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INCLUDING
A FULL EXPLANATION OF A RATIONAL PLAN OF
GRADING,
BY
WILLIAM J. SHEARER, A. M.,
Sufferintendent of Schools of the City of Elizabeth and County of Unzozt
AV. 9., and azuthor of “The Lock-Step ºn the Public
Schools,” “Methods of Teachzng Patriotism. Zoe
Schools,” “The Examzzmatzone Grind,” Etc.
THIRD EDITION
NEW YORK :
THE H. P. SMITH PUBLISHING CO.
1899
Copyright, 1898,
By WILLIAM J. S.HEARER.
Co the 3ous anè (Birls of the public
Schools,
IN THE HOPE THAT
IT WILL LEAD TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
A PLAN OF GERADING WIBIICH WILL
I,EAVE EACH PUPIL FREE
TO ADVANCE ACCORDING TO ABILITY,
THIS BOOK Is
AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED.
II.
III.
IV.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
XI.
XII.
XIII. "
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
CONTENTS.
Preface, - tº * º
The Ungraded School, . º tº
The Evolution of the Graded School,
The Typical Graded School,
Different Class Intervals, & e º
The Usual Method Condemned by Educa-
tors, º - - º e
Unsuccessful Attempts to Correct the
Defective Grading,
Classification of Pupils,
Reclassification of Pupils,
Promotion of Pupils, o
Apportionment of Work, . º & º
Method of Securing Thoroughness in Es-
sentials, 4- º º e ©
Means of Enlisting the Interest of Par-
ents and Pupils, . - e e º
Location and Removal of Danger Points
in Each Grade, g - º &
Number of Divisions and Básis of Classi-
fication in Each Grade,
Programs for Each Grade, o &
Means of Reaching the Individual
Helping the Future Teachers,
|Beneficial Results of a Rational Plan of
Grading, - e «» º tº
Testimony of Principals and Teachers,
Editorial Endorsement, . º e º
How Any Graded School May Easily
Adopt a Pliant Plan of Grading, .
The Grading of the Ungraded School,
and
PAGE.
11
17
22
32
40
45
59
66
76
91
98
110
120
• 131
140
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
YX.
XXI.
153.
162
171
183
203
209
PREF ACE.
For the first time in the history of education,
the importance of securing a better plan of
grading the Schools of cities and towns occupies
the prominent place in educational discussions to
which it has long been entitled. At last it is
realized that, of all the difficult problems which
confront those who are responsible for the
Organization and administration of the schools, no
other affects more vitally the present and future
welfare of the boys and girls in the public schools.
No other is of so much interest to parents solicit-
ous for the advancement of their children. No
other is of more importance to principals and
teachers, who have been compelled to work under
the mediaeval plan, which has long since outlived
its usefulness. No other is such a source of
worriment to wide-awake superintendents and
members of boards of education, who realize the
fact that the system of grading, which was in-
8 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
tended to faithfully serve the children, has be-
come their tyrannical master.
Being the first book written upon this impor-
tant phase of school organization, no apology is
offered for its appearance. However, in making
this contribution to educational literature, a few
words of explanation will not be out of place.
When years ago I left the work in the rural
schools and accepted a position in a system of
graded schools, I was greatly impressed with the
fact that, because of the usual plan of grading,
there was serious injury done to many pupils. In
the rural school, pupils possessing the ability and
determination were free to move forward, with-
out dragging others with them, and without
being held back by those who either did not have
the ability to move more rapidly over the work,
or who lacked application. No such freedom ex-
isted in the graded school, where all were expected
to move at the same rate for their whole school
lives.
In the hope of finding a more flexible plan of
grading, diligent search was made, though with-
out discovering a plan which had been successful
in breaking up Procrusteam beds of grades. Im-
pressed with the importance of having some more
rational plan, the attempt was made to work out,
in school, a method which would make it easy to
PREFACE. 9
regulate the pupil’s advancement solely upon his
own ability and attainments, rather than upon the
Supposed ability of the mythical average pupil.
A method was gradually evolved, which, without
adding to the expense of the schools or to the
strain upon the teacher, gave excellent results.
During the past ten years this plan has been
discussed in educational associations and educa-
tional journals, and lately a brief explanation of
the method was given in the “Atlantic Monthly.”
Instead of satisfying, this seemed only to have
greatly increased the interest in the subject.
The leading papers of the United States have
given the plan the strongest editorial indorsement.
Kind letters and searching inquiries have poured
in from earnest superintendents, principals,
teachers and members of boards of education,
from every part of this country and Canada.
These proved that I had been successful in my
efforts to awaken interest in this important ques-
tion, but had not succeeded in giving a clear idea
of the plan which had given results much desired
by all thoughtful educators. Therefore, in answer
to several hundred requests, the promise was
made that a fuller explanation would be given.
Then, the intention was to simply expand the
previous articles; but the necessity of answering
quite fully the many excellent and pertinent ques-
10 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
tions required a much fuller discussion of princi-
ples and a far more lengthy explanation than was
at first contemplated.
Written under great pressure, a page or two at
a time, long after the day’s work should have been
laid aside, no effort has been made to attain literary
excellence; so that upon this and other lines there
is much to tax the patience of the indulgent
reader. It is written as an aid to those who are
devoting thought and study to this subject, and
not as a substitute for either.
No matter what the reception of the book may
be, it is earnestly hoped that it will prove of as-
sistance to my earnest co-laborers who are trying
to break away from unsatisfactory methods, that
our excellent public schools, which are increasing
in efficiency at an ever-increasing rate, may even
more grandly fulfill their heaven-born mission.
WILLIAM J. S.HEARER.
Elizabeth, N. J., Nov. 12, 1898.
Chapter I.
THE UN GRADED SCHOOL.
All the older schools seem to have been organ-
ized in about the same way and to have been un-
graded. The ungraded school is, therefore, the
germinal School from which all others have sprung.
In fact, until well into the present century, all
American schools were practically ungraded. For
this and other reasons a consideration of the un-
graded school cannot fail to be beneficial as a prep-
aration for the study of the grading of schools.
Characteristics—
An authority” gives the following as the prin-
cipal peculiarities of the ungraded schools: “In
the first part of this century—it almost seems
like ancient history, now that the condi-
tions everywhere are so different—the grading of
elementary Schools was a thing unknown in this
country. Instruction was almost wholly individ-
ual. Whenever a pupil chose to present himself
*J. C. Boykin.
12 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
for admission into school, no matter at what time
of the year, he was received. His studies were de-
termined by the books he brought. His first lesson
was apt to follow the last one that his former
teacher had given him. If he had been through
Webster’s ‘Blue-back’ Speller twice, and had fin-
ished the last column of the tenth page, on the
third round, the first column on the eleventh page
would naturally be the first lesson that his new
teacher would give him. If a class already formed
had reached just that point he was put into that
class. Otherwise he would probably form a new
class. It was thus by no means uncommon to see
a dozen or more classes in the same room studying
the same book, but at a dozen or more stages of ad-
vancement in it; and, altogether, a teacher with a
School of moderate size, containing pupils of all
ages, sexes, and sizes, might easily have fifty or
sixty classes. Attend to them all? Certainly; but
what attention : The little fellows received but
little of it; especially those who had learned to
read. Their lessons would be heard every few
days. The teacher's pet classes were called to the
recitation bench often; and his favorite subjects
received nearly all his attention. The rest of the
school whiled away the time as best they might.
They “did their sums’ on their slates, or droned over
their ‘blue-backs,” until they were tired, and then
THE UNGRADED SCHOOL. 13
turned their attention to each other and to mischief,
opportunities for which frequently appeared in the
open mouth or bare soles of a sleeping pupil; and
such opportunities rarely went unimproved.”
We see, then, that instruction was almost en-
tirely individual in every sense of the word. Each
pupil’s lessons were not only determined by the
books he happened to have, but each one studied
what he pleased, in the way he pleased, and as long
as he pleased. The school was really modeled after
the system of family education which existed in
Europe in the fifteenth century.
Advantages—
In the early schools, the instruction given
was generally directed to one pupil at a time;
therefore it could always be suited to the in-
dividual. The teacher came into close contact
with each pupil, and, without effort, the attention
could be held to any difficulty presenting itself.
As but a small part of the time was spent in recita-
tion, all the lessons could be prepared in school.
Once called to the class, the pupil could not escape.
IHe could not rely upon learning the lesson by hear-
ing others recite. As the lessons were learned
with but little or no help from the teacher, “the sys-
tem favored the formation of habits of self-reliance
and independent effort, patience, perseverance and
courageous attack of difficulties. The boy was
14 THE GRAT) ING OF SCHOOLS.
compelled to depend largely upon himself and to
appeal to the teacher only in case of emergency.
This was so far a valuable training, not only for
school, but for after-life; it made boys manly; it
accustomed them to the use of their own strength;
and it fostered the growth of originality and de-
cision of character, of thought, and of speech.
There was an entire absence of that dead level of
effort so common in schools now.”
May this not account for the fact that the un-
graded school was a developer of genius, and had,
for the few, at least, some important advan-
tages? Certain it is, that from these schools have
come many of the strongest characters, who have
easily led all others in the battle for supremacy.
Disadvantages—
Under this plan there was no saving of the
teacher's time and strength. Time and again
the same old difficulties had to be met and
removed for each pupil. The many mistakes
common to all had to be corrected for each one
separately. Interesting information had to be
given as many times as there were scholars, or, as
was too frequently the case, omitted altogether.
The larger the school the more unsatisfactory was
the work, the less efficient the instruction, the less
time to be devoted to each pupil, and the harder
*Landon.
THE UNGRADEHD SCHOOL. 1.5
the discipline. In many ways the pupils wasted
their time. With reference to this Landon speaks
as follows: “To prevent this a rigid system of
harsh punishments was carried out. The insubor-
diſlation was kept down by a very free and fre-
quent use of the lash.” How severe the discipline
was in some cases may be gathered from Jean Paul
Richter's account of punishments given by a Sua-
bian school-master. Small faults and breaches of
minor rules—such as talking—not immoral in
themselves, were magnified into little less than
crimes, and the pupil’s notions of right and wrong
thereby confused. The discipline was merely the
result of personal authority; little or no sympathy
with right was aroused, or respect for law incul-
cated. The temporary absence of the master was
generally the signal for a scene of riot and con-
fusion. Speaking of the French schools, Willm says:
“There generally existed between the instructor
and his pretended pupils the same relation and
sympathy as among a gang of rebellious slaves and
their overseer; with but few exceptions, both master
and scholars sighed for the moment when the labor
of each should end. On escaping from school, the
greater part of the children, shaking off the dust
of the blows and lessons they had received, rushed
back in some measure to a state of nature and
liberty.” In class teaching one secret of success is
16 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
to make the quick and intelligent boys a means of
benefiting the rest; even their mistakes are often
useful. Stimulated by their example and success,
the dull ones put forth their best efforts, and fre-
quently astonish even themselves. The individual
plan forfeited all gain of this kind, and there was
an entire absence of that spirit of class emulation
which a good toacher knows how to make the most
of. The system, in fact, favored those who were
strong, quick, and industriously inclined, but de-
pressed and disheartened the weak and slow. The
dullness, weariness, and want of spirit and variety
in the work were very marked; and, except while
saying lessons, there was no change of posture or of
place. To-day was but as yesterday, to-morrow
like to-day; it was one dull, heavy round of
routine.”
Chapter II.
*===s*
EVOLUTION OF THE GRADED SCHOOL.
The first step toward the graded school was made
possible when the number of pupils increased so
that several could recite together in certain
branches.
A second step still further simplified matters, by
confining all to a definite course of study. This
did away with much aimless teaching and study,
saved a great amount of useless repetition and much
time for both teacher and pupils. This method
represents the best type of rural school at the pres-
ent time. While it is a great advance over the
primitive ungraded school, yet a lack of proper
classification and of sufficient time to devote to the
many classes prevents the progress which is desir-
able. An increase in the number of pupils makes
possible a better classification; but the time which
can be spent with each class is too short for the
accomplishment of good work.
A third step toward a proper plan of grading was
18 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
taken when the number of pupils increased suffi-
ciently to warrant the employment of two or more
teachers. Then, for the first time, was possible a
division of labor. The classification and grading
of Schools is but the application to education of the
same law of division of labor that prevails in every
Successful business. It is not only the most eco-
nomical way, but it is a prerequisite to satisfactory
progress upon any line. --
In the most primitive state of society, each does
all. But long before man emerges from the savage
state the division of labor receives some recogni-
tion, and, very early in the history of civilization,
it is recognized as a necessary condition to human
progress. As society advances, each takes up the
work for which he is best fitted by endowment and
education, and trades and professions result. As
society grows more complex, each gives special at-
tention to that part of his work for which he is best
suited; and thus we have specialists in every occu-
pation. We see, then, that as division of labor is
an indispensable condition to success in material
things, so division of labor in educational matters
is but the result of necessary obedience to the uni-
versal law of progress. The teacher’s time and
talents being concentrated upon certain work, it
becomes easier by repetition, and, therefore, is
likely to be performed more efficiently.
EVOLUTION OF THE GRADED SCHOOL. 19
A fourth step toward the graded school was
taken when the number of pupils attending the
schools of a district increased so as to justify the
employment of eight or ten teachers. This desired
end was often reached by the union of schools,
where such union was feasible. The course of
study was then divided into a series of ascending
steps, each preparatory to the next higher. The
teachers were assigned definite portions over which
they were expected to take their pupils during the
year. Under such conditions the pupils could be
closely classified, and those about equal in ability
and attainments could be instructed together.
Only by doing this can we have a graded school
system such as we now understand by that term.
The greater the degree of differentiation the higher
the type of organization. Herein lies the superior-
ity of the graded school over the ungraded school,
in which there can be no differentiation. At this
point, also, is found the greatest weakness of the
graded school, for in it the degree of differentiation
is less than it should be and can easily be made.
Therefore, the way to correct the defective grading
is to grade more closely.
THE FIRST GRADED SCHOOL.
The first graded school was established in 1537,
by John Sturm, at Strasburg. More than any
20 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
other, it has had a vital influence upon the Schools
from that time to the present. This school, which
was organized as a gymnasium, was recognized as a
college in 1567 and as a university in 1621. The
pupils were expected to spend a year in each one of
the nine classes, each class having its own teacher,
its regular course of study, and its examination for
promotion, about as in the graded Schools of to-day
which have not broken away from these mediaeval
methods. Sturm not only apportioned a certain
amount of work to be accomplished in a given time,
as nearly all do now, but he even “forbade
them to learn anything else.” These ideas of his
were transmitted from the sixteenth century to the
nineteenth by means of the Jesuit schools and the
secondary schools of Continental Europe.
THE FIRST AMERICAN GRADED SCHOOL.
About 1835 great interest was shown in the
schools of this country. The need of some change
in the plan of classification was everywhere appar-
ent, but what the change should be none seemed
willing to say. For a time, the only classification
which seemed feasible was a rough grouping into
three departments, each taught by a single teacher.
Though this proved unsatisfactory, because pupils
could not be properly classified, there were some
who still advocated the placing of the pupils of an
EVOLUTION OF THE GRADED SCHOOL. 21
ungraded school in three divisions, to be taught by
One teacher. Later, union schools were formed by
the consolidation of several schools. Experience
with these showed their advantages, and, at the
same time, proved that a division into only three
groups was not sufficient to properly provide for
the important differences in the ability of pupils to
do the work assigned. It also made plain the fact
that, as the number of pupils increased, the possi-
bility of more accurate grading was greatly im-
proved. In spite of this fact, it was not until 1847
that John Philbrick worked out the details of the
first graded school in this country. Gradually
others adopted the plan, and by 1860 the schools of
most of the cities and large towns were graded.
By 1870 the pendulum had swung from no system
to nothing but system.
We see, then, that the American graded school
was not transplanted from abroad, but that it is
the result of a growth, which has continued for
years in our own country; yet the graded school, as
it is generally found, differs but little, in manner
of grading and promoting, from the first graded
School founded by Sturm three hundred and sixty-
One years ago. Is it not to be wondered at, that for
So long a time we have been satisfied with this medi-
aeval plan of grading, while on other lines there
has been so much progress?
Chapter III.
THE TYPECAL GRADED SCHOOL.
Characteristics—
In the graded school the pupils are roughly
classified according to their supposed ability to do
the work of a given year; and each class is placed
in charge of a teacher, who is expected to give the
Same lessons to all members. Each teacher has a
Separate room, and over the teachers of a building
is generally placed a principal, who has the over-
sight of the schools in the building. When the
number of schools increases sufficiently to warrant
the step, a superintendent is placed over all the
schools of the system. The course of study is
divided arbitrarily into a number of parts, each sup-
posed to contain enough work to keep the pupils
busy for one year. The effort is made to have all
accomplish the same work, in the same way, in the
same time, and be ready for an examination, that
THE TYPICAL GRADED SCHOOL. 23.
all may be promoted at the time fixed by the super-
intendent or by the Board of Education.
Advantages—
As has been pointed out, the graded School
merely applies the law of the division of labor to
education, and is, therefore, advantageous for many
reasons. Far better than the ungraded school, it
measures up to the important requirement of the
greatest good to the greatest number, in the short-
est time, at the least expense. It also gives the
many and important advantages of the class recita-
tion. -
Disadvantages—
Though experience with pupils from private
Schools must convince all that the American graded
school is equalled by no other, and although each
year it is increasing in efficiency and power; yet it
is useless to deny that this method of grading and
promoting, which binds together the bright and the
dull, is responsible for a number of serious defects,
which the friends of the schools should clearly see,
in Order that they may quickly correct them.
Usual Plan Not Flexible. Though the graded
school has many advantages, we should not close
Our eyes to the fact that it is open to the serious
charge that it does not properly provide for the in-
dividual differences of the pupils; that it is not
24 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
sufficiently pliant to accommodate itself to the
pupils, but demands that the pupils accommodate
themselves to it; and that that grading, which was
intended to serve the children, has now become
their cruel master.
Teachers, Classes and Pupils Differ. All must
admit that teachers vary greatly in knowledge,
power, skill, and in other particulars affecting their
efficiency. Every experienced teacher knows that
classes differ in their ability to accomplish a given
amount of work. No one dares deny that the
children of every grade differ widely in age, in ac-
quirements, in aptitude, in physical endurance, in
power of attention, in home advantages, in the rate
of mental development, in the time of entering
School, in regularity of attendance, and in many
other ways affecting their progress.
Pupils Kept in Intellectual Lock-Step. Because
of the manner of grading and promoting, the
graded school of to-day keeps all the children of
each grade in intellectual lock-step, not only month
after month, but year after year, for their whole
school lives. Children are not alike, then, in ability
or in any other wav, and God never intended they
should be made alike. Why then should we put
them into “educational mills,” and attempt to grind
them out alike, crushing out that individuality
which He meant should be a guide to their educa-
THE TYPICAL GRADED SCHOOL. 25
tion and usefulness, and not a hindrance thereto?
Is there any reason why we should labor to produce
uniformity of tastes, of character, of ability, of
aspirations? Is not individuality of more import-
ance than evenness of grading? Is it not the di-
vinity of the child? should it not be sought for
and discovered, that it may be carefully studied and
lovingly guarded? Does not biography teach us
that only those have become distinguished who
have developed a love for work along particular
lines? Is it not time that we cease condemning
the teachers because, in spite of all the mentioned
differences, and many others unmentioned, but not
undiscovered, they cannot produce symmetrical
nonentities? Must the poor teachers, limited in
power and by conditions, be criticized because they
cannot overcome the differences in ability pre-
determined by the Almighty?
Method of Grading the Work Defective. That
the marked differences in children, in classes, and
in teachers, are not properly provided for, either in
the amount and character of the work required, or
in the time to be spent upon the work, is readily
seen, when we consider the usual method of grad-
ing and promoting. The course of study for the
graded school is divided arbitrarily into a number
of grades, generally a year apart, and the work for
26 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
each grade is laid out for the bright, the slow, or
the average.
Many schools grade the work for the bright. In
this case, all the rest are dragged over far more
work than they can understand. Therefore, many
soon become discouraged and drop out of school.
Though not generally acknowledged, yet in real-
ity the courses of study in most schools are graded
for the slower pupils. This is certainly an outrage
on the large majority of pupils who can and should
go forward more rapidly. Not only is the progress
of all kept down to the pace of these slower ones,
but, worse than this, the majority of the pupils are
drilled into habits of inattention and idleness. So
long has this continued, that many teachers have
come to believe that pupils do not differ materially
in their ability to cover the course. However,
there are thousands of earnest teachers who realize
the great injury done the pupils by such a method
of stifling talent.
But by far the largest number of schools are
supposed to be graded for the “average pupil.” At
first sight this looks reasonable; but, could anything
be more absurd? Surely it would be just as sensi-
ble to say, that, as the pupils in a certain grade vary
in height from three feet six inches, to four feet
four inches; and as they now average four feet, and
by the end of the year should average four feet one
THE TYPICAL GRADED SCHOOL. 27
inch, those naturally tall must gradually be com-
pressed, and those naturally short must go through
a stretching process, so that all may come up to the
desired average. What a grand system this would
be for the physical development of the children!
Surely such a method would have a still more
blighting effect upon their mental development.
The truth is, that, neglecting the ever present indi-
vidual pupil of flesh and blood, of soul and life, and
infinite possibility, the attempt has been made to
reach all, by shaping the work for the mythical
“average pupil.”
As the course of study is nailed to the calendar,
when the sign is right, and the sun has reached a
certain altitude in the heavens, and the thermome-
ter is “ninety-five in the shade,” and the pupils’
energy is nearest zero, all are subjected to a useless
examination, which the lucky pass, while the rest
lose a year, or leave school. Thus, year after year,
in chain gangs, are the bright and the slow bound
and forced to move at the same pace for their whole
School lives.
The Bright Pupils Ruined. The effect of such
Ymethods on the bright children is most disastrous;
for it injures them greatly, both mentally and
morally, to hold them down to the pace of the
slower ones. Who would work the mettlesome
racer with the heavy draught horse and not expect
28 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
it to end the usefulness of the racer? What man
of spirit could long bear to walk in step with a
child, if he felt the need of arriving at his destina-
tion quickly?
The Slower Pupils Are Injured. Regardless of
thoroughness, the dull are rushed over the work.
They fall behind, stumble for a time at the foot of
the class, then, misunderstood, unappreciated and
discouraged, drop out of school, or are quietly
obliged to leave lest “they bring down the examin-
ation average.” What teacher has not seen such
pupils drop out of school, having lost all interest in
life? Sad it is that they have lost the confidence
of their teachers. Sadder still that they should no
longer be encouraged by the confidence of their
parents. But infinitely more are such pupils to be
pitied, because they have lost all confidence in their
own abilities. Almost certain are they to become
lost characters. Yet, the most of them could have
been saved, if only they could have been permitted
to go at the pace that the Almightly intended they
should, instead of being obliged to go at the rate
that some Board of Education had fixed. Why
should any one wonder that the most of these leave
school? Is it not time that an effort be made to suit
the pace to them, instead of forcing them into an
unnatural gait?
But Few Gain Time. Under the present system
THIE TYPICAL GRADED SCHOOL. 29
even the brightest cannot gain time; while if any
but the brightest lose time they fail to be pro-
moted, and so lose a whole year, when in fact they
are but a month or two behind with their work.
Statistics show that less than one per cent of the
pupils can successfully skip the work of a whole
year. It is generally asserted that not more than
twenty per cent of the pupils fail to be promoted,
yet the statistics of certain cities show that not less
than from thirty-five to fifty per cent of those re-
maining at the end of the year failed. Some claim
that those who fail do better work the following
year, but statistics show that the large majority of
the pupils do not return to school, and but few of
those who do return do good work.
Pupils Lose Much Time. Statistics from many
cities prove that eighty per cent of the pupils lose
from one to four years; and, for every one hundred
pupils in the schools investigated, there had been
from one hundred and twenty-five to three hundred
and seventy years lost. These statistics were gath-
ered in distant cities of different states. The fol-
lowing figures show the loss per one hundred pupils,
in different schools: One hundred and twenty-
five, one hundred and sixty-six, one hundred and
seventy-five, two hundred, two hundred and twen-
ty-five, two hundred and thirty-three, two hundred
and thirty-seven, two hundred and fifty, three hun-
30 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
dred and forty-eight, three hundred and seventy-
two years.
The above facts are conclusive proofs of the as-
sertion that, under the usual plan, it is very easy to
lose time and exceedingly hard to gain it.
The gain of time would not be worthy of consid-
eration but for the fact that, as the work is graded
for the slower pupils, there is not sufficient work to
keep the rest interested and busy. It would be
difficult to find a course of study which the brighter
pupils could not easily finish in from one to three
years less time than is allotted.
Injury to the Pupils. It is very injurious to
place pupils with those of unequal ability; it is little
less than criminal to compel them to walk in intel-
lectual lock-step with such for months and years;
it is an outrage to constantly goad children, to
hurry forward the slow or to hold back the bright;
and to force many out of school, after having de-
stroyed their self-confidence and condemned them
to lives of ignorance, if not worse, is barbarism such
as should not be permitted in the latter part of the
nineteenth century.
A Demand for a Better System. Is it any won-
der that this ironclad system of grading—which,
regardless of all differences, would cast all minds
in the same mould, and subject all to the same
treatment, for the same length of time, and test all
THE TYPHOAL GRADED SCHOOL. 31
in the same way at the same time—is objected to,
because it demands so much uniformity at everv
step that the majority are forced to leave school,
while those who do graduate, finish too late to get a
fair start in life? Is it any wonder, then, that
from all sides there comes a demand for some sys-
tem of grading which will be more pliant, and
which will not attempt to overcome, not only the
differences of physical ability and physical environ-
ments, but even the differences in mental capacity?
Is it any wonder that on all sides thoughtful educa-
tors are studying this problem as never before, and
are planning to strangle this demon of uniformity,
which cuts short the school life of the majoritv, and
menaces the intellectual life of every boy and girl
in the graded schools?
Chapter IV.
&=ºmºmºsºsºsºsmºsº
DIFFERENT CLASS INTERVALS.
As the class interval has a powerful influence in
determining the method of grading, it is important
that the characteristics, advantages and disadvan-
tages of the several class intervals should be clearly
comprehended by all who are considering a change
in the method of grading.
THE YEAR INTERVAL.
Formerly, with but few exceptions, all the schools
had the year interval between classes, it having
been thus arranged to correspond with that of the
colleges.
Characteristics—
Under this plan the classes were a year apart.
