ANA hA^^Kltfi IS. nes ignis congeres in caput ejus. \lZAt1 Al^ tlNtJiIlltliA 21. Ne vincare a malo,. fed : ^ItliJ^A nNiJiHHll. vincas a bono malum. C A P' * * * ill A^A- f Manifefta eft librarii ofcitantia, ]:KAMA^QI' pius tarn in Cod. Arg. quam hie in fequentibus, in fignifications t» voog^ n pro XKiSTAfi. pro p^k^. pro ipeiNANA tAT. Ihre, ( 5- SyA MANj^rAl Ain AGIK SignM 'i'M 5, Itamultiunum corpus fu XAn A«f»iI»A»^ M^OAK^lXnh ANipAK- Chrifto; attamen UBurquifqt ,7. * • • iir ANdVAlKt|>QA r^^ AK. 17. • * • in confpeftu 3 QAh IN AN^VAlK^QA MAnNG a A- ^ fed etiam in confpeftu homir 'AAi%6- * omnium. ' 18. gA.BAi MAri vAiK«I»An ns izvis Mi«^, JpdAAiM mAnnAm rAVAiK4»i hA- ^asl^RA^S. 19. Ni i'Z.^iS SiAbAns tAVKisAnAAnS AinBAHS AK biBiip, STA«I> 4»VAiK. * * • r^s rAWeAnf» i'ST ahk mi« ^zKAV^it^j 61 riAdAn IK I^KAriAAA aii«p »irA. 20. QABAi rlC6A5^ i:igA*»A • «I»6InAA k mAA. ri|: iHMA 1* gABAi »I»AnKSQAi aKArKGi i'MA ATA AHk TAngANd.s hAnK^A |:nNiNS icikiS/AnA hAnBufi is. 18. Si potBcrit fieri ex voliiii^ cum omnibus hominibus pacem ha- bentes. 19. Non vos ipfos vindicaateS; dilefti, fed date locum iras Dei: Scrlptum eft enim, Mihi vindifta, ut retribuam •, Ego retribuam, dfcit dominus. 20. Si efurierit JBimicura tuurn, cibum da illi, & fi fitierit, potu i fice ilium ; hoc enim faciens, carb.^ ncs ignis congeres in caput ejus. 21. NI rAQinK,\l3^An AJ: nN4»in<|»A 2»- Ne vincare a malo,. fed AK rAginxAXS Al- ^PmtpA nNipintl*. vincas a bono malum. Cap « Legere'voluit ngfter » * * * ijl A^A- ' Manifefta eft Hbrarii ofcitantia, |:KAMA4»QI^. pro pKA*PgiS, qudd lapius tarn in Cod. Arg. quam hie in fequentibus, in llgnificatione tS vooj, i>J2 occurrit, ^ponentis, Ihre. s pro XKISTAW. ^ Error amanuenfis, pro MAT. Ihrtf » pro ^AW- * pro tpeiNAWAf A MAP OF EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. The adjoining Map gives a local view of the chief European families of languages and their dialects. Those spoken by the Japhetic race are noticed in the Table, Part I. § 19 ; but a short abstract of the Map may be useful. Beginning then on the west, we have the following families of languages and their dialects. 1. The Celtic X^ialectS to the west include the Gaelic or Highland Scotch, spoken in the Highlands ; the Erse or Irish, in Ireland ; the Manks in the Isle of Man ; the Welsh in Wales J Cornish in Cornwall; and the Armorican in Britany. 2. The Iiatin Dialects are to the south. From their supposed Grecian origin, the Latin dialects are also sometimes designated Grceco-Latin ; the former appellation is here preferred, as most of the languages included in this division are evidently formed directly from the Latin. In the Latin or Graeco-Latin are comprehended the Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, and modern Greek, spoken in their respective countries. 3. The G-ermaniC Dialects are in the middle. This family of languages is divided into Low and High German. The Low-German comprehends the English with its parent, the Anglo-Saxon, gradually introduced into Britain by the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles Jutes.* Angles.J L Jutcs in Kent, &c. about a.d. 449 5. East-Anglia in Norfolk, &c. about a.d. 527 SAXONS.f 6. Bernicia in Northumberland, &c. . . 547 2. South -Saxons in Sussex . . 491 7. Deira in Yorkshire, &c 559 3. West-SaxonsinHampshire,&c. 519 8. Mercia in Derbyshire, &c. . . • . 586 4. East-Saxons in Essex, &c. . 527 The other Low-German Languages were the Dutch, with the dialects of Flanders, Gelder- land, Overysel, and Friesland, the language of Westphalia, Honovet, Holstein, Sleswick, South Jutland, Mecklenburg, Magdeburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Courland, Livonia, Estonia. The High-German in the south or hilly part of Germany, including the High-Saxon, Hessian, Thuringian, Francic (in Franconia), Rhinish, Alsacian, Bavarian, Silesian, Transilvanian, Suavian, Alemanic, Austrian, Tirolese, Swiss, and Moeso-Gothic. 4. The Scandinavian Dialects in the north, comprehend the Icelandic formed from the Old Danish (Danska tunga); the modern Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Greendland- ish, Ferroe, Shetlandish, and Orkneyan, spoken in their respective countries and islands. 5. The Sclavonic or Slavic Dialects in the north-west, are the Russian, Ser- vian, Croatian, Polish, Bohemian, &c., Lettish or Lithuanian, dialectsof Wilna, Samogitia, &c. 6. Some consider the Sclavonic to be quite distinct from the Finnish, Laplandic, Siberian, Ostiakian, Hungarian or Magyarian, Twastian, and Carelian. The earliest station in which they have been found is between the Caucasian and the Oural mountains.§ 7. Some European and other languages cannot be easily classed with the Sanscrit. ,The Basque is a remnant of the Old Iberian or Spanish, now spoken in Biscay and NavarreMn Spain, and Lower Navarre, Labour, and Soule in France. The Basque seems to be a primi- tive language, but still to have some affinity with the Shemitic family.|| Turkish is of Tartar origin, and allied to the Shemitic.^ An alphabetic list of places marked upon the Map with letters. Anglen ... a III. § 1 Franconia . . o II § 6 Runamo . . . h XII § 24 Ansbach . . . i X § 76 Friesland . . a IV § 1 Saxony (Lower) . ggg IV § 3t Austrian States nnn II § 5 Holstein . . . c II § 4 (Upper) . jjj II § 5 Baden . . . 11 II § 5 Jutland (north) . e IV § 41 Skanderburg . . e IV § 45 Bamberg . . kk II § 6 (south) . d III § 3 Sleswick or south Jut. d III § 1 Brunswick . . i II § 4 Liim (Gulph of) g IV § 45 Thanet (Isle of) . 6 III § 3 ChersonesusCimb.de IV § 41 Mayence . . . c II § 6 Westphalia . . . hh II § 4 Cleves . . . dU^e Mecklinburg . . f II § 4 Wiburg . . . . / IV § 45 Flanders . . . p II § 4 Oldenburg . . 6 II § 4 Wurtenburg . . . m II § 5. It ought to be observed, that as, one dialect often gradually melts into another, it is impos- sible to mark with precision where one terminates and another begins. So great has been the difficulty and uncertainty in delineating the extent of dialects, that several times the attempt was almost relinquished. Though conscious of exposure to severe criticism, the plan has been carried into effect, only from the conviction that many will be glad to obtain, by a mere glance of the eye, that information which it has cost much laborious research to delineate on so small map even in this imperfect manner. i • Anglo-Saxon, III. § 3. t lb. III. § 4. J lb. III. § 5—7. § See Prichard's Celtic Nations, p. 17. II Balbi's Atlas Eth., Tables X. XI. § 154. Malte Brun's Geog. vol. vi. bk. xcvi. A. p. 99. Prichard's Celt. p. 8, note c. IT Balbi's Atlas Eth., Table II. § 6, and VIII. § 124. PREFACE I.— THE IMPORTANCE OF A CLOSE INVESTIGATION OF LANGUAGES IN CORROBORATING REVELATION, AND TRACING THE ORIGIN AND AFFINITY OF NATIONS.— ALL LANGUAGES HAVE A DISTANT VERBAL RESEMBLANCE, INDICATING A PRIMITIVE CONNEXION.— THERE IS ALSO A GREAT DIVERSITY IN THE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGES, WHICH IS MOST RATIONALLY ACCOUNTED FOR BY THE CONFUSION RECORDED BY MOSES.— LANGUAGES ARE DIVIDED INTO CLASSES, SUCH AS THOSE SPOKEN BY THE DESCENDANTS OF SHEM, HAM, AND JAPHETH.— THE PEOPLE AND ^ LANGUAGES' OF EUROPE WERE OF JAPHETIC ORIGIN.— THE FIRST TRIBES THAT ENTERED EUROPE WERE CELTS,— THE NEXT WERE THE TEUTONI OR GERMANS, — AND THE THIRD THE SCLAVONIANS.— AS WE ARE MOST CONCERNED WITH THE TEUTONIC, OR GERMAN TRIBES, THEY CLAIM A PARTICULAR NOTICE. 1 . It is mind^ understanding, or the power of reasoning, which is the distinguishing property of man. The mind is a man's self; by it we are allied to the highest intelligence. Can it then be unimportant for an intellectual being to examine the operations of the mind? But its opera- tions or thoughts are so quick and fugitive, that no real apprehension of them can be obtained, except by their representatives, that is, by words. These, when spoken, quickly vanish from the mind. It is only when words are written, that they become tangible ; they are then the lasting representatives or signs of ideas. Those, therefore, who philosophically and effectually examine the structure and the right meaning of words, the instruments of thought, are most likely to have the clearest appre- hension of the mental powers and their operations. 2. Words, as the instruments for expressing thoughts,* are the con- stituent parts of language. It is by language that the feelings, experience, and indeed the whole mind of individuals, can be communicated and made the property of our whole species. The most sublime thoughts and extensive ♦ Whately's Elements of Logic, Ch. ii. p. 55. 11 ORIGINALLY ONK LANGUAGE. knowledge of those who have been favoured with the highest order of intellect, are in their writings concentrated and perpetuated : thus the ex- alted endowment of reason is perfected by the gift of rational language. 3. The minute investigation of language is not only important in examining the mental powers^ but in bearing its testimony to the truth of Revelation, and in tracing the origin and affinity of nations. 4. The physical history of man, the researches of the most eminent geologists, the investigations of the most able philosophers, and the close and patient examination of all the phenomena of nature, are so many dis- tinct confirmations of the Mosaic record. At present we need only refer to the physical or natural history of man.* Here every candid inquirer is led to the conclusion, that all the diversities of the human race originally sprang from one father and mother; and hence we reasonably infer, that this primitive pair had one primitive language. We now find a great diversity of tongues. To account for this diversity, philosophers have started diflferent theories : f but there is no theory which so satis- factorily accounts for the variety of languages, and yet the similarity observable in their fragments, as the plain statement of facts recorded by Moses. 5. "The whole earth was of one language and one speech," or of one li2D,X and of like words. § "And it came to pass, as they (the families of the sons of Noah) journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there." Because the people said, "Let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven ; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth," when the Lord had determined that they should be dis- persed, and thus " replenish the earth," God " confounded their lip, language, or pronunciation, that they could not understand one another's speech." " Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the Lord did there confound the language of all the earth; and from thence did the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth." (Gen. xi. 1, 2, 4,7,9.) 6. On a close examination and analysis of languages, even as we find them at the present day, nearly forty-two centuries after the confusion. * Researches into the Pltysical History of ManJdnd, by C. J. Prichard, M.D., F.R.S., &c. t Some French naturalists and physiologists, with a few writers on history and antiquities in Germany, speak of the Adamic race as of one among many distinct creations. Von Humboldt speaks of the Americans as a distinct stock. Malte Brun has taken it for granted that each part of the earth had its own race, of whose origin it was in vain to inquire. Niebuhr is of the same opinion as to the early inhabitants of Italy. — Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, 8vo. Oxford, 1831. X Heb. nnS nSti? ynSrrbD ^H^M Septuagint Kai ?> -n-daa »j yri xelXos iv: Vulgate Erat autem terra labii unius. — HDtt? <^ ^^P) ^«^^'> margin ; labium, sermo, ora. § Heb. C'^inS C'l^n J Septuagi7it Kai^'cpcovi] ^la Trdai: Vulgate et sermonum eo- rundem. — D>*7nS P^- one*, alike, the same, from ^nW o"^' ^rab. ^tXc-l pi. ones, from Jo-l one. — D>1^"T words, speech, from "nm « word, matter, thing; verbum, res, aliquid. PROOFS J^-ROM PRIlSENT RESEMBLANCES. Ill there are, in almost every tongue, a few fragments and whole words so similar, as to indicate an original connexion. The great diversity in their vocabularies and grammatical structure is still more apparent. The facts recorded by the Hebrew legislator of one original language, the subsequent confusion of lip or pronunciation, and the consequent dis- persion, alone account for this pervading identity or resemblance, and the striking diversity.* Both these claim a brief notice. 7. First, there are resemblances or identities still observable in the severed fragments of an original language. These occur most frequently in Words of the commonest use. Such words, if not composed exactly of the same letters, are from letters of the same organ, or from those which are interchangeable. 8. A slight inspection of the ten numerals, even in a few languages, will prove that they had an original connexion. * Those who wish to see this subject fully and satisfactorily discussed, are referred to the admirable papers of Sharon Turner, Esq., F.S.A. On the Affinities and Diversities in the Languages of the World, and on their Primeval Cause, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, Vol. I. Part I. 4to. 1827. p. 17—106, and Vol. II. Part II. 1834, p. 252— 262. He has arranged the words used to denote Father in more than five hundred languages. He has also made a similar classification of the various terms to designate Mother, as well as the first two numerals. Mr. Turner observes : " In my letters on the first and second numerals, it was endeavoured to show, that the words which various nations have used to express them, were either simple sounds of one syllable, or compound terms resolvable frequently into these simpler elements, and most probably always made from them ; but a more important object was to evince, that both the elementary and the composite sounds have resemblances and connected analogies, which, although used by nations that were strangers to each other, were too numerous to have been accidental. I intimated that the languages or people, among whom such similarities prevailed, however disparted and divergent they had been, or now were, must have had some ancient and primeval consanguinity. — In meditating on this subject, it occurred to me, that if the mind were not pursuing an illusory idea, the same facts and the same intimation would appear as strikingly in some other words, as they were visible in the numerals. This impression, and the desire neither to mislead, nor to be misled, have induced me to observe, whether the words that are used in the different languages of the world to express the first, the dearest, the most universal, and the most lasting relations of life, Father and Mother, would be found to confirm, or overthrow the principles suggested. The words were arranged into classes, according to their primitive or more simple elements. These classes demonstrate that the common use of sounds to express the same ideas, must have had some common origin, and are evidences of a common and early aflSnity. While each class proves a similarity or an identity, the numerous classes indicate great diversity. Identity without diversity would have proved only a common derivation, and diversity without identities would disprove community of origin. But so much partial identity and resemblance remaining, at this advanced period of the world, visible amid so much striking and general disparity, exactly coin- cides with the Hebrew statement of an anterior unity, and of a subsequent confusion, abruption, and dispersion. Amongst his deductions Mr. Turner observes, that the "primeval language has not been anywhere preserved, but that fragments of it must, from the common origin of all, everywhere exist; that these fragments will indicate the original derivation and kindredship of all ; and that some direct causation of no common agency has operated to begin, and has so permanently affected mankind, as to produce a striking and universally experienced diversity." A gentleman, whose erudition is universally acknowledged, and whose opinions, from his extensive lingual knowledge, and especially from his critical acquaintance with the oriental tongues, deserve the greatest attention, has come to this conclusion; for he has stated ("De oorspronkelijke taal, wier oudste dochter het Sanskrit is, de vruchtbare moeder van zoovele dialekten, bestaat niet meer,") the original language, of which the oldest daughter is the Sanscrit, the fruitful mother of so many dialects, exists no longer. — Professor Hamaker's Akademische voorlezingen, S^-c. Leyden, 8vo. 1835, p. 7. These interesting lectures have just appeared; English and German translations of them are preparing for the press. Ere long we hope to see Professor Hamaker's two other learned works : A Comparison of the Radical Words of the Sanscrit with those of other Dialects; and. Grammatical Remarks on the Indo- Germanic Languages — on both of which he has for some time been diligently, and it may be added, very successfully engaged. 3 :i. <. ^ < 3 S » 3 — — oT 2- a- 03 3 re p 2. 1 1 7 p 1 Oq V. 3 •^ • ►1 s- p 5 V V — ^ 1 03 — • f : 3- 3 C 3- 1 > 1 1: 05 1^- re r 3- a. s ? 3- 1 3- re re 0^ 3 p c 1 O C D- C a. 3 ^ xn o ^ nsTS P £? Q-O. 1 egar \ gam / ant 1. 5' ^' P3 3" 3* 1 TS s-a 4S 3 f f ?r cya- Eh Cl' 3 o s 5S ?r X q- Q. O^ P 1 S- 2. S" 3- c_ s O P re 3 1 H sa p' 3" P o "-S •-s ^— ,— ' i' ^ n1 2, o» 3 m aa ;33a ^^■^ ^ 2, 3 P R R e R S3 « i ^ o i re triginta centum < D a. 3 3 % 3 1 o re re 3 re 1^ 5' c re ill 3 2 . ^ p" s 3 3 C i" p C 1 i" 2. CL 2". 3 3 3 3 a> 03 1 3 ><" 35 1 ^1 3 P o 3 1 f 3 3 2. 5' re re f < re 3 2. 33 < re 1 ►< 3* re o o 3 re i' ^ a ^ s- ^ a- rt- 2" 3 03 N N < < a. ^ re 2 « ^ f5 o re ^ re O g- S. 3 3 ^ ^ 2 -^ re ^ 3 J^ crq ^- 3 3 tr B" -a- ^ ^ 3 03n CO s 35 35 *TT- ^ re f? i 1 C S P" O: X 3 3 §: 2_ O: 3 3 S "^S Oq & c c: P f ^ ^ C. 3 03 ^ ^ ^ 35 £? O re o S- & ^ J? < X 3 re 3 Q. O r* 1 e Wiht jjaet Ealond onear- daS. Of Seaxum ]jaet is of J^am lande \)e mon hatee hi jjanon gewiton ocS to daege \>^t hit weste wunige. Wseron jja aerest heora latteowas and heretogan twegen gebro^ra, Hengest and Horsa. Hi waeron Wihtgylses suna, Jjaes Faeder waes [Witta haten, j^aes faeder waes Wihta haten, ]3aes] faeder waes Woden nemned, of j^aes strynde monigra maeg^a cvning cynn fruman laedde." — Smith's Bede, p. 483. XVI ANGLO-SAXONS. 5. The Angles (Engle), from Sleswich in the south of Denmark, about A.D. 527, settled themselves in East Anglia, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, and part of Bedfordshire. — Ida, in a. d. 547, began to establish himself in Bernicia, comprehending Northumberland, and the south of Scotland between the Tweed and the Firth of Forth. — About a. d. 559, Ella conquered Deira [DeoramaegS] lying between the Humber and the Tweed, including the present counties of York, Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. — Mercia was formed into an independent state by Crida, about a.d. 586, and compreliended the counties of Chester, Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, Leicester, Northampton, Rut- land, Huntingdon, the north of Beds, and Hertford, Warwick, Bucks, Oxon, Worcester, Hereford, Gloucester, Stafford, and Salop. Thus, one Jute, three Saxon, and four Angle, altogether eight kingdoms, were established in Britain, by the year 586.* 6. The Angles emigrated so numerously as to leave Angle, their original district, destitute of inhabitants. Though the Friesians are not named as uniting in the first conquest of Britain, it is clear, from their locality, that many of them accompanied the other Teutonic tribes, f Those' now settled in Britain were denominated Anglo-Saxons to show their origin; Anglo-Saxon denoting that the people so called were the Angles, a nation coming from the Saxon confederacy. In sub- sequent times, when the Angles had been alienated from the Saxon confederacy by settling in Britain, they denominated that part of this kingdom which they inhabited Engla-land, the land of the Angles, Angle's land, which was afterwards contracted into England. 7. From the entrance of the Saxons into Britain in a.d. 449, they opposed the Britons, till, on the full establishment of the Saxon power in A.D. 586, the Britons were driven into Wales. iVs soon as the Britons ceased to oppose their invaders the Saxon kingdoms began to contend with each other. The West-Saxons, with varying success, gradually increased in influence and territory from Cerdic their first leader in A.D. 494, till 827, when Egbert, king of Wessex, defeated or made tributary all the other Saxon kingdoms. Egbert, his son Ethelwulph, and his grandsons Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred, and Alfred the Great, had to contend with new and fierce opponents in the Northmen, or Danes. The most energetic and renowned of the West- Saxon kings was Alfred the Great. He drove the Northmen from his kingdom, and found leisure * Mr. Turner, in his Hist, of A.-S., b. iii. ch. 5, vol. i. p. 309, observes : " This state of Britain has been improperly denominated the Saxon heptarchy. When all the kingdoms were settled, they formed an octarchy. Ella, supporting his invasion in Sussex, like Hengist in Kent, made a Saxon duarchy before the year 500. When Cerdic erected the state of Wessex in 519, a triarchy appeared ; East Anglia made it a tetrarchy; Essex a pentarchy. The success of Ida, after 547, having established a sovereignty of Angles in Bernicia, the island beheld an hexarchy. When the northern Ella penetrated, in 560, southward of the Tees, his kingdom of Deira produced an heptarchy. In 586, the Angles branching from Deira into the regions south of the Humber, the state of Mercia completed an Anglo-Saxon octarchy." f See Friesians, iv. § 50 — 56. ANGLO-SAXON EARLIEST WRITERS. XVH not only to encourage literature in others, but, with great success, to devote himself to literary pursuits, as much as the proper discharge of the public affairs of his kingdom would allow. He translated into Anglo- Saxon, Boethius, Orosius, and Bede, and thus gave a preeminence to the West-Saxon language, as well as to the West-Saxon kingdom. The West-Saxons retained the government of this island till 1016, when Canute, a Dane, became king of England. Canute and his two sons, Harold and Hardicanute, reigned twenty-six years. The Saxon line was restored in 1042, and continued till 1066, when Harold the Second was slain by William duke of Normandy, commonly called William the Conqueror. Thus the Anglo-Saxon dynasty terminated, after it had existed in England about six hundred years. The Saxon power ceased when William the Conqueror ascended the throne, but not the language ; for Anglo-Saxon, after rejecting or changing many of its inflections, continued to be spoken by the old inhabitants till the time of Henry the Third, a.d. 1258. What was written after this period has generally so great a resemblance to our present language, that it may evidently be called English. 8. From the preceding short detail, it appears that the Jutes had small possessions in Kent and the Isle of Wight : the Angles occupied the east and north of England, with the south of Scotland : and the Saxons had extensive possessions in the western and southern parts. The descendants of these Saxons were very numerous : their power and influence became most extensive under the dominion of West-Saxon kings, especially under Egbert and Alfred. It was the powerful mind of Alfred that drew into England the talent and literature of Europe, and induced him to benefit his country by writing so much in his native tongue, the Anglo-Saxon ; thus giving the West-Saxon dialect so great a predominance as to con- stitute it the cultivated language of the Anglo-Saxons. This pure Anglo- Saxon may be found in the works of Alfred, JElfric, the Anglo-Saxon Laws, Caedmon, &c. 9. Ethelbert, king of Kent, being converted to the Christian faith by the preaching of Augustine, in a.d. 597, was distinguished as the author of the first written Saxon laws which have descended to us, or are known to have been established. Some think that the laws of Ethelbert are the first Anglo-Saxon composition :* others give priority to Beowulf, the Traveller's Song, &c. Beowulf is said to have been nearly contemporary with Hengistjf but the poem contained in the Cotton MS. British Museum, Vitellius, A. XV. is not so old. There occur in it Christian allusions which fix this text at least at a period subsequent to a.d. 597. Some eminent scholars attribute this MS. to the early part of the 10th century.:}: * Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, b. iii. c. 6, vol. i. p. 332. t See the very neat edition of Beowulf, by Mr. Kemble, Pref p. xx. London, 1833. X Conybeare's Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, p. 32; Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, b. ix. c. 2, vol. iii. p.281. d will ANGLO-SAXON — EARLIEST WRITERS. From this fine poem may be selected some early specimens of pure Anglo- Saxon. The Traveller's Song, in its original composition, is referred by Mr. Conybeare* to about a.d. 450. It was first printed by him with a literal Latin version, and a free poetical translation in English. An improved Saxon text is given in Mr. Kemble's Beowulf, p. 223 — 233. For an example of an early specimen of Anglo-Saxon poetry, compared with one of a subsequent date, see Friesic, § 58. As the works of Alfred, ^Elfric, Caedmon, the poems of Beowulf, and many of the books specified in the note below, f afford ample specimens of pure * Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, p. 9—29 ; Exeter MS. p. 84. t A chronological list of the chief works printed in Anglo-Saxon, with a notice of Grammars and Dictionaries intended for junior students. — [1567.] jElfric. 1. A Testimonie of antiqvitie show- ing the auncient fayth in the Church of England touching the Sacrament of the Body and Bloude of the Lord here publickely preached, and also receiued in the Saxons' tyme, above 600 yeares agoe, 16mo. Imprinted at London by John Daye, dwelling over Aldersgate beneath S. Martyns, 1567. This little book contains "A Sermon of the Paschall Larabe to be spoken unto the people at Easter." Anglo-Saxon on the left-hand page, and an English translation on the right. It is paged only on the right to 75. Then follow 13 leaves, without being paged, containing the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, and the X Commandments in Saxon, with an interlinear English translation. The whole book, therefore, consists of 8S leaves, or 176 pages. It was published again in small 4to. with L' Isle's "Treatise concerning the Old and New Testament," in 1623: the Easter Homily was printed again in the 2nd vol. of Fox's "Acts and Monuments," and in the notes to Whelock's "Bede," b. v. c. 22. In the year of L' Isle's death, it appeared again with this title, "Divers ancient Monuments in the Saxon Tongue," &c. 4to. 1638. — [1568.] Laws. 2. ApxaLovofMia, sive de priscis Anglorum Legibus libi-i, Sermone Anglico, vetustate anti- quissimo aliquot abhinc seculis conscripti, atque nunc demum magno Jurisperitorum et amantium antiquitatis omnium commodo, e tenebris in lucem vocati, Gulielmo Lambardo, 4to. ex officina Johan. Daye, Lond. 1568. A greatly improved edition was published by Whelock, in folio, Cambridge, 1644, pp. 226, 1/. A still better edition, so much enlarged and improved as to be considered almost a new work, was published with the following title : " Leges Anglo-Saxonicae Ecclesiasticse et Civiles, accedunt Leges Edvardi Latinae, Gulielmi Con- questoris Gallo-Normannicae, et Henrici I. Latinae, subjungitur Domini Henr. Spelmanni Codex Legum Veterum Statutorum Regni Anglise, quae ah ingressu Gulielmi I. usque ad annum nonum Henr. III. edita sunt; toti Operi praemittitur Dissertatio Epistolaris admo- dum Reverendi Domini Gulielmi Nicolsoni Episcopi, Derrensis De Jure Feudali Veterum Saxonum, cum Codd. MSS. contulit, notas, versionem, et glossarium adjecit David Wilkins, S.T.P. fol. Lond. 1721, p. 434, 21. 12s, 6d. These are in Anglo-Saxon, with Latin translation and notes. — Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. In der Ursprache mit Uebersetzung und Erlauterungen herausgegeben von Dr. Reinhold Schmid, Professor der Rechte zu Jena, 8vo. Leipzig, 1832, pp. 304, about 8s. Ther*e are two columns in a page; on the left is the Anglo-Saxon text, in Roman type except the ]p, tS, and on the right a German translation. The second volume has long been expected. The Record Commission have undertaken an edition with an improved Anglo-Saxon text, carefully accented, and accompanied with an English translation and notes. It was prepared, and a considerable part printed, under the superintendence of the late Richard Price, Esq. whose critical acquaintance with the Anglo-Saxon has been manifested by his excellent edition of Warton's " History of English Poetry." This edition of the A.-S. Lawsby Mr. Price, is not yet published. — ^^[1571.] Gospels. 3. The Gospels of the fower Euangelistes, translated in the olde Saxon, tyme out of Latin into the vulgare toung of the Saxons, newly collected out of auncient monumentes of the sayd Saxons, and now published for testimonie of the same, 4to. London, printed by John Daye, 1571. It is accompanied with an English version out of the Bishop's Bible, so altered as to agree with the Saxon, and published by Fox, the Martyrologist, at the expense of Archbishop Parker. Price 31. 3s. — Quatuor D.N. Jesu Christi Evangeliorum Ver- siones perantiquse duae, Gothica scil. et Anglo-Saxonica: quarum illam ex celeberrimo Codice Argenteo nunc primum depromsit Franciscus Junius, banc autera ex Codd. MSS. collatis emendatius recudi curavit Thomas Mareschallus Anglus; cujus etiam observationes in utramque versionem subnectuntur. Accessit et Glossarium Gothicum : cui praemittitur Alphabetum Gothicum, Runicum, &c. opera ejusdem Francisci Junii, 4to. Dordrechti, 1665, et Amsterdam, 1684, pp. 383 — 431, 21. 8s. The Amsterdam edition appears, on collation, to be made up from the old copies with new title-pages, and a reprint of the first sheet in vol. ii. Moes. Glos. The Anglo-Saxon Gospels from the text of Marshall, the Rushworth Gloss, MS. Bodl. together with all the A.-S, translations of the Gospels, are about to appear in a quarto volume from the Pitt Press, Cambridge. — [1623.] ^lfric. 4. A Saxon Treatise concerning the Old and New Testament. Written abovt the time of King Edgar (700 yeares agoe) by ^Ifricvs Abbas, thought to be the same that was afterward Archbishop of Canterbvrie. Whereby ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF WRITERS. XIX Anglo-Saxon, it will not be necessary to occupy much space with quo- tations. One extract will be sufficient, and, for facility of comparison, appeares what was the Canon of holy Scripture here then receiued, and that the Church of England had it so long agoe in her mother-tongue. Now first pvblished in print with English of our times by William L'Isle of Wilbvrgham, Esquier for the King's bodie : the original! remaining still to be seene in Sr Robert Cotton's Librarie, at the end of his lesser Copie of the Saxon Pentatevch. And herevnto is added ovtof the Homilies and Epistles of the fore-said ^Ifricvs, a second edition of A Testimonie of Antiquitie, 8{C. touching the Sacrament of the Body and Bloud of the Lord, here publikely preached and receiued in the Saxons' time, &c. London, printed by John Haviland for Henrie Seile, dwelling in Paul's Church-yard, at the signe of the Tyger's head, 1623, small l-to. The Dedication, Preface, 8fc. contain 30 leaves, the paragraphs numbered, but not the pages ; then follow 43 leaves of the Treatise of the Old and New Testament, Saxon on the left, and English on the right-hand page. The first 12 leaves are without numbers, 13 is placed at the head of the Saxon on the left, and also at the head of the English on the right page, the same numeral serving for two pages. The Testimony of Antiquity, &c. has 9 leaves of Preface, 8(C., 14 leaves, with double numerals, of^^ A Sermon of the Paschall Lambe, &c.;" then follow 11 leaves unpaged, containing the words of Elfrike Abbot, and the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and X Commandments, in Saxon, with an interlinear English version, 30 + 43 + 9 + 14 + 11 = 107 leaves, or 214 pages.— \\Q^0.'] Psalms. 5. Psalterium Davidis Latino-Saxonicum Vetus, a Johanne Spelmanno, D. Hen. fil. editum, 4to. Londini, 1640, \l. \s. — Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua Latina; cum paraphrasi Anglo- Saxonica,partim soluta oratione,partim metrice composita, nunc primum e cod. MS. in Bibl. Regia Parisiensi adservato, descripsit et edidit Benjamin Thorpe, S.A.S. Soc. Lit. Isl. Hafn. Soc. Hon. 8vo. Oxonii, 1835. — [1644.] Bede. 6. Bedae Venerabilis Historia Ecclesiastica Anglorum, Anglo-Saxonicd ex versione iElfredi Magni Gentis et Latine, accessere Chronologia Saxonica {The Saxon Chronicle, see 9.) et Leges Anglo-Saxonice cum interpretatione Latina, cura Abrahami Wheloci, fol. Cantabrigiae, 1644. A much improved and splendid edition was published with the following title : " Bedae Historia Ecclesiastica, Latine et Saxonice ; una cum reliquis ejus operibus Historicis Latine, cura et studio Johannis Smith, S.T.P. fol. Cantabrigiae, 1722, pp. 823, 21. 16s. — [1655.] C/Edmon. 7. Caedmonis Monachi Paraphrasis Poetica Genesios ac prascipuarum sacrae paginae historiarum, abhinc annos m.lxx. Anglo-Saxonice conscripta, et nunc primum edita a Francisco Junio, Amst. 1655, pp. 116. 11. — Caedmon's Metrical Para- phrase of Parts of the Holy Scriptures, in Anglo-Saxon, with an English translation, notes, and a verbal index, by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 8vo. London, 1832, pp. 341, 11. Is. — [1659.] -^lfric. 8. yElfrici abbatis Grammatici vulgo dicti Grammatica Latino-Saxonica, &c. Guliel. Somnerus, fol. Oxon. 1659, pp. 52. This is a Latin Grammar written in Anglo-Saxon for the use of those Saxon youths who were studying Latin. . It is appended to Somner's A.-S. Dictionary, see 22. — [1692.] Chronicle. 9. Chronologica Anglo-Saxonica, cura Abrahami Wheloci, fol. Cantabrigiae, 1644. Appended to Whelock's edition of Bede, see Bede, 6. — Chronicon Saxonicum ; seu Annales Rerum in Anglia praecipue gestarum ad annum mcliv. ; cumindice rerum chronologico. Accedunt regulae ad investigandas nominum locorum origines ; et nominum locorum et virorum in Chronico memoratorum explicatio ; Latine et Anglo-Saxonic6, cum notis Edmundi Gibson, 4to. Oxon. 1692^ 21. 8s.— The Saxon Chronicle, with an English translation, and notes, critical and explanatory, and chronological, topographical, and glos- sarial indexes ; ashortGramraarof the Anglo-Saxon Language, by the Re v. James Ingram B.D.; a new Map of England during the Heptarchy, plates of Coins, 4to. 1823, pp. 463, 3/. 13s. 6d. The Saxon Chronicle has been translated into English, and printed with an improved A.-S. text, carefully accented from MSS. by the late Richard Price, Esq. for the Record Commission. It is not yet published. Miss Gurney printed and circulated privately among her friends a very useful work entitled "A literal Translation of the Saxon Chronicle, 12mo. Norwich, 1819, pp. 324, with 48 pages of /wrfex.— [1698.] Cleric's Bible. 10. Heptateuchus, Liber Job, et Evangelium Nicodemi, Anglo-Saxonice. Historiae Judith Fragmentum; Dano-Saxonice, edidit nunc primum ex MSS. Codicibus Edvardus Thwaites, 8vo. Oxon. 1698, pp. 168 + 30 == 198, 11. 4^. The first seven books of the Bible in Ayiglo- Saxon.— \1Q9%.'] Alfred's Boethius. 11. Boethii (An. Manl. Sever.) Consolationis Philosophise libri V. Anglo-Saxonice redditi ab iElfredo; ad Apographum Junianum expressos edidit Christophorus Rawlinson, 8vo. Oxon. 1698, 1/. 8s.— King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of Boethius, de Consolatione Philosophiae ; with an English translation and notes, by J. S. Cardale, 8vo. London, 1829, pp. 425, 1/. 5s.— King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of the Metres of Boethius, with an English translation and notes, by the Rev. Samuel Fox, M.A. 8vo. London, 1835, pp. 144, 12s.— [1709.] Elstob's Horn. 12. An English-Saxon Homily on the Birth-day of St. Gregory, anciently used in the English-Saxon Church, giving an account of the Conversion of the English from Paganism to Christianity • translated into modern English, with Notes, &c. by Elizabeth Elstob, 8vo. London, 1709, pp. Preface, Ix. 44 + 10 + 49 = 103, 1/. 4s. This work is in Anglo-Saxon and English. She also printed some sheets in folio of Anglo-Saxon Homilies, with an Encrlish translation. For reasons now unknown the press was stopped. A copy of what was printed is in the British Museum.— []77 3.] Alfred's Oros. 13. The Anglo-Saxon version from the historian Orosius, by Alfred the Great, together with an English translation from the Anglo-Saxon, XX ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF WRITERS. the parable of the Sower is selected from Marshall's Gospels, Dordrecht, 1665. (by Daines Barrington), 8vo. London, 1773 ; Anglo-Saxon, pp. 242, English translation and notes, pp. 259, about 1/. 5s. — Alfred's Will. 14. Alfred's Will, in Anglo-Saxon, with a literal and also a free English translation, a Latin version, and notes, (by the Rev. Owen Manning,) royal 4to. Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1788, pp. 51, about 7s. The same, reprinted from the Oxford edition of 1788, with a preface and additional notes, (by Mr. Cardale) London, Pickering, Combe, Leicester, 8vo. 1828, pp. 32, price 5s. — [1815.] Beowulf. 15. De Danorum Rebus Gestis Secul. IIL etIV. Poema Danicum, Dialecto Anglo-Saxonica, ex Bibliotheca Cottoniana Musaei Britannici edidit versione Latina et indicibus, auxit. Grim Johnson Thorkelin, Dr. J. V. &c. 4to. Havniae, 1815, pp. 299, 14*. — An analysis of this fine poem, and an English translation of a considerable part of it, has been given by Mr. Turner in his History of the Anglo-Saxons, b. ix. c. 2, vol. iii. p. 280-301. — A still more complete analysis is given, with free translations in English verse, and a literal Latin version from a text formed from a careful collation with the MS. in Conybeare's Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, p. 30-167. — A very neat edition of the Anglo-Saxon text has appeared, entitled "The Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beowulf; the Traveller's Song, and the Battle of Finnes-burh, edited, together with a Glossary of the more difficult words, and an historical Preface, by John M. Kemhle, Esq, M.A. of Trinity College, Cambridge," small 8vo. London, 1833, pp. 259, 13*. A second edition, with an English translation and a complete Glossary, is on the eve of publication. — [1826.] Conybeare's Poefr?/. 16. Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, by the Rev. John Josias Conybeare, M.A. late Anglo-Saxon Professor, &c. at Oxford, edited by his brother the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, M.A. &c. 8vo. London, 1826, pp. 286, I85.— [1830.] Fox's Menol. 17. Menologium, seu Calendarium Poeticum, ex Hickesiano Thesauro: or. The Poetical Calendar of the Anglo-Saxons, with an English translation and notes, by the Rev. Samuel Fox, M.A. 8vo. London, 1830, pp. 64, 6s. — [1834.] Thorpe's Analect. 18. Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. A selection, in prose and verse, from Anglo-Saxon authors of various ages, with a Glossary; designed chiefly as a first book for students, by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 8vo. London, 1834, pp. 266, 20s. This work gives specimens of Anglo- Saxon from its purest to its most corrupt state. As some of the specimens have been taken from MSS. and are here printed for the first time, this useful book has properly a place here. — [1834,] Thorpe's Apoll. 19. The Anglo-Saxon version of the story of Apollonius of Tyre, upon which is founded the play of Pericles, attributed to Shak- speare; from a MS. in the Library of C.C.C. Cambridge, with a literal translation, &c. by Benjamin Thorpe, F.S.A. 12mo. London, 1834, pp. 92, 6s. — 20. A more minute account of works printed in Anglo-Saxon, especially of smaller detached pieces, may be found in p. 134 of Hickes's Institutiones Grammaticae Anglo-Saxonicae, 4to. Oxoniae, 1680; and in Wanley's Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon MSS. forming the 3rd vol. of Hickes's Tliesaurus, p. 325. A short notice of the principal A.-S. MSS. may be found in Hickes's Institutiones, from p. 135 to 176, but a minute account of all the A.-S. MSS. with many very interesting and valuable extracts, will be found in Wanley's Catalogue, which, as the Srd vol. of Hickes's Thesaurus, has the following title : "An- tiquae Literaturae Septentrionalis Liber alter, seu Humphredi Wanleii Librorum Veterum Septentrionalium qui in Angliae Bibliothecis extant, nee non multorum Veterum Codicum Septentrionalium alibi extantium Catalogus Historico-Criticus, cum totius Thesauri Lin- guarum Septentrionalium sex Indicibus, fol. Oxoniae, 1705. — An arranged Catalogue of all the extant relics of A.-S. poetry is given in Conybeare's Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, p. Ixxvi — Ixxxvi. 21. Grammars. 1. Hickes's Institutiones Gram. A.-S. 4to. Oxon. 1689, 2Z. — 2. Hickes's Thesaurus, 3 vols. fol. Oxon. 1705, i2s. — 3. (Thwaites's) Gram. A.-S. ex Hickesiano, 8vo. pp. 48, 2/.— 4. Elstob's (Eliz.) Gram, of English- Saxon tongue, 4to. Lond. 1715, 1/.— 5. Henley's Gram, of Anglo-Saxon, Lond. 1726, pp. 61, 4s. — 6. Lye's Gram. Anglo-Saxon, prefixed to Junius's Etymologicum, fol. Oxon. 1743. — 7. Manning's Gram. Anglo-Saxon et Mceso-Goth. prefixed to his edition of Lye's A.-S. Diet. 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1772.— 8. Rask's Angelsaksish Sproglaere, 8vo. Stockholm, 1817, pp. 168; Mr. Thorpe's Translation of ditto, 8vo. Copenhagen, 1830, 15s. 6d. — 9. Sisson's Elements of A.~S. Gram. 12mo. Leeds, 1819, pp. 84, 5s. — 10. Dr. Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 3 vols. 8vo. Gottingen, 1822, 1826, 1831. This is a Grammar of all the Germanic languages; it is the 2nd edit. — 11. Bos- worth's Elements of A.-S. Gram. 8vo. 1823, pp. 330, 16s. — Bosworth's Compendious Gram, of Primitive Eng. or A.-S. 8vo. 1826, pp. 84, 5s. — 12. Ingram's Short Gram, of A.-S. prefixed to his edition of the Saxon Chronicle, 4to. 1823, pp. 8. — 13. Gwilt's Rudiments of A.-S. 8vo. Lond. 1829, pp. 56, 6s. 22. Dictionaries. Somner's Diet. Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum, folio, Oxon. 1659, 8/. — 2. Benson's Vocabularium A.-S. 8vo. Oxon. 1701, 11. 4s. — 3. Lye's Dictionarium Saxonico et Gothico-Latinum, published by Manning, in 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1772, 71. 17s. 6d. Works relating to Anglo-Saxon. — [1650.] 23. Casauboni (Merici) de Lingua Saxonica et de Lingua Hebraica Commentarius ; accesserunt Gulielmi Somneri ad verba vetera Germanica Lipsiana notae, small 8vo. Londini, 1650, 8s. 6^.— [1678.] Alfred's Life. 24, ^Ifredi Magni Vita, a Joanne Spelman, plates, folio, Oxon. 1678, about 16s.— [1709.] ^Elfred's Life, by Sir John Spelman, Knt. from the original manuscript in the Bodleian Library, with considerable additions, and several liistorical remarks, by the publisher Thomas Hearne, M.A. small SvOr ANGLO-SAXON DIALECTS. XXI Mk. iv. 3—8. 3. Gehyraaet oSer dei. |ja he lai an slep in scip. pa. J^estrede jje daei ouer all landes. and uuard ^e sunne swilc als it uuare j^re-niht-ald mone. an sterres abuten him at middaei. Wurmen men swi^e ofwundred and ofdred. and saeden J^aet micel Hng sculde cumme her efter. swa * For the accurate collation of this extract with the MS. we are indebted to the polite attention of Sir Henry Ellis, of the British Museum. f For a further account of this MS. see Mareschalli Observ. in Versionem A.-S. p. 492 : Wanley's Catalogue, p. 81, 82: Henshall's Etym. Organic Reasoner, p. 63, 64; Astle's Origin and Progress of Writing, p. 99 : Baber's Pref. to Wiclif 's Test. p. lx. X The transcript of this extract was obligingly compared with the MS. by a well-known Saxon scholar. Dr. Ingram, President of Trinity College, Oxford, and edito^'^of the Saxon Chronicle, with an English translation, notes, &c. see note to § 9, No. 9. Xxiv ANGLO-SAXON — ORMULUM, 1180. * dide. for |jaet ilc gser wartS J^e king ded. past o^er daei efter s. Andreas massedaei. on Normandi. pa wes tre sona l^as landes. for seuric man sone raeuede o^er J^e mihte. pa namen his sune and his frend and brohten his lie to Engle-land. and bebiriend in Reding. God man he wes. and micel aeie wes of him. Durste nan man misdon wiS o^er on his time. Pais he makede men and daer. Wua sua bare his byr^en gold and silure. durste nan man sei to him naht bute god Ingram's Saxon Chronicle, p. 364. LITERAL ENGLISH. An. 1135. In this year went the king Henry over sea at the Lammas; and the next day, as he lay asleep on ship, darkened the day over all lands, and was the sun so as it were a three-night-old moon, and the stars about him at mid-day. Men were very much astonished and terrified, and said that a great event should come hereafter. So it did ; for that same year was the king dead, the next day after St. Andrew's mass- day, in Normandy. Then was tribulation soon in the land; for every man that might, soon robbed another. Then his sons and his friends took his body, and brought it to England, and buried it at Reading. A good man he was ; and there was great dread of him. No man durst do wrong with another in his time. Peace he made for man and beast. Whoso bare his burthen of gold and silver, durst no man say ought to him but good. 14. The Grave, a fragment. It is found in the margin of Semi-Saxon Homilies in the Bodleian Library,* and is supposed by Wanley to be written about the year 1150. SEMI-SAXON. LITERAL ENGLISH. De wes bold gebyld For thee was a house built er pu iboren were ; Ere thou wert born ; ^e wes molde imynt For thee was a mould appointed er iSu of moder come; Ere thou of mother camest; ac hit nes no idiht. But it is not prepared, ne |7eo deopnes imeten ; Nor the deepness meted ; nes gyt iloced. Nor is yet seen, hu long hit J^e were : How long for thee it were : Nu me pe bringas^ Now I bring thee per ^u beon scealt, Where thou shalt be, nu me sceal pe meten. Now I shall thee measure, and ^a mold seotS^a, &c. And then earth afterwards. 15. The Ormulum is a metrical paraphrase of the Gospels and Acts, in lines of fifteen syllables, written in Semi-Saxon by an ecclesiastic named Orm, probably in the north of England, about the year llSO.f The author gives the following reason for the name of the work : This book is named Ormulum, for that Orm made it. Diff boo iff nemmnedd Orrmulum, forrH I^aet Orrm itt wrohhte — Preface. Mr. Thorpe observes, that the author seems to have been a critic in his mother-tongue ; and from his idea of doubling the consonant after a short * Bibl. Bodl. Codex NE. F. 4. 12, Wanley, p. 15. — Mr. Conybeare's Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, p. 270, for the first printed text with a verbal Latin and English translation. Mr. Thorpe's Analecta, p. 142, for an improved text. f Wanley's Catalogue, p. 59 — 63 : Conybeare's Illustrations of A.-S. Poetry, Introd. p. Ixvii : Turner's Hist, of Eng. Middle Ages, b. ix. 1, vol. v. p. 435, 436 : Mr. Thorpe's Analecta, Pref. p. ix: Baber's Wiclif, Pref. p. Ixiv. ANGLO-SAXON — WICLIF, A.D. 1380. XXV vowel, as in German, we are enabled to form some tolerably accurate notions as to the pronunciation of our forefathers. Thus he writes min and icin with a single n only, and lif with a single y, because the i is long, as in mine, loine, and life. On the other hand, wherever the consonant is doubled, the vowel preceding is short and sharp, as ivinriy pronounced win, wot wine. Orm's dialect merits, if any, to be called Dano-Saxon: his name also betrays a Scandinavian descent.* Uppo ]>e J?ridde dagg bilammp, swa summ j^e Goddspell kij^e]?]?, )5att i ])e land off Galile wafT an bridale garrkedd ; And itt waff garrkedd inn an tun j^att waff Cana gehatenn, and Cristeff moderr Marge waff att tatt bridaless saete. And Crist wass clepedd till Jjatt bus wi)?)? hise lerninng cnihhtess. And teggre win waff drunnkenn swa l^sett taer nass j^a na mare. Wanley, p. 62. f VERBAL ENGLISH. Upon the third day (it) happened, as some of the Gospels say, that in the land of Galilee was a bridal prepared ; And it was prepared in a town that was Cana called, and Christ's mother, Mary, was at that bridal's seat. And Christ was invited to that house with his disciples. And their wine was drunk, so that there was not then any more. 16. Robert of Gloucester J was a monk belonging to the abbey at Gloucester, who wrote a history of England in rhyming verse about A.D. 1280. He declares that he saw the eclipse which happened in 1264, on the day of the battle at Evesham, and thus describes- it : As in l^e Norj? West a derk weder J^er aros, Sodeinliche suart inou, j^at mani man agros, And ouer caste it j^ojte al l^ut lond, \>aX me miste vnne^e ise, Grisloker weder l^an it was ne mi^te an er^e be. An vewe dropes of reine )?er velle grete inou. pis tokninge vel in Y\s lond, l^o me Hs men slou Wor |?retti mile Jeanne, pis isei Roberd, l?at verst Hs hoc made, and was wel sore aferd. 17. John de Wiclif was born about 1324, at Wiclif, a village on the banks of the river Tees, near Richmond, Yorkshire. He translated the Bible and Testament, and even the Apocryphal books, from Latin into English, in the year 1380. Though Wiclif 's writing may be called Old English, yet a specimen from the parable of the Sower is given that it may be compared with the preceding translations. * Analecta, Pref. p. ix. t Bodleian Library, Cod. Junii, i. p. 330. :J: Turner's Hist, of Eng. Middle Jges, b. viii. 1, vol. v. p. 217: ix. 2, vol. v. p. 442^ — Warton's Hist, of Eiig. Poetry, Svo. 1824, vol. i. p. 52. XXvi ANGLO-SAXON — SEM[-SAXON OF KENT, 1340. Mk. IV. 3—8. . Here ye, lo a man sowinge goith out to sowe, and the while he sowith sum seed fel aboute the weye, and briddis of hevene camen and eeten it. other felde doun on stony places where it hadde not myche erthe, and anoon it sprong up ; for it hadde not depnesse of erthe, and whanne the sunne roos up it welewide for hete, and it driede up, for it hadde no roote. And other fel doun into thornes : and thornes sprungen up and strangliden it, and it gaf not fruyt : And othere felde doun into good lond : and it gaf fruyt spryngyng up and wexinge, and oon broughte thritty fold, and oon sixty fold, and oon an hundrid fold. 18. Semi-Saxon_, in the dialect of Kent, written in a.d. 1340. Nou ich wille pet ye ywyte hou hit if ywent pet )?if bocif ywrite mid engliff of Kent. pif hoc if ymad uor lewede men | Vor uader | and uor moder | and uor ojjer ken ] Ham uor to berse uram alle manyere zen ] pet ine hare inwytte ne bleue no uoul wen. Huo afe god if hif name yzed | pet Jjif hoc made God him yeue J?et bread ] Of anglef of heuene and l^erto his red | And onderuonge hif zaule huanne J^et he if dyad. Amen. Ymende. pet j^if boc if uolueld ine }?e eue of jpe holy apoftlef Symon an Judaf | of ane broj^er of jpe choyftre of faynt Austin of Canterberi | Ine J^e yeare of oure Ihordes beringe. 1340 Arundel MSS. No. 57, British Museum* 19. It is evident, from the preceding extracts, that the pure West- Saxon did not ever prevail over the whole of England, and that in process of time the language approached more or less to the present English, according to its relative position to the West-Saxons. In early times there was, clearly, considerable dialectic variety in the writings of men residing in different provinces. This will be evident by comparing the short specimens from the Northumbrian and Rush worth glosses, f and the extract from the Saxon Chronicle,^ with the quotation from Marshall's Anglo-Saxon Gospels, || and other works in pure Anglo-Saxon. The difference observable in the language of the most cultivated classes would be still more marked and apparent in the mass of population, or the less educated community. These, from their agricultural pursuits, had little communication with the inhabitants of other provinces; and having few opportunities and little inducement to leave their own neighbourhood, they intermarried among each other, and, from their limited acquaintance and circumscribed views, they would naturally be much attached to their old manners, customs, and language. The same cause operating from age to age would keep united the greater part of the population, or the * Mr. Thorpe's Pref. to Ccedmon, p. xii. t § 11 and 12. . : § 13. || § 9. ANGLO-SAXON — CHIEF ENGLISH PROVINCIAL GLOSSARIES. XXVll families of the middle stations of life, it may, therefore, be well expected that much of the peculiarity of dialect prevalent in Anglo-Saxon times, is pre- served even to the present day in the provincial dialects of the same districts. In these local dialects, then, remnants of the Anglo-Saxon tongue may be found in its least altered, most uncorrupt, and therefore its purest state. Having a strong and expressive language of their own, they had little desire and few opportunities to adopt foreign idioms or pronunciation, and thus to corrupt the purity of their ancient language. Our present polished phrase and fashionable pronunciation are often new, and, as deviating from primitive usage, faulty and corrupt. We are, therefore, much indebted to those zealous and patriotic individuals who have referred us to the archaisms of our nervous language, by publishing provincial glossaries, and giving specimens of their dialects.* 20. So much has been advanced with the view of showing, that what is generally termed '^vulgar language," deserves some notice, and claims our respect from its direct descent from our high-spirited Anglo-Saxon ancestors, and from its power of expression. It is not asserted that any provincial dialect has issued in a full and uncontaminated stream from the pure Anglo-Saxon fountain ; but in every province some streamlets flow down from the fountain-head, retaining their original purity and flavour, though not now relished perhaps by fastidious palates. None can boast that they retain the language of their early forefathers unimpaired, but all may prove that tliey possess strong traces of it. f * The following is a list of the principal provincial Glossaries : — 1. A Collection of English Words not generally used, &c. by John Ray, F.R.S. 3rd edit. 8vo. London, 1737, pp. 150, price about 4s. — 2. An Exmoor Scolding, and also an Exmoor Courtship, with a Glossary, 7th edit. 8vo. Exon. 1771, pp. 60, price 9^^. — 3. The Lancashire Dialect, with a Glossary, Poems, &c. by Tim Bobbin, Esq. (Mr. John Collier, Schoolmaster at Milnrow, near Rochdale,) 12mo. Manchester, 1775; London, 1818, pp. 212, price 3s. — 4. A Provincial Glossary, with a Collection of Local Proverbs, &c. hy Francis Grose, Esq. F.A.S. 2nd edit. 12mo. London, 1790, price 5s. — 5. Anecdotes of the English Language, chiefly regarding the Local Dialect of London and its environs, which have not corrupted the language of their ancestors, London, 1803, 8vo. 2nd edit. 1814. — 6. An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, &c. by John Jamieson, D.D. F.R.S.E. &c. 2vols.4to. \%Q^, Edinburgh ; 2 vols. 4to. Supplement, 1825. — 7. A List of ancient Words at present used in the mountainous Districts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, by Robert Willan, M.D. F.R.S. and S.A. 1811; Archaeologia, vol. xvii. 1814, pp. 29. — 8. An Attempt at a Glossary of some Words used in Cheshire, by Roger Wilbraham, Esq. F.R.S. and S.A. 1817 ; Archaeologia, vol. xix. 2nd edit. Rod, London, 12mo. 1826, price 5s. pp. 117; The Hallamshire Glossary, by the Rev. Joseph Hunter. — 9. Suffolk Words and Phrases, by Edward Moor, F.R.S. F.A.S. &c. 12mo. Woodbridge, 1823.— 10. Horae Momenta Cravense, or, the Craven Dialect : to which is annexed a copious Glossary by a native of Craven, 12mo. London, 1824, pp. 125, price 4s. This is a very valuable little book, the work of a scholar. — 11. A Glossary of North Country Words in use, by John Trotter Brockett, F.S.A. London and Newcastle, 8vo. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1825, pp. 243, price 10s. 6d. — 12. Obser- vations on some of the Dialects in the West of England, particularly Somersetshire, with a Glossary of Words now in use there, and poems and other pieces exemplifying the Dialect, by James Jennings, Honorary Secretary of the Metropolitan Literary Institution, London, 12mo. London, 1825, pp. 191, price 7s.— 13. The Vocabulary of East-Anglia; an attempt to record the vulgar tongue of the twin-sister counties, Norfolk and Suffolk, as it existed in the last twenty years of the 18th century, and still exists; with proofs of its antiquity from etymo- logy and authority, by the late Rev. Robert Forby, Rector of Fincham, Norfolk, 2 vols. 12mo. London, 1830, price 11. Is. — 14. A Glossary of Archaic and Provincial Words, by the late Rev. Jonathan Boucher, F.S.A. Vicar of Epsom, edited jointly by the Rev. Joseph Hunter, F.S.A. and Joseph Stevenson, Esq. part L 1832, part H. 1833, 4to. t Forby's Easf-Jnglia, vol. i, p. 18. XXVlll ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE SOMERSET DIALECT. 21. A few specimens of provincial dialects are given, beginning with extracts from Mr. Jennings's neat and valuable little work, being the present dialect of that part where the West-Saxon or pure Anglo-Saxon was once spoken, and then proceeding to Ea«t-Anglia, and terminating with the broad dialect of Craven in Yorkshire. In attempting to give the exact pronunciation of each district, some words are so disguised as, at the first view, to be scarcely recognised, and occasionally two or more words are pronounced, and therefore written, as one w^ord. This is an ambiguity which could not be entirely avoided; but an ample com- pensation is made for it by giving the words, as far as possible, in the pronunciation of the several provincial districts. 22. Dialects of the West of England, particularly Somersetshire. The following are some of the peculiarities observable in the West of England. The people of Somersetshire, east of the river Parrel, make the third person singular of the indicative mood, present tense, to end in th or eth; thus for he loves, he reads, they uniformly say, he lovth, he read'th. They use Ise for I, er for he, and her for she They sound a as a va. father ; and e as the French e, or as the English a in cane, fane, &c Th is sounded as d: for thread they say dread ov dird ; for through dro, thrash drash : s as z, Zummerzet for Somerset, &c They invert the order of some consonants : for thrush, brush, rush, they say dirsh, birsh, hiish ; for clasp, hasp, asp, they use claps, haps, aps They annex y to the infinitive mood, and some other parts of many of the common verbs, I cant sewy, he cant reapy, to seicy, to nursy : they also prefix letters ; for lost, gone, bought, they say alost, agone, abought. — They often make dissyllables of monosyllables: for air, both, fair, fire, sure, &c. they say, ayer, boo'dth, fayer, shower, &c I be, thou beest or bist, thee beest, we be, they or tha be, are commonly heard ; but rarely or never he be, but he is. — War is always used for was and were ; as I war, thee or thou wart, he war, we war, they or tha war. — We often hear we'm, you'm, they'm, for we are, you are, they are. — They use thic for that ; as thic house, thic man, for that house, that man — The diphthong oi is often pronounced wi : for spoil, boil, point, soil, we have spwile, bwile, pwint, swile, &c In and, d is often omitted, as you an I. — In the present participle and other words in ing, g is omitted ; for loving, hearing, singing, lightning, they say lovin, hearin or hirin, zingin, lightnin. As specimens of the Somerset dialect, a dedication in verse, and a short dialogue in prose, will be sufficient. TO THA DWELLERS o' THE WEST. Tha fruit o' longvul labour, years. In theaze veo leaves at last appears. Ta you, tha DweUers o' tha West, I'm pleas 'd that tha shood be addresst : Vor thaw I now in Lunnun dwell, I mine ye still — I love ye well ; An niver, niver sholl vorget I vust draw'd breath in Zummerzet ; Amangst ye liv'd, an left ye zorry, As you'll knaw when you hire my storry. Theaze little book than take o' me ; 'Tis all I ha jist now ta gee. ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE EXMOOR DIALECT. XXIX FARMER BENNET AN JAN LIDE. A Dialogue. Farmer Bennet. Jan ! why d won't ye right my shoes ? Jan Lide. Bin, maester 'tis zaw cawld, I can't work wi' tha tacker at all ; I've a brawk it ten times I'm shower ta da — da vreaze za hord. Why, Hester hanged out a kittle-smock ta drowy, an in dree minits a war a vraur as stiff as a pawker ; an I can't avoord ta keep a good vier — I wish I cood — I'd zoon right your shoes an withers too — I'd zoon yarn zum money, I warnt ye. Can't ye vine zum work vor me, maester, theaze hord times — I'll do any theng ta sar a penny. I can drash — I can cleave brans — I can make spars — I can thatchy — I can shear ditch, an I can gripy too, bit da vreaze za hord. I can wimmy — I can messy or milky nif ther be need o't. I ood'n mine dreavin plough or any theng. Farmer Bennet. I've a got nothhi vor ye ta do, Jan; bit Mister Boord banehond ta I jist now that tha war gwain ta wimmy, an that tha wanted zumbody ta help 'em. Jan Lide. Aw, I'm glad o't. I'll hirn auver an zee where I can't help 'em; bit I han't a bin athin tha drashel o' Maester Boord's door vor a longful time, bin I thawt that missis did'n use Hester well; but I dwon't bear malice, an zaw I'll goo. Farmer Bennet. What did Missis Boord za or do ta Hester, than ? Jan Lide. Why, Hester, a-ma-be, war zummet ta blame too ; vor she war one o'm, d'ye zee, that rawd Skimmerton — thic ma-game that frunted zum o' tha gennel- vawk. Tha zed 'twar time to a done wi' jitch litter, or jitch stuff, or I dwon knaw what tha call'd it ; bit tha war a frunted wi' Hester about it ; an I zed nif tha war a frunted wi' Hester, tha mid be a frunted wi' I. This zet missis's back up, an Hester han't a bin a choorin there zunz. Bit 'tis niver-the-near ta bear malice ; and zaw I'll goo auver an zee which wa tha wuie da blaw. The Exmoor Dialect, 23. Exmoor is in the north of Somersetshire and Devonshire ; it is so called, being the forest or moor in which the river Exe rises. AN EXMOOR COURTSHIP. Andrew. Well, cozen Magery, cham glad you're come agen. Margery. Wull ye eat a croust o' brid and chezee, cozen Andra? Andrew. No, es thankee, cozen Magery ; vor es eat a crub as es come along ; bezides es went to dinner jest avore Well, bet, cozen Magery, whot onser dest gi' ma to tha quesson es put vore now-reert. Margery. What quesson was et ? Andrew. Why, zure, ya bant zo vorgetvul. Why, tha quesson es put a little rather. Margery. Es dont know what quesson ye meean ; es begit whot quesson twos. Andrew. Why, to tell tha vlat and plane agen, twos thes : Wut ha' ma, ay or no? Margery. Whot! marry to Earteen? — Es gee tha zame onser es geed avore, es wudent marry the best man in oil Ingland. Es cud amorst zwear chud ne'er marry at oil. And more and zo, cozen Andra, cham a told ya keep company wey Tamzen Hosegood. And nif ya keep hare company, es'll ha no more to zey to tha. Andrew. Ay, thes es Jo Hosegood's flim-flam Oh ! tha very vengance out o'en. Margery. No, no; tes none of Jo Hosegood's flim-flam. Andrew. Well, well, cozen Magery, be't how twuU, whot caree I? — And zo, good-buy, good -buy t' e, cozen Magery Nif voaken be jealous avore they be married, zo they mey arter. Zo good-buy, cozen Magery. Chell net trouble ye agen vor wone while, chell warndy. XXX ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE DERBYSHIRE DIALECT. Margery. \_Calling after hi7n.'