!
THE
HIGHLANDS
OF
TURKEY
TOZER.
A 771,858
VOL•I•
DR
427
476
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY.

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DUM
SPIRO
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Tumis Thomas Stanton
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MONASTERY OF SIMOPETRA (MOUNT ATHOS.)
UNIV
OF
MICH
RESEARCHES
IN THE

HIGHLANDS OF TURKEY;
INCLUDING
VISITS TO MOUNTS IDA, ATHOS, OLYMPUS, AND PELION,
TO THE MIRDITE ALBANIANS, AND
OTHER REMOTE TRIBES.
WITH NOTES ON THE BALLADS, TALES, AND CLASSICAL
SUPERSTITIONS OF THE MODERN GREEKS.
BY THE
REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S.,
FELLOW
TUTOR AND late fellOW OF EXETER COLLEGE, oxford.
IN TWO VOLUMES.-VOL. I.
WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
13
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1869.
The right of Translation is reserved.
PRINTED BY WILLIAM Clowes and sons, duke street, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS.
ΤΟ
THOMAS M. CROWDER, M.A., F.R.G.S.,
MY TRAVELLING COMPANION,
THESE PAGES
ARE AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED.
Anthropology
Heffer
9-12-29
20056
2r.

09-19-29 mm
жад
PREFACE.
THE journeys, of which an account is given in these
volumes, were made in the summers of 1853, 1861, and
1865. The first of these in order of time has been
placed last in order of narration, as it is best suited to
supplement the information given in the other two.
It has been my endeavour to compress what I have to
say into a moderately narrow compass, excluding for
the most part matters merely personal, together with the
ordinary features of Eastern life and daily incidents of
travel, with which most persons are by this time ac-
quainted. At the same time I have discussed, to the
best of my ability, the various questions-historical,
antiquarian, and topographical-which such a tour
naturally suggests, and have illustrated them by such
information as I have been able to obtain.
Turkey is at present the least known of all the coun-
tries of Europe, yet few contain so much to reward the
trouble of investigation. I shall be glad if I succeed in
persuading any persons, who are desirous of leaving the
beaten track of tourists, that there are no insuperable
vi
Preface.
difficulties in the way of travelling in the interior, even
during the summer months. But in any case I shall be
amply satisfied, if I am able to impart to my readers a
fraction of the pleasure which the original tours fur-
nished to myself.
Oxford, March 10, 1869.
CONTENTS OF VOL. I.
CHAPTER I.
MOUNT IDA.
-
Departure from Constantinople- The Hellespont - The Plain of Troy —–
Bunarbashi - An Earthquake-A wealthy Armenian Rivers of
Greece and Asia Minor - Beyramitch- Evjilar — Guards and Robbers
The Yuruk Night Bivouac - Ascent of the Mountain — View
from the Summit-Its Flora-Descent to Turcoman Encampment—
Source of the Scamander-Return to Bunarbashi
..
Page I
CHAPTER II.
THE CITY AND PLAIN OF TROY.
The Springs at Bunarbashi Mode of treating the Subject - Accuracy of
Homeric epithets and descriptions - Topography of the Iliad — The
Springs near Troy - Correspondence with those at Bunarbashi - The
Bali-dagh-Its Tumuli View from it-Floods of the Mendere -
Site of Troy-The Ileian Plain Excavations on the Bali-dagh
Batieia Atchi-keui- The Hanai-Tepe-Ilium Novum- Return to
the Dardanelles
22
CHAPTER III.
MOUNT ATHOS.
Departure for Mount Athos-Thasos - Cavalla-The Holy Mountain
General Description - Vegetation, Scenery, and Climate-Rigorous
Fast-Monastery of Vatopedi-Its Opulence-School of Eugenius
Bulgaris — Village of Caryes - Exclusion of Females-The Holy
Synod-Monastic Dispute-Phases of Monastic Life-Revenues -
Numbers Races-Pantocratoros A Russian Dignitary- The Sand-
bath
50
viii
Contents of Vol. I.
CHAPTER IV.
MOUNT ATHOS (continued).
Monastery of Iveron - Description of it — The central Church-Byzantine
Pictures - The Refectory - The Library- Miraculous Picture-Theory
of Eastern Monastic Life — Occupations of the Monks Their love of
tranquillity — Fallmerayer influenced by it- Mysticism — Monastery
of Philotheu-Caracalla -The Lavra-Relics and Jewellery-Retreat of
"the Forerunner" — A Conversation on Canals—A Painter-Legends
of the Peak - Ascent to the Summit - Festival of the Transfiguration
- Light of Tabor ..
Page 76
CHAPTER V.
MOUNT ATHOS (continued).
Descent to the Skete of St. Anne-St. Paul's-A Monastic meal-St.
Dionysius St. Gregory's - Simopetra Russians and Greeks
Xeropotamu-Ancient diamonds-Xenophu-Docheiareiu-A Hermit
Constamonitu Monastic group — Zographu
Zographu - Chilandari — The
Monks' views of other Churches ..
107
CHAPTER VI.
MOUNT ATHOS (continued).
Canal of Xerxes — Sphigmenu — The Central Ridge — The Russian Mo-
nastery — Estimate of the Monastic System- The future of the Holy
Mountain- History of the Community-Earliest Period — Time of
the Comneni - Attack by the Latins - Time of the Palæologi —Canta-
cuzene - Theological Movements - Submission to the Turks- Later
History
127
..
-
CHAPTER VII.
SALONICA TO MONASTIR.
Salonica - Its Triumphal Arches — Inscription — Population and History
The Egnatian Way - Roads in Turkey - The Vardar-Khans
Site of Pella Yenidjé — Vodena — Its Beautiful Situation The
Ancient Edessa — Village and Lake of Ostrovo - Subterranean Chan-
nels-Gurnitzovo Pigs in Turkey - Nidjé and Peristeri — Approach
to Monastir
..
143
Contents of Vol. I.
ix
CHAPTER VIII.
MONASTIR AND OCHRIDA.
Monastir-Its Importance- Massacre of the Albanian Beys - Monastery
of Bukova - Plain of Monastir Legend of the Temenidæ - Turkish
Outrages The Bulgarians-Their History - Bulgarian Church Move-
Monastir to Ochrida Lake of Presba - Lake of Ochrida —
The City Ancient Statue and Crucifix-Legend of St. Clement
Cyril and Methodius Statues and Pictures
ment
Page 166
CHAPTER IX.
OCHRIDA TO ELBASSAN.
The Menzil Primitive Boats The Drin at Struga Roman Milestone
- Bulgarian School - Kukus Wild Mountain Road Elbassan
Concealed Treasures - Illtreatment of Women Value set on Water-
The Albanians Their Origin Character Riddles and Superstitions
Ghegs and Tosks — Albanian Heroes — History of Scanderbeg-
Ballad on his Death
..
..
· 195
CHAPTER X.
BERAT TO CORFU.
Berat Mount Tomohr Local Chieftains Castle of Berat Siege
under Scanderbeg- Malaria Fever A Mountain Residence Sla-
vonic Names-Pass of Glava - The Viosa - Tepelen - Ali Pasha's
Palace Argyro-Castro Albanians and Greeks Pass of Mount
Sopoti - Delvino — River Vistritza-Lake of Butrinto- Departure for
Corfu
218
CHAPTER XI.
MONTENEGRO.
Journey in 1865-Coast of Dalmatia Bocche di Cattaro - Austrian
Defences - Views of the Black Mountain-Cattaro-The Scala
Approach to Montenegro - Niégush-Laborious Agriculture-Monte-
negrin Dress-Destruction of Forests -Mount Lövchen - Plain of
Cetinjé History of Montenegro-The Vladika or Prince-Bishop—
Sicilian Vespers of Montenegro - Episode of Stephen the Little
Two Last Vladikas
VOL. I.
b
..
The
234
X
Contents of Vol. I.
CHAPTER XII.
MONTENEGRO (continued).
Cetinjé― Political Constitution of the Country - Population and Revenue
-Need of a Port-The Monastery-Right of Asylum-The Archi-
mandrite and Bishop-The Montenegrin Church-Ecclesiastical Views
-Feeling of the People towards England-Piesmas or National Songs
-Sitting of the Senate The Crédit Mobilier-Prince Nicolas —
Mirkho - Descent to Rieka -Estimate of the Montenegrins - Their
Political Importance-Atrocious Murder-Lake of Scodra-Fishery
-Pelicans
Page 253
CHAPTER XIII.
SCODRA AND THE MIRDITA.
Turks and
Bazaars and City of Scodra-Vendetta-Turkish Toleration
Montenegrins-Ismael Pasha—The Castle - View from it-Sieges
Departure for the Mirdita-The Drin-First Impressions of the Mir-
dita - Night-bivouac - Mirdite Dress - Extensive Oak-forests — The
Priest of St. George-Religious Views of the People-Their Fana-
ticism-Rivers of the Country-Arrival at Orosch..
CHAPTER XIV.
THE MIRDITA (continued).
.. 280
The Mirdite Prince - History of his Family - Political Constitution of the
Mirdita - Administration of Justice - Fraternal Friendships- Ravages
of the Vendetta · The Prince's Hospitality-Derivation of the name
Mirdite Excursion to the Monte Santo
of the Country - Capture of Wives
Marriage' - Prevalence of the Custom of Exogamy - Bride-racing
-Mirdite Wives Mahometans
..
View from it— Topography
McLennan on Primitive
CHAPTER XV.
OROSCH TO PRISREND.
302
Departure from Orosch A Native Guide The Bertiscus Mountains
Mirdite Shepherds' Encampment-Mode of Divination-Junction of
Black and White Drin-A Nocturnal Visitor-Prisrend- The Kaima-
kam-Turkish Administration-The Castle -View from it-Churches
Visit of Dr. Barth - The Roman Catholic Archbishop- Popula-
tion - Concealed Christians-Their Origin, History, and Present Con-
dition
327
Contents of Vol. I,
xi
CHAPTER XVI.
PRISREND TO USKIUB.
The Scardus Pass Its Flora-View from the Summit Calcandele -
The Khanji and the Mudir - Former Condition of the Country Here-
—
ditary Pashas The Tettovo Mount Liubatrin The Vardar
Uskiub Its History General Geography of the Country - District
East of Scardus District West of Scardus - The Kurschumli-khan
Ancient Clock-tower-Justinian's Aqueduct - Circassian Colony.
Page 350
J
CHAPTER XVII.
THE VARDAR VALLEY.
-
་
Justinian's Birthplace — Kiuprili - Unexplored Route to Salonica The
Site of Stobi - Negotin - Banja — Demirkapu or Iron Gate of the
Vardar Boats Shooting the Rapids-Traffic to Perlepe - Lower
Course of the River - Ardjen Lake Avret Hissar- Arrival at Salo-
nica - Railway Route across Turkey -- Lines to India - Migrations of
Labourers Commercial Treaty with England - The Eastern Ques-
tion
Greek and Slavonic Races - Future Prospects of Turkey .. 371
:
:
:
:
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO VOL. I.
:
:
:
:
:
Monastery of Simopetra (Mount Athos)
Map of the Plain of Troy
Map of Mount Athos
Monastery of Iveron (Mount Athos)
Orosch; residence of the Mirdite Prince
Map of the Highlands of Turkey ..
Frontispiece.
p. 23
..
p. 53
to face p. 76
to face p. 300
at end of volume.
:
:
:
THE
HIGHLANDS OF TURKEY.
CHAPTER I.
MOUNT IDA.
Departure from Constantinople- The Hellespont-The Plain of Troy -
Bunarbashi — An Earthquake-A wealthy Armenian-Rivers of
Greece and Asia Minor - Beyramitch — Evjilar - Guards and Robbers
The Yuruk-Night Bivouac Ascent of the Mountain View
from the Summit-Its Flora-Descent to Turcoman Encampment—
Source of the Scamander - Return to Bunarbashi.
!
ON the evening of the last day of July, 1861, I left Con-
stantinople by one of the Austrian Lloyd's steamers, in
company with an old travelling companion, Mr. Crowder,
bound in the first instance for the Dardanelles and the
Plains of Troy. We had spent the three previous weeks
partly at the Turkish capital, and partly at the delightful
old Ottoman city of Brusa in Asia Minor, in making pre-
parations for a succession of journeys into the interior, and
acclimatising ourselves in some degree to the heat of a
southern summer, a precaution which is almost necessary
after a rapid transition from a northern climate. Constan-
tinople can now be reached in a week from England by
two different routes. Persons who are not averse to a sea
voyage can take the express French steamers from Mar-
seilles, which only stop at Messina and Athens on the
VOL. I.
B
1
2
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida:
way; while those who prefer a land route have the option
of going by Vienna and the Danube, from the lower course
of which river a line of railway, crossing the base of the
Dobrudscha, leads to Kustendji on the Black Sea; from
that point there is only a short sea passage to the
capital. Our travelling servant, whose name, as he
accompanied us on two separate occasions, I will men-
tion once for all at starting, was George Jacouthis, a
Greek of Constantinople, and the best dragoman I have
ever met with. His knowledge of Eastern languages
was excellent, and his versatility in adapting himself to
the emergencies of rough travelling in countries wholly
unknown to him, and his freedom from any desire to
take the lead or make difficulties, were qualities such
as one seldom finds in men of his occupation. Besides
this, he possessed unfailing good humour, and, what is
rarer still, the most scrupulous honesty. To him we
have good reason to ascribe much of the comfort which
we enjoyed on our expeditions.
On the 1st of August we landed at the town of the
Dardanelles, which lies on the Asiatic side, about half
way down the strait. Our first care was to procure
horses, for, as there are no roads in Turkey, but only
paths and tracks, all the travelling has to be performed
on horseback. By the assistance of Mr. Frederic Calvert,
who at that time was the English consul, we obtained
the number we required from one of the carriers of the
country, who are usually willing to enter into an arrange-
ment of this kind, as it is more profitable than their
ordinary occupation of transporting merchandize. In
such cases the horses are accompanied either by the
owner himself, or by some person employed by him.
Our baggage was of the lightest description. In addi-
tion to railway rugs to sleep on, and bags to serve as a
CHAP. I.
The Hellespont.
3
protection against vermin at night, we carried only a few
knives, forks, and tin plates, together with a supply of
coffee, sugar, and brandy, but nothing else except clothes
and books; in this way all our belongings could easily be
strapped on one horse.
We started in the afternoon of the same day, and rode
along the coast under the sandy hills, which, on the
Asiatic as well as the European side, border the winding
waters of the Hellespont. The strangeness of the ap-
pearance of this "ocean stream" is not diminished by a
nearer acquaintance, forming as it does so narrow, and
apparently so slight, a boundary between two great con-
tinents. Yet in reality it has been a most effectual
barrier to prevent communication between them. Even
now, the Slavonic tribes, which form the bulk of the
population of European Turkey, are nowhere found in
Asia; nor have the Turcomans and other nomad races,
which inhabit the mountains of Asia Minor, at any point
penetrated into Europe. Still, it is in reality but a salt-
water river; and that it was regarded as such in ancient
times is clear from the epithet "broad" which is applied
to it by classical writers, and which would be unsuitable
if it was conceived of as a sea.
The sun was setting when we came in sight of the open
sea. The splendid forms of Imbros and Samothrace
were standing out against the orange light; but we
looked in vain for Athos in the far west, though we knew
that it ought to be visible when the daylight was not
too bright, from having seen it on a former visit from the
hills above. At last, when the twilight was far advanced,
half an hour after sunset, its strange conical peak ap-
peared above the waters, like an effect in a diorama, and
continued to be distinctly seen until night came on. It
is here between 90 and 100 miles off. It was dark when
B 2
4
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
we reached the Plains of Troy, across which we had to
find our way as best we could, passing here and there
over narrow wooden bridges which span a number of
estuaries and lagoons; the furthest of these is at the
mouth of the Mendere, the principal river of the plain,
the ancient Scamander. Late at night we arrived at the
village of Yenishehr, the Sigeum of classical times, which
stands on a hill at the north-west angle of the plain,
overlooking the Ægean. Here we were lodged at the
house of a Greek priest called Hadji Papas, or the "Pil-
grim Father," for the name Hadji, which properly belongs
to Mahometan pilgrims to Mecca, is applied by the
Christians to those of their body who have visited Jeru-
salem.
From this place is seen the whole of the Trojan plain,
which is seven miles in length from north to south, and
varies from two to three in breadth, enclosed on the two
sides by low ranges of hills, on which are numerous
tumuli. Instead of being a green swamp, as it is during
the winter and early spring, it had now a brown, or
rather, when seen from a distance, a golden hue, from the
crops having been lately removed; in contrast to which
the serpentine course of the Mendere formed a conspi-
cuous object, from the line of willow trees by which its
banks are shaded. On the opposite side appeared the
site of Ilium Novum, the form of an ancient theatre,
excavated in the slope of the hill, being distinctly visible.
To the south-east, at a distance of 30 miles in a direct
line, the view is bounded by the heights of Mount Ida,
which are clearly seen from all the lower parts of the
plain, overtopping the nearer mountains. Towards the
Hellespont appeared the shining surfaces of the lagoons
which we had crossed the night before, and the Turkish
castle of Kumkaleh, one of the two which guard the
CHAP. I.
The Plain of Troy.
5
entrance of the strait on the European and Asiatic shore
respectively. On the slope of the hill of Yenishehr,
where it begins to sink down towards the village of
Kumkaleh, are the two tumuli of Achilles and Patroclus;
or rather, perhaps, the second is that of Antilochus, for it
would seem that the ashes of Achilles and Patroclus
were ultimately deposited in the same tomb.¹ Their
mound is described by Homer as serving for a landmark
to sailors when passing the headland. None of these
objects were new to us, for we had both of us explored
the plains eight years before; on this occasion our object
was to examine more minutely some points in connec-
tion with the topography of the district, and to penetrate
further into the interior.
2
The following morning we proceeded along the foot of
the western range of hills in the direction of Bunarbashi,
the village which lies at the head of the plain. The
peasants whom we passed were mostly employed in
threshing, the operation being performed by cattle
drawing a hurdle on which a man was standing. It was
easy to distinguish a Greek and a Turkish threshing-
floor. In the latter everything was transacted with a
dignified solemnity, while, on the other hand, the lively
Greeks might be seen poking fun at one another with a
strong sense of enjoyment. When we had ridden about
halfway we crossed the river of Bunarbashi, a full and
clear, though narrow, stream, which at one period must
have been a tributary of the Mendere (for the old
channel is traceable which joined the two), but now flows
into Besika Bay through an artificial cutting in the hills.
It was partly, I believe, in consequence of the nearness
of this, which, unlike so many of the rivers of the Ægean,
1 Hom. Od. xxiv. 76 foll.
2 Ibid. 82 foll.
6
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
suffers no diminution of its supply of water during the
summer months, that the neighbouring harbour—now, as
of old, “a treacherous station for ships"—was chosen.
for the allied fleets in the summer of 1853, before the
commencement of the Russian war. We followed it up
to its source at Bunarbashi, where it gushes out from a
number of springs in the limestone rocks in the midst of
a plantation of willows, fig-trees, and agnus castus bushes.
This position is one of considerable importance in con-
nection with the topography of Troy; but we will not
enter on that subject at present, as it may be more con-
venient to defer it until after our return from Mount
Ida.
At the principal house in this village we were enter-
tained by a Greek, who farmed a considerable amount of
ground in the neighbourhood. He was an intelligent
man; and his son, he told me, was at a "higher school"
at the Dardanelles-one of the many excellent schools
which are found in those towns of Turkey where the
Greeks are congregated: there he was taught modern
languages as well as ancient Greek. As I was sitting on
the divan in one of the upper rooms, suddenly the house
was violently shaken, and there was a sound of cracking
and breaking in the lower story. "What is that!" I
exclaimed. "It is an earthquake," he replied, quite
quietly, like one accustomed to it; and then added that
they were not uncommon in those parts, and that the
great shock which destroyed a portion of the city of
Brusa in 1855 had been felt there. It is to the frequent
occurrence of these throughout Greece and Asia Minor,
both in ancient and modern times, that the extraordinary
disappearance of the old temples is for the most part to
3 "Statio malefida carinis," Virg., Æn. ii. 23.
CHAP. I.
An Earthquake.
7
be referred. No doubt the hand of man has had much
to do with the work of destruction, as squared blocks of
stone are too tempting objects to be spared in a country
where quarrying is almost unknown; but this cause
would not be sufficient in itself to explain the downfall of
so many massive buildings, especially in remote parts
of the country.ª
On the occasion of our former visit, in 1853, we passed
a night at this farm, at which time it was occupied by an
Armenian named Meyerditch. This man's subsequent
history shows that, though in the remoter parts of Turkey
life and property are insecure, yet in the more favoured
districts, and where European consuls are able to exercise
supervision, an intelligent and active man may rise
rapidly. We found him studying a French and Armenian
grammar, in hopes of having some commercial transac-
tions with the allied fleets, which were then lying together
in the neighbouring harbour. This augured well for his
future prospects; and on inquiring for him eight years
afterwards, we found that he had become quite a great
man, had travelled in Syria, and was the proprietor of
several farms about ten miles off. At one of these we
stopped on our return from Ida, and witnessed the curious
sight of thirty Turkish women employed as labourers to
shell and pound the Valonia acorns, working and chat-
tering through their close veils, under the supervision of
a taskmaster. The owner himself was absent at Smyrna,
where he had gone to be married, having no doubt made
a good match among the far-famed ladies of that city.
Anything relating to the Armenians is interesting, because
from their wealth and ability they are likely to have a
considerable share in deciding the Eastern question. So
* Of Laconia in particular Strabo says, εὔσειστος ἡ Λακωνική. (viii. 5,
$ 7.)
8
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
great is their national vitality and the hold their religion
has upon them, that Haxthausen, in his 'Transcaucasia,'
has given it as his opinion that, dispersed as they are
throughout the whole of Asia, it is their mission to over-
power Mahometanism by the united power of Christianity
and civilisation. And as regards their capacity for busi-
ness, Mr. Curzon has wittily remarked, that while it
takes four Turks to cheat one Frank, two Franks to
cheat one Greek, and two Greeks to cheat one Jew,
it takes six Jews to cheat one Armenian. In most points
their character is a great contrast to that of the Greeks.
One of the American missionaries at Constantinople, who
had educated a great number of young men of both
nations, told me that he found the Greek mind the better
of the two for the study of scientific subjects, and fonder
of them; but that the Armenian mind was far deeper
and soberer, and suited to embrace moral and religious
truth. Some Armenians read (and understand) Butler's
'Analogy.'
It has been remarked of the principal rivers of Greece
and Asia Minor that there is a striking resemblance in
the general features of their courses. Each of them rises
in a lofty mountain range opposite the coast, and from
thence descends into an inland plain bounded at the sides
by transverse spurs, which run off from the main chain.
At the lower extremity of this, where the mountains close
in, the river passes by a narrow gorge into another plain,
through which it flows into the sea. This is exactly the
case with the Mendere. Rising in Mount Ida, which
runs from west to east, facing the Hellespont, it flows
successively through the plain of Beyramitch and the
Trojan plain, which are separated from one another by a
confined valley, several miles in length, at the northern
termination of which stands the hill of Bunarbashi. It
CHAP. I.
Rivers.
9
was through this valley that the first part of our route
lay on the way to Mount Ida. In order to reach it, we
had to cross the low ridge which connects the hill of
Bunarbashi with the chain to the west; on descending
from which we passed over a small tract of fertile ground,
which those who have fixed the site of Troy on the
neighbouring height have regarded as the Ileian plain."
The principal vegetation here, as in all the more level
parts of the surrounding district, is the Valonia oak (the
ancient Báλavos), the husk of the acorn of which is used
in tanning, and is exported from hence in considerable
quantities. The sides of the river are fringed with plane-
trees, and the sandy hills, which close in the valley, are
covered with pines. Owing to the narrowness of its bed,
the Mendere in the winter time, when the floods come
down from Mount Ida, often rises to a great height above
its banks. The valley continues to wind with pretty
scenery for some ten miles, until the upper plain is
reached; at the western end of which, on a tributary of
the Mendere, is the town of Enaeh, the ancient Neandria.
We entered it about nightfall, passing a fine cypress-
grove and a burial-ground on the way, and took up our
quarters at the house of a hospitable Armenian, to whom
we had an introduction.
The next morning we rode, in four hours, along the
plain to Beyramitch, the chief town of the district and
the residence of Achmet Bey, the governor. The ground
was in parts left untilled, but where it was cultivated the
crops were fine, and the farming seemed better than in
most parts of Turkey. On the way we met strings of
camels, bringing down the produce of the interior to the
sea: over our heads large flights of storks were wheeling
5 Il. xxi. 558.
ΙΟ
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
about in the air. The heat at this time was very great
at midday, but was modified by a refreshing breeze from
the north-east-the same, in all probability, which blows
down the Bosphorus with little intermission during the
summer months, and gives employment to the number of
tug-steamers which ply between the sea of Marmora and
the Black Sea. The governor, at whose house we made
our midday halt, was a portly person dressed in Euro-
pean costume, which looked out of place in the midst of
his gaily attired guards. He had a depressed look, and
I have since heard that, like so many of the Turkish
upper class, he is a great drunkard; but to an English-
man he may fairly assume a romantic aspect, as he is
great-grandson of Byron's Giaffir in the 'Bride of Abydos,'
who was governor of the Dardanelles. When, however,
he was once asked by an English acquaintance whether
he had had a great-aunt called Zuleika, he reflected a
little, then shook his head vacantly, and replied, “Allah
knows!"
From
The town of Beyramitch, the population of which is
principally Turkish, is a place of some size, prettily
situated on a hill-side at the edge of the plain, and sur-
mounted by a conspicuous grove of superb pine-trees,
which here, as well as in other places in the neighbour-
hood, serve instead of cypresses to mark the cemeteries,
the graves being distinguished by ovals of stones.
this place to Evjilar, which was to be our starting-point
for the ascent of Ida, the usual route lies through the
plain; but, as it was circuitous, in consequence of the pro-
jecting spurs which are here thrown out by the moun-
tain, we preferred to follow a less frequented track over
the hills. After a light repast on stewed cucumbers and
cold maccaroni pancakes, which made us regret the more
liberal hospitality of our humbler entertainers, we started
CHAP. I.
Beyramitch—Evjilar.
II
again on our way in the midst of magnificent scenery,
the whole range of Ida being displayed on our right,
stretching from east to west in a long line of wooded
heights of beautiful form, broken only here and there by
transverse buttresses. When we had proceeded some dis-
tance we missed our path, and, in the course of our
wanderings among the hills, came upon an encampment
of Turcomans with their flocks, who were living in huts
composed of branches and leaves. Ultimately, however,
we arrived before sunset at our destination, Evjilar, a
small Turkish village, composed of rude cottages, on the
banks of the Mendere.
The river had changed considerably in appearance
since we last saw it near Enaeh. Instead of being a
broad and tranquil piece of water, it had now all the
characteristics of a Devonshire trout-stream, including
among them the excellent small trout which abound in
it; indeed, when we looked along its glancing waters,
rippling among the rocks, we might easily have fancied
ourselves in that county of England, had it not been for
the Oriental plane-trees by which it is shaded. Just
below the village is a rustic wooden bridge, the view
from which is exquisitely romantic. Looking up the
confined valley in which the crystal river flows, you see
the picturesque wooded spurs which descend on either
side of it from the main chain, beyond which rises the
great mountain itself, clothed with dark forests until
within a thousand feet of the summit, which rises bold
and bare, a mass of grey limestone surmounting all.
The house in which we were lodged was a mill belong-
ing to an old Turk, close to the stream, and commanding
a view of the place where the young men of the village
came to fetch water. It was in itself a refreshing sight
to see the luxurious enjoyment with which they waded
i
12
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
into the river after depositing their pitchers on the bank,
then performed their ablutions, took a long draught, and
at last leisurely rinsed and filled their vessels, as if the
whole process were too delightful to be carelessly hurried
For ourselves, however, we were glad to find that
the water was deep enough for bathing—
over.
"Beneath the plane-tree's shade,
Whence flows the glittering stream
99
though swimming was hardly practicable. On the even-
ing of our arrival, that we might have provisions for our
mountain-excursion, we bought a kid for about four
shillings, and, as it was skinned in our presence, we had
an opportunity of seeing the way in which the operation
is performed in these countries. After its throat had
been cut, an incision was made in one of the hind legs, to
which the operator applied his mouth and blew until the
whole carcase was inflated beneath the skin, after which
the rest of the process was accomplished with perfect
ease.
We found that the friendly Bey had sent after us two
guards and a cavass, or armed attendant (something
between a footman and a gendarme), to serve as an
escort on the mountain. This move was not to our
liking, as we had found by previous experience that such
gentry are an expense and an impediment, and' in case
of any real danger they are certain to leave you in the
lurch. Accordingly, we did not hesitate long between
politeness and expediency, but dismissed two of them;
retaining one, whom we discovered to be well acquainted
with the mountain paths, to serve as a guide. Sub-
sequently, however, we were told by a competent local
authority that it would have been wiser to take them, as
there are generally several gangs of robbers on Mount
CHAP. I.
Guards-Robbers.
13
Ida-men who have run away from the conscription, or
deserted from the Turkish army, and find the life of an
outlaw the best suited to their circumstances-and that
though the guard would have been no protection in case
of falling in with them, yet, if you are accompanied by
an escort when you are robbed, you can claim compen-
sation from the authorities. But even then the delay
involved in this process is such as few travellers can
afford.
Between two and three o'clock the next afternoon we
started to ascend the mountain. Our guide was a middle-
aged Turk, a short but strong and active man, who
carried in his belt a magazine of small arms-yataghans,
pistols, and other weapons. We followed the eastern-
most of the two streams into which the river divides, and
when we reached the foot of Ida began to mount
gradually by a sloping path overlooking the most lovely
dells imaginable, in the midst of a mixed vegetation of
plane, oak, chestnut, fir, pine, alder, and arbutus. In one
of these glades we found a tribe of Yuruk with their
flocks. This race and the Turcomans are remains of the
nomads by whom Asia Minor was occupied at a period
anterior perhaps to the rise of the Ottomans. The two
races are distinct; for, though the contrary of this has
been stated, yet the Osmanlis in the neighbourhood of
the Dardanelles declare that they will not intermarry
with one another, and have other marked points of
difference. Thus the Yuruk are Mahometans, while the
Turcomans are thought to have no religion, or, if they
have any, it is a mystery, and they are reported to keep
6
• E.g., in the article Turkey in the 'Encyclopædia Britannica.' It has
also been attempted to show that Yuruk and Turk are the same name,
an early form of which is supposed to be found in the Iyrcæ, a hunting
tribe mentioned by Herodotus; but this is improbable on every ground.
14
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
the Jewish Sabbath. Again, the Yuruk are wholly
pastoral; but the Turcomans, in addition to the care of
their flocks, employ themselves in cutting wood and
collecting pitch, which they sell. In many parts of these
forests we observed trees which were black and charred,
and on inquiry we learned that they are fired in order to
extract the pitch from them. The pitch of Ida was
famous also in ancient times." The natives of these
parts, too, are fond, we were told, of burning the trees for
amusement, as a resinous pine serves admirably for a
firework. It is a wonder that great conflagrations do
not arise from time to time from this cause when the
woods are dry, but we could not discover traces of any
on a large scale.
8
One object which we had in view, when we started on
our expedition, was to visit the sources of the Scamander,
which were said to flow from a fine cavern on the moun-
tain side. Accordingly our guide, who had been pro-
perly instructed on this subject, conducted us up a side
valley, near the spot where we had seen the Yuruk, to
the mouth of a cavern, below which flowed one of the
tributaries of the stream. Here he drew his yataghan,
and after cleaving a pine branch into a number of small
pieces, in a short time constructed a torch, which he
lighted, and entered the cave. We followed him for some
distance, crawling along with difficulty, up and down,
through a narrow passage in the limestone rock, which
was honeycombed by the action of water. However,
when we had proceeded some 60 feet, finding it led to
7 "Ideas pices," Virg. Georg. iii. 450.
8 That this used to happen in ancient times is evident from the Homeric
simile :—
ἠΰτε πῦρ ἀἴδηλον ἐπιφλέγει ἄσπετον ὕλην
οὔρεος ἐν κορυφῇς, ἕκαθεν δέ τε φαίνεται αὐγή.—Il. ii. 455, 6.
CHAP. I.
The Scamander.
15
nothing, we returned somewhat disconsolate, feeling that
we had explored a curious cavern, but not the source of
the Scamander. It bears the name of "the Lidja,” ¿.e.
“the refuge,” being so called apparently from its suitable-
ness for a place of concealment. Persons who have tra-
velled in the desert will remember that this name (for it
is an Arabic word imported into Turkish) belongs also to
the sacred valley in Sinai, in which is the "rock of Moses."
No reason has been assigned, as far as I know, why it
should have been attached to that place, but it may have
been from its having at one period afforded shelter to
numerous pilgrims.
9
From this point we proceeded to mount on foot,
driving our horses with difficulty before us, as in many
places there was no track, and the wood was tangled or
obstructed by felled trees. Towards sunset we emerged
from the forest on to the open face of the mountain, com-
manding an extensive view towards the north; and after
making our way along this for some distance, selected a
sheltered place for our bivouac, by the side of a tiny
spring among the trees a little below the limit of vegeta-
tion. There are numerous and copious sources of water
about the lower slopes of "many-fountained " Ida, but in
these upper regions there are remarkably few. We sub-
sequently found a fine spring between our resting-place
and the summit, but its position was too exposed to
allow of our camping near it. Our dragoman and the
Turkish guide set to work at once to pile logs of wood
and trunks of trees together, and made a huge bonfire,
as well to keep off the cold as to scare the jackals and
other unwelcome visitors, for this mountain is still what
Homer described it, the "mother of wild beasts." That
• See Ritter's 'Erdkunde,' xiv. p. 603.
16
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
10
there is abundance of game in these woods is shown by
the name of the place from which we started, Evjilar,
which signifies "the hunter's village." We all partook of
supper off the kid, which had been roasted whole before
our departure, and then composed ourselves to sleep
round the fire. There was bright starlight, but no moon.
On the Greek festival of the prophet Elijah, to whom the
summits of many of the Greek mountains are dedicated,¹º
a large number of people from the neighbouring villages,
sometimes as many as 300, pass the night on the moun-
tain-side, and afterwards have service on the top. The
modern Greeks, like their heathen forefathers, are every-
where fond of consecrating high peaks; but Ida has
something of a sacred character about it, for it is men-
tioned by the medieval Byzantine writers, together with
Athos and Olympus, as having had in those times a
number of monasteries and cells built along its sides.
The ruins of some of these remained until the beginning
of the present century.
The spreading daylight at last warned us that we must
be up and on our way to the summit. When we emerged
from among the firs we commenced the steep ascent over
bare slopes and broken fragments of rock, and after an
hour's climbing reached "topmost Gargarus," which is
5750 feet high,¹¹ but commands from its position a more
10 This circumstance is usually explained by the supposition, that in con-
sequence of the great sacrifice on Mount Carmel, Elijah came to be regarded
in the Greek Church as a patron of high places. Independently of this,
when we consider the way in which heathen names and customs were
adapted to Christian purposes in early times, it is far from improbable that
from the similarity of names Elias was made to take the place of the Greek
Helios, who possessed sanctuaries on many of the Greek mountains. (See
Wachsmuth, 'Das alte Griechenland im neuen,' p. 23.)
11 This measurement is taken from the Admiralty Chart, the most trust-
worthy authority. It is given by Choiseul Gouffier as 775 toises, ¿.e., 4650
French feet, or 5084 English feet. In Smith's 'Dictionary of Geography
CHAP. I.
Ascent of the Mountain.
17
than proportionately fine prospect. We had mounted at
a good pace, but the sun was before us, and had risen
half an hour when we arrived. The view was clear and
cloudless, but the horizon was obscured by mist, as it
usually is during the summer months in the Ægean,
except now and then at sunrise. This effect contrasts
somewhat strikingly with the distinctness of the nearer
objects, and seems to be what Homer intends to express
by the epithet nepoelds, which is applied to
"the
dim sea," and is also used of "the far distance," for
objects as much as 80 miles off may be seen notwith-
standing.
The view towards the north had been gradually open-
ing before us during our ascent; but that towards the
south, which was far more beautiful, burst on us at once
when we reached the summit. Far below, and separated
from us only by a succession of finely-wooded mountain
spurs, was the deep bay of Adramyttium, whose blue
waters were dotted here and there with white sails; at
its head was an alluvial plain stretching inland, while
about its mouth the sea was studded with a number of
small islands, the Hecatonnesi; beyond which rose the
two peaks of Lesbos, separated from one another by an
inlet; and far in the distance the heights of Chios, and
on the neighbouring mainland those near Smyrna. To
the south-east, as we looked into the interior of Asia
Minor, range beyond range of mountains appeared, the
last and highest of which was probably Mount Tmolus.
We also conjectured that the easternmost peaks were
the summits of the Mysian Olympus, on which we had
been standing only a few weeks before. The view is
(s.v. Ida), the height is wrongly stated as being 4650 English feet,
the mistake having probably arisen from copying the numbers in Kiepert's
map.
1
VOL. I.
C
18
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
divided into two parts by the long dorsal ridge of Ida,
thickly clothed with the pine forests from which it derives
its name (idŋ, wood), and reaching from far away in the
east to where it sinks into the sea at Cape Lectum,
the point at which, according to Homer's description,12
Hera landed in the company of the God of Sleep, when
about to meet Zeus on Gargarus, and from whence she
ascended over the heights, leaving her companion to keep
watch on one of the lofty pines. Turning to the north,
we looked over the plains we had crossed, and the hilly
district which stretches towards the Propontis; then the
Hellespont came in view, the Plains of Troy, and the
Hill of Sigeum, Tenedos with its white town, the Thra-
cian Chersonese, and the broken outline of Imbros,
beyond which, in the dim distance, as we stood ourselves.
on the watch-tower of Zeus, from whence he used to
survey the combats of Greeks and Trojans, we descried
far away the lofty peak of Samothrace, the station of
Poseidon.
The flowers on and about the summit were numerous
and varied, considering the stony character of the soil.
Among those that I found were dianthus neglectus, gypso-
phila cretica, pterocephalus plumosus, genista tinctoria,
viola calcarata, scabiosa holocerisia, centaurea aurea,
thymus angustifolius, allium carinatum. As the floras of
high mountains are interesting for purposes of com-
parison, I will here mention those that I found shortly
before this on the Mysian Olympus: saxifraga porophylla,
dianthus leucophæus, vesicaria utriculata, galium purpu-
reum, scilla bifolia, pedicularis comosa, leucanthemum
cebennense, alysum compactum, myosotis alpestris, erigeron
alpinus, arenaria grandiflora, anthyllis montana, ranun-
culus montanus, androsace villosa.
12 Il. xiv. 284.
CHAP. I.
Turcoman Encampment.
19
The cold was very great while we were on the summit,
from the keenness of the east wind; and accordingly,
after staying there more than an hour, we were glad to
return to our bivouac, from whence we descended with
our horses by a steeper route than that which we had
followed on the previous day, to a small open plateau on
the mountain-side. In this were pitched the tents of a
tribe of Turcomans, the most important we had yet met
with, who were encamped here during the summer
months. These tents were circular in form, and rounded
towards the top, where there was an aperture; they were
composed of light trellis-work covered with felt, and
seemed comfortably furnished inside with carpets and
cushions. Though unlike any that I had ever seen
before, they correspond in all their features to the de-
scription of the tents of the Calmuck Tartars. Their
occupants had rather broad faces, high cheek-bones, black
eyes, and swarthy complexions. The women were not
veiled, and wore coins strung in their hair. One of them
was occupied in making butter by the somewhat labo-
rious process of rolling backwards and forwards on the
ground a goatskin in which the cream was contained;
others were baking flat cakes on metal plates over a fire.
They seemed pleased to see us, and brought us some
coffee and a bowl of milk. The children were disporting
themselves, in true English fashion, in swings attached to
branches of the trees, showing the primeval character of
that pastime. If for no other reason, these tribes are
interesting as enabling us to realise what the Ottomans
were before Othman's time; for that people differed in
no respect from the surrounding tribes, except in having
a strongly marked character and settled purpose, which
ultimately raised them to be one of the greatest nations
that the world has seen. The monogram of the Sultan
C 2
20
CHAP. I.
Mount Ida.
T
is to this day an evidence of this early stage in their his-
tory; for, though now an elaborate specimen of calli-
graphy, it represents the old sign-manual, which was
made by dipping the palm in ink and leaving its print on
the paper. Few things in history are more striking than
to watch a family or tribe, like the Hellenes in ancient
Greece, the Ottomans, and many others, eliminating
themselves in this manner by a process of natural selec-
tion, and rising above their neighbours.
Leaving our horses to follow us, we scrambled down a
steep hill-side from the plateau into a gorge below, on
the opposite side of which a pretty waterfall shot over the
face of the rock. We clambered up a cliff by the side of
this, and reached the entrance of a cavern, on descending
into which we again came upon the stream, as it was
hurrying along in the darkness to the point where it
issued forth and formed the cascade. Again our guide's
yataghan was called into requisition, and when a pine-
torch had been made and lighted, we bared our feet and
legs and waded up the stream, which was icy cold and
deliciously refreshing after the temperature of the outer
air, the heat of which had already become oppressive.
After we had proceeded in this way for several hundred
feet, the cavern opened out into a spacious hall, the sides
of which rose gradually to a groove at the top, as in the
"Ear of Dionysius," at Syracuse. At the farther end of
this the clear water burst forth from the bowels of the
earth. This was the source of the Scamander—a striking
-origin for any stream, from the grandeur of the cave and
the copiousness of the water, which is almost a river at
its birth, but from its mysterious seclusion especially
suited to be the fountain-head of one of the great Homeric
rivers. Its existence is just noticed by Strabo ;¹³ the
13 xiii. I. § 43.
13
CHAP. I.
Source of the Scamander.
21
inhabitants of the neighbourhood call it Buyuk Magara,
i. e., the Great Cavern. Before we returned to daylight
our Turk fired off one of his pistols, and the effect of this
was remarkable; for when the brawling of the stream
was silenced by the reverberations, it seemed as if the
water had suddenly ceased to flow.
From this point we descended to Evjilar, and from
thence made our way the same evening through the plain
to Beyramitch, where we were once more received by
Achmet Bey. On our return journey to the Plains of
Troy we diverged from our former route at Enaeh, in
order to visit the fine Roman remains of Alexandria
Troas; these, however, have been described sufficiently
often to render it unnecessary for me to notice them. It
is owing to the British ambassador that they are still in
existence; for, had it not been for his remonstrances, the
Turkish authorities would have blown them up, and car-
ried away the stones as materials for building the arsenal
at Constantinople. About half-way between Enaeh and
this place is a hill called Chigri, which deserves more
notice than it has hitherto attracted. It is a long and
lofty mass of granite, on which are fine remains of a
Greek city, with Hellenic walls built in parallel courses
of masonry, of which in some places as many as four-
teen remain; but it has not been satisfactorily identified
with any ancient site. By the middle of the next day
we had returned to Bunarbashi, at the head of the plain
of Troy.
( 22 )
CHAPTER II.
THE CITY AND PLAIN OF TROY.
The Springs at Bunarbashi - Mode of treating the Subject - Accuracy of
Homeric epithets and descriptions - Topography of the Iliad-The
Springs near Troy - Correspondence with those at Bunarbashi — The
Bali-dagh - Its Tumuli -- View from it-Floods of the Mendere
Site of Troy-The Ileian Plain — Excavations on the Bali-dagh -
Batieia Atchi-keui- The Hanai-Tepe-Ilium Novum - Return to
the Dardanelles.
JUST before reaching the village of Bunarbashi, we once
more passed the springs from which its name, "the Head
of the Waters," is derived. The springs themselves are
called Kirke Gheuz, or "the Forty Eyes." As these
have been the most important point in Homeric topo-
graphy, ever since their discovery by Lechevalier towards
the end of the last century, and as the question of the
site of the city of Troy depends in no slight degree
upon them, I propose that we should examine them
with some care, and make them a starting-point from
which to notice the principal objects and features of the
country that seem to correspond to those which Homer
describes. The plain of Troy has been a battle-field,
not only of heroes, but of scholars and geographers, and
the works which have been written on the subject form a
literature to themselves. In this discussion, and the
investigation of minute details which it involves, I do
not wish to entangle my readers, but will confine myself
for the present to some of the most general conclusions,
referring those who are interested in the question to the
CHAP. II. The City and Plain of Troy.
23
Appendix at the end of Volume II.¹ But, before entering
on the subject at all, it is necessary to premise a few

DARDANELLES
KUM KALEH
SIQUUM FROM
YEN I SHEH R.
ÆGEAN
SEA
BESIKA
BAY
RHÆTEUM PROM
PLAIN
MENDERE
R
●KUM-KEUI
KALIFATLI
HISSARL
● HALIL 'ELI
"DUMBREK R.
CHIBLAK
OLD CHANNEL
E
شکست
ATCHI KEUI"
„BUNARBASHI R.
TR
BUNARBASHÍ
KIMAR R.
BALIDAGH
PLAIN OF TROY
The Plain of Troy.
remarks on the way in which the Homeric topography
ought to be treated.
In the first place, it is well to remember that the state-
¹ See Appendix A, On the Topography of Troy.
24
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
ments of an ancient epic poet ought not to be criticised,
as they have been by some writers, in the spirit of a land-
surveyor. To take the numbers which the poet gives,
and the distances which he describes, as a basis for exact
calculation, is to disregard the poetic element in the
narrative, and to treat verse as if it were prose. Numbers
must be mentioned in the poem, and distances must,
here and there, be either stated or implied, for otherwise
the action would lack reality; but these are not to be
regarded as literal statements of fact. All that we can
expect is, that what is introduced should be in accord-
ance with the general conception, and that the probabili-
ties of the case should not be rudely violated; though
even here considerable allowance must be made for
poetic licence: as where Helen on the walls of Troy
distinguishes and describes to Priam and his councillors
the Greek chieftains who are marshalling their forces
far off on the plain. In like manner we must not be
surprised if some of the features of the ground are
ignored, when it suits the convenience of the poet; as,
for instance, the rivers, which are sometimes mentioned
and sometimes omitted in connexion with the movement
of the armies, as they pursue one another up and down
the plain. And, generally, the limits of what is possible
are overstepped, and absolute consistency is disregarded
both in respect of time and place. Thus the fortification
with which the Greeks protect their ships—a massive
structure, provided with gates and towers-is erected in
one day; and this is not merely vaguely stated, but
we are told that they rose at early dawn to commence it
and finished it at nightfall. Similarly as regards dis-
tance: though the space between the city and the Greek
encampment is so great that until a late period of the
war the ships are left without any defence, and that
CHAP. II.