The course of study was divided into the same num-
ber of parts as there were years in the course, and
each portion assigned to a given year. Each year
the pupils took up the work apportioned for the
DIFFERENT CLASS INTERVALS. 33
year for which they were supposed to be prepared,
and spent the whole year on the work, though
many could easily have finished the work in half
the time. Change to a higher class came only at
the end of the year, except in those instances where
it was found that pupils had not been properly
placed. In speaking of methods of promotion,
Picard says: “One method of administration places
the several grades, as it were, in a series of rooms
adjoining, but separated by a wall in which is a
closed door. Once a year this door is opened for
the passage of those who are provided with cards
bearing the requisite percentage marks, and then
closed for another year. They are not lured up-
ward and onward. They are goaded by the dread
of continuance for another year in the room which
has lost all of its attractions for them. Wise super-
vision has succeeded in opening the doors more fre-
quently. Wiser supervision has rested less upon
cards of admission bearing percentage marks, and
more upon cards of merit obtained from watchful
and loving teachers. Wisest supervision has re-
moved the doors entirely, so that constantly a
stream of influence flows downward, arousing a
healthy ambition, inspiring self-activity and fur-
nishing a worthy motive for advance; and, in re-
sponse to this influence, there is a steady movement
of pupils upward.”
34 THE GRADING OF SCHOOT.S.
Advantages—
It is only reasonable to presume that the year in-
terval, which was almost universally used, had some
manifest advantages other than that it was pre-
ferred by the colleges and most of those in charge
of the schools. Yet, sad to relate, the only im-
portant advantage which has been claimed by the
friends of the year interval is, that it is easily man-
aged. That such is the case all will agree; for it
practically runs itself. Only once each year is it
necessary for superintendent and principal to give
attention to classification and promotion of pupils,
therefore it is certainly most convenient for those
who must look after these important matters.
Then, again, it is perhaps easier for the teacher,
who, by holding all in one class, can get along with
fewer recitations than if the pupils were divided
into two or more classes, which is generally done in
those schools having the shorter interval.
In reality, these are the only advantages which
can properly be claimed as peculiar to the year in-
terval. As these claims are purely selfish, they
should not be considered; for the schools are for
the children, and not for superintendent, principals
and teachers. One advantage sometimes claimed
for this plan is that under it pupils will not need to
change teachers more than once each year. While
it is generally admitted that, in some respects, it is
DIFFERENT CLASS INTERVALS. 35
best for pupils to remain a year with each teacher,
this same end may be reached under other methods,
and is, therefore, not peculiar to this plan.
Disadvantages—
The greatest objection to the year interval is
that, under this plan, it is almost impossible to re-
classify pupils during the year, even though super-
intendent, principal and teachers realize its import-
ance and endeavor to make it possible. Some as-
sert that a few of the pupils are reclassified under
the year interval; but these scholars are generally
those who were not properly placed at the begin-
ning of the year. If sufficient work is apportioned
to each grade, pupils cannot skip the work of an
entire year without great loss. Statistics prove
that, under this plan, not one in a hundred pupils
tries to do so; and the majority of those who do
try lose the time later. Discouraged because of
enemies in the rear, they flounder at the foot of the
class, until they voluntarily leave school or are
quietly obliged to stop. Those unfortunate ones,
who, because of absence, or for other reasons, fall
a short distance behind their classmates, must
stumble along at the foot of the class until the end
of the year. Failing to be promoted, they must
spend a year upon unprofitable, lifeless reviews, to
escape which a great many leave school. It is very
36 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
easy to lose a year, but almost impossible to gain
one. In a later chapter the importance of reclassi-
fication will be emphasized and attention called to
the fact that frequent reclassification is an absolute
necessity to the existence of any flexible method of
grading. In a previous chapter, some of the de-
fects of the typical graded school have been men-
tioned. The most of these defects are the result
of the failure to make possible the reclassification
of pupils at any time when their best interests de-
mand a change of work.
HALF-YEAR INTERVAL.
Very few educationalists now advocate or de-
fend the year interval, as generally managed.
Though the large majority of schools still have the
longer interval, many have turned for relief to the
half-year interval.
Characteristics—
With the half-year interval, the pupils in each
room are generally separated into two classes a half
year apart. The course of study is divided into
twice as many parts as under the usual plan, and
there are regular promotions twice each year. In
other ways it differs but little from the usual
method.
DIFFERENT CLASS INTERVALS. 37
Advantages—
In theory, at least, the half-year interval is an
improvement over the longer interval. It is easier
for scholars to skip a half-year's work than it is
for them to omit the work of an entire year.
Therefore it is easier for pupils to pass from one
class to a higher one, unless prevented by promo-
tion examinations or other arbitrary regulations,
which tend to make it difficult for teachers to
classify their pupils in such a way that they may
keep them busy on suitable work. Under this
plan less time will be lost by the pupils, for the
reason that failure to be promoted means the loss
of but one-half a year in place of a year.
Disadvantages—
Although, for the reasons mentioned, the half-
year interval has important advantages, yet, as gen-
erally managed, it has not given many more satis-
factory results than the usual plan. While some
scholars are benefited by reviewing a half year's
work, the large majority who fall but a short dis-
tance behind in their work are injured by being
compelled to review half a year’s work when they
are but a few weeks behind. While, in theory, re-
classification is made easier; yet it is still quite diffi-
cult, and the number of reclassifications reported is
not much larger than under the usual method.
38 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
For this reason, nearly all of the serious objections
urged against the usual plan apply with almost
equal force against this method.
However, it should be remembered that the possi-
bility of having a much more pliant method with
this plan are greater than under the usual one, and
perhaps the only additional objection to the half-
year interval is, that the pupils must change teach-
ers twice each year.
THE SHORTEE INTERVAL.
Characteristics—
Two or three prominent cities have tried the
shorter interval with more or less success. With
the shorter interval the pupils of each class are
divided in such a way that the divisions are not
more than ten or twelve weeks apart. Each class
has assigned to it a certain part of the course of
study, which is divided and assigned to the classes
as in the usual method of grading. Pupils are pro-
moted to advanced work at times arbitrarily fixed,
as under the usual plan, though more frequently.
Advantages—
Properly managed, this plan would make re-
classification comparatively easy, as the divisions
are so close together that many of the stronger pu-
pils could pass from one division to the next higher,
if given the opportunity to do so. Though reports
DIFFERENT CLASS INTERVALS. 39
from the cities using this method prove that, as
managed, it is almost as procrustean as the usual
method, all must agree that, with suitable provision
for reclassification, there is no good reason why
pupils should not be more accurately graded under
this method.
Disadvantages—
While many objections are urged against this
plan because the results have not been satisfactory,
the only serious objection is founded upon the gen-
erally accepted belief that, to change teachers and
classes several times each year, not only seriously
interferes with the pupils’ progress in lessons, but
also has a blighting influence upon their characters.
Chapter V.
THE USUAL METHOD CONDEMNED BY
EDUCATORS.
THE DEFECTS APPARENT TO ALL.
Some years ago a diligent search was made
throughout the United States for the purpose of
discovering a satisfactory method of grading, and
information was gathered concerning the needs and
conditions existing in a great many cities in all
parts of the country. With but few exceptions,
all educators felt the need of some reforms in the
manner of grading, and agreed that it was time
teachers stopped trying to fit millions of children
to procrustean beds of grade; but practical methods
were not offered for the correction of the acknowl-
edged evils of defective grading. Many earnest
educators realized that it was a matter of vital im-
portance to every boy and girl in the schools, that
Some changes should be urged which would make it
possible for every American boy and girl to go as
THE USUAL METHOD CONDEMNED. 41
far and as fast as ability and opportunity would per-
mit. This, indeed, is the high ideal of our grand
republic, but the attempt at uniformity in school
work not only makes this impossible, but also vio-
lates the fundamental principles of common Sense,
nature and pedagogy.
Several years ago, under the direction of the
United States Commissioner of Education, a num-
ber of questions bearing upon this subject were sent
to the superintendents of several hundred cities.
To these questions, five hundred and sixty-five
answers were received. As these answers came
from those who are largely responsible for the
methods of organization in common use, a consid-
eration of some of the conclusions reached cannot
fail to be beneficial in the study of this important
problem. For this reason, several of the questions
are given.
“Is it sufficient to classify with intervals of a
year’s work in grade of advancement between the
classes, or ought the intervals to be made as small
as can be done and secure classes of the normal
size—say twenty to thirty pupils in each?” Less
than fourteen per cent. favored the class interval of
a year. Why then should it be used by the ma-
jority of schools? It is claimed, with truth, that
Some Boards of Education prevent their superin-
tendents from doing what they know to be best.
42 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Is it not time that those in charge of the schools
should be left free to work for the best interests of
the children?
“Is it the natural effect of classifying with inter-
vals of a year or more between classes, that the
bright pupils are held back and not given work
enough to do to develop their capacity, while the
teacher is obliged to expend the greater part of
his time on the slow and less competent pupils?”
Less than seven per cent. answered “No” to this
question. Not seven per cent. of five hundred and
sixty-five dared defend the usual plan, though most
of them were using it. Not seven per cent. could
deny that with the yearly interval “the bright
pupils are held back and not given enough work to
do to deveolp their capacity;” yet this plan is in
general use. It seems past belief, but it is only
too true. Is it any wonder that some educators,
willing to risk the everlasting condemnation of
critics who care more for their own convenience
than for the interests of the children, denounce in
unmeasured terms this outrage upon the defenceless
children?
“Under the system of year intervals between
classes, is not the progress of the whole school kept
down to the pace of the slowest and weakest
pupils?” Less than nine per cent say that the
usual plan does not compel all to walk in intellect-
THE USUAT, METHOD CONDEMNED. 43
ual lock-step with the slowest pupils. Is it not
time that every person responsible for the organi-
zation of schools, not only favors a change to some
more sensible method, but also works earnestly for
the establishment of a more rational plan?
“Does not this system discourage the less mature
and sluggish minds of a class, while it wastes the
opportunities of the bright minds?” Less than
nine per cent were willing to deny that this plan
does “discourage the less mature and waste the
opportunities of the bright minds,” and yet this
method survives. Survives? Yes, and until
lately was in almost universal use. More than
that, it is even now in use, not only in the very
large majority of cities and towns, but even in the
majority of those systems represented by these
Superintendents who have thus condemned it unre-
servedly.
Superintendents, principals, members of Boards
of Education, teachers and friends of the schools:
in the name of the long-suffering children, consider
the answers of these educators, and see to it that
there is provided some plan which will not crush
the intellectual life out of the children!
WHERE THE RESE NSIBILITY RESTS.
It is, indeed, a serious matter to place the blame
for the continance of such an unjust, unpedagog-
44 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
ical and blighting method of classification. Some
would put it all on the superintendents, who, while
they realize the weakness of the usual plan do not
demand a change, because they know that their
positions will be endangered if they advocate un-
popular measures. Others blame the Boards of
Education, who, by making the superintendent’s
office a political one, by electing him for a short
term, and in other ways, make it almost impossible
for him to work for the best interests of the Schools.
Again, there are others who would place all the
blame on the people, who, though they cheerfully
support the schools, because they love them, yet
forget that it is not only their privilege but their
duty to see to it that those who are chosen to man-
age the schools do so in such a way as to subserve
the best interests of the pupils, for whom the
schools exist. It is not at all unlikely that all of
these must share the responsibility; but the matter
of great importance is that the need of a change
should be so keenly felt by all, that those who have
the interests of the children in their safe-keeping
will not dare remain passive longer.
Chapter VI.
UN SUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS TO COREECT
THE DEFECTIVE GRADING.
There is, however, great cause for encourage-
ment, since many conscientious superintendents
have lately begun to realize the importance of hav-
ing a more sensible plan of grading and promoting
pupils. A number have urged the correctness of
different theories, though, until quite recently, but
few had shown enough confidence in their own
theories to attempt to put them into practice. It
is one thing to point the way, and an entirely dif-
ferent undertaking to lead the assault upon the
strongly defended Gibraltars of conservatism.
Some have tried to evolve a system of classification
and promotion which would make it possible to
place and keep pupils with those of about equal
ability. Though unsuccessful in their attempts to
work out a method which would make it easy for
pupils to go forward just as fast as they are able
to do the work well, they have done much to make
46 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
possible a more flexible plan of grading, by show-
ing what was not satisfactory. Many of their ex-
periments are pregnant with lessons which should
be learned by those who are responsible for the or-
ganization of schools. Therefore, it seems advis-
able to consider briefly some of the more important
attempts to work out a more flexible method, which
would make reclassification feasible.
PROMOTION OF INDIVIDUALS.
Many superintendents adopted what seemed to
be the easiest way of meeting the just criticisms of
the usual method, by stating that they would per-
mit teachers to promote pupils at any time. It
was soon discovered that this seemingly great con-
cession was entirely barren of beneficial results, for
the reason that no pupils who had been properly
placed could skip the work of an entire year with
profit to themselves. The records of a large num-
ber of pupils, in different cities, prove that this
was of but little benefit, save to those who were
very much ahead of their classmates. Where the
work apportioned to each grade was sufficient for
the time allotted for its completion, not one pupil
in five hundred was able to successfully skip the
work of that grade. But few tried to do so, and of
those who did nearly all lost the time later and
were more seriously injured by thus being discour-
ATTEMPTS TO CORRECT DEFECTIVE GRADING. 47
aged than they would have been had they remained
with their former classmates, who soon not only
overtook them, but found no trouble in passing
them. -
Since such is the case, it is greatly to be regretted
that many earnest superintendents are still satisfied
with such a provision for reclassification. The
Superintendent or principal who does not now
favor the promotion of pupils just as soon as they
are ready for advanced work, can scarcely be
found. The time has now come when all should
realize the fact that it is not sufficient to allow
pupils to strive for benefits which all know they
cannot secure. The futility of such a method was
well pointed out by Dr. J. T. Prince, State Agent
of the Massachusetts Board of Education, in a re-
port just published. After making a careful and
exhaustive study of the plans used and the results
obtained in the cities and towns throughout this
country, he stated what those familiar with the
facts know to be the truth, when he said as follows:
“Quite a number of superintendents report that the
matter is left to the teachers, with the request that
pupils be promoted whenever they are qualified;
but, in such cases, there is either no report of the
number of individual promotions, or else the num-
ber of such promotions is so small they may be said
to be rare exceptions.” How could it be otherwise?
48 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
What is, the sense of giving a teacher permission to
do what the method of grading and promoting
makes impossible to accomplish? Of what benefit
is all this child-study, if there is no possibility of
ministering to the needs of the children even when
those needs are accurately located?
A SHORTER CLASS INTERVAL.
Finding that it was impossible to reclassify
pupils when the classes were a year apart, an effort
was made to secure better results by shortening the
interval between the classes. In a preceding
chapter, the characteristics, advantages and disad-
vantages of the shorter interval have been dis-
cussed, and attention called to the fact that, prop-
erly managed, the shorter interval has some im-
portant advantages. However, so far as is known,
no one has proved by results obtained that the
shorter interval has been so managed as to make
reclassification easy. With the shorter interval,
the classes have been kept closer together, but the
pupils of each class have still been forced to move
in intellectual lock-step month after month and
year after year. Therefore, the plan has proved
no more satisfactory than the usual method. This
was necessarily the case, not because better results
were not obtainable, but, principally because no
Satisfactory provision was made for the promotion
ATTEMPTS TO CORRECT DEFECTIVE GRADING. 49
and retrogression of pupils at any time when neces-
sary to keep the classification accurate. If such
provision had been made, so that teachers and prin-
cipals could easily do what they found to be best,
there would have been frequent reclassifications of
pupils, and the beneficial results would have fol-
lowed just as surely as that the day follows the
rising of the sun.
As has been intimated, the results of the use of
the shorter intervals have not been as satisfactory
as it was reasonable to expect they would be. The
records of a large number of schools having the
half-year interval prove that, for every hundred
pupils enrolled, there were from one hundred and
twenty-five to two hundred and ten years lost.
There were very few, if any, promotions or retro-
gressions between the times for regular promotion.
From twenty to fifty per cent of the pupils failed
to be promoted, and but few pupils were able to
gain any time by moving faster than the majority.
In a prominent city having a shorter interval
between the classes, it was claimed that the plan of
grading was far superior to the usual method.
However, from the published reports of the schools
of that city, as well as from other equally official
information, the following facts are given as con-
clusive proof that even the shortest interval, as it
had been managed, gave no relief from the evil
50 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
effects of imperfect classification. There were
very few reclassifications. Forty-eight per cent
of the pupils in the higher grammar grades were
not promoted. Less than fifty-two per cent of all
the scholars enrolled were promoted during the
year; and eighty per cent of those in the highest
grammar grades had lost from one to six years—
there being over two hundred years lost for each
one hundred pupils enrolled. While these facts
tend to raise doubts as to the efficacy of the shorter
interval, such should not be the case, as the possi-
bilities of the shorter interval are so much greater
than those of the year interval.
From the foregoing, it is apparent that, though
the class interval is an important factor in working
out a proper method of grading, it is by no means
the only one. Though a step in the right direc-
tion, it is only one of several required to reach the
desired end.
THE PROMOTION TEST ABANDONED.
After a time educationists, both in this country
and in England, realized the fact that the pro-
motion examination was one of the most serious
obstacles to the reclassification of pupils. Even
with other conditions favorable, it was found
almost impossible to promote pupils at any time
save at that one arbitrarily fixed for the general pro-
ATTEMPTS TO CORRECT DEFECTIVE GRADING. 51
motion. The shorter interval, with more examina-
tions, made possible more frequent changes for
classes, but gave no additional flexibility, for rea-
sons which have been pointed out. Teachers
whose efficiency was to be judged by the records
which their pupils would make in the final tests,
when teachers and pupils passed in review before
the Board of Education and the superintendent,
could not be blamed for not wishing to receive
pupils, who, though ahead of their classmates, were
behind the next class ahead. By receiving such,
they would not only greatly increase their own
burdens, but would rob all their pupils of the atten-
tion which they sadly needed to prepare them for
the dreaded examination. On the other hand, the
teacher who had a number of bright pupils, would
naturally wish to keep them, that they might raise
the average which the class would make in the ex-
amination, which so often has been used to con-
demn teachers unjustly.
But though the promotion examination was seen
to be a most serious mistake, and while many
agreed that it was the cause of grave defects and
the bulwark of most unpedagogical methods, yet
its abandonment is only one of several steps leading
to a more pliant plan of grading. This fact is
amply proved by the records in fifty towns and
cities, where its abandonment gave little or no ad-
#52 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
ditional flexibility. However, it should be remem-
bered that the shorter interval and a more sensible
basis for promotion are important steps in the right
direction.
LINGRADET) ROOM IN EACH BUILDING.
Tinding it absolutely necessary to do something
for those falling behind, a few tried the experiment
of having an ungraded room in each school where
it was possible to have it. This plan has had a
very limited trial, and, so far as can be learned, has
never been used to any considerable extent by any
city. Properly managed, by a strong teacher, it
has proved a benefit to the few who were placed
in the class until they could be prepared for the
work of some regular class. The facts that it gave
relief to but few of the many needing help, the
lack of additional classrooms, and the considerable
extra expense, prevented its general adoption,
even in the cities where it was most strongly
favored. -
ADDITIONAL TEACHERS FOR EACH SCHOOL.
Some who were desirous of trying the plan men-
tioned above, and were unable to find vacant class
rooms, appointed additional teachers to assist the
laggards, in the hope that they would thus be en-
abled to keep pace with the rest of the class. Like
ATTEMPTS TO CORRECT DEFECTIVE GRADING. 53
the plan which it resembles, it was beneficial to but
a very limited number of pupils; for every teacher
of experience knows that such plans cannot help
one-twentieth of those who need assistance.
However, these experiments are of some utility
to the slower scholars, although they entirely neg-
lect the brighter ones, who suffer serious injury
because of continually marking time. .
BRIGHTER PUPIT.S GIVEN ADDITIONAL WORK.
In the hope of keeping the brighter pupils busy,
a few have permitted them to take up additional
subjects whenever their attainments and capacities
were such that they were likely to be injured by
being held down to the pace of the slowest. This
is a commendable method of making some provision
for this class of pupils, who are, perhaps, the Ones
most injured by the usual method of grading.
While great pains should be taken to brighten the
dull, this should be done in such a way as not to
bedim the brighter scholars. In the average
School so much attention has been given to the
polishing of the pebbles that no regard could be
given to the diamonds which were gradually being
dimmed. In lieu of a better plan, extra lessons
will often serve the purpose of saving some from
the blighting effect of enforced idleness. It should
not be forgotten that success without effort is only
54 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
less injurious than effort without success. The
greatest objection to this method is, that it brings
to the over-worked teacher a great deal of extra
work, worry and planning. Indeed, it is claimed :
by some that to lay out and look after the extra
work properly almost doubles the strain on the
teacher. All agree that if scholars can be kept
busy on the regular work it will not only be best
for the pupils, but it will be most satisfactory to the
teachers as well.
JDOUBLE-TRACK COURSE OF STUDY.
Two or three cities are trying a plan quite dif-
ferent from any yet mentioned. The course of
study for the grammar grades is double-tracked,
as it were, and divided in such a way that it may
be completed in from four to six years. Provision
is also made for “switching” from one track to the
other. As a means of making it possible for some
pupils to complete the work of the grammar grades
in less than the prescribed time, this plan is a suc-
cess; but as a method of making possible the read-
justment of pupils in such a way as to keep the
classification accurate, the published results prove
it to be an utter failure. It is flexible only at the
One point and time, and makes no provision for
reclassification in the primary grades, where fre-
quent readjustment is most needed.
ATTEMPTS TO CORRECT DEFECTIVE GRADING. 55
RETURN TO UNGRAT)ED SCHOOL.
Thoroughly disgusted with the evils resulting
from the defective grading, and convinced that
there was no satisfactory solution of the problem,
a few returned to the methods of the ungraded
schools. They soon found that because of the
large number of classes good results were harder to
Secure than under the usual plan.
Unmindful of the many advantages of the class
recitation, some abandoned it and returned to in-
dividual instruction, in the belief that this would
be best for the pupils; the effort being made to
develop the individual by permitting each one to
work alone. This certainly implies a false idea of
education, which is to develop children so as to
prepare them for proper living in society. The
class is the best place for pupils to learn to correct
wrong ideas, by seeing things through the eyes of
the other members of the class. It is for this rea-
son that children learn more from others than they
do from their teachers or from their books. If the
work is adapted to the class, each pupil helps all,
and, in return, all are benefited by each. The
man who does not learn from others is sure to be a
miserable failure; and it is the same in the school.
It should be remembered, then, that while there is
a place for individual work, individual testing and
56 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
individual instruction, there is also much benefit
to be derived from work in groups and classes.
THE REQUISITES OF A PROPER PLAN OF GRADING.
“A satisfactory plan of grading must make pos-
sible an accurate classification of pupils, so that
those of very nearly equal ability and advancement
may be placed in the same class; it must make such
provision for frequent reclassification that the
teacher will be able to keep the classification accur-
ate; and it must permit individuals and classes to go
forward as fast as they can do the work well. It
will not be perfectly satisfactory, however, unless
it retains the advantages of class instruction with-
Out Sacrificing the interest of the individual." It
will be ideal if it meets these demands of a proper
plan of grading in such a way as to be capable of
general adoption, and that without increasing the
expense of the schools or the strain upon the
teachers.
OTHER PLANS FAIL TO MEET REQUIREMENTS.
Though each of the plans already mentioned is
the result of an honest effort to provide a
more pliant plan of grading, yet not one of
them makes possible frequent reclassification of in-
dividuals in order that the classification may be
kept accurate. Of necessity, each one must result
ATTEMPTS TO CORRECT DEFECTIVE GRADING. 57
in keeping together pupils of unequal ability and
attainments. There is not one which does not ex-
pect individuals and classes to finish a definite por-
tion of the work by a certain time, arbitrarily fixed,
without any consideration of the individual or the
class. Is it not because of the failures in these
matters that the results have not been encouraging?
FEASIBILITY OF SECURING A SATISFACTORY PLAN.
Surrounded as all are by limiting conditions,
is it possible to have a more pliant plan of grading,
which will combine the advantages of the indi-
vidual and class systems of instruction? Is it pos-
sible to give more attention to individual needs
without endangering the interests of the masses?
Can the work be suited to the ability of the pupils
So that all may go just about as fast as it is best for
them? Is it possible to have a system which will
exist, not for itself, but for the proper development
of the children in the school? Too many have
been ready to accept, as final, negative answers to
these questions. That such a plan cannot be se-
cured by a single step, even though it be a long one
in the right direction, is amply proved by the ex-
periments made by many earnest educators. How-
ever, it may be asserted without fear of successful
contradiction, that it is possible to have a satis-
factory plan, if those whose duty it is to do so will
58 . THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
study this problem with the care and persistency
which its importance warrants.
In the following chapters the primary requisites
of a proper plan of grading are discussed, and there
is given an explanation of a plan which has stood
the test of years of trial, and which under most ad-
verse and varying conditions has given most excel-
lent results. In the earnest hope that they will be
of assistance to those who are striving to work out
a method which will meet the conditions by which
they are surrounded, additional chapters are given
for the purpose of explaining devices which expe-
rience has proved to be of great value.
Chapter VII.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS.
All thoughtful educators must realize the fact
that the proper classification of pupils is one of the
most important factors in securing a satisfactory
plan of grading. Many now see clearly the abso-
lute necessity of having pupils closely classified and
of keeping those nearly equal in ability and attain-
ments together all the time. However, with class-
rooms crowded to the doors, and surrounded as all
are by many and unfavorable limiting conditions,
it has not seemed possible to reach this desired
end. Different methods have been tried without
satisfactory results. The following suggestions are
given for the reason that they have proved per-
fectly feasible in schools varying in size from three
to thirty rooms, where the classes were very large
and conditions were most unfavorable.
PUPILS OF SAME ABILITY GROUPED TOGETHER.
The pupils should be carefully classified, and
those of about equal ability and attainments should
be grouped by themselves in separate rooms.
60 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
The placing of pupils of the same grade in a
room, instead of mixing pupils of two or three
grades, as many do, has many advantages. One
of the most important is that all can recite together
in those branches in which it is easy to hold the
attention, and, therefore, in which it is possible
to secure simultaneous mental activity on the part
of all. In this way, all the claims of simultaneous
instruction may be met without jeopardizing the
interests of the individual. The time thus saved
can be used to great advantage in other lessons,
where it is absolutely necessary that the teacher
shall always know exactly what knowledge each
pupil possesses, for the reason that, in these sub-
jects, further progress is entirely dependent on
what has been learned.
In essential branches, the pupils of each room
should be subdivided, according to ability and
acquirements, into several small sections. The
number of sections in each grade will vary with the
number of rooms of the same grade in the building,
the year of work, the importance of the subject, the
efficiency of the teacher, and with other limiting
conditions.
The number of divisions in each subject should
also be determined by these conditions, after a care-
ful consideration of the subjects in each grade and
a study of the records of children of different
CILASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 61
grades. This study of the pupils’ records will show
that nearly all the difficulty arises at certain points
in each grade, so that by providing for individual
instruction at these danger points, all difficulty may
be removed.
Likewise, the number of pupils in each division
varies with limiting conditions. The larger the
number of pupils to select from, the greater the
number that can go together without injury. All
must acknowledge that the more nearly uniform
the pupils of a class are in ability and attainments,
the better can the instruction be suited to their
needs, the greater is the power of emulation, the
larger is the number that can successfully be taught
together, the easier it is to hold the attention and
concentrate it upon the subject presented, and
therefore the better the training given. No matter
how close the grading, there will always be suffi-
cient difference in the pupils of each group to give
that quickening influence which is such an import-
ant result of class teaching.