\ Bet hearky, hearky a bit, cozen Andra ! Es wudent ha ye go away angry nether zure ; and zure you wont deny to see me drenk ? Why ya hant a tasted our cyder yet. [^Andrew returns.'] Come, cozen Andra, here's t'ye. Andrew. Na, vor that matter, es owe no ill-will to enny kesson, net I Bet es wont drenk, nether, except ya vurst kiss and vriends. The Dialect of East-Anglia, or Norfolk and Svffolk. 24. " The most general and pervading characteristic of East- Anglian pronunciation," says Mr. Forby, "is a narrowness and tenuity, precisely the reverse of the round, sonorous, 'mouth-filling' tones of the north of England. The broad and open sounds of vowels, the rich and full tones of diphthongs, are generally thus reduced. Generally — not universally. Some few words become broader, but they become also harsher and coarser. This narrowness of utterance is, in some parts, rendered still more offensive by being delivered in a sort of shrill whining recitative. This prevails chiefly in Suffolk, so as to be called in Norfolk the 'Suffolk whine.' The voice of the speaker (or singer) is perpetually running up and down through half or a whole octave of sharp notes, with now and then a most querulous cadence.* The following are a few of the common contractions and changes : Duffus for dove or pigeon-house ; wuddus wood-house ; shant shall not ; cant cannot ; onty wont will not ; dint did not ; shunt should not ; wunt would not ; mant may not ; warnt were not; eent\s,noi; am^isnot; Aeew^ has not ; Aawif had not. — TmMs used for to it ; dut do it ; wut with it; het have it; tebhin it has been We hear cup for come up ; gup go up ; gout go out ; gin go in ; giz give us The following are very peculiar : Tiye here, or k'ere; Kye there; Kye hinder, or Kinder; Kye thinder, for look ye here, there, and yonder — Words are often jumbled together, as in this sentence . M'aunt bod me ginto tK archard, and call m! uncle into house. Derbyshire Dialect. 25. This dialect is remarkable for its broad pronunciation. In 7ne the e is pronounced long and broad, as mee. The / is often omitted after a or o, as aw for all, caw call, bowd bold, coud cold. — Words in ing generally omit the g, but sometimes it is changed into k; as think for thing, lovin for loving. They use con for can; conner for cannot; shanner^ov shall not; wool, wooner for will, and will not ; yo for you, &c. A Dialogue between Farmer Bennet and Tummus Lide. Farmer Bennet. Tummus, why dunner yo mend meh shoon ? Tummus Lide. Becoz, mester 'tis zo cood, I conner work wee the tachin at aw; I've brockn it ten times I'm shur to de — it freezes zo hard. Why, Hester hung out a smock-frock to dry, an in three minits it wor frozzen as stiff as a proker, an I Conner afford to keep a good fire — I wish I cud — I'd soon mend yore shoon, an uthers tow I'd soon yarn sum munney, I warrant ye. Conner yo find sum work for m', mester, these hard times? — I'll doo onny think to addle a penny. I con thresh * Vocabulary of East-Anglia, Introduction, p. 82. ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE LANCASHIRE DIALECT. XXXI — I con split wood — I con mak spars — I con thack. I con skower a dike, an I con trench tow, bur it freezes zo hard. I con winner — I con fother, or milk, if there be need on't. I woodner mind drivin plow, or onny think. Farm. B. I banner got nothin for ye to doo, Tummus ; bur Mester Boord towd me jist now that they wor gooin to winner, an that they shud want sumbody to help 'em. Tummus L. 0, I'm glad on't. I'll run oor an zee whether I con help 'em ; bur I banner bin weein the threshold ov Mester Boord's doer for a nation time, becoz I thoot misses didner use Hester well, bur I dunner bear malice, an zo I'll goo. Farm. B. What did Misses Boord za or doo to Hester then ? Tummus L. Why, Hester may-be wor summet to blame too; for her wor one on 'em, de ye zee, that jawd Skimmerton, — the mak-gam that frunted zum o' the gente- fook. They said 'twor time to dun wee sich litter, or sich stuff, or I dunner know what they cawd it ; bur they wor frunted wee Hester bout it ; an I said, if they wor frunted wee Hester, they mid bee frunted wee mee. This set misses's back up, an Hester banner bin a charrin there sin. But 'tis no use to bear malice ; an zo I'll goo oor, and zee which we the winde blows. Cheshire Dialect. 26. One peculiarity in the province is to change, or soften, the pro- nunciation of many words in the middle of which the letter / is preceded by a or o. Thus in common discourse we pronounce bawk for balk, cauf for calf, hauf for half, wawk ior ^dXk, foheioY ioW, and St. Awbuns for St. Albans; but in the Cheshire dialect, as in all the north, the custom of substituting the o for the a, and the double ee for the igh, prevails in a still greater degree : thus we call all aw; always awways; \iQi^howd; calf com/; call caz^.'; can cow; Q,o\^cowd; coXicowt; {old fowd; gold goivd; false fause; foul fow; fool /oo; fuU/oo; fine/om; hold howd; holt howt; half hauf; halfpenny havrpenny; hall haw; long lung; man mon; many mony ; manner monner; might meet; mold mowd; pull poo; soft saft; bright hreet; scald scawd; stool stoo; right ree^- iyf'metwoin; flight ^ee^; lane loan ox lone ; mol mal; sight see; sit seet; such sich. The Lancashire Dialect, 27. Observations on the Lancashire dialect. All and al are generally sounded broad, as aw or o : thus, awl haw or ho, awlus for all, hall, always. — In words ending in ing, k is used for g, as think, wooink, for thing, wooing, &c. — At the end of words d and ed are often changed into t; thus behint, wynt, awtert, for behind, wind, awkward. — The d is sometimes omitted in and, for which they say an. — It is common, in some places, to sound ou and ow ^^ a\ thus tha^ ka or ca, for thou, cow. In other places, ou and ow have the sound eaio; thus, for thou, cow, house, mouse, they say theaw, keaw, heatcse, meawse. — In some parts o is used for a, and a for ; thus, for part, hand, they say port, hont ; and instead of for, short, they say far, shart. — The syllable en or 'tz is generally used in the plural of verbs, &c. as hafn, lov'n, think^n. — In Lancashire they generally speak quick and short, and omit many letters, and often pronounce two or three words together ; as, Fll got' or III gut' for I'll go to ; ru?it' for run XXXll ANGLO-SAXON EXISTS IN THE CRAVEN DIALECT. to ; 7/005^ for she shall ; intle or intHl for if thou will ; / woii'didd*?i for I wish you would. Tummus and Meary. Tummus. Odds me! Meary, whooa the dickons wou'd o thowt o' leeting o thee here so soyne this morning ? Where has to bin ? Theaw'rt aw on a swat, I think ; for theaw looks primely. Meary. Beleemy, Tummus, I welly lost my wynt ; for I've had sitch o'traunce this morning as eh neer had e' meh live : for I went to Jone's o' Harry's o'lung Jone's, for't borrow their thible, to stur th' furmetry weh, an his wife had lent it to Bet o' my gronny's; so 1 skeawrt eend-wey, an' when eh coom there, hoo'd lent it Kester o' Dick's, an the dule steawnd 'im for a brindl't cur, he'd mede it int' shoon pegs ! Neaw wou'd naw sitch o moon-shine traunce potter any body's plucks ? Tummus. Mark whot e tell the, Meary; for I thuik lunger ot fok liv'n an' th' moor mischoances they han. Meary. Not awlus.— But whot meys o't' sowgh, on seem so dane-kest? For I con tell o' I'd fene see o' whick an hearty. Tummus. Whick an hearty too! oddzo, but I con tell the whot, its moor in bargin ot I'm oather whick or hearty, for 'twur seign peawnd t'a tuppunny jannock, I'd bin OS deeod os o dur nele be this awec; for th' last oandurth boh one me measter had lik't o killt meh: on just neaw, os shure os thee and me ar stonning here, I'm actilly running meh country. The Dialect of Craven. 28. The Deanery of Craven is in the West Riding of Yorkshire. A short specimen will be sufficient. Dialogue between Farmer Giles and his neighbour Bridget. Giles. Good mornin to the, Bridget, how isto ? Bridget. Deftly as out, and as cobby as a lop, thanksto. Giles. Wha, marry, thou looks i gay good fettle. Bridget. What thinksto o't' weather? Awr house is vara unrid and grimy, t'chimla smudges an reeks seea, an mackst' reckon, at used to shimmer and glissen, nowght bud soote an muck. Giles. It's now a vara lithe day, bud there war a girt roak, an a rag o't' fells at delleet, an it looked feaful heavisome. Bridget. I oft think a donky, mislin, deggy mornin is a sign o't' pride o't' weather, for it oft worsels up, an is maar to be liked ner t' element full o' thunner packs er a breet, scaumy sky. Giles. Wha, when't bent's snod, hask, cranchin an slaap, it's a Strang sign of apash. Bridget. I've oft obsarved there hes been a downfaw soon efter ; bud for sure, I cannot gaum mich be ouer chimla at prisent, it's seea smoored up wi mull an brash. Yusterday about noon, t' summer-goose flackered at naya lile rate, an t' element, at edge o' dark, wor feaful full of filly tails an hen scrattins — Thou knaws that's a sartain sign ov a change, sometimes I've knaan it sile and teem efter. An Alphabetical Glossary of most of the peculiar Words used in the preceding specimens of Provincial Dialects. 29. K-mk-hQ as may he, perhaps: s. Arter after : e. Auver over: s. Aw all: d. Awlus always: I. — Banehond to intimate: s. Becoz ANGLO-SAXON—GLOSSARY TO THE PROVINCIAL DIALECTS. XXXHl because: d. Begit to forget: e. Brans brands, fire-wood: s. Brash ra^h, impetuous: c. Bur but: d. — Cawd called: d. Cham I am: e. Chavr'm Jobbing: d. Che\ I shall ; e. Chorrm Jobbing : s. Cobby livelij r c. Conner can not : d. Cood cold : d. Cranchin scranching^ grinding, crackling: c. Crub a crumb: e. — ^^ggy foggy: c. De day: d. Deftly decently, well: c. Dickons, Deuce the devil: d. Donky toet, dark, gloomy : c. Drash to thrash: s. Dunner do not: d. Dvvon't don't, do not : s. — Es, ise /, is : e. — Fettle condition : c. Fok folk: I. Foiher to fodder : d. — Gaum to knotv, distinguish: c. Gee to give : e. Girt great, friendly : c, Gripy to cut in gripes, to cut a trench: s. — ma have: s. 'Ran have: I. Hanner has or have not : d. Hask dry, parched: c. Hirn to run : s. Hoo'd her had, she had: I. — Jannock oat cake, bread made of oatmeal : I. Jawd scolded : d. Jitch such: 5. — Keason Christian : e. Kittle-smock a 5?woc^3/roc^: s. — Lile Utile: c. Lithe blithe, mild: c. Lop a flea: c. — Marry truly: c. Mess, messy to serve cattle : s. Mine to mind, regard: s. Mislin misty, small rain : c. Mul dust or refuse of turf or peat : c. — Nation great, very: d. ^ever-the-near useless: s. 'N ow-reert now right. Just now: e. — o' of: s. Oandurth afternoon : I. Odds me bless me : I. Ood'n would not: s. — Fash af all of rain : c. Fridefneness : c. Vroker a poker : d. — Rag mist : c. Rather 5oo/?, early: e. Reckon, reek on what is smoked on, an iron bar over the fire to support a boiling pot: c. Reek to smoke : c. Roak a reek, smoke : c. — Sar to earn : s. Seign seven : l. Shimmer to shine : c. Shoon shoes : d. Si\e to pour with rain: c. Sin since : d. Skeawr to make haste : L Slaap slippery : c. Smoored smothered: c. Snod smooth: c. Sowgh to sigh: I. Spars pointed sticks, doubled and twisted in the middle to fasten thatch upon a roof: s. Summet someiohat : d. — Tacker : s. tachin : d. a waxed thread. Teem to pour out : c. Th4 they : s. Thack to thatch : d. Thaw though : s. Theaw thou : L Theaze these, this : s. Thibble a thin piece of wood to stir meat in a pot : I. Think thing : d. Towd told : d. Traunce a troublesome Journey : I. ^Twar it was: s, TvfuW as it will : e. — Vine to find: 5. — Warnt to warrant, assure: s. Whick quick, alive: I, Wimmy to winnow : s. Wine wind : s. Withers others : s. Wood- ner would not : d. Worsel to wrestle : c. Wynt wind: L — Ya you: e. Yarn to earn : s. Yo you : d. Yore your : d. — Zavv so : s. Zo so : d. Zunz since : s. Contractions, c. Craven, d. Derbyshire, e. Exmoor. I. Lancashire, s. Somerset. 30. Many expressive Anglo-Saxon words, which are no longer in use among the refined, have been retained in the provincial dialects. These then ought not to be neglected. The facility and simplicity of combining several short indigenous words to express any complex idea, practised by the Anglo-Saxons and other Gothic nations, is now too seldom used. Instead of adopting technical terms from other languages, or forming / I XXXIV ANGLO-SAXON EXTENT OF ENGLISH. them from the Greek or Latin, as is the present English custom, our Anglo-Saxon forefathers formed words equally expressive by composing them from their own radical terms. For our literature they used boc- craeft hook-craft, from boc a book, craeft art, science; for arithmetic rimcraeft, from rim a number, craeft art ; for astronomy tungelcraeft, from tungel a star, Sec. If, however, we have lost in simplicity, we have gained in copiousness and euphony. In collecting from other languages, the English have appropriated what was best adapted to their purpose, and thus greatly enriched their language. Like bees they have diligently gathered honey from every flower.* They have now a language which, for copiousness, power, and extensive use, can scarcely be surpassed. It is not only used in England, Scotland, and Ireland, but in the whole of North America and Australia : it prevails in the West Indies, and is more or less spoken in our vast possessions in the east. Indeed, wherever civilization, science, and literature prevail, there the English language is understood and spoken, * iCamden observes : " Whereas our tongue is mixed, it is no disgrace. The Italian is pleasant, but without sinewes, as a still fleeting water. The French delicate, but even nice as a woman, scarce daring to open her lippes, for fear of marring her countenance. The Spanish majesticall, but fulsome, running too much on the o, and terrible like the Divell in a play. The Dutch manlike, but withall very harsh, as one ready at every word to picke a quarrell. Now we, in borrowing from them, give the strength of consonants to the Italian ; the full sound of words to the French ; the variety of terminations to the Spanish ; and the mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch ; and so, like bees, we gather the honey of their good properties, and leave the dregs to themselves. And thus, when substantialnesse combineth with delightfulnesse, fullnesse with finenesse, seemlinesse with portlinesse, and currentnesse with staydnesse, how can the language which consisteth of all these, sound other than full of all sweetnesse?" — Camden's Remains, p. 38, edit, of 1623. In the following comparison of the Anglo-Saxon with the ancient and modern Friesic, though there may be, in some minor points, a little ^ diversity of opinion between the author and his friend the Rev. J. H. Halbertsma, yet it would be unjust to make alterations. Mr. Halbertsma has, therefore, been always permitted to speak for himself, and to give his reasons in his own way. Where opinions vary, the author has generally referred to both statements, leaving it to the reader to form his own conclusions from the evidence adduced. Considering this the most equitable mode of statement, he has adopted it, not only in regard to the valuable Essay of Mr. Halbertsma, but towards the works of those from whom he may differ far more widely. He is too conscious of his own liability to err, to be overconfident in his own views. He has given his reasons or authorities, and all that he can confidently assert is, that it has ■ bjeen his constant and earnest wish and endeavour to avoid the natural bias towards the idol self, or that of any party, and to discover and follow truth, whether it favour his own previous opinions, or those of others. Perhaps he may have failed even here. If he have, he will, as soon as it is pointed out, gladly make every acknowledgement and reparation in his power. ^xxv IV.— FRIESIC* Ancient and Modern Friesicf compared with Anglo-Saxon. 1. Anglo-Saxon being one of those languages called dead, no infor- mation about its pronunciation can be obtained from the people themselves. Of course, all knowledge in these matters depends upon the written letters, and upon determining the sound of those letters. 2. This, however, is a very difficult task. There is no connexion at all between visible marks and audible sounds : the letters serve more to indicate the genus, than the species of the sounds, and use alone can teach us the shades (nuances) of pronunciation. * " In comparing kindred languages with each other, the scholar will generally start from the point where he was born. Rask usually refers the A.-S. to the Scandinavian tongues, especially to the Icelandic. Germans have chiefly recourse to the Theotisc, and what is called by them Saxon. Others will bring it back to the dialects of their country ; all with the same aim of elucidating the grammar, or discovering the sounds in A.-S. The reason of this is evidently the intimate acquaintance each of them has with the old and modern dialects of his own country, and most likely the scholar would compare the A.-S. with another class of dialects, if all the tongues of the Germanic branch were as thoroughly known to him as those of his native country. Being a native Friesian, and comparing the A.-S. chiefly with the Friesic, I could scarcely escape the suspicion of having yielded to the same influence as others, if I did not explain my reasons. This, I hope, will be a suSicient excuse for my entering into some details about the primitive relationship between the Anglo-Saxons and the Friesians. "As every scholar has his own point devue in matters of language, I beg leave to have mine. If my principles were unknown to my readers, my rules, depending on these principles, would, as void of foundation, be unintelligible. It is for this reason that I have here inserted some of my opinions about the pedigree and comparison of languages, appearing properly to belong more to general grammar than to my present subject, "As history often fails in showing the full truth of my opinion about the relationship between the Angles and the Friesians, I had recourse to the languages. Hence a view of the remnants of the Fx'iesic both dead and still flourishing is here presented, and compared with the English and A.-S. It pleases not the muse of history to speak but late, and then in a very confused manner. Yes, she often deceives, and before she is come to maturity, she seldom distinctly tells the truth. Language never deceives, but speaks more distinctly, though removed to a far higher antiquity. " It is at the request of my dear friend Bosworth that I write in English, a language in which I have not been favoured with any instruction. I possess only some dim feeling of analogy between its manner of speaking and my native tongue. I, therefore, grant to my English readers the full freedom of smiling at my thousand and one Friesianisms, while I shall have reached my aim if I am only understood. "J. H. Halbertsma." Deventer, August \Qth, 1834. t Mr. Halbertsma, to promote Friesian literature, amongst other works, has published Hulde aan Gysbert Japiks, 2 vols. 8vo. Bolsward, 1824-1827. — De Lapekoer fen Gabe Scroar, 12mo. Dimter, 1834. — Friesche Spelling, 18mo. 1835. — The following are by other hands : Dr. Epkeraare published Gysbert Japicx Friesche Rijmlerye, 4to. Ljeauwert, 1821. — Woor- denboek op de gedichten van Japicx, 4to. id. 1824. — Mr. Postumus translated into Friesic two of Shakspeare's plays, entitled, De Keapman fen Venetien in Julius Cesar, 8vo. Grintz, 1829. — Jonkh. Mr. Montanus Hettema has shown his patriotism by giving to the public the following valuable works : — Emsiger Landrecht Beknopte handleiding om de oude Friesche taal, 8vo. Leeuwarden, 1829. — Proeve van een Friesch en Nederlandsch Woordenboek, 8vo. Leeuwarden, 1832.— Friesche Spraakleer van R. Rask, 8vo. id. 1832.— Jurisprudentia Frisica, of Friesche Regtkennis, een handschrift uit de vijftiende eeuw, 8vo. id. 1834-35, 2 parts, &c. &c. Many more Friesians ought to be named as great promoters of their literature. — Professors Wassenberg, Hoekstra, Mr. HoeufFt, Wielinga Huber, Scheltema, Beuker Andreae, van Halmael, and others. See paragraphs 86 — 102, for an account of ancient Friesic works. XXXVl PRIESIC — DIALECTS OF. 3. The simple sounds we assign to letters, bears no proportion to the diphthongal nature of almost every sound in A.-S. The inhabitants of Hindelopen still retain some A.-S. sounds undefiled. When I first heard some old people speak in this little town, I was quite astonished how sounds so compounded and diphthongal as those could be pronounced with so much ease and fluency. What is more simple in writing than the words leod, A.-S. leod people; neugen, A.-S. nigen nine? When you hear these words at Hindelopen, you will find that the pronunciation baffles every effort of the grammarian to invent signs giving an adequate idea of its nature. In the eu you hear first the y, then the eu blended with the French ou, ending in oi. Such words as leod people, and neugen- end-neugentig nine-and-ninety, are, for this reason, Hindelopean shibboleths above all imitation of their own countrymen, the other Friesians. 4. Besides this, the sounds of letters are in restless fluctuation. If we could trace the changes in the sound of letters, our success would exceed our hopes ; but even this discovery could not give an adequate idea of the sound of letters in use at any period, for sounds are altered when the letters remain still unchanged. The English and French languages give full proof of this truth. When they enter into the class of dead languages, there will still be greater difficul- ties in ascertaining the pronunciation of chateau, and eschew. When, after long investigation, you discover that chateau ought to be pronounced ka-te-au, as the Picardians pronounce it at this very day, you find that by the tyranny of custom it is enervated to sya-to ; when also you discover that the English first pronounced eschew, and afterwards es-tshow (ou French), how few readers will believe your assertions, seeing that these words remain expressed by the same letters. 5. The sounds of a language, like other things, are, by time, subject to mutations, and these changes are homogeneous or heterogeneous, according as the cause of change is internal or external. In this way, diphthongs become vowels, and vowels again diphthongs. An elaborate treatise would point out the changes in a language, if an uninterrupted succession of MSS. of different ages could be procured. 6. Independent of these succeeding general changes of the whole language, there are diversities existing at the same time, called dialects. The A.-S. is subject to these diversities in the highest degree, and with a free people it could not be otherwise. When a nation easily submits to an absolute sway, individuals have little attachment to what is their own in character and opinions, and easily suffer themselves to be modelled in one general mould of the court or priesthood. On the other hand, when a nation, as the Angles and Friesians, is jealous of its liberty, and will only submit to the law enacted for the public good, while every individual regulates his private affairs for himself, the slightest peculiarity of cha- racter, unrestrained by the assumed power of any mortal, developes itself freely in the proper expressions, and every individuality is preserved. This I believe is the reason why in the province of Friesia are more peculiarities than in the other six provinces of the present kingdom of the Netherlands, and more in England alone than in the whole of Europe. FRIESIO DIVERSITY IRREGULARITY IN SPELLING A.-S. WORDS. XXXVll Applying this principle in language, the very mirror of the soul, we find the same variety ; so that among a people so fond of liberty as the Angles and Friesians, not only every district, but every village, nay, every hamlet, must have a dialect of its own. The diversity of dialects since the French Revolution of 1795, is much decreasing by the centralisation of power taking daily more effect in the Netherlands: the former republic, by leaving to every village the management of its domestic affairs, preserved every dialect unimpaired. Nevertheless, at this very time, those living on the coast of Eastmahorn, in Friesia, do not understand the people of Schiermonikoog, a little island with one village of the same name, almost in sight of the coast. The Hlndelopians speak a dialect unintelligible to those living at the distance of four miles from them. Nay, the Friesians have still dialects within a dialect. In the village where I was born, we said indiscriminately, after, efter, and aefter, A.-S. sefter; tar, and taer, A.-S. tare; par, and paer, A.-S. pera ; tarre, and taere consumere, A.-S. teran ; kar, and kaer, A.-S. eyre ; hi lei, and hi lai, A.-S. laeg ; perfect tense of ik lizz', hi leit, A.-S. liege, lits ; smarre, and smaere, A.-S. smerian ; warre and wasre, warge and waerge, A.-S. weran, werian tueri, resistere. On this matter I can produce a very striking example in the centre of Friesian nationality. It is now, I believe, sixteen years since I spoke to an old woman at Molquerum, a village now almost lying in ruins, but still divided mto seven little islands, called Pollen, joined to each other by (breggen A.-S. bricgas) little bridges. Now the good woman told me in her homely style, that when she was a child, every island had its peculiar way of pronouncing, and that when an inhabitant of any of the villages entered her mother's house, she could easily ascertain to which Pol the person belonged, merely by some peculiarity of speech. Dependence may be placed on this fact, as I have ascertained its truth by strict inquiry. I have no doubt the same peculiarity was observable in almost every village of the Anglo-Saxons. Every Englishman who notices the diversity of dialects to be found in Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, or Lancashire, and by these judges of the rest, and considers what they have formerly been, will perhaps enter, in some measure, into my views. 7. This fact fully accounts for the discrepancies in the forms of words, occurring nearly in every page of a genuine A.-S. author. Not writing by established, often arbitrary rules of grammar, he wrote just as he spoke ; his writing was, therefore, the true representation of his dialect. 8. There still exists another cause, which, though not less productive of variety in writing, ought to be carefully distinguished from variety of dialect. The diphthongal nature of the whole system of A.-S. vowels made it difficult for every writer to know by what letters to indicate the proper sounds of his words. Unable to satisfy himself, he often interchanged kindred vowels in the same words, at one time putting a or eo, and after- wards ce and y. Diversities arising from this cause are of the most frequent occurrence even in the oldest Anglo-Saxon MSS. 9. This diversity in the spelling of a word is of the greatest importance to one who would ascertain the true pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon. While the writer is groping about him for proper letters, we guess the XXXVllI FRIESIC — LAWS OF SPEECH. sound he wished to express by assuming some middle sound between the letters he employs. This advantage would have been totally lost to us if the orthography of the Anglo-Saxon could boast of the same uniformity as that of the English recorded in Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary. 10. In this respect we owe a thousand thanks to Lye, who gives us the Anglo-Saxon words as he found them, and never alters the orthography to suit his own views. At the head of his articles he occasionally attributes to the word a vowel which it has not. For instance, he puts the a in staf and lat, which these words have only when a second syllable is added, as in late, stafa: when monosyllables, they are written stasf a staff, last late. Whether he considered the vowel he inserts as the primitive one, or did not know the laws of permutation in Anglo-Saxon vowels, matters not, as it is impossible to be misled by them, standing alone and without any authority. He moreover rectifies his faults by his citations, in which neither staf nor lat occur. Such trifling mistakes should not obscure his immense merits in faithfully giving us the vowels of the Anglo-Saxon authors, with all their odd and lawless exertions to express the sounds they heard. 11. I fear that those who credit what I have stated about the diversity of Anglo-Saxon and Friesian dialects, will consider these infinite variations as the curse of Babel. They will, however, permit me to say, that human speech in general has its mechanical rules fixed by the frame of the organs of speech, to which all tongues submit. This frame admits modifications to which every nation yields. These modifications admit of farther modi- fications, to which not only districts, but even villages are liable. There- fore, every language is of necessity what it is, and it is not in the power of fancy or choice to obey or disobey these laws. From this cause proceeds much of the diversity in language. 12. From the sounds which can be pronounced, every nation selects those which are best adapted to the frame of his organs, and the feelings he endeavours to express. Now this choice, in which we are free, opens an immense field for diversities in tongues ; but, whatever the choice may be, the first grasp decides all the rest : every consonant brings its corresponding consonant, and the vowel its corresponding vowel. In a word, every language is a compact, well-framed whole, in which all the parts sympathize with each other. Insult one of its essential properties, and the disgrace will be felt through the whole system. Remove one series of its original place, and all the others will follow the motion. What is true of any language may be asserted of any of its branches or dialects. Reason and never-failing experience vindicate the justice of these conclusions. The dialect corresponds to itself in its dialects, and the prin- ciple on which the form of a word is framed, is always followed in similar cases. If this analogy be unobserved, it is not the fault of the dialect, but of the dim sight of the observer. The majority of grammarians deem dialects lawless deviations in the speech of the dull mob, to which they attach all that is coarse, vulgar, confused, and ridiculous. Indeed, the chaos of tongues then begins, when grammarians, ignorant of the operations of the mind, and its exertions to express its thoughts, obtrude their arbitrary rules,* and, by heterogeneous mixtures, ever fertile in producing others, set * This assertion may be verified by many examples in English. On this point, the 467th paragraph of the Principles prefixed to Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, is very striking. FRIESIC HOW TO DISCOVER THE A.-S. PRONUNCIATION. XXXIX the well-framed]sys,tem of sounds in inextricable confusion. Regardless of the interior structure, wholly unknown to eyes gliding over the surface of things, they use language as the rich but ignorant man his library, who, deeming it to be a matter of chief impor- tance that his books should be of the same size, ordered them all to be cut to 8vo. and 12mo. The public is not generally expert in forming a judgment on these matters : weighing no argument, it regards only the tone of the proposer, and places its con- fidence in him who is the boldest in his assertions, though he is generally the most ignorant — for the greatest ignorance is ever accompanied with the greatest assurance. However men may suffer themselves to be imposed upon, nature still defends her rights. As our bodies have hidden resources and expedients, to remove the obstacles which the very art of the physician often puts in its way, so language, ruled by an indomitable inward principle, triumphs in some degree over the folly of grammarians. Look at the English, polluted by Danish and Norman conquests, distorted in its genuine and noble features by old and recent endeavours to mould it after the French fashion, invaded by a hostile entrance of Greek and Latin words, threatening by increasing hosts to overwhelm the indigenous terms ; in these long contests against the combined might of so many forcible enemies, the language, it is true, has lost some of its power of inversion in the structure of sentences, the means of denoting the differences of gender, and the nice distinctions by inflexion and termina- tion — almost every word is attacked by the spasm of the accent and the drawing of con-sonants to wrong positions ; yet the old English principle is not overpowered. Trampled down by the ignoble feet of strangers, its spring still retains force enough to restore itself; it lives and plays through all the veins of the language, it impreg- nates the innumerable strangers entering its dominions with its temper, and stains them with its colour, not unlike the Greek, which in taking up oriental words stripped them of their foreign costume, and bid them appear as native Greeks. 13. But to return. — In human language, as in the whole creation, the great law of beauty and happiness is this — variety in unity. Though there are great difficulties in discovering the true pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon, we have still left to us two means of investigation. First, the comparison of its vowels and consonants with those of a kindred dialect existing at a more remote period ; and secondly, the same comparison with a kindred dialect of posterior age, both as it is written and still spoken^for, however altered in some of its features, it must still retain genuine traits of its original countenance. The Gothic or Moeso-Gothic* will answer for the first, and the Friesic the second ; two languages combining the advantage that the nations who spoke them bordered on the Anglo-Saxons, the McEso-Goths on the north, and the Friesians on the south, and by enclosing the Anglo-Saxons, limit their influence, both as it respects their geography and language. 14. It is evident that all the tongues spoken by the great people which the Romans called Germani, considered^ on a large scale, appear as dialects all issuing from one common source. There was a time when all these languages were one. If we could mount sufficiently high in the scale of time, we should arrive at the period when the progenitors of all the tribes were gathered within the compass of a little camp under a few * See VIL §. 1, and note 2. Xl FRIESIC NAMES OF NUMBERS. tents, and spoke one language, containing the germs of all the diversities by which the dialects of their posterity were distinguished. The nearer we approach this time and place, the more will all the Germanic tongues become similar to each other, and their boundaries vanish by which at present they are enclosed. For this reason, the oldest and best poet of the Greeks, retaining symptoms of a particular dialect, blends in his poems all the dialects of Greece. In regard to antiquity, the Gothic of Ulphilas, being written about a.d. 360, has the precedence of any Anglo-Saxon MSS. by four or five hundred years. In comparing the Anglo-Saxon with the Gothic, we shall have the double advantage of measuring by a standard approaching nearest the genuine dimensions, and of approach- ing to a nearer contact with those kindred tongues which subsequently developed themselves into more striking differences. 15. The nearer we approach the source, the more pure will be the water. If the development of language were left to its natural course, without any disturbing shock or foreign influence, all things would change according to the established rules of nature, and every word bear in its changes some resemblance to its primitive state. But every age brings on some disturbance of the system, and the intermixture of foreign ingre- dients, originating in wars, migrations, revolutiofis, and other causes, introduces so many changes, that in some respects the rule is overthrown by the exceptions, and the language rendered quite unfit for comparison. A sufficient reason can be-given for the present state of disorder only by ascending to the period of order, and not by a comparison of the dialects lying in their present confusion. Now the higher the step on which we can observe the language, the less it is disturbed in its original structure, and the better adapted for the standard of comparison. It is the high age of the Gothic, and its real character, known by what is remaining of it, which in these respects stamps its value. Spoken by one unmixed tribe of warriors, it appears on the stage fresh and unpolluted, quite original and sui generis, with members of due proportion, and dressed in its own native costume, without a shred of foreign ornament. 16. The advantages derived from a comparison with a language of this sort, may be exemplified by some names of the numbers. The English havmg composed eleven and twelve from en, twe, and lifen, you would conclude that they would express unus, duo, by en, twe ; but no, they say one, two. The Dutchman says twaalf, veertien, from twa and veer; but his simple numbers are twe, vier. The German has his zwanzig twenty, and zwei two. The country Friesian uses olwe, toalf, tretjen, with manifest indication of Runic admixture, from ellefu eleven, tolf twelve, l^rettan thirteen, from the Icelandic tvek and Jjrir. Their twenty has the sound of tweintich — ought they not to say also to two, trae three, one one, as the Hindelopians do ? Rather incongruously they use ien, twa, trye ; and having Qouwer^wr, they compose tsjien with vier into ijirtjen^M/-- teen. Hence, when the numbers were composed, the English liad the Dutch en and twe ; the Dutch had the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and modern Friesic twa, with the Germans ; the country Friesians bad the one, two, of the English. Would not these FRIESIC FORMATION OF NUMERALS. xH tongues, when taken as a basis for analogical research, lead into a thousand piistakes ? If in English the number eleven were unknown to you, would you not say, from analogy, that it was formed from one, on-leven contracted into olven? It is not known in Gothic, but we may be sure that ai in ains one, will not be disowned in ainlif, as twa is not in twalif, nor twaim duobus in twaimtigum (d. pi.) twenty. In the same analogical manner the Anglo-Saxons compose words, l^reo three, )?reotyne thirteen, twegen two, originally twen, twenluf contracted to twelf ; an by pushing the accent aen-d-lufan. Does not Kero make, from zuene two, zuelifin twelve? In Otfrid, from zuei two, zueinzig ? Finally, does not the old Friesian, from twia twice, or twi, Ab. 1, 93; thre three, Ab.. 177, tras Hindelopian ; fiuwer /owr, flower, Ab. 1,5,87, form analogically twilif twelve, Ab. 14; thredtine thirteen, Ab. 19, 93; fi\x\>}ex\me fourteen, Ab. 19, 94? 17. There still exists another anomaly in the numerals. The Greeks and Romans, counting only by tens, composed their numbers from ten to twenty with 8eKa, decem ten ; ipdEica, undecim eleven ; SvcoSeKa, duodecim twelve. The German tribes form the same numerals in a similar manner, except eleven and twelve, which were composed with Ger. lif ; ^.->S'. laefan, lif, lef, I'f, in other dialects. But as this anomaly entered our numeral system in a period anterior to the history of our tongues, and is common to all the Germanic languages, the analogy between the kindred dialects is not disturbed by these irregularities, but rather advanced. 18. The cause of this disturbance lies in the old practice of using both ten and twelve as fundamental numbers. The advance was by ten, thus )?rittig. Country Friesic tritich ; feowertig, Ab. 2, &c. but on arriving at sixty the series was finished, and another begun, denoted by prefixing hund. This second series proceeded to one hundred and twenty, thus : hundnigontig wme#3^ ; \i\m6.ieo\\t\g a hundred ; hundenlufontig a hundred and ten ; hundtwelftig a hundred and twenty : here the second series concluded. It thus appears, that the Anglo-Saxons did not know our hundred = 100, as the chief division of numbers ; and, though they counted from ten to ten, they, at the same time, chose the number twelve as the basis of the chief divisions. As we say 5 X 10 == 50, 10 X 10 = 100, they multiplied 5 and 10 by 12, and produced 60 and 120. When the Scandinavians adopted a hundred as a chief division [100 = 10 x 10], they still retained one hundred and twenty ; and calling both these numbers hundred, they distinguished them by the epithets little or ten hundred, lill-hundrad or hundrad tiraed, and great or the twelve number hundred, stor-hundrade or hundrad tolfraed. The Danes count to forty by tens, thus, tredive thirty, fyrretyve forty ; and then commence by twenties, thus, halvtrediesindstyve, Hterally in A.-S. J?ridda healf siSon twentig* [two twenties], and the third twenty half, i. e. fifty. The Icelanders call 2500 half l^ridie ^usand, \^Dut. derdehalfduizend,] i. e. two thousand, and the third thousand half; firesindotyve I four-times twenty] eighty, and so on to a hundred. The Francs, being a mixture of kindred nations from the middle of Germany, when they entered Gallia, partly adopted the Anglo-Saxon mode of numeration, and partly that of the Danes, and they afterwards translated verbally their vernacular names of * The ellipsis of the two twenties is supplied in the expression twa geare and |jridde healf two t/ears and half the third year, literally in Frs. c. twa jier in 't tredde heal, but custom con- tracts it to tredde heal jier. Hickes compares this ellipsis with the Scotch expression half ten, which is also the But. half tien, but in this he is not accurate. The Country Friesians not having this ellipsis, prove that it must be supplied in another way. They say, healwei tsjienen half way of the present hour to ten o'clock. Dr. Dorow has also fallen into the same mistake, p. 127, Denhndler, I. 2 and 3. Xlii FRIESIC — THE USE OF GOTHIC. the numerals by Latin words. From twenty to fifty it proceeds in the usual manner, vingt, trente, quarante, cinquante, soixants ; but having arrived at seventy, the same place where the Anglo-Saxons commenced with hund, hundseofontig, it uses soixantedix, quatrevingt, just as the Danes express eighty by Hresindstyve four-times twenty. As it appears that the old Germans had two fundamental numbers, ten and twehe, it follows that eleven and twelve are the last two numerals of the twelve series, and the^r5^ two in the ten series ; hence perhaps came the use of the termination lif or luf, in eleven and twelve. 19. Let us still add another example. The conjugation of the Anglo-Saxon verb stigan ascendere, and the Gothic steigan, is thus inflected : ic stige, steiga ; he stihts, steigith he ascends ; he stah, staig he ascended; we stigon, stigum we ascended. Here it appears, that the Gothic ei corresponds with the A.-S. i ; ai with a ; i with i. Now I conclude, if the evolution of both languages was regulated by the same principle, there must be an analogy between the vowels in similar instances. Indeed we do observe the same analogy preserved in verbs of the same class. Let us take, for instance, gripan, arisan, and spiwan : A.-S. gripan to gripe ; gripe, griptS ; grap? gripon. Maes, greipan to gripe ; greipa, greipith ; graip, gripum. ^-aS*. arisan to ame, arise, arist; aras, arison. Moes. reisan to arise ; reisa, reisith ; rais, risum. A.-S. STpiwan to vomit ; spiwe, spiw^ ; spaw, spiwun. Moes. speiwan to spit ; speiwa, speiwith ; spaiw, spiwum. 20. These instances are all regular, but as soon as ever the accustomed evolution is disturbed in its course, the analogy is gone. Thus, the verb scinan to shine, ic seine I shine, he sciniS he shines, we scinon we shone, corresponds to skeinan, skeina, skeinith, skinum. The long a, however, in scan, Gothic skain, by some error being changed into short a, this short a is converted into eat and forms scean shone. It has already been observed, that every dialect corresponds in its several parts, and that a certain form in the present tense brings on a certain form in the perfect tense. Of course the practice of some gram- marians, in forming the conjugation of a verb out of the present tense of one dialect, and the perfect tense of another dialect, is contrary to the first rule of sound analogy. If any dialect had scunan or sceonan, the perfect tense scean would not be an exception, as it is when appertaining to scinan. 21. It is a most happy circumstance, that the Gothic, and not the Theotisc, had the advantage of being recorded in the oldest monument of Germanic literature. Though much of the coincidence of this language with all its kindred dialects may be owing to its age, it owes still more in this respect to its locality in the genealogy of language. 22. It is hardly necessary to observe, that there is scarcely a single word in the A.-S. which we do not also find in all the kindred German dialects. We do not ask whether an A.-S, word can be found in the language of the Scandinavians, the Goths, or Theotiscans, but, to which of these it has the nearest relationship ? In an etymological point of view, the great point is to ascertain the species, and not merely the genus ; to discover to which particular dialect a word is most closely allied, and not to be satisfied with pointing out to what sort of language it belongs. FRIESIC — GOTHIC THE OLDEST GERMAN. xliii 23. There are three chief species, of which the Anglo-Saxon and the Friesic take the left side, the Theotisc or Alemannic the right side, and the Icelandic, Moeso-Gothic, Westphalian or Saxon, and Netherlandish, the middle : that is, so far as the vowels and consonants are concerned. The Anglo-Saxon agrees in the consonants with the middle series, represented by the Moeso-Gothic, but in some important points it differs from the Mceso- Gothic and the Theotisc in its vowels, and has a system of its own. On the other hand, the Theotisc agrees with the Gothic in its vowels, having regard to the lapse of time and dialectic variations. In the consonants, the Theotisc is as different from Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, as the Anglo-Saxon is in its vowels from the Gothic and Theotisc, and I venture to say still more original ; for, the consonants have not only quitted their old ranks, but those into which they have entered are also disorbed. The Gothic, then, being allied to the consonants of the Anglo-Saxon and the vowels of the Theotisc, is thus the proper standard of comparison for all the Gothic tongues, having been, from its locality, connected with them all. Thus the Gothic diups deep is allied by the vowels iu to the Theotisc tiuf, and by the consonants d and p to the Anglo-Saxon deop. 24. The Gothic has some peculiarities, which, whether they arise from its place in the pedigree of tongues, or its seniority, exemplify similar pecu- liarities in other languages. For instance, the Icelandic is noted for the termination r or ur, which, in kindred tongues, changes into one of the vowels, and these vowels again into the lean shevae; thus, diupr deep, A.-S. deop, or deope. For the r the Gothic uses s, as the Latin arbos, honos, for arbor, honor ; thus Goth, diups deep ; A.-S. waeg, geard; Theotisc wee, karto ; Gothic wigs, gards, are in Icelandic vegr and gardr. 25. These observations may account for the different opinions of philologers in determining the just relations of the Germanic tongues. The reducing them all to Gothic origin was an exuberant spring of error. The Gothic is not of such antiquity as to boast in being the mother of all Germanic tongues with which we became acquainted in a latter period. In the age of Ulphilas, it was a dialect of Germanic lineage, having other dialects by its side, as the Anglo-Saxon, which in the 4th century differed less from the Gothic than in the 9th century. It will be enough for my purpose to observe, that all critics do not agree in arranging the pedigree of the Gothic. The reason is evident. 26. The Gothic or Moeso-Gothic is a language of transition or passage. If you consider the vowels of a word, you make it of Gothic origin : another, only looking at the consonants, will assert it has nothing to do with the Gothic. Some, only keeping in view grammatical forms, discover similarity of structure in the language of the Heliand ; while others, neglecting vowels, consonants, and grammatical forms, will only fix their attention on the etymological meaning of the word, and will find another filiation. It is evident that the A.-S. mot a coin,* as to the vowel, is nearer the Gothic mota * q. Tribute money, numisma census, vectigal. — J. B. Xliv FRIESIC ARRANGEMENT OF GOTHIC TONGUES. custom-house,* than Ger. ma.\it^ custom-house ; but, as to etymological sense, maut is nearer to the Gothic mota ; and though the word mota may be older and more complete than the A.-S. mot, the signification of coin was anterior to that of custom- house. In this case, the Icelandic and Friesic still mount a step higher than the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, or German, e.g. the Icel. mota insculpo, typico, and mot typus; Frs. c. moet an impression, gives origin to the idea of a coin, as coin does of the house where the tax-money was gathered. — The Theotisc mahal concio, curia, agrees with the Moes. mathh forum, as to the vowel and signification, but the A.-S. me^el sermo as to the consonant « : we find also Moes. mathlei sermo, which agrees with A.-S. meSel, both in the consonants and the signification. — Feawa ^2^;, pauci, has the w of Moes. faiwai pauci, but the Theotisc fahefew, the vowel. If we consider the a in Icel. vaigifuriosus, it is nearer the Moes. wargjan damnare, than the A.-S. wergean to curse, maledicere, but in the signification the A.-S. draws nearer. Let us take an English example : the word abb the yarn on a weaver's warp. The w (pronounced nearly as Eng. v) being the aspiration of the lips, is often changed into h, the aspiration of the throat, as fahe, for fawai. The Moes. biwaibjan to surround, encompass, from waips a garland, sertum, A.-S. wefan to weave, Theotisc uueban, Grk. v£tv. The Scandinavians cast away both these aspirations in the perf. of eg vet I weave, saying v6f, vaf, and of, hence of tela in use by the Scandina- vians. In abb, then, the a is Icelandic, from vaf, and without the w in of texeham ; but the h changes into/ or remains a h, as in the Moes. and in the A.-S. web ; Frs. c. wob ; both e and o originating from a. 27. From these few examples, it is evident that a word may have as many affinities as the points of view from which it may be observed. The Gothic was a tongue of transmigration, and all Germanic languages coming in contact with it in some point or other, it was very easily imagined to be the mother of the whole race. I may lastly add, on the ground of my own experience, that, having regard only to vowels and consonants, I cannot arrive at the common source of the Germanic tongues, as we trace back human kind to one common father in paradise. History begins too late to permit us to tface, with any satisfaction, even the first half of the period. Let us, therefore, not attempt what is impracticable ; but, keeping in mind the seniority of the class at the head of each column, let us range them all in one line, as dialects of the same language. Finding, 1st. the Anglo-Saxon older than the English, the Old Friesic than the Country Friesic, — 2ndly, the Moeso-Gothic older than the Swedish, — Srdly, the Theotisc or Alemannic older than the present German ; and considering how much of grammatical forms, in the present languages, time may have destroyed, as to the vowels and consonants, the languages must be classified in the following order: — * Telonium. FRIESIC. — TABLE OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES. xlv ANGLO-SAXON, MCESO-GOTHIC, THEOTISC. by the intermixing Old and Modern, [Language of Kero of Old Danish, Nor- Icelandic, of the .xxvi Hymns,^ man French, Latin, mixed with German, &c.] Greek, &c. is formed Saxon, &c. forms the High German, into present Bavarian, English, Swedish, Austrian, and Scottish, &c* Danish, Sfc. other dialects. Friesic, Saxon or Westphalian German, a mixture of at present divided language of the poem High -German and into Heliand,^ Low-Sax- some Saxon, [Low- Hindelopian, on.l German] as esta- Country Friesic, [ReineJce de Fos,\\ of blished by the ver- Schiermonnikogian, Henry van Alkmar, sion of the Bible by Saterlandic, Lubek, 1498.] Martin Luther, and North Friesic, From the Province since adopted as the [A small part of the of Overyssel, along general language Dutchy of Sleswickl the whole coast of through the whole All these dialects are the North - Sea to of Germany, a.d. more or less tainted Sleswick, the Baltic. 1555.** by the languages of &c. the respective sur- Nertherlandish ICoren rounding people. van stat dervanBrues- 5e/e,1229.§] Statutes of the town of Brus- sels. Dutch, now daily be- coming more defiled by Gallicisms and Germanisms. • See Jameison's opinion of the origin of the Scottish in Table I. § 19, p. viii. + Heliand oder die altsachsische Evangelien-Harmonie. Herausgegeben von J.Andreas Schmeller, Monachii, sumptibus J. G. Cottae, 1830. The Cottonian MS. of the Heliand is of the 9th century. The MS. of Bamberg is a century later. With the Heliand compare Denkmdler, alter sprache und kunst von Dr. Dorow, I. 2nd and 3rd part, Berlin, 1824, where are explained some admirable specimens of the dialect spoken between Munster and Paderborn in the 10th century. It is a list of the rents of the convent Freckahorst near Waxendorf. t Niedersdchsisch, Platt-deutch [Low-deutch] in German as opposed to High-deutch. See the history of these dialects in Geschichte der Nieder-sdchsischen sprache\on J. F. A. Kinderling, Magdeburg, 1800. \\- See VI. 13—18. § First published in a treatise entitled Verhandeling over de Nederduytsche tael en Letterkunde opzigtelyk de zuydelyke provintien der Nederlanden door J. F. Willems, Antwerpen, 1819, torn i. p. 133. This piece being the oldest specimen of Netherlandish now extant, fully proves that the present Dutch is mere Brabandish, and that the strongly marked dialectic diversities of these two sisters were formed when the Netherlandish was cultivated in the seven United Provinces. The Netherlandish was called the Vlaemsche tael ; the Flemish tongue, la langiie Flamande, as long as the southern part of the Netherlands was the most flourishing, and Flanders the chief province. It was called Hollandish [Dutch] after the Spanish revolution, when the northern part was become a powerful republic, and the province of Holland a ruling province. To be a language or dialect, is often merely a question of predominant influence. See VI. 11, 20. % Hymnonim veteris ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio Theotisca, ed. Jacobus Grimm, Gottingae, 1830. •* See X. 51. 28. Considering the frame of the whole, I take no notice of the little interchanges between the columns — for instance, that the Friesic is nearer to the Icelandic than the Anglo-Saxon. All the three columns are considered as proceeding together, and developing themselves in succeed- ing ages with more or less facility.* An attempt shall subsequently be made to show the locality of the Germanic languages in a higher period, and how they developed themselves in advancing to the station of the Moeso-Gothic. * This hypothesis must be regulated by a due attention to the fact, that the first appear- ance of the Anglo-Saxon in the orbit of languages, is some centuries later than the Mceso- Gothic, which has, therefore, its phases more advanced than the Anglo-Saxon. This con- sideration is of common application. Xlvi FRIESIC MOST LIKE ANGLO-SAXON. 29. It must be observed, that the monuments of Friesian literature are of a far more recent date than the Anglo-Saxon ; but the development of language does not always depend upon its age. The Friesians, encom- passed on the one side by the sea, and on the other by the Saxons, owe it to their greographical position that they have experienced no mutations but those of a Saxon origin, and in many respects homogeneous with their own language. I do not recollect any intermixture of a foreign language with the Friesian, except what was caused by the frequent inroads of Normans, and by the settlement of some bands of the same race among the Friesians. 30. Add to this, that the language of the Friesians never felt the shock caused by migrations. From the time of Caesar to this very day, amongst the endless revolutions of nations, they have never changed their name or the place of their residence, and they are noted as an exception to the locomotive temper of the Germanic race.* 31. These causes would render the language so stationary, that it would be less altered in the 12th century, than others in the 10th. In the following comparison, many instances will occur of true Anglo-Saxon sounds still flourishing in Friesland. What I consider still more impor- tant, the development of some vowels has produced now the same result as it did eight centuries ago — a convincing proof that the germ of both languages must be homogeneous. 32. Discovering such striking features of likeness, after a separation of almost fourteen centuries, a complete separation by the ocean, by the adventures and the diversity of their means of subsistence, and of the land they occupied, I conclude, that at the time of their union, about the middle of the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxon was distinguished from the Friesic only by slight differences of dialect. We do not become acquainted with the A,-S. before the 8th or 9th century, and with the Friesian not before the 12th or 13th century, about four and eight hundred years after their separation. The series of evolutions each tongue has sustained, affords a full account of the chief discrepancies then existing. f 33. As this whole matter can be proved by a strict comparision, we need not seek for authorities. If authority were wanted, that of Francis Junius would be amply sufficient. After a long scrutiny of the whole Germanic antiquity in regard to languages ; after the compilation of glossaries of almost every dialect of the race, unparalleled in labour and accuracy ; after a stay of two years [1652-1654] in those parts of Friesia noted as tenacious of their old manners and language, this scholar has always declared it as his opinion, that, of all the Germanic tongues, none approached so closely to the Anglo-Saxon as the Friesian. This decision wUl, I trust, outweigh all contrary opinions. As there are few in this century even deserving to march by the side of Junius, so I do not think any one can be vain enough to imagine he is superior. * Precis de la Geographic Universelle, par M. Malte-Bmn, Paris, 1810, vol. i. p. 314. t See § 14, 58, &c. NEIGHBOURS OF THE FRIESIANS. xlvii 34. The geographical position of this people in question coincides with their philological pedigree. Let ns begin with the Goths, taking care that the epithet Moesian, coupled with their name, does not deceive the common reader. Some fragments of the Periplus of Pytheas, the renowned navigator from Marseilles, inform us, that he, being in search of the amber coasts in the Baltic, doubled the cape of Jutland, and sailed about 6,000 stadia along the coasts of the Guttones and Teutones, through the gulf Mentonomon [Kattegat, Belt, &c.] This was about 325 years before the Christian era. The Guttones or Goths, seated in Jutland, descended afterwards to their brethren at the southern coast of the Baltic,* for the chief seat of the race was on the banks of the Vistula [Weichsel]. After a part was gone into Scandinavia, the great bulk moved thence to the banks of the Danube [Donau] in Dacia [Moldavia and Wallachia, about a.d. 180]. A part of the Goths, called West-Goths, pushed on by the Huns, retired, about a.d. 377, into Moesia [Servia and Bulgaria], and hence these Western- Goths obtained the name of Moeso- Goths. It was to this people that Ulphilas, the renowned translator of the Scriptures, was bishop. 35. On the southern borders of the ancient Goths were seated the Angles, spreading southward perhaps to the banks of the Eider. The chief town of these people at a later date was Haddeby or Haithaby, A.-S. HseSe in Schleswig, or Sleswick. 36. While the Angles filled nearly the whole of the Chersonesus Cim- bricuSj they were bordered on the west by another people of their kindred. These were the Friesians, whose posterity still live in the district of Bred- stedt near the coast of the sea, and whose dialect will afford some words for comparison. Hence the Friesians spread themselves in one uninterrupted line along the coast of the German sea to the mouth" of the Scheld;t though the extremities of this line were very distant from each other, and the people subdivided into sections denominated Brocmans, Segelterlanders, Rustrunger, Hunsingoer, and Emlander, each people ruling its own section by its own private statutes ; still they were one people, and spoke the same language, and ruled by the same common law, as a close examination of its Vetus jus Frisionum will prove. We remark that the Friesians lived close to the coast, as if allured by some magic attraction of the water; and, though when exigences required it, they sometimes extended into the interior parts, they never spread far in breadth, and even in their partial extension they soon relinquished their internal * See VII. § 1, &c. f The learned S. Turner cites six lines of Melis Stoke, in which the chronicler asserts that Lower Saxony has been confined by the Scheld. This accurate historian would not place any confidence in these words, if he had been acquainted with the following edition of the Rhymer: Rijmkronijk van Melis Stoke, met aanmerkingen door Balthazar Huydecoper, torn. iii. 8vo. Ley- den, 1772; i. p. 9. See Lex Frisionum edita et notis illustrata a Sibrando Siccama ; Franekeree, 1617. — Van Wijn, bijvoegzels en aanmerkingen op de Faderl-Geschiedenis van Wagenaar, torn. i. — iv. p. 83 — 90. The same remark is of still more forcible application on a passage of Colijn, also cited by Mr. Turner. Colijnus is a supposititious child. History of the Anglo- Saxons, i. p. 328 and 150, London, 8vo. 1828. In the history of Friesia after the time of Charlemagne, those Friesians who governed by their own laws, and spoke Friesic, must be carefully distinguished from the surrounding people, who are also called Friesians because the political division of countries refers them to Friesia. The blending of these two races has been the source of endless errors in history. xlviii FillESlC LINE BROKEN. possessions. The historian, recollecting these facts, will not overlook the importance of the Friesians, though they only inhabited the borders of the continent, and the little islands by which the coast of the German ocean is covered. 