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A BERIEE'
FRENCEI GRAMMAR
BY
WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY
PROFESSOR IN YALE UNIVERSITY, AUTHOR OF “PRACTICAL FRENCH
GRAMMAR,” “PRACTICAL FRENCH,” ETC.
NEW YORK
HIE N R Y H O L T AND COMPANY
F. W. CHRISTERN
BoSTON : CARL SCHOENHOF

(§
CoPYRIGHT, 1891,
BY
HENRY HOLT & CO.
RoberT DRUMMOND,
Electrotyper and Printer,
New York.
PREFACE.
THIS work has been prepared in response to a call
for a grammar which should do for French what the
author’s Brief German Grammar does for German:
namely, present the most important facts of the
language in the briefest form consistent with accuracy,
and clearness of statement. Much of the material of
this book has been used in the author’s larger French
Grammar, but the arrangement is here entirely differ-
ent, the treatment of the irregular verbs especially
being much condensed. -
The exercises will of course be used by each teacher
in accordance with the needs and capacities of his
class; but, where an immediate advance to reading is
desired, the English-French exercises may with ad-
vantage be omitted until the grammar is gone over
for the second time. The selected sentences at the
end, all of which are taken from the works of French
authors of established reputation, will be found of
value for further grammatical drill. If a more fully
developed set of exercises is desired, they may be
found in the author’s Practical French.
- , “ W. D. W.
NEW HAVEN, December, 1890.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
The references are to sections, except where pages are indicated.
ALPHABET, tº gº * gº º * * . §§ 1–3
ACCENTS, . . & sº º : & gº tº cº 5–10
PRONUNCTATION, g g ... 10–70
Vowels, 11–33; nasal vowels, 34–41; consonants,
42–67; linking or carrying on of final consonants,
68–70. -
Nouns AND ARTICLES, e ſº * g e . 71–103
Number and gender, 71–74; use of articles, 75–84;
plural of nouns, 85; nouns with de and ā, 86–94;
partitive noun, 95–100; inclusive noun, 101–2;
proper names, 103.
ADJECTIVES, .. ſº tº & tº tº tº . 104–119
Gender and number, 104–109; position, 110–114;
Comparison, 115–119.
NUMERALs, { } tº º e e . 120–129
Cardinals, 120–125; ordinals, 126–129. *
PRONouns, wº © te . 130–182
Personal pronouns, 130–145; possessives, 146–152;
demonstratives, 153–158; interrogatives, 159–166;
realtives, 167–177; indefinites, 178–182. -
WERBS, * º e te tº e . 183—228
Simple forms, 183–185; auxiliaries avoir and étre,
186–197; principal parts, 198–199; first conjugation,
200–206; second conjugation, 207–208; third con-
jugation, 209–210; passive verbs, 211—214; reflexive
verbs, 215–221; impersonal verbs, 222–226; irregu-
lar verbs, 227–228.
W.
V1 CONTENTs.
ADVERBS, . ſº & & e te §§ 229–234
Adverbs from adjectives, 235–240; adverbs of nega-
tion, 241–247.
PREPOSITIONS, . * tº e & º . . . 24.8—254
CONJUNCTIONS, . gº • e g e g . 255–257
SUBJECT AND OBJECT, * > © e de * * . 258–262
FoRMS OF CONJUGATION, . * ſe ‘. º . 263–285
Indicative tenses, 263—266; conditional, 267 ; sub-
junctive, 268–274; imperative, 275; infinitive, 276- .
283; participles, 284–285.
SELECTED SENTENCES, • , , , - g pages 145–153
FRENCH ENGLISH WOCABULARY, * e ** 154–167 .
ENGLISH-FRENCH WoCABULARY, e º “ 169–173
LIST of IRREGULAR WERBS, . . . e “ 175—176
INDEX, e º q. ſº cº ſº º “ 177-179
LIST OF EXERCISES.
f
1. Articles and nouns, . º g . page 25
2. Partitive and inclusive uses of noun, . “ 30
3. Adjectives, . g tº * & . . . . “ 36
4. Comparison of adjectives and numerals, . . “ 43
5. Personal and possessive pronouns, º iº . “ 532
6. Demonstrative and interrogative pronouns, . “ 59
7. Relative and indefinite pronouns, . e . “ 65
8. Avoir, . e * * * gº * * . . . 72
9. Étre, {º g tº e ę e * * , ‘‘ 76
10. Werbs of 1st conjugation, . º e * . “ 84
11. Werbs of 2d and 3d conjugation, . e * , “ 90
12. Passive, reflexive, and impersonal verbs, . . “ 98
13–15. Exercises on the most used irregular verbs, “ 115
16. Adverbs and prepositions, . g . . . . . ** 128
17. Conjunctions, subject and object, and indicative
tenses, g e * t gº * . ** 134
18. Subjunctive and imperative, º gº # , “ 139
19. Infinitives and participles, . g * * , “ 143
CONTENTS.
:
i
;
LIST OF SETS OF SELECTED SENTENCES.
. Articles and nouns, . e e * e ... page
& &
. Adjectives and numerals, e
. Personal and possessive pronouns, gº & . “
. Demonstratives, relatives, interrogatives, and indefi
nites, e º 2 © º © e
. Passive, reflexive, and impersonal verbs, . . “
Adverbs and negative expressions, . - . “
. Prepositions and conjunctions,
. Subject and object,
. Tenses of the indicative,
. Subjunctive and imperative,
. Infinitive and participles, . - e - . “
145
146
146
147
148
149
150
150
151
151
152
A BRIEF FRENCH GRAMMAR.
ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION.
AI, PHABIEHT.
1. The French alphabet is the same with the
English.
a. But the letters k and w occur only in a few words,
borrowed out of other languages.
2. The letters of the alphabet and their names
are as follows (the names pronounced as French
words): • , ,
al, a. h ache O O U1 UI
b be i i p pé V Vé
c Cé j ji q ku w double Vé
d dé k ka I” el'T6 x iks
e é 1 elle S GSS6 y i grec
f effe Yū GIY] (Y) 6 t, té z zèd
g gé Il Gll 110
a. In reading and spelling, however, it is now common
to name each consonant by its own sound followed by a
mute e (14), which is pronounced only just enough to let
the character of the consonant be distinguished : thus, for
b, be instead of be; for g, gue or je (according as the g is
hard or soft) instead of gé ; and so on. But when any
letter is named by itself, it is always by the name given in
the above table. *
2 *... ALPHABET. [3
3. USE OF CAPITALS.–As regards the use of
capitals, French agrees in general with English,
but with the following important exceptions:
a. An adjective derived from a proper name
does not take a capital when used as an adjective,
but only when it has the value of a noun.
Thus, un livre français a French book, but un
Français a Frenchman ; des chevaux américains Ameri-
can horses, but des Américains Annericans.
b. The names of the days of the week and of
the months are not written with capitals in
French.
Thus, lundi Monday, juin June.
c. The word for I, namely je, is not written
with a capital.
DIVISION OF SYLLABLES.
4. The rules as to how a French word is to be
divided into syllables are of much practical im-
portance in their bearing on the mute e and On
the nasal vowels.
a. A single consonant between vowels always
belongs to the following vowel.
Thus, fi-mi, ai-me-rai, dé-cou-ra-ger, gé-né-reu-Se-ment,
i-ni-mi-ta-bi-li-té.
b. Also two consonants, if they are such as may
begin a French word, belong to the following
vowel. -
Thus, a-près, ré-gler, a bri, 6-clos, a-droit, trè-fle,
ou-tre, ou-vris.
c. A consonant digraph, or group of two consonants rep-
resenting a single Sound, is treated as if one consonant
9] ORTHOGRAPHIC MARKS. 3
only; Such are ch, ph, th, gn: thus, a-che-ter, pro-phé-ti-e,
pa-thé-ti-que, a-gneau.
ACCENTS AND OTHER ORTHOGRAPHIC MARKs.
5. Three accent-marks are used in French,
and constitute a part of the necessary written
form of French words. They are the ACUTE
ACCENT, as in été, créé ; the GRAVE ACCENT, as in
dès, la, oil; and the CIRCUMELEx ACCENT, as in pâte,
fête, ile, hôte, fūtes,
6. The CEDILLA is a mark placed under a c
(thus, g), to give it its soft or 8-sound before the
vowels a, o, u (where it would otherwise be pro-
nounced hard, like k): thus, plaga, façon, regu, ga.
7. The DIAERESIS (Fr. tréma) is a double dot,
set (as sometimes also in English) over a vowel
which is to be pronounced separately from a pre-
ceding vowel, not forming with it a diphthong :
thus, hair (i.e. ha-ir), Oui (i.e. ou-i).
8. The APOSTROPHE shows, as in English, the
loss of a final vowel which has been cut off be-
fore another vowel ; thus, l'ami, s'il,
a. The vowel thus cut off is almost always e ;
but in a few cases it is a or i. -
9. The HYPHEN is used, as in English, but
more frequently and strictly, between parts of
words, and whole words regarded as having an
especially close connection with one another.
The cases where it is required will be stated
below.
4 - ALPHABET. [10s
ACCENT.
10. a. The actual accent, or stress of voice on
one of the syllables of a word of two or more syl-
lables, rests in French on the last syllable that is
fully pronounced—i.e. that does not have as its
vowel a mute e. -
Thus, palais', mala'de, maladroit', maladroi'te, mélan-
coli'e, indubita’ble, réconcilier', réconcilië'rent, indivisi-
bilité'. -
b. But the stress of voice is very slight. In gen-
eral, the syllables of a French word (except those
containing a mute e) are uttered with equal dis-
tinctness and nearly even stress.
c. This evenness of utterance, and equal distinctness of
vowel sound in all the syllables of a word, is one of the
most striking peculiarities of French pronunciation as com-
pared with English, and cannot be too much insisted on and
practised.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE WOWELS.
11. QUANTITY.-There is no strongly-marked
distinction of long and short vowels in French,
such as there is in English (and in German).
French vowels are in general short, though some-
times a little prolonged—oftenest before a final
pronounced r, and when circumflexed.
12, A, a.-This vowel has nearly the open
sound of English a in far or father; but it is gen-
erally a little flattened, like English a in flat, cap,
jack, only not quite so much so : thus, ira, la, a,
plat, drap, car, ami, animal, malade, place.
15, PRONUNCIATION OF THE vowRLs. 5
13, E, e.—This vowel has in French a greater
variety of written form and of pronunciation than
any other, being written as e, é, é, é, and pro-
nounced with a mute, a closer, and an opener
sound.
14, MUTE OR SILENT e.—a. A simple e (one
without accent-sign) standing at the end of a syl-
lable has the so-called “mute” or “silent” value
(e muet): that is, it is pronounced as briefly and
lightly as possible, and what sound it has is like
that of English u in hut or hurt.
b. The sound is quite precisely that in English the before
a consonant in real colloquial utterance : thus, “tell us the
name of the man.” Examples are le, me, de, te-nir, re-
gard, re-gar-de, re-le-va, ra-me-na, en-ne-mi. In many
situations—especially at the end of a word of more than
one syllable, as table, rare, machine, abortive—it is in
ordinary utterance entirely silent ; but still it makes theo-
retically a syllable (thus, ra-re, ma-chi-ne, a-bor-ti-ve),
which counts as such in poetry, and in singing must be
uttered as much as any other syllable. In learning French
pronunciation, the pupil must first be able to give the right
sound to the vowel, and then duly to slight or omit it.
c. The same sound belongs also to the e of es at the end
of a word (excepting in the monosyllables les, des, ces, mes,
tes, ses), and to that of ent at the end of the 3d pers.
plural of a verb : thus, rares, machines, certes, donnes,
donment, regardent, donnaissent.
d. The e of je, I, when following the verb, is completely
silent, in the same manner as at the end of a word of more
than one syllable : thus, ai-je, have I? pronounced as if
written aige ; Suis-je, am I? as if suige ; and so on.
15. The acute and grave accents, as used on
e, are signs giving it a full pronunciation where
otherwise it would be mute. No 6 or ë is ever
written unless without the accent the e would
6 ALPHABET. - [16
(by the rules of the preceding paragraph) have
its mute value.
16. As between the acute and grave, the gen-
eral rule is that the grave is written if a next
following syllable in the same word is a mute
One ; otherwise, the acute.
Thus, pè-re, chè-re, lè-ve, cè-de, mē-ne-rai, pè-le-rin,
but cé-der, cé-da, cé-dé, Cé-lé-bri-té; and dé-cè-de, cé-lè-
bre, cé-lè-brent, pré-fé-res, té-nē-bres.
17. It is to be noted that the occurrence of
two successive mute syllables in the same word
is generally avoided. Thus, no word is ever
composed of, or ends in, two mute syllables; nor
do two often come together in the middle of a
word; at the beginning they are not quite so rare
(especially when re or de is prefixed to a verb
already beginning with a mute syllable, as venir,
revenir, devenir, and even redevenir). And no
word ever begins with a mute e.
, a. Hence, such words as leve, mene, chere, complete,
appeles, menes, cheres, or (as 3d pl. of a verb) levent,
mement, are impossible in French ; and wherever they
would occur in the regular processes of word-formation or
inflection, the concurrence of the two mute syllables is
avoided by giving a full pronunciation to the first. This is
oftenest done by writing the grave accent over it : thus,
lève, mêne, chère, complète, mēnes, mēnent—but some-
times by doubling the consonant (if it be 1 or nort) instead:
thus, belle (bel-le), appelles, sienne, premment (3d pl.),
nette.
18. The e with acute accent, or é, has the
sound of English so-called “long a,” in day and
they, and the like (yet without the vanishing
24] PRONUNCIATION OF THE WOWELS. 7
sound of “long e,” with which our “long a”
usually ends). It is called the close e (e fermé).
19. The e with grave accent, or ē, has an
opener sound, nearly like our “short e,” in
ebb, send, and the like ; and it even in some
cases, especially before a following r, approaches
our still opener sound of e in there and the like.
It is called the open e (e ouvert).
20. The e with circumflex accent, or ē, has the
open sound, like e.
21. An e that is followed by a consonant in
the same syllable (whether that consonant be
pronounced or silent) is not mute, but has either
the closer sound of é or the opener of ē.
22. E in a few words has an irregular pronunciation :
a. It is pronounced as an a would be, before n and m, in
femme woman, solennel Solemn and its derivatives, and
adverbs ending in -emment, and a few other words.
b. It is sometimes used after g merely as a device for
showing that the g is to have its soft Sound, being itself not
pronounced : thus, mangeai, mangeons, gageure.
c. The final mute e of a monosyllable is gen-
erally cut off before a vowel, and replaced by an
apostrophe. -
23. I, i.—The vowel i has in French always
the sound (as regards quality) of English “long
e,” or of i in the words machine, pique. r
Thus, il, ri, vite, ici, midi, défini, divisé, visibilité.
24, 0, o.—a. The vowel o has in general the
sound of the English o in note (but without the
vanishing sound of 00, in which the English “long
o” usually ends). --
8 ALPHABET. [25
It is so pronounced especially when it is circumflexed, or
is the final sound of a word : thus, côte, nôtre, rôle,
trône, mot, cachot, trop, mos.
b. But in many words o has an opener sound,
approaching that of English o in not (or midway
between that and the O of come); and before a
final r-sound it comes near to our o in nor.
Thus, robe, mode, Rome, dogue, école, dorer, notre,
porter, occuper, modeste; and or, mort, corps.
25. U, u. The French u has a sound unlike
anything in English (but precisely agreeing with
that of the German “modified u,” or “u with
wmlaut,” written ü). It is produced by a combina-
tion of that position of the tongue with which ee
(as in meet) is made with that position of the lips
with which oo (as in moot) is made. Fix the
tongue, then, to say ee, and, without moving it,
round the lips as if to say 00, and the product is
the sound desired. s
Thus, vu, dū, nul, pure, sfire, sucre, minute, förule,
occuper, multitude, minuscule.
a. U is generally silent after q ; for the exceptions, see
under q.
b. U is also regularly silent after g, when itself followed
by another vowel, usually e or i, except when the following
e or i has the diaeresis: thus, guerre, guide, langue, lon-
gueur, fatigue, fatigué, voguer, vogua, voguons.
26, Y, y—The sound of y, when it is the
vowel of a syllable, is the same with that of i:
thus, y, style, système, syllabe, physique, Yves,
27. A y between two vowels has the value of
double i, or i-i, one of the is belonging to the
81] PRONUNCIATION OF THE WOWELS, 9
vowel of the preceding syllable, the other (as a
brief y-like prefix) to that of the following sylla-
ble. -
Thus, essayer is pronounced as if written essai-ier;
appuyer, as if appui-ier; envoyer, as if envoi-ier; and so
Oll.
a. The same value belongs to the y in pays (pronounced
as if written pai-is), and its derivatives paysage, paysan.
b. A y is not allowed as final, nor in general before
mute e ; and, both in derivation and in inflection, the inter-
change of i and y, according as final or not, and as a mute
e or any fully pronounced vowel follows, is very common :
thus, joie, joyeux; roi, royal ; aie, ayons, ayez, aient;
appuie, appuies, appuyons, appuyez, appuient ; and So
OIl.
28. There are a few very common combina-
tions of two vowels (or three), which represent
for the most part simple sounds, but which are
commonly called diphthongs; they are ai and ei,
au (and eau), eu (and Geu), ou, and oi.
a. It is to be noticed that real diphthongal sounds, like
those in English file, foul, foil, are altogether wanting in
French.
29, Ai and ei.-These compounds have no
other sounds than those of e when not mute, or
of é or ē.
30. Au and eau are pronounced as o would be
in the same situation.
Thus, au, eau, beau, beauté, tombeau, chevaux, aurai,
Maure.
31. Eu has a peculiar sound, nearly like that
of English u in fur, hurt (or nearly like Ger-
man Ö). It is opener in jeune, leur, aveugle, etc.;
and closer in jeine, neutre, heureux, feu, veux, etc.
10 ALPHABET. [32
32. Ou.—The combination ou is everywhere
pronounced like English oo, in pool, boon, etc.
Thus, ou, où, cou, bout, hiboux, coupe, source, courte,
joujou, douloureux.
33. Oi.—The combination oi, which is ex-
tremely common in French, is everywhere pro-
nounced like the English wa in was (not with the
broader sound of wa in water). *
Thus, moi, soi, foi, oiseau, toile, ploie, cloitre, crois,
trois, adroite, froideur, proie.
NASAL WOWELS.
34. If a vowel, simple or compound, is fol-
lowed in the same syllable by n or m, the n or m
loses its separate pronunciation, and the vowel
itself is made nasal.
a. A nasal vowel is one that is pronounced partly through
the mouth and partly through the nose : that is, while the
mouth-organs are fixed as in the utterance of an ordinary
vowel, the passage from the mouth into the nose is also
opened, so that a part of the expelled air goes through the
nose and resounds there, giving a nasal twang to the vowel-
tone. Beginners may help accustom themselves to recog-
nize and produce this nasal twang by shutting the nose
with the fingers, in which case the nasality becomes es-
pecially loud and conspicuous.
b. In learning to pronounce the nasal vowels, the fault
especially to be avoided is the shutting of the mouth-organs
after the vowel-sound, so as to end it with anything like an
77 or mg-sound. A habit of so doing, if once formed, is ex-
tremely hard to get rid of. Better than this is to leave the
vowel at first unnasalized, hoping to learn by degrees to
give it the right quality.
35. There are in French four nasal vowels, or
nasalized vowel-sounds. They are very nearly
38] NASAL WOWELS. 11
those heard in the English words wan, Song, sang,
and Sung, or on, pawn, pan, and pun—as these
would be if the n- and ng-sounds in them were
not separately uttered, but had their nasal tone
as it were absorbed into the vowel itself.
36. The nasalized vowel-sound of English wan
or on belongs in French to an and am, and to en
and em.
Thus, am, pain, banc, quand, lance, manger, ébranler,
banquet, anse, ayant, wanter; camp, lampe, ample,
chambre ; en, dent, enfant, pente, prudence, genre;
temps, trempe, remplir, membre, embléme.
37. The nasalized vowel-sound of English
pawn or Song belongs in French to on and om.
Thus, on, mon, donc, long, plonge, annonce, conter,
ronde; nom, plomb, tomber, romps, rompre, combler,
comte. So also action and the like.
38. a. The nasalized vowel-sound of English
sang or pan belongs in French especially to in
and im.
Thus, win, vint, vinrent, vinsse, pincer, Inde, ingrat;
imbu, timbre, simple, impur.
b. The same sound belongs to the compound
vowels ai and ei with following n or m.
Thus, sain, sainte, craindre; faim, essaim ; sein, serein,
peindre, peinture.
c. The oi of oin has not its ordinary value, but the in of
it has the regular nasal sound of in, to which the o gives a
prefix like a w. Thus, loin, moins, ointe, oindre, joindre,
accointance.
d. Final en after i (or y), and en everywhere after i in
the forms of the verbs tenir and venir, has the sound of
in : thus, rien, bien, Sien, moyen (pronounced as moi-ien),
tiens, viendra. -
12 ALPHABET. [89
39. The nasalized vowel-sound of Sung or pun
belongs in French to un, um, and eun.
Thus, un, brun, tribun, défunt, lundi, emprunter; par-
fum, humble ; jeum.
40. If the n or m is followed by a vowel, the
preceding vowel is of course not nasal, because
the n or m is not in the same syllable with it.
Thus, tenir, semer, honorer, une, inutile (divided te-nir,
ho-no-rer, i-nu-ti-le, etc.); also inhumain, inhabité, etc.
(the h being silent, and not counting as a consonant : See
50c).
a. But in enivrer and enorgueillir and their derivatives
the e is nasal.
41. Also when the n or m is doubled, the pre-
ceding vowel is not nasal.
Thus, année, hēbamme, tienne, emnemi, femme, lionne,
homme, innocent, immoler.
a. But in ennui and its derivatives, in ennoblin, also in
emmener, and most other Words beginning With emm
(from en-m), the e is nasal.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS.
42. GENERAL RULES.—a. Final consonants,
either one or more than One, are in general silent
at the end of a French word.
Thus, pied, trop, les, fait, prix, maux, nez; plomb,
rand, pieds, draps, romps, faits, doigt, vingt, vents,
vends, instincts.
b. But final c, f, l, and ºr are usually pronounced.
Thus, sec, avec, tic, bloc, suc, turc; fief, vif, neuf; bal,
cruel, vol, seul; par, fer, finir, or, Sur, martyr.
43. B. b.-The letter b is pronounced as in Eng-
lish.
Thus, beau, bien, robe, barbier, bombe, subtil.
46] PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS 13
f
44. C, c.—This consonant has in French, as
in English, two sounds: a soft sound, like S ; and
a hard sound, like k.
As to ch, see the next paragraph.
a. C is soft before e and i (or y), and the com-
pound vowels in which e or i is first (ei, eu, ie).
Thus, ce, ceci, ici, placé, procès, douce, ceint, ceux,
adoucie, ciel, cymbale. *
b. In all other situations—before other vowels,
before consonants, and as final—c has its hard
sound.
Thus, car, caisse, cause, col, coeur, cour, curé, cuir;
croc, clair; lac, Sec, tic, roc, duc. *.
c. C is soft also before a, o, u, if it has the cedilla: thus,
plaça, plaçons, regu.
d. The c of second and its derivatives is pronounced like g.
e. Final c (usually pronounced : 42b) is silent after a nasal
vowel ; thus, blanc, vainc; also after r in clerc, porc, etc.;
and in estomac, tabac, broc, Croc, and a few other words.
45. Ch, ch.--This combination has in French
regularly and usually the sound of English Sh, or
ch in macrºi:3. $.
Thus, chasse, chaise, chaud, chez, cochon, choux, choix,
chute, chuinter, häche, recherche, chuchoter, ponche.
a. But there are many words of foreign origin (chiefly
Greek) in which ch has the sound of k. Thus, always be-
fore a consonant, as Christ, chrétien, chronique, techno-
logie, chloral, fuchsia, yacht ;-but often also before a
vowel, as in archange, choour, orchestre, écho, and other
less common words; and in proper names, as Chaldée,
Bacchus, Antiochus, Moloch, Munich, Michel-Ange.
46. D, d.—This consonant is pronounced as
in English.
Thus, de, des, dédire, dindon, droit, guide, mode,
poudre, plaindre.
14 f : ALPHABET. . [47
47. F., f:-This consonant is pronounced as in
English. - -
Thus, faux, feu, fou, fleur, froid, fief, sauf, affaire, for-
fait, serf, neuf. 4.
a. Final f (usually pronounced : 42b) is silent in clef key,
in the chef of chef-d'oeuvre, in the plurals oeufs, boeufs,
nerfs (though pronounced in the singular of these words).
Also the f of neuf nine is silent before an initial con-
sonant of a word numbered by it : thus, neuf livres, neuf
cents (not in le neuf janvier Jan. 9th, neuf par an nine
a year, etc.).
48. G, g.—This consonant has in French, as in
English, two sounds: a soft sound, like English
z in azure or 8 in pleasure ; and a hard sound, like
English g in gig.
a. G has its soft sound before the vowels e, i, y.
Thus, gelé, gèle, génie, geindre, orageux, gilet, bougie,
gymnase.
b. In other situations—before any other vowel
than e, i, y, and before a consonant—g has its
hard sound.
c. In order to preserve the soft sound of a g, when in the
changes of inflection or derivation it would come to stand
before a, or o or u, an e (not itself pronounced) is often
Written after it : thus, from manger come mangeant,
mangeons, mangeure. --
49. The combination gn has in general a pe-
culiar liquid sound, nearly like English ny in
lanyard or ni in union.
Thus, gagner, régner, régne, ligne, cicogne, répugne,
cygne, magnifique, ignorant, rognon, seigneur.
50. H, h, →This consonant is not pronounced
in French ; no such sound as the English h should
ever be heard in any French word.
53 PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS, 15
a. But there is a considerable number of words
in which an initial h, though now silent, is treat-
ed as if it were still pronounced—namely, by
the absence before it of the elision (22c), of the
carrying-on of a final consonant (68), etc. Such
an initial h is called “aspirate h,” the other being
called, for distinction, “mute or silent h.”
b. Initial aspirate h is generally marked in the diction-
aries with an inverted apostrophe—thus, ‘haie, ‘héros,
“honte, etc.; and the same method will be followed in this
work in the vocabularies. -
c. The silent initial h is treated as if it had no
existence, or as if the word actually began with
the following vowel; the aspirate initial h is
treated like any other consonant. 3.
Thus, l’homme like l'ombre, cet homme like cet ombre,
son heure like son euphonie, etc.; but, le hasard, ce héros,
sa, harpe, etc. &
51. J, j-This consonant has in French in-
variably the sound of English 2 in azure, or s in
pleasure (the same as Soft g : 48a).
Thus, jamais, je, jeu, joie, joujou, juge, juif.
52. K. k.--This consonant occurs in French
only in a few borrowed words; it has the sound
of English k. -
Thus, kilomètre, képi, kermesse, kiosque.
a. The k-sound is represented in French words by chard
(44), by ch (45), and by qu (58a).
53. L, 1.-This consonant, except when liquid,
is pronounced in French as in English.
16 - ALPHABET. - [53
Thus, le, la, lilie, loi, lui, lucre, lamelle, folle, nul,
table, boucle, souffle, ébranle, simple, hurle.
54. An 1 following i in the same syllable is
generally made liquid–that is, it is pronounced
as a close y. -
Thus, cil, babil, mil, millet, avril, péril, grésil, fille,
cédille, billard, artillerie, guillotine, barbillon. -
a. If the 1 before l is preceded by another vowel, simple
or compound, that vowel has its own Sound, not forming a
compound with the i, the latter's sole office being to show
the liquid sound of the 1: thus, travail, travailler, con-
seil, conseiller, vieil, vieillir, Seuil, feuille, feuillage,
houille, houilleur. And ue (after c or g) and oe before
liquid il have the Sound of eu : thus, accueil, orgueil,
Ceil.
b. But final l is silent after i in a number of words. The
commonest of these are: baril barrel, fusil gun, outil
tool, sourcil eyebrow ; also 1 in fils son, and the plural
genstilshommes gentlemen (in gentilhomme it is liquid ;
also in gentil nice, except at the end of a sentence or when
followed by a consonant, when it is silent).
c. Final l has the proper l-sound after i in a number of
words : thus, il he, fil thread, mil thousand, Nil Nile,
vil, civil, exil, profil, subtil, viril, puéril, volatil; further,
according to the more usual pronunciation, in cil, avril,
and péril (pronounced also with liquid or with silent 1).
d. At the beginning of a word, ill is not liquid: thus,
illatif, illégal, illimité, illogique, illustre.
e. Double 1 after i has the full 1-sound also in the in-
terior and at the end of a number of words : thus, ville
town, mille thousand, tranquille, pupille ward, distiller
distil, vaciller vacillate, pusillanime, axillaire aaillary
(with their compounds and derivatives), and a few others.
55. M. m.—Except where it makes the preced-
ing vowel nasal, and is itself not pronounced (34
etc.), m has the same sound in French as in Eng-
lish,
59] PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS, 17
Thus, me, ma, même, moi, meurt, mār, femme, homme,
immémoré, hymne.
56. N, n. Except where it makes the preced-
ing vowel nasal, and is itself not pronounced (34
etc.), n has the same sound in French as in Eng-
lish.
Thus, mappe, maine, ne, neuf, nid, non, noir, nouveau,
nul, muire, bonne, brune.
57. P, p.–This consonant is in general pro-
nounced as in English.
Thus, pape, père, peuple, pourpre, pur, puits, plaire,
pré, frapper, huppe, soupe.
a. p is silent before t in sept, septième, baptime,
compter and a few other words. -
58. Q, q.—This consonant is almost always
followed in French, as in English, by u ; but in
French the u is generally silent, and the com-
bination qu has the sound of k.
Thus, quatre, quai, que, queue, quelque, qui, quint,
quotidien, quoique, calquer, vainquis, vainquons.
a. A hard k-sound before e or i cannot be written in
French except by qu; and hence qu sometimes takes the
place of c in inflection and derivation when e or i is added:
thus, vainquez, vainquent, vainquis, from vaincre ;
turque, from turc; caduque, from caduc.
ô. But in a number of French words qu has the same
Sound as in English : thus, quadrat, Équestre.
59, R, r.—This consonant is always more or
less rolled or trilled in French, and so is made
much more distinct than in ordinary English
pronunciation. -
Thus, rare, frère, rire, parure, roi, trois, croix, partir,
porteur, arbre, meurtre, bruit, grand, près, vrai, arri-
Vēl'able f
18 - ALPHABET. [60
a. A final r is regularly pronounced (42b); but
it is usually silent after e in words of more than
One syllable.
Thus, silent in fier (verb), aimer, parler, leger, entier,
officier, etc.; pronounced in cher, fer, fier (adj.), hier,
mer, etc., and, before other silent finals, in clerc, perd,
perds, cerf, tiers, sert, etc. -
b. Final r is also pronounced after e in the words of more
than one syllable, amer bitter, cancer, cuiller spoon,
enfer hell, hiver winter, and a few foreign words, chiefly
proper names, as magister, Jupiter, Esther. -
c. Final r is silent in monsieur, messieurs.
d. In the future and conditional of the verbs courir run,
mourir die, quérir ask, and their compounds, the double
r is distinctly to be heard as two separater's; thus, courrai,
+mourrais, acquerront. -
60 s, s—This consonant is in general pro-
nounced with the sound which it ordinarily has
in English (in our words Sense, Sister, etc.).
Thus, sa, se, si, son, sur, espace, estime, poste, prisme,
fiasque, disparu, descriptif, transcrire, anse, penser.
a. But s between two vowels has the sound of
Our 2.
Thus, raser, raison, lèse, misère, rose, blouse, ruse;
also déshonneur (silent h), déshabiller, etc.
b. S final is regularly silent (42); but it is sounded in
fils son, moeurs morals, tous all (except when followed by
a word with which it agrees), and some others.
c. A double s, or ss, is pronounced like a single s, but
always with the hissing s-sound, never as 2 : thus, assez,
blesser, disse, grossesse, poussasse, prussien, vinsse.
61. T, t.—This consonant is generally sounded
as in English.
Thus, ta, taire, taux, táter, te, téte, titre, ton, toute,
tuteur, nette, trottoir, étroite.
66] PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS, 19
a. Final t is regularly silent (42a); but it is pronounced
in a number of words: as in dot dowry, net meat, huit
eight and sept seven (except before an initial consonant of a
word numbered by them), vingt twenty, in the numbers
from 21–29, etc. -
62. a. T followed by i, in certain endings where ti in
English has the sh-sound, is sounded as s : thus, partial,
ambitieux, patience; also, in such cases as démocratie
(-cy), inertie (-tia), initier (-tiate). :
b. But where the ti is preceded by s or x (and ti has in
English the ch-sound), t retains its proper value : thus,
question, mixtion. The same is the case in chrétien and
in châtier. tºº
63. The combination th is everywhere pronounced as
simple t : thus, theátre, the, pathétique, athéiste, sym-
pathie. It is silent in asthme and isthme.
64. W., v.–This consonant is sounded as in
English. It never occurs as final.
Thus, valu, veuve, vivant, vol, voir, vrai, active, vivre.
65. W, w.—This consonant occurs only in a very small
number of foreign words. It is usually pronounced like
English v.; thus, wagon; but in a word or two rather as
English w; thus, whist, whig (the h silent).
66. X, x.--This consonant is for the most part
pronounced like ks, as in English.
Thus, saxe, sexe, fixer, boxeur, luxe, Alexandre, an-
nexation, exciter, excuse, experience.
a. In the initial syllable ex before a vowel, x is pro-
nounced like g2 : thus, exalte, exemple, exister, exil,
exode, exhorter, exhumer (h silent). Initial x has in
most words the same gz-sound: thus, Xénophon, Xavier.
Xerxes is pronounced gzersesse. -
b. Final x is regularly silent (42a); but it is pronounced,
like s, in the numerals six sia, and dix ten (except before
an initial consonant of a word numbered by them), in dix-
sept seventeen, Béatrix, Cadix, Aix en Provence ; in Aix-
la-Chapelle it is pronounced like ks, also in a few foreign
words. In the compound numerals dix-huit-eighteen and
dix-neuf nineteen, is sounded as 2.
20 ALPHABET. [67
c. Medial x is sounded as s (not 2) in soixante sixty, and
in a few proper names, as Bruxelles, Auxerre; and as 2 in
deuxième second, sixième Sia:th, dixième tenth, sixaine
half a dozen.
67. Z, Z.—This consonant has in general the
same sound as in English.
Thus, Zama, zèle, zigzag, zone, Zymotique, gazon.
LINKING OR CARRYING-ON OF FINAL CONSONANTS. ,
68. A final consonant usually silent is liable
to be pronounced when followed by another
word beginning with a vowel (or mute h). This
is called the linking or carrying-on of the final
(in French, liaison).
a. The final consonant thus carried on is pro-
nounced directly upon the following vowel, as if
a part of the same syllable with it ; any relaxa-
tion or pause is to be made before the consonant,
not between it and the vowel.
b. The carrying-on of the final in any case de-
pends upon the closeness of connection between
the two words, and also in part upon the general
style of utterance. - -
69. Final sand x, when linked, take the sound
of z; d takes that of t ; and g (rare) takes that of k.
Thus, les—hommes, nos-amis ont, mous aurons—eu,
pas—encore, Sans-elle ; deux hommes, de beaux-yeux,
des chapeaux énormes, tu peux_y aller; un grand–
homme, vend-il, quand-il vient, pied - a-terre; un rang-
élevé, ce longchiver, le joug-insupportable. But the d
of nord keeps its d-sound. * ‘s.
73] GENDER. 21
70. Special exceptional cases are to be noted
as follows:
a. The t of et and is never carried on.
b. A final consonant after r (unless it be the plural sign
s) is averse to linking : thus, vers une heure, hors unseul,
il ne sert à rien (but sert-il).
c. The final n of a nasal syllable is carried on only in
cases of close grammatical connection ; and when the
carrying-on takes place, the preceding vowel loses more or
less (sometimes all) of its nasal tone, while retaining the
same vowel-quality as in its nasal utterance : thus, un-en-
fant, mon_ami, ce bon-homme, en-Italie, bien-aimable,
rien—a dire, en plein-air, enivrer, emorgueillir.