Mode of treating the Subject.
25
when it is necessary for the Trojans to reconnoitre the
movements of the Greeks a spy has to be sent to a
point at a considerable distance from the city, yet the
two places are frequently treated as if they were near
one another, as when Hector, in his night bivouac in
front of the Greek lines, sends to the city for oxen and
sheep to provide a meal for his army, and when the two
hosts march from end to end of the plain several times
in the same day.
2
Further than this-in attempting to determine the
topography, the question that presents itself to us is not
so much what was the actual site of the city, or what
the actual features of the ground, but how were they
conceived in the mind of the poet, and what were the
objects that suggested these conceptions to him. And
though this distinction in many cases will not involve
a difference, yet in some it will prove to be of import-
ance, where the realities have been adapted or idealised
for the sake of poetic treatment. In this way, too,
though we may not doubt the historical character of the
Trojan war, yet we keep ourselves clear of the discussion
of that question.
It might, indeed, seem an easier course to go a step
further, and suppose the topography to be wholly
imaginary, and to have existed only in the mind of the
poet, especially as there is more than one place that
claims to be the site of the city; but this we are for-
This is in the evening which succeeds the combats described in
Book VIII. The same night Hector is said to be encamped near the
monument of Ilus (x. 415), which is in the middle of the plain (xi. 166, 7).
He is there spoken of as being near the ships (ix. 76), and at the same
time in front of Troy (viii. 560). In conceiving the scene, we feel that the
whole thing is foreshortened. Elsewhere the ships are said to be “far
from the city" (v. 791, xviii. 256), and it is possible to "wander” from one
to the other (xviii. 286).
26
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
3
bidden to do by the contents of the poem itself. The
geographical descriptions which the 'Iliad' contains are
singularly exact and graphic-far more so than those of
later Greek poets. Homer's local epithets are, with
rare exceptions, remarkably appropriate: nothing can
better describe the thin cascade of the Styx in Arcadia
than the epithet "down-dropping" (Kaтeißóμevov) which
he applies to it;³ nor could the features of the Thessalian
Olympus be better characterised than as "long," "many-
crested," and "very snowy." And though the descrip-
tions of the position of towns, such as "craggy," "lofty,"
"spacious," "abounding in vineyards," "exposed to
tempests," are somewhat general in their meaning, yet, if
they had been distributed at random as ornamental
decorations, and not derived from a knowledge of the
localities themselves, it would be strange if they were
not frequently attached to the wrong places, instead
of being as strikingly applicable as they are found to be
at the present day. We should not then find Sparta
so exactly described as being situated in a deep vale full
3 In saying this I venture to differ from my friend Mr. Clark, who in his
'Peloponnesus' (pp. 304-310) endeavours to show that Homer was not
acquainted with the Arcadian waterfall. The passage in Hesiod, which
describes the Styx as-
πολυώνυμον ὕδωρ
ψυχρὸν, ὅ τ᾽ ἐκ πέτρης καταλείβεται ηλιβάτοιο
výnλñs (Theog. 785)—
explains more fully what Homer meant by Kareißóμevov : indeed, Mr. Clark
himself says that "the Homeric ideal is that of a great river falling down
in a sheer cataract to the underworld, and there running with a mighty
stream to infinite distance." Now, considering that the waterfall of the
Styx in Arcadia is almost the only cascade in Greece, and is of great
height, and in a remarkably precipitous position, it is hard to believe that
the coincidence between this and the Homeric description is merely acci-
dental. No doubt the Styx was conceived of as a river of the nether world,
but that does not prevent the idea of it from having been derived from a
stream flowing in daylight, and being permanently associated with it.
}
CHAP. II.
Homeric Epithets.
27
of rifts and fissures, nor Epidaurus as being suited for
the growth of vines, nor Tiryns, the ruins of which
are the most massive in all Greece, as "well walled." 4
Again, to come nearer to the district of Troy, we find
the features of the neighbouring region described with
equal accuracy; the islands of Tenedos, Lemnos, and
Imbros, in their respective positions; the peak of lofty
Samothrace appearing over the intervening mass of the
last-named island, and thus, as the author of 'Eothen'
has so well described it, enabling Poseidon to look down
from its summit on the plain of Troy; the Hellespont,
with its rapid current, and the opposite coast of Thrace;
and to the south the promontory of Lectum, which
terminates the chain of Ida towards the Ægean, and
Gargarus, the highest point in all the surrounding
country, which is chosen as the fitting seat of the king
of gods and men. When we find the geographical
accuracy of the poet extending thus far, we cannot but
feel that there is an antecedent probability in favour
of its being found also in the locality which is the scene
of the action, and this is confirmed by the fact that,
though the plan of the topography of the poem is
simple, yet the position of the sites and objects which it
contains are definitely conceived. Indeed, on this point
all those who have lately explored the plain, and among
them several very able scholars, are agreed. Nor does
this question seem to be materially affected by the
independent question of the unity or plurality of author-
ship of the poem. Some of those who have worked out
the details of the topography most carefully are advo-
cates of a plurality of authors; and the latest explorer
in the field, von Hahn, while he believes in the mythical
4 κοίλην Λακεδαίμονα κητώεσσαν, ἀμπελόεντ' Επίδαυρον, Τίρυνθα τει-
χιόεσσαν.
28
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
origin of the story of Troy, is so firmly convinced of the
accuracy of the description of the localities, that he
considers it probable that "the form in which the 'Iliad,
has come down to us in its essential features is derived
from the Troad itself."5
6
8
The topography of the 'Iliad' is somewhat of the
following character. A plain of considerable extent,
large enough for the movement of vast armies, extends
between the city of Troy and the Hellespont, where
there is a long line of beach inclosed between two pro-
montories. The city is situated on a hill, behind which,
at no great distance off, is another plain, called the
Ileian or Idæan, close to the valleys of Mount Ida:"
the citadel or Pergamus is in a lofty position, while the
lower part of the city reaches almost to the plain, where
is the principal gate, called the Scaan, and in its
neighbourhood two remarkable sources of water. In
the plain in front of the city flow two rivers, the Sca-
mander and Simois, running nearly parallel to one
another, it would seem, for some distance, as one of the
principal conflicts is described as taking place between
them, and then joining their waters,¹º and flowing in a
united stream to the Hellespont. In the same part
of the plain rises a conspicuous hillock, called Batieia, or
"Bramble-hill," and a good way off, though in what
exact direction we are not told, a tumulus, named after
an old hero Æsyetes, stands in a commanding position,
and serves as a point from which to reconnoitre the
movements of the Greeks.12 In addition to this, there is
a high hill, called Callicolone or "The Beautiful Mound,"
in the neighbourhood of the Simois,"13 and other objects,
9
5 'Die Ausgrabungen auf der Homerischen Pergamos,' p. 36.
6 Il. xiv. 33-6.
10 v. 774-
7 xxi. 556-561.
11 ii. 811.
8 xxii. 147.
12 ii. 791-4.
13
9 vi. 2, 3.
xx. 53.
CHAP. II.
Topography of the Iliad.
29
such as the monument of Ilus, which are used as land-
marks in the descriptions, but on which little stress can
be laid. Any position, however, which is to claim to
be the site of Homer's Troy, ought to correspond
sufficiently well to the general description given above to
account for the conceptions in the mind of the poet,
allowance of course being made for such changes as
may have passed over the country in the lapse of
centuries.
To return now to the springs at Bunarbashi. Pro-
ceeding westwards from the village, you soon arrive at
the two first of these, which are situated in the rocky
ground at the edge of the plain, about sixty feet from
one another, with a gnarled willow-tree growing between
them. They are both about five feet square, and are
encased on three sides by marble slabs, on which the
Greek women of Bunarbashi wash their clothes; beneath
these the water gushes out from numerous sources. The
streams thus formed join one another a little way below,
and are shortly afterwards met by a rivulet flowing from
the mountains, by the side of which another limpid
spring issues from the rocks. From this group of foun-
tains the little river continues its course towards the
west in several channels, through a natural garden of its
own making, receiving occasional contributions from
other springs, until, after running somewhat less than
half a mile, it is joined by a more copious stream, which
rises hard by in a broad shallow basin, large enough
almost to be called a small pond. This basin is enclosed
by masonry, which is thought to be of great antiquity.
All the environs of these sources and rivulets are of the
most charming description, from the freshness of the
grass, so rare a sight during the summer in these parched
countries, and the abundant foliage by which they are
30
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
shaded. Besides the willows and other more imposing
trees, there is a plentiful undergrowth of bright green
fig-bushes, of agnus castus, with its lilac flowers, and of
palluria, with its flat, circular, pale-yellow pods, which
hang from the branches like so many coins.
Now, let us take Homer's description of the springs in
the neighbourhood of Troy. It occurs in the story of the
pursuit of Hector by Achilles in front of the city-walls,
and is thus translated by Lord Derby:
"They by the watch-tower, and beneath the wall
Where stood the wind-beat fig-tree, rac'd amain
Along the public road, until they reach'd
The fairly-flowing fount whence issued forth
From double source, Scamander's eddying streams.
One with hot current flows, and from beneath,
As from a furnace, clouds of steam arise;
'Mid summer's heat the other rises cold
As hail, or snow, or water crystallized;
Beside the fountain stood the washing-troughs
Of well-wrought stone, where erst the wives of Troy
And daughters fair their choicest garments wash'd
In peaceful times, ere came the sons of Greece." 14
In reading this passage, the first point that strikes us
is that the description is definitely drawn, and is intended
in the main to represent a really existing place. Next,
the question suggests itself, in what sense are these
fountains spoken of as streams of the Scamander? They
cannot be the sources of that river, for these, as we have
seen, are far away in Mount Ida-if, that is to say, the
14 Il. xxii. 145-156. The following are the most important lines :—
κρουνὼ δ᾽ ἵκανον καλλιῤῥόω, ἔνθα δὲ πηγαὶ
δοιαὶ ἀναΐσσουσι Σκαμάνδρου δινήεντος.
ἡ μὲν γάρ θ᾽ ὕδατι λιαρῷ ῥέει, ἀμφὶ δὲ καπνὸς
γίγνεται ἐξ αὐτῆς, ὡσεὶ πυρὸς αἰθομένοιο·
ἡ δ᾽ ἑτέρη θέρεϊ προρέει εἰκυῖα χαλάζῃ,
ἢ χιόνι ψυχρῇ, ἢ ἐξ ὕδατος κρυστάλλῳ,
CHAP. II.
The Springs near Troy.
31
Mendere corresponds to the Scamander; and of this
there can be little doubt, as it is so pre-eminently the
river of the plain, from its size and body of water:
the epithets, too, which are applied to the Scamander—
"great," "deep flowing," "with deep eddies"—and the
actions attributed to it, such as bearing along crowds of
drowning men and horses,15 only suit its stream; and the
appellation of Xanthus, or "yellow," which belonged to
Homer's river, implies a current at times swollen and
turbid, and not a quiet stream, with a short course, and
derived almost entirely from springs.16 Probably the two
best explanations of the difficulty are those which were
given in ancient times.17 According to one of these, the
fountains are called sources of the Scamander, as being
the head-waters of a tributary of that river; and instances
are not wanting to show that the intermediate course of
a stream is sometimes ignored in this way at the fountain-
head. According to the other, they are so called because,
in accordance with an idea common amongst the Greeks
concerning rivers, part of the waters of the Scamander
were supposed to pass underground and reappear at this
point. The latter interpretation is given very clearly by
Cowper, who translates the passage thus :-
"And now they reach'd the running rivulets clear,
Where from Scamander's dizzy flood arise
Two fountains." 18
Let us see now whether any correspondence can be
traced between the springs described above and those
15 μέγας, βαθύρροος, βαθυδίνης.-Ι. xxi. 10-16.
16 Lechevalier's idea, that the Bunarbashi river is the Scamander, and
the Mendere the Simois, is now pretty generally given up.
17 Strabo, xiii. 1. § 43.
18 The Scholiast on this passage says: ὁ γὰρ Σκάμανδρος ὑπόγειος γενό-
μενος ἐν Ἰλίῳ δύο ἀναδίδωσι πηγὰς, ἀφ᾽ ὧν οἱ κρουνοί.
32
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
which Homer mentions. The poet speaks of two foun-
tains, one of which is cold in summer, while the other is
warm in winter (for this seems to be implied by the anti-
thesis), and is covered with smoke. In the literal sense
of the words this certainly is not the case with the
sources at Bunarbashi; but yet, on further examination,
it may perhaps be shown that there is that in their
appearance which would suggest to the poet the idea he
has thus expressed. Though the springs are not two
only, but many, yet they would naturally be conceived
of as forming two groups, since one of the two rivulets is
derived from those nearest to the village, while the other
is drawn from the large shallow reservoir. Again, as
regards the temperature, there does not appear to be any
real difference between them, as most of them measure
about 64° Fahrenheit; the variations which some tra-
vellers have observed are probably to be accounted for
by their not having placed the thermometer close to the
point from which the water issues, since everywhere else
it is very soon affected by the heat of the atmosphere.
But the smaller sources, from not being so much exposed
to the heat of the sun, are naturally colder in summer
than what is contained in the wide basin: in winter, on
the other hand, as all the springs are deep-seated, and
consequently of the same temperature all the year round,
they must be warmer than the atmosphere, and must
emit vapour in cold weather-an effect which would be
far more visible over a considerable pool than over a
number of small and scattered fountains. On this point
I made inquiries from my Greek host, at Bunarbashi,
George Menzous, and he assured me that he had often
seen the sources smoking in winter. The popular ima-
gination would naturally lay hold of these two pecu-
liarities—the one spring or group of springs being cool in
CHAP. II.
Temperature of the Springs.
33
summer, the other smoking in winter; and the poet,
finding the tradition of a hot and cold spring existing on
the spot, and admirably suited for poetic treatment,
would make use of it for his own purposes, without
caring whether it was literally true. It should also be
observed, if we take the latter of the two explanations
given above of the Homeric fountains being sources of
the Scamander, how well adapted this position is to
foster the idea that part of that river reappeared here
after running underground, since the Mendere flows
directly on the opposite side of the intervening hill to the
south, and from thence makes a sudden bend before it
emerges into the plain.
The spectacle here presented to us of two streams
rising so near one another at separate points, and then
by their combined waters at once forming a river, is one
that would anywhere attract the attention of the geo-
grapher, and still more that of the poet; but especially
is this the case in a country like Turkey, where water
is so valuable and copious perennial streams so rare.
There are not, indeed, many such in the whole of the
Levant. Hence it is with good reason that this feature
has been taken as a strong argument in favour of placing
the city of Troy on the neighbouring heights behind
Bunarbashi. There is no other position in the neighbour-
hood of the plain which possesses a source of water that
can in any way correspond to those which Homer
describes. Of course it is possible that these fountains
may have disappeared, as some fountains are said to
have disappeared in classical times; but, as a matter of
fact, almost all the famous sources of antiquity—Castalia,
Arethusa, Callirrhoe, Aganippe, and others—have come
down to us, some of which are insignificant in size when
compared with those we are speaking of. And when we
VOL. I.
D
34
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
do find in a position otherwise suitable a remarkable
natural object of this kind, corresponding fairly to the
ancient description, we shall not be far wrong in con-
cluding that they may be identified.
+
Let us now mount the hill behind Bunarbashi, or Bali-
dagh, as it is called, and see whether it is an appropriate
place for the site of ancient Troy. A gradual ascent of
about a mile and a half from the village, towards the
south-east, brings you to three tumuli, which stand near
together at the commencement of a level ridge of some
width: the first of these is conspicuous from below, and
forms an excellent landmark to point out the direction
to the summit. On the way two slight depressions have
to be crossed, one of which is a sort of gully; the hard
limestone is half covered with a thin sprinkling of soil,
but the dwarf oaks and undergrowth are plentiful, and
serve as cover for game. We put up a hare and a large
covey of red-legged partridges, as we passed through
them, and several eagles were soaring above, probably on
the look-out for such prey. The first tumulus is com-
posed of small stones, and has a few shrubs growing
about it; on the side where the ascent was longest, it
measured twenty paces from top to bottom. This mound
has been sometimes called the tomb of Hector, but with-
out good reason; for if this was the site of Troy, the
buildings must have extended much further towards the
plain, and Homer relates that Hector was buried without
the walls.19 The second and largest tumulus was opened
some years ago by Mr. Frank Calvert, the Consul's
brother, who carried a shaft into the centre of it, whence
the interior lies exposed to view. The mound itself is
formed of a mixture of earth and stones, but in the centre
19 Il. xxiv. 783, foll.
CHAP. II.
Bali-dagh.
35
there is a structure, square in form, and measuring about
14 feet by 12, which rises from the rock which forms its
base to the top of the mound. This is composed of
large irregular stones, roughly hewn on the outward face
alone, and put together without cement, the space in the
interior being filled in with small loose stones. Its
appearance is certainly not that of a place of burial, and
it has been conjectured that it may have been the base
of a public monument, or the foundation of an altar or
shrine.20 The third, which is smaller than the other two,
and flat at the top, has more the appearance of a heaped
mound of earth. In the neighbourhood of each of these
tumuli is a pit, from which, perhaps, the materials may
have been taken of which they were made.
The view towards the north from the so-called tomb of
Hector is very extensive and striking, and the country is
better seen from this point than from any other, because
from the summit of the Bali-dagh the sources at Bunar-
bashi and the nearer part of the plain are excluded by
this shoulder of the ridge. The character of the scenery
is in marked contrast with that of Greece, in which
sharply-cut mountain outlines and deep valleys or dry
light-soiled plains prevail: here the low hills, which
enclose the level ground, are rounded in form, and the
patches and stripes of green, which remain in places even
during the summer months, give evidence of an unusually
abundant supply of water. The distant view comprises
the European shore of the Hellespont, Imbros with the
peak of Samothrace appearing over its broken summits,
Tenedos lying close to the coast, and Lemnos forming a
long line on the horizon, just over the east end of which
20 See Mr. F. Calvert's account of the excavation in the Archæo-
logical Journal' for 1864, pp. 49, 50.
D 2
36
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
the conical shape of Athos is dimly seen. The plain of
Troy is displayed in its whole length of seven miles,21
from the Dardanelles to the village of Bunarbashi, and
about halfway between these points a ridge, which pro-
jects into it from the eastern side, forms a conspicuous
object. But what most attracts the eye are the two
rivers the Mendere, in the middle of the plain, tracked
through all its numerous serpentine windings by the
willow-trees on its banks, until it trends across and flows
close under the heights of Yenishehr into the Hellespont;
and the Bunarbashi river, which is marked at first by the
plantation at its source, and afterwards by the green
marshes which fringe its sides, as it skirts the foot of the
hills to the west, until it is carried off by the canal
already mentioned into the blue Ægean.
From the three tumuli we pursued our way along the
ridge towards the south, and in no long time came to an
artificial mound, which runs across it, with some indica-
tions of a wall having surmounted it. A little further on
we found a raised circle formed of small stones, sixty-
five paces round inside, resembling in some respects the
threshing-floors of the country; it is impossible, however,
that it could have been intended for that object, being
at so great a height above the plain, and it is difficult to
conjecture what purpose it could have served. Beyond
this again the ridge contracts to a narrow neck, from
which a short, but steep, ascent leads up to the summit.
Here there was a level area of a few acres in extent,
running from west to east, which evidently had been
once an acropolis, for we found traces of ancient walls in
numerous places both along the edges of the cliffs and
21 This and the other measurements I have given are taken from
Dr. Forchhammer's map of the Troad, enlarged from that which he made
in connexion with the English Admiralty survey.
CHAP. II.
Character of the Scenery.
37
across the angular projections of the ground, where it
appeared that there had been towers. Below this level,
on the northern side, close to the entrance, was an exca-
vation, resembling the pits already noticed, only much
larger. The Mendere flows round the base of this hill on
three sides, at a depth of 400 feet below, and the descent
to it is steep everywhere, but especially so towards the
south, where the rocks are almost precipitous. In the
sides of these rocks there are caves, the abode of numerous
wild bees, and from the honey produced by these the
entire hill has obtained the name of Bali-dagh, or "Honey
Mount." The view in this direction, though in every
respect different from that on the other side, is hardly
inferior to it. The wild mountain masses rise close at
hand on the further bank of the river, and the valleys,
which descend from them, shape themselves with strange
regularity into a succession of graceful curves, resembling
the form of a theatre. In the neighbourhood of the
stream, and closely backed by the mountains, lies the little
plain which we crossed when first setting out for Mount
Ida. The highest peak of that chain is excluded from
view, but one of the lower summits rises finely in the
distance, appearing at the end of the gorge, through
which the Mendere passes on its way from Enaeh. All
the features of the scene are bold, and spacious, and
massive.
The Mendere, which is now a clear and quiet stream,
covering only a small part of its wide sandy bed, is said
to present a very different aspect in winter, when the
floods come down from the mountains.. Owing to the
narrowness of the passage, through which it has to make
its way at the foot of the acropolis, it then rushes
through with a mighty current, and rises sometimes to
the height of thirty or forty feet above its natural level.
38
CHAP. II..
The City and Plain of Troy.
At such times, when the rain falls for several days
together on the higher ranges of Ida, the inland plain of
Beyramitch is soon converted into a lake, as the valley
which forms the passage from that to the lower plain is
too confined to admit of the water being carried off with
sufficient rapidity. Afterwards, when the clouds descend
on to the lower mountains, the plain of Troy is also
inundated; for the Mendere, dashing through the gorge
beneath the Bali-dagh, and being shortly afterwards
joined by the Kimar, which drains a considerable valley
towards the east, at once overflows its banks and covers.
the level land; while the numerous springs and water-
courses in the neighbourhood of the plain contribute an
additional supply; and, last of all, the Bunarbashi river,
emerging from its channel at the point where the canal.
commences by which it is carried off to the west, resumes.
its ancient course and once more joins the Mendere.
Again, when at the time of these inundations strong
south-west winds prevail and obstruct the current of the
Hellespont at its mouth, the lower part of the plain is
still further flooded by the combined action of the sea
and the rivers.22 It is such a scene as this which must
have suggested the magnificent description of the
combat between Achilles and the Scamander, in the 21st
Book of the 'Iliad,' when the river-god rises in defence
of his favoured city, and forces the hero from his stream,
and pursues him with a mighty wave over the plain,
calling to his brother Simois to hasten to his aid, until
the whole region is inundated by their waters. The
narrow valley which intervenes between the two plains
was fabled to have been cleft asunder by the hand of
Hercules, to whom great natural changes were usually
ascribed; and the story was embodied in a quaint.
22 Forchhammer, 'Beschreibung der Ebene von Troia,' pp. 17-19.
CHAP. II.
The Mendere.
39
etymology of the name Scamander, as if it was "the
hero's dyke" (σкáµµа ȧvôρós).23
No one who stands on the summit of the Bali-dagh
can fail to be impressed with the magnificence of the
position, and its suitableness for the site of a great
ancient city. You feel at once that it commands the
plain. Indeed, a person accustomed to observe the
situation of Hellenic cities, would at once fix on this as
far more likely to have recommended itself to the old
inhabitants of the country than any other in the neigh-
bourhood. It combines all the requisites they were
accustomed to look for, "a height overlooking a fertile
maritime plain, situated at a sufficient distance from the
sea to be secure from the attacks of pirates, and fur-
nished with a copious and perennial supply of water,
presenting a very strong and healthy position for the
city; and for the citadel a hill beyond the reach of bow-
shot from the neighbouring heights, defended at the
back by steep rocks and precipices, surrounded by a
deep valley and broad torrent, and backed beyond the
river by mountains which supplied timber and fuel."24
And in addition to this, it fulfils in the most material
points the conditions which are required for the site of
Troy. The area on the summit, with its precipices,
represents the "lofty" "beetling "25 citadel; below this,
the northern slopes afford ample space for an extensive
city, reaching as far as Bunarbashi, where the Scean
gates would stand; the neighbouring fountains were
those that were believed to well up from the Scamander,
which flowed on the opposite side of the hill. The river
23 Eustathius on Il. xx. 74. The old commentator himself reports the
story as being that Hercules had opened the fountains of the Scamander.
24 Leake's 'Asia Minor,' pp. 279, 280.
25 αἰπεινὴ, ὀφρυόεσσα.
40
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
which is thus formed, and which skirts the western side
of the plain, is the Simois, which from its community of
origin with the Scamander is rightly called its brother;
while the greater stream, which runs parallel to it for
some distance and formerly received the tribute of its
waters, passes on towards the naval station of the Greeks
on the Hellespont. The tumulus of Æsyetes, the look-
out station of the Trojans, is recognised in the Ujek-tepe,
in the direction of Besika Bay, which commands so
extensive a prospect that an English traveller, when
wishing to take a panoramic view of the plain and its
environs, selected it as the best point of view;26 and
from its position in the neighbourhood of the Simois,
it is probable that it also bore the name of Callicolone.
The correspondence between the plain at the back
of the Bali-dagh and the Ileian plain of Homer is a
further confirmation of this view of the site of ancient
Troy. This place is introduced in connexion with the
fight of Achilles and Agenor before the walls of the
city. Before they engage, the Trojan hero, knowing
that he is overmatched, debates with himself whether he
should not escape from the battle-field, and, taking
another direction away from the walls, fly to the Ileian
plain, and so make his way to the valleys of Ida, and
conceal himself there in the brushwood; then, as evening
drew on, he might return to the city after refreshing
himself by a bathe in the river.27 The position we have
26 Dr. Acland, in his 'Panorama of the Plains of Troy.'
27 εἰ δ᾽ ἂν ἐγὼ τούτους μὲν ὑποκλονέεσθαι ἐάσω
Πηλείδῃ ᾿Αχιλῆϊ, ποσὶν δ᾽ ἀπὸ τείχεος ἄλλῃ
φεύγω πρὸς πεδίον Ιλήϊον, ὄφρ᾽ ἂν ἵκωμαι
Ιδης τε κνημούς, κατά τε ῥωπήϊα δύω·
ἑσπέριος δ᾽ ἂν ἔπειτα λοεσσάμενος ποταμοίο,
ἱδρῶ ἀποψυχθείς, ποτὶ Ἴλιον ἀπονεοίμην.—Il. xxi. 556-561.
Whether the name of the plain is 'Iλhïov or 'Idhïov, it cannot evidently
CHAP. II.
The Site of Troy.
41
selected for this spot corresponds singularly well to all
that is here implied. It is away from the battle-field,
and a safe place of refuge from lying on the other side
of the acropolis. It is on the way to Ida; for all these
heights at the back of the Bali-dagh-and, in fact, the
mountains generally in the neighbourhood of the plains
-are called by this name in Homer; as is shown by the
poet's speaking of all the rivers in the neighbourhood
of Troy as flowing from Ida, whereas only one of them
rises' in the upper part of the chain. Lastly, the river in
which Agenor proposes to have his bathe can be none
other than the Scamander, whose waters glide by in
tempting proximity.
This height, then, and the region over which the eye
ranges between it and the Dardanelles, we may regard
as the scene of those events which the earliest epic poet
has celebrated in undying verse. The level summit, on
which we stand, is the Pergamus, which contained the
palace of king Priam and the temples of the gods. The
precipices that overhang the river are those from which
it was proposed to cast the wooden horse.28 Between
the two rivers, in the plain below, the contending armies
were arranged against one another, and the battle
swayed furiously to and fro, and heroes engaged one
another in single combat. Halfway to the Hellespont,
where the Mendere crosses the plain, was the ford of the
Scamander, by which the combatants passed it, and
where Priam stopped to let his horses drink, when on his
way to beg the body of Hector from his fierce con-
be the plain of Troy which is intended. The latter reading is better suited
to the rest of the passage, but Heyne objected to it on metrical grounds,
because that word has not the digamma, which 'Ixhïov has. Notwithstanding
this, Voss, whose translation is almost as good as a commentary, approves
it; and Welcker adopts it unhesitatingly. ('Kleine Schriften,' ii. p. lxi.)
23 ἢ κατὰ πετράων βαλέειν ἐρύσαντας ἐπ᾽ ἄκρης.Od. viii. 508.
42
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
queror.29 Beyond, in the distance, on the level shore,
the ships of the Greeks were drawn up within their
entrenchments. It is a magnificent arena for a struggle
in which Europe and Asia were the contending parties;
too extensive, it may be, if measured by line and rule,
for some of the movements described in the poem, but in
no wise too spacious for the exploits of heroes of super-
human power, or for conflicts in which the gods them-
selves descended from Olympus to take part.
In the spring of 1864, subsequently to my last visit to
the Troad, the acropolis on the Bali-dagh was excavated
by Von Hahn, the Austrian Consul at Syra in the
Archipelago, an indefatigable explorer of the antiquities
of Turkey, whose name will frequently recur in these
volumes. The discoveries which he made, though they
cannot be said completely to have set at rest the
question of the site of Troy, have done a great deal
towards it, as they have proved that a city of high
antiquity must have occupied this position. Traces of
the outer walls were found throughout their whole
circuit, except on the southern side, where, it would
seem, the steepness of the ground was regarded as a
sufficient defence. The line of the foundations of the
northern wall was complete from end to end. But the
most important remains were those at the western
extremity of the area, on either side of the ascent, by
which the acropolis was entered. On the left-hand side
a sort of bastion was found, and in its neighbourhood a
gateway, in which the upper blocks on the two sides
approach one another, and must have been originally
covered by a horizontal lintel of stone. In these
features it resembles the gateways which have been
found in many of the ancient Greek cities. On the
29 II. xxiv. 350.
CHAP. II.
Excavations on the Bali-dagh.
43
other side, at the south-west angle of the place, the
oldest walls were brought to light. These were com-
posed of polygonal blocks, carefully fitted together,
which reminded Von Hahn of the architecture of Tiryns;
and from the appearance of them he was led to the con-
clusion that the place must have been fortified in pre-
Homeric times. But few works of art were found in
the course of the excavations—a terra-cotta figure, some
earthenware lamps, and a few other vessels, being almost
the only ones which were dug up perfect. The coins,
however, are of importance, as they furnish us with
data for determining the time when the city was probably
deserted. They are Greek coins, mostly of the neigh-
bouring towns, and belong to the second and third cen-
tury B.C.; but what is especially to be remarked is, that
no Roman or Byzantine coins were discovered among
them. From this we may gather with some confidence,
that since the second century B.C. the place has remained
uninhabited. What was the name of the Greek city
which replaced the more ancient one, and to which most
of the walls now remaining must have belonged, it is
not easy to determine. The name of Scamandria, which
was one of the Æolic townships of these parts, has been
suggested, on account of the close proximity of the
Scamander; but the evidence of the coins is against
this, for Scamandria is mentioned by Byzantine writers
as still existing in their times. Perhaps it may have
been Gergithus, which is stated by Livy to have been
handed over by the Romans to the people of New Ilium
in the year 188 B.C., after their conquest of Antiochus.30
30 Livy, xxxviii. 39. To this view Mr. F. Calvert inclines, in his essay
on the subject in the 'Archæological Journal' for 1864. The account of
the excavations on the Bali-dagh is given in Von Hahn's 'Ausgrabungen
auf der Homerischen Pergamos.'
44
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
When we left Bunarbashi, on our return journey, we
descended in an easterly direction towards the plain,
passing on our left hand a nearly isolated hill. This
eminence, which is now called Garlik, corresponds very
well in its position to the Homeric description of the hill
of Batieia, in front of which the Trojan army was
marshalled:-
"Before the city stands a lofty mound,
In the mid plain, by open space enclos'd;
Men call it Batiæa; but the gods
The tomb of swift Myrinna; muster'd there
The Trojans and allies their troops array'd."³
At the distance of somewhat less than half an hour from
the village we reached the Mendere, which is bounded at
the sides by steep banks, and extends about a hundred
feet in breadth, the whole of its bed being now covered
with a shallow stream. Even until the end of the
summer it usually contains some water, though on two
or three occasions during the last hundred years it is
reported by travellers to have been dried up. After
crossing it we proceeded to the farm of Atchi-keui,
which lies on the slope of the hills on the eastern side of
the plain, not far from the point where the Kimar joins
the Mendere. At the summit of the rocky knoll above
this place some persons have fancied that they discovered
layers of stones and the sockets of a gateway; but the
traces of these are very questionable. There is, how-
ever, little doubt that it was the site of the ancient
Village of the Ilians (Iéwv kóμm), and is therefore
interesting, because that locality was regarded by as
great an authority as Strabo in ancient times, and more
recently by Ulrichs, as the site of ancient Troy. Yet,
31 Hom. Il. ii. 811 seq. (Lord Derby's translation.)
CHAP. II.
Atchi-keui.
45
even if this view were not overthrown by many other
difficulties, such as the position of the city relatively
to the rivers of the plain, the insignificance of the site
would of itself render it highly improbable. There is,
in fact, hardly any place in the neighbourhood less
striking, and less likely to have attracted the original
settlers.
Rather more than half a mile from the foot of the
hills there lies an extensive marsh, which is green in
summer-time and in winter forms a lake, and is called
the Djudan. We had heard that within this two con-
siderable springs had been lately discovered, and that
this discovery had been connected with the claims of the
neighbouring site, on the ground that they might repre-
sent the Homeric fountains; so we determined to visit
them. When we arrived at the edge of the marsh, my
companion waded into it, and when he had penetrated
through the reeds for some distance, came upon a clear
basin of water, apparently fed by underground springs,
about twenty feet across. There is said to be another
source not far from it; but we must suppose the ground
to have altered considerably before we could conceive of
these as corresponding to what Homer describes.
Another object of far greater interest in the neighbour-
hood of Atchi-keui, and close to the stream of the Kimar,
is the Hanai Tepe. This is the largest of the many
tumuli in the surrounding district, and its size is so great
that Dr. Forchhammer, who accompanied the English
Admiralty survey of the plains, questioned the possibility
of its being an artificial mound. Shortly before my first
visit, in 1853, it was excavated by Mr. Frank Calvert, the
Consul's brother, who first sunk a perpendicular shaft
through the centre, and then carried a horizontal shaft to
meet it from the side. The investigation proved not only
46
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy..
that the tumulus was artificial, but also that it had risen
to its present height by strata superimposed on one
another at very different times. Just below the surface
were Turkish tombs, belonging to a village which for-
merly existed on the hill-side hard by. Underneath
these were found large Greek jar-tombs, resembling those
which are found elsewhere in the Troad, composed of a
coarse red clay, mixed with gravel, and laid in a hori-
zontal position. Within these were human skeletons,
placed on their backs, with raised knees. From the style
of the art shown in the vases and glass phials which were
arranged round the bones, their date must have been
about the fourth century B.C. Below this again was a
layer of a light whitish substance, which proved to be
calcined bones, about six feet thick; and intermixed with
the lower part of the stratum were rounded river pebbles,
bearing marks of violent heat. The ashes were perfectly
dry, and so light that the labourers employed in digging
through them were frequently unable to proceed from
coughing. Then came a layer of wood ashes, intermixed
with small pieces of charcoal and fragments of coarse
pottery; and between this and the solid rock, on which
the whole rested, was a stratum of earth, two feet thick,
containing the skeleton of a man extended at full length,
with a large unhewn stone at its head. The entire height
of the mound was fifteen feet. In opening the horizontal
shaft a wall of huge rough stones was disclosed, five feet
in thickness, and forming a circle ninety-five feet in
diameter, which served to enclose the ashes, and rose as
high as the top of that stratum. It is estimated to con-
tain as much as 27,000 cubic feet of calcined bones.32
This discovery was certainly a very remarkable one.
32 A full account of the excavation is given by Mr. Frank Calvert in the
'Archæological Journal' for 1859.
CHAP. II.
'The Hanai Tepe.
47
It proved that one, at all events, of the tumuli in the
Troad was constructed for purposes of sepulture. The
skeleton which was found at the bottom was evidently
deposited at an earlier date than the mass of ashes, as
the signs of the action of fire were altogether above it.
It may not improbably have belonged to some ancient
king or hero, and the fact of his bones reposing on the
spot may have caused it to be regarded with veneration,
and consequently to be chosen as a fitting place for a
national pyre on some important occasion. What that
occasion was, we have no means of ascertaining; but the
superincumbent jar-tombs show that it was earlier than
the fourth century, and no supposition is so natural as
that it was after some great battle fought at a remote
period. During the truce which succeeded the first en-
gagement in the 'Iliad,' we are told that the dead on
both sides were burned, and that the Greeks raised a
mound over the spot where their slain were consumed.
In the account of the burial of Patroclus we have a de-
scription of the way in which such a monument was con-
structed, and it corresponds very closely to what is found
in the Hanai Tepe :-
"Designing, next, the compass of the tomb,
They mark'd its boundary with stones, then fill'd
The wide enclosure hastily with earth,
And, having heap'd it to its height, return'd." 33
Or, in plainer prose, "they traced a round monument,
and laid foundations around the pyre, and forthwith
heaped earth on the top of it; and when they had heaped
up the mound they returned." It seems hardly im-
probable that this tumulus may have been erected by the
Trojans at the time of the war of Troy, and that some
33 Il. xxiii. 255-257. (Cowper's translation.)
48
CHAP. II.
The City and Plain of Troy.
tradition of the great battle after which it was raised may
have come down to the Homeric period.
Leaving Atchi-keui on the following morning, we rode
along the hills that bound the eastern side of the plain
to the village of Chiblak, where the ground begins to
descend towards the valley of the Dumbrek. This river
runs parallel to the Hellespont, from which it is separated
by the Rhotean ridge, and enters the Trojan plain shortly
before discharging its waters into the sea. At Chiblak
we saw squared blocks of stone and capitals of Greek
columns among the buildings, from which we gathered
that an ancient site was in the neighbourhood; and, after
proceeding about twenty minutes further towards the
north-west, we arrived at the ruins of Ilium Novum,
which the Turks call Hissarlik, or "the place of a castle.”
The situation is fine, as it commands the meeting of the
two plains of the Dumbrek and the Mendere; but the re-
mains of the ancient city are few, being principally com-
posed of lines of walls and pieces of mosaic pavement,
which have been excavated. At the extreme angle was
the acropolis, and close to this is the form of a theatre
excavated in the hill-side, the same which we had seen
from Yenishehr. This place in ancient times claimed to
be the site of old Troy, and its inhabitants regarded
themselves as the representatives of the Trojans. And
though we cannot allow their claim, especially on account
of their nearness to the sea-which formerly, when the
alluvium formed by the rivers did not extend as far as at
present, could hardly have been more than two miles off
—yet there is an interest attaching to the place where
Xerxes and Alexander offered sacrifices on the supposi-
tion that it was the ancient Pergamos, and which was
reverenced on the same ground by many successive
generations. In the view from this point the most con-
CHAP. II.
Return to the Dardanelles.
49
spicuous object is the Rhotean promontory, with the
tumulus on its side, which from very early times has
been regarded as the burial-place of Ajax. That posi-
tion was the one originally chosen by Constantine for
his great eastern city; so that it may be regarded almost
as an accident that Constantinople, instead of this place,
became the second capital of the Roman Empire.
From Hissarlik we descended to the Dumbrek valley,
and from thence returned to the town of the Darda-
nelles by a more inland route than that by which we had
come.
VOL. I.
E
( 50 )
CHAPTER III.
MOUNT ATHOS.
Departure for Mount Athos Thasos Cavalla The Holy Mountain
General Description - Vegetation, Scenery, and Climate - Rigorous
Fast-Monastery of Vatopedi - Its Opulence
Its Opulence-School of Eugenius
Bulgaris - Village of Caryes - Exclusion of Females-The Holy
Synod-Monastic Dispute-Phases of Monastic Life - Revenues
Numbers - Races-Pantocratoros A Russian Dignitary- The Sand--
bath.
ABOUT midday, on the 11th of August, we left the
Dardanelles by the Austrian steamer, intending to dis-
embark at the nearest point to the coasts of Mount
Athos, which was the next object of our investigation.
Shortly after sunset we were passing under the steep
cliffs of Imbros, and during the night we left behind
us the towering summit of Samothrace, the early seat of
Phoenician influence in the Ægean, and of strange
religious associations in the mysterious worship of the
Cabeiri. At daybreak we touched at the port of Lagos,
and during the morning were passing through the
channel between the mainland and the wooded heights
of Thasos. This island is described by Archilochus as
"an ass's backbone, covered with wild wood," and the
comparison is still appropriate, for, unlike most of the
islands of this sea, it is still thickly clothed with trees,
from which emerges the gaunt but picturesque line of
the dorsal ridge which intersects it. The same idea of
the resemblance between a bare range of limestone
mountains and the skeleton of an animal is embodied in
the name Oneium, or "the ass's back," which is given to
CHAP. III.
Cavalla.
51
the chain that runs down to the Isthmus of Corinth;
and the way in which these outlines are formed, especially
in small islands, by the falling away of the earth from
the rocks, is aptly described in a remarkable passage of
Plato's 'Critias'' by the similitude of the decay of a
corpse.¹
1
At II o'clock we reached Cavalla, where we left the
steamer. The position of this town is remarkably fine,
and in many respects resembles that of Cadiz, though
the ground is more elevated than in the latter place.
It occupies a triangle of land, which projects into the
sea with its apex towards the mainland, where it is
joined by an isthmus to the grand mountains that rise
behind. The Turkish walls by which it is surrounded,
together with the minarets, and the castle which crowns
the highest position, produce a striking effect; but the
object which attracts the eye more than anything else is
the lofty Roman aqueduct, that crosses the low ground
of the isthmus with its massive piers, which support two
tiers of arches; it is still used to convey water to the
city. Another mass of building which is conspicuous
from the sea on the western side, forming a long line
of walls and cupolas, is the great educational and charit-
able establishment founded and endowed by Mehemet
Ali of Egypt, who was a native of this place. This
institution was once productive of great benefit, but, like
most places of the kind when left to themselves, especially
in Turkey, it has been much abused, and is now of little
use. The great potentate always retained a warm regard
for his birth-place, though he never revisited it. Another
memorial of him is to be found in the numerous negroes
1 Plato, Critias, p. III. Β. λέλειπται δὴ, καθάπερ ἐν ταῖς μικραῖς νήσοις,
πρὸς τὰ τότε τὰ νῦν οἷον νοσήσαντος σώματος ὀστᾶ, περιεῤῥηκυίας τῆς
γῆς ὅση πίειρα καὶ μαλακή, του λεπτοῦ σώματος τῆς χώρας μόνου λειφθέντος.
E 2
52
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
who are to be met with in the streets of Cavalla,
having originally come over from Egypt in consequence
of the intercourse between the two places in his time.
A more important person whose history is associated
with this spot is St. Paul, of whom we read that, following
the same route which we had just taken, he went "from
Troas with a straight course to Samothrace, and the
next day to Neapolis," which was the name of the city
in ancient times. It was thus the first place where the
Apostle of the Gentiles set foot in Europe.
The Turks are numerous in this town, but they are
mostly poor, and their numbers are declining; a con-
siderable amount of the wealth is in the hands of the
Jews. The chief product is tobacco, which is extensively
grown in the neighbouring districts. As the part of the
mainland opposite Thasos was famed in ancient times
for gold mines, we enquired whether any minerals were
discovered at the present day; all, however, that we
could learn was that quartz is found all about Cavalla,
and that therefore it is likely enough that there is gold,
but that no traces of mines had been discovered. We
spent the day pleasantly at the house of our Vice-Consul,
Mr. Maling, and at nightfall embarked in a sailing-boat,
which we had engaged to take us across to Athos. After
tossing and tacking for a long time under the western
heights of Thasos, with plentiful experience of the light
and fickle winds of the Ægean, about noon the following
day we found ourselves approaching the monastery of
Vatopedi, which is now the largest and most important
of all the convents. Before we land, however, it may be
well to say a few words by way of introduction, and
then briefly sketch the general features of the Holy
Mountain.
The easternmost of the three peninsulas, which stretch
CHAP. III.
The Holy Mountain.
53
like a trident from the coast of Macedonia into the north
of the Ægean, notwithstanding its important position and
striking internal features, does not seem to have risen to
much importance before the Christian era. On one occa-
sion it comes prominently forward, when Xerxes, warned
by the destruction of the fleet of Mardonius on its rocky
coasts, cut the canal through the isthmus, the traces of

CANAL
XERXES:
پھر
M
LANDAR
ZOGRAPHU
CONSTAMUNI
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SPHÍCMENU
DOGHEIAREIU*
VATOPEDI
XENOPHU
RUBSICO
XEROPOTAMU
CARYES
CUTLUMUSI
SE A
PANTOCRATOROS
PANTO
STAVRÒNIGETA
IVERON ❖
PHLOTHEU
GARACALLA
GULF
OF
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SI DIONYSIUS
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GEOGRAPHICAL' MILES,” COM'S DEGREE
CAPE ST GEORGE
Plan of Mount Athos.
which, notwithstanding the soil which has accumulated in
the course of ages, are still distinctly visible. At a later
period the architect Dinocrates proposed to carve its huge
peak into a statue of Alexander. But the small towns
that fringed its shores never attained to opulence, and
are seldom mentioned in history. In Christian times,
however, this spot has gradually become the seat of a
54
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
community, which is probably without a parallel in the
world. At what period monks and anchorites first began
to resort to Mount Athos, it is difficult to determine.
Several of the monasteries possess relics and ancient
works of art, which are described as presents from the
Empress Pulcheria; some of them refer their foundation
to the time of Constantine; and, though we may hesitate
to accept these statements, and though a large number
of monks seem to have come over from Egypt, when
that country was overrun by the Mahometans, yet it is
highly probable that hermitages and retreats existed
there at a very early time. It is in consequence of this
antiquity of the monastic community, and the freedom
both from attacks and from external influences which
their isolated situation has secured to them, that Athos
possesses so many features of interest at the present day.
Nowhere in Europe, probably, can such a collection of
ancient jewellery and goldsmith's work be found as is
presented by the relics preserved in the different monas-
teries; nowhere certainly can the Byzantine school of
painting be studied with equal advantage; and some
of the illuminated MSS. are inestimable treasures of art.