37. This Friesian line was early broken in two places by two mighty nations — one making its appearance from the continent, the other from the ocean. Between the Ems and the Weser were settled the Chauci Minores, and between the Weser and the Elbe the Chauci Majores. It is reported by Tacitus, that this immense extension of land, even from the borders of Hessia, was not only under the dominion, but was inhabited by the Chauci, but, he adds, they only kept some part of the strand, leaving the Friesians for the most part in their old possessions. The Chauci, entering into alKance with other people against the declining power of Rome, and assuming the name of Francs, left this country, and their name, being absorbed in that of the Francs, disappears from historic record. The Friesians availed themselves of this opportunity to occupy the vacated possessions of the Chauci, it not being unusual for a steady people like the Friesians to make use of the changes produced by the roving disposition of their neighbours to increase their own territory. 38. Two descriptions of the Chauci are given by Tacitus. He first records some facts, and then, in the thirty-fifth chapter De Moribus Germanormn, he draws their portrait. In the record of the facts,* the Chauci appear cruel oppressors of the feeble, vindictive pirates, and to be prone to foreign military expedition, and also to make inroads on their neighbours. In delineating their character, f it is said that they wish to support their grandeur by justice, being free from covetousness, masters of them- selves, calm, modest, and retired. They never excite wars, nor harass their neigh- bours by predatory excursions or highway robbery. It is deemed the strongest proof of their bravery and might, that they act as superiors, and never pursue anything by injustice. Nevertheless, every one is ready to take up arms, and, in case of exigency, to unite in forming an army. They have plenty of men and horses, and their placitude detracts nothing from their valour. Had Tacitus first given this description, and afterwards recorded the facts, one might have supposed that he was misled through ignorance of the facts; but how he could contradict known facts related by himself, is hardly to be conceived. It must be clear to all who know the Friesians and their disposition, that the character ascribed to the Chauci agrees even in the least par- ticulars with that of the Friesians. Is it then impossible that Tacitus at a distant period, and mislead by later reports, should blend two neighbouring people together, and attribute to the Chauci what was alone applicable to the Friesians? 39. The line of the Friesian tribes was broken again in a second place, to the north of the Elbe. The Saxons, occupying only some islands, such as Nordstrand, and some points on the continent to the westward and south of the Angles, and their western neighbours the strand Friesians, were in time so increased that they descended from their narrow « Taeiii Annales xi. 18, 19. Dion. Cass. ix. 30. Tac. Ann. xiii. 55. Didius Julianus re- stitit lis Belgicam aggi-edientibus, Spartianus in Did. Jul. I. f Taeiii Germania, cap. 36. It is said that he wrote liis Germania later than his Annales or History. Whether this be true or not, the facts and the description must apply to different people. FRIESIC POSITION OF THE GERMAN TRIBES. xlix abodes, and spread along the northern banks of the Elbe, and filled up the whole extent of country between this river and the land of the Angles.* This second breach, being near and enlarging that of the Chauci, was never entirely filled up again ; and where it was afterwards, either by the departure of the Chauci, or the expeditions of the Saxons, the bishops of Bremen and Hamburg determined, by their power and spiritual influence, to destroy the Friesic spirit of freedom, by subjugating the Friesians to their sway in government, religion, and language. 40. Hence two divisions of Friesia originated at an early date : the southern part began at the mouth of the Weser, and terminated at the mouth of the Scheld ; the northern part from the west strand of Schleswig [Sleswick] , towards the mouth of the Elbe, much less than the southern part, and for this reason called Friesia Minor. In the 13th century, this small territory had power to raise for the king of Denmark an army of sixty thousand men.f 41. The Moeso-Goths are traced to their first position in the northern parts of Chersonesus Cimbricus [Jutland, Denmark] ; the Angles in the narrower part and to the banks of the Eider; the Friesians extended on the sea-coasts by the side of the Angles to the mouth of the Elbe. We intend to place our philological comparison in the same order ; first the Gothic, then the Anglo-Saxon, and finally the Friesic. 42. It must not be overlooked, that the geographical position of the whole Germanic race coincides with the arrangement of the preceding table of their languages. Going from the Baltic to the Netherlands, you pass through the original seats of the Icelandic, Moeso-Gothic, West- phalian, Netherlandish; on the left you find the Angles and Friesians; and on the right you have the Alemannic or Theotisc race.J 43. This position may, perhaps, aflford some idea of the order in which the respective tribes marched from the orient to the west of Europe. The foremost were the Anglo-Friesic race, who, being pushed forward by following tribes, did not halt till they arrived on the shore of the German ocean. The Goths with their attendants followed, and the train of the Germani was closed by the Theotisc race. The coast of the German ocean, along which the Anglo-Friesic race was forced to spread itself, was the basis of the direction in which the two following races took their position, and were placed nearly in three parallels from north-east to south-west. These parallels are crossed and disturbed in a thousand ways by migrations and wars, but their general direction manifests itself to this very day in the remnants of the respective old languages. 44. The adventurers who subdued Britain are called Anglo-Saxons ; but here an important question arises — what is implied in this name? First, it is to be observed, that this people never called themselves Anglo- * As the Saxons were unknown to Tacitus, the irruption of the Chauci was, of course, anterior to that of the Saxons. f *' Imperator Otto, Holsatiam sibi .subigere volebat, contra quern venit rex Waldemarus cum exercitu copioso, habens secum de soils Frisionibus sexaginta millia hominum." — Ericus Rex,adann. 1215. + § 27. h 1 FRIESIC THE SAXONS POWERFUL. Saxons; but this name is given them by historians. Paulus Diaconus called i\iQm Angli-Saxones ;* Codoaldus, rex AnglonumSaxonum ;f and, inverting the construction of the words, he says, Hermelinda ex Saxonum-Anglorum genere.X They did not call themselves by these compound names, but indiscriminately, Angles or Saxons. Anglorum, sive Saxonum gens.\\ The case seems to me as follows. 45. After the Goths had evacuated the Chersonesus Cimbricus, and left only their name to the country, colonies of the neighbouring Angles succeeded in their place, and assumed the name of the Country Geatas, Eotas, Ytas. The Scandinavians, and more particularly the Danes, were quite distinct from these Juths,§ being their mortal enemies, and being distinguished from them by some strong features in the respective languages. Neither did the Danes originally possess any part of the Chersonesus Cimbricus, unless it was the very northern point. In later ages they succeeded in gradually subduing the population of the Chersonesus, and mingling their language with that of the innates ; but this very mixture proves by its ingredients, now visible, that nearly the whole peninsula was before populated by a race different to the Danes, and similar to the Angles. The definite article the, both in Danish and Icelandic, is placed after the noun and made to coalesce with it, while in the Anglo-Saxon and the kindred tongues it is always set before the noun : thus A.-S. seo straet the street ; Icel. straetit ; ^.-aS^. se strand the strand; Icel. strondin ; A.-S. se man the man ; Dan. manden, gen. mandens of the man.^ This peculiarity of the Danish idiom is not to be found in the dialect of the Jutes, however Danish it may be. If you draw a line from Skanderburg to Wiburg, and to the gulph of Liim, what lies south and west of this line, Thysted not excepted, retains still the remains of its Anglo-Saxon, or rather its antiscandinavian origin.** 46. The combined power of the Angles and Jutes was easily overcome by that of their southern neighbours; for such was the number, the power, and the extent of the Saxons along and above the northern banks of the Elbe, that all the surrounding people, whether Friesians, Angles, or Jutes, were considered by foreigners as subdivisions of the Saxons; even what was effected by a union of all these tribes, was often ascribed to the Saxons alone. It is likely that the Saxons were the most prominent, and therefore attracted the greatest attention from southern scholars, while the Friesians, Angles, and Jutes were less observed on the strand or the inner part of the peninsula. It is known, from their geographical position, that the Angles constituted a part, and being the chief actors, probably a great part of the migrating allies ; so that, on their departure, their native soil was left nearly destitute of inhabitants. jf The Angles, however, were considered a subdivision of the more powerful Saxons, and took a share in their • De gestis Longobard. iv. 23. f Id. vi. 15. J Id. v. 37. Bede, i. 15. § " Guti cum veniunt suscipi debent, et protegi in regno isto sicut conjurati fratres, sicut propinqui et proprii cives regni hujus. Exierunt enim quondam de nobili sanguine Anglo- rum, scilicet de Engra civitate, et Anglici de sanguine illorum, et semper efficiuntur populus unus et gens una." — Leges Edwardi, Wilkins, p. 206. t See II. § 1. ** See this position defended by a Danish gentleman, Dr. C. Paulsen, in the Nordisk Review, No. I. p. 261, Copenhagen, 1833. ft See III. § 5,6. FRIESIC — WHO WERE THE ANGLO-SAXONS. li expedition : this union is correctly expressed in the denomination Anglo-Saxons. For, whether this word be considered as German or Latin, the first part denotes the species, and the second the genus, and the whole implies the tribe of the Angles belonging to the Saxon confederacy. The Angles bore the chief and leading part in the expedition to Britain, though considered as only a part of the Saxon confederacy, and therefore denominated Anglo-Saxon.* Time has done justice to the Angles ; for while the name of Saxons has either completely disappeared, or has only a faint vestige in such words as Essex, {East- Saxons, ") Middlesex, &c., the name of the Angles is still embodied in England and Englishmen, and is in full vigour and known from pole to pole ; nor will it ever die, unless the declining empires of Germanic race should be washed away by a flood of barbarians, as the Roman empire was by the Germanic. 47. It has already been shown that Anglo-Saxon is a word formed by old Latin authors, and not by the Saxons themselves. Independently of historical proof, the foreign descent of the word is proved by its for- mation. Thus we say, in the Latin form, Anglo- Saxones, Hiberno-Anglus, Polono-Russus, whether we take Anglo, Hiberno, Polono, for substantives or adverbs ; but in expres- sing these words in the Germanic tongues, we should say English Saxon, Polish Russian ; in German, Englischer Sachse, Russischer Pole. Thus the Dutch poet Maerlant, Dus werden heren dingelsche sassen. Thus the English Saxons turned rulers, (iii. 29.) This Germanic form is verbally translated by Paulus Diaconus, (iv.l5,) Angli- Saxones. 48. It is often stated that the word Seaxan Saxons is derived from seax a sword; in East Friesia, saeghs a little sabre. If this be true, there is some reason for the supposition that the kindred nations derived their names from the weapon which they chiefly used. Thus, Franc, from franca a javelin ; German, from gar jaculum ; Dut. Kil. gheer fuscina ; and man a man, that is, a dart man. Angle the Angles, from angel aculeus hamatus. The word seax is nothing else but Moes. ahs spica; Sans, ^frr asc a sword, ensis ; A.-S. aechir, ear an ear ; aex, eax an axe, an instrument consisting of a metal head with a sharp edge, preceded by the sibilant s; and perhaps gar is the same word as (ar) ear ; Dut. aar, air, aer arista, preceded by the guttural g ; Dut. Kil. anghel an ear or spike of corn — all proving the idea of something pointed. The word franca is seen in Ger. fram, properly the sharp end of an instrument, the beginning of any thing, and hence the preposition from, agreeing in signification with the Moes. fram. Fram fruma, {Moes. Jn. 15, 27,) is on that account properly the edge, commencement of the beginning, that is, from the beginning. Is it not also possible that the Brondingas, {Beo. K. p. 37, 11,) are so called from Icel. brandr lamina ensis. 49. In the comparison of languages, care should be taken not to be mislead by mere names. The Saxons increased so much in power, as to dare to oppose the hosts of Charlemagne, and at last they occupied an immense territory about the Elbe and the Weser, which, after their name, was called Saxony. This Saxony was subsequently occupied by other ♦ It is remarkable that king Ine, who commenced his reign in a.d. 700, calls himself, at the beginning of his laws, a West-Saxon. Ic Ine, mid Godes gyfe West-Seaxana cyning, / Ine, by God's grace king of the West-Saxons. But the people of his kingdom he denominates English- men. Gif wite-)5eow Englisc mon bine forstalige, if an Englishman condemned to slavery steal. In. 24. Gif Enghsc mon steals, if an Englishman steal, In. 46 : 54: 74. An Englishman, in all the paragraphs, is opposed to Wealh a Welshman. lii FRiEsic — Johnson's dictionary. tribes, whose system of vowels approached to that of the Theotisc race, and therefore differed very much from the Anglo-Saxon sounds. These tribes, taking the name of Saxons from the country they inhabited, their language is also called Saxon. I need not remark, that we can neither compare Anglo-Saxon nor the English to this Saxon as their nearest relative, if the mistakes of the most celebrated philologists did not render it necessary.* Dr. Johnson did not regard this rule, and therefore he often compares English words with the most remote German. " After cat you first find Teuton katz (read katze), then French chat, and afterwards A.-S. cat; while A.-S. cat, Frs. and Dut. kat, being the proper form of the word, ought to have stood first." Some hundred examples of this sort, and worse, may be quoted from this celebrated lexicographer : his errors, instead of being removed by his editor, Mr. Todd, are in this respect, and some others, increased : added to this, that many words are not to be found in the languages referred to. In the article hay, the Icel. hey is also said to be Dut., while the Dut. word is hooi; and thus in almost every page. An impartial judge, con- sidering the medley of materials, the blunders, the negligence or typographical errors occurring in deducing words from their originals, will conclude, that the etymological part of Johnson's Dictionary, even in the edition of 1827, is not deserving of the expense and the labour bestowed upon it, and is quite unworthy of the nation of whose language it is the chief interpreter, if not the uncontrolled lawgiver. The English etymologist will only meet with the proper forms of its words by consulting the nearest relatives of the English language. We may illustrate this by the preceding example of hay. Here we find the same change of ^ to y in the Country Friesian as in the English — a change which is not to be found so often in any other Germanic tongue. A.-S. heg, in Frs. c. is hea ; but haye (Italian a) to make hay, agrees with hay, having both a, as Moes. hawi. So also A.-S. maeg potest, daeg dies, weg via, caeg clavis, were changed into may, day, way, hey, of which the Englishman will scarcely discover instances, unless he goes to his nearest kinsmen the Friesians, Frs. c. mei, dei, wei, kai, (Italian a).\ 50. It may be asked whether, when the Anglo-Saxons left their native soil, any of the neighbouring Friesians accompanied them, and whether any intercourse was subsequently maintained between the separated brethren ? :|: * It has already been observed, (§ 22,) that the question is not whether a word exists in one of the Germanic languages, which is generally the case, but whether the proper form of the w^ord is to be found in the nearest kindred dialect. When we cannot discover it in this dia- lect, then only we may apply to languages of more remote relationship. The question, for instance, is not whether the word cat exists in other Germanic tongues, but whether it is found in A.-S., Frs. or Dut. t There is another class of Germanic words introduced in this century, or the two pre- ceding, and making no part of the original frame of the language. The correct derivation of these words depends more upon an extensive knowledge of many thousand terms in modern tongues, than upon analogical acuteness : I should wish to bestow more praise upon this part of Johnson's Dictionary, but it is not better than the other. One example will be sufficient. What can be more simple than the derivation of the word tattoe, the beat of a drum warning soldiers to their quarters, from the Dut. taptoo, id. properly signifying tapping shut, the taps or ginshops shut from the soldiers ? Even in the last edition of Johnson, by Todd, it is derived from Fr. tapotez tous. X The old Chroniclers are at a loss whether to make Hengist a Friesian or a Saxon. Maerlant speaks of him thus . Een hiet Engistus een vriese, een sas, Die vten lande verdreuen was ; One was named [J.-S. het] Engist, a Friesian or a Saxon, W^ho was driven away out of his land. — Spiegel Historial.c: xv. p. 16. FRIESIANS ACCOMPANIED THE SAXONS. Illl Upon which I would remark, that the faces of the Anglo-Saxon and the Friesic languages would have the more marked and decided likeness to each other, when the separation was the most complete. If a continued intercourse between the Friesians on the continent, and the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, had been maintained, the Anglo- Saxon would have been supplied with Friesian ingredients of a later date, in such a way as languages not otherwise homogeneous may form a distant similitude ; but when there are innumerable resemblances between Anglo-Saxon and the Friesian of this very day, originating in the latter part of the 5th century, without being increased by a subsequent intercourse, it is a proof that this striking similitude must have been laid in the basis of the languages. I feel much inclined to think that this is the truth, while I allow that many of the neighbouring Friesians accompanied the Anglo-Saxons in their expedition. 51. It is true that the Friesian is noted for his tenacity to his native soil. His residence about the mouths of the Ems and the Rhine for centuries before our era, in the midst of a wandering people, is a sufficient proof of this character. The Friesians on the confines of the Angles were not of such quiet and sedentary habits as those on the Ems and the Rhine. They acquired the restless habits of their neighbours. Suppose then a portion of the Saxons, many thousand Jutes, and nearly all the Angles, leaving their country for glory and riches ; would it not be a miracle, if the Friesians in the neighbourhood of the moving tribes were alone insensible of the general impulse ? This is on the supposition that the movement was voluntary ; but, considering the subsequent emigration of the Cimbrians, the Goths, and Angles, from the same peninsula, I cannot help retaining the supposition, that some cause, now unknown, might operate to produce these migrations. This cause, whether famine,* or inroads from the Scandinavians, being general, would have the same influence upon the Friesians as upon their neighbours. 52. I am aware that inquiry will be made, why Bede, in enumerating the tribes who peopled Britain, omitted the Friesians. f As well may we inquire why Procopius omits the Saxons, and names the Friesians. Bede was born about a.d. 673, and died in 735. Though he was well Thus again : Engistus wart dus outeert Ende is in Vrieseland gekeert. Engist was thus disgraced. And is into Friesia returned. — torn. iii. p. 29. The Chronicle of Maerlant is founded upon the Speculum Historiale of Monk Vincentius, who wrote about a. d. 1245. * Nennius says, that the first settlers arrived in three vessels, and that Hengist and Horsa were exiles : this intimates some internal combustion in Gothland. In those nations averse to the sedentary occupation of agriculture, famine was always the most efiicient and general cause of emigration. This was at least the case with the Scandinavians, who, pressed by dearth, determined by lot who should emigrate. It is likely that the Scandinavians fell upon the Jutes, who, being settled in the corner of the peninsula, were the first prey of the hungry invaders. The Jutes fell upon Britain, and were the first Saxon settlers in Kent and Wight. The Scandinavians then descended further to the south on the Angles and Saxons, and induced the tribes to comply with the request of Hengist and other leaders to come to Britain. The northern pirates, still descending further, ravaged the whole coast of the German sea : the Friesians were, therefore, the never-ceasing objects of their piratical incursions. In still later times they settled in France, and ultimately reached the descendants of the same tribes of the Anglo-Saxons, who, in the two preceding centuries, were exiled from their native soil. See on this subject, Normannernes sotoge og deres nedseetielse i Frankerig Historik Fremstillet af G. B. Depphig med adskillige forandringer oversat af N. M. Petersen Kobenhavn, 1830, p. 57, et seq. t Bede i. 15. liv FRIESIC PROPER NAMES LIKE A.-S. acquainted with the affairs of England in his time, he never left his native land. Procopius was a Greek of Caesarea, and after the year 535 the secretary of Belisarius, the companion of his general in his expeditions against the Vandals and Goths, and of course well acquainted with the general circumstances and relations of the Germanic tribes. He was also two hundred years nearer the Saxon expedition to Britain than Bede. This Procopius states in his fourth book on the Gothic war, that Britain was peopled by three nations, the Britons, the Angles, and the Friesians, AyyiXoi Kai $,oio-aroi/£s. Could Procopius be mistaken or mislead in an historical fact of such notoriety as the overthrow of an important island by swarms from the continent, an event in which the political interests of his master Justinian, as to the influence of its example, were highly concerned ? It was to Proco{iius a compara- tively recent event, happening about 449, and therefore only about a hundred years before he wrote his history. If he were mislead, how is it that he does not mention some nation of wider fame, and is satisfied to select the Angles and the remote tribe of the Friesians to be the inhabitants of Britain ? 53. I cannot omit to mention, that the leaders of the Anglo-Saxons bear names which are now in use by the Friesians, though by time a little altered or abbreviated. They have ^or^se, Hengst,* Witte, Wiggele, Eske, Tsjisse, Tsjerk, Ealse, Hessel ; for A.-S. Horsa, Hengest, Witta, Wihtgil, Chr. Ing. p. 15 ; Msc. Cissa, Chr. Ing. p. 16 ; Cerdic, Elesa, Chr. Ing. p. 17. Also Lense, Timen, JSlle, for A.-S. Wlencing, Cymen, iSlle, llcel. at ellda ignem facere ; A.-S. ellen virtus, rohur,'\ Chr. Ing. 16 ; Ine, Ide, Offe, for A.-S. Ine, Ide, Offa. There are indeed but few A.-S. names which may not be found in use with the present Friesians. 54. The story of Geoffrey of Monmouth about Vortigern and Rouin, or Roiven, daughter of Hengist, is known. She welcomed him with, *^ Lauerd king, wacht heil," Lord king, wait for my hailing draught. He, by the help of an interpreter, answered, " Drinc heil," Drink hail to me.f I intend not to discuss the verity of the history, but only to allude to the cere- mony which was observed. The Friesian Chronicles represent Rowen as drinking the whole, in compliance with the royal command, " Drink hail ! " and then taking the right hand of the king in hers and kissing him, while she offered him the cup with her left hand. This is quite a Friesian custom.J The female is not named Rouin by the Friesian Chronicle, as the text of Geoffrey badly states, but Ronixa, a name still in use with us, though, by an analogical permutation of consonants, it is written Reonts. • See § 50, note %. f Galfredi Monumetensis Historia Regum Britanniae, iv. 12. X Est praeterea et alia quam pro lege vel quasi observant (Frisii) ut videlicet quoties alicui patheram vel poculum vino, vel cerevisia plenum propinant, turn dicunt sua materna lingua, Het gilt, ele frye Frieze! \_It concerns thy hail, Ofree Friesian ,'1 et non tradunt patheram sive poculum, nisi datis dexteris, cujuscumque etiara conditionis, aut sexus fuerunt, quique turn accipientes praedictum poculum respondent eadem lingua, " Fare wal, ele frye Frieze ! {Fare- well, Ofree Friesians!'] Etsi personae dissimiles fuerint, aut utraeque feminei sexus nihilominus addito osculo idem ^er&ciunt ; quem etiam morem in hunc usque diem Frisii pertinaciter retentum observant. — De orig. situ, qualit. et quant. Frisice, M. Corn. Kempio authore, Coloniee Agr. 1588. " Respondens deinde Vortegirnus, Drinc heil jussit puellam potare, cepitque de manu ipsius scyphum et osculatus est earn et potavit." — Galfredus Monum, vi. 12. The maiden's taking hold of the king's hand and kissing him, is reported by Winsemius Frieschi Historien, p. 43, and others, who may be compared with Geoffrey of Monmouth. See Junii Etymol. Anglic, in voce Wait. iE :s::'%n5Si£CSEiii^T«\SK& " FRIESIC — STATE OF ANGLO-SAXON MSS. Iv 55. Whatever may be the truth of the story, it is most certain that " Wacht hail" is changed into Wassail ; that wassail-cup is sometimes used at feasts and on New-year's day in England ; and that its origin is traced back to the supposed meeting of Vortigern and Ronixa. What has particularly struck me is, that the figure of the old English wassail-bowl is exactly the same as the silver cups in which, at weddings, the Friesians offer to the guests brandy with raisins, [spict/ wassel-bowl]. This cup passes from the married couple to their guests on their left-hand, and from them to their left-hand neighbour, as in the corporation festivals in England. The liquor is called in the Friesian tongue, " breid's trienetf' bride's tears, alluding to her reluctant willingness to enter into wedlock. 56. I will only add that the Danes were the common enemies of the Friesians and Angles, and as much opposed by national hatred, as the Friesians and Angles were united by the ties of national sympathy. The Saxon Chronicle records, in the year a. d. 897, that the Friesians and Angles fought under the command of king Alfred against the Danes, who were defeated near Exmouth, Devonshire. The Friesians were of some repute, or the names of three of them would not have been preserved from oblivion in this record : iEbbe, Frs. c. Ebbe ; iE. 680: this About a.d. 885, bi/ King MS. is of A. Ji.7S7. Cod. MSS. Epis. Norwi- censis* Wanley, p. 287. Nu scylun hergan hefaen ricaes uard metudaes mascti* end his mod gidanc uerc uuldur fadur sue he uundra gihuaes eci drictin ^ or astelidae. He aerisf^ scop elda bamum heben til hrofe haleg scepen tha** middun geard mon cynnaes uard eci dryctin sefter tiadas firum foldue frea allmectig. Alfred. MS. C.C.C. Oxon. Thorpe Pref. Ccedm. xxii. Nu we sceolan herian/ heofon-rices weard. metodes mihte. and his mod-gel'onc.^ wera'' wuldor-foeder. swa he wundrai gehwaes. ece dryhtenJ oord'' onstealde'. he aerest gesceop." eor^an bearnum. heofon to hrofe." hahg scyppend. )3a middan geard. mon cynnes weard. ece dryhten.o aefter teode. firum foldan. frea aelmihtig. Literal English Version. Now must we praise the guardian of heaven's kingdom, the creator's might, and his mind's thought, glorious Father of men ! as of every wonder he, Lord eternal, formed the beginning. He first framed for the children of earth the heavens as a roof ; holy Creator ! then mid-earth, the guardian of mankind, the eternal Lord, afterwards produced ; the earth for men, Lord Almighty ! Prima cantavit Ccedmon istud carmen. ^ maecti. ^ abest. ■ rofe. b dryctin. » wuldres. o drihtne. <= aerist <* jja, « fold." ^ herigean j drihten. ^ ord. ^ astealde B. ^-- Various readings in Smith's edition of Bede, 597, 20 ^ gejjanc. gescop. Whether the reference of the MS. Episc. Norwicensis to the precise year, a.d. 737, be correct or not, every one will agree with Wanley, that it is far before the age of Alfred, t and is by no means a re-translation of the Latin words of Bede. King Alfred strictly follows the lines and the words of the MS. Episc. Norwicensis. The obser- vation of Bede,t that he followed the sense of Ccedmon, and not the construction of his words, applies particularly to the latter part of the MS. Episc. Norwicensis, and is an additional proof that Bede found his original almost in the same form as it is presented to us in MS. Episc. Norwicensis. Alfred seems convinced that he had the true song of Caedmon before him, as in his Anglo-Saxon translation, he not only omits Bede's remark about giving merely the sense, and not the same collocation of words, but immediately before the insertion of this Anglo-Saxon song, he asserts, " )?ara endebyrdnes Hs is" the order of which is this.% * Codex MS. omnium vetustissimus non ita pridem erat penes egregium ilium literarum fautorem Joannem Morum Episcopum nuper Elienscm, hodieque in Bibliotheca Regia, Cunta- brigice asservatur, Smith's Bede, Cantabrigice, folio, 1722, Pref. p. 3. The MS. named by Wanley in note [J p. Ivi.] described in his Catalogue as Cod. MSS. Episcopi Norwicensis, p. 288, is the same as that mentioned by Smith in this note. Dr. John Moore was bishop of Norwich when Wanley made his Catalogue ; he was afterwards bishop of Ely ; after his death, king George the First purchased this MS. with the Doctor's library, which he presented to the University of Cambridge, where the MS. is now preserved in the Public Library.— J. B. f Ego iterum publicandum censeo, tanquam omnium quae in nostra Lingua etiamnum extent monumentorum pene vetustissimum. — Wanley, p. 287. X Hie est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum quae dormiens ille canebat ; neque enim possunt carmina, quamvis optime composita, ex alia in aliam linguam, ad verbum, sine detri- mento sui decoris ac dignitatis transferri. — Bede 4, 24; Sm. p. 171, 10. § Bede Sm. p. 597, 19, and just afterwards, 1. 26, adds, "And Jjam wordumsnna monio"word in jjaet ylce gemet, Gode wyrcSes songes togejjeodde," and to those words soon joined manrj words of song worthy of God, IN THE SAME MEASURE.— J. B. IVlll FRIESIC — CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON. 59. Having here the same words written in different ages, it is my intention to notice the discrepancies, that the changes the language under- went in the interval may be clearly seen. 60. In the MS. Episc. Norwicensis, we find no characters for \) and p, the one being designated by u, the other by d, as in gidanc, or by th, as in tha for l^a. In the same MS. casula is translated hearth for hear and p were introduced later than the date of the MS. ? Or was the \) a letter of the heathen Runic alphabet, and for that reason was not admitted amongst the letters of the holy Roman church ? 61. The ce is divided into its compounds a and e, as in hefaen, ricaes, in which a long a seems to be implied. Mr. Thorpe, in his second edition, p. 22, follows neither Wanley nor Smith, having hefasn, metudaes, for hefaen, metudaes ; but in this, Smith also differs from Wanley, who puts maecti for Smith's maecti. 62. The c, when it had the sound of ch was not yet changed into h, as in maecti, drictin; but in later times became mihte, dryhten. 63. We find here two forms of heaven, the one written with b, and the other with f, hefaen ricaes and heben ;* and in the Vetus Jus Frisicum, which is about four centuries older than the oldest laws written in Friesic, we have (Tit. iii.) thivbda for thiaftha, when the inscription is not from the hand of any Francic-Theotisc lawyer under Charlemagne. 64. The resolving of a into cb was not yet accomplished, we have fadur for faeder ; Frs.feder, Aeg. bk, 2, Ch. I. 389, 475, 612, contracted, Frs. h. feer. 65. The g in the termination of the infinitive had not yet undergone any change ; hergan celebrare was changed by Alfred into herian, and to supply the hiatus, replaced the g, and changed a into ea, making herigean. 66. The a was already changed into e, where the more modern A.-S. still retains the a, as in end, sue, scepen, for and, swa, scapen. This was, perhaps, something peculiar to the Northumbrian dialect, agreeing with the Friesic in scepene clather made clothes, {Asg. bk. 84), but not in and and, (Asg. bk. 1) ; nor in Old Frs. and Frs. V, sa thus. Later in the Frs. I. we find ende like the above. They probably pronounced the words thus, eand, suea, sceapen. 67. The a changed into e was not yet gone into i, as mectig, but at a later period mihtig ; with ce, as in maecti later mihte. Heliand has helag holy, MS. Episc. Nor- wicensis haleg, not yet halig ; on the contrary, Heliand mahtig, and of course MS. Episc. Norwicensis mectig. It further appears, from the exchange of e for ce, that ce had nearly the sound of e, and of course like the Fr. ai. In terminations we find also ce used for e. 68. The vowel has undergone a different change in the enclytic gi. Moes. ga produces the usual A.-S. ge, when pronounced broad and like a diphthong, ge becomes gi ; as, gidanc, gihuaes, for gel^onc, gehwaes. 69. The vowel in the terminations of words and in all syllables unaccented, is sounded as indistinctly as the short e or Heb. sheva [ : ]. It is a proof that a dialect has some antiquity, when these unaccented syllables have not entirely lost a distinguishing feature. The MS. Episc. Norwicensis has ricaes, metudees, astelids, moncynnaes, tiadae, for rices, metudes, astelide, moncynnes, tiade ; and msecti, drictin, for maecte, dricten- 70. It is a principle in English pronunciation, that the vowel before r in termina- tions takes the sound of u, [Walker's Pron. Diet. § 98, 418], In MS. Episc. Nor- * Like b in J.-S. lybban vivere, Asg. bk. libba; in Frs. v. libben vfta ; Frs. v. libje vivere, and A.-S. lyfan vivere; /isg. bk. 189, lif /(/"e. FlUESIC — CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON. lix wicensis we have, uuldur, fadur, for uuldor, fader. Before n the a is also changed into u, as fold." or foldun, middun, for foldan, middan. 71. The a was not yet resolved into ea, as ward, barnum, for weard, bearnum ; nor the o into eo, as scop \_Old. Dut. schoep ; Ger. gaskop creabaf] for gesceop agreeing with the present Dut. schiep. * 7*2. The e, which has its origin in i, and was afterwards changed hito eo, remained unaltered in heben, hefaen for heofon. It seems that eo has produced o in -fon, in the same manner as ce proceeded from e, and affords an instance of some assimilation of vowels in two succeeding syllables. I must add, however, that it is questionable whether the vowel of the latter syllable operates upon that of the former, or the former upon that of the latter. If the vowel of the former syllable depend upon that of the latter, then -faen and -fon were changed before he- and heo- ; but if the latter upon that of the former, then he- and heo- before -faen and -fon. I do not lay much stress upon this observation, as languages in their most ancient state have not this kind of assimilation ; it seems, however, to rest in the mind on the same foundation as alliteration, both being a feeling for rhythm. For whatever may be the assimilation of one syllable to another in the same word, the same relation one word has to another in two successive lines of poetry. This assimilation of vowels is called by German grammarians umlaut. 73. The ia being proper to the old Westphalian and Zelandic, undergo no change in tiadae ; the i being changed into e, the a ought to follow the impulse and pass to o, and make teode from teon producere ; to hape tiath in unum conveniunty Asg. bk. 335 ; tya ducere, Em. I. 88 ; tioda ducebat ; Icel. tiadi, id. The Mots, tiuhan ducere ; tauch ducebat; hence the Frs. v. teach, taech, Frs. I. 79, 81 : but there was once an Old Frs. imperfect tiade, as the JDut. tijde. 74. So i had not yet passed to e, nor u to o, in metudaes, later metodes. 75. The imperfect astelidae was not yet contracted to astealde. 76. It is clear that the earliest languages consisted of single words, and that two separate ideas were expressed by two separate words ; but, by being constantly used together, at last united in one idea and one word. The adjective, in this process, passing from adjectives, separately existing, to the first and specifying component of the word, loses the adjective termination, by doubling its accent on the principal vowel, and looks like an adverb or preposition compounded with a word. Thus, on ealddagum olim, originally on ealdum dagum olim ; Dut. eertyds, originally eeres tijds in former times. Dut. oudvader ; Ger. altvater a patriarch, formerly oude vader, and alte vater. In the 3IS. Episc. Norwic. we meet with an instance in which the meaning of such a compound appears, but the grammatical form is not yet developed. The compound aelda barnum appears as two words, yet aelda is not in the dat. as it ought to be when separate, and it only requires the process of time to become one word aeldbarnum, the same as Ger. altvater. Aelda barnum does not signify antiquis liberis, but children of old; and thus it has the whole meaning of the compound, but only half its grammatical form. Alfred, finding the phrase a little antiquated, used eor Kou cow, pi. ky; y sounds like e in me, or like the Dut. ij in mij. J A.-S. feter pedica. *' Starve is not to be derived from Dut. sterven to die, but from Ic. at starfa laborare, cerum- nis premi. For to starve, is to sufier all sorts of misery, in use chiefly that of hunger ; for this reason starveling, properly eerumnosus, is used in the sense of hungry, lean, pining. Lye has stearfian without authority; but steorfa pestis is in Lup. I., where Lye properly cites the English phrase, A starfe take you, te pestis perdat. Dut. sterven to die, is not the first, but the second meaniner. Ixviii FRIESIC — OLDFRIESIC LAWS, ABOUT A. D. 1200. ende coern, deerma da kinde des Hues mede helpe. Dyo tredde need is : als dat kynd is al stocknaken * jefta huus- laes, ende dan di tiues- tera** nevil*^ ende calda winter oencomt, so faert aller manick oen syn hof •* ende oen syn huis ende an waranne ^ gaten, ende da wylda dier seket dyn holla baem ende der birgha hly, aldeer hit syn lyf oen bihalda mey ; sa weinet ^ ende scryt ^ dat onjeriga kind ende wyst** dan syn nakena lyae ende syn huuslaes ende syn fader deer him reda schuld to jenst dyn honger ende winter nevil cald dat hi so diepe ende dimme mitta fiower neylen is on der eke ende on der it bern mei yu 't libben helpt (halt). De tredde need is : as it bern alle- heel stoakneaken of huws- leas is, in den de tsiiis- tere nevel in de kalde winter oankomt, sa fart (tsjocht) alle man yn syn hoaf in yn syn huws in yn warjende gatten, in de wylde djier siikje de hoUe beam in de lyte fen de bergen, der it syn liif yn behalde mei; sa weint in scriemt it onjirrige bern in wiist den syn neakene lea in syn huwsleazens, in syn faer, der him rede scoe tsjin de honger in de winter -nevel -kalde, that hy sa djip in dimster (tsiiister) mei de ^ouwer neilen onder de iik in onder de ierde is besletten in be- must set {pawn) and sell her child's inheritance, and buy her child cows and ewes and corn, wherewith the life of the child is helped {preserved). The third need is : when the child is stark-naked, or houseless, and then the dark fog and the cold winter come on, when every man fares {enters) his house and its appurte- nances, and lurking holes, and the wild deer (beasts) seek the hollow beam {tree) and the lee* of the moun- tains, where it may save its life; then moans and weeps the minor child, and shows his naked limbs and his being houseless, and [points at] his father, who should provide for him against hunger and the * A.-S. stoc stipes, truncus ; stock. ^ A.-S. Jjeoster dark. c A.-S. newelnysse nuhes. ^ A.-S. hof domus, spelunca. e A.-S. warian to defend, wariande, by assimilation, waranne, part. pres. act. defending Wara, inf. Sch. 103, a. to defend. The first stronghold was an enclosure, and the root of the signification of the verb is in A.-S. waer septum, Wera or wer hedge, fence, Lf. 204. ^ A.-S. Wanian plorare. Weine is in Frs. v. to moan like a sick man, sc. to croon. g Likewise scria to weep, from Icel. kria quseri ; Icel. at krita minurire, or rather fr6m to cry, also to scream : Frs. v. scrieme to weep, from A.-S. hreman. ^ A.-S. wisian to show, obvious in weather-wiser. * The root hie and le exists in A.-S. hligan : pe pec men bligaiS which incline thee to man ; where the reading of hnigaS for hligatS is to no purpose at all, Cd. 235, 25, Ed. Thorpe. The Icelanders have the same root in their hlickr obliquitas, curvamen. To this is perhaps also related A.-S. ligan, {inclinare) cubare,jacere, {tegere) mentiri. Moes. hliga tabernaculum, shows that the aspiration originally belonged to Moes. ligan jacere. The other form, Moes. laugnjan, nearly equivalent to Goth, liugan (tegere) mentiri et uxorem ducere, whence A.-S. leogan to lie, signifies to hide and to deny, in which the same transition of the sense is observable. In the same manner, A.-S. Jjacian tegere, and Moes. Gott. thahan tacere. The second form is furnished with a d in Icel. at hllda inclinare, cedere, obedire, from Icel. hlid devexitas vel latus montis, whence also Dan. en fjeldlie. Lida, besides the h, takes also s and g in to slide and to glide, per devexa labi. To cover by inclining, hence A.-S. hlid covering, potlid ; Ems. Land. 8, 82, hlid eyelid; Frs. v. eachlid, lid potlid ; Icel. hlid ostium, j)orta (the cover of the entrance). The Goths had likewise this form in their hleithva a tent. I return to le without a final consonant, A.-S. hleo covering, shelter, refuge; Ab. ^Q, place sheltered from the wind. The lee side, Dut. de lij (a sea term) the side of the ship not exposed to the wind. As the sailor must determine the situation of surrounding objects from the relative position of his vessel, the coast opposite to his lee-side is called by him the lee-shore, though it is the shore towards which the wind blows, and necessarily must blow. The sailor does not regard the position of the shore as to the wind, but as to the sides of his vessel, and lee in this phrase denotes too, calm, quiet. I was induced to make these remarks to silence an objection of Dr. Jamieson, who concludes, from the signification of lee-shore, that lee, Scot, le, cannot be sheltered from the wind, and derives the word from Icel. la, lea. See Todd's Johnson in loco, Jamieson in loco. FRIESIC — SOUTH HOLLAND. Ixix da eerda bisloten* ende bitacht ;'' so moet dio moder her kindes eerwe setta ende sella, om dat hio da bihield*^ habbe ende biwaer also lang so hit onjerick is, dat hit oen forste ner oen hoen- ger naet forfare.'* ditsen ; sa mat de moar hjar berns erfscip forsette in forkeapje, om dat hja it opsicht het in de be- waering sa lang as it on- jirrich is, dat it oan froast of oan honger net for- farre (forreisgje, stjerre). wintry fog-cold, that he so deep and dim {dark) is locked up and covered un- der the oak and under the earth with four nails (spikes to fasten the coffin) : so the mother must set {pawn) and sell her child's inherit- ance, since she has the keeping and guarding as long as [the child] is under age, that it dies not from frost or from hunger. 102. Let us now pass over the Zuiderzee, formerly the northern outlet of the Rhine, and by the irruptions of the German ocean enlarged to a mediterranean sea. The Friesians living on that side were ever the object of the tyranny of the Dutch counts, [HoUandsche Graven,] and after a furious struggle of three hundred years, in which their love of freedom and undaunted bravery recalled the days of Greece, they were at last subdued by the united forces of the Count and Emperor. Political power, assisted by the influence of the priests, soon triumphed in spoiling their national language and character. The country is, however, in some maps still marked Westfriesland, now called Noordholland ; and when at x\msterdam you pass the Y, a narrow water separating this town from Westfriesland, you perceive distinctly that you are amongst another people. The peculiarities of Zaandam, Broek, and other villages by which the inhabitants of North Holland are distinguished from other Dutchmen, are too well known to be recorded here. I will only mention the particular, that the peasants of Waterland still spoke Friesic in the middle of the 17th century. 103. We pass from North to South Holland. As we proceed and approach nearer to Sincfalla, (now the Swin or Haze gat, on the left side of the mouth of the Scheld,) the ancient southern border of Friesia, we find the Friesians, who were thinly scattered along the coasts, were the earlier blended with their more powerful neighbours. Nor are any traces of their tongue and character to be found, except in a few names of villages. It, however, deserves our attention, that the Flemish tongue * Read bisletten, part, praet. pass, of the verb bisluta to enclose. Hence the Scot, to slott to bolt. The root is Moes. and A.-S. lukan to close, preceded by the sibilation. ^ Bitekka n sounds in the present Eng. thou. Tongues of the same original frame show the same development in their consonants as in their vowels. ^ Ljeaf, A.-S. leof charus. * Kno-te, present Frs. v. knotte, an ellipsis for love-knot. It was a knotted handkerchief in which was a coin 3 when presented by the woer and accepted by the maiden, the knot was fastened. J To geare, now to gjerre, contr. for A.-S. geader to gather ; compounded of ge and eader septum, septo includi, i.e. conjunctim; together, to encompass. ^ This word heite father is Frs. v. and Moes. atta pater, aithei mater. I wonder that the word is neither in the Old-Friesic nor in the A.-S. COUNTRY-FRIESIC OF A.D. 1G50. Ixxi Ofke, sei se, elk jier ien bern . . . . Wier ik faem!* Ik woe 't so jern.^ Hoite in Hoatske*^ sneins** to keamer Mekken 't mei elkoarme klear. Tetke krigge Sjolle-kreamer^ To sint Eal by wyn in bjear. Nu rint elk om as ien slet/ In bekleye 't : mar to let, 5 Oeds die better nei ik achtje Da» hy saets syn trou^ tosei ; Hy liet de alders even plachtje* Hwet se 6an elke ichJ joene mei. Nu besit hy huws in schuwr', In syn bern fleane alle man uwr. 6 Ork, myn soan, wolt du bedye,'' Rin naet 6an allyk ien moll' !' Jeld in rie lit mei dy frye, Bern, so gean' dyn saken wol ; Den scil de himel uwr dyn dwaen Lok in mylde seining' jaen."* Ofke, she said, each {every) year a child . . . Were I maiden ! I would (wish) it so yern (so willingly). 4 Hoite and Hoatske every Sunday in the inn Made it clear (^settled it) with each other. Tetke got Sjolle the pedlar To St. Alof s fair unto wine and bear. Now each runs about as a slut, And complains (of) it, but too late. 5 Oeds did better in my opinion When he said (gave) his troth to Saets ; He let the elders even plight (contract) What they on each edge (side) gave with (the married couple). Now he possesses house and barn, And his children outdo all men. 6 Ork, my son, wouldst thou prosper, Run not on all like a mole ; Let age and rede (good counsel) woo thee, Child, then thy affairs go well ; Then the heaven shall (tvilT) give over thy doings Luck (fortune) and mild (liberal) blessings. * Faem, in the dialect of Hindelope, faen maiden ; A.-S. foemna virgo. The common Greek yuvt? is a corruption of the Doric ^ava, corresponding with the Lat. fcemina, and the Anglo-Friesic fana ; for the Greek /? corresponds with the Ger. p, sometimes going over to / I wonder this word, obvious in A.-S. and Friesic, is totally lost in Eng. ** See note (^) at p. Ixxii. on jiette. *= Hoatse, the proper name of a man, becomes that of a female by adding ke, Hoatske, at present Hoatse and Hoatske. A great many of these proper names of the Friesians are become familiar names in Eng. by adding son. Thus, Watse, Ritse, Hodse, Gibbe, Friesian proper names, become Watse-son, Ritse-son, Hodse-son,Gibbe-son; in the Friesian syntax, the son of Watse, &c., by contraction, Watson. Ritson, Hodson, Gibbson (Gibbon). ** Snein Sunday, Senen-dei, by contraction Sneen-dei, and casting away dei, Sneen, whence Snien and Snein. The Hindelopians still say Senne-dei or Sendei. Galbema, p. 30, has Sonendei; and the Charter-boek, I. p. 534, 536, Snaynde dies solis. dei is also cast away in frie, and Frs. v. freed Fri-day. Correct, Junius, Gloss. Goth. p. 310. " From Frs. v. kream, Scot, craim a mer chant's stall, is derived kreamer a merchant in a stall. ^ The etymology of slut is not apprehended either by Johnson, Jamieson, or Tooke. From A.-S. slidan to slide ; Dut. sleden lahi, trahere, comes sledde traha, now sled. The other form is sletan or slutan, producing Frs. v. slet a clout, towel, a dirty woman, and jB«^. slut a dirty woman. The Friesians in the same way form sleep a slut, from Frs. v. sleepje trahere. s A.-S. \>a, the same as Frs. v. da then, is not in Eng. h Trou fidelity ; A.-S. treowa, treowiS^ Scot, trouth truth; Scot, to trow to believe. ' Plachtje to plead, bargain. It is the same word as A.-S. plihtan spondere, oppigriorare. J A.-S. ecge forms by assimilation egge, Asg. bk. 273, edge (of a sword) ; igge, ylsg. bic. 365. Igge or ich means here side, part, as in Scot, the edge of a hill, the side and the top of a MIL ^ For be the A.-S. used ge, as ge-)3ean to thrive; the e pronounced like i, thia in Friesic, whence di-ja, i.e. dye. 1 Mole is an ellipsis for mouldwarp, i.e. A.~S. moldweorp, as molle is for the common Frs. V. mol-wrot, from molde terra, and A.-S. wrotan, Frs. v. wrotte rostro versare. The Scots use by inversion of letters iTiawdiwart and moudiewort. The Eng. mouldwarp has warp from the A.-S. wand-wyrp, properly the turn- cast, i.e. who casts up mould by turning it. ™ Frs. V. jaen to give, Frs. I. 26, 28, and ja to give, Frs. I. 53, 101, for Scot, ga' to give. I Ixxiv FRIESIC OF HINDELOPEN. 1 12. To give some idea of the Hindelopian dialect, I shall add a few lines which I found written above the months of January, February, and May, in a Hindelopian calendar for seamen. The Hindelopians were formerly all seamen, even in the beginning of the present century. Januarius het xxxi deggen. January has xxxi days. Nyje deggen,^ nyje winscen, New days, new wishes, Nyje re ^ fan nyje minschen ! New rede (counsel) of new men. Weer us livven ek<= su ny Were our life {conduct) eke so {also as) new Sunden wardven lichsf^ fan fry. We grew lightly free from sins. Februarius het xxviii deggen. February has xxviii days. Silerse meye winters reste,f Sailors may rest in winter, Thus tu blieuwen mut jerm leste; To stay at home {to house) must please them. Lot& men iertske surg mer stan {If) one let earthly sorrow more stand (be) Mengwar^ scoe men better dwan. Many times we should {would) do better. Majus het xxxi deggen. May has xxxi days. As we tommelje oeuwer 't wetter j As we tumble {are tossed) over the water HeuweJ 't slim^ en soms hwet better. {Then) we have it slim {bad'") and some- times (then) what (a little) better. Su 's de wrald ek as de se, So the world is eke {also) as the sea, Soms fol kurje,! soms fol ne. Sometimes full of delight, sometimes full of need. ' * As we have had in the preceding laest for last a burden, faest for fast, let for late, so here deggen for daggen. The J.-S. used also faest, daeg: but what may be the reason why the Eng. in a thousand such words write a, although they have ever retained the old pronunciation of e? Does this oddity date from the time when a, losing entirely its genuine meaning, was called e ? ^ Re, contraction of the Old Eng. rede counsel. <= Frs. V. eak; A.-S. eac j Hindi, ek, contr. of Old Eng. eke also. ^ It is a very remarkable property of the Hindi, dialect to insert s between ch and t ; lichst for licht light; ansichst visage; suchst sickliness; for ansicht {A.^S. onsien vultus, sight) sucht* " I have not found this word in the particular signification of a seaman (matelst) anywhere but in Eng. and Hindi. In Dut. een zeiler is a sailing vessel; and in Frs. v. siler is a swimmer. f We have u in the Ger. ruhe and the Dut. rust, but e, originating from «, in the Anglo- Friesic rest. ^ Lot let ; Frs. v. lit. ^ Meng-war is a compound of menig (men-ig) many ; and A.'S. hweorf (itus et reditus) vices, many times. * Wetter : in this word the Eng. is inconsequent by retaining the broad a in the pronunciation. J Heuwe we have ; Frs. v. wy hawwe. ^ Sivax had, wrong ; T^vo'peTly curved, crooked ; Dut. Kil. sliravoet lor ipes ; slim, distortus. In the same way, wrong (derived from A.-S. wringan, Frs. v. wringe to wring) is properly tortus. This primary signification of wringing is likewise in A.-S. slincan, slingan to sling ; whence the frequentative form Frs. v. slingeije, and in slang a snake. In Dut. as in the north of England, slim tortuous has the analogical signification of sly. But slim denotes also weak and thin of shape in Eng. In leel. lam is a fracture, lama fractus virihus, whence at slaema (as Eng. slim from lim limus) debilitare ; Eng. slim weak, slight. It is not impossible that A.-S. lim limb, as a fracture, division, or member, belongs to this class. Further we &nd A.-S. hlaene lean, and with the sibilant instead of the aspirate : Dut. Frs. v. slank thin of shape, opposed to the swelling of an inflamed wound. Frs. v. linkje to grow less in bulk. Slink /arrow between banks in sea, Eng. slim slender, thin of shape. 1 Kurje security and peace. From A.-S. cyse or eyre electio ; kar in the Swed. laws is full freedom in his actions, and security against all violence in his house. In the same way, Frs. v. wald, and A.-S. wela felicity, is from Dut. walen and welen eligere. ™ The form of this word is one of the most ancient extant in the Eng. language not to be found in A.-S. nor any Germanic tongue, but only in the Persian ^ bad malignus ; in the Mogul language badd. The European form is wad, from A.-S. wedan ; Dut. woeden insanire, /wrere— -whence Dut. k-waad, kwaad bad. FRIESIC — LOW-SAXON GLOSSARIES. IxXV 1 13. The never-ceasing floods of Germans at last overwhelmed the Friesians and their nationality. Had the Friesians sought for some refuge in the heart of the ocean, like their English brethren, they would have braved the combined force of all the continental tyrants, whether crowned, or representing the hydra of democracy. Only the North-Friesic, Saterlandic, Sciermonnikoogian, Country-Friesic, and Hindelopian remain as fragments that have resisted the influence of invaders to the present day. 114. Low-Saxon has prevailed in all the country between Schleswic and the Dutch Zuiderzee, once possessed by the Friesians: it varies indeed in its dialects being always affected by the tongue of the bordering people ; in one part smooth and fluent, in another broad and coarse, as in the province of Groningen. All, however, are of an homogeneous nature, so that a person acquainted with one of them easily understands all the others. 1 15. Glossaries of all these dialects have been formed. Of the dialect of Holstein by J. F. Schutze in his Holsteinisches IdiotikoUy 4 torn. Hamburg, 1800 ; — of the dialect of Hamburg by Michael Richey, in his Idioticon Hamburgense, Hamburg, 1754 ; — of that of Bremen and Werden by Kelp, on which notes are to, be found in the Collectanea Etymologica of Leibnitz I. p. 33, Hanover, 1717; and not only of the dialect of Bremen, but also of the Low-Saxon in general, by a society of Bremish philologists in their Versuch eines Bremisch-Nieders'dchsischen Worterbuchs, Bremen, 1767, 5 vols; it will be unnecessary to cite more. I must, however, add, that a specimen of the present East-Friesic is to be found in the Sangh- fona, a collection of songs and poetry, printed at Emden, 1828, Woortman. 116. While these dialects prevail in those parts of Old-Friesia extend- ing from Schleswic nearly to the northern coasts of the Zuiderzee, Dutch is spoken in North Holland, South Holland, and Zealand, and Flemish in the country surrounding Antwerp, and in Flanders. 1 17. 1 beg leave to draw the attention of the Anglo-Saxon scholar to the Low-Saxon glossaries above mentioned. Many hundred Anglo-Saxon words will be elucidated, as to their form and meaning, by closely comparing them with the Low-Saxon. Low-Saxon has all the appearance of German grafted on an Anglo-Friesic tree. The words are Anglo-Friesic with German vowels, as if the Friesians, in adopting the German, retained the consonants of the old language. This observation may with still greater propriety be applied to the syntax and phraseology, that is, to the mental part or soul of the language. They continued to think in Anglo-Friesic forms, whilst their organs adopted the vowels and some other mechanical parts of the German. Hence there is scarcely a single expression or phrase extant in Anglo-Saxon, Friesic, or Dutch, of which the parallel is not to be found in the Low-Saxon glossaries. In short, it is the Anglo- Friesic idiom, with words of Germanic form. This observation also explains another phenomenon, which is, that scarcely a single scholar, a native of any place on the coast of the German sea, where Low-Saxon is Ixxvi FRIESIC — CORRUPTION OF ENGLISH. the mother-tongue, possesses the true genius of the German language. Though Klopstock was born at Hamburg, yet I venture to affirm that no scholar of the stamp of T. D. Wiarda is acquainted with the true spirit of the German tongue. 118. It is for this reason, that any one who intends to compose a syntax of the Anglo-Saxon, after having thoroughly investigated the Friesic and Dutch, must not omit to compare almost every part with the Low-Saxon glossaries. This is an important and almost a new task. To this day the syntax of the Anglo-Saxon, requiring a deep insight into the hidden springs of speech, has been but rudely developed, only hinted at even by Rask, while the different forms of conjugation and declension have been analyzed with the most minute attention. 119. Moreover, if the syntax of the Anglo-Saxon be the basis of the English syntax, as I think it is, notwithstanding a partial degeneration since the Norman conquest by a mixture with French,* the absurdity is felt of modelling the construction of the English according to that of corrupt Latin, known by the name of French. The construction of the French language is as regularly arranged as the pipes of an organ, while the most diversified inversion, exceeded only by that of the Latin and Greek, characterizes the Anglo-Saxon and Friesic ; and the more the English is made to differ from this standard of propriety, the more it deviates from its original form and its very nature. The diction and idiom, forming the mirror of the soul of nations, are in English and French as widely different as the character of the respective people. Hence the phenomenon, that when a foreigner well acquainted with the French easily understands an English author, it is certain that this writer is not possessed of the true genius of the English language. Addison may be deemed neat, pure, elegant, and fluent — 'but he is not English. Shakspeare wrote English; in him the English tongue and genius are represented. 120. Great clamours have arisen about the total corruption of the English language by the mixture of French and other foreign words, and I readily grant that a rich language, possessed of the power of forming compound words from simples, wants no foreign words to express even new objects and ideas. But permit me to observe, that the deficiency has not hitherto been supplied with due consideration and taste. For when an author (the translator of the Lord's Prayer for instance) uses a certain number of foreign words, it is no proof that the English language had not words of its own to express the same ideas. The fact is, that many thousand foreign words have been introduced when native terms already existed, and the English has, in this way, been endowed with the power of expressing the same idea by two different • ** Children in scole against the usage and manir of all othir nations beeth compelled /or to leve hire owne langage, and for to construe hir lessons and hir thynges in Frenche." — Trevisa's Translation of Hygden's Polychronicon. See " The causes of the corruption of the English language," Bouchers Glossary] London; 1832, Introd. p. 39, 40. FRIESIC— ANALOGY OF, WITH ENGLISH. Ixxvii words— or, what is of still greater value, of appropriating this new word to mark some modification in the meaning of the indigenous word. In the phrases " Forgive us our debts, lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil," could there not be found amongst all the stores of the English language some words to express the ideas o^debt, temptatio?i, and deliver? If these words now bear significations somewhat diflferent from those of the foreign ones, if foreign words have usurped the office of native ones, this is no argument that at all affects the richness and proper essence of the language. 