NOUNS AND ARTICLES.
NUMBER AND GENDER.
71. There are in French, as in English, two
numbers, singular and plural. -
72. There are two genders, masculine and
feminine. Every noun is either masculine or
feminine.
73. For the most part French gender corresponds to Latin,
a French noun taking the gender of the Latin noun from
which it is derived.
I. The gender of many nouns can be inferred from their
endings. -
a. Masculine are most nouns ending in age, ége (or ége),
a.Sme, isme, iste, eu, au, oir; also most of those ending in a
consonant, except in eur. -
b. Feminine are most nouns ending in té, tié, ence,
ense, ance, tion, and Sion; also in mute e preceded by a
vowel or double consonant.
II. The gender of many French nouns, may be inferred
from their meaning.
22 - ARTICLES. º [74
a. Masculine are all names of male persons, and of
animals conspicuously male; also names of seasons, months,
days, divisions of the day (except hours), and cardinal
points, names of trees and metals, and infinitives used as
IlOliſlS. -
5. Feminine are names of female persons, and of animals
conspicuously female ; most names...of-countries, islands,
towns, and rivers, if they end in e mute; and most names
of fruits and flowers. "
III. Some nouns are either feminine or masculine, ac-
cording to their different meanings: thus, le manche the
handle, la manche the sleeve; le vapeur the steamer, la
vapeur the Steam.
74. Words qualifying or relating to nouns—
as articles, adjectives, pronouns—have also usual-
ly a distinction of masculine and feminine form,
so as to agree in gender with the nouns to which
they belong. -
ARTICLES.
75. There are, as in English, two articles, the
definite and the indefinite.
76. The definite article has in the singular a
different form for each gender: namely, le before a
masculine noun, and la before a feminine. Ex-
amples are : le père the father, la mère the mother,
le livre the book, la fleur the flower. . . .
77. But in the plural there is one form of the
article, les, for both genders: thus, les pères the
fathers, les mêres the mothers, les livres the books, les
fleurs the flowers. .
78. Before a word beginning with a vowel (or
h mute: 50c), le and la both lose their vowel, and
take the apostrophe, becoming alike I’ (226): thus,
83] - ARTICLES. - 23.
l'ami the friend, l'amie the (female) friend, l'homme
the man, l'heure the hour.
79. The indefinite article is un before a mas-
culine noun, and une before a feminine : thus, un
roi a king, une reine a queen, un livre a book, une
fleur a flower.
The indefinite article has no plural.
80. The articles must always be repeated in
French before every noun to which they belong :
thus, the father and mother le père et la mère, a
king and queen un roi et une reine.
81. a. The definite article is often used in French where
we use a possessive : thus, je tournai la tête I turned my
head, ferméz fesºyeux shut your eyes. -
b. It is sometimes used distributively, in the Sense of
each or every : thus, deux fois la Semaine twice a week.
c. For the use of the article with proper names, see 103.
ošić." the partitive and inclusive uses of the article see
82. In certain cases where the English use the indefinite
article it is omitted in French. Thus :
a. It is often omitted before a word standing in apposi-
tion with another : thus, Dieppe, ville de Normandie
Dieppe, a city of Normandy.
b. It is usually omitted before a predicate noun designat-
ing in a general way nationality or condition of life or pro-
fession : thus, je suis Américain I am an American, son
père est soldat his father is a soldier.
c. It is omitted before cent and mille: thus, mille jours,
cent ans a thousand days, a hundred years. -
83. The preposition de Qf is always contracted
with the following article le into du, and with les
into des; with 1 and la it remains unchanged:
thus, du père of the father, the father's, des mêres
24 Nouns. [84
of the mothers; but, de la mère of the mother, de
l'homme the man's.
84, Le is contracted with the preceding prepo-
sition à to into au, and les with a into aux; but
la and 1’ remain unchanged after a thus, au roi
to the king, aux pères to the fathers, aux reines to the
queens; but, a la reine to the queen, à l'ami to the
friend. §
PLURAL OF NOUNS.
85. The plural of a noun is generally formed in
French, as in English, by adding s to the singular:
thus, le roi the king, les rois the kings; la fleur the
flower, les fleurs the flowers.
The principal exceptions to this rule are as
follows:
a. Nouns ending in the sibilants s, x, and z
have the same form in the plural as in the singu-
lar : thus, le fils the Son, les fils the Sons; la noix the
walnut, les noix the walnuts; le mez the nose, les nez
the noses.
b. Nouns ending in au and eu, and a few in ou,
add X instead of s : thus, le chapeau the hat, les
chapeaux the hats; le lieu the place, les lieux the
places ; le genou the knee, les genoux the knees.
The nouns in ou taking x in the plural are bijou jewel,
caillou pebble, chou Cabbage, genou knee, hibou owl, joujou
Aplaything, pou louse—all masculine. Other nouns in ou
take s, according to the general rule: e.g., fous fools, clous
wails, trous holes.
c. Most nouns ending in al and ail change
these endings to aux for the plural : thus, le cheval
89] NOUNS, 25
the horse, les chevaux the horses; le travail the work,
les travaux the works.
d. A few nouns form their plural quite irregu-
larly ; the most important are: l'oeil the eye, les
yeux the eyes; le ciel the heaven, les cieux the heavens.
86. No French noun has any variation of form
to express the varying relations of case ; the
simple noun stands as subject and as object ; the
other case-relations are in general expressed by
prepositions.
87. The meaning of the English possessive
is (as often in English also) expressed by the help
of the preposition de Qf: thus, la maison du roi
the king's house, les livres des filles the girls’ books.
88. A noun in French is never used (as it sometimes is
in English) datively, or as indirect object of a verb without
a preposition. Thus, I give the man the book is always je
donne le livre à l'homme—literally, I give the book to the
7700,72,
89. The prepositions de and a must be re-
peated before every noun that they govern :
thus, des pères et des mêres of the fathers and
mothers, aux hommes, aux femmes, et aux enfants to
the men, women, and children.
EXERCISE 1.
ARTICLES AND NOUNS.
WOCABULARY.
l'homme (m.), the man la femme, the woman
l'enfant (m.), the child le garçon, the boy
le père, the father la mére, the mother
26 NOUNS. [90
le fils, the son la fille, the girl, daughter
le chapeau, the hat le cheval, the horse
le livre, the book l'œil (m.), the eye
deux, two trois, th7'ee
et, a7ld donne (3d pers. singular), gives
[Present tense of avoir have, see 186, and 192...]
I.
1. L'enfant a un père et une mère. 2. Avez-vous
un cheval ? 3. Nous avons trois chevaux. 4. Le
garçon a le chapeau de l'homme. 5. Les femmes ont
les chapeaux des enfants. 6. La femme a-t-elle un
enfant ? 7. Elle a deux fils et deux filles. 8. Elle
donne un cheval au garçon et un châpeau à la fille.
9. Le père donne les livres aux filles et aux garçons.
10. J'ai deux yeux et vous avez deux yeux. 11. Le
fils de la femme a deux chevaux.
II.
1. The boy has a brother and a sister. 2. Has the
man a son ? 3. He has two sons and a daughter. 4.
Have you the boy's hat ? 5. We have the boys hats.
6. The boys have the man's horses. 7. The son and
daughter of the woman have the books. 8. A horse
has two eyes and a man has two eyes. 9. The child
gives the book to the woman. 10. The girl gives
three books to the father and the father gives two
horses to the girls and boys. 11. I have tWo hats.
90. In French (as often in English), the ma-
terial of which anything is made is expressed by
help of the preposition de Qf : thus, une bague d'or
a ring Qf gold, a gold ring, des chapeaux de velours

95] PARTITIVE NOUN. 27
velvet hats, une table de bois a wooden table, le drap
de laine the woolen cloth. *.
91. Nouns expressing measure of quantity, of
weight, of number, and so on, are also followed
(as usually in English) by de of before the name
of the thing measured : thus, une bouteille de win a
bottle of wine, une livre de sucre a pound of Sugar.
92. Also after adverbs of quantity, de of is re-
quired in French (though usually omitted in Eng-
lish): thus, beaucoup d'eau much water (literally,
'much of water), trop de vin too much wine.
93. A noun with de is used as a genitive of apposition or
equivalence: thus, le mom de Henri the name of Henry,
le titre de président the title of president, le mot de
mariage the word marriage.
94. A noun preceded by ä is often used to express that
by which something is characterized, as a distinguishing
feature or quality, a purpose, means, ingredient, and the
like. Thus, l'homme au long mez the man with a long nose,
des arbres à fruit fruit trees, un bateau ä vapeur a
Steamboat. # ;
a. Other special uses of a with nouns are: 1. after mal
ache: as, mal a la tête headache, mal aux dents toothache;
2. between two numerals to express approximate number,
and between two nouns to express succession : as, dix à.
douze ten or twelve, peu a peu little by little.
PARTITIVE NOUN.
95. The partitive sense of a noun is that which
in English may be expressed by putting some or
any before the noun, but which is oftenest left
unexpressed: thus, have you bread (i.e., Some
bread, or any bread)? they had pens, but they had
no ink (i.e., Some pens, not any ink); and so on.
28 NOUNS. [96
9%. In French, this sense of a noun is in gen-
exal distinctly expressed, by putting before it the
º, Apreposition de of, along (usually) with the definite
º/ article: thus, j'ai du pain I have bread (literally, of
the bread), avez-vous des livres have you books (lit-
/ erally, of the books)? donnez-moi de la farine et de
l'eau give me 80me flour and water.
97. Sometimes, however, the article is omitted,
and the preposition alone expresses the partitive
sense of the noun. This is the case:
a. When the noun has an adjective before it:
thus, j'ai de bon pain (not du bon pain) I have good
bread, nous avons d'excellents livres we have excellent
books.
b. After a negative verb: thus, je n'ai pas de
pain (not du pain) I have not any bread, nous
n'avons jamais de livres we never have books. -
98. More rarely, both preposition and article
are omitted, and the bare noun stands in the par-
titive sense, as in English. This is the case:
a. After ni . . . ni, meaning neither . . . nor: thus,
je n'ai ni pain ni beurre I have neither bread nor
butter. -
b. In long enumerations: thus, il y a sur la
table eau, win, bière, pain, beurre, fromage there is
on the table water, wine, beer, bread, butter, cheese.
99. The partitive noun may stand in any
noun construction—as subject, object, predicate,
as governed by a preposition (except de), and so
on. Thus, des soldats l'arrêtêrent Some Soldiers ar-

103] - NOUNS. - 29
rested him, il est des gens qui mentent there are
people who lie, avec du courage with courage.
100. A partitive noun is sometimes used in French
where the English has an appositive noun or adjective : thus,
quelque chose de bon. Something good, cent soldats de
prisonniers, cent de tués a hundred Soldiers prisoners, a
hundred killed.
INCLUSIVE SENSE OF THE NOUN.
101. On the other hand, a noun is sometimes
used in its most inclusive sense, or as signifying
the whole class of objects to which it applies.
This sense, which is usually left unexpressed in
English, requires in French the definite article
before the noun: thus, man (i.e., the whole race) is
mortal l’homme est mortel, men (i.e., all men) are
mortal les hommes sont mortels, sleep is the brother of
death le sommeil est le frère de la mort.
a. The article thus used may conveniently be
called the INCLUSIVE ARTICLE.
b. The inclusive article is especially common before ab-
stract nouns: e.g., la vie life, la, beauté beauty, la mature
Nature, la fortune fortune.
102. The frequently occurring expression of the partitive
and inclusive senses of the noun, which in English are left
to be simply inferred from the connection, is a marked
feature of French usage. Often, the two senses, alike un-
expressed in English, are distinguished in French in the
same brief sentence : thus, birds have wings (i.e., all birds,
but a certain limited number of wings) les oiseaux ont des
ailes, time is money le temps est de l'argent.
PROPER NAMES.
103. Names of countries and provinces in
30 | - NOUNS. [103
French generally take the definite article. Thus,
la France France, la Lorraine Lorraine.
I. But the article is omitted before names of
countries in certain cases, especially the following:
a. After en in, into, to ; thus, il est en France he
is in France, je vais en Amérique I am going to
America.
b. After words meaning king, emperor, kingdom, empire,
duchy, or the like ; also after histoire history, carte map,
etc.: thus, roi de France king of France, 1'empire d’Alle-
magne the empire of Germany, une carte d’Amérique a
map of America.
c. After the name of a commodity coming from the
country designated : thus, les vins de France the wines of
France (French wines), du cuir de Russie Russian leather,
de l'or de Californie some Californian gold.
II. With other proper names, French usage
in regard to adding the article is in general the
same as English: but—
a. The article is used before the name of a single moun-
tain : thus, le Vésuve Vesuvius, le Mont Blanc Mont
IBlanc.
b. Proper names, whether of persons or places, take the
article when qualified by an adjective : thus, le pauvre
Jean poor John, l'antique Rome ancient Rome.
c. The article is used before a title : thus, le docteur
Pasteur Dr. Pasteur, le général Boulanger General
Boulanger.
EXERCISE 2.
PARTITIVE AND INCLUSIVE USES OF THE NOUN, ETC.
- WOCABULARY,
Dieu (m.), God la robe, the dress
le pain, the Öread la vie, life
levelours, the velvet la France, France
103] \ NOUNS. 31
l'Europe (m.), Hurope la chaise, the chair
peu, adv., little le pays, the country
mais, but l'Angleterre ( f.), Hngland
l'histoire ( f.), history le bois, w00d
la viande, meat beaucoup, adv., much
la soie, Silk en, prep., in
[Present tense of être be, see 194.]
I.
1. Les femmes ont-elles des robes ? 2. Elles ont
des chapeaux de velours et beaucoup de robes de soie.
3. L'enfant a-t-il du pain et de la viande ? 4.
L'homme donne du pain à l'enfant. 5. Avez-vous
des livres ? 6. J'ai une histoire d'Angleterre. 7.
La France est un pays de l'Europe. 8. L'homme est
l'enfant de Dieu. 9. Étes-vous la f，lé de l'homme ?
10. Je suis la femme de l'hommé. 11. Les filles et
les fils de la femme sont des enfants. 12. Nous
sommes en France, mais ils sont en Angleterre. 13.
L'histoire est la vie des pays. 14. Nous avons beaucoup
de chaises de bois, mais nous avons peu de chaises de
velours. - ·
S II.
1. Have you any silk and velvet ? 2. I have much
silk and little velvet. 3. The girl gives the man meat
and bread. 4. I have brothers and sisters ; the
brothers are in France and the sisters are in England.
5. England is in Europe. 6. We have a history of
France, and many histories of England. 7. God is
the father of man. 8. God gives life to man. 9. We
have many velvet chairs, but the woman has one
wooden chair. 10. Many women have dresses, but
few women have velvet dresses. 11. The books are
32 ADIECTIVES. [104
histories. 12. Are you the child’s father ? 13. I am
the child’s father. 14. We are boys and girls.
ADJECTIVES.
GENDER AND NUMBER.
104. Adjectives in French have in general a
variation of form for gender and for number, and
are made to agree in both these respects with
the nouns (or pronouns) to which they relate.
a. An adjective, in whatever construction or in what-
ever position it may stand, must always agree in gender and
number with the word which it qualifies.
b. An adjective qualifying more than one noun is gen:
erally made plural and masculine, if one of the qualified
nouns is masculine: thus, une veste et un pantalon bleus
a blue vest and trousers.
105. A feminine adjective ends always in
mute e, and the feminine of most adjectives is
made by simply adding mute e to the masculine
form : thus, *
Iſle f. In, f.
petit, petite, small aisé, aisée, easy
grand, grande, great joli, jolie, pretty
But there are many exceptions to this rule.
Thus:
a. If a masculine adjective ends already in e
mute, the feminine has the same form ; thus,
m. f. m. f.
sage, wise, well-behaved impie, &mpious
b. Adjectives ending in the masculine in el, eil,
- ien, on, also many in s and t, double their final
f
107] ADJECTIVES. 33 .
consonant before the added mute e of the femi-
nine : thus,
Im. f. II]. f.
cruel, cruelle, cruel bon, bonne, good
gros, grosse, big sot, sotte, Stupid
c. Adjectives ending in the masculine in x andf
change these respectively to s and v before the
added e mute: thus, º
IYA, f. III. f.
heureux, heureuse, happy jaloux, jalouse, jealous
vif, wive, lively neuf, neuve, new
106. In some adjectives, changes of spelling
are the necessary result of the addition of e for
the feminine: thus,
a. Adjectives having in the masculine an e be-
fore a final consonant (whether pronounced or
silent) change it to è in the feminine, if the con-
sonant is not doubled (17a): thus,
IIl. f. II]. f. --
cher, chère, dear complet, complète, complete
And ef in like manner becomes éve: thus, bref, brève
brief.
b. Final c is changed for the feminine to que (58a), and
final g to gue (486): thus,
IIl. f. TY1. f.
public, publique, public long, longue, long
And so oblong oblong. But grec Greek makes grecque
(not grèque); and blanc white, franc frank, sec dry, make
more irregularly blanche, franche, séche.
c. Adjectives ending in gu, add & for the feminine (7):
thus, aigu, aigué acute, ambigu, ambigué ambiguous.
107. Five adjectives have two different forms
34 - ADJECTIVES. [107
in the masculine, from one of which the feminine
is made ; they are : -
II1, f.
beau bel, belle, beautiful
nouveau nouvel, nouvelle, new, novel
vieux vieil, vieille old
fou fol, folle, foolish, mad
mou mol, molle, soft
a. Of the two masculine forms, the one in 1 is
used before a word beginning with a vowel (or h
mute): thus, unbel homme a handsome man, unfol
espoir a foolish hope, but un beau livre a handsome
book, Thomme est beau the man is handsome, and so
On;
108. Some adjectives form their feminine more
irregularly ; of these the commonest are:
Iſl. f. Iſle f.
frais, fraîche fresh faux, fausse, false
# doux, douce, sweet favori, favorite, favorite
109. The plural of an adjective is generally
formed as the plural of a noun of like ending
would be : thus,
a. A feminine adjective (since it ends in e) always adds '.
s for the plural. -
b. Masculines in general add s; but final s or x (z does
not occur) remain unchanged ; au and eu (not ou) add x;
all is usually changed to aux. * *
c. But bleu blue makes bleus; some in al make als (as
fatals, finals, ovals, etc.); of the adjectives having two
forms in the singular (107), the plural is made from the
form ending in u : thus, beaux, nouveaux, fous, mous.
POSITION. * - -
110. The adjective in French comes more
114] ADJECTIVES. 35
usually after than before the noun which it quali-
fies.
a. Adjectives have great freedom of position in French,
and it depends very much upon the euphony of the sentence
and the choice of the writer or speaker whether in a given
case the adjective shall precede or follow the noun. The
following rules point out some of the leading considerations
that help to determine the question.
111. A few of the commonest adjectives are
almost invariably placed before the noun.
a. These are especially the adjectives meaning
good and bad, large and Small, young and old, also
beau handsome, vrai true, and some others: thus,
un beau livre a handsome book, mon vieux cousin my
old cousin, des grands hommes great men.
112. a. An adjective denoting a physical quality, as
color or form, inclines to follow the noun ; one denoting an
ideal or moral quality, to precede it : thus, des fleurs rouges
Ted flowers, le bouillon chaud the hot broth, l'heureuse
fille the happy girl.
b. An adjective tends to follow the noun when taken in a
more literal sense, and to precede it when taken in a more
figurative sense : thus, un fossé profond a deep ditch, un
profond silence a deep silence.
c. In virtue of these differences, some adjectives have a
well-marked distinction of meaning, according as they pre-
cede or follow the noun : thus, mon cher ami my dear
friend, un livre cher an eaſpensive book, sa, propre main
his own hand, une main propre a clean hand.
113. An adjective, of either gender or number,
is often used as a noun. Thus, un riche a rich
nan, cette belle this beauty, les pauvres the poor.
114. Adjectives are often, as in English, modi-
fied or limited by nouns joined to them by a
preposition, especially de or à.
36 ADJECTIVES. [114
In the majority of cases, the French preposition corre-
sponds to the one that is used in English ; but : w
a. De is often used before a noun expressing source or
cause or motive, after an adjective which in English re-
quires a different preposition : thus, content de lui Satisfied
with him, faché de ma faute sorry for my fault, surpris de
cette nouvelle Surprised at this news.
b. De is sometimes used in the sense of in respect of, in
regard to, where the English uses a different preposition :
thus, riche d'attraits rich in attractions, curieux de
l'avenir curious about the future.
c. De is used before a numeral after an adjective signifying
quantity or dimension ; also after a comparative adjective,
to signify measure of difference. Thus, grand de six pieds
sia, feet tall, large de deux pouces two inches wide, Åge de
douze ans twelve years old, plus haut d'un pied higher by
a foot.
d. The preposition à to, toward, at, is sometimes used in
the sense of in respect to where English prefers a different
expression : thus, adroit au jeu skilled in play, àpre au
gain greedy for gain, il n'est bon a rien he is good for
*othèng. -
For demonstrative and interrogative adjectives, see 153-
4 and 159–60. .
EXERCISE 3.
A D J E C T I W E S .
WOCABULARY.
bon, bonne, good mauvais, mauvaise, bad
beau, bel, belle, beautiful joli, jolie pretty
grand, grande, big, large petit, petite, little, Small
vieux, vieil, vieille, old jeune, you?!g
heureux, heureuse, happy cher, chère, dear, eacpensive
blanc, blanche, white nouveau, nouvelle, new
la maison, the house la ville, the cºty, town
le jardin, the garden l'église (f.), the church
dans, prep., ºn toujours, adv., always
maintenant, adv., now très, adv., very
mon (m.), ma (f.), my aussi, adv., as, too, also
[Imperfect tenses of avoir and étre; see 186 and 194, also 187a.]
115] • ADJECTIVES. 37
I.
1. La jeune fille est-elle jolie ? 2. La petite fille
est jeune et jolie. 3. La nouvelle maison de mon
père est grande et le jardin est grand aussi. 4. Les
maisons de la grande ville sont très mauvaises. 5. Les
villes de la France sont grandes et belles. 6. Mon
père était un bel homme, mais il est maintenant très
vieux. 7. Nous avions de belles fleurs dans un petit
jardin. 8. Les jeunes filles ont des robes nouvelles.
9. La jeune femme a une robe très chère. 10. Le
vieil homme est mon cher père. 11. Les petits en-
fants avaient des fleurs blanches. 12. Nous avions
aussi de belles fleurs blanches. 14. Ils étaient dans la
vieille petite église blanche. 15. Les bons sont
toujours heureux.
II.
1. Were the little girls happy ? 2. The pretty
little girls were happy and good. 3. The white
flower is very pretty. 4. We had many pretty white
flowers in a little garden. 5. Were you in the little
new church ? 6. We were in the large old church.
8. My dear father's house was in the great city. 9.
The big book is the history of the happy life of a
good man. 10. My dear brother is very happy now.
11. He has a very, beautiful wife and three pretty
daughters. 12. My dear little daughter had a very
expensive white dress. 13. We had some new white
bread.*
COMPARISON OE ADJECTIVES.
115. Adjectives in French are for the most
• 97a,
38 - ADJECTIVES. [115
part not otherwise compared than by putting
before them adverbs meaning more, etc.
a. The comparative adverb is plus more, and
this is made superlative by prefixing to it the
definite article: thus, le (or la, les) plus the most.
b. We may also prefix moins less and le moins least to
an adjective, producing a comparison downwards, or of
diminution. -
116. Hence, examples of the Ordinary com-
parison of a French adjective are as follows:
beau, handsome plus beau, handsomer le plus beau, handsomest
jeune, young plus jeune, younger le plus jeune, youngest
aimable, amiable plus aimable, more le plus aimable, most
amºable amiable
117. But three adjectives have a special form
for the comparative, which then is made super-
lative by prefixing to it the definite article. They
are .
bon, good meilleur, better le meilleur, best
mauvais, bad pire, worse le pire, worst
petit, Small moindre, smaller le moindre, Smallest
118. Comparison of equality is expressed by
aussi as before the adjective. After the adjective,
both as and than are expressed by que. Thus:
aussi belle que ma soeur as beautiful as my Sister,
plus petit que mon frère smaller than my brother.
119. Special rules are:
a. The article showing the superlative has to be dropped
after a possessive : thus, mon plus jeune frère any youngest
brother (not distinguishable from my younger brother).
b. If a superlative adjective is put after a noun having
the definite article, the article must be repeated: thus,
121]
39
NUMERALS.
l'homme le plus savant the most learned man, la ville la
plus peuplee the most populous city.
c. After a superlative, the preposition de of, and not dans
$n, is used before a word of place : thus, le plus belhomme
du monde the handsomest mah in the world, la plus grande
ville de l'Europe the largest city in Europe. t
NUMERALS.
CARDINALS.
120. The names of numbers are as follows:
1 un 10 dix 61 soixante et un
2 deux 20 wingt 62 Soixante-deux
3 trois 30 trente 63 Soixante-trois
4 quatre 40 quarante 64 soixante-quatre
5 cinq 50 cinquante 65 Soixante-cinq
6 six 60 soixante 66 soixante-six
7 sept 70 soixante-dix 67 soixante-sept
8 huit 80 quatre-vingts 68 soixante-huit
9 neuf 90 quatre-vingt-dix 69 soixante neuf
10 dix 100 cent 70 soixante-dix
11 onze 101 cent un 71 soixante et onze
12 douze 102 cent deux 72 soixante-douze
13 treize 103 cent trois 73 soixante-treize
14 quatorze 200 deux cents 74 soixante-quatorze
15 quinze 201 deux cent un 75 soixante-quinze
16 seize 206 deux cent six 76 soixante-seize
17 dix-sept 1000 mille, mil 77 Soixante-dix-sept
18 dix-huit 2000 deux mille 78 soixante-dix-huit
79 soixante-dix-neuf
19 dix-neuf 1,000,000 un million
80 quatre wingts
20 wing: 2,000,000 deux millions
121. a. Un is masculine only, and forms the
feminine une; no other numeral makes a distinc-
tion of gender.
b. Vingt twenty, score, and cent hundred, are the
only numerals (below million) that make a plural :
40 NUMERALS, [121
thus, wingts, cents. This plural form is used when
score or hundred is multiplied by a preceding
numeral—not, however, if an added numeral fol-
lows: thus, -
cinq cents, five hundred cinq, gent dix, five hundred and ten
quatre-vingts, fou?'Score quatre-vingt-uń, eighty-one
122. The other odd numbers between the tens
are made in the same way as those for 61 to 69
in the table. *
Thus, vingt. et un 21, wingt-deux 22, trente-trois 33,
quarante-cinq 45, cinquante-huit 58, and so on.
a. A hypherisis always inserted between a ten
and a unit immediately following, but not when
et stands between sand it is not used after cent
or mille.
123. a. In giving dates, the briefer form mil
is used instead of mille: thus,
mil sept cent soixante-seize 1776
en mil huit cent quatre-vingt-cinq in 1885
Ç
b. In giving the time of day, o'clock is expressed
by heures, literally hours, and the parts of hours, in
the manner of the following examples: quelle heure
est-il what time is it 2 une heure one o’clock, trois
heures et demie half-past three, a six heures moins
un quart at a quarter before Sia, huit heures et wingt
minutes twenty minutes past eight. But douze heures
is not used, midi noon and minuit midnight being
used instead : thus, illest minuit et demie it is half
after twelve: see 129a.
c. For expressions of measure, see 114c.
127] ORDINALS 41
124. For times with a numeral is used fois:
thus, deux fois twice, cinq fois sept font trente-cinq
five times seven are (literally, make) thirty-five.
125. After plus more and moins less, before a
numeral, than is expressed by de; thus, plus de
trois ans more than three years, moins de dix minutes
less than ten minutes.
ORDINALS.
126. The ordinals are mostly formed from the
cardinals, whether simple or compound, by add-
ing the ending -ième, before which a final e of the
cardinal is omitted. But—
a. First is premier, and second is either second or
the regular deuxième—except in compound num-
bers, where first is unième, and Second is deuxième
Only. f
b. Cinq makes cinquième, with inserted u ; and
neuf makes neuvième, with change of f to V.
127. Examples of the Ordinals are:
1st premier 20th vingtième
| second 21st vingt et unième
( deuxième 33d trente-troisième
3d troisième 67th soixante-dix-septième
4th quatrième 99th quatre-vingt-dix-neuvième
5th cinquième 100th centième
6th sixième 1248th mille deux cent quarante-huitième
a. An ordinal is generally preceded by the
definite article, le or la or les; and premier and
second have a special feminine form ; thus, la
première, la seconde.
42 NUMERALS. [128
128. The cardinal numeral sometimes stands
in French where in English we use the Ordinal :
namely— -
a. In giving the day of the month, except the
first : thus, le deux janvier the Second of January, du
douze au vingt-trois avril from the 12th to the 23d of
April, le dix du mois the 10th of the month; but, le
premier mai the 1st of May. -
b. In giving the title of a sovereign, except the
first and sometimes the second : thus, Henri
quatre Henry the Fourth, Louis quatorze Louis
Fourteenth ; but, Charles premier Charles the First.
c. In other numerations also, where the number follows
the thing enumerated : thus, tome deux volume second,
chapitre quatre chapter fourth.
129. As in English, the ordinals are used also
as fractionals—but only from fifth upward: thus,
un cinquième a fifth part, trois wingtièmes three
twentieths. - z
a. For half the French has two words, moitié f.
\as noun, and demi (demie f.) as adjective. Demi
bofore a noun is joined to it with a hyphen, and
is not varied for gender. Thus, la moitié du
temps half the time, un demi-pied a half foot, une
demi-heure a half hour, une heure et demie an hour
and a half.
b. The words for third and fourth or quarter are
tiers and quart respectively: thus, trois et untiers
three and a third, an quart d'heure quarter of an
hour. -
129] ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS. 48
EXERCISE 4.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS.
VOCABULARY.
la famille, the family 1'an (m.), the year
l'heure ( f.), the hour le mois, the month
avril (m.), April juin (m.), June
juillet (m.), July la minute, the minute
le franc, the franc âgé, âgée, old, aged
riche, rich "haut, haute, high, tall
le pied, the foot non, mo
I.
1. Le garçon est-il aussi jeune que la fille ? 2. Non,
il est le plus âgé de la famille. 3. Les vieux livres sont
plus chers que les nouveaux. 4. La petite fille est
meilleure que mon grand fils. 5. Mon fils est le pire
des garçons. 6. L'Angleterre est moins grande que
la France, mais elle est le plus riche pays de l'Europe.
7. Il est cinq heures moins vingt minutes. , 8. Le
plus vieux des hommes est grand de six pieds. 9. Il
est l'homme le plus riche du pays; il a soixante mil-
lions de francs. 10. Le quinze avril, mil huit cent
quatre-vingt-dix. 11. La plus petite fille est âgée de
deux ans et demi. 12. Les cinq grands livres sont
, des histoires de la vie de Louis quatorze. 13. Nous
étions à l'église à midi moins un quart.
II.
1. I have the largest and the most beautiful garden
in the city. 2. The old church was larger than the
new church. 3. The old man Was richer than the
young man; he had 13,283 francs. 4. My house is
44 PRONOUNS. [130
43 feet high. 5. Have you a life of Louis XV. P 6.
He was the worst man in France. 7. It was half-
past three. 8. The 14th of July, 1789. 9. The 3d
of April, 1890. 10. June 21st, 1832. 11. My brother
was in Paris a year and a half. 12. He was twenty-
one years old, and he was ten years older than my
younger brother. 13. The children were in the
garden at a quarter before eight. 14. We were at
church half an hour. 15. I was as big as the boy, but
he was the oldest.
PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL AIDJTEC-
TIVES.
FERSONAT, PRONOUNS.
130. Many pronouns in French, especially the
personal pronouns, have a different form accord-
ing as they are used conjunctively or disjunc-
tº **
tively.
131. A conjunctive pronoun is one that is
immediately connected with a verb, as either its
subject or its direct or indirect object; any other
is disjunctive.
132. The subject-pronouns are:
IST PERS. 2D PERS. * 3D PERS.
SING. je, I tu, thout il, he , elle, she
PLUR. mous, we vous, you ils m., elles f., hey
a. In French, as in English, the pronoun of
the 2d person plural, vous you, is ordinarily used in
135] - PERSONAL PRON OUNS. 45
addressing anyone. Tu thou is, however, used when
speaking to little children or to intimate friends
and relations. When vous is used in addressing
a single person, an adjective or a participle agree-
ing with it is made singular.
133. The subject-pronoun stands in general
immediately before the personal verb, only the
negative me and the object-pronouns being al-
lowed to come in between the two.
a. But as in English, the subject-pronoun fol-
lows the verb in questions : see 192.
b. In a question, only the subject-pronoun
changes its place, everything else remaining as it
would be if the sentence were an assertion.
c. If the subject of a verb used interrogatively
is a noun, the noun is usually put first, and a
corresponding pronoun is put after the verb.
Thus, has the man a book 2 is not a l'homme un
livre? but l'homme a-t-ilun livre? (literally, the man,
has he a book 2)
134. Of the object-pronouns, direct and indi-
rect object, all the forms are these :
SINGULAR. I’LURAL.
1ST PERS. me, moi, me, to me nous, us, to us
2D “ te, toi, thee, to thee vous, you, to you
3D “ le, him, la, her; lui, to him or her les, them; leur, to them
135. The uses of the object-pronouns a Tê a S
follows:
a. Nous and vous are unvaried, standing in
every construction and position.
46 PRONOUNS. [135
b. Me and moi, and te and toi, are used either
as direct or as indirect object, me and te before
the verb, and moi and toi after it (for One excep-
tion, see 144b). Thus, tu m’aimes thou lovest me,
aime-moi love me, tu te donnes thou givest thyself,
donne-toi give thyself, vous me donnez you give to
Tne, donnez-moi give to me.
c. Le, la, and les are used as direct object only,
le being masculine, la feminine, and les of either
gender; lui and leur are used only as indirect
object, both being of either gender: thus, il
l'aime he loves him or her, aimez-le love him, je lui
donne I give to him or her, mous leur vendons we sell
to them, vendons-les let us sell them, vendons-leur let
w8 sell to them.
136. An object-pronoun, whether direct or
indirect object, stands in general immediately
before the governing verb–-in the compound.
tenses, immediately before the auxiliary; but
with this exception: that, if the verb is an impera-
tive affirmative, the pronoun stands instead direct-
ly after it (and is joined to it by a hyphen).
For examples, see above, 1356, c.
a. Nothing is allowed to come between the
verb and its pronoun-object ; the subject, and
the negative ne, when used, are placed outside of
them : thus, je ne vous donne pas le livre I do not
give you the book, mon ami ne t'a pas vu my friend
has not seen thee, meles aimez-vous pas do you not
139] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 47
love them 2 me l'aura-t-il pas fini will he not have fin-
ished it 2 -
b. If the verb is an imperative negative, the
object-pronoun precedes instead of following it :
thus, ne lui donnez pas le livre do not give him the
book, ne les aimez pas do not love them.
137. When a verb governs two object-pro-
nouns, one direct and the other indirect, they
are both together placed either before or after it,
according to the rules just given—that is, after it
in the imperative affirmative, otherwise before it.
a. As regards their position relative to one
another: before the verb the indirect-object pro-
noun, unless-of-the-third-person, precedes the
direct; but when both come after the verb, the
indirect always stands last: thus, je te le donne
I give it to thee, je le lui ai donné I have given it to
him, il ne nous le vendra pas he will not sell it to us,
ille leur vendra he will sell it to them, vendez-le-moi
sell it to me, donnez-le-lui give it to him.

b. A verb in French does not have two direct objects, and
almost never two indirect, unless one been or y (see 261).