The buildings of the monasteries are, with the sole excep-
tion of Pompeii, the most ancient existing specimens of
domestic architecture; and within their walls the life
of the Middle Ages is enacted before your eyes, with its
manners and customs, dress, and modes of thought and
belief, absolutely unchanged. And it is no slight addi-
tion to the pleasure of a visit, that, in passing from one
monastery to another, you are surrounded by scenery
certainly not surpassed, and hardly equalled, by any in
Europe.
This peninsula, which in ancient times was called Acte,
and now is known as Hagion Oros or Monte Santo, is
1
"CHAP. III.
Vegetation.
55
about forty miles in length, running from north-west to
south-east, and on an average about four miles broad.
At the isthmus, where are the remains of Xerxes' canal,
its breadth is about a mile and a half, and the ground is
comparatively level; but from this point it rises in undu-
lations until it forms a steep central ridge, which runs
like a backbone through the whole peninsula. Towards
the southern end it attains the elevation of about 4000
feet, and then, after a slight depression, suddenly throws
up a vast conical peak, 6400 feet high, the base of which
is washed on three sides by the sea. From the central
ridge, lateral valleys and deep gorges run down to the
coast; but the character of the ground on the two sides
of the peninsula is entirely different, the western side
being rugged and precipitous, while the eastern is com-
paratively soft and clothed with magnificent trees. The
vegetation of this part surpasses everything that I have
seen elsewhere: on the ridge itself and its steep decli-
vities are forests of beech and chestnut; below this oaks
and plane trees are found, together with the olive,
cypress, arbutus, catalpa, and a plentiful undergrowth of
heath and broom; in addition to which, as if the earth
could never tire of pouring forth her stores, numerous
creepers trail over the trees and hang in festoons from
the branches. The peak itself, to which the name of
Athos is now restricted, is, from its height and solitary
position, its conical form and delicate colour, a most im-
pressive mountain. It rises several thousand feet above
the region of firs in a steep mass of white marble, which,
from exposure to the atmosphere, assumes a faint tender
tint of grey, of the strange beauty of which some idea
may be formed by those who have seen the dolomite
peaks of the Tyrol. I have already described how its
pyramidal outline may be seen from the Plains of Troy
:
+
56
CHAP. IIF.
Mount Athos.
at sunset, when the faintness of the light allows it to
appear, towering up from the horizon, like a vast spirit
of the waters, when the rest of the peninsula is concealed
below. Nor is it a less conspicuous object from the
shores and slopes of Olympus, Ossa, and Pelion, on
the opposite side. From its isolated situation it is a
centre of attraction to the storms in the north of the
Ægean; in consequence of which the Greek sailors have
so great a dread of rounding it in the winter, that it
would be no unreasonable speculation for an enterprising
government to renew the work of Xerxes.
It may easily be conceived from this how exquisite
the scenery is. Such combinations of rock, wood, and
water, can hardly be seen elsewhere. The deep-blue
expanse of the Ægean forms a part of every view, and on
the horizon to the north and east appear the heights of
Mount Pangæus, and the magnificent outlines of the
islands of Thasos, Samothrace, Imbros, and Lemnos.
The slopes of the Holy Mountain itself are dotted with
farms and monastic buildings, about which lie bright
patches of cultivated land, which have been reclaimed by
the hands of the monks. Perhaps the most beautiful
ride is along the south-east coast of the peninsula; in
this part you are sometimes in the midst of brushwood
close to the sea, sometimes in shrubberies excluding the
sun, through which here and there you get peeps of
the Ægean far below; from these again you penetrate
inland, from time to time, into dells filled with planes
and chestnuts, and embowered with creepers-a wilder-
ness of leafy shade-places which Shelley would have
delighted in; from the openings in which the majestic
peak is frequently visible, its lower slopes melting into
purple haze, while its summit assumes that unearthly,
CHAP. III.
Climate.
57
ethereal, lilac-grey tinge, which I have before mentioned.
The positions of the monasteries are singularly pictu-
resque: a few are built in secluded positions on the
higher ridge, but the greater number of them are situated
on the seaboard, either at the mouths of gorges, or rising
from promontories of rock which project into the sea.
The principal exports are wood, charcoal, and nuts, of
which last article a large quantity is carried to Constan-
tinople. The climate is healthy and the air extremely
fine. The monasteries which lie under the western pre-
cipices are much exposed to the summer heat, and on
some of those higher up the mountain snow often lies in
winter for several days together; but on the whole the
temperature is equable, and epidemics are almost un-
known. It may have been owing to this that, in ancient
times, according to Lucian,2 the inhabitants of Athos
were celebrated for their longevity, being said to reach
130 years of age. In one or two of the larger monasteries
there are resident physicians; but many of the monks,
partly perhaps from being unaccustomed to medical
treatment, seem to take rather a fatalist view of diseases.
At one place where there were lepers, I asked whether
they came to Athos to be cured. "No, not to be cured,”
was the reply; "they get well whenever the Holy Virgin
pleases" and on another occasion some of them said,
"We have brethren in the monastery who can treat slight
maladies; the greater diseases we leave to God." We
shall not perhaps be far wrong in tracing here the influ-
ence of Mahometanism. But the same feeling existed
among the ancient Greeks as well. In the 'Odyssey,'
when the Cyclops at the mouth of Polyphemus' cave
2 Lucian, 'Macrobii,' cap. 5.
58
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
enquire the cause of his ravings, they are represented as
saying, "It is in no wise possible to escape disease sent
by mighty Zeus.” 3
"3
My companion and I had spent a week in this inte-
resting place in the spring of 1853; but as there were
many objects which we were obliged to leave unseen at
that time, and many points in connection with the life of
the monks which we were anxious further to investigate,
we were glad to have this opportunity of revisiting it.
We expected to find that the number of visitors would
have greatly increased since our former stay, particularly
as a Russian steamer from Constantinople had begun in
the interval to touch on the western coast.
We were
consequently surprised to discover that fewer travellers
come there now than formerly. At one monastery, when
we asked the monk who waited on us whether they saw
many strangers-"Oh! yes," he replied, "they come
from all the kingdoms of the world”—an instance of the
Scripture phraseology which not unfrequently occurs in
the monks' conversation: however, when we questioned
him more closely, he allowed that no one had been there
for two years. On several occasions, when we asked
what they supposed to be the reason of this change, we
received almost identically the same answer, that they
could not altogether account for it, but they thought
"there was misfortune and poverty abroad in the world."
Eight years had sufficed to work numerous changes.
Many of the old superiors, whom we had seen in 1853,
were now no more; parts of two monasteries had been
shaken down by earthquakes; other buildings had suf-
fered from the effects of fires; and one monastery had
altered its constitution and form of government. We
3 νοῦσον δ᾽ οὔπως ἔστι Διὸς μεγάλου ἀλέασθαι.Od. ix. 411.
CHAP. III.
Rigorous Fast.
59
noticed also, what to us was particularly agreeable, a
marked improvement in respect of cleanliness in the
rooms we occupied. In one respect our visit was some-
what ill-timed-for the day of our arrival coincided with
the commencement of a fourteen days' fast, which pre-
cedes the festival of the Repose of the Virgin, the strictest
in the year next to Lent. As the monks do not eat meat
even on feast days, we had not expected to have our
carnivorous appetites satisfied; but we were rather dis-
mayed at finding that we could not even get fish—not
because the monks wished to make us conform to their
rules, for they gave us the very best of what they had,
but because they did not catch fish at that time. On one
or two occasions they paid us the acceptable compliment
of sending out a boat to take some for us; but the
greater part of the twelve days of our sojourn there we
subsisted on rice, eggs, vegetables, and wine. We had,
however, some compensation in being able to observe the
extreme rigour of an Athos fast.
The name of the monastery under which we landed,
Vatopedi (Ватоπaídιov), is derived, according to the
monks, from the legend that the Emperor Arcadius,
when an infant, having been shipwrecked on the coast,
was found miraculously preserved under a thorn-bush;
and in acknowledgment of this, his father, Theodosius
the Great, erected the monastery and called it Vatopedi,
or "The bush of the child." The story is embodied in
an extremely rude and quaint woodcut of the monastery,
which was presented to us on our departure; but in
reality there can be little doubt that the name originally
signified "The plain of thorn-bushes" (Baтomédiov), thus
describing the comparatively level ground on which it
stands. When we reached the shore we sent on our drago-
man to give notice of our coming, and ourselves proceeded
60
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
to bathe; after which we also made our way to the
monastery. The forms with which a traveller is received
on his arrival are universally the same: after delivering
his letter of introduction to the porter, who carries it to
the hegumen or warden, he is conducted to the guest
chamber, one of the best rooms in the monastery,
generally commanding a superb view, where he is regaled
with sweetmeats, arrack, cold water, and coffee; and
when he is supposed to be sufficiently rested, he receives
a visit from the superiors and some of the more intel-
ligent monks, who, before they leave the room, inquire if
he would like to "eat bread." There are ceremonies
also which accompany his departure, though they are not
so regularly observed. These are the stirrup-cup or
"tooth-wash,” as it is called (λvvodóvτɩov), a small glass
of good wine, and apologies for any omissions which may
be supposed to have occurred in his entertainment, offered
by the superiors at the gateway. Besides the visits just
mentioned, which are renewed throughout the day, we
had frequent opportunities, during our sojourn in each
convent, of talking to the monks in the courts and
corridors, or while we were seeing in their company the
objects of interest which they had to show; and as both
parties were equally anxious to ask questions, the result
was that our life on the Holy Mountain became one con-
stant stream of conversation, from which we could not
fail to learn a great deal, not only of the system and
manner of life, but also of the feelings and modes of
thought, of the monks.
The monastery showed evident signs of being in a
flourishing condition. Its numbers had increased of late
years, and it now contained 300 monks, together with
servants and dependants amounting to about as many
Since our last visit they had erected a hospital,
more.
CHAP. III.
Monastic Opulence.
6r
and they were engaged in rebuilding the walls and
adjacent dwellings in one part which had been burnt
down. The strings of well-fed mules, too, which stood
outside the gate of entrance, suggested the idea of
opulence. As seen from without, its appearance is very
striking, from the vast extent of ground covered by its
buildings, which, like those of all the monasteries, are
enclosed by a high wall, and from the variety of forms it
presents to the eye, and the rich colours of its lichen-
covered roofs. Nor is the aspect of the interior less
remarkable, from the quaintness and variety of the
structures which surround the great court, and the tall
campanile, which rises by itself in the centre of it. It is
not my object, however, to enter into details about the
various edifices, as I hope to give a more minute descrip-
tion of one of the monasteries further on; but the
principal church should be noticed in passing, as it is
certainly one of the most ancient on Athos. Although
in most of its architectural features and elaborate decora-
tions it is not distinguishable from ordinary Byzantine
buildings, yet there are two peculiarities which argue
a great antiquity. These are the mosaics above and at
the sides of the western doors, and the fact that the
eastern apse is polygonal instead of being semicircular.
When these are found, there is every reason for believing
that the structure to which they belong is not later than
the tenth century. The monks ascribe it to Theodosius,
but this, like most of their statements with regard to
events of high antiquity, is deserving of no credit. One
relic which it contains is the object of the greatest
veneration. This is the girdle of the Virgin Mary, which
appears to be of leather, as far as one can see through
the glass case in which it is kept, and is ornamented with
diamonds and numerous rows of rudely worked and very
1
62
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
ancient pearls. So great is the fame of its miraculous
powers throughout the Ægean, that frequently, when a
city is afflicted with pestilence, it is sent for to restore
health to the inhabitants. There is also a cup of the
Emperor Michael Palæologus, which is composed of a
transparent kind of cement, said to be made out of
twelve different stones; it is supported by a metal stand
of some height.
When Prince Alfred was in the Levant he paid a visit
to this monastery, and the monks looked back to it with
great pleasure. Among its inmates, at the time of our
stay, were three Greek Bishops, one of whom, the Bishop
of Varna, had retired thither of his own accord, from
preference for the monastic life; the others were in exile,
for Athos, among the other purposes which it serves,
is used as a place of rustication for refractory prelates,
who are often removed from their sees on very trivial
charges. One of them, the Bishop of Philippopolis, was
said to have been deprived by the influence of the then
French ambassador at Constantinople. I need hardly
tell my readers that the bishops throughout the Eastern
Church are taken from the monasteries, and not from
the ranks of the secular clergy; it may therefore be
regarded, perhaps, as a merciful arrangement, that when
they are banished, they should be sent to the place from
which they came.
On the hillside, some way above Vatopedi, are the
ruins of an extensive building, which was the scene of a
great experiment on the Holy Mountain. It was a school,
founded in the last century by the enlightened Eugenius
Bulgaris of Corfu, in the hope of making the peninsula
in some measure a centre of learning and education for
the Eastern world. For some time it flourished, and
was attended by numerous scholars, but, like other
CHAP. III.
Village of Caryes.
63
schemes of the kind in Turkey, it ultimately failed, in
this instance, rather on account of the opposition of the
more ignorant monks and an uncongenial atmosphere,
than from the remoteness of its situation. Any one who
has seen the number of students that flock to the Uni-
versity of Athos at the beginning of a term from the
neighbouring parts of Turkey, notwithstanding long
quarantines and other obstacles, cannot but feel that
such institutions are needed, and under more favourable
circumstances might be successful. Still further up the
mountain, in a sheltered nook, lies the Russian skete, or
community, of St. Andrew, bearing the name of their
patron saint. It is attached to Vatopedi.
The day after our arrival we proceeded on mules, lent
to us by the monks of Vatopedi, to Caryes, or "The
Hazels," the central and only village in Athos, where the
Holy Synod of the mountain holds its sittings, and
the Turkish governor resides. This village, which lies in
a lovely position high up on the eastern slopes of the
central ridge, in the midst of the trees from which it
takes its name, consists mainly of one long street, with
open shops forming a kind of bazaar, and is remarkable
for its cleanliness, and for the entire absence of women
and children. The exclusion of females from Athos is
absolute: not only are women prevented from landing
on its sacred shores, but no cow, ewe, shegoat, sow, hen,
or other creature of the forbidden sex, is under any
circumstances admitted. This restriction, which seems
absurd at first sight, is in reality a singular parallel to
some of the ordinances of the Mosaic law; such, for
instance, as those in Lev. xix. 19, where garments of
mixed linen and woollen texture are forbidden to be
worn; the object being in both instances to enforce the
main precept by keeping it before the mind of the
64
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
people in a number of minor analogous cases. Even
the Turkish governor is obliged to leave his Harem
behind him during his term of residence. This officer,
the representative of the Porte, and the only Mahometan
who is allowed to live here, is in reality of very little
influence in the affairs of the monastic community, his
duties being for the most part confined to the collection
of taxes. The defence of the district is confided to a
body of about twenty-five Christian soldiers, who may
sometimes be seen in the monasteries, flaunting about in
their gay Albanian dresses; but they are under the
direction of the Holy Synod. The independence and
immunities of Athos, in respect of which it is the most
favoured part of the Turkish dominions, are of long
standing. Shortly before the taking of Constantinople
the monks of that period agreed to submit to the rule of
Amurath II., on his guaranteeing them the privileges
which they then enjoyed, and this engagement has been
observed with tolerable fidelity by later Sultans. The
tribute, when divided among the different monasteries,
amounts to about ten shillings a head, and they are not
exposed to any irregular exactions.
The Holy Synod of the Mountain is a representative
body, which, like the Councils of our two English Uni-
versities, manages the general affairs of the community
at large, without interfering with the independent self-
government of the several monasteries. Each of the
twenty monasteries sends a representative (ἀντιπρόσωπος),
who is maintained at Caryes at the expense of his
society; besides these, there are four presidents (èπɩ-
σTáτai), taken in rotation from the different monasteries,
who form the administrative body; and one of them again,
according to a fixed cycle, takes precedence of the rest,
and during his year of office is called "The First Man of
CHAP. III.
The Holy Synod.
65
Athos." After paying a visit to the Turkish governor,
and presenting to him the firman of the new sultan,¹
which he kissed and reverently pressed to his forehead,
we were introduced to the "First Man," who was a monk
from Vatopedi, and gave him an introduction which we
had brought from the Patriarch of Constantinople. We
were then conducted to the chamber of meeting, a room
of moderate size, with a divan running round three sides
of it, where ten of the representatives were waiting to
receive us. We were seated at the upper end, and after
the customary refreshments and some informal conver-
sation, received a commendatory letter to the monas-
teries, written by the secretary in ancient Greek, a very
curious document, stating the object of our visit, and
requesting them to entertain us and pay attention to our
“ creature comforts” (σωματικὴν ἀνάπαυσιν καὶ ἄνεσιν),
to show us all we desired to see, and to "speed the
parting guest" from place to place by means of the
mules of the monasteries (διὰ Μοναστηριακῶν ζώων). This
letter serves as a passport, to show the monks that your
visit is sanctioned by the authorities; as a stimulus to
their hospitality it certainly is not needed, for it would
be hard to find elsewhere such unvarying kindness and
liberal entertainment as the traveller meets with here.
He is not expected, as in the smaller Greek monasteries
and the conventual establishments of the west, to defray
the expenses of his entertainment by a donation; and
the means of transit are provided for him gratis, both by
land and water. A present to the servants, however, will
generally be found acceptable.
After the assembly was dismissed, several of the
caloyers, as the Greek monks are called (kaλóyepos, a
4 Abdul Aziz succeeded to the throne early in the summer of 1861.
VOL. I.
F
66
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
good old man), accompanied us to the school, which has
been established at Caryes for the education of some of
the younger monks, two on an average being sent by
each monastery. It is a commodious building, with well-
arranged class-rooms, and a library containing editions
of the classics, and standard authors in several European
languages; but it had a deserted aspect, as the school
was closed at this time, in consequence of a dispute
which had arisen amongst the monasteries. The history
of this I will now relate, not from any wish to expose the-
quarrels of my hospitable entertainers, but because it
illustrates in a curious way the influence of the Great
Powers, and of England in particular, in very remote
districts. Who would imagine that Great Britain could
be deeply involved in a dispute of the monks of Athos?
The subject which was the origin of the dispute carries
us back to the Emperor Alexius Comnenus. That
eminent personage founded the two monasteries of Cut-
lumusi and Pantocratoros, the former of which is close to
Caryes on the mountain side, the latter on the sea-coast
below. He endowed them with adjoining lands, and one
farm belonging to Pantocratoros lies within the territory
of Cutlumusi. A dispute arose about a watercourse, that
fruitful source of litigation, connected with this piece of
ground. The Holy Synod took up the question, and
cited the warden of Cutlumusi to appear before them ;
this however he refused to do, as he knew beforehand
that judgment would be given against him, and main-
tained that they had no authority in the matter. The
Cutlumusi monks had a further story, about a Russian
general who, during a long stay on Athos, had become
enamoured of some MSS. in their library, and had
fomented this quarrel for his own purposes; but it seemed
to rest on a somewhat doubtful foundation. However,
CHAP. III.
Monastic Dispute.
67
one morning a number of the members of the Synod
coming with soldiers, broke open the doors of the
monastery, seized and imprisoned the most influential
monks, and stripped the warden naked, in order to search
his clothes for papers, on a suspicion of treachery. It
happened, however, that these monks were from the
Ionian Islands, and therefore British subjects; so when
they saw that they had no hopes of redress from other
quarters, they appealed for protection to the consuls at
Salonica and Cavalla. Mr. Wilkinson, the English consul
at Salonica, laid the matter before the Pasha of that
place, whom he found already preparing for a voyage to
the Holy Mountain; accordingly when he arrived there,
and the case was put into his hands, he decided that the
ejected monks should be reinstated. After procuring
the acquiescence of the monks generally in various
changes, such as the dismissal of the guard of soldiers,
the Pasha returned home laden with presents, or, more
properly speaking, plunder, in the shape of works of art,
which he had obtained from the monasteries. At a later
period, however, by means of representations from the
Russian embassy at Constantinople, the decision of the
Pasha was reversed in several points; in consequence of
which five of the monasteries, which disapproved of the
whole proceeding, seceded, and withdrew their represen-
tatives from the Synod. This was the state of things at
the time of our visit, but there was some hope of a recon-
ciliation being brought about by the good offices of
Mr. Wilkinson. Subsequently, when we were again at
Salonica, in the summer of 1865, we learned from that
gentleman that this had been effected shortly after our
departure, and that outwardly, at all events, harmony
had been restored.
We were at that time so accustomed to look on the
F 2
68
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
position of the inhabitants of the Ionian Islands towards
the English as one of undisguised opposition, that it
seemed curious to find them relying so much on the pro-
tection of England when at a distance from home. But,
as one of them frankly admitted, it was only in the
Islands, where the fact of the Protectorate was before
their eyes, that they grumbled, while here they enjoyed
all the advantages of a powerful connection. This how-
ever led to much bitter feeling and jealousy of England
on the part of the other caloyers. "Whatever fault is
found with an Ionian monk," they would say, "he cries
directly, Hands off! I'm a British subject; I shall
appeal to the English consul.'" But I am bound to add
that the feeling of these Ionians towards an English
traveller was of the most friendly description, and that
the disinterested kindness which we received from many
of them was remarkable, even in the midst of the hospi-
talities of the Holy Mountain.
One of the greatest sources of interest in a visit to
Athos consists in this, that here can be seen in one view
all the different phases of Eastern monastic life. First
of all there are the hermits, who dwell, like St. Antony,
the first anchorite, in perfect solitude, practising the
sternest asceticism. In the retreats (kalloμara) we find
small associations of monks living together in retirement,
and working for a common stock. Again, when a
number of these retreats are assembled round a central
church, a skete (àσкητýρlov) is formed, which in some
cases differs from a monastery only in not possessing an
independent constitution. And lastly, there are the
regular monasteries, each enjoying a separate corporate
existence, possessing lands on the mountain, and gene-
rally also beyond its limits, and having the right to be
represented in the Synod. These again must be divided
CHAP. III.
Government of Monasteries.
69
into two classes, according to their different forms of
government; the one kind being Cœnobite, where there is
one warden or hegumen, and a common stock and com-
mon table; the other the Idiorrhythmic, where "every-
man is a rule to himself," and the constitution is a sort of
republic, the government being in the hands of two
superiors annually elected; in these the inmates generally
take their meals in their own cells, and both in respect of
laying by money and the disposal of their time are in a
position of comparative freedom. Here also a wealthy
monk, if he desires it, can have as many servants as he
chooses to pay for. The Idiorrhythmic rule is a depar-
ture from the original form, and of somewhat recent
introduction; and it is a significant fact, that by far the
greater number of the monasteries on the eastern slopes
have adopted the less stringent discipline, while those
which lie in more secluded positions under the rugged
precipices of the western side, have, with only two ex-
ceptions, remained Cœnobite. The monastery of Cut-
lumusi had been Idiorrhythmic at the time of our former
visit, but subsequently returned to the stricter rule, and
its inmates maintained that the change had produced
great benefit. In the Coenobite convents the monks
generally communicate once a fortnight, and this is un-
usually often, according to the practice of the Greek
Church in this matter. The lands which these monasteries
possess out of Athos are partly in Macedonia, partly
in Thasos, Lemnos, and other islands of the Ægean ; but
by far the greatest part consists (or, I should rather say,
consisted) of estates in the Danubian Principalities, which
were made over to them in former centuries by Hospo-
dars of Moldavia and Wallachia. From these sources
some of them derive large revenues, but of late years their
prosperity has been considerably checked by debts in-
70
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
curred during the Greek War of Independence, when a
large body of Turkish soldiers was quartered on them
for nine years, from 1821 to 1830.
The qualified statement, which has been introduced
above with regard to their possessions in the Principa-
lities, is rendered necessary by the important changes
which have taken place in respect of these since our visit.
They have, in fact, been confiscated by the government of
that country. Against this the monks, naturally enough,
exclaim with great vehemence, but the rights of the case
seem to be as follows. When the local monasteries in
Wallachia and Moldavia, to which these properties
belonged, were originally established, their founders in-
tended that they should be of service to the country as
places of refuge and means of assisting the needy. But
in order to secure the good management of the land and
its produce, they were attached to one or other of the
large convents in Greece or the Holy Land, from which
they received their superior, on the understanding that
whatever surplus accrued from the property, year by
year, in addition to the regular fixed income of the local
monastery, should be paid over to the convent on which
they were dependent. In the course of time, however,
the relative position of the two parties was changed, and
the local monasteries became completely subject to the
patron convents, so that they were regarded merely as
their farms, and the income derived from them went
entirely out of the country. The Principalities now
reclaim their lands, as having been alienated from their
original purpose; and their cause appears a just one,
though the change must fall with great severity on the
Greek monasteries, as the present system has existed for
many generations, and they are accustomed in no slight
degree to look to this source for their support. The
CHAP. III.
Revenues.
71
question was carefully considered by the European com-
mission which was sent into the Principalities in 1857,
and after investigating the original state of things, and
finding that the circumstances were such as have just
been stated, they advised a return to the system intended
by the founders, only with the substitution of a fixed
annual payment to the Greek monasteries for the former
fluctuating income, on condition that they should resign
all control and all further claims. When Prince Couza
proceeded to strike the blow by which the Greek monks
were deprived of their possessions, he promised that an
indemnification should be paid to them once for all;
whether they will ever receive this, however, may be con-
sidered more than doubtful. These losses, no doubt, will
greatly cripple their revenues, but it is thought by
persons who are acquainted with their affairs that the
lands and funds which they possess in other quarters will
be sufficient to enable them to exist.5
The whole number of monks on Athos is believed to
be about 3000; besides these there is a fluctuating popu-
lation of seculars (Kоoμikoi), some of whom reside per-
manently in the monasteries as servants or labourers,
though without taking any monastic vows, while others
come for a time from the adjoining country, and after-
wards retire to their homes. These may perhaps amount
to 3000 more. The number of monks in the separate
monasteries varies from 25 to 300, but about 100 is the
commonest number. It seldom happens, however, that
all are present at the same time, as a certain proportion
are generally engaged in superintending the outlying
farms. We found it extremely difficult to get any
accurate information on these points, owing to that
•
• The whole question is very clearly put in an article in the 'Revue des
Deux Mondes' for Oct. 1, 1862, p. 728.
72
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
singular dislike of statistics which is so characteristic of
Orientals. A Turk, when asked a question of figures, to
save himself further trouble, replies at once with a good
round number; a Greek winces, utters a peculiar excla-
mation expressing something between doubt and annoy-
ance, and when he sees no means of escape tells you as
much as he knows himself. "How many monks are
there in the monastery?" Do you mean this monas-
tery?" "Yes; how many are there in this monastery?”
"Eigh! a great many." "But what do you suppose is
the exact number?" "Eigh! I don't know; about 80
or 30" We seldom arrived at anything more definite
than this. By far the greater number of the monks are
Greeks by race, natives of free Greece, including the
Ionian Islands, or from the Turkish dominions; two of
the monasteries, however,-Zographu and Chilandari,—
situated in the northern part of the peninsula, are exclu-
sively inhabited by Bulgarians and Servians, and have
the service in the Slavonic tongue; there are also a few
Georgians in the Iberian monastery; and there are a
great many Russians, who are found partly in the Rus-
sian monastery and the sketes which they have founded,
partly scattered about among the other monasteries.
was curious to observe the contrast between the children
of the north and the south, and I could not help fancying
that the Greek regarded the Russian as a large uncouth
being, somewhat like the Troll of the Norse tales, simple-
minded and easily outwitted. An incident will soon
occur in the course of our narrative, which will illustrate
what I mean. Notwithstanding this, as the Russian
Church has been the progressive branch of the Eastern
Church since the time of Peter the Great, so the Russian
monks are the most progressive element in the society of
It
CHAP. III.
Pantocratoros.
73
the Holy Mountain. The other monks are aware of this,
and used to speak of their good bell-ringing and har-
monious chanting, which is indeed an agreeable contrast
to the dismal drone of the Greek services; in addition to
this, the only printing-press on Athos is in the Russian
monastery.
When we had arrived at Caryes, we took up our
quarters at the neighbouring Cutlumusi, where we were
received with especial attention as being Englishmen, in
consequence of the suit that was pending. On the even-
ing of the same day we descended to the other principal
in the dispute, the monastery of Pantocratoros, or The
Almighty. Our path lay over steep slopes, commanding
views of extraordinary beauty, from the hanging, woods
which rose above us to the ridge of the mountain, the wide
expanse of sea below, and to the south the winding shores
of the peninsula, and undulations of fertile land, diversified
with the white-walled retreats of the monks, and reaching
far away to the base of the great peak, which displayed
its fullest proportions, and appeared indescribably beau-
tiful in the light of the westering sun. Pantocratoros
is a small monastery, containing only forty monks, and
its position is confined, as it is placed on a rock which is
washed on two sides by the sea, with a little port running
in on the land side, where small vessels can lie. In con-
sequence of this it is much crowded in its arrangements,
and the buildings have to be stowed away wherever room
can be found. One of the superiors, a venerable-looking
old man, had left the monastery at the time of the War
of Independence, when the Turks came to Athos, and
fled to Greece, where he joined the insurgents, but sub-
sequently he had returned. We were sitting with him and
some of the others in a room overlooking the sea, which
74
CHAP. III.
Mount Athos.
6
was dashing in below, when suddenly they exclaimed,
"Ah! here he is; here comes the Archimandrite!" As
we looked up, in expectation of some great dignitary, there
walked, or rather rolled, into the room a burly man, whose
light hair and ruddy complexion formed a complete con-
trast to the appearance of the other monks. He tumbled
himself down on the divan, and turning to us, exclaimed,
laughing, “Good evening; you are welcome: I am a
Muscovite-a barbarian!" We returned his salutations,
and then I asked, "As there are so many monasteries in
Russia, why do you come to Athos? Why do you not
remain in one of the establishments in your own country?"
"It's because of the women, sir," he replied; "it's the
women! In Russia there are women in the monasteries,
and I can't endure them; and therefore I come here,
where there are no women." " And then he went off into
a rigmarole story in broken Greek, until the rest of the
company told him, in very plain terms, that he was a
bore, and talked unintelligible nonsense; on which he
took himself off, but, before the evening was over, showed
that he was not offended, by sending us some tea (rat),
which is found wherever the Russians are.
Among the relics preserved in this convent there is a
very old book containing the Gospels and other writings,
mentioned by Mr. Curzon, probably of the eleventh cen-
tury, in extremely minute handwriting, accompanied by
small delicate illuminations: the binding, which is of
silver, and very curious, is embossed with strange figures,
and has chainwork at the back, which yields when it is
6 This name, which in Russia still retains its original sense of "head of a
monastery," in the Byzantine Church is simply titular.
7 In most of the Greek monasteries, except those of Athos, women of
advanced age are admitted as servants. These are called raλóypiai, that
name being the feminine of 'caloyer.' Nunneries, as such, are almost
unknown in the Greek church.
}
CHAP. III.
The Sand-bath.
75
opened. The only other thing which deserves special
notice is the frescoes of the interior of the church, which
are ancient and well executed, the arrangement of the
groups of figures being more carefully studied than is
usual in Byzantine painting. Those of the outer part of
the building have been restored, but exactly in the old
style. Leaving Pantocratoros, we rode southward along
the coast in the direction of Iveron, and stopped on the
way for a short time at the intermediate monastery of
Stavroniceta, which, like the one we had just left,
stands on a projecting mass of rock, whose steep sides
descend below it into the sea, and rises conspicuous with
its massive tower. Beyond it there is a small skete be-
longing to Cutlumusi, from which that society procures
its fish. Just before passing this we saw a patient under-
going the sand-bath, a curious and primitive remedy for
rheumatism. He was buried in the shingle up to his
chest, his head and shoulders alone appearing, and an
umbrella was spread over him, to protect him from the
scorching rays of the sun.
( 76 )
X
CHAPTER IV.
MOUNT ATHOS (continued).
—
Monastery of Iveron - Description of it— The central Church-Byzantine
Pictures - The Refectory — The Library— Miraculous Picture-Theory
of Eastern Monastic Life - Occupations of the Monks - Their love of
tranquillity-Fallmerayer influenced by it — Mysticism - Monastery of
Philotheu - Caracalla- The Lavra- Relics and Jewellery-Retreat of
"the Forerunner" A Conversation on Canals-A Painter-Legends
of the Peak Ascent to the Summit - Festival of the Transfiguration
- Light of Tabor.
OUR next resting-place was the convent of Iveron, that is,
of the Iberians or Georgians, which was founded by three
persons of that nation at the end of the tenth century,
and stands near the sea, between steep wooded hills, at
the mouth of a deep valley, which runs down eastward
from the central ridge. As it ranks the third in number
and importance, and is a good specimen of the larger
Idiorrhythmic monasteries, I propose to describe it some-
what minutely. In shape it is an irregular square, and
its appearance is extremely imposing, as the high stone.
wall by which it is surrounded makes it resemble a vast
castle. The domestic buildings, however, by which this
wall is surmounted are entirely at variance with this mi-
litary aspect: they are of wood, singularly picturesque,
projecting at different levels and angles, and supported
by sloping beams, which lean like brackets against the
wall. From the roofs of these houses rise numerous
chimneys, many of which, like the house-fronts them-
selves, are painted with bright colours; behind these
appear the domes of the church; while at the back of all
a massive tower, which was probably used as a watch-

MONASTERY OF IVERON (MOUNT ATHOS.)
UNIV
OF
MICH
CHAP. IV.
Iveron.
1
77
tower in more troublous times, forms a conspicuous
object. Close to a dry river-bed, which lies behind the
monastery, is a poor-house, where distressed seculars are
provided for; and on the heights above is a skete for
lepers, who, as well as madmen, are sent to the Holy
Mountain to be taken care of. It is no slight praise to
the monks that they provide a refuge for these outcasts
of society. Again, on the hills to the north, is a skete
for Georgians, to which nation also 10 of the 200 inmates.
of the monastery belong. The cemetery may generally
be distinguished by a group of cypresses; but there are
no tombstones, as the bones are removed a certain time
after interment, and laid in a common heap.
Entering the monastery by the gateway, we pass
through a dark and winding passage, intended apparently
to baffle a besieging force, and find ourselves in the great
court, in the centre of which, detached from the other
buildings, stands the principal church. What first attracts
our attention on looking round is the extreme irregularity
of everything. In one place you see a wooden cloister,
in another an outhouse; here a chapel appears, there a
vine-covered trellis peeps out, and the mixed brick and
stone work of the more regular buildings contributes to
increase the variety. Not the least conspicuous objects
are two magnificent cypresses with velvet foliage, which
rise near the east end of the church. It is this pic-
turesqueness which constitutes the charm of domestic
buildings of the Byzantine style, to which all these mo-
nasteries belong; for they cannot aspire to beauty, and
1 Abp. Georgirenes ('Description of the present state of Samos, Patmos,
Nicaria, and Mount Athos') says, in A.D. 1678, speaking of the monastery
of Lavra (p. 88), "They have a strong magazine, and a sentinel perpetually
standing to give notice of any Corsair;" and of St. Gregory's (p. 95), that
it is "near the sea, and much infested with pirates, for want of fortifications
and men to defend it, having but sixty monks."
78
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
the few which are built regularly are far from pleasing.
As wood is so much used as a material for building,
many parts of these structures must be of a compara-
tively late date; but still they represent to us very fairly
the original edifices, in consequence of the conservative
and traditionary spirit of the Greek Church, which
appears nowhere so strikingly as on Athos; in accord-
ance with which every part, when it falls into decay, is
repaired so as to correspond in style, even if it is not
exactly similar, to the original design.
Let us now visit what in all the monasteries is the
most important building, the central church, entering at
the west end, and observing as we pass the subjects of
the frescoes, which are disposed in regular order along the
walls. We first find ourselves in the proaulion, or porch,
a corridor supported on the outside by light pillars,
running the whole width of the building: in this part are
represented scenes from the Apocalypse, especially the
punishment of the wicked; and in one place there are
pictures of the Ecumenical Councils, that of Nice being
particularly striking. In this Athanasius is represented
as a young man stooping down to write the Creed, while
Arius is in the act of disputing between his two great ad-
versaries, Spiridion and Nicholas, and on the right of this
group is a band of Arians, dressed as philosophers, some
of whom are coming into the council chamber to recant
their errors, whilst the rest are being driven into a prison
by a man armed with a club. Passing onwards from the
Proaulion, we enter the narthex, or antechapel, which
contains representations of various forms of martyrdom :
on either side of the central door, which leads into the
2 For the plan of a Byzantine church, though differing slightly from that
which is here described, the reader is referred to the ground-plan of the
church in the monastery of St. Demetrius, on Mount Ossa, in vol. ii.
CHAP. IV.
The Central Church.
79
second narthex, are figures of SS. Peter and Paul. These
narthexes, which are divided by walls from one another
and from the body of the church, seem originally to have
been intended for catechumens and penitents, and must
have been introduced into the monastic churches more
for the sake of maintaining the usual type, than with a
view to actual use: as it is, they are employed for the
celebration of the more ordinary services, and when
the body of the church is too small for the number of
worshippers, they serve to provide additional room. In
the second narthex are frescoes of saints and hermits,
who look down in grim solemnity from the walls: the
hermits especially are most striking objects, being almost
human skeletons, and stark naked, except for their long
grey beards, which reach to the ground. From this we
pass into the main body of the church, which is in the
form of a Greek cross, with a central cupola supported
on four pillars, which symbolize the Four Evangelists.
At the east end and in the transepts are semi-cupolas,
but the whole of the sanctuary is concealed by the Icono-
stase, a wooden screen reaching nearly to the roof, and
most elaborately carved and gilt, in which are set pic-
tures of our Lord and saints. The position of two of
the frescoes in this part is invariably the same in all the
monasteries: in the cupola is a colossal figure of the Sa-
viour, and over the western door of entrance a represen-
tation of the Repose (koíµnois) of the Virgin. Other
parts of the walls are covered with Scripture subjects,
and generally in one of the transepts is a group of young
warrior saints, among whom St. George is always con-
spicuous. From the drum of the cupola hangs an elegant
brass coronal, and from this are suspended silver lamps,
small Byzantine pictures, and ostrich eggs, which are said
to symbolize faith, according to a strange but beautiful
80
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
fable, that the
ostrich hatches its eggs by gazing stead-
fastly at them within this coronal again is a large chan-
delier. The floor is ornamented in parts with opus Alexan-
drinum, a kind of inlaid work in white marble, porphyry,
and verd antique; and here and there are placed lecterns,
elaborately decorated with mother-of-pearl and tortoise-
shell. The stalls are ranged all round the sides, and are
provided with misereres, which, however, are seldom used,
as the monks generally stand during the whole service.
At first sight the general appearance of the building
seems rather marred by the multiplicity of details
crowded into so small a space; but, when the eye is
once accustomed to this, the effect is magnificent, from
the brilliancy of the ornaments and the harmonious
though sober colours of the frescoes. In the Byzantine
pictures, as well as the frescoes, which one sees on Athos,
the drawing and perspective are generally bad, and
when the description of strong passion or violent action
is attempted, they are often indescribably grotesque;
and we look in vain for the delicacy and spirituality of
Fra Angelico; but the more passive feelings, such as
humility, resignation, and devotion, are often admirably
expressed, with a grace and sweetness which are rarely
found in the specimens by which Byzantine art is repre-
sented in Western Europe.³ There was, however, one
artist of real power, some of whose frescoes still re-
main in the peninsula, called Panselenus, a name but
little known away from Athos. He lived in the 11th or
12th century, and is called by M. Didron "the Raphael,
or rather the Giotto, of the Byzantine school." His
most famous works are in the church at Caryes, and
* M. Didron says ('Manuel d'Iconographie Chrétienne,' p. xlv.), “La
beauté des anciens ouvrages de cette école est incontestable." He attri-
butes the oldest of the frescoes to the ninth century.
CHAP. IV.
Byzantine Pictures.
81
consist of single figures and groups of saints, the drapery
and arrangement of which are excellent, and the faces
full of originality and power. There are also frescoes
attributed to him in the monasteries of Pantocratoros
and Lavra, and though we are naturally suspicious of the
indiscriminate use of a distinguished name, yet these are
so superior to the ordinary pictures, as to make it
probable that they are by his hand.
Returning to the external porch of the church, we see
two Semantra, or instruments for calling the brethren to
prayers. One of these is a long flat board, narrow in the
centre, so that it may be grasped by one hand, while
it is struck with a wooden mallet by the other. The
second is of iron, resembling a piece of the tire of a
wheel, which is struck with a hammer. The monotonous
sound of these instruments may often be heard in the
dead of night, summoning the caloyers to the midnight
service. Outside the west end of the church is an
elegant cupola supported on pillars, inside which is a
stone basin, where the holy water is blessed which is
used in the ceremonies of the Epiphany and in other rites
of the Greek church. Opposite this is the Refectory
(TρáπEÇα), a building in the form of a Latin cross, along
the walls of which, inside, are ranged small stone tables,
one of which at the further end is placed so as to form a
high table. At the angle, where one of the transepts
joins the nave, is a pulpit, attached to the wall, from
which the homily is read during meals. Most of the
refectories are decorated with frescoes of saints along the
side walls, and a representation of the Last Supper over
the high table; but here the structure is of a recent date,
and consequently plain, as the monks have not yet been
able to afford the decorations. Over the entrance of the
refectory is a bell tower, in the lower story of which
VOL. I.
G
82
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
a new library has been constructed; to this some of the
books were being removed from the old library, a con-
fined room over the church porch. The contents of
these libraries consist mainly of Greek ecclesiastical
writings, together with a fair number of classical authors
and mathematical works. I noticed also a good many
books published at Venice at the beginning of this cen-
tury. In this library there is a curious Greek translation
of Goldsmith's history of Greece, which was "well
spoken of" by the monks. The best account of the
libraries generally will be found in Dr. Hunt's notice in
Walpole's 'Turkey;' of the MSS. a full description is
given in Mr. Curzon's 'Monasteries of the Levant.' I
shall therefore only occasionally refer to some of the
most remarkable. Many of these are fine works of art;
but the effects of damp and neglect are sadly visible.
It is possible that unknown literary treasures may still
be concealed in these libraries; but they have been so
carefully examined by savants from Russia and else-
where, that it is hardly likely. It is, however, the
opinion of competent authorities, that the contents of
the liturgical and musical manuscripts are of great value
for those subjects, and that the publication of the
charters and numerous other documents would throw
a vast amount of light on Byzantine history.
Among the other buildings which are most worthy of
notice are the kitchen, a curious square building, in the
centre of which is the hearth, and a long chimney running up
through the roof; the underground cellars, which contain
some huge tuns; and the numerous chapels and oratories,
which are found in all parts of the building. There are
4 See Gass's essay, 'De Claustris in Monte Atho sitis Commentatio
Historica,' pp. 60, 61.
'CHAP. IV.
Miraculous Picture.
83
as many as twenty-two of these," and one, which is built
near the gateway, contains a miraculous picture of the
Virgin, the story of which is worth relating, as a specimen
of the numerous legends which abound on Athos, and
are believed and told by the monks with the simplest
faith. It was cast into the sea near Nicæa, but was
carried safely to the Holy Mountain. When it had been
brought to the monastery, and the monks were deliberating
where they should place it, it knocked several times on a
spot close to the gate, to signify that her chapel should
be erected there; and from this circumstance she is
called the Portaitissa, or Portress. In one part there
is a scar, where an unbeliever stuck his lance into it;
blood issued immediately; and the malefactor was con-
verted and died a saint: he is represented in a fresco in
the narthex of the chapel, where he is called "The Bar-
barian Saint." The face of the picture, like most of the
sacred paintings of the Greek Church, is in the hardest style;
but it is surrounded by embossed work, or sheathing, of
gold, which is covered with the most magnificent jewels.
A
copy of it was taken to Russia in the 17th century,
by order of the Patriarch Nicon, and is still to be seen
at Moscow.6
Having thus taken a survey of the buildings of the
monastery, let us enquire, what is the employment of
the pale, grave men, with long beards and flowing hair,
dressed in dark blue serge gowns, and high caps, who
move about its court and its corridors. But first, perhaps
it may be well for us to notice some of the points in
It is said that there are in all 935 churches, chapels, and oratories, on
the Holy Mountain.
• See Stanley's Eastern Church,' p. 424. The legend, with some
variations from the account given me by the monks, is related at length in
the 'Travels of Macarius,' ii. p. 172.
G 2
84
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
which the life of the monks of Athos differs from our
ordinary ideas of monastic life.
In the first place, then, only a small proportion of
these monks are clergy, and the clerical office is in no
way connected with the monastic profession. Even in
the large establishments, such as Vatopedi and Iveron, it
is not usual to find more than ten or twelve of the com-
munity in Holy Orders; and at Philotheu, the smallest
of the monasteries, there were but three priests, just
enough to carry on the services. Still less are they
teachers or missionaries, except in one instance, the Bul-
garian monastery of Chilandari, where, of late years, a
system has been established of sending a number of
ordained monks into Bulgaria on a sort of home mission,
to assist the parish priests in extensive districts. This
"Apostolic" system, as they call it, is said to have worked
well, but it is wholly an excrescence from the monastic
life of Athos. Again, they are not students, or learned
men, though from the way in which the books have been
used and marked in the libraries, there is evidence that
there were such among them in former times; and they
have traditions of a period, shortly before the taking of
Constantinople, when teachers went out from this place,
as a centre, to the whole of the Eastern church.
however, the libraries are rarely opened, and the monks
do not pretend to make study a part of their occupation.
Yet they profess a desire for learning, and we perceived
many signs of a move in that direction, especially in the
wealthier convents. The existence of the school at
Caryes is in itself a proof of this: the books, too, which
they possess are beginning to be more cared for than for-
merly, and here and there catalogues have been made: one
or two of the monasteries also have lately sent some
of their younger members to the University of Athens
Now,
CHAP. IV.
Eastern Monastic Life.
8.5
to study at the expense of the society, in order that they
in turn may become teachers to the rising generation.
A few of the monks we found to be acquainted with the
ancient Greek authors; and one or two would have
passed an excellent examination in the details of Greek
history. One remarkably intelligent young fellow, who
had left his convent on a former occasion, against the
will of the Hegumen, in order to get instruction at
Athens, amused us by remarking, "I don't get on par-
ticularly well with Hellenic (ancient Greek); Xenophon
and some other authors I can read easily enough, but
I find the speeches in Thucydides so very hard!" We
consoled him by telling him that he was not singular
in his difficulties. Modern languages are almost entirely
unknown; only a few could speak a little French or
Italian; and theology, to which at least one would
expect that some time would be devoted, is hardly in
a better condition. In fact, the great proportion of the
caloyers are of the class of peasants and artizans, and
are wholly uneducated and ignorant.