The accurate grading of pupils into classes of
from eight to twenty, instead of roughly herding
them in classes of from forty to sixty, furnishes a
practical method of reaching the individual, and
thus makes possible the mental growth that is de-
pendent upon constant, healthy, beneficial, intel-
lectual activity. It not only secures from each his
62 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
best work, but it prevents overwork on the part of
the nervous pupils, and on the part of others who,
for any reason, should not have severe mental labor.
It is not necessary to divide the grades into small
classes except in the essential branches, which vary
somewhat with the courses of study and are differ-
ent in the several grades. The number of recita-
tions need not be greater than is usual in those
schools which have more than one grade to the
room. Take, for example, a grade in which there
are six studies. Since many schools have pupils of
two different grades in each room, twelve daily reci-
tations are required. In those schools which have
three grades in each room, provision has to be made
for at least eighteen recitations. Under this plan
of grading, three or four divisions are made in each
of the two most important subjects, and two divis-
ions in the next most important subject. As the
pupils in each room are nearly equal in acquire-
ments, it is very satisfactory to have them recite
together in the other, the less important branches,
in which it is easy to hold the attention, and in
which future work is not so dependent upon what
has been learned. Thus, by providing for but
twelve or fifteen recitations daily, the desired end is
reached. Since most buildings have from two
to four rooms of the same grade, it is easy to have,
not three or four, but ten or twelve divisions in the
CIASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 63
essential subjects of each grade. Under such con-
ditions, there could be in the usual eight grades
from seventy to eighty divisions below the high
school, instead of the eight divisions, which the
usual plan requires. This, however, need not dis-
courage those in smaller buildings, for experience
has proved that a much smaller number than seven-
ty or eighty meets all the requirements. The im-
portance of having the course divided into more sec-
tions has lately been pointed out by Dr. W. H. Har-
ris, as follows: “Thirty classes between the first
and the eighth year are possible in large schools in
cities. That all cities do not avail themselves of
this possibility is one of the most serious defects in
American school supervision.”
New divisions should be made by the teacher
when they are necessary properly to accommodate
the pupils in his room, and need not be continued
longer than they are beneficial. Instead of mak-
ing the pupils fit the grades, the purpose should be
to make the divisions suit the needs of the pupils.
As the divisions are quite small, better results can
be obtained with shorter recitations, and time may
be saved for individual work at those points where
the study of the pupil’s record shows that individ-
ual work is most needed. The records gathered
show that in one grade ninety-two per cent of the
failures were in arithmetic and grammar. By pro-
64 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
viding for small classes and individual work in
these subjects, the causes of failure were removed,
and but few pupils were kept back. While the
apparent increase in the number of recitations led
teachers to look with disfavor on the plan before
they understood it, at the end of the first year's
experience with it they not only favored it, but
ninety-four per cent of them gave in writing their
reasons for preferring it to any other plan of which
they had any knowledge.
Since all pupils are placed in divisions with
those of the same ability, the instruction can be
carefully adjusted to the needs of each, and the
best teaching is made possible. The most careless
observer of children knows that they naturally love
to learn what is new, and are always interested in
doing what with reasonable effort they can do.
When suitable work is assigned to them the tend-
ency to idleness is greatly lessened, and many a
listless “time-killer” is transformed into an earnest
worker; the necessity of punishment is greatly
diminished in all classes, and has entirely disap-
peared from many. Indeed, this plan of grading
practically solves the problem of the bad boy, and
proves that the majority of the so-called bad boys
are the logical result of a bad method. The bright
boys are not kept busy under the usual plan; there-
fore they are the ones who get into mischief, for the
CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILs. 65
idle brain is still the devil’s workshop. Some say
pupils are injured by overstudy, but for every one
so injured a thousand are ruined by enforced idle-
IléSS.
The importance, then, of accurate classification
must ever be kept in view. For years pupils have
been crucified by being placed with those of un-
equal advancement, yet it was claimed they were
classified. Now it is rightly demanded that they
be placed with their peers, that their progress may
be more certain. No longer will it be acceptable
to condemn pupils as dunces, because they are not
sufficiently advanced to keep up with their compan-
ions. They must be placed where their ability and
their attainment make it possible for them to do
good work. r
Chapter VIII.
RECLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS.
A MATTER OF VITAL IMPORTANCE.
The importance of securing a proper classification
of pupils has been emphasized, and reasons have
been presented for favoring a plan which has given
a more satisfactory classification than any other
method yet suggested. However, it is not sufficient
merely to make the classification accurate. In the
past many have made the mistake of supposing that
this would answer; but such is not the case. No
plan of grading can justly claim consideration un-
less it makes it possible to keep the pupils working
with those of equal attainments. A hundred differ-
ent determining factors influence the progress of
the individuals of a class. Hence arises the need of
providing for such a readjustment of pupils as to
make it possible to place individuals where they
can work to the best advantage and receive the
greatest good from the instruction. All classifica-
RECTLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 67
tion should be only temporary; for pupils should
not remain in classes for which they are not suited.
In the past the machinery of the graded school has
been started and then left to run itself. This is a
serious error, for it needs constant readjustment.
Reclassification is the only means of saving the pu-
pils from the blighting effects of defective grading.
For this reason, the feasibility of reclassification is
the most important test of any method of grading.
This is the secret of any flexible plan of grading,
which is intended to suit the needs of the children
instead of compelling them to fit a procrustean bed
of grades. This truth should be kept constantly
in mind by those who are studying this problem,
for the greatest defect of the usual method is found
in the fact that the reclassification of pupils be-
tween the times for regular promotion is almost im-
possible. Indeed, the usual plan of grading seems
built upon the supposition that pupils will go to-
gether month after month and year after year,
without diverging in attainments or in ability.
That they cannot do so all intelligent observers
must admit. That the schools fail utterly to pro-
vide for reclassification to meet the needs of the
children none will dare deny. Until recently no
plan had been suggested, which would meet this
all-important primary requisite of proper grading.
However, there is encouragement in the fact that
6S THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
some of the leading educators of this country are
realizing the importance of this matter and suggest-
ing remedies, though none of these have been able
to point to results obtained by actual practice.
Among the very first to appreciate the importance
of this matter was Dr. W. H. Harris, who, while
superintendent of schools in St. Louis, gave the fol-
lowing reasons for urging certain changes in that
city. They show that this educational philosopher,
who stands without a peer, not only appreciated the
importance of constant readjustment in order that
pupils might be accurately graded, but that he also
saw the importance of permitting them to cover the
ground as fast as they could do the work well.
How this can be done, does not appear, but it is
greatly to be regretted that these reports were not
available until a short time ago, for every page will
well repay a careful reading.
THE CORRECT PRINCIPLE.
“The principle is clearly this: Not a procrus-
team bed of grades, on which the school is to be
stretched so as to reduce the number of grades of
advancement to ten or any other special number,
but a thorough classification of all the pupils into
classes on a certain quota as a basis, whether this be
thirty or twenty-five, or whatever other number is
considered the best. The endeavor will be to have
RECIASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 69
the classes separated by as small an interval as possi-
ble; but four, six, or even ten weeks’ work is small
enough for all practical purposes; and in order to
make this arrangement uniform the pupils in upper
grades, when too few to form classes with the re-
quired quota, should be brought together in central
schools; and this principle should be applied as far
as possible; if the highest grade in the high school
consisted of sixty pupils or more, the division of it
into two classes would be required.
“This process of continual readjustment of clas-
sification in our schools will render the whole School
system elastic and mobile. Like the current of a
river there will be everywhere forward motion—in
the middle the current is more rapid, at the sides the
current flows more slowly. The work of a grade
laid down for a year’s study will be accomplished
in three or three and a half quarters by the bright-
est; by the dullest and slowest in five quarters.
There will be no temptation to push on a slow pupil
or drag him beyond his powers; no temptation to
promote a pupil to a new grade's work before thor-
oughly completing what is below him.
“By this plan would be checked a pernicious sys-
tem of holding back pupils from examination for
the high School, simply for the purpose of gaining
a reputation for the school through the high per
cent of its pupils in the competitive examination.
70 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS. .
“Doubtless there is a certain degree of thorough-
ness requisite in the lower branches before the pupil
can profitably take up the studies of the next higher
grade. After attaining this per cent it is possible
to keep the pupil drilling over the lower work—in
order to secure a certain mechanical thoroughness
—so long as to waste much time that might be bet-
ter expended for the pupil’s culture and growth on
the higher studies.
“There are still some points on which doubts may
rest. For example, it may be urged that this sys-
tem would cause a collection of the dull and stupid
pupils into classes by themselves—a deplorable re-
sult. But this is one of the evils which this system
is adapted to correct. The fact that the best pupils
from below are allowed to rise through the masses
above them as fast as their ability can carry them is
Surely not likely to prevent the slower pupils, who
are their companions, from exerting all their ener-
gies and making considerable progress. The
stream of bright pupils from below is inexhaustible.
From the primary grades it ascends, continually
passing fixed points or points that move on more
slowly. In every class there will be its quota of
bright pupils, some leading the class, and some just
sustaining themselves in it, having recently joined
it. But in the old system all the bright pupils had
attained the top of the class and the dull ones had
RECIASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 71
fallen hopelessly to the bottom long before the
needed reclassification took place.”
THE THEORY WELL STATED.
While superintendent of the schools of Omaha,
Mr. F. A. Fitzpatrick made a careful study of this
problem. The following quotation from his article
in the Northwestern Journal of Education proves
conclusively that the need of reclassification was
clearly apprehended by this educational leader:
“Here lies the weakness of the graded system,
because we are compelled by our limitations to
place children of varying attainments, will power,
capabilities, and opportunities, into the same class.
The defect is inherent; all that is possible is to re-
duce the difficulty to its lowest terms. The num-
ber of pupils in any individual school system is the
constant factor in the treatment of this question of
classification; the character, size, and location of
school buildings, variable elements. The shorter
the interval between classes, the better the school
will perform its function of adapting itself to the
needs of the community. The more easy it is to
classify pupils of varying attainments and capaci-
ties, the more easy it is to make special promotions
where pupils are able to do more work. The more
plastic a system of schools becomes in the direction
of allowing properly regulated special promotions,
72 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
the better the system. The limitation here upon
the creation of classes with short intervals between
them is that the number of pupils in each class must
not fall below twenty; otherwise we shall trench
Over on the other side. In a properly managed
School system the classes are perpetually under-
going disintegration and reintegration. Crystalli-
zation into any one absolute form is death, just the
same as it is in physical life. When a new class of
pupils is organized, there may be a complete homo-
geneity, but after ten short weeks have passed away
the pupils in this class will appear in three different
and divergent forms. A certain percentage may
be classified as very good pupils, another definite
quantity may be classified as average pupils, and
still another portion as deficient pupils. Approxi-
mately twenty per cent will belong to the first ele-
Iment, fifty per cent to the second element, and
thirty per cent to the third element of the class.
And should this class of pupils be again divided on
these lines and formed into three separate and dis-
tinct classes, it will be only a few short months be-
fore each class will break up again into the same
relatively strongly marked three elements; very
good, average, and poor pupils. This phenomenon
may be styled the persistency of disintegration. Its
parallel may be found in life, where the tissues are
continually wasting away, and need to be rebuilt
RECILASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 73
from time to time if the physical organism is to
escape extinction. The remedy for this disintegra-
tion is reintegration—reclassification, the gathering
together of somewhat similar elements to form a
new class, which itself again disintegrates only to
be rebuilt again, and so ad infinitum. In life, were
we to wait until the tissues in any particular organ
were wasted away before beginning the work of re-
habilitation, the organism would die. Just so in
the work of classification: if we wait until the disin-
tegration has been completed, we shall not be able
to reunite the dead, lifeless parts into a living,
breathing whole. The breaking up of classes must
be foreseen and the remedy foreshadowed all
through the year, but more especially the last three
months of the year. In the rebuilding of classes in a
school system, the short interval between classes be-
comes a very potent factor. There is nothing in
the whole work of a supervisor that demands
clearer insight and greater breadth of vision than
the taking care of this disease which so remorse-
lessly attacks classification.”
MANY MERE THEORIES.
In view of the fact that, for years, some have
realized the importance of providing for reclassifi-
cation, it is very surprising that no method sug-
gested has proved satisfactory. Since the crying
74 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
need has been appreciated by the many, several
have presented fine-spun theories, but few have
given anything more satisfactory. Though theory
without practice is of little value, yet, as there can
be no intelligent practice without rational theory,
it may be well to keep in mind what is now gener-
ally agreed upon as theoretically correct.
THE IDEAL PLAN OF RECLASSIFICATION.
Those who have studied this problem most care-
fully agree that the ideal method of grading must
make it easy to promote or retrograde pupils when-
ever their progress or lack of progress results in
their being ahead or behind their classmates. To
be satisfactory, this reclassification must be possible
at any time, as frequently as needed, and without
a too frequent change of teachers. A proper
method of grading will demand more, but this
much is demanded with regard to reclassification.
No plan could well be farther from the ideal
than the usual plan, under which it is possible to
reclassify pupils only at a time arbitrarily fixed by
the authorities, without regard to the needs of the
children. Since the usual plan has justly become
so unpopular, many say they are willing to allow
promotions at any time. It is well to permit pupils
to pass, at any time, to work for which they are well
prepared, but it would be far better if the methods
TECLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS. 75
used did not make it impossible for them
to do so. It is one thing to permit children to try
for a goal by attempting to reach it by impossible
leaps. It is an entirely different thing to so grade
the path leading to the goal that reasonable effort is
sure to be rewarded. The results of the plan here-
in explained prove the need of reclassification, and
also show its feasibility under this method.
Chapter DX.
TTHE PROMOTION OF PUPILS.
THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS FOR PRO-
MOTTON.
The promotion examination determines the re-
classification of pupils. Therefore, no question is
more pertinent to the discussion of this problem.
In view of its importance, it is not to be wondered
at, that, of all the difficult problems which con-
front thoughtful superintendents and principals, no
other one has given rise to more discussion. For
years the promotion examination held full sway,
and few, if any, questioned the propriety of having
the principals, teachers and pupils pass in review
before the superintendent at least once each year.
However, as the injustice and folly of such a course
became apparent, even to the less observant, many
good reasons for opposing such a plan were forth-
coming. It is greatly to be regretted that, in spite
of many strong arguments in favor of abandoning
the promotion tests, they are still defended by some
PROMOTION OF PUPILS. 77
earnest educators and used by many more. At
the latest meeting of the Superintendents’ Depart-
ment of the National Educational Association, a
superintendent from one of our prominent cities
said, “If a superintendent does not look after tests
and prepare examinations, what will he do?” The
question was well answered, to the evident satisfac-
tion of those present, by Dr. Harris, United States
Commissioner of Education, who said, “Well, I do
not know what he will do, but what he should do, is
resign, and the sooner the better for the schools.”
THE PROMOTION EXAMINATION'S SHOULD BE ABAN-
DONED.
It is of vital importance that examinations be
abandoned as tests of the fitness of pupils for pro-
motion. This is a primary requisite to any pliant
plan of grading, for they make the time limit the
same for all, and are, therefore, the cause of the
attempted uniformity in school work. It is en-
couraging, that, from all sides come unmistakable
indications of a strong reaction against promotion
examinations. As a change is demanded by those
most interested in the schools, all who are in any
way responsible for the organization of schools
should consider this question most carefully. The
teaching tests are a necessary part of all good in-
struction; but, whether considered from the stand-
7S THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
point of the pupil, the parent, or the teacher, the
examination tests must be condemned unreservedly.
The attempt to cure the evil of defective grading,
which has fastened itself upon our educational
system, without entirely cutting off the promotion
examination, is as senseless as trying to cure any
other malady without striking at the root of the dis-
ease. What a great change there has been in this
during the past decade! What educator has not
lately changed his position with respect to this sub-
ject? Where can any one find a city which clings
to the “finals” as all formerly did? In many the
authorities have been obliged either to abandon
them, or to make them small factors in determining
promotion.
PROMOTION TESTS STILL IN USE.
Since promotion tests have justly become so un-
popular, many of those who are still slaves to this
examination fiend try to convince themselves and
others that they are not greatly influenced by these
tests. Few can be found willing to openly defend
the promotion tests. However, many seem to be
tied to them more closely than they wish to ac-
knowledge or feel they should be. This fact was
clearly demonstrated a short time ago, when a body
of prominent educators, from School systems having
several hundred thousand pupils, were discussing
PROMOTION OF PUPILS. 79
this important question. One of the speakers con-
demned, in strong language, the use of the promo-
tion tests. Apparently, his opinions were heartily
indorsed by all present, for the applause was deaf-
ening. After the applause had died out, a wag in
the back part of the hall arose and said, “Being ac-
quainted with the most of the school systems here
represented, I am surprised to learn that, without
exception, all condemned the use of promotion ex-
aminations. Will those who do not make any use
of examinations for promotion please arise, that
they may be counted?” But one superintendent
arose. The eloquent speaker and the rest were
“gradually doing away with them.”
THE SCHOOLS EXIST FOR THE CHILDREN.
Some argue that the examinations should be con-
tinued for the reason that, by the use of them, the
superintendent or principal can best follow the
work with least trouble to himself. But the schools
are for the children, and not for superintend-
ents and principals. It is time that the methods
practiced and the reasons advanced for them cease
to lead the thoughtful observer to believe that the
children are for the schools, and the schools for Su-
perintendents and others. Surely, the highest inter-
ests of the children should determine the course to
be followed in the management of the schools.
SO THE GRADING OF PUPILS.
DROMOTION TESTS NOT BEST FOR THE CHILDREN.
There are many reasons for believing that the
promotion examinations are not best for the chil-
dren. A few are mentioned, and others will sug-
gest themselves to the reader.
As generally conducted, they are addressed to a
system of facts committed to memory. If the ob-
ject of education be to develop this particular kind
of memory at the expense of all the other faculties;
to fill the mind with words without ideas, that the
child may repeat, parrot-like, the thoughts of others;
to teach to imitate and to repeat, rather than to
think; to enable the children to “get through exam-
inations”; then final examinations, as tests for pro-
motion, are good and satisfactory. But if the ob-
ject of education be to develop all those powers
with which in greater or less degree God has en-
dowed us; to “bring up children and form men”; to
“develop in the individual all the perfection of
which he is susceptible”; then examinations, upon
which so much depend, defeat the very object for
which we are supposed to work.
They prevent broad and progressive teaching,
and make of the teacher a “grind.” Every teacher
who is to be judged by the results of the final test,
must get into rut work and turn out machine
pupils. No time can be spent in securing the clear
explanation, the logical analysis, the useful and in-
PROMOTION OF PUPILS. 81
teresting knowledge; all these must be left behind;
all are neglected for that which will pay in exami-
nation percentage. These examinations, consisting
of a definite number of questions adapted to numer-
ical marking, can never be satisfactory, for they are
nothing more than an attempt to measure mental
activity by mechanical means. Being of necessity
one-sided and narrow, they will be followed by nar-
row teaching; for the character of the examination
determines the character of the work necessary to
prepare for the examination.
What knowledge the children do possess, if it
may be called knowledge, has been forced by the
hurried committing of “possible questions,” “point-
ers,” “tips,” and “one-word answers,” which cannot
be understood or retained. As with the stomach,
So with the mind; not that which enters, but that
which is digested and assimilated, strengthens and
develops. Over-loading either the stomach or the
mind leads to indigestion, disgust and nausea. Is
it any wonder that so early many take a dislike to
all learning and therefore study only what they
must? What teacher does not know of many
whom the fear of examination has driven out of
school? How often the teacher’s anxiety about the
final averages of the poor pupils causes him to urge
that they be removed to a lower grade, or quietly
forced out of school. Could the teacher have felt
S2 THE GRAIDING OF SCHOOLS.
that he would not be judged by the “finals,” he
would have been glad to have had them remain and
learn what they could.
Final examinations tend to much unnecessary
drudgery on the part of the pupils and teachers,
and cause many mental wrecks. The pupils know
that, no matter what the condition of their health,
a failure at this time means utter failure; means the
spending of another year in going over the same
work. That strength and blood which should go
to build up body and brain is therefore expended in
senseless over-pressure. By insensible degrees the
physical powers of the nervous pupils are under-
mined, and they fail to be promoted, while their
scheming classmates, who worry over nothing and
have been wasting time during the year, because
of self-confidence and little regard for what is right,
by hook or crook, manage to get the answers and
pass. Few, except conscientious teachers and
anxious parents, can realize the dreadful results of
the mental strain upon nervous temperaments.
The pupils who have been absent, or who for any
other reason are unable to swallow the mass of indi-
gestible material catechised into the rest, fail, even
though their ability to do the work in the next
grade is far above that of those who get the answers.
Surely the question to be asked concerning the pro-
motion of a child is not, What answers can he get?
PROMOTION OF PUPILS. S3
but, Has he the ability to do the work in the next
grade? For it is indeed a serious thing for a child
to lose a year in school. Little wonder that almost
invariably their faculties are deadened and their
ambition destroyed by such failure.
The effect upon character-building of the great
temptation to deceit and cheating, and the increase
in number of the cases of corporal punishment, are
not the least objections that may be raised. All
must agree that their tendency is to develop and
foster deceit, jealousy and selfishness on the part of
the pupils; and dishonesty, scolding and irritability
on the part of the teacher. How often the child is
punished by the tired, overworked teacher, because
of the dread that he may not be able to make a
good showing in examination! Punished for not
doing what perhaps he could not do, and, more than
likely, what would be best undone!
The time spent is one-third more than is neces-
sary to give as much useful knowledge and more
educational training. This statement is made ad-
visedly, for experience proves that often almost
one-half of the time is spent in loading up for the
examination. In fact, in some instances, all the
time is spent in “stuffing” for finals. Some
light on the subject is given in a late issue of
the Illinois School Journal when it says: “The
text-books are divided into so many lessons for each
84 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
month, and the monthly examination questions sent
out by the superintendent adhere rigidly to the
month’s work. The pupils pass high, for they are
practically drilled upon the answers to the questions
during the month which were to be asked at the
end of it, and credit is given for half-answers and
quarter-answers, even to tenths. A number of
county superintendents in Illinois, and if rumor
may be credited, in some neighboring states, have
improved upon this so far as to farm out the mak-
ing of these questions to an outline vender, who
furnishes the questions to the superintendent on
condition that the superintendent will use his influ-
ence and authority in selling to the teachers the
vender’s outlines. This works well for both vender
and superintendent. The one finds a profitable
market for his wares, and the other is relieved of the
necessity of knowing anything about the instruc-
tion given in the schools. The pupils pass high and
the hoodwinked parents are pleased, while the in-
telligent and conscientious teacher protests—sotto
voce. This is the iron rule of mechanism by which
pupils are educated by the dozen, or by the com-
pany, or by the regiment, as conditions may deter-
mine.”
But, perhaps the greatest objection to final ex-
aminations is because of their tendency to elimi-
nate the personal element, and to make it impossible
PROMOTION OF PUPILS. S5
to respect, to any degree, the individual capacity of
the pupil. So long as they remain, so long will
the serious charge, that “the public school machin-
ery requires uniformity in every child,” be well
founded, if not unanswerable. So long will the
grades be ironclad, as they endeavor to overcome
not only the difference of temperament and home
advantages, but even the difference in mental abil-
ity, which is predetermined. Remove this cause
of the present system of grading, and you make it
possible to grade the schools in accordance with the
ability of the individual child, rather than accord-
ing to the supposed “average ability of the school”
of fifty or sixty! All must agree that fifty children
can no more be held together in mental develop-
ment than in physical growth ! Why then must it
be attempted? Have not the scholars been fitted
to the schools long enough? Is it not time to adapt
the grades to the scholars? That this is being un-
derstood is shown by the criticism of many leading
journals.
If the above reasons are not satisfactory, it may
be asserted, without fear of successful contradic-
tion, that for the purpose of estimating the ability
of the children or of determining their power to
do the work of advanced grades, examinations are
useless and Superfluous. Every teacher worthy of
86 - THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
the name and place knows long before the exami-
nation what its result should be.
REMEDIES FOR THE EXAMINATION EVILS.
The following statements of Dr. E. E. White
should have great weight with those who are seek-
ing light on this problem, for he has made a careful
study of this whole subject and is acknowledged to
be one of the highest authorities on this and other
pedagogical questions: -
“For years past thoughtful superintendents and
teachers have been earnestly devising plans to
lessen the evils of the examination system, and, as
a complete remedy for these evils, a few have seen
their way clear to abolish the system itself.
“These efforts have taken different directions, the
aim of one device being to relieve the “terrible pres-
Sure of examinations;’ of another, to free instruc-
tion and study from their grooving and mechanical
influence; of a third, to prevent ‘vicious cramming;’
of a fourth, to remove occasions for dishonesty, and
so on.”
After discussing several methods, which have
been tried in order to mitigate the acknowledged
evils, he continues as follows: “These several ex-
pedients are remedies to cure the brood of ills born
of the examination system. And this raises the
practical question, Why not remove the cause of
PROMOTION OF PUPILS. 87
these ills and thus obviate the necessity of their cor-
rection? Why not make the pupils’ success in
daily work the only factor in their promotion?”
No one has studied this question more closely than
has Dr. White. This is his conclusion. Is it not
to be regretted that more have not acted in accord-
ance with his wise suggestion? Does it not seem
almost past belief that he was obliged to say that
only “A few have seen their way clear to abolish
the system itself?”
THE TEACHER'S ESTIMATE SHOULD DETERMINE
PROMOTION.
The promotion examination having been aban-
doned, the teacher's estimate of the pupil’s ability
should determine his promotion. This estimate
should be shown on monthly report cards, so that
pupils and parents may know monthly what pro-
gress has been made. In the primary grades, the
teacher's judgment should be sufficient. In the
higher grades, the teacher's judgment should be
made more certain by written tests. This will put
a premium on the daily work, and will furnish a
moderate, but continuous stimulus rather than an
excessive and spasmodic goad, as is the case with
examinations. Tests given by the principal and
Superintendent should show the proper completion
of word, and be used to direct and broaden the in-
S8 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
struction, but should have nothing to do with pro-
motion. Pupils promoted prematurely may be re-
turned whence they came, and teachers will be more
careful thereafter.
Some will say that the teaching test is but an-
other name for the promotion examination, but a
moment’s thought will show that there is great dif-
ference between the two. The one is a careful di-
agnosis at frequent intervals for the purpose of dis-
covering the disease in its incipiency, that the
proper remedies may be annlied and the patient
Saved. The other is a blundering post-mortem, to
determine the cause of death. Most of us would
have no trouble in choosing between the two.
TOO MTJCH POWER IN THE HAND'S OF PRINCIPALS
AND TEACHERS.