138. Personal pronouns not immediately con-
nected with a verb, as either its subject or its di-
rect or indirect object, are called disjunctive, or
are said to be used disjunctively.
139. The disjunctive forms of the personal
pronouns are :
1ST PERS. 2D PERS. S. 3D PERS.
SING. moi, me toi, thee lui, him ; elle, her
PLUR. nous, us vous, you eux m., elles f., them
48 PRONOUNS. [140
140. The ordinary constructions of the dis-
junctive pronoun are these :
a. With a preposition: thus, a moi to me, de toi
of thee, avec lui with him, sans elle without her, pour
eux for them (m.), entre elles between them (f).
b. Used absolutely—that is, without any verb
expressed with which they are immediately con-
nected: thus, qui a dit cela who has said that 2
moi I; elle est plus grande que toi She is taller than
thou. Y
c. In combination with même self, to form em-
phatic pronouns corresponding to our myself,
thyself, etc.: thus, moi-même myself, lui-même him-
Self, vous-mêmes yourselves, elles-mêmes themselves.( f.);
but vous-même yourself, when used of a single
person.
d. As predicates after the impersonal c'est, ce sont, it is:
thus, c'est moi it is I, est-ce lui is it he 2 ce sont eux, ce
sont elles it is they (see 1566).
e. But after personal forms of être be, the conjunctive
pronoun of the direct object is used as predicate, especially
in the sense of it or so, standing for an adjective or noun
already expressed : thus, étès-vous heureux 2 pous le
sommes are you happy 2 we are so; la reine 2 je la Suis
the queen 2 I am she , and the French often uses le to re-
peat or to anticipate something stated in a preceding or
following clause, while the English omits it : thus, ils me
sont pas ici, je le vois they are not here, I See.
141. a. When more than one pronoun, or a pronoun and
noun, are subjects of the same verb, the pronoun has the
disjunctive form ; and if the two are not of the same
person, the compound subject is usually represented by a
suitable pronoun before the verb : thus, vous et moi (nous)
sommes amis you and I are friends, lui et son oncle sont
partis he and his ºwncle are gone.
143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 49
The same is necessary in the case of a compound object:
thus, je vous écoute, toi et lui et elle I lister to thee and
him and her.
b. If a subject-pronoun is separated from the verb by
anything but the negative ne and object-pronouns, it has to
take the disjunctive form ; thus, lui, saisissant un crayon,
écrivit he, seizing a pencil, wrote ; eux seuls sont WeIlliS
they alone have come. +
c. If a subject-pronoun is to be made emphatic, it is
usually repeated, in its disjunctive form, either before the
verb or after it : thus, moi, je l'ai fait I did it, je me le
crois pas, moi I do not believe it.
142. Besides the personal pronouns already
given, there is another, a reflexive pronoun of the
3d person, having the conjunctive form se and the
disjunctive soi (like me moi, te toi).
a. Se is used in the inflection of reflexive verbs (215), both
as direct and as indirect object, both as singular and as
plural ; soi is only singular, and usually relates to an in-
definite subject: thus, chacun pense à soi everyone thinks
of himself, n'aimer que soi to love only one's self.
143. There are also two words, en and y,
which have the value of genitive and dative cases,
respectively, of personal pronouns of the third
person. They are used chiefly of things, not of
persons (except of unspecified persons in the
plural).
a. En means of it, of them, and so on; it is the
equivalent of a pronoun with the preposition de
(de lui, d'elle, d'eux, d'elles). .*
b. Y means to it, to them, and so on ; it is the
equivalent of a pronoun with the preposition à
(à lui, a elle, a eux, a elles). -
c. Hence they are often used with verbs to represent
50 PRONOUNS. [144
nouns which, if expressed, would have to be connected
with the verbs by de and a respectively : thus, s'en ap-
procher to approach it (because one says s'approcher de
quelque chose to approach something), je vous en remercie
I thank you for it (because remercier de quelque chose),
j'en ris I laugh at it (becauserire de quelque chose), y ar-
racher to wrest from them (because arracher a quelqu'un
wrest from any one), j'y pense I think of it (because penser
â, quelque chose think of something)—and so on.
144. En and y are treated as conjunctive pro-
nouns, being always joined with the verb in the
sentence, whatever their logical connection, and
being put before or after the verb according to
the same rules as other object-pronouns (136):
thus, j'en suis certain I am certain of it, vous y átes
obéissant you are obedient to it.
a. When used along with other object-pronouns, they
stand last, whether before or after the governing verb : thus,
je l’y conduirai I will conduct him to it, donnez-lui-en give
him of it (some), je ne vous en donnerai pas I will not
give you of it (any).
b. After the verb as well as before it me and te are used
instead of moi and toi before en, and tisually before y :
thus, donnez-m'en give me of it (or some), rends-t'y betake
thyself to it (but sometimes rends-y-toi).
c. When y and en are used together, en follows y : thus,
ily en a there are some. -
d. En and y are originally adverbs, and are, especially
y there, not seldom used with that value. They have many
idiomatic uses.
145. En is often used partitively, standing for
a noun with the partitive preposition de. Thus,
avez-vous du pain have you bread 2 j'en ai; je vous
en donnerai, I have some, I will give you some.
a. Where the noun would have an adjective qualifying it,
the adjective takes the partitive preposition : thus, j'en ai
de bon I have some (that is) good (equivalent to j'ai de bon
150] POSSESSIVES. # S1
pain); woulez-vous des fleurs?' je vous en domnerai de
belles do you want flowers ? I will give you some handsome
O72&S.
POSSESSIVES.
146. In French is made a fuller distinction than in Eng-
lish between pronominal adjectives, accompanying an ex-
pressed noun which they qualify, and pronominal substan-
tives, or pronouns proper, standing for a noun not expressed.
The pronominal adjectives always qualify a following noun,
and are of the same gender and number with it.
147. The POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES are:
Sing. mon m., ma f.; plur. mes m.f., my
ton m., ta f.; tes m.f., thy
son m., sa f.; ses m.f., his, her, its
motre m.f.; nos m.f., our
votre m.f.; vos m.f., your
leur m.f.; leurs m.f., their
a. There is no distinction made in French between his
and her and its ; son, etc., has all these meanings, and, like
the other adjectives, is varied only to agree with the noun
which it qualifies. -
148. But the feminine singular forms ma, ta, sa
are not allowed before a word beginning with a
vowel (or h mute); instead are used mon, ton, son:
thus, mon amie my (female) friend, son aimable fille
his lovely daughter.
149. The possessives are repeated before every
noun that they qualify: thus, my father and
mother mon père et ma mère, her friends and rela-
tives ses amis et ses parents,
150. The possessive is often used in French, especially
in address, where it is omitted in English : thus, bonjour.
ma. Soeur good-day, Sister; oui, mon général yes, General,
a. On the other hand, the definite article often stands
52 PRONOUNS. [151
instead of the possessive (see 81a), or the meaning of the
possessive is expressed by an indirect object-pronoun or by
en : thus, il s'est cassé le bras he has b7'okem his arm, le
sol en est bon itS soil is g00d.
151. When used substantively, or without an
accompanying noun expressed, the possessives
have a special form and are always preceded by
the definite article : thus, -
le mien, la mienne, les miens (m.), les miennes ( f.), mine
le tien, la tienne, les tiens (m.), les tiennes (f.), thine
le sien, la sienne, les siens (m.), les siennes ( f.), his, hers, its
le nôtre, la nôtre, les nôtres (m. and f.), ours
le vôtre, la vôtre, , les vôtres (m. and f), yours
le leur, la leur, les leurs (m. and f.), theirs
152. The POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (as they may
be called) take the gender and number of the
object possessed, and must be used whenever the
noun expressing that object does notimmediately
follow them : thus, mon chapeau et le sien my hat
and his (or hers), son chapeau et le mien his (or her)
hat and mine, nous avons nos chapeaux et ils ont les
leurs we have our hats and they have theirs.
EXERCISE 5.
PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
VOCABULARY .
aimer, love (like donner) parler, talk (like donner)
le frère, the brother la sœur, the sister
l'ami (m.), friend l'amie ( f.), friend
avec, with le monsieur, the gentleman, sir
ne - -- pas, mot (see 241) ne - -- point, mot at all
[Present tense of donner give, see 200.]
152] POSSESSIVES. 53
I.
1. Aimez-vous votre mêre ? 2. Je l’aime et elle
m’aime aussi. 3. Donnez-vous la fleur à votre ami?
4. Je la lui donne. 5. Nous lui parlons, mais nous ne
l'aimons point. 6. L’homme donne-t-il du pain à
ses enfants P 7. Il en a, mais il ne leur en donne
pas. 8. Moi, j'en ai aussi, et je leur en donne.
9. Ton frère est-il plus grand que toi P 10. Non, je
suis aussi grande que lui. 11. Je n'étais pas à Paris
en juin, jºy Étais en juillet. 12. Mon amie et la vötre
y Étaient avec moi. 13. J’ai beaucoup de livres, et
vous en avez aussi beaucoup. 14. Nous avons une
histoire de France, et nous vous la donnons. 15. Wous
parlez de l’histoire, mais nous n'en parlons pas.
II.
1. Was your friend at the church with you ? 2.
She was there (at it) with me, and your brother was
also with us. 3. Do you give bread to the poor
children P 4. We give them some, and they have
much of it now. 5. The children have many flowers,
and they give of them to the poor. 6. Is thy brother
older than thou? 7. He is bigger than I, but I am
older than he. 8. I love you ; do you love me? 9.
I do not love you. 10. Your sister is prettier than
ours, but mine is a good girl and I love her. 11. He
loves me, but he does not speak to me. 12. I have a
flower; I give it to her. 13. She loves good books,
and she gives some to her little brothers. 14. You
do not give them to them, you give them to me.
54 PRONOUNs. [153
IDEMONSTRATIVES.
153. The DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES, meaning
this or that and these or those, are as follows:
ce or cet m., cette f.; ces m.f. plural.
Cet m. is used when the following word begins
with a vowel (or h mute); otherwise, ce. Thus:
ce chapeau, thºs (or that) hat ces chapeaux, these (or those) hats
cette robe, this (etc.) dress ces robes, these (etc.) dresses
cet arbre, this (etc.) tree cet homme, this (etc.) man
cet honnéte homme, thºs (etc.) homest fellow
154. When the demonstrative is meant to be
emphatic, or when this and that are to be dis-
tinguished from one another, the adverbs ci here.
and lathere are added respectively to the qualified
noun; and they are joined to it in writing by a
hyphen : thus, ce chapeau-ci this hat (literally, this
hat here), ces robes-lä, those dresses, cet homme-ci et
cette femme-lâ this man and that woman.
155. The DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS are :
ce, this, that, it (indefinite and neuter); celui m., celle
f., this or that one; ceux m., celles f. , these, those.
a. To all of them may be added the demon-
strative adverbs -ci and -la.
156. Ce has the value of a pronoun as subject
of étre be in its various tenses, and as antecedent
of the relative pronouns qui, que, etc.
a. In the former case, it is generally to be ren-
dered by it in English: thus, c'est moi it is I, ce
fut son devoir it was his duty, q'a été lui it was (has
157] DEMONSTRATIVES. 55
been) he, ç'aurait été dommage it would have been a
pity (see 6). ' . -
b. If the verb after ce is followed by a plural noun, or a
plural pronoun of the third person, it is itself made plural :
thus, ce furent elles it was they, ce seront mes amis it
will be my friends.
c. Ce is much more often used than il with the 3d
persons of être in the sense of it is, it was, etc. In fact,
il is hardly used except in expressions of time, before an ad-
jective followed by a logically subject-clause (infinitive or
relative) which the il anticipates, and in the parenthetic il
est vrai, meaning to be Sure.
, Thus, il est temps de partir it is time to leave, il est six
heures it is 6 o'clock, il est difficile de vous nlaire it is
hard to please yOu (i.e. to please you is hard), chèrement,
il est vrai, mais fort loin at a dear rate, to be sure, but
very far Qff,-but, vous avez tort, c'est évident you are
wrong, it (that) is plain, faites cela, ce n'est pas difficile
do that, it is mot hard, ce fut ma faute it was my fault,
c'est votre ami qui est parti it is your friend that has
left.
d. Ce is also sometimes used With pouvoir and devoir as
auxiliaries of être, and in a few phrases with sembler seem :
thus, ce pouvait être lui it might be he, ce doit être it
must be, ce me semble it Seems to me.
For ce as antecedent of a relative, see 175.
157. The compounds of ce with the demon-
strative adverbs are written ceci and cela (with-
out grave accent; it is often contracted collo-
quially to ça); they mean this and that in an in-
definite way, without reference to any particular
object expressed. They are used in all construc-
tions. Thus : cela ne me plaît pas that does not
please me, je ne veux pas ceci ; donnez-moi cela I don't
want this ; give me that, que dites-vous de cela what
do you say about that ?
l-
56. PRONOUNS. [157
a. In a question cela is divided into ce. . . la : thus,
est-ce lä votre livre is that your book #
158. The other demonstratives, celui etc., dis-
tinguish gender and number, and are used of
persons and of things, with more direct reference
to something already expressed or distinctly un-
derstood. They are used either alone or with ci
and lå added to them by a hyphen : thus, celui
this or that One, celui-ci this one, celui-lā that one.
a. The simple celui celle ceux celles are used
only as antecedents of a following relative, and
before the preposition de in possessive phrases:
thus, celui qui estmon ami he who is my friend, mes
amis et ceux de mon frère my friends and my broth-
er's (literally, and those of my brother), ma robe et
celle de ma sceur my dress and my sister's.
b. In all other constructions, the compounds
celui-ci, celui-lâ, etc., are used—as subject, as ob-
ject, after prepositions, and so on; thus, voici
deux fleurs; woulez-vous celle-ci ou celle-lä here are
two flowers ; will you have this one or that one 2 ce
livre-ci est à moi; je ne sais rien de celui-lä, this book
belongs to me, I know nothing of that one.
c. As the last example shows, the demonstrative adjective
is to be used when there is a noun with it for it to qualify,
but the demonstrative pronoun to represent the noun, when
the latter is omitted.
d. Celui-ci etc. often mean the latter, and celui-lâ, etc.
the former.
INTERROGATIVES.
159. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE, meaning
which or what, is:
163] INTERROGATIVES. 57
Sing. quel m., quelle f.; plur. quels m., quelles f.
Thus: quel livre avez-vous which (or what) book have
gyou ? quelles fleurs sont sur la table what flowers are on
the table 2
160, a. The interrogative adjective is also used
in exclamation : thus, quelle bonté what goodness /
quels beaux livres what beautiful books /
b. The indefinite article, sometimes added in English after
what, is not expressed in French: thus, quel bel homme
what a handsome man /
161. The INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS are :
qui, who 2 whom 2 what 2 quoi, what ? -
que, what 2 lequel etc., which 2 -
162. Qui is hardly used except of persons. It
stands for all genders and numbers, and in all
constructions—as subject, object, predicate, after
a preposition, etc. Thus: quiest là who is there 2
qui cherchent-ils, whom do they seek 2 qui étes-vous
who are you ? a qui est ce livre-lâ to whom does that
book belong 2
a. Qui is sometimes, but only rarely, used as subject;
in the sense of what 2 Generally, the phrase qu’est-ce qui
what is that which or what is it that is employed instead.
Thus: qui vous améne what brings you here 2 qu’est-ce
qui vous trouble what troubles you ? (literally, what is it
that troubles you ?)
163. Que and quoi what P are also without dis-
tinction of gender or number, but are used only
of things; que is conjunctive (131), and quoi is
disjunctive (like me moi, etc.).
a. Que is only object of a verb, or predicate
with an intransitive verb: thus, que woulez-vous
what do you want 2 que nous dit cet homme what
58 PRONOUNS. [163
does this man say to us ? qu'est-ce or qu'est-ce que
c'est what is it? que sert-il Qf what use is it ?
b. Quoi is used absolutely, and with a preposi-
tion : thus, elle vous a donné—quoi she has given
you-what ? de quoi parle-t-il Qf what is he speak-
, ing ?
c. Both que and quoi are frequent in exclamation : thus,
que de fois je l'ai vu how many times I have seen him !
quoi de plus heureux u'hat more fortunate / quoi! vous y
êtes encore what / you are here still ?
d. Que is often also an adverb, meaning hou ? why ?:
thus, que vous êtes belle how handsome you are / que
parlez-vous si haut why do you speak so loud ?
164, Lequel is made up of the interrogative ad-
jective quel and the definite article ; it is written
as if one word, but both its parts are inflected for
gender and number : thus,
Sing. lequel m., laquelle f.; Plur. lesquels m., lesquelles f.
They are used in all constructions, in the sense
of which ? which one ? what one ? Thus : voici
deux livres : lequel choisissez-vous here are two books :
. which do you choose ? laquelle de ses sœurs est mariée
which of his sisters is married ? par lequel de ces
chemins by which one Qf these roads ?
a. The article in lequel etc. , also combines with the
· prepositions de and à just as when it stands alone, mak-
ing duquel, desquels, desquelles; auquel, auxquels, aux-
quelles : thus, duquel de vos amis parlez-vous of which
of your friends do you speak ? auxquelles de ces filles les
a-t-il donnés to which of these girls has /2e given themn ?
165. After some interrogative Words-the pronouns qui
and que, the adjective quel, and the adverbs oû uſhere ?
quand when ? comment how ? combien how much, houy
many ?—a subject-noun is allowed to be itself put after the
166] DEMONSTRATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES. 59
verb in asking a question : thus, que veut cette femme
what does this woman want ? où est notre ami where is
our friend? quel livre a l'écolier what book has the
Scholar ?
166. It is common in French to use paraphrases in ask-
ing questions : thus, qu'est-ce que vous avez what is it
that you have ? for qu'avez-vous u'hat have you ? qui est-ce
qui vend who is it that sells ? for qui vend who sells ? and
the like ; also est-ce que vous avez is it [the case] that you
have ? for avez-vous have you ? and especially est-ce que
j'aime instead of aimé je, and the like.
EXERCISE 6.
DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
VOCABULARY.
· chercher, seek (like donner) travailler, work (like donner)
la main, the hand ne . . . jamais, never (see 244)
la dame, the lady · madame (f.), madam
propre, own, clean oui, ye8
I.
1. Est-ce là votre père ? 2. Non, monsieur, ce n'est
pas mon père, c'est mon frère. 3. Qui sont ces
hommes-là ? 4. Ce sont les deux frères de cet
homme-ci ; celui-ci travaille toujours, mais celui-là ne
travaille jamais. 5. Quels livres cherchez-vous ? 6.
Je ne cherche point ceux-ci, je cherche mes propres
livres et ceux de ma sœur. 7. J'aime ces robes-ci,
mais je n'aime point celles de cette dame. 8. Qui
est-ce là ? C'est moi, madame. 9. Qu'est-ce que vous
avez dans la main, et qui vous le donne ? 10. Je ne
vous donne pas ceci, mais je vous donne cela. 11.
Laquelle des fleurs aviez-vous ? 12. Cette fleur blanche
est la mienne. 13. Qui me parle et de quoi parle-t-il ?
14. Il nous parle de cet homme et de ces enfants.
*,
60 PRONOUNS. [166
II.
1. Is that your house P 2. Yes, madam, it is my
house, and this one is also mine. 3. This one is
prettier than my father's. 4. This lady is handsome,
but I do not like that one. 5. Which child do you
love P 6. I love these children, but I do not love
those. 7. Who is this child? 8. It is the son of that
man. 9. What are you seeking P 10. I am seeking
my horses and my brother's. 11. Of whom are you
speaking P 12. I am not speaking of this, I am
speaking of that. 13. To which of the boys are you
speaking, and who is speaking to you ? 14. I am
speaking to this one. 15. This man and this woman
and these children were in that church.
RELATIVES.
167. All the interrogative pronouns are used
also as relatives, but with some notable differ-
ences from their use as interrogatives.
168. By far the commonest relatives are qui
and que, qui standing as subject and que as direct
object of a verb. Both of them signify either
persons or things, of any gender or number. Thus:
l'enfant qui pleure the child that cries, des oiseaux
qui volent birds that fly, le livre que vous avez the
book which you have, les amis que nous aimons the
friends whom we love. -
a. Que is also sometimes predicate with an intransitive,
especially Étre: thus, imbécile que vous étes fool that you
are, ce qu'il nous faut what we lack. \
b. The participle of a compound tense following que
· 171] RELATIVES. 61
agrees in gender and number (191a) with the word to which
que relates : thus, les gants qu'il a achetés the gloves that
he has bought, les fleurs que nous avions vues the flowers
2Uhich we had Seen.
c. A verb having qui as subject is of the person of its an-
tecedent: thus, moi qui suis I who am, toi qui as thou that
haSt, etc. -
169, Qui is also used with prepositions, but
generally only of persons : thus, l'homme à qui je
l'ai donné the man to whom I have given it, les amis
chez qui vous demeurez the friends with whom you
live. - -
170. a. Lequel etc. is used with prepositions
of objects other than persons : thus, le chien
auquel j'ai donné à manger the dog to which I have
given (something) to eat, les maisons dans lesquelles
vous demeurez the houses in which you dwell.
b. But lequel etc. is also used as subject or direct object
of a Verb, in place of qui or que—generally, however, only
When there is special reason for distinguishing the gender
and number of the person orthing referred to : thus, voilà
l'ami de ma mère, lequel vient me voir here is my motherºs
' J'riend, who comes to see me (where qui, if used, might seem
to refer to mère mother).
171. Quoi, when used as relative, is more often
a compound relative (or relative implying also its
antecedent), and taken in a general or indefinite
sense : thus, après quoi, il s'en alla after which, he
went Qff, je ne sais quoi I don't know what, voilà de quoi
il parle toujours that is what he is always talking
about.
a. De quoi, before an infinitive, means wherewith : thus,
j'ai de quoi vous amuser I have wherewith to amuse you
(the means of amusing you).
|
62 PRONOUNS. ' [171
*N
\.
\
\.
b. The interrogative adjective quel is also sometimes used
with compound relative Value : thus, je ne sais quel livre
il a, I don't know which book he has.
172. Instead of qui Qr lequel with preceding de
is often used dont, #
whose : thus, l'homme dont v Tſez the man of

whom you speak, notre ami, dont le fils est ici our
friend, whose son is here.
a. If the word on which dont is dependent is object of a
verb, it takes its regular place after the verb, however far
separated from the relative : thus, la femme dont vous
avez reçu la lettre the woman whose letter you have re-
ceived, le livre dont je me connais pas le titre the book of
vhich I do not know the title.
173. The adverb où where is also often used almost as a
relative pronoun, meaning to or at or in which, and the
like : thus, les honneurs où vous aspirez the honors to
which you aspire, la douleur où je suis plongé the grief
into which I am plunged. And d'où means from which or
whence, and par oû by which, by which route, etc.
174. Quiconque whoever, anyO72e ?UhO, is an indefinite
relative, generally without antecedent expressed : thus,
quiconque ment sera puni whoever lies Shall be punished.
175. The pronoun used as antecedent of a rela-
| tive (as already pointed out, 156, 158a) is not the
personal, as in English he who, they who, and so
on, but the demonstrative, ce or celui etc.
a. Ce qui and ce que answer to English what
or that which, the one as subject, the other as ob-
ject (or sometimes predicate) of a verb : thus, dites-
moi ce qui vous trouble tell me what troubles you,
dites-moi ce que vous voulez tell me what you wish,
faites ce que je vous dis do what I tell you.
b. Celui qui or que etc. means in like manner he
180] INDEFINITES. 63
who, the One which, and so On : thus, celui qui est
dans les cieux he who is in the heavens, celle que vous
aimez she whom you love.
176. Note that the relative, often omitted in
English, must always be expressed in French :
thus, the friends I love les amis que j'aime, the books
he has bought les livres qu'il a achetés. -
177. Qui, quoi, and quel, when followed by que before a
subjunctive, correspond to whoever and whatever with the
subjunctive in English ; qui being used relating to persons,
quoi as object relating to things, and quel as predicate ad-
jective : thus, qui que vous soyez, quoi que vous fassiez,
quels que soient vos talents whoever you may be, what-
ever you may do, whatever be your talents, quoi qu’il en
soit whatever the case may be.
a. The same phrases are used sometimes in the sense of
any one soever, anything whatever, and the like : thus, il
ne connait qui que ce soit he knows nobody at all.
INDEFINITES.
178. A few special uses of the indefinite pro-
nouns and adjectives call for notice here.
a. On one, they, people is used as an indefinite
subject : thus, on dit One says, people Say, they say.
L’on is often used instead of on after a vowel
sound, especially after et, ou, où, que, si; but not
if the following word begins with l.
179. Aucun and nul not any, no (fem. aucune,
nulle) are used both adjectively and substantively.
They both require a ne before the verb: see 244d.
Tā).T. AirETEF-may-batsed as adſºr%
or substantive. It combines with un in several
phases: thus, l'un et l'autre the one and the other,

64 PRONOUNS. [180
i.e. both, l'un ou l'autre either, ni l'un ni l'autre
neither.
b. It is sometimes added to nous or vous expletively, or
simply to emphasize the distinction of us or you from
others : thus, nous autres Français we Frenchmen, vous
autres Anglais you English. .
c. Autre chose anything else is common with a negative
verb in the sense of nothing else. -
181. Quelque some, quelqu'un some one, quelque
chose Something. gr
a. Quelque is more limited in meaning than the parti-
tive (see 95) and may be rendered by a little, a few : thus,
des pommes Some appleS, quelques pommes a feu apples.
b. The negative cOrrelatives to quelqu'un and quelque
chose are personne and rien. These are used not only
where the negation is distinct or distinctly expressed, but
also often where a degree of negative sense isimplied: thus,
sans voir personne u)ith0ut Seeing any One, je le défie de
rien dire de moi I defy him to Say anything of me.
c. Quelque . . .. que stands in French in an attributive
sense, directly qualifying the noun expressed, for the
English whatever. It is also used adverbially in the sense
of however, and is then, of course, invariable : thus,
quelques talents que vous ayez u'hatever talents you may
have, quelque grands que soient vos talents however great
your talents may be. (For the subjunctive With quelque—
que etc. see 272a.)
| 182. Tout all, every (f toute, m. pl. tous, ºjf pl.
toutes).
a. Tout means all when followed by an article : thus,
toute la ville all the city (the whole city), toute ville every "
city.
b. Tout is more general and inclusive than chaque : thus,
tout homme est mortel ; chaque homme a son caractère
à lui every man is mortal ; each man has his own character.
c. Tout le monde (literally all the world) is much used
for everybody, and tous les deux, tous deux for both.
182] RELATIVES AND INDEFINITES. 65
EXERCISE 7.
RELATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
VOCABULARY.
le gant, the glove l'école (f.), the school
la chambre, the room le fruit, the fruit
ici, adv., here oû, adv., where
I.
1. Lequel de vos amis aimez-vous ? 2. J'aime
tous ceux qui m'aiment aussi. 3. Est-ce que ce sont
vos filles qui sont à l'école ? 4. Oui, monsieur, l'une et
l'autre y sont. 5. J'aime les fleurs que vous me
donnez, et j'aime aussi celui qui me les donne.
6. Que cherchez-vous ? 7. Je cherche les gants que
j'avais à (in) la main. 8. Les gants dont vous parlez
sont dans la chambre dans laquelle nous étions.
9. Le livre dont vous me parlez n'est pas ici. 10.
Où est mon chapeau ? On le cherche, monsieur. 11.
Nul de mes amis n'est ici. 12. Tout le monde est
maintenant à Paris. 13. Qui est l'homme à qui vous
parlez ? 14. Je vous donne ce que j'ai dans la main ;
c'est tout ce que j'ai.
II.
1. What are you looking for ? 2. I am looking for
my daughter who was here. 3. She whom you seek
is not here. 4. Have you the books of which you
are speaking ? 5. I have all those of which I speak.
6. All the fruit which is here is from (de) my garden.
7. This gentleman has a house which is very beauti-
ful, and in which are many rooms. 8. Who is the
boy With whom you are talking ? 9. I am talking
66 - VERBS. [183
with a little boy whom I love much. 10. Are you
looking for the gloves which were in your hand P 11.
The gloves are not here, but some one is looking for
them. 12. I am giving the flowers which I have in
my hand to the sister of the girl who is here. 13. I
give you all I have.
VERBS.
183. The simple forms of the French verb are
the PRESENT, IMPERFECT, PRETERIT, FUTURE, and CON-
DITIONAL, the IMPERATIVE, the PRESENT and IM-
PERFECT of the subjunctive mode, the INFINITIVE,
and the two PARTICIPLES, PRESENT and PAST. The
uses of the tenses correspond in general to those
of the English tenses, but the imperfect ex-
presses continued past action : thus, il avait he
was having, kept having, used to have, etc.; while
the preterit expresses simple past action, with
nothing else implied (see also 264).
184. Compound forms for all the parts of a
French verb (except the imperative and the past
participle) are made, as in English, by adding its
past participle to the various forms of an auxil-
iary verb. The auxiliary is usually avoir have ;
but some verbs take instead Étre be (see 195).
a. Hence, to make any given compound form, the corre-
sponding simple form of avoir (or sometimes of être) is to
be taken, and the past participle of the principal verb added
to it.
b. It must always be borne in mind that in any compound
form it is the auxiliary that is the real verb, the added par-
186] THE AUXILIARIES AvoiR AND £TRE. 67
ticiple being only a verbal adjective. All rules, therefore,
as to the place of negative words, subject and object pro-
nouns, and so on, given with reference to the verb, apply to
the auxiliary and not to the participle in compound forms.
185. The compounds of the present and im-
perfect tenses are best called, as in English, the
PERFECT and PLUPERFECT; that of the preterit, the
PAST ANTERIOR; those of the future and condition-
al, the FUTURE PERFECT and CONDITIONAL PERFECT.
a. In many grammars, the indicative perfect is called
the past indefinite (Fr. passé indéfini). It is very often
used where in English we have the preterit ; and especially
of anything that has happened during this day, or during
any period of which the present is viewed as a part.
THE AUXILIARIES AVoIR AND £TRE.
186. The compound forms of avoir have are
made, as in English, with avoir itself as auxiliary.
The simple and compound forms are given to-
gether in full below.
COMPLETE CONJUGATION OF avoir have. .
INFINITIVE. PERFECT INFINITIVE.
avoir, have, to have avoir eu, to have had
PRESENT PARTICIPLE. PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
ayant, having ... " ayant eu, having had
4 ºt *. -
PAST (or PASSIVE) PARTICIPLE.
eu, had
: INDICATIVE.
PRESENT. PERFECT.
j’ai, I have * < . j’ai eu, I have had
tu as, thou hast tu as eu, thou hast had
ila, he has il a eu, he has had
nous avons, we have nous avons eu, we have had
vous avez, you have vous avez eu, you have had
ils ont, they have ils ont eu, they, have had
68 · · VERBs.
[186
- * f ? # , ; teº • ^ • . # #
zº#. [ # # ((. º, .^ #
#. ? **...
ºjº
IMPERFECT.
., ^
PLUPERFECT.
j'avais, I had, was having, etc. j'avais eu, I had had
tu avais, thou hadst, etc.
il avait, he had, etc.
nous avions, we had, etc.
vous aviez, you had, etc.
ils avaient, they had, etc.
PRETERIT.
j'eus, I had
tu eus, thou hadst
il eut, he had
nous eûmes, we had
vous eûtes, you had
ils eurent, they had
- E'UTURE.
, j'aurai, I shall have
tu auras, thou wilt have
il aura, he will have
nous aurons, we shall have
vous aurez, you will have
ils auront, they will have
CONDITIONAL.
j'aurais, I should have
tu aurais, thou wouldst have
il aurait, he would have
nous aurions, we should have
vous auriez, you would have
ils auraient, they would have
tu avais eu, thou hadst had
il avait eu, he had had
nous avions eu, we had had
vous aviez eu, you had had
ils avaient eu, they had had
PAST ANTERIOR.
j'eus eu, I had had
tu eus eu, thou hadst had
il eut eu, he had had
nous eûmes eu, we had had
vous eûtes eu, you had had
ils eurent eu, they had had
FUTURE PERFECT.
j'aurai eu, I shall have had
tu auras eu, thou wilt have had
il aura eu, he will have had
nous aurons eu, we shall have had
vous aurez eu, you will have had
ils auront eu, they will have had
CONDITIONAL PERFECT.
j'aurais eu, I should have had
tu aurais eu, thou wouldst have
had . •.
il aurait eu, he would have had
· nous aurions eu, we *should have
had -
vous auriez eu, you would have
had
ils auraient eu, they would have
/iad
IMPERATIVE.
.
aie, have, have thou
ayons, let us have
ayez, have, have ye
1871 THE AUXILIARIES Avoir AND £TRE. 69
t SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT. PERFECT.
quej'aie, that I may have que j’aie eu, that I may have had
que tu aies, that thou mayest que tu aies eu, that thou mayest
have - have had
qu'il ait, that he may have qu'il ait eu, that he may have had
que nous ayons, that we may que nous ayons eu, that we may
have have had
que vous ayez, that you may que vous ayez eu, that you may
have have had
qu'ils aient, that they may have qu'ils aient eu, that they may etc.
IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT.
que j'eusse, that I might have que j'eusse eu, that I might have
had 4
que tueusses, that thou mightest quetueusses eu,that thou mightest
have have had
qu'il eit, that he might have qu'il eit eu, that he might have
had
que mous eussions, that we might que nous eussions eu, that we
have m?ght have had
que vous eussiez, that you might que vous eussiez eu, that you
have 'might have had
qu'ils eussent, that they might qu'ils eussent eu, that they might
have have had
187. a. Every imperfect in the language without excep-, .
tion is inflected with the endings -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez, V
-aient.
b. All preterits in the language, without exception, have
the plural endings -mes, 7tes, -rent, and before the first
two of these endings they have a circumflexed vowel (either
fi, or ā, or i); and all excepting those of the first regular
conjugation (200) have -s, -s, -t in the singular.
c. Every future in the language, without exception, is in-
flected like that of avoir, with the endings -ai, -as, -a, -ons,
-ez, -ont, and with r before the endings.
d. Every conditional in the language, without exception,
is inflected like that of avoir, with the endings -ais, -ais,
-ait, -ions, -iez, -aient—which are precisely the same with
\
*A
70 WERBS. [187
the imperfect endings; and these endings are invariably
preceded by r.
e. While the English imperative may be used either with
, or without a subject expressed, the French never allows
one. The third persons imperative are supplied from the
present subjunctive. * -- ~~~~ w
188. a. It is customary to prefix que that to the inflec-
tion of the subjunctive tenses in French grammars, because
a subjunctive usually, though not always, has that con-
junction before it.
b. The 3d persons of the present subjunctive are often
used in an imperative sense.
c. Every imperfect subjunctive in the language, without
exception, is inflected with the endings -sse, -sses, -t,
-ssions, -ssiez, -ssent, and with a circumflexed vowel (fl or
ă or i) before the t of the 3d singular.
d. The subjunctive tenses are by no means always to be
rendered in English with the auxiliaries may and might,
but sometimes with others, as should and would, and some-
times by simple subjunctive or even indicative forms (see
268 etc.).
189. a. The infinitive always ends in r or re.
b. The “sign of the infinitive,” corresponding to the
English to, is either a to or (quite as often) de of. As to
the use of the one or the other of these, see 277–80. But the
French infinitive is often also (like the English) used with-
Out a sign, as Subject of a verb, after various verbs, and
after prepositions, especially pour in order to (literally for,
jor to): thus, parler est mieux to speak is better, il veut
avoir he wishes to have, pour étre in order to be.
190 a. The present participle invariably ends in ant.
b. This participle, when used as a participle, has no varia-
tion for gender or number. Often, however, it is used as
an adjective, and then is varied like any other adjective :
thus, une charmante femme a charming woman, des yeux
perçants piercing eyes.
c. This participle (i.e. apparently: really a gerund of the
same form) is also very commonly used after the preposition
en: thus, en étant in being, in the act of being, while being
(and often best rendered being simply).