121. For a proof of what I have advanced, I beg to refer the English reader to the Friesic pieces I have translated into English : this, however imperfect, will not I hope be entirely disregarded. My object was to show the analogy between the two languages, by translatmg them as literally as possible; and the cognate words in English which do not perfectly agree with the Friesic in sense, I have explained by others in parentheses. In 1200 words I have only had recourse to 50 which are not of Saxon origin — a number which might be greatly diminished by a scholar thoroughly acquainted with the original stores of the English language. At this rate, about every twenty-fourth word of the original fund of the language is lost. In 125 words in parentheses, I used 50 foreign words: here one word is lost out of every 2^. The number of words was 1200; add the words in parentheses 125, it makes a total of 1325. The foreign words in 1200 were 1325 50, and in parentheses, 50," making the sum of 100. Then = 13| ; shows that there is one foreign word for every thirteen English. 122. The stanzas of the Countess of Blessington contain seventy-seven words, of which eight are of foreign origin, namely, pain, hours, Joy, scald, vanish, sceptred, empire, brief. Thus in nine and a half English terms, one word is exotic. 123. The foreign w^ords in the English language are, for the most part, used to express scientific or abstract ideas, and were introduced from the French. These terms, however, do not suit the feelings of the poet ; he involuntarily has recourse to the original stores of his native tongue — to the varied construction, and the energetic and picturesque diction of the Anglo-Saxon — a language formed by his valiant forefathers in their savage, that is, poetical state. This remark fully accounts for the phenomenon, that a reader who is a little acquainted with French and Latin, easily under- stands the writings of an English lawyer, divine, or philosopher, while he boggles at every sentence of the poets, whose Anglo-Saxon words and construction are equally unknown to him. 124. The Anglo-Saxon appears greatly disfigured as it is at present represented in the English. But as the granting of citizenship to foreign words, and the moulding of them to an English form, have led to funda- mental laws in the English language, every one will allow the great advantage that results from such a change. While all the stores of the numberless tongues on the globe became perfectly English when in- troduced into England, the Dutch, on the contrary, which may boast of Ixxviii FRIESIC — ENGLISH DIALECTS PRESERVE A.-S. SOUNDS. exquisite purity, cannot adopt a single word without its bearing the mark of its foreign origin. 125. Finally, it scarcely needs be mentioned, that as genuine English words are for the most part Anglo-Saxon, an agreement of Friesic with English naturally implies an agreement of Friesic with Anglo-Saxon. It is for this reason, that the parallel Anglo-Saxon words are not always cited in the specimens in §§ 95, 97, &c. This comparison would also have taken too much time to pay due attention to the different degrees of development by which words of the same age are often distinguished from one another. 126. All that has been said about the analogy between the Anglo- Saxon and Friesic, tends to prove that the Friesic tongue is absolutely indispensable in determining, as far as it is now possible, the genuine pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon ; and that preceding writers, in passing over the Friesic, overlooked an important source of knowledge. 127. What is less pardonable in modern Anglo-Saxon scholars, is their complete neglect of English in this respect. Their ignorance of the English, as of the Friesic, will not, I hope, be alleged as an excuse. Is not the English tongue, as to its descent and substance, still a genuine daughter of the Anglo-Saxon ? Does she not bear to this very day some features of her fair mother, notwithstanding her foreign ornaments ? Do not many Anglo-Saxon vowels still exist in Yorkshire, in Scotland, and in other provincial dialects of England ? May not the English alone boast of having preserved the true sound of the old etch (j> th), which has disappeared from the whole continent of Europe, so as not even to leave the means df forming a faint idea of the sound of this consonant, without the aid of the English ? Why should we consult only the Gothic, or the Icelandic, which is still more remote from the Anglo-Saxon ? Why should that which is unknown be sought amongst the unknown, rather than in that which is known in the remains of the old sounds of the language ? With a competent knowledge of the subject, and fair induction, I presume that no source can afford so much light in the pronunciation and other peculiarities of the Anglo-Saxon as the English. 128. Of late, the accent by which some Anglo-Saxon MSS. are marked, is held as one of the most efficient means of ascertaining the true pronunciation of the Anglo-Saxon, and Wilkins and other publishers are to be blamed for omitting them. It is here necessary to state my opinion on this subject. A mark of accent, in modem tongues, may have three applications : — 1st. It may denote the stress of the voice on a certain syllable, and this is perhaps the only purpose for which the accent (') may be lawfully used. 2nd. But, improperly and contrary to its original design, it may denote the very nature of the sound of the vowel. And 3rd. it may be used to designate the lengthening of a short vowel, without altering the nature of its sound. In above and comfort, you hear the short sound of o, and in ghost, potent, low, we FRIESIC — ACCENTS IN ANGLO-SAXON. Ixxix have the long sound ; but in looscy the very nature of the sound is changed and varies from o to the French ou, and in^r to au. Suppose joo^ew^ to be noted by the accent, and the sound of the o to be unknown to you : what will this accent then mean ? Will it signify simply the lengthening of the short o ? or one of the four or five modifications of the sound of o ? and which of the modifications ? Or does it mean that po in potent has the stress? If no one can ascertain to which of these six or seven purposes this single mark is applied, of what use can it be in settling the pronuncia- tion of Anglo-Saxon? 129. Let us endeavour to illustrate the subject by some instances from Caedmon, published by Mr. Thorpe. Is the a long in ]>3. then, {Cd. Th. p. 20, 11,) [|ja, 20, 6,] contrary to the short a in Frs. V. da ; Moes. than ; Dut dan then, and agree with the Icelandic >a tune^ pro- nounced than or tav ? Or does it denote a inclining to o ? Or does it mean a modified a little by i? Is a long in naman, (Cd. Th. p. 9, 11,) contrary to Moes. namo ; Frs. v. namme ; Icei. namn and nafn, which have all short a ? Or does it mean an inclination of the a to the sound of the old o in ovofia and nomen ? The same question may be applied to ham, (Cd. Th. p. 108, 33,) JEng. home ; and we further ask if the accent, in this instance, can also signify the verging of a to i (ai) apparent in Moes. haim abode ; Icel. heimr domus ; Hesychius d/iaSe^ iroifxevoov oUiai ; Frs. v, hiem homestead or the land Just around a farm-house, enclosed by a ditch. What is the pronunciation of engel, (Cd. Th. p. 137, 1,) written engel, p. 137, 23? If the e is long, then it is pronounced eengel, contrary to the pronunciation of the continental descendants of the Anglo- Saxdlfis, but agreeing with that of their direct posterity the English in their angel? What is the sound of y in >ysne this, (Cd. Th. p. 52, 6)? Is it long, and opposed to the present Eng. this, and Frs. v. disse, Asg. bk. 2, 3, 271, 278, thesse; Frs. I. 2, 5, disse? Tell me also the meaning of the accent in life, (Cd. Th. p. 103, 4). Is the vowel only lengthened, and life pronounced liife ? Or has it the diphthongal nature of the^w^. i in life? Or is it perhaps like ij in Dut. lyf body? If the 2 in witan to reproach, (Cd. Th. p. 51, 9,) in wlte-hus torture-house, (p. 3, 21,) differ in its sound from i in witan to know, Frs. v. wite, like Icel. vita reprehendere , from IceL vit ratio, has the i then a long sound as wiitan, or like the Dut, ij in wijten imputare, or ei in weitan ? — What do you say of 6 in nom cepit ? Must the 6 only be made long, as noom, or is the o modified as if united with a, as in Frs. v. noam? Is the 6 long in hovd shield, (Cd. Th.T^. 193,28,) contrary to Icel. bord, Dut. bord, both being short like Moes. baurd ? Or is it something similar to the Frs. v. ou, or Frs. v. oe in boerd ? What is the sound of o in wordum loith words ? Is the o long as in Dut woord, opposed to Moes. waurd ; Frs. v. wird ; Icel. ord ? Or is it pronounced like woarden, as the inhabitants of the Friesian towns speak ? Or does it denote the stress of the voice falling upon wor? Is on, (Cd. TA. p. 64, 1,) pro- nounced oon, contrary to Moes. ana [short «] and Eng. on ? Or does it agree with Dut. aan, Frs. v. oan ? Finally, what does the accent mean above raed narration, derived from short a in Moes. rathan numerare, A.-S. raedan to read 9 Is the vowel long? Or is some sound like Fr. ai in mais designated? As soon as Anglo-Saxon scholars will answer these questions, and show me the rule which regulates the application of this single mark, in every particular instance, I will gladly observe every accent found in the MSS., and in the mean time I beg to be allowed my own opinion. 130. Far* from depreciating the use of marks of accents, I am fully * As the sounds were more numerous than the letters, especially in the earliest state of the language, when the system of the vowels was more developed, and the letters fewer, being only sixteen Runes, it is evident that many letters must have had a double and even a triple IXXX FRIESIC — ANGLO-SAXON LETTERS WERE RUNIC. convinced of their being indispensable in the dead languages ; but if two marks are used to denote the spiritus, and three the accent, in Greek, [' ' ' ^ -] — and these are far from conveying a just idea of the pronuncia- tion of this language — how could a single mark effect this in Anglo-Saxon ? And how is this single mark used ? It is sometimes inserted, and some- times omitted, even in MSS. boasting of some accuracy in this respect, as the MSS. of Caedmon. I will not mention other MSS., as Beowulf in the British Museum, Vitellius A. xv., in which three marks [' v"] are em- ployed with so much confusion, that the grammarian, in using them, has not only confounded the ideas of emphasis, the nature of sound, and the simple lengthening of sound, as perhaps all who have used the accents in Anglo-Saxon MSS. have done, but he has often misapplied the marks. Several attempts have been made in our day to invent proper signs, and to define the true force of each ; but, as if it were to increase the confu- sion, the two principal advocates of accents, Rask and Grimm, differ in the import they ascribe to the same sign. 131. It may be here asked, whether the authors themselves made use of accents, or their copiers, or if a later hand added them ? Finally, whether it was the hand of a genuine x-lnglo-Saxon, or whether, after the Danish conquest, it was some writer who had a strong tincture of Danish pronunciation that accented the MSS. Should I live to make my intended inquiries on the changes of the vowels, I may perhaps throw some light on the subject. 132. Since the pronunciation of the old languages depends on the^ sound of the letters, it is important to inquire what these letters were. I answer, that the old Saxon letters were Runic. Rhabanus Maurus has left a Runic alphabet of the Marcomanni, called by some Nordmanni and Northalbingii,* located on the northern banks of the Elbe, and thus on the same spot that the , allies of the Angles, the Saxons, inhabited. On comparing the form of these letters with the Runic alphabet of the Anglo-Saxons,t we shall perceive, on the whole, a striking resemblance, which is to me a convincing proof that the Anglo-Saxons brought with them the Runic alphabet into Britain. That these letters were once in common use among them, has been lately proved by the discovery of two sepulchral stones at Hartlepool,{ bearing Runic inscriptions. § sound. When, in process of time, the sounds which were sensibly distinct approached each other, the evil became still worse. Thus the e in red became in time the representative oi eo in reod arundo ; of ea in read ruber, and of ce in raed, Old Eng. rede consilium. This fully proves the necessity of marks to guide the pronunciation. * Consult Ueber Deutsche Runen von W. C. Grimm, Gottingen, 1821, in general, and p. 149 in particular. t Hickes's Gram. Goth, et Anglo-Saxonica, in the Thes. L. L. Sept. torn. i. p. 135, 136. X An accurate delineation of these stones is to be found in the Gentleman's Magazine, Sept. 1833, p. 219. § Annuente Deo, Mr. Halbertsma intends to add in another publication, a second and third part to what is here given : the second on the sound of each Anglo-Saxon Letter — and the third part on the practical application of the preceding rules relative to the vowels, diphthongs, and consonants. Ixxxi V.~THE SAXONS, OR OLD-SAXONS. 1. The Saxons* spoke the Old-Saxon, now called Low-German, or Platt-Deutsch. 2. The German confederacy, known under the name of Saxons, occupied the greater part of Low, Piatt, or Northern Germany. They were divided into — L Eastphalians, on the eastern borders of the Weser ; 2. Westphalians, on the Western borders of the Weser down to the Rhine and the North Sea ; 3. Angrivarians, situated between the Eastphalians and Westphalians, and the borders of the North Sea; 4. North' AlbingianSy from the north of the river Elbe to Denmark ; 5. Trans- Albingians , comprising the whole country from the Elbe to the river Oder, with the exception of those districts occupied by the Wends or Sorbians, near the Baltic, and in the neighbourhood of the Oder. These Saxons, or Old-Saxons, chiefly remaining in their ancient localities, retained their low, soft, or Old-Saxon dialect in great purity. The Anglo- Saxons, a branch of the Old-Saxons, wrote and matured their language in England; hence it differs from the tongue of their continental progeni- tors. The Old-Saxon, now called Low or Platt-German, seems to be conveyed down to the present day with few alterations, and those only such as time always produces ; but as we have no specimen of it earlier than the Heliand in the 9th century, we do not know the exact form of the Old-Saxon from which the Anglo-Saxon was derived. This Low- German, so called from being the vernacular language of Piatt, or Low- Germany, or of the common people, is, even in the present day, very extensive, being spoken by the lower classes in the greater part of West- phalia, in Hanover, Holstein, Sleswick, a part of Jutland, in Mecklen- burg, Magdeburg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, the kingdom of Prussia, and as far north as Livonia and Estonia, f 3. The origin and ancient history of the Saxons are enveloped in much darkness. The Fosi mentioned by Tacitus J were most likely Saxons, * Those who wish for a full view of Low- German literature, may consult — Geschichte der Nieder-Sachsischen oder Plattdeutschen Sprache von M. Joh. Fried. August Kinderling, Magdeburg, 1800.— Biicherkunde der Sassisch-Niederdeutschen Sprache, von Dr. Karl, F. A. Scheller, Braunschweig, 1826. t Melis Stoke says, Verbal English. Oude Boeken horic ghewaghen, Old books hear I mentioning, Dat al tlant, beneden Nimaghen, That all the land below Nimeguen, Wilen Neder Zassen hiet; Formerly (was) called Low-Saxony. Also alst de stroem versciet So as the stream flows Vander Mazen en vanden Rine. Of the Maas, and of the Rhine. Die Seek was dat Westende sine. The Scheld that was its western end (boundary), Also als si valt in de zee. So as it falls into the sea, Oest streckende min no mee. Eastward stretching less or more Dan toter Lavecen of ter Elven. (Than) to the Lavecen or the Elbe. Huydecoper's edition, lib. i. v. 41, p. 9. X De Moribus Ger. cap. xxxvi. m Ixxxil LOW-GERMAN, DIFFERENCE IN. for Ptolemy,* who wrote in the beginning of the 2nd century, mentions the Saxons, and assigns to them nearly the same situation as Tacitus. 4. The Anglo-Saxons, as has just been stated, were a branch of the Saxons, who, for distinction, are denominated Old-Saxons, f In the short account of the Anglo-Saxons J will be found most of what is known of the origin and progress of this people. It is there ascertained that the Saxons were a confederacy of different tribes united for mutual defence against the Romans. Two of these were the Angles and Jutes, who, in A.D. 449, were among the first and chief settlers in Britain. 5. Subsequent to this emigration, the Saxons, remaining on the con- tinent, were in a constant conflict with the Francs. These Old-Saxons preserved their freedom till about a.d. 785, when, after a gallant opposition of thirty-three years, they were subdued by Charlemagne, who, by much cruelty, forced them to embrace Christianity. Charlemagne would scarcely have succeeded in inducing the Saxons to submit, if their celebrated duke Wittekind, who was never entirely subdued, had not terminated the cruelties of Charlemagne by consenting to be baptized. Wittekind, by treaty, remained in possession of the greater part of Saxony till his death in 807. 6. From Wittekind, not only the German emperors of the Saxon line, Henry I., Otto I. and II., and Henry II., from a.d. 918 to 1024, and the house of Hanover, the royal family of Great Britain, but also the present king of Saxony, and the other princes of the house of Saxony, take their origin. 7. The most flourishing period of the Platt-Deutsch was just before the Reformation. Luther was accustomed to speak and write in High- German, in which he wrote his version of the Scriptures. As Luther's translation soon came into general use throughout Germany, the high dialect of his translation was not long before it prevailed over all the Low-German dialects. The influence of the Reformation in preventing the further cultivation of the Piatt or Low-German, and in confining its use only to the lower orders, is regretted by all who are acquainted with its beauties. The most learned agree, that while the Low-German or Platt-Deutsch is equal to the High in strength and compositive power, the Piatt is much softer and richer. The true old German freedom, sincerity, and honesty, can have no better medium to express its full mental and political independence, its genuine and confidential feelings of the heart, than its old, unsophisticated, open, Low-German dialect. 8. Where the High-German is obliged to employ most of the organs of speech to pronounce words, such as ochse ox, flachs flax, wachs wax, the Platt-German with the greatest ease says oss, flass^ wass. The High- • Cellarius, lib. II. cap. v. p. 303. t An^lo-Saxon, Eald-Seaxan Old-Saxons, Chr. 449, Lig. p. 14, 22. See also the Anglo- Saxon Dictionary, under the word Seaxan. : III. § 1-8. LOW-GERMAN — CHANGE OF LETTERS. Ixxxiii German pfeAfer pfeif auf, is m Piatt, like the English, piper pip up piper pipe up. The Low-German and Dutch proverbs are nearly all the same, both equally expressive, and in phraseology like English. As dat beer is in den man Is de wyshet in de kan. As (when) the beer is in the man The wisdom is in the kan. 9. From the great extent of the territory where the Low-German is spoken, it may be easily conceived that it does not always assume the same shape. Mr. Kinderling,* in his history of the Low-German or Piatt- Deutsch language, names all the minute peculiarities ; here the most essential need only be noticed. 10. It is generally acknowledged that the purest Low-German, or Platt- Deutsch dialect, is spoken in Holstein and Sleswick, particularly in the neighbourhood of Kiel. The Brunswick and Hanoverian dialect is broad and coarse. In the south-east of Westphalia, it mixes with the High- German, while on the borders of the Netherlands it melts into Dutch. The dialect of Gelderland and Overyssel preserves many Piatt forms, as the Dutch gout, zout, hout, gold, salt, ivood, is golt, zolt, holt ; the u, written w, is pronounced like the PJattand High-Ger. u, Eng. oo, 11. The Piatt changes the High-Ger. au into oo and u ; as, auge eye, oog (o in no) ; auch also^ ook (o in no) ; auf up, Piatt up ; bauch belly, stomach, in Piatt makes buuk (the uu pronounced like the Eng. oo in wood). The High-Ger. a is changed into oo ; as, alt old, Piatt oold. The High-Ger. ei into y and ee; as, mein, dein, sein mine, thine, his, Piatt myn ; geist spirit, Piatt geest. The High- Ger. i very often changes into e ; as, wissen to know into weten; — ie into ee or a; as, lieb dear, Piatt leev, v'lel much, Piatt v'al; — i into jii ; as, immer always, P/<2if^ jiimmer. The High-Ger. o often changes into a long and broad a; as, oben above, bawen. High-Ger. alt, Piatt old, like the Eng. in signification and pronunciation. The High- Ger. u or ue changes into o ; as, vergniigt content, vergnogt ; — the u into o ; as, zu at, Piatt to ; rufen to call, roopen (pronounced ropen) ; gut good. 12. Change of the consonants. — b often changes intoyand v, w ; as, dieb thief, deef; lieb dear, leev ; — ch changes into k ; as, ich I, ik or ick ; — ch into y ; as, mich me, my (pronounced like the Eng. me) ; — r into y; as, mir to me, my (pronounced mee) ; dir to thee, dy (pronounced dee) ; — ss into t ; as, wasser water, water ; — chs into ss ; as, flachsy?aar, flass. The ch with the s preceding is often omitted ; as, schlagen to beat, slagen ; schweigen to be silent, swigen ; schwimmen to swim, swimmen. The Loiv- Ger. in this respect has great correspondence with the old High- Ger. which avoids this unpleasant hissing sound in all those words where it is omitted in the Low- Ger. as, High- Ger. sch wester sister ; Old High- Ger. suester ; Piatt- Ger. suster ; Sanscrit sna&T ; A.-.S. suster, sweoster ; High-Ger. schweiss sweat; Piatt swet. In some parts of Holstein and Sleswick, particularly near the borders of Jutland, the 5cA is changed into sA; as, schuld debitum ; Piatt skuld; Old High-Ger. sculd ; Dan. skyld ; A.-S. scyld. The auxiliary verb shall is in High-Ger. sollen ; 3foes. skulan, skallan ; Dut. zullen, in Pfo^^commonly schiillen, sullen, or like the Icel. skal ; * See notp (*), § Iv IxXXiv LOW-GERMAN — HELIAND, A.D. 840 TATIAN's HARMONY, A.D.890. High- Ger. suche changes into Piatt syke ; sicher su?'e into seker ; — t very often changes into d; as, teufel devil, diivel; tief deep, deep ; Gott God; gut good; tod death, dod ; tochter daughter, dochter ; — v, with a few exceptions, is used instead of the High- Ger. f; — w is used and pronounced Hke the High- Ger. w ; — z occurs only in a few instances, and is pronounced softer than the High- Ger. z, which in Piatt is mostly changed into t ; as, zu to, at, to ; zichen to pull, ten ; zwey two, twe ; zeichen token, teken ; zeit time, tyd ; zoU toll, toll. The High- Ger. pf always changes into a single p ; as, pflug plough, ploog ; pfanne pan, pann ; pflanze plant, plant ; pfund pound, pund; pflaume joZmwz, plum; ^ieMe pipe, pipe; pflucken to pluck, pliikken. 13. Heliand. An unknown author, in the early part of the 9th century, wrote^ in alliterative lines, a Harmony of the Gospels in the Old- Saxon dialect. The MSS. are preserved at Munich, and in the British Museum, London. Some extracts were published under the name of Franco-Theotisc in Hickes^s Thes. vol. ii. p. 10 1, and also by Nyerup at Copenhagen, 1787; but the whole was well edited, and splendidly published, with the following title : — Heliand ; Poema Saxonicum seculi noni. Accurate expressum ad exemplar Monacense insertis e Cottoniano Londinensi supplementis nee non adjecta lectionum varietate, nunc primum edidit J. Andreas Schmeller, Bibliothecae Regise Monacensis Gustos, &c., Monachii, 1830. PARABLE OF THE SOWER, Mt. xiii. 3 — 6 ; Mk. iv. 1 — 4 ; Lk. viii. 4 — 6. Huat ik iu seggean mag quad he* gesidos mine, huo imu en erl bi- gan- an erdu sehan* hren corni midls handun. Sum it an hardan ste^* obanuuardan fel* erdon ni habda. that it thar mahti uuahsan* eftha uurteo gifahan. kinan eftha bicliben. ac uuard that corn farloren. that thar an theru leian gilag — Heliand, p. 73, 1. 6 — 10. LITERAL GERMAN. Was ich euch sagen mochte, sprach er, Genossen meine, wie sich ein Landmann be- gann in die Erde zu saen rein Korn mit sein' Handen ; Etliches aber auf harten Stein oberwarts fiel, Erde nicht hatte, dass es da konnte wachsen, Oder Wurzel erfassen, keimen oder bekleiben, auch ward (ging) das Korn verloren, das da auf der strasse lag. literal'english. What (now) I may say (jtelT) you, quoth he, my companions, how a farmer be- gan on earth to sow clean corn with his'hands. Some of it on hard stone fell, had not earth that it there might wax (grow), or roots take, germinate, or stick, and that corn was lost, that there on the road lay, 14. Tatian's Harmony. An unknown author, about a. d. 890, trans- lated Tatian's Harmony of the Gospels into a softer dialect than the Alemannic and Bavarian : this translation contains words peculiar to the Old-Saxon dialect, and may be considered a sort of transition between Low and High-German. MSS. are preserved at Oxford and St. Gallen. This Harmony was first printed with this title: Tatiani Harmonia Evan- gelica e Latina Victoris Capuani versione translata in linguam Theotiscam antiquissimam per Jo. Phil. Palthenius, 4to. 1706 ; and again in Schilter's Thes. vol. ii. towards the end. LOW-GERMAN — OLD-SAXON CHRONICLE, A.D. 1216. IxxXV THE PARABLE OF THE SOWER. Matt. xiii. 3. — Senu gieng tho uz thie thar sauuit, zi sauuenne samon sinan. 4. Mit- thiu her tho sata, sumiu fielun nah themo uuege, inti uurdun furtretariu, inti quamun fugala himiles, inti frazun thiu. 5. Andaru fielun in steinaht lant, thar nih habeta mihhila erda, inti sliumo giengun uf, uuanta sie ni habetun erda tiufi. 6. Ufganteru sunnon furbrantiu uuirdun, inti bithiu sie ni habetun uurzala, furthorretun Schilter's Thes. vol. ii. p. 54, towards the end. LITERAL GERMAN, Matt. xiii. 3 — Sieh, es gieng da aus, der da saet, zu saen Samen seinen. 4. Indem er da saete, etliche (Samen) fielen nach dem Wege, und wurden vertreten ; und (es) kamen die Vogel des Himmels, und frassen diese. 5. Andere fielen in steinig Land, wo (es) nicht hatte (gab) viele Erde ; und schleunig giengen sie auf, weil sie nicht hatten Erde tiefe. 6. (Bey) aufgehender Sonne, wurden sie verbrannt ; und da sie nicht hatten Wurzeln, verdorrten sie. LITERAL ENGLISH, Matt. xiii. 3 See now, there went out (he) who there soweth, to sow his seed. 4. While he there sowed some feU on the way, and was trodden down, and came the fowls of heaven and devoured it. 5. Others fell on stony land, there had not much earth, and quickly went (grew) up, for they (it) had not deep earth ; 6. (By) risen sun were burnt, and, because they had not roots, withered. 15. An Old-Saxon Chronicle in Rhyme of the year 1216, published in J. G. Leuckfeld's Antiquitates Gandersh. in Leibnitii Scriptores Rerum Brunsv., and in Harenberg Historia Gandersh. with the following title, "Battle of Henry I. the Saxon, against the Huns." Na by der Oveker lag koning Hinrik : Up hov he sek an der naten nagt alse ein dagen ; He en shuwede dusternisse nog den ragen, Dog folgeden ome kume halv de dar waren — Scheller, p. 9. LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. Near by the shore lay King Henry, Exposed to the wet night as a hero ; He did not shun darkness nor the rain. But scarcely half those who were there followed him. 16. An allegorical Old-Saxon Poem, on love and fidelity, of the year 1231. Published in Eschenburg's Denkmale altdeut: Dichtkunst, Berlin, 1792. Mine truwe folget or alleine. For alien frouwen is se here, Ik wil nemandes syn wan ere. God geve or sulven sinen sagen, Unde dusend angele, de or plagen — Scheller, p. 13. LITERAL ENGLISH. My fidelity follows her alone. Above all ladies she is noble, I will be nobody's but hers. May God give her his blessing, And a thousand angels attend her. IxXXvi LOW-GERMAN THE CATELNBURG SONG, A.D. 1350. 17. The Privilege conferred upon the citizens of Itzehoe in Holstein, in the year 1260, by Count John and Gerhard of Holstein, about the Staple-right, from Westphalen's Monumenta Inedita, &c. vol. iv., and Halthaus's Glossarium, under the word Stapel, p. 1730. Dat alle de Schiphern — ere kopenschop schuUen affleggen vnde beden den Borgeren vnde Gesten to Itseho de to verkopende. LITERAL ENGLISH. That all the shippers shall deposit and offer their merchandise to the burghers and guests of Itzehoe to sale. 18. The Catelnburg Song, made in 1350, on the rebuilding of the convent of that name, published in Letzner's Chronica of Dassel and Eimbeck, vol. ii. THE CATELNBURG SONG. Dat kloster ward gebuwet fyn Edt giffit nu einen nien scyn, Help Godt van Himelricke, Dat wol geraden ore swyn Vnnd warden wedder ricke Scheller^ p. 36. LITERAL ENGLISH. The cloister was built fine. It gives now a new shine ; God help from heaven on high, That prosper well their swine, And so grow rich thereby. 19. A Low-German translation of the Speculum Humanae Salvationis of the 14th century, published in E. Nyerup's Specim. Literat. Teuton, p. 446—454. Dit buk is den vnghelerden bereyt, Vnde het en spegel der mynsliken salicheit, Dar in mag man prouen, dor wat sake Got den mynschen wolde maken, Unde wo de mynsche vordomet wart, Uijde wo dat god wedder vmme heft ghekart. Lucifer houarde tegen gode synen heylant, Dar vmme warp he ene in dat afgrunde altohant. Kinderling, p. 296. LITERAL ENGLISH. This book is for the unlearned prepared. And is called a mirror of human happiness. Therein may one learn, by what means God would make man, And how man was condemned. And how God again that has changed. Lucifer boasted against God his Saviour, Therefore threw he him into the gulph instantly. LOW-GERMAN — LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY, A.D. 1474. IxXXvii 20. A JOURNEY to the Holy Land made in the year 1356, written in Low-Saxon probably by Ludolfs, and copied from a MS. in 1471, by Nicholas Culenborch. The MS. in possession of Kinderling. In alien (guden) Dingen de eyn mynsche deyt edder wil vullen bringhen, schal dar tho bidden bevoren god, de den mynschen heft vterkoren, so blift dat warck un verloren — Kinderling, p. 341. LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. In all good things which a man does or will perform, he shall before pray to God, who has chosen man, then this work will not be lost. 21. A Low-Saxon epitaph on the Duke Adolph of Sleswick and Holstein, in the year 1459. In Arnkiel's Cimbrischen Heidenthum (Cimbric Paganism), vol. iii. p. 400. Da man schref ein Ring von d^r Taschen (cio) ^ Und veer Hangen van einer Flaschen, (cccc) Vief Duven Fot vnd negen I (xxxxximiiiii) Dar denk man Hartoch Adolf by, Twischen Barber vnde Niclas Dagen, O weh der jammerliken Klagen ! Do ward manch Og gewenet roth Wol um des edlen Forsten Dod — Kinderling, p. 158. LITERAL ENGLISH. As men wrote a ring of a pocket (cio) And four hangers (handles) of a flask, (cccc) Five doves feet and nine I (xxxxxiiiiiiiii) Thereby think men on Duke Adolf, Between Barbara and St. Nicholas days (Dec. 4.) Alas for the grievous sorrows ! When many an eye was red with weeping For the noble Prince's death. 22. The life of the holy Virgin Mary, from a MS. of the year 1474, in the Low-Saxon dialect, in possession of Kinderling, partly published in Adelung's Magazine for the German Language, vol. ii. No. I. p. 63, and in the Deutsches Museum, Oct. 1788, p. 340. THE VIRGIN MARY. Se was de schoneste aller wyue Se was schone wyt vnde blanck, Se was nicht kort, to mate lanck, Ore Hende weren wyt gevar Ane aller hande wandels gar. Gel vnde goltvar was er har — Kinderling, p. 343. LITERAL ENGLISH. She was the most beautiful of all wives. She was fine white and blank. She was not short, (but) moderately lank. Her hands were of a white appearance, Entirely without any kind of defect, Yellpw and of a gold colour was her hair. IxXXviii LOW-GERMAN REINEKE VOS, PRINTED, A.D. 1498. 23. A Bible printed at Cologne, 1480, folio. Mk. iv. 3—4. Hort, de dar seyet, de is uitgegaen to seyen. En do he seyede, dat eyn vyl by den wech. en de vogel des hemels quemen en eten dat. 24. A Bible printed at Lubeck, 1494, folio. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet. seet de dar seyet is vtghegan to seyende. vn do he seyede. dath ene vyl by de wech. vn de voghele des hemmels quemen vn eten dat. 25. Mirror for the Laymen (Speygel der Leyen), printed at Lubeck, 1496. This work is quoted in Brun's Old Platt-Ger. Poems, Berlin, 1798. Der leyen speygel heft hyr eyn ende, Den les gherne in desseme elende Uppe dat god dy syne gnade sende, Vn eynt leste dyme sele entfange in syne hende. De dyt boek leeth maken. vnde ok de dar inne lesen, Leue here god wyl den io gnedig wesen. Amen. Anno dm. mccccxcvi, Lubeck Scheller, p. 107. LITERAL ENGLISH. The laick mirror has here an end, Read it willingly in this distress That God to thee his blessing send, And at last thy soul receive into his hand. (He) who this book made and also those who read in it, Dear Lord God, be merciful to them. Amen. Anno Domini 1496, Lubeck. 26. Reineke Vos,* an allegorical and satirical Poem in the Low- Saxon dialect, by Hinreck van Alkmar, founded and for the greater part literally translated from the Flemish original of Willem van Utenhoven. The first edition of this Low-Saxon poem was printed at Lubeck, 1498. In the years 1517 and 1522, two other editions accompanied with remarks were published by Nicholas Baumann, and printed by Lewis Dietz at Rostock. All the numerous subsequent editions are founded on these three. Dat erste bok. Dat erste kapittel. Wo de louwe, konnink aller deren, let utkrejeren unde vasten vrede utropen unde let beden alien deren to synem hove to komen. It geschach up enen pinkstedach, dat men de wolde uii velde sach grone stan mit lof un gras, un mannich vogel vrolik was mit sange in hagen un up bomen ; de kriide sproten un de blomen, de wol roken hier un dar : • See Netherland, or Holland, VI. § 17, and High-German, X. § 56, 57. LOW-GERMAN — REINEKK VOS, 1490. Ixxxix de dach was schone, dat weder klar. Nobel de konnink van alien deren belt hof un let den utkrejeren syn lant dorch over al. dar quemen vele heren mit grotem schal, ok quemen to hove vele stolter gesellen, de men nicht alle konde tellen : Liitke de kron un Marquart de hegger, ja, desse weren dar alle degger ; wente de konnink mit synen heren mende to holden hof mit eren, mit vrouden un mit grotem love, un hadde vorbodet dar to hove alle de dere grot un klene sunder Reinken den vos allene. he hadde in dem hof so vele misdan, dat he dar nicht en dorste komen noch gan. de quat deit, de schuwet gern dat licht, also dede ok Reinke de bosewicht, he schuwede sere des konninges hof, darin he hadde ser kranken lof. Reineke Vos, p. L* LITERAL ENGLISH. The First Book. The First Chapter. How the lion, king of all animals, ordered to be proclaimed and published a fast peace, and commanded all animals to come to his court. It happened on a Whitsunday, That men saw the woods and fields Green, standing with leaves and grass, And many a fowl joyful was, With song in hedges and on trees ; The herbs and the blooms sprouted, Which well perfumed here and there : The day was fine, the weather clear. Nobel the king of all beasts Held a court, and had it proclaimed Throughout his land every where. There came many lords with great noise Also came to the court many stately fellows Whom men could not all tell. Lutke the crane, and Marquart the magpie, Yes, these were there altogether ; For the king, with his lords, Meant to hold court with splendour, With rejoicing and with great honour, And had summoned there to the court, * Reineke Vos. Nach der Liibecker ausgabe vom jahre, 1498. Mit einleitung, glossar und anmerkungen von Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Breslau, 1834. XC LOW-GERMAN — DIALECT OF HAMBURG, &C. 1827. All the beasts great and small Except Renard the fox alone. He had at court so much misdone That he there durst not go or come. Who does a wrong shuns much the light, So did Renard, the wicked wight, He shunned much the king's court "Wherein he had a sad report. 27. The book of the holy Gospels, Lessons, Prophets, and Epistles, &c. Brunswick, 1.506, fol. MJt. iv. 3 — 4. He ghink vth de dar seyede sin saet vn do he seyede do vil des sades ein deel bi de wech vn wart ghetreden van den luden vnd de voghele des hemels ethen yd vp. 28. A Bible printed at Halberstadt, 1522, fol. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet, seet, de dar seyet, ys uthgegan tho seyende. Und do he seyede, dat eyn veyl by den wech, und de voghele des hymels quemen, und eten dat. 29. The New Testament, printed at Cologne, 1525. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hoort toe, siet, het ginck een Saeyman wt om te saeyen. Ende het gescyede als hi saeyde dat Saet, dat somige viel by den Wech, doen quamen die Vogelen onder den Hemel, ende aten dat op. 30. A Bible— Lubeck, 1533, fol. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet tho. seth, Ein sadtseyer ginck vth tho seyende. Vnde ydt begafF syck, jn dem alse he seyede, veil etlick an den wech : do quemen de vogel vnder den hemmel, vnde fretent vp. 31. Bugenhagen's Bible, Magdeburgh, 1578. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horet tho. Seet, Eyn Saedtseyer gynck vth tho seyende, Vnde ydt begaff sick, yn deme alse he seyede, veil etlyck an den Wech, Do quemen de Vogele vnder dem Hemmel, vnde fretent vp. Low-German Dialects. 32. The following are specimens of the provincial dialects, spoken in Low or North- Germany, as collected and written down in 1827. 33. The provincial dialect spoken about Nienburg, 1827. Mh. iv. 3 — 4. Hort to : Seeth En Seyer giink ut to seyen. Un et begafF sick, unner't Seyen vull etlick an de Wech, do kemen de Vagels unner'n Himmel un fretent up. 34. Platt-Ger. dialect spoken about Hanover, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hart tau, et gunk ein Sagemann ut, tau sagen. Und et begaf seek, weil hei sogte, f ellen edliche Koren en den Weg ; da keimen dei Vogeln under dem Himmel und fratten sei up. 35. Platt-Ger. dialect of the Old Mark o^ Brandenburg, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Horch tau, et gink en Buer up't Feld tum Seen. Un (et begap sick) indem he seete, fohl wat an der Side (oder : ob de Halve) ; da kamen de Vogel von Himmel (oder : von boben) un fratent up. 36. Platt-Ger. dialect of Hamburgh, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Hor't to : Een Buhr giing ut, sien Saat to say'n : As he nu say't, full een Deel von de Saat by den Wegg, un wurr von de Vagel unnern Himmel oppfreten. DUTCH — HOLLAND. XCl 37. Brunswick dialect, 1827. Mk. iv. 3—4. Horet tau ! Suh et gung en Saiemann ut to saien, Un et begaf sik, bi den Saien, fell wat an den Weg ; do kaimen de Voggel under den Himmel un freiten et up. 38. Mecklenburg-Schwerin dialect, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — 4. Huret to : Sii, dar gink een Sajer uut, to sajen. Un et begav sik, as he sajete, feel week (wat) an de Straat, dar kemen de Vagel unner den Hewen, un freten't upp. VI.— THE NETHERLANDS, OR HOLLAND.* 1. Hollandf is as remarkable for its origin, as for the intellectual energy of its inhabitants. About fifty years before the christian era, Caesar speaks * The author has been very anxious to be correct. He has generally cited his authorities, and to secure as much accuracy as possible, he has consulted his friends, amongst whom he ought to mention Professor Siegenbeek, with gratitude, for his kindness in correcting the manuscript. Those who wish for more minute information on the Dutch language and literature, will find ample information in the following works : — Beknopte Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde, door Professor M. Siegenheek, 8vo. Haarlem, 1826. — J. de 'S Gravenweert, Essai sur 1' Histoire de la Litterature Neerlandaise, Svo. Amsterdam, 1830. — Beknopte Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche tale, door Professor A. Ypey, 2 vols. 8vo. Utrecht, 1812-1832. — Collot d'Escury Hollands roem in kunsten en wetenschappen, 6 vols. Hague, 1824-1833. — Proeve eener Geschiedenis der Nederduitsche Dichtkunst, door /. de Fries, 2 vols. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1809. — Beknopte Geschiedenis der Letteren en Wetenschappen in de Nederlanden, door N. G. van Kampen, 3 vols. 8vo. Hague, 1821-1826. — Biographisch, Anthologisch en Critisch Woordenboek der Nederduitsche Dichters, door P. G. Witsen Geysheek, 6 vols. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1821-1827. — Verhandeling over de Nederduytsche Tael en Letterkunde, opzigtelyk de zuydelyke Provintien der Nederlanden, door J. F. Willems, 8vo. Antwerpen, 1819. — Over de Hollandsche en Vlaemsche Schryfwyzen van het Nederduitsch, door J. F. Willems, 8vo. Antwerpen, 1824. — Batavian Anthology, by John Bowring and Harry S. van Dyk, 12mo. London, 1824. — Sketch of the Language and Literature of Holland, by John Bowring, 12mo. Amsterdam, 1829. — Van Wijn's Huiszittend Leven ; also van Wijri's Historische en Letterkundige Avondstonden, 8vo. Amsterdam, 1800. — Aenleiding tot de Kennisse van het Verhevene Deel der Nederduitsche Sprake, door Lambert ten Kate, 2 vols. 4to. Amsterdam, 1723. t The name of Holland, as Mr. Halbertsrtia observes, is not heard of before the eleventh century [1064]. The meaning of Holland exactly suits the fenny and loggy soil which it designates. The oldest Dutch authors write it ollant. Thus Maerlant says — " Doe wart coninc Loduwike Karel die caluwe, die wel geraecte. Die eerst graue jn ollant maecte." Vol. iii. p. 13, V. 8. And again, " Comes de Ollandia," a Count of Holland. See Huydecoper on Melis Stoke, vol. i. p. 524. Look for this word in the Teuthonista of van der Schueren, and you will find " Beven daveren als eyn ollant, Scatere," tremble under the feet as a marshy ground. The word ol, in the sense of dirty or glutinous matter, mud, does not appear in Anglo-Saxon, but it is found in a derived signification. 01, occasionally changed to hoi, signifies calumnia. Wachtendonk, in his Rhyme Chronicle, observes : " Hollant, een nieuwe naem, die schijnt 't lant te passen, Alsoo het meest bestaet in veenen en moerassen." Mattheeus de Nobilitafe, p. 50. XCll DUTCH— THEIR ORIGIN, INTELLKCTUAL VIGOUR. of the Batavi,* the first inhabitants on record, as being located towards the mouths of the Rhine, between the Whaal,t the most southerly stream of the Rhine, and the other branches to the north : thus the dominions of the Batavi appear to have extended from Dordrecht to about Haarlem. The country is generally low and marshy, and seems formed or enriched by the alluvial deposits brought down by the various streams into which the Rhine was divided as it approached the sea. Pliny, the naturalist, about a century after Caesar, gives a minute description of it as a land, where "the ocean pours in its flood twice every day, and produces a perpetual uncertainty whether the country may be considered as a part of the continent or the sea."+ The genius and industry of men have prevailed. The Hollanders or Dutch have originally taken their pos- sessions from the dominion of the deep ; and the exercise of the perpetual thought, care, and industry, necessary first to raise, and then keep up such mighty embankments as defend them from their constant assailant the raging sea, has educated a people, adventurous, brave, and cautious. The Dutch, applying these habits to the cultivation of their intellectual powers, have thus taken the first rank in polite literature, and have also been successful cultivators of the arts and sciences. We are indebted to the Dutch not only for the discovery of oil painting, § but for the finest specimens of the art : they w^ere also the inventors of printing, || painting on glass, and, as some say, of the pendulum, the microscope, &c. * Bataver is thought by many to be contracted from Bat-auwers, that is, inhabitants of good or fruitful land, from bat, bet good (still found in beter), and auwe ground or country. It is supposed that the name is preserved in a part of Gelderland, the Betnv/e fruitful country, in opposition to Veluwe bad land, from vale falling, defective, and ouwe land, country. — Hist, of But. Language, by Ypey. t Caesar's Comment, lib. iv. 1 0. X Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xvi. § By John van Eyck, better known by the name of John of Bruges, in 1410. Korte leevens- schets der Graaven van Holland, door Ludolf Smids, 4to. Haarlem, 1744. II At Haarlem, by Laurence Rosier, about 1423, His real name was Zowrgn* Janszoon Koster, a celebrated citizen of Haarlem, born about 1370. He was treasurer of the city, and held other important offices. I once thought that Gutenburg of Mayence was the inventor of printing in 1440, (Elements of Anglo-Saxon Gr. p. 16); but every impartial person, upon a close investigation of the evidence produced in recent works, must ascribe the honour of the invention to Koster. Ample proof will be found in Verhandeling van Koning over den oorsprong, de uitvinding, verbetering en volmaking der Boekdrukkunst te Haarlem, 1816, bij Loosjes. Gedenkschriften wegens het vierde eeuwgetijde van de uitvinding der Boek- drukkunst door Lourens Janszoon Koster van stadswege gevierd te Haarlem den 10 en 11 Julij 1823, bijeenverzameld door Vincent Loosjes, te Haarlem 1824. Mr. Jacobus Scheltema's geschied en Letterkundig Mengelwerk, vol. v. vi. One authority, among many others, is so strong in favour of Holland, that it cannot be omitted. A German chronicle of the year 1499, acknowledges that though Mayence improved the art, it was first known in Holland. *' Item wie wail die kunst is vonden tzo Mentz, als vursz up die wyse, als dan nu gemeynlich ge- bruicht wirt, so is doch die eyrste vurbyldung vonden in HoUant uyss den Donaten, die daeselffst vur der tzyt gedruckt syn. Ind van ind uyss den is genommen dat begynne der vursz kunst. Ind is vill meysterlicher ind subtilicher vonden, dan die selve manier was, und ye langer ye mere kunstlicher wurden." Item, though this art was found (out) as aforesaid at Mayence, in that manner in which it is now commonly practised, yet the first idea was taken in Holland from the Donates which were there published before that time. And from and out of them is taken the beginning of the aforesaid art. And is much more masterly and neatly performed than the former manner was, and the longer (it has continued) the more perfect it has become, — Cronica van der hilliger statv~ Coelle. Gedrukt te Keulen, by Johannes KoelholF, in den jare 1499. Gedenkschriften van de uitvinding der Boekdrukkunst, p. 437. DUTCH — EMINENT MEN. XCIII 2. This small country has had more than its share of eminent men. It has produced an Erasmus, a Vossius, Lipsius, Junius, Grotius, Heinsius, Rubens, van Dyk, Rembrandt, Boerhave, van Lennep, and Bilderdijk. Ten Kate developed the grammatical principles which have been so fully and ably illustrated by Dr. J. Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik. Let it also be ever remembered that this land of freedom has not only fostered native talent, but supported and encouraged it wherever it was found. Here Linnceus formed and matured his Systema NaturcB : here Holler studied, Descartes first received encouraging support, and at Gouda Locke finished his immortal work on Human Understanding. From Holland also has flowed a stream of classical erudition, conveyed in pure Latinity, and benefited the whole of Europe by the accurate and beautiful specimens of typography which issued from the press of the Elzevirs, Wetsteins, and other eminent printers. While, for their skill in the learned languages, their classical scholars have acquired European fame, the native tongue, which informed the mind and warmed the heart of the Hollander, has been either entirely unknown or disregarded by other nations, though it is a language of Teutonic origin, and well deserves the attention of the philologer, being one of the purest, most nervous, and expressive of the Gothic root. 3. We have no evidence of the language which was spoken by the Batavi in Caesar's time, but, as they were a German race, it must have had a Teutonic origin. That this language has undergone some mutations, will be evident from a very short view of the political changes which have taken place. Such changes as affected the language arose from tribes of Teutonic origin ; their language, therefore, was only altered by some small dialectic variations, and still remained Teutonic. 4. The Batavi were allies of the Romans, who constantly eulogize Batavian bravery and fidelity ; but about the end of the 3rd century the Batavi were much oppressed by other Gothic nations, as the Saxons, Salian Francs, and other hordes, which forcibly obtained the settlements of the Batavi. Thus the country became inhabited by a mixture of Germanic tribes,* which were subject to the Francic power till the time of Charlemagne and his sons. Vincent Loosjes, Haarlem, 1824. A learned Italian, Tommaso Tonelli of Florence, after visiting Holland, and making minute and personal inquiries concerning the discovery of printing, unhesitatingly declares that the invention must be ascribed to Lawrence Roster. — Antologia di Firenze, Vol. 41, Jan. — Jpril, 1831. * That the present Dutch are descended from the Batavi, is the opinion of some learned Dutch authors, such as Erasmus, Junius, Dousa, Grotius, and Scriverius. Grotius asserts boldly, [De Antiquitate Reipublicce Batavic(B, c. iii. ad finem,] that the ever-succeeding invaders of the Insula Batavonm were swallowed up in the bulk of the Batavian population, and that of course the present Dutch are the genuine oflfspring of the Batavians. Such was the im- portance of the Batavian support, that even the insurrection of the Batavi under Civilis could not prevent their restoration to the friendship of the proud conquerors of the world. As long as their name appears in history, the Batavi were the allies of the Romans. But that the present Dutch are the direct offspring of the Batavi, is still a controverted point; for the Batavians were exhausted by the never-ceasing levies of troops, and by the bloody battles of the Romans, often decided by Batavian valour, and being the last supports of the tottering XCIV DUTCH— HISTORY OF HOLLAND. 5. These pagan inhabitants and the Friesians did not listen to the preaching of the Francic monks. The Anglo-Saxons being more allied to the old Dutch, their missionaries had greater success. Willibrord* with eleven Anglo-Saxon associates, in a.d. 692, left England, as missionaries to Heligoland, Friesland, Holland, Zealand, &c. They were coun- tenanced by Pepin, Duke of the Franks. f Willibrord exerted himself so much, and was so successful, that he became the first bishop of Utrecht in A.D. 697. J 6. In the 1 0th century this country had its own particular sovereigns, known by the name of Counts. Diederik% was the first raised to the dignity of Count of Holland, in a. d. 903. There was a succession of thirty-six Counts, till Philip \l. king of Spain in 1581, who was the last Count. II Philip, being a bigoted catholic, and infringing the rights of Holland and the neighbouring states, Holland, united with four other provinces, at Utrecht in 1579, to resist the Spanish oppression. Soon after, in 1581, two other states joined, and qpnstituted The Seven United Provinces, which solemnly renounced the authority of Philip. William, Prince of Orange and Nassau, first held the dignity as Stadtholder under the authority of Philip. After the rejection of Philip, William was to be made Count of Holland : all preliminary steps were taken, and there was nothing wanted but the solemn inauguration, when he was assassinated at Delft in 1584. His sons, Maurice and Frederic Henry, held the dignity empire, they were crushed and almost annihilated by its downfal. The Germanic crowds of Saxons, Francs, and Cauchi, rushing on the borders of the Roman empire, could not suflfer these socii, these amici et sodales populi Romani, to dwell with them on the same spot. Afterwards the Insula Batavorura is reported to be inhabited by the Francs, and the name of Batavi is never mentioned again in all the changes their country underwent. In succeeding periods the Insula Batavorum was occupied by the Chamari ; [a.d. 287], by the Salii [a.d. 358], shortly after by the Guadi (read perhaps Cauchi) and in the reports of the battles of the Romans against these invaders, or of the invaders against each other, the name of Batavi is never mentioned. Eumenius states, that towards the end of the third century, the Insula Batavorum was possessed by Francic tribes. At last, about A. d, 470, the name of Batavi disappears for ever from history, and on this period it is justly observed by the Dutch historian VVagenaar, " This nation (the Batavi) seems to have been partly slain in the Roman armies, partly transplanted by the Romans, partly killed by foreign adventurers, or drawn away from their native soil, and partly blended amongst the Francs, the Saxons, and the Friesians, so as soon to obliterate even their name in this country." Now if the Batavi were extinguished in the fifth century, it will be difficult to discover much of Batavian blood in those who occupy their territories in the nineteenth century. See Wagenaar Vaderlandsche historie, tom. i. p. 243, 244, 251, 295, 296. Nalez'mgen op de Nederlandsche Geschiedenis, tom. i. p. 93, 97. Inleiding tot de geschiedenis van Gelderland door W. A. van Spaan, tom. iii. p. 2. Eumenius Pane- gyricus Constant. August, c. v. Leibnitz rerum Brunswicensium Scriptores, I. 26. — The substance of this note is taken from a communication of the Rev. J. H. Halbertsma; it rests on his authority and the authors he has quoted. * Alcuin. Vita Willibr. Die sprachen der Germanen von Dr. T. G. Radlof, p. 4. t Advenissent ad Pippinum Ducem Francorum, Bd. v. 10, 11 ; Sm. p. 192, 9. X Historia Episcopatuum Fcederati Belgii, utpote Metropolitan! Ultrajectini, &c. folio, Antverpiae, 1755, p. 1. § Some refer the origin of the Counts of Holland to the time of Charlemagne, Holland being one of the feudal grants of this emperor. "Noverint uni'versi, quod serenissimus Dominus Rex Albertus Romanorum semper invictus, vacantem Hollandice Principatum, quern Carolus Imperator olim magnus Theodorico (Diederik) Comiti concessit in beneficium feudale, tam jure, quam gladio ad Sacrum Romanum intendit revocare imperium. Trithetnius Chr.Hirsaug. ad a, 1300. Struvii Corpus Hist. Germaniae, Periodus nona, § 8, note 33, vol. i. p. 574. II Smids's Graven van Holland, 4to. Haarlem, 1744. DUTCH POLITICAL CHANGES. XCV of Stadtbolder in succession till 1647, when William II. son of Frederic Henry, was invested with this authority. 7. The Stadtholder fled in 1795, and Holland became a more demo- cratic republic. In 1806, Lewis Buonaparte, by the powerful influence of his brother Napoleon, was proclaimed King of Holland. This prince abdicated in 1810, and Holland was united to the French empire. In 1815, Belgium was joined to Holland, and the Prince of Orange Nassau was inaugurated King of the Netherlands under the name of William I. Belgium revolted in 1830. From these political changes the language, especially in early times, must have been affected. A few specimens will best show the mutations and the progress of the Dutch tongue ; but, before these are introduced, a few remarks upon its nature and character may not be useless. 8. The distinguishing characteristic of the Dutch language,* is de- scriptive energy. If it be not soft and musical, it is dignified, sonorous, and emphatic. It has great compositive power ; all technical terms, which the English borrow from exotic sources, from the Latin and Greek, are composed by the Dutch from their own indigenous roots. Almost every polysyllabic word is descriptive of the object which it designates. In this respect the Dutch is much superior to the present English. f There is, however, a striking affinity between our language and the Dutch. Take as instances a Dutch proverb, and a short extract from Spieghel. A DUTCH PROVERB. ** Als de wyn is in de man, Is de wysheid in de kan." Tuinman's Sprkw. Nalz. p. 19. LITERAL ENGLISH. As (when) the wine is in the man, Is the wisdom in the can Bowring. *' Parnassus is te wijd; hier is geen Helicon, Maar duinen, bosch en beek, een lucht, een zelfde zon, Dit water, dit land, beek, veld, stroom en boomgodinnen, Met maghteloose liefd wij hartelijk beminnen." Hartspiegel, I. 127—130. LITERAL ENGLISH. Parnassus is too wide ; here is no Helicon, But downs, wood, and beck, one air, one selfsame sun. This water, this land, beck, field, stream, and wood-goddesses, With mightless love we heartily admire.| * I cannot omit a remark on the importance of language, in designating the mental powers of a nation, written by a learned and truly patriotic Dutchman. " Elk volk hecht prijs aan het eigendoramelijke van zijn karakter, aan hetgeen, waarin het zijne zedelijke waarde, het uitmuntende van zijne verstandsvermogens acht te bestaan ; het moet dus, bij wettig gevolg, belang in die Taal stellen, welke het van alle volken onderscheidt." — Collot d'Escury Hollands roem in kunsten en wetensch. iii. bl. 9. f Astronomy is in Dutch sterrekunde, from ster a 5^ar, \i\xndie knowledge, science ; or hemel- loopkunde, from hemel heaven, loop a course, kunde science. — Taalkunde grammar, from taal language, k\mde science. — T!e\k\xnst arithmetic, from tel a number, kunst science, art. — Aardrijks- kunde geography, from aarde earth, rijk realm, kunde science, &c. X Bowring's Batavian Anthology, 12mo. London, 1834, from which interesting little work these translations and some other poetic versions are taken. XCVl DUTCH RESEMBLES ENGLISH. 9. The correct and emphatic version of the Scriptures, which owes its origin to the Synod of Dordrecht 1618—1619, affords a fine specimen of the expressive powers of the Dutch language. It is one of the best established versions, and the language of this translation is well calculated to express the devout and dignified emotions of the Christian. 10. The earlier the specimens of the Teutonic languages, the more striking are their affinity and analogy, which prove that they originally sprung from one source. The oldest compositions in Dutch are very similar to Low-German {Platt-Deutsch.) The first specimen of the Dutch language is taken from a trans- lation of the Psalms made about a.d. 800. These Low-German Psalms, written in the time of the dynasty of Charlemagne, were published for the first time by F. H. von der Hagen Breslaw, 1816.* The manuscript of this translation is first mentioned in a letter of Lipsius to his friend Schottius, at Antwerp, dated Louvain, January 14th, 1599.t Professor A. Ypey of Groningen claims this fragment as a specimen of the old Low- German or Dutch. {Nederduitsch.)X Psalm Ivi. 2 — 5. \ « 2. Ginathi mi got ginathi mi. uuanda an thi gitruot sila min. In an scado fitheraco thinro sal ic gitruon untis farliet unreht. 3. Ruopen sal ik te gode hoista. got thia uuala dida mi. 4. Sanda fan himele in ginereda mi. gaf an bismere te tradon mi. 5. Santa got ginatha sina in uuarheit sina. in generida sela mina fan mitton uuelpo leono. slip ik gidruouit. Kint manno tende iro geuuepene in sceifte. in tunga iro suert scarp. THE SAME IN MODERN DUTCH. 2. Begenadig mij, God ! Begenadig mij ; . want op U vertrouwt mijne ziel. En in de schaduw uwer vederen zal ik vertrouwen tot dat het onregt moge voorbijgaan. 3. Roepen zal ik tot den hoogsten God, God die mij wel deed. 4. Hij zond van den hemel en verloste mij ; Hij gaf aan den smaad over, die mij vertraden. 5. God zond zijne genade en waarheid ; en Hij verloste mijne ziel van het midden der leeuwen welpen. Ik sliep ongerust. Kinderen der menschen ; hunne tanden (war en) wapenen en schichten en hunne tong een scherp zwaard. 11. The Flemish is so closely allied to the Dutch, that it may, especially in its earliest form, be considered the same language. In the thirteenth century, because of the flourishing state of the Flemings, and the care of their writers to observe great purity in their diction, and to express correctly the gender and inflection of words, this improved form of the Dutch language was denominated Flemish. Even at the present day Flemish appears to be nothing more than the Dutch of the preceding century. ♦ Niederdeutsche Psalmen aus der Karolinger Zeit, zum ersten mahl herausgegeben von Friedrich Heinrich von der Hagen, 8vo. Breslau, 1816. f Opera omnia Justi Lipsii, vol. ii. p. 986, Vesaliae, 1675. X A. de Jager, Taalkundig Magazijn, No. I. p. 65, Rotterdam, 1833. DUTCH OR FLEMISH CHARTER OF BRUSSELS, A.D. 1229. XCVil 12. A LITERAL COPY OF THE CHARTER OF BRUSSELS in A.D. 1229, from the Book of Privileges, called the Book with the Hairs {Boek met den Hairen) from Verhandeling over de Nederduytsche tael en Letter- kunde, opzigtelj/k de zuydelyke Provintien der Nederlanden^ door J. F. Willems, Antwerpen, 2 vols. 8vo. 1819— -1824. " Ic heinric bi der gratien goeds hertoghe van Brabant, Ende ic heinric sijn oudste sone wi doen u cont dit ghescrifte alien dengenen die nu syn ende die nacomende sijn. dat wi overmids vroeden rade onser mannen en der scepenen en der gesworne van bruesele desen coren hebben geset binnen Bruesele bi trouwen en de bi eede onser manne ende gemeinleec den poerteren van Bruesele Desen core te houden om gemeine orbore ende vordane meer in deser manieren." — Willems' Verhandeling ^ p. 133. MODERN DUTCH. " Ik Hendrik, bij de gratie Gods, hertog van Braband, en ik Hendrik, zijn oudste zoon, wij doen u weten dit geschrift aan al degenea, die nu zijn, en die nakomende zijn, dat wij, ten gevolgen van wijzen raad onzer mannen en der schepenen en der gezworencn van Brussel, deze keuren hebben gezet binnen Brussel door trouw en door ede onzer mannen, en gemeenlijk de Poorteren (Burgers) van Brussel deze keuren te houden tot algemeen gemak en voortaan meer op deze wijze." LITERAL ENGLISH. ** I Henry, by the grace of God, Duke of Brabant, and I Henry, his eldest son, we make (to) you known this writing to all those who now are, and who are to come, that we, in consequence of the wise counsel of our men, and of the sheriffs, and of the sworn of Brussels, these statutes have established in Brussels through the fidelity and oath of our men, and commonly the citizens (Burghers) of Brussels these statutes to keep, for general convenience, and for the future more in this wise." 13. Reinaert de Vos, an allegorical and satirical poem, is one of the most popular v^orks ever published. The story soon spread over the whole of Europe, by translations into almost every language. The poem was first written in the old Flemish dialect, affording a fine and very early specimen of the language. The Flemish manuscript is undoubtedly the original of which the famous Low-Saxon Reineke Vos, published at Lubeck, 1498, is a free translation. The old prose editions of Reineke Vos, printed at Gouda, 1479, and Delft, 1485, appear to be only a neg- ligent translation of the Flemish poem, even preserving, in many instances, the metre and rhyme of the original. The English version, by William Caxton, 1481, was made from the Delft edition. By the indefatigable researches of Mr. J. F. Willems, it appears that the first part of the Flemish Reinaert was written about 1150, and by recent inquiries, as well as by the preface to his modernized Flemish Reinaert de Vos naer de oudste beryming, Eecloo, 1834, it is concluded that Willem van Utenhoven, a priest of Aerdenburg, was the real author* of the second * Madok was not the author, for the name of such a writer cannot be found. In the passage where Madok occurs, it cannot be the name of a man ; for, as Maerlant observes, it merely designates a poem, (Hoflfmann's Horce Belg i. 21, by the fertile and learned writer XCviii DUTCH OR FLEMISH — REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. part which was composed about the year 1 250. Jacob van Maerlant, the father of the Flemish chroniclers and poets, so early as 1270, complains of the alterations and additions made by copyists of Reinaert's boerden, merry jests and tricks. 