Some superintendents say that this is putting too
much power in the hands of the teachers and prin-
cipals; but is not that just where it properly be-
longs? Should not both be free to work, as con-
scientious men and women, for the best interests of
the children, rather than be compelled to continue
to be mere cogs in the great machine run by the al-
mighty superintendent? Who would not prefer to
have his child’s ability to pass to advanced work
judged by the ever-present teacher, who had
studied the child, rather than by the superintendent
PROMOTION OF PUPILS. 89
who, of necessity, must be without knowledge of
the individual? Many quotations might be given
to prove that those who have had experience with
this or a similar plan, agree that never before were
promotions made so satisfactorily. That never be-
fore did teachers study the individuals so closely.
TIME AND FREQUENCY OF PROMOTION.
In what has been written, the word “promotion”
has been used in its generally accepted sense, im-
plying a change from one room to the next
higher, and generally involving a change of teach-
ers. For the best development of the pupils’ men-
tal, moral and physical powers, the teachers must
know the individual characteristics and fully under-
stand all the forces which influence their education,
opportunities and character. Than this nothing is
more important, though it requires time and careful
study. For this and other reasons, it is the general
conviction of educators that it is best for pupils to
remain several months under the same teacher, if
by so doing they are not compelled to work with
those of different attainments and ability. There-
fore, serious objections have been made to those
plans of grading which provide for periodic promo-
tions several times each year. Indeed, the objec-
tions have been so strongly presented that, though
two or three cities have used this plan for many
90 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
years, it has not been adopted by others. Chang-
ing teachers several times each year not only inter-
feres with progress in school work, but, what is in-
finitely more important, it has a blighting influence
upon the developing characters.
The term, promotion, is also used to indi-
cate the passage from any school work to more ad-
vanced work. This meaning of the word seems to
be the better one; for a change from one room to a
higher is no greater advancement than the passing
from one division of a subject to the next higher
part. In this sense of the word, there should be
daily promotion, for each lesson should be a little
advance over the preceding one. A pupil’s ad-
Vancement should be constant, and when any
scholar cannot work with his classmates he should
be reclassified and placed with those of about equal
advancement. When the pupils of any class finish
any portion of the work they should immediately
advance to the next in order. All must acknowl-
edge that any plan of grading which does not per-
mit this, is not only unsatisfactory, but is criminally
defective and unworthy of an enlightened age.
The importance of permitting pupils to go forward
when ready has been presented in previous chap-
ters, but its absolute necessity cannot be represented
too often nor too forcibly.
Chapter X.
APPORTIONMENT OF WORK.
Perhaps the greatest weakness of our schools
Imay be found in the method of apportioning the
work. Indeed, it passes all power of comprehension
to understand why, for hundreds of years, little or
no provision has been made for the great differences
known to exist in the ability of different classes,
pupils and teachers.
An all-important feature of a rational plan of
grading must be a provision that will enable each
division of pupils to go just as fast as the teacher
finds the pupils are able to accomplish the work as it
should be done. No fixed amount of work should
be demanded of any class within a given time.
With but few, if any exceptions, all graded schools
have the work so apportioned that a fixed amount
of the course must be finished by the end of the
term or year. This is a serious error. Without
uniformity of conditions, it demands uniformity of
results, and makes the time limit the same for all, no-
matter how widely the pupils, classes and teachers
92 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
differ. Is this not an unpardonable pedagogical
sin? Is it not absolutely defenceless on any
psychological grounds? In all frankness, does it
not indicate the lack of the commonest kind of com-
mon sense? These seem to be harsh questions, but
does not the occasion justify plain talk? Who will
give any good reason for “nailing the course of
study to the calendar”? Why should advancement
to suitable work be determined by the time of year?
Why should some pupils stop their work, though
uncompleted, simply because others have fin-
ished it?
If one starts on a journey, he should not leave
the train when the schedule says the time has ar-
rived for him to reach the end of his journey; but
he should leave the train when he arrives at his
destination, whether that be after or before the
time fixed by the one who made the schedule. The
person who would insist upon having everyone
leave the train at the time scheduled for its arriving
at the destination, would soon reach the asylum
where all such should be confined. Why then
should Boards of Education, superintendents or
others, who make the schedules for schools, expect
teachers to drive pupils through the course of study
at a certain fixed rate, in spite of many different
determining factors?
APPORTIONMENT OF WORK. 93
THE INJUSTICE OF THE USUAL METHOD NOW AC-
KNOWLEDGED.
At last some educators are beginning to realize
the injustice of the usual method of apportioning
the work. In speaking of this matter, a writer in
the latest issue of the “Illinois School Journal”
said:
“One of the strangest things in the history of
educational practice is that it should have occurred
to some mechanical genius that the work of a school
curriculum could be divided into distinct sections,
So that it would take just so many days, hours, min-
utes, and seconds to complete the work of each sec-
tion; and that the pupils in a school could be
grouped into classes corresponding to these sections,
So that they would move forward at a uniform rate,
separated by fixed intervals, in what has been ap-
propriately called “The lock-step of the graded
school.” It is much more strange that this me-
chanical monstrosity should have found favor
among teachers and people, and that it should have
been indorsed by the almost universal practice of a
generation. Unfortunately this chapter in modern
educational history is not yet closed. There are
still schools in which the work of each class for each
day in each year of school life is as definitely pre-
scribed as though fixed by the eternal decrees of
*See author’s article On this subject in “Atlantic Monthly,”
June, '97.
94 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Fate. On the seventeenth day of his seventh year
in School the boy’s lesson in arithmetic will be that
portion of Tay’s Practical Arithmetic limited by
pages 172 and 175. This is the doctrine of ‘fore-
Ordination’ carried to an absurd extreme!
“The fixed class interval is a crime against child-
hood, and when coupled with a scheme of promo-
tions based upon a system of examinations, daily
markings, and required percentages, it constitutes a
fearful indictment of modern school practice. It
makes little difference whether Superintendent
Shearer or some other observer was the first to see
this spot on the sun. It is large enough to be seen
with even half an eye. It is possible that many
have observed it and guarded themselves against its
malign influence by some device or other. The
size of the interval is not the worst thing about it,
though the shorter the better. The worst feature
lies in fixedness. You cannot keep the carriages in
a funeral procession at fixed intervals. Divide any
number of children into classes to-day, and they
will not be properly divided to-morrow. Neither
the members in a class nor the classes in a school
can move forward at a uniform rate. Differences
in the natural and acquired aptitude of pupils and
in the skill of teachers, to say nothing of many
other differences in condition, make this impossible.
To insist upon it is to benumb the surong, to befud-
APPORTIONMENT OF WORK. 95
dle the weak, and to weaken all. If necessary, this
outrageous custom must be attacked with sledge-
hammer and dynamite, and destroyed.”
In a late issue of “The Educational Review,” Dr.
Prince, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of
Education, speaks as follows upon this subject:
“There is no question of school organization at
present more important than that of a proper ad-
justment of conditions to the needs of individual
pupils. The assumption upon which most courses
of study seem to be based, that just so much ground
must be gone over with equal thoroughness by all
pupils in the same time, is the greatest bane of our
public school system. The courses in use are prob-
ably intended to meet the needs and capacity of pu-
pils of average ability. Such, however, is the dif-
ference of ability between the brightest third and
the dullest third of almost every class of pupils, that
the work this requires is enfeebling to one part
while it is discouraging or unduly excessive to the
other. To neither group is there the stimulus of
success with effort. To one group there is success
without effort; to the other there is effort without
success. The difficulty, it is feared, is enhanced by
the want of ability or inclination on the part of
many teachers to adapt each lesson’s requirements
to the capacity of individual members of the class.
“There are some signs of reaction against a sys-
96 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
tem which encourages or permits a dead uniformity
of ability and effort. The only fear is that the op-
posite extreme of individualism will be sought as a
remedy. As between the practice by which forty
or fifty pupils of all degrees of ability are required
to do the same work with nearly equal efficiency,
and a return to individual teaching such as was car-
ried on in ungraded schools forty years ago, there
is but little choice, although the ill effects of the
two practices must be felt in widely different ways.
But a choice between these extremes of practice
ought not to be necessary. No more useful service
can be rendered the public schools than that of de-
vising ways by which the benefits of a class system
of teaching will be secured, and at the same time
such an adjustment of work be made as will permit
pupils of varied abilities to do the most for them-
selves.” -
- COURSE OF STUDY NIECESSA.R.Y.
Courses of study we must have, and perhaps it
is even necessary to give all pupils the same drill in
grammar, the same exercise in arithmetic, and the
same number of miles of writing. But no effort
should be made to give all the same amount in the
same time, regardless of the differences between
them. While, under the system of grading herein
explained, pupils are required to do thoroughly all
the essential work before passing to advanced work,
APPORTIONMENT OF WORK. 97
pupils and teachers know that they are not ex-
pected to finish it in a shorter time than is required
to do it satisfactorily. The consequent relief to
the teacher is as great as the benefit to the pupil.
Many a faithful teacher endures a terrible strain
for years, lest he be blamed if all his pupils do not
finish the given course in a fixed time. One
teacher expressed a common sentiment as follows:
“It seemed as if this plan had raised from
my shoulders a terrible load which threatened to
crush me. I knew that it was an outrage to drive
Some of the pupils as I was obliged to drive them,
but what was I to do? I was told that by June all
had to be ready for the examinations. Now my
task is a very much more pleasant and satisfactory
one. I am no longer forced to be a pupil-driver,
but I can be a teacher in the true sense of the word;
and school is, to pupils and to teacher, an entirely
different sort of place.” It is time that blame for
many failures be taken from teachers and princi-
pals, and placed on the shoulders of those who are
responsible for the system. Let them bear this
great responsibility.
Chapter XI.
METHOD OF SECURING THOROUGHNESS
TN ESSENTIALS.
T)|EVICES.
Years of experience in striving to work out and
make practicable a more flexible plan of grading
have developed certain devices which have proved
of great value. In the following chapters several
of these devices will be explained, in the hope and
belief that they will be helpful to all who endeavor
to follow any such plan as that which has been out-
lined in previous chapters. Some devices will ap-
pear of much greater importance than others, and
each person will be led to make use of those which
seem likely to be of greatest service in securing the
desired ends. They are so simple that they can
easily be made use of by anyone who feels the need
of such. While their simplicity may lead some to
doubt their efficiency, a careful trial will prove
them to be far more useful than they at first appear.
SECURING THOROUGHNESS IN ESSENTIAT.S. 99
RECORD OF WORK DONE.
For the purpose of making sure that the work
has been done satisfactorily, the “Record of Work
Done” has proved of great service. Under the
usual plan the pupils are all expected to be at a cer-
tain point by the time fixed; and whether or not the
work has been done in a satisfactory manner is sup-
posed to be determined by the examinations.
Under the plan advocated, pupils are permitted to
go just as far and as fast as they can finish the work
to the satisfaction of the teacher. Therefore,
classes will not reach any given point by a certain
time, and they cannot be tested by uniform exami-
nations at times arbitrarily determined. This pecu-
liarity of the plan requires that some other method
be used for making sure that the work has been
done properly. Some device must be used which
will enable the superintendent and principal to
know just what work has been accomplished, and
just how well the work has been done by each class.
With plenty of time at the disposal of the super-
intendent and principal, this important knowledge
may best be gained by frequent visits for the pur-
pose of carefully inspecting the work. However,
there are many who are expected to know exactly
what is being done, yet are kept so busy with other
duties that they have but little time left for the
work of supervision. For these, as well as for
:
re
100 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
others, the “Record of Work Done” will prove an
excellent method of following the work more
closely than would be possible without some similar
device. This record should be made out by each
teacher every two or three months, and should state
briefly and concisely just what work has been fin-
ished to the satisfaction of the teacher during the
time for which the record is made. This record
should be sent to the principal for his approval.
After being approved by the principal, the records
sent by all the teachers should be entered in a book
provided for that purpose. This book should be
sent to the Superintendent for his inspection, that
he may know just what part of the course has been
covered by each class. He should satisfy himself
that no class has received credit for work which has
not been done satisfactorily. By this means the
principal can quickly discover any teacher who is
disposed to pass too hurriedly over important parts
of the work, and can have the work reviewed before
injury results from its incomplete, unsatisfactory
condition. He should also see that the same
mistake is not made again by that teacher.
The tests given by superintendent and principal
should be used to show the proper completion of
work; they should also be used to broaden the in-
struction and emphasize the important phases of
the work which teachers may overlook: but they
SECURING THOROUGHNESS IN ESSENTIALS. 101
should not be used as a basis for determining the
promotion of pupils. As all tests will be only on
what the teacher claims to have taught thoroughly,
the very best results may reasonably be expected
from them.
While it is not well to insist upon great
thoroughness at every point, there are important
parts in essential subjects upon which too much
stress cannot well be laid. There are some things
upon which future progress depends. These, at
least, should be stamped indelibly upon the minds
of the children. The failure to locate these im-
portant points, and drill upon them, has been the
cause of the majority of failures on the part of those
who have been passed to advanced work. Every
teacher of experience knows that a large portion of
his time is expended in trying to teach what should
have been thoroughly taught before the pupils were
admitted to his grade of work. When it is seen
that the “Record of Work” may be so managed
under this plan as to make it certain that only those
who are prepared for advanced work are promoted,
the importance of it becomes apparent to every
teacher of experience.
To show more clearly the form of the “Record of
Work,” a few extracts are taken from the records
made by teachers of different classes. Though the
pupils were closely graded at the beginning of the
102 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
year, the record proves that, before they had been
in School long, they naturally separated into groups
which moved at different rates. A consideration
of such records leads one to wonder that, for many
years, teachers have been expected to take all over
the same work in a given time. It will also show
the great injustice to the pupils, and the still greater
injustice to the teachers, many of whom have been
condemned because they could not accomplish the
task of making all the pupils of a class seem to
cover the same amount of the course. That the
pupils did not do so, is well known to all. How So
many teachers were able to make it appear that
they had done so, is not known by many who have
not worked in the ranks. The terrible strain upon
the teachers and pupils is appreciated only by those
who have exhausted devices, patience and energy in
ummercifully driving some and continually holding
others back.
Records of First Year’s Work.
“A Class—Reading: Eighty pages in Funden-
berg’s First Reader; one hundred and twenty-two
in Swinton’s First; one hundred and five pages in
Lippincott's First Supplementary Reader. Total,
about three hundred and fifty pages.
“B Division—Eighty pages in Fundenberg's First
Reader; ninety-six pages in Swinton's First; forty
SECURING THOROUGHNESS IN ESSENTIAI.S. 103
pages in Lippincott's. Total, two hundred and six-
teen pages.
“C División—Sixty-two pages in Fundenberg’s
First. Many of these pupils were out for a time
with the measles. Others entered during the year.
A few are naturally slow.
“D Division—Reading from blackboard and a
few pages from Fundenberg. Most of the pupils
in this class were either absent most of the year or
entered but a short time before the end of the year.
There are no really dull ones.
“There are from ten to fourteen in each division.
Some have changed divisions during the year.
Being permitted to allow pupils to go as fast as they
were able has made teaching more of a pleasure
than it has been at any time during the past twenty
years.
“In Number Work the different divisions fin-
ished satisfactorily the combinations of numbers to
ten, eight, and four.”
Records of Another First Year.
“A Division—Reading: Three hundred and
fifty-seven pages of different first readers.
“B Division—Two hundred and seventy-seven
pages.
“C Division—One hundred and eighty-three
pages.
“The pupils who were not able to keep up with
the lowest division were sent to a lower class, which
was opened in January. There were about twenty
104 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
changes from division to division, but they were
made in such a way as to help rather than hinder
my work.
“In Number Work A Division finished the com-
binations of numbers to twelve; the B Division to
nine; and the C Division to six. There were twen-
ty-two pupils in A; eleven in B; and eighteen
in C.”
Records of First Year’s Work.
“A Division—Reading: Completed Appleton's
Primer, Swinton’s Primer, Finch Primer, Funden-
berg’s First Reader, and fifty pages of Ward's First
Reader.
“B Division—Completed Appleton’s Primer,
thirty-five pages in Fundenberg, and twenty in
Finch’s Primer.
“C Division—Read from blackboard, and also
about fifteen pages in Fundenberg’s First Reader.
“Each division contains about fifteen. Advanced
division was promoted to next grade before end of
year. T had two additional divisions, but they
merged into the three in a short time. Seventeen
pupils gained from two to three months’ time.”
Record of Second Year’s Work.
“A Division—Reading: Completed Alternate
|First, Normal Course First and McGuffey’s Second.
“B Division—Parts of Alternate First Reader
and McGuffey’s Second.
“C Division—Parts of Franklin and Alternate
First Readers.
SECURING THOROUGHNESS IN ESSENTIALS. 105
“A Division—Arithmetic: Rapid addition of
numbers as high as twenty. Addition, Subtraction,
Notation and Numeration.
“B Division—Numbers to fifteen. Addition and
Subtraction.
“Quite a number of the pupils were received
from the lower classes. A Division contained
thirty; the other divisions contained eight or ten
each. Diphtheria kept many out of school and
when they did return they were not permitted to
work hard. Some had much trouble with their
eyes, which were weak after pupils had had scarlet
fever. Some should not have returned to school
until they were stronger, but care was taken to
place them where they would not be injured.
Without being hurried, the pupils in this class have
gained one hundred and fourteen months’ time.
Twenty-four have been promoted irregularly, in-
volving a change of teacher. They have been ben-
efited by sixty-three reclassifications, which in-
volved a change in divisions, but no change of
teacher. Changes were made only when teacher
and principal found them necessary to keep pupils
working with those of about equal ability.”
Record from Seventh Year’s Work.
“A Division—Arithmetic: Review of previous
year’s work. Percentage, Interest, Bank Discount,
Duties, Customs, Taxes, Longitude and Time,
Ratio and Proportion, Partnership and Square
Root.
106 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
“B Division—Same as A Division, with the ex-
ception of the last four topics.
“C Division—Common and Decimal Fractions,
Percentage, Interest, and Discount. -
“A Division—Grammar: All parts of Speech
excepting Participles, Analysis of simple, com-
pound and complex sentences, and Composition
Work.
“B Division—Same as above.
“C Division—Parts of speech, except verbs and
participles. Word Analysis of simple sentences, and
Composition Work.
“A and B Divisions—Geography: Completed
the subject and reviewed.
“C Division—Completed the subject, but need a
thorough review.
“During the past three years fourteen pupils
have been promoted to advanced work between the
times for regular promotions; these promotions in-
volving a change of teachers. Those now in the
class have had a total of sixty-four reclassifications
within the same time, but not involving a change
of teachers. Some have had four or five reclassifi-
cations in this time, while others have not had any,
but have gone along regularly with their own di-
vision, passing to a new teacher at the beginning of
each year. IDuring the time those in the class have
gained over twenty-six years, without any urging.
The time gained by each pupil varies from twenty
months to one month; and a few have taken the full
time allotted for the completion of the work.”
SECURING THOROUGHNESS IN ESSENTIALS. 107
The above “Records of Work Done” have been
taken at random from the Permanent Records sent
to the Superintendent’s office. Two or three hun-
dred others might be given, but those submitted will
be sufficient to give a general idea of the character
of the “Record of Work Done.” Records similar
to these are made for each subject, so that one can
easily tell at a glance what work the teacher and
principal believe to have been finished satisfac-
torily.
MANAGEMENT OF REVIEWS.
Most teachers realize the importance of frequent
reviews, for the purpose of fixing the important
knowledge in the minds of the children. That
they are necessary for this is proved by the teach-
ings of practice, common sense and psychology.
All must acknowledge that reviews are beneficial,
not only because they help the children to recall
important facts, but also because they find the
promised reviews strong incentives to more diligent
work. Most efficient teachers find the reviews in-
valuable in determining what part of the instruc-
tion has been of benefit.
For the purpose of Securing thoroughness in the
essential work, some prefer the weekly reviews,
while others believe that the desired end is best.
reached by making use of the monthly reviews.
108 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Both of these may be used with good effect by the
teacher. However, with this plan of grading, the
monthly review has peculiar advantages. Though
pupils pass to advanced work whenever ready for it,
it has been found specially satisfactory to have the
majority of the changes from teacher to teacher
take place at the beginning of each school month,
as at this time all the records of school and pupil are
begun anew. By having a review of important
parts of the essential subjects at the beginning of
each month, pupils not quite up to the work of the
next higher division, but ahead of their own class,
can easily take a step forward at this time. As
they enter at a time when there is a general review,
it has been found that the new pupils are at once
lost in the regular divisions, and the teacher finds
little or no need of giving them special attention.
This practically dove-tails the work of one division
into that of the next higher, while the pupils, pass-
ing from a higher to a lower division, get the re-
views greatly needed. The majority of the
changes from teacher to teacher taking place at the
same time also prevents crowding of any of the
classes.
It would not be right to leave this subject with-
Out calling attention to the fact that too often the
reviews are wrongfully used, simply for the purpose
of testing for the memory of words and discon-
SECURING THOROUGHNESS IN ESSENTIALS. 109
nected facts. Therefore care should be taken to
emphasize, in the reviews, only the important facts,
which are essential to the proper understanding of
the subject. It should also be remembered that
while they are valuable as a means of making sure
of having the work done thoroughly, they are cap-
able of performing a much higher and more im-
portant function. They may be so used that they
will give to all a birds-eye view of each subject,
that the important details will stand out boldly;
they should bring all the important ideas of every
subject into close association, so that every child
may see the unity existing between the different
ideas that make up each subject; and they should
co-ordinate all the important facts so as to form one
systematic whole.
Chapter XII.
MEANS OF ENLISTING THE INTEREST OF
PARENTS AND EPUPILS.
The importance of securing the hearty co-opera-
tion of parents cannot be emphasized too strongly,
nor considered too carefully by those planning for
the improvement of the schools. While it is true
that “the teacher makes the school,” yet teachers
are selected by the members of the Board of Edu-
cation, who, in turn, are chosen by the people.
The Board of Education is not likely to advance
much faster than the sentiment of the community
will warrant; therefore the importance of making
sure of the interest of the people, from whom orig-
inates all authority necessary for the management
of the schools. The public opinion of interested
parents is a mighty engine for the up-building of
the schools. Not to endeavor to awaken the sym-
pathy and enlist the co-operation of the parents,
ENLISTING THE INTEREST OF PARENTS. 111
who largely mold and reflect public sentiment, is a
serious mistake and the cause of many poor systems
of schools. It is more than policy to make such en-
deavor: it is right; for the parents not only pay for
the support of the schools, but they have intrusted
to the schools their children, who are the dearest
objects of their affections.
Many realize, in a vague way, the importance of
having the interest of the parents; more find suffi-
cient reason for trying to have the kind wishes of
the members of the Board of Education; but too few
appreciate the importance of having each pupil feel
a deep interest in his own advancement and the ad-
vancement of the class. Without the lively inter-
est of the children, the work will not be satisfac-
tory. Then, too, as a means of enlisting the sym-
pathy of the parents, the interest of the children is
more potent than any other. Where the interest
of the children is, the interest of parents is almost
sure to be.
Many methods of enlisting the sympathy of par-
ents and pupils have been suggested, and as many
more will suggest themselves to thoughtful princi-
pals and teachers, only a few are mentioned, as be-
ing typical of devices which may properly be used
for this purpose. Though the first is not peculiar
to this plan of grading, it is given for the reason
112 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
that, with the others, years of experience have
shown its great value.
MONTHLY REPORTS.
Some teachers think it too much trouble to send
reports of any kind to the parents. Thus they save
themselves some work and lose a hundred times
more benefit, because of the lack of interest on the
part of the parents and pupils. No one can be in-
terested in that of which they know nothing. If
the parents and pupils are not kept informed, we
cannot reasonably expect them to be interested.
Other teachers send daily or weekly reports, and
thus make for themselves much unnecessary labor.
Coming so frequently, these reports are not apt to
receive the attention to which they are entitled.
For many good reasons nearly all who give reports
now send them out monthly. There are many kinds
of reports which answer the purpose for which they
are intended. A form of report, which has been espe-
cially potent in securing the interest of the parents,
contains the following items of information: The
grade of work which the pupil is pursuing; the di-
visions in which the pupil has been during the year;
the character of the work done in every branch, in
such a way that the latest report can easily be com-
pared with the record for each preceding month; a
general average for each month; number of cases of
ENTISTING THE INTEREST OF PARENTS. 113
tardiness; attendance for each month; mark in ef-
fort and deportment; explanation of the report;
places for the signatures of principal, teacher and
parents; such an address to the parent as will tend
to emphasize the importance of making a careful
study of the report and of giving the teacher every
assistance possible.
The following is a copy of the address which has
been used on the report card:
“To the Parent—The boys and the girls in the
schools will be the men and women of the future,
the immortals of eternity. Because of what they
will be, the responsibility of parents and teacher is
very great. The affections of the parents, natur-
ally centering in the welfare of their children, lead
to a desire that they, the objects of their dearest
thoughts, may receive the best educational advan-
tages possible.
“But no matter how earnestly and persistently
the teacher tries to help the pupil, the best results
will not be forthcoming unless there is the heartiest
co-operation and warmest sympathy between par-
ents, teachers and pupils.
“As it is impossible for you to visit the school fre-
Quently, this report is sent that you may know how
your child is progressing in each study. It will
enable you to see how the latest compares with all
previous reports, and is intended to be a complete
summary of all that pertains to your child’s school
life this year. Will you not please examine it care-
114 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
fully, sign it promptly and act upon the informa-
tion given? You will thereby greatly help both
your child and the teacher.
“Please aid in securing compliance with the rules
of the school. This is not only necessary for the
best interests of others, but ready obedience to
proper authority is a lesson which every child
should learn.
“Pupils should not only behave properly, but
they should acquire the habit of being punctual,
regular in attendance, studious, kind, courteous and
neat. They should be taught to think of every ac-
tion as a moral act, tending to form habits and indi-
cating and determining moral character. For the
sake of their present and future welfare, kindly
help the teacher in all efforts to secure these and
other desirable ends.”
CERTIFICATE OF EXTRA PROMOTION.
Much encouragement has been given to pupils
by a card showing that they had earned extra pro-
motions. Movement forward is always acceptable
to every person; and never more so than to pupils
interested in their work and to parents solicitious
for the advancement of their children. Without
trying it, but few can appreciate the great interest
aroused by the giving of such cards. As this plan
of grading makes it easy for pupils to move forward
at any time, the large majority of the pupils have
received them, and the enthusiasm of parents and
ENHLISTING THE INTEREST OF PARENTS. 115
pupils has been remarkable. The following is a
copy of the Certificate of Extra Promotion:
“This is to certify that, because of the present
plan of grading and promoting, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g º º has not only done the work
required of the other pupils, but has also earned an
extra promotion. The promotion was from . . . . .
* * * * * * e s e e º e to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* * * e º e º a e s a e s e e s e e s e º e Teacher.”
On the reverse side the certificate reads as fol.
lows: -
“To the Parent—Under the usual method of
grading and promoting, your child would not have
been promoted during the year, but would have had
to mark time and wait until the other pupils were
ready to move forward. The plan now used makes
it possible for pupils to take up advanced work
whenever ready for it. While great care should be
taken to see to it that no pupil be allowed to go
faster than he has the mental and physical ability
to do the work thoroughly, many bright children
have been ruined mentally and morally by being
compelled to wait for those who either could not
do the work or would not do it. Of the
teacher and principal this plan requires close at-
tention to each child, and from the superintendent
extra, unappreciated work, worry and planning.