193] THE AUXILIARIES AVoIR AND £TRE. 71
191. The past participle is variable for gender and num-
ber, like any ordinary adjective. -
a. It is for the most part unvaried, or has its mascu-
line singular form, in the compound forms of the verb when
made with avoir. But it is a rule in French that if a com-
pound verb-form has a direct object, and that object stands
before the verb, the participle is made to agree with it in
gender and number : thus, quels livres avez-vous eus
what books have you had 2 les fleurs que j'ai eues the
flowers which I have had, and so on.
192. In French (as in English) the subject-
pronoun is put after the verb in asking a question;
and it must always be joined to the verb by a
hyphen.
a. If the 3d pers, sing. Of any verb ends in a
vowel, a t is added to it, with a hyphen before
and after, whenever it is followed by the pronoun
il or elle (or by on: 178).
PRES.. INDIC.
ai-je, have I? avons-nous, have we ?
as-tu, hast thou ? avez-vous, have you ?
a-t-il, has he # ont-ils, have they?
PLUPERF. INDIC.
avais-je eu, had I had 3 avions-nous eu, had we had 3
avais-tu eu, hadst thou had 2 aviez-vous eu, had you had 3
avait-il eu, had he had 3 avaient-ils eu, had they had #
193. But if the subject of a verb used inter-
rogatively is a noun, the noun is generally put
first, and then a corresponding pronoun is put
after the verb : that is, the subject is first stated,
and then the question is asked about it by means
of a pronoun.
Thus, has the man a book 2 is not a l'homme un livre;
72 · VERBS. | [193
but l'homme a-t-il un livre ? (literally, the man, has he a
book ?)
For the negative with the verb, see 241 etc.
EXERCISE 8.
AV0IR.
VOCABULARY. -
hier, yesterday - aujourd'hui, to-d g^
demain, to-morrow ^ _ assez, enough ^ º . " -
le morceau, the piece -- l'argent (m.), money, silver /
ne . .. rien, nothing(see 244) ne . .. plus, no longer (see 244)
si, if quoique, although (see 272) c^
- - I.
1. J'ai un morceau de pain et j'aurai aussi de la
viande. 2. Avez-vous eu assez de pain? 3. Nous en
aurons eu assez. 4. Qu'aviez-vous dans la main ? 5.
Nous n'avons plus les fleurs que nous avons eues hier.'
6. Si nous n'avions pas d'argent, nous n'aurions pas
de pain. 7. Cet homme a eu beaucoup d'argent,
mais il n'en aura plus. 8. S'il avait eu d'argent, il
aurait eu un beau cheval. 9. Quoique cette jeune
fille ait de très belles robes, elle n'est pas heureux.
10. Elle aura demain tous les livres que j'ai eus hier.
11. Quoiqu'ils les aient tous, je n'en aurai pas. 12.
Ayez du pain, monsieur. 13. Nous avons eu du pain,
mais il n'a rien eu.
II.
1. Who has the books which you had yesterday ?
2. We had some books yesterday, but we shall not
have any (en) to-morrow. 3. Although these women
have pretty flowers in their garden, they do not give
194] THE AUXILIARIES Avoir AND £TRE. 78
me any. 4. Will the boy have a new hat? 5. If he
had had money, he would have had a new hat. 6.
Though we have plenty of money, we have no horses.
7. We shall have some horses to-morrow. 8. Have a
piece of bread. 9. We shall have had bread enough;
but we shall have no meat. 10. If we had money, we
should have a new house. 11. Although we no longer
had money, we should have bread enough. 12. We
shall have nothing. 13. He had had the horses yes-
terday, but they will have had them to-day.
194, Étre be also makes its compound forms
with the help of avoir. Its full conjugation is as
follows:
INFINITIVE.
JPERFECT INFINITIVE.
être, be, to be
PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
étant, being
avoir 6té, to have been
PERFEGT PARTICIPIE.
* * * * * *.*
ayant été, having been
PAST (or PASSIVE) PARTICIPLE.
été, been
INDICATIVE.
~PRESENT. PERFECT.
je suis, I am j'ai été I have been
tu es tu as été
il est il a 6té
110tlS SOLITITIOS nous avons été
vous étes vous avez été
ils sont ils ont été t
IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT.
j'étais, I was, used to be, etc.
tu 6tais
il était
nous étions
vous étiez
ils étaient
j'avais été, I had been
... .ºz. -- ~~~~
tu avais été
il avait été
nous avions été
vous aviez été
ils avaient été
| 74
VERBS. [194
IPRETERIT.
je fus, I was
tu fus
il fut
nous fûmes
vous fûtes
ils furent
H'UTURE.
je serai, I shall b6
tu seras
il sera
I10l1S S6I'0I1S
VOUIS S6j'eZ
ils seront
CONDITIONAL.
je serais, I should be
tu serais
il serait :
10U1S serions
vous seriez
ils seraient
sois, be, be thou
PRESENT.
que je sois, that I may be
que tu sois !
qu'il soit !
que n0us soyons
que vous soyez
qu'ils soient
t *er-
IMPERFECT.
que je fusse, that I might be º
que tu fusses
qu'il fût
ERATIVE3
PAST ANTERIOR.
j'eus été, I had been 3.
tu eus été
il eut été
nous eûmes été
vous eûtes été 4
ils eurent été
| ForuRE PERFECT.
j'aurai été, I shall have been
tu auras été
il aura été
nous aurons été
vous aurez été
ils auront été
CONDITIONAL PERFECT.
j'aurais été, I should have been
tu aurais été
il aurait été
nous aurions été
--, .
VOuS auriez_6t6
- - * s *
ils auraient été
soyons, let us be
soyez, be, be ye
AseerUNCTIvE. PER#( V^)^ ^)--\
que j'aie été, that I may have been
que tu aies été
qu'il ait été
que nous ayons été
que vous ayez été
qu'ils aient été
1PLUPERFECT.
que j'eusse été that I might have
been
que tu eusses été
qu'il eût été
196] THE AUXILIARIES AVOIR AND £TRE. 75
IMPERFECT. PLUPERFECT.
que nous fussions que nous eussions été
que vous fussiez que vous eussiez été
qu'ils fussent qu'ils eussent été
195. All transitive verbs, and a great majority
of the intransitive and neuter verbs, take avoir as
auxiliary; but étre is used with all passive and
reflexive verbs.
a. Étre is also used as auxiliary with a few in-
transitives, of which the commonest are : aller go,
venir come (and its compounds), arriver arrive,
happen, entrer enter, maitre be born, mourir die,
tomber fall, etc.
b. A few intransitives take sometimes avoir and some-
times étre—avoir when there is had in view especially the
performance of an act, but étre when the resulting condi-
tion. Such verbs are especially those that signify a distinct
change of place or condition. Thus : il a passé à quatre
heures he went by at four o'clock, il est passé et disparu
he has gone by and disappeared.
c. When an intransitive has Étre as auxiliary
its participle in the compound tenses agrees in
number and gender with the subject of the verb.
The participle with avoir remains unvaried.
196. In phrases signifying bodily conditions
which one feels or is conscious of, avoir with a
noun is used in French where the English has
the verb be with an adjective: thus,
j’ai faim, I am hungry (literally, I have hunger)
il a soif, he is thirsty (literally, he has thirst)
m’avez-vous pas sommeil, are you not sleepy #
mous avons froid, we are cold vous avez chaud, you are warm
tu avais peur, thou wast afraid ils auront honte, whey will be
ashamed
·76 VERBS. [196
a. Similar phrases are avoir mal à have a pain or ache
in, avoir raison be right or in the right, avoir tort be
uvrong or in the wrong : thus, j'ai mal à la tête I have the
headache, vous avez raison et j'ai tort you are right and I
am ?U7'O7lg.
b. In a corresponding manner, questions as to one's per-
sonal condition are asked and answered with avoir : thus,
qu'avez-vous what is the matter with you ? (literally, what
have you ?) and avez-vous quelque chose is amything the
matter with you ? (literally, have you anything ?) and je
n'ai rien mothing is the matter with me (literally, I have
22Othing).
197. Ètre followed by à to is used in the sense
of belong to. Thus, à qui est-il whose is he ? c'est
à moi it is mine.
EXERCISE 9.
A.
Etre be.
VOCABULARY.
quand, when parceque, becauSe
la ville, the city, t0wm malheureux, euse, unhappy
malade, Sick aveugle, blind
méchant, -ante, naughty pauvre, p00r
la rose, the 7'08e paresseux, -euse, lazy
I.
1. Mon ami a été très riche, mais il est maintenant
pauvre et malheureux. 2. Il serait heureux s'il
n'était pas aveugle. 3. Est-ce que Vos amis ont été
à la ville quand vous y étiez ? 4. Ils n'y ont pas été,
mais ils y seront à trois heures. 5. Je serai très heu-
reux, quand nous serons à Paris. 6. Qu'as-tu, mon
enfant ? J'ai faim, madame. 7. Cet enfant sera
malade si on ne lui donne pas de pain. 8. Quoiqu'il
98] THE THREE REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 77
ait bien soif, il n’a pas faim. 9. Est-ce que ces roses
sont à votre amie P 10. Non, monsieur, elles ne sont
pas à elle ; elles sont à Vous, 11. N'ayez pas peur,
madame, ce cheval est très bon. 12. Cette dame a
honte, parcequ’elle a eu bien peur. 13. Quoigue
l'enfant soit très méchant, il n’a pas honte, 14. Sois
bon et tu Seras heureux. *
II.
1. Will those ladies be here to-morrow P 2. They
were here yesterday, but they will be in town to-mor-
row. 3. To-morrow I shall have been at Paris three
days. 4. Although they were at Paris three days,
they were not happy there. 5. Your friend would be
at school if she were not lazy. 6. She was ashamed,
because she had not been at School. 7. Are you
hungry, my children P 8. No, we are not hungry,
but we are sleepy. 9. Do not be lazy when you are
at School. 10. Though they are lazy, they are not
bad children. 11. Let us be lazy and happy. 12.
Whose are these roses P 13. They are my friend's;
they are not mine. 14. You were right; the roses
were not ours. 15. You were cold, because you had
no warm dresses.
THE THREE REGULAR CONJUGATIONS.
198. There are three regular conjugations of
French verbs; their infinitives end respectively
in 1. er; 2. ir; 3. re: thus, donner give, finir finish,
vendre sell.
a. There are also many irregular verbs having these same
endings in the infinitive, and others having oir. Half-a-

78 WERBS. [19.
dozen of those ending in oir in the infinitive are in many
grammars called another regular conjugation (the third,
those in re being reckoned as the fourth). The irregular
verbs will be given further on.
199. All the forms of regular verbs (and also
most of those of irregular verbs) may be inferred
from five leading forms, which are therefore
called the PRINCIPAL PARTS of the verb. These
are T. the infinitive ; II. the present participle ;
III. the past or passive participle ; IV. the
present indicative ; W. the preterit indicative.
a. In learning a French verb, then, regular or irregular,
the first thing is to learn and make familiar the principal
parts.
I. From the infinitive are made the future and
conditional, by adding respectively ai and ais (the
e of the infinitive ending re being lost): thus,
TNFINITIVE donner finir vendre
FUTURE donnerai finirai vendrai
CoNDITIONAL donnerais finirais vendrais
II. From the present participle may be found
the imperfect indicative and the present subjunc-
tive, by changing ant into ais and e respectively:
thus,
*
PRES. PPLE donnant finissant vendant
IMPF. INDIC. donnais finissais vendais
PRES. SUBJ. donne finisse vende
a. In many verbs, the plural persons of the present in-
dicative need also to be inferred from the present parti-
ciple : thus, finissons etc. from finissant : see 2275.
III. From the past participle are made, with
the auxiliary verb avoir or étre (see 195), the


200] FIRST REGULAR CONJUGATION. 79
various compound forms—the perfect infinitive,
perfect indicative, and SO On : thus,
PAST PPLE donné fini vendu
PERF, INFIN. avoir donné avoir fini avoir vendu
PERF. INDIC. j'ai donné j’ai fini j’ai vendu
- etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.
TV. From the present indicative may be found
the imperative: thus, -
PRES.. INDIC. donne finis vends
IMPV. donne finis vends
a. In general, the three persons of the imperative are
the same with the corresponding persons of the present in-
dicative : -only, in the first conjugation, the final s of the
2d sing. impv. is usually (2006) lost, so that its form agrees
with that of the 1st sing. indicative.
W. From the preterit indicative may be made
the imperfect subjunctive, by changing final s (in
the first conjugation, that of the 2d sing.) into
sse : thus,
PRET. INDIC. donnai, donnas finis vendis
IMPF. SUBJ. donnasse finisse vendisse
, a. Verbs of the first conjugation are the only ones in the
language that do not end in s in the 1st sing. preterit.
FIRST REGULAR CONJUGATION.
200. The first regular conjugation, with in-
finitive ending in er, contains the great majority
of all the verbs in the language. As a model of
its inflection may be taken the verb donner give.
a. The synopsis of its principal parts and the
parts derived from them is as follows:
80 * VERBS. [200
donner donnant donné * donne " donnai
donnerai donnais avoir donné donne donnasse
donnerais donne etc. etC.
b. The complete inflection of the simple tenses
is (with infinitive and participles prefixed) :
INFINITIVE, give, to give
donner (à donner, de donner)
PRESENT PARTICIPLE, giving PAST PARTICIPLE, given
donnant donné
INDICATIVE.
v ! PRESENT, I give, do give, am giving, etc.
' je donne nous donnons-
tu donnes vous donnez
il donne ils donnent
IMPERFECT, I gave, was giving, etc.
je donnais nous donnions
tu donnais · vous donniez
il donnait ils donnaient
PRETERIT, I gave, did give, etc.
je donnai nous donnâmes
tu donnas A vous donnâtes
il donna ils donnèrent ^.
FUTURE, I shall or will give, etc.
je donnerai nous donnerons
tu donneras vous donnerez
il donnera ils donneront
CoNDITIoNAL, Ishould or would give, etc.
je donnerais nous donnerions
tu donnerais vous donneriez
il donnerait ils donneraient
IMPERATIVE, give, give thou, etc.
- - donnons
donne · · , donnez
. •:,eºé P
200] FIRST REGULAR CONJUGATION. 81
# SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT, that I may give, etc.
que je donne que nous donnions
que tu donnes que vous donniez
qu'il donne qu'ils donnent
IMPERFECT, that I might give, etc.
que je donnasse que nous donnassions
que tu donnasses que vous donnassiez
, qu'il donnât qu'ils donnassent
c. Of the compound forms, made with the
auxiliary avoir, it will be sufficient to give the
synopsis, the inflection of the auxiliary being
already familiar : thus,
PERFECT INFINITIVE, to have given
avoir donné
PERFECT PARTICIPLE, having given
ayant donné
INDICATIVE PERFECT, I have given, etc.
j'ai donné etc.
PLUPERFECT, I had given, etc,
j'avais donné etc.
PAST ANTERIOR, I had given, etc.
j'eus donné etc.
FUTURE PERFECT, I shall have given, ete.
j'aurai donné etc.
CoNDITIONAL PERFECT, I should have givem, etc.
j'aurais donné etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE PERFECT, that I may have given, etc.
que j'aie donné etc.
PLUPERFECT, that I might have given, etc. ,
que j'eusse donné etc.
d. The 2d sing. impv. of the first conj. adds an s when
followed by the object-pronouns en or y.
e. If the 1st sing. present indicative or imperfect sub-
junctive (the latter, of any conjugation) comes to be fol-
lowed by its subject, it takes an acute accent on its final e
·(17): thus, donné-je do I give ? donnassé-je should I give ?
l
82 WERBS. [201
201. Many verbs of the first conjugation, other-
wise regular, have to undergo in inflection certain
changes of spelling, in accordance with the gen-
|
eral rules of the language : thus,
202. Since no word ifi French may end in two silent
syllables (17), and their occurrence anywhere in a word is
generally avoided, therefore— |
a. Verbs having in the infinitive a mute syllable
before the final syllable have to give the former
a full pronunciation whenever in inflection the
syllable after it becomes mute.
b. This is usually done by putting a grave
accent upon the e of the syllable in question.
f
Thus, from the infinitive méâer lead, we have je même, tu
mènerals, il mêmerait, mēne, qu'ils mênent, etc.; but nous
menons, je menais, tu menas, qu'il menāt, etc. Also, from
alcheter buy, we have il achète, nous achèterons, que tu
achètes, etc.; but vous achetez, il acheta, achetons, que
nous achetions, etc.
c. But a few verbs double instead the con-
sonant (t or l) following the e.
Thus, from jeter throw, we have je jette, tu jetteras,
il jetterait, jette, qu'ils jettent, etc.; and from appeler
call, we have il appelle, nous appellerons, que tu appelles
etc.
The verbs thus doubling the consonant are jeter (and its
compounds) and cacheter; appeler, chanceler, étinceler,
renouveler, and ensorceler.
203. Since the accent on an e followed by a silent syl-
lable is regularly and usually the grave (16)—therefore
a. Verbs having in the infinitive an acute é be-
fore the final syllable (except créer create) change
the accent to grave (e) when the next syllable be-
206] FIRST REGULAR CONJUGATION. 83
comes mute—except, however, in the future and
conditional, where the acute is retained.
Thus from the verb céder cede, we have je céde, but
nous cédons, etc.
204. Verbs having c or g (pronounced soft)
before final er of the infinitive retain the soft
sound of these letters through their whole con-
jugation; and this is signified by writing a cedilla
under the c (thus, g: 6), and by keeping an e after
the g (48c), wherever in conjugation those letters
come to be followed by a or 0.
Thus, from placer place, and manger, eat, we have
je place, and mous plaçons ; je mange, and mous mangeons
je plaçais, and nous placions; je mangeais, and nous
mangions
nous plaçâmes and ils placérent ; mous mangeåmes, and
ils mangèrent
and so on.
205. Since y (= double i) does not usually stand before a
mute e (27b)—therefore
a. Werbs having a y before the final er of the
infinitive change it to i when in conjugation it
comes to be followed by a mute e.
b. Thus, for example, from the verb payer pay we have
je paie, nous payons, je paierai, ils paient, etc.
c. But verbs in eyer preserve the y throughout: thus, je
grasseye (not grasseie), etc. And Some writers retain
the y after a thus, je paye, etc.
206. When the i of a verb ending in ier comes to be fol-
lowed by i in inflection (namely, in 1st and 2d plur. impf.
indic, and pres. subj.), the two i's remain unchanged (do
not become y). Thus, from prier pray, oublier forget, we
have mous priions, vous priiez; que mous oubliions, que
vous oubliiez,
84 - VERBS. [206
EXERCISE 10.
VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
VOCABULARY.
trouver, find apporter, bring
acheter, buy manger, eat
oublier, forget mener, lead
la journée, the day le gâteau the cake
la brebis, the Sheep la vache, the cow
la forêt, the forest le champ, the field
I.
1. Qu'avez-vous donné à cette pauvre femme ? 2.
Je lui ai donné une bonne Vache. 3. L'homme a-t-il
trouvé ses brebis ? 4. Il les a cherchées partout, mais
il ne les a pas trouvées. 5. Quand il les aura trouvées,
il les mènera aux champs. 6. Il travaillait toute la
journée, et à midi il mangea un morceau de pain. 7.
Quoique nous achetions beaucoup de gâteaux, nous
n'en mangeons jamais. 8. Si vous trouvez des roses,
apportez-les-moi. 9. Nous donnerons à notre mère
toutes les roses que nous aurons trouvées dans la forêt.
10. Les enfants ont honte parcequ'ils ont mangé tous
les gâteaux. 11. S'ils les ont tous mangés, on leur
en achètera d'autres. 12. Quoique vous m'oubliiez,
je vous ai bien aimé. 13. Où menez-vous la vache
que vous avez achetée ? 14. Si je l'achète, je la mè-
nerai au champ de mon père.
II.
1. Did you find the cows you were looking for ? 2.
We were looking for our cow in the forest, but we did
not find it there. 3. Did you lead it to the forest ?
4, If I had found it, I should have led it to the field.
207] SECOND REGULAR CONJUGATION. '85
5. Where are the cakes which you bought yesterday ?
6. I gave them to the poor man who was working in
the garden. 7. Did you find the cakes and the
flowers I had brought you ? 8. We ate the cakes, and
wë will give the roses to our mother. 9. Let us buy
some cakes, and let us give them to the children. 10.
Although we give her cakes, she does not eat them.
11. She is sick to-day, but she will eat them to-mor-
row. 12. Do not forget your friends, but love them
well. 13. Though he may have forgotten me, I will
never forget him. 14. Give him the letter you
brought.
SECOND REGULAR CONJUGATION.
207. The verbs of the second conjugation,
with infinitive ending in ir, are much fewer than
those of the first. As model of the second con-
jugation we will take the verb finir finish.
a. The synopsis of principal and derived parts
is :
finir finissant fini finis finis
finirai finissais avoir fini finis finisse
finirais finisse etc., etc. -
b. The full inflection of the simple tenses is:
INFINITIVE, finish, to finish
finir (ä finir, de finir)
PRESENT PARTICIPLE, finishing PAST PARTICIPLE, finished
finissant fini
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT, I finish, etc.
je finis nous finissons
tu finis vous finissez
il finit ils finissent
86 WERBS. - [207
IMPERFECT, I was finishing, etc.
je finissais nous finissions
tu finissais vous finissiez
il finissait ils finissaient
PRETERIT, I finished, etc.
je finis nous finimes
tu finis vous finites
il finit ils finirent
FUTURE, I shall finish, etc.
je finirai nous finirons
tu finiras vous fimirez
`il finira ils finiront
CONDITIONAL, I should finish, etc.
je finirais mous finirions
tu finirais vous finiriez
il finirait ils finiraient
IMPERATIVE, finish, etc.
finissons
finis finissez
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT, that I may finish, etc.
que je finisse que nous finissions
que tu finisses que vous finissiez
qu'il finisse ** qu'ils finissent
IMPERFECT, that I might finish, etc.
que je finisse que mous finissions
que tu finisses que vous finissiez
qu'il finit qu'ils finissent
c. Of the compound tenses, the brief synopsis
IS . w
PERF, INFIN. avoir fini, to have finished
PERF, PART. ayant fini, having finished
INDIC. PERF. j'ai fini, I have finished
PLUPF. j'avais fini, I had finished
PAST ANT. j'eus fini, I had finished
FUT. PERF. j'aurai fini, I shall have finished
CoND. PERF.j'aurais fini, I should have finished
209] THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION. 87
SUBJ. PERF, que j'aie fini, that I may have finished
PLUPF. Que j'eusse fini, that I might have finished
d. Note that, of the simple tenses, the present and pre-
terit indicative are alike in the singular, but different in the
plural ; also, that the present and imperfect subjunctive
are alike throughout, except in the 3d singular.
208. The verb hair hate loses its diabresis (that is, has
its a, and i united into a diphthong) in the singular persons
of the present indicative and of the imperative. These two
tenses are thus inflected :
IPRESENT INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE.
je hais nous haissons haissons
tu hais vous haissez hais haissez
il hait ils haissent
THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION.
209. The verbs of the third conjugation, with
infinitive ending in re, are but few in number.
As model of their conjugation may be taken the
verb vendre Sell.
a. The synopsis of principal and derived parts
IS .
vendre vendant vendu vends vendis
vendrai vendais avoir vendu vends vendisse
vendrais vende etc. etc.
b. The full inflection of the simple tenses is:
INFINITIVE, sell, to sell
vendre (à vendre, de vendre)
PRESENT PARTICIPLE, selling PAST PARTICIPLE, sold
vendant vendu
INDICATIVE.
& PRESENT, I sell, etc.
je vends nous vendons
tu vends vous vendez
il vend ils vendent
88
VERBS. [209
IMPER) ECT, I was selling, etc.
je vendais nous vendions
$
tu vendais Vous vendiez
il vendait ils vendaient
PRETERIT, I sold, etc.
je vendis mous vendîmes
tu vendis VOus vendîtes
il vendit ils vendirent
FUTURE, I shall sell, etc,
je vendrai nOuS vendrons
tu vendras Vous Vendrez
il vendra ils vendront
CONDITIONAL, I should sell, etc.
je vendrais nous vendrions
tu vendrais Vous vendriez
il vendrait -- ils vendraient
IMPERATIVE, sell, etc.
vendons
vends vendez
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT, that I may sell, etc.
que je vende que nous vendions
que tu yendes que vous vendiez
qu'il vende qu'ils vendent
IMPEREECT, that I might sebl, etc.
que je vendisse que nous vendissions
que tu vendisses que vous vendissiez
qu'il vendît qu'ils vendissent
c. Of the compound tenses, the brief synopsis
1S : 4
PERF'. INFIN. avoir vendu, to have sold
PERE'. PART. ayant vendu, having Sold
INDIC. PERE'. j'ai vendu, I have sold
PLUPF. j'avais vendu, I had Sold
PAST ANT. j'eus vendu, I had Sold
210] THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION. 89
FUT. PERF. j'aurai vendu, I shall have sold
CoND. PERF. j'aurais vendu, I should have sold
SUBJ. PERF. que j’aie vendu, that I may have sold
PLUPF. que j'eusse vendu, that I might have sold
d. Notice that the verbs of this conjugation have differ-
ent vowels in the endings of the preterit and of the past
participle: thus, vendis, vendu. In nearly all other verbs,
regular and irregular, these two forms agree in vowel.
210. Two or three verbs of this conjugation have slight
irregularities, which are best pointed out here.
a. Vaincre conquer is perfectly regular to the ear, but is
necessarily spelt with qu instead of c before e and i (58a),
and then also before a, and o, the c remaining only before
u, before a consonant, and as final. The synopsis of prin-
cipal and derived parts is as follows :
vaincre vainquant vaincu vaincs vainquis
vaincrai vainquais avoir vaincu vaincs vainquisse
vaincrais vainque etc. etc.
The pres. indicative and imperative (in which alone any
change of spelling occurs in inflection) are as follows:
IPRESENT INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE.
je vaincs nous vainquons vainquons
tu vaincs vous vainquez vaincs vainquez
il vainc ils vainquent
The compound convaincre convince is conjugated in the
S8, Iſle Iſla.[11]éI’.
b. Rompre break adds a t in the 3d sing, indic. present :
* il rompt (not romp); in all other respects it is regu-
al’.
c. Battre beat loses one of its two t's in the singular of
the pres. indicative and of the imperative, which are thus
inflected :
PRESENT INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE.
je bats mous battons battons
tu bats vous battez bats battez
il bat ils battent
The rest is regular,
*
90 VERBS. [210
EXERCISE 11.
VERBS OF THE SECOND AND THIRD CONJUGATIONS.
VOCABULARY.
choisir, choose bâtir, build
haïr, hate attendre, await, expect
perdre, lose entendre, hear
rendre, return, give back le maître, the master, teacher
la tâche, the task la voix, the voice
la lettre, the letter encore, Still, again
pourquoi, why ?
I.
1. Les enfants n'ont-ils pas fini leur tâche ? 2. Le
maître les a punis parcequ'ils ne l'avaient pas finie. 3.
Ils haïssent leur maître, parcequ'il les punit. 4. Si
nous ne finissons pas notre tâche aujourd'hui, nous le
finirons demain. 5. Pourquoi vendîtes-Vous la maison
que vous avez bâtie ? 6. Nous la vendîmes parceque
nous avions perdu notre argent. 7. Quoique nous
perdissions tout notre argent, nous ne vendrions point
notre maison. 8. Qu'attendez-vous, monsieur ? 9.
J'attends une lettre de ma fille. 10. Entendiez-Vous
la voix de cette jeune fille ? 11. Je l'ai entendue hier,
et je l'entendrai encore demain. 12. Cet homme
attend son ami qui lui rendra l'argent qu'il lui a
donné. 13. Il attendait toute la journée, mais il ne
vendait rien. 14. Choisissez un gâteau, et je vous
l'achèterai. 15. Est-ce que vous bâtissiez une maison
à la ville ? 16. J'y bâtissais une maison, mais je l'ai
finie et vendue. 17. Ayant perdu son argent, il
n'achètera plus rien.
211] PASSIVE VERBS. 91
II.
1. Have you finished your task P 2. No, but I
shall have finished it to-morrow. 3. When you fin-
ish this book, choose another. 4. We will not choose
a history, because we hate history. 5. My father
built a new church for the town, and he will build us
a new house. 6. Were you choosing chairs for your
new house 2 7. We were expecting a man who sells
chairs, and who will sell us some. 8. Why do they
not build a new house? 9. They have lost their
money, and have sold their house. 10. Although
they lost all their money, they did not sell their house.
11. I heard a voice in the house, but I hear it no
longer. 12. His friends gave him back the house
which he had sold. 13. When you have finished the
letter, give it back to me. 14. Having finished the
book, I will sell it to you. 15. We punish you be-
cause you lost what we gave you. 16. Do not punish
me; I found it yesterday and I will give it back to
you.
PASSIVE WERBS.
211. The forms of the PASSIVE conjugation of a
verb are made in French precisely as in English :
namely, by prefixing the auxiliary étre be to a past
participle.
a. To make, then, any given passive form of a
verb, add to the corresponding form of être the
past or passive participle of that verb : thus, he
was praised il était loué, he would have been praised
il aurait été loué.
92 VERBS. [211
b. The participle agrees in gender and number
with the subject of the verb: thus, she was praised
elle était louée, they (m.) would have been praised ils
auraient été loués.
c. Note, however, that (132a), if vous is used to repre-
sent a single person, the participle agrees with it only in
gender: thus, you (sing. f.) will be praised, vous serez
louée.
212. a. Taking as an example the verb louer
praise, the synopsis of simple passive tenses is as
follows:
INFINITIVE.
être loué (louée, loués, louées), be praised
PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
étant loué (etc.), being praised
INDIC. PREs, je suis loué (etc.), I am praised
IMPF., j'étais loué (etc.), I was praised
PRET., je fus loué (etc.), I was praised
FUT., je serai loué (etc.), I shall be praised
CoND., je serais loué (etc.), I should be praised
IMPERATIVE, sois loué (etc.), be praised *
SUBJ. PREs, que je sois loué (etc.), that I may be praised
IMPF., que je fusse loué (etc.), that I might be praised
b. The synopsis of compound passive tenses is:
PERF. INFIN., avoir Été loué (etc.), to have been praised
PERF. PART., ayant été loué (etc.), having been praised
INDIC. PERF., j'ai été loué (etc.), I have been praised
PLUPF., j'avais été loué (etc.), I had been praised
PAST ANT., j'eus été loué (etc.), I had been praised
FUT. PERF., j'aurai été loué (etc.), 1 shall have been praised
CoND. PERF., j'aurais été loué (etc.), I should have been
praised
SUBJ. PERF., que j'aie été loué (etc.), that I may have been
praised
PLUPF., que j'eusse été loué (etc.), that I might have
been praised
216] REFLEXIVE VERBs. | 93
213. After a passive verb, by is generally rep-
resented by par; but sometimes also by de, if the
verb expresses a mental action or feeling : thus,
il est aimé de tout le monde he is loved by everybody,
il fut trouvé par le chien he was found by the dog.
214. The passive is less used in French than in English ;
instead of it often stand active verbs with the indefinite
subject on (178), or reflexive verbs (215).
REFLEXIVE VERBS.
215. A verb is made reflexive, as in English,
by adding to it an object-pronoun corresponding
in person and number to the subject.
a. Reflexive verbs are a much more marked and impor-
tant class in French than in English. Some verbs are re-
flexive exclusively, or nearly so ; others are often such ;
and almost any transitive verb, and some intransitives, may
upon occasion be used reflexively ; but the conjugation of
them all is the same.
216. a. The reflexive pronouns of the first
and second persons are the same with the Ordi-
nary object-pronouns: namely, me and te (or toi)
in the singular, mous and vous in the plural. For
the third person there is a special reflexive pro-
noun, se; it is the same in singular and plural.
b. The place of the reflexive pronoun is the
same with that of any other object-pronoun (136
and 137): namely, in general before the verb, but
after it in the imperative affirmative (when te be-
comes toi: 135b).
94 VERBS. *, [217
217. The auxiliary of a verb used reflexively
is always and only €tre. -
a. In accordance with the general rule (191a),
if the reflexive object is a direct one, the parti-
ciple in the compound tenses agrees with it in
gender and number ; if it is indirect, the parti-
ciple is invariable. Thus, from se blesser wound
one's self, il s'est blessé, elle sest blessée, nous nous
sommes blessés; but from s'imaginer imagine to one's
self, il sest imaginé, elle sest imaginé, nous nous
sommes imaginé. - w
218. As a model of reflexive conjugation may
be taken the verb se réjouir delight one's self, re-
joice.
It is a regular verb of the second conjugation, inflected
like finir (207).
a. The full inflection of the present indicative
and imperative, with the synopsis of the other
simple tenses, is : –
INFINITIVE.
se (or te, me etc.) réjouir, rejoice
PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
se (etc.) réjouissant, rejoicing
INDICATIVE,
PRESENT.
je me réjouis, I rejoice mous mous réjouissons, we rejoice
tu te réjouis, thou rejoicest vous vous réjouissez, you réjoice
il se réjouit, he rejoices ils se réjouissent, they rejoice
IMPERFECT, je me réjouissais, I was rejoicing
PRETERIT, je me réjouis, I rejoiced
FUTURE, je me réjouirai, I shall rejoice
CoNDITIONAL, je me réjouirais, I should rejoice
219] REFLEXIWE WERBS. 95
IMPERATIVE.
réjouissons-nous, let us rejoice
réjouis-toi, rejoice (thou) réjouissez-vous, rejoice (ye)
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT, que je me réjouisse, that I may rejoice
IMPERFECT, que je me réjouisse, that I might rejoice
b. The full inflection of the perfect indicative,
with the synopsis of the other compound forms,
next follows.
To save burdensome repetition, the various forms of the
reflexive pronoun (in infin. and pple) and of the past par-
ticiple (which in this verb must agree in gender and num-
ber with the object) are not given.
PERFECT INFINITIVE. PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
s'être réjoui, (to) have rejoiced s'étant réjoui, having rejoiced
INDICATIVE.
PERFECT.
je me suis réjoui, I have rejoiced nous mous sommes réjouis, we
have rejoiced -
tu t'es réjoui, thou hast rejoiced vous vous étes réjouis, you
have rejoiced
il s'est réjoui, he has rejoiced ils se sont réjouis, they have
rejoiced
PLUPERFECT, je m'étais réjoui, I had rejoiced
PAST ANTERIOR, je me fus réjoui, I had rejoiced
FUTURE PERFECT, je me serai réjoui, I shall have rejoiced
CONDITIONAL PERFECT, je me serais réjoui, I should have re-
joiced
SUBJUNCTIVE PERFECT, que je me sois réjoui, that I may have
rejoiced
PLUPERFECT, que je me fusse réjoui, that I might have
Tejoiced
219. The negative and interrogative forms are
made in the same manner as those of any other
96 WERBS. [219
verb taking object-pronouns. Examples are: je
me me réjouis pas I do not rejoice, ne se réjouit-il pas
did he not rejoice? vous réjouissez-vous do you rejoice 2
me nous réjouissons pas let us not rejoice, vous me vous
serez pas réjouis you (pl.) will not have rejoiced,
qu’elle ne se füt pas réjouie that she might not have
Tejoiced, ne se sont-elles pas réjouies have they (f.) not
rejoiced 2
220. a. Many reflexive verbs (like se réjouir itself) have
to be rendered with simple verbs in English.
b. A number of reflexive verbs followed by certain prepo-
sitions form transitive expressions of special meaning.
Thus, il s'approcha du feu he approached the fire, ils se
mirent à écrire they began to write, elle ne peut se servir
de ses mains She Canºnot use her hands.
221. Plural reflexive forms are often used in a recipro-
cal sense : thus, aimons-nous let us love one another, ils
s'aiment they love each other, and so on.
IMPERSONAL WERBS.