Still the ludicrous inexperience of ordinary things,
which has been attributed to them, certainly does not
exist now. There may be monks who have never seen a
woman, or who believe that Western Europe is governed
by an Emperor of the Franks, or that England is situated
in London; but anyhow the generality must not be
estimated from them, any more than from the more
intelligent men whom I have mentioned above. There
is hardly one monastery in which they do not from time
to time see some newspaper, either the 'Byzantis' of
Constantinople, or one of the Athens journals; and a
good many had seen, and some even took in, the Greek
newspaper published in London, the 'Bretannikos Aster,'
which was in high favour on account of its illustrations
86
CHAP. IV..
Mount Athos.
Accordingly, one of the commonest questions to be
asked us was, whether the Queen had recovered her
health; and they were quite ready to talk on such
subjects as Victor Emmanuel and the state of Italy, the
war in America, and the Atlantic Telegraph, the Levia-
than, as they called the 'Great Eastern,' the Suez Canal,
and similar topics of the day. All these things, no
doubt, were regarded from a very distant point of view:
indeed, it is the effect of a secluded spot, like the Holy
Mountain, where the routine of life is so unexciting, and
the pulse seems to beat faintly, to make even a stranger
look upon the events of the world around "as through a
veil."
But if the monks of Athos are neither clergy, nor
missionaries, nor students, yet they realize the primitive.
idea of monasticism in a way in which it is not realized.
elsewhere. When Antony and his followers withdrew
to the deserts of Egypt, their object was not the pursuit.
of learning, or the benefit of their fellow-men, but retire-
ment from a dangerous and distracting world, and
leisure for devotion and religious exercises. This idea
of monastic life is still maintained in the Eastern Church:
and accordingly, as in those early times there was no
distinction of Monastic Orders, so here one rule alone is
followed, that established by St. Basil. Six or seven
hours of every day, and more on Sundays, are occupied
by the Church services; and on some of the greater
festivals the almost incredible time of from sixteen to
twenty hours is spent in church." Their life is one of the
sternest bodily mortification. In the Cœnobite convents
7 For an account of the services and other details connected with the
monasteries, the reader is referred to an elaborate and impartial article-
in the ‘Christian Remembrancer' for April, 1851, to which I am much.
indebted.
CHAP. IV.
Occupations of the Monks.
87
they never touch meat, and rarely in the Idiorrhythmic.
Nearly half the days in the year are fast days, and on
these they take only one meal, which is generally com-
posed of bread, vegetables, and water: and during the
first three days of Lent those whose constitutions can
stand it, eat nothing. In addition to this they never get
an unbroken night's rest, as the first service commences
between 1 and 2 A.M. The remainder of their time
which is not occupied in public prayer is spent by the
Superiors in the management of the affairs of their
society, and by the lower monks in various menial occu-
pations which are required of them. There is, however,
a class intermediate between these two, whose time
cannot be so easily accounted for. In the Idiorrhythmic
convents any person who pays on entrance a sum equal
to about 45% of our money, becomes permanently free
from any obligation to work in the monastery. Those who
are on this footing must have a considerable amount of
spare time, and, as far as we could discover, but scanty
means of employing it. In some of the Cœnobite monas-
teries the brethren work in the fields; but even in these
it is only for a few hours in the day; and in general this
kind of labour, and other outdoor employments, such as
fishing, are left to the Seculars.
As the system of life which has just been described
is not such as to prove attractive to ordinary men, it will
naturally be asked, what are the inducements and
motives which lead men to come to Athos, and from
what classes the monks are chiefly drawn, being, as they
have been called, gens æterna, in quâ nemo nascitur.
I have already stated that most of the inferior monks
belong to the class of peasants and artisans: a large
number of these come to this place early in life, between
the ages of 15 and 25 years, being naturally quiet men,
88
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
and disposed for a religious life (@pnokela). Of those
who come at a more advanced age, some have led
irregular lives and desire to repent of their sins; some
have been monks at other convents, such as those of
Jerusalem and Mount Sinai; while others have been
engaged in trade, and similar employments. Among
those to whom we talked on the subject were a grocer
from Corfu, a tailor from Constantinople, a merchant
from Syra, a sailor from Cephalonia, and a leech-
gatherer from Larissa in Thessaly, who had been em-
ployed there by a man who rented the monopoly of
leeches from the Government. Very few, even of the
superiors, are above the class of tradesmen or merchants.
But when we came to enquire, further, what constituted
the attractiveness of the monastic life, we constantly
received the same reply-tranquillity (novxía), rest of
body and soul, which was valued by some as freeing
them from temptation and giving them time for devotion,
by others as securing them comparative ease; by the
greater number probably from a mixture of these two feel-
ings. But to the Christian subjects of the Porte the first
attraction is the security which they enjoy here, and
freedom from the ill-treatment and exactions to which
they are exposed elsewhere. No one could travel
through the parts of Macedonia and Albania, which we
visited later in the summer, and hear, as we heard,
both from the natives themselves and from less pre-
judiced sources, of the utter insecurity of life and
property among the rayahs, and their sad persecution
by their Turkish oppressors-murders, violence, rob-
beries, and extortion, being quite ordinary occurrences-
without often saying to himself "Who would not gladly
be a monk on Athos, rather than suffer these miseries?"
The monks of Athos are not the only persons in the
CHAP. IV.
Love of Tranquillity.
89
present day for whom the "tranquillity" of which we
have just spoken has had powerful attractions. Fall-
merayer, the German historian and man of letters, who
is best known for his thankless attempt to prove that the
modern Greeks have no Hellenic blood in their veins,
confesses that, during his visit to this spot, he was sorely
tempted to yield himself up to it. He thus describes
his own feelings and those of the caloyers. "Forsake
the world and join us,' said the monks; 'with us you
will find your happiness. Do but look at the Retreat
there with its fair walls, at the hermitage on the moun-
tain, how the westering sun flashes on its window-panes!
How charmingly the chapel peeps out from the bright
green of the leafy chestnut forest, in the midst of vine-
branches, laurel hedges, valerian, and myrtle! How the
water bubbles forth, bright as silver, from beneath the
stones, how it murmurs amid the oleander bushes!
Here you will find soft breezes, and the greatest of all
blessings-freedom and inward peace. For he alone is
free, who has overcome the world, and has his abode in
the laboratory of all virtues (εργαστήριον πασῶν ἀρετῶν)
on Mount Athos.' It was spoken in perfect sincerity;
the pious fathers knew their man; they recognized in
him the melancholy, the longings, the appreciation of
solitude they knew so well, and the magic influence that
wild woods and the fresh scenes of nature exercise on
world-weary souls. I was to set up my abode in the
neighbourhood of their holy society, not as a monk (for
that a special vocation was required), but as an inde-
pendent associate; and was to pass my time, free from
all constraint, like a temporary participator in earthly
joys, in prayer, in recollectedness of spirit, in devotional
reading, in cultivating my garden, and in wandering
alone, or with others, through the woodland thickets, but
90
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
evermore in peace, until the thread of life should have
run out, and the dawning light of the brighter world
It was, I confess, a seductive
**
appear.
proposal." 8
9
He then proceeds to describe the jar of party conflicts,
the confusion of thought, the weary search after know-
ledge, and all the other disadvantages which accompany
the progressive movement of western civilization, and
from which he might have for ever freed himself by
embracing this proposal. Many others, when placed in
the same circumstances, have felt like him. Many an
Englishman, when, after being long engaged in the
turmoil of business or political life, he has visited such a
place of retirement as the Grande Chartreuse, will have
understood the longing for the permanent enjoyment
of the life of tranquillity. We cannot wonder, therefore,
if beneath the sky of Greece, and in the midst of so
many favouring circumstances, it proves highly attractive
to the Oriental temperament. This state of mind has
naturally given birth at various times to different forms
of mysticism, the most remarkable phase of which is
found in the tenets of those who from this cause received
8 'Fragmenta aus dem Orient,' ii. p. 1.
9 Fallmerayer soon changed his mind when he got back to Salonica.
His recantation occurs someway further on in his work, but it is amusing to
put the two passages side by side:-"Thirty days' penitential living on the
Holy Mountain had forcibly reduced my spirits to a low pitch, and lent an
impulse to the longing to enter once more within the sphere of European
life. If the moral law could only be satisfied at such a price, I honestly
confess that, little as I care for elaborate enjoyments, I should still occupy a
very low position in the scale of righteousness.' And again:-"The
eagerness with which, immediately after my journey to Athos, I devoured
the political contents of the Augsburg, Paris, Malta, and Smyrna news-
papers, perused the scientific reviews, and foraged in the select library of our
hospitable consul, clearly showed how empty and unenjoyable life would be
without the range of European ideas."-pp. 147-150
1
CHAP. IV.
Mysticism.
91
the name of Hesychasts (novɣáčovτes) or Quietists. Of
these persons, and their dogma concerning the light of
Tabor, we shall have to speak further on. Whether
religious contemplation forms any part of the life of the
monks of the present day, it is very difficult to discover.
Amongst those of the lower grades, of course, we should
not expect to find it; the sum of their religious views is
that heaven is to be won by mortification of the flesh
and constant attendance on the Church services. But in
the ranks of the more educated monks there is reason to
believe that some devote themselves to it, and it is
affirmed that the images which fill their minds are
mainly drawn from the book of Revelation, and that in
some circles traces of the spirit of mediæval mysticism
may still be discovered.10
Continuing our journey from Iveron the next day, we
rode for some distance along the coast, and then struck
up the side of the mountain, through groves of ilex,
arbutus, and catalpa, to Philotheu, which lies in a retired
but pretty situation, rather more than a mile from the
sea. It is the smallest monastery, containing only twenty-
five monks, and very simple-minded they seemed. They
spoke with pleasure of the smallness of their society, as a
source of quiet, but in winter, they said, the cold was very
great, owing to their elevated position, the snow often
lying on the ground for several days together. When I
asked whether they did not in consequence feel the severe
fasting very much, they replied that this was the case, so
that it even injured their health; in some ancient histories
(παλαιὰ συγγράμματα) they had read that the Egyptian
monks used sometimes to eat hardly anything for weeks
together, and they wished they could imitate them; but
10 See Gass's 'Commentatio Historica,' p. 53.
92
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
there the climate was warm, and on Athos it was impos-
sible to do so. They referred with some bitterness to
the comparatively easy lives led by the monks in the
larger convents. The church here has the unusual feature
of a tower with a sloping roof, rising from the middle of
the proaulion. They possess a curious cross, ornamented
with ancient pearls, diamonds and emeralds.
From this place we descended to the path we had left,
and after proceeding some way further along the lower
slopes, once more climbed the mountain side to Cara-
calla, which occupies one of the finest positions on Athos,
at the head of a gorge, with cultivated land, vineyards,
and hazel groves about it, a wide expanse of sea below,
and banks of woodland above, over which the great peak
was visible. This place was the scene of Mr. Curzon's
amusing story of the Abbot and the nuts, and we were
forcibly reminded of it, for it was the nutting season, and
all hands were busily engaged in gathering and storing
them; the floor of one passage, which led to the guest
chamber, was covered with them several inches deep."
The hegumen, however, on this occasion was an agree-
able and sensible man, and talked more refined Greek
than most of the monks; he had been a monk at Jeru-
salem, and had resided on Athos ten years. At dinner
we were presented with the round Eucharistic cakes (πρоσ-
popá) which are used in the Greek Church, stamped in
the centre with the words "Jesus Christ conquers" ('Inooûs
Xpioτòs vika). When the monk who waited on us saw
that we hesitated to eat them, not knowing whether they
11 In default of a better explanation of the strange name of this monas-
tery I would suggest that, like Caryes, it is derived from these nuts.
Kápvai kaλaí (the 'fine hazels') might, without much difficulty, be cor-
rupted into Caracalla. The received story is that the convent was founded
by one Antoniųs, the son of a Roman prince named Caracalla.
CHAP. IV.
Caracalla.
93
were intended for a common meal, he said, “Don't be
afraid,—it's not sinful." We found that they are set before
strangers because they are made of finer flour than what
is commonly used in the monasteries. Our saltcellar and
tumblers were curious specimens of old glass, and my
tumbler in particular was engraved with most unmonastic
Cupids. They may not improbably have come from
Venice.
The road from Caracalla to the Lavra lies through the
scenery which I have already described as the most
beautiful in the peninsula. Its bowery glades were all
the more delightful after the intense heat of the midday
sun, which caused us to linger at the former monastery.
As we also stopped to bathe about sunset, on a beach
composed of pebbles of white marble, it was moonlight
when we reached our destination, and the gates were
closed; after knocking for a long time, and answering
numerous questions which were put to us from within, to
guard against the intrusion of objectionable visitors, we
were at length admitted. The name Lavra, or Laura,
signifies a street of cells, the early form of a monastery,
and was given to this place as being the monastery par
excellence, for it was once the largest on Athos, though it
has somewhat declined of late years. It is situated at
the south-east angle of the peninsula, and overlooks the
sea at a height of some hundred feet, having a port
below, guarded by a small fortress. It is the nearest
point to the Island of Lemnos, which forms a conspicuous
object, though at supper-time we discovered that the
distance must be considerable, for the eggs of the monas-
tery are brought from farms which they possess there
(hens, as I have said, not being allowed on the Holy
Mountain), and those which were set before us had taken
so long on the passage that we were obliged to dismiss
94
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
them through the window, as soon as the monk who
waited on us had left the room. During the night
the neighbouring hill-sides frequently resounded with
loud shouts and discharges of fire-arms, intended to
drive away the numerous jackals (Takáλia) which prey
upon the vineyards.
We received great attention and kindness from the
superiors of this society, but they seemed to care less
about improvements or the introduction of learning than
most that we had seen. One of them, called Melchize-
deck, a man of vast proportions, and overflowing with
fun and humour, was a well-known character on the Holy
Mountain. "Have you seen that great, stout man, Mel-
chizedeck of the Lavra?" was a question more than once
put to us in other monasteries. The stories that were
abroad in Salonica relative to some extremely rough-
handed proceedings of his, certainly did not go to show
that he was possessed of either a meek or a spiritual
temperament, but whether or no the contrast which his
burly frame and worldly ways presented to the ordinary
monastic type had made an impression on his brethren,
he certainly assumed something of the aspect of a hero
in their eyes.
The date of the foundation of the Lavra
goes back to about the year 963, when a man of noble
birth in Trebizond, who had been educated at Constan-
tinople, and had subsequently devoted himself with great
zeal to the monastic life, came to Athos, and set to work
to establish it. He took the name of Athanasius, and
though there is evidence of another regular monastery
having existed on the Holy Mountain before this time,
he found the monks and ascetics so scattered about
throughout the peninsula, and in such a state of poverty,
that he may virtually be regarded as the originator of
the present conventual system. His great supporter in
CHAP. IV.
The Lavra.
95
this work was the Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, to whom
he had made a prediction that he would repulse the
Saracens ; and when that came to pass, the grateful com-
mander (it was before he came to the throne) sent a
large sum of money from the spoils of his victory towards
the erection of the new monastery. The principal church
is probably coeval with its foundation, for it shows signs
of great antiquity. The cupola, which is unusually large,
is decorated at the top with a figure of Christ in mosaic;
and in the eastern apse, behind the altar, is the bishop's
seat in stone, flanked with stone benches for the pres-
byters, according to the arrangement which is found in a
few very early churches in the west, such as San Cle-
mente at Rome, and Torcello at Venice. We were also
shown a very old mosaic, finely executed, representing
St. John the Evangelist, contained in a frame of delicate
filigree work in gold or silver gilt, in which are set mi-
niatures of the founder of the monastery.
Some of the relics preserved in this monastery are
magnificent works of art, and were it not for fear of
wearying the reader I would willingly describe both these
and many others which are found elsewhere. As it is, I
shall mention only a few of them here and there, referring
those who are interested in the subject to Mr. Curzon's
book for more detailed information. But as an account
of the mountain would be incomplete without some
general remarks on this point, I will here add a few words
about them. They are mainly composed of heads, limbs,
and bones of saints, partially cased in silver, and pieces
of the true cross, which are frequently surrounded by
filigree and flower work in metal, of great antiquity and
the most exquisite workmanship. The caskets in which
these are kept are often superb specimens of the gold-
smith's art, and ornamented with diamonds, extremely
96
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
rare from their antiquity, and pearls, rubies, and emeralds,
of immense size, and for the most part uncut. As works
of art, however, they are not appreciated by the monks,
who value the relics themselves, and not their decora-
tions. They are always kept behind the Iconostase, near
the Holy Table, and are brought out and arranged on a
kind of desk when they are to be shown to pilgrims and
visitors. It was curious to observe the various degrees of
respect with which they were treated in different monas-
teries. Generally the candles were lighted in their
honour, and the priest who handled them put on his
stole (eπiτρaɣýλov).; but in some places the caloyers
treated them with the utmost veneration, keeping silence
in their presence, and kissing them fervently; in others
they treated the exhibition more as a matter of course,
and here and there they knew very little about them.
Actual carelessness or irreverence we never saw; the
nearest approach to it was on the present occasion, at
the Lavra, when Melchizedech, as we were looking at
them, observed aside to our dragoman, "When I am
dead, and they preserve my relics, it will cost the
monastery a precious lot to case my head with silver!"
Early the next morning we sallied forth to visit a
Retreat (κáðιoμa), which lies on the hill-side a few hun-
dred yards above the monastery. The life in these
Retreats, and in the sketes, which are composed of asso-
ciations of them, differs from that in the convents, in
respect of the amount of manual labour which is per-
formed in the former. In these reside most of the arti-
sans, by whom the shops at Caryes, and through them the
monasteries, are provided with clothing and other neces-
sary articles. In consequence of their laborious occupa-
tions, their inmates are considered to live a very severe life,
and I was certainly far more favourably impressed with
CHAP. IV.
Retreat of "The Forerunner."
97
these societies than with the convents. The one towards
which our steps were now directed is dedicated to "The
Forerunner" (å åɣios πρódpoµos), as St. John the Baptist
is called. The building itself has nothing to distinguish
it from an ordinary cottage, except that in one part the
apse and dome of a small chapel peep out; on different
sides of it rise superb cypresses, while the sloping hill-
side below is covered with well-tended vineyards, which
are cultivated by the monks themselves, and afford a
proof of their careful husbandry. It was tenanted by
four monks, one of whom was a priest, in consequence of
which they were able to have all the services in their own
chapel. Where this is not the case, the lay monks per-
form the ordinary services for themselves, and go for the
Eucharistic service to some neighbouring monastery.
They shewed us their cells, which were clean and well
kept, and the workshop, where they make stockings and
monks' caps, by which they get their livelihood. Very
simple, gentle men they were, and appeared perfectly
contented. They were surprised, but much pleased by
our visit, and pressed us to partake of the same kind of
refreshments as were brought to us on our arrival at a
convent, but which we had not expected here. They
were especially proud of their light water, the spring at
the back of the retreat having been given to their prede-
cessors by St. Athanasius, the founder of the Lavra.
One old caloyer had come from "the city," i. e., Constan-
tinople,¹² at fifteen years of age, and had remained fifty
12 The constant use of the term wóλs for Constantinople throughout
the Ægean, just as, in England, London is called "town," confirms the
derivation of Stamboul from eis Thν Tóλw. There is, however, something
to be said for the derivation from Constantinopolis, the first syllable having
been lost (as in Salonica, from Thessalonica), and the rest compressed, as
is constantly the case with names of places. Stantinopol would easily pass
into Stamboul.
VOL. I.
H
98
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
years on Athos, without once leaving it. They had a
balcony, commanding a bird's-eye view of the monastery,
together with its little harbour and tower below, and the
wide blue sea beyond, with the islands of Lemnos, Imbros,
and Samothrace. The monks delight in their views,
though they rarely speak of them, and never criticise
them: a fact which is worthy of the consideration of
those who think that the ancient Greeks had no appre-
ciation of natural scenery, because it is so little noticed
in their writings. There was something very primitive
and very prepossessing in the life of these men. If any
one would see how near a resemblance to the life of
the fourth century may be found in the nineteenth, I
would ask him to compare this slight sketch with the
elaborate and beautiful description of the Laura of Scetis,
in Upper Egypt, in the first chapter of Mr. Kingsley's
'Hypatia.'
Returning to the monastery, I stopped at a kiosk, or
summer-house, outside the gateway, to talk to two monks
and a secular, whom I found seated there. After the
usual questions about the health of the Queen, the con-
versation turned on the Suez canal, which was in every-
body's mouth at that time. Lord Palmerston's unreason-
able opposition to this scheme appeared for the moment
to have seriously damaged the prestige of England in
the East, for the idea was just one of those which capti-
vate the Oriental imagination, and it seemed an act of
selfishness on the part of England to obstruct it. Con-
sequently M. de Lesseps was everywhere a hero. This
subject naturally led to the canal of Xerxes, of the his-
tory of which the secular was aware. He had also re-
marked, what I myself observed on a former occasion,—
though, as far as I know, it has not been noticed in any
book of travels,—that a similar, though narrower and
CHAP. IV.
A Conversation on Canals.
99
shallower, dike has been cut through the Isthmus of Pal-
lene, the westernmost of the three peninsulas of Chalci-
dice. It runs across from sea to sea, and is now filled
with sand, and two dry lagoons have been formed at its
western end; on account of its narrowness, it never could
have been passable except for boats and small vessels.
Its length is about half a mile, and it was probably the
work of the Venetians at the time when they occupied
Salonica, as a wall of Venetian construction runs along
the slopes on the southern side of it, near the site of the
ancient Cassandra or Potidea.
One principal object which we had in view in visiting
Athos at this time was to be present at the festival of the
Transfiguration, which is celebrated on the summit of
the peak, on the 6th of August (old style). Any monk
from any of the monasteries is welcome to attend it,
though it is quite a voluntary matter; and we found that
they regarded the mountain expedition not by any means
as a member of the Alpine Club would have regarded it,
but in the light of a pilgrimage. We had arranged our
plans so as to arrive at the Lavra, which is the nearest
monastery, two days before: the monks, however, we
found, had already started to make their preparations.
Accordingly, on the afternoon of the day after our arrival,
that is, on the eve of the festival, we rode along the paths
which skirt the sea-face of the great peak at some height
above the sea, until we reached the Retreat of St. Deme-
trius, one of the few buildings which stand at the southern
end of the peninsula, where the ground descends with
great steepness to the sea. It contained 12 monks, en-
gaged in different occupations, but working for a common
stock. Going into one of the rooms, I found a painter
sitting by a window, which opened out on a lovely gorge
running down to the sea, and engaged in painting on a
H 2
Um
100
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
thick block of wood a picture in exactly the same style
as those from which the early Italian artists copied. He
was a small, emaciated, delicate-looking man, with a pen-
sive countenance, and quite realised my idea of a me-
diæval artist. He wore the Great Habit (uéya oxîμa), a
σχήμα),
kind of breastplate or stomacher of a woollen material,
worked with a cross and other devices, which is the sign
of the highest grade of monastic austerity. I afterwards
discovered that he was a free Greek from Vostitza, on the
Corinthian Gulf. He was so intent on his work that at
first he hardly noticed me; and I watched him for some
time, as he worked on without a copy, and yet too
rapidly and mechanically to allow me to suppose that he
was painting from imagination. However, when I asked
him some questions, and he saw that I was interested in
his art, he put down his brush, and showed me the secret
of his inspiration-the 'Guide to Painting' of Dionysius of
Agrapha, which has been translated into French by M.
Didron, under the title of 'Manuel d'Iconographie Chré-
tienne,' from a MS. which he obtained from Athos. This
remarkable book, compiled at an unknown, but very
early period, by a man who professed himself a diligent
student of the works of Panselenus, contains the expla-
nation of the singular uniformity of design in the paint-
ings, both ancient and modern, of the Greek Church, as
it is composed of rules, very often of a minute descrip-
tion, for the treatment of all kinds of sacred subjects,
specifying the position and attitudes of the figures, the
expression of the faces, and the backgrounds and accom-
paniments. The art of painting has existed uninter-
ruptedly on Athos, and it has possessed, and still pos-
sesses, so many artists, that we may say with M. Didron,
"c'est véritablement l'Italie de l'église orientale." Sir
Thomas Wyse tells us, in his 'Excursion in the Pelopon-
CHAP. IV.
A Sporting Monk.
ΙΟΙ
nese,' 13 that he found one of the churches in Laconia, at
the time of his visit, being decorated by a painter from
the Holy Mountain.
Having left our baggage-mule at the retreat, we
ascended from thence through forests of beech and fir, by
an extremely steep mule-track, commanding views of
indescribable beauty, until about sunset we arrived at a
Chapel of the Virgin, situated in the midst of grassy
slopes on a rocky projection of the mountain, just where
the trees begin to cease. From this point the two other
peninsulas, which form the trident of Chalcidice, were
visible, and to the south the line of small islands which
run off from the north of Eubœa : far below us a steamer
was making its way like a fly on the water. A few
monks were here, preparing, in an immense stewpan, the
viands for the next day,—a suspicious-looking mess of fish
and vegetables, of which they gave us a dish for supper.
After this repast we commenced the ascent on foot, ac-
companied by two monks, one of whom was a sportsman
and carried his gun, a curious contrast to his monastic
dress, and talked with evident satisfaction of the price
which wild boars fetched, when killed and exported.
Before long the other monk and our dragoman fell into
the rear; but our sporting friend was in training, and we
soon found ourselves rapidly mounting by a rough zig-
zag path, and scaling the white marble summits, which
looked almost like snow-peaks in the light of the bril-
liant moon. After about an hour of this work, when we
had almost reached the top, we sat down to wait for our
companions, to listen to the tinkling bells of the mules in
the distance, and to watch the moonbeams streaming on
the water thousands of feet below us. Our sportsman
whiled away the time by relating to us some of the
13 Vol i. p. 83.
102
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
legends of the mountain; how, before the birth of Christ,
a heathen image had existed on the summit ; 14 and how St.
Athanasius, the founder of the Lavra, had destroyed it;
and how, when he was building his monastery, the Devil,
according to that legend so common throughout Chris-
tendom, had thrown down the stones by night which he
had put together by day. As a great mountain has the
power of attracting legends, let me add a few of those
which at different times have gathered round this peak.
Listen to Sir John Maundeville's account in the fourteenth
century. "And there is another Hille, that is clept
Athos, that is so highe, that the Schadewe of hym
rechethe to Lampne 15 (Lemnos), that is an Ile; and it
is 76 Myle betwene. And aboven at the cop of the
Hille, is the Eir so cleer, that Men may fynde no Wynd
there. And therefore may no Best lyve there; and so
is the Eyr drye. And Men seye in theise Contrees that
Philosophres som tyme wenten upon theise Hilles, and
helden to here Nose a Spounge moysted with Watre, for
to have Eyr; for the Eyr above was so drye. And
aboven, in the Dust and in the Powder of tho Hilles, thei
wroot Lettres and Figures with hire Fingres: and at the
zeres ende thei comen azen, and founden the same
Lettres and Figures, the whiche thei hadde writen the
zeer before, withouten ony defaute. And therfore it
semethe wel, that theise Hilles passen the Clowdes and
joynen to the pure Eyr." 16 Another tradition is said to
have related that it was on this mountain that Satan
placed our Lord at the Temptation; and here, in 1821,
just before the Greek Revolution, a cross of light was
14 There seems to have been an altar to Zeus here, as on many "high
places" in Greece. See 'Pomp. Mela.', ii. 2.
A
15 The story dates from classical times. See Pliny, iv. 12.
16 Maundeville's 'Travels,' p. 20.
CHAP. IV.
Ascent of the Peak.
103
seen by the monks, with the words "in this conquer." 17
At present, however, there is no trace remaining of these
legends.
The summit of the mountain rises to so sharp a point,
that it only just leaves room for a small chapel, dedi-
cated to the Transfiguration, on the north side of which
the crags descend in tremendous precipices, while to the
south is a narrow platform of rock, a few feet wide, from
which again the cliffs fall rapidly away. As we ap-
proached from the east, we first heard the sound of
chanting from within the chapel, and when we came
round to the platform in front, a scene appeared which
I shall never forget. Distinctly seen in the moonlight
were the weird, ghostly figures of the monks, closely
wrapped in their gowns, with long dark beards and
unshorn locks, some sitting close to the window of the
little chapel, where service was going on, some lying
about in groups, like the figures of the three Apostles in
Raphael's picture of the Transfiguration; and on going
about to different points we could see them lying relieved
against the white rocks, or dimly seen in the dark
shadows,—themselves "a shadowy band." There were
about sixty of them, besides a number of Russian
pilgrims. We were not less an object of wonder to them
than they were to us; they even forgot the usual saluta-
tions. "Where do you come from?” (ảπò πоû cîoße) was
all that they could say. We told them we were English-
men, and that we came from the Lavra; on learning
which they brought us to the wood fire they had lighted,
and made some coffee for us. In connection with the
fire, the classical reader will remember that this peak was
one of the stations of the fire-beacons, which carried Aga-
17 Sir G. F. Bowen's 'Mount Athos, Thessaly, and Albania,' p. 52.
104
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
memnon's telegram to Clytemnestra. At intervals, as
we sat there, the priest came out, arrayed in gorgeous
vestments, and swung the incense about us; until at last,
as the vigil service lasted the whole night, I betook
myself to a small cornice in the rock, where I slept,
wrapt in my plaid, for a couple of hours; after which
I lay awake, gazing up into the bright heaven, and
feeling the strange sensation of being elevated on such a
rocky pinnacle, with nothing but sea and sky around.
One could almost realise the feelings of Simeon Stylites.
At dawn the service ceased, and the monks kissed one
another, and were sprinkled with holy water. When the
sun rose, the shadow of the peak was projected over sea
and land to the west in a distinctly marked pyramid;
but daylight added little to the view, as the greater part
of the peninsulas of Athos and Sithonia had been visible
during the night, and the distance was hazy. Eight of
the monasteries, however, could be distinguished, and
the expanse of sea was an extraordinary sight. On a
clear day both Ida and Olympus may be seen.
Half an
hour after sunrise the Eucharistic service-the Liturgy,
as it is called-commenced; and at its conclusion a
bunch of grapes was brought in and blessed, this being
the first day on which they are allowed to be eaten.
They then descended the mountain by the zigzag path
in companies, singing psalms; and after breakfasting on
the grass by the chapel of the Virgin, we dispersed
to our several destinations.
There is an interest attaching to this festival, indepen-
dent of its strangeness, from its carrying us back to a
theological discussion of the 14th century, which was the
ne plus ultra of controversial folly. In the only passage
in Gibbon's history in which the monks of Athos are
CHAP. IV. Festival of the Transfiguration.
105
mentioned,18 the historian points one of his bitterest
sneers by a reference to the dispute as to the divine
light of Mount Tabor, which was the doctrine of the
Hesychasts, who maintained that after long abstinence
and contemplation they could see in the middle of their
belly, which was the seat of the soul, the light which
appeared to the disciples at the transfiguration of Christ,
and that this light was part of the essence of God him-
self, and therefore immortal and eternal. This view,
which Gibbon describes as the product of an empty
stomach and an empty brain, was combated by a Cala-
brian monk called Barlaam, and thereupon a fierce dis-
cussion arose, which ended in the discomfiture and
condemnation of the sceptic, and the establishment of
the doctrine of the uncreated light of Tabor. I en-
deavoured to discover if any traces of this controversy
were still remaining, but I could find none. No monk
now expected to see this light in ecstatic moments; the
name of Barlaam was almost unknown, and the contro-
versy forgotten: and though they still maintained that
the light of the Transfiguration was an uncreated light,
they did not anathematize those who held the contrary.
Indeed, not only on this, but on most points connected
with religion, I was forcibly struck by their breadth of
view, which made itself seen in the midst of much forma-
lism and superstition, and by their tolerance of others'
opinions, and charitable feelings towards other Christian
communions.19
Owing to the exposed position and southern aspect of
this peak, the flowers were almost all past at this season
18 Smith's 'Gibbon,' vii. 404. Compare Mosheim, ii. 660.
19 On this, as a characteristic of Eastern Christendom, see Stanley's
'Eastern Church,' p. 57.
106
CHAP. IV.
Mount Athos.
of the year, notwithstanding its great elevation. At the
time of my former visit, however, which happened early
in June, 1853, I found a considerable number, and it may
be worth while to mention some of those which occur in
the upper parts. Above the region of trees were Viola
tricolor, Saxifraga media, Saxifraga aizoon, Vesicaria
utriculata; and in 1861 I found Saxifraga porophylla and
Centaurea aurea. Within the region of trees were first
Asphodelus luteus and Epipactis grandiflora; and some-
what lower down Melittis, melissophyllum, Epipactis rubra,
and Atropa belladonna.
( 107 )
CHAPTER V.
MOUNT ATHOS (continued).
Descent to the Skete of St. Anne-St. Paul's-A Monastic meal
meal-St.
Dionysius - St. Gregory's Simopetra Russians and Greeks
Xeropotamu—Ancient diamonds-Xenophu-Docheiareiu-A Hermit
Constamonitu - Monastic group
Chilandari - The
Monks' views of other Churches.
Zographu
We now descended on the side of the mountain opposite
to the Lavra, and entered on the first of a succession of
dreadful roads, which run along the precipices of the
south-west part of the peninsula, the like of which I have
never seen in any country. These are sometimes cut or
worn in the rocks, which overlook the sea at a height
of several hundred feet; and sometimes, as in this first
part of the descent, are formed of a series of steps, to
which the sagacious mules of the mountain are ac-
customed, but which would be almost impassable to any
other beasts of burden. These pathways are said to
have been made by a former bishop, who resided on
Athos, and is looked back to as a great benefactor; they
are of the same kind as those commonly found in the
mountainous parts of Turkey, the stone steps being
intended to support the ground, and prevent the soil
from falling away; indeed, in the winter, when the
torrents come down from the heights, if it were not for
these, the means of communication would be entirely
destroyed; but in summer, from the hardness of the
limestone of which they are composed, they become as
slippery as glass, and greatly increase the difficulty of
108
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
travelling. At the bottom of the first long descent,
following a narrow cornice in the rock, we reached the
skete of St. Anne, which stands in a most precipitous
position, and still at a great elevation above the sea;
near its site is said to have been the place called
Nymphæum in classical times; and if Virgil's description
of such a spot--
"In front, retiring from the wave,?
Opes on the view a rock-hung cave,
A home that nymphs might call their own,
Fresh springs, and seats of living stone
may guide us in our search for it, it would seem to corre-
spond very charmingly. The dwellings of the monks
are grouped round a central church, and niched pic-
turesquely in the terraced cliffs. Amongst its 120
members it numbers many of the best artificers on Athos,
including painters, calligraphers (who, however, are
merely copiers of liturgies and other manuscripts), and
singers (áλrai), who go about to different monasteries
for the great festivals. But the particular branch of the
fine arts, of which this is the principal home, and for
which the monks of Athos have been celebrated from
time immemorial, is wood carving. This is employed
both for the decoration of the churches, and for the
manufacture of crosses and other mementos, which are
bought by pilgrims, and are frequently of extreme
delicacy and almost Chinese minuteness. A colony of
carvers has existed at this skete for many centuries.
They are mentioned by Archbishop Georgirenes in the
17th century, and had probably been there long before
his time. The most famous, however, of all the artificers
of the present day is a monk of the neighbouring
CHAP. V.
Monastery of St. Paul.
109
monastery of St. Paul, called Cosmas, who, when we saw
him, was engaged on a very large and elaborate piece of
work, which he was intending to send to the Great Exhi
bition of 1862.
We reached St. Paul's early in the afternoon. It
stands on one side of a wide and deep gully, which runs
down to the sea from the base of the great peak, and is
inhabited mainly by Greeks from the Ionian islands
(ἑπτανήσιοι), who consequently at that time were British
subjects. They entertained us in first-rate style, and
two fowls (cocks, of course), which were reserved for
distinguished visitors, were slaughtered in our honour;
but we could not avoid the uncomfortable feeling that
we were treated rather as the patrons of "rayahs;" and
it seemed to be an object with them to get us to say a
word for them to the Consul at Salonica about a farm on
the peninsula of Sithonia, concerning which they had a
dispute with the monastery of St. Dionysius. Litigation
is now, as it always has been, the bane of these societies.
Another point in their life, which I may notice here, is
the wonderfully intimate knowledge the monks have of
what is going on in other monasteries. They seem to
visit one another very little, though, when they do so,
they are received in a very friendly and fraternal manner;
but, notwithstanding this, if any hegumen left his
monastery, or any other trivial occurrence happened in
any other society, they appeared at once to get wind of
it. There must be a vast amount of gossip on Athos.
As this was a festival day we had an opportunity of
being present at a monastic meal. There is generally a
little difficulty in persuading the monks to admit you to
their public meals, as they consider it a greater honour
that you should be entertained alone, or with some of the
IIO
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
dignitaries, and thus they are able to set before you some-
what better fare than is allowed at the common table. On
this occasion we asked permission, as a special favour, and
no objection was made. When dinner was ready, one of
the superiors, in the absence of the hegumen, came to
escort us to the refectory,-a room having the propor-
tions of a college hall, but with a flat roof, and entered
by a doorway in the middle of one side, opposite to
which there runs off a semicircular alcove. Two rows of
pillars run down the hall, thus dividing it into a nave
and aisles: the nave was left open, while the aisles were
occupied by oblong tables, placed across between the
wall and the pillars, each accommodating eight persons.
At the upper end of the nave was the high table, a
semicircular marble slab, at which we were seated with
three of the principal monks: the rest of the dark-robed
company sat at the other tables, and at the bottom of
the hall were some Russian pilgrims, who had come for
the festival. Besides a piece of bread and a tankard of
light red wine, two small dishes of fish and a pear were
set before each of us. During dinner one of the monks
read a homily on the Transfiguration from a lectern
placed near our table: there was a pulpit attached to the
wall near the centre of the building, intended for this
purpose, but it did not seem to be used. Talking, of
course, was interdicted. At the conclusion of the meal
the reader prostrated himself before the Superior, and
received from him a piece of bread, in token that he was
allowed to have his dinner : after this all rose, and turned
to the East, while the Superior said grace, and then we
filed out of the hall. As we passed through the door-
way, the two cooks and the reader prostrated themselves
on the steps, and remained in that position until all the
CHAP. V.
A Monastic Meal,
III
brethren had gone by, to signify that they asked pardon
for any shortcomings in the entertainment.
The saint from whom this monastery takes its name is
not the Apostle of the Gentiles, but a monk who was its
founder in the fourteenth century. Among the relics is
kept an iron cross, which he used to wear suspended from
his neck. There is also a large silver cross, set with
jewels, which I have not seen mentioned elsewhere; it
stands about 3 feet high, and has exquisite miniature
pictures in enamel inlaid in it, the heads of the saints
being encircled with tiny pearls. It is a superb work of
art, and is said by the monks to have been the gift of the
Emperor Constantine Romanus, though what emperor
they meant I cannot tell. The principal church is of
recent erection, and differs from the usual type in having
no wall of separation between the body of the church and
the narthex. The division is made by a curtain instead,
the effect of which is not very good; the use of it, how-
ever, is ancient, for similar ones are represented in the
mosaics of S. Apollinare di dentro at Ravenna. Another
consequence of this arrangement is that other pillars are
introduced besides the four that support the central
cupola. This assimilates the building more to the western
type, but it greatly destroys the unity and proportion, in
which the impressiveness of a Byzantine interior consists.
The precipices which intervene between this monastery
and that of St. Dionysius are so tremendous, and the
paths so bad, that the monks do not like their mules to
go that way. Accordingly we were provided with a boat
and two naval caloyers (ναυτικοὶ καλόγεροι), who rowed
us round, and landed us under the latter convent, which
stands on a steep rock that projects over the sea from
the mountain-side. Owing to its position, it is much
112
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
confined for room, and only contains sixty monks, though
it holds a high rank among the other convents. The
buildings, though closely packed together, are among the
handsomest on Athos, especially the church, the refec-
tory, and a corridor with pillars in front of that struc-
ture, all of which are covered with frescoes and gilding.
A young monk, who had been a pupil of an older
member of the same society, was restoring some of these
paintings. The illuminated MSS. also, and the relics
which are kept in the church, are singularly fine. The
casket in which one of these, the arm of St. Nephon, is
kept, is one of the most curious remains of ancient art.
It is thus very accurately described by Mr. Curzon :-
"This shrine was the gift of Neagulus, Waywode or Hos-
podar of Wallachia. It is about 2 feet long and 2 feet
high, and is in the shape of a Byzantine church; the
material is silver gilt, but the admirable and singular
style of the workmanship gives it a value far surpassing
its intrinsic worth. The roof is covered with five domes
of gold; on each side it has sixteen recesses, in which
are portraits of the saints in niello, and at each end there
are eight others. All the windows are enriched in open-
work tracery, of a strange sort of Gothic pattern, unlike
anything in Europe. It is altogether a wonderful and
precious monument of ancient art, the production of an
almost unknown country, rich, quaint, and original in its
design and execution, and is indeed one of the most
curious objects on Mount Athos." Several other works
of art, which Mr. Curzon describes, are now no longer
shown, and some of them the monks refuse to acknow-
ledge that they possess, saying that they have been car-
ried off by the Turks, or making some other excuse: but
1 'Monasteries of the Levant,' p. 382.
CHAP. V.
St. Dionysius'.
113
on both occasions that I have visited this convent I have
found its inmates singularly suspicious, and unwilling to
show their treasures. The library, in which the MSS. are
kept, is over the church porch: while we were there I
had a long conversation on theological subjects with the
librarian, who was the best-informed person we had met
with on Athos, while other pale fathers sat round, stern
and grim, looking like the impersonifications of contro-
versial theology. We talked of the light of Tabor, the
differences of the Greek and Anglican churches, and
many other points; and I found him quite up to the
subjects under discussion, and quick in his way of putting
his arguments. Amongst other things, he asked why our
priests shaved, not suspecting how soon the Anglican
clergy might be converted to the practice of the Ortho-
dox. This, however, he allowed to be an unimportant
point, though such has not always been the case, as is
shown by the remark of Sir John Maundeville :-" Also
thei saye that wee synne dedly in schavynge our
bèrdes."2
Returning to our boat, we coasted along to St. Gre-
gory's, a monastery of 100 monks, mostly from free Greece,
which lies under the rocks close to the sea. It is the
poorest of all, and as it has been rebuilt within the last
hundred years there is nothing to see. So, after a long
talk with the hegumen, an earnest and intelligent man,
who had been a merchant in his early life, and afterwards
was a monk at St. Paul's, we re-embarked and rowed in
the direction of Simopetra, or the rock of Simon, the
anchorite, the most remarkable in its situation of all
the monasteries, which is conspicuous from a long dis-
tance off on this side of the mountain. We landed at a
2 Maundeville's 'Travels,' p. 24.
VOL. I.
I
114
CHAP. V..
Mount Athos.
tiny port, provided with a pier and landing-place, above
which the monastery towers, perched on a rock, at a
height of 800 feet. Shortly after our arrival a monk
appeared, and finding that we wanted our saddle-bags.
carried up, took out a large speaking - trumpet and
shouted through it to the monastery in Greek, "two
mules" (dúo μvλápia). He was answered from above,
and not long after, as we sauntered up the zigzag path,
we met the animals on their way down. Just below the
monastery the ground is carefully made into terraces,
where vegetables are grown, while vines and gourds trail
over the high supporting walls. From these rises the
perpendicular rock on which the building stands, isolated
on all sides from the surrounding ground, except at the
back, where it is joined to the cliffs by an aqueduct with
two rows of arches. The upper part of its high walls is
lined with wooden balconies and corridors, which are
supported on projecting brackets, and rise, tier above-
tier, to the roof, with the most picturesque irregularity.
Inside, the buildings are most curiously packed away.
In the lower part are the storehouses, between the side
walls and the upper part of the rock which crops out in
the interior court; the court itself is so narrow that the
whole building has been roofed over, the light penetrating
by side windows and a variety of openings and crevices.
In consequence of this the church is not isolated, as in
most of the monasteries, but closely surrounded by the
other buildings, and its walls are pierced with numerous
windows for a Byzantine edifice, in order to admit more
light into the interior. The view from it is magnificent,
comprising a wide expanse of sea, with the opposite
coast of Sithonia, and towards the south the steep cliffs of
the peninsula and the peak of Athos. It was a superb
sight at nightfall to see the vaporous clouds gather like a
CHAP. V.
Simopetra.
115
glory on the summit, and creep down or circulate round
it, while the moon rose and poured her golden light over
the whole scene.
Amongst the inmates of this convent there was an old
Russian monk, who was evidently the butt of the others.
Poor old fellow! five-and-twenty years he had been in
the monastery, and yet he could hardly speak a word of
Greek. "Two, three words I know," he said; "wine,
bread-no more." His principal companion was a clever
tom-cat, which he had trained to turn most wonderful
somersaults, and which was brought out into the court of
the monastery to perform before us. "Ah!" exclaimed a
sharp-witted young Zantiote, who was standing by, with
a look of compassion, "the Russians are thick-skulled" (oi
Ρώσσοι είναι χονδροκέφαλοι). Besides this Zantiote there
was another very clever young monk-the same, whom
I have mentioned as finding difficulties in Thucydides,
who for inquisitiveness and thirst for knowledge was a
thorough Greek, and a striking contrast to the Russian.
He knew all about the Greek authors and their dialects,
and his acquaintance with ancient Greek history was as
minute as if he had just been preparing it for an examina-
tion. Again, he was perfectly familiar with modern
European geography, and understood the position of
second-rate towns, such as Strasburg and Buda. He
asked numerous questions about the "English Episcopal
Protestant (Siapapтupovµévn) Church," and when he dis-
covered my companion was in the militia he asked
for information about the English army, the different
branches of the service, the sub-divisions of the regi-
ments, the officers, and a variety of other points. Seeing
that he had an evident taste for secular subjects, I was
curious to discover whether a grain of scepticism had
entered his mind with regard to the system of beliefs by
I 2
116
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
which he was surrounded, and accordingly I put one or
two leading questions to test this; but nothing of the
kind was traceable. He spoke of the miraculous legends
with the same simple faith as the others, and on any
point of doctrine referred at once to the Councils as
being of unquestionable authority.