For the pupils it means improved mental habits,
increased interest and the saving of valuable time;
and for most of them it means much more educa-
tion that they would otherwise receive. I trust
116 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
that you will approve of this plan, and co-operate
with us.”
CERTIFICATE OF TIME GAINED.
Another device, which has proved to be a source
of great encouragement to pupils, is a small certifi-
cate showing the time gained by each pupil. It
has also been a means of interesting the parents in
all things pertaining to the schools. As, under this
pian of grading, pupils are permitted to pass their
classmates at any time when their advancement
warrants it, many soon find themselves far ahead
of those with whom they would have had to remain
if it had not been for this provision for reclassifica-
tion. As most courses of study do not contain
more than sufficient work to keep the slower pupils
busy, a large proportion of the pupils of every
School would receive these certificates. No less
than ninety per cent of the pupils, who have had
the opportunity of working under this plan for
three years, have received these rewards of merit.
By the records kept, it is easy to tell just how far
a pupil is ahead of former companions. Once each
year this record is made out and sent to parents.
The following is a copy of the certificate used:
“This is to certify that since the present plan of
grading and promoting was introduced, . . . . . . . . .
ENIISTING THE INTEREST OF PARENTS. 117
has gained . . . . . . . . . . months and is that far
ahead of former classmates.
e e º e e e º e g º e e e e º e s & & © & & Teacher.”
The address to the parent is as follows:
“To the Parent—The pupils of every grade differ
widely in age, in acquirements, in aptitude, in men-
tal and physical strength, in home advantages, in
the time of entering school, in regularity of attend-
ance, and in many other ways affecting their pro-
gress. Because of these differences many pupils can
easily finish a given amount of work in one-half to
two-thirds the time it takes others to do the same
work. Regardless of this indisputable fact, the
schools all over this country bind together the
bright and the slow, and by holding back the bright,
and unmercifully driving the slower ones, force all
to move at the same pace, not only month after
month, but year after year, for their whole school
lives. Believing that this is an outrage upon both
the bright and the slow, the present plan was put
in operation that pupils might be able to go just as
fast as they should, and no faster.
“All friends of our schools will be gratified to
know that the papers of nearly all the large cities
of this country, from San Francisco to Boston, have
commended this plan which is in operation in our
Schools.
“Because of this plan of grading your child has
been able to gain time without being hurried.
Time which would have been worse than wasted
has been used to good purpose, and without being
118 THE GRAT)FNG OF SCHOOLS.
A
urged, and almost without knowing it, your child
has gone faster than others. Is this not right? If
you believe it is, we most earnestly ask your
friendly aid, that your child may receive even more
benefit in the future, when greater advantages will
result from this plan.
“We hope that you will take a personal interest
in the public schools, and aid us in securing for Our
boys and girls as good an education as it is possible
for them to get.”
That this plan does increase the interest of the
parents has been conclusively proved in many ways.
That this is recognized by those in the schools is
shown by many expressions similar to the follow-
ing, which is an extract from a letter written by a
principal after three years’ experience with the
method. “It has given pupils a fresh incentive for
work, the reward being their own personal progress.
The number of graduates from our school this year
is more than double that of three years ago, while
the interest and support of the parents have in-
creased in about the same ratio.”
Many teachers complain of the lack of interest
upon the part of the parents. All know that, too
often, parents manifest no interest, save when they
come to complain. May it not be because teachers
have not done their part? With such devices as
the above, it has been very encouraging to see with
ENILISTING THE INTEREST OF PARENTS. 119
what zeal nearly all parents co-operate when they
find their interest is desired and appreciated.
Quite as gratifying is the beneficial effect upon the
children.
Chapter XIII.
* =&ºss
LOCATION AND REMOVAL OF T)ANGER
POINTS IN EACH GRADE.
In a more or less vague way, every teacher of
experience knows that, in each year’s work, but few
subjects are especially hard for the pupils to master.
Teachers generally agree that if pupils entering
each class were only well prepared in the few im-
portant parts of the essential subjects of the preced-
ing grades, the task of taking the pupils over the
required ground would be comparatively easy.
Coming, as so many pupils do, with a meagre un-
derstanding of the knowledge upon which they are
supposed to build, the majority of teachers find it
absolutely necessary to spend a large part of the
time trying to patch up the poorly laid foundations,
preparatory to attempting to build thereon. Some-
times the mistakes are not discovered until later,
when an effort is generally made to strengthen the
weakest points. Many times the pupils are so ut-
terly deficient in the most important principles,
IDANGER POINTS. 12
that teachers, in despair, endeavor to remove what
has been taught, that they may rebuild even from
the base course itself. Many more times the pu-
pils are permitted to attempt to build upon the
Sand; the educational superstructure falls when put
to the test; pupils are overwhelmed by the disgrace
of failure, and discouraged because they know it
comes in spite of earnest effort upon their part;
therefore, convinced that it is useless for them to
attempt to rebuild, they stop trying; whereas, if
they had had a proper foundation, they would have
built a noble temple of knowledge. All their lives
they suffer because of a lack of what they might
easily have secured.
Though nearly all of the failures are caused by
want of preparation at comparatively few points,
yet, so far as is known, there has never been an at-
tempt made to locate these subjects, and parts of
subjects, which cause the majority of failures in
each grade. If possible, even less has been done to
point out the danger points in each subject.
This chapter is written for the purpose of calling
attention to this very important matter, and for the
purpose of suggesting a few points to which it will
be well to give special consideration. Attention
having been called to the matter, each teacher and
principal will be able to locate additional points of
122 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
difficulty in their own courses of study, better than
they can be pointed out to them by others.
The conclusions, as to which are the most diffi-
cult subjects, were not reached without having suf-
ficient data on which to base the inferences. To
determine the subjects which give the most trouble
to teachers and pupils, the records made by between
fifteen and twenty thousand pupils, of different
grades, were studied carefully. To discover the
points where the most trouble arises, many teachers
of every grade were consulted. In spite of this
fact, every principal and teacher should make con-
firmatory tests and be on the lookout for other
danger points in each subject. When they have
once been discovered, the teachers will easily re-
move them by giving them special attention and by
following the individuals closely at these points.
In the hope that they will be helpful to inexperi-
enced teachers, a few suggestions are given as to
methods of helping pupils over some of these trou-
blesome places. -
FIRST YEAR.
Arithmetic. -
Danger Points: Hardest combinations from
One to ten. Abstract combinations. Writing and
reading numbers that look or sound alike. Devel-
opment of clear ideas of numbers. Use of the
signs. i
DANGER POINTS. 123
Suggestions: Concrete and abstract problems
by teacher and pupil. Pupils in this grade require
repeated drill in every step from the formation of
figures to the combinations of numbers.
Reading.
Danger Points: Combinations of sounds.
Recognition of words in Script and print; especially
those similar in appearance as: this, that, these,
there, etc. Ability to recognize new words.
Suggestions: Phonic drill. Practice on col-
umns of words. Special attention to articulation
and expression. Give the pupil time to read the
sentence to himself, in order that he may get the
thought. From the beginning make an effort to
Secure expression in reading.
SECONID YEAR.
Arithmetic.
Danger Points: Difficulty is found in applying
combinations and recognizing the same combina-
tions, no matter in what form they appear. Nota-
tion and numeration. Work in parts of wholes and
relation of one to the other. In subtraction, bor-
rowing and paying back.
Suggestions: Give pupils examples and ques-
tions in every conceivable way, so that they may
become familiar with the form and number, and be
able to recognize it under all conditions. Drill at
the board by mental work, and by cards containing
combinations with or without answers. Oral ex-
amples and explanatory board work is the best way
124 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
to make borrowing and paying back, in subtraction,
understood.
Reading.
Danger Points: Ability of pupil to read under-
standingly and with expression. Recognition of
similar words. Joining the article to the noun.
Combinations of sounds and letters, and clear enun-
ciation should have attention. Sounds of letters.
Recognition of words at sight.
Suggestions: Be careful about words that look
much alike, as, how, who, then, them, this, the, etc.
Drill is very important here. Write the words in
columns on the board, and let each child read one
or more words. Give them for spelling lessons,
and dictate them to pupils for writing. Expression
may be secured by questions, comparisons, sugges-
tions, informal talks and use of objects and pic-
tures. Enunciation is aided by drill in phonics.
Have children read silently one line, or to a period,
before reading audibly. Have the most difficult
phrases written on the board and read by class till
difficulty is removed. The hard words should be
spelled by sound before lesson is read. Have the
best reader read the difficult passage, so that expres-
sion is noticed, which latter is also aided by “talking
it” and by asking questions.
THIRD YEAR.
Arithmetic.
Danger Points: Second step in subtraction.
Rapid work. The sevens, eights and nines in mul-
DANGER POINTs. 125
tiplication. The use of the cipher in subtraction
and multiplication. Division where naughts occur
in quotient. Relative size and value of numbers;
children not seeing readily that 2000 cannot be sub-
tracted from 1989. Notation and numeration.
Suggestions: Board work. Rapid addition.
Dictation. Drill in subtraction and multiplication
tables. Place figures on board, using each in turn
as multiplier. Individual work at board. Many
examples using cipher.
Reading.
Danger Points: To read readily at sight. Ex-
pression. Articulation, particularly final conson-
ants. Tifficulty in recognizing words similar in
form, as though, through, thought, thorough.
Suggestions: To enable children to recognize
words easily, take the difficult words in the lesson
and write them on the board, and have pupils read
them. Also teach the equivalent sounds of letters;
divide words into syllables, teach formation of de-
rivatives from primitives, and compound from sim-
ple words. For articulation, drill on the oral ele-
ments. Give much practice on words.
FOURTH YEAR.
Arithmetic.
Danger Points: In long division, subtracting
from dividend and comparing remainder with di-
visor. The cipher in multiplication and subtrac-
tion. Tapid addition. Few hardest of the forty-
five combinations. In subtraction, the alternate
3.26 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
borrowing, and use of ciphers in minuend. Dollar
sign and point in United States money. Notation
of number where ciphers are needed. Thorough-
mess in fundamental rules.
Suggestions: Constant drill on hard parts.
Require pupils to add columns of figures; beginning
with short columns with small figures. Gradually
increase till they become ready and rapid in com-
putation. Give little problems that require
thought. Require quick mental work on line, hav-
ing pupils pass above and below each other.
Reading.
Danger Points: Articulation and expression.
Pronunciation of final consonants. Clear tones
and easy recognition of the words. Good under-
standing of the thought.
Suggestions: Children having defects in articu-
lation should be shown the proper position of the
vocal cords. To aid expression, one pupil should
be selected each day to read the lesson to the whole
class. Teacher may call for difficult words and
write them on the board. Pupils may compose
sentences containing them. Three or four easy
readers should be used, rather than to hurry pupils
to difficult words.
Language.
T)anger Points: Dictated sentences, letter wri-
ting. Use of new words in original sentences.
Use of Period. The dot over “i’’ and “j.” “I”
as a capital. Avoidance of “and” in reproduction
stories. Possessive forms. Use of capitals at be-
ginning of sentences.
DANGER. POINTS. 127
Suggestions: Give sentences in which a child
can easily grasp the thought. Don’t make him
write words that mean nothing to him. Try to
make letter-writing interesting and easy. Require
pupils to form sentences orally, using the following
analysis: “I first think about something; I use
words to express my thoughts; as ‘The tree grows.”
These words express a thought and it is called a
sentence.” Dictate sentences daily, correct the
papers and return, having pupils rewrite correctly.
Read a story to the class, and have pupils bring in
the reproduction from memory. Correct, as far as
sensible, the frequent errors of speech.
FIFTH YEAR.
Arithmetic.
Danger Points: Division and multiplication of
fractions. Reduction of answers. Special atten-
tion to subtraction when fraction below exceeds
that above. Long division, when ciphers occur in
the quotient, and multiplication, when ciphers occur
in multiplier. Finding trial divisor in long division.
Reduction, ascending in denominate numbers.
In division of decimals, trouble with pointing off
the correct number of decimal places in the quo-
tient. Decimal point very often forgotten. Spe-
cial attention given to subject of mixed numbers
when it is necessary to borrow from whole number.
Suggestions: Decimal point best developed by
dictating all examples, and by constant drill work.
In subtraction of fractions, first reduce to improper
fractions, then, after making the denominators com-
128 THE GRAT)|ING OF SCHOOLS.
mon, and subtracting the numerators, reduce to
mixed numbers, if necessary. Constant drill and
review secure improvement. All mistakes should
be corrected by the pupils, if possible, and rewrit-
ten. Thorough explanation of principles and
methods. Much practice.
Grammar.
Danger Points: Ability to write and speak in
clear, simple and correct English. To recognize
the parts of speech. Use of is and are, was and
were, etc. Use of quotation marks. Punctuation
and use of capitals. Proper use of imperfect tense
of such verbs as saw, did, etc. Formation of singu-
lar and plural possessives. Abstract nouns.
Suggestions: In order to distinguish parts of
speech, let pupils select parts of speech in the read-
ing lesson. Drill on words pronounced alike, but
spelled differently. Try to avoid having pupils
Spoil simple intelligent language by an attempt to
use set rules and grammatical terms. All written
work should be preceded by oral work. Special at-
tention given to errors.
SIXTH YEAR.
Arithmetic.
Danger Points: Division of fractions. Correct
use of the decimal point. Multiplication and divis-
ion of compound numbers. Rapidity in notation
and numeration of decimals. Reduction of deci-
mals to common fractions.
Suggestions: Drill at the board on dictated
DANGER POINTS. 129
work. Constant practice in numbers in which
ciphers appear. Daily drill on some one weak
point of class, giving one example, if no more time
can be taken from class work. Explanation of
errors. Varying examples, using the same princi-
ple. Simple examples made by class and teacher.
Grammar.
Danger Points: To teach children to express
themselves accurately and clearly. Cases of pro-
nouns. Complex sentences. Forming possessive
case of nouns properly. Paragraphing. Good ex-
pression in original work.
Suggestions: Trill on fewer points. Have
much oral work.
SEVENTH YEAR.
Arithmetic.
Danger Points: Finding base, rate, and percen-
tage. Use of decimal point. Tivision of deci-
mals. Accurate work in common and decimal
fractions. Accuracy in fundamental rules.
Suggestions: Constant drills at danger points.
Mistakes pointed out, and the errors corrected by
the pupil. Have pupils criticise their own work
and work of other members of the class. Drill on
that part of review work where pupils are most
deficient. -
Grammar.
T)anger Points: Conjugation of verbs. Con-
struction of simple sentences. Formation of
plurals and possessives.
180 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Suggestions: Use of word in reader. Teach
each case separately and drill. Have pupils con-
struct sentences. Lesson on blackboard. Have
conversation lessons to help in language. Have
pupils criticise their own work and the work of the
class. Drill in finding object and attribute.
More attention to building of simple sentences.
EIGHTH YEAR.
Arithmetic.
Danger Points: Practical work in common
fractions and percentage. Accuracy and ability to
work more readily with common and decimal frac-
tions. Accuracy in four fundamental rules.
Finding interest at any other rate than six per cent,
Fractional and decimal parts of denominate num-
bers. #
Suggestions: Subject to be thoroughly ex-
plained. Much blackboard work. Let pupils ex-
plain their work. Iſave pupils draw figures in
mensuration. Continued practice to keep pupils
proficient. Oral work. Thorough review of all
important parts passed over, giving special atten-
tion to danger points in each case.
Grammar.
Danger Points: Producing clear and well-
formed sentences. Parsing. Construction of sen-
tences. Participle and verb. Case of pronouns.
Irregular verbs. Possessive case. Lack of
fluency.
Suggestions: Original compositions. Change
eompound sentences to complex. Drill in making
sentences throughout the year.
Chapter XIV.
NUMBER OF I) IVISIONS AND BASIS OF
CILASSIFICATION IN EACH GRAT).E.
Having fixed upon the essential subjects and the
danger points in each grade, the question as to the
number of divisions becomes an important one.
Great care must be taken to make the divisions
needed, and, at the same time, to have no more than
a teacher can handle satisfactorily. At no time
should there be more divisions than are required to
meet the needs of the pupils and the demands of
proper instruction. Extra divisions should be
made when necessary, and should not be continued
longer than they are needed. The greatest care
must be taken with the sequential subjects—those
in which future progress is dependent upon what
has been learned.
For a time there were many who advocated a
separate classification for each subject. This had
132 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
the advantage of an exact adaptation of studies to
the wishes of the pupils, if the teacher was able to
make the division; yet, where tried, it did not
prove satisfactory. Not only did it cause a great
waste of time, but it encouraged the giving of spe-
cial attention to particular subjects; though all
agreed that the end desired was a well-rounded cul-
tivation.
The great difficulty in properly managing the
manifold classification soon led most to favor a
three-fold division, based upon reading, arithmetic
and mechanical subjects. It was found unneces-
sary to retain the last, so that the only separate clas-
sification was made with reading and arithmetic as
the basis. The necessity of having all pupils of
each grade reach a given level, in all subjects, by a
certain time, has now led to the universal adoption
of the single basis of classification. This was done
that pupils might make the same progress in all sub-
jects of the grade. The principal advantages of
this method lie in its simplicity and its prevention
of a one-sided development.
Under, the plan of grading herein explained pu-
pils may be placed in different divisions tempora-
rily; but before the end of the term it has been
found best to have all in one or other of the divi-
sions, in all of the essential or promotion subjects.
In hundreds of cases when pupils were disposed to
DIVISIONS AND CIASSIFICATIONS. 133
neglect certain work which was distasteful to them,
they have shown great energy in doing what they
thought they could not do; until it was discovered
that their remaining in advanced divisions in their
favorite subjects was dependent upon the accom-
plishment of certain work in other lessons.
The number of divisions in each grade will be
largely determined by the number of pupils in the
grade. In a school having two grades to a class,
the pupils cannot be as accurately classified as in
those schools having one or more classes of about
the same grade. In short, it may be said, that,
other things being equal, the larger the number of
pupils attending any school the easier it will be to
Secure an accurate classification of pupils.
Where there are two or more grades in each
room, the only practical method is to divide them
into three or four divisions in each of the most im- .
portant subjects. In buildings having two or more
rooms of the same grade, sufficiently accurate classi-
fication may often be secured by having but two or
three divisions in each of the essential subjects.
However, it should be remembered that teachers
who have heretofore had but one class will natu-
rally be strongly in favor of having as few divisions
as they are permitted to have.
134 - THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
BASIS OF DIVISION.
Another important thing which the practical
teacher will wish to know is, upon what basis the
division should be made. Shall it be made upon
reading, upon arithmetic, upon grammar? or, will
it be found best to make two or more of the subjects
mentioned, the basis? These and many other simi-
lar questions naturally arise in the consideration of
this important problem. j
Under this plan of grading, two or three of the
important Subjects of each grade are given much
consideration, but arithmetic is generally made the
basis of the classification. Experience has proved
that it is best to give this subject the greatest
weight, in spite of the fact that there are other
equally or more important sequential subjects in
some grades. In most parts of arithmetic, further
progress is entirely dependent upon what has been
previously learned. Without a knowledge of addi-
tion, the pupils cannot understand multiplication,
nor can they have a proper conception of Subtrac-
tion and division. Thus, all through this subject,
successful advancement is largely dependent upon a
thorough understanding of what has preceded.
This is also true, to a certain extent, of reading, in
the lowest grades, where it is the most important
subject. However, reading is mostly a matter of
corrected practice, and the desired end may be best
DIVISIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 135
reached by having the pupils recite frequently and
in small groups. While special consideration
should be given to this subject, as a basis of division
in the first three years, it will be acknowledged by
most that it is far easier to coach backward children
in reading than in arithmetic. In the advanced
grades much weight should be given to grammar
as a basis of division, for, as generally taught in the
highest grades, this is distinctively a sequential sub-
ject. Teading (except in the lowest grades), geog-
raphy, history, spelling, writing, physiology, and
drawing are not subjects in which progress is neces-
sarily dependent upon thoroughness in the preced-
ing parts of the subject.
As before pointed out, the number of pupils in
any given year’s work, and other varying condi-
tions, greatly influence the classification. How-
ever, experience has proved it quite satisfactory to
divide somewhat as follows in the several grades:
First Year. Two or three divisions in number
work, and three in reading. Before the end of the
year it will generally be found best to make an ad-
ditional division in one or both of these subjects.
Though it seems best to make arithmetic the di-
vision subject in the several grades, it should not
be forgotten that reading, together with what is in-
cluded in that lesson, is the most important work of
the first two or three years. The great majority of
136 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS:
teachers have found it best to give great weight to
reading as a basis of classification in the first year.
However, by the time for promotion, it will gener-
ally be best to have each pupil in the same division
in both subjects. Divisions for the purpose of reci-
tation may be made as the teacher thinks advisable.
Second Year. Three divisions in number work,
and three in reading. These will generally be
found sufficient, though additional divisions should
be made when necessary to the accurate grading of
the pupils in these branches. Many teachers favor
more divisions, but experience proves that, except
in special cases, more are not needed. In other
subjects divisions may be made for the purpose of
recitation.
Third Year. Three divisions in arithmetic, and
three in reading, and two divisions in language.
T)ivisions in other subjects should be made for the
purpose of recitation, but not necessarily on ability,
as in more important branches.
Fourth Yoar. Three divisions in arithmetic and
two or three in reading. It may be satisfactory to
have all read about the same lessons, but for the
purpose of recitation there should be two classes.
There should also be two divisions in language
work. Many teachers prefer to divide in other
branches, that they may have smaller classes to in-
struct and test orally.
DIVISIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 137
Fifth Year. Three divisions in arithmetic and
two in language and geography. The divisions in
geography may do about the same work, but they
should recite separately. Thus explanations and
instruction may be given to all at the same time.
Sixth Year. Two or three divisions in arith-
metic, and two divisions in language, grammar and
geography. In grammar and geography both di-
visions may generally take the same instruction
and the same lessons, but the class should be di-
vided for the purpose of recitation. Some teach-
ers have found it beneficial to divide in history, for
the purpose of having smaller classes.
Seventh Year. Two or three divisions in arith-
metic and two divisions in grammar, history and
geography. Division in geography and history
may be for purpose of recitation.
Eighth Year. Same as in preceding year.
In all subjects where division is urged, the di-
vision should be upon the basis of ability. In
those subjects where division is optional, the divi
sion may be made arbitrarily, without regard to the
advancement and ability of the pupils.
Some very good educators believe that pupils
should be divided according to ability in all sub-
jects, and advance equally in all; but experience
138 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
has proved the value of giving special attention to
the more important branches.
The fact that nearly all of the failures are in
One or two of the important subjects of each grade,
leads to the belief that more care should be given
to these subjects. When examined closely, it will
be found that there are but a few danger points in
each. For this reason, this plan of grading pro-
vides for instruction by divisions in these subjects,
in order that the teacher may come into close con-
tact with each pupil and have certain knowledge of
what each knows of every important subject. It
also provides for individual testing and individual
instruction at those places which experience proves
to be the most difficult parts for the pupils to un-
derstand.
By group and individual teaching and testing,
the teacher comes into close contact with the chil-
dren and thus learns many things concerning them
which otherwise would never be discovered.
Marked differences in ability to grasp subjects; the
differing periods at which the faculties begin to act
with considerable power; the kind of instruction
best suited to peculiar characters and tempera-
ments; the effects of study on the health; the men-
tal, moral and physical deficiencies and superiori-
ties; the home environments, determining the kind
TXIVISIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS. 139
of work which may be reasonably expected from
each: These and many other important facts the
teacher may best learn by following the pupils in
the small divisions and as individuals.
Chapter XV.
PROGRAMS FOR EACHI GRADE.
All must acknowledge that one of the primary
requisites of a successful school management is a
good program, for without it the work would be
chaotic. No teacher can possibly do efficient work
unless she works under a well considered and care-
fully arranged program. Such a program will not
Only make teachers and pupils systematic, but it
will save much time and make all school work more
effective. As a means of securing satisfactory re-
Sults, it is invaluable. It is also of great moral
value, because of its potent influence in developing
habits of order, regularity and attention to the work
in hand.
Thoughtful educators agree that the ability to
make a good program is a fair criterion by which
the success of an experienced teacher may be
judged. Nowhere is there offered a better oppor-
tunity for the display of a knowledge of the funda-
mental principles of education. Upon many points
PROGRAMS FOR EACH GRADE. 141
there will always be room for a difference of opin-
ion; however, the following suggestions will be ac-
cepted by most as correct in principle. The program
should provide a place for all regular school work,
and no study should receive more than its share of
time and attention. A definite time should be in-
dicated for the preparation of most of the lessons in
school, under the direction of the teacher. Studies
requiring most mental effort should come in the
morning and at other times when the mind is most
active. Studies employing different faculties
should follow each other, for here, as elsewhere, “a
change of labor is rest.” Writing and drawing
should follow book study, but never physical exer-
cise of any kind. Physical exercise, work at
board, and other school work involving change of
position, should follow lessons permitting but little
movement. All through the program there should
be a pleasing variety. Recitations should be short
and classes small, instead of the opposite. In the
primary grades the recitations should be short and
frequent. As pupils get older the length may be
increased and the frequency decreased.
SILENT WORK.
So much valuable time is wasted in so-called
“busy work” that it seems important to emphasize
the importance of proper silent work.
142 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
A large portion of the time in school cannot be
spent in the recitation. It is best that it should be
so, for, except in the highest grades, nearly all of
the preparation for recitation should be made in
School. Home work and silent work, for all grades,
should be for the purpose of fixing firmly in the
mind the truths brought out in the recitation, or for
the purpose of preparing for the recitation by
Imeans of suitable tasks. The planning for this
silent seat work is one of the most important parts
of every teacher’s work. No one thing is more
vital to successful management and discipline.
Left alone, the pupils will not only keep busy, but
they will also keep the teacher more than busy.
But they must be kept busy upon such silent work
as will either prepare them for the recitation or sup-
plement it. To do this demands careful planning,
but it is one of the most important parts of a teach-
er’s preparation. The failure to realize this is one
of the most potent causes of the downfall of the
majority of those not succeeding. While the care-
ful planning of the seat work is of so great impor-
tance in every school, it is especially so with this
plan of grading, under which much time in school is
given for the preparation of lessons.
No program can be made to suit all conditions.
Therefore, no teacher should force any school to fit
a given program; but the effort should be made to
PROGRAMS FOR EACH GRADE. 143
make a program which will meet the conditions ex-
isting. However, to give a general idea of the
method of managing the divisions under this plan
of grading, a partial program is given for the dif-
ferent grades. Generally only that part of the
program is given which is a requirement of this
plan of grading, for the reason that it is believed to
be best not to interfere with the teacher more than
is necessary to meet the demands of the plan.