222. A few verbs in French, as in other lan-
guages, are used Only in the 3d singular, with the
indefinite or impersonal subject il it, and are
therefore called IMPERSONAL verbs. Those often-
est so used are : geler freeze (il gèle it freezes, il a
gelé, etc.), dégeler thaw, grèler hail, neiger Snow,
pleuvoir rain, tonner thunder. &
a. These verbs are conjugated like any others (always -
with the auxiliary avoir), except that only the 3d sing, is
in use. Pleuvoir is irregular : see 227, 47. *
223. Many other verbs are used in great part
impersonally, with il as subject, and often in a
225] IMPERSONAL WERBS. 97
somewhat special meaning. Thus, il importe (etc.)
it is of consequence, il convient it is suitable or
proper, il arrive it happens, il vaut mieux it is better,
il s'agit the question is.
224. Almost any verb may take the impersonal subject
il representing by anticipation its real subject, stated later:
thus: il vient un autre there comes another, il parait
qu’elle n'y Était pas it appears that she was not there.
225. The English expression there is, there are,
etc., is represented in French by the verb avoir,
used impersonally with the adverb y there before
it: thus, il y a there is or are (literally, it has there),
il n'y a pas there is not, y a-t-il eu has there been Pil
n'y aura pas there will not be, n'y aurait-il pas eu
would there not have been 2 qu'il y eat eu that there
might have been.
a. Since the following noun is in French grammatically
the object of the verb, and not its subject as in English,
there is of course no change of number in the verb when
the noun becomes plural : thus, il y avait un oiseau there
was a bird, and il y avait quatre oiseaux there were four
birds (literally, it had there one bird, four birds).
b. Even the infinitive, y avoir, is used, along with certain
verbs having the value of auxiliaries: thus, il peut y avoir
there may be, il me doit pas y avoir eu there ought not to
have been.
c. Il y a etc. is often used, elliptically, in expressing ex-
tent or distance of time reckoned backward from the pres–
ent: thus, il y a huit jours qu’il est malade he has been ill
(these) eight days (literally, there are eight days that he
[has been and is ill), je le visily a deux mois I saw him
two months ago (literally, I saw him, there are two months
[since).
d. Il est etc. is also used impersonally, especially in poe-
try, instead of il y a etc.
98 VERBS. [226
226. a. In speaking of the conditions of the weather, the
French uses il fait etc., it inakes etc., With a noun Or ad-
jective, where the English uses it is : see 227, 28.
b. For the impersonal verb falloir be necessary and its
use see 227, 29.
EXERCISE 12.
PASSIVE, IMPERSONAL, AND REFLEXIVE VERBS.
VOCABULARY.
inviter, invite chasser, hunt, drive out
se lever, rise, get up se coucher, go to bed
se moquer de, ridicule, mock sembler, Seem
neiger, Sn0w geler, freeze
le bal, the ball le royaume, the kingdom
le roi, the king la reine, the queen
le peuple, the people, nation
I.
1. Le roi est-il aimé du peuple ? 2. Non, le roi
n'est aimé de personne, mais la reine est aimée de tout
le monde. 3. Les rois de France ont été chassés de
leur royaume. 4. Le peuple s'est réjoui, parcequ'on
a chassé ses rois. 5. Ma sœur s'est couchée il y a
deux heures. 6. Nous nous couchons à neuf heures
et nous nous levons à sept heures. 7. Est-ce que ces
dames sont invitées au bal ? 8. Elles se sont couchées
parcequ'elles n'y ont pas été invitées. 9. Les enfants
se réjouissaient parcequ'il avait neigé toute la journée.
10. Il n'a pas gelé hier, mais il gèlera ce soir. 11. Il
me semble que ces enfants se moquent de moi. 12.
Ils ne se sont pas moqués de vous, ils se moquent de
leur maître. 13. Y a-t-il eu un bal hier ? 14. Oui,
227] IRREGULAR WERBS. 99
madame et il y await beaucoup de dames et de
messieurs, parce que le roi y Était aussi.
II.
1. There were kings in France, but they were
driven from the kingdom. 2. The people rejoiced be-
cause there was no king in France. 3. Why did you
rejoice P 4. I rejoice because it is snowing. 5. Are
you invited to the ball? 6. Although we are invited
to it, we shall go to bed at nine o’clock. 7. It seems
to me that you are unhappy. 8. I am unhappy because
the other children mock me. 9. There was no church
in this town, but there is one now. 10. There will
be no ball to-morrow because the queen is ill. 11.
The queen is much loved by her people. 12. This
lady rejoiced (perfect) because the gloves which she
had lost were found by the boy. 13. When I got up
it was still freezing. 14. It seems that it snowed yes-
terday.
IRREGULAR WERBS.
227. Those verbs in French which are inflect-
ed throughout like one or other of the three—
donner, finir, vendre—already given, are called
REGULAR VERBS. But there are also many others
in the language deviating more or less from these
models, and they are called IRREGULAR VERBs.
a. The irregular verbs are one of the principal difficulties
of French Grammar. They are of various degrees of irregu-
larity : some are irregular only in their principal parts, all
the derived parts coming from them precisely as in the
verbs of the three regular conjugations; others are irregular
100 VERBS. [227
also in the formation of the derived parts (only the impf.
subj. coming without any exception regularly from the pret.
indic.). But, in all of them, irregularities of tense-inflection
are confined to the three present tenses—the present indi-
cative, the imperative, and the present subjunctive. Of
the other tenses, when the first person is known, the rest
follow from it with certainty.
b. The only rules for the formation of the de-
rived parts are those already given for regular
verbs (199). Of more special importance among
the irregular verbs is the rule for finding the
plural persons of the present from the present
participle. S. $ -
c. In learning an irregular verb, the principal parts
should first be mastered and made familiar, then the sy-
nopsis, then the inflection of the present tenses when this is
in any way irregular. The synopsis of principal and de-
rived parts will be given in the following table for every
irregular verb or for one of every group of like verbs, as well
as the inflection of the present tenses when called for. The
plural persons of the imperative are always the same as the
first and second persons plural of the pres, indic. (except in
avoir, étre, and savoir). In the synopsis, those derived
parts which do not come regularly from the principal parts
will have attention called to them by being printed with
spa, c e d or open letters. *
d. Reference figures in the table refer to the explanation
of special idiomatic uses of certain verbs, which follows
the table.
TABLE OF IRREGULAR WERBS.
1. absoudre absolve. t
INFINITIVE, PREs, PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET, INDIC.,
ETC. ETC, ETC. ETC. ETC!.
absoudre absolvant absous absouds absolus
like résoudre except in past pple.
227] TABLE OF IRREGULAR WERBS. 101
2. acquérin acquère.
INFINITIVE, PREs. PPL., PAST PPL., PRES. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
TC.
ETC. E ETC. ETC. ETC.
acquérir acquérant acquis acquiers acquis
– a c q u er - ~" -- ~~.
rai acquérais avoir acquis acquiers
---a c q u e r - etc., etc.
rais --—a c quière acquisse
pres, ind, acquiers, -quiers, -quiert, -quérons, -quárez, -quièrent
pres. subj, acquière, -quières, -quière, -quérions, -quériez,
-quièrent
3. aller' go.
aller allant allé vais allai
ir ai allais être allé V8, allasse
ir ais a ille etC., etC.
pres. indic. vais, was, va, allons, allez, vont
pres. Subj. aille, ailles, aille, allions, alliez, aillent
4. assaillir assail.
assaillir assaillant assailli assaille assaillis
assaillirai assaillais avoir assailli assailles assaillisse
assaillirais assaille etC.
pres. indic. assaille, -sailles, -saille, -saillons, -saillez, -saillent.
5. asseoir Sît.
asseoir -asseyant assis assieds assis
a s siéra i asseyais être assis assieds assisse
assié - , etC.
ra is asseye
pres, indic, assieds, assieds, assied, asseyons, asseyez, asseyent
6. boire drink.
boire -buvant --bu bois bus
boirai buwais avoir bu bois busse
boirais -bo i ve etC.
pres. indic. bois, bois, boit, buwons, buwez, boivent
pres. Subj, boive, boives, boive, buwions, buwiez, boivent
7. bouillir boč.
bouillir bouillant bouilli bous bouillis
bouillirai bouillais avoir bouilli bous bouillisse
bouillirais bouille etC.
pres. indic. bous, bous, bout, bouillons, bouillez, bouillent
102 WERBS. [227
8. bruire roar.
INFINITIVE, PRES. PPL., PAST PPL., PRES.. INDIC., PRET. INDIC., ,
ETC. ETC. ETC. ETC. ETC.
bruire bruyant il bruit
9. circoncire circumcise.
circoncire circoncisant circoncis circoncis circoncis
like suffire except in past pple.
10. Clore close.
clore ~ſclosant] - clos clos
clorai avoir clos
clorais close et C.
pres. &ndºc. clos, clos, clót, —, -, closent
. . .”. 11. conclure conclude.
conclure S-concluant conclu conclus conclus
conclurai concludis avoir conclu. conclus conclusse
conclurais conclue etc.
pres. &ndic. conclus, -clus, -clut, -cluons, -cluez, -cluent
12. conduire conduct.
conduire conduisant ... conduit conduis —-conduisis
conduirai conduisais avoir conduit conduis conduisisse
conduirais conduise etC.
pres. indic, conduis, -duis, -duit, -duisons, -duisez, -duisent
13. confire preserve.
confire confisant confit confis confis
like suffire except in past pple.
14. Coudre Seºp.
coudre Cousant COUISUl Couds cousis
coudrai cousais avoir cousu couds cousisse
coudrais COUISé etC.
pres. Čndºc. couds, couds, coud, cousons, cousez, cousent
15. courir ºwn.
courir GOurant COUITUI ~ COUIrS COUTUIS
- c our r a i courais avoir couru cours COUlrly SS6
—c our ra is coure etC.
preS. &ndºc. cours, cours, court, courons, courez, courent
227] TABLE OF IRREGULAR WERBS. 103
*
16. couvrir cover.
INFINITIVE, PREs. PPL., PAST PPL., PRES.. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
ETC. ETC. ETC. ETC. ETC.
couvrir couvrant -- couvert COUlvre couvris
couvrirai couvrais . avoir couvert couvre couvrisse
couvrirais couvre €tC.
pres. indic, couvre, couvres, couvre, couvrons, couvrez, couvrent
17. craindre fear.
craindre craignant - Craint * - Crains craignis
craindrai craigmais avoir craint Crains Craigmisse
craindrais Craigne etC.
pres. Čndºc. crains, crains, craint, Craigmons, Craignez, Craigment
18. Croire” believe.
croire croyant -CI'll crois CTIS
croirai croyais avoir cru Crois Crusse
croirais croie etC.
pres. indic crois, crois, croit, croyons, croyez, croient
19. Croitre grow.
croitre croissant Crü croſs cris
croitrai croissais avoir cri Crois crisse
croitrais croisse etC.
pres. indic. crois, crois, croit, croissons, croissez, croissent
Compounds of croitre have no circumflex in past ppl.
2O. cueillir gather.
cueillir cueillant cueilli cueille cueillis
Tc u e i 1 -
ler a i cueillais avoir cueilli cueille cueillisse
~c u e i 1 -
I era is cueille etC.
pres. £ndºc. cueille, cueilles, cueille, cueillons, cueillez, cueillent
21. déchoir fall.
déchoir -[déchoyant] -déchu ~déchois `déchus
décher-
rai déchoyais avoir déchu déchois déchusse
d 6 c her -
ra is déchoie etC.
pres, indic. déchois, -chois, -choit, -choyons, -choyez, -choient
104 WERBS. [227
22. devoir" owe, 3-...sº (, "-
INFINITIVE, PRES. PPL, PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
ETC. ETC. FTC. ETC. ETC, g
devoir devant di dois dus
devra i devais avoir dii ãois dusse
devra is doive etC.
pres. indic. dois, dois, doit, devons, devez, doivent
pres. Sulj. doive, doives, doive, devions, deviez, doivent
23. dire” say, tell.
dire disant dit “ dis ~ dis
dirai disais avoir dit dis disse
dirais dise etC.
pres. indic. dis, dis, dit, disons, dites, disent
24. dormir sleep.
dormir dormant dormi dors dormis
dormirai dormais avoir dormi dors dormisse
dormirais dorme etC.
pres, indic. dors, dors, dort, dormons, dormez, dorment
25. €crire write.
écrire écrivant écrit écris écrivis
écrirai écrivais avoir écrit écris écrivisse
écrirais écrive etC.
pres. indic. Écris, écris, écrit, Écrivons, écrivez, Écrivent
26. envoyer send.
envoyer envoyant envoyé envoie envoyai
6 Il V e r -
ra i envoyais avoir envoyé envoie envoyasse
6 Il V e r - º
ra is envoie etC.
pres. indic. envoie, envoies, envoie, envoyons, envoyez, envoient
27. faillirº m?88.
faillir [faillant] failli [faux] [faillis]
faillirai [faillais] avoir failli *
faillirais [faille]
227] TABLE OF IRREGULAR WERBS. 105
28. faire" marce, do.
INFINITIVE, PREs. PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
TC.
ETC. ETC. ETC. ETC.
faire faisant fait 'fais fis
fe rai faisais avoir fait fais fisse
fera is f a s se €tC.
pres. indic. fais, fais, fait, faisons, faites, font
29. falloir" be necessary.
falloir [fallant] fallu faut fallut
f a ud r a fallait a fallu fallſit
f a u drait faille etC.
Used only impersonally.
30. frire fry.
frire wº- 2frit fris \ fris
frirai avoir frit fris frisse
frirais
pres. indic. fris, fris, frit, frions, friez, frient
31, fuir flee.
fuir fuyant fui fuis fuis
fuirai fuyais avoir fui fuis fuisse
fuirais fuie €tC.
pres. indic. fuis, fuis, fuit, fuyons, fuyez, fuient
32. gésir Zºe.
gésir gisant -* gis *-º-º
gisais
preS. indic. —, -, git, gisons, gisez, gisent
33. joindre join.
joindre joignant joint joins joignis
joindrai joigmais avoir joint joins joignisse
joindrais joigne etC.
preS. indic. joins, joins, joint, joignons, joignez, joignent
34. lire read.
lire lisant lu lis lis
lirai lisais avoir lu lis lisse
lirais lise etC.
pres. 2ndic. lis, lis, lit, lisons, lisez, lisent
106 VERBS. [227
35. maudire curse.
INFINITIVE, PREs. PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
ETC, ETC. ETC ETC. ETC.
maudire maudissant maudit maudis maudis
maudirai maudissais avoir maudit maudis maudisse
maudirais maudisse etC.
pres. Čndic. maudis, -dis, -dit, -dissons, -dissez, -dissent
36. mettre put.
mettre mettant mis mets mis
mettrai mettais avoir mis mets misse
mett.rais mette et C.
pres. Čndic, mets, mets, met, mettons, mettez, mettent
37. moudre gränd.
moudre moulant moulu mouds moulus
moudrai moulais avoir moulu mouds moulusse
moudrais moule etC.
pres. indic. mouds, mouds, moud, moulons, moulez, moulent
38. mourir die.
mourir mourant mort In 611PS In Oll'UlS
mourra i mourais être mort Iſle UITS Tºloll I’llSS0
mourra is me ure €tC.
pres. indic. meurs, meurs, meurt, mourons, mourez, meurent
pres. Subj. meure, meures, meure, mourions, mouriez, meurent
39. mouvoir move.
mouvoir mouvant mň IſºlellS IlliS
mo u v r a i mouvais avoir mi Iſle UIS Iºllis S6
mo u v ra is me u v e etc.
pres. Čndic. meus, meus, meut, mouvons, mouvez, meuvent
pres. Subj. meuve, meuves, meuve, mouvions, mouviez, meuvent
40. naitreº be born.
naitre naissant né nais naquis
naitrai naissais être né nais naquisse
naitrais naisse etC.
preS. &ndic. nais, nais, mait, naissons, naissez, naissent
227] TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 107
4l. nuire &njure.
INFINITIVE, PREs. PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
ETC. ETC, ETC, ETC. ETC,
nuire nuisant nui nuis nuisis
nuirai muisais avoir nui nuis *=&
muirais nuise etC.
pres. indic. nuis, nuis, muit, nuisons, nuisez, nuisent
42. Ouir hear.
Ouir [oyant] Oui [ois] ouis]
oir ai] oyais] avoir oui [ois] ouisse]
oir a is] [oie] etC.
43. paraître appear.
paraître paraissant paru parais parus
paraitrai paraissais avoir paru parais parusse
paraîtrais paraisse etC.
preS. indic, parais, -rais, -rait, -raissons, -raissez, -raissent
44. partir depart.
partir partant parti pars partis
partirai partais être or pars partisse
partirais parte avoir parti
ſpré.S. &ndºc. pars, pars, part, partons, partez, partent
45. peindre paint.
peindre peignant peint peins peignis
peindrai peigmais avoir peint peins peignisse
peindrais peigne Ct.C.
preS. indic. peins, peins, peint, peignons, peignez, peignent
46. plaire” please.
plaire plaisant plu plais plus
like taire, except 3d pers. sing. of pres. 2ndºc. il plait.
47. pleuvoir rain.
pleuvoir pleuvant plu pleut plut
ple uv r a pleuvait avoir plu *-i-º-º-º: plit
p leu- pleuve etC.
v ra, it
Impersonal only.
108 VERBS. [227
48. pourvoir provide.
INFINITIVE, PREs. PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
ETC. ETC. ETC, ETC. ETC.
pourvoir pourvoyant pourvu pourvois pourvus
pourvoirai pourvoyais avoir pourvu pourvois pourvusse
pourvoirais pourvoie €tC.
pres. £ndic, and subj. like voir. .
49. pouvoir” be able.
pouvoir pouvant pu peux or pus
puis
, pourra i pouvais avoir pu *E== pusse
pourra is puis se etC. &
pres. 2ndtc. peux Or puis, peux, peut, pouvons, pouvez, peuvent
50. prendre take.
prendre premant pris prends pris
prendrai prenais avoir pris prends prisse
prendrais pre n n e etC.
pres. £ndic. prends, prends, prend, premons, prenez, premment
pres. Subj. premne, prennes, prenne, premions, premiez, premment
51. prévoir foresee.
prévoir prévoyant prévu prévois prévis
like pourvoir except in preterit.
52. recevoir receive.
recevoir recevant regu regois regus
recevrai recevais avoir reçu regois regusse
recevra is re goive et C.
pres. indic, regois, regois, reçoit, recevons, recevez, regoivent
pres. Subj, regoive, regoives, regoive, recevions, receviez, regoivent
53. résoudre resolve.
résoudre résolvant résolu résouds résolus
résoudrai résolvais avoir résolu résouds résolusse
résoudrais résolve etC. -
pres. indic. résouds, -souds, -soud, -solvons, -solvez, -solvent
*
227] TABLE OF IRREGULAR WERBS. 109
54, rire laugh.
INFINITIVE, PRES. PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
ETC. ETC, ETC, ETC, ETC.
rire riant ri ris ris
rirai riais avoir ri ris risse
rirais rie et C.
pres. indic. ris, ris, rit, rions, riez, rient
55. Savoir” know.
savoir sachant Sū. sais Sliš
saurai s a vais, avoir su s a che $115S0
saurais Sache etC.
pres. indic, sais, sais, sait, savons, savez, Savent
&mperative sache, Sachons, Sachez
56. servir Serve.
servir Servant servi SerS servis
servirai servais avoir servi sers servisse
servirais serve €tC.
pres. indic, sers, sers, sert, servons, servez, servent
**
57. suffire suffice.
suffire suffisant suffi suffis suffis
suffirai suffisais avoir suffi suffis suffisse
suffirais suffise etC. '
pres. indic. suffis, suffis, suffit, suffisons, suffisez, suffisent
58. Suivre follow.
suivre suivant suivi suis suivis
suivrai suivais avoir suivi suis suivisse
suivrais suive etC.
pres. &ndic, suis, suis, suit, suivons, suivez, suivent
59. taire be Silent.
taire - taisant tu tais tus
tairai taisais avoir tu tais tusse
tairais taise etC.
pres. indic. tais, tais, tait, taisons, taisez, taisent
110 WERBS. . [227
60. traire draw.
*
INFINITIVE, PRES. PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
ETC. ETC, ETC. ETC. ETC.
traire trayant trait trais
trairai trayais avoir trait trais gº
trairais traie etC.
pres. indic, trais, trais, trait, trayons, trayez, traient
61. valoir” be worth.
valoir valant valu Vallº. valus
w a u dra i valais avoir valu vaux valusse
w a u dra is v aille etC. *
pres, indic, vaux, vaux, vaut, valons, valez, valent
pres. Subj. waille, vailles, vaille, valions, valiez, waillent
62. venirl” come.
§
venir Venant Wenll viens wins
vie m dra i venais être venu viens vinsse
vie m dra is vie m n e etC.
pres. indic. viens, viens, vient, venons, venez, viennent
pres. Subj. vienne, viennes, vienne, venions, veniez, viennent
63. větir clothe.
větir " větant vêtu. věts vétis
větirai vétais avoir větu vēts větisse
větirais věte etC.
pres. Čndic. věts, věts, vét, vétons, vétez, vétent
64 vivrel4 Zöve.
vivre vivant vécu vis vécus *
vivrai vivais avoir vécu vis vécusse
vivrais vive etC. f
pres, indic, vis, vis, vit, vivons, vivez, vivent
65. voir See,
voir voyant WUl vois vis
v erra i voyais 8,VOIT Wul vois visse
v erra is voie etC.
pres. indic. vois, vois, voit, voyons, voyez, voient
pres. Subj. voie, voies, voie, voyions, voyiez, voient
228] IDIOMATIC USES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 111
66. vouloirls 20777.
INFINITIVE, PREs. PPL., PAST PPL., PREs. INDIC., PRET. INDIC.,
TC.
ETC. E ETC. ETC. ETC.
wouloir voulant woulu Well-k woulus
wou dra i voulais avoir woulu — woulusse
v o udra is v euille etC.
pres. indic. veux, veux, veut, voulons, woulez, veulent
pres. Subj. veuille, veuilles, veuille, woulions, vouliez, veuillert
SPECIAL IDIOMATIC USES OF SOME OF THE IRREGULAR
WERBS.
228. 1. Aller. a. Va, 2d sing. impv. becomes was before
en and y (compare 200, d).
b. The present and imperfect indic. of aller are used be-
fore an infinitive (without infinitive-sign), precisely like I
am going, I was going in English, as a sort of immediate
future tense, or to denote something just about to take
place : thus, il va, partir he is going to leave, j'allais lui
répondre I was going to answer him.
c. Allons let us go is used in the sense of Come, come on.
Aller voir, aller chercher correspond to our visit, and
look for or fetch. With the reflexive s'en aller go off, the
indirect pronoun-object en always follows the other pro-
noun: thus, je m'en vais I am going off, il s'en est allé
he has gone away, val-t'en be off. &
2. Croire in French is followed by an infinitive without
infinitive-sign, where in English we use instead a dependent
clause, or insert a reflexive pronoun: thus, je crois l’avoir
dit I think (myself) to have said it, or I think that I have
said it.
3. Devoir. a. The past participle has the circumflex only
in the masc. sing. (to distinguish it from du = de le); the
other forms are due, dus, dues.
b. Doit etc. very often signifies is to, is planned or des-
timed to : thus, il doit venir chez mous demain he is to
come to us to-morrow, je sava.is ce que je devais faire I
knew what I was to do. In many cases it has the Sense of
must, have to, etc.: thus, elle a di étre belle dans sa,
jeunesse she must have been beautiful in her youth. The
112 VERBS. [228
meaning ought belongs especially to the conditional: thus,
quand devrais-je revenir when ought I to come back 2 il
aurait did le faire he ought to have done it. -
*-
4. Dire. Common phrases containing dire are : on dit
or il se dit it is said, c'est à dire that is to say, that is ;
à, dire vrai to tell the truth, pour ainsi dire so to speak;
cela, va, sans dire that does not need to be stated or is a
matter of course (literally, goes without saying). Wouloir
dire (literally, wish to Say) means Signify, mean.
5. Faillir. The perfect j'ai failli etc. is used with a
following infinitive in the sense come near, just escape:
thus, j'ai failli tomber I came within an ace of falling.
6. Faire has many special uses and idioms; among them
may be noticed here: f
a. It is used impersonally in describing the conditions of
the weather.
Thus, il fait froid it is cold, il faisait chaud it was
warm, il fera beau temps it will be fine weather ; even il
fait du vent it is windy, il a fait des éclairs it has light-
ened; and so on.
b. It is much used in the sense of cause to, etc., with a
following infinitive, or as an auxiliary forming a kind of
causative verb-phrase.
Thus, je le fais savoir I cause to know it (i.e. make it
Änown), illes a fait venir he has made them come, vous
ferez faire un habit you will have a coat made (literally,
will cause to make a coat).
If the following infinitive has a direct object, the object
of faire itself must be made indirect : thus, je le fais écrire
I make him write, but je lui fais écrire une lettre I make
him write a letter.
c. Faire is sometimes (but much less often than do in
English) used to avoid the repetition of a preceding verb:
thus, je lui ai écrit, comme je devais le faire I wrote him,
as I ought to do.
7. Since falloir is impersonal only, while the equivalent
English expressions, must, have to, be obliged to, etc., admit
subjects of all persons and numbers, the sentence has to be
cast into a quite different form in French.
a. Il faut etc. is oftenest followed by que that before
228] IDIOMATIC USES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 113
the verb which in English takes must as its auxiliary. This
verb must in French always be in the subjunctive : present
if the tense of falloir is present or future, otherwise imper-
fect. Thus: he must work il faut qu'il travaille (literally,
ſit is necessary that he work), you must read il faut que
vous lisiez, the boy had to go il fallait que legarçon allāt,
the army will be obliged to retreat il faudra, que l'armée
se retire, the books would have had to be sold il aurait fallu
que les livres fussent vendus.
ô. But, if the subject, be a pronoun, a briefer expression
is more often used, the subject being made indirect object
of the tense of falloir, which is then followed by the infini-
tive of the other verb : thus, he must work il lui faut tra-
vailler (literally, it is necessary to him to work), you must
Tead il vous faut lire, she had to go il lui fallait aller,
they will be obliged to withdraw illeur faudra, se retirer.
c. Il faut etc. is also used with a following subject—noun
to express that Something is lacking or desired: thus, il me
faut un chapeau I want a hat (literally, there is wanting
; ºne a hat), vous fallait-il des livres did you want some
Ooks 2
8. The perfect of the verb maitre, je suis né, etc., is used
in the sense of was born, if the person spoken of is still
living.
9. Plaire is much used impersonally, especially in the
phrase s'il vous plait if you please.
10. Pouvoir. a. Puis and peux are equally common as 1st
sing. In questions, however, only puis-je is used.
b. Pouvoir sometimes expresses general possibility, and
is to be rendered by may, might, etc.: thus, cela, peut €tre
that may be, il pouvait avoir vingtans he might (perhaps)
be 20 years old. It is sometimes used reflexively, in the
sense of be possible : thus, cela, se peut that is possible.
c. Pouvoir often takes an object directly where in Eng-
lish we have to use another verb : thus, peut-il attendre
can he wait 3 ille peut he can (do) it.
d. When this verb is made negative before an infinitive,
the pas is often omitted : thus, cela, ne peut tarder that
cannot delay. The omission is more usual with puis than
with peux in 1st sing. present, \
114 WERBS. [228
11. Savoir. a. With an object and a predicate relating
to it, salvoir means know to be : thus, je le sais modeste I
Know him to be modest, with a following infinitive, it means
know how : thus, il sait se taire he knows how to hold his
tongue.
b. The pres. Subj. je sache, etc. is in certain phrases
used like an indicative : thus, je ne Sache personne qui I
know no one who, etc.; que je salche so far as I know. The
conditional saurais is used (negatively) in the sense of can,
be able: thus, ils ne sauraient servir they are unable to be
of use.
c. The phrase je ne sais quoi (or qui, quel, etc.) is much
used in the sense of something, I can't tell what, etc.
d. Savoir is very often conjugated negatively with ne
alone (pas being omitted).
12. Valoir. Be worth more is valoir mieux; be worth
the trouble or be worth while is valoir la peine.
13. a. Venir is followed by an infinitive directly (without
à, or de), when it means come in order to do anything :
thus, il est venu me voir he came to see me, venez dimer
chez mous come and dime with us.
b. The present and imperfect indicative of venir followed
by de are used before an infinitive to signify time just past :
thus, je viens de le voir I have just seem him, il venait de
diner he had just dimed.
Such phrases mean literally I am coming from, he was
coming from, etc., and are the exact opposite of I am going
to (e.g. je vais le voir I am going to see him), he was going
to (il allait diner he was going to dime), etc.
14. Vivre. The pres. subj. is used in good wishes for
English long live : thus, vive le roi long live the king.
15. Wouloir. The regular imperative veux voulons vou-
lez is very rarely used ; instead of it, the 2d pers. sing. and
plur. veuille veuillez are used, but only with a following
infinitive, and in the sense of please to, be good enough to:
thus, veuillez vous asseoir please sit down.
b. Wouloir is used with the infinitive of another verb al-
most as an auxiliary, and must stand for our will whenever
a wish or request is implied: thus, woulez-vous diner chez
nous will you dine with us # It also signifies wish to have,
want : as woulez vous du lait will you have some milk 2
228] EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR VERBS. 115
c. En vouloir, followed byà, means haveagrudge against,
be vexed or angry at, be hostile to, etc. : thus, il en voulait à
ce pauvre homme he bo7'e a g7'udge againSt this poor man.
EXERCISES ON THE MOST USED IRREGULAR
VERBS.
EXERCISE 13.
VOCABULARY .
dire (23), say, tell lire (34), read.
écrire (25), w7'ète envoyer (26), send
aller (3), go venir (62), come
revenir (62), return renvoyer (26), send back
le roman, the novel le journal, the newspaper
I.
1. Pourquoi allez-vous à Paris ? 2. J'y vais trouver
mon fils, qui vient d'y aller. 3. N'allez pas le chercher;
il va revenir. 4. Lisez les lettres qu'il nous a écrites.
5. Je les ai lues hier, et je viens de lui écrire aussi.
6. Nous lui écrirons demain, et nous lui enverrons le
roman que nous venons de lire. 7. Avez-vous lu le
journal? on dit que le roi va venir en Angleterre. 8. Il
vient d'être chassé de France, mais il ne viendra
pas ici. 9. Ces messieurs me disaient qu'ils allaient
venir hier, mais ils ne sont pas venus. 10. Allez les
chercher, et quand vous les aurez trouvés, venez me le
dire. 11. Il s'en est allé ce matin, mais il reviendra
demain. 12. Donnez-moi le roman que vous lisiez au-
jourd'hui, et je le lirai demain. 13. Quoiqu'il vienne
chercher le journal, on ne le lui donnera pas. 14. Il
est venu nous dire qu'il n'a rien envoyé à votre fils.
15. Quoiqu'ils n'y aillent pas aujourd'hui, ils iront
116 VERBS. [228
demain. 16. Que dites-Vous, monsieur P Je ne vous
dirai pas ce que j'allais lui dire. -
II.
1. Why do you write to him P 2. I was writing to
him because he had written to me. 3. We will write
you a letter when we go to Paris. 4. She will send
you the newspapers which they have just sent her.
5. We have read the newspapers that you sent us, and
we are going to send them back to you. 6. Come and
tell me what you were reading. 7. We are reading
the novel you wrote. 8. When you have read it I
will come and fetch it. 9. Although he come here,
we will tell him nothing. 10. He is going to come,
because he has been told that you are here. 11. I
went away because he was coming. 12. We will read
you what he wrote to us. 13. They will not read what
he has said, but they will send it back to him to-mor-
row. 14. They went to Paris when their friends
came here. 15. They have returned, and they will
not go away again.
EXERCISE 14.
\ WOCABULARY.
devoir (22), owe, ought pouvoir (49), be able, can
wouloir (66), wish, will falloir (29), be necessary, must
faire (28), do, make déjà, adv. already
le papier, paper le crayon, the pencil
I.
1. Que faites-Vous lă, mes enfants. 2. Nous ne
faisons rien. 3. Wous me devriez pas Étre ici, vous
228] EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR VERBS. 117
auriez dû être déjà à l'école. 4. Je ne veux pas aller
à l'école. 5. Il faut y aller, mon enfant; va-t-en.
6. Avez-vous les livres qu'il vous faut ? 7. Il me faut
aussi des crayons et du papier. 8. Si vous voulez des
crayons, il faut que vous en achetiez. 9. Nous en
voulons, mais nous ne pouvons en acheter, parce que
nous n'avons pas d'argent. 10. Veuillez bien me
donner l'argent que vous me devez. 11. J'ai voulu
vous le donner hier, mais je ne l'ai pas pu. 12. Il
doit venir demain, mais nous ne pourrons pas être
ici. 13. Il faut que vous fassiez ce que je vous ai dit.
14. Il nous a fallu des robes, et nous en avons fait
venir de Paris. 15. Il fallait que les robes fussent
faites, parce que nous voulions aller au bal. 16. Ils
ne font pas ce que ils doivent faire. 17. Ils ne l'ont pas
fait, parce qu'il faisait très chaud hier. 18. Quand ils
l'auront fait, je Vous le feraisavoir à vous et à vos amis.
II.
1. Will you come with us ? 2. I cannot come, be-
cause it is very cold. 3. You ought to come, and you
can come if you will (it le). 4. They could not go to
school, because they had not the paper that they
needed. 5. They must buy paper and pencils.
6. They would like to buy them, and they ought to
buy them. 7. I will have pencils and books bought.
8. You ought not to have given them the books; they
could have worked, if they needed money. 9. They
will not be able to work, because they are ill. 10. Al-
though she wanted to come, she could not. 11. Do
what you wish ; but I will not do it. 12. The
ladies needed new dresses, but they could not find
118 * -- VERBS. [228
any. 13. My new dress is to come from Paris to-
morrow; I have had it made there. 14. Although she
wants to go to the ball, she cannot. 15. She was to
have gone there, but she had to go away. 16. If the
teacher cannot come, I will have it told to the chil-
dren.
EXERCISE 15.
VOCABULARY .
savoir (55), know voir (65), see
recevoir (52), receive croire (18), believe
connaître (43), be acquainted with paraître (43), appear
mettre (36), put, put on combien, how much or many
sur, on quelque chose, something
I.
1. Connaissez-vous cet homme ? 2. Je le vois, mais
je ne le connais pas. 3. Je croyais le connaître, mais
il me dit qu'il ne me connaît pas. 4. Vous le verrez
demain, parce qu'il va venir nous voir. 5. Avez-vous
reçu des lettres ce matin ? 6. J'en ai reçu, mais je
ne savais pas que vous les aviez écrites. 7. Quand
vous les aurez lues, mettez-les sur la table. 8. Je les y
ai mises, mais je ne les y vois plus. 9. Quand je reçois
des lettres, je les mets toujours sur cette table. 10. Je
ne saurais vous dire combien je vous aime. 11. Elles
croient parler très bien, quoiqu'elles ne sachent rien.
12. Nous n'avons jamais su ce qu'il y avait dans ce
journal. 13. Quand je recevais sa lettre, je ne savais
pas qu'elle était ici. 14. Je la voyais, mais elle ne m'a
pas vu. 15. Vous paraissez malade, madame; est-ce
qu'il vous faut quelque chose ? 16. Quoiqu'elle mette
sa plus belle robe, elle ne paraît pas jolie.
281) ADWERBS, # 119
II.
1. Do you see the gentleman P 2. I have not seen
him, but I believe he is here. 3. We shall see him
to-morrow. 4. Have you received the novel which
has just appeared? 5. I have received it and read it;
it appears to be very good. 6. Did you not see the
books in the chair where I had put them P 7. If you
put the books on the chair, I shall not see them.
8. They put the letters they had received on the table.
9. I did not know that you were to receive any let-
ters. 10. We cannot tell you how many letters we
have received ; but we know that we shall receive
more (encore) of them. 11. Do not believe all that
is said. 12. They believed they told you all, but they
do not know all that we know. 13. They know
something that you will never know. 14. Why did
she put on her prettiest dress P 15. She put on her
prettiest dress because she saw us.