14. That some of the materials of this fine poem are taken from French works, is confessed by Willem van Utenhoven himself: Daerom dedi de vite soeken, Ende heeftse uten walschen boeken In dietsche aldus begonnen — Willems' Pref. p. xiv. 1. 7. Therefore did he the bricks (of the fox) seek, And has them out of Welsh {foreign) books In Dutch thus begun. 15. There have been many editions of this work. We have the erudite volume of Reinardus Vulpes, Carmen epicum seculis ix et xii conscriptum, ad fidem Codd. MSS. edidit et adnotationibus illustravit Franciscus Josepkus Mone^ Stuttgardice et Tuhingce, 1832 ; also Mr. O. M. Meon^s highly interesting edition of nearly all the parts of the fables and tales of the Fox, treated by Piere de St. Cloud, Richard de Lison, Marie de France, &c. which appeared under the title Le Roman du Renard, public d*aprds les MSS. de la Biblioth^que du Roi des XIII. XIV. et xv. si^cles, Paris, 1826, chez Treuttel et Wiirz, 4 vols. 8vo. avec figures. The indefatigable researches of the learned Professor J. Grimm are published under the title Relnhart Fuchs, Berlin, 1834, These and other numerous editions, as well as the complaint of Waltherus de Coinsi, Prior of Vic sur Aisne in his Louanges de nostre Dame, and Miracles de la Vierge, that Renard was preferred to the reading of legends, sufficiently show how many pens it has occupied, and at what an early period this celebrated poem served for entertainment and in- struction. A slight comparison of all these productions with the Flemish Reinaert de Vos must lead to the conviction, that whatever use its author may have made of the works of his predecessors, he has far surpassed them all, and has composed a work fully deserving the praises which the most competent judges have bestowed upon it. It is important both for matter and composition ; and if it were the only interesting and valuable work existing in the old Dutch, it alone would fully repay the trouble of learning that language. This poem gives a true picture of the world, with all its orders, states, conditions, passions, and characters, in an easy Hoffmann von Fallersleben, to whom we are indebted for a very correct edition of Reineke Vos, from the Lubeck edition of 1498, with a valuable glossary). Besides, the article de is nfiver used before Dutch proper names. That all may judge for themselves, the passage is here cited : — " Willem die Madok maecte " Willem, who wrote (made) Madok, Daer hi dicken omme waecte About which he was much awake. Hem vernoide so haerde Annoyed himself so much Dat die geeste van Reinaerde That the actions of Reinaerde Niet te recht en es geschreven." Were not correctly written." JVillems' Reinaert de Fos, p. xiii. DUTCH OR FLEMISH — REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. Xcix and flowing versification, in a rich, powerful, and sonorous language, hitherto, for want of knowing its powers, not so valued as it deserves. 16. Professor Grimm's invaluable Reinhart Fuchs is a rich mine of philology, history, and general information, that cannot fail to revive a love for the old Dutch or Flemish, which, notwithstanding all en- deavours to suppress it, has still preserved its pristine vigour and strength. In the present age, the Flemish owes much to the patriotic feeling and well-directed energy of a native Fleming, /. F. Willems, Esq. whose exertions are above all praise.* 17. The first example is taken from GrimrrCs Reinhart Fuchs, Berlin, 1834, printed from the Codex Comburgensis, an old Flemish manuscript preserved at Stuttgardt. There is still a manuscript of it at Antwerp ; there was also one at Amsterdam, which a few years ago was sold to an Englishman. t The other example is taken from the modernised Flemish ^_ edition by J, F. Willems, 12mo. Eecloo, 1834. These may serve to show OLD FLEMISH. Het was in enen pinxen daghe, dat bede bosch ende haghe met groenen loveren waren bevaen. Nobel die coninc hadde ghedaen sin hof craieren over al, dat hi waende, hadde his gheval, houden ten wel groten love. Doe quamen tes coninx hove alle die diere, grot ende clene, sonder vos Reinaert allene. hi hadde te hove so vele mesdaen, dat hire niet dorste gaen : die hem besculdich kent, onsiet. also was Reinaerde ghesciet : ende hier omme scuwedi sconinx hof, daer hi in hadde cranken lof. Grimm's Reinhart Fuchs, p. 116. MODERNISED FLEMISH VERSION. 'T was omtrent de Sinxendagen. Over bosschen over hagen Hing het groene lenteloof. Koning Nobel riep ten hoov' * Verhandeling over de Nederduitsche tael en letterkunde opzigtelyk de zuydelyke Provintien der Nederlanden, J. F. Willems, Antwerpen, 1819. — W^?7/eTO5' over de hollandsche en vlaemsche schryfwyzen van het Nederduitsch, Antwerpen, 1824, 8vo. f Mr. Heber at whose sale, as I am informed by the friendly communication of Mr. Willems, it was purchased by the Belgian government, and it is now printing under the learned and judicious superintendence of Mr. Willems. A warm interest for the early literature of the Belgians has recently been revived, not only by the publications of Mr. Willems, but by Theophilus, a Flemish poem of the 14th century, and other pieces, just published by Mr. Blommaert of Ghent. C DUTCH OR FLEMISH— REINAERT DE VOS, A.D. 1250. Al wie hy, om hof te houden, Roepen kon uit veld en woudeii. Vele dieren kwamen daer, Groot en klein, een bonte schaer. Reinaert Vos, vol slimme treken, Bleef alleen het hof ontweken ; Want hy had te veel misdaen Om er heen te durven gaen. Die zich schuldig kent wil vluchten. Reinaert had er veel te duchten ; Daerom schuwde hy het hof, En dit bracht hem kranken lof. — Willems, p. 1. LITERAL ENGLISH, It was upon a Whitsunday, When over hedge and bush so gay Waved the greeny leaves of spring. At the command of Nobel, king. To his court they did convene All whom he did faithful ween, Bowing with submission true. Then to the royal court there drew All the beasts, both great and small. But one was missing of them all, Renard whose misdeeds were so great He durst no more approach the gate : A guilty conscience shuns the light, And such was Renard's evil plight, That to the court no more he came. Where he did bear so ill a name*—Morrell. 18. Jacob van Maerlant is the father of the Dutch Poets. He was born at Damme in Flanders, a.d. 1235, and died in 1300. Maerlant vi^as a layman, and distinguished as a philosopher and orator. He trans- lated several works into Dutch rhyme, such as The Beauties of Aristotle, of which MAERLANT SAYS : Dese bloemen hebben wi besocht En uten Latine in Dietsche brocht Ute Aristotiles boeken. IMITATED IN THE ENGLISH OF CHAUCER. All these beauties haue we soughte. And out of Latin to Dutche broughte, From the bookes of Aristotle. 19. His famous work is, " Spiegel Historiael," or *' Historic Mirror." In his Leven van Franciscus, he makes the following apology for using Flemish words. * For the German of this passage, see High-German, § 56, 57 ; and Low-German, § 26. DUTCH — MELIS STOKE, A.D. 1283. ci maerlant's franciscus. Ende, omdat ic Vlaminc ben, Met goeder herte biddic hen, Die dit Dietsche sullen lesen, Dat si myns genadich wesen ; Ende lesen sire in somich woort, Dat in her land es ongehoort, Men moet om de rime souken, Misselike tonghe in bouken. IMITATED IN THE STYLE OF CHAUCER. For I am Flemysh, I you beseche Of youre courtesye, al and eche, That shal thys Doche chaunce peruse, Unto me nat youre grace refuse ; And yf ye fynden any worde In youre countrey that ys unherde, Thynketh that^clerkys for her ryme Taken an estrange worde somtyme. Bowrings Batav. Anthol. p. 25. 20. In power, extent, and population, Holland soon became the predominant province ; and after the Union, the States-General was held at the Hague in this district : hence, the language of Holland became the language of the government, the learned, and the press — in short, the arbiter of what was to be considered true Dutch, and it is therefore often denominated Hollandsche taal or Hollandsch, 21. Melis Stoke began his " Rijmkronijk," or *' Poetical Chro- nicle,^^ before the year 1296, perhaps about 1283, as it was dedicated to Count Floris the Fifth, who died in 1296.* This Chronicle was pub- lished in 1591, and again in 3 vols. 4to. 1772, by Huydecoper, with valuable notes. This last is by far the best edition. f MELIS store's DEDICATION. Dese pine ende dit ghepens Sendic u, Heer Grave Florens, Dat ghi moghet sien ende horen Wanen dat ghi sijt gheboren, Ende bi wat redenen ghi in hant Hebbet Zeelant ende Hollant ; Ende bi wat redenen dat ghi soect Vrieslant, dat u so sere vloect. Huydecoper's Melis Stoke^ b. i. v. 27. LITERAL ENGLISH. The fruit of my pains, and thoughts also, Sir Count Florens, send I to you ; • Ypey's Beknopte geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Taal, Utrecht, O. S. van Paddenburffr 1812, vol. i. p. 334. ^ t B. Huydecoper Rijmkronijk van Melis Stoke, met Historie-Oudheid-en Taalkundige aanmerkingen, Leyden, Johannes Le Mair, 1772, vol. i. p. 7, 8. en DUTCH — JAN VAN HEELU, A.D. 1291. That you might see, and also hear, From whence they came that did you bear, And by what right, within your hand, You hold both Zealand and eke Holland, And by what right you seek yet more Friesland, that curses you so sore. Morrell. 22. Charter of Leyden, a.d. 1294. In het Jaar, 1294. Wy Florens, Grave van HoUant, van Zelant, ende Here van Vrieslant, maken cont alle den ghenen, die desen brief sullen sien, of horen lesen, dat wi hebben ghegheven Rutghere den Scomakere, ende Kerstanse sinen broder, derdalf morghens Lants in eghindoem, die ligghen alrenast der Burch van Leiden, ende dat vorseide Lant hevet Daniel van den Warde quite gheschouden, als dat hy't held van ons te lene. Ghegheven alsmen scrivet vire ende neghentie. Handvesten der Stad Ley den, folio. Ley den, 1759, p. 478. LITERAL ENGLISH. In the year 1294. We Florens, Count of Holland, of Zealand, and Lord of Friesland, make known to all those who this letter shall see, or hear read, that we have given to Rutghere the Shoemaker, and Kerstanse his brother, two and a haK acres of land, in property, which lie nearest the castle of Leyden, and this aforesaid land has Daniel van den Warde quite paid, so as he held it from us in fief. Given, as men date, four and ninety. Jan van Heelu. 23. Jan van Heelu, or van Leeuwe, so called from the name of the place in Braband where he dwelt. About 1291 he wrote the chronicle of the feats of Jan I. Duke of Braband,* which has just appeared in a splendid edition with this title " Rijmkronijk van Jan van Heelu, &c. van J. F. Willems Lid der Koninglijke Academic van Brussel. 4to. 1836. JAN VAN HEELU. Want, gelyc dat die Euerzwyn, Daer si moede gejaget zyn, Verbeiden spieten ende sweert, Alsoe drongen si, onuerueert, Jeghen die Brabantre weder, Dat si doen den Hertoghe neder Twee orsen onder hem staken. A VERSION IN THE LANGUAGE OF CHAUCER. As the furious boare, pursued By the daring hunter rude, Teares the earth, and, raging loudlie, Rushes on the hunter proudlie. So the fierce Brabanter then Driues the Hertoch back agen, Under him two horses stagger. * Professor Siegenbeek's Beknopte Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde, 8vo. ]S26, p. 27. DUTCH — EVANGELIUM, A,D. 1477. cili 24. The Life of Jesus, an interesting and a very useful harmony of the Gospels, most probably formed from the Vulgate, as the parables and other parts are in Dutch prose, and almost a literal Dutch translation from the Latin of this celebrated version. This early Harmony of the Gospels must be interesting to divines, while the philologist will rejoice at the discovery of this pure specimen of ancient Teutonic. The MS., written on one hundred and two leaves of coarse parchment, was preserved in the Abbey of St. Trond, and presented to Dr. Meijer, in 1828, while he was Professor in the University of Lou vain. It is the opinion of his friend. Professor F. J. Mone, and of Mr. Willems of Ghent, as well as his own, that this MS. is a composition of the latter part of the 13th century. It was published with the following title : Het Leven van Jesus Een Nederlandsch Handschrift uit de dertiende eeuw, met taalkundige aanteekeningen, voor het eerst, uitgegeven door G. J. Meijer, Hoog- leeraar te Groningen Te Groningen bij Ji Oomkens, 8vo. 1835, pp. 431. A very short specimen from the parable of the sower will be sufficient. Een sayere ghinc ut sayen syn saet. en alse hi sayde so nil som dat saet neuen den weghe. Aldar wardt vertorden. en de voghele quamen en atent op. (Chap. 89, p. 77, 1. 9.) 25. Spiegel onser behoudenisse. This is one of the first books printed at Haarlem by Laurens Janszoon Koster ; it is in the old German character, and in a quarto form, consisting of sixty-two pages. The printing is only on one side of the leaf, the blank sides being pasted together, and the pages are without numbers. Many of the letters stand out of their connexion, and irregularly in the lines. The book has not any title, but its object is to illustrate Scripture history by means of wood- cuts. It is without date, but supposed to have been printed about the year 1424. The introductory sentence will be an interesting specimen of the Dutch language about the time when it was printed : SPIEGEL ONSER BEHOUDENISSE. Dit is die prologhe vader spieghel onser behoudenisse so wie ter rechtuaerdichet vele mesche lere selle blencke alse sterre in die ewighe ewichhede. Hier om ist dat ic tott' lerige vele mesche dit boek heb aegedacht te vgaderen (vergaderen). LITERAL ENGLISH. This is the prologue of the mirror of our redemption, such as for justification, many men shall teach to shine as stars in the everlasting eternity. Therefore it is that I, to the instruction of many men, this book have meditated to compose. 26. EvANGELiuM, is a translation from the Latin Vulgate, a monument of the Dutch language, and a fine specimen of typography : it was printed at Gouda, 1477, in 4to. The Evangelium was just preceded by Neder- duitsche Bybel^ Delft, Jacob Jacobsz (van der Meer) en Mauritius Yemantsz van Middelborch, 10 Jan. 1477, small fol. civ DUTCH — JACOB CATS, A.D. 1600. Lk. viii. 4, 5. 4. In dien tiden doe ene grote scare vergaderde, ende uten steden quame to the seide hi hi ghelikenisse. 5. Hi ghinc wt saeyen die syn saet saeyet Ende als hyt saeyet. sommic hvielbidenweghe. ende het wort vertreden ende die voghelen deshemels atent. 27. Dat niewe Testament, Delft, 1524, 8vo. Mk. iv. 3, 4. 3, 4. Hoert toe Siet, een sayer ginc wt om te sayen, ende het geboerde onder tsaye, dattet soommich saet viel bij den wech, ende die vogele des hemels syn gecomen, ende hebbe dat opgegete. 28. Dat gheheel Nyeuwe Testament, Thantwerpe, 1527, 8vo. Mk. iv. 3, 4. 3, 4. Hoor toe, siet, een sayer ghinc wt om te sayen. En tgebuerde onder tsayen, datt et sommich saeyt viel bey den wech, ende die vogelen des Hemels zijn gecomen ende hebben dat opgegeten. 29. BiBLiA, tot Ley den, 1581. Mk. iv. 3, 4. 3, 4. Hoort, siet een Zaeyer ginck wt om te zaeyen. Ende het gheschiede dat als hy zaeyde, een deel (des zaets) viel by den weech, ende de voghelen des hemels quamen ende aten dat op. 30. Jacob Cats, generally styled Father Cats, was born at Brouwers- haven, a small town in Zealand, 1577, and died 1660. He is the poet of the people : everywhere practical and useful, everywhere original, and often sublime. Bilderdijk says — Goede, dierbre Vader Cats, Wat behelst ge niet al schats ! Good, beloved Father Cats, How much treasure dost thou contain ! Gij, daerom, geeft uw liefde niet Aen ieder die u liefde biet ; Maer eerst op alle saecken let Eer dat gij sucht of gunste set ; Want die te licht een vrient verkiest, Wei licht sijn vrient en al verliest. Minne en Sinnebeelden^ I. D. p. 133. 1828. Then love not each who offers thee In seeming truth his amity ; But first take heed, and weigh with care, Ere he thy love and favour share ; For those who friends too lightly choose. Soon friends and all besides may lose. Geluckigh is de mensch die gelt en hooge staten Kan hebben buijten sucht, en willigh achterlaten ; Kan seggen tot de pracht, tot eer, en tot de lust, Al ben ick sonder u, soo ben ick toch gerust. Spiegel van den ouden en nieuwen tijt, L D. p- 539. 1828. DUTCH — HUIG DE GROOT, A.D. 1618. CV Oh ! happy, happy he, whose generous soul can rise Above the dross of wealth, or pomp, or vanities — Scorn splendour, pleasure, fame ; and say with honest pride, I have ye not indeed, but yet am satisfied. — Bowring, 31. PiETER Cornelius Hooft, born at Amsterdam, March 16tli, 1581, and died 1647. Vondel said of him — Dat Doorluchtig Hooft der Hollandsche Poeten. Of Holland' s poets most illustrious head. He was also so eminent a prose writer as to obtain the appellation of the Tacitus of Holland. 32. HuiG DE Groot, better known by his Latinised name Hugo Grotius, was born at Delft in 1583. He had extraordinary and preco- cious talents, and was a zealous Arminian. Grotius was one of those whose influence excited some of that universal attention to religion so prevalent in Holland. When imprisoned at Loevesteyn, he wrote his most celebrated poem in Dutch, " Bewijs van de ware Godsdienst,^^ Evidences of the true Religion.* Though he was one of the most learned men Holland ever produced, and is deservedly eulogised for his critical as well as for his historical writings, his reputation as a poet is not very great. One short specimen is given from the conclusion of his Evidences. Neemt niet onwaerdig aen dit werkstuk mijner handen, O des aerdbodems markt, o bloem der Nederlanden, Schoon Holland : laet dit sijn in plaets van mij bij u Mijn koningin : ik toon soo als ik kan noch nu De liefde die ik heb altijd tot u gedragen En draeg en dragen sal voorts alle mijne dagen p. 136. 1728. ENGLISH VERSION. Receive not with disdain this product from my hand, O mart of all the world ! O flower of Netherland ! Fair Holland ! Let this live, tho' I may not, with thee, My bosom's queen ! I show e'en now how fervently I've loved thee thro' all change — thy good and evil days — And love, and still will love, till life itself decays. 33. Dirk Rafael Camphuysen, a disciple of the famous Arminius, was a native of Gorkum, born in 1586, and died in 1626. He wrote a paraphrase on the Psalms, and much religious poetry. One of the most popular pieces of the Dutch poets is Camphuysen^s '' May Morning.'''' Wat is de Meester wijs en goed. Die alles heeft gebouwt, En noch in wezen blijven doet : Wat's menschen oog aanschouwt. * Better known in England by its Latin title, De Veritate Religionis Christiante. Ke wrote this work in Dutch verse for fishermen, and sailors on long voyages. The Rev. J. Halbertsma says, " I have often heard old Friesian sailors reciting whole pages from this book. Grotius was afterwards induced by the learned to translate it into Latin, and it has been since trans- lated into almost all the languages of Europe, and I believe into Arabic." P Cvi DUTCH AUTHORIZED VERSION OF THE BIBLE, A.D. 1619. Ach ! waren alle Menschen wijs, En wilden daar bij wel ! De Aard' waar haar een Paradijs, Nu is ze meest een Hel. Stichtelyke Rymen, 1727, p. 639. What love, what wisdom, God displays On earth, and sea, and sky, Where all that fades and all that stays Proclaim his Majesty ! Ah ! were the human race but wise, And would they reason well, That earth would be a paradise, Which folly makes a hell. A line is often quoted from his Lawful Amusement, [Spels Mate] : 'T is wel, goedheyts fonteyn, 't is wel al wat gy doet. Fountain of goodness Thou — and all thou dost is well. 34. JoosT VAN DEN VoNDEL was bom in 1587, and lived to the age of ninety-one. He is the Dutch Shakspeare in his Tragedies : his " Lucifer " is one of the finest poems in the language, and is compared to Milton's " Paradise Lost." VONDEl's LUCIFER. O noit volprezen Van al wat leeft, of niet en leeft, Noit uitgesproken, noch te spreecken ; Vergeef het ons, en schelt ons quijt Dat geen verbeelding, tong, noch teken U melden kan. Ghij waert, ghij zijt, Ghij blijft de zelve. A FREE TRANSLATION. Forgive the praise — too mean and low — Or from the living or the dead. No tongue thy peerless name hath spoken, No space can hold that awful name ; The aspiring spirit's wing is broken ; — Thou wilt be, wert, and art the same ! 35. The Established Dutch Version, according to the Synod of Dordrecht, 1618-1619. Mk. iv. 3—8. 3. Hoort toe, Ziet, een zaeijer gingh uyt om te zaeijen. 4. Ende het geschiedde in het zaeijen, dat het een {deel zaets'] viel by den wegh, ende de vogelen des hem els quamen, ende aten het op. 5. Ende het ander viel op het steenachtige, daer het niet veel aerde en hadde : ende het gingh terstont op, om dat het geen diepte van aerde en hadde. 6. Maer als de sonne opgegaen was, soo is het verbrant geworden, ende om dat het geen wortel en hadde soo is het verdorret. 7. Ende het ander viel in de DUTCH — JACOBUS BELLAMY, A. D. 1780. cvii doornen, ende de doornen wiessen op, ende verstickten het selve, ende het en gaf geen vrucht. 8. Ende het ander viel in de goede aerde, ende gaf vrucht : die opgingh ende wies, ende het een droegh dertigh, ende het ander sestigh, ende het ander hondert Ivout^. 36. As the chief object of this short account of the Dutch language and literature is philological, to show the close analogy between all the Teutonic languages, especially in their earliest form, very little of more recent literature can with propriety be introduced ; but the 1 7th century is so splendid an era, that a few remarks and extracts must be excused in this period, and even one or two in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the 17th century, Holland had its heroes in De Ruiter and Tromp : its statesmen in Barneveldt and the De Wits. Its learned writers are Huig de Groot [Grotius], Daniel and Nicolaas Heins [Heinsius], P. Schryver [Schriverius], John Frederick Groenhof \Gvonovms\, Casper van Baerle [Barlaeus], Gerard Vos [Vossius],* and many other eminent classics. For science, Huygens, Leeuwenhoek, Ruysch, Tulf^ Swammerdam. For its painters, it had Rubens, Van Dyk, Rembrandt, Mierevelt, the Teniers, the Van de Veldes, Jordaans, Kuyp, the Ostades, Gerard Douw, Mieris, John and Philip Wouwermaii, Metsu, Berchem, Paul Potter, Pynaker, the Ruysdaels, Fan Huysem, Wynants, Steen ; and during this period the Universities at Groningen in 1614, Utrecht in 1636, and Gelderland, 1648, and the celebrated school at Amsterdam in I629,t were established. "The age of which we speak," says the learned Professor Siegenbeek, " and more especially the earlier part of it, was, in every point of view, so glorious to the Dutch nation, that it would be difficult to discover, in the history of any other people, a period of 'such resplendent fame and greatness."J 37. " Jacobus Bellamy, born at Flushing in 1757, after gaining much applause, died at Utrecht at the early age of twenty-nine. § A ballad of his [Roosje] is perhaps the most touchingly told story which the Dutch possess. It is of a maid — a beloved maid — born at her mother's death — bred up amidst the tears and kisses of her father — prattling thoughtlessly about her mother — every one's admiration for beauty, cleverness, and virtue — gentle as the moon shining on the downs. Her name was to be seen written again and again on the sands by the Zealand youths — and scarcely a beautiful flower bloomed but was gathered for her. Novv in Zealand, * Of whom Vondel said — "Al watin boeken steekt is in zyn brein gevaren." Whatever is anchored in books, floated about in his brain. t The University of Leyden was founded in 1574. X Bowring's Batavian Anthology, p. 15. § Some of the beautiful little poems of van Alphen ought to be given, but want of room will only admit of a short eulogy from the pen of Dr. Bowring. "Van Alphen's Poe/ns/w Children (Gedichtjes voor de Jeugd) are among the best that were ever written. They are a precious inheritance for the youth of the Netherlands. They teach virtue in simple eloquence, and are better known in Holland, than are the hymns of Dr. Watts or Mrs. Barbauld here." — Sketch of the Lang, and Lit, of Holland, p. 79. Cviii DUTCH JACOBUS BELLAMY, A.D. 1780. when the south winds of summer come, there comes too a delicate fish, which hides itself in the sand, and which is dug out as a luxury by the young people. It is the time of sport and gaiety — and they venture far, far over the flat coast into the sea. The boys drag the girls among the waves — and Roosje was so dragged, notwithstanding many appeals. " A kiss, a kiss, or you go further," cried her conductor — she fled — he followed, both laughing : — *' Into the sea — into the sea," said all their companions ; he pushes her on — it is deeper, and deeper — she shrieks — she sinks— they sink together — the sands were faithless — there was no succour — the waves rolled over them — there was stillness and death. The terrified playmates looked — Bellamy's roosje. De jeugd ging, zwijgend, van het strand, En zag gedurig om : Een ieders hart was vol gevoel,- — Maar ieders tong was stom ! De maan klom stil en statig op, En scheen op 't aaklig graf Waarin het lieve, jonge paar Het laatste zuchtje gaf. De wind stak hevig op uit zee De golven beukten 't strand ; En schielijk was de droeve maar Verspreid door 't gansche land. FREE TRANSLATION. All silently — they look'd again — And silently sped home ; And every heart was bursting then, But every tongue was dumb. And still and stately o'er the wave, The mournful moon arose, Flinging pale beams upon the grave. Where they in peace repose. The wind glanced o'er the voiceless sea, The billows kissed the strand ; And one sad dirge of misery Filled all the mourning land. ^owring's Batavian Anthol- p. 75 — 77. 38. "WiLLEM BiLDERDijK, bom at Amsterdam, 1756, and died at Haarlem, December 18th, 1831, was educated for the law. He was a giant in literature and intellectual strength, the most fertile of the Dutch writers. Willem Bilderdijk is the Samuel Johnson of the Dutch. DUTCH — WILLEM BILDERDIJK, A.D. 1830. CIX Bilderdijk wrote on almost every subject, but poetry was his fort, and he stands in the foremost rank of the Dutch poets.* PRAISE OF SPEECH. O vloeibre klanken, waar, met d' adem uitgegoten, De ziel (als Godlijk licht, in stralen afgeschoten,) Zich-zelve in meedeelt ! Meer dan licht of melody ; Maar schepsel van 't gevoel in de engste harmony Die 't stofloos met het stof vereenigt en vermengelt ! Door wie zich 't hart ontlast, verademt, en verengelt ! Gij, band der wezens ; en geen ijdel kunstgewrocht, Door arbeidzaam verstand met moeite en vlijt gezocht, Maar goddelijke gift, met d' ademtocht van 't leven, Aan 't schepsel ingestort zoo verr' er geesten zweven. Bilderdijk's De Dieren, p. 19. LITERAL ENGLISH. Ye flowing sounds, in which, with breath pour'd forth, CLike Godlike light in rays) the soul imparts Itself! surpassing light or melody; Deep feeling's offspring, in close harmony, Spirit and matter blendmg and uniting ! Thro' which the soul, unburden'd, breathes and lives The life of angels ! Thou tie of beings ; No vain attempt of human skill art thou. By toilsome minds with pains and care sought out. But heaven's own gift, breathed with breath of life. Shed thro' creation, far as mind pervades Morrell. 39. The services of Professor Siegenbeek, in restoring and remodelling the Dutch language, have been so highly estimated by his country, that his system of Orthography obtained the sanction of the Dutch government in 1806. Since this time, for the sake of uniformity in expressing words, it is required that every public document should be written in strict accordance with the Professor's orthographical system. 40. A free translation of the whole Scriptures, in the modern Dutch style and orthography, was made by the learned and eloquent Professor van der Palm, of Leyden. It was published in 4to. in 1825; and, though it has not the sanction of the States-General, nor is it adopted in the churches, it is greatly esteemed, and in general use. The following extract may serve as a specimen. Mk. iv. 3—8. 3. Hoort toe! ziet, een zaaijer ging uit om te zaaijen. 4. En het geschiedde, terwijl hij zaaide, viel een deel (van het zaad) op den weg ; en de vogelen des hemels * Though living authors scarcely come within the scope of this work, Tollens cannot be omitted. He is styled, "the most agreeable, the most popular living poet of Holland." An edition of ten thousand copies of three volumes of his poetry was promptly sold among a population of no more than three millions of people. This itself is no small praise, and implies no small merit, to have so happily touched the feelings of an entire nation. His power is descriptive, his characteristic is originahty.— See more in Dr. Bowring's Sketch, p. 98. ex DUTCH VAN DER PALM S VERSION. kwamen, en aten het op. 5. En een ander deel viel in steenachtigen grond, waar het niet veel aarde had ; en het schoot terstond op, omdat het geen diepte van aarde had. 6. Doch toen de zon opging, verbrandde het, en omdat het geen' wortel had, verdorde het, 7. En een ander deel viel onder de doornen ; en de doornen wiessen op en verstikten het ; en het bragt geen vrucht voort. 8. En een ander deel viel in de goede aarde, en bragt vrucht voort, die uitbottede en opwies; en het een droeg dertig, en het andere zestig, en het andere honderd. 41. The established version of the Scriptures, made according to the regulations . of the Synod of Dort, 1618-1619, and first published at Ley den in 1637, had its orthography modernised, according to the system of Professor Siegenbeek, by the Rev. Henry Cats, minister of the Dutch Reformed Church at Leyden. Mr. Cats dying before the work veas completed, it was finished by Professor van Hengel, and published in 4to. by Thieme of Arnhem, in 1834. The same passage is selected as in the last paragraph, for facility of comparison with Professor van der Palm's translation, and with the old orthography in the 34th paragraph. Mk. iv. 3—8. 3, Hoort toe! ziet, een zaaijer ging uit om te zaaijen. 4. En het geschiedde in het zaaijen, dat het eene [deel zaads'] viel bij den weg ; en de vogelen des hemels kwamen, en aten het op. 5. En het andere viel op het steenachtige, waar het niet veel aarde had ; en het ging terstond op, omdat het geene diepte van arde had. 6. Maar als de zon opgegaan was, zoo is het verbrand geworden, en omdat het geen' wortel had, zoo is het verdord. 7- En het andere viel in de doornen, en de doornen wiessen op, en verstikten hetzelve, en het gaf geene vrucht. 8. En het andere deel viel in de goede aarde, en het eene droeg dertig, en het andere zestig, en het andere honderd [voudig]. 42. It is difficult to pass over many of the fine passages to be found in Feith'sOld Age, [Ouderdom] ; The Grave, ^Het Graf], &c.: Helmers's Dutch Nation, [Hollandsche Natie], Sec; and also in the works of many of the old as well as the modern Dutch poets. It would be gratifying to name their divines, philosophers, and those numerous individuals excelling in science and literature; but even a list of their names would far exceed the limits of this brief sketch. A reference can therefore, only be made to those, who have professedly treated the subject more fully.* Enough has been probably advanced to prove that Holland has cast more than her share into the intellectual treasury of the world, and this must suffice for the present. Dutch Dialects. 43. There are several dialects of the Dutch language, such as the Flemish, the Gelderic, &c. The Friesic need not be here named, as the peculiarities of the country and town Friesic are both pointed out and compared with Anglo-Saxon in IV. page xxxv. * See note to § 1, page xci. DUTCH DIALECTS — FLEMISH. CXI 44. The modern Flemish dialect, according to Mr. J, F. Willems* is distinguished from the Dutch, — First, by a too far-fetched inclination to express the distinctions and shades of all varying sounds and significations of words, united with a careful endeavour to preserve in the pronunciation the radical syllable. For this reason the Flemings not only double the long e and o, but when doubled they also accentuate them, as ee, eS, and 00. They endeavour, in all inflections of words, constantly to write ae or ee, as plaegen to plague; verdraegen, beklaegen, ne^men, geeven, graeven ; from plaeg plague, verdraegt he agrees, klaegt he complains. They also try to distinguish, by orthography, all words of the same sound, but different in signification; as, wagen to hazard, waegen to weigh, leven li/e, leeven to live. They distinguish compound words by always uniting them with a hyphen, as spraek-konst, grond-word, haeg-appel-boom, aen-nemen, aen-te-nemen. Secondly. — The long sound of the vowels a, e, i, and u, is expressed by immediately adding an e in syllables where the vowel is followed by a consonant. Some words are exceptions ; as, vader father ; nader nearer; \ergaderen to gather ; kamer chamber ; averechts preposterous ; where the single vowel is considered as sufficient. The y is considered a real vowel, and thus the Flemings have a vowel more than the Dutch. The is not lengthened by the additional e. These two letters are pro- nounced short, like the French ou, or the German u. Thirdly. — By the particular pronunciation of the ei or ee in beer, Dut, bier beer; peerd, Dut. paard a horse; peerel, Dut. paarel or parel a pearl; geerne, Dut. gaarne, gaarn willingly, readily ; rechtveerdig, Dut. regtvaardig righteous, just ; weerd, Dut. waard dear. To this pronunciation the Dutch object, and call it the blaetende, bleating sound, though in reality it appears to be the true pronunciation of the Low-Saxon. The modernised Flemish version of the extract from Reinaert de Vos will serve as a specimen. f 45. The dialect of Gelderland will be sufficiently illustrated by the following extract, which will serve both as a specimen and an explanation of its peculiarities. Slichtenhorst, the writer, lived in the 16th century. GELDERSCHE TAAL. Geene spraek van Nederland, en koemt de Duitsse moeder-tael naerder dan de Geldersse, als de welke 't eenemael mannelijk is, en de woorden volkomen wtbrengt : wtgezonderd daar de ingezeetenen aen 't Sticht van Utrecht of Holland belenden, die een hotter tael hehhen dan de hinnen-landers. Want daar men hier golt, holt, zolt, zeght, gebruijken de anderen gout, hout, zout, breekende de woorden op zijn Frans, die de letter /, vooral in woorden van 't Latijn herkomstigh, ofte smelten ofte 't eene- mael verzwijghen, gelijk in hault, altus, hoogh, assault en andere meer is te speuren Slichtenhorst, over de Geldersche Taal Geldersche Volks-Almanak, 1835, p. 69. * Over de Hollandsche en Vlaemsche Schryfwyzen van het Nederduitsch, Antwerpen, 1824, pp. 66. . ^ ' t See § 17, page xcix. CXU DUTCH DIALECTS — GELDERLAND. LITERAL ENGLISH. ' {Dialect of Gelderland.) No dialect of the Netherlands comes nearer to the German mother-tongue than that of Gelderland, which is singularly strong, and pronounces the words fully» except where the inhabitants border the provinces of Utrecht or Holland, who have a blunter dialect than those of the interior. For where we here (in Gelderland) say, golt goldy holt wood, zolt salt, the others use gout, hout, zout, pronouncing the words according to the French, who, particularly in words derived from the Latin, either melt (soften) or entirely omit the letter /, as in hault altus high, assault, and more that may be found. Non vox, sed votum ; Non musica chordula, sed cor ; Non clamor, sed amor, Clangit in aure Dei. Niet de stemmen klaer en soet, Maar de suchten van 't gemoet ; Niet muzijk van 't snaeren-spel, Maar het hart oprecht en wel ; Niet 't geroep, maar liefde en min Klinkt tot Godes ooren in. Sluijter, 1660, Geldersche Volks-Almanak, 1835, p. 124. 46. The peculiarities of the Overijssel Dialect, with many useful documents, and a Dictionary of the chief words, are given by the Rev. J. H. Halbertsma in Overijsselche Almanak voor Oudheid en Letteren, 1836, published by J. de Lange, at Deventer. Want of room prevents quotations from this very interesting work. VII.— THE GOTHS.* 1. The Goths were of Asiatic origin, and it is supposed that they formed a part of the second wave of European population. Many cen- turies before our era the Goths must have been in Europe, though Pytheas,t the famous navigator born at Marseilles, is the first who * That great pains have been taken to give an accurate and succinct account of the Goths and their literature, will be evident, when it is known that, besides many alterations, this short and still imperfect abstract has been transcribed four times. A large volume might easily have been written ; the difficulty has been in attempting to give a clear epitome. Those who wish for further information may consult " Historia Gothorum, Vandalorum, et Langobardorum ab Hug. Grotio, partim versa, partim in ordinem digesta. Prsemissa sunt ejusdem prolegomena, ubi Regum Gothorum ordo et chronologia cum elogiis. Accedunt nomina appellativa, et verba Gothica, Vandalica, Longobardica, cum explicatione. Amstel- odami, 1655, in gr. 8vo." This is an invaluable work. See also the works cited in the following abstract. There is an article which deserves attention in Schilter's Thesaurus, vol.iii. p. 395, sub voce Gothe. t Strabo \, 23. GOTHIC — THE GOTHS WERE GERMANS. CXlll mentions them by name. Strabo* assures us, that Pytheas, about 325 before Christ, undertook a voyage to explore the amber coasts in the Baltic. He sailed to Thule, probably Tellemark on the west borders of Norway, then turned southward and passed the cape of Jutland, and proceeded eastward along the coasts of the Guttones and Teutones. If credit be given to this account of Pytheas, the Goths, at this early period, had extended far over Europe, and had arrived on the coast of the Baltic. We know, upon the better authority of Tacitus,t who wrote with great precision towards the end of the first century in the christian era, that in his time the Goths were near the mouth of the Vistula. 2. According to the opinion of many Scandinavian antiquaries, the Goths who overran the Roman empire, came from Scandinavia or Sweden, -J but Tacitus § speaks of no Goths in Scandinavia, and only of Suiones, which is the same name that the Swen-skar (Swedes) apply to themselves at the present day. It is therefore more probable, as some learned Swedes || acknowledge, that when the Goths wandered towards the west and south, some of them, in early times, crossed the Baltic and established themselves in the south of Sweden and the island of Goth- land.1I We know from Tacitus, just cited, that the Goths were in * Strabo, the Greek geographer, who died about a. d. 25, is the chief writer recording particulars and giving quotations from the lost works of Pytheas. Strabo I. 63; II. 114. — Pliny also mentions Pytheas, Nat. Hist, xxxvii. 2 ; iv, 13. t Annal. II. 62; De Mor. Ger. 43. X They support their assertion by the traditions of Jornandes. Cassiodorus, the learned minister of Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy in the 6th century, was the first who attempted to \vrite a history of the Goths. This history consisted of twelve books, compiled from old chronicles and songs. The work of Cassiodorus is lost, and all that remains is an imperfect abridgment by Jornandes, (Jornandes de Getarum sive Gothorum Origine, et rebus gestis, ad Castalium, cap. 3, 4, 13, &c., Leyden, 1595, 8vo. ; Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. 10) bishop of Ravenna, who states that the Goths were from Scan- dinavia, or the present Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. They traced the genealogies of their hereditary princes up to the race of Odin, called ^sir, [assir pi. of the Icel. as an Asiatic; vir Asiaticus, — Jornandes, 3, &c. ; Ynglinga Saga. Wheaton Hist. p. 110,]or Asiatic Odin, and his followers are supposed to have come from the banks of the Tanais or Don. At the present day we find in Sweden, East, West, and South Gothland, and the island near the east coast of Sweden is still called Gothland. From the south of Sweden the Goths crossed the Baltic, and settled on the coast of Prussia, about the mouth of the Vistula. We are informed by some fragments of Pytheas, that he, being in search of the amber coasts, sailed about 6,000 stadia along the coasts of the Guttones and Teutones, through the gulph of Mentonomon [Kattegat, Belt, &c.] to Baltia, the Baltic. {Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvii. 2; iv. 13 3 Wachter's Gloss. Ger. Pref. § XLV.) About the time of the Antonines, a.d. 180, [Ptolemy II.] from some unknown cause or other, the Goths, in vast hordes, leaving the mouth of the Vistula, and other parts, followed the course of this river, and migrated to the northern coast of the Black Sea : hence they made inroads into the Roman empii-e. In this way Gibbon, following Jornandes, brings the Goths in contact with the Romans. — See Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. 10. § Tacitus de Mor. Ger. 44, 45. See the judicious dissertation of Mr. Grdberg de Hemso, written in Italian and entitled "Su la Falsita dell' Origine Scandinava data di Popoli detti Barbari chi distrussero I'lmpero di Roma," Pisa, 1815. II A. W. de Schlegel sur I'Origine des Hindous. — Transactions of the Royal Society of Litera- ture, vol. II. part ii. p. 408. •IJ In the preface to "Historisch Antiquarische Mitheilungen," published by the Copenhagen Royal Society of Northern Antiquities, it is said, that " The Goths were found not only in Scandinavia, but Germany ; they are, therefore, properly designated by Gotho-Germans (Gotho-Germanen). The old northern Sagas acknowledge that Odin and his Asas first occupied and peopled Saxony, Westphalia, and different other German provinces, before they founded their government in Denmark and Sweden." — Pref p. iii. 1835. CXIV GOTHIC — EAST AND WEST GOTHS. Pomeralia and Prussia, near the Vistula, about a.d. 80, and in the time of" the Antonines, a.d. 1 80. The Vandals and Burgundians are considered as belonging to this race. After conquering different smaller nations in the east of Germany and the present Poland, the Goths, sword in hand, opened themselves a way to the Lower Danube. They took possession of all the northern coasts of the Black Sea, and made inroads into the neighbouring countries, particularly into Dacia, where they settled, and divided them- selves into the East and West Goths.* TheVisi-Gothi, Visigoths, or, as Jornandes calls them, Vesegothae, and others Wisigothi or West-Goths, had their name from their western situation. For the same reason the East-Goths were denominated Ostro, or Austro-Gothi. 3. The Goths having conquered and occupied the country on the north of the Black Sea, where, according to Herodotus, the Scythians had dwelt, were often called Scythians by Greek and Roman writers, to the great con- fusion of history. 4. The West-Goths must have been numerous on the west of the Black Sea, and have made inroads into the Roman empire, as we find them so powerful in Thracia in the time of Decius, a.d. 250, that they took and sacked Philippolis.f Even before this period, about a.d. 180, these Goths had so far increased as to occupy Dacia, the present Transilvania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia. 5. The Getae, a Thracian race, who had previously inhabited Dacia, were, with the Romans still remaining in the country^ amalgamised with their conquerors, the West-Goths. As the East-Goths had been con- founded with the Scythians, their predecessors, so there are some who suppose that the West-Goths and the Getae were the same nation, because they found these Goths occupying the same territory, formerly inhabited by the Getae. Jornandes, by birth a Goth, probably with the view of exalting his nation by attributing to them all that was done by the Getae, makes the Goths and the Getae to be the same people. Had he only been guided by the languages of these nations, he would have seen that the Getae must have a different origin to the Goths. J 6. When the West-Goths settled in Dacia, they not only found rem- nants of Roman civilisation, but Christianity established.! The mild but powerful influence of the christian religion soon prevailed over their cruel heathen rites ; for as early as the Council of Nice, in a. d. 325, the * Zahn's Ulphilas, p. 2 ; Adelung's Mlteste Geschichete der Deutscben, p. 202. f Ammianus, 31, 5; Aurelius Victor, 29. X Herodotus, Strabo, and Menander who was a Getian by birth, and many others, declare that the Getae were of Thracian origin. Stephanus of Byzantium says expressly "TETia, rj X(^pa T(vv TsTwv. Eo-Tt oe QpaKiKov edvos Getia, the country of the Getae. It is a Thracian nation. — Sub voce TETIA, p. 207; Virg. Mn. iii. Z5\ Ovid. Trist. v. 7; Epist. Pont. lib. iv. Ep. xiii. 17. Strabo declares that the Getae and Thracians spoke the same language, and that the Thracian and the Gothic or Old-German are quite distinct languages. See Zahn, p. 4, note a. In Adelung's Geschichte der Deutscben there is a long list of Thracian words, not one of which has the least resemblance to German, p. 284—290. § Sbzomen's Eccl. Hist. lib. ii. 6. GOTHIC — EXTENT OF EAST AND WEST GOTHS. CXV cliristian Goths had their bishop, jTheophilus, whose signature appears in the records of this celebrated council. The Ostro or Eastern Goths, having no such advantages, remained for a long time heathens. In the latter part of the 4th century, the whole of the Goths were governed by Ermanneric, one of their greatest conquerors, who subdued the western nations, and extended his empire from the river Don, through Sarmatia to the Vistula, and even to the Baltic. 7. The Visigoths or West-Goths being greatly oppressed by the Huns from the north of China or Tartary, induced Ulphilas,* their bishop, to implore the protection of the Roman emperor, Valens, in a.d. 376. He pleaded their cause successfully, and the province of Moesia was assigned to them ; their innumerable tribes were then permitted to pass over the Danube. t It was from the residence which Valens gave them in Moesia, now Servia and Bulgaria, south of the Danube, that the Visigoths obtained the name of Moeso-Goths. Considering themselves oppressed in Moesia, the Goths revolted, gained several victories over the Romans, and at last under Alaric desolated the Illyrian provinces, and in a.d. 409 took and pillaged Rome. In 412 they established themselves in the south of France, and crossing the Pyrenees, fixed the seat of their empire in Spain, where they reigned nearly three hundred years. They were first weakened by the Francs, and finally subdued by the Saracens. 8. The Ostro or East-Goths, though they applied to Valens, were not permitted to enter Moesia, and were therefore subjugated by the Huns ; but after liberating themselves, they embraced Christianity, and were received into Pannonia in a.d. 456, following the Visi or West-Goths into Moesia. The emperor Theodoric the Great, the hero of this nation, conquered Italy, and in a, d. 493 became the founder of a new monarchy at Ravenna. The Gothic government continued in Italy till the year 554, when it was terminated by Belisarius and Narsus under Justinian, emperor of the east. Cassiodorus, J the minister of Theodoric, wrote a history of the Goths, which was abridged by his secretary Jornandes. * This name has great variety in its orthography: we find Ulphilas, Urphilas, Urphi- lus, Gilfulas, Gudillas, Galfilas, Gulfilas, Ulphias, Ulpias, Gulfias, Hulfias, Wuifila, &c. It is written DSb^^sblS Aulpilas by R. Abraham in his work entitled Q'>"n^:in ^l^btt?* It is inflected nom. Ulphilas ; g. Ulphilae, exactly as iEneas, ^neae, &c. after the Greek form Oi/Xc^tXas {Socrates' Hist. Eccles. II. 41 ; IV. 33 ; Theodoret. I V. 33 ; Epist. 104 ; Philost, II. 5 ; Sozomen Hist. Eccles. VI. 37.) Some of the most eminent German scholars have recently adopted a new orthography, or as they affirm, reverted to the old Teutonic spelling, and write it Ulfila from Wuifila a little wolf, formed from Moes. wulfs a wolf, {Mt, vii. 15,) in the same manner as magula puerulus, {Jn. vi. 9,) from magus puer, and the diminutive fiskila piscicuhis, from the root fisk piscis. {Grimm's Deut. Gramm, vol. iii. p. QQQ). This, according to the Moeso-Gothic idiom, appears quite correct as it regards the termination; but if a close adherence to the Moeso-Gothic word be followed, it ought to be as precise in the commence- ment as in the termination, and to be written Wuifila, not Ulfila. Rather than adopt the new mode, which appears incorrect in this particular, the old spelling is here retained, and the word is written Ulphilas 0iJX<^iA.a9, as received from the Greek ecclesiastical historians. Canzler, in his Deutsche For und Zunnamen, thinks that Ulfila, Hulfias, &c. has some affinity with ^.-S. ulph: Plat, hiilp: Dw^hulp: Ger. hulfe: Old-Ger. hilfa: Dan, hjaelp : Swed. hjelp : Icel. hialp — all denoting help, aid, assistance. Then, with the addition of the diminutive ila, we have Hulpila, or Ulfila a little help, infantine aid. t Jornandes, 25, 26. X See § 2, note (+). CXVl GOTHIC — ULPHTLAS AND HIS TRANSLATION. 9. Ulphilas,* born of Cappadocian parents,! was made bishop of the West or Moeso-Goths about a.d. 360. He was so eminent in his talents, learning, and prudence, that he had the greatest influence amongst the Goths, and thence originated the proverb "Whatever is done by Ulphilas is well done." They received with implicit confidence the doctrines of the gospel which he enforced by a blameless life. That he might lead them to the fountain of his doctrine, he translated the Bible from the Greek into the language of the Moeso-Goths, between a.d. 360 and 380. Those who are best acquainted with the subject X declare that the language of this ancient translation ought not to be called Moeso-Gothic, as this name leads to the erroneous supposition that this dialect was formed in Moesia. The language of Ulphilas's version is, in fact, the pure German of the period in which it was written, and which the West-Goths brought with them into Moesia. The term Moeso-Gothic is still retained in this work, as it at once shows that the words to which Moes. or Moeso-Gothic is applied are taken from the version of Ulphilas, while however the Moeso- Gothic is considered as the earliest German dialect now in existence. 10. Several fragments of Ulphilas's celebrated translation have been discovered. The most famous is The Codex Argenteus, or Silver Book, so called from being transmitted to us in letters of a silver hue. The words appear to be formed on vellum by metallic characters heated, and then impressed on silver foil, which is attached to the vellum by some glutinous substance, somewhat in the manner that bookbinders now letter and ornament the backs of books.§ This document, containing fragments of the four gospels, is supposed to be of the 5th century, and made in Italy. 1 1 It was preserved for many centuries, in the monastery of Werden on the river Rhur, in Westphalia. In the 17th century it was transmitted for safety to Prague ; but Count Konigsmark, taking this city, the Codex Argenteus came into the possession of the Swedes, who deposited it in the library at Stockholm. Vossius, in 1655, when visiting Sweden, became possessed of it, and brought it to Holland ; but PufFendorf, as he travelled through Holland in 1662, found it in the custody of Vossius, and purchased it for Count de la Gardie, who, after having it bound in silver, presented it to the Royal Library at Upsal, where it is still preserved. 11. This mutilated copy of the Four Gospels was first published with a Glossary by Junius and Marshall, in 2 vols. 4to. at Dort, 1665, from a beautiful facsimile manuscript made by Derrer, but now lost. There are two columns in each page, Gothic on the left column, and Anglo-Saxon on the right, both in their original characters, the types for which were cast at Dort. The same book, apparently * See § 7, note (*). t Theodoret, iv. 37 ; Sozomen, vi. 37 ; Socrates, iv. 33. X See Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, 1st edit. 1819, pref. xlv. xlvi. § Ihre's Ulphilas lllustratus, edited by Biisching, Berlin, 1773 ; Meerman's Origines Typo- graphicse, Hag. Coniit. 2 vols. 4to. 1765, vol. i. p. 2, cap. 2. II In Italia scriptus fuit — Ulphilse partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis Palimpsestis ab Angelo Maio repertarum Specimen, 4to. pp. 1 — 36. Mediolani, 1819, Pref. p. iv. 12. GOTHIC TITLE-DEED AT NAPLES. CXVll published with new titles, and a reprint of the first sheet in Vol. II. or Glossary, appeared again at Amsterdam in 1684. Stiernhelm sent forth an edition in Gothic, Icelandic, Swedish, German, and Latin, 4to. Stockholm, 1671. A new one was prepared by Dr. Eric Benzelius, and published by Lye, 4to. Oxford, 1750, with a Latin translation, and notes below the Gothic : a short Gothic Grammar is prefixed by Lye. A learned Swede, Ihre, a native of Upsal, and afterward Professor, in 1753 favoured the literati with his remarks upon the editions of Junius, Stiernhelm, and Lye. He had constant access to the Codex, and his criticisms and remarks upon the editors' deviations from it are very valuable. All Professor Ihre's treatises on the Gothic version, and other tracts connected with the subject, were published under the following title : — J. ab Ihre scripta versionem Ulphilanam et linguam Moeso- Gothicam illustrantia, edita ab Anton. Frid. Biisching, Berolini, 4to. 1773. The Codex was again prepared and printed in Roman characters, after the corrected text of Ihre, with a literal interlineal Latin translation, and a more free Latin version in the margin, with a Grammar and Glossary by F. K. Fulda. The Glossary revised and the text corrected by W. F. H. Reinwald, published by J. C. Zahn, Weissenfels' and Leipzig, 4to. 1805. One short specimen will be sufficient. THE PARABLE OF THE SOWER. Mk. iv. 3, 4 Hauseith. sai. urrann sa saiands du saian fraiwa seinamma. 4. Jah warth miththanei saiso. sum raihtis gadraus faur wig. jah quemun fuglos, jah fretun thata Zahns Edition, p. 45. Title-deed at Naples. 12. This document was discovered in modern times, and is now preserved in the archives of the church of St. Annunciata at Naples. It is defective, and written in very corrupt Latin, bearing no date, but appearing to have been written in the beginning of the 6th century, soon after the arrival of the Goths in Italy. According to this title-deed, the clergymen of the church St. Anastasia, sell some land, and ratify the sale in several Latin attestations, with four in Gothic. These four subscriptions are, as regards the language, of no importance, for they contain no new Gothic words ; but they are highly valuable as affording an incontestible proof that the language and writing of the Codex Argenteus are genuine Gothic. Some have questioned whether this Codex be Gothic, but it is in the same language and the same character as these attestations, and they are written, at the period of Gothic influence in Italy, in the Gothic language and character by Gothic priests, having Gothic names ; therefore the Codex Argenteus must also be Gothic. The title-deed preserved at Naples was minutely copied by Professor Massmann. As all the published copies are very defective, he has promised shortly to give to the world a faithful facsimile.* One attestation will be a sufficient specimen of the language. Ik winjaifrithas diakon handu meinai ufmelida jah (andnemum) skilliggans. I. Ego Winefridus Diaconus manu mea subscripsi et accepimus solidos 60 * See Zahn's Gothic Gospels, p. 77 ; Massmann's St. John, pref. p. ix. : a facsimile is given by Sierakowsky, 1810, also in Marini's tab. 118. CXVlii GOTHIC — AREZZO, KNITTEL, MAI. jah faurthis thairh kawtsjon mith diakon(a) (ala) myda unsaramma jah mith- et antea per cautionem cum Diacono nostra et con- gahlaibaim unsaraim andnemum skilliggans. RK. wairth thize saiwe. ministris nostris accepimus solidos 120 pretium horum paludum. Title-deed at Arezzo. 13. This is a contract written on Egyptian papyrus. A deacon, Gott- lieb sells to another deacon, Alamud, an estate with some buildings. This document is written in barbarous Latin, and only contains one Gothic attestation. It is contemporary with the Neapolitan document, and of equal importance: the original MS. is unfortunately lost, but the following is copied from Zahn.* Ik guthilub* dkns tho frabauhta boka fram mis gawaurhta thus dkn* Ego Gottlieb Diaconus hcBC vendidi librum a me feci tibi Diacone alamoda fidwor unkjana hugsis kaballarja jah killiggans' RLG^ andiiahm jah Alamod quatuor uncias fundi Caballaria et solidos 133 accepi et ufmelida, subscripsi. 14. Knittel, Archdeacon of Wolfenbuttel, in the Dutchy of Brunswick, found a palimpsest f manuscript of the 8th century, containing part of the 11th and following chapters, as far as the 13th verse of the xvth chapter of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, in Gothic and Latin. This document is denominated Codex Carolinus, from Charles, Duke of Brunswick, who enabled Knittel to give his work to the world. He published it in twelve plates, 4to. 17614 Republished by Ihre in Roman characters, with Latin version, notes, index, &c. pp. 90, Upsal, 1763. Again, by Manning, in the Appendix to his edition of Lye's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, 2 vols, folio, 1772. And by Biisching, Berlin, 4to. 1773. 15. Angelo Mai, while keeper cf the Ambrosian Library at Milan, discovered some fragments of Gothic in palimpsest manuscripts, and, with Count Castiglione, published the following extracts : — Esdras ii. 28—42 : Nehem. v. 13—18 ; vi. 14—19; vii. 1—3 : Mt. xxv. 38—46 ; xxvi. 1—3; 65—75; xxvii. 1 : Philip, ii. 22—30; iii. 1—16: Titus i. 1—16; ii. 1: * A more circumstantial description of both these documents is given in Zahn's preface, p. 77, 78, and in the following works : — Versuch einer Erlauterung der Gothischen Sprachii- berreste in Neapel und Arezo als eine Einladungsschrift und Beilage zura Ulphilas, von J. C. Zahn, Braunschweig, 1804. Antonius Franciscus Gorius was the first who, in the year 1731, published the document of Arezzo in the following work: J. B. Doni Inscriptiones antiquae nunc primum editae notisque illustratae, &c. ah A. F. Gorio, Florent. 1731, folio. Professor H. F. Massman observes, that, notwithstanding the most minute investigation, he has not been able to discover the Gothic document of Arezo. (Preface to the Gothic Com- mentary on St. John, p. x.) It is, however, copied in No. 117 of Gaetano il/an« fsPapiri Diplomatic!, &c. Romae, 1805, folio, from the original attributed to a.d. 551, and again pub- lished in Codice diplomatico Toscano dal antiquario Brunetti, 11, p. 209 — 213, Firenze, 1833, 4to. t Rescript, from iraXiv again, and ^aw to wipe or cleanse. For an interesting account of the discoveries made in palimpsest MSS. see a paper by the venerable Archdeacon Nares in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, Vol. 1. part i. p. 122. X Friedrich Adolph Ebert, late librarian of the King of Saxony, has declared, after having collated it in the most minute manner, that this edition is the most correct copy of the MS. For want of sale many copies were used as waste paper, and the copper-plates were sold for old copper: it is therefore become very scarce. See Allgemeines bibliographisches Lexicon von F. A. Ebert, vol. ii. p. 992, Leipzig, F. A. Broekhaus, 1830, 4to. GOTHIC — CASTIGLIONE, MASSMANN. CXlX Philem. i. 11 — 23 ; — A page from a Homily — A fragment of a Gothic Calendar. He concludes his small volume with a Glossary and two plates. The Gothic fragments are accompanied with a Latin version, and in the parts taken from the Scriptures the Greek text is given. This work was published with the following title : — Ulphilae partium ineditarum in Ambrosianis Palimpsestis ab Angelo Maio repertarum specimen conjunctis curis ejusdem Maii et Caroli Octavii Castillionaei editum, Mediolani, 4to. 1819, pp. 1—36, Pref. xxiv.* 16. Count Castiglione again proved his zeal for Gothic literature by publishing — Ulphilae Gothica versio, epistolae Divi Pauli ad Corinthios secundae quam ex Am- brosianae Bibliothecae palimpsestis depromptam cum interpretatione adnotationibus, glossario edidit Carolus Octavius Castillionaeus, Mediolani, 4to. 1829. 17. Count Castiglione, rather than increase suspense by delay, most generously determined to satisfy at once the anxious wishes of the learned world, by publishing the text of the following work without preface or glossary : — Gothicae versionis epistolarum Divi Pauli ad Romanes, ad Corinthios primae, ad Ephesios, quae supersunt ex Ambrosianae Bibliothecae palimpsestis deprompta cum adnotationibus edidit Carolus Octavius Castillionaeus, Mediolani, Regiis typis, 1834, 4to. p. 64. 