Some teachers of the primary grades prefer to
have reading before the arithmetic; but after much
hesitation arithmetic has been placed first, for the
reason that experience has proved this arrangement
most satisfactory. The having of certain impor-
tant branches at about the same time in all grades
makes it easy for pupils who are not quite up to the
lowest division of the higher grade to recite with
the highest division of their own class, and also the
lowest division of the next higher grade, without
losing a recitation in any other lesson. It makes it
possible to dovetail the work of one grade into that
of another, so that pupils may easily pass from one
class to another without omitting any important
work.
It is also an important help to have the lower
divisions listen while the next higher division is
receiving instruction. When pupils are but a short
distance behind others, it is wonderful how much
144 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
they will learn from following closely the recita-
tions. Some who have worked in the ungraded
school realize this in a vague way, but none who
have not tried this or a similar method will be able
to even faintly appreciate the ease with which chil-
dren learn from other children. Care should be
taken to see that pupils are following closely, and
when the work is such that they cannot be benefited
by attending to the recitation they should be given
other work.
Each session one period is saved for the purpose
of giving attention to the special needs of individual
pupils. This is very important. It will not do to
say that much of the teacher’s work is given to
helping the individual, and, therefore, this is un-
necessary. At this time the teacher should answer
questions which arise in the work, and endeavor to
help each pupil who needs assistance. This time
should also be made use of to see to it that every
pupil fully understands the perplexing parts of the
work already covered. There are but few of these
points in each grade, and by a proper use of this
special period no teacher need be ignorant of what
the pupils really know about the work at the danger
points. *
FROGRAM FOR FIRST YEAR.
Perhaps the hardest program to arrange satisfac-
torily is that for the first year, as pupils are so
TROGRAMS FOR EACH GRADE. 145
young that it is difficult to keep them busy without
the constant supervision of the teacher. The fol-
lowing program is given as suggestive to those who
are working in this grade.
MORNING.
Eirst Period. Opening exercises, memory gems,
morals and manners, for all divisions.
Second Period. A Division—Arithmetic. B
Division—Attention to those reciting, if they can
be benefited; if not, they may be given slate work.
C Division—Busy work.
Third Period. Calisthenics for all.
|Fourth Period. A Division—Written work. B
Division—Arithmetic. C Division—Attention to
division reciting, or varied slate work.
Fifth Period. Writing for all, or recess.
Sixth Period. Drill in phonics or other work
preparatory for reading for all.
Seventh Period. A Division—Reading. B Di-
vision—Attention to class reciting. C Division—
Writing numbers.
Eighth Period. A Division—Writing new
words in advanced lesson. B Division—Reading.
C Division—Attention to division reciting, or busy
work.
Ninth Period. Marching or calisthenics for all.
Tenth Period. A Division—Same as last period.
B Division—Writing of words in advanced lesson.
C Division—Reading.
146 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
JEleventh Period. All busy with slate work,
that the teacher’s entire attention may be given to
individual needs.
AFTERNOON.
First Period. A Division—Reading. B Di-
vision—Attention to recitation, or slate work. C
Division—Same.
Second Period. A Division—Slate work. B
Division—Reading. C Division—Attention to
recitation or busy work.
Third Period. Marching or calisthenics for all.
Fourth Period. A Division—Same as last, busy
work, or writing new words. B Division—Writ-
ing words of new lesson. C Division—Reading.
Fifth Period. Silent work of some kind for all,
that the teacher may be free to give attention to
any needing special help. This will give an oppor-
tunity to pupils to ask questions, without interrupt-
ing during recitations.
|Many will at once say that it is not possible to
have so many recitation periods each day; but such
are mistaken. With recitation periods about fifteen
minutes in length, the above takes but two hours
for the two most important subjects, and leaves
three hours for the less important branches, and for
additional divisions wherever needed. As few
teachers will have any trouble in placing other sub-
jects, it is not thought necessary to mention them.
PROGRAMS FOR EACH GRADE. 147
PROGRAM FOR SECOND YEAR.
MORNING.
First Period. Opening exercises, memory gems,
morals and manners, for all divisions.
Second Period. Easy mental problems for all.
Third Period. A Division—Arithmetic. B
i)ivision—Attention to recitation or written work
in arithmetic. C Division—Writing names and
figures.
Fourth Period. A Division—Written work in
arithmetic. B Division—Arithmetic. C Divi-
sion—Attention to division reciting, or silent work.
Fifth Period. A Division—Same as last period.
B Division--Written work in arithmetic. C Di-
vision—Arithmetic.
Sixth Period. Calisthenics for all.
Seventh Period. All busy with silent work, that
the teacher may give entire attention to helping in-
dividuals. Pupils who have questions to ask con-
cerning any part of the work may well ask them at
this time, when they will not interrupt recitation.
Eighth Period. Recess.
Ninth Period. A Division—Reading. B Di-
vision—Attention to recitation or study reading.
C Division—Written work from board.
Tenth Period. A Division—Writing words of
new lesson in reading, or written work from the
board. B Division—Reading. C Division—At-
tention to the recitation or study reading.
Eleventh Period. A Division—Study reading,
148 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
write new words, or Roman numbers. B Division
—Same. C Division—Reading.
AFTERNOON.
First Period. Easy supplementary reading for
all divisions, if possible. C Division may follow
others and learn what they can.
Second Period. A Division—Language. B
Division—Same. C Division—Attention to reci-
tation or silent work. • *
Third Period. A Division—Silent work. B
Division—Same. C Division—Language.
Fourth Period. All busy with silent work of
some kind, that teacher may attend to needs of in-
dividuals and see that difficult points in lessons are
comprehended by all.
With recitations from fifteen to twenty minutes
in length, about two hours will be used for arith-
metic and reading. The remaining three hours
may be used for an extra division, wherever needed,
and for the other branches.
PROGRAM FOR THIRD YEAR.
The program in this grade may be about the
same as in the Second year, though the pupils can
do much more silent work. They may also be
graded a little more closely in language, if this
branch is taken separately. With recitations about
twenty minutes in length, this will still leave almost
three hours for the less important branches.
PROGRAMS FOR EACH GRADE. 149
Pupils should be followed very closely in this grade,
to see that each one is thorough in the essential
parts of the work. If the time can be spared, it
will prove beneficial to make the periods for indi-
vidual instruction longer. If pupils fall behind
those in the lowest division in arithmetic or read-
ing, they should be placed in separate divisions
until they are able to work with one of the regular
divisions. It will often be found advantageous to
have pupils recite with the lowest division when
that division is reviewing the portion of the work
in which they are deficient. This they may easily
do and still retain membership in their regular di-
vision.
PROGRAM FOR FOURTH YEAR.
MORNING.
First Period. Opening exercises as in preceding
grades.
Second Period. A Division—Arithmetic. B
Division—Attention to recitation or preparation of
lesson in arithmetic. C Division—Prepare lesson
in arithmetic.
Third Period. A Division—Work in arith-
metic. B Division—Recite arithmetic. C Divi-
sion—Attention to recitation or same as last period.
Fourth Period. Calisthenics for all.
Fifth Period. A Division—Study reading. B
Division—Same. C Division—Recite Arithmetic.
150 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Sixth Period. Recess.
Seventh Period. A Division—Recite reading.
B Division—Same, if the two divisions do not make
too large a class. C Division—Study reading or
give attention to recitation.
Eighth Period. A Division—Study language.
B Division—Same. C Division—Recite reading.
Ninth Period. Silent work for all, that teacher
may give assistance to individuals needing help in
any subject.
AFTERNOON.
First Period. A Division—Recite language.
B Division—Same. C Division—Study.
Second Period. A Division—Study. B Divi-
sion—Same. C Division—Recite language.
Third Period. Study of geography by all, un-
der direction of teacher.
With the exception of the subjects mentioned, it
will not generally be found necessary to have pupils
in this grade separated into small divisions. How:
ever, many teachers prefer to divide in most of the
subjects for the purpose of recitation.
PROGRAM FOR FIFTH YEAR.
MORNING.
First Period. Opening exercises.
Second Period. A Division—Recite arithmetic.
Other divisions study.
Third Period. B Division—Recite arithmetic.
Other divisions study.
PROGRAMS FOR EACH GRADE. 351
Fourth Period. C Division—Recite arithmetic.
Other divisions study.
Fifth Period. All busy with assigned work, that
teacher may give aid to those needing help at par-
ticular points.
Sixth Period. Recess.
Seventh Period. A Division—Recite language.
B Division—Study.
Eighth Period. B Division—Recite language.
A Division—Study.
The rest of the program may be arranged as
thought best. There should be two divisions in
geography. Pupils may generally work together
in other branches of this grade. With recitations
about twenty minutes in length, plenty of time will
be left for other subjects.
PROGRAMS FOR SIXTH, SEVENTH AND EIGHTH
YEARS.
MORNING.
First Period. Opening exercises.
Second Period. A Division—Arithmetic. B
Division—Study.
Third Period. A Division—Study. B Divi-
sion—-Arithmetic.
Fourth Period. Some restful exercise.
Fifth Period. Study of such character as will
keep all busy, that teacher may devote entire atten-
tion to assisting individuals.
Sixth Period. Recess.
152 THE GRAT) ING OF SCHOOLS.
Seventh Period. A Diyision—Recite language
or grammar. B Division—Study.
Eighth Period. A Division—Study. B Divi-
sion—Recite language or grammar.
The rest of the program may be arranged as
seems best. It will generally be found best to have
the class divided in geography and history. Some-
times the division may receive explanations at the
same time, if they are working in the same part of
the subject; but even in this case better results will
be secured by having each division recite separ-
ately. Recitations may be about twenty-five min-
utes in length.
Chapter XVI.
MEANS OF REACHING THE INDIVIDUAL
AND THELPING THE FUTURE
TEACHIERS.
The importance of following closely the individ-
ual pupil has already been emphasized, and atten-
tion has been called to the fact that no plan will
answer the demands of the present age, unless it
conserves the interests of the individual without in-
terfering with the rights of the majority.
It should be remembered that a satisfactory
method of grading must secure the principal advan-
tages of individual teaching and yet retain the
many benefits of class instruction. While provi-
ding suitable work for the class, it must also make it
easy for the pupils to pass from one class to another,
so that the work at all times may be fitted to the
rate of progress, stage of development, and char-
acter of attainments of each individual. How,
under this method, this much desired end may be
appreciably approached, if not fully attained, may
154 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
have already appeared to the thoughtful reader.
However, to obviate the necessity of re-reading, sev-
eral means which this plan offers of getting closer
to the individuals are mentioned. It is hoped that
they will make plain the fact that reaching the in-
dividual is not only very important, but is also quite
feasible.
REACHING THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE CLASS.
As the pupils under each teacher are accurately
classified according to their abilities and their at-
tainments, it follows that in the less important sub-
jects the instruction given to all will be suited to
each individual. Therefore, this will enable the
teacher to make the instruction beneficial to every
pupil in the class. This the teacher cannot do as
schools are generally graded, for in almost every
school there are many who cannot be benefited by
much of the instruction.
Even in the less important subjects the pupils are
often divided into groups for the purpose of oral
testing, so that thus each is met by searching ques-
tions upon the important parts of the subject.
REACHING THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE GROUP.
In the more important branches the pupils are
divided into small groups for the purpose of in-
struction, drill, and testing. Here, in the smaller
divisions, the teacher comes into closer contact with
|REACHING THE INDIVIDUAL. . 155,
each pupil, so that there is no possibility of the un-
prepared pupil escaping.
The pupil can neither rely upon being passed by
nor upon learning the lesson by hearing many oth-
ers recite. Every pupil knows that unless prepared
it is not safe to go to the recitation. Being very
accurately classified, the instruction may be exactly
suited to each, though given to all. The drilling
and the testing can be directed to the specific ends
which the certain knowledge of the pupils’ pro-
ficiency makes desirable. With such close classifi-
cation, each question asked by the teacher and each
answer given by the pupil is of value to all pupils
in the group.
REACHING THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE STUDY PERIOD.
Under this plan two periods each day are re-
served for the specific purpose of giving close at-
tention to the needs of individuals. Thus the
teacher comes into still closer contact with each,
and discovers individual peculiarities, deficiencies
and superiorities. These reserve periods are not
only of great value to the pupils, but they are also
of great benefit to the teacher, and may be used for
the purpose of answering questions and helping in-
dividuals, instead of being frequently interrupted
for these purposes during the recitations.
156 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
|REACHING THE INDIVIDUAL BY MEANS OF THE
RECORD.
Another valuable means of insuring a careful
consideration and thorough knowledge of each in-
dividual is the record which each teacher is re-
quired to keep. This record shows the following
facts for each pupil: The age; the record made
in every subject; the effort; the deportment; the
tardiness; the days present; the exact portion of
work done satisfactorily; the time lost or gained;
the number of extra promotions and reclassifica-
tions; the time spent in each grade; the record of
work in each division; the mental, moral or physical
peculiarities of each, which may be of value in
properly estimating the character and the amount
of work which may reasonably be expected of each
pupil; and suggestions as to the methods of instruc-
tion, management, and discipline best suited to
special cases. Such a record is of inestimable value
as a means of securing practical child study on the
part of every teacher. • A glance at this record
gives to each teacher the accumulated experience of
the preceding teachers. It makes it comparatively
easy to manage and instruct many who otherwise
would never have been understood or interested.
In almost every school there are a number of
very troublesome pupils who prove to be thorns in
the flesh. A careful study is made of such; and
REACHING THE INT) IVIDUAL. 157
Suggestions are given as to the best methods of
reaching such individuals. The value of such
knowledge to the teacher receiving the pupils will
be understood and appreciated by every teacher of
experience.
By thus coming closer to the individual, the
teacher not only gains the sympathy of the pupils,
but what is equally important for the proper de-
velopment of their characters, the teacher’s warm-
est sympathy goes out to the pupils. The school
becomes a pleasant place, and the teacher has but
little trouble in enlisting the pupils’ permanent in-
terest in all school work. Thus out of those who
seem to be laggards or worse there are often devel-
oped earnest seekers after knowledge; and in place
of confirmed idlers or troublesome truants there ap-
pear earnest workers, who are happier in school than
elsewhere. By getting close to each individual the
strong mind of the true teacher comes into close
contact with the weaker mind of the pupil, warms
into life the dormant faculties, and inspires healthy
activity in all.
This close study of each pupil enables every
teacher to discover many important traits of char-
acter, and the physical peculiarities which, but for
this plan, would never have been discovered. In a
Vague way thoughtful educators know that many
pupils are suffering greatly because they are not
158 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
thoroughly understood; yet all will be surprised to
learn how many there are in every school who,
though deserving special attention, are not discov-
ered, even by the watchful teacher.
Many who had been condemned as lazy, or as
unusually dull, were found to be near-sighted; and,
having been placed in the rear of the room, were
unable to receive benefit from the explanation of
blackboard work given by teacher and pupils.
Many others had been considered slow, when, in
reality, they were partially deaf, and for years had
been placed at a distance from the teacher, and for
this reason had received but little benefit from
either the instruction or the recitation.
Pupils who are afflicted with any physical weak-
ness are always disposed to hide their deficiencies,
and many are so sensitive that for years they are
able to attend school day after day without the
teachers discovering the fact, until special atten-
tion is given to the matter.
If this Individual Record had done nothing more
than discover those who were deficient in sight and
hearing, that their school life might be made more
pleasant and profitable, it would have repaid more
than a hundred-fold the trouble it made.
To give some idea of the discoveries made by the
careful study of individuals, which this record de-
mands, a few typical cases are mentioned. One
REACHING THE INDIVIDUAL. 159
record reads as follows: “J. M. seems to have no
interest in school work. Inattentive and listless,
but does not resent correction. Very reticent.
To all appearances is quite dull. Showed same
characteristics in other schools.” Some time later
the following statement was made by the same
teacher. “Upon further investigation, I found
that J. M. is neither dull nor lazy. He rises be-
tween three and four o’clock each morning, and,
until time for school, delivers New York papers.
Many times comes to school without breakfast.
Does this that he may help to support four younger
brothers and sisters, who are worse than fatherless.
Father a drunkard. Mother trying to keep family
together. When boy found I had learned part, he
told me all. I have been very considerate of him,
and he is proving himself an entirely different kind
of a pupil. Believe that, under more favorable cir-
cumstances, he would prove himself to be one of
the brightest boys in the school.” Will any person
wonder that, under such circumstances, a boy could
have but little enthusiasm left for school work?
Unnumbered pupils have had their school lives cut
short because they were not understood or because
the teacher knew little and cared less about their
peculiar characters and environments. This record,
as has been pointed out above, is invaluable, then,
not so much because it requires teachers to know
160 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
more of the individual pupils, but because the
knowledge gathered leads to the teachers having a
deeper sympathy with most of the pupils.
Another entry reads as follows: “S. R. seemed
disposed to make all the trouble he possibly could.
Was suspended, but did no better. Told some of
the pupils he wished to be sent out of school. I
was quite harsh with him. It is only fair to say
that I felt sure that there was little, if any, good in
him. However, after much trouble, I discovered
that I was entirely mistaken in my estimate of his
character. I found that he wanted to be sus-
pended, not because he wished to run the streets,
but because he wished to be at home with his
mother, who was dying of consumption. He loved
her better than his own life, and all he wanted was
to remain at home and sit on the back steps, outside
of his mother's room, that he might be near her all
the time. He did not wish to tell about it, but
when he did his story almost broke my heart. Yet
I had come very near sending him for final suspen-
sion, that he could never return to school. But for
the fact that we are required to make a careful
study of all such cases, I would never have discov-
ered the facts in the case. Now that his dear
mother is dead, the principal and I are doing all in
Our power to comfort and help him, and he is one
of the mildest, sweetest boys in the school.”
REACHING THE INT)IVIDUAL. 16]
The above are two of many similar cases which
prove the great value of having some device which
will require teachers to endeavor to learn much of
each child committed to their care. Who can esti-
mate the number of friendless boys and girls who
might have been saved, if only the teacher had
known all the facts? Is it any wonder that con-
scientious teachers shrink from their daily work lest
they unintentionally turn some into the downward
paths?
As all important facts concerning each individ-
ual are recorded, and suggestions made as to the
methods of reaching many, the record proves of
great value to those teachers who receive the pupils
later.
Chapter XVII.
BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF A RATIONAL
PLAN OF GRADING.
Instruction Suited to the Pupils’ Needs. The
instruction is accurately suited to the needs of the
pupils of each division. That the instruction
should be suited, both in matter and method, to the
ability and attainment of those to be taught, is a
fundamental pedagogical axiom, upon which all
others depend, and with which all others
should be in harmony; yet, all know that it
is violated in each recitation of nearly every school
of our land, for the extremes of the classes cannot
be benefited by the same instruction. Accurate
adjustment of the instruction is possible under this
plan, for the reason that pupils of very nearly equal
ability are always together. Why should the “poor
teacher” be condemned for the unsatisfactory re-
sults when she is not responsible for the existing
conditions?
Pupils Kept Busy. The most careless observer
BENEFITS OF A RATIONAL PLAN. 163
of children knows that they love to do what re-
Quires a reasonable amount of effort. When pupils
were closely graded, so that work suitable to all
could be assigned, the tendency to idleness almost
Vanished, and the need of punishment was greatly
diminished in all classes, and entirely disappeared
from many. Under the usual plan, all know that
the brighter children are not kept busy; therefore
they get into mischief. -
Abolishes the Intellectual Treadmill. It does
away with the intellectual treadmill, by which they
are kept in constant motion, but never advance.
It requires and easily secures the self-activity on the
part of almost every child. In place of inatten-
tion, there is interested attention.
Essential Work Done Thoroughly. Under the
usual plan, pupils are not thorough in the work
passed over, though they spend far more time than
should be required to do more work well. That
they should be thorough in the essential work none
dare deny. It is time we take the blame from the
“poor teacher” and put it on the poorer method.
Under this plan, all other things are secondary to
thoroughness in the essentials. This is easily Se-
cured, for teachers are not expected to take pupils
faster than they can do thorough work. It is no
longer wondered why pupils went to school so long
and knew so little when they stopped.
164 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Provides for Daily Adjustment. In place of
having the superintendent adjust the machine
once each year to fit the convenience of superin-
tendent and principals, this plan requires daily ad-
justment by principals and teachers to suit the
needs of the pupils. While organization is neces-
sary, it should be flexible and pliant, rather than
rigid and unyielding.
The Bright and the Slow Benefited. All know
that, under the usual plan, the bright are injured
mentally and morally by being held down to the
pace of the slowest; the plodders are likewise in-
jured by being continually driven over the work
faster than they should go. Under this plan, the
brighter pupils are allowed to move forward as fast
as they can do the work thoroughly. The mental
and moral benefit resulting from this can scarcely
be overestimated, and it is, perhaps, the most valu-
able result of this plan; for it develops strong, self-
reliant workers, imbued with a new and deep inter-
est in all knowledge. It develops and fixes im-
proved mental habits, so that they become enthused
with that highest pleasure which comes from the
triumphs of the intellect. What is more impor-
tant than the development of the habits of concen-
trated attention, courageous attack of difficulties,
and of persistent, independent work? That these
habits are results of this plan of grading is amply
BENEFITS OF A RATIONAL PLAN. 165
proved to the satisfaction of those who have had
experience with the plan. They now see that pu-
pils naturally find pleasure in suitable work, espe-
cially when they find that further progress is the
reward of earnest effort.
High School Attendance Increased. On all
sides much regret is expressed that so few pupils
reach the high school. Less than two per cent get
to the highest grammar grade. Since this plan of
grading was introduced, three years ago, the
number attending the high school has more than
doubled.
Saves Time in the Recitations. Most of the time
used in the recitations is wasted by explaining what
most pupils already know. Under this plan all this
time and energy are saved. Therefore the recita-
tion periods may be shortened, with profit to all.
Number Reaching Higher Grades Increased.
Statistics prove that a much larger proportion of
the pupils remain in school until the higher grades
are reached. In every grammar school of the city
there has been an increase in the proportion of pu-
pils in the higher grades—the average per cent of
increase for the different districts being about
twelve. Surely this is an important matter, for in
Some cities ninety per cent of the pupils do not
reach the grammar grades, and the reports show
that eighty-one per cent of all the pupils in the
166 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
graded schools of this country are in the four lowest
years of a twelve years course.
Age of Pupils Entering the High School Low-
ered. All deprecate the fact that pupils entering
the high school are from one to five years older
than they should be. During the past two years
the average age of those entering the Elizabeth
high School has decreased more than one year,
while the classes about to enter will still further re-
duce this average.
Gives Encouragement to Pupils. Pupils are
greatly encouraged, for, except because of absence,
there are very few retrogressions. There are fre-
Quent promotions of the best, which result in
leaving the slower ones about where they should be.
When pupils are retrograded they fall but a short
distance behind, and are generally kept in the same
room. The thoughtful reader will easily appreci-
ate the importance of this provision.
But Few Lose Time. As schools are generally
managed, if any but the very brightest fall but a
short distance behind the class, they must stumble
along at the foot of the class and lose a year, when
but a month or two back. Because of sickness, or for
some of a hundred other reasons, nearly all of the
pupils do lose time, and therefore fail to go for-
ward. Statistics gathered in different cities show
that eighty per cent of the pupils lose from one to
BENEFITS OF A RATIONAL PLAN. 167
four years; and for every one hundred pupils in
the schools examined, there had been from one hun-
dred and twenty-five to three hundred and seventy
years lost. Under this plan, if pupils fall be-
hind their class they drop into a class but a short
distance behind the one left; and as promotion may
come at any time this lost ground is easily recov-
ered. The records in Elizabeth show that, except
because of absence, very few lose any time. All
will acknowledge that it is an end to be greatly de-
sired, when the system is such that pupils lose only
the time they are absent. This system not only
makes such provision that absent pupils go forward
from the points they were when they left, but it
makes it easy for those of ability to regain lost
ground.
Nearly All Are Promoted Regularly. But few
fail to be promoted. Those who do fail are not
discouraged, for the reasons that they know promo-
tion may come at any time and lost ground may
easily be recovered.
Ninety Per Cent Gain Time. As under the usual
plan it is almost impossible for a pupil to go to ad-
vanced work at any other than the time for regular
promotions, it is readily understood why but few
pupils gain time. Most of those who seem to do
so really lose the time later, because they have
omitted much essential work. Under this plan,
168 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
ninety per cent of those who go through the pri-
mary grades, or farther, will gain from one to four
years. The teachers’ records of several thousand
pupils show that, during the past three years,
eighty-five per cent of the pupils in Elizabeth
gained from one to twenty months’ time; while
their average gain was over six months. This they
did without any urging and almost without their
knowing it.
Secures Regular Attendance. The plan makes
School a pleasant place and greatly aids in securing
regular and punctual attendance. The report of
the state superintendent shows that of all the cities
and towns in the state, Elizabeth has the best record
for regular and punctual attendance.
Lessons Prepared in School. In most schools
pupils recite nearly all of the time, and there is no
time left for the preparation of lessons in school,
where most of the lessons should be prepared. For
this reason, either the lessons are not prepared, or
they are prepared under the direction of the par-
ents, who should not have to instruct their children,
even if they are qualified to do so. With this plan
the pupils have more than one-half of their time in
School for the preparation of lessons. Thus they
may be prepared under the direction of the teacher,
who is best qualified, both by knowledge and ex-
perience, and whose duty it is to relieve the parents
BENEFITS OF A RATIONAL PLAN. 169
of this task. Time is provided both in the morn-
ing and afternoon for individual assistance.
Approved by Principals, Teachers and Parents.
Intelligent principals and teachers realize the weak-
ness of the usual plan. Though not in favor of
the plan at first, more than ninety per cent of the
principals and teachers who have worked under
this plan have given, in writing, their reasons for
preferring it to any other. As published, these
opinions show that the benefits to the teachers are
as many and as marked as those reaped by the pu-
pils. On all sides interested parents have ex-
pressed great satisfaction with the results obtained.
Financial Saving. As, under the usual plan,
the great majority of the pupils are forced to stop
School before they reach the grammar grades, at
first sight it seems that there may be a saving; but,
even considered in this narrow way, there is no
Saving, because of the fact that most of them have
already lost as many years as they would likely
have spent in the schools. Under this plan, if pu-
pils get the same amount of education as they
would under the usual plan, they will get it in from
One to four years less time; therefore, the district
would save what it would cost to educate the pupils
for the number of years saved. For example:
The records of a certain city, noted for its schools,
show that, in the grammar grades, 35,000 pupils
170 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
had lost from one to four years, with a total loss of
not less than 87,000 years. This number of years
multiplied by $40, the annual per capita cost in
that city, shows a loss on these pupils of $3,480,000.
But, at the lowest calculation, under this plan, these
pupils would have saved as much time as they lost
under the usual plan, thus saving to the city $6,-
960,000. But in this city, eighty-five per cent
of the pupils were not in the grammar grades. If
those in the lower grades were affected to the same
extent, then the usual plan of grading would result
in a loss to the city of $39,440,000. Or, under
this plan of grading, the city would have saved
$46,400,000, if all received the same amount of
Schooling as they would have under the usual plan.