ADVERBS.
229. 1. Of adverbs and adverb-phrases there are in
French, of course, a great many which it belongs to the
dictionary to give.
a. The conjunctive adverbs y and en were explained at
143–44; the relative adverbs dont and oil, at 172–73. For
the use of adverbs of quantity with nouns, see 92.
230. Many adverbs make phrases with prepositions:
thus, d'ici hence (literally, from here), par off by what
Toad 3 jusqu'où how far 2 etc.
231. a. The interrogative adverbs—oil where, quand
when, combien how much, comment how—are, like the in-
terrogative pronouns, also used as relative, in which case
their value is rather that of conjunctions.
120 ADVERBS. [232
232. The responsive adverbs are oui yes and mom no.
a. Instead of oui, si is sometimes used (especially collo-
quially), in reply to a negative question: thus, vous n'y
avez pas Été 2 si you have not been there 3 yes, I have.
233. Voici and voilà, are also abbreviated sentences
(from vois ici and vois la), and they retain some of the
constructions belonging to the verb which really forms a
part of them.
a. Thus, they often take a pronoun-object, which (con-
trary to the rule for an imperative affirmative: 136.) is placed
before them : thus, les voilà, there they are, m'y voici here
I am, vous voulez de l'argent 2 en voilà you want money?
there is some , more rarely, they are preceded by the rela-
tive object que: thus, ce monsieur que voici this gentle-
man here (literally, whom behold here).
234. Adverbs have considerable freedom of
position in the sentence. General rules are:
a. An adverb is almost never allowed before the verb in
French : thus, she always cries elle pleure toujours, I
often take a walk je me promène Souvent.
b. With a verb in a compound tense, the adverbs of most
frequent use ordinarily come between the auxiliary and the
participle : thus, elle a toujours pleuré she has always
cried, je m'étais souvent promené I had often taken a
walk. But such may for special reasons come after the
participle, as do adverbial phrases; and the words for to-
day, yesterday, to-morrow, etc., always follow the parti-
ciple.
ADWERBS FROM ADJECTIVES.
235. Most adjectives, in French as in English,
have adverbs made from them by adding an ad-
verbial suffix.
The adverb-making suffix in French is ment,
and it is in general added to the feminine form of
the adjective—yet with not a few exceptions.
236. Most adjectives ending in a consonant in
238] ADWERBS FROM ADJECTIVES. 121
the masculine add ment to their feminine form :
thus, 'haut high, 'hautement highly; grand great,
grandement greatly.
Exceptions to this rule are the following:
a. Adjectives ending in ant and ent for the
most part change their nt into m, and add ment
directly to it: thus, constant constant, constamment
constantly; prudent prudent, prudemment prudently.
But lentement slowly, présentement presently, véhé-
mentement vehemently, by the general rule.
b. A few adjectives change e of the feminine to é before
ment: thus, communément, confusément, diffusément, ex-
pressément, importunément, obscurément, profondément,
précisément.
c. Gentil forms gentiment micely.
237. Most adjectives ending in a vowel add
ment to their masculine form : thus, facile easy,
facilement easily; joli pretty, joliment prettily; absolu
absolute, absolument absolutely.
Exceptions to this rule are as follows:
a. Beau, nouveau, fou, and mou add ment to their
feminine form (107): thus, nouvellement, follement,
etc. -
b. A few adjectives change their final e to é beforement :
thus, aveuglément, commodément, conformément, Énor-
mément, immensément (and one or two others, little used).
c. A few adjectives change final u to fi before ment :
thus, assidfiment, continúment, crüment, näment; and gai
gay makes either gaiement or gainent.
d. Impuni forms impunément with impunity.
238. Adverbs derived from adjectives (and a
few others, as souvent often) have a comparative
and superlative, made by prefixing plus and le plus
122 Adverbs [238
respectively (as in the comparison of adjectives:
115): thus,
facilement, plus facilement, le plus facilement, easily, more easily,
7most easily * .
souvent, plus souvent, le plus souvent, often, oftener, oftenest
239. Four original adverbs have special com-
parative forms, which are made superlative by
prefixing le: thus,
beaucoup, plus, le plus, much, more, most
bien, mieux, le mieux, well, better, best
mal, pis, le pis, badly or öll, worse, worst
peu, moins, le moins, little, less, least
240. Many adjectives are, either commonly
or in certain phrases, used directly as adverbs,
without any change of form. Some of the com-
monest of them are : bas in a low tone, 'haut loud,
aloud, clair clearly, droit straight, expres expressly,
fort very, juste correctly, tout quite, soudain Sud-
denly, vite quickly, fast. - -
a. Most of these form also adverbs in ment for certain
TISéS.
ADWERBS OF NEGATION.
241. A verb is made negative by putting the
adverb ne before and pas (or point) after it—in a
compound tense, before and after the auxiliary.
a. Pas and point, are really nouns, meaning step and
point, used adverbially to strengthen the negation, like
English not a bit and the like.
b. The ne comes after the subject, but precedes a pronoun-
object (136). It is abbreviated always to n' before a vowel
or h mute (226). -
243] ADVERBS OF NEGATION. 123
242. Examples of tenses infected negatively -
a,lf'6) ，
je ne suis pas, I am mot je n'avais pas eu, I had mot
had
tu n'es pas, thou art not . tu n'avais pas eu, thou hadst
·not had
il n'est pas, he is mot il n'avait pas eu, he had mot
had
nous ne sommes pas, lD6 aVr6 7ºot nous n'avions pas eu, we had
- mot had -
vous n'êtes pas, you are mot vous n'aviez pas eu, you had
mot had.
ils ne sont pas, they aa'e mot ils n'avaient pas eu, they had
mot had -
| a. Point makes a stronger Or more emphatic negative :
thns, il ne l'est point he is nOt SO at all.
b. N'est-ce pas is a much-used phrase, meaning is it not
so ? or corresponding to English repeated questions like is
he not ? do they not ? and the like : thus, il est encore
malade, n'est-ce pas he is Still ill, is he not ? vous avez
mon livre, n'est-ce pas you have my b0ok, have you mot ?
243. In certain cases ne stands alone without
added pas or point, to negative the verb. This is
the case :
a. Generally with the verbs savoir, pouvoir, oser, and
cesser, especially when followed by an infinitive. Thus, il
ne peut tarder he cannot delay, elle n'oserait revenir
she wOuld mot dare to retur7?.
b. After si, after rhetorical questions introduced by que
or qui, after il y a, and in a negative clause depending on one
that is negative or impliedly so : thus, si ce n'est vous if it
is not you, qui de nous n'a ses défauts who of us has not
his faults ? il y a trois mois que je ne l'ai vu I have not
seem him these three months, vous n'avez pas un ami qui
ne soit aussi le mien you have mot a friend who is not
also mine.
124 ADVERBS. [243
c. In certain phrases: as, n'importe no matter, n’avoir
garde de take care not to.
244, Ne is also used without second negative
particle along with certain words which are re-
garded as forming with it a compound negative
phrase, often to be rendered in English by a sin-
gle negative word.
a. These negative phrases are especially me . . . rien
nothing, ne . . . jamais never, ne . . . personne nobody,
ne. . . aucun not any, none, no, ne . . . plus no longer, no
more (in sense of continuance of time), ne . . . que only
(lit’ly, not [else or other] than), ne . . . guère, hardly,
scarcely.
Thus, je ne suis jamais malade I am never ill, il n'a vu
personne he has seen no one, n’avez-vous rien have you
nothing 3 je n'ai eu que trois francs I have only had three
Jºrancs, personne ne l’a vu no one has seem him, nous me
l'avons plus we no longer have it.
b. Of me... que, meaning only, the que stands where than
would stand if the expression were filled out : thus, je ne
verrai qu’elle I shall see only her, je ne la verrai que de-
main I shall see her only to-morrow, je ne la verrai demain
qu'après le diner I shall see her only after the dinner to-
"morrow. If the only qualifies the verb itself, a paraphrase
is made with faire do: thus, elle me fait que pleurer she
merely cries, or elle me fait autre chose que pleurer she
does nothing else than cry. Autre other is not seldom used
With ne alone : thus, le droit n'est autre chose que la rai-
son même right is nothing but reason itself.
c. Not seldom, more than one second negative belongs
with the same ne: thus, je me lui ai jalmais rien donné I
have never given him anything, je n'en dirai jalmais rien
à, personne I will never say anything to any one about
7t. * - |
d. Nul mome, not any (also its adverb nullement in no
wise), and ni . . . ni neither . . . nor, though themselves
negative, require also me before the verb: thus, ni vous ni
moi ne le pouvons neither you nor I can do it, nul ne le
| Saura none will know it. The same is the case with non
247] ADVERBS OF NEGATION. 125
plus not any more : thus, elle ne l’aime non plus que moi
she doesn't like it any more than I.
e. For the use of the partitive noun after negative ex-
pressions, see 976.
245. The negative me belongs strictly to the
verb, and can never be used except with a verb
expressed. If the verb, then, is omitted (for ex-
ample, in answers), the ne is also omitted, and the
other word has by itself a negative sense : thus,
avez-vous des livres have you books 2 pas un not one ;
qu'avez-vous what have you ? rien nothing ; qui est ici
who is here 2 personne nobody.
246. The negative word non is especially used
as direct answer to a question, meaning no.
In this, as in most of its other uses, it may be followed
by the second negative pas (rarely by point): thus, woulez-
vous le faire? non (or non pas) will you do it 2 no.
a. It also stands, in incomplete expression, for an omitted
negative verb or clause: thus, je gage que non I wager .
that it is not so, nom que je le croie not (i.e. it is not the
case) that I believe it.
b. It is used to negative a particular member of a sentence
which is not a verb : thus, il demeure à la campagne, non
loin d'ici he lives in the country, not far from here, il périt,
non sans gloire he perished, not without glory.
c. Non plus not any more, stands after a negative verb
or after ni nor, and is often best rendered by either : thus,
je ne le ferai pas non plus I shall not do it either (literally,
any more than he or than you, or the like); ni moi non
plus nor I either. -
247. In dependent clauses a ne is often found used
with a verb where no negation is really implied.
a. In clauses with the subjunctive depending on a word
signifying fearing, hindering, doubting, or denying (See
270): thus, évitez qu'il ne vous parle avoid his Speaking
126 PREPOSITIONS. [247
to you, de peur qu'il ne vienne for fear he is coming, on ne
doute pas qu'il n'aille it is not doubted that he is going.
b. Often after il y a . . . que, depuis que, avant que, sans
que; and always after a moins que and de crainte or de
peur que: thus, depuis que je ne vous ai vu since I have
seen you, avant qu'il n'entre before he comes in, a moins
qu'il ne vienne unless he come.
c. A ne is inserted before a verb following and depending
on a comparative : thus, c'est plus vrai que vous ne le
croyez it is truer than you think for.
PREPOSITIONS.
248. The use of prepositions in French corre-
sponds so closely to the English usage that only
a few special points call for notice here.
a. The two prepositions de of, from, and a to, at are
those of which the uses are most various, depart most
widely from the simple original meaning of the words, and
are most analogous with inflectional endings, of genitive
and dative respectively ; they have been, therefore, most
fully treated above.
b. Thus, the uses of de as connecting one noun with an-
other in the manner of a genitive are stated in 87; as mak-
ing a partitive noun, 95–100; as connecting a noun with an
adjective, 114; as denoting material and measure, 90,91; af-
ter a verb, 262; as preceding an infinitive, 278; and so on.
c. In like manner the use of a before a noun in the sense
of an indirect object or dative, 88; between an adjective and
noun, 1146; before an infinitive, 279–80; between a verb
and a noun, 262; and so on. is also used in such phrases
as c'est bien a vous that is good of you or in you ; and in
many elliptical phrases: as, a moi or au secours help / (i.e.,
come to me, come for help).
249. With the names of cities and towns à, is used to ex-
press both to and in (literally, into). With the name of
254] PREPOSITIONS. 127
a country en is used for in or to (without the article), but
before a plural name and in one or two other cases à is used.
Thus: il est à Paris he is at Paris, je vais en France I am
going to France, elles sont aux Etats-Unis they are in
the U72?ted States.
250. Dans and en in, into. Dans is more definite and
en more general and vague. En is almost never used before
the definite article or possessive.
a. Dans is used instead of en before the name of a coun-
try when accompanied by an adjective: danstoute l'Angle-
terre in all England. º
b. In expressions of time en is used to mean in the year,
the season, the month, etc.: thus, en mil huit cent trente,
en été in 1830, in summer; but dans la même année in the
Same year.
c. En is used elliptically to signify in the character of
like, as , thus agir en honnète homme act like an homest
7720,72.
251. Sans without. This preposition is peculiar in being
treated in some respects as a negative word (since it so dis-
tinctly implies a negation of accompaniment): thus, sans
rien dire without saying anything, sans or ni argent
without gold or silver, sans nul doute without any doubt.
After it, the partitive sense of a noun is regularly left un-
expressed : thus, avec de l'or mais sans argent with gold
but without silver.
252. Many prepositions are also used along with a preced-
ing preposition or adverb, forming a prepositional phrase :
thus, jusqu’à la ville as far as the town, quant à moi as
for me, d'après ce qu'il nous dit according to what he tells
7/S.
253. Many prepositional phrases are also made up of ad-
verbs and adverbial phrases followed by de of; thus,
autour de ma, chambre around my room, le long du
fleuve along the river, au-delà du tombeau beyond the
tomb.
254. For prepositions with the infinitive see 277–82.
128 ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. | [254
EXERCISE 16.
ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.
VOCABULARY.
bientôt, Soom presque, almost
autant que, aS much a8 tout de suite, at once
pas du tout, not at all constant, adj. constant
possible, adj. possible pendant, during
avant, before chez, at the house or home qf
jusqu'à, as far as prochain, adj. near, next
le dîner, the dinner le déjeuner, the breakfast
[Also the words and expressions explained in the text.]
I.
1. Combien de livres avez-vous ? 2. Je n'ai que
ces livres que voici ; mais j'en aurai bientôt d'autres.
3. Quant à moi, j'en ai presque autant que vous ;
venez chez moi, je Vous les ferai voir. 4. Je m'en
vais chez mon frère, je veux y aller avant le dîner. 5.
Ils sont venus chez nous pendant le déjeuner, mais ils
s'en sont allés tout de suite. 6. Ce garçon ne fait
que lire; on ne le voit guère sans livre. 7. Il lit bien,
mais il n'écrit que très mal. 8. Parlons bas, on peut
nous entendre. 9. Je ne vois personne, et je n'ai ja-
mais rien dit de méchant. 10. Voulez-vous venir
jusqu'à la ville ou non ? 11. Je vous ai déjà dit que
non; il y a cinq mois que je n'y ai été, et je ne veux
nullement y aller maintenant. 12. Moi, je ne l'aime
pas non plus, mais il faut que j'y aille constamment.
13. Nous avons été en Angleterre en 1888, et nous y
irons encore l'année prochaine. 14. Elle ne nous
255] CONJUNCTIONS. 129
écrit pas souvent, mais elle nous écrit le plus possible.
15. Elle veut toujours paraître mieux qu’elle n'est.
16. Voilà deux lettres qu’elle vient d'écrire; malheu-
reusement je ne peux guère les lire.
II.
1. Do you see this girl often ? 2. I have not seen
her for three months, but I shall see her oftener next
year. 3. Speak louder, I do not hear you at all. 4.
There are two men ; do you know them P 5. He does
not know them at all, nor I either. 6. We do not like
this man at all, he talks only of his house and his
money. 7. He wishes to appear less poor than he is,
but he is now without friends or money. 8. He has
never told anyone how much money he has. 9. Doesn’t
he come to your house constantly £ 10. I tell you
no; I hardly see him at my house. 11. Here is some
money; fortunately I am much richer than you. 12.
Why do you not write to him oftener P 13. Unfor-
tunately he does not read well, and he writes worse
than he reads. 14. He is coming here in April, and
he will be here during the next month. 15. Go
quickly; as for him, he will not be there before din-
IlêI’.
CONJ UN CTIONS.
255. The commonest conjunctions are et and,
mais but, ou or, ni nor, aussi also, car for, done then,
or now, ainsi thus, comme as, puisque since, as, si if,
lorsque or quand when.
130 SUBJECT AND OBJECT. M [256
256. Correlative conjunctions, used in succes-
sive clauses, are :
et . .. et, both . .. and ou . . .. ou, either . . .. or
ni . . .. ni, neither . . .. nor soit . . .. soit, whether . . .. or
plus . .. plus, the more . . . moins . . .. moins, the leSS . . .
the more the less
autant . . .. autant, d8 tantôt . . .. tantôt, now . . .
much . . . a8 70000
257. Many phrases having the value of conjunctions are
made by adding the conjunction que tO a preposition Or ad-
verb or adverbial phrase : thus, aussitôt que je la verrai
as soon as I Shall See her, ainsi que je vous ai dit as I told
Q/0?b.
a. When the conjunctions and conjunction-phrases con-
taining que—as lorsque when, quoique although, pendant
que while, parce que because—are tO be repeated, they are
generally repeated by que alone ; and que is likewise used
in repetition instead of quand, comme, and si : thus, lors-
que l'empereur fut revenu et qu'il eut visité le camp
when the emperor had returned and when he had visited
the camp, s'il n'a que peu d'argent et qu'il veuille en
avoir plus if he has only a little money and wants more.
, b. Especially in familiar language, que is sometimes used
instead of lorsque 20hen, avant que before, depuis que
since, jusqu'à ce que until, and que . .. ne instead of sans
que ttnless : thus, à peine était-il sorti que la maison
s'écroula he had hardly gone out, when the house fell in,
je n'y irai point que tout ne soit prêt I Shall not go there
unless (or till or before) everything is ready.
For the conjunctions With a following subjunctive see
272.
SUBJECT AND OBJECT.
258. If a verb has more than one subject of
different persons, the agreement of the verb in
person is as it would be if the different subjects
261] SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 131
were summed up in one personal pronoun: thus,
mon ami et moi sommes tombés d'accord my friend
and I have agreed, vous et vos amis étes tombés d'ac-
cord you and your friends have agreed.
a. More often, such compound subjects are repeated by
means of a pronoun that includes them : thus, vous et
moi, nous sommes contents you and I are satisfied, vous
et lui, vous savez l'affaire you and he wºnderstand the
777 atte”. -
259. It is quite common in French that the
true or logical subject of the verb is repeated by
a pronoun as grammatical subject (see 156).
a. The logical subject is sometimes preceded by que, as
a sort of correlative to the grammatical subject ce: thus,
c'est une charmante chose qu'une femme it is a charming
thing, a woman (is). And in elliptical expression the que
remains, even when ce and the verb are omitted : thus, un
singulier homme que ce roi a singular man, this king /
Ö. A preceding subject is also often repeated by the
grammatical subject ce: thus, le temps, c'est de l'argent
tºrne is money, commander a ses passions, c'est remporter
la plus belle des victoires to control one's passions is to
gain the best of victories. The effect of this repetition is to
emphasize the subject.
c. Repetition of the subject by a pronoun is usual in in-
Verted clauses after a peine, encore, peut-être, vainement,
and the like : thus, a peine mon ami fut-il sorti hardly
had my friend gone out, peut-être la fortune reviendra-t-
elle perhaps fortune will return.
260. Much more generally than in English, the
pronoun subject is repeated before each verb.
Thus, je l'aime et je l'admire I love and admire him.
261. A verb in French does not take two di-
rect objects, but only a direct and an indirect
together. -
132 , FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [261
a. Following this rule, the verbs laisser allow, voir see,
entendre hear, ouïr hear, and faire make, cause (see 228,
6), when followed by a dependent infinitive having a direct
object, have their own logical object made indirect: thus,
je l'ai entendu dire à votre ami I heard your friend say
it, je le lui ai vu essayer I saw him try it, j'ai fait lire
votre lettre à mon ami I made my friend read your let-
ter.
262. Many verbs which are transitive in English require
in French a de or an à before their object: thus, il change
d'opinion he changes his opinion, il abuse de votre bonté
he abuses your kindness, il s'approcha du feu he approached
the fire, il faut obéir aux lois one must obey the laws, il
plaît à tout le monde he pleases every one.
sPECIAL USES OF THE FORMs OF CON-
JUGATION.
INDICATIVE MODE.
263, a. The presentis often used instead of the
past in lively narration : thus, la nuit approche,
l'instant arrive ; César se présente night draws near,
the moment comes ; Cœsar presents himself. -
b. The present is regularly used for past ac-
tion continued into the present, or for what has
been and still is : thus, il est ici depuis une semaine
| he has been here for a week.
264. As between the two simple past tenses,
imperfect and preterit, the PRETERIT expresses
simply past action, without further implication ;
the IMPERFECT expresses past action viewed as
265] \ INDICATIVE MODE. 133
continuous, as a lasting condition or quality, as
habitual, repeated, or the like.
a. This distinction is in part quite clear and easy to make,
as in cases where our language Says or might say I was giv-
&ng, or I kept giving, or I gave 7'epeatedly, or ſused to give,
or the like, the imperfect being then required; but it is
often very difficult. It depends in great part on the rela-
tion of the action to some other : especially when one action
is represented as still going on at the time another occurs,
the former is imperfect, and the latter preterit : thus, in
English, he was (impf. Était) there as I eſºtered (pret.
entrai), quand j'osai regarder, j’étais seul when I ven-
tured to look, I was alone, il était muit noire quand nous
arrivāmes it was black might when we arrived.
b. The imperfect is regularly used for what had been and
still was ; thus, il y Était depuis longtemps he had been
there for a long time.
265. The PERFECT answers in the main to the
English perfect, being the expression for past
action with some reference to the present in-
volved.
But there are also considerable differences between the
two, especially as the French often uses the perfect where
we set the simple preterit: thus,
a. To express general facts of the past, not in connection
with their surroundings: thus, Alexandre a détruit l'em-
pire des Perses the Persian empire was destroyed by Alea:-
ander, Dieu a créé le monde God created the world.
b. Especially, the perfect is very often used to
express recent events, connected with the present
as having taken place within a division of time
now current.
Thus, je me suis lové à six heures ce matin I got up at
6 o'clock this morning ; lui avez-vous parlé did you speak
to him, -
134 FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [266
266. The future corresponds to the English
future. A.
a. The French, however, often uses the future in com-
pound sentences where it is logically more correct, but
where the English has the present instead: thus, vous direz
ce qu'il vous plaira, you will Say what you [shall please,
tant qu'il vivra, as long as he lives (or shall live).
b. The future is used after sionly in the sense of whether:
thus, je ne sais s'il viendra, I know not whether he will
60??? 6.
267. The CONDITIONAL agrees in general in use
with the English conditional, or verb-phrase
made with the auxiliaries would and should.
EXERCISE 17.
CONJUNCTIONS: SUBJECT AND OBJECT; INDICATIVE
TENSES.
WOCABULARY.
abuser (de), abuse changer (de), change
oběir (ā), obey emprunter, borrow (from, à)
depuis, since, for s'approchar (de), come near, ap-
se moquer (de), ridicule proach
la bonté, kindness le feu, the fire
Seul, seule, alone la chose, the thing
I.
1. Il a 2mprunté de l'argent à son père, et lui et moi
nous mous en allons tout de Suite. 2. Je ne peux aller .
avec vous; ilfaut que je changede robe. 3. Approghez-
vous du feu, monsieur ; Vous et Votre fils, vous devez
avoir froid. 4. Merci, madame, nous ne woulons pas
267] CONJUNCTIONS-SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 135
abuser de votre bonté. 5. Pendant que je lui parlais,
il s'approcha de la table et y mit ce livre. 6. Lors-
que je le trouvai, il y était depuis deux heures.
7. Nous sommes à Paris depuis deux jours, mais
nous n'avons encore vu que très peu de choses. 8.
Elle s'est levée ce matin à six heures, ainsi que vous
le lui avez ordonné. 9. Plus il perd d'argent, plus
il en emprunte à tous ses amis. 10. Je ne sais s'il
s'en ira, mais je ne m'en irai pas pendant qu'il sera ici.
11. C'est un joli enfant que ce petit garçon. 12.
Je ne l'ai pas vu, parce qu'il est venu ce matin, et que
je n'étais pas chez moi. 13. À peine ces messieurs
furent-ils venus, qu'ils voulaient s'en aller. 14. Ou
ils ne vous ont pas entendu, ou ils ne vous ont pas
obéi. 15. Il est Vrai qu'ils se sont moqués de nous,
mais nous ne leur en voulons point. 16. J'étais
toute seule lorsqu'il s'approcha de moi et qu'il me
donna la lettre,
II.
1. It is a good book, this history. 2. I borrowed
it of my friend, but I have not yet read it. 3, I do
not know whether I shall read it, but when I have
read it I will give it to you. 4. My sister and I will
read it. 5. While we were at my uncle's, we went to
bed at six o'clock. 6. While you were talking to him,
he Went away. 7. He has been at school since nine
o'clock. 8. They were punished because they did not
obey their teacher. 9. We had been at Paris for two
years when we changed (our) house. 10. He is either
sick or cold; why does he not come near the fire ?
11. When she has come and has changed her dress, I
136 ~, FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [267
will tell you of it. 12. Did you hear the boy say that
he had done it P 13. I was alone when he came near
the house, and I saw that he wanted to speak to me.
14. While he was speaking of you, I saw you. 15.
The more we see him, the more we love him.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
268. The subjunctive is the mode of contin-
gency, anticipation, expectation, requirement. It
belongs for the most part to dependent clauses,
and is usually introduced by the conjunction que
that. -
a. The subjunctive is sometimes used without que in an
optative or imperative sense : thus, puissiez-vous réussir
may you succeed, aimsi soit-il so be it.
b. Also sometimes in a concessive or conditional sense :
thus, vienne qui voudra, je resterai come who will, I shall
Stay.
269. The subjunctive occurs in a clause used
as logical subject of an impersonal whenever an-
ticipation, requirement, º is implied:
thus, il suffit qu’elle l'ait avoué it is enough that she
has confessed it, c'est dommage que je l'aie perdu it is

a pity that I have lost it, il est possible que nous me
revenions pas it is possible that we do not come back.
a. But the indicative is used if the clause is a distinct
statement of fact : thus, il est vrai qu’elle n'est pas
arrivée it is true that she has not come.
270. The subjunctive stands in a clause which
is used as the object of certain verbs: namely,
272] SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 137
a. verbs of wishing, permitting, forbidding, ex-
pecting, etc.; b. verbs signifying regarding with
a feeling, such as joy, doubt, apprehension, etc.;
c. verbs of thinking, supposing, and stating (but
usually only if the sentence is negative, inter-
rogative, or conditional). Thus, il veut que nous
disions la verité he wants us to tell the truth, je dé-
fends qu'on sorte I forbid any one to go out, je m'é-
tonne qu'il ne nous voie pas I am Surprised that he
does not See us, je crains qu'il ne vienne I fear lest he
come, je ne crois pas qu'il soit arrivé I don't believe
he has come, s'il affirme qu'il soit ainsi if he affirms
that it is so.
271.A subjunctive is usedin an adjective clause
—i.e., such asis introduced by a relative pronoun
and qualifies a noun-a. when the noun qualified
stands in a construction implying anticipation,
as expectation, purpose, etc.; b. after a superla-
tive or numeral word akin to a superlative ; c.
often after a negative, interrogative, or conditional
clause : thus, je cherche une retraite où je sois tran-
quille I seek a retreat where I may be quiet, envoyez-
moi quelqu'un qui me rende ce service Send me Some
one who will do me this Service, c'est le meilleur hom-
me que je connaisse he is the best man I know, il
n'y a personne qui ne soit venu there is no one who
has not come, s'il a un couteau qui soit bon if he has
a knife that is good.
272. The subjunctive is used in adverbial
clauses-that is, such as limit or qualify the ac-
138 FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [272
tion of a verb—in many cases, where a looking
forward, anticipation, contingency is implied.
a. These clauses are generally introduced either by que
after a relative word to be rendered by whatever, whoever,
whenever, etc. (see 177), or by a conjunction or conjunctive
phrase. Of these phrases requiring to be followed by sub-
junctive the commonest are afin que in order that, avant
que before, bien que and quoique although, sans que with-
out, pour que in order that, jusqu'à ce que until, pourvu
que provided that, au Cas que in Case that : thus, quoi
qu'il me dise, je ne le Crois pas whatever he may say,
I do not believe him, je ne veux voir qui que ce soit I will
not see any one, whoever he may be, quelque bon qu'il soit, je
me l'aime pas however good he may be, I do not love him ;
sortons avant qu'il soit trop tard let us go out before
fit is too late, je resterai jusqu'à ce qu'il vienne I will stay
wntil he comes, faites-le, afin que je puisse vous voir do
it, in order that I may see you.
b. After sans que, the verb can hardly be rendered ex-
cept by our infinitive in ºng : thus, sans que personne s'en
aperçoive without any one's perceiving it.
273. The subjunctive is used in certain special cases: a.
si if may be followed by the subj. impf., otherwise only by
cases of the indicative ; b. a que followed by me in the
sense of without, unless, until, takes the subjunctive : thus,
il n'a jamais rien fait qu'il ne me l’ait dit he has never
dome anything without telling me.
274. The tense of the subjunctive in a dependent clause
is in general governed by that of the principal clause, be-
ing past (imp. Or plup.) if the latter is past or conditional,
and present (or perf.) if it is present or future. f
IMPERATIVE.
275. The imperative has in general the same
uses in French as in English.
a. In the absence of a first person singular, the first
plural is sometimes used with that value: thus, soyons
hommé, m'écriai-je let me play the man, cried I to myself.
275] SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE. 139
b. Some imperatives are used interjectionally ; the com-
monest are allons come, come on, tiens ortenez hold / stop
a moment, See here, take notice, and the like, voyons let's
See, See here, va go / i.e., pshaw, nonSenSe, and the like.
EXERCISE 18.
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE.
VOCABULARY.
craindre (17), fear défendre, forbid
attendre, await, expect s'étonner, be astonished
impossible, impossible tenir (62), hold
[Also the conjunctions given in the text.]
I.
1. J'attendrai jusqu'à ce qu'il vienne. 2. Il veut
que nous soyons ici, afin qu'il puisse nous voir. 3.
Je ne crois pas qu'il vienne, et je crains qu'il ne soit
malade. 4. Il n'est guère possible qu'il soit malade
sans que nous ne le sachions. 5. Je m'étonne qu'il
n'ait pas écrit à son père. 6. Il est possible qu'il re-
çoive une lettre de lui ce soir. 7. Attendons que la let-
tre soit venue et qu'il l'ait lue. 8. C'est la première let-
tre qu'il ait reçue de son fils. 9. Je m'étonne qu'il ait
pu le faire, mais il n'y a rien qui lui soit impossible. 10.
Son père avait défendu qu'il le fît, et nous craignons
qu'il ne le punisse. 11. Qu'il me le défende ou non,
je le ferai. 12. Tiens, je ne vous voyais pas; cherchez-
vous quelque chose que vous ayez perdu ? 13. Nous
allons avec vous à l'église, à moins que vous ne nous
le défendiez. 14. Il a défendu qu'elle parle à qui
-" | .
140 FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [275
que ce soit. 15. Quelque bonne qu’elle soit, je crains
qu’elle ne lui obéisse pas.
II.
1. Do you believe he will come P 2. We are aston-
ished that he is not here already, but we will wait
until he comes. 3. Are you not afraid that he is ill?
4. He will come unless he is ill. 5. Whatever you
may say, I do not believe that he is a bad man. 6.
He is the best friend we have, and we do not wish him
to go away. 7. However rich this man may be, it
seems that he is not happy. 8. There is no one who
is happy. 9. It is possible that we can come, but I
fear that it will be forbidden us. 10. They gave
him the book in order that he might read it, but I
do not believe that he will do it. 11. His father
has forbidden that he read it. 12. We were afraid
that you would not come, but we rejoice that you
have come. 13. They never come without my know-
ing it.
THE INFINITIVE.
276. The use of the infinitive in French cor-
responds in general with our English usage, and
demands little explanation here.
277. The English to as sign of the infinitive is
represented by both de and A. Most verbs, ad-
jectives, and nouns require either a or de before
a following dependent infinitive.
278. Often, the reason for using de, as meaning properly
of, from, is to be seen : thus, il est temps de partir it is .
282) THE INFINITIVE. 141
time to leave (literally, time of leaving), on mous a dé-
fendu de parler we are forbidden to speak (literally, kept
off from speaking), il a cessé d'être he has ceased to be
(literally, ceased from being), and so on. But in consider-
able part this is not the case, and the distinction has to be
learned for each phrase.
279. A also often has the same value before an infinitive
as before an ordinary noun, the sense of to, ºnto, toward,
being plainly to be seen : thus, tout conspiré à me nuire
everything conspires to injure me (to my injury), je l'invite
a venir I invite him to come, elle les exhorta, à demeurer
fermes she eachorted them to remain firm ; but often, as in
English, the reason for the use of a is not clear, the a, being
a mere arbitrary sign of the infinitive.
a. After certain verbs, especially avoir and être, à is
used in a kind of future sense (much as in English) express-
ing something anticipated or obligatory: thus, j'ai à te
parler I have to talk to you, il est à, plaindre he is to be
pitied, il me reste beaucoup à faire there is much left for
ame to do, or, without a verb, in an attributive sense: thus,
une chose à faire a thing to be dome.
280. Some verbs admit either de or a before a following
dependent infinitive. Sometimes the choice is a matter of
indifference, or nearly so : thus, il commence à écrire or
d'écrire he begins to write;—sometimes it depends upon a
difference of construction or of meaning : thus, j’ai résolu
de partir orje me suis résolu ä, partir I have resolved to
leave, je vous laisse à penser I leave you to imagine, elle
me laisse pas de plaire she does not cease to please.
281. A few other prepositions are followed by
the infinitive directly ; they are : après after, pour
£n Order to, to, sans without, par by.
a. Of these, par is little used, and après almost only with
the perfect infinitive : thus, après avoir diné after having
dºned.
282. Many prepositional phrases are also followed by the
infinitive. It is an English infinitive in ing which in very
many cases corresponds to the French infinitive after a
preposition or prepositional phrase: thus, avant de mourir
142 FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [282
before dying, sans lui parler without Speaking to him, à.
force de la voir by dint of seeing her.
283. The infinitive without a preceding sign is
used :
a. Sometimes as subject or predicate of a verb : thus,
parler est mieux to speak is better, s'entretenir avec son
ami, c'est penser tout haut to talk with a friend is to
think aloud.
b. After the quasi-auxiliaries wouloir, pouvoir, etc.; after
verbs of perceiving and declaring, of coming and going, of
hoping, desiring, intending, and the like : thus, j'espère le
trouver I hope to find him.
c. After certain verbs of declaring, believing, and the
like, if their subject is also the subject of the action expressed
by the infinitive : thus, il assure ne 1'avoir jamais vue
he declares he never saw her, je croism’être trompé I believe
I was mistaken ; also after verbs of percéiving, and some-
times of declaring, having a direct object which is the
subject of the infinitive action: thus, je le vois venir I see
him coming.
d. In incomplete or exclamatory expression : thus, que
faire what [is one] to do 2 donnez-moi de quoi écrire give
one where with to write.
PARTICIPLES.
284. The present participle in its participial use
is not varied for gender and number ; but when
used adjectively it is varied like any other adjec-
tive to agree with its noun. Thus, deux hommes
parlant ensemble two men talking together, des paroles
consolantes consoling words, une mêre consolant sa
fille a mother consoling her child.
a. Often, where we use a present participle, the French
has a relative clause : thus, je le vois qui vient I see him
Coming.
285. a. When used with étre, the past participle,
285] INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 143
except in reflexive verbs, agrees in gender and
number with the subject of the verb.
b. When used with avoir, and also with être in
reflexive verbs, the participle never agrees with
the subject ; but it agrees with the direct object
in case that object precedes the verb.
c. The participle of an impersonal verb, or one used im-
personally, does not vary : thus, les pluies qu'il y a eu
the rains there have been.
d. The participle does not agree with an adverbial object,
specification of time, etc. : thus, les années qu'il a duré the
years it has lasted.