The next morning a three hours' ride over the moun-
tains, in the midst of scattered shrubs, with views of the
sea far below, brought us to the monastery of Xero-
potamu, or "The Torrent," which is so called from the
ravine and river-bed which lies directly beneath it. The
Superior, by whom we were entertained during the few
hours we spent there, had been a grocer at Corfu, and
though he talked of the delights of tranquillity, yet the
fidgetty restlessness of his manner suggested the idea
that he would have been much happier behind the
counter. In his company we visited the church, which is
truly magnificent, perhaps the finest on Athos, and con-
tains two very remarkable relics. One of these is a frag-
ment of the true cross, and consists of one long piece of
dark wood, and two cross pieces, one above the other,
the upper one, which is the shorter of the two, being
intended for the superscription. Though not exactly a
crucifix, it has a small figure of our Lord on the middle
of it, in ivory or bone; from the great abhorrence in which
anything approaching an image is held in the Greek
Church, even this would probably not have been spared,
had it not been a reputed present from the Empress
Pulcheria. Near the foot is a representation in gold
plate of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and under it,
in ancient Greek characters, the inscription, Kovoтavτívov
Εὐφροσύνης καὶ τῶν τέκνων; but what is most remark-
able about it is the wonderful size of the uncut diamonds
and emeralds with which it is set. This is, in all
1
CHAP. V.
Ancient Diamonds.
117
probability, the same piece of the true cross which is
mentioned in a golden bull of the Emperor Romanus
Lecapenus (A.D. 924) as having been taken from the
Queen's treasury, and presented by him to this monas-
tery after his recovery from a severe illness, on which
occasion it was conducted thither with great pomp and
ceremonial. The Euphrosyne mentioned in the inscrip-
tion is probably the daughter of Constantine VI., who
was married to the Emperor Michael the Stammerer
(A.D. 820). In the monastery of Sphigmenu there is
another cross, inferior in other respects, but not less
valuable for its ancient diamonds, and the two together
form a pair which it would be difficult to match else-
where. It has lately been pointed out that the great
rarity of large diamonds in ancient works of art, even in
Byzantine times, when we should have expected that the
gorgeousness of the Court, and the communication with
Asia, would have introduced them, is to be accounted for,
not by the scarcity of the gem itself at that period, but
by the prohibition which was imposed by the Indian
sovereigns against the exportation from that country of
any above a certain size. The other relic is noteworthy
for the curious superstition attached to it. It is a cup,
which is said also to have belonged to the empress Pul-
cheria, covered on the outside with old red gold; inside
there is very curious and beautiful carving, representing
figures, done in bone, or, according to the legend, in the
horn of a serpent. This had the power of curing a person
who had been poisoned, if wine or water were administered
in it to the patient; it is still used by the monks for the
same purpose, and they say that if liquid remains in it
for any length of time it will boil. The same idea is
3 Gass, p. 7.
• King, on the 'Natural History of Precious Stones,' p. 21, note *.
118
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
found to exist elsewhere. Thus, Mr. Hamilton, in his
'Researches in Asia Minor,' speaking of an Armenian
physician whom he met in that country, says: "His
medical skill was proved by producing what he called a
snake's horn, which he asserted was an infallible antidote
against poison. 'If,' said he, 'a small quantity be scraped,
off with a piece of gold, and swallowed in a little water
by one who has been either poisoned or stung, he will be
immediately cured.' It appeared to me to resemble a
boar's tusk, and may have been a piece of simple harts-
horn; its chief efficacy being in the piece of gold-
supplied, of course, by the patient." A similar supersti-
tion to this in the west of Europe was attached to the
tusk of the narwhal, which passed for the unicorn's horn,
and was reputed to possess the virtue of neutralizing and
even detecting the presence of poison. Edward IV. gave
to the ambassador of Charles of Burgundy a cup of gold,
garnished with pearls and a great sapphire; and the
chronicler adds, "in the myddes of the cuppe ys a grete
pece of an Vnicornes horne.” 6
To the north of Xeropotamu the declivities of the
western coast become more gentle, and the scenery
softer and more wooded. We continued our journey in
the evening, and passing the Russian monastery on our
left, arrived at that of Xenophu, which lies on the sea-
shore. From this place, notwithstanding its low situa-
tion, the magnificent summits of the Thessalian Olympus
were visible at sunset over the northern part of Sithonia.
For our supper, amongst other things, the monks brought
us a dish of rice and heptapodi, a kind of sea polypus,
which is allowed to be eaten on fast days because it is
supposed to be bloodless. The object of most interest
5 Hamilton's 'Asia Minor,' ii. p. 127.
6 See 'Our English Home,' p. 61.
CHAP. V.
Docheiareiu.
119
which they had to show was the new iconostase which
they have erected in their church; it is composed partly
of Tenian and partly of Athoan marble, and is certainly
very imposing."
>>
It is less than half an hour's ride along the coast from
this place to Docheiareiu, or "The Steward's Monastery,'
so called because it is said to have been founded by a
monk named Euthymius, who was at one time steward
or bursar of the Lavra. This and Xeropotamu are the
only two Idiorrhythmic convents on this side of Athos,
the ruggedness of the ground being apparently favourable
to the retention of the older system. The buildings here
are very grand, and the works of art, which seem to have
escaped Mr. Curzon, are singularly fine. There are two
splendid crosses; one a single cross, magnificently set in
gilt filigree work adorned with gems, the spaces between
the limbs being also filled up with the same kind of orna-
mentation, so that it assumes, roughly speaking, a
diamond shape; the other is a double cross, like that
at Xeropotamu, and has beautiful metal flower-work
wreathed all about it. In the library, too,' is the finest
illuminated MS. that I saw on Athos. It is a book of
7 Attached to this altar-screen was a copy of verses, which I append,
in illustration of the cultus of the Virgin in the Greek Church. It is
written in ancient Greek, and composed in the modern accentual rhythm,
rhymed:-
66
σε ἐγὼ δέ σε, πανάχραντε, ὡς πάντα δυναμένην,
ὁμολογῶ μητέρα σε Θεοῦ δεδοξασμένην.
κηρύττω σου τὸ ἔλεος καὶ τὴν ἐυεργεσίαν,
τὴν εἰς ἐμέ σου ἄμαχον, δέσποινα, προστασίαν.
ἡ χάρις τοῦ ἐλέους σου ἀεί με σκεπασάτω,
ἐξ ἀοράτων με ἐχθρῶν καὶ ὁρατῶν σωσάτω.”
It must, however, be remembered that the worship of the Virgin has not
been hardened into dogma in the Eastern, as it has in the Western Church;
nor has it overshadowed the worship of our Lord, as one cannot help
feeling to be the case in the Church of Rome.
120
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
In one
Lives of Saints of the 11th century, decorated with
miniatures of the saints, most delicately executed, and
initial letters bordered with exquisite arabesques. The
manuscripts here were bound in modern binding, and had
been looked after by the master of the school at Caryes.
Shortly after leaving this monastery I was fortunate
enough to have an interview with a hermit.
place, where the path lies along the beach, we had
stopped for my companion to gather some pebbles, when
our dragoman, looking up the steep cliffs, exclaimed that
he saw a man standing at some distance above us.
Guessing what he might be, I dismounted, and scrambled
up 20 or 30 feet to the mouth of a cave, where I found a
dark hollow-cheeked man, clothed in a single garment of
rough cloth. In the inner part of the cave, which was
divided off from the rest by a low wall, was his bed of
straw, and one book of prayers was lying on the wall.
In this place he lived both winter and summer. He
came originally from Argyro-Castro, in Albania, and
had served for some years as a corporal in the army
of the King of Greece; but after a time he was seized
with a desire for the life of retirement, and came as a
caloyer to the skete of St. Anne. After remaining there
for three years, he devoted himself to the life of a
hermit, in which he had passed his time for seven years.
His food was brought to him from the neighbouring
monasteries. He spoke distinctly, like a man who had
had some education; and slowly, as one unaccustomed
to conversation. As we were looking down on the
tumbling waves, I said to him before leaving, "Here you
have near you God and the sea." "Ah!" he replied,
"we are all sinners," as if to deprecate the idea that
he was on a higher spiritual level than other men.
His answer illustrates the entire absence of pretension
CHAP. V.
A Hermit.
121
which we observed amongst the monks: they never
represented themselves as more learned, or more reli-
gious, or having higher aims, than was really the
case; and when they had devoted themselves to the mo-
nastic life from mixed motives, they did not hesitate to
avow it.
A wooded gorge that runs inland near this point led
us to the small and secluded monastery of Constamonitu,
one of the very few which do not command a sea view.
On our arrival we were ushered into the guest chamber,
a small gloomy room, where we were soon after visited
by the hegumen-a kind, hearty old man, and very
simple in his ideas, having been very little away from
Athos; yet we soon discovered that he knew everything
of what was going on in Europe and America; he was
even aware that in England we use steam machinery
in agriculture; and a smile of grim satisfaction played
over his features as he spoke of the probable downfall of
the Papacy. While we were talking with him, there
came in a very old man, so venerable in his appearance,
8
8 At Cutlumusi and other monasteries there is a curious tradition that
they were destroyed by the Pope of Rome, who came here "about the time
of the great schism." The foundation for this was probably some attack of
the Crusaders at the time of the Fourth Crusade; or the expedition of the
Emperor Michael Palæologus to force the monks to accept the terms of
the Concordat of Lyons, on which occasion they suffered great injury at
his hands. The name Caryes, which, as I have before mentioned, means
“The Hazels,” is derived by many of the monks from kápa (a head), in
accordance with a story that the Pope cut off the heads of all the represen-
tatives of that period, and placed them round the Protaton, or principal
church of the place. Some authorities maintain the derivation from kápa,
though on different grounds from those given by the monks. According to
them the earlier form of the name was Kapéal, or Kapal, and consequently
they consider it to mean "head centre" (Gass, p. 19). But the name
Caryes, as "The Hazels," is so frequently found, and the custom of calling
places from the trees found there is so common, especially in Greece, that
there can be little doubt that this derivation is the right one.
122
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
that the most thoughtless person could not but have
risen up in his presence. His flowing beard was snowy
white, his limbs spare and ascetic, so that he looked
more like one of the ancient hermits than anything else
that we saw. Just such a figure Spenser has described
in his portrait of heavenly contemplation:
((
that godly aged sire,
With snowy lockes adowne his shoulders shed;
As hoary frost with spangles doth attire
The mossy braunches of an oke halfe ded.
Each bone might through his body well be red,
And every sinew seene, through his long fast:
For naught he cared his carcas long unfed;
His mind was full of spirituall repast,
And pyn'd his flesh to keep his body low and chast."-
Faerie Queene, i. x. 48.
He was born in Mitylene, and was employed in a
merchant's business in Egypt at the time of Napoleon's
expedition after this he retired to the convent of Mount
Sinai, and, when he had spent three years there, came in
1809 to Athos, where he had remained ever since. He
had been tutor to the old Hegumen, with whom he had
maintained a warm and unbroken friendship. The man,
who waited on us, was a tall, gaunt caloyer, with a hard
Scotch cast of features, who might have sat for a likeness
of a Covenanter. He talked with fervour of the pro-
tection afforded to them by the sacred relics, of the
devoted lives of some of the hermits, their prophetic
power, and the need of sternly subjugating the passions,
in order to gain an insight into the higher spiritual
mysteries, until at last he looked almost like one inspired;
and his utterance became so indistinct, that we could
understand but little of what he said. The sight of
these three men together in the dark monastic chamber
was one not to be forgotten; and it is a characteristic
CHAP. V.
Zographu.
123
instance of the hospitality of the Holy Mountain that,
though they were sternly fasting, they pressed us to
feast on the best of what they had, and the Covenanter
replenished our wine-glasses.
On leaving this place, we crossed a range of hills, and
descended into another rich valley, where in the midst of
numerous cypresses stands Zographu, or "The Painter's"
a monastery of 100 monks, all Bulgarians, who have the
service in the old Slavonic tongue. The legend which is
given to explain the name relates that a picture of St.
George, now in the monastery, which was painted by
himself, having originally existed in Palestine, transported
itself to Athos by its own wonder-working power. But
when we consider that it is a Slavonic monastery, there
is a strong probability that the Greek name is the
corruption of an original Bulgarian one; and this may
very well have been Zagora ("behind the mountain "),
which we find in many parts of Turkey. This would
accurately describe its retired position. It is a handsome
structure, and part of it has been lately rebuilt in con-
sequence of the destruction caused by an earthquake,
but it does not contain much that is worth seeing.
A school, which was established here some time ago,
has died a natural death, and the Hegumen spoke
despondingly of the prospect of introducing study,
which he feared was not reconcilable with monastic
pursuits. He was the only one of the inmates that
we met with who could speak Greek. The Greek
monks in the other convents betrayed the spirit of their
ancestors in an amusing manner, by always speaking of
the Slavonic caloyers as "barbarians.”
We passed the night at Zographu, and continued our
route the next morning across the peninsula, through
country different from that of any other part of Athos—
124
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
upland valleys and forest scenery, in the midst of which
the light green foliage of the Isthmian pine was con-
spicuous, the same of which the crown was composed
at the games of the Isthmus. At last we caught sight
of the blue Strymonic gulf, and descended to Chilandari,
the second of the two Bulgarian monasteries, which
contains also a number of Servians. It stands between
wooded hills at the head of a narrow valley, and in con-
sequence of its position is somewhat unhealthy. In the
church is kept the staff of Andronicus Comnenus, who
retired hither at the end of his life, and also a MS. the
most precious of all that exist on Athos, which was the
gift of that emperor, and is in perfect preservation, from
having been kept with the sacred relics. It is a 4to
Greek MS. of St. John's Gospel, of about the 12th cen-
tury, written in gold letters on white vellum: there are
very few manuscripts like it in existence.
On both our visits to this monastery I was struck with
the intelligence shown by the leading monks. On the
first occasion I was much impressed by a father called
Hilarion, and on enquiring for him subsequently, I found
that he had been promoted to a high office in Bulgaria,
and having taken the national side in the Bulgarian
movement against the Patriarch of Constantinople, had
afterwards been deprived. This time I had a long con-
versation with one of the superiors, called Nilus, a man
of imposing appearance, whose strong countenance,
quick eye, long grey hair, and benevolent expression,
were eminently attractive; and he was liberal-minded as
well as devout. Speaking to me of other churches, he
said, "The Church is now divided, but all are Christians,
and our first object ought to be to make it one again.
The proper way to bring this about is to ignore minor
differences as far as possible, and to leave each Church
CHAP. V.
Views of other Churches.
125
If I were to
free to maintain its established customs.
visit England, I ought to be free to worship according
to the rites to which I am accustomed; if a member
of the English Church comes here, he should have the
same freedom.” He thought there was hope of bringing
this about, especially in case of the downfall of the
Papacy, which he regarded as the great difficulty in the
way of the unity of the Church. A book of travels is
not the proper place for discussing theories of Christian
union or comprehension, but I believe Nilus struck the
right nail on the head. All honour to those who, in
whatsoever way, endeavour to promote harmony among
Christian communions; but when we consider the vast
differences which almost necessarily exist between them,
arising in great measure from temperament, from modes
of thought, and from deeply-rooted associations, it is
hard to conceive that a permanent basis of agreement
could be fixed on any other principle than that just
stated. No doubt, in such a case, some common standard
of doctrine would be required, which should be accepted
by all; but such a one we have ready to hand in the
one only form of faith which has been established
and ratified by the whole Christian Church-the Nicene
creed.
When we talked to the monks, as we often did, about
their relation to other Christian churches, and to our
own in particular, the answers they gave us were almost
always sympathetic and liberal. "Do you receive the
Gospels? Do you believe in the Trinity? Are you
baptized?" asked one. "Very well; then you are a
true Christian." Another volunteered the remark that
all the Churches are one, the test being belief in Christ.
"The Ottomans," he said, "have also a Church, but
them we cannot include, because they do not believe in
126
CHAP. V.
Mount Athos.
Christ." These expressions, however, we must not take
for more than what they really mean. When I was
discussing the subject with the librarian of St. Dionysius',
who was a rigid disciplinarian, and seized the points of
difference in preference to those of agreement, I asked
him at last the plain question, "Do you then consider
us to be heretics?" "No," he replied, "you are not
heretics, but you are not of the Orthodox Church."
This exactly represents the point of view from which we
are generally regarded by members of the Eastern
communion; and the same thing is taught in their
catechisms, namely, that the universal Church is the
aggregate of all the bodies of Christians which are found
throughout the world, but that to belong to one of these
is a very different thing from membership in the Church
to which they have the privilege of belonging. In short,
they regard us almost exactly in the same way as a
large number of English Churchmen regard the dis-
senters in their own country-that is to say, they
acknowledge the reality of our Christian faith, and its
vitality, as shown by the fruits it produces, and would
shrink from denying that we shall ultimately be saved;
but at the same time they feel themselves unable to
consider us as being in the same safe and, so to speak,
guaranteed position as themselves. It will be seen, how-
ever, that there are some, like Nilus, who take a wider
view.
( 127 )
CHAPTER VI.
MOUNT ATHOS (continued).
Canal of Xerxes- Sphigmenu-The Central Ridge - The Russian Mo-
nastery Estimate of the Monastic System- The future of the Holy
Mountain History of the Community Earliest Period - Time of
the Comneni - Attack by the Latins - Time of the Palæologi-Canta-
cuzene - Theological Movements - Submission to the Turks-Later
Ilistory.
We have now reached the last of the monasteries at this
end of the peninsula ; but before we turn our faces once
more in the other direction, a few words ought to be said
about the canal and its environs, which we investigated
when returning from Athos to Salonica by land in 1853.
The isthmus through which it was cut is just a mile and
a half in width, and the ground immediately about it is
low, so that even in the middle, where there are some
slight undulations, it hardly rises more than fifty feet
above the sea. Thus the description of Herodotus is
very accurate, as he speaks of it as "a neck of land
about twelve furlongs across, the whole extent whereof,
from the sea of the Acanthians to that over against
Torone, is a level plain, broken only by a few low hills."1
Through this isthmus the canal of Xerxes was cut, and
the deep dyke which still remains, and forms the
boundary of the Holy Mountain, is now called by the
inhabitants Provlaka, which name is evidently the cor-
ruption of a word (πpoaûλa§) signifying "the canal in
1 Herod. vii. 22.
128
CHAP. VI.
Mount Athos.
front of the peninsula of Athos." Thus the doubts of
Juvenal and other writers, both ancient and modern, as
to the execution of Xerxes' project, are proved to have
been groundless. In the middle, it is true, it is not
traceable for some distance; but it has been suggested,
with great probability, that this part was afterwards
filled up in order to allow a more ready passage into and
out of the peninsula. The canal is best traceable on the
southern side, where it is deep and continuous, varying
in breadth from time to time from the soil having
accumulated in places, and marshy at intervals, even in
summer; in the wet season a considerable stream of
water is said to flow down through it. Near the point
where it reaches the sea on this side stood the ancient
town of Sane. The whole place was carefully surveyed
for the Admiralty by Captain Spratt. I may here
mention, also, that when approaching from this direction
the neighbouring village of Erisso (Acanthus), which lies
on the other side of some low hills to the north-west, I
passed a large and high mound, which at first I took for
the acropolis, until the real acropolis came in view, with
remains of Hellenic walls on one of its sides. I have
little doubt that this was the tomb of Artaches, who
superintended the cutting of the canal, for Herodotus
speaks of his having been buried at Acanthus, and of a
mound having been raised over his grave by the whole
Persian army.2
The next monastery to Chilandari is Sphigmenu (TOû
ἐσφιγμένου), which derives its name from its confined
position between wooded heights, which here approach
one another in the recesses of a little bay. We were
much interested in this place, because at the time of our
2 Herod. vii. 117.
CHAP. VI.
The Central Ridge.
129
former visit a large part of the front had been washed
down by the encroaches of the sea, and the hegumen
expressed great anxiety about obtaining funds to restore
it. During the interval he had visited Russia and other
countries, where he had collected the requisite sums, and
the new building had been finished about a year, and
presented a substantial and handsome appearance. The
hegumen himself, too, had grown stout and hearty in
the process; he was much pleased with the contribution
which we tendered to him, having been unable to find
any channel of communication with him while we were
in England. Anthimus, the ex-patriarch of Constanti-
nople, was residing in the monastery at this time: after
his deposition he had come here of his own accord.
It took us five hours to ride from Sphigmenu to
Caryes, by a path along the central ridge, descending
occasionally on one side or the other, and frequently
overlooking precipitous banks of wood, which shelved
downwards from our feet. At one point the humble
and homely Constamonitu appeared, nestling in its
narrow valley; in the opposite direction the lordly
buildings of Vatopedi were conspicuous on the shore.
In many places the peak was visible, and the wide sea of
course lay below us on both sides; but the prettiest
effects were produced by the vignette views, seen through
the depressions, where now and then two or three peeps
of the blue water opened out at once on different sides.
It is one of the finest rides in the peninsula. In one
place a large eagle rose just below us, and soared away.
On reaching the village we had a parting interview with
the "First Man," and, after revisiting our friends at
Cutlumusi, mounted again to the ridge by a steep track
through dense forests, and then descended to Russico,
or the Russian monastery, on the western coast, where
VOL. I.
K
130
CHAP. VI..
Mount Athos.
we arrived just before the gates were closed for the
night.
In this society there are 300 moņks,-Greeks, Russians,
Servians, and Bulgarians, and it has the name of being
a very strict and well-ordered body, notwithstanding the
various elements of which it is composed. The Greeks
predominate in numbers, and the hegumen is of this race,
but many of the features of the place are Russian, such
as whitewash, green cupolas, chiming bells, and tea.
This is the only convent where the service is performed
in two languages. In the others, if any members of other
nationalities come to reside, they have to conform to the
worship of the majority—a thing which is not very
edifying to them, as they can understand but little: here,
however, there are two principal churches, one for the
Greek and the other for the Slavonic service. The Rus-
sian church has very few Byzantine features about it;
the architecture and pictures are Italian; it was conse-
quently uninteresting enough, but the harmonious and
musical sound of their chanting, and the chiming of the
bells for Vespers, was highly agreeable. On great festi-
vals the bells are sounded, as they are ordinarily in
Russia, during the recital of the Nicene Creed; a custom
which has been noticed as illustrating the prominence
which Eastern Christianity has always given to doctrinal
orthodoxy. Amongst the Greeks, however, it is un-
known.
On the evening of the following day the Russian
steamer from Constantinople touched here, on her way to
Salonica, and we embarked on board of her, and bade
farewell to the Holy Mountain. And now that we have
left the sacred shores, let us cast a retrospective glance
at them, and see what opinion we have formed of these
monasteries, which are the very centre of the Greek
CHAP. VI.
Retrospective View.
131
Church, and are regarded with so great veneration by all
Eastern Christians.
Our estimate of them will vary, as we fix our thoughts
on the present or the past. Probably a considerable
number of the monks regard the monastic system in no
other light than as a source of personal benefit to them-
selves. The theory, however, which the more thoughtful
of them maintain is this,—that these bodies serve as an
example of holy life, as they contain a number of men
devoted to piety and religion; that they maintain intact
the old customs and principles; that their constant
prayers are a support to the Church; and that in pros-
perous times they become seats of learning. How far
this theory, even supposing it to be tenable, is carried
out in practice, may be gathered from the fact that our
dragoman, a trustworthy man, assured us that he had
never heard so much foul and disgusting language as in
the conversation of the lower monks, among whom he
was thrown. We are not to suppose that this applies to
the conversation of the ordinary monks, but to a certain
number of mauvais sujets, who are to be found in each
monastery; yet it is in part the result of the system.
Take a number of uneducated peasants from any country,
separate them from female society, and give them a cer-
tain amount of leisure; the result will be, that even the
purest religious influences, unalloyed by superstition, will
not prevent a large amount of evil from being fostered,
among them. Notwithstanding that we find much that
is pleasing in the life of the monks, and that strict mo-
rality is enforced by the rigid discipline, yet we cannot
but draw the conclusion that eastern monastic life has
here been tried on a large scale, is displayed to the
greatest advantage—and has failed.
But, whatever may be their faults, and however false,
K 2
132
CHAP. VI.
Mount Athos.
in a healthy state of the church, the monastic system may
be, yet, looking to the past, we must remember that they
were once to a certain extent strongholds of learning,
and still more strongholds of faith in the midst of un-
believers. To one who reads, however cursorily, the his-
tory of the Greek Church, the great source of wonder is,
not that its faith has been overlaid by superstition, but
that it has retained its Christianity at all: and to this
the monasteries have in no slight degree contributed.
Besides this, they have served as refuges for the perse-
cuted, and for those perplexed by the distractions and
confusions of the world. Thousands have been saved
from suicide by their means. And from this point of
view the need of them cannot be said to have wholly
passed away; for as long as the Turks remain in Europe,
the Christians will be persecuted, and as long as they are
persecuted, they will need a refuge.
It is a difficult matter to speculate on what may be
the future of the Holy Mountain. It was a subject on
which we often talked to the monks, and they invariably
connected their own future with the political future of
Turkey. When the happy period arrives, to which all
Greeks look forward, when they are to regain Constan-
tinople, Athos, they think, may once more become the
learned place which they believe it to have been in former
times. Yet some of them were not slow to see that
freedom would open to men various sources of occupa-
tion, which would cause them to be less disposed for the
monastic calling. It may also be doubtful how far an
educational system can be engrafted on the present life
of the place, as the experiment was tried in the last cen-
tury by Eugenius Bulgaris, whose school, as I have
already mentioned, ultimately failed. Yet this is the best
thing which we can hope for them. We should not wish
CHAP. VI.
History of the Community.
133
to see so venerable an institution destroyed, root and
branch, if it is possible by any means to adapt it to the
exigencies of a coming time. Let us hope that its
suitableness for a seat of learning, from its central,
healthy, and secluded position, may hereafter be appre-
ciated, and that its fine buildings may not be left to the
ravages of time, to the unavailing regret of future gene-
rations.
In conclusion, let me add a very brief history of this
unique community, the permanence of which as an insti-
tution is altogether unparalleled. The first distinct men-
tion of monks on Athos is in the reign of Basil the Ma-
cedonian, who issued a rescript in the year A.D. 885, for-
bidding the inhabitants of the neighbouring country to
disturb "the holy hermits." At that time it appears that
these monks were dependent on a monastery at Hierissus
(Erisso)-a restriction on their freedom which was re-
moved by the next emperor, Leo the Philosopher and
from the fact that they are termed "hermits" (oi Tòv
ἐρημικὸν βίον ἑλόμενοι), we may conclude that no monas-
tery had yet been founded on the Holy Mountain. Very
shortly afterwards, however, such a society must have
been formed, for in 924 a golden bull of Romanus Leca-
penus speaks of the restoration by that emperor of the
monastery of Xeropotamu, which had been destroyed by
the Saracens, and was now rebuilt, with a handsome
church, strong walls and towers, and dwellings for sick
persons and strangers. But its prosperity was not of
long duration, though whether it was again destroyed by
the Saracens, or what other causes may have contributed
to its downfall, we know not: but otherwise we could not
account for the miserable condition in which the inha-
bitants of the mountain are described as being at the
time of the building of the Lavra, and the fact that its
134
CHAP. VI.
Mount Athos.
founder, St. Athanasius, is regarded as the real author of
the existing system. Of the erection of his monastery
(about A.D. 960), with the help of Nicephorus Phocas, we
have already spoken; but his ideas on the subject of the
monastic community and its future development seem to
have extended beyond this, for the office of "First Man"
was founded in his time, apparently as a means of com-
bining and regulating a number of separate societies.
About the same period the village of Caryes, which even
before this had been a meeting-place for the hermits, was
appointed to be the seat of government. The effect of
this is seen in the establishment, within a few years, of
three other important convents, also on the eastern coast
of the peninsula-Iveron and Vatopedi before the end of
that century, and Sphigmenu at the commencement of
the next. By the time of Constantine Monomachus, less
than 100 years from the time of St. Athanasius, the mo-
nastic buildings, which had then numbered 58, amounted
to 180, containing 700 monks. From that emperor they
received a second constitution, in which the intrusion of
the female sex was strongly prohibited, and various dis-
putes about land, which had already risen between the
various societies, were settled. From him also the penin-
sula received the name of the Holy Mountain.
Then follows the time of the Comneni (1056-1204),
characterized by violent opposition to the Latin Church
and Western ideas, together with a temporary resusci-
tation of Byzantine literature. The emperors of that
race, finding the monastic system a support to them in
carrying out those ideas, showered their favours upon
these convents, and made them independent of the
Patriarch of Constantinople, who in early times had
appointed the First Man, and exercised a visitatorial
authority. Meanwhile the monasteries of Philotheu and
CHAP. VI.
Time of the Comneni.
135
Caracalla had arisen on the eastern coast, and those of
Xenophu and Docheiareiu on the western; and to
these Pantocratoros and Cutlumusi were added under
Manuel and Alexius Comnenus. The fact that one so
much interested in literary and theological pursuits as
the latter of these two emperors should have been so
partial to these convents, renders it probable that at that
time they were homes of study and learning. Another
event of some importance to the Greek Church, from its
tendency to combine the nationalities of which it was
composed, took place during his reign in the foundation
of Chilandari, the first purely Slavonic monastery.
Fallmerayer, indeed, maintains that the majority of the
inmates of all the convents were from the first of Slavonic
origin-a conclusion which he bases mainly on the fact
that old service books in that language are found in
many of the libraries.³ And though this assumption is
contrary to historical probability, yet it is shown by the
evidence of names, that some persons of that race had
settled on Athos as early as the end of the 10th century.
But this convent was founded exclusively for them, with
the leave of the emperor, by the Servian Prince Stephen
Nemanja, who himself retired thither; and so inde-
pendent was their position that at first they were not
subject to the control of the First Man, and the other
monks were forbidden to interfere in their affairs. These
circumstances serve to explain its remote position at the
further end of the peninsula.
The taking of Constantinople by the Latins (A.D. 1204)
could not fail to have disastrous consequences for the
Holy Mountain. Everywhere the Greek rite was treated
with the utmost contumely, and the Greek priests and
3 'Fragmenta aus dem Orient,' ii. p. 32.
136
CHAP. VI..
Mount Athos.
His
monks were regarded as heretics, and made the objects of
unrelenting persecution. With a barbarity worthy of the
Saracens, a number of the invaders landed on the coast,
and having erected a fort to serve as their head-quarters,
destroyed the churches, pillaged the monasteries, and
put the monks to the torture, in order to discover the
secret of concealed treasures. Reduced to despair by
this merciless treatment, the unfortunate community
applied for aid to a quarter which, under other circum-
stances, would have been the last for them to have
recourse to-Pope Innocent III. That far-sighted pre-
late, amongst whose extensive plans the reconciliation of
the Eastern Church was one, seized the opportunity
of displaying his power and his magnanimity.
answer to the monks breathes a tone of lofty conciliation.
He believed the time was come when Samaria would
return to Jerusalem. The mountain of the Lord, to
which all nations flow, had chosen their mountain as a
representative of its name; and it was a holy spot,
a house of God, a fitting arena for the struggle with
Satan. In answer, therefore, to their humble supplica-
tions, he agreed to take them under the protection of St.
Peter and the Holy See, confirmed to them the immu-
nities and privileges they had hitherto enjoyed, and
undertook to defend them from their persecutors. What
was the effect of this letter we have no means of judging,
but we may conclude that the influence of the Pope
availed in their favour, as we hear nothing more of Athos
until after the expulsion of the Latins from Constantinople
(A.D. 1261).
The succeeding period was not marked by events of
any great importance. The Palæologi seem to have
followed the example of their predecessors in bestowing
CHAP. VI.
Time of the Palæologi.
137
donations of land on the monasteries, and they were
further enriched by gifts from the Servian princes.
Among the latter the distinguished Stephen Dushan is
mentioned as having visited them in 1345, together with
his wife; from which we gather that the exclusion of
females was not absolute; though, in fact, the same
thing has occurred in the present day, Lord Stratford
having been allowed on one occasion to bring some of
the ladies of his family to the monastery of St. Paul.
At this time also Zographu, the second Slavonic con-
vent, was founded. In the struggle between Michael
Palæologus and the Patriarch Arsenius, and in the
movements resulting from the intrigues of that emperor
with the Western Church, the monks took the popular
side against him, and in consequence, on one occasion,
brought down his vengeance upon them. The other
notices which have come down to us refer mainly to
restrictions on the power of the First Man, whose office
had gradually assumed overweening proportions. The
Patriarch now once more regained his influence over the
society; the neighbouring Bishop of Erisso, who from
early times had had certain episcopal rights over the
peninsula, was restored to his former footing; and there
are traces of the establishment of a consultative body,
composed of the leading monks, which may have been
the original of the present representative system. But
even with these limitations, the office with its executive
powers was something very different from what it is at
present, when its holder is merely the president of an
assembly.
The middle of the 14th century, however, brought
with it events, both political and theological, in which
the monks of Athos took a prominent part. The
138
CHAP. VI.
Mount Athos.
1
leading personage of this period is John Cantacuzene,
who in his successive characters of rebel against Andro-
nicus I., friend and counsellor of Andronicus II., regent
and guardian of his son John Palæologus, and ultimately
of emperor, stands out as the most prominent figure in
the later Byzantine annals. His history is in many
ways interwoven with that of the monks. Already, in
the struggle between the two Andronici, the elder of the
two emperors had sent Isaac, the First Man of Athos at
that period, to his grandson in the character of a
mediator; and, later on, after the death of the younger
Andronicus, when the queen, his widow, was persuaded
to declare against the authority of Cantacuzene as regent,
the same man was employed by him, together with
Macarius, the hegumen of the Lavra, the future patriarch
Callistus, and another monk famed for his sanctity, to
exhort the queen to peace, and to warn her against
introducing the horrors of civil war. So intimate
was Cantacuzene's connection with the monks of the
Holy Mountain, and so consistently did he defend
them from the charges of heresy brought against them,
that he was suspected of having betaken himself to
them during the lifetime of Andronicus II., in order
to avail himself of their prophetic power to discover
his future prospects. At last, when the tide of fortune
finally turned against him, he determined to embrace
the monastic profession, for which he had for some
time cherished a secret longing, and retired to Athos,
where he composed his history and ended his life.
His son Matthew, too, who had been associated with
him in the empire, and the historian Nicephorus Gre-
goras, with other writers of the period, betook them-
selves to this retreat, so that Athos became a home
CHAP. VI.
Theological Movements.
139
at once for men of learning, and for politicians weary
of the world.
Among the theological movements of this time, the
most prominent was that of the Hesychasts, who main-
tained the doctrine of the uncreated light of Tabor,
together with other mystical views connected with it,
which we have already noticed. The dispute, which gave
occasion for four councils, and involved emperors and
patriarchs in its confusion, continued for ten years (1341-
51), Gregory Palamas being the leader of the monks'
party, on which side also Cantacuzene was found, while
Nicephorus Gregoras supported Barlaam and their other
opponents. But this was not the only cause of theo-
logical excitement. It was commonly reported, and
there is good reason for thinking the charge well founded,
that the belief of many of the monks was impregnated
with the tenets of the Massalians, a sect which had arisen
among the Slavonic races in the reign of Alexius Com-
nenus. They were Dualists, and their doctrines in many
respects resembled those of some of the early Gnostics-
a class of views to which extravagant asceticism has
always proved favourable. The suspicion went so far,
that in 1351 a formal investigation was set on foot against
the First Man Nephon, before the bishops of Salonica
and Erisso; and though they decided that he had done
nothing more than receive beggars and needy strangers
of that sect, and "that the sun is sometimes darkened
with clouds only to shine with greater lustre afterwards,"
yet for a time the caloyers were brought into considerable
disrepute.
The century which intervened before the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks was a time of prosperity to
these societies, nor did the long death-struggle of the
140
CHAP. VI.
Mount Athos.
empire affect them injuriously. It seemed almost as if
the emperors and leading men of that time, conscious
of the increasing weakness of their position, were disposed
to make over a part of their possessions to what seemed
to them the safer keeping of the monks. The number of
the convents on the western coast was increased in the
latter half of the fourteenth century by St. Dionysius',
Simopetra, Constamonitu, Russico, and St. Paul's, and
numerous dotations in land and tithes were made to those
already existing. When the councils of Ferrara and
Florence (1438-9) were held, and the last attempt was
made to enlist the powers of the West in the defence of
Constantinople, by the reunion, or rather submission, of
the Eastern to the Latin Church, these caloyers were the
strongest opponents of any such concessions. But for
themselves, they had already made their terms with the
conqueror. The siege and storming of Salonica by
Sultan Amurath had in all respects been a lesson to them.
There the conqueror had made favourable offers to the
Greek Christians, as opposed to the Venetian garrison,
whom he treated as Western intruders; and the pillage
which accompanied his conquest warned them what they
had to suffer in case of resistance. Moreover, the vio-
lence and oppressiveness of the Latins had caused the
ecclesiastics to regard the advance of the Mahometans in
the light of a deliverance. Accordingly they sent an
embassy to him, offering to submit to his government,
and requesting a confirmation of their immunities and
the possession of their territories-a request to which
they obtained an unexpectedly favourable reply. So far
indeed was the goodwill carried between the monks of
that time and the Turkish conquerors, that in a MS.
lately discovered by Professor Tischendorf, there is found
CHAP. VI.
Later History.
14I
an exaggerated laudation of Mahomet II. by Critobulus,
a caloyer of Athos, in which his heroic deeds are cele-
brated, and every virtue ascribed to him.
From that time to the present the fortunes of the Holy
Mountain have been for the most part uneventful, and
its position almost unchanged. Soliman the Magnificent
is the only Sultan who seems to have attacked the
monks; in his reign their territory was laid waste with
fire and sword, and great injury inflicted. On the other
hand, his predecessor Selim I. bestowed great favours on
them; and though they have had to bear heavy taxation
and exactions, yet they have been allowed to exercise their
religion undisturbed. In this way their isolation as a purely
Christian community in the midst of the Mahometans
caused them to become a bulwark of the Christian faith,
and a beacon-light to the whole Eastern Church. The
last founded of the monasteries was Stavroniceta, which
was established in 1545. The protectorate, which had
previously been exercised by the Greek emperors, now
passed into the hands of the Hospodars or Voyvodes of
Wallachia and Moldavia, who enriched the societies with
numerous benefactions. For some time, learning seems
to have flourished among them; thus Metrophanes Cri-
topulus, a young man who was sent to England and Ger-
many by the reforming prelate, Cyril Lucar, with a view
of introducing western learning into the east, had been
educated on Athos. But the natural tendency of their
mode of life, in the absence of any stimulus from without,
worked itself out as time went on, and left them as they
are now, uninstructed and unprogressive. In all proba-
bility, the present century will prove to have affected
their fortunes more than any preceding one.
The con-
fiscation of their goods in free Greece by Capodistrias, at
142
CHAP. VI.
Mount Athos.
the end of the War of Independence, was the beginning
of a change, and now the loss of their property in the
Principalities must affect them still further. The next
move, whatever that may be, will probably accompany
the downfall of the Turkish empire, whenever that event
comes to pass.*
• The facts contained in this notice are mostly from Gass's 'Commentatio
Historica de Claustris in Monte Atho sitis;' the original documents are to
be found in the 'Urkundenverzeichniss,' in J. Müller's ‘Denkmäler in den
Klöstern von Athos.'
:
4
( 143 )
CHAPTER VII.
SALONICA TO MONASTIR.
Salonica - Its Triumphal Arches Inscription — Population and History
The Egnatian Way - Roads in Turkey
Roads in Turkey - The Vardar - Khans
Site of Pella-Yenidjé- Vodena - Its Beautiful Situation The
Ancient Edessa - Village and Lake of Ostrovo Subterranean Chan-
nels Gurnitzovo — Pigs in Turkey - Nidjé and Peristeri - Approach
to Monastir.
ABOUT nine o'clock on the morning after we left Athos,
the steamer cast anchor in the harbour of Salonica, which
forms the innermost bay of the long gulf in which the
Ægean terminates towards the north-west.
As seen
from the sea, the aspect of the place is very striking, and
recalls the appearance of Genoa, though it is far inferior
to that magnificent city. From the water's edge the
houses rise gradually up the hill sides towards the north,
until they reach the castle which crowns the summit.
Like that at Constantinople, it bears the name of the
Seven Towers, and was probably called so before
the time of the Turkish occupation. Behind it rise
the lofty heights of Mount Khortiatzi, from which it
is separated by a ridge and a depression; at this point
two valleys commence, and gradually diverge from one
another as they descend towards the sea, while their
inner sides are surmounted by the picturesque lines of
white walls which enclose the city, and are defended
at their extremities by two massive towers which rise
from the water. In this way, its triangular form, the
compact mass of buildings which it presents at one view
to the eye, and the numerous elegant minarets which
144
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
stand up among them, combine to form an imposing
spectacle.
Within, the place is intersected in its lower part by
one long street, which runs from east to west, marking
the line of the old Via Egnatia, and crossed by two
Roman triumphal arches, through which the road entered
Thessalonica from the two sides. One of these, which
lies some little way within the eastern wall, is a fine
arch of brick springing from piers cased in white marble,
which are ornamented with an elaborate cornice, and
below with sculptured representations of a triumphal
procession. This has been thought to have been erected
in honour of Constantine, who visited this place after
subduing the Sarmatians; but from the very debased
character of the sculpture, Leake is disposed to attribute
it to the time of Theodosius, whose victories over the
Goths were a common subject on the monuments of his
age. The other and smaller arch is situated just inside
the western wall, close to the Vardar gate, as the mo-
dern entrance is called, from its leading in the direc-
tion of that river. It is massively built of stone, but the
construction is rude, and hardly worthy of a monument
erected in commemoration of the battle of Philippi, as
Beaujour supposed it to be. Another argument against
its being of so early a date, is the occurrence in an
inscription on one of the piers of the names Flavius
Sabinus as belonging to one of the magistrates of that
time; from which we may infer that it is later than
Vespasian's age, as those names must have been adopted
from his family. On the outer side of the arch, under
the capitals of both pilasters, is the figure of a horse
with hogged mane, and by its side a man wearing a toga.
But the principal interest attaching to it is owing to the
1
¹ Boeckh., 'Corpus Inscriptionum,' No. 1967, note.
CHAP. VII.
Salonica.
145
name of "Politarchs," which is given in the inscription to
the chief officers of the city, thereby confirming the
passage in the Acts (xvii. 6), where the magistrates of
this place are called by the same unusual name. In
fact, this title does not occur again, except in one other
inscription, also referring to Thessalonica, which is
mentioned by a French writer of the last century. They
seem to have been seven in number.
The day after our arrival we paid a visit to Mr. Wilkin-
son, at the British Consulate, and there made the
acquaintance of Mr. Crosbie, the Scotch Presbyterian
missionary, who is well known for the attention which he
shows to visitors to Salonica. Under his auspices we
visited the ecclesiastical antiquities of the place; and as
the ancient churches have all been converted into
mosques, the assistance of one who is acquainted with
the Mahometan guardians was of great service in pro-
curing a speedy admittance. Two of these were ori-
ginally Pagan temples, and several others, which are of
Byzantine construction, are of the greatest value for the
history of art: in this respect, Salonica is only second to
Constantinople. As full details and illustrations of these
buildings have been lately published in Texier and
Pullan's magnificent work on Byzantine architecture,
which is principally devoted to this city and Trebizond,
there is no need for me to say anything further about
? The Abbé Belley, in the 'Académie des Inscriptions,' xxxviii. p. 125.
All attempts to recover the original of this inscription have been unavail-
ing. The inscription on the gateway has often been copied, but the only
accurate reproduction of it is that given by Mr. Vaux of the British Museum
in the 'Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature,' vol. viii., new series.
Since this was written, my friend Mr. Curtis, of Constantinople, has found an
inscription at Monastir, brought from a place twelve miles distant from that
city, in which the magistrates are called Politarchs. This shows that the
title was not confined to Thessalonica, but was found elsewhere in Mace-
donia. See Appendix B.
VOL. I.
L
146
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
them. But as we shall return more than once to this
city in the course of our travels, it may be well for me to
give some information as to its population and history.
Of the sixty thousand inhabitants of Salonica two-
thirds are Jews, the rest being Turks and Greeks, together
with a few Wallachs, Armenians, and Franks. The
number of Jews is at first sight surprising, and the
variation of numbers in the computations of different
travellers is so great as to suggest doubts on the subject.
Thus Leake estimates them at only 13,000; Cousinéry
at 20,000; the 'Jewish Intelligencer' for 1849³ at 35,000;
Miss Mackenzie at 40,000. These differences illustrate
the difficulty of arriving at accuracy in matters of sta-
tistics in Turkey, while in the present case the question
is more than usually involved by the Jews having con-
trived, in order to avoid taxation, that their numbers
should be returned officially at a very much lower figure
than the reality. But when we find that Paul Lucas,
writing in 1714, estimates them at 30,000, and remember
that they have always been highly favoured in this place,
and that no cause has operated to check their increase,
we see no reason to doubt the correctness of the state-
ment given above. From early times the Hebrew race
seems to have been attracted by the commercial advan-
tages of Salonica. Thus when St. Paul preached there,
he found a considerable Jewish community. And in the
twelfth century the traveller of that nation, Benjamin of
Tudela, speaks of them as amounting to five hundred.
But by far the larger proportion of the present Jewish
population are descended from those who were expelled
from Spain and migrated hither in the reign of Ferdinand
and Isabella, as is proved by their still speaking among
themselves a debased form of Spanish. A large number
In Conybeare and Howson's 'Life and Epistles of St. Paul,' i. p. 383.
'CHAP. VII.
History of the City.
147
of them are rich merchants, and a great part of the
wealth of the place is in their hands.
To turn now to the history of Salonica. The Greek
city of Therma, which first occupied this site, though a
place of some consideration, did not give promise of its
future greatness. It was not until Roman times, when,
under its new name of Thessalonica, it became an im-
portant point on the line of communication between
Rome and the East, that it came to be regarded as a
centre, and was acknowledged as the chief city of
Macedonia. From the establishment of the Imperial
power to the building of Constantinople it was the capital
of the whole country from the Adriatic to the Black Sea;
and the position of the two gates now existing, together
with the Roman work found in the modern walls, prove
that its extent could not have been very different then
from what it is at present. After the founding of the
new seat of empire it retained its importance as a strong-
hold of resistance to the barbarians, who now began to
inundate the neighbouring countries. From the fourth
to the end of the eighth century it succeeded in repelling
the invaders; first the Goths, and then the numerous
Slavonic tribes who descended from the Danube. But it
is from the calamities that have befallen it at various
times that Thessalonica is principally known in history.