But it must not be forgotten that the pupils’ pro-
ductive lives would have been lengthened the num-
ber of years saved. Supposing each pupil could
have earned $100 a year, this would mean a saving
to the pupils of $201,800,000. This, added to the
saving to the city, would show a total saving to pu-
pils and city, of $248,200,000. This might be
continued further, but it is sufficient to show that,
because of the usual method of grading, there is an
appalling financial loss both to the school district
and to the pupils.
Chapter XVIII.
TESTIMONY OF PRINCIPALS AND
TEACHERS.
While the seeming great increase in the number
of recitations led some teachers to look with dis-
favor on the plan, before they understood it, at the
end of the first year’s experience with it they not
only favored it, but ninety-four per cent of the
principals and teachers gave in writing their rea-
sons for believing this plan best for teachers and
pupils. As those considering any plan wish to
know what the teachers who have had experience
with the method think, a few of the many state-
ments are given.
While there are always some ready to object to
any change, experience in working out and put-
ting into operation this plan shows that nearly all
the opposition comes from those who have grown
to believe that the schools are for them, rather than
for the children; therefore, being more anxious to
save themselves trouble than to benefit the chil-
172 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
dren, they prefer to continue in the “good old
way,” rather than make the necessary effort to get
out of the rut. Others, who are striving to break
away from the present unsatisfactory method, agree
in saying that the teachers always ready to criticise
their efforts are those who, having been ironclad in
their methods and management, now feel keenly
the truth that the effect of their methods have been
most blighting. The beneficial results of this
method to pupils and teachers have been so many
and so marked, that not only are the principals and
teachers unanimous in their hearty approval, but
parents and pupils are enthusiastic in their indorse-
ment of the method.
The following opinions as to the beneficial re-
Sults of the plan were written by principals and
teachers who had had from ten to forty years' ex-
perience with the usual method. As most of these
were written at the end of the first year's trial, they
call attention only to the benefits which appear at
first. The opinions of a few principals are given,
that other principals may know that the plan is
more than satisfactory to those who are responsible
for the organization and grading of the schools.
Opinions of a few teachers of each grade are also
given, to show that this plan is just as satisfactory
in one grade as in another.
TESTIMONY OF TEACHERS. 17
3
OPINIONS OF PRINCIPALS.
The problem of how to reach the individual stu-
dent in the mass-teaching of the public schools, and
to advance him according to his ability without dis-
couraging those who may be less able or less ad-
vanced, appears to have been satisfactorily solved
by the system recently introduced into the public
schools of Elizabeth by their superintendent, Prof.
Shearer. The instruction is made profitable to all,
instead of benefiting only the more brilliant minds.
* * * Another feature is that when a general
promotion is made the pupils are not all sent in
bulk to the next class without any discrimination
as to their relative ability, but those who can fulfill
the requirements of the higher division of that class
are placed in that division where they will meet
with their peers, and those who are less advanced
will seek their level in some other division of the
same class. * * * The most careless observer
can easily see that a personal interest and protection
for each pupil, and an equal rule of justice for all
the pupils, will be established, which has heretofore
never been attempted in public school instruction.
* * * Elizabeth has been fortunate in secur-
ing the benefits of this system for her schools. *
* * Its good effects are everywhere apparent.
* * * A system that must inevitably be adopted
by every enlightened school board throughout the
country as soon as the merits have been fully under-
stood.
Turing forty years I have tried almost every
plan that any one could think of, but I found noth-
174 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
ing satisfactory until I tried this plan of grading.
It not only respects the individuality of the pupil,
but it does the same for the teacher and the princi-
pal. * * * Every sensible person who under-
stands the system and believes the schools are for
the children, must be unalterably in favor of Super-
intendent Shearer’s new system.
I am heart and hand in favor of grading, and it
certainly meets the requirements of our schools.
Many children have made more progress in their
studies than we thought possible at the outset; but
the grading has made it possible for each child to
do according to its ability.
The system of grading is an excellent thing.
We fully believe that each individual scholar has
been benefited by the division of the classes, and
the special needs of each child have been more
closely studied and better reached.
It seems to adapt itself to all conditions of the
classroom. It affords an opportunity for each
child to seek his own level. If he is ambitious and
gifted with ability to move fasten than his less for-
tunate associates he finds himself free to go on, with
no barriers in front. Tf he is destined to belong to
the great “mediocrity,” he will find himself in con-
genial company. It aids discipline by leaving the
least possible number unoccupied, and thus re-
moves the tremendous strain from that teacher
who attempts to hold the attention of forty-five or
fifty pupils during a long recitation. The plan
develops the individuality of the teacher, since she
is thrown more upon her own resources, and given
TESTIMONY OF TEACHERS. 175
an opportunity to think, act and adapt herself to
the character of her pupils. It offers an incentive
to the class. A lazy boy is awakened into activity
by seeing his more industrious associates quietly
and steadily slipping away from him; while a pupil
who has failed to earn promotion is encouraged, for
he knows that his failure does not throw him back
a whole year. -
The system of grading meets, I believe, a long-
felt need. It cannot but be of advantage to both
teacher and pupil. Its advantages are legion. It
brings out the teacher’s individuality, assists her to
better understand the ability of the pupil, makes it
possible to aid them more readily, and relieves her
from the terrible (no other word expresses it) strain
of feeling that her ability as a teacher is questioned
if every scholar does not reach the same standing.
When that fear is removed, she has all that extra
energy (and who can say that it is not a little) to
spend upon the development of the children.
Instruction is better suited to the needs of the
pupil. Consequently more satisfactory results are
likely to follow, more progress possible, and more
thoroughness. The lessons assigned can be better
adapted to the pupil’s ability. There is a stronger
incentive to merit promotion to the higher divi-
sions.
It has proved very satisfactory. Every class in
the school has completed the work of the grade, and
many of the children in each class are well ad-
vanced in the work of the coming year. It has ex-
cited a healthful ambition in teachers and scholars
176 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
alike. It has shown both what they could do when
allowed “to spread their wings and fly.” The
slower children, by being grouped with equals, are
not discouraged by constant comparison of their
work with that of the brighter ones. They may be
among the leaders in their own division, whereas, if
trying to pursue the work of the advanced class,
they would be the laggards, and discouragement
would surely follow. Quick and slow have been
alike benefited, the latter spurred on and none re-
tarded. It gives the teacher a chance she did not
have under the old system.
OPINIONS OF TEACHERS.
First Year.
Brighter pupils are not kept waiting for their
less fortunate neighbors. It makes the majority
of pupils ambitious. It gives the teacher an op-
portunity to reach the individual pupil.
Better results can be secured when the attention
does not flag. The brighter scholars can make as
rapid progress as their mental development war-
rants. The teacher can much more rapidly find
out the weak points of the pupils, and by giving
them more individual attention can help them to
make more rapid advancement in a given time.
Under the present system of grading the needs
of the child may be better met. The old way was
somewhat like making a square fit into a circle, or
a pint hold a quart. The pressure upon the slow
one caused him to become worried and nervous; it
made school a burden and not a pleasure. The re-
TESTIMONY OF TEACHERS. 177
pression of the brighter ones caused them to lose
interest in the work, and, to illustrate well the old
couplet: “Satan finds some mischief still for idle
hands to do.”
A child kept busy with work suited to his needs
and ability cannot fail to make progress. Under
the present system this can be done with advantage
both to teacher and scholar. Better attention can
be secured. With the small groups it is easier to
find out what each child knows.
Second Year.
It is a satisfactory solution for many of the prob-
lems that have always arisen in connection with our
present School system generally. In my own class,
the results of the new system have fully proven its
good qualities. From the first a marked division
as to mentality was apparent, and had ſ been
obliged to force all to attain the same standard the
effect would have been distressing to teacher and
pupils. The system has also acted as a stimulus to
effort and results that I would not have believed
possible.
I prefer it to any other system, since it enables
the teacher to become thoroughly acquainted with
the ability and progress of every individual pupil,
and aids her in leading them on, step by step.
I know more about my pupils individually than
I did, and more time can be given for individual
help. .
The children know better how they stand in the
subjects in which they are divided. The discipline
178 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
In my room has improved. The attention has also
improved. Both the bright pupils and the slow
ones are helped by it.
Third Year.
It enables bright children to advance more rap-
idly. A child absent from school can take up the
work where he left off and again work his way up.
Increases emulation.
Bright pupils are not kept back. Slower pupils
are not pushed ahead. Better attention is secured.
Assists the teacher to understand, and therefore
helps each child at his weakest point. It helps
each child along as rapidly as he is capable of pro-
gressing. It develops a spirit of independence. It
accomplishes more work, with greater thorough-
ness and, therefore, better results. It makes possi-
ble frequent promotions.
The advantages of the grading system are that
the bright ones are not kept back, and the slow and
particularly lazy ones are inspired to work.
Fourth Year.
Bright pupils can advance as rapidly as they are
able. Dull pupils need not waste their time trying
to do something entirely beyond them. Recitation
periods can be shorter, and thus the interest in the
lesson more easily sustained.
Grading this way enables a teacher to work with
fewer pupils at a time. There are shorter periods
for each lesson. The teacher can secure better at-
tention and give more time to those who need more
help.
TESTIMONY OF TEACHERS. 179
Grading secures better attention. It awakens in
the pupil the desire to go ahead and keep ahead.
The grading system allows the brighter pupils to
advance rapidly, promotes their individual effort
and ambition. The slower pupils have found their
level and are stimulated to increased effort.
Fifth Year.
It gives the slow ones a place where they can
work, and thus incites greater interest; the others
can advance more rapidly because the slow ones are
not hindering them.
Better attention is obtained from a smaller class.
A smaller class gives an opportunity for more indi-
vidual assistance on part of the teacher. Brighter
pupils advance more ranidly.
The brighter pupils have a chance to advance
more rapidly. The lazy pupils become more ambi-
tious. The slow pupils are not pushed beyond
their ability, consequently make more progress.
The pupils have more time for studying during
during school hours; can be kept more busy, and
have less time for play.
Can find more exactly what each pupil can do.
Can help individuals much better than when the
class is in one large division. The children are in-
terested; the backward ones ambitious to advance
to a higher division. Scholars advance more rap-
idly and are more thorough.
Sixth Year.
It allows more time for individual work among
pupils. It allows the brighter pupils to advance
180 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
more rapidly. It enables the more backward pu-
pils to more thoroughly understand their work.
The brighter pupils are not held back by the
slow ones, and therefore advance more rapidly.
The slow pupils are not made to hurry, and there-
fore make more progress. More time can be al-
lowed pupils for study during school hours.
More direct attention can be given to those who
need help in any particular thing. It allows the
brighter ones to go on faster than they otherwise
could. It improves the attention. It incites pu-
pils to study in order to be in the highest division.
I think the great advantage of the system is that
a pupil may be placed just where he can do the best
work.
Seventh Year.
The brighter pupils can accomplish more by not
waiting for the slow ones. The slow pupils are not
hurried along faster than they are able to go. The
teacher has time for individual attention and the
pupils more time for study. If a child loses les-
sons by absence he can be dropped to the lower
division and not be changed to a lower room.
There is always something for each one to try
for. I have been able to give more individual at-
tention and instruction than I otherwise could.
It has been a direct incentive to study, and has
made all more studious. Many of those suppos-
edly dull got to work and showed they had been
lazy. It has created a natural, rather flºan forced,
interest in lessons. It has enabled me to get
TESTIMONY OF TEACHERS. 181
nearer the individual, and to know what each one
was worth.
I don’t have to hold back at one end and push
and drive at the other, as I used to, but all are
working where they can do thorough work. What
could be better for teacher and pupil? I would
never return to the old way voluntarily.
Eighth Year.
The brighter pupils can advance more rapidly.
The slow ones are not pushed beyond their ability.
The pupils have more time for study in school
hours. It is easier to hold the attention twenty
minutes than forty. It secures better results.
Bright go on faster. Dull are not hurried.
|More attention to the individual, and special needs
discovered. All are busy on work they can do, so
are not forced to get into mischief to keep busy.
I don’t have to make slow pupils seem to be what
they are not. Results are far better than could
possibly have been secured by the usual plan of
grading.
The dullest and brightest have been kept busy.
There seems to be no lazy pupils, as of old. Even
the “bad boys” seem to have left us. Instead are
found earnest workers, who know they will go to
advanced work when ready, and no sooner.
The mind of each child can steadily grow with-
out being forced. Dull pupils are encouraged to
do their best work without being hurried. Each
student is trained in concentration of thought upon
his own work, to the exclusion of other matters.
182 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
High School.
Because of their having been at work with
equals, and where their ability put them, they have
acquired excellent habits of study. They are able
to concentrate their attention to the work as other
classes never could.
Make greater effort. Indolent find they must
work or be left behind, so they “settle down” to
work. Am heartily in favor of it.
Does away with the problem, How shall I make
my teaching benefit extremes of class?
Attention secured without trouble. as both les-
sons and method of instruction can be adapted to .
classes. Pupils come to high school with greatly
improved mental habits.
Chapter XIX.
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT.
From several hundred lengthy editorial reviews
by the leading papers of many states, the following
excerpts are taken, as indicative of the fact that the
necessity for some change is everywhere apparent,
and is wisely read by discerning editors. From
them, those who have been slow to do what they
knew to be best, may learn, that, true to their high
calling, editors are ready to give their valuable as-
sistance to any rational plan for the improvement
of our grand system of schools. As many superin-
tendents and principals are dependent upon the
sentiment of the community for their positions, it
is of great importance that they should know how
any contemplated change is likely to be received
by those interested in the schools. It is for this
purpose that these extracts are given; but for this
reason they would have been omitted entirely.
Avoiding, so far as possible, all personal reference,
a number of extracts are given from papers of the
cities in which the plan has been in operation.
From these it may be learned that, though all in-
novations are received with suspicion and opposi-
tion, yet the results obtained by this plan have been
184 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
such as to prevent any adverse criticism, which
would naturally be expected from those wedded to
the past. Extracts from papers in all parts of the
United States are given to show that the interest is
widespread and that the indorsement is unanimous
and unqualified.
Results Amazingly Satisfactory. The system
was introduced by Superintendent Shearer with
amazingly satisfactory results. * * * The
I’ittsburg papers suggested that the system intro-
duced in New Castle be adopted by the Pittsburg
schools. The system will not admit of a full ex-
planation here, but the results of actual trial savor
of the marvelous. Other cities are urging its adop-
tion. * * * and it is probable that * *
* the system will eventually be adopted all over
the country.—[New Castle Courant.
Has Worked Wonders. This method has been
adopted in New Castle for the past two years, and
has worked wonders. * * * Superintendent
Shearer has worked hard to complete his method,
and not until he had given it a thorough trial did
he give anything to the public concerning it.—
[New Castle News.
Absurd to Compare With Other Plans. *
What an absurdity it is to compare two plans
which are so far apart in theory and to say that as
time-savers they are equally efficient. * * *
In one, that at Elizabeth, the theory is to carry the
pupils up the ladder step by step as fast as they can
go. In the other, all over a great city, once a year
Jºº.
sº tº
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 185
the scholars make a flying leap aloft. If they fail
they stay a year longer on the old level.—[Newark
News.
Pittsburg Urged to Adopt the Plan. The force
Of this line of reasoning is incontestable. We hear
much of the need of uniformity in school teaching.
The young idea must, forsooth, be cultivated by
rule and square, ignoring individuality and the dif-
ferent type of taste and character. * * *
Take away these safeguards of the system which
fit the square unit of humanity into a round hole,
and vice versa. * * * It has taken the peda-
gogic fraternity, anywhere, a long time to realize
this. * * * The leaven is working, however,
and the step taken at New Castle may be hailed as
an exemplification of a tendency that will ulti-
mately extend to every school district in the state.
Pittsburg, it is to be hoped, will not be far behind-
hand in adopting so beneficial and rational a re-
form.—[Pittsburg Leader. -
A System Long Needed. When Professor
Shearer first explained his system of grading public
school scholars, it was not quite clear to the lay
mind how he could accomplish the work of com-
bining the advantages of the individual and class
systems, so that those who could study rapidly need
not be retarded, and those who made slow progress
need not be pushed beyond their ability. The
trial has been made, and the Cherry street public
School is taken as an example of the results.
Under the new system they may enter the high
School in January, thus saving nine months of time.
186 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
But this class and this particular school are not
the only ones enjoying the advantages of the new
system of grading and promoting. Further than
this, the system is in operation in all public schools
here, so that the principals' reports show that not
less than forty-five per cent of all the pupils have
gained from three to nine months. + º-
The most popular feature of the system, but by no
means the most important, will doubtless be the
saving of money to the taxpayers. The children
will make more rapid progress, and as it costs less
to teach three years than it does to teach five, the
Imoney will go just so much further in carrying on
the public schools. But the really important fea-
ture is the better instruction given to the children,
through closer attention to the individual scholars.
It certainly seems that Professor Shearer has
studied out and applied the system which has long
been needed to overcome the almost mechanical
style of teaching, grading, and promoting, that has
unavoidably become fastened upon the public
schools of this country.—[Elizabeth Daily Jour-
nal.
TMerits Triumphantly Demonstrated. Professor
Shearer’s method of grading, of which he has so
triumphantly demonstrated the merits in our own
schools, is rapidly becoming adopted all over the
country, and the communications from important
centres which he is daily receiving show how wide-
spread is the interest in it. The article in the At-
lantic Monthly, which first drew public attention
to the method, is an able piece of practical exposi-
tion.—[Elizabeth News.
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 187
Commended to Newark and Other Cities. To
Newark educational authorities the result of the
system of close grading pursued in Elizabeth
schools is commended for investigation and study.
The great majority of public school scholars attend
but a few years. If one system can help them
along in its essential studies further than another
can or does, it may exert an influence which will
not only save and improve their time, but will as-
sist them their whole lives long. The public
school ought to do more for the children who leave
early. It ought to attract and hold many of those
who leave, not because of necessity, but because
they become indifferent and discouraged. If the
system that has been tried in Elizabeth helps the
Schools to meet these requirements, and if it en-
ables the scholars to make more rapid progress all
along the line, it is a good system, and one that
other cities cannot afford to neglect.—[Newark
|News.
Applicable to Any System of Schools. A sys-
tem of School grading which has attracted much
attention all over the country is that inaugurated
by Mr. W. J. Shearer while superintendent of the
schools at New Castle, Pa. The leading news-
papers from New England to California com-
mented upon it in lengthy reviews, and letters of
approval were received from college presidents and
professors, School superintendents and teachers of
every grade. The results show that it is applicable
in any school system. The high praise accorded it
by the people of Elizabeth and several of the lead-
18S THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
ing papers of New Jersey, and the readiness with
which the teachers adopt it have induced the school
officers of other cities to investigate the plan with a
view of introducing it.—[New York School Jour-
nal.
Results Silence Adverse Criticism. There is an
old saying about the proof of the pudding, etc.,
which Professor S. can now quote with peculiar
satisfaction, for the results are certainly such as to
silence adverse criticism and to prove conclusively
that the system is a great advance over the old way.
It is not a theory, but a system, which has had a
thorough trial, and its results are in the highest
degree satisfactory. * * * Pupils may con-
gratulate themselves that individual effort is sure
to be rewarded.—[New Castle Courant.
Must Be Merit in the Plan. There is no dis-
counting the effect of this method. When the ef-
fort at closer grading and direct individual instruc.
tion can, in one year’s trial, make a good proportion
of the Elizabeth grammar schools gain admission
to the high school nine months ahead of schedule
time, there must be merit in it.—[Newark News.
Dr. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education,
Favored a Similar Plan. Attention is called to
the fact that Commissioner Harris, twenty years
ago, when he was superintendent of the St. Louis
schools, advocated something very similar. We
have carefully read these recommendations of Dr.
Harris, but we fail to find that he offered any spe-
cific method of carrying out his ideas, or that he
cites any practical schoolroom experiments, show-
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 189
ing that they had been carried out. There were a
number of philosophers and geographers before
Columbus’s time who had announced their belief
in the world’s sphericity; but this fact detracts
nothing from the credit due Columbus for carrying
the idea to a successful demonstration. If Super-
intendent Shearer has devised and put into opera-
tion a generally workable plan for avoiding the
evils of the present chain-gang system of grada-
tion and promotion, he has fairly earned the hearty
plaudits, not alone of his fellow teachers, but of the
general public as well.—[Learning By Doing.
Adopted Unanimously. At a meeting of the
school board and teachers, it was unanimously de-
cided to invite Superintendent Shearer to visit
Smyrna at his earliest convenience for the purpose
of introducing his new system of grading in the
public schools here. In introducing this system of
grading the school authorities are not trying an ex-
periment, but are merely adopting a feasible plan
that has met with general approval in the many
towns and cities where it has been put into use.—
[Smyrna Call.
Should Be Indorsed and Introduced Throughout
the Country. If Professor Shearer has sufficient
courage and individual independence to break
away from the long established methods of the
faulty graded school system, and devise a plan and
carry it into execution, too, it should not only be
commended but indorsed and introduced in the
graded schools throughout the country.—[Winona
Herald.
190 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Wanted in Sandusky. His plan is an excellent
one. We suggest that the board of education com-
municate with Mr. Shearer with a view of intro-
ducing this rational system of grading into the pub-
lic schools of Sandusky. Then we may have more
boys and girls graduating from the High School
than we have now, and that particular grade be of
some use and pay for the expense it entails on Our
people.—[Sandusky Register.
Every Superintendent Should Investigate. Ad-
mit these facts and it would seem the part of wis.
dom for every superintendent of a public school to
investigate this method. It ought to work a revo-
lution in public school systems.-[Augusta Chron-
icle.
First Well-Digested Plan Suitable to Any
School. The truest patriots are those who seek to
develop the best that is in the people of the coun.
try. Mr. Shearer is the first person in authority to
my knowledge to express what I have long felt,
and who has put his views into a well-digested plan,
which can be worked out in every school. I am
certain that it or a similar plan will be adopted, for
it is, as he says, “a rational system of grading.”—
[Brooklyn Eagle.
Pupils and Teachers Sacrificed on the Altar of
System. It is not too much to say that in the
larger cities both pupils and teachers have been
largely sacrificed on the altar of system and red
tape routine.—[Grand Rapids Democrat.
Watched by Every Educator in the United
States Who Is Doing Earnest Work. Each child
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 191
has an individuality, and it is this individuality that
is the most precious thing in the child, yet we seek
to destroy it by our system of grading public
Schools. Our system does not care for the individ-
uality. W. J. Shearer has introduced a plan
which is working successfully, and which is being
watched with extreme interest by every educator in
the United States who is doing earnest work. Our
educators in the Sacramento county should study
the Shearer plan, and it should be applied to our
Schools, if found to be what it is claimed. If not,
Some other plan of grading should be discovered,
for the present system is an abomination.—[San
Francisco Bee.
No Educator Will Dispute the Principle. We
do not suppose that any educator will seriously dis-
pute that this is the correct principle in education.
The system of education by regiments is not educa-
tion at all. Children are more apt to suffer from
enforced idleness than from overwork. There is
certainly no doubt that as schools are graded in this
city and other large cities, too many minds are set
to keep the same time. Like clocks in a jewelry
shop they soon cease to run in unison and a dismal
clangor takes the place of harmony.—[Minne-
apolis Times. -
The Present System of Grading All Wrong.
We do not advocate overwork in the school room.
But we do say that the present system of gradation
is all wrong. Children are no more alike than the
patients that are treated at a hospital, and the soon-
er our school system gets down to a more liberal
192 THE GRAF). ING OF SCHOOLS.
and a more sensible classification and gradation the
better it will be for all.—[Sacramento Bee.
The Effect of the Usual System Disastrous.
Detween the freedom of the country school and the
stiffness of the city grades, there must be a middle
ground, capable of adaptation to the city Schools.
This Mr. Shearer thinks he has found, and its trial
in the schools of his and other cities adopting his
suggestions confirms him. It should be the work
of school board, of the superintendent and princi-
pals and teachers to give to the plan a careful ex-
amination during the coming vacation with the Ob-
ject of determining whether our schools cannot be
made more effective by its adoption here. Ulti-
mately the effect of the usual system cannot fail to
be disastrous.-[St. Paul Globe.
Principals and Teachers Enthusiastic. Super-
intendent Shearer met with the principals and
teachers of our public schools and outlined a plan
of changing from the present method of grading.
The new system was put into operation yesterday
and it promises to revolutionize our schools and put
them at the head of all others in the state of Dela-
ware. Principals and teachers are enthusiastic
over the work.—[Smyrna Times.
A Remedy for Defects. There can be no ques-
tion that every step toward individualism is a step
toward a desired end. Mr. Shearer’s system has
attracted to it the attention of educators, and is
worthy of thoughtful consideration as a remedy for
defects which are admitted to exist.—[Keokuk
(Ia.) Gate-City.
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 193
Needed to Get the Best Results. To correct the
evils complained of, Professor W. J. Shearer, Su-
perintendent of schools in Elizabeth, N. J., has
formulated and put into operation a system to
which the attention of the friends of education all
over the country cannot too quickly be directed and
acted upon, if we are to obtain from our schools the
best possible results.--[Haverhill Daily.
Adopted in Dayton. The new plan of grading
pupils, adopted in the public Schools, is not original
here. It is the same plan which is being used in
other cities, and for which we have to thank the
superintendent of the public schools of Elizabeth,
N. J.-[Dayton (O.) News.
Leading Cities About to Adopt. Nothing in
the nature of educational ways and means that has
appeared in a decade has made so much impression
on the public mind as the reform in gradation and
promotion that has been carried out by Superin-
tendent Shearer. This article has caught the pub-
lic ear through the general press, which has widely
and favorably commented upon the remedy that
Mr. Shearer offers for the prevalent chain-gangism
of our graded schools. Already a number of our
leading cities have made arrangements for putting
the Shearer method in operation. In another col-
umn we give a brief synopsis of this method, which
bids fair to win the favor of the people as well as
of progressive teachers.-[Tearning By Doing.
Mossy Conservatism Should Not Prevent Its
Adoption. The grading system which prevails in
nearly all the public and many of the private
194 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
schools of this country is a source of considerable
embarrassment and worry to parents and children,
and, we doubt not, to teachers. Within the yearly
limits, at least, the brightest pupils must regulate
their progress by the possibilities of the dullest.
The dullest work under conditions of great discour-
agement, because of the strain of the pace set by the
brightest. * * * Here are results which
ought to set educators thinking. Elizabeth is a
comparatively small city, but if she employs a plan
every way more effective and economical than the
prevailing method, pride, or prejudice, or mossy
conservatism should not stand in the way of its
adoption.—[Boston Transcript.
California Approves. The subject is one of
such high interest that analysis of the new scheme
must be reserved for distinct treatment. It is,
however, timely to say that we have information
that some of the leading educators of this state
warmly espouse the new idea, and in official educa-
tional quarters it has strong friends. * * *
To this time the new method has been successful
even beyond expectation. * * * Documen-
tary evidence before us presents the testimony of
teachers and school officials, that under the trial it
is completely successful. As successful results al.
ways silence criticism these witnesses must be
said to have closed the case against the
present system and of approval of the new.
Pennsylvania and Tllinois propose to give the plan
a trial, and Boston, slow always to leave her own
paths, is seriously considering the New Jersey idea,
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 195
while New York educational journals are urging
its consideration by the educational authorities of
the Empire State.—[Sacramento Record-Union.