EXERCISE 19.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
VOCABULARY .
promettre (36), promise · mourir (38), die
le temps, time prendre (50), take
1. Qui vous a dit de venir ? 2. On m'a défendu
de venir, mais il a voulu me voir avant de mourir,
et j'ai cru devoir le faire. 3. Combien de temps a-t-il
encore à Vivre ? 4. Il est mort à six heures sans nous
connaître. 5. Il me serait impossible de vous dire
combien je suis malheureux de l'avoir perdu. 5. Nous
n'avions pas fini de lire ce livre, lorsqu'il nous l'a
pris pour le donner à son fils. 6. Vous êtes bien bon
de me le donner, mais je ne crois pas devoir le pren-
dre, 7. Il m'a promis de le chercher pour me le
rendre. 8. Je voudrais l'inviter à diner chez nous,
mais je n'ai jamais réussi à la trouver chez elle. 9.
144 FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [285
|Blle ne peut diner chez vous, mais elle a promis de
venir déjeuner chez nous demain. 10. Je n'ai rien
à faire, si ce n'est de lire ce livre-ci. 11. Il ne faut
pas parler d’un livre sans l’avoir lu. 12. A force d'en
entendre parler il croit l’avoir déjà lu. 13. Wous ne
faites que parler, au lieu de manger. 14. Je vous dé-
fends d’emprunter de l'argent à qui que ce soit. 15.
N'ayant rien à lui donner, je ne vais plus le voir.
II.
1. Did you invite him to dine with you? 2. He
promised to come and dine with me, but it is impossi-
ble for him to come before he has finished working.
3. One ought to eat before working. 4. My father
has forbidden me to eat cakes before dining. 5. By
dint of working he has succeeded in doing all that he
wanted to do. 6. It is possible to do all that one
wants to do. 7. After having promised to give me
the flowers, he gave them to his sister. 8. Why did
you look for me if you had nothing to say to me? 9.
I looked for you to give you the flowers which I have
promised you. 10. I have not the time to tell all that
I have to tell you. 11. Having borrowed money from
all his friends, he can find no one to (pour) give him
any. 12. Take this book; if you succeed in reading it
I will give it to you. 13. We told him to choose a
book, but he would not choose without having read
them. 14. We saw them come, but we did not believe
that we knew them. 15. He lived a long time at
Paris before dying.
SELECTED SENTENCES
FOR PRACTICE IN APPLYING THE RULES OF
THE GRAMMAR.
1. ARTICLES AND NOUNS.
* Elle avait une voile blanche sur la tête. * Viens,
Jeanne, donne-moi la main. * Anne, belle-sœur de
Guillaume III., et fille de Jacques II., mariée à George,
prince de Danemark, était l'héritière constitutionelle
de la couronne. * Ma fille est veuve d'un homme qui
était fort considéré dans le monde. * Monsieur est
Persan ? C'est une chose extraordinaire. " J'ai une
drôle d'idée dans la tête. * Votre coquine de Toinette
est devenue plus insolente que jamais. " Le poudre à
canon change * le systême de la guerre; la peinture à
l'huile se développe, et couvre l'Europe des chefs
d'œuvre d'art. " On parlait de Thèbes aux ſcent
portes. " J'ai froid aux pieds, dit-il. " On a des
bras, pas º de travail ; on a du cœur, point d'ouvrage.
* Ce sont ° des héros qui fondent des empires, et des
laches qui les perdent. * Ils disaient qu'il n'était
point avec des garnisons que l'on prend des états,
mais avec des armées. " Il n'est point de noblesse
où manque la vertu. * J'ai toujours préservé ma foi
de chrétien. " Il n'y a rien d'étroit, rien de limité,
dans la religion. " Les habitants de la Nouvelle-
Hollande ont le nez gros, les lèvres grosses, et la
bouche grande. * On éprouva tout-à-coup les hor-
• 263, a. b 245, e 156, b.
145
146 SELECTED SENTENCES.
reurs de la famine. * Quand la colère me prend,
ordinairement la mémoire me quitte. * A sa suite
parut le jeune Mazarin. * C'était un des rois qui
ont, après un siège de dix ans, renversé la fameuse
Troie. * Les ruines de Pompéies sont proches du
Vésuve. * Le général Buonaparte avait toute une
société à* organizer. #
2. ADJECTIVES AND NUMERALS.
* Le frère et la sœur furent charmés. * Lisez les
commentaires de César ; c'est un style d'une netteté
et d'une fermeté singulières. * Laurence vit la vieille
femme aveugle étendue sur son lit. " Ah, madame !
excusez mon aveugle douleur. " Je m'étais assis de-
vant cette vieille petite table noire que vous connaissez.
" L'aveugle ne répondit rien. " Va trouver de ma
part ce jeune ambitieux. " Je n'en suis pas surpris ;
son caractère était si différent du Vôtre. * Oswald
· était mécontent de lui-même. " Il est très adroit à
tous les exercices. * Elle fut sublime de soins et
d'attentions pour son vieux père. * Les scélérats! ils
m'ont attaché les º mains, comme vous le voyez; ils
étaient plus de vingt. * J'étais° depuis une demi-
heure environ plongé dans une sorte de torpeur.
* Hier, à dix heures et demie, le roi déclara qu'il
épousait la princesse de Pologne. " Tel était l'état
de la France, lorsque Louis seize monta sur le trône,
le onze mai, 1774.
3. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
* J'ai pensé à elle d'abord, c'était mon devoir; à
moi ensuite, c'était mon droit. * Vous l'appelez hypo-
crite ; moi, je le crois dévot, sincère, et de bonne foi.
* C'est moi qui suis coupable, et qu'il faut condamner.
* Je ne puis sans horreur me regarder moi-même.
• 279, a ° 15o, a. ° 264, b.
SELECTED SENTENCES. 147
* On ne loue point un homme ou un auteur comme
eux-mêmes se louent. " Vous n'étiez pas coupable
envers moi ; c'est moi qui le fus envers moi-même.
" Vous êtes Ardasire ? lui dis-je.—Oui, perfide, répon-
dit-elle; je la suis. " Voyez Frégus et Ravenne qui
ont été des ports et qui ne le sont plus. * Nous avons,
vous et moi, besoin de tolérance. * Il est beau de
triompher de soi. " Il est plus aisé d'être sage pour
les autres que de l'être pour soi-même. * J'étais
indigne de vous, et j'en rougis. * C'était elle, j'en
étais sûr. * Pour avoir de Vrais amis, il faut être
capable d'en faire et digne d'en avoir. " Partez, j'y
consens; mais au moins ne découragez pas les autres.
" Il est vrai qu'il m'occupe sans cesse ; et même cette
nuit j'y songeais. " J'ai dîné hier avec lui; je lui
disais : Vous mangez trop, mon oncle. * Suis-je bien
informé ? Oui, mon président. " Je me suis blessé
à la main. , " Cette vie, je l'ai en grande partie par-
courue*. J'en connais les promesses, les réalités, les
déceptions.
4. DEMONSTRATIVE, RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE,
AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
• * C'est cette partie de notre histoire contemporaine
que je vais raconter aujourd'hui. * Ce qui nous a le
· plus manqué dans nos désastres, ce ne sont pas des
hommes, ce sont des chefs capables. * Monsieur veut-
il que je le conduise du côté du pare ?—C'est inutile,
je sais le chemin. , " Il est le dieu du peuple et celui
des soldats. " Celui qui gouverne doit être le plus
obéissant à la loi. " Celui-là est bon qui fait du bien
aux autres. " La liberté est devenue la créancière de
tous les citoyens : les uns lui doivent leur industrie,
les autres leur fortune ; ceux-ci leurs conseils, ceux-là
leurs bras. * Qui vous a fait poète ?—Le malheur.
a 191, a,
t^
148 SELECTED SENTENCES.
" Seigneur, mon Dieu, que je suis malheureuse ! qu'est-
ce que je vais devenir ? " Que de clemence alors !
plus tard, que de bourreaux ! " Quoi de plus mal-
heureux que sa situation ! * Insensé que j'étais de
croire à leur bonne foi! " Moi qui suis royaliste, je
le dis franchement. * Dis-moi, qui es-tu, toi qui me
parles ainsi ? " Heureux le peuple dont l'histoire est
ennuyeuse. " C'est un homme sur la vie duquel re-
posent d'énormes capitaux. " L'instant où nous
naissons est un pas vers la mort. * J'ai de quoi me
défendre, et de quoi vous répondre. " Qui sert bien
son pays n'a pas besoin d'aïeux. * Depuis quelque
temps je ne sais ni ce que vous devenez, ni ce que vous
faites. * Qui que ce soit, parlez, et ne le craignez pas.
* Désormais je ne douterai de quoi que ce soit. * En
passant nous saluions et l'on nous saluait. * On ne
surmonte le vice qu'en le fuyant*. * Hélas! aucun
son ne frappait notre oreille. * Nous autres dipiomates
profitons volontiers des fautes de nos collègues.
* Avez-vous de l'or et de l'argent ? me disent-ils ;
nous ne souhaitons pas autre chose. * Queique cor-
rompues que soient nos mœurs, le vice n'a pas encore
perdu toute sa honte. * Chaque condition a ses dé-
goûts, et à chaque état sont attachées ses amertumes.
* Toute confiance est dangereuse, si* elle n'est en-
tière.
5s PASSIVE, REFLEXIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS.
* L'esprit féodal a été détruit en France par le
cardinal de Richelieu. * Un peuple si juste devait
être chéri des dieux. * Il paraît qu'il s'est admira-
blement conduit là-bas ; on l'a nommé capitaine.
* Les soldats sont faits pour se battre, " Il vous est
défendu de vous amuser ainsi. " Te souviens-tu de la
petite commune de Trédarzec ? " Celui qui croit trou-
ver en soi-même de quoi pouvoir se passer de tout le
a 190, c. b 243, b,
SELECTED SENTENCES. 149
monde se trompe fort. * Qu'est-ce qu'ils se disent
donc devant moi ? Vous le " voyez, monsieur; nous
nous faisons nos confidences. " Nous nous regardions
sans rien comprendre.º " C'est singulier, ... il me
semble que j'ai peur. " Il vaut mieux céder; c'est
plus prudent. * Sa mère était morte il y avait long-
temps, bien longtemps. " Des cris s'élevèrent de tous
côtés, et un cri s'échappa des lèvres de la petite fille.
" Il s'agit de savoir, il ne s'agit pas seulement de par-
ler. " Il suffit que vous le disiez pour que je le croie.
" Il n'y a pas trop de soleil, et il y a de la chaleur.
6. ADVERBS AND NEGATIVE EXPRESSION.
* Tremblez, tremblez, méchants ; voici venir la
foudre. * Nous voilà mangeant et buvant, lui du
moins. * Le soif de l'or, voilà le principe des crimes
et des malheurs. * Vous dites que non, je dis que si.
* J'ai trouvé ce matin un livre que voici. " Il n'y a
point de siècle que nous connaissions ° aussi bien que
le siècle de Louis XIV. ' C'est pourtant bien triste
de ne jamais danser, dit Landry. * Il n'y a que ce
valet qui soit suspect ici; Dorante n'a qu'à le chasser.
" Je n'ai plus rien à vous apprendre. " Je n'ai jamais
rien vu qui imprime tant de terreur. * En toute
affaire ils ne font que songer au moyen d'exercer leur
langue. * Il n'a eu nul part à cette expédition.
* Certes il est bien malheureux, mais il ne peut être
cruel, ** Je ne sais si le marquis me pardonnerait.
* Qui de nous, monsieur, n'est sujet à l'erreur ? " Si
je n'étais dans cette prison, je serais dans une autre.
" Quoi, cousine ! Personne ne t'est venu rendre
visite ? Personne. * Puis rien, pas même une
plainte, ne succéda au cri de Guillaume. " Elle a rai-
son !—Ma foi, j'ai soutenu que non. * J'aime votre
personne et non votre fortune. * Pour moi, je n'ai
a 140, e. b 251, 282, c 271, c.
150 SELECTED SENTENCES.
pas grand'chose à dire.—Ni moi non plus. * Nous
avions peur qu'elle ne nous grondât. * Depuis que
je ne vous ai vu, il s'est passé de bien grandes choses.
* Oh! tu m'ennuies ; qu'ai-je besoin d'être mieux
que je ne suis ? * Je ne l'ai pas, à moins qu'il ne soit
dans mon lit.
7. PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS.
* N'importe, madame ; c'est bien mal à vous. * Elle
frappe * Marat au flanc gauche, et enfonce * le fer
jusqu'au cœur. A moi! s'écria-t-il. * Mon plus long
séjour fut au Pérou. * Le bœuf était absolument in-
connu dans l'Amérique méridionale. * Vous parlez
en soldat; je dois agir en roi. " Lorsqu'il était jeune,
et qu'il faisait des vers, Rousseau n'était guère poète.
" C'était la division qui se trouvait le plus en danger,
parcequ'elle était placée près du Danube, et que,
pour ce motif, l'ennemi voulait l'accabler. * Vous le
feriez officier de la Légion d'honneur qu'il ne serait
pas plus superbe. * Marque-moi cet endroit, que je
le lise mieux.
8. SUBJECT AND OBJECT.
* Dorante et moi, nous sommes destinés l’un à l'autre.
* Hélas, non; nous serons tous tristes, vous, moi, les
magistrats, et le public. * C'est heureux que ni toi
ni moi n'ayons º pris le mal de ce pauvre frère. * Ce
n'est pas un petit objet que deux cent mille francs.
· " C'est un excellent meuble qu'un fauteuil. " Ah !
les sottes gens que nos gens ! " Danser et chanter,
c'est gai, sans doute. * La commerce, c'est la vie de
la nation. " Peut-être mes efforts n'ont-ils pas été
tout-à-fait vains. " Le bruit de ses souliers fit lever
la tête à la petite fille. * Il dit qu'il a vu faire des
• 263, a. * 269.
SELECTED SENTENCES. 151
actions héroïques au chevalier de Grignan. * Des pa-
roles singulières qu'on lui a entendu dire sur la religion,
sur la cour de Rome, nous ont été répétées. * Il faut
s'attendre aux censures du monde quand on ne veut
pas suivre ses exemples. . * Elle ne peut, au souper,
toucher à rien du tout. º J'aidai au Rhodien confus
à se relever. " De votre injuste haine il n'a point
hérité. " Apollon jouait de la flûte, et tous les autres
bergers venaient écouter ses chansons.
9. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
* Comme j'achevais la quatrième ligne, je lève vague-
ment les yeux, et j'aperçois de l'autre côté du fossé un
ours qui me regardait fixement. * Etendu, sans force,
au pied d'un arbre, Bayard, en face de la mort, reste
calme comme toujours. * Il y a longtemps que je
rêve d'un officier qui me sauve la vie. * Quand je
revins à moi, il faisait * jour. * Charles XII. avait
onze ans lorsqu'il perdit sa mère. .. " Les anciens
Egyptiens embaumaient leurs morts,º les Grecs et les
Romains les brûlaient. " On embauma le corps
d'Alexandre, et on le transporta en Egypte. * Elles
duraient depuis plus de dix ans, sans qu'il eût pu ° les
changer. " Pensez ; depuis quarante ans il était là à
la même place. " J'ai su que vous étiez l'un des
meilleurs amis de ce pauvre garçon. º Il a tracé
d'elle, le jour de sa mort, une esquisse fidèle. * Ma
chère, m'a-t-il dit, j'ai failli être tué. * Mon père me
pardonnera, dès qu'il vous aura vue.º " Si mon fils le
rencontre, il lui fera tout le bien qu'il pourra.
10. SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE.
* Dieu soit béni! vous voilà vivant. * Plût aux
dieux que ce fût le dernier de ses crimes ! * Eût-il
* 228, 6, a. P 113. ° 272, b. d 132, a.
152 ' SELECTED SENTENCES.
été bien plus fort et bien plus habile, il fût tombé de
même. * Cela ne m'étonne pas, dit-il, qu'il soit mort.
* Il faudrait que vous vinssiez vous-même proposer ce
mariage à mon père. " Il semble que l'on ne puisse
rire que des choses ridicules. " Il paraît que décidé-
ment je suis un homme de génie. * Nous verrons,
répondit M. Auvray; attends que la fièvre soit passée.
" Condé et Turenne voulaient qu'on démolît la plupart
des places hollandaises. " Je suppose que les hommes
soient éternels sur la terre. * Nous avons peur que
tu n'aies pas tout dit à madame. * Il n'y a que le
bon Dieu qui puisse gouverner les choses et les hommes.
* Il n'y a guère de défauts qui ne soient plus pardon-
nables que les moyens dont on se sert pour les cacher.
* On envoya chercher un carrosse de louage, le plus
beau qui fût dans toute la ville. * Elle me restera
fidèle jusqu'à ce que je puisse l'épouser. " Ils l'ai-
dèrent à poser sa tête sur le billot, sans qu'elle cessât
de prier. " Quelque rare que soit le véritable amour,
il l'est * moins que la véritable amitié. * Monsieur,
il faut me dire votre nom, afin que je sache à qui je
parle. * Je ne me serais pas consolé si monsieur le
comte eût succombé. * Feignons de sortir, afin qu'il
m'arrête. * Allons, Fanchette; dis donc adieu à
Marguerite. * Va, le mal n'est pas grand; consolons-
IlOllS.
11. INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES.
* Ne me fais plus rougir d'entendre tes soupirs.
* Je te plains de tomber dans ses mains redoutables.
* Votre père souffre de vous voir en proie à un si vio-
lent désespoir. * Il n'eût point pardonné à son frère
d'être venu voir la Fadette et non pas lui. * Elle
l'amena doucement à parler de son fils. " Il voulait
accoutumer aussi ses Moscovites à ne pas connaître
de saison. " Qui pardonne aisément invite à l'offen-
* 140, e.
SELECTED SENTENCES. 153
ser. * Deux hommes si adroits n'ont rien à gagner à
se tromper l'un l'autre.* " On apporte à manger; on
sert un déjeuner fort propre. * Mais elle va à ravir,
continua-t-elle ; on la croirait faite pour madame la
princesse. * Il est homme º à profiter de cette fa-
veur. * Vous n'étiez pas jeune quand vous avez
commencé à regner. * J'avais commencé d'écrire, et
je m'arrêtai. * Son conseil ne laissait pas d'être bon
à suivre. " Va, ne me laisse pas un héros à venger.
" Attendre est impossible, agir ne l'est pas moins.
" Oh, doucement, s'aimer,° c'est une autre affaire.
* Plutôt souffrir que mourir, c'est la devise des
hommes. " Il n'y a pour l'homme que trois évène-
ments: naître, vivre, et mourir. * Il aimait mieux
ne rien faire que de travailler. * Viens voir mourir
ta sœur dans les bras de ton père. * Je ne peux pas
vous donner cent mille francs, mais je m'en vais man-
ger votre dîner. * Mais croyez-vous avoir tué tous
les Marats ? * Chacun dans ce miroir pense voir son
image. .. * Il disait venir du fond de la Bohême.
* Quoi ? condamner la victime, et épargner l'assassin ?
* Défendez-vous, Horace !—A quoi bon me défendre ?
* Tous deux partent, Germain rêvant à sa défunte º
plus qu'à sa future, et Marie pleurant de quitter sa
mère. * On ne voyait de tous côtés que des femmes
tremblantes, qui se retiraient dans la ville. * Voilà
l'orage qui vient. * Quatre cents blessés russes sont
restés sur le champ de bataille. * Les cavaliers qui
sont tombés sous vos coups se sont attiré eux-mêmes
ce malheur. * Je regrette les nombreuses années
que j'ai vécu sans pouvoir m'instruire. * Tout le
monde m'a offert des services, et personne ne m'en a
rendu. * Les grandes chaleurs qu'il a fait ° cet été
ont beaucoup nui à la récolte.
* 18O. b 82, b. e 221. d 113. ° 22 8, 6, a.
VOCABULARIES.
I. FRENCH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.
à prep. (248c) to, toward,
into: at, in ; of, with (94) ;.
on, by, from; belonging to
(197).
abord, d'abord adv. first, at first.
absolument adv. absolutely.
abuser (de) v, abuse, impose
upOn.
accabler v. Overwhelm,
accOutumer v. aCCuStOm.
acheter v. buy.
achever v. finish.
action f action, deed.
adieu m. farewell, good-by.
admirablement adv. admirably.
adroit adj. adroit, skillful.
affaire f. business.
afin que conj. in order that.
âgé adj. aged, old.
agir v. act, behave; s'agir de,
#mpers. concern, be ques-
tion of.
aider v. aid, help: aider à, give
help tO or about.
aïeul ( pl. aieux or aïeuls) m.
grandfather, ancestor.
aimer v. love, like.
ainsi adv. thus, so: ainsi que,
as, SO as, as Well as.
aisé adj. easy.
aisément adv. easily.
Alexandre, Alexander.
aller v. (irreg. 3) go, be going;
fit, suit (228, 1.) : s'en aller
impers. go off or away.
alors adv. then.
ambitieux adj. ambitious.
amener v. lead, induce.
Amérique f. America.
amertume f. bitterness.
ami m. amie f friend.
amitié f, friendship.
amour m. lOVe.
amuser v. amuse, entertain.
an m. year.
ancien adj. ancient; former.
Angleterre f. England.
année f year.
apercevoir v. (irreg. 52) per-
ceive.
Apollon, Apollo.
appeler v. Call.
apporter v. bring.
apprendre v. (irreg. 50) teach,
learn. - -
approcher v. bring near : s'. . .
de, draw near, approach.
après prep. after.
arbre m. tree.
Ardasire, woman's name.
argent m. silver, money.
armée f army.
arrêter v. stop. -
art 772. art.
155
156
| FRENCH-ENGLISH
assassin m. assassin.
assez adv. enough.
attacher v. tie, attach.
attendre v. wait for, await :
s'. . . à, await, expect.
attention f attention.
attirer v. draw, attract: s'.. .,
bring upon one's self, incur.
au, aux = à le, à les.
aucun pron. (with ne befo7'e
verb) no, not any.
aujourd'hui adv. to-day.
aussi adv. also, tOO : . . .. bien
que, as Well aS.
autant adv. as much or many :
. . .. que, aS much aS.
auteur m. authOr.
autre pron. other (180).
avant prep. before (in time) :
. . .. que, . . .. de, conj. before.
, avec prep. With.
aveugle adj. blind.
avoir v. have (186): y avoir
impers. there is, etc. (225).
avril m. April.
bal m. ball.
bas adv. lOW.
bataille f. battle.
bâtir v. build.
battre v. beat, strike : se . . .,
fight.
beau, bel adj. (107) beautiful,
handsome.
beaucoup adv. much.
bel, see beau.
belle sœur f. sister-in-law.
bénir v. bless.
berger m. shepherd.
besoin m. need, want : avoir
. . .. de, need, want (196).
bien adv. well, very.
bien m. goods, property.
bientôt adv. soon.
billot m. block.
blanc adj. (106b) white.
blesser v. Wound.
bœuf m. Ox.
Bohême f. Bohemia.
boire v. (irreg. 6) drink.
bois m. wood.
bon adj. good.
bonté f. goodness, kindness.
bouche f. mouth. -
bourreau m. executioner, tor-
lm6ntOl'.
bras m. arm.
brebis f. sheep.
bruit m. noise.
brûler v. burn.
cacher v. hide.
calme adj. still, calm.
G8,I10Il 77?,. C3lll IlO I] :
. . . , gunpowder.
capable adj. capable.
capitaine m. captain.
capital m. capital.
caractère m. character.
cardinal m. cardinal.
carrosse m. coach, carriage.
cavalier m. horseman, cav-
alier, knight.
ce, cet, cette pron. (153-6) this,
that; it.
ceci pron. this.
céder v. yield, cede.
cela prom. that.
celui, celle (158), that, he who.
censure f censure, blame.
cent num. (121b) hundred.
certes adv. truly, certainly.
César, Caesar.
cesse f. cease : sans . .
out ceasing.
cesser v. stop, Cease.
cet, cette, See ce.
chacun p7'om each, each one.
chaise f. chair.
chaleur, f. Warmth, heat.
chambre f, room.
champ m. field.
changer v. change, alter : . . .
de, make a change in.
poudre à
., with-
VOCABULARY.
157
chanson m. sOng.
chanter v. sing.
chapeau m. hat.
chaque pron. (182b) each, every.
charmer v. charm, delight.
chasser v. chase, hunt ; drive
Out, expel.
chaud adj. warm : avoir . . .,
be warm (196).
chef m. chief, master: . . .
d'œuvre, masterpiece.
chemin m. road.
cher adj. dear, expensive (112c).
chercher v. seek, look for, try.
chérir v. cherish.
cheval m. horse.
chevalier m. chevalier, knight.
chez prep. at the house or
home Of, with.
choisir v. Choose.
chose f thing : grand' . . .,
anything important.
chrétien adj. Christian.
cinq num. five. -
citoyen m. citizen.
clémence f clemency.
cœur m. heal't.
colère f. anger.
collègue m. colleague.
combiem adv. how much.
comme adv. as, hOW.
commencer v. begin, commence,
commentaire m. commentary.
commerce m. commerce, trade,
commune f parish, village.
comprendre v. (irreg. 50) under-
stand.
COmte 7m. COunt.
condamner v. condemn.
Condé, prince of Condé (a fa-
mous French general).
condition f. condition, station
in life.
conduire v. (irreg. 12) conduct,
lead.
confiance f. trust confidence.
confidence f. Confidence, secret.
confus adj. confused, embar-
rassed.
connaître v. (irreg. 43) be ac-
quainted with, know.
conseil m. counsel, advice.
consentir v. (irreg. 44) con-
Sent.
considérer v. consider, esteem.
consoler v. console.
constamment adv. constantly.
constant adj. constant.
constitutionnel adj. constitu-
tional.
contemporaine adj. contem-
poral'y.
continuer v. continue.
coquin m. coquine f rascal,
scamp.
corrompu adj. corrupt.
côté m. side, part : de tous côtés,
On all sides; du . . .. de, to-
ward, in the direction of.
coucher v. lay down, put to bed :
se . . ., gO tO bed.
coup m. blow : tout-à-coup adv.
all at once, suddenly.
coupable adj. guilty.
cour f. court.
couronne f. crown.
cousin m. cousine f cousin.
couvrir v. (irreg. 16) cover.
craindre v. (irreg. 17) fear.
crayon m. pencil.
créancier m. -cière f. creditor.
cri m. cry. .
GrI10l6 772, CI'll Il G.
cruel adj. cruel.
croire v. (irreg. 18) believe (228,
dame f lady.
Danemark m. Denmark.
danger m. danger.
dangereux adj. dangerous.
dans prep. in, into, to (250).
danser v. dance.
| Danube m. the Danube.
'' 158
FRENCH-ENGLISH
de prep. (87–100, 114, 248) of;
from ; about ; out of, on ac-
count of, for ; with, by,
- through ; at, on ; to (278);
than (125).
déception f deception.
décidément adv. decidedly.
déclarer v. declare, announce.
décourager v. discourage.
défaut m. defect, fault.
défendre m. ward off, keep
away ; forbid, prohibit; de-
fend, protect.
défunt adj. defunct, dead.
dégoſit m. dislike, aversion,
vexation.
déjà adv. already.
déjeuner v. breakfast.
déjeuner m. breakfast.
demain adv. to-morrow.
demi adj. (1290) half.
démolir v. demolish.
depuis prep. from, since: . . .
que conj. Since.
dermier adj. last.
des = de les.
dès que conj. as soon as.
désastre m, disaster.
désespoir m. despair.
désormais adv. henceforward.
destiner v. destine.
deux 70.2/m. two.
devant prep. before (in place).
développer v. unfold, develop.
devenir v. (ºrreg. 62) become :
ce qu'il devient, etc., what
has become of him, etc.
devise f. motto.
devoir v. (ºrreg. 22) owe, ought,
be obliged (228, 3).
devoir m. duty.
dévot adj. devout, pious.
Dieu m. God.
différent adj. different.
digne adj. worthy.
diner v. dine.
diner m. dinner.
diplomate m. diplomatist.
dire v (irreg. 23) say, tell.
division f. division.
dix num. ten.
done adv. then, therefore.
donner v. give.
dont pron. (172) of which, of
whom.
Dorante, a man’s name.
doucement adv. Softly.
douleur f. pain, grief.
doute m. doubt.
douter v. doubt, question
(about, de): se . . . de, SuS-
pect.
droit m. right.
drôle adj. queer, odd,
du = de le.
durer v. endure, last.
échapper, s' . . . v. escape (à,
from).
école f. school.
écouter v. listen.
écrier, s” . . . v. Cry Out, ex-
claim.
écrire v. (irreg. 25) write.
effort m. effort.
église f. church.
£gyptef. Egypt. .
égyptien adj. Egyptian.
élever v. raise, educate; s’’. . .,
rise.
elle pron. she.
embaumer v. embalm.
empire m. empire.
emprunter v. borrow (from, à).
en prep (250) in, into, to ; as a.
en pron. (143) of it, of them ;
Some, any. a'
encore adv. still, again ; more.
endroit m. spot, place.
enfant m. or f. child.
enfoncer v. sink, plunge.
ennemi m. enemy.
ennuyer v. weary, bore; s’’. ...,
be wearied or bored.
WOCABULARY.
159
ennuyeux adj. tiresome, stupid.
énorme a j. enormous.
ensuite adv. in the next place,
afterward, then.
entendre v. hear.
entier adj. entire.
envers prep. toward.
environ adv. prep. about, near-
ly, not far from.
envoyer v. (irreg. 26) send.
épargner v. spare.
épouser v. marry,
ëprouver v. try, experience.
erreur f. error, mistake.
esprit m. spirit; mind, intel-
lect; wit, brightness.
esquissef sketch.
et conj. and.
état m. state, condition in life;
State, country.
été m. summer.
étendre v. extend, stretch out.
éternel adj. eternal. . .
étonner v. astonish: s' . . ., be
astonished.
être v. (194) be ; as aua'il. have
(195); . . . a, belong to (197).
étroit adj. narrow.
Europe f. Europe.
eux prom.. them.
événement m. event.
excellent adj. excellent.
€XCUISél' (). € XCUlSè.
exemple m. cxample.
exercer v. exercise. .
exercice m. exercise.
expédition f. expedition.
extraordinaire adj. extraordi-
nary.
face f. face, front: en . .
in front of, before.
Fadette, name of a girl.
faillir v. (irreg. 27) fail, come
short; just miss of (228, 5).
faim f. hunger, famine : avoir
. . ., be hungry (196).
. de,
faire v. (ºrreg. 28) do, make,
cause ; be (228, 6).
falloir v. (irreg. 29) impers.
be obliged, must, have to ;
need, want (228, 7). .
fameux adj. famous.
famille f. family.
famine f famine.
Fanchette, girl’s name.
`lfaute j. deficiency, fault.
fauteuil m. arm-chair.
faveur f. favor.
feindre v. (£rreg. 45) feign, make
believe.
femme f woman, wife.
féodal adj. feudal.
fer m, iron. *
fermeté f. firmness, strength.
feu m. fire.
fidèle adj. faithful, true, exact.
fièvre f. fever.
fille f girl, daughter.
fils ºn. Son.
fixement adv. fixedly.
flanc m. flank, side.
fleur f. flower.
flütef flute.
foi f. faith, belief.
fond m. bottom, base, depth.
fonder v. found, establish.
force f. force: â . . . de, by
means of, by dint of.
forêt m. forest.
fort adj. strong ; adv. strongly,
greatly, much, very.
fortune.f. fortune, luck.
fossé m. ditch, trench.
foudre f. thunderbolt.
franc m. franc (a French coin
worth about 20 cents).
France f. France.
franchement adv. frankly.
frapper v. strike, knock.
frère m. brother.
froid adj. cool, cold: avoir. ...,
be cold (196).
fruit m. fruit.
160
FRENCEI-ENGLISEI
fuir v. (irreg. 31) flee ; flyfrom,
shun.
futur adj. future.
gai adj. gay. ©
gagner v. gaIn, WIn, earn.
gant m. glove.
garçon m. boy ; bachelor.
garnison m. garrison.
gâteau m. cake.
gauche adj. left hand ; awk-
ward.
geler v. impers. freeze.
génie m. genius.
gens f pl. folks, people, per-
SOns ; Sel'VantS.
Germain, man's name.
gouverner v, govern.
grand adj. great, large, tall :
grand'chose, anything great,
matter of importance.
grec adj. Greek, Grecian.
gronder v. scold.
gros adj. big, stout, large.
guère, ne . .. guère adv. (244),
hardly, scarcely, but little.
guerre f. War.
Guillaume, William.
habile adj. able, skillful.
habitant m. inhabitant.
"haine f hate, hatred.
*haïr v. (208) hate, dislike.
"haut adj. high, tall.
hélas interj. alas !
hériter v. inherit.
héritier m. héritière f. heir,
heiresS.
héroïque adj. heroic.
*héros m. herO.
heure f. hour ; time of day,
o'clock (123b).
beureux adj. happy, fortunate.
hier adv. yesterday.
histoire f history : story.
"hollandais adj. of Holland,
Dutch.
"Hollande f. Holland.
homme m. man.
honneur f honor.
"honte f. shame : avoir . .
ashamed (196).
horreur f horror.
huile f. oil.
"huit num. eight.
hypocrite m. hypocrite.
., be
ici adv. here.
idée f idea.
il, ils pron. he, it, they ; it
(156c, 222).
image m. image, likeness.
importer v. be of importance,
matter, signify : n'importe,
mO matter, never mind
(243c).
impossible adj. impossible.
imprimer v. print; impress, im-
part, give.
inconnu adj. unknown.
indigne adj. unworthy.
industrie f. industry ; trade,
business.
informer v. inform : s', . ., get
information, ask, inquire.
injuste adj. unjust.
insensé adj. mad, insane, fool-
ish.
insolent adj. insolent, imperti-
n ent,.
instant m. instant.
instruire v. (irreg. 12) instruct.
inutile adj. useless.
inviter v. invite.
Jacques, James.
jamais adv. never: ne . .
mais, never (244).
jardin m. garden.
Jeanne, Jane.
jeune adj. young.
joli adj. pretty.
jouer v play (upon, de).
journal m. newspaper.
G ja-
VOCABULARY. 161
journée f day. louer v. praise.
juillet m. July. lui pron. him ; tO him or her.
juin m. June.
jusqu'à prep. to, until, asfar as: M. abbreviation of Monsieur,
jusqu'à ce que conj. until. equivalent to our Mr.
juste adj. just, righteous. | madame (mesdames plur.)f my
lady, the lady, madam.
la art. and prom. the ; her, it. | magistrat m. magistrate.
là adv. there (158) : de là, mai m. May.
thence. main f hand.
là-bas adv. down there, Over | maintenant adv. now.
there, yonder. mais conj. but.
lâche adj. slothful, cowardly, maison f house : à la . . ., at
base : as noun, coward, das- home.
tard. maître m. master, teacher.
laisser v. leave, quit, abandon ; mal adv. badly, ill.
let, leave, allow, cause; leave mal m. evil, ill, harm, pain,
off (from, de), omit, fail. disease (94a). -
Landry, man's name. malade adj. sick, ill.
langue f, tongue ; language, | malheur f. unhappiness, mis-
speech. fortune. º
le pron. and art. he, it ; the. malheureux adj. unfortunate,
légion f. legion. un happy.
lequel pron. (164) which One, malheureusement adv. unfor-
who, that. | tunately.
lettre f letter. manger v. eat.
leur pron. to them ; their. manière f manner, way, meth-
lever v. raise, lift up : se . . ., Od.
rise, get up. manquer v, be wanting or de-
lèvre f lip. ficient (in, de); lack , fail.
liberté f liberty. Marat, a famous French revo-
lieu m. place, spot : avoir . .. , | lutionist.
take place; au .. .. de, instead | mardi m. Tuesday.