The fearful massacre of the citizens by the order of
Theodosius, which has been rendered famous by the ex-
communication of that emperor, and his exclusion from
the cathedral of Milan by St. Ambrose, was the first in
this list of tragedies. It was occasioned by the murder
of the emperor's lieutenant by the populace; on hearing
the news of which, in an access of fury, Theodosius sent
word from Milan, where he then resided, that the inhabi-
tants should be gathered together into the hippodrome
L 2
148
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
on pretence of a spectacle, and there slaughtered by his
soldiers. A memorial of the scene of this event still
remains in a handsome white marble portico near the
centre of the town, which was probably the entrance to
the hippodrome. It is called by the neighbouring Jews,
in whose quarter it stands, Las Incantadas, or "the en-
chanted women," from the eight caryatides which stand
in the upper part of the structure, and were supposed to
have been petrified by the effect of magic. Subsequently
to this, the city was three times besieged and captured.
In the year 904 a Saracen fleet appeared before it, and
after storming the sea-wall, pillaged the whole place, and
butchered the citizens without respect of sex or age. A
large number of those who were spared were carried off
and sold as slaves in various parts of the Mediterranean.
Again, in 1185, another enemy arose from a different
quarter. The Normans of Sicily, under their commander
Tancred, having landed at Dyrrhachium, marched across
and gained possession of Thessalonica after a ten days'
siege. An account of the barbarities that were perpe-
trated on that occasion, and the wanton insults offered
by the Latins to the Greek rite, has been left us by
Eustathius, the celebrated commentator, who was Arch-
bishop of that city at the time. Still later, in 1430,
occurred the final siege by Sultan Amurath II., which
has already been referred to in connection with Mount
Athos. Since that time it has remained in possession of
the Turks, and has continued to be a place of import-
ance; though, if Mr. Finlay is right in estimating its
population at 220,000 at the time of the Saracen siege, it
must have greatly declined since the Middle Ages. But
from its fine harbour and admirable commercial position
relatively to the interior of European Turkey, it can
hardly fail at some future time, under more favourable
CHAP. VII.
The Egnatian Way.
149
auspices, to regain a considerable portion of its former
greatness.
After remaining two days at Salonica, we were pre-
pared to start afresh, and penetrate once more into the
interior; our object being now to make for Corfu, which
was the next stage in our journey. There are two routes
by which that place may be reached from Salonica; the
one by Larissa and Joannina, the other through Central
Albania, by Monastir, Elbassan, and Berat. The former
of these is in some respects the most interesting, as it
comprises, besides the two cities already named, the Vale
of Tempe and plains of Thessaly, the monasteries of
Meteora and Zitza, and the gorge of the Acheron. This
route we had taken on a former occasion, and I hope to
give some account of it later on. We now determined
to follow the more northerly course, which gives you
unusual opportunities of studying the various races of
European Turkey, especially the wilder tribes of Alba-
nians. Besides this, as far as Elbassan, it corresponds
in great measure, if not entirely, to the line of the
Egnatian Way, which for many centuries was the great
artery of communication between Rome, Constantinople,
and Jerusalem; and again, during the Middle Ages, it
was on two occasions the route by which the Normans
made inroads into the Eastern empire, and was the
scene of many important conflicts in later Byzantine
history.
During the two days that we remained at Salonica the
weather had been cloudy and stormy, and I then realised
what I had never felt before—the pleasure of pale colours.
After the glare of sunshine and bright tints to which we
had been accustomed, the cool greys and browns of the
sky and mountains were quite a relief to the eye. When,
however, on the 27th of August, we left Salonica by the
150
CHAP. VII..
Salonica to Monastir.
Vardar gate, we were unpleasantly reminded of England
by a driving rain and northerly wind. The first part of
the way we rode along the remains of a wretched road,
full of ruts and mire, the history of which is worth
relating, as a specimen of the way in which things are
done in Turkey. The authorities determined that a
Route Impériale should be made from Salonica to Mo-
nastir; the Pasha fixed a day for the inauguration; all
the foreign consuls were requested to appear, each with
his spade; the Turkish engineer also came with a theo-
dolite, which he did not know how to use; the ceremony
was celebrated with great pomp; and the result is—that
from Salonica to Vodena, the most important part of
the way, almost the only approach to a road is this
wretched piece, which has now been allowed to fall into
decay. Escaping from this we entered on a sandy plain,
which reaches for sixty miles westward from Salonica,.
and is bounded on three sides by mountains of consider-
able height; in this part it is tufted by numerous tamarisk
bushes, and bears many large tumuli. The only persons
whom we met on the way were a few traders with pack-
horses. Throughout the whole distance, at intervals, we
found two parallel trenches cut, about twenty yards apart,
being the commencement of the route, but there were no
signs of the road being in course of making. The need
of means of communication is the first obstacle in the
way of improvement in Turkey at the present day, nor
does there seem any prospect of a change for the better
in the condition of things in this respect. Now-a-days the
cause is rather the inertness of the Government, and
the peculation which pervades every branch of the public
service; but in former times there was a rooted dislike of
any attempt to facilitate locomotion on the part of
Turkish politicians, and this in all probability survives.
CHAP. VII.
The Vardar.
151
among a certain class of them even now. M. Kinneir has
pertinently remarked on this subject, in his 'Memoir of
the Persian Empire,' that "It is a favourite idea with all
barbarous princes that the badness of the roads adds
considerably to the natural strength of their dominions.
The Turks and Persians are undoubtedly of this opinion;
the public highways are therefore neglected, and particu-
larly so towards the frontiers.” 4
We had been late in starting from the city, in conse-
quence of the kharidji, or carrier, whose horses we had
hired for the journey, refusing to go, on account of the
bad weather. We had neglected to take from him the
caparra, or deposit, which may always be required when
an agreement of this kind is made, until the horses are
forthcoming: thus we had no means of holding him to
his bargain, and were forced at the last moment to look
out for another man. In consequence of this we were
unable to reach the town of Yenidje, as we intended, and
were forced to stop at a country khan, or inn, on the
banks of the Vardar or Axius, whose red muddy stream
is here crossed by a long wooden bridge. The turbid
water of this river is mentioned by Strabo,5 who finds a
difficulty in reconciling it with the Homeric descrip-
tion, "the fairest stream that flows on earth." The un-
healthiness of the neighbourhood was shown by the
appearance of the khanji, or innkeeper, a young Greek,
with a yellow face and swollen legs. In like manner
Salonica, from the proximity of marshes and undrained
land, has a bad name for fevers throughout the Levant;
and though the English residents there combat this state-
ment, yet it was confirmed by the numerous Italian
commis voyageurs who occupied the same locanda with
4 Kinneir's 'Persia,' p. 43.
5 vii. Fragm. 21, 23.
152
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
ourselves, almost all of whom were suffering from malaria.
As the general features of most khans are the same, I
will describe our resting-place. It is a square enclosure,
on one side of which are haylofts and stables, while on
the opposite side are a number of small chambers, des-
tined for the human part of the company, with clay floors
and walls, and a thatched roof, through a hole in which,
in the absence of windows, ventilation is conveniently
carried on.
The only furniture is a rush mat for each
person. In one of these unpromising abodes, if there are
neither rats nor scorpions (we heard of the latter, but
never saw them), you can make yourself fairly com-
fortable. I used to have a quantity of hay brought in to
serve as a bed; on this were spread railway rugs, of
which we had a plentiful supply; and over all the
levinge, or sleeping-bag, within which the traveller is safe
from all kinds of vermin. A knapsack or air-cushion,
with a great coat, used to serve as a pillow. No doubt a
tent and mattresses will ensure you greater comfort, but
apart from the expense and delay inseparable from a
number of extra baggage-horses, there is one fatal objec-
tion to tent-life in these countries-it separates you from
the people, and prevents you from seeing their life and
habits. The khans in the towns are somewhat less
simple in their arrangements than what I have described,
but the quantity of vermin that breeds in their wooden
floors will soon make you wish yourself back in the
country again.
On starting the next morning, I asked our host the
name of a mountain to the south-west, whose broad base
alone was visible beneath a dense mass of cloud. “Elym-
pos," was his reply. It is remarkable that the great
• A description of this inestimable contrivance is given in Murray's
'Handbook for Greece.'
CHAP. VII.
Site of Pella.
153
centre of Homeric mythology should have retained its
name to the present time,—alone, I believe, of all the
Greek mountains; unless, perhaps, Liakura, the modern
name of Parnassus, is a corruption of Likorea, the former
name of one of its summits. Athos also must be ex-
cepted, but there the name has been preserved by the
monks; possibly the existence of the name Olympus
may be due to the same cause, for there are several very
ancient monasteries on its sides. But, at all events, it is
not a mere revival of the classical name, as is the case
with so many places in free Greece, for it occurs in some
of the Romaic ballads. Further to the south the conical
peak of Ossa was visible, separated from Olympus by a
depression which marked the position of Tempe, and
beyond all rose the broad hump of Pelion. The northern
continuation of the range of Olympus, which is called the
Bermian chain, lay in front of us, forming the western
limit of the plain. After crossing another branch of the
Axius by a ferry, we rode on for some distance, passing
on the way numbers of four-wheeled carts of very simple
construction, drawn by oxen or blear-eyed buffaloes,
and driven by peasants with long lance-like staves. The
country population throughout the whole district is Bul-
garian. At last we reached a khan by the road-side,
opposite which is a spring of water issuing from a ruined
mass of Roman masonry. The ruins are called “The
Baths" (τà λOUTρá) by the people of the country, and are
probably the same baths which, in classical times, are
alluded to as producing bilious attacks; the khan and
its vicinity bear the name of Pel. This name, together
with some pieces of pottery and marble blocks in the
fields and Turkish cemeteries, and a number of large
7 See the story in 'Athenæus,' viii. p. 348.
154
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
tumuli on the low hills to the south, in the neighbourhood
of the village of Alaklisi, are the only remains of what
was once Pella, the birthplace and capital of Alexander
the Great. It is not a striking position for a great me-
tropolis, but its nearness to the sea must have been its
chief recommendation. We are now entering the land of
the two Iskanders: in this neighbourhood our thoughts
are all of Alexander the Great, and before long we shall
be passing the country of
66 his namesake, whose oft-baffled foes
Shrank from his deeds of chivalrous emprise-
""
the heroic Scanderbeg. We halted about noon at the
town of Yenidje, the views of which, as we approached,
were backed by a fine mountain ridge, the Peik Dagh. In
the neighbourhood of this place and of the khan of Pel
there extends to the southwards a dull green marsh, and
beyond it a lake, though this is not visible from the
plain: we were told, however, that a fish which was
brought us for our dinner had been caught there. A
canal, which ran in this direction in former times, formed
a communication between Pella and the sea. The fish
of this lake were also famous among the ancients, and
were said to be particularly fat in summer. The marsh
used to bear the unprepossessing name of Borboros, or
"Mud," as we learn from a satirical epigram directed
against Aristotle, in which that philosopher is attacked
for preferring the company of Philip and Alexander to
that of the Athenians: he is there said to have "pre-
ferred the mouth of the Borboros to the Academy."
8
8 “ Τὸν χρόμιν ἐν Πέλλῃ λήψῃ μέγαν· ἐστί δὲ πίων,
àv lépos y.”—(‘Athen.,' vii. p. 328.)
9 In Plutarch, De Exilio, εἵλετο ναίειν ἀντ᾽ Ακαδημίας Βορβόρου ἐν
προχοαῖς.
CHAP. VII.
Vodena.
155
From thence pursuing our course along the plain, later in
the day we forded the broad shallow stream of the Mogle-
nitiko, which was probably called Lydias in ancient times.
The stream which carries the waters of the lake of Pella
into the sea was certainly called by that name, and as the
Moglenitiko flows into that lake, and is its principal
feeder, it probably bore the same appellation, and was
regarded as passing through it. In the lower part of its
course it seems to have changed its direction since the
time of Herodotus, who speaks of it as joining the Ha-
liacmon,10 whereas now it flows into the Vardar, just
before that river reaches the sea: but in a wide extent
of plain, intersected by several large rivers, such a change
is easily explicable." In the neighbourhood of the Mogle-
nitiko we passed some scenery of a very English character
-an open common, with cattle grazing, near which was
a Bulgarian village in the midst of trees. At sunset we
entered a narrower plain, which forms an offset from the
great plain of Salonica. The stream which waters this is
a tributary of the river just mentioned, and leads up to
Vodena.
This city stands in a singular and most beautiful situa-
tion. Below three ranges of mountains, which, when seen
from a distance, seem to rise one behind the other, a
valley descends, about a mile and a half wide; nearly
half-way down it is filled up from side to side by a level
table of land, the base of which projects towards the
plain with a gradual curve, like the side of an amphi-
theatre, and then falls in precipices of some two hundred
feet in height. The town lies on the level, and some of
its houses overhang the edge of the precipice, which is
10 'Herod.,' vii. 127.
11 The statement of Strabo (vii. Fragm. 20), that the lake of Pella was
formed by a branch of the Axius, is undoubtedly erroneous.
156
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
further diversified by poplars and other trees, and in one
or two places by the tall minarets which rise behind.
The precipices themselves, which consist of conglomerate
rock, are picturesquely ornamented with bushes, while
the well-irrigated plain below is covered with fruit-trees,
and crops of maize, often rising to the height of ten feet.
But the most marked feature of all are the cascades; for
the clear river, which descends from the upper part of the
valley, divides into a number of smaller streams, which
pass through the town, and plunge at various points
down the steep rocks, forming an exquisite addition to
the view, wherever a number of them can be seen
together. The view from the city, especially that from
the Archbishop's palace, which is situated on the verge
of the cliff, is not less fine. Beyond the orchards and
maize-grounds, which are below you, you look over the
narrow plain hemmed in by mountains, and beyond this
the wide plain, only bounded, at a distance of sixty
miles, by the heights beyond Salonica; a bright stripe of
sea also appears, and the lake of Pella, which from its
marshy character we had not seen when crossing the
plain on both sides are fine mountain ranges, and to the
south the chain of the long, many-crested, snowy Olympus
(μακρὸς πολυδειρὰς ἀγάννιφος Ὄλυμπος). As it is seen
from this point, all the Homeric epithets are strikingly
applicable; even at this season the northern slopes were
thickly patched with snow in consequence of the late
storms. The position of this city is not less remarkable
in a geographical point of view, commanding, as it does,
the principal pass, which leads from the plains into the
upper regions of Macedonia; it was this which caused it
to be selected early as the site of Edessa, the original
capital of Macedonia, before the seat of government was
removed to Pella by Philip of Macedon. Even after
CHAP. VII.
The Ancient Edessa.
157
that time it continued to be the national hearth of the
Macedonian race, and the burial-place of their kings. It
may in every respect be truly called a magnificent nursery
for a magnificent kingdom.
The interior of the place presents few objects of in-
terest, but in passing through it the eye is everywhere
refreshed by the abundance of water, which gushes
forth from walls in unexpected places, and courses at
will down the middle of the rough pavement of the
streets. The point where the stream divides at the
back of the city is the favourite lounge of the wealthier
citizens, and is admirably adapted for Oriental enjoy-
ment. Here twelve enormous plane-trees rise together
in a group, affording a grateful shade, and forming a dim
twilight of glancing green, while the ear is soothed by the
murmur of rushing waters. The division of the river
is said to be of natural formation, but at present its
appearance is certainly artificial. Its numerous branches,
together with the cascades below, have given the city its
Slavonic name of Vodena, or "the place of waters" (voda,
Slav. for "water").12
The valley behind Vodena is green and fertile, and at
its head the Route Impériale, which in this part for some
little distance is a very fair road, winds up a steep moun-
tain-side, commanding superb views over the town and
the wide expanse to the east. We were now leaving
lower Macedonia, and entering the upper and more
mountainous districts of that province. At intervals the
valley opened out into narrow plains, the green vegeta-
tion of which might at a distance be taken for rich crops,
12 The ancient name, Edessa, had the same signification, being derived
from bedu, the Phrygian word for "water." Similarly the Edessa in
Mesopotamia is said by Stephanus to have received its name from the
force of its waters. Ægæ, also, the earlier name of the Macedonian
Edessa, perhaps corresponds in meaning to our "springs."
158
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
but in reality is nothing but the waving reeds that cover
undrained morasses. At the sides of the roads are nume-
rous melon gardens, which, being entirely open, render
necessary a constant watch. Thus at some conspicuous
point a shed of branches is raised upon a small platform
to shelter the guardian of the fruit. The weather had
now cleared up, and was bright and fresh, and in conse-
quence of the rain, and the wonderful transparency of the
atmosphere, every leaf on the trees, and every stalk of
maize, was clearly defined and extraordinarily bright.
From this time until we reached Corfu, though travelling
in so hilly a country as Albania, we had a continuance of
almost unbroken sunshine. The upper part of the pass
was rugged and uncultivated. When we began to descend
on the other side, we came in sight successively of two
lakes; first, the small lake of Gugova, which is situated
high up a hill-side; and afterwards that of Ostrovo, a
large sheet of water, which appears ten miles long by two
broad, running nearly from north to south, and deeply
imbedded amongst wild and bare mountains, one of
which, above the head of the lake, was sprinkled with
snow. This was the peak of Mount Nidjé, the highest
point in all the district, reaching an elevation of between
seven and eight thousand feet; in respect of its position
also it is important, since the mountain system of these
parts may be regarded as culminating in it, while to the
north of it commences the Babuna range, which forms
the eastern boundary of the plain of Monastir.
From the village of Ostrovo, which lies on the shore
near the upper end, the object which most attracts the
eye is a single mosque with a minaret by its side, which
rises out of the water at the distance of half a mile. On
inquiring from the inhabitants the history of this building,
we found that it is the remains of a submerged town,
CHAP. VII.
Lake of Ostrovo.
159
which formerly extended from this point to the present
line of the shore. Less than a century ago there was no
lake in this region, and many towns existed in various
parts of the valley; but about sixty years from the pre-
sent time (so we were told) the waters rose and over-
whelmed all the lower part of the valley; and about
twenty-five years ago there was a further rise, and all but
a small part of the town of Ostrovo was submerged.
Again, in 1859, the lake rose several feet, but fortunately
retired again: the signs of this last inundation are trace-
able in several places about the head of the lake. The
explanation of this phenomenon is to be found in the
formation of the valley, which, like those in the Morea,
which contain the lakes of Pheneus and Stymphalus, is
so closely hemmed in by the mountains that it has no
escape for its waters. No doubt, as in the case of these
lakes, there is a subterranean channel, by which the
water was formerly carried off, and discharged in the
form of a river at a considerable distance, and the lake
was formed in consequence of the stoppage of the chan-
nel; so that at some future time, when the weight of
water is sufficient to remove the obstruction, the lake
of Ostrovo may again be replaced by a green valley, and
its submerged towns may reappear. When I visited the
lake Stymphalus in the spring of 1853, the waters were
low, and the cavern, which formed the mouth of the out-
let, or Catavothra, as it is called (тà кaтaßápalρа, KATA-
Balpa), was visible: the people of these parts did not
know of the existence of such a place, but of course,
while the lake is full, it is covered by the water. At
the same time I should mention that, on bathing near the
village, we found the water deep close to the shore, and
that there is reason to believe that a lake, though not
necessarily of any size, existed here in former times.
160
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
The name of Ostrovo is in itself an evidence of this, being
derived from Ostrov, the Slavonic word for "island."
But it is possible that at one period in the interval the
lake may have become completely dry.13
14
The phenomena just mentioned seem to have given
rise to a variety of legends among the ancient Greeks,
such as that of Alpheius pursuing Arethusa beneath the
sea, and the reappearance of the latter as a fountain in
the island of Ortygia at Syracuse. A curious version of
this legend arose at a later period, after it had been
modified, apparently, by the pious fancies of Christian
pilgrims. It is mentioned by Marifiotti, an old Italian
writer, that the Syracusans of his time gave credit to a
popular tradition concerning this fountain, that there
existed a connexion between it and the river Jordan,
since in autumn the fountain was said to throw up leaves
of such trees as were known to flourish only on the
banks of that river. A similar story with regard to the
Alpheius still exists in the islands of the Strophades,
which lie off the west coast of the Morea. In the
account of those islands, appended to his book on the
'Condition of the Greek Church,' Dean Waddington
tells us: "There exists a traditionary circumstance, by
which it would seem that nature has intended a perpetual
union between the Strophades and the continent; for
the monks inform me of faithful records to prove that
the Alpheius has frequently presented himself at a well
in this island, and deposited there shrubs, flowers, roots,
or leaves, which had been confided to him in Elis. The
13 The Medievals seem to have had the idea of there being a catavothra
from the lake of Ostrovo, but they supposed its waters to be carried to
Vodena. Thus Cedrenus writes (ii. p. 453, ed. Bonn):-"ppoúpιov dè tà
φρούριον
Βοδηνὰ ἐπὶ πέτρας ἀποτόμου κείμενον, δι' ἧς καταρρεῖ τὸ τῆς λίμνης τοῦ
Οστροβοῦ ὕδωρ ὑπὸ γῆς κάτωθεν ῥέον ἀφανῶς κἀκεῖσε πάλιν ὑποδυόμενον.”
14 Quoted in Wilkinson's 'Magna Græcia,' p. 15.
CHAP. VII.
Subterranean Channels.
161
monks, who are certainly not very credulous except
where their superstitions are concerned, are bold enough
to disbelieve this story; but to me it seems nothing
improbable that in his subteraqueous journey to visit
his Arethusa, the old river god should pause at this
delightful resting-place, and here resign some portion of
the tribute intended for his Syracusan mistress." 15 The
ancients had not failed to notice the same phenomenon.
Thus Pliny, in one of his Letters, speaks of a lake being
carried off by a river, "but when this has been visible for
a short time, it disappears in a cavern, and flows at a
great depth below; and whatever it received before it
was engulfed is preserved and brought forth again."16
Catullus also has framed a somewhat laboured simile
out of the disappearance of the water of the lake
Pheneus,—
""Twas then, Laodamia, oh most fair!
From thee was torn a husband, prized above
Thy life and soul; so wert thou hurried there,
Upon the whirling torrent of thy love,
"Into a steep-down gulf, as dark and deep
As that which erst, in Grecian story famed,
Where rolls Pheneus by Cyllene's steep,
From oozy marsh the fertile soil reclaim'd." 17
In cases where the river reappears at a great distance
from the lake which supplies it with water, such as the
instance which Herodotus mentions, of the Erasinus
in Argolis being connected with the Stymphalian lake,¹8
the real way in which the correspondence is proved is
15 Waddington, on the Greek Church,' p. 105.
16 Pliny, viii. 20.
17 Catull., lxviii. 109 (Theodore Martin's translation). Mr. Martin
reads Peneus, which does not suit the passage, and the word is pronounced
Phineus.
18 Herod. vi. 76.
VOL. I.
M
162
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
by the subsidence of the one coinciding with the overflow
of the other. 19
We rode round the head of the lake, the heavy oppres-
sive atmosphere of which reminded my companion of that
of the Dead Sea, and ascended the rough stony heights
on the other side, leading up to the pass which connects
this valley with the plain of Monastir. From one point
we caught a glimpse of another lake to the south; not,
however (as Mr. Lear says, in his 'Journals of a Land-
scape Painter'), the lake of Castoria, which is hidden
by intervening mountains, but that of Sarigöl. At the
summit of the pass we stopped the night at the village
of Gurnitzovo, the inhabitants of which we at once
discovered to be Christians by two infallible signs, one
negative and the other positive-the absence of minarets
and the presence of pigs. These signs have been noticed
by other travellers. In the Journal of the Patriarch
Macarius we find the observation, "There is a church
in the town, and hogs feed at large in the streets,”
and Dr. Walsh, in his 'Journey from Constantinople to
England,' says of a village in Bulgaria, “Its appearance
at once struck me that I had got into a Christian
country. In the green before the houses was a large
herd of swine, the first I had seen since my arrival in
Turkey." In consequence of the pig being in this
manner a Christian animal, there is a tax on pigs in
Turkey, and this at the present time is of a very oppres-
sive character. Up to the year 1858 it was moderate
enough, but since that date the rate has been ten piastres.
19 The numerous words used in Greek to describe this phenomenon
show how familiar it must have been to the ancients. Thus the subter-
ranean passage itself was called βάραθρον (in Arcadia, έρεθρον), βόθρος,
πόρος, ῥεῖθρον ὑπόνομον, ἔναυλος, ἔκρυσις. The entrance was termed χάσμα,
the exit έκρηξις, ἐκβολή, ἀναβολή, ἀναχοή. See Ulrichs • Reisen in Griechen-
land,' p. 223.
1
CHAP. VII.
Pigs in Turkey.
163
(about twenty pence) per head, which is charged when
the animal is three months' old. The risk incurred from
the payment of so large a tax on so young an animal is
so great, that many of them are killed shortly after
birth, and the decrease in the numbers bred of late years
has been fully 50 per cent. In this way an important
article of food is being lost to the peasantry, and sub-
sistence rendered more difficult to them, without any
corresponding advantage to the exchequer of the
empire.20 The subject population in the country districts
of all this part of Turkey is composed of Bulgarian
Christians; there is also a considerable Turkish popula-
tion, and the two races are found sometimes, as at
Ostrovo, living together in the same village, sometimes in
separate villages. Gurnitzovo was sold by the Porte to
Ali Pasha, or, more probably, was forcibly seized by
him, and reduced to the condition of a farm, or peculiar.
The same thing occurred to a great number of places
throughout Thessaly and Epirus. On the death of that
chieftain, and the overthrow of his government, the Porte
thought fit to retain them as government farms, and in
addition to this they are taxed most unmercifully. The
people here complained bitterly of their condition. The
imperial farms are said to be very badly managed, even
as regards the land itself; for since the Government is
unwilling to grant long leases, and the tenure is for the
most part from year to year, the occupants are naturally
unwilling to expend their energy or capital upon it, and
the rental is very small, while the land is exhausted
without care for the future.
Owing to the elevation of this place (for it is 2900 feet
above the sea), the air the next morning was clear and
20 See Farley's 'Turkey,' p. 110.
M 2
164
CHAP. VII.
Salonica to Monastir.
cold. As we descended, at an hour's distance from the
village, we reached a ridge, from which we beheld in
front of us the long plain of Monastir stretching away
to the north, with the town dimly visible at the foot
of the mountains on the western side. The outline of
this chain is flat, so that the view can be called grand
only from its extent; and the one summit of great
elevation, which rises above the rest, lies back from the
plain, and is little seen from its opposite side. This
is Mount Peristeri, which reaches an elevation somewhat
higher than that of Mount Nidjé, and overlooks the
valley behind Monastir. Its name, which signifies “The
Dove," is an almost singular instance in this part of the
country of the use of a Greek word to designate one of
the natural features, the rest being almost universally
either Turkish, or, as is most commonly the case, Sla-
vonic. Descending still further, we passed the tomb of
a Mahometan saint and a Turkish cemetery, while on
our right the snow-capped ridge of Nidjé once more
appeared. Shortly after this we arrived at the pretty
village of Tulbeli, which is dignified in Greek with the
name of a кwμórоs, or country town, as places of this
size are called, to distinguish them from an ordinary
village (xwpɩóv), and a town (πoλITEÍA).21
From thence we rode over an expanse of loose stones,
the aspect of which might almost recal the plain of the
Crau, near Arles, in the south of France, where Jupiter,
according to the legend, is said to have cast down the
boulders and pebbles with which it is covered, to provide
missiles for Hercules in his contest with the Ligurians.
When at last we reached the plain, our track lay across
it in an oblique direction towards the city. The small
21 On the scene of Brasidas' retreat from Lyncestis, see Appendix C.
CHAP. VII.
Approach to Monastir.
165
streams which we passed were running northwards, for
the river Czerna, the ancient Erigon, by which the plain
is drained, after flowing from north to south throughout
the greater part of its course, bends round to the north-
east, where it reaches the lower end, and passing between
Mount Nidjé and the extremity of the Babuna moun-
tains, descends towards the Vardar, which river it joins
some way below the city of Kiuprili. As we approached
Monastir, we once more joined the Route Impériale, on
which we met numerous passengers-some on foot, others
mounted on donkeys—as we entered the avenue which
leads up to the city. Earlier in the year, the road is
said for a time to be crowded with strings of horses and
mules, which carry the corn that is grown in this upland
region for exportation to the sea.
( 166 )
CHAPTER VIII.
MONASTIR AND OCHRIDA.
Monastir-Its Importance - Massacre of the Albanian Beys - Monastery
of Bukova - Plain of Monastir Legend of the Temenida - Turkish
Outrages - The Bulgarians—Their History-Bulgarian Church Move-
Monastir to Ochrida - Lake of Presba - Lake of Ochrida
The City-Ancient Statue and Crucifix- Legend of St. Clement
Cyril and Methodius - Statues and Pictures.
ment
MONASTIR, or, as the Christians call it, Bitolia, which
is the military centre and most important place in this
district of Turkey, is situated in an angle running in
from the western side of the plain. Its appearance from
outside is beautiful from the trees, especially the bright
glistening poplars, which are interspersed among the
houses, and the numerous minarets and domed mosques,
the latter of which features we had not seen since leaving
Cavalla: inside, too, there is a more cleanly and regular
appearance about the streets than is found in most
Turkish towns, and there is an unusual air of business,
and shops of some pretensions. Here, also, one meets
once more such unwonted sights as cavalry barracks, a
parade ground, Turkish soldiers, and foreign consuls.
In the winter there is a force of about 4000 men
stationed here, but at other times of the year they are
dispersed about the country. We could not learn that
any of them had been drawn off to join in the operations
which were then preparing against Montenegro; indeed
they can hardly be spared, as there is no other military
force in the country nearer than Salonica on the one side
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir.
167
and Scodra on the other. The military importance of
Monastir is great from several points of view. In the
first place it is the meeting-point of several lines of road,
from Salonica on the Ægean, from Durazzo on the
Adriatic, and from Uskiub and Adrianople in the in-
terior. Besides this, it is the most accessible point from
which an army can penetrate into Albania, and the pas-
sage into that country which it commands, though diffi-
cult, is yet considered practicable for artillery. To this
it must be added, that from here it is possible to act
independently against Northern and Southern Albania,
and separate the races which inhabit those countries
respectively. The population is about 40,000, and is
principally composed of Turks and Wallachs, the latter
being the mercantile class, as the Bulgarians are the cul-
tivators of the soil. There are also a few Greeks.
The parade-ground, which we had seen on entering the
city, at the end of the avenue by which we approached,
was in 1830 the scene of an event of considerable import-
ance in later Turkish history—the massacre of the Alba-
nian Beys. It was an act of the most scandalous perfidy,
contrived with the utmost deliberation; but, since the
fall of Ali Pasha, no other circumstance has tended so
much to establish the Ottoman power in these parts, as
it led to the final overthrow of the local chieftains in
Albania. The history of it is as follows. After the con-
clusion of the Greek War of Independence, the Albanian
soldiery who had been employed by the Turks in that
struggle returned to their native country, and there began
to pillage the villages indiscriminately. When at last
this state of things became unendurable, the petty chiefs
combined themselves into a sort of oligarchy for the pur-
pose of restoring order, the lead being taken amongst
them by three persons-Seliktar Poda, who commanded
168
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
Central Albania, and had gathered round him the re-
mains of Ali Pasha's faction-Veli Bey, who held Yanina.
and the rest of Epirus, and concealed his ambitious de-
signs by pretending to support the reforms introduced.
by the Porte-and Arslan Bey, a noble and dashing.
young officer of twenty-five years of age, who professed
to represent the national party, and was consequently
the most popular of the three. In reality, however,.
another personage of greater importance was behind the
scenes in this movement, which he was prepared to
employ for purposes of his own, in the shape of Mustapha
Pasha of Scodra, the last of the hereditary Pashas of that
place, and the most formidable chieftain then remaining
in Albania. The three leaders just mentioned were at
first at variance among themselves, and by their rivalry
paralysed one another's action: when, however, they
found that the Porte was about to undertake operations
against them, and the danger became pressing, a confer-
ence was arranged between Veli and Arslan, at which,
after a protracted discussion, they gave one another the
kiss of peace, and then proceeded to proclaim to their
troops that they had made common cause with a view
to united action. Meanwhile the Grand Vizir, Reschid
Pasha, perceiving that mischief was brewing in Albania,
and well aware of the ambitious designs of Mustapha,
had assembled a force at Adrianople, with which he
marched to Monastir. On reaching that place, when
he received intelligence of the reconciliation of the two
chiefs, he conducted himself as if compelled to change his
plan of action, and after proclaiming a general amnesty,
invited all the Albanian Beys to a grand banquet at Mo-
nastir, to celebrate the re-establishment of friendly rela-
tions with the central government. The invitation was
CHAP. VIII.
Massacre of the Beys.
169
accepted, and the Beys presented themselves, to the num-
ber of four or five hundred, headed by Arslan and Veli.
But the proposed meeting was only a device to conceal
an act of the basest treachery. On their first arrival the
Vizir received them with great affability and kindness,
and encouraged them with the most specious promises.
But when, at the time appointed for the banquet,
they approached the rendezvous, which was the parade-
ground already mentioned, they were dismayed to find a
thousand regular troops drawn up on two sides of a
square, the one along their route, the other facing them.
On seeing this, Arslan Bey exclaimed to Veli, "We have
eaten dirt;" to which the other replied, "This is the
regular way of doing honour." Immediately after, a
fatal volley poured in amongst the Albanians, followed
by a charge with the bayonet. Veli Bey instantly fell,
but Arslan and others survived, and were wheeling off to
the right, when the volley and charge of the second
Turkish line took them in flank. From this Arslan alone
escaped, and was soon at a distance from the bloody
scene. But his flight had been observed, and Khior
Ibrahim Pasha, one of the Grand Vizir's subordinates,
immediately mounted a swift horse and gave chase. At
the end of three miles he came up with him, when Arslan
turned suddenly round, and, facing his opponent, dis-
charged his pistol at him, which brought down his horse.
But Ibrahim had already placed his lance in rest, and, as
he fell, he ran Arslan Bey through and through. The
scalps of the Beys were salted, and conveyed to Constan-
tinople.
The effect of this disgraceful massacre was to leave
only two powers in Albania capable of making any resist-
ance.
The one was Seliktar Poda in the south, who had
170
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
made himself master of Yanina in the interval; but when
a force of 16,000 men was sent against him, he was forced
to fly, and the whole of Epirus fell into the hands of the
conquerors. The other was Mustapha Pasha, a more
formidable opponent. His resistance was of a serious
character, and had he known how to profit by his oppor-
tunities, he might have taken Reschid unprepared at
Monastir, where he was accompanied by only a small
body of troops. As it was, he gave that wily general
time to enlist the Christians in his service, by holding out
to them an opportunity of taking vengeance on their
hereditary enemies, the Albanians; and to win the sup-
port of the Mahometan chiefs in Macedonia, by showing
to them that the dismemberment of the empire would
lead to their subjugation to Russia. The decisive struggle
took place near Perlepe, where, after a hard fight, the
Albanians were defeated. Mustapha Pasha was forced to
retire to Scodra, where he was besieged in the fortress of
Rosapha, and ultimately compelled to surrender.¹
By the kindness of our consul, Mr. Charles Calvert,
we were invited to pass the night at the little monastery
of Bukova, or “The Beeches," which nestles in the moun-
tain-side, at a height of several hundred feet above the
town, and in which he had taken refuge from the intense
heat of the summer. As we were riding out we met
some of the Pasha's hawks, which were being brought
home by mounted attendants from a hawking expedi-
tion; for that amusement is still a favourite one in these
parts. The plain, which is forty miles in length by ten
in breadth, is a wonderful sight as seen from the monas-
tery; it is extremely fertile, though at the end of August
it was brown, from the crops having been removed. All
1
¹ Cyprien Robert, 'Les Slaves de Turquie,'ii. pp. 197-212; Urquhart,
'Spirit of the East,' i. pp. 308-310.
CHAP. VIII.
Plain of Monastir.
171
down the centre runs a long line of green, caused by the
marshes which form along the banks of the river Czerna,
the ground near which has never been drained; and in
various parts lie 170 villages, the inhabitants of which are
partly small cultivators, partly peasants employed by the
large proprietors. The whole plain is environed by fine
mountains: directly opposite, to the east, is the long
Babuna chain, which, though not seen in its full propor-
tions, on account of the elevation of the plain, presents
a picturesque and broken outline: but the most con-
spicuous of all are the distant snow-capped heights of
Kritchova to the north-east. Close to the foot of these,
in another plain, lies the town of Perlepe, where a great
fair for the whole of this territory and Albania is held
once a year in the month of August. Traders resort to
it from all parts of the country, and the retail dealers
depend on it in great measure for their supply. A
great quantity of merchandize is brought overland from
Vienna; but this year, in consequence of the financial
and commercial crisis throughout the Levant, hardly any
business was done. This part of the country appears to
be a great mart for Austrian wares; whereas in southern
and part of central Albania the goods are, or were,
almost entirely from England, being introduced by way
of Corfu this was one considerable advantage which this
country used to derive from the possession of that island.
The plain of Monastir, in consequence of its position,
being removed from the sea, and 1500 feet above it, and
surrounded by high mountains, is exposed to great and
sudden changes of temperature; in summer the glass
frequently standing at 104 in the shade, while in the
winter for two months the ground is thickly covered with
snow. It is the natural consequence of this that, as at
Madrid, which is in a similar position, diseases of the
172
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
chest are very common; and furs are much worn at all
times of the year, from the danger of sudden chills.
The district, comprising this plain and that of Perlepe,
was called in ancient times Pelagonia, and this name
is still used to designate the bishopric of Bitolia. The
site of Monastir itself was probably occupied by Hera-
clea, which was one of the principal cities on the line
of the Egnatian Way. The Pelagonian plain was one of
the primitive seats of the Macedonian race, and, as Mr.
Grote has remarked,³ formed a territory better calculated
to nourish and to generate a considerable population,
than the less favoured home, and smaller breadth of
valley and plain, occupied by Epirots or Illyrians. In
this way a hardy yet thriving race was developed which
had in it the germs of a great nation. In the same dis-
trict is laid the scene of the story which Herodotus has
given of the foundation of the Macedonian monarchy,
and which, from its quaint and graphic character, deserves
to be introduced here. How far it contains historical
elements, we cannot say ; but, as it stands, it bears a
singular resemblance to those Popular Tales which since
Grimm's time have been recognised as the heritage of
the peasantry in every country of Europe. The three
brothers, the youngest of whom is the wisest and the
4
2 The derivation of the modern name Bitolia is doubtful. Boué suggests
that it is derived from the Albanian word vittolja, a "dove," as the place
was inhabited by the Skipetars before the Slaves. This he would connect
with the corresponding name of Peristeri, given to the mountain which
rises above ('Recueil d'Itinéraires,' i. p. 257). Von Hahn, however,
prefers to derive it from the Slavonic obitavati, "to inhabit," and con-
siders it a translation of the name Monastir. This latter name originated in
the monastery of Bukova itself (Hahn, 'Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik,'
p. 115).
'History of Greece,' iv. p. 15.
• The historical side of the story is well given by Von Gutschmid, in the
Symbola Philologorum Bonnensium.'
CHAP. VIII.
Legend of the Temenida.
173
most successful-the enigmatical conversation about the
sunshine the sudden swelling of the river to save
the fugitives-are all features commonly found in this
class of stories; in addition to which the general cast of
the narrative is such as cannot fail to suggest a close
resemblance to the Popular Tales to one accustomed
to study this branch of literature. So that we need have
no hesitation in finding a relationship between it and
'Cinderella,' 'The Sleeping Beauty,' 'Jack and the Bean-
stalk,' and the innumerable other stories which a careful
search is continually bringing to light.
"Three brothers, descendants of Temenus, fled from Argos to the
Illyrians; their names were Gauanes, Aëropus, and Perdiccas. From
Illyria they went across to Upper Macedonia, where they came to a
certain town called Lebæa. There they hired themselves out to serve
the king in different employs. One tended the horses; another looked
after the cows; while Perdiccas, who was the youngest, took charge of
the smaller cattle. In those early times poverty was not confined to the
people; kings themselves were poor, and so here it was the king's wife who
cooked the victuals. Now, whenever she baked the bread, she always
observed that the loaf of the labouring boy Perdiccas swelled to double
its natural size. So the queen, finding this never fail, spoke of it to her
husband. Directly that it came to his ears, the thought struck him
that it was a miracle, and boded something of no small moment. He
therefore sent for the three labourers, and told them to be gone out of
his dominions. They answered, 'They had a right to their wages; if he
would pay them what was due, they were quite willing to go.' Now
it happened that the sun was shining down the chimney into the room
where they were; and the king, hearing them talk of wages, lost his
wits, and said, 'There are the wages which you deserve; take that—
I give it you!' and pointed, as he spoke, to the sunshine. The two
elder brothers, Gauanes and Aëropus, stood aghast at the reply, and
did nothing; but the boy, who had a knife in his hand, made a mark
with it round the sunshine on the floor of the room, and said, 'O king!
we accept thy payment.' Then he received the light of the sun three
times into his bosom, and so went away, and his brothers went with
him.
"When they were gone, one of those who sat by told the king what
the youngest of the three had done, and hinted that he must have had
174
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
some meaning in accepting the wages given. Then the king, when he
heard what had happened, was angry, and sent horsemen after the
youths to slay them. Now there is a river in Macedonia to which
the descendants of the Argives offer sacrifice as their saviour. This
stream swelled so much, as soon as the sons of Temenus were safe
across, that the horsemen found it impossible to follow. So the
brothers escaped into another part of Macedonia, and took up their
abode near the place called 'the Gardens of Midas, son of Gordias.'
In these gardens there are roses which grow of themselves, so sweet
that no others can come near them, and with blossoms that have as
many as sixty petals apiece. It was here, according to the Macedonians,
that Silenus was made a prisoner. Above the gardens stands a moun-
tain called Bermius, which is so cold that none can reach the top. Here
the brothers made their abode, and from this place, by degrees, they
conquered all Macedonia.” 5
We soon discovered that the monastery at which we
were staying, though built in many respects like the
smaller Greek monasteries, was such only in name. It
has, it is true, a central church, and a warden and one
monk to perform the services; but the buildings round
the court are intended, not for monastic cells, but for
places of meeting for the members of different guilds of
tradesmen in Monastir, who come here to hear service,
and afterwards to feast and make merry, on the festival
days of their patron saints. The great monastery of St.
Naum, near the southern end of the lake of Ochrida, is a
similar institution. These guilds, which are found among
the Christians in many of the cities of Turkey, and are
governed by statutes of their own, and presided over by
a judge elected by the body, correspond very closely to
our corporations of the Middle Ages. We were lodged
in a room belonging to the Worshipful Company of
5 'Herod.,' viii. 137-138 (Rawlinson's translation). The gardens here
spoken of are the rich and fertile district in the neighbourhood of Verria
(Berrhoea), to the south of Vodena. What is said of the roses reminds us
of the name of that flower in modern Greek, triantaphyllon, or “the flower
of thirty petals."
CHAP. VIII.
Turkish Outrages.
175
Greengrocers. The sitting-room occupied by Mr. Calvert
and his wife was formed by an angle of the wide open
gallery which here runs round the building, and was
screened from the sun by a canvas covering extended
from the wall to the balustrade of the gallery. The
history of the old warden was a very sad one: he was in
the last stage of a decline, brought on by a melancholy
of several years' standing, in consequence of the death of
his brother, who was wantonly murdered by a Turk, in
the open streets, by his side. The murderer, after a few
months' imprisonment at Constantinople, again walks
the streets of Monastir, and from time to time comes to
the monastery with others to levy black mail, and require
entertainment from the brother of his victim. But these
things are of common occurrence. It was revolting to
hear, from the best authority, of the outrages which the
Christians in these parts are continually suffering at the
hands of the Turks. Besides the extortion carried on by
government agents in the collection of the taxes, murders,
assaults, robberies, and pillage, are constantly happening.
The Turks have no occupation, either agricultural or
mechanical; they support themselves by stealing from
their neighbours. One seeming improvement has been
introduced of late years, in the taxes not being farmed;
but the unscrupulousness and cupidity of the collectors
remain the same. The people, in consequence of this,
are afraid to show any outward signs of prosperity lest
they should be despoiled. And so great is the fanaticism
of the Mahometans, that until a very few years ago no
Christian woman, not even a Frank lady, was allowed to
appear in the streets unveiled. The wife of the Austrian
consul, who was the first representative of Western
Europe that appeared here, was for some time obliged to
wear a veil.
i
176
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida,
·
One story that we heard at this time, which was well
authenticated, is a remarkable instance of retribution.
In the neighbourhood of Elbassan, in Central Albania,
where the dearth had lately been so great as almost to
amount to a famine, a young Mahometan, who was
reduced to excess of want, went out foraging by night.
He met a man driving a mule laden with sacks, and
having shot him, according to the custom of the country,
brought home his store of grain. The next night he
went off to get it ground, and his father, desiring to
emulate his son's success, started also to try his hand on
a similar exploit. He also shot his man, and brought
home the captured sacks. On examining them, he found
that they were his own, and that the victim was his son.
The Bulgarians, who form the largest element in the
Christian population from Salonica to the confines of
Albania, are a very interesting people, and are highly
spoken of for industry and honesty. They are the most
numerous of all the nationalities inhabiting European
Turkey, and are estimated at between five and six mil-
lions. There can be no doubt that the original Bul-
garians were of Turanian descent, and near relations, if
not actual descendants, of Attila's Huns; but after their
settlement in Bulgaria Proper, on the Danube, they be-
came so intermingled with the Slavonian inhabitants of
that country that they adopted their language. A large
number of them seem to have emigrated into Western
Macedonia before the ninth century, and there, in all
probability, received a further infusion of Slavonic blood.
The traces of this are very evident in the present appear-
ance of the people; for the Tartar type of face, which
generally is remarkable for its permanence, has here for
the most part disappeared. Notwithstanding this, you
will not often find a people with such well-marked
CHAP. VIII.
The Bulgarians.
177
characteristics. They have straight noses, high cheek-
bones, flat cheeks, and very commonly light eyes; their
complexions are frequently almost swarthy from expo-
sure to the sun, but the children are generally fair. The
dress of the women is peculiar; the principal garment is
a long coat, open in front, reaching nearly to the feet;
besides this and an under garment, there is a broad belt,
elaborately embroidered, and an apron of bright colours;
they wear a veil, somewhat resembling the Turkish
yashmak, but not so closely drawn. The national instru-
ment is a small flute, the Arcadian sound of which may
sometimes be heard in the wild unfrequented valleys.