18. A commentary on parts of the Gospel according to St. John, written in Moeso-Gothic, has been published in Germany by Dr. H. Massmann, from a MS. in the Vatican. It is a 4to. vol. of 182 pages, to which is prefixed a dedication and an account of the manuscript, in 17 pages. Then follow 34 pages of two columns in a page of the Commentary in Moeso-Gothic, printed in facsimile types. Immediately afterwards is given in 15 pages the same Moeso-Gothic, text in Roman type, in one column, and a literal Latin version in the other, with notes at the foot of the page. Then succeed an account of the proposed emendations of the MS., a short notice of the life of Ulphilas, and a complete Glossary of all the Moes. words not only in the text of the Commentary, but those found in Castiglione's extracts from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, first of Corinthians, and the Ephesians mentioned in the last paragraph. At the end is a copper-plate containing several facsimiles of MSS.f The full title of the work is, Skeirein's Aiwaggeljons thairh Johannen: Auslegung des Evangelii Johan- nis in gothischer Sprache. Aus romischen und maylandischen Handschriften nebst lateinischer Uebersetzung, belegenden Anmerkungen, geschichtlicher Untersuchung, gothisch-lateinischem Worterbuche und Schriftproben. Im Auftrage seiner Konig- lichen Hoheit des Kronprinzen Maximilian von Bayern erlesen, erlautert und zum ersten Male herausgegeben von H. F. Massmann, Doctor der Philosophic, Professor der alteren deutschen Sprache, etc. 4to. Miinchen, 1834. * Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, Vol, 1. part i. p. 129. f A new edition of all that is discovered of Ulphilas's translation of the Scriptures is advertised to appear in the course of this year, with this title : Ulfilas, vet. et novi test, versionis Goth, fragmenta quae supersunt— cum glossario et grammatica, edid. H, C. de Gahe- lentz et Dr. J. Loebe, 2 torn. 4'to. maj. Altenburgi, Schnuphase. See AUgemeines Verzeichniss der Biicher der Frankfurter und Leipziger Oster-messe, 1836, p. 251. Ina critique inserted in the Gbttinger gelehrte Anzeigen, it is mentioned that the celebrated philologist, Prof. Jacob Grimm, has been long preparing a complete edition of all the fragments of Ulphilas's version of the Bible. The original text is to be printed in the Latin character. cxx HIGH-GERMAN ALEMANNF. The Gothic begins thus : saei frathjai aiththau sokjai Guth. Allai usvandidedum. samana unbrukjai vaurthun, jah ju uf dauthaus atdrusun stauai. Latin version. si est intelligens aut requirens Deum. Omnes declinaverunt. simul inutiles facti sunt, ac jam sub mortis inciderunt judicium p. 37- 19. With the extinction of the Gothic dynasties, this pure and rich German tongue, though vestiges still remain, ceased to be a prevailing dialect. Like the Scandinavian branches, the Gothic retained a distinct form for the passive voice. The Scandinavians, having little interruption from other nations, would most likely retain their grammatical forms much longer than the southern German tribes, who (from the 4th century, when the Moeso-Gothic Gospels were written, to the 8th, when we find the next earliest specimen of German) must have lost many of the old forms, and with them probably the passive voice. VIII.— THE ALEMANNI OR SUABIANS. 1. There are various opinions about the derivation of the word Alemanni. It was a name given to the Suabians,* who appear to have come from the shores of the Baltic to the southern part of Germany. This locality of the Suabians is, in some measure, confirmed by the ancient name of the Baltic, Mare Suevicum, Suavian, or Suabian Sea. In the beginning of the 3rd century, the Suabians assembled in great numbers on the borders of the Roman empire, between the Danube, Rhine, and Main,t and united with other tribes. To denote this coalition or union of various nations, they were called Alemanni various men, all men.X * Schwaben (Suavi) according to Schmitthenner, Schwabe, m. pi. Schwaben, in Old High- Ger. Suab, pi. Suaba, and signifies the wise, the intelligent, a person full of understanding and discernment, from the Old High- Ger. sueban to perceive, understand, know, discern, comprehend. f VTalafridus Strabo de Vita B. Galli apud Goldastum, torn. I. rer Alemann. p. 143 : Igitur quia mixti Alemannis Suevi partem Germanise ultra Danubium, partem Retiae inter Alpes et Histriam, partemque Galliae circa Ararim obsederunt. — Jornandes de rebus Geticis, cap. Iv. : Theodemir Gothorum rex emenso Danubio, Suevis improvisus a tergo apparuit. Nam regio ilia Suevorum ab oriente Baiobaros habet, ab occidente Francos, a meridie Bur- gundiones, a septentrione Thuringos. Quibus Suevis tunc juncti Alemanni etiam aderant, ipsique alpes erectas omnino regentes. X Ger. allerley various, different: mann man. Schmitthenner says from the Old-Ger. allo- man each, in the plural alamanna many, a nation, community. — Von Schmid in his Suavian Dictionary, sub Alh, alp, informs us that aim, almand, or almang, denoted not only a common, a pasture, but a mountain ; hence the people dwelling on the mountains in Austria, Tyrol, &c. HIGH-GERMAN — ALEMANNIC DIALECT, PECULIARITIES OF. CXXI Thus increased in power, they soon ventured to make formidable inroads into the Roman territory, and not only entered the plains of Lombardy, but advanced almost in sight of Rome. They were repelled, and, in a new attack, vanquished by Aurelian.* The term Alemanni was used by foreigners as synonymous with Germans,t and, while in English they are called Germans, in French and Spanish they are to this day denomi- nated x\lemanns. This great confederacy terminated in a,d. 496, by a bloody victory of the Francic king, Clovis (Chlodovseus), at Tolbiac, near Cologne on the Rhine, the present ZuUich or Zulpich. 2. The peculiarities of the Suabian or Alemannic dialect are these : The first vowela very much prevails, and the final n of verbs is omitted : thus they say, saga for sagen to say ; fraga for fragen to ask. They change the Ger. o into au, and use braut for brot bread; grauss for gross great. For the Ger. st, they put scht (sht) ; they use du bischt, kannscht, for du bist thou art; kannst canst. They form dimi- nutives in li, ICy as herzli for Ger. herzchen a little heart. In the inflections of soUen shallj woUen will, the / is generally omitted ; as, du sottascht di doch schema, for du solltest dich doch schamen thou shouldst be ashamed. The oldest Suabian and Upper German dialect contained very few rough hissing sounds. In old documents, and till the time of Emperor Maximilian I. the sch is rarely found. The hissing sounds begin on the borders of Italy and France, diminish in the middle of Germany, and nearly disappear in North or Low- Germany. 3. The Suabians of the present day speak in a lively and quick manner. 4. The Alemannic or Suabian dialect prevails in the north of Switzer- land, in Alsace, Baden, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and the western part of the Austrian States. 5. Some of the authors who are generally said to have written in Alemannic, and some of the early compositions in this dialect, are — An exhortation to Christians, a.d. 720 (x. 2) — Kero, a. d. 800 (x. 7) Rhabanus Maurus, a.d. 850 (x. 11).— Otfrid, a.d. 860 (x. 12) Notker, a.d. 1020 (x. 16) Nibelungen Lied, a.d. 1150 (x. 24) Walter von der Vogelweide, a.d. 1190 (x. 25). — Chunrad von Kirchberg, a.d. 1195 (x. 26) Gotfrit von Nifen, a.d. 1235 (x. 29). — Sch waben- Spiegel, a.d. 1250 (x. 31), &c. were called Alemanni. Oi ^& AXafiauoi tiyz XP'*1 Ao-iwo) KovaSparw itrt.a-dat.f avSpi iTaXiMTrj Kai Ta VipfxavLKU is to a/cyoij8£S avaypaxl/afitvw ^uj/tjXi^es siaLV dvOpwiroi Kai fiiyaSe^- Kat TovTo SvuaTaL a'uTois tj iiroovvfiLa. Alemanni, si Asinio Quadrato fides, viro Italo et Ger- manicarum rerum exacto Scriptori, communes sunt variis e nationibus collecti, id ipsum apud eos consignificante vocabulo. — Agathias, lib. i. Hist. p. 7. * Gibbon, ch. xi. t Nota, quod partes viciniores Italicis, sicut sunt Bavaria, Suevia, dictae fuerint, ab Italis prime Alemannia, et homines dicebantur Alemanni, nota secundum Orosium et Solinum quod tunc temporis Germania et Alemania habebantur pro uno et eodem. Nam Ungaria dicebatur Pannonia, et ab Ungaria usque ad Rhenum dicebatur Germania, vel Alemania, et ultra Rhenum Gallia. — Auctor Hist. Landgrav. Thur. c. vi. ; Struvii Corpus Hist. Ger § 1 • de Ger. orig. Sfc. p. 10, n. 22.— See II. § 2, and note (f). ' CXXll IX.— THE FRANCS. i. The Francs,* or Freemen, were a confederacy of high-spirited and independent German tribes, dwelling between the Rhine and Elbe, They were composed of the Tencteri, Catti, Sali, Bructeri, Chamavi, Chaiici, &c. who occupied the modern Prussian provinces on the Rhine, Zwey-Briicken or Deux-Fonts, part of Hesse, the south of Saxony, and the northern part of Bavaria. The Francs lying to the north-east were called Salian Francs from the river Sala, and those on the Rhine were, from their situation, denominated Ripuarian Francs. 2. This confederation was known, under the denomination of Francs, about A.D. 240. t According to Schilter,^ the Francs were first men- tioned by Eumenius, a Latin orator, born at Autun in France, at the beginning of the 4th century. They had been harassed by the Romans ; and having felt the importance of union for self-defence, they, when united, soon discovered not only an ability to resist their enemies, but in turn to invade some of the Roman territories. In the beginning of the 5th century they took possession of the west bank of the Rhine, and began to make incursions into Gaul. 3. About A.D, 420, their power extended from the Rhine nearly over the whole of Gaul, and they founded the Merovingian dynasty, under Pharamond their king, who, according to their custom, was elected by the chiefs of the nation, constituting the Francic confederacy. The Merovingian line continued for 323 years through a succession of twenty- two kings, from A.D. 428 to 751. One of the Merovingian kings, Clodwig, Chlothovecus, Clovis, Ludewig, or Lewis, subdued the Alemanni in A.D. 496; and, immediately after this conquest, he and many of his subjects made a public profession of the Christian faith by being baptized at Rheims. 4. After the Merovingian succeeded the Carlovingian family, which supplied eleven kings, who held the reins of the Francic government for 236 years ; then succeeded in France the Capetian line, which needs not be further noticed, as it would lead to a history of France beyond the object of this notice. 5. Pepin, the first king of the Carlovingian race, seized the Francic crown in a.d. 751, and divided the kingdom between his two sons, Charlemagne and Carloman. After the death of his brother^ Charlemagne became sole possessor of the kingdom in 768. As some short historical * Frank, according to Schmitthenner, signifies originally, preceding, Jjold, upright, free; hence, der Franke the Franc; Old Ger. franho ; Icel. frackr m. francus, liber, generosus, elatus, tumidus. Frackar m. pi. Francones, Franci ; fracki m. virtuosus, potens. f Gibbon, ch x. Turner's Hist, of Anglo-Saxons, bk. 2, ch. iii. + Schilter's, Gloss, to Thes. vol. iii. p. 316. HIGH-GERMAN — EXHORTATION TO CHRISTIANS, ABOUT A. D. 720. CXXiii remarks* will be made when specimens of the language are introduced, it will only be necessary to observe here, that Charlemagne, after showing himself one of the greatest men that ever reigned over a most extensive empire, died in a.d. 814. 6. It is difficult to name with minuteness and precision all the writers and the compositions in the Francic dialect ; but the following are gene- rally considered as written in this idiom : — A translation of Isidore, a.d. 800 (x. 8) — Hildibraht and Hadubrant, a.d. 730 (x. 3) Ludwigslied, a.d. 883 (x. 14).— A Translation of Boethius, a.d. 950 (x. 18). — Willeram's Paraphrase, a.d. 1070 (x. 20) The Praise of St. Anno, a.d. 1075 (x. 21), &c. X.— HIGH-GERMAN, OR THE ALEMANNIC, SUABIAN, AND FRANCIC DIALECTS. 1 . The translation of the Scriptures by Bishop Ulphilas, about A. D. 360, affords the earliest specimen of German. Almost four centuries elapsed between the writings of Ulphilas, and the composition of the following exhortation. When the Francs and Alemanni were converted to Chris- tianity, their instructors not only wrote prayers, exhortations, sermons, hymns, and commentaries on the Scriptures, but also composed glossaries; thus preserving specimens of the German language in the 7th and 8th centuries. 2. An exhortation to Christians (exhortatio ad plebem Christiandm) is taken from a MS. of the early part of the 8th century, originally pre- served in the bishoprick of Freisingen in Bavaria, and Fulde in Hesse, but now in Munich and Kassel. It was published in HoUiiiger's His- toria Ecclesiastica, vol. viii. p. 1220; in B. J, DocerCs Miscellaneen, vol. i. p. 4 — 8; and in WackernageVs Altdeutsches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835. EXHORTATIO. Hloset ir, chindo liupostun, rihtida thera galaupa the ir in herzin kahucclicho hapen sculut, ir den christanun namun intfangan eigut, thaz ist chundida iuuerera christanheiti, fona demo truhtine in man gaplasan, fona sin selpes jungiron kasezzit WackernageVs Altdeut. Les. p. 6. LITERAL GERMAN. Lauschet ihr. Kinder liebsten, der zucht des Glaubens, den ihr iin Herzen behiitlich haben soUet, (wenn) ihr den Christennamen empfangen habt, das ist Kunde eurer Christenheit, von dem Herrn eingeblasen, von seinen eigenen Jiingern gesetzt. * See X. § 9, 10. CXXiv HIGH-GERMAN — HILDIBRAHT AND HADUBRANT, A D. 730. LITERAL ENGLISH. Listen ye, children dear, to the instruction of the beUef, which you shall preserve in your hearts, (when) you have received the Christian name, that is, the knowledge of your Christianity, inspired by the Lord, (and) established by his own disciples. 3. The heroic Song, relating the combat hetiueen Hildibraht and Hadubrant. The language of this song is Francic, with a great inter- mixture of the Low-German dialect. Bouterweck considers it just what one would expect from the attempt of a Low-Saxon to write Francic. Like the Wessobrunn Prayer, it is alliterative,* and ascribed to the 8th century. It was first published by Eckard, in Commentariis de rebus Francorum, vol. i. p. 864, from the Fulda manuscript, now kept at Kassel, by Grimm, at Kassel, 1812, and in his Altdeutsche Walder, vol. ii. p. 97. A lithographic specimen of the fragment preserved at Gottingen was given by Professor Grimm in 1830. An edition appeared in 1833, by Lachmann. An explanation of the difficult passages by W. Mohr, in 12mo. pp. 16, Marburg, 1836. Old German. Ik gihorta dhat seggen, dhat sih wrhettun » enon muotin Mltibraht job ^adubraiit untar ^erjun tvem. sunufatarungos iro saro rihtun, ^arutun se iro ^udhamun, ^urtun sih svert ana, Aelidos, ubar Aringa, do sie ti dero Ailtju ritun. jffiltibraht gimahalta : er was Aeroro man, /erahes/rotoro : er/ragen gistuont /ohem wortum hver sin/ater wari /ireo in/olche, Literal Modern German, Ich horte das sagen, dass sich herausforderten einstimmig Hildebrand und Hadubrand unter einander. Sohn und Vater, wie sie ihren Kampfplatz be- stimmt thaten sie ihre Kriegshem- den an giirteten sich ihr Schwert um die Helden zum Ringen (KampO da sie zum Kampf ritten. sprach Hildebrand : er war ein hehrer Mann Geistes weise : er fragen that mit wenigen Worten wer sein Vater ware im Manner Volke, Literal English. I heard it said that Hiltibraht and Hadu- brant with one voice* challenged one another. Son and father, when the (combat) place they fixed, their coat of war they put on, girded their sword on, the heroes for the fight, when they to combat rode. Hiltibraht spoke: he was a stately man, of a prudent (^wise) mind : he did ask with few words who his father was among the race of men. eddo hvelihhes cnuosles oder welches Stammes du or of what family {he was) du sis. seyst. thou art. Wackernagel. p. 14. The alliteration in the example is denoted by italic letters. HIGH-GERMAN — ST. AMBROSE'S HYMNS, ABOUT A.D. 750. CXXV 4. The following Latin hymns are ascribed to St. Ambrose, who was Bishop of Milan from a.d. 374 to 397. The German translations, made by an unknown hand, are thought to be of the 8th century. They are found in WackernageVs Altdeutches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835. The Original Latin. Deus qui coeli lumen es satorque lucis, qui polum paterno fultum brachio praeclara pandis dextera. Aurora Stellas jam tegit rubrum sustollens gurgitem, humectis namque flatibus terram baptizans roribus. Wackernagel, p. 7. Old German Translation. cot du der himiles leoht pist saio job leohtes du der bimil faterlichemu arspriuztan arme duruheitareru spreitis zesauun tagarod sterna giu dechit rotan ufpurrenti uuak fuhtem kauuisso plastim erda taufanter tauura. TE DEUM.* The Original Latin. Te Deum laudamus. te dominum confitemur. te aeternum patrem omnis terra veneratur. Tibi omnes angeli, tibi coeli et universae potestates, tibi cherubim et seraphim incessabUi voce proclamant. Sanctus sanctus sanctus dominus deus sabaoth. pleni sunt cceli et terra maj estate gloriae tuae. Wackernagel, p. 11. Old German Translation. thih cot lopemes thih truhtnan gehemes thih euuigan fater eokiuuelih erda uuirdit (eret). thir alle engila thir himila inti alio kiuualtido thir cherubim inti seraphim unbilibanlicheru stimmo forharent. uuiher uuiher uuiher truhtin cot herro foUiu sint himila inti erda thera meginchrefti tiurida thinera. 5. A HYMN to the honour of St. Peter, by an anonymous author of the 8th century, published from a MS. of Freisingen, in Docen's Miscellaneen, 2 vols. Munich, 1809: Hoffmann's Fundgruben, 8vo. 1 vol. Breslau, 1830. Vnsar trohtin hat farsalt sancte petre ginualt, daz er mac ginerian ze imo dingenten man. Kyrie eleyson. Christe eleyson. Er hapet ouh mit vuortun himilriches portun, dar in mach er skerian, den er uuili nerian. Kirie eleison. Christe (eleison). Fundgruben, p. 1. LITERAL GERMAN. Unser Herr hat verliehen St. Peter gewalt, das er kann erhalten (den) zu ihm bittenden mann. Ku/oi£ i\tr)(TOV, XpiffTE iXEtjaov, Er hat auch mit worten (des) himmelreiches pforten, dahin kann er bringen den er will erhalten Kvpu iXiriffov, X/otoTTE iXttjcrov. For a specimen of the Te Deum, in German of the 12th century, see § 22. CXXvi HIGH-GERMAN— WESSOBRUNN PRAYER, ABOUT AD. 770. LITERAL ENGLISH. Our Lord has given St. Peter power, that he may preserve, the man that prays to him. Lord have mercy, Christ have mercy. He also keeps, with words, the portals of heaven's kingdom wherein he may take, whom he will preserve. Lord have mercy. Christ have mercy. 6. The Wessobrunn Prayer, so called from the MS. being first dis- covered in the monastery of Wessobrunn, in Bavaria. The MS. is of the latter part of the 8th century ; it was published by Professor J, Grimm at Kassel, 1812, by Massmann at Berlin, 1824, and in WackernageVs Altdeutsches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835. The alliteration is denoted by italic letters. Old German. Datga^egin ih mit/irahim /iriwizzo meista, dat ero ni was noh wfhimil, noh j3aum nohheinig noh j»ereg ni was ; ni noh sunna ni scein noh mono ni liuhta noh der wzareoseo. do dar niM;iht ni wbe enteo ni z^enteo, enti do was der eino almahtico cot, &c. Wackernagel, p. 17 Literal Modern German. Das horte ich bey Men- schen mit Fiirwitz meistem, dass Erde nicht war noch Aufhimmel, noch Baum einiger noch Berg nicht war ; nicht noch Sonne nicht schien noch Mond nicht leuchtete noch der Meersee. Als da Nichts nicht war Ende noch Wende, und da war der eine allmachtige Gott, &c. ' Literal English. This I heard from men of most curiosity, that (the) earth was not nor heaven, nor any tree nor mountain was ; not nor sun did shine nor moon gave light nor the main (sea). when there was no wight end nor wend (turn), and then was the one Almighty God, &c. 7. Kero, a monk in the abbey of St. Gallen in Switzerland, made a German translation of the Rules of St. Benedict, about a.d. 800, under the title, Interpretatio Regulae Sancti Benedicti Thetisca, Schilter^s Thes. at the end of vol i. p. 25, and a part of it in Graff^s Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz. De Taciturnitate, chap. VL Tuamees. daz qhuad vvizzago qhuad ih kehalte vveka mine daz nalles Faciamus quod ait Pr^opheta : Dixi, custodiam vias meas, ut non missitue in zungun mineru sazta munde minemu kehaltida ertumbeta indi delinqam in lingua mea : Posui ori meo custodiam ; Obmutui et kedeomuatit pim indi suuiketa fona cuateem hiar keaugit uuizzago ibu fona humiliatus sum, et silui a bonis; hie ostendit propheta, si a cuateem sprahhom ofto duruh suuigalii sculi suuigeen huueo meer bonis eloquiis interdum propter taciturnitatem debet taceri. Quanto magis fona vbileem vvortum duruh vvizzi dera sunta sculi pilinnan. a malis verbis propter poenam peccati debet cessari? Graff, p. xlviii. HIGH-GERMAN — ISIDORE, ABOUT A.D. 800. CXXvii LITERAL GERMAN. Thuen wir das, was der Weissager sagt : ich habe gesagt, ich werde bewachen, die Wege mein, dass ich nichts missethue mit meiner Zunge ; ich setzte dem Munde mein eine Wache, ich bin verstummt, und gedemiithiget und schweige von den Guten. Heir zeigt der Weissager, wenn von guten Reden oft wegen der Verschwie - genheit soil geschwiegen werden, wie viel mehr von iibeln Worten wegen der Strafe der Siinde soil geschwiegen werden. LITERAL ENGLISH. Let us do what the sayer (^Prophet) saith : I have said I will keep my ways, that I nothing misdo with my tongue : I have set a watch over my mouth, I was dumb, and humbled, and silent (even) from good ; here the wise-sayer shows, if from good speeches often for taciturnity we should be silent, how much more from evil words should we cease for punishment of the sin. 8. Isidore, born at Carthage, was archbishop of Seville, from 600 to 636. Amongst other works, he wrote a treatise, De Nativitate Domini, of which a Franc is supposed to have made a translation. The MS. is preserved at Paris. It was published by Jo. PhiL Palthen, at Greifswald, 1706, and again in Schilter's Thes. at the end of vol. i. Ulm, 1728: it was also inserted by Rostgaard in the Danish Bibliotheca, No. 2, Copen- hagen, 1738. The following specimen of Isidore is from Graff'' s Althochdeutschen Sprachschatz, vol. i. p. xlv. Berlin, 1834,* most carefully collated by this indefatigable scholar with the original MS. at Paris. It is to be found also in Schilter's Thes, p. 4 of vol. i., Isidore, ch. iv. 1. Hear quhidit umbi dhea Bauhnunga. dhero dhrio heideo gotes. Araugit ist in dhes aldin uuizssodes boohhum. dhazs fater endi sunu endi heilac geist got sii. Oh dhes sindun unchilaubun iudeo liudi. dhazs sunu endi heilac gheist got sii. bi dhiu huuanda sie chihordon gotes stimna hluda in sina berge quhedhenda. Chihori dhu israhel druhtin got dhin. ist eino got. LITERAL GERMAN. Hier wird gesprochen von der bedeutung der Dreieinigkeit Gottes. Sichtbar ist in den alten bundes biichern, dass Vater und Sohn und heiliger Geist Gott seyn. O der siindigen (thorichten) Juden leute, unglaubig dass Sohn und heiliger Geist Gott seyn, darum well sie horten Gottes stimme laut auf dem berge Sinai sprechend : Hore du Israel der Herr dein Gott ist einge Gott. LITERAL ENGLISH. Here is spoken about the signification of the Trinity of God. It is visible, in the books of the Old Testament, that the Father and Son and Holy Ghost is God. O the sinful Jewish people, disbelieving that the Son and the Holy Ghost is God, because they heard God's voice loud on mount Sinai, saying. Hear thou, Israel, the Lord thy God is one God. * In the preface to this laborious and learned work, from p. xxxiii. to Ixxiii. there is a very valuable account of old Ger. MSS. Some specimens are given of unpublished glossaries and fragments of a translation of Boetius de consolatione philosophiae, supposed to be Notker's work (in cod. 5, gall. 825) of Mart. Capella de Nuptiis Mercurii et PhiJologise, (in cod. 5, gall. 872,) and of Aristotle's Organon (in cod. 5, gall. 818). The glossaries are from the 7th to the 9th century. To give a true idea of the quality and state of the MSS. Graff has very properly given them with all their faults, &c. exactly as he found them. CXXviii HIGH-GERMAN — CHARLES's OATH, A.D. 842. 9. Charlemagne,* who reigned from 768 — 814, united the German tribes, the Francs, Alemanni, Bavarians, T7iuringia?is, Saxons, Longo- bards, Burgundians, &c. into one mighty empire, and governed all the nations from the Eider in the north of Germany, to the Ebro in Spain — from the Baltic sea to the Tiber in Italy. Arts and sciences declined more and more after the time of Gregory the Great, in 604, who himself discouraged scientific pursuits so much, that at the time of Charlemagne there was scarcely a trace of science or literature on the continent. Charle- magne arose, and obtained the aid of the most learned men of his time for the improvement of his mighty empire. A few of these eminent men may be named. Alkuin, an Anglo-Saxon monk, born about 732, educated at York, was well versed in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, theology, rhetoric, poetry, and mathematics, and was also distinguished for his piety. He died, abbot of Tours, in 804. Theodulph died 821, bishop of Orleans. Eginhard, born in Odenwalde, South Germany, wrote the History of Charlemagne, and died in 839. Schools were also established in different parts of the empire. By these means science and literature were sup- ported in the 9th and following centuries. Charlemagne enjoined the clergy to preach in German, and to translate homilies into that language. He himself attempted to form a German Grammar, and ordered a col- lection of the national songs to be made, which unfortunately are lost, but we may form some judgment of them from the Hildibraht, a remarkable fragment of early German. 10. The successors of Charlemagne inherited his empire, but not his talents. The second son of Charlemagne, Ludwig or Lewis the pious, in the year 843, divided the empire among his three sons: — 1. Lewis h^idi Germany, which comprised Suabia, East Franconia, Bavaria, Thuringia, Saxony. Germany, from this early period to the present day, has pre- served its language, its customs, and independence. 2. To Charles, Gallia was assigned. 3. Lothar received for his portion, Dauphine, Alsace, and Burgundy. At first the Francs, in Gallia under Charles, spoke German, but they soon mixed it with the language of the subdued Gauls. The oaths which Charles and Lewis and their subjects took near Strasburg in 842, to protect their empire against Lothar, their eldest brother, are preserved. The grandson of Charlemagne, Abbot Nidhart, who died 853, in his history of the disputes of the sons, has preserved the form of the oath in German and French. It is a curious specimen of both languages at this early period, f Charles's Oath in Francic, or Old German. In godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero gehaltnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mir got geuuizci indi mahd furgibit, so haldih ♦ Eginharti de Vita Carolimagni commentariis, cum annotationibus Ger. Nicolai Heerkens, Groningiae, 12mo. 1755. Histoire de Charlemagne par Gaillard, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1819. f Roquefortgloss.de la langue romane, tom.i. disc. prel. p. xx. Wackernagel's Altdeutscbes Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, 1835, p. 26. HIGH-GERMAN — LEWIs's OATH, A.D. 842. CXXix tesan minan bruodher soso man mit rehtu sinan bruodher seal, in thiu thaz er mig so soma duo, indi mit Ludherem in nohheiniu thing ne gegangu, the minan uuillon imo ce scadhen werdhen. LITERAL GERMAN. In Gottes Minne und in (wegen) des christlichen Volkes und unser beider Erhal- tung von diesem Tage fortan, so fern so mir Gott Weisheit und Macht giebt, so halte ich diesen meinen Bruder, so wie man mit Recht seinen Bruder soil, und dass er mir auch so thun und mit Ludherem (will ich) in keine Sache nicht gehen, mit meinem Willen ihm zu Schaden werden. LITERAL ENGLISH. In God's love and for the christian folk and our common preservation, from this day henceforth, so far as God gives me wisdom and power, so hold I (shall I preserve) this my brother, so as one (man) by right his brother should (preserve) and that he to me also so may do, and with Lothar I (will) not enter into any thing, with my will, to be an injury to him. The Oath ofLewiSy in the Romanic, or French. Pro deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, dist di in avant, in quant deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo et in adjudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet, et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit. LITERAL ENGLISH. For God's love and for the christian people and our common preservation from this day and henceforth, in so far as God gives me wisdom and power, so shall I assist this my brother Charles, and in assistance and in any cause so as one (man) by right his brother ought to assist in such a manner as he may do to me ; and with Lothar I will not enter into any treaty (placitum) which to me, or to this my brother Charles, can be an injury. Oath of Charles's army, in "Romanic or Old French. Si Lodhuvigs sagrament qua; son fradre Karlo jurat conservat, et Karlus raeos sendra de suo part non lo stanit, si io returnar non lint pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li iver. LITERAL ENGLISH. If Lewis keeps the oath which to his brother Charles he swore, and Charles my Seignior (Lord) on his part does not keep it, if I cannot prevent him, neither I, nor any one whom I can prevent, shall give him any assistance against Lewis. Oath of Lewis's army, in Francic or Old German. Oba Karl then eid, then er sinemo bruodher Ludhuuuige gesuor geleistit, indi Ludhuuuig min herro then er imo gesuor forbrihchit, ob ih inan es iruuenden ne mag, noh ih noh thero nohhein, then ih es iruuenden mag, uuidhar Karle imo ce foUusti ne uuirdhu. LITERAL GERMAN. Wenn Karl den Eid, den er seinem Bruder Ludwig schwur, leistet (halt) und Ludwig, mein Herr (den Eid), den er ihm schwur, bricht, wenn ich ihn davon abwenden (abhalten), nicht kann, (so) werden weder ich, noch deren einer, den ich davon abwenden (abhalten) kann ihm wider Karl zu Hiilfe nicht seyn (beistehn). 5 CXXX HIGH-GERMAN — OTFRID, A. D. 850, LITERAL ENGLISH. If Charles keeps the oath, which he swore (to) his brother Lewis, and Lewis ray- Lord breaks the (oath) which he swore (to) him, in case I cannot prevent him, (then) neither I, nor any one whom I can prevent, shall give him any assistance against Charles. 11. Rhabanus Maurus, born at Mayence in 776, became a celebrated teacher at Fulda. His attention was attracted to the German language, and, in a council at Mayence, a.d. 848, he succeeded in passing a canon that in future the clergy should preach in Romanic (French) or Theotisc (German). He died. Archbishop of Mayence, Feb. 4th, 856. Rhabanus Maurus compiled Glossce Latino barharicce de partibus humani corporis Goldast script, rerum Alemannic, vol. i. p. 66 — 69. — Glossarium Latino Theodiscum in tota Biblia F, et N, Test. Goldast. id. 12. Otfrid belonged to the Alemanni or Suabians, and was educated at Fulda under Rhabanus Maurus. He was a Benedictine monk at Weissenburg in Alsace, a learned theologian, philosopher, orator, and poet, who flourished between 840 and 870. Otfrid wrote in rhyme a poetical paraphrase of the Gospels in Alemannic, his native language, to banish the profane songs of the common people. In this work there is a disregard of chronological order, for the poet seems to have written down the circumstances as they came into his mind. The MS. was first discovered by Beatus Rhenanus in the monastery at Freisingen, near Munich; there are two other MSS., one at Heidelburg, and the other at Vienna. It was first published by Flaccius {Elericus), at Basle, 1571, in Schilter's Thes. vol. i. with Scherz's annotations ; also at Bonn in 4to. Bonner Bruchstuche vom Otfried, durch H. Hoffmann von Fallersleben , 1821. Again in 4to. by E. G. Graff, Konigsberg, 1831, under the title of KrisL Otfrid's Krist. Sehet these fogala. thie hiar fliagent obana. zi akare sie ni gangent. ioh ouh uuiht ni spinnent Thoh ni bristit in thes. zi uuaru thoh ginuages. ni sie sih ginerien. ioh scono giuuerien. Biginnet ana scouuon. thie fronisgon bluomon. thar liuti after uuege gent, thie in themo akare stent. Salomon ther richo. ni uuatta sih gilicho. thaz sagen ih iu in ala uuar. so ein thero bluomono thar. Krist by Graff, ii. 22, 9 : p. 165, 9. LITERAL GERMAN. Sehet diese vogel, die hier fliegen obeo. Zum acker sie nicht gehen, und auch nichts nicht spinnen, Doch nicht fehlt ihnen etwas, fiirwahr zum geniigen, Nicht sie sich ernahren, und schon gewahren. Beginnet anzuschauen, die herrlichen blumen (Wo leute nach wage gehen) di in dem acker stehen : Salomon der reiche, nicht kleidete (wattete) sich gleich massig Das sage ich euch in aller wahrheit, so wie eine der blumen dar. HIGH-GERMAN — LUDWIGSLIED, A.D. 883. CXXXi LITERAL ENGLISH. See these fowls, which here fly above. To the field they go not (i. e. they till not), and also nothing spin, Yet want not any thing, they truly have enough, They do not nourish themselves, nor make fine. Begin to look on the splendid flowers (After which people go) standing in the field : Solomon, the rich, did not dress (wodded) himself like (That say I to you, in all truth) one of the flowers there. 13. MuspiLLT, a fragment of an old High-German alliterative Poem on the end of the world, from a MS. of the middle of the 9th century, in the Royal Library at Munich, published by /. A. Schmeller, Munich, 1832. . . . Dar ni mac dennc mak andremo helfan* uora demo muspille* denne* daz preita uuasal allaz uar prinnit' enti uugir enti luft iz allaz arfurpit ; uuar ist denne diu marha dar man dar heo* mit sinen ma gon piehc ; Thus arranged and corrected by Schmeller. Dar ni mac denne mak andremo helfan vora demo Muspille. Denne daz preita wasal allaz varprinnit, enti viur enti luft iz allaz arfurpit, war ist denne diu marha,. dar man dar eo mit sinen magon piehc ? LITERAL GERMAN. . . . . Da mag Kein Mage dem anderen helfen vor dem Muspille wenn die breite Erdflache ganz verbrennet, und Feuer und Luft ist ganz verworfen ; wo ist dann die marke, darum man hier mit seinen magen strit ? LITERAL ENGLISH VERSION. • . . . Then may no kindred assist the other for the Muspille. When the broad surface of the earth all is burning, and fire and air are all cast away ; where is then the mark about which one has been quarrelling here with his relatives ? 14. LuDwiGSLiED, a German heroic song by an unknown author, in praise of the East Francic King Lewis III. in the year a.d. 883. The MS. was originally at St. Amand, near Tournay, but it is now lost. It was published first in Schiller's Thes., then by Docen, Munich, 1813, and in 1835 in WackernageV s Altdeutsches Lesebuch, 8vo. Basel, p. 46. HEROIC SONG. Sang uuas gesungen. Thar vaht thegeno geUh, Uuig uuas bigunnen : Nichein so so Hluduuig : Bluot skein in uuangon, Snel indi kuoni, Spilod under vrankon. Thaz uuas imo gekunni. CXXxii HIGH-GERMAN — NOTKER, 1020. LITERAL GERMAN. Sang war gesungen, Da focht Degen (heroes) gleich Kampf war begonnen, Keiner so wie Ludwig, Blut schien in Wangen Schnell und kiihn, Kampfender Franken. Das war ihm angeboren. Schilter, Thes. vol. ii. p. 17. LITERAL ENGLISH. Song was sung, There fought like a hero Fight was begun : Not one so as Lewis, Blood shone in the cheeks Quick and bold, Of fighting Francs. Which was in him inborn. 15. Saxon Emperors. During the reign of the Saxon emperors, from 919 till 1024, literature and science made some progress. The Ottoes valued and loved the sciences, and patronised Gerbert the most learned man of their time. Gerbert became pope under the name Silvester II. and died 1003. 16. NoTKER wrote in the period of the Saxon emperors. The only important monument in High-German literature of this age is a translation and commentary on the Psalms by this learned monk, Notker of St. Gallen. He was called Labeo, from his broad lips. His Alemannic translation is free and natural ; and, as it respects power and strength of expression, it equals the best modern translation. Notker died in 1022. His work was published in Schilter' s Thes. vol. i. PsALM I. 1 . Beatus vir qui non abiit in consilio impiorum^ Der man ist salig, der in dero argon rat ne gegieng. So Adam teta, do er dero chenun rates folgeta uuider Gote, Sicut adam fecit, cum mulieris consilium sequeretur adversus Deum. Et in via peccatorum non stetit. Noh an dero sundigon uuege ne stuont. So er teta. Er cham dar ana, er cham an den breiten uueg ter ze hello gat, unde stuont dar ana, uuanda er hangta sinero geluste. Hengendo stuont er. Sicut idem fecit. Processit eo, processit ad viam latam qui ad Infernum ducit, et stetit ibi, namque pendebat a concupiscentia sua. Pen- dulus stetit. Et in cathedra pestilenticB non stetit. Noh an demo suhtstuole ne saz. Ih meino daz er richeson ne uuolta, uuanda diu suht sturet sie nah alle. So sie adamen teta, do er Got uuolta uuerden. Pestis chit latine pecora sternens (fieo niderslahinde) so pestis sih kebreitet, so ist iz pestilentia, i. e. late peruagata pestis (uuito uuallonde sterbo). Intelligo, quod gubernare, (pro tribunali) nollet. Namque hcec pestis corripuitfere omnes, sicut Adamo fecit, quum vellet Deus fieri. Pestis dicitur Latine, quasi pecora sternens. Quando pestis se dilatat, dicitur Pestilentia, i. e. late pervagata pestis. 17. After the extinction of the Saxon emperors, the line of Salian Francs governed in Germany from a. d. 1024 to 1125. The authors of this period generally wrote in Latin. Adam, called Bremensis, born HIGH-GERMAN — BOETHIUS, 1024. CXXxiil at Meissen, Canon at Bremen, wrote in Latin a History of the Church which gives an account of Hamburg and Bremen, from the time of Charlemagne to Henry IV. It is of great value for the history of North Germany. 18. German literature had very few monuments in the time of the Salian Francs : the language is very stiff and mixed with Latin. The few specimens of German, in this period, are translations, such as the version of Boethius and Aristotle, by an unknown monk of St. Gallen, and the paraphrase of Canticum Canticorum by Willeram. E. G. Graff, in his Althochdeutschen Sprachschatz, vol. i. No. I. pref. p. xxxvi. 4to. Berlin, 1834, mentions a St. Gallen MS. of the 10th and 11th century, containing an old High-German translation of Boethius Cons, philos., and gives a specimen of this translation. The following extract is in- teresting, from the additions which the monk makes to the Latin text of Boethius,* showing the astronomical knowledge of his time. Boethius. Uuir uuizen. daz tia erda daz uuazer umbe gat. unde der fierdo tell nahor obenan erbarotist. an demo sizzent tie mennisken. Ter himel leret unsih. taz iz ter fierdo teil ist. AUe die astronomiam chunnen. die bechennent taz agquinoctialis zona den himel rehto in zuei teilet. unde fone iro ze dien uzerosten polls iouueder halb eben f ilo ist ih melno ze demo septentrlonall. unde ze demo australi. So 1st tiu erda sinuuelbiu. unde ist uns unchunt. ube si. undenan erbarot si. obenan dar si erbarot ist. tar sizzent tie liute ab aethioplco oceano. usque ad sclthlcum oceanum. Tie ferrost sizzent ad austrum. die sizzent In aethlopicls Insulls. tien ist tlu sunna obe houbete. so si gat iizer arlete In uerno tempore, unde so si beginnet kan in libram in autumno Graffs Sprachschatz, pref. p. xxxvi. LITERAL ENGLISH. We know that the water goes round the earth, and the fourth part above is bare ; on it sit the men. The heaven learns (teaches) us that it is the fourth part. All, who know astronomy, confess that the equinoctial zone divides the heaven right in two, and that from it to the uttermost pole of each half is an equal distance, I mean to the north, and to the south. So is the earth round, and it is to us unknown, if it be bare underneath ; above, where it is bare, there sit the people from the Ethiopian ocean to the Scythian ocean. The farthest sitting to the south, they sit in Ethiopian islands ; to those is the sun over head, when he goes out of Aries in the spring, and when he begins to go into Libra in autumn. 19. Parable of the Sower, in old High-German, taken from MS. fragments of Homilies in the Imperial Library at Vienna, written at the beginning of the 11th century, and printed in Lamhecsii Commentariis, &c. 2nd edit. 1. 1 1 , p. 550 : Schilter, vol. i. p. 76, at the end. Lk. 8 Unser Herro der almahtige Got der sprichet in desmi Euangelio, suenne der acchirman salt sinen samen, so fellit sumelichis pi demo uuege, unde uuirdit firtretin, oder is essant die uogile. * Boethius de consolatione philosophiae, 12mo. Lugd. Batavorum, 1656. p. 42, Prosa 7. — King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Translation, with an excellent English Version by Cardale, ch. xviii. 1, p. 95. CXXXIV HIGH-GERMAN — ST. ANNO, A.D. 1090. 20. WiLLERAM was educated at Fulda. He died 1085, abbot of the monastery Ebersberg in Bavaria, and probably composed his Paraphrase between 1070 and 1084. MSS. are preserved at Vienna, Breslaw, Stuttgard, Einsicdeln, published with this title, Willerami Abbatis in Canticum Canticorum paraphrasis, Latina et veteri lingua Francica, ed. P. Merula, Leyden, 1598, and by F. Fogelin, Worms, 1631, and in Schilter's Thes. Also by Hoffman, Breslaw, 1827. Sage mir uuine min. uua du dine scaf uueidenes. uua du ruouues umbe mitten dag. Umbe uuaz biten ih des? Daz ih niet Irre ne beginne gen. unter den corteron dinero geseUon. Kunde mir o sponse. den ih mit alien chreften minno. uuer die uerae fidei doctores sin. die dine scaf uuisen ad pascua uitae. unte die solich sin. daz du in iro herzen dir hereberga machest. unte sie beskirmes ab omni feruore temptationis Schilter's Thes. vol. i. p. 6, in fine. LITERAL GERMAN. Sage mir, mein Geliebter, wo du deine Schafe weidest, wo du ruhest um Mittag. Warum warte ich dessen ? dass ich nicht irre noch fehl gehe unter den Hiirden deiner Gesellen. Verkiinde mir, o Gespons, den ich aus alien Kraften liebe, wer die verge fidei doctores sind, die deine Schafe weisen ad pascua vitae, und die solche sind, dass du in ihren Herzen Herberge machest und sie beschirmst ab omnifervore temptationis. VERBAL ENGLISH VERSION. Say to me, my beloved, where thou pasturest thy sheep, where thou restest at midday. For what ask I this? That I may not err, nor begin to go among the number of thy companions. Inform me, O bridegroom, whom I love with all might, who are the teachers of true faith, who show thy sheep to the pastures of life, and who are such that you make dwellings in their hearts, and shelter them from all heat of temptation. 21. St. Anno. The praises of the archbishop of Cologne, St. Anno, who died 1075, concludes this period. The writer is unknown, but this poem was probably composed, soon after St. Anno's death, before the end of the 1 1th century. It is in rhyme, and consists of forty-nine stanzas, written, as Herzog says, in the Low-Rhinish or Francic dialect (Nieder Rhinisch). Meusel calls it Alemannic. Fragments of this poem were first published by Martin Opitz, 1639, who discovered them at Breslaw. The MS. is lost. It was printed by Schilter and others, and in 1816 by Goldmann. All the latter editions depend on the first incorrect publication. MAN S INGRATITUDE. Mit bluomin cierint sich diu lant, mit loube dekkit sich der wait ; daz wilt habit den sinin ganc, scone ist der vogil sane : ein iwelich ding die e noch havit, diemi got van erist virgab : newaere die zuei gescephte, di her gescuoph die bezziste, die virk^rten sich in die dobeheit dannin huobin sich diu leith. Wackernagel, '^. 117. LITERAL GERMAN. Mit Blumen zieren sich die Lande, Mit Laube decket sich der Wald, Das Wild hat seinen Gang Schon ist der Vogelsang ; Ein jeglich Ding das Gesetz noch hat, Das ihm Gott zuerst gab. Nur die zwei Geschopfe, Die er schuf die besten. Die verkehrten sich in die Tollheit, Davon erhub sich das Leid. HIGH-GERMAN — MINNESINGERS, NIBELUNGEN, A.D. 1150. CXXXV POETICAL VERSION. The flow'rs adorn the fields, Save the two latest born, Green leaves bedeck the groves, Whom noblest, best, he framed ; The beasts their courses run. They spurn his high command, Soft rings the sweet bird's song : And turn to folly's course, All things obey the laws From hence began the pain.* That God creating gave, 22. Te Deum of the \2th century. '\ Prof. Graff observes that the MS. is of the 12th century. It was originally the property of the monastery of St. Maria at Windberg, and contains many very rare v^rords and expressions. The following extract is from the MS. in the Royal Library at Munich. It is inserted in the Diutiska of Prof, C. G, Graff, vol. iii. No. III. p. 459. Daz lobesanch dere saligen bischoue den si sungen Ymmcs beatorum episcoporum Ambrosii ef Augustini quern cantaverunt deme herren wehsellichen unter in fure die becherde des uileheiteren lerares domino vicissim inter se pro conversione preclari doctoris unde uateres, Dih got wir loben Dih herren wir ueriehen dih ewigen et patris Augustini. Te deum laudamus te dominum confitemur. Te ceternum uater eUiu diu erde erwirdit. Dir alle engile dir die himile unde alle patrem omnis terra veneratur. Tihi omnes angeli tibi coeli et universes gualte Dir die guizzeneuolle. unde die minnefiurige mit untuallicher stimme potestates. Tibi cherubim et seraphim incessabili voce furruoffent. Heiliger heiliger heiliger herro got dere here. Voile sint himile proclamant. Sanctus, sancfus, sanctus dominus deus sabaoth. Pleni sunt cceli unde erde dere magenchrefte eren diner. et terra maiestatis glorice tucR. MiNNESINGERS.J 23. German national 'poetry and prose compositions, from the \2th to the \^th century. The HohenstaufFen or Suabian race of German emperors w^ere great admirers and promoters of literature. Frederic I., Henry VI., Frederic II. and Conrad IV. were themselves poets, as well as the patrons of Minnesingers. A few of the chief Minnesingers and other authors will no-w be mentioned. 24. The Nibelungen Lied, or Song of the Nibelungen, is one of the most ancient and perfect Suabian epic poems. Pelegrin, bishop of Passau, who died in 991, is supposed to have collected the story of the Nibelungen, and to have written it in Latin by the aid of his scribe Conrad. The present poem is probably founded upon the Latin, and apparently written by Henry of Ofterdingen, about the middle of the 12th century. The following specimen and the EngUsh version are from the interesting * This flowing and spirited translation, with some others that follow, is taken from Lays of the Minnesingers, Svo. Longman, London, 1825, a valuable little work, which is full of interesting information respecting the Minnesingers, and contains many beautiful specimens of their poetry. t See § 4, for a specimen of the Te Deum in German of the 8th century. X Minne love, Sanger singer. CXXXVi HIGH-GERMAN — MINNESINGERS, RISPACH, A.D. 1207. work, "Lays of the Minnesingers y^ p. 114: the substance of the extract will be found in the edition of van der Hagen, 8vo. Berlin, 1807, p. 47, verse 1145. SONG OF THE NIBELUNGEN. Sam der liehte mane Vor der sternen stat, Der schin so luterliche Ab' den wolchen gat, Dem stunt si nu geliche Vor maneger vrowen gut ; Des wart da wol gehohet Den zieren helden der mut. FREE ENGLISH VERSION. And as the beaming moon Rides high the stars among. And moves with lustre mild The mirky clouds along ; So, midst her maiden throng, Up rose that matchless fair ; And higher swell' d the soul Of many a hero there. 25. Walter tJo;2 . 1431, from a MS. at Munich. Lk. viii. 3 (Do ain michel menig cham zue iesu vnd von den stetten eilten zv im do sprach er ain peichspill) der Akcherman gie aus saen seinen samen. — 4. Vnd do er gesaett, do viell ain sam peij dem weg vnd ward vertreten und azzn in auch die vogel. 36. Gospels for every day of the year {Evangelien auf alle Tage des Jahres), from a MS. at Munich, about 1450. Domin. Sexagesima. Lk. viii. 3 — Do ein michl menig chdm zu jhm vnd vo de stetn eylten zu jm do sprach er ein peyspill d' ackerman gye aus sand sein same, — 4. vnd do er gesat do viel ein same pey de weg vnd wart vertretten vnd gassn jn auch die vogl. 37. Ain Postil uherdij Evangelij\ from a MS. at Munich, about 1460. Lk. viii. 3. — (Vnd da das volck nu chom zu im da hueb er auf und sagt in ain peyspil vnd sprach) Es gie ain man aus zu ainen zeitn vnd sat, 4. vnd da er nu ward seen da viel ain sam zu dem weg vnd der ward vertreten vnd dartzu komen die vogel und assn den samsn. 38. Bible in High-German {teuische Bibel). One of the earliest Bibles, but without date; some say it was printed at Mayence, 1462, others at Strasburg, 1466. Mk. iv. 3. — Hort secht der Seer gieng aus ze seen. 4. Vnd do er seet : der ein viel bey dem Weg, vnd die Vogel des Himels kamen vnd assen jn. CXl HIGH-GERMAN — PARABLE OF THE SOWER, 1522. 39. A Plenarium {Sammlung der Episteln und Evangelien), Augs- burg, 1473. Mk. iv. 3 Er get auss der da saen will seinen samen vn sat, 4. Vnd als er saet, das ein felt in den weg. vnd wirt vertratten, vnd die Vogel des hymels die essent es aufF. 40. Plenarium, Augsburg s 1474. Mk. iv. 3 — Delist aussgangen der da seet zu seen seinen somen, — 4. Vn als er seet da ist einer gefallen an den weg vnnd ist getretten worden, vnnd auch die vogel des himels habendt den gegessen. 41. Bible (teutsch), Augsburg, 1476. Mk. iv — Hort secht d' da seet der ist aussgegange ze seen. Vnd da er seet. der ein viel bey dem weg vn die vogel des hymels kamen vnd assen in. 42. Bible {teutsch), Augsburg, 1487. Mk. iv — Hort. secht. der do seet, der ist aussgegangen ze seen. Vnd do er seet. der ein viel bey dem weg. vnd die vogel des hymmels kamen vnd assen jn. 43. Bible, printed by H. Schonsperger, Augsburg, 1490. Mk. iv. — Hort. sehet. der da saet. d' ist aussgegangen ze saen. Vnnd da er saet. der ein viel bey dem weg. vnd die vogel des hymmels kamen vnnd assen jn. 44. Gospels, Strasburg, 1517. Lk. viii — Do zuomal als vil volcks gesamme kam zu Jesu, vn vo de stette zu im ylte. Jn der zeit da sagt er ine ein gleichniss Der da seiet d' ist vssgangen zu seen seinen some. Vn als der seet da ist etlichs gefalle in de weg, vn ist zertrette worden vn die vogel des himels haben es gessen. 45. Dr. Keiserssberg's Postil, Strasburg, 1522. Am Sonnentag Sexagesimas. Horet (sprach der her) nement war, der d' do seyet ist vssgange zu seyen seine some. Vn so er seyt, ist d' ander som gefalle vff de weg. (secus via, uit neben den weg. er wer sust i de acker gefalle) vn ist zertrette worde vo den wadleren, vn die fogel des himels seind kumen vn habend den vfpgessen. 46. New Testament, Zurich, 1524. Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horend zu, sich es gieng ein sayer vss zu sayen, vn es begab sich in dem er sayet, fiel etlichs an den weg, do komend die vogel vnder dem himel vnd frassends vfF. 47. Bible, by Dr. I. Eck, Ligolstadt, 1537. Mk. iv. 3 Horet zu, Sihe, Ainer der da saiet, gieg auss : zu saien : — 4. Vnd in dem er saiet. fiel etlichs an den weg, da kamen die vogel des lufts vnd frassens auf. 48. New Testament {Deutssch), Wittenberg, 1522. Mk. iv. 3 — Horet zu, Sihe, Es, gieng eyn seeman aus zu seen, — 4. vnd es begab sich, ynn dem er seet, fiel ettlichs an den weg, da kamen die vogel vnter dem hymel vnd frassens auf. HIGH-GERMAN — LUTHER's BIBLE, 1545. Cxll 49. History of the Gospels {Evangelisch Hijstori), by Othmaren Nachtgall, Augsburg, 1525. Mk. iv. 3 Es was ainer ausgegangen zu seen seynen Somen, — 4. Vnnder dem ainer gefallen was aufF den Weg, vn zertretten worden, auch hetten in die Vogel des Hymels aufFgessen. 50. Bible, Zurich, 1530. Mk. iv. 3 Horend zu, sihe, es gieng ein Sayer auss ze sayen, — 4. vnd es begab sich in dem er sayet, fiel etliches an den wag, do kamend die vogel vnder dem himel, vnd frassends auf. 51. The present German language* (Hoch-Deutsch) has a greater affinity to the Alemannic and Francic than to the Platt-Deutsch. This inclination towards the High-German, or southerly branch of the German dialects, arose from the influence of Luther at the Reformation. Luther was Professor of Divinity at Wittenberg, where the high dialect prevailed, and in which he wrote his translation of the Bible. The New Testament first published in 1523, and the Old Testament from 1523 to 1534, was revised and the whole Bible published from 1541 to 1545. This revised translation soon became generally known, and the numerous students that crowded Wittenberg to benefit by the lectures of Luther, and subse- quently dispersed into the different provinces, carried with them this High-German version, and a predilection for this dialect. Thus High- German became generally known, and was adopted as the language of the church, the learned, and the press. This tongue spread with the Reformation, and as it advanced in extent it increased in perfection, till it has become one of the most cultivated and extensive of all the Gothic or Teutonic dialects. It not only prevails in the German confederacy, but in the north of Switzerland, Alsace, in a great part of Hungary, Transylvania, Bohemia, the kingdom of Prussia, in Schleswick, part of Jutland, and in Russia as far north as Courland. Amongst the Germans are writers of the first order in every branch of literature and science : they are most prolific in the production of new works, nor can any easily exceed them in freedom of inquiry, in labour, or erudition. 52. Bible, by Dr. M. Luther, Wittenberg, 1545. Mk. iv. 3 Horet zu ! Sihe, es gieng ein Seeman aus zu seen 4. Vnd es begab sich, in dem er seet, fiel etlichs an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel unter dem Himel vnd frassens auff. 53. Der Layen Biblia, by J. Freydang, Frankfort, 1569. Lk. viii Es gieng ein Saemann auss seim Hauss, Zu s'aen seinen Samen auss, Vnd etlichs fiel an weges gstetn, Das wurd gentzlich in staub vertretn, Vnd die Vogel vnder dem Himml Frassen das auff mit eim gewimbl : Auff den Felsen fiel etliches, Da es auffgieng verdorret es. * For the origin of the Germans and their name, see § II. 1, 2, 3, note (f) . cxlii HIGH-GERMAN — REINEKE DE VOS, 1830. 54. The Froschmauseler, oder der Frosch und Maiise wunderbare Hoflialtung, The court of the frogs and mice, Magdeburg, 1595, 8vo. is one of the most remarkable epic poems. It was written by George Rol- lenhagen, who was born 1542, at Bernau in Brandenburg, and died 1609, when rector of the Latin school of Magdeburg. He attempts to describe eternity in the following striking allegory. ETERNITY. * * * * Ewig, Ewig, ist lange Zeit. Wer ein Sandberg uns vorgestelt, Viel grosser denn die gantze Welt, Und ein Vogel all tausend lahr kem, Auff einmahl nur ein Kornlein nem, Und Gott uns denn erlosen wolt, Wenn er das letzte Kornlein holt, So wer Hoffnung das uns elende, Zwar langsam, aber doch het ein ende. Nun bleiben wir iu Gotten Zorn Ohn all Hoffnung ewig verlorn. Chap. xiii. ENGLISH VERSION. * * * For ever and ever is a long time. Were a heap of sand before our eyes, Exceeding the whole world in size, And a bird ev'ry thousand years should come, To take but a single grain therefrom. And God would grant deliverance When the last grain were taken thence, We might have hope that our wretched state, Tho' long, might yet stiU terminate. But now beneath God's wrath we lie Lost, without hope, eternally. Morrell. 55, Bible, Nuremberg, 1703, 1708, &c. Mk. iv. 3 — Horet zu, Sihe, es gieng ein Sae-Mann aus zu saen. — 4. Und es begab sich, in dem er saete, fiel etliches an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel unter dem Himmel, und frassens auf. 56. New Testament, translated by J. Maria, Passau Mk. iv. 3. Horet : siehe, es gieng ein Samann aus zu saen. — indem er saete, fiel ein Theil an den Weg, da kamen die Vogel, 57. A High-German translation of Reineke de Vos as the Low-German of Henry van Alkmar, by Dietrich Ltineburg, 1830. This extract will not only serve modern High-German, but as an example of the dialects.* , in Bavaria, 1 752. 4. Und es begab sich, und frassen es auf. in the same metre Wilhelm Soltau, as a specimen of difference in the REINEKE DE VOS. Es war an einem Mayentag, Wie Blum' und Laub die Knospen brach ; Die Krauter sprossten ; froh erklang Im Hain der Vogel Lobgesang ; Der Tag war schon, und Balsamduft Erfullte weit umher die Luft ; Als Konig Nobel, der machtige Leu, Ein Fest gab, und liess mit Geschrey Hoftag verkiinden liberall. Da kamen hin mit grossem Schall Viel edle Herr'n und stolze Gesellen ; Es war kaum moglich sie zu zahlen. Der Kranich Liitke, Matz der Staar Und Marks der Haher kamen sogar ; Denn Nobel woUte Herr'n und Sassen Ein frohes Gastmahl feyern lassen ; Darum er aUes her berief, Was ging, was kroch, was flog, was lief, Thier' und Gevogel, gross und klein, Bis auf Reinhard den Fuchs allein, Der sich so frevelhaft benommen, Dass er nicht durft' nach Hofe kommen. Wer Bbses thut, der scheu't das Licht So ging's auch diesem falschen Wicht ; Er hatt' am Hofe schlimmen Geruch, Drum er zu kommen Bedenken trug. * See Dutch, VI. 17; and Low-German, V. 26. HIGH-GERMAN — PROVINCIAL DIALECTS, 1827. cxliii 5S. A free High -German translation of Henry van Alkmar's Reineke de Vos by Goethe. Pfingsten, das liebliche Fest, war gekommen ; Es grunten und bliithen Feld und Wald ; auf Hiigeln und Hohn, in Biischen und Hecken Uebten ein frohliches Lied die neuermunterten Vogel ; Jede Wiese sprosste von Blumen in duftenden Griinden, Festlich heiter glanzte der Himmel und farbig die Erd. Nobel, der Konig, versammelt den Hof ; und seine Vasallen Eilen gerufen herbey mit grossem Geprange ; da kommen Viele stolze Gesellen von alien Seiten und Enden, Liitke, der Kranich, und Markart der Haher und alle die Besten. Denn der Konig gedenkt mit alien seinen Baronen Hof zu halten in Feyer und Pracht ; er lasst sie berufen Alle mit einander, so gut die grossen als kleinen. Niemand soUte fehlen ! und dennoch fehlte der eine, Reinecke Fuchs, der Schelm ! der viel begangenen Frevels Halben des Hofs sich enthielt. So scheuet das bose Gewissen Licht und Tag, es scheute der Fuchs die versammleten Herren. 59. The Modern German of 1835 only differs in orthography from the first edition of Luther's Bible of 1545.* High-German Provincial Dialects. 60. The following are a few specimens of the various provincial dialects spoken in Upper Germany in 1827. 61. Swiss provincial dialect in the canton Zurich, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — Losat uf, as ischt en Ackhersma uffs Fald ganga ge saen 4. Und da er gsat hat, ischt bbbis a d' Strass gfalla, da sind d' Vogel cho und hands ufgrassa. 62. Swiss provincial dialect in the canton Uri, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 Hbrt zuo, ksoscht, a Ma ischt ussganga go sa'i'a ; 4. und wie 'ne sait, falt'n bpis an die Strass, da sind die Vogel cho, und hand's aweg gefrassa. 63. SuABiAN provincial dialect near the Alps^ 1827. Mk. iv. 3 Losat und luogad, as ischt a Sayer ussi ganga z' saiid ; — 4. Und wie ear g'sait heat, ischt a Doal uf a Weag, g'falla, den henn-da d' Vogel g'noh', und ufg'freassa. 64. SuABiAN provincial dialect about Stuttgard, 1827. Mk. iv. 3. — Hbhret me an : A Bauer ischt zum saa naus ganga ufs Feld 4. Abbes vom rumg' streuta Sohma ischt uf da Weeg g'falla, do sind d' Vogel komma, und hends g'fressa. Q>5. SuABiAN provincial dialect about Ulm, 1827. Mk. iv. 3.— Hairet zue, seand, es ischt a Saema ausganga z' saea 4. Und wia ar g'saet haut, do ischt a Thoil an Weag g'falla, da send d' Vegel komma und hannds aufg' fressa. 66. Alsacian dialect about Sirasburg, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — Hert, siet der Ackersmann esch iissgange zu'm Saije 4. Un wie er g'saijit hatt, esch eins (ebbs) ouf de Waij g'falle ; da sind d' Vogel komme ounterm Himmfel, un bans oufFg'frasse. * See § 51, 52. CXiiv HIGH-GERMAN — PROVINCIAL DIALECTS, 1827. 67. Saltzburg dialect, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — Hoscht's : Schau, 6s gang a Samon aus zum San. — 4. Und 6s gab si, indem a sat, void a Doal an dem Wog, da kaman d' Vogl und frass'ns auf. 68. TiROLESE dialect, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — Da hearts a Mai zue ; as ischt a Mai a Paur ze san aussi gangn 4. und as ischt g'schbch'n, wie ear g' sant hat, ischt oan Thail afFn Wog g' fall'n, und da hann d' Fogl kemmen, und hib'ns afFg'frossen. 69. Bavarian dialect about Eichstadt, 1 827. Mk. 4. 3 — Iza schau ! a Baur is zum san ganga 4. Und do, wi-a gsat hat, iss epas an Weg hing'falln ; des hSbn d' Vogl wek g'fressn. 70. Bavarian dialect about Munich, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — Lossts enk sogiig ! a Moi is a Baur aufs Sahn' naus ganga 4. Und wia r-a denn do g'saht hot, is e'am a Thoai Samma-r-ann Weg no gfoin ; do sann d' Vogl vonn Himmi ro kemma, und hammatn aufg'frbssn. 71. Bavarian dialect about Nuremberg, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 — Hbirt zou, segt, es iss a Bauer (a Saemoh) ausganga z'saea. — 4. Und dau hauls es si zoutrign, wbi er g'sat hlut, iss etli's an Weeg g'falln ; da senn die Viigel unterm Himmel kumma und hSbens afg'fressn. 72. Dialect about Frankfort on the Maine, (Sachsenhausen), 1827. Mk. iv. 3 Hihrt zou, Sich, es gung e Mol a Sihmann enausser z' sihn. — 4. Unn do hot sech's begawwe, wai er gesiht hot, fail Epas d'rvun an'n Wag ; do senn (sain) di Vigel unnerm Hemmel kumme, unn hlwwe's uffgefresse. ^73. Dialect of Wetteravia, or the district enclosed by the Sahn, Rhine, and Maine, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 Hirt zou ! Sich, es geng e mohl e Sehmann naus, der wullt sihe, — 4. Onn wei e set', do feil a Dal uf de Wek ; da kohme de Vigel onnerm Himmel onn frossens uf. 74. Hessian dialect about Kassel, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 Hehrt zu, sich, es gink en Sehmann us ze sehen. 4. Un es begab ;sich, wie ha (he) sehte, fiel etliches uf den Wak ; do kamen de Vaggel unner dem Himmel und frassens uf. 75. High-Saxon dialect about Leipsic, 1827. Mk. iv. 3 Hurt zu saht ! 's gung a mal a Siamann aus zu sian. — 4. Un da ha siate, da feel eeniges an'n Wag ; da kamen de Vegel (Veggel) unggern Himmel, un frassens uf. 76. High-Saxon dialect about Ansbach, 1827. Mk. iv. 3. — Hart zu ! sich, es gieng a Soama aufs Soa aus 4. und es iss g' seheg'n, indemm ehr sate, fiel Etlichs an den Weeg. Doa kamm die Viegel unt'rn Himmel und frassens auf. cxlv XI.-SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE,* INCLUDING A SKETCH OF THE LAN^ GUAGES OF ICELAND, DENMARK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN. I. Iceland has been supposed to be the remote Thule f of Virgil, Pliny, and other classical authors ; but it is more probable, that when they mention Thule, they refer to part of South Norway, probably the province of Tellemark. It is denominated Thyle } by king Alfred in his translation of Boethius, and Thila § in his Orosius. The cluster of islands called Ferroes were discovered by Scandinavian navigators at an early period, and in a. d. 861, Naddod, a Norwegian, was driven by storms on the coast of Iceland, which, from the snow, he named Snoeland. Soon after, Gardar Svarf arson, a Swede, by circumnavigation, ascertained it to be an island, and named it Gardarsholm, or the island of Gardar ;\\ it has, however, become generally known by the descriptive name Iceland.^ 2. Harald Hdrfager, or the Fairhaired, subduing all the petty kings of Norway, obtained the supreme power about A. d. 863, and continued king of Norway till his death in 934. Some of the independent and high- spirited nobles spurned the usurped authority of Harald, and when. In their deadly feuds, they had slain an adversary, or in some other way broken the laws, rather than submit to Harald, they fled to Iceland, a land of prodigies, where subterraneous fires burst through the frozen soil, and boiling springs shoot up amidst eternal snows ; where the powerful genius of liberty, and the no less powerful genius of poetry, have given most brilliant proofs of the energies of the human mind at the remotest confines of animated nature.** Among those who first fled to this land of freedom, we have, in 874, a record of Ingolf, the son of a Norwegian Jarl, Comes, or Earl, and his brother-in-law Hjorleif, who landed on the promontory on the south-east coast, still called Ingolf- shodi. In the next century, Thornvald with his son Erik, surnamed Raudi or the red,tt escaped to Iceland. In the space of 50 or 60 years * This short sketch is much indebted to the important works published by The Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen, a Society which claims the especial attention of Englishmen. While too much praise cannot be given to the Professors Finn Magnusen and Rafn, as well as to the late Professor Rask, and the other active members of this institution, for their erudite publications, feelings of the highest respect and the warmest gratitude must ever be excited, when the author recollects the constant literary communica- tions, and the very friendly assistance of Dr. Rafn and Dr. Rask. An account of part of Professor Rafn's valuable works will be found in § 17, 18, and 19. t The ultima Thule of Virgil, Georg. i. 30, and Pliny, iv. 16. X Bt. 29, 3; Card. p. 166, 1. § Ors. 1, 1 ; Bar. p. 31, 1. II Islands Landnamabok, sive Liber originum Islandiae, I. 1. I'slendinga Sogur, I. p. 25, 26. Schoening, Norges Riges, Historie, vol. ii. p. 101. Wheaton's Hist, of Northmen, p. 17. ^ Icl is ice, land land. Dr. Ingram thinks, in Orosius, Bar. 25, 4, Ira-land ought to be Isa- land. Inaugural Led. p. 79, note q. — Isa-land is the reading adopted by Professor Rask. ** Malte Brunts Geog. vol. v. p. 98. tt Landndmabok, i. 6 — 8. Schoening, vol. i. p. 107. Malte Brunts Geog. vol. v. p. 98. Cxlvi SCANDINAVIAN— ICELANDIC SKALDS. the inhabitable parts of Iceland were occupied by refugees from Norway, who brought with them their families and a numerous retinue of depen- dants. Here they were amply repaid for their hardships and toil, in this severe clime, by the full enjoyment of liberty and independence ; here they imported their language^ the old Danish, their rites of heathen worship, and their civil institutions. They established a great national assembly, held annually, where all freeholders had a right to be present. This assembly bore a great re'semblance to the Anglo-Saxon Witena- gemot, and was called Al\)ing* The president of this meeting was elected for life, and was denominated Ldgsoguma^rf or Promulgator of the law. Iceland continued this species of government, or republic, for about three centuries, that is, till a.d. 1275, when it became subject to the kings of Norway. Christianity was introduced into Iceland about the end of the 10th century, and was established in 1016. 3. Iceland, in its pagan state, had a literature, a poetry, and mytho- logy, peculiarly its own. The Icelanders preserved their learning and history in oral tradition, by means of their Skalds^ who were at once poets and historians. These Skalds were a sort of travelling minstrels, who composed and recited the praises of kings and heroes in verse, and continually migrated from one northern country to another. They were the chroniclers, and often the companions of kings, attended them in their conflicts, and thus, from their presence at the scenes they had to record, they were able to give a lively and faithful description. In the Icelandic language a list is kept of the 230 chief Skalds or poetical historians from Ragnar Lodbrok to Valdemar II. amongst whom are several crowned heads, and celebrated warriors. I| 4. A Saga-man § recalled the memory of past events in prose narratives as the Skalds did in verse. The memory of past transactions was thus transmitted from age to age by the poets or Skalds, and the Saga-men or story-tellers, till the introduction of writing, gave them a fixed and durable record. 5. The literature, mythology, and history of the Icelanders, and the old Scandinavians in general, in their pagan and early christian state, are chiefly preserved in the poetic or elder Edda,1I the prose or younger Edda, and the Sagas, the i^o/a, the HeimsJeringla, the Konungsskuggsjd, and the Landndmahdk. A short account of these works, and their various editions, may be useful.** ♦ ping in Icelandic signifies forum, conventus, a court of justice, an assize ; and al|?ing a general meeting, or assize. t Id. Lbgsaga /. {gen. logsogu) recitatio legum, from log law ; saga a telling, speaking ; ma^r a man, the man propounding the law, X Skald from Id. skalld a poet. \\ Wheaton's History of Northmen, p. 51. § Saga historia, narratio ; matSr ^e«. manns. ace. mann man, that is, a story-teller. ^ Edda a grandmother, quasi prima mater ethnicae religionis. ** A minute account of the Icelandic work's which are published may be found in " Lexicon Islandico Latino- Danicum Biornonis Haldersonii, curd R. K. Raskii, editum Havnice," 4to. 1814. SCANDINAVIAN — S^EMUND's AND SNORRE's EDDAS. cxlvii 6. SiEMUND Stgfussen, a clergyman, born in Iceland ift 1056, was the first compiler of the Poetic Edda. He appears to have written some of these poetic effusions from the recital of contemporary Skalds, and to have collected others from manuscripts. The Icelandic text of the poetic Edda was published in 4to. at Copenhagen in 1787, with a Latin translation, notes, and glossary. A second volume was not printed till 1818, and a third in 1828, by Professor Finn Magnusen. Professor Rask and the Rev. Mr. Afzelius, in 1818, published, at Stockholm, the original of this Edda, carefully accented, and distinguishing i from J, u from v, and o from o. 7. The Poetic Edda contains the Volu-spa* which gives an account of the creation of the universe, and the gods and men who inhabited it. The Grou-galdr or Groa's Magic Song. The Solarljoi or Song of the Sun which is almost entirely S^mund's own composition, containing ideas of a future life, evidently derived from a christian source. The Vajpru^nis-mdi, which is a sort of poetic dialogue between Odin and a famous giant. 8. The GrImnis-ma'l, or the Song of Grimner, describing the habitations of the deities. The Alvis-mal, Hyndlu-ljo^, &c., HymnisquVSa, or the Song of Hymer, &c. Many of these poems can be traced back to the 10th, or even the 9th century. 9. The Prose or younger Edda was written by the famous Snorre SturlesoUy who was born of a noble family in 1 178, at Hvamm on the west coast of Iceland, and was murdered in 1241. The Prose Edda was, therefore, more than a century later than the Poetic. The first edition of the Prose Edda was published in an abridged form at Copen- hagen in 1665, by Resenius, in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin. He appended to this edition the Volu-spa and Hava-mal, two poems from the Poetic Edda. A complete edition of the original text of the Prose Edda was published at Stockholm in 1818, by Professor Rask. The Prose Edda is a course of poetical lectures, drawn up for those young Icelanders who intended to become Skalds or poets. It consists of two parts. The first part, properly called the Edda, explains the mythology of the Poetic Edda, and forms a complete northern Pantheon in the form of fables. The second part is the Skalda or Poetics, which is the art of poetry adopted by the Skalds. It contains a dictionary of poetic synonymes, and the whole art of versification, allitera- tion, species of verse, &c. In explaining the mythology, and illustrating the different species of versification, Snorre extracted the most interesting parts of the Poetic Edda, and thus contrived in the form of dialogues to give the substance of it in a more intelligible form. 10. Nja'la, or Life of the celebrated Icelander, Njall porgeirsson, and his sons. It is beautiful in style, and correct in its statements. The Icelandic text was published at Copenhagen, 1772, in 4to. and a Latin version in 1809. 11. Snorre may be justly called the Herodotus of the north, if we only consider his great historical work, Heimskringla^f or Annals of the Norwegian kings from Odin.iJ: * Volu-spa the oracle or prophecy of vala, gen. volu. t Heims-kringla orbis terrarum ; heimr mundus, kringla orbis. X In this account of the Edda and other Icelandic works, much use has been made of Wheaton's Hist, of Northmen, where more satisfactory information will be found. In Mallet's Northern Antiquities there is an English translation of the Prose Edda, and many useful notes, with the Icelandic text, and an English translation of five pieces of Runic poetry, amongst which is Ragnar Lodbrok. CXlviii SCANDINAVIAN — SAGAS. It was published by Peringskjold, with a Latin and Swedish translation, in 2 vols. fol. Stockholm, 1697, and with a Latin and Danish translation by Schlming and Thorlacius, in 3 vols. fol. Copenhagen, 1777 — 1783, and continued by the younger Thorlacius and Werlavff, in 3 vols. 1813—1826.* 12. KoNUNGSSKUGGSJA'jf or Royal Mirror. This is supposed to be the work of Sverre, king of Norway. It is in the form of dialogue, and gives a view of human life, with practical rules for different stations. It was published in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin, by Halfdan Einarsen, in 4to. 1768, Sorb. 13. The Landna'mabok is an account of the most remarkable events connected with the first settlement of Iceland, its revolutions, and the introduction of Chris- tianity. This history commences in the 9th, and extends to the 12th century. It was begun by Are Frodi, and continued by other hands. Are Frodi was born in Iceland in 1067; he was the friend and fellow-student of Saemund. His work is remarkable as being the earliest historical composition written in the Old Danish or northern tongue, which still remains the living language of Iceland. Only a few fragments of his works are remaining, which have been published under the title of ScJied(B% and Landnamahok.% 14. The Sagas are very numerous. These were popular narratives, recording the lives of kings, chieftains, and noble families. To aid the memory of the Saga-man or Story-teller, he contrived to introduce the most striking metrical passages fi*om the poems of the Skalds. 15. Under the well-directed patronage of The Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen, the following works have appeared. jj FoRNMANNA SoguT, vol. i ^xi. ; Oldnordiske Sagaer, vol. i xi. ; Scripta His- torica Islandorum, vol. i vii. containing — of the historical Sagas, recording events out of Iceland — the history of the Norwegian kings from Olaf Tri/ggvason to Magnus LagabcBtir, and of the Danish kings (Knytlingd) from Harald Blue-tooth to Canute VI., or the period between the middle of the 10th century, and the year 1274; in Icelandic, Danish, and Latin. 16. I'slendInga Sogue, vol. i. ii. containing — of the historical Sagas, recording events in Iceland itself— Are Frodi's SchedcB, Landnamabok,^ and Hei^arviga-, Ljos- vetmnga, Svarfdcela-, Vallnaljots-, Vemundar ok Viga-Skutu, and Viga- Glums Sagas, in Icelandic. 17. The following works are edited by the learned Secretary of the Society, Professor Rafn : — Fcereymga Saga, or the history of the inhabitants of the Farroes ; in Icelandic, the Farroe dialect, and Danish, and with a map of the islands. 18. Fornaldar Sbgur Nor^rlanda, vol. i — ^iii. ; Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, vol. i. — ill., being a complete edition of the mytho-historical Sagas, recording events in * Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Thorpe, pref. p. iv. note 1. f Rask's A.-S. Gr. by Thorpe, pref. p. iv. note 2. Kougr a king; skuggsia a mirror, speculum. X Are Frodi's Schedse were published by C. Wormius, Oxford, 1716 ; by A. Bussaeus, Copenhagen, 1 733 ; but most correctly by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen in Islendinga Sogur, vol. i. § Wheaton's Northmen, p. 59, 99. Miiller, Saga bibliothek, i. p. 34. SchedcB Ara Prestz Froda urn I'sland, was published in 4to. pp. 26, Skalholt, 1688; Sagan Landndma, in Ato. pp. 182, Skalholt, 1688, Again with a Latin version, index, &c. under the title Islands Land- ndmabok, 4to. pp. 510, Copenhagen, 1774; and in Islendinga Sogur, vol. i. See § 16. II See Annual Report for 1834. ^ See § 13 for the particulars of this work. i SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH. cxlix the north, assignable to the period anterior to the colonization of Iceland, or the era of authentic history ; in Icelandic and Danish. ' 19. Kra'kuma'l, sive Epicediiim Ragnaris Lodbroci,* or Ode on the heroic deeds and death of the Danish king, Ragnar Lodbrok, in England ; in Icelandic, Danish, Latin, and French. This Krdkumal is by some called Lo'^hrokarkvi^u, or the Death- song of Ragnar Lodbrok, who is said to have reigned in Denmark and Sweden in the latter part of the 8th century. f Ragnar invaded Northumbria, and was opposed by Ella, king of Deira. This fact ascertains the date of the event, as Ella usurped the Northumbrian crown in 862, and perished in 867. Ragnar was taken prisoner, and Ella ordered him to be cast into a dungeon, where he might perish by venomous snakes. J This song is sometimes quoted as the composition of Ragnar. § It is probable that the first twenty-three verses constituted the war-song of Ragnar and his followers. The remaining six strophes may have been composed after the king's death by his queen Aslaga, or Kraka, or by some of the contemporary or later skalds. II This song celebrates the fifty-one depredations of Ragnar in various coun^ tries. The death of Ragnar is not only important in an historical point of view, causing his sons Halfden, Ingwar, and Ubbo to undertake an invasion which destroyed the Octarchy of England, and, for a time, dethroned Alfred ; but if the song were composed by him or in his time, it will serve as a very early specimen of the Scan- dinavian language.^ 20. From the Old Danish (Danska tunga) or Scandinavian {Norrcena), spring those languages and dialects which are spoken from the coasts of Greenland to those of Finland, from the Frozen Ocean to the Eider.** This Old Danish was, in its purest state, carried into Iceland by the first Norwegian refugees in the 9th century. Hence the Icelandic is the same language as the Old Danish, and the Icelanders, from their insular and high northern locality, have retained the Old Danish in such purity and with such slight variations, that it may still be considered the living language of Iceland. There is so little difference between the present writing and the most ancient records, that modern Icelandic scholars can read the oldest documents with the greatest facility. * It was first printed in ^-to. at Copenhagen, 1636, in the work of Olaus Wormius, inhis Runir seu Danica Uteratura antiquissima, vulgo Gothica dicta. It was afterwards printed six times more by difierent persons in various forms before it appeared in the original, with an English translation, entitled "Five pieces of Runic Poetry translated from the Icela^idic language" London, 8vo. ^763. These pieces were translated by Dr. Thomas Percy, bishop of Dromore, and inserted at the end of the 2nd vol. of his translation of Mallet's Northern Antiquities. The fifteenth time of its appearance was in 12mo. with the title oi Lodhrokar-Quida; or, the Death- song of Lodhroc, with a free English translation, an Islando- Latino glossary, and explanatory notes, by James Johnstone, printed \_at Copenhagen by Aug. Ferd. Stee7i] 1782. The twenty-seventh form in which this celebrated song has appeared is the most splendid and complete. This is by far the best edition; followed by a Latin and French translation, and a complete critical apparatus, with a minute account of every edition, and a facsimile of the first page of a manu- script found in the Royal Museum, Copenhagen, 1821. The title of this work is "Krdkumal, sive Epicedium Regnaris Lodbroci Regis Dania." — Vide Fornaldar Sogur NortSrlandi, i. p. 305 ; Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, i. p. 282. t Wheaton's Hist, of Northmen, p. 150. X Turner's Hist, of A.-S. bk. iv. ch. iii. Langb. 277. § Asby, Wormius, Bartholin, Stephanius, &c. ; Turner, bk. iv. ch. iii. note 37. II Wheaton's Hist of Northmen, p. 153. ^ See the specimen, § 25. ** Rask's Gr. of the Anglo-Saxon tongue, translated into English by Thorpe, p. 42. Cl SCANDINAVIAN — DANISH LONG BEFORE A.D. 645. Specimens of Old Danish and its dialects, from the earliest age to the present time. 21. A specimen of Old Danish composed by Star had the Old, whose verses are supposed to be the most ancient of all the specimens of the Danska Tunga that are still extant, but the precise age of which is not ascertained,* though it was long before a.d. 645. OLD DANISH. MODERN DANISH. pann hefi ek manna Ham bar jeg blandt Msend mennskra fundit af Menneske-Herkomst, bring heyjanda blandt Stridsmaend fundet hrammastan at afli. staerkest af Kraefter. LITERAL ENGLISH. Him bave I among men among warriors, found of tbe buman race, f tbe strongest of body. 22. A specimen of Old Danish, composed at so remote a period in heathen times, that it is impossible now to ascertain its age. It is from the Poetic Edda. The first verse of the Volu-spd.X OLD DANISH. MODERN DANISH. HljoJ's bi)? ek allar Lytter til min Tale, belgar kindir, alle bellige Vaesener, meiri ok minni storre og mindre mogu Heim|jallar j af Heimdals Slagt ; vUdo'at ek Valfojjur jeg vil fortaslle vel framteljak, Valfaders Bedrifter fornspjoll fira, Maends gamle Sagn, l^au ek fremst of-nam. de forste jeg Isrte. Finn Magnusen, p. 31, LATIN. Silentium rogo omnia Velim coelestis patris Sacra entia; Facinora enarrare, Majores et minores Antiquos bominum sermones, Posteros Heimdalli. Quos primos recorder. 23. A specimen of Old Danish, composed probably during the former part of the 7th century, being the beginning of the Bjarka-mdl hinfornu, so called after Bodvar Bjarke, one of king Rolf Krake's warriors, a song sung before a battle. § * Halfdani Einari Hist. lit. Islandise, p. 49. This specimen is from the Snorra Edda dsamt Skdldu, edited by Rask, p. 3 U, 312. f i.e. not of the Aser race. X From the Edda ScBmundar hins Fro^a ex recensione E. C. Rask, Holmias, 1818, p. 1. See the edition of the same, at the expense of the Arna-Magnaean Commissioners by Prof. Finn Magnusen, as also his modern Danish version of it, under the title of Den celdre Edda, vol. i. p. 31. § Published by Professor Rafn in the Fornaldar Sdgur Norirlanda, vol. i. p. 110. See his modern Danish version in the Nordiske Fortids Sagaer, vol. i. p. 103. This ancient song was sung at dawn of the day of the great battle of Stiklestad, a.d. 1030, in which king St. Olaf fell ; vide Fornmanna Sbgur, vol. v. p. 59, 60, and the Latin version by S. Egilsson in the Scripta historica Islandorum, vol. v. p. 64. SCANDINAVIAN— OLD DANISH, A.D. 770. cU OLD DANISH. Dagr er uppkominu, dynja hana ija^rar, mal er vilmogum at vinna erfir in hio, U'li eit gaf . . . . vigi 0']?in runar ! Hringr fai MODERN ICELANDIC. Hildikinn riki nam, Gart5r inn hj6, O'li eitS gaf .... vigi O'Sinn runar ! Hringr fai * The Danish king Valdemar the First, sent, probably at the suggestion of the historian Saxo Grammaticus, some individuals skilled in Runes to Bleking, between the years 1157 and 1182, with the view of having this inscription deciphered. His emissaries, however, failed to accomplish the object of their mission. Subsequently, and especially during the last century or two, the attempt from time to time was renewed under the auspices of some of the most learned men of the day, but their endeavours led to no more satisfactory results. It was reserved for the great Archaeologist and Runologist Finn Magnusen, after a personal inspection of the inscription on the spot, to interpret it in its entire state in May 1834, and to determine the form of verse (the ancient FornyriaJag^ in which it was written. Professor Magnusen's remarks upon this subject are inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, Nordisk Tidsskrift for Oldkyndighed, vol. ii. p. 276 — 304 ; and in Historisch-Anti- quarische Mittheilungen, herausgegeben von der Koniglichen Gesellschaft fiir Nordische Alter- thumskunde, Kopenhagen, 1835, pp. 109 — 117. In p. Ill of the latter work, it is recorded that. Professor Finn Magnusen for more than ten months tried in vain to decipher the inscription. On the 22nd of May, 1834, by attempting to read from right to left, he immediately succeeded in deciphering the first three words, and in less than two hours he explained the whole inscription. clii SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, A.D. 863. fall a mold! .... A'lfar, astago^ O'la(fjai); O'Jjin ok Frei ok A'sakun fari (fari) iiandum varum, unni Haraldi aerin sigr ! MODERN DANISH. Hildekind modtog Riget, Gard indhug (Ruiierne), Ole aiiagde Ed ... . Odin vie Runerne ! Gid Ring faae Fald paa Muld ! Alfer Elskovsguder 01e(forlade)! Odin og Freij og Asers Slajgt odelaegge (bdelaegge) vore Fjender, unde Harald fuldstaendig Seier ! fall'a mold ! A'lfar, A'stagoiS Ola fjai (hati) O'^inn, og Frey og A'sakyn fari, fari Qandum vorum, unni Haraldi asrinn sigr ! ENGLISH. Hildekinn received the kingdom, Gard hewed out (these characters), Ole took the oath .... Odin consecrate these Runes ! May Ring get a fall on the mould ; Elves, gods of love, Ole hate ! Odin and Frey and the Aser-race destroy (destroy) our enemies, grant to Harald a great victory ! 25. A specimen of Old Danish from Krakum^l, or the Death-song of Ragnar Lodbrok,* probably composed between a.d. 862 and 867. OLD DANISH. Hjuggu ver metS hjorvi \ horX kom hri^ a skjoldu, nar fell ni^r til jarSar a Nor^imbralandi ; varat um eina ottu oldum l^orf at fryja Hildar leik, Jjar er hvassir hjalmstofn bitu skjomar ; boSmana sa ek bresta, bra I»vi fira lifi. KrakumM Str. 14. LITEEAL LATIN. Percussimus nos cum gladio Dura venit procella in scuta, cadaver cecidit deorsum ad terram in Northumbria terra. Non erat, tempore matutino, viris opus, ciere. Ad Bellonae ludum ibi anhelant, galeae fulcrum mordebant fulgores, peltas lunatas vidi ego confractas, invertit ideo virorum vita. MODEEN DANISH. Svunge vi med Svaerdet ! stormede Regn mod Skjolde, Lig i Nordhumberland da laae paa Jorden stroede ; man ei nodtes den Morgen Maend til Strid at egge, der hvor skarpe Kaarder skare Hjelmens Flade ; Kampmaaner saae jeg kloves, Kaemperne misted Livet. Rafn, p. 13. LITEEAL ENGLISH. We hewed with swords ! Hard came the storm on our shields, dead they fell down on the earth, in Northumberland. None, on that morning, needed men to incite. For Bellona's sharp sport, the glittering sword split the steel-capt skull, the moon-round shield saw I broken, and thus men's lives were lost. • See § 19. SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A.D. 900 — 1150. cliii 26. A specimen of Old Danish of the 10th century, being the Runic inscriptions at Jellinge in Jutland, on the tumulus of king Gorm the Old, and his consort Thyre, as interpreted by Professor Finn Magnusen. OLD DANISH. Gurmr kunugr ger]ji kubl jjusi eft purvi kunu sina Danmarkar-but. Haraldr kunugr ba}? giorva kubl l^osi eft gurm fa>ur sin ok eft piurvi mujjur sina ; sa Haraldr ies van Danmork ala ok Nur- vieg ok tok kristno. MODERN DANISH. Kong Gorm gjorde denne Hoi efter sin Kone Thyre Danmarks-Bod. Kong Harald bad (bod) gjore denne Hoi efter Gorm, sin Fader og efter Thyre sin Moder; den Harald som vandt al Dan- mark og Norge, ogantog Christendommen. Antiquariske Annaler, vol. iv. p 1 10 MODERN ICELANDIC. Gormr konungr gertSi kumbl J^essi eftir pyri konu sina Danmarkarbot. Haraldr konungr ba^ gjorva kumbl Jjessi eftir Gorm fe^ur sinn og eftir Pyri, moSur sina ; sa Haraldr, er (es) vann Danmork alia og Norveg ok tok kristni. LITERAL ENGLISH. King Gorm raised this barrow after (in memory of) his queen Thyre Danmarks- bod (the improver of Denmark). King Harald bade make this barrow for his father Gorm and his mother Thyre, the same Harald who conquered all Denmark and Norway, and embraced Christianity. 112. 27, A specimen of Old Danish or Icelandic of the former part of the 11th century, from Ottar Svarte's ode on king St. Olaf. OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. Komtu i land ok lendir, ladvoriSr ! A^alraSi, J'in naut rekka reynir riki efldr at sliku ; harSr var fundr, sa er faeru* fritsland a vit ni^ja reS aettstudill aJSan Eatmundar |?ar grundu. LATIN. Terrae custos, valens potentia ! Venisti in terram, et Adalradum in regnum restituisti ; tua ope est usus hac in re virorum amicus. MODERN DANISH. Landbeskytter ! du atter Adelraad til sit Rige forte, sligt dig Folkets maegtige Fyrste skijlder ; haardt var Slaget, da Edmunds Arving du indsatte i det fredede Rige, for behersket af Slsegten. Durus erat conflictus, quo nepotem Jatmundi pacato reddidisti regno ; huic terrae avita proles imperaverat antea.* 28. A specimen of Old Danish according to the opinion of Professor OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. MatSr er nefndr Grimr kamban, hann bygtsi fyrstr Faereyjar a dogum Haralds hins harfagra ; |ja flj^u fyrir bans ofriki fjoldi manna, settust sumir i Faereyjum, ok byg«u I^ar, en sumir leitu^u til annarra eytSilanda. or Icelandic, written before 1150, Rafn.t MODERN FERROE DIALECT. Ajn Mavur er nevndur Grujmur Kam- ban, han fowr fistur at biggja Forjar, meni Haraldur hin hSrfagri var a Dovun ; tl flujddi firi Owdomi hansara mengur Ma- vur; summir settu se uj Forjun og bigdu bar, men summir lajtavu til annur Ojulond. * Fornmanna Sogur, vol. iv. p. 50, and vol. xi. p. 185; Oldnordiske Sagaer, vol. iv. p. 47, and vol. xi. p. 164; Scripta historica Islandorum, vol. iv. p. 49. t See Faereyinga Saga, p. 1. Improperly, by a pleonasm, called Ferroe Islands, — Islands being unnecessary, as Ferroe is derived from faei* or faar, c. a sheep, ovis ; o, c. an island, insula, pi. ber islands, insulae; F^eroerne or Faar-oer ovium insulce, in Danish commonly called the Faerber. ^'! cliv SCANDINAVIAN— OLD DANISH, FROM A.D. 1200 — 1290. LITERAL ENGLISH. MODERN DANISH. A man named Grim Kamban cultivated Grim Kamban bed en Mand ; ban be- first tbe Fajr islands in tbe time of Harald byggede forst Faerberne i Harald Haarfa- tbe fair-haired; then {when) many fled gersDage. Der vare den Gang mange, som from his tyranny, some settled on the Faer flyede for Kongens Her-skesyge, af hvilke islands, and built houses, and some sought nogle nedsatte sig paa Faerberne, og toge for. other uncultivated lands. sig der Bopagl, men nogle sbgte til andre ode Lande. 29. A specimen of Icelandic, written about a.d. 1200, from Snorre's Edda. ICELANDIC, Almattigr gu« skapaSi i upphafi himin ok jbrd ok alia jja luti er j^eim fylgja, ok si^arst menn tva, er aettir erufra komnar, Adam ok Evo, okjQblga^ist j^eirra kynslo?, ok dreifSist um heim allan. En er fram liSu stundir, )?a ujafna^ist mannfolkiS, voru sumir gotSir ok rett-truatSir, en miklu fleiri snerust \>a. eptir girndum heimsins, ok uraektu guSs botSortS — Snorra-Edda, Rask, Stockholm, 1818, p. 1. MODERN DANISH. Den almaegtige Gud skabte i Begyndelsen Himlen og Jorden og alle de Ting som dertil hbre, og tilsidst to Mennesker, fra hvem Slsgter nedstamme, Adam og Eva, og deres Stamme formerede sig, og udbredtes over hele Verden. Men da Tiderne lede frem, blev Menneskeslsgten ulig, nogle vare gode og rettroende, men langt flere vendte sig efter Verdens Begjerligheder, og forsbmte Guds Bud. LITERAL ENGLISH. The Almighty God created, in the beginning, heaven and earth, and all the things which thereto belong, and at last, men from whom families sprung forth, Adam and Eve, and their race increased themselves and spread over all the world. But as time passed (led) on, ^the race of men became different (unlike), some were good and right believing, but far more turned themselves to (after) the desires (lusts) of the world, and neglected God's commandment. 30. A specimen of Old Danish or Icelandic, as written towards the close of the 13th century, but dating from an earlier period, the year AD. 1117, being an extract from the ancient Icelandic Law-book, entitled the Gragas (7%e Gray-goose)* OLD DANISH OR ICELANDIC. LATIN. Ef utlendir menn verjja vegnir a landi Si exteri, Dani, Sveii, vel Norvegi e her, danskir ejjr sbnskir ej^r norrbnir, or tribus illorum regum imperils, quae lingva |jeirra konga veldi III. er var tiinga er, nostra utuntur, oriundi his in terris inter- f>ar eigo fraendr Jjeirra J^aer sakir, ef ])eit fecti fuerint, csesi propinqui si adfuerint eru ut her, en af bllum tungum bl^rum enn actionem csedis suscipere liceat. Sedalia af danskri tiingo, ba a engi maj^r her vig- quam Danica lingva utentium nemo pro- sbk at sbkja af fraendsemis sbkum, nema pinquitatisnomine, caediscausamhicagendi fajjir e]}x sonr ejjr broHr, oc |?vi at eino juregaudeat, nisipater,filiusvelfrater,iique ^eir, ef >eir hbf|jo her air vij?kennzt. tantummodo, si hie antea noti fuerint. * See Hin forna loghok Fshndinga sem nefnist Grdgds. Codex juris Islandorum antiquis- sinius qui nominatur Gragas, Hafniae, 1829, at the expense of the Arna-Magnaean Commis- sioners, Part II. p. 71, 72. SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A. D. 1397 — 1589. clv 31. Old Danish before the Calmar Union in a.d. 1397. OLD DANISH. Sattaer war raet thaenne .... tvem win- trum oc faem ukum, sidaen Ro war wnnin til Cristendoms af Waldemar kunungi, oc laght til Sjalanzs biscopsd6m(s) af Wal- demare kunungi oc Alexandaer paue. ICELANDIC. Settr var rettr Jjessi tveim vetrum oc fimm vikum, si^an Ro var unnin til Cris- tindoms af Valdimar koniingi, oc log^ til Sjalanz biskupsdoms af Valdimari konfingi oc Alexandri paua. RasKs Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xxu. ENGLISH. Set was this law, two winters and five weeks ; since peace was bestowed on Chris- tianity by Waldemar the king, and a law made for Sjalans bishoprick by Waldemar the king, and Alexander the pope. 32. Banish in 1433. DANISH. Wii Erick meth guths nathe Danmarks, Suerghes, Norghes-koning gore witerlikt alle the, thette brefF see eller hore, at wi af vor serdelis Nadhe for Hr Erick Niels- sons wor elschelike tro mans oc radhs bon sculd sva oc for troscap oc willich tieniste unne oc giue hanum . . . friihet oc frelsse med suadane wapen . . . som her vnder nedhen vtmaledh sta . . . Datum 1433. ENGLISH. We Erick, by God's grace, king of Den- mark, Sweden, Norway, make known to all, who see or hear this letter, that we by our peculiar grace for Mr. Erick Nielsons, our beloved faithful man and counsellor, praying, and for fidelity and willing ser- vices, have conferred and given him . . . liberty and franchisement with such coat of arms as here under beneath painted stand. Given 1433. RasKs Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xxi. 33. Old Danish, from a MS. of Homilies, or meditations, belonging to the Royal Swedish Historiographer of Hallenberg. It is without date, but appears to be about a.d. 1450. DANISH. Ther aeffther drogh Nichodemus then annen spiger pa vinstrae handh, oc faek han sammeledes lohannes. Sidhen foor Ni- chodemus nether, oc foor op at ien liden stige, och togh spigene af f odaernae, maedaen iosep hiolt pa ligommaet. ENGLISH. Hereafter drew Nichodemus the other nail from the left hand, and gave it in the same manner to John. Afterwards Nicho- demus went nearer, and went upon the small steps, and drew the nails from the feet, while Joseph held the corpse. Mask's Anglo-Saxon Gr. Pref. p. xviii. 34. A few examples of Danish are given from the Scriptures, to faci- litate the comparison, and thus shew the connexion of this tongue with those of Teutonic origin. The first example is from the Danish Epistles and Gospels, Leipsic, 15 IS, fol. Mk. iv. 3, 6 — .En mand gick wd ath saa sin Ssd. Som ha saade da fait somt afF korned boss vegn. Oc det blefl^ traad bort oc sompt der afF ode fuglene i vaered. 35. Bible, Copenhagen, 1589, fol. Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til! See, der gick en Saemand ud ad saa. Oc det skede, i det hand saade, at noget fait boss Veyen : Da komme Fulene under Himmelen oc ode det. clvi SCANDINAVIAN — OLD DANISH, FROM A. D. 1647 — 1775. 36. Bible, 1647, 8vo. Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til; See, der gik en Saedemand ud at saae. Og det skede i det hand saaede, at noget faldt hos Vejen ; og der komme Himmelens Fugle og aaede det op. 37. New Testament, Copenhagen, 1717, 8vo. Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer (til) : see, en Sasdemand gik ut at saae. Og det skede, i det hand saade, at noget faldt hos Veyen, og Himmelens Fugle kom og aad det op. 38. New Testament, London, 1827, 8vo. Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til ; see, en Saedemand gik ud at saae. Og det skede, i det han saaede, at noget faldt ved Veien, og Himmelens Fugle kom, og aad det op. 39. As a specimen of the present Danish, a better cannot be selected than the following National Song, which is to the Danes what '* God save the King" is to the English. It was written by Johannes Evald, a poet who flourished in the latter part of the last century. (Born 1743, died 1781).* King Christian stood by the lofty mast In mist and smoke. His sword was hammering so fast, Through Gothic helm and brain it passed. Then sank each hostile hulk and mast In mist and smoke. Fly, shouted they, fly, he who can ! Who braves of Denmark's Christian The stroke ? Kong Christian stod ved hoien Mast I Rog og Damp. Hans Vaerge hamrede saa fast, At Gothens Hielm og Hierne brast. Da sank hver fiendtligt Speil og Mast I Rog og Damp. Flye, skreg de, flye, hvad flygte kan ! Hvo staaer for Danmarks Christian IKamp? Niels Juel gav Agt paa Stormens Brag : Nu er det Tid ! Han heisede det rode Flag, Og slog paa Fienden Slag i Slag. Da skreg de hoit blant Stormens Brag : Nu er det Tid ! Flye, skreg de, hver, som veed et Skiul ! Hvo kan bestaae for Danmarks Juel Istrid? O Nordhav, Glimt, af Vessel brod Din morke Skye : Da tyede Kasmper til dit Skiod ; Thi med ham lynte Skraek og Dod ; Fra Vallen hortes Vraal, som brod Din Skye : Fra Danraark lyner Tordenskiold ; Hver give sig i Himlens Void, Og flye ! Niels Juel gave heed to the tempest's roar ; Now is the hour ! He hoisted his blood-red flag once more. And smote the foe of the Dane full sore.f And shouted loud through the tempest's roar: Now is the hour ! Fly, shouted they, for shelter fly ! Of Denmark's Juel who can defy The power ? North Sea ! a glimpse of Wessel rent Thy murky sky ! Then champions to thine arms were sent ; Terror and death glared where he went; From the waves was heard a wail, that rent Thy murky sky ! From Denmark thunders Tordenskiol' ; Let each to heaven commend his soul. And fly ! ♦ For this piece and the translation, I am indebted to my friend, H. W. Longfellow, Esq. M.A. Professor of Belles Lettres in Harvard University, Cambridge, America, Nov. 1835. f " Ahd smote upon the foe full sore." SCANDINAVIAN — ICELANDIC AND SWEDISH. clvii Du Danskes Vei til Roes og Magt, Path of the Dane to fame and might, Sortladne Hav ! Dark-rolling wave ! Modtag din Ven, som uforsagt Receive thy friend, who scorning flight Tor mode Faren med Foragt, Goes to meet danger with despite, Saa stolt, som du, mod Stormens Magt, Proudly as thou meetest the tempest's might, Sortladne Hav ! Dark-rolling wave ! Og rask igiennem Larm og Spil, And amid pleasures and alarms Og Kamp og Seier foer mig til And war and victory, be thine arms Min Grav ! My grave ! 40. The Icelandic^ here called NorrcenL For facility of comparison, a few extracts are given from the Icelandic Scriptures. Nach : Thetta er hid nye Testament Jesu Christi, &c. utlogd a Norraeni, &c. or The New Testament in the Norrcenn, northern, Old Danish, or Icelandic tongue, 8vo. 1539. Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Og i sine predikan, tha sagdi han til thra. Heyre thier, siaet I ein sadsaedare gieck vt at saa. Thad vard tha han sadi, at sumt fiell vtan hia veginum, og tha komu fuglar loptzins og atu thad vpp. 41. Biblia thad er, oil Heilog Rituing vtlogd a Norraenu, med for- malum Mart. Lutheri, Prentad a Holum, af lone lonas Syne, fol. 1 584, or The Bible, in Norse or Icelandic, after the version of Luther, Bible, Stockholm, 1584, fol. Mk. iv. 3, 4. — Og i sine Predikan, tha sagde han til thra, Heyre thier. Sia : Eirn saadsaedare gieck ut at sa. Og thad vard tha han sade, at sumt fiell utan hia veigenum, og thar komu fuglar Lopisins og aatu thad vpp. 42. Stiernhelm's Gospels of Ulphilas, in Moes., IceL, Swed., Ger., and Latin, 4to. Stockholm, 1671.* Mk. iv. 3, 4 Heyred til. Sia, eirn Sadmadur gieck ut ad saa. Og thad vard i thui han saade, ad sumt fiell utann hia Veigenum ; og tha komu Fuglar under Him- nenum, og aatu thad upp. 43. Old Swedish can scarcely be distinguished from Danish ; and Nor- wegian has been, from the earliest times on record, and is now, identical with Danish ; but as more modern Swedish differs a little from the Danish, a few specimens may be desirable. 44. A specimen of Swedish from a document issued by king Magnus Sm6k in 1354. SWEDISH. ENGLISH. Wi magnus, med guds nadh Sverikis We Magnus, by the grace of God, king konung, norghis oc skane, wiliom at thet of Sweden, Norway, and Scania, will that seal allom mannom witerlikt wara, at wi it shall be known to all men that we by aff wara serdelis nadh hafwm vnt bergx- our peculiar grace have conceded to Bergx- mannomen a noreberge thaennae raet oc man (miner) of Noreberge the right and stadhga, som haer aepter fblger : fFbrst power as hereafter follows : first have we hafwm wi stat oc skipat, at tolff skulu constituted and ordained, that twelve shall wara the som fore bergheno sculu standa be the sum, &c. oc thera raeaet waeria oc fulfolghia i allom lutom, &c. * See Gothic, § 11, clviii SCANDINAVIAN — SWEDISH, FROM A.D. 1541 — 1834. 45. Swedish Bible, Upsal, 1541, fol. Mk. iv. 3, 4 — Horer til. Sij, en Sadhesman gick vth til at saa. Och hende sigh widh han sadde, foil somt widh waghen, och foghlanar vnder himmelen komo, och ato thet vp. 46. The Swedish, from the Gospels of Ulphilas, Stockholm* 167*1. Mk. iv. 3, 4 Horer til; sy en Sadesman gik uth, til at saa. Och hende sigh wid han sadde, foil somt wid Wagen, og Foglarna under Himmelen komo, och ato thet up. 47. Bible, 8vo. London, 1828. Mk. iv. 3, 4 Horer til : Si, en Sadesman gick ut, til at sa. Och hande sig, wid han sadde, foil somt wid wagen, och foglarne under himmelen kommo, och ato thet up. 48. One of the most eminent of modern Swedish poets is Bishop Tegner . He took the story of Frithiof from one of the old Sagas, and under the title of Frithiof 's Saga, he has written in flowing verse a most interesting story of royal affection. The following extract is from the Exile of Frithiof , in the original Swedish, in the Norwegian or Danish translation, and with a poetical version of the Rev. W. Strong. SWEDISH. DANISH. ENGLISH. Nu sol gar opp Nu Sol gaaer op The orb of day, bak fallens topp. Bag Fjeldets Top ; Now tints the spray ; och vinden Ijuder Landvinden lyder. From piping heights, fran land och bjuder Hver Vove byder The breeze invites hvar vag till dans Den op til Dands Each beam and wave, i morgonglans. I Morgenglands. To dance and lave. Pa bbljans toppar Paa Bolgetoppe O'er the gay group, Ellida hoppar Assted de hoppe Ellida's poop i frojd astad, Saa fro og glad. Bounds light along ; men Frithiof qvad. Men Frithjof qvad. To Frithiof s wilder song, Tegrwr, cant. xiv. p. 113. Foss, p. 135. Strong, p. 187. 49. A fine passage from The Reconciliation, cannot be omitted : it is a description of Balder the good. SWEDISH. Frid var bans harski, harlek var bans blanka svard, och oskuld satt som dufva pa bans silfverhjelm. From lefde ban och larde, dog ban och forlat, och under fjerran palmer star bans graf i Ijus. Hans I'ara, sags det, vandrar ifran dal till dal, forsmalter harda bjertan, lagger baTnd i band, och bygg^r fridens rike pa forsonad jord Tegner, p. 164. DANISH. Fred var bans Haerraab, Kjerligbed bans blanke Svserd, Og Uskyld sad som Due paa bans Solverhjelm. Fromt leved han og laerte, dode og tilgav, Og under fjerne Palmer staaer bans Grav i Lys. Hans Laere, siges der, gaaer vidt fra Dal til Dal, Samsmelter haarde Hjerter, laegger Haand i Haand, Og bygger Fredens Rige paa forsonet Jord — Foss, p. 194. • See § 42, and Gothic. § 11. SCANDINAVIAN — DALECARLIAN DIALECT. clix His war-cry, peace, ^ood-will : love was his two-edged sword ; Crest of his silver helm, sat dove-like innocence ; Grace mark'd his life, his word : his death-sigh breath'd * Forgive. * In light 'neath distant palms, far pilgrims seek his tomb. 'Tis said his tidings walk, peace-shod from dale to dale. Melting the flinty heart, cementing man to man, Building of living stones, a temple to this God Strong, p. 303. Dialect of Dalecarlia* 50. The principal dialect f of Sweden is the Dalecarlian. The Dalcarls are spoken of as the Swedish Highlanders. Inhabiting that secluded region which stretches westward from the Silian Lake to the Alps of Norway, they have preserved comparatively unchanged the manners, customs, and lan- guage of their Gothic forefathers. "Here," says Serenius,^ "are the only remains in Sweden of the ancient Gothic stock, whereof the aspiration of the letters I and w bears witness upon their tongues, an infallible characteristic of the Moeso-Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and Icelandic." In another place, speaking of the guttural or aspirated /, he says : " Germans and Danes cannot pronounce it, no more than the aspirated w ; for which reason this was a fatal letter three hundred years ago in these nations, when Engelbrect, a born Dalcarl, set it up for a shibboleth, and whoever could not say Hivid hest i Korngulff, was taken for a foreigner, because he could not aspirate the w, nor utter the guttural /."§ It is even asserted, that with their ancient customs and language the Dalcarls have preserved the use of the old Runic alphabet, although from feelings of religious superstition it was prohibited by Olaf Shatkonung at the beginning of the 11th century, and dis- continued in all other parts of Sweden. This is mentioned on the authority of Nasman, who wrote in the first half of the last century. || 51. The Dalecarlian dialect is spoken in its greatest purity in Elfdalen, Mora, and Orsa, parishes of East Dalecarlia. In West Dalecarlia it is mingled with the dialects of the Norwegian mountains, and bears the name of Mahlungs Skinnarmal. The peculiarities of this jargon are these : — 1. Prefixing the letter v to all monosyllables which begin with a vowel, as vom for om if; vord for ord a word, &c. 2. The transposition of syllables, as jasel for selja to sell; lata for tala to speak, &c. Thus they say — Kan du lata tse korba, so kimi du lavi ? Kan du tala tae baka, so miki du vila ? Canst thou speak backwards, as much as thou wilt ? * Professor Longfellow, of Harvard University, Cambridge, America, who has recently returned from Sweden, was so obliging as to draw up this notice of the Dalecarlian dialect, October, 1835. t Balbi and Make Brun make two great divisions in the Swedish. I. Swedish proper, spoken in the north and east; and II. Modern Gothic, used in Gothland to the south. — I. Swedish PROPER, subdivided into 1. The dialect of Upland, 2. Noriand, 3. Eastern Dalecarlian, and 4. the dialect of Finland. II. Modern Gothic, divided into 1. West Gothic, 2. East Gothic, 3. Werneland, 4. Smoland, and 5. Runae in Livonia.— ^a/Ji's Atlas, Table xiii. ; Malte Brun, bk. xcvi. vol. vi. p. 109. J J. Serenius' English and Swedish Dictionary, 4to. Nykbping, 1757, Pref. p. iii. § Ibid. p. ii. II Nasman (R. E.) Historiola Linguae Dalekarlicae, 4to, Upsaliae, 1733, p. 30. Clx SCANDINAVIAN — DALECARLIAN DIALECT. 52. The inhabitants of the town of Sarna, on the borders of the Nor- wegian Alps in East Dalecarlia, speak a mixed dialect of Dalecarlian and Norwegian ; and it is said, that they understood the language spoken by certain Dutchmen, who were in the habit of visiting those mountains for the purpose of taking falcons, then used in hunting.* We are also told of a Dalecarlian boy who was taken by a Swedish ambassador to England, and who easily understood the language of the peasants of the northern counties, t 53. The three branches of the Dalecarlian dialect, as spoken in Elf- dalen, Mora, and Orsa, differ from each other not only in the change of letters and the inflexion of words, but also in accent and pronunciation. Between those of Elfdalen and Mora the difference is not, however, very great. That of Orsa stands more apart, as may be seen by the following versions of the Lord's Prayer. 54. Dialect of Elfdalen. Fad uoer, so ir i himbluma. Hielit ir daett nam. Tilkum dagtt riki. Ski dsenn uilja, so i himblum sa a jordi. Uott dagli brod gi^f oss i dag. Og firilat oss uorasr skulldaer. Soss uir firilatum diom so i oss nod skilldug. Laed int uoss i nan jaelok fraestilsae Auta los oss fr^ uondu. Amen. 55. Dialect of Mora. Fad uaer so ir i himmelim. Haellit ae daett nam. Tilkum dett rikias. Ske daenn uilli so i himmelim so a jordi. Uott dagli brod giaef huass i dag. Firilat huass huaraer skuUdur. Sos huir firilatum diom sa ae hu^ss n^ skilld^. Led int huass i nan uondan fraestilsae. Int' kt fraels huass fr^ illu. Amen. 56. Dialect of Orsa. Falla orn, sa ir i himblim, Haelgat useri daett nam. Tilkaemi daett rikia. Ski dseina uilju, sk i himblum sa k jordi. Ort dagliga brod gia hu^ss i dag. A farlat huass oraer skulldaer, Skai sa ui fserlatum dsem huass skilldugser irk. A inled huoss int i fraestilse. Masld fraels huass iik uslndu. Amen, Norwegian. 51. For several centuries, and especially since the Danish became a fixed and regular tongue, Norwegian has been identical with Danish. • Nasman, p. 12. • f Ibid. p. 17. SCANDINAVIAN — FERROE DIALECT. clxi This common dialect has perhaps been as much settled and polished by Norwegians as by natives of Denmark.* As there is this identity in the Danish and Norwegian, the copious examples of the Danska tunga pre- viously given, will serve also for the Norwegian, and will render further remarks unnecessary. Ferroe Dialect. 58. A specimen of early Ferroe taken from Professor Rafn's Faareyinga Saga, Pref. p. iv. Thrand was one of the first inhabitants of Ferroe. Many religious verses are ascribed to him, and are still preserved by oral tradition among the inhabitants of the Ferroes. The following Creed, written down by a native Ferroe clergyman, Pastor Schrdter, now Emeritus, who translated the Gospel of St. Matthew,t will serve as an example of this dialect. FERROE DIALECT. Gjivnir eru Ajnglar gowir [af Gudi] Aj gengji e ajna udi, Ferun mujnun filgja Fim Guds Ajnglar; Bije e firi mar Bon, Bera tajr ta [Bon] firi Kriste. Singje e Salmana sjej, Sar Gud til Saluna mujna ! MODERN FERROE DIALECT. Gengji e aj ajna ut, fujra mar filgja, fim Guds Ajnglar, beri e Bon firi mar, Bon firi Krist, singji e Sllma sjej, sjaji Gud til Luta mujn ! LITERAL ENGLISH. Go I not alone out, Four me follow, Five God's angels, I pray a^ prayer for me, A prayer for Christ. I sing seven Psalms, God will see for my lot ! LITERAL ENGLISH. Good angels are given by God, I go not alone, My steps follow Five angels of God ; Pray I for me a prayer, They bear it to Christ. Sing I seven Psalms, Sees God for my soul ! OLD ICELANDIC. Gangat ek einn ut, fjorir mer fylgja, fimm gutSs einglar ; ber ek basn fyrir mer, basn fyrir Kristi, syng ek salma sjo, sjai gu or th, in Dut. Dan. and Swed. is chansjed into d. The Dan. jeg and mig are pronounced yih and mih : the Sioed. jag and mig are sounded yih and mih. * Classification and association are of the utmost importance in learning languages. The greater part of European tongues in the south and west are those of Germanic, and those of Roman origin. The Germanic class embraces the modern English, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, &c.; the Roman or Latin comprises the Spanish, Italian, Por- tuguese, French, &c. To this subject has been drawn the attention of an old friend, the Rev. VV. Pulling, M.A., A.S.L. Rector of Dymchurch, Kent. He was induced to deliver in the University of Cambridge "A course of Lectures on the French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese languages, and their chief dialects, Cambridge, 1834." These interesting and valuable Lectures deserve attention, and it is greatly to be wished that Mr. Pulling may receive sufficient encouragement to carry into effect his intention of publishing a volume containing short grammars of the languages of Roman origin, to be followed by another volume comprising grammars of the Germanic tongues. t The Dutch, &c. now generally use prepositions instead of the old terminations: thus, Dut. van een visch of a fish, instead of visches. AFFINITY OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES. clxni Etig. I am, be: A.-S. ic eom, beo : Frs. ik ben : Plat, ick bin, em : Dut. ik bin, em : Moes. ik im : Ger, ich bin : Icel. ek er, em : Dan. jeg er : Swed. jag ar Eng. I was : -4.-*^. ic waes: Frs. ik was: Plat, ick was: Dut. ik was; ikfoe*. ik was : Ger. ich war : Icel. er var : Dan. jeg var : Swed. jag vas — Eng. come, p. came, pp. come : A.-S. cume, p. com, pp. cumen : Frs. kem, p. kom, /;/?. kemen : Plat, kom, /?. kwam, />/). gekomen . Dut. kome, p. kwam, pp. gekomen : Moes. quima, p. quam, pp. quuman(s) : Ger. komme, p. kam, pp. (ge)kommen : Icel. kem, p. kom, pp. ko- minn : Dan. kommer, p. kam, pp. kummen : Swed. kommer, p. kom, pp. kommen. — Eng. thou : A.-S. ]>\x : Frs. thu : Plat- thu : Flem. du : Moes. thu : Ger. du : Icel. >u : Dan. du : Swed. du Eng. who : ^.-/S. hwa : Frs. hwa : PZa^. huie : Dut. wie : Moes. hwa(s) : Ger. wer : Icel. hwa(r) : Dan. hwo : Swed. ho Eng. good, better, best. ^.-«S, god (bet), betra, betst : Frs. god, bettre, (betere), beste ; Dut. goed, beter, best: Moes. goths (god(s) or bats), batiza, batist(s) : Ger. gut, besser, beste : Icel. g6d(r) bettri, bestr : Dan. god, bedre, beste : Swed. god, battre, bast. 4. If these examples do not convince the reader that these languages are mere dialectic variations of one ancient tongue, perhaps the following declension of the pronoun of the first person may produce full conviction. Eng. J.-S. Dut. Frs. Ger. Moes. Dan. Swed. Icel. I ic ik ik ich ik jeg jag ek mine min mins min mein meina min min min to me me raij mi mir mis mig mig mer me me mij mi mich mik mig mig mik we we wij wi wir weis wi wi wer our lire onzer use unser unsara vor war war to us us ons us uns uus OS OSS OSS us us ons us uns uns 03 OSS OSS. 5. In the most irreojular parts of the Germanic languages, even at the present day, there is a complete correspondence, which shows that there must have been a time when the nations of Germanic origin were all united in one tribe. Some branches of this great Gothic family have not had any close intercourse or alliance for many centuries; the present simi- larity of their languages must then have arisen from a close anterior connexion. The period of this connexion it is not easy to specify ; but it must have been very early and intimate, as the similarity is most evident in the words wliich designate what was most necessary, in the rudest state of society, and in those verbs generally called irregular,* and which are even now most in use. This early connexion it is very important to observe, and it is the part of scientific etymology to show it in the clearest light. * Ten Kate's Atileiding tot de Kenisse van de Nederduitsche Sprake, vol. ii. p. 12, § XI. clxi? XIII.— THE IMPORTANCE OF ETYMOLOGY,* THE MANNER OF FORMING WORDS, AND AN OUTLINE OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM. 1. Words are the creation of mind. As the true philosopher looks with humble adoration, from the variety and perfection of God's visible creation to the power and goodness of the Creator, so the philosophic etymologist is constantly led, from the various forms and applications of words, to contemplate the intellectual powers in which man most resembles his Creator. The true and judicious etymologist is anxious to obtain the right meaning and application of words, and thus a good etymologist is most likely to become the best metaphysician. He is not satisfied with the common and external signification of words received from popular use, but lie examines their structure, their radical, that is, their real and internal meaning, and thus endeavours to discover the reason of the application of the term. When the understanding is thus called into exercise in the formation of words, precision is not only given to ex- pression, but the higher faculty of reason lends its powerful aid to the memory, and greatly facilitates the acquisition of a language. The ety- mology of a word being understood, and thus the sanction of reason obtained, neither that word nor any of its family can scarcely ever escape from the memory. The use of etymology will, however, be best proved by a few plain examples, showing the real meaning of some common words. Acorn, A.-S. aeceren, secern, from ac, ac an oak; cern or corn corn, the corn or fruit of the oak — Childhood, A.-S. cildhad, from cild a child, had a condition, state^ a child's condition.— Kvagdora, A.-S. cyngdom, cynuigdom, from cyning, cyng a king; dom power, jurisdiction, a king's jurisdiction, or dominion. — Island, A.-S. ealand, from ea water, land land; water-land, land surrounded with water Sheriff, or shirereeve, A.-S. scir-gerefa, from scir a share, division, shire, county ; gerefa a reeve, governor, a governor of a shire Neighbour, A.-S. neah-bur, from neah near; bur a bower, dwelling, one who has a dwelling near — Righteous, A.-S. rihtwis, from riht right, just; wis wise, right wise, honest, yzW^ow^.— FosterchUd, -^.-aS. foster- cild, from foster ^oraed golden thread; blod blood, hlodig bloody ; wit mind, wit, w'ltig ivitty ; folc folk, iolcisc like the people, plebeian ; aeppelbaer apple-bearing; leohtbaer light-bearing ; eort5cund earthly ; godcund divine ; efenece coeternal ; cen- nan to bear, cennende bearing ; drincan to drink, drincende drinking ; faran, feran to go, ferende going ; se law, ^fsdst fast in the law, firm, religious; tnngiul full of tongue, talkative; eorS earth, eorSlic earthlike, earthly; lufu love, luflic lovelike, lovely ; lang long, langsum longsome, lasting ; wyn pleasure, wynsum some pleasure, pleasant. S. Adverbs are often formed by frequently using nouns in certain cases. Thus hwilum awhile, noic, d. of hwil time, space ; J'onces of gratitude, jjonce with gratitudcy gratefully, thankfully, g. and d. of ]>a.nc favour, &c. 9. The remarks in paragraphs 3 and 4 can only refer to words in their first formation. In a subsequent stage of language, many nouns have evidently had their origin from verbs, adjectives, &c. • See Dr. Davies' Antiquae Lingua; Britannicae Rudimcnta, and Dr. Prichard's Cehic Nations, p. 178. GERMAN ETYMOLOGISTS. clxvii Thus hunta^ a hunting, chase, from huntian to hunt; fisco^ ajishing, from fiscian to fish; gelicnes likeyiess, fromgelicMe; hraednes rcarfmcss, from hraed rearfy; hraed- licnys readiness, from hraedlic rea^/y, quick; blawung a blowing, from blawan to blow ; haX healthy, sound; halig Ao/y, \\a\\%Q.n to consecrate ; \idX\^Aom. a sanctuary ; halignes holiness ; halgung, gehalgung a hallowing, consecration, Sfc. 10. All that is here stated, as well as what is advanced in the preceding paragraphs, is the mere threshold of etymology, that which is the most evident and palpable; but perhaps it may have appeared that even this incipient knowledge is not destitute of utility. Should there be a desire to enter into the arcana of etymology, or to fathom its deep abyss, much time and attention must be devoted to the works of German philologists,* as the etymology of the Teutonic languages has been carried to great extent by some of the most able men in Germany. They have adopted the principle, and introduced much of the refinement discovered and applied by Sanscrit grammarians. Every one who investigates the subject must acknowledge there is much metaphysical nicety in their mode of treating it, and much laborious exertion to make it intelligible. Though such talents and industry certainly deserve attention, yet the great question is, whether in the western tongues these metaphysical subtleties can be made available to practical utility. The learned and indefatigable Dr. Becker, in his German Grammar for Englishmen, with many of his coun- trymen, asserts that their system is found most efficient in practice. It is, therefore, only common justice to let these erudite Germans speak for themselves, or rather to allow one to explain for the whole. A recent writer, and one of the least diffuse and most able after Professor Bopp f and Grimm, is Professor Schmitthenner, from whose Introduction to the Short German DictionaryX the following abstract of the German language is taken. The substance is only given, but where it is translated the version is as close as possible. 1 1. Of VOWELS. The modern German has five simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u. Three of these are radical vowels, a, i, u. The two others, e and a, are only shades of a, i, u. The y of the A.-S. and the old northern dialects has something analogous in a soft u, but it is unknown to the other German dialects. It is borrowed from the * See Von der Wortbildung, in vol. ii. p. 1 — 923 of Professor J. Grimm's Deutsche Gram- matik, 8vo. Gottingen, 1826. — Die Deutsche "Wortbildung von Dr. Becker, Svo. Frankfurt am Main, 1824, and all the other valuable publications of Der frankfurtischen Gelehrten- vereinigung fiir deutsche Sprache, Herman, Frankfurt, &c. t Though Professor Bopp, whose general erudition, and critical knowledge of Sanscrit in particular, are universally admitted, was so obliging as to send the author a copy of his Vocalismus immediately on publication ; it is impossible to give a clear abstract of so learned and profound a work in the short space which can be here devoted to the subject. Those, therefore, who read German, must peruse and reperuse Vocalismits, oder Sprachvergleichende Kritiken iiber J. Grimm's deutsche Grammatik, urtd Graff's althochdeutchen Sprachschatz, mit Begrundu7}g einer neuen Theorie des ablauts von Franz Bopp, 8vo. Berlin, 1836. An English translation of this work would be a most acceptable boon to the public. Professor Bopp goes at once to the oriental source, and with a new theory of the ablaut, opposed to Dr. Grimm, (see § 11) he shows how much the vocalism of the Germanic languages may be philosophically explained by the system of Indian grammarians, and proves that the ablaut, or change of the radical vowel, is influenced by the vowel of the termination. X Kurzes Deutsches Wijrterbuch fiir Etymologie, Synonymik, und Orthograijhie von Fried- rich Schmitthenner, Darmstadt, Svo. 1834. clxviii THE RADICAL VOWELS, GUNA, &C. Greek; but in earlier times it was also used in some original German words to express i. It must be ascribed to the form of the epiglottis, that there can only be three original vowels, though in a variety of shades and colouring. This is a natural fact in language and grammar. All other vowels are only considered as shades and approximations. Of these three,* the vowel a is the easiest, most simple, and universal sound The radical vowels undergo various changes in the declension and formation of words 1 . By a shade changing the i into e, and the u into o ; as Moes. niman, Ger. nehmen to take : Moes. giban, Grer. geben to give : Moes. ufto, Ger. oft often : Moes. fugls, Ger. vogel a bird 2. By upsound (auflaut) or thinning of the vowel or sound, by earlier etymologists called (umlaut). If, for instance, in the inflection or formation of a radical syllable which has a, o, or u, and consequently a strong full vowel, an i is added, but which in the new German is changed into e, or entirely omitted ; then these three vowels change into a higher but weaker sound, the a into a or e, the o into o, and the u into u ; as adel, edel : Old Ger. adal, edili : ast a branch, aeste branches : Gott God, gotter gods : Old Ger. kot, kotier : blut, bliitig, and blutig : Old Ger. pluot, pluotic, or pluotac — 3. By change of vowels (umlaut), or change of one vowel into another, by some etymologists improperly called offsound (ablaut). In the formation of a word it thus happens that some roots of a go over into i and u, as binde, band, gebunden, properly band, binde, gebunden. — 4. By insound (inlaut), in the Sanscrit called Guna, that is, in the formation of a word another vowel is placed before the radical vowel, like an internal augment, to denote the change which an idea undergoes. From the nature of the vowels the following law is deduced, — that the insound or guna can only proceed in the following order, a, i, u. A can be placed before « (a -{- a), before i (a + 0> and u (a -\- u) ; i only before i (i -f- 1). and before u (i -|- w), and u only before u (u -{• u) Accord- ing to the radical vowels, or what we call organic sounds^ there can, in reality, only exist the following six diphthongs, aa, ai, au, ii, iu, uu — In the reverse series, the vowels may be also compounded, but they form, as the pronunciation directly shows, no simple diphthongs. The diphthongs in the new High- German are formed partly by shades which the radical vowels or sounds suffer, and partly according to the pecu- liarity of the dialect which is become the written language, as u, (o), ai, au, (o), ei, eu, and ie — In pronunciation and writing, the w as a diphthong is put aside ; but it ought to have the power of a -\- a in the explanation of words. The three simple vowels a, i, u, with the guna f aa, ai, au, ii, iu, uu, are partly the natural and partly the historical normal sounds, and the original type of vocalism. 