Of. mariage m. marriage.
ligne f line. Marie, Mary.
limité adj. limited. Marguerite, Margaret.
lire v. (irreg. 34) read. marier v. give in marriage :
lit m. bed. se . . ., marry.
livre m. book. marquer v. mark, designate.
livre f pound. marquis m. marquis.
loi f law. matin m. morning.
long adj. long. mauvais adj. bad.
longtemps adv. a long time or | Mazarin, a French cardinal.
While. me p7'on. me, tO me.
lorsque conj. when. méchant adj. wicked, bad; mis-
louage m. hire, letting out : de chievous, naughty.
. .. , on hire. mécontent adj. discontented.
162
FRIENCEI-IENGLISH
meilleur adj. better.
même adj. (140c) self, -self ;
self-same, Same, Very: QS
adv. even: de . . ., in the
same Way.
mémoire f memory, recollec-
tion.
mener v. lead, conduct, take.
merci m. thanks: absolutely,
thank you.
mère f. mother.
méridional adj. Southern.
mérite f. merit.
mériter v. merit, deserve.
mettre v. (ºrreg. 36) put, place,
set; se. . . a, set one's self at,
begin.
meuble m. furniture, piece of
furniture.
midi m. midday, noon, twelve
o'clock.
mien adj. mine.
mieux adv. better.
mil, mille num, thousand.
million m. million.
minute f. minute, moment.
miroir m. mirror.
moeurs f. pl. manners, morals,
habits.
moi pron. me, to me, I.
moins adv. less: du . . ., au . . .,
at least: â . . . que, unless.
mois m. month.
mon, ma, mes pron. my.
monde m. World ; tout le . . . ,
'everyone.
monsieur (pl. messieurs) m. the
gentleman, sir, Mr.
monter v. mount, climb, rise.
moquer v. mock: se . . . de,
ridicule, mock at.
morceau m. bit, morsel, Small
piece, extract.
mort f death.
mort adj. dead.
moscovite adj. of Moscow.
motif m. motive, cause, reason.
mourir v. (irreg. 38) die.
moyen m. means, Way.
naitre v. (irreg. 40) be born
(228, 8).
nation f. nation.
me adv. (241–47) not.
neiger v. čmpers. Snow.
nettetéf. neatness, clearness.
neuf adj. new.
neuf num. nine.
1162, 770. DOS 62.
ni adv. (244d) neither, nor.
noblesse f. mobility.
noir adj. black.
In OIII 772. Ila,In 62.
nombreux adj. numerous.
nommer v. name, appoint.
mon adv. (246) not; no : non plus,
not any more, neither.
notre prom.. our.
mótre prom.. ours.
mous pron. We, us.
nouveau, nouvel adj. new.
muire v. (ºrreg. 41) harm, in-
jure, do hurt (to, ä).
nuit f night.
mul pron. (244d) not any, none,
no; no One. \
mullement adv. not at all, in no
wise.
obéir v. be obedient (to, ä),
Obey. -
obéissant adj. obedient.
objet m. object.
occuper v. occupy: s' . . . , oc-
cupy one’s self, be busy
(with, de); spend one's time
(upon, de).
oeil (yeux pl.) m. eye.
offenser v. Offend.
officier ſm. Officer.
offrir v. (rreg. 16) offer, pre-
Sent.
on pron. (178) one, they
oncle m. uncle.
VOCABULARY.
163
onze num. eleven.
or m. gold.
orage m. storm, tempest.
ordinairement adv. ordinarily.
ordonner v. Order.
oreille f. ear.
organizer v. OrganiZe.
ou c0nj. Or.
où adv. and prom. (173) where ?
where ; to or at or in Which.
oublier v. forget.
oui adv. yes.
ours m. bear.
ouvrage m. Work, labor.
pain m. bread.
papier m. paper.
par prep. by.
paraître v. (irreg. 43) appear,
SGCICl.
parc m. park.
parceque conj. because.
parcourir v. (irreg. 15) run
through or over, traverse,
pass through.
pardonnable adj. pardonable.
pardonner v. pardon, forgive.
paresseux adj. lazy.
parler v. speak, talk.
parole f. Word ; speech, lan-
guage.
part f. part, portion, share: de
ma . . ., on my part or my
behalf, from me.
partie f part, portion, share.
partir v. (òrreg. 44) set out, start,
go away, leave.
partout adv. everywhere.
pas m. step.
pas adv. (with ne) not (241):
pas du tout, nOt at all.
passer v. pass, go on or through,
spend : se . . ., àmpers. take
place, happen; se . . .. de,
dispense With, go without.
pauvre adj. poor.
pays m. country.
peine f. pain, grief : à .. ., with
difficulty, hardly. #
peinture f. painting.
pendant prep. during: . .. que
conj. while.
perdre v. lose.
père m. father.
perfide adj. perfidious.
Pérou m. Peru.
persan adj. Persian.
personne f person, individual ;
aoith ne (244), no one, no-
body.
petit adj. little, small.
peu adv. (oï as noun, m.) little,
not much, not very.
peuple m. people, nation.
peur f fear : avoir . . .,
afraid (196).
peut-être adv.
hapS.
pied m. foot.
pire adj. worse.
place f. place.
placer v. place, set.
plaindre v. (irreg. 17) weep
Over, lament, pity : se . . .,
complain, lament.
plainte f. plaint, cry of pain,
gl'Oan.
plaire v. (ºrreg. 46) please.
pleurer v. Weep, lament.
plonger v. plunge.
plupart f. greater part : la plu-
part de, most Of, most.
plus adv. more ; the more ; with
ne (244), no longer, not fur-
ther, nO mOre : plus. .. plus...,
the mOre . . .. the morC . ..
plutôt adv. sooner, rather.
poète m. poet.
point m. point, dot ; with ne
(241), not, not at all.
Pologne, f. Poland.
Pompéies, Pompeii.
port m. harbor, port.
poser v. pose, place.
be
may be, per-
164
ENRENCE[-ENGLISEI
possible adj. possible.
postef post, post-Office.
poudre f powder.
pour prep. for, on account of
in order to, to : pour que, in
order that.
pourquoi adv. and conj. Why,
for what.
pourtant adv. for all that, yet,
nevertheless.
pouvoir v. (irreg. 49) be able,
can; may, might (228, 10).
prendre v. (irreg. 50) take.
près adv. and prep. near, next :
. . .. de, near, neär by, next
tO,
préserver v. preserve, keep.
président m. president.
presque adv. almost.
prier v. pray, beg, request, ask.
prince m prince.
princesse f princess.
principe m. principle.
prison f. prison.
prechain adj. near, next.
proche adj. near (to, de).
profiter v. profit (by, de), take or
get advantage.
proie f prey : en . .. à, a prey
tO.
promesse f promise.
promettre v. (irreg 36) promise.
proposer v. propose.
propre adj. own ; very ; suita-
ble : nice, clean.
prudent adj. prudent.
public adj. public.
puis adv. then, next.
punir v. punish.
quand adv. and conj. when ; if,
supposing that.
quant prom. how much : quant
à, as for.
quarante num. forty.
quart m. quarter.
quatorze num, fourteen.
quatre num. four.
quatre-vingts num. fourscore,
eighty.
quatrième num. fourth.
que pron. : interrog. what,
Which ; 7'elat. which, that,
Whom ; after qui, quoi, etc.
(181c) ever : ce que, that
Which, what.
que adv. how, why.
que conj. that ; Sign of Subjunc-
tive (188a); in order that; re-
peating si, lorsque, etc. (257);
than (118): que . .. ne, unless,
until (273b); me . . .. que
(244b), only.
quel pron. what, what a,
which : quel . . .. que (177),
whatever.
quelque prom. some ; about,
nearly : quelque . .. que (177),
W hatever, however ; . . .
chose, something, anything.
qui pron. : interrog. w ho,
whom, what ; relat. who,
Whom, that, which ; who-
ever; qui que, whoever (177).
quinze num. fifteen.
quitter v. quit, leave.
quoi pron. : interrog. what; rel.
what, which ; exclam. (163)
what ! quoi que (177), what-
ever ; de quoi, wherewith,
the means (171).
quoique conj. (272a) though,
although.
raconter v. tell, relate.
raison f. reason, sense, motive :
avoir . . .. (196), be right.
rare adj. rare, unusual.
ravir v. ravish, delight, charm.
réalité f. reality.
recevoir v. (irreg. 52) receive.
récolte f harvest, crop.
redoutable adj. redoubtable,
formidable.
WOCABULARY.
165
regarder v. look, regard, see ;
have regard to, concern.
régner v. reign, rule.
regretter v. regret.
reine f. queen.
réjouir v. gladden, cheer: Se...,
rejoice, be delighted.
relever v. raise up again, lift
lip.
religion f. religion. -
rencontrer v. meet, fall in with.
rendré v. Fender, return, give
back; make, cause to be :
. . . service, do a service.
renverser v. Overthrow, over-
tll l’Il.
renvoyer v. (?rreg. 26) send back,
Teturn.
répéter p, repeat.
répondre v. Tespond, reply.
reposer v. repose, rest : se . . . ,
take rest, rest.
rester v. Temain,
tinue.
retirer v. draw back: se . . . ,
withdraw, retreat.
réussir v. succeed (in, a).
revenir v. (ºrreg. 62) return.
réver v. dream.
rhodien adj. of Rhodes.
riche adj. rich.
Richelieu, a prime minister of
France.
ridicule adj. ridiculous.
ridicule m. absurdity.
rien pron. (with ne 244) noth-
ing, not anything: . . . du
tout, nothing at all.
rire v. (irreg. 54), laugh.
robe f. robe, dress.
roi m. king.
romain adj. Roman.
roman m. romance, novel.
rose f. rose.
rouge adj. red.
rougir v. turn red, blush.
Rousseau, French author,
stay, con-
royaliste adj. royalist, of the
king’s party.
royaume m. kingdom.
ruine f. ruin.
russe adj. Russian.
sage adj. Sage, wise; well-be-
haved.
saison f. season, time of year.
saluer v. Salute, greet, bow to.
Sans prep. without : . . . que,
without, unless (2725).
Sall Wel" (). Sål VG.
savoir v. (ºrreg. 55) know,
know as, know to be; know
how (228, 11).
scélérat m. villain, scoundrel.
se pron. (142, 216a, 221) him-,
her- or it-Self, themselves.
seigneur m. lord.
seize num, sixteen.
séjour m. Sojourn, stay.
sembler v. seem, appear.
sept num. Seven.
service m. service.
servir v. (ºrreg. 56) serve; be of
use, help ; Serve, put on the
table : . . . de, serve as ; se . . .
de, make use of.
seul adj. alone, only.
seulement adv, only.
si conj. if, whether.
si adv. So, as ; yes (232a).
siècle m. century, age.
siège m. siege.
sien prom. his, hers, its.
sincére adj. Sincere.
singulier adj. Singular, pecu-
liar.
situation f. situation.
six num, six.
société f. society.
soeur f. sister.
soi pron. (142) one’s self.
soie f. silk.
soif f. thirst : avoir . . . , be
thirsty.
166
E'RENCEI-ENGLISEI
soin m. care, attention.
soir m. evening.
soixante num. sixty.
soldat m. soldier.
soleil m. Sun.
son, sa, ses pron. his, her, its.
son m. sound.
songer v. dream, muse, think
(of, à).
sorte f sort, kind, species : de
la sorte, in that Way.
sortir v. (irreg. 44) come forth,
proceed, go out (from, de).
sot adj. foolish, silly, stupid.
souffrir v. (irreg. 16) suffer.
souhaiter v. wish, desire
soulier m. shoe.
souper m. Supper.
soupir m. sigh.
soutenir v. (irreg. 62) sustain,
uphold, maintain.
souvent adv. Often.
souvenir v. # 62) come to
mind : se / . .. de, remember,
recollect.
style m. style.
sublime adj. sublime.
succéder v. succeed : . . . à, fol-
low. .
succomber v. succumb, give
way.
suffire v. (irreg. 57) suffice, be
sufficient.
suite f what follows, sequel ;
train.
suivre v. (irreg. 58) follow.
sujet àdj. subject, liable.
superbe adj. proud, splendid.
supposer v. SuppOse.
sur p7'ep. on, upon; over, above,
about.
sûr adj. sure, steady, trust-
worthy.
surmonter v. surmount, OVer-
come, Surpass.
surprendre v. (irreg. 50) sur-
prise.
surprise f surprise. -
suspect adj. suspected, distrust-
ed.
système m. system.
table f table.
tâche f. task.
tant adv. so much or many, as
much or many.
tard adj. and adv. late.
te pron. thee, to thee.
tel prom. Such; such a one, so
and so.
temps m. time: weathér.
tenir v. (irreg. 62) hold, keep.
terre f. earth.
terreur f. terror.
tête f head.
Thèbes m.*Thebes.
tien prom. thine.
Toinette, girl's name.
tolérance f tolerance.
tomber v. fall.
ton, ta, tes pron. thy.
torpeur f. torpor.
toucher v. touch, be close upon,
lſlOVG.
toujours adv. always.
tout pron. (182) all, every ;
whole, the Whole ; as adv.
wholly, entirely : .. .. le mon-
de, all the world, everybody;
tout-à-fait, entirely; tout-à-
coup, all at once; tout de suite,
immediately.
tracer v. trace, draw.
transporter v. transport, move.
travail m. work, labor.
travailler v. work, labor.
trembler v. tremble.
très adv. very.
triompher v. triumph (over, de),
COnquer.
triste adj. sad.
Troie f. Troy.
trois num. three,
WOCABULARY.
167
tromper v. deceive, cheat : se
. . . , deceive one’s self, be
mistaken.
trône m. throne.
trop adv. too much, too many.
trouver v. find, discover ; find
to be, consider, think: se
. . . , find one's Self, be.
tuer v. kill.
Turenne, famous French gen-
eral.
un, une num. Or art. One ; a, an.
vache f. cow.
vaguement adv. vaguely.
vain adj vain, useless, idle.
valet m. Valet, man-servant.
valoir v. (ºrreg. 61) be worth,
have the value of : . . .
mieux, be worth more, be
better.
velours m. welvet.
vendre v. sell.
venger v. avenge.
venir v. (ºrreg. 62) come, be
Coming: . . . de, have just
(228, 13).
véritable adj. veritable, true.
vers prep. toward, about.
vers m. verse, poetry.
vertu f. virtue.
Wésuve m. Vesuvius.
veuve f. widow.
viande.f. meat.
vice m. Vice.
victime f. victim.
vie f life.
vieux, vieil adj. old, aged.
vingt num, twenty.
violent adj. violent.
visite f. visit, call.
vivre v. (ºrreg. 64) live.
voici interj. (233) see here, here
is, see, behold.
voilà interj. (233) see there,
there is, see, behold.
voile f veil.
voir v. (irreg. 65) see.
voix f. voice.
volontiers adv.
with pleasure.
votre pron. you.
vötre pron. yours.
wouloir v. (irreg. 66) (228, 15)
wish, will, desire, want;
mean, intend : en . . . a,
have a grudge against.
vous prom.. you.
vrai adj. true.
voluntarily,
y adv. pron. there; to it, to
them (143b).
yeux pl. of Oeil, eye.
II. ENGLISH-FRENCH VoCABULARY.
a, an, un.
able, be . . ., pouvoir (irreg. 49.
228, 10). -
abuse, abuser de.
acquainted, be . .
naître (irreg. 43).
afraid, be . .., avoir peur (196).
after prep. après ; conj. après
que. .
again, encore.
all, tout (182).
almost, presque.
alone, seul.
already, déjà.
also, aussi. - -
although, quoique (272).
always, toujours.
and, et. -
another, un autre (180).
any, de with art. (95-7), en
(145) : anyone, quelqu'un, ne
. . .. personne (244).
appear, paraître (irreg. 43).
approach, s'approcher de.
April, avril m.
as, aussi : as . . . as, aussi . .
. with, con-
quant à ; as much as, autant
que.
ashamed, be .
(196).. -
astonished, be . . ., s'étonner.
at, à; en, dans : at the house or
home of, chez : at Once, tout
de suite.
await, attendre. v
away, go . . ., s'en aller.
. ., avoir honte
bad, mauvais.
ball, bal m. -
be, être (104-0); of weather,
faire (228).
| | buy, acheter.
$ y - . | cake, gâteau m.
que; as far as, jusqu'à; as for,
beautiful, beau (114).
because, parce que.
bed, go to . . ., se coucher.
before prep. avant ; conj. avant
· que.
believe, croire (irreg. 18).
big, grand.
blind, aveugle.
book, livre m.
borrow, emprunter (from, à).
boy, garçon m.
bread, pain m.
breakfast v. déjeuner; subst. dé-
jeuner m. •.
bring, apporter.
brother, frère m.
build, bâtir.
but, mais.
by, par, de.
can, pouvoir (irreg. 49).
chair, chaise f.
change, changer.
child, enfant, m. or f.
choose, choisir.
church, église f.
city, ville f.
clean, propre (112). -
cold, froid m. : be . . . , avoir
froid (196) ; be . . .. (qf the
aveather), faire froid (228b.)
- 168
VOCABULARY .
169
| come, venir (irreg. 62, 228, 13):
. . .. near, s'approcher (to,
de).
cOnstant, constant.
constantly, constamment.
Country, pays m.
cow, vache f.
daughter, fille f.
day, jour m., journée f.
dear, cher (112).
die, mourir (irreg. 88).
dine, dîner.
dinner, dîner m. -
dint, by . .. of, à force de.
do, faire (irreg. 28).
dress. robe f.
· drive . . .. out, chasser.
during, pendant.
eat, manger.
either, l'un ou l'autre : either . ..
, Or, ou . .. ou ; nor . .. either,
ni . . .. non plus (246c).
England, Angleterre f.
enough, assez (92).
Europe, Europe m.
expect, attendre.
expensive, cher (112).
eye, œil Sòng., yeux pl. m.
family, famille f.
father, père m.
fear, craindre o. (irreg. 17).
fetch, chercher.
field, champ m.
find, trouver.
finish, finir.
fire, feu m.
flower, fleur f
foot, pied m.
for, pour, depuis.
, forbid, défendre.
forest, forêt f.
forget, oublier.
fortunately, heureusement.
franc, franc m.
#
France, France f.
freeze, geler.
friend, ami m., amie f.
from, de. .
fruit, fruit m.
garden, jardin m.
gentleman, monsieur m.
get up, se lever.
girl, fille f.
give, donner : . . . back, rendre.
glOve, gant m.
go, aller (irreg. 3. 228, 1) : . . .
away, s'en aller ; . . .. tO bed,
se coucher ; be going to, aller
(228, 1).
God, Dieu m.
gOOd, bon.
half adj. demi, demi- (129a) :
half an hour, une demi-
heure.
hand, main f.
happy, heureux, content.
hardly, ne . . .. guère (244).
hat, chapeau m.
hate, haïr (208).
have, avoir (186); as aua'iliary,
avoir or être (195) : have
done, faire (228. 10).
he, il, lui.
hear, entendre.
her prom. la, lui, elle (134-40) ;
p08S. son.
hers, sien.
here, ici : . .
high, haut.
his, son, sien.
history, histoire f.
hold, tenir (irreg. 62).
horse, cheval m.
hour, heure f.
house, maison f.
hOW, comment : how much or
how many, combien, que de
(163c).
however, quel . . .. que (177).
. is, voici.
• 170
ENGLISH-FRENCH
hungry, be . . . , avoir faim
(196).
hunt, chasser.
· I, je, moi.
if, si.
ill, malade.
impossible, impossible.
in, en, dans (250), à (249), de
(119c) : . town, à la
ville. .
invite, inviter.
it, il, elle ; le, la ;as indef Subj.,
il, ce. %.
July, juillet m.
June, juin m.
just, have . . ., venir de (228.
13).
king, roi m.
kindness, bonté f.
kingdom, royaume m. :
know, savoir (irreg. 55). (be
acquainted With), connaître
(irreg. 43).
lady, dame f.
large, grand. .
lazy, paresseux.
lead, mener.
less, moins.
letter, lettre f.
life, vie f.
like, aimer, vouloir (228. 15).
little adj. petit; adv. peu.
live, vivre (irreg 64).
long, long : no longer. ne . . .
plus (244) ; a long time, long-
temps.
lOok, regarder : .
cher.
lose, perdre.
love, aimer.
. . for, cher-
madam, madame f.
make, faire (irreg. 28).
man, homme m.
many adv. beaucoup : hOW . . .,
combien,
master, maître m.
me, moi.
meat, viande f.
mine, mien.
minute, minute f.
mock, se moquer de.
mOney, argent m.
mOnth, mois m. .
mOl'e adv. plus ; nO mOre, ne...
plus; the mOre . .. the mOre,
plus . .. plus (244).
most, plus, le plus, with adjec.
tive (115a).
mother, mère f.
much, beaucoup adv.
must, falloir (irreg. 29).
my, mon, ma, mes.
nation, nation f.
naughty, méchant.
near adj. prochain; prep. près
de. $
necessary, be . . ., falloir (irreg.
29).
need, falloir (irreg. 29).
never, jamais; with verb, ne. . ,
jamais (244).
ne W, nouveau.
· newspaper, journal m.
next, prochain adj.
nine num. meuf.
no, non ; nO longer, ne . .. plus.
nOr, ni; neither . .. nor, ni ...
ni (245).
nOt, ne . . .. pas, ne . . .. point
(241) ; not at all, pas du tout.
nothing. rien, ne . .. rien (244).
nOVel, roman m.
nOW, maintenant.
obey, obéir.
o'clock, heure (123b).
of, de. <
VOCABULARY.
171 .
often, souvent.
old, vieux, âgé; years old, âgé
de.
say, dire (irreg. 23).
school, école f.
see, voir (irreg. 65).
seek, chercher.
seem, sembler.
sell, vendre.
send, envoyer (àrreg. 26) ; , . ,
back, renvoyer (26).
she, elle.
sheep, brebis f.
sick, malade.
silk, soie f.
silver, argent m.
since prep, depuis; conj. depuis
que.
sir, monsieur m.
sister, sœur f.
six, six.
sleepy, be . . ., aveir sommeil
(196).
Small, petit.
SnOW, neiger.
On, sur.
One, llIl.
only adv. seulement; ne . .. que
(244).
Or, Ou.
order, in . . .. that, pour que.
other, autre (180).
ought, devoir (àrreg. 22),
Oul', notre.
ours, nôtre.
owe, devoir (irreg. 22).
own, propre (112).
paper, papier m.
pencil, crayon m.
people, peuple m.
piece, morceau m.
plenty, assez adv.
poor, pauvre.
possible. possible.
pretty, joli.
promise, promettre (irreg. 36).
punish, punir.
put, put on, mettre (ºrreg. 36).
quarter, quart m. : quarter to,
moins un quart; quarter past,
et un quart (123b).
queen, reine f.
quickly, vite.
read, lire (irreg. 34).
receive, recevoir (irreg. 52).
rejoice, se réjouir.
return, come back, revenir
(irreg. 62) ; give back,
rendre.
rich, riche.
ridicule, se moquer de.
right, be . . ., avoir raison
(196).
rise, se lever.
room, chambre f.
rOse, rose f.
some, de with art. (95-97) ;
en (145) ; some one, quel-
qu'un.
something, quelque chose,
son, fils m.
SOOn, bientôt.
speak, parler.
still adv. encore.
succeed, réussir.
take, prendre (àrreg. 50).
talk, parler.
tall, "haut.
task, tâche f.
teacher, maître m.
tell, dire (irreg. 23).
than, que (118) ; de (125).
that pron. ce, ce . . .. là, celui,
celui-là, cela ; relat. qui, que,
lequel : all that, tout ce qui
or que ; that Which, ce qui or
que.
the, le, la, les.
their, leur; theirs, le leur.
them, les ; to . . ., leur.
172
ENGLISH-FRENCH VOCABULARY.
there adv. là, y (144d) ; . .
. is | well, bien.
or are, il y a (225), voilà What adj. quel ; Subst. qui, que,
(233).
they, ils, elles.
, thing, chose. f.
think, penser (of, à).
this, ce, ce . .. ci, celui, celui-ci ;
this or that is, voici, voilà
(233).
thou, tu.
three, trois.
thy, ton, ta, tes.
time, temps m.
to, à, en ; in order to, pour.
to-day, aujourd'hui
tO-mOrrOW, demain.
tOo, aussi ; . . . much or many,
trop.
town, ville f
tWO, deux.
quoi (163b), ce qui or que
(175a).
whatever, quoi .
When, quand.
Where, oü.
whether, si (266b).
Which, quel, lequel ; of which,
dont (172).
while, pendant que.
white, blanc.
WhO, Whom, qui, (relat.) qui,
que, lequel ; Of Whom, dont
(172).
Why, pourquoi.
wife, femme f.
will. be willing, vouloir (irreg
66), future of verb.
wish, vouloir (irreg. 66).
with, avec.
Without, sans, sans que.
woman, femme f.
wOOd, bois m.
Wooden, de bois.
work, travailler.
Worse, Worst, pire, le pire ; adv.
pis, le pis.
write, écrire (irreg. 25).
. . que (177).
uncle, oncle m.
unfortunately,
ment.
unhappy, malheureux.
unless, à moins que.
until, jusqu'à ce que.
UlS, n0uS.
malheureuse-
velvet, velours m.
very, très.
voice, voix f.
want, vouloir (irreg. 66).
warm, chaud; be . . ., avoir
chaud ; (qf the weather), faire
chaud (228. 10).
WG, IlOuS.
year, an m., année f.
yes, oui.
yesterday, hier.
yet, nOt . . ., pas enc0re.
you, vous.
young, jeune.
your, votre
yours, le vôtre.
INDEX OF ALL IRREGULAR FRENCEL VERBS,
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND.
The references are to the numbers in the table of irregular verbs, and refer
each verb to the model verb like which it is conjugated.
absoudre
abstenir
abstraire
accourir
accroire
accroitre
accueillir
acquérir
admettre
advenir
aller
apercevoir
apparaître
appartemir
apprendre
assaillir
asseoir
astreindre
atteindre
attraire
avenir
avoir
circonscrire 25 | cueillir
circonvenir 62 cuire
clore 10
Commettre 36 | décevoir
comparaitre 43 | déchoir
complaire 46 déclore
comprendre 50 déconfire
compromettre 36 | découdre
concevoir 52 | découvrir
conclure 11 décrire
concourir 15 décroire
conduire 12 décroitre
confire 31 dédire
conjoindre 33 | déduire
connaitre 43 déſaillir
conquérir 2 défaire
consentir 44 déjoindre
construire 12 démentir
contenir 62 démettre
contraindre 17 départir
contredire 13 dépeindre
contrefaire 28 | déplaire
contrevenir 62 | dépourvoir
convaincre $210 désapprendre
20
12
dire
disconvenir
discourir
disjoindre
disparaitre
dissoudre
distraire
dormir
duire
boire
bouillir
braire
bruire
ceindre
choir
circoncire
45
45
60
62
§186
6
7
60
8
45
21
9
convenir
coudre
courir
couvrir
craindre
croire
Croitre
62 | desservir
14 déteindre
15 détenir
16 détruire
17 devenir
18 dévétir
19| devoir
52
21
10
13
ébouillir
échoir
éclore
éconduire
écrire
élire
emboire
êmettre
émoudre
émouvoir
empreindre
enceindre
enclore
encourir
endormir
enduire
enfreindre
enfuir
enjoindre
enquérir
ensuivre
173
174 INDEX, OF ALL IRREGULAR FRENCH VERBS.
entreprendre 50
entretenir
entrevoir
entr’ouvrir
envoyer
épreindre
éprendre
équivaloir
éteindre
être
étreindre
exclure
extraire
faillir
faire
falloir
feindre
forclore
forfaire
frire
fuir
geindre
gésir
hair
imboire
induire
inscrire
instruire
interdire
intervenir
introduire
joindre
lire
luire
maintenir
malfaire
maudire
méconnaitre
médire
méfaire
mentir
méprendre
§
62
65
16
26
45
50
1
ii
messeoir
mettre
moudre
mourir
mouvoir
maître
muire
obtenir
Offrir
oindre
Ornettre
Ouir
ouvrir
paitre
paraitre
parcourir
parfaire
partir
parvenir
peindre
percevoir
permettre
plaindre
plaire
pleuvoir
poindre
poursuivre
pourvoir
pouvoir
prédire
prendre
prescrire
pressentir
prévaloir
prévenir
prévoir
produire
promettre
promouvoir
proscrire
provenir
quérir
rapprendre
rasseoir
ratteindre
reboire
rebouillir
recevoir
reclure
reconduire
reconnaitre
reconquérir
reconstruire
recoudre
recourir
recouvrir
récrire
recroitre
recueillir
recuire
redevenir
redevoir
redire
redormir
réduire
réélire
refaire
rejoindre
relire
remettre
reluire
remoudre
rendormir
remaitre
rent raire
renvoyer
repaitre
repartir
repeindre
repentir
reprendre
requérir
résoudre
ressentir
ressortir
ressouvenir
restreindre
reteindre
retenir
retraire
revaloir
45
revenir
revétir
revivre
revoir
rire
rouvrir
satisfaire
savoir
secourir
séduire
sentir
seoir
servir
sortir
souffrir
Soumettre
sourire
souscrire
soustraire
soutenir
souvenir
subvenir
suffire
Suivre
surcroitre
surfaire
surprendre
surseoir
survenir
survivre
taire
teindre
temir
traduire
traire
transcrire
transmettre
tressaillir
vaincre
valoir
venir
větir
vivre
voir
vouloir
INDEX.
ſº The references are to sections, not to pages.
accent of a word, 10.
accent marks, 5–9:—See also
acute, grave, and circumflex.
acute accent, 5, 15–21.
adjectives, 104–119; agreement
of, 104; comparison of, 115–
119 ; feminine of, 105–108;
gender of, 104–109; modified
by nouns with preposition,
114; used as moun, 113 ;
plural of, 109; position of,
110–112 ; difference of mean-
ing, 112c ; used as adverbs,
240.
adverbs, 229–247; from ad-
jectives, 235-238; adjectives
used as, 240; comparison
of, 238–9; position of, 234;
of quantity, 92; of negation,
241–247.
alphabet, 1–3.
apostrophe, 8: for e mute, 22c.
articles, 75–84; indefinite, 79;
omission of, 82; definite ar-
ticle, gender of, 76–77; eli-
sion of the vowel of, 78;
contracted with de and ā,
83–84; with proper names,
103; with superlative, 1.15a,
119; used with partitive
noun, 95–97; with abstract
or inclusive nouns, 101; used | first conjugation of verbs, 200;
instead of possessive, 1500.
auxiliary verbs, 184, 195; of
passives, 2.11a; of reflexives,
217; vouloir, used as, 228.
15b.
capitals, use of, 3.
Cardinal numerals, 120–125;
used for ordinals, 128.
Čedilla, 6.
circumflex accent, 5.
comparison, of adjectives, 115–
119 ; of adverbs, 238–239.
conjunctions, 255–257; follow-
ed by subjunctive, 272; fol-
lowed by me, 247b; que used
for other, 257.
dates, expression of, 123a.
dative case, represented by
noun with a, 88; dative pro-
nouns, 135–137; dative of
characterization, 94.
demonstratives, 153–158; dem.
adjectives, 153–54; dem. pro-
nouns, 155–158.
diaeresis 7.
diphthongs, 28–33.
division of syllables, 4.
feminine, of nouns, 73; of ad-
jectives, 105–108.
irregularities of, 201–206.
175
176
INDEX.
fourth conjugation of verbs,
sometimes so called, 1980.
gender, of adjectives, 104–109;
of articles, 76–77; of nouns,
72–73.
genitive case, expressed by
noun with de, 87; represent-
ed by en, 143–45; genitive of
apposition, 93.
gn, pronunciation of, 49.
grave accent, 5; with e, 15–21.
h, pronunciation of, 50.
hyphen, 9; with numerals,
122a.
imperative, 187e, 275; subjunc-
tive used as, 188b.
impersonal verbs, 222–226;
agreement of participle in
compound tenses of, 285c.
inclusive sense of noun, 101–
102.
indefinite pronouns, 178–182.
indicative mode, formation of
tenses, 187; use of tenses of,
263—267.
indirect object, pronoun forms
for, 135–137; direct object
made indirect, 261, 228. 6b.
represented by y, 143:–866
also dative.
infinitive, 276–283; sign of,
189, 277–80; used as noun,
1895; after aller, 228. 1b;
after croire, 228. 2; after
faire, 228. 6b; after venir,
228. 13.
interrogatives, adjectives, 159–
60; pronouns, 161–66; form
of interrog. sentence, 133,
192–93, 165; paraphrase for,
166.
irregular verbs, 227–228; table
of, 227 ; idiomatic uses of,
228; of first conjugation,
201–206.
l, liquid pronunciation of, 54. .
linking of final consonants
(liaison), 68–70.
masculine, see gender.
material, expression of, 90.
measure, expression of, 91–92.
mute e, 14.
nasal vowels, pronunciation of,
34–41.
negative conjugation, 241–42;
verb negatived by me alone,
243, 247; other negative ex-
pressions, 244–47; sans treat-
ed like a negative, 251.
nouns, gender of, 72–73; plu-
ral of, 85; case relations ex-
pressed by de, 87, by ä, 88;
partitive noun, 95–100; in-
clusive noun, 101–102; proper
nouns, 103.
numerals, 120–129; cardinals,
120–125; ordinals, 126–129;
cardinals for ordinals, 128;
for fractionals, 129; plural
of numerals, 121.
object of verb, two direct ob-
jects not allowed, 137b, 261;
verbs requiring de or à before
object, 262; direct object
after pouvoir, 228. 10: — see
also indirect object.
object-pronouns, 184; position
of, 136–137.
ordinals, 126–29.
participles, present participle,
190, 284; with em, 190c; past
participle, 191, 285; agree-
ment with antecedent of rel-
ative, 1685.
partitive sense of noun,95–100;
article omitted before, 97–
98; represented by en, 145.
passive verbs, 211—213; sub-
stitutes for, 214.
INDEX.
177
personal pronouns, 130–145;
conjunctive, 131–37; dis-
junctive, 138–141; subject,
132–33; object, 134–37; used
in address, 1820; reflexive,
142; en and y, 143–45; le as
predicate after étre, 140e.
possessive case, see genitive.
possessives, adjectives, 146–50;
pronouns, 151–2; article used
instead of, 1500. §
prepositions, 248–54; with in-
finitive, 277–82.
principal parts of verb, 199.
pronouns, see personal, posses-
sive, relative, etc.
pronunciation, of names of let-
ters, 2; of consonants, 42–67;
of vowels, 11–41; of nasal
vowels, 34–41.
proper names, 103.
reflexive verbs, 215–21; pro-
nouns, 142.
relative pronouns, 167–77;
never omitted in French,
176.
second conjugation, 207–8.
subject of verb, 258–60; agree-
ment of verb with two sub-
jects, 258; subject repeated
by pronoun, 259; subj. of
infinitive following falloir
made indirect, 228. 75; im-
ºnal subj.with any verb,
subject pronoun, 132–3; posi-
tion of, 133; in interrog.
Sentence, 192; two pronoun
subjects, 141.
subjunctive mode, 188, 267–
76; dependent on conjunc-
tions, 272; on falloir, 228.
7a; after qui . . . que, etc.,
177; me with dependent
subj., 247a, b,
superlative, use of article with,
1.15a, 119a, b.
tenses of indicative, 263—7.
third regular conjugation, 209;
irregularities of, 210.
time, expressed by il y a, etc.,
225c; time of day, expression
of, 1235.
transitive and
verbs, 195, 262.
intransitive
verbs, simple forms of, 183,
187; compound forms of,
184–5; principal parts of,
199; made negative, 241–47;
three conjugations of, 198;
irregular, 227–8: — see also
wºnder auxiliaries, passive,
reflexive, impersonal, names
of modes, subject, etc.
vºls. pronunciation of, 11–
1.
weather, faire with expres-
sions of, 228. 6a; imper-
sonal verbs of, 222.
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