At an early period of Byzantine history this people
was one of the most dreaded foes of the Greek empire.
They first appeared on the further side of the Danube at
the end of the fifth century, and not long after this their
invasions commenced. Two centuries and a half later,
in the time of the Iconoclastic emperors, we find their
power so greatly increased that it required all the energy
and military talents of Constantine Copronymus (A.D.
757) to keep them at bay, and on one occasion they
carried their ravages up to the walls of Constantinople.
As might be expected from a rude and needy people
settled in the neighbourhood of an old civilization, their
inroads were continually renewed, and from these they
usually returned home laden with plunder. In the
beginning of the ninth century their king, Crumn, was an
able and warlike leader. After a protracted struggle
with the emperor Nicephorus I., he defeated and slew
that prince, who had invaded his territory, in a night
attack on his camp, and converted his skull into a
drinking-cup for his table. Until the end of his life
Crumn was continually at war with the two succeeding
emperors, and proved a terrible scourge to the provinces
VOL. I.
N
178
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
of Thrace and Macedonia, from the merciless way in
which he ravaged the country, sacked the cities, and
carried away the inhabitants into captivity. He seems,
however, to have exhausted his own people in these
wars, for after his death they remained tranquil for some
time. The next occasion on which we hear of them was
one of considerable importance. In the year 861 the
country on the southern side of the Balkan range was
ceded to them, and received from them the name of
Zagora. At the same time the Bulgarian monarch
Bogoris embraced Christianity, which had been intro-
duced into his palace by his sister, who had been carried
as a prisoner to Constantinople and educated there, and
had afterwards been restored to her native country. At
his baptism the Emperor Michael became his sponsor,
and it was pretended that the cession of territory had
been made as a baptismal donation. By the influence of
Bogoris, who was a wise and beneficent prince, his entire
people was converted to Christianity and advanced in
civilization. He ultimately resigned his kingdom to his
son Simeon, and retired into a monastery, where he
died.
The Bulgarians had now become a commercial nation,
and were the most advanced in the arts of life of all the
northern barbarians. Placed as they were between the
Byzantine empire and the German and Scandinavian
tribes, they became the medium for supplying the latter
with the manufactures and gold of the former, and with
the products of Asia. The trade thus caused was a
source of great profit to them, but also involved them in
war with Constantinople. Thus the peace which had
been concluded with Bogoris was brought to an end,
during the reign of his son, by the rapacity of the Greeks,
who farmed the customs of the empire, and in so doing
CHAP. VIII.
Bulgarian History.
179
seriously interfered with the traders. In the wars that
succeeded, Simeon inflicted the greatest injury on his
opponents, destroying the fruit trees and burning the
houses of the peasantry, and treating his captives with
merciless cruelty. When peace was re-established (A.D.
923), the treaty was made under the very walls of Con-
stantinople, on which occasion the Greeks were astonished
at the splendid array of the body-guard of the Bulgarian
monarch, and their steady discipline. One of the stipu-
lations of this treaty is of great ecclesiastical importance,
viz., that it required the public acknowledgment of the
independence of the Bulgarian Church, and the official
recognition of the Archbishop of Dorostylon as Patriarch
of Bulgaria, both by the Emperor and the Patriarch of
Constantinople. In the reign of Nicephorus Phocas the
Russians, who had not long before appeared on the scene
of action, were invited by the Greeks to invade Bulgaria ;
this they did in the year 968, under the command of
their chief Swatoslaf, and so effectually crushed the
Bulgarians that the emperor was obliged himself to come
to the aid of that people, in order to save his own ter-
ritory from falling a prey to the new comers. When, at
last, the Russians were finally defeated and expelled by
the skill and military tactics of John Zimisces, the Bul-
garians for a time became subject to the Eastern
empire.
It was shortly after this, however, that their period of
greatest glory commenced. Towards the end of the
tenth century, while the Byzantine authorities were occu-
pied with a rebellion at home, their chief, Samuel, a man
of great vigour and ability, proclaimed himself king, and
not only recovered the dominions of his predecessors, but
extended his conquests over Macedonia and Thessaly,
and made plundering excursions into Greece and the
ל
N 2
180
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
Peloponnese. Finding that the plains of Bulgaria were
unfavourable to him as a scene of war, on account of the
superior discipline of the Imperial forces, he transferred
his seat of government to Achrida (now Ochrida), on the
lake of the same name, in the midst of the mountains to
the west of Monastir; at the same time he transferred
thither the Bulgarian patriarchate, and from thenceforth
that place became the capital, and the focus of their na-
tional associations. Before long the wisdom of his choice
was shown, for he made himself master of all the country
which now forms the centre of European Turkey, reach-
ing from the Ægean to the Adriatic, and commanding
the principal lines of communication, so that his domi-
nions became as extensive as the European portion of
the Byzantine empire. The rise of this new kingdom,
however, coincided with the culminating period of By-
zantine greatness, and Samuel found a worthy rival in
Basil II., who from his subsequent victories obtained the
title of "Slayer of the Bulgarians." In the year 1002
this emperor defeated the Bulgarian king under the walls
of Scopia (Uskiub), on the Vardar, when he was returning
from a successful inroad into the heart of Thrace. Again
in 1014, in a battle that took place in the upper valley of
the Strymon, by means of a manœuvre which enabled
him to attack his enemy at once in front and in the rear,
Basil inflicted a crushing blow on the Bulgarians; and
when that prince, with frightful inhumanity, blinded all
his prisoners, and sent them home in that condition,
Samuel was so horrified at the sight that he died of rage
and grief two days afterwards. Within four years from
this time the Bulgarian power was at an end, and the
whole people had submitted to the dominion of the Greek
empire. Once again they rose to importance, when, at
the end of the twelfth century, they joined with the Wal-
CHAP. VIII.
Church Movement.
181
lachs in establishing what was called the Bulgaro-Walla-
chian kingdom; but as this event more properly belongs
to Wallachian history, we will defer speaking of it until
we have an opportunity of giving an account of that
people. After the Turkish conquest the Bulgarians do
not reappear as a nation; they became the agricultural
population of a large part of Turkey, and have borne
their hard lot with passive resignation. Though endowed
with a stubborn nature, they have shown themselves too
unimpressible to take part in any of the movements which
have affected the Turkish empire.
It may be well here to add a few words as to the recent
movement in the Bulgarian Church. It will be remem-
bered that in the spring of 1861 we received accounts of
an agitation on the part of that church to free themselves
from the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople,
and that some of the leaders in that movement seceded
to the Church of Rome, while others tried to fraternize
with various Protestant bodies. The explanation of their
hatred of what they call "Fanariote influence," which at
Constantinople was generally ascribed to political causes,
we easily discovered in the country itself. It has all
along been the policy of the Greeks to keep the Bulgarian
Church in subjection, so that traces of an antagonism to
their ecclesiastical rule may be found as early as the
tenth century ;" and in this they have in later times been
supported by the Turks, whose aim it has been to use
the Greek Church as an instrument for keeping in order
the other subject races. In consequence of this, Greek
bishops have been appointed to Bulgarian dioceses; many
of the priests also are Greeks, and the Greek language, of
7
6 Thunmann, 'Untersuchungen,' p. 275, foll.; Finlay, 'Byzantine
Empire.'
7 Ibid., ii. p. 81.
182
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
which the people do not understand a word, has been,
until lately, universally in use in the services. I know of
one instance (I dare say it is not an uncommon one)
where even the priest, a Bulgarian, did not know a word
of Greek, and had only learnt to read the Greek letters,
so that he recited the service without knowing the mean-
ing of the words. In a few places, as, for instance, in the
neighbourhood of Ochrida, permission has been given
within the last few years to introduce the Slavonic tongue,
probably in consequence of considerable pressure; but
these are quite exceptions. During the summer of 1861
a pamphlet of some learning, though tediously prolix,
was put out by the Secretary of the Constantinopolitan
Synod, to review the history of the Bulgarians in their
relation to the Greek Church, and to show the ground-
lessness of their pretensions and complaints. The writer
urges that the Bulgarians form but a small part of the
population of Western Macedonia; he says that many of
the people are only Greeks who speak Bulgarian (Tρaïkol
Βουλγαροφωνοῦντες); and even goes so far as to assert
that the physical appearance and customs of the Bul-
garians in these parts show them to be originally Greek,
and not Bulgarian-all which statements can be contra-
dicted by one who has travelled in the country. He
comments severely on the theories of M. Fallmerayer
(ὁ Γερμανὸς Φαλμεραΰερος), who maintains, somewhat
paradoxically, that there is no Greek blood in the veins.
of the modern Greeks; he inveighs against the presump-
tion of those who would drive out from this country the
language of Homer, Demosthenes, and Plato, yea, of the
Gospel-the language of civilization, "which not only
teaches forms of speech, but also enlightens the mind,
and moulds the affections, and informs the will:” and
then, addressing himself to the Wallachians and other
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir to Ochrida.
183
inhabitants of the district, with a view, apparently, to
"divide and conquer," he warns them that the Bulgarians
are endeavouring to get the ecclesiastical superiority over
them, and that by submitting they will bring about their
Bulgarisation (Tην Éкßоvλyáρwow Eavτŵv). Moreover, he
tells the Bulgarians that it is unreasonable for them to
desire bishops of their own race, because distinctions of
race have been destroyed by the Gospel: they ought
only to ask for men who can speak Slavonic, and this, he
says, all their bishops can do; and so far are the bishops
from trying to Hellenize others, that they become de-
nationalized and Bulgarized themselves. Some of these
arguments it is impossible to read without a smile. But
the real cause of all this indignation is the desire which
the Bulgarians have expressed to be free from the Pa-
triarch of Constantinople, and their claim to have a
Patriarch of their own, as they had until less than a cen-
tury ago. For a time the movement is brought to a
standstill: it is to be hoped, however, that if it does not
ultimately bring about the independence of the Bulgarian
Church, it will at all events remove many of the abuses
by which it is now afflicted. Most of those persons who
joined the Church of Rome have already returned, since
they found how galling a yoke the Pope would lay upon
them. But it is striking to see in this instance, as in
others with which we are more familiar, the attraction
exercised by a great name and a central idea.
In going from Monastir to Ochrida two passes have
successively to be crossed, between which a broad and
deep valley intervenes. The first of these is through the
mountains which rise directly behind Monastir, and
among which the lofty peak of Peristeri is the most con-
spicuous object. As we emerged from the town in this
direction, we passed through a cemetery, and, on reaching
184
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
the open country, found ourselves on the right bank of the
Dragor, a tributary of the Czerna, which flows through
the place. On our way, as we followed this stream up-
wards, we met a number of horses bearing charcoal and
skins, the produce of the country, to the town. For some
distance the mountain-sides were dotted with villages, but
in the upper regions the country was barren and unin-
teresting, though the slopes in the neighbourhood of our
track were covered with ferns. The summit reaches the
height of about 3000 feet above the sea. Descending on
the other side into the valley-plain of Presba, we stopped
a short time, during the heat of the day, at the village of
Resna; and then again ascended the second mountain
chain by a steep winding path amid the bright foliage
of dwarf oaks and beeches, with striking views of the Lake
of Presba at the southern end of the plain, encased on
three sides by finely-broken mountains, which loomed
dimly forth through the warm haze. The Bulgarian pea-
sants who accompanied our horses called this piece of
water Edero, that is jezero, the Slavonic word for “lake.”
As seen from this point, Mount Peristeri is a magnificent
object, as its grey peak towers far above everything else,
rising on the southern side of the heights we had just
been crossing.
The reader will have already discovered what is the
general conformation of the country in this part of
Turkey-high parallel mountain chains running from
north to south, and separated from one another here and
there by fertile plains, or lakes of considerable size, such
as those of Ostrovo, Presba, and Ochrida. The mountains
which we are now ascending form the central ridge, and
are a northerly continuation of the Pindus range, which
divides Thessaly from South Albania. Their ancient
name was Scardus. Many of the trees were cut down in
1
CHAP. VIII.
8
Lake of Ochrida.
185
this part, and thin wreaths of smoke curling up from
among the dense woods served to show that charcoal
burning was going on.
When we reached the summit of
the pass, the elevation of which is nearly the same as
that of the former one, we rode for some time through
upland glades and pastures, meeting no living creatures
except a few magnificent shaggy shepherd's dogs, who
did their best to oppose our passage; and then, after
descending for half an hour, came in sight of the Lake of
Ochrida, the largest of the lakes of Greece and Turkey.
It lay far below us, a broad expanse of calm water,
reaching far away to the south; its western shore was
bounded by fine mountains, three ranges of which could
be seen rising one behind the other; at its northern end,
over which we were looking, was an alluvial plain; and
rising out of this, and projecting into the lake, a rocky
height, on which stands the old town and castle of
Ochrida, while the new town nestles close at its foot.
The descent of the mountain on this side is long and
steep, and night was beginning to close in before we
reached the plain; but our baggage-horse and dragoman
were far behind; so, after waiting in vain for an hour,
and fearing that they might have taken some other path,
we stumbled on through pitchy darkness in the direction
of the city.
When we reached it, it was silent as the
grave, and we made our way through one long wet
street until we met a Turkish guard, who directed us to
a khan. Fortunately for us, the Bulgarian khanji could
speak a little Greek, for Greek holds the same position
in all these parts that French does in Western Europe,
being the language of travellers and communication.
Stepping over the bodies of prostrate muleteers, we
8 Boué, 'Recueil d'Itinéraires,' i. pp. 261-2.
186
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
were conducted to a filthy room, furnished, as usual,
with two rush mats, on which, however, we were soon
fast asleep. Of the rest of our party we heard nothing
till the following morning, when our dragoman appeared,
having gone the round of the khans of the town in
search of us. As we suspected, they had lost their way
in the dusk of the evening, and when at last they reached
the town, had found their way to another and somewhat
superior place of entertainment, to which we afterwards
removed.
•
The name of Ochrida, or, as it was formerly called,
Achrida, is derived, not as some writers have said, from
the Greek arpos, as being built on a height, but from the
Slavonic ahar, "a court," since it was once the residence
of the Bulgarian monarchs. The city is said to contain
some 15,000 inhabitants, the Mahometans and Christians
being about in equal numbers. The Mahometans are
mostly Albanian, of the Gheg tribe; for though the
name Turk is often heard throughout Albania, it only
means Mahometan; with the exception of the pashas
and a few officials, hardly any Ottomans are found west-
ward of this point. The Christians are Bulgarians, and
these too cease with the mountains which bound the
lake on the west. The lake, which was the Lacus
Lychnitis of classical times, may be said to form the
division between Western Macedonia and Central Al-
bania. In a geographical point of view, indeed, the
Scardus might more accurately be regarded as the
boundary, but the Slavonic population in this part over-
runs its natural limit.
In the morning we went up into the upper city, which
is inhabited by Christians, to see the metropolitan church,
which we found to be situated within the precincts of the
CHAP. VIII.
Statue and Crucifix.
187
Archbishop's palace. (One of the early Archbishops of
Achrida was Theophylact, the author of the commen-
tary.) As I was looking about for some one to get me
the key, a person, whom I afterwards found to be the
Archbishop's secretary, beckoned me to come into his
room, where he seated me by a window commanding
a superb view over the lake, until he had disposed of a
number of judicial cases which he was engaged in trying.
The Archbishop himself was absent, which is not un-
frequently the case with these dignitaries. When these
were finished, he conversed with me for some time in
Greek, and during the conversation surprised me not
a little by asking, "Is your honour a Christian?" On
my answering in the affirmative, he entered on a
detailed account of the sufferings of the Christians,
which seemed to be caused in no slight degree by the
unsettled state of the country, as they could not venture
two miles outside the city without the danger of being
pillaged. After this he showed us over the church, a
Byzantine edifice of some antiquity, unpretending in its
architecture, but containing some objects of singular
curiosity. On passing behind the Iconostase, or altar-
screen, I observed in a niche a wooden statue of St.
Clement of Rome, to whom the church is dedicated;
and as if to distinguish the saint from St. Clement of
Ochrida, there is a picture behind the altar, with the
inscription, "Saint Clement, Pope of Rome" (ò ayos
Κλήμης Παπᾶς Ρώμης). Besides this, there was lying in
one part a large wooden crucifix, the figure of Our Lord
being in low relief, and the workmanship and ornaments
Byzantine. I was quite taken aback by seeing these
objects, never having met with anything of the kind in a
Greek church before, except a small figure in ivory
188
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
affixed to the valuable cross which I have described as
being preserved at the monastery of Xeropotamu on
Mount Athos, and a reputed gift of the Empress Pul-
cheria. I asked the secretary and the priest, who ac-
companied us, whether they were in accordance with
their rites? "No," they replied; "such things were
nowhere allowed by the orthodox communion." "Then
how did they come there?" They did not know; only
they had been there from very ancient times; they had
no idea that they came from abroad. Since that time
I have searched in vain for any trace in history of lasting
Roman Catholic influence in these parts. At the time
of the Fourth Crusade, when the Latins occupied Con-
stantinople, a Roman Catholic bishopric was established
for a time at Castoria, between this and Salonica; and
in northern Albania most of the Christians are Roman
Catholics: the Normans also passed by this place on more
than one occasion, when on their way from Durazzo to
attack the Eastern empire: but the Byzantine workman-
ship of the crucifix, and the fact that these objects have
been spared at all, point to a friendly and permanent
influence; and of such an influence of the Church of
Rome on the Bulgarians of these parts I can discover no
sign. It seems more probable that they have come
down from a still earlier period, not much later than the
original conversion of the Bulgarian nation by Methodius,
who together with his brother Cyril evangelized the
Slavonians in the ninth century: and their story in con-
nexion with St. Clement and with these parts is so
interesting, that I am tempted for a moment to refer to
it. I may mention, in passing, that there does not exist.
in English, as far as I am aware, any sufficient account
of this episode in ecclesiastical history, though it has
CHAP. VIII.
Legend of St. Clement.
189
been carefully treated in German by Dobrowsky; and
the various legends about it,-Greek, Latin, Moravian,
and Bulgarian,—are so curious, that it would be a most
interesting subject for a monograph from an experienced
hand.
It appears that Cyril was first sent from Constanti-
nople as a missionary to the Chazars, a tribe inhabiting
the neighbourhood of Cherson, at the mouth of the
Dneiper. Here it was revealed to him that he should
recover the body of St. Clement of Rome, who, according
to the story given in the 'Clementine Epitome,' had
been banished to this place by Trajan, and, in con-
sequence of the numerous conversions which he made,
had been thrown into the sea by the heathen, with an
anchor round his neck. After praying and fasting,
Cyril was enabled to go down into the sea, which retired
before him, and brought up the body, which had been
preserved entire in a submarine tomb: the head was
sent at a later period to Kieff, in Russia, where we are
told that in the year 1146 it was placed on the head
of the Metropolitan of Russia as a form of consecration,"
9 'Cyrill und Methodius,' Prag., 1823; and 'Mährische Legende,'
Prag., 1826. These works are to be found in the 'Abhandlungen' of the
Bohemian 'Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,' vols. viii. and i. (neue folge)
respectively.
10 The legend of St. Clement has an especial interest at the present time,
because, in the excavations which have been lately made underneath the
ancient church of San Clemente, at Rome, a still older church has been
discovered, the walls of which are covered with frescoes, representing the
circumstances connected with his death. It is on account of the sea-
change into something rich and strange” which the martyr's memory has
passed through, that he was adopted as the representative of the Sea-Kings,
and hence became the patron saint of Denmark and Norway.
"Stredowsky, 'Sacra Moraviæ Historia.' There is something very
striking in the partition of the relics of this ancient saint between the
Eastern and Western Churches, just at the time of the Great Schism.
190
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
while the rest of the body, together with the anchor and
chain, was conveyed by Cyril to Constantinople. In the
meanwhile his brother Methodius,12 a monk and painter,
had been converting the Bulgarians; and not long after,
the two set out on a mission to the Moravians and
Bohemians, carrying with them St. Clement's remains;
on which occasion, as is well known, the Bible was
translated into the Slavonic tongue, and the Cyrillic
alphabet invented. The fact that Cyril was superior
to the prejudice that ordinary languages are unfit for
sacred and literary uses, a feeling which caused even
Dante a severe struggle before composing his 'Divine
Comedy' in the vulgar tongue, and to which Cyril, as a
Greek, and therefore accustomed to regard everything
"barbarian" with the greatest abhorrence, must have.
been especially alive, proves him at once to have been a
very great man. In Moravia they were brought into
contact with the Roman Catholic clergy, and from some
unexplained cause-whether it was from Cyril's having
been in former years an opponent of Photius, who was
now Patriarch, or because, being monks, and one of
them a painter, they were scandalised by the iconoclastic
spirit rife at Constantinople,13 or whether political
changes in Moravia made it more probable that they
would be able to further Christianity by alliance with
the Western nations, and they were large-hearted enough
12 There is some doubt whether Methodius, the converter of the Bulga-
rians, and the brother of Cyril, are the same. The question is discussed in
the 'Acta Sanctorum' for March 9.
13 Dean Milman says ('Latin Christianity,' ii. p. 352) that an "untraced
connexion had grown up between these Greek missionaries in Slavonia and
the Roman See (the monks were probably image-worshippers, and so
refused obedience to iconoclastic Constantinople);" and, in a note, "Metho-
dius, it must be remembered, was a painter."
CHAP. VIII.
Cyril and Methodius.
191
to ignore minor differences "they connected themselves
with the Roman church, though at the same time re-
taining many of the customs of the Greek church, and
saying mass in the vulgar tongue. In consequence of
these irregularities they were summoned to Rome by
Pope Nicholas I., and were received with great honour
on account of their bringing with them St. Clement's
body. On this occasion, according to the legend,-which,
like so many others, embodies a very grand truth,—when
the Pope and conclave were deliberating on the question
whether the church services might be held in the vulgar
tongue, their doubts were silenced by a supernatural voice,
suddenly heard in the midst of them, exclaiming, “Let
everything that hath breath praise the Lord." 15
Cyril resigned his office, and remained as a monk at
Rome, where he died, and was buried in the basilica of
his patron saint.16 Methodius returned as archbishop
to Moravia, where, however, he was strongly opposed by
the western clergy on account of what seemed to them
his nonconformity in maintaining practices different from
what they themselves observed. After his death, when
a persecution was raised against his followers in Moravia,
Clement of Ochrida, one of the most distinguished of the
followers of the two brothers, retired to his native city,
where he founded a monastery, and devoted himself to
'
14 Neander says ('Church History,' v. p. 435) :—“When afterwards it so
happened [that the Moravian princes, induced by political changes, entered
into a closer connexion with the German Empire and the Western Church,
this step, taken at a time when the schism between the Greek and Latin
Churches first broke out, was naturally followed by an entanglement of
ecclesiastical relations. Cyril and Methodius proved themselves to be men
who placed a higher value on the interests of Christianity than on those of
a particular church."
15 Acta Sanctorum,' March 9, p. 16 E.
16 Stredowsky, p. 394.
;
192
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida.
teaching the Bulgarians, who before this time had over-
spread this part of the country. He had now returned
to the Eastern communion, and before his death became
bishop of Belitza, the first episcopal see established in
these parts. His influence appears to have been de-
servedly great, from the zeal with which he is said to
have forwarded the improvement of his people, not only
by giving oral instruction, but also by composing simple
homilies for the use of the priests, by introducing the
fine arts, and building beautiful churches, and by im-
proving horticulture through the introduction of new
fruit trees.¹ To him we may trace the establishment of
the cultus of St. Clement of Rome; and it is not impos-
sible that the statue of the saint and the crucifix may
date from that period. Not long after this they would
have been absolutely forbidden, and nothing but the
veneration entertained for objects of antiquity would
have caused them to be spared.
Before leaving this subject, it will be well to notice
what in reality is one of the most puzzling points in
ecclesiastical history, and one which continually presents
itself to the mind of the traveller in these countries—the
growth of the distinction between statues and pictures in
17 This we learn, together with many other interesting details, from a life
of Clement of Ochrida, composed by one of his pupils, and preserved at the
monastery of St. Naum, at the southern end of the lake, where it was dis-
covered, and published at Vienna in 1802. Neander, who would appre-
ciate such a book at its full value-as giving an insight into the inner life
and spirit of the age-speaks of it as very rare. He regards it as the work
of Archbishop Theophylact, whose name is prefixed to it; but this is a
mistake, as Theophylact lived considerably later, and his name must have
been attached to it subsequently, in order to enhance its value. It has since
been re-published at Vienna, under the editorship of F. Miklosich, with
the title 'Vita S. Clementis, Episcopi Bulgarorum' (see his preface on the
authorship). It contains, however, no information as to the external rela-
tions of the Church at Ochrida.
CHAP. VIII.
Statues and Pictures.
193
the Eastern Church. It is well known that that com-
munion at the present day proscribes statues (ayáλμaтa),
while pictures, or icons (eikóves), are universally revered.
In saying this, I do not mean to imply that the idola-
trous worship of such objects is enjoined or encouraged
as such, for neither is that the case in the Roman
Church; in one, as much as in the other, the theory is, that
the real objects of veneration are the persons or ideas
which they suggest to the mind, though in practice it is
certain that amongst the uneducated, in a large number
of cases, the worship is offered to the thing itself. But
anyhow, the distinction between the views of the Eastern
and Western Churches is broadly marked, in that the
former reprobates the use of statues, while the latter
advocates it. When talking to one of the more intel-
ligent of the monks of Athos on this subject, I was
assured by him that the distinction between statues and
icons was drawn by the Sixth and Seventh General
Councils; to which he added, that the icon merely served
for a likeness or remembrance of a person, while the
statue expressed beauty and caused sensual gratification.
In the first of these statements he was mistaken; all
through the iconoclastic controversy statues were the
objects of attack and defence just as much as pictures,
and in the acts of the Fourth Synod of Constantinople,
in 869, no such distinction is made. The change was
brought about very gradually; so much so, that no trace
remains to us of the steps by which it came to pass.
But the latter part of the monk's statement is valuable,
because it presents to us, in a Greek Christian of the
present day, the same feeling which was really at work
from the first, namely, an instinctive objection to a ma-
terial image. In the only passage, as far as I know, in
any ecclesiastical historian, where this subject has been
VOL. I.
:
194
CHAP. VIII.
Monastir and Ochrida,
philosophically treated, this idea has been brought pro-
minently forward. Speaking of the time succeeding
the period of Iconoclasm, Dean Milman says—“To the
keener perception of the Greeks there may have arisen a
feeling that, in its more rigid and solid form, the Image
was more near to the Idol. At the same time, the art
of sculpture and casting in bronze was probably more
degenerate and out of use; at all events, it was too slow
and laborious to supply the demand of triumphant zeal
in the restoration of the persecuted Images. There was,
therefore, a tacit compromise; nothing appeared but
painting, mosaics, engraving on cups and chalices, em-
broidery on vestments. The renunciation of Sculpture
grew into a rigid passionate aversion. The Greek at
length learned to contemplate that kind of more definite
and full representation of the Deity, or the saints, with
the aversion of a Jew or a Mohammedan." 18 What has
been said about statues naturally applies to the crucifix
also; and this perhaps may have been disused all the
more easily, because it had not long been introduced, for
the crucifix did not exist until after the seventh cen-
tury. 19
18 Latin Christianity,' vi p 413.
19 See Guericke's 'Ecclesiastical Antiquities,' p. 116.
( 195 )
The Menzil
CHAPTER IX.
OCHRIDA TO ELBASSAN.
Sp
Primitive Boats The Drin at Struga - Roman Milestone
-Bulgarian School - Kukus - Wild Mountain Road- Elbassan
Concealed Treasures - Illtreatment of Women Value set on Water-
The Albanians - Their Origin Character Riddles and Superstitions
Ghegs and Tosks - Albanian Heroes - History of Scanderbeg-
Ballad on his Death.
Two hours' riding along the northern shore of the lake
brought us to the town of Struga, which is situated at
the place where the Black Drin makes its exit from the
lake, from whence it flows first north, and afterwards
south-west, and falls into the Adriatic near Alessio, after
describing almost a semicircle in its course.
We were
now travelling by the Menzil or Turkish post, for along
the main lines of communication horses are kept in
readiness for government officials, and travellers who are
provided with a firman of the Sultan can use them at
three-fifths of the regular charge; they can also impress
the horses of the people of the country, if necessary,
though we always preferred hiring them from carriers, if
they were to be had, as the inconvenience to the peasants
is often very great. In this part of Turkey the charge
for menzil horses is three piastres and a half (about
sevenpence) an hour; but this is higher than what is
found in some other parts of the country, and a great
deal above the ordinary carrier's fare. At the same time
the gain is great in respect of speed, as the post-horses
are usually good: thus the ordinary "hour" of carriers'
pace, which averages about three miles, may be com-
O 2
196
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
passed into three-quarters of the time. In many other
ways a firman will be found of great service; it will
secure you a night's lodging, if there is any difficulty; and
on one occasion, when a Turkish guard by the roadside
required to see our passports, and demanded bakshish for
himself, on hearing that we carried a firman he instantly
lowered his tone, and said he had no wish to inspect it,
and did not desire bakshish at all.
The scenery of this part of the lake of Ochrida is
extremely beautiful, and it is more easy for the traveller
to fancy himself in the neighbourhood of the Italian
lakes, than in the midst of the wild stern regions of
European Turkey. One of the mediaval travellers com-
pares it to the lake of Gennesaret, and my companion
assured me that from the level of the lake, where the
distant mountains are hidden from view, the resemblance
is striking. Great numbers of waterfowl might be seen
near the shore, and huge buffaloes lay revelling in the
coolness, and in freedom from the attacks of flies, with
their heads just protruded above the surface, and their
mouths idly gaping. But the greatest curiosity of these
parts are the boats which are used on the lake. These
are flat-bottomed vessels, with large logs of wood pro-
jecting from their sides to keep them steady in the
water; and in the bow a sort of platform, rising in three
steps, for the three rowers, who have their oars all on the
same side; while to counterbalance them another sits in
the stern, and steers with an oar on the other side-a
mode of progression the disadvantages of which are more
apparent than the advantages. Their primitive shape
and peculiar arrangement is probably intended to suit
them for fishing purposes; though, when the history of
primæval boats comes to be written, those which are
found in the remote lakes of Turkey may perhaps be
found to belong to a very early type.
CHAP. IX.
The Drin at Struga.
197
At Struga the Drin is crossed by a long wooden
bridge, beneath which the full clear stream rushes along
in a well-defined bed. As we looked down into it, we
could see fish of all sizes swimming about in the water;
and before long we were able to pronounce on their ex-
cellence as an article of food, as we purchased for six
piastres (one shilling) a fine pink salmon-trout, of four
pounds and a half, off which we made a luxurious repast.
The trout and salmon-trout which abound in this lake
are rarely, if ever, found in the other lakes of Turkey.
Struga is the head-quarters of the fishery, in consequence
of the fish resorting at certain seasons to the outlet of
the lake, where they are caught in immense quantities.
A great part of the population of the place is occupied
in catching and drying them, and they are exported to
all parts of Turkey, being in great request on account of
the frequent fasts of the Greek Church. The fishery is
the property of the Sultan, and is sublet by him to con-
tractors for a very large sum. The fishing takes place
by night, and has been described to me as a very pic-
turesque and exciting scene. These fisheries and the
export of their produce must have existed from very
early times, for Strabo mentions "the places for drying
fish belonging to the lake near Lychnidus." The em-
bankment of the sides of the river, by which the neigh-
bourhood was converted from a marsh into a habitable
region, was the work of the Bulgarian prince Samuel, at
the time when he made Ochrida the capital of his
monarchy. Originally the system of desiccation must
have been much more elaborate than what appears at
present. Anna Comnena speaks with warm admira-
tion of the hundred channels into which the water was
drawn off, with embankments and covered watercourses
¹ Strabo, vii, 7, § 8.
2
2 xii. p. 371.
198
CHAP. IX..
Ochrida to Elbassan.
communicating with one another, by means of which the
river Drin at length was formed. It was from these
works that the place obtained its name, for struga in
Bulgarian signifies "a dike, or arm of a river.”
At one angle of the outer wall of the church at Struga
is an ancient Roman milestone, a single cylindrical
block rounded at the top, the base of which, and together
with it the lower part of the inscription, is now buried in
the earth. It was probably one of the milestones of the
Egnatian Way, which passed by this place, and is
described by Strabo as being "measured by miles and
marked by milestones."3 It is not easy to decipher, but
seems almost identical with one in the courtyard of a
house at Ochrida, which was copied and communicated
to me by my friend Mr. Curtis of Constantinople. As I
am not aware that this has been copied before, I give it.
here. The greater part of the inscription is in Latin,
that being the official language, but the distance is given:
in Greek for the information of the natives. In this
respect I believe it is unique, for though many other
Roman milestones have been discovered, the inscriptions
on all of them are in Latin throughout.*
LL CAES
M AVRELIVS ANTONINVS
PIVS FELIX AVGVS
TVS PARTHICVS
MAXIMVS BRET
TANNICVS MAXIMVS
GERMANICVS MAXI
MVS TRIBVNICIAE
POTEST XX IMP III
COS IIII PP PROS RE
STITVIT
ΑΠΟ ΛΥΧΝΙΔΟΥ
H
3 Strabo, vii. 4.
4 They may be found in Gruter's 'Inscriptiones Antiquæ,' pp. 153-159.
CHAP. IX.
Bulgarian School.
199
Close by the same church is a large school for Bul-
garian children. There were 200 of them there, and
very clean and orderly they looked as they sat at their
desks, very much in the style of an English school. The
master was a Bulgarian; and the children are taught to
read and write both Greek and Bulgarian, two days in
the week being devoted to the latter language. Here
again the intrusive Greek element makes its appearance.
I was told that other schools like this have lately sprung
up among the Bulgarians of these parts (we saw one
ourselves adjoining the metropolitan church at Ochrida),
and in many ways they seem desirous of improvement.
Before leaving I heard the children read the Gospel, but
the room was crammed with people, who had followed
me from curiosity to see a Frank, and to discover the
reason of my interest in the inscription. Here, however,
as elsewhere during this tour, I was not the least
molested, nor did I meet with any incivility.5
Leaving Struga in the afternoon we bade adieu to the
beautiful lake of Ochrida, and crossed the mountains to
the west by a low pass over stony ground, the sides of
which were partly clad with oak trees, while the track
itself was frequently shaded by walnuts. From the head
of the ridge we descended into an upland plain, culti-
vated in places and dotted with trees, from whence again
we made our way by a similar pass into a deep valley.
beyond. All along this part of our route we saw nume-
rous lazy tortoises crawling along by the path: they are
The two first letters of the inscription given in the text are unintelligible;
we should expect it to begin with Imp. Cæs. Probably the word has been
defaced.
5 Mr. Lear, who passed through this part of the country twelve years
previously, describes himself as being constantly annoyed by the people,
and having stones thrown at him. See his 'Journals of a Landscape
Painter.'
4
200
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
common throughout Greece and Turkey. As we de-
scended, night came on, and it was a pretty sight to
watch the bright fires in the shepherds' 'huts or encamp-
ments, shining like glowworms all about the mountain
side. At the bottom we crossed a narrow picturesque
Turkish bridge, which spans the river Skumbi with a
single lofty arch undefended by a parapet, and then
scrambled along for some way in the darkness to the
little village of Kukus, where we found only one small
room in the khan. In this some of the natives had
already lighted a fire, so that we were thankful to sleep
outside under a sort of kiosk, or summer-house, in the
open air. Here we were only disturbed by the cats and
fowls, which in the early morning skipped playfully over
our prostrate bodies.
The next day was spent in winding along the steep
mountain sides by an extremely rough track, in and out,
and up and down, wherever the steep rocks left room for
the path. An Albanian, who was bound in the same
direction as ourselves, had now joined our company.
At an hour's distance from our night's resting-place we
stopped to breakfast at the Khan of Jura, which is one
of the cleanest in this part of the country, and in every
respect superior to that at Kukus. The room which
opens out from the gallery on the upper story has the
advantage of a clay floor and stone walls, which, as I
have before remarked, are preferable to wood from their
not harbouring vermin. The gallery itself, where we had
our meal, was fitted all round with hooks for the recep-
tion of the long metal-bound guns without one of which
an Albanian rarely moves. Some four or five of the
owners of such weapons sat and smoked meanwhile, and
eyed our proceedings with the utmost curiosity. When
we resumed our journey, in many parts we passed
CHAP. IX.
Wild Mountain Road.
201
Mahometan cemeteries, placed, as they often are in
Turkey, by the road-sides, and the graves marked by
ovals of stones; their number might almost lead one to
suppose that these parts were once more thickly popu-
lated than they are now. The mountain masses in this
district are much more confused than in the country
eastward of Ochrida, and the scenery, both here and
throughout a great part of the route which I am
describing, though it is broad and wild, yet wants
grandeur in its mountain forms and delicacy in its
outlines. It is quite surprising to read the rapturous
epithets in which Mr. Lear indulges in describing it,
when one considers how very inferior the landscape is to
that of many parts of Europe. For a considerable
distance the road was carried along the heights far above
the Skumbi, penetrating from time to time into the
mountain side to round a gorge, while in some places
the slopes below shelved away in a manner not seriously
dangerous, but such as to require caution in passing.
At last we descended by a steep and tortuous path to
that river, the ancient Genusus, a considerable stream,
which seems to have taken its modern name from the
town of Scampæ on the Via Egnatia. Just at this
point, where the Skumbi emerges from the deep valley
in which its upper course lies, its waters are spanned by
a fine stone bridge of three arches. After fording it a
little way below the bridge, and following its stream for
some distance through softer scenery, we made our way
through a picturesque wooded gorge into a plain, and,
after passing a sheikh's tomb with a tiled roof, threaded
the olive groves which skirt the city of Elbassan.
This place probably represents the ancient Scampæ,
which seems in the middle ages to have been replaced
by a city called Albanon, from which the modern name
202
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
6
may be derived. It holds an important position, as it
commands the entrance to the mountain passes, and is
the point where the road from Scodra, Durazzo, Berat,
and Ochrida, converge. The population is said to be
about ten thousand; by far the greater number of these
are Albanian Ghegs, a few of whom are Christians, the
rest Mahometans; besides these there are a few Walla-
chians, and the keeper of the khan at which we stopped,
like so many of his trade, was a Greek. The Christians
of this part of Albania are mostly Roman Catholics, but
they have been so persecuted of late years that a large
number of them have become Mussulmans; some also
have joined the Greek Church; but the light way in
which religion hangs on an Albanian is shown by their
proverb, "Where the sword is, the creed is also." Thus
a Mahometan of this race who once accompanied us
maintained stoutly that all good Mussulmans ought to
drink wine, and that those who abstained were unfaithful
to their creed. It is said, however, that the oppressive-
ness of the conscription for the Turkish army is, so great
that many who have embraced the religion of the
Prophet, would be glad enough to be Christians again.
The old city is square in form, and enclosed within
6 The identification of these places is arrived at in the following way.
Amongst the many difficulties about the places on the Egnatian Way,
arising from the variation of numbers in the Itineraries, one point seems to
be well established, namely, the Trajectus Genusi, or crossing of the
Genusus, which corresponds with the place where we forded the Skumbi
between Kukus and Elbassan. Now both the Jerusalem and Tabular
Itineraries give the distance from Trajectus to Scampæ as nine miles, which
just corresponds to the distance from the ford to Elbassan. Again, we
learn from Anna Comnena (xiii. p. 390), that the medieval Albanon com-
manded the passes (τὰς περὶ τὸ ᾿Αρβανον κλεισούρας) which lead from the
neighbourhood of the lake of Lychnidus to the plains by the coast; and
Farlat, in his 'Illyricum Sacrum,' shows that Elbassan was the seat of the
bishopric of Albanon. See Hahn's 'Albanesische Studien,' i. pp. 81, 135.
CHAP. IX.
Elbassan.
203
walls, the circuit of which cannot be more than a mile.
From the brickwork which is in them they would seem
to have been built by the Venetians; but both the walls
and the towers which rise out of them at intervals are in
ruins, having been dismantled when the town was taken
by Reschid Pasha, in the time of Sultan Mahmoud.
This was during the events which succeeded the massacre
of the Beys and the fall of Mustapha Pasha, when almost
all the fortified places in Albania were destroyed. The
suburbs seem now to form the most important part of
the place. After paying a visit to the governor of the
city, in order to get permission to visit the walls, we
climbed up into one of the ruined towers, which com-
manded a view over the city and surrounding country.
The minarets and a large clock-tower, sheathed in glit-
tering tin, form conspicuous objects; and the trees that
environ the houses, among which the fig, cypress, and
poplar, are the most remarkable, are more numerous than
is usual even in Oriental towns. Among these the towers
and walls appear here and there, and around the whole
city is a circuit of olive-groves. Close by, to the north,
beautiful wooded hills descend into the plain, beyond
which rises a high mountain, separating us from Tyrana
and the country of Scanderbeg. To the south appears at
a great distance, rising above the nearer mountains, the
magnificent triple-crested peak of Mount Tomohr, quite
a relief in this land of common-place mountain outlines.
We were amused to find that the Governor (or rather
his deputy, for he himself was absent, and had left a
locum tenens to discharge his office) had given strict
orders to the guard who accompanied us to the tower in
the walls, that we were not on any account to be per-
mitted to find hidden treasures. It is a fixed idea in the
minds of all Orientals, that the object of antiquarian
204
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
research in their country is to discover hoards of money,
and this suspicion has frequently proved a fatal bar in
the way of excavations. On a subsequent occasion,
when we were performing quarantine on a small island
off the shores of the Gulf of Volo, near the Greek and
Turkish frontier, an old woman, who was the only per-
manent inhabitant of the place, firmly believed that we
were searching for treasure, and, what is more, that we
should probably discover it. She had heard that some
time before, a band of robbers (this is a common form
for the story to take) had been hunted down by the
soldiery on the mainland, and after taking refuge in
the island, had concealed their valuables in some secret
spot; and when she saw us reading and writing in the
hut we occupied, and in the intervals walking about
the rocks, she took it into her head that we were prac-
tising magic arts, in order to discover the locality of the
deposit. Captain Spratt" has suggested with consider-
able probability that the frequent occurrence of the
name "Jews' Castle" in the islands and on the continent
of Greece (there is an Ebraio-Castro on Mount Pelion),
may be accounted for by this same idea: that is to say,
that ruins are regarded as likely places for finding trea-
sures, and hoarded money is, or was in former times,
associated with the Jews. It must have been from some
notion of this kind that the name arose, for the fortresses
themselves cannot be supposed to have belonged to
members of that despised race. In Albania such deposits
are supposed to be guarded by snakes or negroes, both
of which are mythological representations of the powers
below. From time to time these guardians bring them
to the daylight, to preserve them from rust and mould;
7 'Travels in Crete,' i. p. 315, 316.
CHAP. IX.
Concealed Treasures.
205
and the following story is told of the way in which a
shepherd possessed himself of such a treasure. This
man once found a snake asleep, coiled round a large heap
of gold pieces; and knowing how to set to work under
the circumstances, placed a pail of milk by its side, and
waited in a hiding-place until it should wake. It came
to pass as he expected. The snake took to the milk
with avidity, and drank its fill. On this it returned to
the heap of gold, in order to go to sleep again, but the
thirst, with which snakes are attacked after drinking
milk, prevented it from doing so. It became restless,
and moved irresolutely round and round the heap, till
the burning within forced it to go in quest of water. The
water, however, was far off, and before it had returned,
the wary shepherd had carried off the whole heap of gold
into a place of safety.
•
8
The inside of the city, as you pass through the streets,
has a poor appearance, from the low wooden houses with
rickety tiled roofs: the bazaars, however, have a gay
look, from the bright dresses of their occupants, the red
jacket and white kilt being common among the Ghegs,
under which they have loose white trousers, girt in below
by leggings, while their belts are filled with a variety of
richly ornamented arms. Most of the Ghegs are finely
made men; their most marked characteristics are their
long necks, long narrow faces, with sharp features, often
aquiline, and frequently light hair; they have a stern look,
as if they were a daring, unmerciful people. In the even-
ing we had a visit from a young Turk, who has charge of
the telegraph here, on the line between Salonica and
Scodra; for this civilized institution has penetrated even
to these barbarous regions, though it is viewed with some
8 Hahn, 'Albanesische Studien,' i. p. 164.
206
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
jealousy by the people of the country, and is kept up
with considerable difficulty in the mountain passes during
the winter. He was an educated and intelligent man,
spoke French, and, as a Government official, was dressed
in European costume, except for the fez cap. He ex-
pressed great delight at seeing us, for with the exception
of a young Greek, his coadjutor, he had seen no traveller,
nor any person with whom he could have any ideas in
common, during the nine months that he had been sta-
tioned there. He spoke bitterly of the barbarism of the
natives, and confirmed all that we had heard about
the frequency of robberies and murders, and the danger
that the people incurred if they ventured a few miles
away from the place. "The Mahometans here," he
impressively declared, "are not real Mahometans, and
the Christians are not real Christians."
As far as this point, our route from Salonica has lain
in a north-westerly direction: here we change our course
and go south. It is a proof of the small number of
Turks in this part, that the stork, the sacred bird of
Turkey, is not found here: their place, however, is sup-
plied by flocks of geese, which are numerous in the
neighbourhood of the towns and villages. The country
districts leave a most melancholy impression on the
mind; broken bridges, and roads almost impassable on
horseback, evidently show neglect and decay; and here
and there your horse will start aside at the sight of a
carcase left to rot where it has fallen. The land is mostly
covered with tamarisk-bushes, prickly palluria, and ferns.
Very little of it is cultivated, owing to the laziness of the
people, and the contempt in which agricultural labour
is held; the consequence of which is frequent scarcity of
• On the Egnatian Way, which we leave at this point, see Appendix D.
CHAP. IX.
Illtreatment of Women.