People Should Demand Reforms. It is appar-
ent to laymen that the greatest educators of the
country differ as to the merits of the present school
system. * * * Superintendent Shearer com-
bats the system in a way to interest the people and
to prompt them to demend reforms; and it would
be well for the public schools and the pupils if all
educators received such criticism kindly and
worked together to improve the public school sys-
tem, instead of getting into caustic disputes with
One another about it.—[Norwich (Conn.) Bulletin.
The Usual Way Unworthy of an Enlightened
Age. The unjust and impracticable rule that all
must go over a certain amount of space, measured
by text books, in a certain time, and all do the same
amount of work, in the same way, regardless of in-
dividual ability, individual opportunity or any
other attendant circumstances, is unworthy of an
enlightened age in the management of a school cur-
riculum, and Superintendent Shearer has not
shown it up one hour too soon.—[Bridgeport
(Conn.) Standard.
Thoughtful Educators Interested. For some
years Professor Shearer has devoted much time and
study to a special and personal system for grading
students in the public schools. * * * It is
scarcely necessary to say that the success of the
Shearer system has attracted the attention of all
thoughtful educators.-[Trenton Evening Timor
196 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
The Teacher Becomes an Educator in the True
Sense. Under such a system as Mr. Shearer has
established a teacher becomes an educator in the
true sense of the term, and the mind of a pupil is
not looked upon as a knowledge box, with carefully
arranged and plainly labeled compartments, from
which the teacher at the end of the school term is
to bring forth the article needed to insure promo-
tion.—[Philadelphia Inquirer.
Every Parent and Every Teacher Interested.
Bvery parent and every teacher is interested in the
grading of pupils in the schools, and all are anxious
to advocate the method which will result in the
greatest good to the greatest number of scholars.
* * * Arbitrary grading is the practice nearly
everywhere. * * * He has put into practice
a system of his own which is operating with satis-
faction to both instructors and pupils.-[Wilkes-
barre Record.
An Excellent Plan. W. J. Shearer points out
the defects of the graded system, which usually does
not provide for the individual differences, but
keeps the pupils in an intellectual lock-step. He
sets forth an excellent plan for advancing pupils
who are in advance of the grade they are in, which
has worked admirable results.—[Minneapolis Jour-
nal. -
Sure to Be Adopted by Progressive Schools.
What Commissioner Harris advocated is in line
with the best thought on school management and
is coming to be more advocated. The same sub-
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 197
ject was treated exhaustively, * * * and it
was shown how the plan now advocated by Dr.
Harris can be made to work successfully. It is al-
most sure to be adopted by the schools of the coun-
try, especially those that are progressive and seek-
ing to improve all the time. * * * In the
past there has been too much of the theory and
practice that the pupil should be made to fit the
school system rather than the system fit the pupil.
—[Salt Lake City Herald.
Calculated to Make Men and Women, Not Ma-
chines. Mr. Shearer has made one of the most
sensible and independent criticisms ever penned on
our public schools. * * * The theory is—
and the practice follows the theory—that the disci-
pline which converts each pupil into a separate cog,
bar or rivet, in one great machine, is the finest
thing in life. * * * The effort to reach the
standard breaks down more women than statisti-
cians ever count. * * * Whatever advantage
is gained from numbers is retained. * * *
In short, the methods outlined by Mr. Shearer are
calculated to make men and women, and not ma-
chines; and as Providence probably intended chil-
dren to become men and women, and to think for
themselves, he may be considered as assisting Provi-
dence, which is more than can be said for some
other educational leaders.-[Washington (D. C.)
Times. .
Denver Likes the Plan. Experiments in second-
ary education are no longer the exclusive property
of rock-bound Massachusetts, and something new,
198 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
which will doubtless be much discussed in the edu-
cational world, is announced from Elizabeth, N.
J. There a system of grading has been in effect
in the public schools, the practical results of which
seem to justify its continuance, for not less than
forty-five per cent of the pupils have gained three
to nine months, to say nothing of the individual
development gained by the degree of attention the
teacher is enabled to give personally under the new
system. * * * So far, very good. It is
hoped that more will be heard from this something
which is capable of accomplishing so much that is
desirable in the educational work.-[Denver Post.
I’ven Cultured Boston May Learn. The new
system of grading in public schools, which Superin-
tendent Shearer of Elizabeth, N. J., has carried
into practical effect, seems to be justified by its
practical results. Promotion comes with merit at
frequent intervals in the school year. It is not se-
cured or lost at one or two nerve-exhausting exam-
ination tests. * * * Who will say that the
educational magnates of cities far larger than Eliz-
abeth, N. J., may not find something to learn from
Shearerism in practice? Who will deny that even
cultured Boston may profit by the object lesson
Superintendent Shearer has been giving in the
Science of practical education in our public schools?
—[Boston Globe.
Will Be Widely Introduced. Many superin-
tendents have made a study of the pedagogic ad-
vantages of the system and the splendid results
achieved in Elizabeth, and the indications are that
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 199
it will be widely introduced at the beginning of the
next school year. * * * —[New York
School Journal.
Need of a Change Felt in Washington, D. C.
Excellent as the public schools º * * un-
doubtedly are, they have not yet reached a point
from which no chance for progress is discernable.
* * * In the important matter of examina-
tions and promotions the schools of nearly all the
cities and towns, including those of the District of
Columbia, are believed to be open to just criticism.
* * * This species of senseless injustice º
* * still exists. Some of the brightest pupils
have records of stupidity where they should
have high rating. * * * We commend
Professor Shearer’s statement to the careful
consideration of those who have charge of the
splendidly successful school system that has come
to be an honor to this District.—[Washington
Post.
Hopes It Will Be Followed Elsewhere. Super-
intendent Shearer, with a radicalism which is very
rare in his profession, has boldly declared against
the evils of the graded system, and has been labor-
ing to correct them. * * * For the great pro-
portion of them it means the saving of three years
time in the full course, and this means, of course,
a corresponding saving to those who support the
schools. * * * The fact that the movement
originates from the inside, and has proven a success.
encourages the hope that it may be followed else-
where.—[Detroit Free Press.
200 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
Correct in Condemning the Usual Method. A
rigid system of promotions * * * is respon-
sible for many failures. * * * If Mr.
Shearer is correct in his deductions, he has cer-
tainly done an important service for the community
in which he labors. He is certainly correct in con-
demning the unsatisfactory system at present in
vogue.—[Providence Journal.
It Is Certain to Be Welcomed by the People.
There is encouragement in the fact that, despite
the inertia of conservatism, a noteworthy degree of
success has attended the efforts of Superintendent
Shearer these ten years and more, to promote and
establish a more rational system. * * * A
plan which has been adopted, we are glad to know,
in not a few cities and towns. It will not do for
men immovably set in their ways to style the
Shearer Plan impracticable in large cities. What-
ever makes for rational methods in education, what-
ever tends to break down the “lock-step grading”
* * * is certain to be welcomed by the people.
Mr. Shearer’s plans have successfully endured the
test of practice in Elizabeth and elsewhere for
years. They may well be given a free and fair
trial wherever the “Procrustes bed” system of grad-
ing and promotion prevails to the great detriment
of real education.—[Boston Globe.
Radically the Best System. Believing in this
system as radically the best * * * the Truth
gave an account of its workings as a suggestion for
improvement in the Scranton public schools. *
* * * It will be a great advance for the Scranton
EDITORIAL INDORSEMENT. 201
schools when this system shall be introduced here.
—[Scranton Truth.
Based on Sound Educational Principles. Pro-
fessor Shearer * * * is to be credited with
the inauguration of a system of promotion which
not only does away with the terrors of examination
day, but by the establishment of more classes and
easier gradations allows the punils to advance as
rapidly as their individual endowments will permit.
* * * The system has been long enough in use
to indicate that it is based on sound educational
principles * * * and its merits have evident-
ly won such favorable recognition that it may ulti-
mately become a part of the school system of the
state.—[Philadelphia Record.
Common Sense Methods. These results merit
attention. The system seems in effect a reversion
in part to the ungraded school, but it is none the
worse for recognizing the value of common sense
methods.-[Baltimore Sun.
A Distinct Service to Education. Superintend-
ent William J. Shearer of Elizabeth, N. J., has
performed a distinct service to education by making
a vigorous assault on the prevalent illogical, stupid
and unsatisfactory system of gradation and promo-
tion in our graded schools. Unlike many reform-
ers, Superintendent Shearer has not opened fire
until his batteries were well supplied with ammu-
nition; neither has he undertaken the demolish-
ment of existing structures without having abun-
dant materials at hand for rebuilding.—[Learning
Dy T)oing.
202 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
No Reason Why Other Cities Cannot Have Its
Advantages. At this season of the year * * *
it seems pertinent to call attention to the rational
system of grading which has been urged for over
ten years by Professor W. J. Shearer, superin-
tendent of schools at Elizabeth, N. J., and which
has been in practical and successful operation in
that city. * * * It is no mere theory, but a
carefully planned system, the claims for which are
based upon the excellent results which have fol-
lowed wherever it has been adopted. If properly
started, there should be no reason why equally good
results cannot be secured for other towns and cities.
* * * It is approved by principals, teachers
and parents, and there has been a distinct financial
saving. If it works so well elsewhere, why would
it not work well in the city of Boston?—[Boston
Transcript.
Chapter XX.
HOWANY GRADED SCHOOL MAY EASILY
ADOPT. A. PLIANT PLAN OF
GRADING.
At last the large majority of educators agree that
the providing of a more rational plan of grading is
the most pressing demand now made of them. In-
deed, many claim that for years they have felt
keenly the need of a more pliant method, but have
done nothing to provide such, for the reason that
no one has been willing to lead the way, though
Several have indicated the direction in which others
should go. It is earnestly hoped that those truly
interested in the problem of providing a more satis-
factory method of grading will find some assistance
in the following suggestions, drawn from years of
experience.
Study carefully and persistently the whole prob-
lem of school grading. Endeavor to gain a clear
understanding of the principles underlying a
proper plan of classification, following not the
thoughts of one, but making an effort to grasp all
the ideas bearing upon the subject. After having
204 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
carefully studied and weighed the arguments in
favor and against each plan and device, decide
which can be used to best advantage in the schools
under you.
See clearly the serious defects of the usual
method and plan to remedy them, taking great care
not to go to the opposite extreme. The defects are
grievous; but rushing blindly to the opposite ex-
treme will not be very beneficial to the pupils and
may be disastrous to the person advocating the
radical change.
Give special consideration to the local conditions
by which you are surrounded. While the princi-
ples are the same, the methods of reaching the ends
are greatly influenced by local conditions. You
may be able to reach the desired end far more easily
than others; but, on the other hand, it may happen
that what is easy to secure under other conditions
may be very hard for you to gain because of your
peculiar environments.
An important requisite is that you see clearly the
end which you wish to reach, and then carefully
adopt the best means of reaching that end. There-
fore, until you know exactly what you wish to do,
do not start. In school organization as well as in
every other part of school work, as in life, nearly
all failures are the result of not seeing clearly the
end to be reached.
AT)OPTION OF A PLIANT PLAN. 205
Have good reasons for every change suggested.
You should not advocate any change unless you
have strong arguments in favor of such changes.
You have no right to expect others to accept your
conclusions, unless you have the best of reasons for
ybur conviction.
“Make haste slowly” applies with great force
here; the usual plan has been in use for many years,
and it is better to bear with it a little longer than to
put in jeopardy the success of the effort to improve
upon it. After having been in the rut for many
years it is unreasonable to expect principals and
teachers to get out of their accustomed grooves Sud-
denly. It is well to take one step at a time, give
good reasons therefor, and wait for the more in-
telligent and thoughtful teachers to discover the
benefits of the change. Plan for a gradual evolu-
tion rather than a sudden revolution. It will be
found that a large majority of the principals and
teachers are deeply interested in doing what is for
the best; and when shown clearly what steps should
be taken they are quick to respond.
Consider well the attempts which others have
made to remedy the defective grading, and learn
from their failures and successes. The principals
and teachers who do not learn from the failures of
others will have much to learn from their own fail-
ures. It is a wise teacher who learns from the mis-
206 THE GRAT)|ING OF SCHOOLS.
takes of others; and a very foolish one who insists
upon learning nothing save at the dear school which
experience keeps.
Plan carefully for the accurate classification of
pupils, so that those who can do the same work may
be placed together in classes. Grade as accurately
as possible; for the weakness of the graded school is
not in its being graded, but in its not being suffi-
ciently well graded. The only way to eradicate
the evils of defective grading is to grade more ac-
curately. A basic condition of any proper method
of grading is the accurate classification of pupils
After having pupils accurately graded, it is ab-
solutely necessary to keep them with those of about
equal ability and attainments; therefore the great
importance of reclassification, which is the only
means of reaching this much desired end. Pupils
may be accurately classified at the beginning of the
month, and yet before the middle of the month the
need of reclassification may become very apparent.
Accurate classification is a necessary first step, the
importance of which superintendents and principals
have realized, and for which many have made pro-
vision. It is greatly to be regretted that so many
have been willing to stop there, for it will be of
little benefit if provision is not made for reclassifi-
cation.
Have a short class interval. The course of study
ADOPTION OF A PLIANT PLAN. 207
may be divided into but a few sections, but the
different classes of pupils should be but a short dis-
tance apart. They should all move steadily for-
ward, but at different rates, and the work should
be so arranged that pupils can easily pass from one
division to the next.
As a factor in determining classification and re-
classification, nothing is more important than the
basis, frequency and time of promotion; therefore,
in studying this subject the basis of promotion
must be considered carefully. The basis of pro-
motion must not be the examination. Be assured
of this. If the reasons already presented are not
sufficient proof of this statement, look for others.
Many educators have tried to reach the desired
end without totally abandoning this bulwark of
uniformity, which makes reclassification almost im-
possible at other than the regular promotion times.
They have failed utterly. From their failures
learn the importance of striking at the root of the
evil. It will not be sufficient to promote only at
regular intervals. Suitable provision must be
made for reclassification at any time when the in-
terests of the pupils demand it. However, there
should be regular promotions one or more times
each year, when all should move forward. Experi-
ence proves that it is best to have general promo-
208 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
tions but once each year, with suitable provision
for reclassification.
Everyone knows that children differ in ability,
and therefore such provision should be made as
will enable pupils to cover the course as fast as they
are able, and no faster; there need be no fear that
this will lead to disorganization. As has been
pointed out, it is necessary to have a course of
study, but it is not necessary that all should finish
it in the same time. Therefore a definite part of
the work should not be required in a given time.
From a careful study of the preceding chapters
some suggestions may be drawn. Get all the good
you can by a careful consideration of those chap-
ters suggesting methods of reaching the desired
ends. They will likely be of greater benefit than
any others; for they will show how this plan, or a
similar one, can be put in operation in such a way
as to enlist the liveliest interest of all. Gather all
the information you can elsewhere. Then study
the problem for yourself, adapting and adopting
those devices which you believe to be most likely to
meet your conditions.
Years of experience prove that the principal or
teacher who follows the suggestions given above
will have no trouble in gradually working out a far
more satisfactory plan than at first seemed possible.
Chapter XXI.
THE GRADING OF THE UNGERADED
SCHOOL.
THERE SHOULD BE A COURSE OF STUDY.
Though space does not permit more than a very
brief consideration of the subject, some attention
must be given to the grading of the ungraded
School; for, since the schools of all the towns and
cities have been graded, many continue to urge the
importance of grading the rural schools in the same
way. So far as having a graded course of study is
concerned, this is an important step in the right di-
rection, for every school should have a course of
study, and pupils should take up the different
branches in that order which experience has proved
to be the best. Some urge the importance of hav-
ing the course of study for the rural schools very
much different from that mapped out for the
graded school; but it is now generally agreed that
the courses for these schools should be practically
the same. They must differ in minor details, how-
210 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
ever, the course for the rural schools being made
flexible, so that, if possible, the number of classes
may be reduced—when this can be done without
injury to the pupils.
The authorities of several states and many earn-
est county superintendents have gone farther, and
have insisted upon having the district school graded
in the same manner as the city school. It is
claimed by these that, since the close classification
in the city Schools possesses so many marked advan-
tages, therefore like benefits would follow the
grading of the rural schools. That this would be
the case, if the conditions were the same, most will
acknowledge. However, the conditions are not
the same, and many now see that there are serious
objections to forcing upon the rural schools
methods which, because of the different conditions,
are impracticable.
THE RURAL SCHOOL NOT UNGRADED.
All through the preceding chapters the term the
“ungraded school” has been used in its generally
accepted meaning to designate the rural school.
However, in the consideration of this problem, it
should not be forgotten that the schools which are
supposed to be ungraded are, in reality, schools
composed of many grades of pupils; while the so-
called graded schools are supposed to have but one
THE GRADING OF THE UNGRADED SCHOOI. 211
grade of pupils. The rural school, of necessity,
has always been a many-graded school, with many
classes, and not an ungraded school in any sense of
the word; so that the grading of the rural school is
no new idea. It has always been graded, though
not in the same manner, nor to the same degree, as
the one-graded school.
GOOD WORK DONE IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS.
Many of those who argue so strongly for the
grading of the rural school labor under the impres-
sion that good work cannot be done in these schools.
But good work has been done and is now being
done in very many of these schools. It is true
that, because of the small salaries and short terms,
it is very difficult to secure and hold efficient teach-
ers. It must also be acknowledged that the super-
vision is generally very meagre. However, in
spite of these and other drawbacks, there is much
excellent work being done in schools having several
grades of pupils in the same room.
This is not intended to be an argument in favor
of having schools classified as they are in the rural
school, when it is possible to have a better classifica-
tion; but it should be remembered that there is a
possibility of securing excellent results in such
schools. It is proper to call attention to the fact
that nearly all of our great men were educated in
212 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
rural schools; that, until comparatively lately, even
the city schools were not graded as they are now;
that the school of Pestalozzi was not graded; that
even now some rural Schools are giving more real
education than is being given by many strictly
graded schools; that, in this belief, many educators
state that they would prefer to have their children
under a good teacher in a rural school rather than
under an equally efficient teacher working under
the usual method of grading.
ATTEMPTS TO GRADE THE UNGRADED SCHOOL.
The attempts to grade the so-called ungraded
school have been efforts to reduce the number of
classes, by roughly grouping pupils into three or
more divisions. This consolidation of classes ne-
cessitated the placing of pupils of very unequal at-
tainments in the same class. In most cases, pupils
were from one to three years ahead or behind other
members of their class. In no case were the pupils
of about the same ability held together and re-
quired to do the same work.
In previous chapters, attention has been called
to the fact that the serious defects of the usual plan
of grading are the direct result of having, in the
same class, pupils of unequal advancement and abil-
ity. It has already been shown that, with very few
exceptions, all leading educators agreed that it re-
THE GRADING OF THE UNGRADED SCHOOL. 213
Sults in serious injury to pupils to be classed with
those who were even a year in advance or behind
them. Nearly all expressed their belief that the
effect of this system is to “discourage the less ma-
ture and sluggish minds of a class, while it wastes
the opportunities of the bright minds.” How
much more injurious the holding of pupils in
classes with those who are two or more years in ad-
vance or behind other members of the class. Such
a plan is not classification for the benefit of the pu-
pils; it is roughly herding them, for the supposed
convenience of the teachers, and to the everlasting
injury of the pupils. It is not differentiating for
the purpose of reaching a higher type of organiza-
tion: it is the very opposite, and can result only in
disorganization. It is not grading the ungraded
School, as many think: it is making an ungraded
school out of a many-graded school. Pupils are
formed into classes, but they are not classified.
The work may be graded to classes, but it is not
Suited to the pupils in the classes. In striving for
One of the benefits of the one-graded school, such a
plan Surrenders the many advantages of the many-
graded school, without securing the advantages of
the one-graded school. Under such a plan, the in-
struction cannot be suited to the needs of the ma-
jority of the pupils. The attention cannot be held
and concentrated upon subjects which are of little
214 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
or no interest to most of those in the class. There
will be no emulation. In short, there can be but
little education, though, even under the most un-
favorable circumstances, pupils will learn from
each other, in spite of teachers and methods.
OPINION OF THE COMMITTEE OF TWELVE.
In 1895 the National Educational Association
appointed a committee of twelve prominent educa-
tionists to make a special study of rural school prob-
lems. After two years of thorough investigation
and study, this committee made a report which
should receive the careful attention of every one
interested in the improvement of these schools, in
which one-half of the teachers of the United States
are engaged. The following quotation from this
report shows that the evil effects of trying to grade
the rural schools have been recognized by the mem-
bers of this important committee, and received
special attention from the sub-committee, which ar-
rived at a definite conclusion on this important sub-
ject. -
“Your sub-committee would call special atten-
tion at this point to the evil results that come from
the attempt to remedy the defects of the rurai
school by forcing on it the system of classification
found in cities. It is assumed that some of the
benefits of the close grading possible in cities will
THE GRADING OF THE UNGRADED SCHOOL. 215
be gained for the rural schools if they can roughly
group the whole school into three or four classes.
A rural school of thirty pupils, comprising children
from six to sixteen years of age, and covering dif-
ferent degrees of progress from beginners up to
those of eight or nine years of schooling, are
grouped, let us suppose, into four classes or grades
—thus leaving intervals of two or more years of
School work between a given group and the next
one above it.
“Your sub-committee has already pointed out the
evils of classifying pupils in such a way as to bring
together pupils differing in degree of advancement
by intervals of two years. In fact, it has been
found in city schools that one year’s interval be-
tween classes is too much. The greatest danger of
the graded school system in cities comes from hold-
ing back bright pupils for the sake of the slower
and duller pupils. Next to this is the evil to the
dull ones, who are dragged forward at an unnatural
rate of progress to keep up to the average rate of
the class. The best pupils are engaged in ‘marking
time, while the slowest are constantly spurred for-
ward by teachers and parents to keep with their
class, and their school years rendered miserable.
Their self-respect is undermined by a false stand
ard, that of mere speed in learning. The ‘marking
time’ injures the bright pupil by developing lax
216 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
habits of study, while the forced marches of the
slow pupil tend to destroy his poise of character.
It has been found desirable, therefore, in city
schools to make the intervals between classes
as small as possible, so as to favor frequent
transfers, namely, on the one hand of bright
pupils who are becoming capable of a
greater amount of work into a higher
class, and, if necessary, of those who are falling be-
hind the average of the class into the next one be-
low. Intervals of a half year are, therefore,
adopted in a majority of the progressive city school
systems, and many prefer intervals of a quarter of
a year where it is practicable to make them, that
is, where a large number of pupils makes possible
the assignment of a requisite quota for each
Class. * * *
“For these reasons classification as above de-
scribed ought not to be expected in the rural
school; it must remain ungraded, and as a result the
teacher must resort to individual instruction wher-
ever there are intervals of a year or more in degrees
of advancement between pupils; and this is the ac-
tual practice in perhaps the majority of such
schools. The older pupils, at least, should have
separate grammar, history and arithmetic les-
SOIOS. 23- *: <-
“The charge has been made that such rural
THE GRADING OF THE UNGRADED SCHOOL. 217
Schools as adopt a partial grading system are apt to
become stifiers of talent, by placing a premium on
the average scholars and holding back the prom-
ising youth of the district.”
A PLAN FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL.
The attempt to grade the rural school was for
the purpose of reducing the number of classes, that
the overburdened teacher might be relieved, and
enabled to give more attention to each group of pu-
pils. As before pointed out, this desirable end
may be reached by the consolidation of classes in
all subjects, but only at great loss to the pupils in
other ways. What, then, can be done to help the
teacher of the so-called ungraded school? Until
those at the head see the importance of raising sal-
aries, consolidating schools, and complying with
other most excellent suggestions given by the Com-
mittee of Twelve, the teacher by the wayside will
have to seek for relief in other directions. Can the
teacher of the many-graded school so arrange the
work as to lessen the number of recitations without
grouping pupils with those markedly unequal in
ability and in attainments? This is the question
which one-half the teachers of the United States
are asking themselves and others. It would be
folly to attempt to answer this question within the
Scope of a chapter or two. However, in the hope
218 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
that it may be helpful to some of the many teach-
ers interested in this matter, a brief explanation is
given of a plan which the writer used and found
very helpful while teaching a rural school some
years ago. Without doubt, many others have used
similar plans and have found them very valuable.
In the school referred to there was an attendance
of from twenty to fifty pupils of all ages and
grades. So far as possible, classes were formed of
those pupils able to do about the same grade of
work. Special care was taken to grade closely in
reading in the lowest three classes. In these
classes this branch was made the primary basis of
classification; while in the higher grades arithmetic
was made the basis. In language, geography,
spelling, history and writing, the pupils were not so
closely classified, as in these subjects the pupils can
be grouped without injury.
In spite of this grouping, there were more classes
than one teacher could attend to properly. More
groups could not be made without placing pupils of
greatly different attainments in the same class.
For this reason, several of the older pupils were ap-
pointed assistants. As there is scarcely a school
where there are not two or three pupils who are
able to assist, and will feel greatly honored to be
permitted to work under the direction of the
teacher, nearly all teachers can avail themselves
THE GRADING OF THE UNGRADED SCHOOL. 219
of this device. The pupil whose penmanship was
the best was selected to place the written work on
the blackboard for the several classes. The same
pupil assisted the younger pupils in their attempts
to learn to write. Another assistant’s special work
was to help the lowest three classes in the prepara-
tion of their reading, and to hear some of the recita-
tions in the same branch. Those in these classes
recited twice each day: generally once to the
teacher and once to the assistant. A third assistant
was appointed to dictate spelling and other work
while the teacher was giving assistance where
needed. This assistant also tested classes in studies
which were purely memory tests, and looked after
that part of the work which was mechanical. Ali
the assistants gave help in the marking of many of
the test papers. The heating, lighting and ventila-
ting was attended to by other pupils, who also gave
assistance in some parts of the mechanical work.
The work was so mapped out that two of the as-
sistants were busy most of the time, either in hear-
ing recitations; in helping backward pupils over
Some difficult place in grammar, arithmetic, or
geography; or in giving assistance in some one of
the ways mentioned above. -
In reading, it was not found necessary to have
more than two or three classes above the primary.
In arithmetic, there were generally two classes
220 THE GRADING OF SCHOOLS.
above the primary. The more advanced pupils
worked as individuals, and, when necessary, re-
ceived help from the teacher. For this purpose
one period each day was reserved. In very many
cases, the pupils were able to solve the difficulties
before the time appointed for receiving help from
the teacher. This was better for the teacher and
by far the best for the pupil, who thus learned to
depend on himself.
In primary classes, the work in language was
given in connection with the reading. Above the
primary there were two classes in language and one
in grammar. In some cases these classes recited on
alternate days.
In history and geography the pupils were com-
bined into two or three classes, and the following
year continued from where they had stopped in
those branches, so that there was no part omitted.
By making use of some such plan as that just
described, the efficient teacher of the rural school
will be enabled to secure results which will com-
pare very favorably with the best results secured in
town and city schools.
ſlºw, 189
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