12. In the different dialects, the vowels, by upsound, shading, disorgani- zation, &c. are softened and tinged different ways, but all in a certain order and according to determined rules. Thus, as the comparative zoologist is able to recognise the type of the genus in all deviations of the form of the single animal, so the comparative etymologist must be able to reduce the vo- calism of the dialect to its original type, and thus comprehend it, for otherwise his perception is dark, and his whole proceeding uncertain, and vain error. Some complain that the doctrine of the guna is difficult, but nothing is more simple. In the diphthong we have only to consider the first letter as a prefix, denoting the formation, an inserted vowel equal to the insound • A table of the changes of the radical vowels in the Germanic tongues will be found in Dr. Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, vol. i. 573, 575 ; a table of the long vowels in p. 578. t A table of the vowel forms, by the application of guna, in the Germanic languages maybe seen in p. 59 of Schmitthenner's Deutsche Etymologie, 12mo. Darmstadt, 1833. CHANGE OF CONSONANTS. clxix (inlaut), and the last letter as the radical vowel. In some cases, only ie makes an exception. 13. The modern German has the following sounds : A, d='ae; oz = a -|- i ; au = a -j- M : £ = a, e, ei, e : Ei == ai, i (i -(- i) : Eu = iu : I = old iu, to, ai, ei : O = u; 6 = au, old uo, a; o = the increased sound ofo: U, u ^ gunited a; u the upsound of u and u — 4. By the preceding, it is clear there are only three radical vowels from which the others take their origin ; thus from A originates o, a, e, i (e), w, (o), ii, 6; I goes over into e, ei, (ai), ie : ?7 changes into o, ie, eu, aM— Hence it is very easy, in a great number of cases, to recognize the radical vowel in a word, especially by comparing it with other words of the same family. We often find the root in verbs, as soon as the vowel of the perfect tense is divested of all its changes by guna and upsound. From binde, band, bund bind, bound, bound, we find band is the root. From ritt rode, reiten to ride, is the root rit a riding. From fliege, flog jiy,fiew is the root Aug a flight. 14. Of consonants. The natural articulation of the consonants ac- cording to the organs, is represented in the following table. a. b. c. labial. lingual. palatine. A. Half mute sounds. w h j (Breathing sound, Spirans.) B. The sibilant (sibilans) f, s. C. The liquids m 1 nr D. The mutes (mutae). (soft b d g P t bb. Simple. {7' I hard Aspirate. { J {J Sibilant. < (th) ch sz —^ rff Z X. It is evident, by this table, that in the modern Ger. the aspirated palatine and the sibilant labial sounds are wanting, while it has a double aspirated labial and a double sibilant lingual sound. The 5- is a double letter. The s possesses a double sound, the one is expressed by s, and the other by sh. 15. No root or radical word has originally a double consonant of the same kind. An original i in the derivation has given rise to gemination or hardening of the sound, which is found nearly in all words of the same family. In this manner originated mm 11 from mj - Ij as schemmen -^ hblle from suamjan — helja nn — nj — rennen — ranjan rr pf (Old Ger. pph) tz (zz) ck (Old Ger. cch) — rj — Phj — zj(tj) — kj or hj — sperren -^ hiipfen — setzen — zicke ^ sparjan -^ huphjan .^ satjan — zikja. This law is of great importance in etymology, showing how to reduce words with a double final letter to their roots. Instead of the double letter, we ought to put the soft simple letter ; and, instead of the upsound, originated by the derivative i, there must be a full original vowel. Thus, for example, from kennen to know, comes the clxx THE ROOT OF WORDS. root kan ; Old Ger. chan ; from fallen to fall, the root fal, Old Ger. val ; from biicken to bow, the root bug — by guna biegen to bend {Old Ger. puk — piokan); from ricke a doe, reh (instead of rih), &c. In the old as well as in the modern Ger. language, a double consonant is used in writing only to express the sharpening of the con- sonant. 16. Of the root. The root is the simple syllable which designates the first appearance of a thing. According to its signification it has a simple vowel a, i, u, and a single consonant. It is often very easy to discover the root, ^or we need only take from the word the vowel fiarming the umlaut, and the guna (inlaut) ; the gemination, and the terminating syllables. For example, let us take from the verb leuchten to light, the guna e, and the post- fixed syllable ten; then wUl remain luch, Old Ger. luh, Lat. luc-ere From fuhr (^Old Ger. vuor) take the guna, then remains fahr (^Old Ger. var), &c. In general, a comparison with the old form is quite necessary. 17. According to its signification the root is neither a noun nor a verb, but it is what precedes both. It is the expression of the simplest intuition by a sound, without determining any associate idea of the gender, the time, &c. Let us take the appearance of blau, — then the root is blu, /. Lat. fulvus (which, however, signifies something else,) and by guna blau the expression of the sound instead of it without any further determination, whether it be a thing, a quality, or only a relation. But being in reality a quality, it is afterwards used as an adjective, and the principal word or noun blaue blueness, and the verb blauen to blue or to make blue, are only derived fram it by additional letters. In the same manner let us take the impression which the cry of chickens or crows produces on the ear ; the simplest expression of the sound will be kra, Old Ger. chra. As this impression quickly vanishes, there is directly formed the verb krahen to crow. Old Ger. chrahan ; present tense ich krahe J crow. Old Ger. chra-hu, and krahte, Old Ger. chra-ta I crew, and also in the same manner the noun das krahen the crowing, Old Ger. chia-t ; die krahe the crow. Old Ger. chra-ja, &c. In this manner language springs up everywhere full of fine signification and inexhaustible life. Of the formation of words by umlaut and inlaut, or by change of vowels and by guna, 18. This takes place when, for the designation of the gender, case, or time, vowels or sounds are added. The transition of the root into diflferent words is in all cases easily understood. Let us take the root luh. New Ger. hell clear, light, then by guna (inlaut) and an added t, is formed lioht. New Ger. licht (instead of liecht) the clearness, light; and also the adj. licht light, &c. The determination of the sigriification of words and roots. 19. Language generally originates from the most simple perception of our senses. The appearances which offer themselves to the sight, not yet dimmed by any reflection, are the qualities and the relation of things IMPORTANCE OF UMLAUT AND GUNA. clxXl in time and space, such as, lights dark: — blacky white: — great , small: — standing, running — to rise, to fall, &c. 20. These appearances are immediately determined or marked by the language, whether they are resting qualities, as; blue, yellow, great, small, &c., or a temporal relation, as, flows, stands, burns, smokes, &c., or only relations of space and number, as; by, at^ for— one, two, &c. Things, of which the appearance only shows the special situation, the number and their relation, can only be designated by language in such a manner that it either points to their situation in space, by which pro- nouns originate, as, /, he, his, that, &c., or it describes them by nominating their qualities and their temporal relation, as, the bird, the fl.oating in air. Thus originate the names of things, and each name is originally a short description. 21. It is the task of etymology to pursue the signification now in use, through all changes, till we come to the radical signification. So we are led to a proper knowledge of the language, as a clear conception of the common signification can, in general, be only discovered in the light of the radical meaning. 22. Easy as it may be, in most cases, to find the form of the root by decomposing the words, yet it is often difficult to ascertain the original signification. Where it remains perceptible to the senses, it is imme- diately discovered : thus, fliessen tofloio, from the moving on of the fluid • wehen to blow, from the soft movement of the air; blau blue, from a colour, &c. In other cases there are difficulties which can only be overcome by close investigation. 23. The doctrine of the interchange of consonants,* and that of umlaut f and gunaj are the two gates which lead into the sanctuary of etymology. The former opens the insight into the true nature of the consonants, the latter into that of the vowels. He, then, who has a clear view of these two doctrines, has received the consecration, and can look into the interior of the sanctuary. § *§14. t§n,iii. t § 11, iv.; § 12, 13. § It ought to be acknowledged again, that this is a very imperfect view, but the shortest and best that could be found. Those who would enter fully into the subject, must consult the original authorities quoted throughout this abstract, and especially Professor J. Grimm's invaluable Deutsche Grammatik, 3 vols. 8vo. Gbttingen ; Bopp's Vocalismus, with the works of Schmeller, Becker, Wiillner, Graff, &c. See xiii. § 10. clxxi XIV.— AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORK. 1. After much consideration, the Roman character has been adopted in printing the A.-S. words, with the exception of the two peculiar letters j> and S, an account of which will be found under p in the Dictionary^ With all the prejudices of an antiquarian taste, and an eye long familiar with the form in which the words had been accustomed to be read, in what has been called the Anglo-Saxon character, and with the difficulty of recognizing the same words when presented in a different dress, it required a strong reason to justify the rejection of the old letters. Nothing but a thorough conviction that the Roman character would be the most legible, and would best show the identity of the present English with the Anglo-Saxon, as well as the clear analogy existing in the words of all the other Germanic languages, would have led to the adoption of this type. As a table is given for the sound of the letters in the chief languages used in the Dictionary, this opportunity is taken to introduce the peculiar characters of each language.* Words from the oriental tongues being written from right to left, and difficult to express in European letters alone, are given in their original characters; but for facility of comparison they are also represented in Roman letters. 2. It was originally intended to exclude all impure Anglo-Saxon words, and to introduce none of a later date than a.d. 1100. Subsequently it was found desirable to take a wider range, and to include some terms of a more recent formation. f These are mostly from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, with their date affixed. As the authors are always quoted, the age and purity of a word can at once be seen. The radical and some other chief words are generally printed in capitals. Accents are now adopted, as they were evidently employed by the Anglo-Saxons to distinguish long from short vowels : thus, ac an oak, ac but ; is ice, is is; })e thee, \iQ the; for went, for /or, &c. They are only used in this Dictionary on the word and its variations standing at the head of each article, this being sufficient for all practical purposes. — That orthography is, for the most part, strictly followed which is found most frequently in the best authors : still the principal variations in the literal expression of a word are added in the order in which they vary from what is deemed the correct spelling. No fancy or presumption has been permitted in the orthography ; but all authors have been allowed to answer for themselves and to appear in their own dress, without a wish to dictate the mode in which it is now presumed they ought to have written. * See the table at the end of the Dictionary. t As many words were omitted in the early part of the alphabet, the supplement is ren- dered much more extensive than would otherwise have been necessary. PARALLEL TERMS. clxXlii A reference is constantly made to the place where the word is found, and the reader left to form his own judgment. Even verbs in -gian are inserted when they are discovered so written. Verbs with the prefixes be-, ge-, on-, &c., are frequently placed under the radical word; but if found in the infinitive mood, or in any form directly derived from the infinitive, such verbs are given, with a brief explanation, in the alpha- betical order of the prefixes be-, ge-, &c., v^rith a reference to the radical word for a full explanation. The majority of words have exactly the same sense with or without the prefixed ge-, as nySerian, and geny«er- ian to humble, (Lk. xiv, 1 1 : Ps. xvii, 29.) — No pains have been spared to ascertain and express the precise grammatical inflections. Every known irregularity in a word is placed in its alphabetical order, with its meaning : thus, code went, delivered, the perfect tense, is referred to the infinitive gan to go. If the meaning be all that is required, it is thus ascertained at once ; but should the derivation and other particulars be desired, they may be found under the word to which a reference is made. 3. With the view of illustrating the Anglo-Saxon, nearly all the radical words, and a few important compounds, are followed by the parallel terms* from the cognate dialects. Synonymes without a meaning attached have the same signification as the A.-S. word under which they are brought. When it was diflScult to ascertain whether the noun or verb was the radical, parallels are occasionally inserted under both. To show more clearly the analogy of cognate languages, an attempt has been made to arrange the parallel terms in the most natural order. The Low (Piatt) German is generally placed first, because it is now spoken by the people who inhabit the territory formerly occupied by the Old-Saxons, the progenitors of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. The Dutch and Friesic words follow, because they are of the same Low-German branch, and most similar to the A.-S. and Piatt. The German then succeeds with the Alemannic from Kero, Otfrid, &c. Francic, from a translation of Isidore De Nativitate, &c. and from Willeram's Canticum Canticorum: these are followed by the Moeso-Gothic. With this Teutonic or German branch is connected the Scandinavian, including the Danish, Swedish, Norwe- gian, Icelandic, Old Danish or Norse. The Sclavonic, Latin, Greek, and Celtic synonymes are not given unless they bear some striking affinity to the word under consideration. The following arrangement, beginning with the Low-German, and, as frequently as practicable, tracing the word through the cognate dialects, up to some oriental source, * The author has here the pleasure of recording the exertions of a very learned and zealous^ friend, a native of Holstein, well acquainted with all the Teutonic and Scandinavian dialects. This erudite friend, who will not allow his name to appear, has used his utmost efforts to verify every word introduced amongst the parallels, and to give the orthography and gender correctly. The laborious work of Meidinger, entitled Etymologische Worterbuch Frankfurt, am Main, 8vo. 1833, has been occasionally used. The Rev, G. Phillips, M.A. Fellow of Queens' Coll., Cambridge, has enriched the latter part of this Dictionary by his knowledge of the oriental languages, in selecting some parallel words from the Shemitic family. clxxiv ARRANGEMENT OF PARALLEL TERMS. will make the matter clear. This tracing of the languages upwards is nearly the reverse of the table of Japhetic languages in page viii. I. 1. Low- German, Platt-Deutsch, or Old- Saxon being the dialects spoken in the northern or flat and low provinces of Germany, from which the A.-S. originally came into Britain. Written in Heliand, a.d. 840. Tatian's Harmony, a.d. 890. 2. Friesic, from the Asega-bok, Hettema's Friesch en Nederlandsch Woor- denboek, &c. 3. Dutch, from Kilian, and Holtrop's Dictionaries, &c. II. 1. High-German, modern High-German, or Hoch-Deutsch ; which, since the time of Luther, has become the cultivated language of Germany. 2. Francic, which was spoken by the independent tribes dwelling between the Rhine and Elbe, is an intermediate dialect between the German and Alemannic. Written in Hildibraht and Hadubrant, a. d. 730. Isidore's De Nativitate, a.d. 800. Willeram's Canticum, a.d. 1070. 3. Alemannic or Suabian, which prevailed in the southern or hilly part of Germany. Written in Exhortation to Christians, a.d. 720. Kero, a.d. 800. Rhabanus Maurus, a.d. 850. Otfrid, A.D. 860. Notker, a.d. 1020. III. M(ESo- Gothic Written in The Gospels, a.d, 370. IV. Scandinavian : ino-Danicum, by V. The Latin Dialects are less useful in illustrating A.-S., and therefore not VI. VII. VIII. 1. Danish ^ 2. Swedish r from Dictionaries. 3. Norwegian ^ 4. Icelandic from Halderson's Lexicon Islandico Rask, 4to. 1814. The Latin Dialects are less useful in illustrating A so frequently introduced. 1. Italian. 2. Spanish. 3. Portuguese. 4. French. 5. Latin. 6. Greek. The Celtic Dialects. 1. Welsh. 2. C6rnish. 3. Irish. 4. Gaelic. 5. Armorican. 1. Arabic. 2. Hebrew. 1. Persian, 2. Sanscrit. ENGLISH AND LATIN EXPLANATIONS. clxXV 4. The derivation immediately follows the synonymes. If the word be uncompounded in A.-S. it is occasionally traced to an oriental origin. From thQ danger of giving way to fancy, on the debateable ground of etymology, it has been an anxious wish and constant care rather to do too little than too much, and to avoid a dictatorial and dogmatical spirit on every point, but especially in the derivation of words. Immediately after compound terms will be found their constituent parts with their separate meanings : but such compounds as at once indicate their composition, are not analyzed ; the literal sense of each part is then only given, in words which most resemble the A.-S., and for this purpose there has been no scruple in using some obsolete and modern provincial terms. 5. The synonymes and derivation were placed before the explanation, as the radical meaning of the separate parts of a word being ascertained, would naturally lead to the first sense of the compound ; thus aefest [ae law, faest fast, fixed'^ fixed in the law, religious, devout ; religiosus. The explanation of the A.-S. is in English, one word of which is often iden- tical with the Saxon ; hence the necessity of a long paraphrastic Latin rendering is superseded, and the definition much shortened : but that this Dictionary may have the authority of Somner and Lye, and the sanction of the most important A.-S. authors, the principal significations are also added in Latin. The Latin explanation is generally the original from which the A.-S. translation was first made, and thus confirms the exact meaning on the authority of the translators, whose chief literature consisted in Anglo-Saxon versions from the Latin of Bede, Boethius, Orosius, and the Vulgate, or Latin Scriptures. In the quotations, except from the Bible, which is too well known to require it, an English translation is given, as literal as possible ; but in those from Bede, and often from the Bible, the Latin is retained, as it is the original from which the Saxon version was made, and therefore the best explanation. To the English translation the Latin is appended, when it indicates the grammatical order or the inflections of the Saxon. The following is the general plan adopted in the explanation : — The radical meaning is placed first, then its various significations arie numbered, and arranged in that order which appeared most accordant with the association of ideas ; — each meaning, when prac- ticable, is confirmed by quotations, with a reference to the authors by whom the word is used. Next follow the idiomatical expressions marked(II). In selecting examples to confirm the diflferent meanings, those have been preferred which illustrate the grammatical inflections. In the explanations and illustrations, brevity and perspicuity have always been kept in view. By these means, and a proper attention to as much economy of space as is compatible with neatness in typographical execution, more practical in- formation is comprised in this volume than in the two folios of Lye. By the English and Latin Indexes,* the Saxon to the greater part of * In preparing the Indexes and carrying them through the press, the obliging attentions of the Rev. J. Williamson, and Mr. O. H. Flowers, both of St. John's College, Cambridge, cannot be forgotten. clxxvi ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF ASSISTANCE. English and Latin terms may be found, the derivation and original meaning of most English words may be ascertained, and a comparison instituted with their radical cognates in the other Gothic languages. 6. Some words have been collected from old Glossaries, with a mere Latin meaning. In such cases, the only mode of discovering the real sense was by the derivation and analogy of cognate words of Teutonic origin. When this failed, there was no alternative but to translate the Latin signification into English : thus, geman the hollow of the hand, sole of the foot, could only be known by translating, vola. Cot. 198. Some words are from Somner, Benson, and Lye, for which no other authority could be found. The orthography, inflection, and meaning of these words are given, without alteration, on the responsibility of these authors. 7. As there has been a careful citation of authorities, and at the same time particular obligations expressed, very little more can be now required. A free use, without continued reference, has been made of preceding Dictionaries and Vocabularies, and of the A.-S. Grammar of an erudite friend, the late Professor Rask. Mr. Thorpe's Glossaries, appended to his Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, and Apollonius, and his index to Caedmon, have been useful auxiliaries. Citations from Caedmon have always been made from Mr. Thorpe's improved text, through whom, and the kindness of Sir Nicholas Carlisle, the learned secretary of the Society of Antiquaries, the perusal of some sheets was allowed before the work was published. Amongst those to whom the greatest debt of gratitude is due, is an old and faithful friend, C. S. Cardale, Esq., known to A.-S. students by the benefit he has rendered them in publishing his elegant and correct edition of Boethius. This gentleman allowed the full and free use of his extensive and very valuable Anglo-Saxon and English Dictionary in MS. It would be ingratitude not to mention the friendly communications of the Rev. S. Fox, or to leave unnoticed the advantages derived from his published works.* A well known collector of choice books, Mr. Bohn, was so obliging as spontaneously to lend an interleaved copy of Lye's Dictionary, with MS. notes by the late Rev. S. Henshall. The Rev. M. White, B.D. Professor of A.-S. in the University of Oxford, had given notice of his intention to prepare an A.-S. Dictionary, but being informed that this work was far advanced, Mr. White, in the most gentlemanly manner, gave up his intended publication. He has, however, taken the most lively interest in the progress of this Dictionary. 8. This work was begun with a sanguine hope of soon bringing it to a satisfactory conclusion ; but it has employed every leisure hour of the compiler for more than seven years, four of which it has been in the • The following neat and valuable publications of Mr. Fox deserve the especial notice of Anglo-Saxon students : — Menologium, or the Poetical Calendar of the Anglo-Saxons, 8vo. 1830. See p. XX. note No. 17. — King Alfred's A.-S. version of Boethius, with an English translation and notes, Svo. 1835. See p. xix. note No. 11. TRUTH THE CHIEF OBJECT. clxXVli press. It is at last brought to a close ; and, though he has used all the diligence, and availed himself of every means in his power, having the patriotism, amidst many disadvantages, to print in his own country at his own expense and risk, it is far, very far from answering even his own expectations. He can, however, honestly declare that his utmost exertions have been continually made to lay before the public, in this Dictionary, a brief but comprehensive summary of the Anglo-Saxon language. The sources of information are constantly pointed out ; hence, where there are errors, there also are the means of discovering truth. Though he has always endeavoured to guard against prejudice and predilection, he is conscious that opinions have sometimes been advanced which may appear to want support. In such, and indeed in all cases, as he has stated in another place, he invites liberal criticism, being assured that, by the collision of opposite opinions, new light, if not truth, is often elicited ; and should this be the case, he will have cause to rejoice, whether it be pro- duced by himself or by a more successful investigator. Rotterdam, January ]st, 1837. aa THE ESSENTIALS ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR, WITH AN OUTLINE OF PROFESSOR RASK AND GRIMM'S SYSTEMS. PREFACE. Thirteen years have elapsed since a zealous, but very imperfect attempt | was made to divest Anglo-Saxon Grammar of its Latin incumbrances, and to offer one formed on the true genius and structure of the language in the publication of The Elements of the Anglo-Saxon Grammar with copious Notes, 8vo. 1823, pp.330. Before committing this work to the press i every accessible source of information was explored, and a complete English Translation made of Angelsaksisk Sproglcere ved R. K. Rasky 8vo. Stockholm, 1817. In 1826, the most practical part of The Elements with such corrections and additions as naturally arose from a farther consideration of the subject, appeared with the title of A Compendious Grammar of the primitive English or Anglo-Saxon Language, 8vo. pp. 84.* The following Essentials are given as the result of a still longer and closer investigation of the language in the preparation of the Anglo- Saxon Dictionary, and a continued appeal to the grammar of a lamented friend, the late Professor Rask, and to the learned Deutsche Grammatik of Professor Grimm. It will be seen that, as information has increased, there has been a gradual approximation, in grammatical forms and accents, to the views of Professor Rask and Grimm. While there is a hope that these Essentials, referring only to Etymology, may be found the most simple and practical, a very short abstract is given of Professor Rask and Grimm's Grammars for the use of those who prefer, what may be considered the more complete systems of these celebrated men. * See Preface to Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language, p. xx. note (§) 21. THE ESSENTIALS, Sfc. 1. The Anglo-Saxon letters are a, b, c, d, c,^ gt h, i, (k), /, m, n, o, p, (q), r, *, /, w, w, Xy y, Jj, «.* 2. The letters y, A, q, v, and z, are not found in genuine Anglo-Saxon; for k and q the Anglo-Saxons used c and cz<;. p, J? had the hard sound of th in fAin, thmg; and D, X soft, as th in ifAine, smooifA. 8. All nouns, having the nom. s. ending in -a, -scipe, -dom, -end, and -ere, are masculine: those having the nom. s. in -nes, -um, -u*, -^, and -estre, are feminine: and those in -aern, -ed, are neuter. All nouns having the nom. and ac. pi. in -u are of the first declension, neuter gender. Every noun, having the nom. and ac. pi. in as, is masculine — All nouns making g. s. in -e are feminine. 4. If a noun be masculine and have the nom. s. in -e, it always makes the g. in -an; it is therefore of the second declension. All other masculine nouns make the g. s. in -es, and are hence of the first declension. — All neuter nouns make the g. s. in -es, and are of the first declension, except a very few in -e, which are of the second declension, and have the g. in -an All feminine nouns having the nom. s. in -e are of the second declension, and make the g. in -an ; all other feminine nouns make the g. in -e, and are of the third declension. 5. Synopsis of the declensions of nouns. \std ^eclens ion. 2nd declension. 3rd declension. m. n. n. m. /• n. f /. s. nom. [e] — [e] -a -e -e -u 9- -es -es -es -an -an -an -e -e d. -e -e -e -an -an -an -e -e ac. [e] -- [e] -an -an -e -e -e lom. ac. -as — u -an -an -an -a -a 9- -a -a -a [ena] -ena -ena -ena -a -ena d. -um -um -um -um -um -um -um -um. 6. The first declension, (except those in -u, see § 13) only comprehending m. and n. nouns, is known by the genitive case singular ending in -es. It includes almost * The following characters have been generally called Anglo-Saxon: — Xa, Bb, Co, Dt), ee, Fp, D^, ph, Ii, Kk, LI, 00m, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rji. S r, T t, Uu, Xx, Yy, Zz, pfe D«. NOUNS. clxxxiv all masculine nouns, not ending in -a or -u, such as those in -dom, wisdom, es; m. wisdom; -end (derived from participles) as Haelend, es ; m. the healer^ Saviour: -ere, fiscere, es; m. a fisher: -els, recels, es; m. incense: -ing, cyning, es; m. a king : -erd, -ord, -est, as hlaford, es; m. a lord: -atS, -e^, -o^, as monaS, es; m. a month : -scype, or -scipe, as freondscipe, es ; m. friendship ; and generally, nouns ending in -1, -m, -n, -r, as eorl, es; m. a nobleman: ae^m, es; m. breath: also neuter nouns ending in a consonant, or m two or more consonants; as word, es; n. a word: neuters in -e and -incle ; as rice, es; n. a kingdom: dissyllables in -el, -ol, -en, -er; as tungel, es ; n. a star : nouns in -ed, -et, -od, heafod, es ; n. a head. m. m. m. n. n. n. s. nom. ac. srnit^ end-e staef word ric-e faet 9- smi«-es end-es staef-es word-es ric-es faet-es d. smi«-e end-e staef- e word-e ric-e faet-e pi. nom. ac. smi^-as end-as staf-as word ric-u fat-u 9- smi^-a end-a staf-a word-a ric-a fat-a d. smi^-um end-um staf-um word-um ric-um fat-um 7. In this declension the nom. and ac. cases are always the same. Masculines ending in a consonant, like smitS a smith ; and those in e like ende an end, are the most regular : nouns in -e are declined as if they had no e, like smi^, except in the nom. and ac. s. where it is preserved — Monosyllables with ae before a single con- sonant, and before st, sc, assuming another syllable with a, o, or u, in declining, change as into a, as in staef a letter, stafas letters ; fast a vat, fatu vats ; gaest a guest, gastas guests; but the ae is unchanged in staef es of a letter, in fsete to a vat, or in craeft craft, craeftas crafts ; because the syllables es, e, assumed in declining, do not contain a, 0, or u, or because ae comes before other double consonants, than st, sc Dis- syllables in -1, -n, -r, -d, are often contracted when a vowel follows, as tungel a star, g. tungles of a star, instead of tungeles ; heafod a head, g. heafdes of a head. — Neuters ending in a single or double consonant as word a word, make the nom. and ac. in the s. and pi. all alike ; but dissyllable nouns of the neuter gender ending in -el, -ol, -en, -er, diminutives in -incle and neuters ending in -e, make the nom. and ac. pi. in -u, as tungel a star, tunglu stars, ricu kingdoms; neuter monosyllables having the diphthong £e make the pi. in -u, and also change the vowel, as faet a vat, pi. nom. ac. fatu vats.* 8. The second declension has the genitive case singular ending in -an, as witega, an; m. a prophet: wuce, an; f. a week: eare, an; n. an ear. All nouns having the nom. ending in -a are masculine, and of this declension ; so also are all feminine nouns in -e, -estre, -istre, as sangistre, an; f a songstress; and names of men and women in -a, as Attila, Anna, &c. m. f. s. nom. witeg-a wuc-e g. witeg-an wuc-an d. witeg-an wuc-an ac. witeg-an wuc-an /; . r pi. nom. ac. witeg-an wuc-an g. witeg-ena wuc-ena d. witeg-um wuc-um. 9. Very few neuters have been found of this declension, eare an car, and eage an eye, stace a stake, like all neuters, make the ac. s. like the nom., thus, 7iom. ac. eare, eage ; in the other cases they are declined exactly like wuce. * See example in § 6. ADJECTIVES. clxxxv 10. Names of countries and places in -a, are sometimes indeclinable, and some- times they take the Latin form. Europa has Europam, Europe, Europe {i. e. Europae) in Orosius.* 11. The third Declension, which only includes feminine nouns, is known by the genitive case singular ending in e. All feminine nouns ending in a consonant, or in -u, or -o; as wylen or wyln a female slave, gifu a gift, syn sin, are of this declension. Nouns in -ung, styrung, e; f. a motion, and a few in -ing ; those in -nis, -nes, -nys, as gelicnes, se; ^ a likeness, -utS, geogu^, e; f youth are all feminine, and of this declension. /. /. /• /• S' nom. wyln gif-u syn gelicnes 9- wyln-e gif-e syn-ne gelicnes-se cl. wyln-e gif-e syn-ne gelicnes-se ac. wyln-e gif-e syn-ne gelicnes-se pl.nom.ac. wyln-a gif-a syn-na gelicnes-sa 9- wyln-a gif-ena syn-na gelicnes-sa d. wyln-um gif-um syn-num gelicnes-sum. 12. Nouns ending in a consonant make the g. pi. in -a, as wylna of female slaves, synna of sins ; those in -u or -o have the g.pl. in -ena, as gif-ena of gifts, and some- times the ac. in u. Those which end in a single consonant, after a short vowel, double the final letter in the g. and all the other cases formed from it, as sin sin, synne of sin, gelicnes a likeness, gelicnesse of a likeness. Nouns in -ung sometimes make the d. s. in -a. A few words have the ac. like the nom. as tid time, hand a hand, miht might, Ii regular Nouns. 13. The few masculine nouns which end in -u, such as, lagu water, medu mead, sidu custom, sunu a son, are thus declined: s. nom. ac. sunu a son; g. d. suna; pi. nom. ac. suna, g. suna, or sunena; d. sunum. In the pi. they are declined like nouns of the second declension — A few names of nations are only used in the plural, and end in -e, as Romane the Romans, Angle the Angles, Dene the Danes. They are declined, nom ac. Romane, g. Romana, d. Romanum. 14. A few words ending in -or, and -er denoting relationship, such as bro^or a brother, dohter a daughter, whether masculine or feminine, are thus declined s. nom. g. BroSor; d. bretSer: pi. nom. g. ac. bro^ra, d. bro^rum. 15. Some nouns chiefly monosyllables, containing the vowels a, u, ii, and 6, change those vowels in d. s. and nom. ac, pi. as man a man, in d. s. is men to or with a man, and pU nom. ac. men men: also fot a foot, toiS a tooth, hoc a book, broc breeches, gos a goose, turf a turf, burh a castle, cu a cow, lus a louse, miis a mouse, modor a mother, dohtor a daughter, make in the d. singular, and in the nom. and ac. pi. fet, te^, bee, brec, ges, tyrf, byrh, and byrig, cy, lys, mys, meder, dehter. They are mostly regular without change of vowel in the g. s. as mannes, fotes, totSes, boce, broce, gose, muse, turfe ; and also in the g. and d. pi. as manna, mannum ; fota, fotum ; toiSa, to^um, boca, bocum ; broca, brocum ; gosa, gosum ; miisa, musum ; turfa, turfum ; dohtra, dohtrum.f Adjectives. 16. Anglo-Saxon adjectives have variable terminations to correspond with their * Mr. Thorpe's translation of Rask, § 65. t See Dr. Grimm's Deutsche Grammutik, vol. i. p. 616, (i47 bb ClXXXVl ADJECTIVliS. 17. There is an indefinite and a definite form of declension. 18. Si/nopsis of Adjective terminations. Indefinite Adjectives. Definite Adjectives. m. /• n. m. f. n. m. /• n. m.f. n s. nam. — — — pl..^ s. -a -e -e pi. -an 9- -es -re -es -ra -an -an -an -ena d. -um -re -um -um -an -an -an -um ac. -ne -e -e -an -an -e -an. Indefinite Adjectives. 19. God good, Iset late, will serve as examples of declining indefinite adjectives. All adjectives of one syllable, except when the vowel is eb before a single consonant ; also those ending in -e, participles in -ende, -od, -ed ; dissyllables in -el, &c., as sotS true, hal sound, leoht light, niwe new, willende wishing, gehered praised, mycel greatf are declined like god good. m. /. n. m.f. n. s. nom. god god god pi. nom. god-e 9- god-es god-re god-es 9- god-ra d.* god-um god-re god-um d. god-um ac. god-ne god-e god ac. god-e. 20. Those that end in -e, drop the e in declining; as niwe new, g. niw-es, niw-re, niw-es. Adjectives, ending in a single consonant, after a short vowel, double the consonant in declining; but one consonant is omitted before -ne, -re, -ra; as, grim severe, g. m. grim-mes,/! grim-re. 21. Polysyllabic adjectives formed by the derivative terminations, -ful, -ig, -isc, -leas, -lie, -sum, &c., make the nom. s.f. and the nom. pi. n. in -u; and monosyllables, ending in a single consonant preceded by ae, have the same cases in -u. The latter, when ae is followed by a single consonant, and a, e, o, or u, change ae into a; but before double consonants ae is unchanged. An example will make the matter plain : laet late. m. /• n. m.j. n. m. laet lat-u laet pi. lat-e lat-u g. lat-es Iset-re lat-es laet-ra laet-ra d.* lat-um Iset-re lat-um lat-um lat-um ic. laet-ne lat-e l£et lat-e lat-u. 22. Dissyllables, when the inflection begins with a vowel, are often contracted; as, halig holy; g. s. m. halg-es, but not when the inflection begins with a consonant ; as, g. s. f. halig-re. Definite Adjectives. 23. The definite declension is used when the adjective has before it a definite article, or a demonstrative or possessive pronoun. The inflections are exactly the same as nouns of the second declension. • Professor Rask gives a distinct form for the ablative singular. m. f. n. ah. god-e, god-re, god-e. ah. lat-e, laet-re, lat-e. •RONOUNS. clxxxvii s. nom. se god-a g. \>xs god-an d* >am god-aii ac. Jjone god-an seo god-e |?a3re god-an Jjosre god-an Jja god-an Y^i god-e Jjaes god-an \>Qm god-an j^aet god-e m. f. n. pi. \>a. god-an Jjara god-ena bam god-um \>a god-an. r s. nom. se lat-a 9- J?aes lat-an d.* Yam. lat-an ac. Jjone lat-an n. m.f. n. Jjaet lat-e pi. pa lat-an >a2S lat-an Jjara lat-ena Yam lat-an l^am lat-um l^aet lat-e \}a lat-an. 24. Adjectives of one syllable with cb before a single consonant, in all cases reject the e from ce, hence the simple vowel a remains, or, in accordance with the rule in §21, when a single consonant is followed by a, e, o, u, ce is changed into a. Laet late is declined definitely, thus : /. seo lat-e jjaere lat-an )jaere lat-an \}a lat-an Comparison. 25. The comparative degree is formed both definitely and indefinitely by annexing ra, m. -re, / -re, n. to the positive ; the superlative indefinite by annexing -ost or est, and the definite by -esta or -osta, m. -este, f. -este, «., and sometimes by -mest, maest. Comparative. smsel-ra m. smael-re/*. n. smaller se smsel-ra seo, l^aet smael-re the smaller swiiS-ra m. swiiS-re/. n. stronger se swiS-ra seo, jjaet swiiS-re the stronger laet-ra later litre outer 26. The irregular comparisons, as god good, betera better, betst best, &c. will be found in the Dictionary. 27. All adj. in the comparative degree, and all definite superlatives, are declined like se god-a ; all indefinite superlatives like god good. Indefinite. Definite. Positive. Smael small se smal-a the small Indefinite, swi^ sttong Definite, se swiS-a the strong laet late liteweard outward Superlative. smal-ost smallest se smal-esta, seo, \>2si smal-este the smallest switS-ost strongest se switS-esta, seo, |?aet swiX-este the strongest lat-ost or lat-emest latest, most late ytemest outermost. 28. Personal pronouns. Pronowis. s. nom. ic g. min d. me ac. mea thou jjin he he his him* hine"* she heo hire« hire* hi it hitf his him hitf wef pi. we iires y4 ge eower eow eow' they hi" hira' him"» hi". * meh, mec— '' \>eh, |jec— *^ hym— ** hyne— « hyre~f hyt— s user—** usih, usic— » eowih, eowic— ^ big, heo, hie— > heora— •" heom. • Professor Eask gives an express form for the ablative case. m. /. n. ab. \>y god-an, |paere god-an, py god-an, a6. fjy lat-an, Jjaere lat-an, |jy lat-an. t 1. Dual of ic. X 2. Dual of pu. nom. wit, wyt we two. git, gyt ye two. g. uncer of us two. incer of you two. d. line to us two. inc to you two. ac. unc us ttro. inc" you two. a incit. clxXXviii PRONOUNS. 29. Sy\i self is declined like g6d indefinitely and definitely, and is added to personal pronouns in the same gender and case, as ic sylf I myself, min sylfes of myself, me syl- fum to myself; but the d. of the personal jsrow. is sometimes as in Eng. prefixed to the nom. of sylf, me-sylf myself, >e-sylf thyself, him-sylf himself Definitely it signifies the same, as, se sylfa man the same man. Sometimes agen own, declined like the in- definite of god good, is added. To his agenum to his own, Jn. i. 11. The reciprocal sense of his, as his own is also expressed by sin. Adjective Pronouns. 30. Adjective pronouns are only the genitive cases of the personal pronouns taken and declined as the indefinite adjective god. They are min my, \>iii thine, uncer our two, ure, or user our, incer your two, eower your. •m. f. n. m. /• n. s. nom. min 9 min-es 9- min-re 9 min-es% &c. Hn |jin-es Hn-re Jjin-es, &c. uncer unc-res unc-re unc-res, &c. ure" ur-es lire ur-es, &c. incer inc-res inc-re inc-res, &c. eower eow-res eow-re eow-res, &c. * ac. mine or minne ; b nom. s. m. /. n. user ; g . m. n. usses, /. usse ; d. m. n. ussum, /. usse j ac. m. userne, /. usse, n. user} pi. nom. ac. m. /. n. usse, user; g- m. f. n. ussa ; d. m. f. n. ussum. Definite or Demonstrative Pronouns. 31. The article or definite se the, and the definite I^es this, are thus declined. m. f. n. m.f.n. m. f. n. m.f.n. s. nom. se seo )jaBt pi. j>a, s. pes Pebs )?is pi. |jas*' g. |ja3S l^aere I^ass J^ara* J^ises® Jjisse? Jjisese Jsissa' d.* l^ama ^asre l^amc J^am* f jjisum' |jisse» l^isum Jiisum' ac. jjone" >a past pk J^isne l^as I^is ^as.*" ■ |>aem— b Jjaene— <^ Jjan, jjon— '^ j^aera— ^ j^isses, Jjesses— ^ j^issum, Jjis— ^ |?issere— h jjaes— » Jjissera. 32. The indeclinable article j^e is used instead of the various cases of se, seo, Jjaet. Se, seo, l^oBt are used relatively like the English that for the relative hw4 who, hwaet what. Relative Pronouns. 33. The article or definitive se, seo, p2tt, pe are generally used for the relative who, which. The interrogatives hwa 2i;Ao ? YiVfisXwhat? are thus declined. m. f. n. s. and pi. nom. hwa *. hwast g. hwaes hwaes iy three, are declined thus : m. nom. twegen g. twegra* d. twam** ac. twegen a twega — b twaem — *^ trym l^rym twa J,ry jjreo. Verbs. 37. The conjugation of Anglo-Saxon verbs, like the English, is very simple.* According to the inflection, all Anglo-Saxon verbs may be divided into two classes, the one more simple and regular, the other more complex and irregular; hence, formerly called regular and irregular. 38. The most simple, regular, and prevailing mode of forming the perfect tense and perfect participle is by the addition of a syllable. Hence in Anglo-Saxon, as in the modern English, this plan universally prevails when new verbs are formed, or when verbs from a foreign language are adopted ; when verbs are formed from adjec- tives, nouns, or from the perfect tense of complex verbs with a modified meaning. This prevalence in forming the principal parts of such verbs requires that they should be placed in the first class, especially since it is the permanent and unalterable in- flection of verbs ; for, though there is an increased and continued verging of complex verbs to the simple mode of formation, yet the simple or more regular class of verbs are always stable, and never assume the complex form. 39. Tker simple and more regular class of verbs is distinguished by having the perfect tense of two or more syllables, and the termination in -ode, -ede, -de, or -te, while the perfect participle ends in -od, -ed, -d, or -t ; as, luf-ian to love; p. luf-ode ; jc>p. luf-od ; segel-ian to sail; p. segel-ede, or segel-ode ; pp. gesegel-ed, gesegel-od ; baern-an to burn; p. bagrn-de; pp. baern-ed; met-an to meet; p. met-te; pp. met, or gemet. 40. The more complex and irregular verbs are known by having the perfect tense a monosyllable, ending in the last consonant coming before the infinitive -an, with a change of the vowel, and the perfect participle ending in -en, or -n ; as, far-an to go; p. for; pp. far-en; sing-an to sing ; p. sang; pp. gesung-en. • What is generally termed the passive voice has no existence in A.-S. any more than in modern English. The Anglo-Saxons wrote, he is lufod he is loved. Here he is, is the ind. indef. of the neut. verb wesan, and lufod loved, is the pp. of the verb lufian to love. In parsing, every word should be considered a distinct part of speech: " to a king," is not called a dative case in English, as regi in Latin, because the English phrase is not formed by inflection, but by the auxiliary words "to a." If auxiliaries do not form cases in English nouns, why should they be allowed to form various tenses, and a passive voice either in the English, or in its parent the Saxon ? Thus, Ic maeg beon lufod / may be loved, instead of being called the potential mood, pass, maeg is more rationally considered a verb in the indie, mood, indef. teme, 1st sing, beon, the neut. verb in the infin. mood, after the verb maeg: lufod is the perf. part, of the verb lufian. cxc VRRBS. 41. There are four moods — the indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive, with a sort of second infinitive, and two participles. The infinitive does not admit of a preposition before it, but the second infinitive is always preceded by to, as to etanne to eat; it seems to be the dative case of the infin. etan to eat, which is a sort of a noun. With the neuter verb it has a passive signification, or seems to denote a duty. Hit is to witanne it is to be known, it must or ought to be known. Elf. Pref. Gen. 4t2. There are two tenses — the indefinite and perfect. The indefinite* tense may refer either to the present period or to a future, and thus comprehend what are generally termed the present and future tenses. Ic write 1 write now, or I write to-morrow. 43. The conjugation of a regular verb, or a verb of the simple class, § 39. infinitive, baern-an to burn, luf-ian to love. THE PRINCIPAL PARTS. perfect. baern-de burned, luf-ode loved. perfect participle. baern-ed burned. luf-od loved. They are thus conjugated : INDICATIVE. indefinite, door shall burn. s. ic baern-e Jju baern-st he* baern-* we ba?rn-aS'' ge baern-a^5 hi baern-a^'* pi perfect. burned or have burned. baern-de baem-dest bagrn-de baern-don bsern-don baern-don SUBJUNCTIVE. indefinite, if I, etc. burn. baern-e baern-e baern-e baern-on«* baern-ond baern-on** perfect. if I, etc. have burned. baern-de bagrn-de bffirn-de baern-don basrn-don basrn-don. IMPERATIVE. 5. baern l^u burn thou, pi. h2£xn-2L^^^Qburnye, INFINITIVE. baern-an to burn, to baern-enneto^wrw, PARTICIPLES. indef P^f baern- en de^Mrnm^, baern-ed fiwrnec^. INDICATIVE.. SUBJUNCTIVE. indefinite. perfect. indefinite. perfect. do or shall love. loved or have loved. if I, etc. love. if I, etc. have loved. s. ic luf-ige luf-ode luf-ige luf-ode ]>\x luf-ast luf-odest luf-ige luf-ode hea'luf-a« luf-ode luf-ige luf-ode pi. we luf-iaS'' luf-odonc luf-iond luf-odonc ge luf-iatS*" luf-odonc luf-iond luf-odon* hi luf-iaS" luf-odon*= luf-iond luf-odon*. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. lufa >u love thou, luf-ian or -igean to love, indef. perf. luf-ia^'' ge loveye, to luf-ienne or -igenne to love, luf-ieude loving, luf-od loved. " Also heo she, hit it • »> baern-e and lufige are used when the pronoun follows the verb, as in asking a question, or commanding : but when the pronoun is omitted, or it precedes the verb -a^ is used: ^also, -edon : ^ also, -an. • The future form is the same as the present, for example : " Hi do<5 eow of gesomnungum, ac seo tid cym<5 Jjset aelc \>e eow ofslyhS, wen^ jsaet he jjenige Gode they shall put you from the synagogue : and the time shall come that every one who slayeth you, will think that he serveth God." St. John xvi. 2. The words Ic wille, sceal, &c. generally signify voZe7£on, obligation, and injunction, rather than the property nf time. Sometimes, however, they have some appearance of denoting time. VKKBS. CXCl Remarks on the formation of Moods, Tenses, and Persons. 44. The imperative mood is formed from the infinitive by rejecting the infinitive termination -an, as, baern-an to burn, baern burn. If the consonant be double, after the rejection of the infin. an, one consonant is rejected, and e added; as, syll-an to give, sell; imper. syle give, sell. Verbs in -ian, make the imper. in -a, as luf-ian to love, luf-a love. 45. The p. tense is formed by changing the infinitive -an, or -ian, into -ode, -ede, or -de ; and the pp. by changing -an, or -ian, into -od, or -ed : as luf-ian to love ; p. luf-ode ; pp. luf-od : segl-ian to sail ; p. segl-ede ; pp. segl-ed. 46. Verbs having the consonants d, f, g, I, m, n, r, s, w, and ^, before the in- finitive termination, often contract the p. tense, and have only -de added instead of -ede or -ode; as, betyn-an to shut, betyn-de I shut or have shut; alys-an to redeem, alys-de I redeemed. 47. Verbs which end in -dan or -tan with a consonant preceding, do not take an additional f/ or t in the past tense; as, send-an to send, send-e I sent; ahred-dan to libe- rate, ahred-de I liberated; pliht-an to plight or pledge; pliht-e I plighted or pledged ; set-tan to set, set-te I set. Those with c or cc change the c or cc into h before t; as, rec-can to regard; p. reh-te regarded. 48. When verbs have the letters t, p, c, h, x, and s, after another consonant before the infinitive -an, they often not only reject the vowel before d in the jo. andjojo., but change d into t; as from dypp-an to dip, would be regularly formed dypp-ede, dypp-ed dipped, but they are contracted into dypde, dypte, dyppd, dyppt, and dypt dipped. 49. Formation of persons. The first person singular is formed from the infinitive by changing -an, &c. into -e, and the second into -st, -ast, or -est, and the third into -S, -atS, -eS. 50. In the third person singular, the aspirate ^ is changed into the soft t, when the infinitive ends in -dan, or -san ; as, fed-an to feed, fet he feedeth or will feed ; raes- an to rush, reest he rusheth: verbs in -j^an or -tan receive no additional ^ ; as, cyS-an to tell, he cyS he makes known ; hat-an to name, to call, hset he calls. Verbs in -dan have the '2nd s. in -tst ; as, send-an to send, J^u sentst thou sendest, — yet sendest is sometimes found. 51. When the infinitive ends in -an with a vowel before it, the plural persons end in -iaJS ; as, hingr-ian to hunger, hingr-iau cyst thou choosest, he cyst he chooses ; and in et-an to eat, as in § 60. 62. The persons in the perfect tense are often formed like regular verbs ; but the second person singular more frequently ends in e : as, from bacan to bake, we have the past tense hoc, boce; thusj9. s. Ic hoc I baked, f^uboce thou bnkedst, he, &c. hoc he, Sfc. baked; pi. we, ge, hi bocon we, ye, they baked. 63. Verbs which have w or o for the first vowel in the perfect participle, mostly have u in the second person singular, and all the plural persons of the p. tense ; as in simple verbs, the third person singular is like the first : thusjt?. s. Ic sang I sfing, \>n sunge thou sangest, he or heo sang he or she sung; pi. we, ge, hi sungon we, ye, they sang. VERBS. XClll 64. Verbs, having a for the first vowel of the p. and i for the/Tp. make the second person s. and all the persons in the pi. of the p. in i ; as, arisan to arise ; p. ic, he, aras /, he arose, \>Vi arise thou arosest ; we, ge, hi arison ue, ye, they arose — writan to write; p. ic, he wr^t J, he lurote; )ju write thou wrotest ; we, ge, hi writon we, ye, they wrote. 65. Verbs of one syllable, terminating in a vowel, have an h annexed to them ; and those in g. generally change the g into h in all parts of the verb, as well as in the imperative mood; as J^wean to wash; imp. \>weaJa. wash ; p. \)Vio]\ washed. Stigan to rise ; p. stah rose. The conjugation of complex, or more irregular verbs. writan to write ; p. wrat wrote; pp. writen written. standan to stand; p. stod stood; pp. gestanden stood. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. indefinite. perfect. indefinite. perfect. I, etc. do or shall write. I, etc. wrote. if I, etc. write. if I, etc. wrote. s. ic writ-e wrat writ-e writ-e ]7U writ-st writ-e writ-e writ-e he«= writ wrat writ-e writ-e pi. we writ-a^* writ-on writ-on"^ writ-on'^ ge writ-a^a wrlt-on writ-on<* writ-on^ hi writ.a«* writ-on writ-on^ writ-on"*. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. writ \>\x write thou. writ-an to write indef. writ-ende writing. writ-e^ ge write ye. to writ-anne pp. writ- -en tvritten. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. indefinite. perfect. indefinite. perfect. etc. do or shall stand. I, etc. stood. if I, etc. stand. if I, etc. stood. s. ic stand-e stod stand-e stod-e )>\i stenst^ stod-e stand-e stod-e he'^ stent** stod stand-e stod-e pi. we stand-atS* stod-on stand-on'^ stod-on** ge stand-atS"* stod-on stand-on*^ st6d-on«* hi stand-a<5=^ stod-on stand-on<^ stod.on'*. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. stand l^u stand thou. stand-an to stand. indef. stand-ende standing. stand-e® ge stand ye. to stand-anne. pp. ge-stand-en stood. * writ-e and stand-e are used when a pronoun follows the verb, see § 43, note b. — '' Also pa stand-est or Jju stand-st; he stand-e^. — "^ Also heo she, hit it, as, he, heo, hit stent he, she, or it stands. — ^ Also, -en. — ^ When the pronoun is omitted, the termination is -a^, as writ-atS write, stand-au lufodest baerndest sealdest he lufode b^rnde sealde pi. we, ge, hi lufodon(edon) baerndon sealdon subjunctive mood. pres. s. ic, \)U, he lufige baerne sylle we, ge, hi lufion(j m) baernon(an) syllon p. s. ic, \}u, he lufode basrnde sealde pi. we,ge, hilufodon(edon) baerndon sealdon imperative mood. s. lufa \)\i bgern syle pi. lutia^ ge baerna\i, p. tealde, pp. geteald, stellan to leap, cwellan to kill, gedwellan to mislead, J^eccan to thatch, reccan to care about, secgan to say, lecgan to lay, bycgan to buy, secan to seek, recan to care for, wyrcan to work, bringan to bring, l^encan to think, Hncan to seem, habban to have, wUlan to will. 16. Anomolous verbs — Ic, he can (l^u cunne, canst) j!?Z. cunnon, inf. cunnan, cucSe, cu^on, pp. cuS know — An, ic an I grant (fju unne) jf?/. unnon, inf. unnan, uSe, ucSon give, bestow. Also ic gean, we geunnon, geunnan, geuXe, pp. geunnen. — Geman, Jn. 16, 21, (|ju gemanst, Bt. p. 118), pi. gemunon, gemunan, gemunde, gemundon remember. — Sceal Qpu scealt), sculon, (sceolon), pres. sub. scyle, imp. sceolde, sceol- don shall, should. — Dear Qpu dea,rst, Beo. 42), durron, sub. durre, dorste, dorston daj-e pearf Oearft, Bt. p. 8, or J?urfe, Elf gr. p. 5), j^urfon, subj. \>mie, j^orfte, )jorfton need. Also bej'earf, bej^urfon, &c Deah, dugon, inf. dugan, dohte, Bt. p. 158, Beo. 42, jju dohtest, Dew^. 15, 11, dohton, J?^.p.40, (not duhte) help, be good for {Icel. dugi). — Mseg (Jju miht, Jn. 13, 36), magon (not magon), sub. maege (mage), mihte, mihton or meahte, meahton may, might Ah (j^u age), agon, sub. age, agan, ahte, ahton possess, own. Also the negative nah, Elf gr. 2, he nah, Jn. 10, 12, pi. nagon, and sub. nage, Wilk. L. p. 160, nahte, nkhtest, nahton I do not possess — Wat, Qpu Wast), witon, wite, witan, wiste, wiston supine, witod know. Likewise the negative nat (Jju nast), nyton, nyte, nytan, nyste, nystest or nestest, Bt. 5, 3, nyston Mot (>u most) moton, mote, moste, moston must. 17. II. Complex order makes the p. a monosyllable with a change of vowel, and the pp. in -en, or -n; as, 2nd conjugation. 3rd conjugation. class, inf. pres. p. pp. class, inf. pres. p. pp. 1. et-an ete aet eten to eat. 1. byrn-an byrne barn burnen ^o ^>Mrn. 2. laet-an laete let Igeten to let. 2. writ-an write wrat writen to write. 3. far-an fare for faren ^o^ro. 3. sceot-an sceote sceat scoten to shoot. * This abstract is taken from the English Translation of Mr. Thorpe, Svo. Copenhageni 1830. ABSTRACT OF RASK. XCVll 2nd conjugation, indicative mood. SUBJUNCTIVE mood. t pres.sAc ete lae'te fare p. s. ic, pu, he se'te lete fore J'U ytst lae'tst faerst pi. we, ge, hi ae'ton leton foron he yt lae't fa3r« IMPERATIVE MOOD. pi. we, ge, hi eta« lae't-a« fara« s. et bu lae't far or ete or la'te 03 •fare pi. etaM ae'te lete fore INFINITIVE MOOD. he ae't let for pres. etan lae'tan faran pL we, ge, hi aeton leton foron gerund, etanne lae'tanne faranne SUBJUNCTIVE mood. PARTICIPLES. pres.s. ic, Jju, he ete lae'te fare act. etende las'tende farende pi. we, ge, hi eton lae'ton faron pp. eten lae'ten faren. 18. 1st Class, conjugated like etan, contains those verbs which have a long -e or -i before a single characteristic ; as, inf. sprecan, pres. ic sprece, he spriccS, p. ic spraec, we sprse'cou, pp. gesprecen to speak, wrecan to revenge, tredan to tread, fretan to fret, metan to measure, genesan to recover, lesan to gather, biddan to hid, beg,' sittan to sit, licgan to lie, ongitan to understand, gifan to give, swefan to sleep, beran to bear, teran to tear, sceran to shear, acwelan to perish, forhelan to conceal, stelan to steal, niman to take — Irregulars, geseon to see, cweu byrnst writst scytst pi. he byrnS writ scyt pi. we, ge, hi byrna^ writa^ sceotaiS s. or byrne or write or sceote pi. p. s. ic barn wrat sceat or ]pu burne write scute he barn wrat sceat pres. pi. we,ge,hiburnon writon scuton gerund. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. pr.s. ic, Jju, he byrne write sceote act. /?/. we, ge, hi byrnon writon sceoton pp. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. ic, |7U, he burne write scute we,ge,hiburnon writon scuton IMPERATIVE MOOD. byrn ]pu writ j'u sceot )ju byrna.Ti. F.R.S.(Stephen). A specimen of the Con- formity of the European languages, particularly the English, with the Oriental languages, especially the Persian, London, Svo. 1802, price 7^. In the English and Latin Indexes the references are to the numbers and letters at the head of the page : as, Mulberries 47a, is found under number 47a, at the head of the page in the Dictionary, and the first column after a in the margin. General Remarks upon the Gender and Declension of Anglo-Saxon Nouns. Every noun, which has the vom. s. in -a is vi. and makes the g-. s. iTU-^db. All m. nouns ending in a consonant, or -e, make the g. s. in -es : those nouns which tllCinate in -dom, -els, -end, -ere, -ing, -erd, -ord, -scipe ; -feld afield, plain ; -ford a ford; -ham a home ; -hleew rising ground ; -stede a place ; -tun an inclosure, a town, &c. ; likewise all nouns, making the nom. and ac. pi. in -as, are all m. and, therefore, make the g. s. in -es. All/, nouns, which have the nom. s. in -e, make the g. s. in -an. Every/, noun, ending in a consonant, such as words in -ceaster a city ; -dun a hill; -scir, -scyr, a shire ; -stow a place, &c. has the g. s. in -e : indeed, every noun having the g. s. in -e is/. All nouns, having the nom. and ac. pi. in -u, are n., and, like all n. nouns, ending in a con- sonant, make the g. s. in -es. Observations upon inflections, useful fl)r finding words in the Dictionary. In nouns, when a comes before a single consonant, or st. so followed by a, o, or u, and, in adjectives, when a comes before a single consonant followed by a, e, o, or u, the nom. s. is found by rejecting all the letters after the second consonant, or st. sc. and by changing a into a : as in the nouns fatum with vats, stafas letters, gastas guests, by casting away um, as, as, and changing a into ce, we have faet a vat, staef a letter ; gaest a guest, and in the adjectives, lates, latena of late, latum to late, se smala the small, smalost smallest, se smalesta the smallest, by taking away es, ena, um, a, ost, esta, and changing a into ^, we have laet late, and smael small. Py. Synopsis of the terminattb&s of verbs. Simple verbs, or verbs which have the p. of \ Complex verbs, or verbs which two or more syllables. *^ave the p. a monosyllable. v/riu^'^ INDICATIVE, indf INDICATIVE, indf. ^ 1.* 2.* 3.* ^ 'V - thou, -e -sta -ige -ast -ed -st, -est«* i he. -«b -a« -, -^, -e« pi toe, ye, they. -a«, -e -ia«, -ige -aS,-e. (^f'¥A , perfect. -dec -ode perfect. 1 « thou, ' '^ ' he. -dest -odest -e^ -de -ode e pi. we, ye, they, -don -odon, -edon -on SUBJUNCTIVE , indf SUBJUNCTIVE, indf s. if I, thou, he, -e -ige -e pi. if we, ye, they, •on, -an -ion, -iafl^ -on, en perfect. perfect. s. if I, thou, he. -de -ode -e« * pi. if we, ye, they, -don, -den -odon, -eden -on, en IMPERATIVE, &c. IMPERATIVE, &C. s. pi -aiS, -e -a -ia*, -ige -e,-a« inf. to, -enne -igenne -anne part, -ing, -ende -igende -ende pp. -ed -od -en. 1.* By substituting the inf. -an, for -e, -st, -de, &c., and prefixing the radical part of the verb, as baern-e, baern-st, baern-de, we have the inf. baern-an to burn. » -tst is changed into -dan in the inf. as \>u laetst thou leadest, becomes laedan to lead, b -t is changed into -tan, as he gret he greets, becomes gretan to greet : -i, after a vowel, is -^an, as he cytS he tells, cy<5an to tell. •= -hte is the inf. -htan, or -ccan, as p. he plihte he plighted, inf. plihtan ; he rehte he cared for, inf. reccan. In the p. and pp. -eal-, before -de, or -d, is the inf. -ellan, as tealde, geteald told, inf. tellan to tell : -eah- before -te, -t is inf. -eccan, as Jjeahte thatched, inf. Jjcc- can to thatch. 2.* By substituting -ian for -ige, -ast, -ode, &c. as luf-ige, luf-ode, we have luf-ian to love. 3.* By substituting -an for -e, -st, -est, &c., and changing the vowels of the first syllable as in the following directions, the inf. is found. ^ In the 1st and 2nd persons indf ce, e are generally from a of the inf. as ]}\x baecst thou bakest, he baecS he bakes, inf. bacan to bake : \>n stenst thou standest, he stent he stands, inf. standan to stand : y is from e, eo, or u, as Jju ytst thou eatest, he yt he eats, inf. etan to eat: — \>\x cyst thou choosest, he cyst he chooses, inf. ceosan to choose : — he sycS he sucks, inf. sucan to suck. ^ The 1st and 3rd persons end in the last consonant of the verb, and change the preceding vowel : thus, o and sometimes eo in the p. are from the inf. a; but eo in the p. is generally from ea ; as p. he stod he stood, from inf. standan to stand ; p. he bleow he blew, inf. blawan to blow ; he beot he beat, inf. beatan to beat. The p. ea, ee, and the pp. before II, If, Ig, It, rp, rf, rg, &c. are from the inf. e, eo, or « ; as, p. he mealt he melted, pp. molten melted, from inf. meltan to melt ; he staerf he died, pp. storfen died, inf. steorfan to die ; p. cleaf clove, pp. clofen cloven, inf. clufan to cleave. The a of the p. and u or i of the pp. are fr^m i of the inf. p. he sang he sang ; pp. sungen sung; inf. singan to sing : — he bat he bit, pp. biten bitten, inf. bitan to bite. ■7}uu^^