207
bread, and there is a sad look of poverty and misery
about the lower classes. Much of this has resulted from
the centralizing policy of Sultan Mahmoud, which has
paralysed the outlying portions of the empire. In ancient
times, both this plain, and that of Berat, further to the
south, were cultivated at a very early period; and the
prosperity of the Greek colonies of Epidamnus and Apol-
lonia was mainly attributable to their being the points of
export respectively for the products of these two fertile
regions. It roused one's indignation to see the way in
which the women were treated. At one place on the
road we passed a number of men, whose wives were
walking by their sides, staggering under the weight of
huge boxes. The position which the female sex occupies
in these parts may, perhaps, be well illustrated by a
story which I heard some years ago from the late Sir
Henry Ward at Corfu. As he was riding, one day, into
the country, he overtook a man who had laden his wife
with a very heavy bundle of faggot-sticks; he remon-
strated with him, and said, "Really, my good man, it is
too bad that you should load your wife in that way;
what she is carrying is a mule's burden." "Yes, your
Excellency," the man replied; "what you say is quite
true, it is a mule's burden: but then, you see, Providence
has not provided us with mules, and He has provided us
with women."
Shortly after leaving Elbassan we again forded the
Skumbi, which is here a broad and shallow stream. As
we proceeded along the plain we met a considerable
number of ill-looking fellows, whose occupation was suffi-
ciently shown by their arms and long pipes: guards they
may have been, or robbers, or both,-for the line of de-
marcation between these two classes is sometimes rather
fine. It was amusing to notice the curious mixture of
208
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
pride and poverty that showed itself in some of these
men; you might see them swaggering along in their dirty
fustanellas (white kilt) with erect carriage, twirled mous-
tachios, and the fez set on one side of the head, looking
far too fine gentlemen to take any notice of passers-by
like ourselves; yet everything about them betokening
the utmost indigence. The way, too, in which an Alba-
nian often carries his gun across the back of his neck,
with both arms extended over the two ends, gives an
additional nonchalance to his air. Our surudji, or pos-
tilion, of the day before had warned us strongly against
the robbers of these parts, and had stories to tell of the
Pasha's baggage having been plundered; the moral of
all this was that we should take guards, but this we
always refused to do, unless they were almost forced
upon us, because we knew that they would take to their
heels if there was any real danger; but the truth is, that
a western European is exposed to very slight risk in tra-
velling here, for he is generally not worth robbing, and if
anything happens to him, a considerable stir is sure to be
made about it, and some one or other will probably be
hanged. Thus the Frank comes to be regarded in the
light of a sacred animal, and we used to ride along
through the country unarmed and unguarded, with a feel-
ing of security which was hard to analyse.
After some hours' riding we forded the swift stream of
the Devol, near a picturesque ruined bridge, two arches of
which alone remain, and some way further on made our
midday halt by a fountain, in the neighbourhood of which
some trees afforded a refreshing shade. Here we had an
example of the value that is set on water in these parched
countries. The fountain was an erection of masonry
built against a bank, with a small spout in the centre of
it. (Colonel Leake believes that some of the great foun-
CHAP. IX.
Value set on Water.
209
tains of antiquity were of this unpoetical character: cer-
tainly that of Aganippe, on the side of Mount Helicon, is
now represented by one of this sort, and there is an
ancient inscription over it.) We expected to find water
here, but alas! there was none. So, at least, it appeared
at first sight, but the surudji who accompanied us knew
better, for he went up to the spout, and pulled out a small
plug of linen or paper, on which there gushed out a thin
crystal stream. When we had all drunk, the plug was
carefully replaced. It is remarkable to find that in a
country where human life is held so very cheap the
common interest should cause men to regard water with
almost religious respect. Besides this, Orientals generally
are very curious on the subject of the quality of their
water; indeed, they are as great connoisseurs of water as
any Western epicure can be of wine. Both in Albania
and elsewhere I have heard one spring distinguished as
light (eλappóv), and another as heavy (Bapú), where the
traveller can distinguish no difference in the taste. No
one can doubt, after observing this, that it requires no
refinement of criticism to understand Pindar's meaning
when he says, "Water is the best of things."
At no great distance from this fountain we arrived at
a small village, which forms the boundary between the
Gheg and Tosk tribes: here it may be convenient to
rest awhile, and before we proceed take a survey of the
Albanian nation, and the elements of which it is com-
posed.
The Albanians call themselves Skipetar, and there is
considerable evidence to show that they are a nation of
great antiquity. The name Arnaout, which is given them
by the Turks, is in reality only a corruption of “Alba-
nian." The process of change is distinctly traceable in
modern Greek, where the original Albanites (pronounced
VOL. I.
P
210
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
Alvanites), by a change of liquids becomes Arvanites, and
thence by a transposition of letters, Arnavites, from which
the passage is easy to Arnaout. Their language, which
for a long time was a puzzle to philologists, has of late
years been carefully examined by Professor Bopp, who
pronounces it to be an independent branch of the Indo-
European family. Much of the system of inflexions and
many of the words are strikingly similar to Latin and
Greek, yet not in such a way as to render it supposable
that they have been borrowed from either. In most
points, according to Bopp, it can be explained more
readily by Sanscrit than by those languages. Dr. Von
Hahn, who resided several years among the Albanians, and
from whose learned work, 'Albanesische Studien,' many of
these remarks are drawn, believes them to be the nearest
existing representatives of the Pelasgians. He considers
that the great similarities which exist in customs, national
constitution, and other points, as well as language, between
the Albanians and the early Greeks and Romans, are
most naturally accounted for by the supposition that they
were all originally of the same race, and that the Alba-
nians, having been little civilised, and from their position
little interfered with, have kept these original institutions.
The Pelasgians, it is true, have so often been made to
serve as the basis of untenable ethnographic theories, that
the mention of them is apt to raise a smile; but here
there really seems much more to be said than in other
For the accounts given us by ancient authors
seem to show that the present inhabitants are the same
race who held the country in classical times, and imply a
close connection between these Epirotic and Illyrian
tribes and those of Macedonia, &c.; these statements,
taken together with the existence of the great Pelasgian
oracle of Dodona in this country, and other facts of the
cases.
CHAP. IX.
Albanian Riddles.
211
same nature, seem to lend probability to the theory.
There also exists among them an alphabet, apparently
of great antiquity, which Hahn believes to have been
derived by some of the Pelasgians from the Phoenicians
-perhaps from the Phoenician settlements in the north of
the Ægean-and to stand in the relation of a sister to
the Greek alphabet. But, whatever may be thought
of these views, and whether they are reconcilable or not
with the results of philological investigation, the subject
is one that deserves more attention than it has yet
received; and I cannot but believe that a careful study
of the language might throw considerable light on the
classical languages.
In respect of character they are described by Finlay 10
as proud, insolent, turbulent, and greedy of gain, but
honest and truthful. They are shown to be a clever and
imaginative people by their poems and stories, and still
more by their riddles, of which Hahn has made a large
collection. The following may be taken as favourable
specimens ; they are generally propounded in the form of
similes, and introduced with the question, "What is this?"
The field is white, the seed is black; it is sown with
the hand and reaped with the mouth ?-A letter. (How
curiously this last clause illustrates the way in which
half-educated people spell out a manuscript!)
The father is green, the son is red?-The blossoming
pink.
The monkey dances, while the white cow is milked ?-
The spinning-wheel.
Though it is not an ox, it has horns; though it is not
an ass, it has a pack-saddle; and wherever it goes it
leaves silver behind ?-A snail.
10 History of the Greek Revolution,' i. p. 38.
P 2
212
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
What is that which wears the wool inside and the
flesh outside ?-A tallow candle.
Among the many superstitions which exist in the
country, none is more curious than that which relates to
men with tails. Of these there are two kinds, one with
goats' tails, the other with short horses' tails. Persons
endowed with such appendages are always short-made
and broad-shouldered, great walkers, and extremely
strong." The evidence for their existence is so con-
vincing that even the critical German who mentions the
belief, is half inclined to think it true. His account is
so curious as to be worth extracting:
"This belief,” he says, “is, perhaps, more than a popular supersti-
tion. One of my cavasses at Yanina (Soliman of Dragoti) maintained,
that in his part of the country tailed men of this sort were not un-
common, and that he himself had a tailed cousin, whom in his youth
he had often pulled by this gift of Nature when bathing. A much more
trustworthy man, Theodoris, who when young had been a cleft on
the Pindus, related that in his band there was for several years a short-
sized, broad-shouldered man of a very fair complexion, called Captain
Jannaki, who was reputed to have a tail. In order to convince them-
selves of this, once when he was asleep in the middle of the day six of
them fell upon him at once, for he was uncommonly strong, and he
himself had taken part in this ocular inspection. He distinctly remem-
bered to have seen a goat-like tail about four fingerbreadths long,
covered on the outer side with short red bristles. My endeavours to
see such an object were in vain; and all the Turkish military surgeons
to whom I spoke about it declared the thing to be fabulous, because in
their yearly inspection of so many recruits from all parts of the
country no such lusus naturæ had ever come before them." 12
Mr. Baring Gould, in his 'Curious Myths of the Middle
Ages,' has shown that this superstition was once widely
11 This attribute is connected, I suspect, with the idea of their possessing
something of the nature of a brute; for in the Popular Tales of many
countries, immense strength is supposed to be the inheritance of a child
whose father is a bear.
12 Hahn, ‘Albanesische Studien,' i. pp. 163, 164.
CHAP. IX.
Ghegs and Tosks.
213
spread throughout Europe, though now it has almost
perished. He is also sensible enough to remark, that
whatever the evidence, such a conformation of the human
body is physiologically impossible.
,
The total number of Albanians in Turkey, according
to the most trustworthy computation, amounts to one
million souls;13 to these must be added 200,000 in the
kingdom of Greece, forming no inconsiderable part of
the population of that country; and 85,000, who have
settled in the south of Italy and Sicily. The Albanian
nation is divided, as I have already mentioned, into the
two great tribes of Ghegs and Tosks, the Ghegs inhabit-
ing the country to the north, the Tosks to the south, of
the point where we are supposed to be stationed. The
name Tosks belongs properly only to the inhabitants of
the north bank of the lower Viosa, and is not acknow-
ledged by the other inhabitants of South Albania, to
whom it is applied to distinguish them from the Ghegs;
until we discovered this we were puzzled by an Albanian,
who accompanied us during one part of our journey,
describing himself as neither a Gheg nor a Tosk. How-
ever, as all who are called by this name belong to the
same tribe and speak the same dialect, it will be con-
venient to use it. Strabo¹ represents the Egnatian Way,
which followed the course of the Genusus (Skumbi), as
lying on the borders of the Epirotic tribes to the south,
and the Illyrian to the north. This division corresponds
so closely to the modern line of demarcation of the two
tribes, that it seems highly probable that the same races
inhabited the country then as now, and that the Tosks
correspond to the Epirots, the Ghegs to the Illyrians.
The difference between the Gheg and Tosk dialects is as
13 Hahn, 'Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik,' p. 210. 14 Strabo, vii. 4.
214
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
great as between German and Danish; they do not un-
derstand one another, or, at most, can only hold com-
munication in the simplest things, and that with difficulty.
The distinction of dress is not as marked as has some-
times been represented. The red jacket is generally
peculiar to the Ghegs, the white capote to the Tosks;
the Ghegs also frequently wear the short white trouser,
which the Tosks do not; but none of these rules are of
invariable application. Another difference also exists in
respect of the form which Christianity takes in the two
tribes; speaking roughly, the small number of Ghegs
who have maintained their allegiance to the Christian
religion are Roman Catholics, while the Christian Tosks.
are of the orthodox communion. It is probably a con-
sequence of this that the Ghegs, in writing, use the Latin
letters, the Tosks the Greek; for the national alphabet,
which I have mentioned above, does not seem to be
much used. The hereditary opposition between the
tribes is so strong, that when they are serving together
in the Turkish army feuds will break out among them,
and the Turks have at times turned this animosity to
their own advantage, by employing them to put down
insurrections in one another's country.
The historical heroes of Albania are Alexander the
Great, Pyrrhus, and Scanderbeg; and in modern times,
if it is allowable to mention one so mean in connection
with those great names-Ali Pasha. All that is inte-
resting in the history of the country gathers round
them; the rest is a series of temporary conquests and
barbarian inroads, the effects of which were transient,
and have not permanently influenced either the people
themselves or the neighbouring races. Alexander was
connected with Albania through his mother Olympias,
who was an Epirotic princess: his exploits, however,
CHAP. IX.
Scanderbeg:
215
belong to universal history, as those of Pyrrhus do to
that of Rome. Of the third, Scanderbeg, it may be
well to give a brief account, for few warriors have left
behind them a fame as lasting, or an admiration as
enthusiastic, as that with which this hero is still regarded
by his countrymen. George Castriote, for that was his
real name, was born in the north of Albania in the year
1404, and as his father had been forced to become
tributary to the Turks, he was sent with his three
brothers as hostages to Sultan Amurath II. They were
lodged in the palace of that prince, and, contrary to an
express stipulation made by their father, were educated
in the Mahometan religion. The other brothers died
early, but George rose in favour with the Sultan, who
enrolled him among his guards and appointed him to an
important command: his ability and valour were con-
spicuous at an early age, and in consequence of this he
received from the Turks the name of Iskender Bey, or
Lord Alexander. After his father's death, when his
family possessions were seized and appropriated by
Amurath, and a Turkish officer sent to govern them,
Scanderbeg conceived the design of regaining them and
asserting the independence of his native Albania. He
carried out his scheme in the following manner. When
engaged in a campaign against Hunniades he entered
into a secret correspondence with that commander, and
by deserting, at a critical moment, contributed to the
defeat of the Turkish army on the plain of Nissa.
During the confusion that followed he extorted from the
Sultan's secretary a firman, by which the governor of
Albania was ordered to surrender to him Croia, the
capital of that country, with the command of the neigh-
bouring district. Armed with this mandate he hastened
to the spot, and when he had by this means got the
216
CHAP. IX.
Ochrida to Elbassan.
power into his own hands, he threw off the mask,
declared himself the enemy of the Mahometans, and
was acknowledged by his countrymen as their leader in
the struggle for independence. For the remaining
twenty-three years of his life he was engaged in almost
unceasing hostilities with the Turks, and was renowned
for his skill as a general, for the discipline he maintained
among his soldiers, and for the prodigies of valour he
performed with his own hand. On more than one
occasion his enemies penetrated to Croia, but they were
as often repulsed, and when Sultan Amurath himself laid
siege to that place in 1450, he was forced to retire, and
his death, which occurred in the following year, was
attributed by some to the mortification caused by that
defeat. At one period Scanderbeg retired from the
scene, when, having concluded a truce with Mahomet II.,
he passed over into Italy, at the solicitation of Pope
Pius II., to assist the King of Naples against his oppo-
nent the Count of Anjou. In consequence of the services
which he rendered on that occasion he received large
grants of land in Italy, which were occupied in 1460 by
a body of immigrants, the first of the numerous colonies
which have passed over from Albania into that country.
Towards the end of his life he was again engaged in
hostilities with his former enemies, and again came off
successful. He died at length at Alessio in the 63rd
year of his age, and with him the hopes of his country-
men were extinguished. He does not rest among them,
for, after he was buried, the Turks tore up his body, and
out of his bones constructed amulets, which were sup-
posed to inspire courage into the wearer on the battle-
field; so great was their superstitious reverence for the
man who during his long life had kept them at bay and
repeatedly defeated them! But his name is familiar
CHAP. IX.
Ballad on his Death.
217
throughout Albania; and even among the Albanians of
Southern Italy, the descendants of those who left their
country after his death, he is still the hero of popular
songs, of which the following is a specimen :—
"When Scanderbeg departed for the battle, on the road that he
pursued he encountered Death, the ill-omened messenger of melan-
choly fortune. 'My name is Death: return back, O Scanderbeg, for
thy life approacheth its end.' He hears him and beholds him: he
draws his sword, and Death remains unmoved.
"Phantom of air, dreaded only by cowards, whence knowest thou
that I must die? Can thy icy heart foretel my death? Or is the book
of heroes' destiny open unto thee?'
"Yesterday in heaven were opened before me the books of destiny,
and cold and black, like a veil, it descended on thy head, and then
passed on and fell on others also.'
"Scanderbeg smote his hands together, and his heart gave vent to a
sigh. Ah! woe is me! I shall live no more.' He turns to contem-
plate the times that must come after him; he beholds his son fatherless,
and his kingdom filled with tears. He assembles his warriors, and says
to them:
"My trusty warriors, the Turk will conquer all your country,
and
you will become his slaves. Ducadjin, bring hither my son, my lovely
boy, that I may give him my commands. Unprotected flower, flower
of my love, take with thee thy mother, and prepare three of thy finest
galleys. If the Turk knows it he will come and lay hands on thee, and
will insult thy mother. Descend to the shore; there grows a cypress
dark and sad. Fasten the horse to that cypress, and unfold my standard
upon my horse to the sea breeze, and from my standard hang my
sword. On its edge is the blood of the Turks, and death sleepeth
there. The arms of the dreaded champion-say, will they remain dumb
beneath the dark tree? When the north wind blows furiously, the
horse will neigh, the flag will wave in the wind, the sword will ring
again. The Turk will hear it, and trembling, pale and sad, will
retreat, thinking on death.' ” 15
15 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' vol. liii. p. 404.
(218)
CHAPTER X.
BERAT TO CORFU.
Siege
Sla-
Berat-Mount Tomohr — Local Chieftains Castle of Berat
under Scanderbeg — Malaria Fever A Mountain Residence
vonic Names — Pass of Glava - The Viosa — Tepelen — Ali Pasha's
Palace Argyro-Castro-Albanians and Greeks Pass of Mount
Sopoti - Delvino — River Vistritza-Lake of Butrinto- Departure for
Corfu.
-
―
WHEN we had reached the summit of the hills which
separate the valley of the Devol from that of the Usumi,
we obtained a view to the west over the winding course
of the Beratino, which is formed by the combined waters
of these two rivers; and, again descending, caught sight
of the white walls of the Castle of Berat, situated on a
lofty pyramidal rock. A level plain intervenes, at the
commencement of which lies the village of Fendroudi, a
picturesque place intersected by a stream and shaded by
magnificent plane-trees. Not far off, on the hill-side,
was a Christian church of some pretensions. We rode
across the plain to the foot of the castle-rock on the
north side, but did not come in sight of the city until we
had made our way round to the opposite side. Here
the River Usumi is hemmed in between the castle-rock
and another still loftier height; the city nestles at the
foot of the former, and spreads itself along the sides of
the wooded heights to the east, where the gorge opens
out, while on the other side of the river is the suburb of
Goritza, the dwelling-place of the Christians, joined to
the town by a well-built bridge of several arches.
CHAP. X.
Berat.
219
Looking upwards the eye is attracted by a quaint little
Byzantine chapel, niched in the side of the castle-rock at
a considerable height above the town, in a position
difficult of access. Berat is a better looking place than
any we had seen since leaving Monastir; many of the
wooden houses have an imposing exterior, and a cleanly
habitable look about them. A splendid sight awaited
us as we passed through the city, for at the end of the
gorge in which it lies appeared the vast flank of Mount
Tomohr, closing the vista at a few miles' distance, and
flushed with rose-tints by the setting sun. This mountain,
which when seen thus from the west is no longer triple-
crested, but strongly resembles the Acro-Corinth, is said
to have perpetual snow upon it; and, as a proof of this,
we had frozen snow brought to us as a substitute for ice
at our meals. This luxury is almost one of the neces-
saries of life, for the water-supply of the lower town
seems to be entirely derived from the turbid river, and
the drinking-water is consequently so full of sediment as
to be hardly palatable without some admixture.
The khan at which we lodged occupied an agreeable
position, overlooking the Usumi, from which a refreshing
stream of cool air passed into our apartment. In the
adjoining room, separated only from us by a thin parti-
tion of laths with widely gaping interstices, was a large
party of Gypsies, men, women, and children, who made
merry with the violin and tambourine, to the accompani-
ment of which they sang in nasal and squeaky tones.
They were a merry set, and kept up their performance
till late at night, and their instrumental music was by no
means inharmonious. These wanderers are to be found
in great numbers in Turkey. More interesting to us
were the local chieftains from the country districts, who
swept in and out of the courtyard during the day with
220
CHAP. X.
Berat to Corfu.
their escorts of mounted retainers, gaily dressed, and
betraying haughtiness in their countenances and restless-
ness in their movements. Their appearance suggested
to the imagination a lively picture of the state of things
when the country was only half-subdued, in which clan-
feeling was the first motive to action, and feuds were
universally rife. The condition of Albania at this period
is well described by Mr. Finlay in a passage relating to
that country in his 'History of the Greek Revolution.'¹
"The peculiarities of Albanian society," he says, "are most marked
in the manner of life among those who are the proprietors of the soil.
All of this class consider that they are born to carry arms.
The great
landlords are captains and leaders; the peasant proprietors are soldiers
or brigands. Landlords, whether large or small, possess flocks, which
supply them with milk, cheese, and wool; olive-trees, which furnish
them with olives and oil; and fruit-trees, which enable them to vary
their diet. Every landlord who was rich enough to lay up consider-
able supplies in his storehouse, expended them in maintaining as many
armed followers as possible; and if his relations were numerous, and his
phara or clan warlike, he became a chieftain of some political im-
portance. Every Albanian who can avoid working for his livelihood
goes constantly armed, so that whenever the central authority was
weak, bloody feuds were prevalent. And at the commencement of the
present century, anarchy appeared to be the normal condition of
Albanian society. Gueghs, Tosks, tribes, septs, pharas, towns, and
villages, were engaged in unceasing hostilities; open wars were waged,
and extensive alliances were formed, in defiance of the power of the
Pashas, and of the authority of the Sultan.
"Most of the towns were divided into clusters of houses called
makhalas, generally separated from one another by ravines. Each
makhala was inhabited by a phara, which was a social division resem-
bling a clan, but usually smaller. The warlike habits of the Albanians
were displayed even in their town life. Large houses stood apart,
surrounded by walled enclosures flanked by small towers. Within
these feeble imitations of feudal castles there was always a well-stocked
magazine of provisions. Richly caparisoned steeds occupied the court
during the day; lean, muscular, and greedy-eyed soldiers, covered with
1 Vol. i. pp. 44, 45.
CHAP. X.
Its Castle.
221
embroidered dresses and ornamented arms, lounged at the gate; and,
from an open gallery the proprietor watched the movements of his
neighbours, smoking his long tchibouk amidst his select friends. The
wealthy chieftain lived like his warlike followers. His only luxuries
were more splendid arms, finer horses, and a longer pipe. His pride
was in a numerous band of well-armed attendants."
The population of Berat is reckoned at 6500, the
greater proportion of whom are Mahometan Tosks;
the rest are Christian Albanians, Wallachians, and Bul-
garians, all belonging to the Greek Church. The history
of the name Berat is instructive. It is a corruption of
the Slavonic Beligrad (Belgrade), which signifies "white
or beautiful castle," and this again, according to Schafa-
rik, is nothing but a literal translation of the earlier
Byzantine name Pulcheriopolis. The castle, to which
we ascended in the morning, is entirely occupied by
Christians, with the exception of a few Turkish soldiers,
who serve to guard the powder-magazine; probably
because here, as at Ochrida, the Bishop's palace is situ-
ated in this, the oldest part of the city. On our way up
we met the Bishop himself, clothed in purple robes, and
mounted on a donkey. The castle is defended by two
circuits of walls, now in ruins: at the summit stands a
mosque and broken minaret, which are conspicuous ob-
jects from the plain below; and at the south-west angle,
leading down to the river, is a covered stone staircase,
also partly ruined, similar to one of the same kind at
Nauplia in the Morea. Within the precincts there is an
excellent cistern of pure water. In the outer wall, near
the gateway, are remains of Hellenic masonry,which pro-
bably mark the site of the ancient Antipatria. The view
to the north is striking, comprehending the plain, inter-
'Slawische Alterthümer,' ii. p. 227.
Leake, Northern Greece,' i. p. 361.
3
222
CHAP. X.
Berat to Corfu.
sected by the river, and diversified here and there by
groves of trees, beyond which in the extreme distance
rise the high serrated mountains of Croia. After what
we had heard of the upper town being occupied by Chris-
tians, I was surprised, in descending, at meeting on the
steep path, which forms the approach, a woman on horse-
back, wearing the close veil and black cloak, the usual
costume of Mahometan women in these regions; but I
was informed of the curious fact, that the Christian
women in this place have adopted Mahometan dress.
The castle of Berat is celebrated in history as the
scene of an important siege conducted by Scanderbeg,
against whom it was defended by the Turks, at the com-
mencement of the reign of Mahomet II. Emboldened
by a succession of victories over his opponents, the
Albanian hero resolved to make himself master of that
important position. Accordingly he invested it closely,
at the same time arousing the ardour of his followers by
reminding them of the famous defence of the Servian
Belgrade by his great contemporary Hunniades. At last
the place was reduced to such straits, that its garrison
were forced to agree to a surrender, unless relieved within
sixteen days. But before that period had expired, the
Turkish General Sewali appeared with a large force in
the plain to the north of the city, and there gave battle
to the besiegers. After a severe struggle, Scanderbeg was
defeated with the loss of 5000 of his best troops, and
of Musachi, one of his firmest friends and ablest captains.
On this occasion, his biographer tells us, from vexation
at his ill-sucess, his under-lip split open and spurted
blood, which used to be the case whenever he was vio-
lently excited in the council or the camp: and when he
4
• Barleti of Scodra, 'De Vitâ et Gestis Scanderbegi,' p. 142.
CHAP. X.
Malaria Fever.
223
saw the Turks cutting off the heads of his dead com-
rades on the field, he gave orders to 7000 of his men,
notwithstanding the presence of the victorious enemy, to
go and bury the slain at all hazards. The effect of this
repulse, however, was but temporary, for before long we
find Scanderbeg pursuing his victorious career elsewhere.
At Berat the Turkish menzil or post-system comes to
an end; in consequence of which, as we could find no
other means of transit, we were forced to impress horses
from the country. In order to do this, we had to pay a
visit to the Pasha to show him our firman. His name
was Abdurrahman, and he was a young and heavy-
looking Osmanli. Seated on the divan near him was
a white-turbaned mollah, a personage who may often be
met with in the audience chamber of a pasha. In the
centre of this room stood a table, an unusual article
of European furniture, and on it were ranged conical
rifle bullets of various sizes. After the usual cigarettes
and coffee, and an interchange of compliments, he offered
us guards, which we declined, but accepted the services
of one of his retinue, as a guide to conduct us over the
wild and intricate pass that leads to Tepelen. This man
was a gay and vain Albanian, but lively and good-
humoured. Poor fellow! he was suffering from malaria
fever, which made him very low-spirited at times; but
we relieved him considerably by doses of quinine, so that
he expressed a fervent wish that it was to be found in
Albania. This malady is a terrible scourge in many
parts of Turkey: the man who accompanied our horses
from Salonica to Monastir, was so ill with it that some-
times he could hardly ride, and moaned piteously; and
in other places we saw persons in the khans miserably ill,
and obtaining apparently no relief from the treatment of
the native doctors. It is to the prevalence of this com-
224
CHAP. X.
Berat to Corfu.
plaint that Hahn attributes the very small number of
travellers that venture into Central Albania; he himself
had a bad attack of it, and Leake was obliged to turn
back, and leave the country unvisited. In the afternoon
our horses arrived, accompanied by their owners, two of
whom were Wallachs, of which nation a considerable
number lead an agricultural life in the neighbourhood of
Berat. In this they differ from their countrymen of the
Pindus, who are settled at the foot of the passes which
lead from Yanina to the plains of Thessaly, and mono-
polize the carrying trade of that part of Turkey. Here
they are called Rumuni or Romans, which is the only
national name that they acknowledge, that of Wallach
having been given them by foreigners. Their language
is a corruption of Latin, very similar to Italian in its
pronunciation, and this they speak among themselves,
though they are compelled in self-defence to know the
Albanian also. We proceeded southwards along a tri-
butary of the Usumi, to which our guide gave the name
of Planasnik, up a clayey valley, from various parts of
which rose remarkable pyramidal heights. Late at night
we found ourselves scrambling up a steep mountain side,
on which we lost our way, and were obliged to dismount
and lead our horses as well as we could, until at last,
after wandering into a village by mistake, alarming the
dogs and awaking the inhabitants, we reached a country-
house of the Bey of Tepelen, to which the Pasha had
ordered us to be conducted. In the absence of the Bey
we were entertained by his cousin-a sort of country
cousin, or humble relation, he appeared-and for one
night we slept on cushions instead of hay. It was a
small, neat, and solidly-built residence, situated at a great
height above the valley: one-half of it was shut off from
the rest, and appropriated to the Bey's harem; the room
CHAP. X.
Slavonic Names.
225
on the other side, in which we were lodged, was large
and clean, garnished round the walls with long guns, and
lighted by very small apertures for windows.
The village in the neighbourhood of this place was
called Jabokika, a name derived from jabuka, the Sla-
vonic for "an apple." The frequent occurrence of Sla-
vonic names throughout Albania (we have just noticed
Berat as an instance of this, and Goritza and Planasnik
are others) points to the time when a large Slavonic
element existed in this country. Nevertheless at the
present time this element in the population has entirely
disappeared, and while Wallachs are found in several
districts, we look in vain for Bulgarians. For the ex-
planation of this phenomenon we are left altogether to
conjecture; and though the probability is that here, as
in Greece, the Bulgarian settlers were after a time assimi-
lated by the earlier inhabitants of the land, yet in this
case the problem is a more difficult one. For whereas
the superiority of the Greek race, both in respect of
intellectual power and of national institutions, rendered
it comparatively an easy task for them to hellenize
others; the Albanians, on the other hand, were not so
advanced in either of these respects, when compared
with the Slavonic peoples, as to account for their over-
powering their nationality, and amalgamating them with
themselves. Yet this would seem to have been the case,
for that they were either exterminated or expelled there
is no reason to believe.
The track which led from this mountain eyrie to the
top of the pass was, as our Albanian companion
described it in delightful Greek, "all ups and downs
and chokefull of stones” (ὅλο ἀνήφορο κατήφορο καὶ
YEμάто аπо TÉтpais). The ridge bears the name of
γεμάτο ἀπὸ πέτραις).
Glava. The view from the summit is strangely wild.
VOL. I.
Q
226
CHAP. X.
Berat to Corfu.
Vast barren mountains rise in every direction, and on
both sides of the pass sloping grey clayey hills are seen,
seamed with watercourses; to the north some very
distant mountains appear, even beyond those of Elbassan
and Croia; to the south the eye rests here and there on
scattered stone houses, scarcely distinguishable in colour
from the soil on which they rest, and showing the wild
life of the inhabitants by their resemblance to fortresses,
the windows being few and high up in the building;
to the west we obtained our first glimpse of the Adriatic.
After a long and bad descent, about midday we reached
a khan, pleasantly situated in the midst of plane trees,
by the side of the stream of the Luftinia, a tributary
of the Viosa. The building itself was of solid construc-
tion, but its occupants were clad in rags, and showed
signs of great poverty; the same was the case with the
people whom we met at very rare intervals as we con-
tinued our course down the valley; and this, even more
than the dreariness of the scenery, impressed us with
a strong feeling of loneliness and desolation during this
part of our journey. At the distance of three hours
from the khan we reached the banks of the Viosa, the
largest and swiftest river of Albania-" Laos, fierce and
wide," as Byron calls it—which flows in a north-western
direction. The path which we followed from this point
along the river side was the only place in our whole
journey which could really be called dangerous. In
some places it was carried along the edge of a precipice
nearly overhanging the water, and at some of the turnings
the ground was so much broken away that the horses
had difficulty in finding any footing. Fortunately we
passed it before nightfall, and forded the river just below
Tepelen. The process of fording was not altogether
easy, owing to the swift current of the stream; the
CHAP. X.
Tepelen.
227
baggage horse required to be supported across by our
four attendants, two of them keeping him up on either
side. The distance from Berat is twelve or thirteen
hours.
Having on a former occasion visited Yanina, the centre
of Ali Pasha's power, and the island in the lake, where
he met his death, we were naturally anxious to see Te-
pelen, his birthplace and favourite residence. It was a
fortified city of small extent, occupying a triangular
plateau which runs out from the foot of a steep and
lofty mountain, so that its base is washed by the Viosa.
The fortifications, which follow the line of the cliffs in
a rude triangle, on one side overhang this river, on
another the Bendscha, a smaller stream, which flows into
it. Though part of them are ruined and the battlements
broken, yet they are well and strongly built, and the
angles are defended by polygonal towers. The interior
is a place in which to moralise over the fall of human
greatness. Hardly one house is inhabited, and a scene
of more blank desolation can scarcely be conceived, for
the ruins being comparatively new, are unrelieved by
weeds and creepers, and have nothing of the venerable
look which time bestows. At the angle which overlooks.
the junction of the rivers is Ali's palace, the scene of all
the magnificence and display which Byron describes in
"Childe Harold.' Now the arched halls are bare,-except
here and there, where the frescoes still remain upon the
walls, and all is ruinous and dismantled. A few white-
kilted Albanians were grouped upon the western wall,
but elsewhere we rambled about without meeting a soul.
The surrounding views are in harmony with this scene of
destruction,—above, huge, wild mountain heights, as
barren as can be imagined; below, the shingly riverbeds,
through which in winter the water must rush in an
Q 2
228
CHAP. X.
Berat to Corfu.
immense volume, and the piers of a fine bridge which
has been destroyed by the river. On one occasion, we
were told, a ferry-boat was upset here with forty-five
persons and three horses; the latter swam ashore, but all
the human beings perished. Outside the walls, close to
an aqueduct, which conveyed water into the city from
the mountain side, is a small Albanian village of fifty
families, who now form the entire population of the place.
It is at first sight extraordinary that a barbarous chief-
tain like Ali should have so much attracted the attention
of Europe, and have become an important historical
personage; and it would be curious to trace how much
of the interest which Englishmen have felt in him may
be referred to Byron's visit, and the magnificent verses
in which he has described it. But, if we put out of
sight Ali's own character, a disgusting mixture of cruelty,
perfidy, and selfishness, there is a strong romantic and
dramatic element in his history. Still, no doubt Mr.
Finlay is right when he says, "that the reason why he
has merited a place in history is, that circumstances
caused him to be the herald of the Greek revolution."
The road from Tepelen to Argyro-Castro follows the
left bank of the Viosa as far as its junction with the
Dryno. At this point we saw, on the opposite side of
the valley, a deep gorge between lofty mountains, from
which the Viosa emerges. This, which is now called
Stena, was in old times the Fauces Antigonenses, near
which Philip, son of Demetrius, who was defending the
pass, was defeated in a great battle by the Romans.
The Dryno, along the banks of which we ascended, is
a clear rushing stream of green water, and, with the trees
which clothe its steep banks in many places, presents
some beautiful scenery. The mountains on the opposite
side were terraced and cultivated below, but terminated
CHAP. X.
Argyro-Castro.
229
above in bare grey ridges furrowed by gullies and water-
courses. After about three hours we reached the khan of
Su Bashi, hard by which a picturesque ivy-clad bridge
of one steep arch spanned the stream. Here the head
of the valley opens out into a plain of some size, running
from north-west to south-east, on the western slopes of
which stands the town of Argyro-Castro. The neighbour-
hood appeared populous from the numerous villages
upon the mountain sides which enclose it, but the ranges
themselves resemble gigantic ridges of brown sand. The
town, which is said to contain 10,000 people, has a scat-
tered look from a distance, but as you approach its
appearance is striking, as it is situated partly on spurs of
the mountains running into the plain, partly on the semi-
circular slopes which intervene between them. Many
of the houses here are of stone, and strongly built,
having been intended to serve as private fortresses, for
the system of vendetta raged nowhere more furiously
than here. Though it has ceased now, it even survived
the time of Ali Pasha, who in other places was so
successful in putting down the local feuds and local
chieftains, that he may be said to have first brought
Albania into subjection to the Porte. The inhabitants
of these large dwellings form the nobility of the district,
and are the proprietors of the farms which are scattered
over the plain.
At this place we meet with a new element in the popu-
lation. To the northward of Argyro-Castro the inha-
bitants, as we have seen, are almost entirely of the
Albanian race; to the south, however, Greeks are found
in considerable numbers, especially in the more inland
districts. Even if we had not heard the Greek language
spoken all round us at the khan, there was no mistaking
the quick, lively, inquisitive people whom we met. Strange
230
CHAP. X.
Berat to Corfu.
to say, the line of demarcation runs across the centre of
the plain, and is so sharply drawn that the northern half
is Albanian, and the southern Greek, and the two popu-
lations do not intermingle with one another. The city
itself is inhabited by Albanians, and the Greeks who are
found there are regarded as strangers. The women here
wear a white veil or towel, wound round the head, and
hanging down behind. The morning after our arrival,
having sent our dragoman to the Pasha to ask for horses,
we thought it right to pay him a visit in his serai, which
is situated within the castle built by Ali on the highest
of the spurs on which the town is placed. From this
castle the people of the neighbourhood seem usually to
call the place "the Castro" (Tò Kάσтρо), omitting the first
part of the name, as Constantinople is called "the city."
The fortifications here, as elsewhere, are dismantled; the
Pasha has a few guards in his service, but with the excep-
tion of a very few small bodies of this kind there is no
military force nearer than Scodra or Monastir, to main-
tain the authority of the Turkish Government throughout
Central Albania. He received us with profuse civilities,
and complained of our not having taken up our abode
with him, instead of going to the khan. It is quite pos-
sible for an English traveller, especially when provided
with a firman, to be entertained in state at the houses of
the Turkish dignitaries; but, if he is wise, he will content
himself with a humbler style of travelling, for otherwise
he will lose much time in not being his own master; he
will greatly increase his expenses, from the numerous
presents he is expected to make to the great man's
servants; and last, not least, he will have far fewer
opportunities of intercourse with the people of the
country.
The Pasha offered to provide us either with horses or
CHAP. X.
Pass of Mount Sopoti.
231
mules, but recommended the latter, on account of the
steepness of the road over Mount Sopoti, which intervenes
between this place and Delvino. We followed his
advice, and, mounted on these, made our way up a
blinding pass, partly through a river bed, partly among
fragments of broken limestone, over the mountains which
rise behind the town. When at last we reached the
summit, we obtained an extensive view, though the
atmosphere was hazy, over the level country below,
the lake of Butrinto lying close to the sea, and the shores
and headlands of Corfu, divided from the mainland by a
winding strait, while to the right the mountains of
Chimara rose conspicuous. A rugged zigzag path along
the mountain side brought us, after a steep descent of
some hours, to a grove of chestnut and other trees, which
afforded most grateful shade. Below this was a foun-
tain, where we saw a scene that reminded us of patri-
archal times; a number of women from a neighbouring
village, picturesquely dressed in the costume of the country,
with high head-dresses, white veils, and the hair in large
braids at the sides of the face, were disputing with some
men of another village about the right of drawing water;
and they upheld their rights manfully. From thence
again we descended through more cultivated country to
Delvino, a scattered and somewhat decayed town, pret-
tily situated on verdant slopes, in the midst of plane-trees
and running streams.
The last day of our journey was occupied partly in
wading for several hours through streams and marshes,
by the side of the river Vistritza, which flows into the
lake of Butrinto, partly in making a detour to avoid
the lake, over low hills, thickly covered with thorn-
bushes, and thistles, often rising to the height of ten feet.
The palluria, which grows all about here, is a most for-
232
CHAP. X.
Berat to Corfu.
midable bush, as it is covered all over with tenacious
hooked prickles; it is said that if a sheep gets regularly
entangled in it, it can never be extricated. The river is
bordered throughout a great part of its course by rich
woods of alder and willow, the shade of which, together
with the abundance of water, was refreshing and pleasant;
occasionally, however, the watercourses were worn into
holes, which had an awkwardly adhesive bottom. In
one of these our dragoman's horse lost his footing and sub-
sided into a mud bath, in which his rider and the saddle-
bags partially shared. Further on, when we reached the
higher ground, we found a village called Kinurio, or New-
place, where we halted for some little time. The appear-
ance of the people whom we met in these parts bordering
on the coast, and especially the straw hats they wore,
were decidedly of an Ionian character, and betrayed the
influence of the neighbouring islands. The farms, how-
ever, as elsewhere in Albania, are built with a view to
defence, being massively constructed of stone, with no
windows in the lower portion, and those above of small
dimensions. An aperture also appears sometimes above
the entrance, opening downwards from a projecting piece
of masonry, as in feudal castles, whereby communication
may be held with a visitor before admittance, and some-
thing warm dropped upon him if need be. We proceeded
for some distance through thick undergrowth, but, not-
withstanding the excellence of the cover, we saw no
game. Towards evening we arrived at a village called
Livari, a corruption, it is thought, of Vivarium, from the
fisheries in the lake, which here finds an outlet into
the sea by means of a river. By the people of the place
the lake is also called Boïdoporos, or Oxford. At Corfu
the village is known as Butrinto or Vutzindro, but in the
country itself we found these names unknown, a source
CHAP. X.
Departure for Corfu.
233
of confusion which caused us much difficulty. On the
opposite side of the water is a rocky height, with remains
of walls, which mark the site of the ancient Buthrotum,
the celsam Buthroti urbem of Virgil.
As we were embarking to cross to Corfu, I said to a
Turkish official who was standing by, "Now we are
leaving Turkey." "Yes," he replied, "now you are going
to Europe." He spoke the truth; Turkey has no claim
to be reckoned among European nations.
(234)
CHAPTER XI.
MONTENEGRO.
Journey in 1865 — Coast of Dalmatia
Coast of Dalmatia - Bocche di Cattaro - Austrian
Defences - Views of the Black Mountain-Cattaro-The Scala-
Approach to Montenegro - Niégush-Laborious Agriculture-Monte-
negrin Dress - Destruction of Forests - Mount Lövchen - Plain of
Cetinjé— History of Montenegro-The Vladika or Prince-Bishop-
Sicilian Vespers of Montenegro - Episode of Stephen the Little — The
Two Last Vladikas.
THE next opportunity which we had of visiting Turkey
was in the summer of 1865. On this occasion we deter-
mined to cross the country from the Adriatic to the
Ægean by a more northerly route than we had hitherto
taken, passing through Montenegro and the border tribes
of independent Albanians, and then by one of the upper
passes of the Scardus range and the valley of the Vardar
to Salonica. It promised to be an interesting journey,
from the important geographical features of the country,
the remarkable cities of the interior, and the variety of
races to be seen on the way; but the information to be
had was very scanty. On Montenegro no doubt much
had been written, but of the greater part of the remainder
of the route, as far as I could discover, only one account
had been published, viz., that of Dr. Grisebach, the cele-
brated German botanist, who crossed this part of Turkey,
though in an opposite direction, in 1839. The fullness
¹ Since the above was written, the 'Travels in Turkey in Europe,' of
Miss Mackenzie and Miss Irby, has been published; the route taken by
those adventurous and accomplished ladies intersects mine at several points.
Some other parts have been described by the French geographer Ami
Boué.
CHAP. XI.
Bocche di Cattaro.
235
and clearness of his account left nothing to be desired for
the parts which he saw, though even there, from the state
of things which he described, we were prepared to find
that great changes had taken place since his time; but
in several places the route which we had marked out
diverged from his, and here we had to look forward to
getting information on the spot. In order to reach our
starting-point we made our way from England to Trieste,
where we had appointed our old dragoman from Con-
stantinople to meet us, and from thence coasted along
Dalmatia, stopping to see the principal cities, such as
Zara, Spalato, and Ragusa, and threading the numerous
islands which fringe its shores, until on the afternoon of
the 18th of July we found ourselves rounding the Punto
d'Ostro, the headland which protects the entrance of the
Bocche di Cattaro.
The piece of water that bears this name is a narrow
winding inlet, resembling rather a Norwegian fiord than
any of the harbours of Southern Europe. Its length is
computed at 24 miles, and it opens out from time to
time into bays somewhat less than a mile across, while
in the narrowest parts it may be a quarter of a mile
in breadth. The whole of the seaboard is in the hands
of Austria, except one small strip of the northern shore,
which belongs to Turkey, a green tract of low land in the
recesses of the first bay, which might form a sort of out-
let for the Herzegovina, if the Turks had taken the
trouble to make a port there. A little way beyond this
is the town of, Castelnuovo, where we landed a number
of Austrian officers-agreeable men, as they usually are
—who had been our fellow-passengers, together with a
number of Dalmatian gentlemen bound for Cattaro, two
young Albanians from Berat, who had been studying at
a college in Trieste, and a young Montenegrin, dressed
236
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
in the uniform of one of the French Lycées, where he was
at school, who was returning to his native country on a
visit, together with a Parisian friend, whom he had in-
duced to accompany him. After the departure of the
Austrians, the Montenegrin became more communica-
tive, and spoke depreciatingly of the numerous Austrian
forts which guard the entrance to the Bocche, saying
that they could stand but a very short time before a few
French or English ships. About this, however, I have
considerable doubt, as the Austrians are good engineers,
and the forts with which the whole coast of Dalmatia
bristles are generally strong. Indeed this very fact, and
the great number of soldiers that are stationed in this
district, show how vulnerable the Austrian government
feels itself to be in this quarter. Of the state of political
feeling in these parts I shall have to speak further on,
but, if the doctrine of natural boundaries is worth any-
thing, the position of a country which for some hundreds
of miles possesses the seaboard of a great neighbouring
country is wholly indefensible, particularly when this is
backed up, as it is in Dalmatia, by an extensive system
of prohibitive duties, which prevents the adjoining pro-
vinces of Bosnia, the Herzegovina, &c., from having any
outlet for their exports. It has been cleverly said that
Dalmatia without Bosnia is a face without a head; the
converse also is true, that Bosnia without Dalmatia is a
head without a face. In the case of a general European
war, nothing could be more likely than that this point
should be attacked, either by some power desiring to
rectify the map of Europe, or by some assertor of the
cause of the Southern Slavonians; and if that should
happen, it is as probable as not that Austria by some
false move would neutralize all the benefit that had been
gained by years of preparation.
CHAP. XI.
The Black Mountain.
237
The entrance of the Bocche, and the first bays through
which you pass, are bounded at the sides by sloping
hills, partly covered by vineyards and brushwood, and in
general there is more vegetation than is commonly seen
on the coasts and islands of Dalmatia. In the back-
ground at some distance off rise the wild mountains,
conspicuous among which from many turns in the wind-
ing strait is the lofty peak of Lövchen, the highest sum-
mit in these parts, and, as we shall see, almost a sacred
spot. As we approach nearer to these, the inlet divides
into two branches, and at the point of separation lies the
town of Perasto, in a picturesque position, running up
the mountain side from the water's edge, and adorned
with elegant campaniles and numerous trees interspersed
among the houses. Just off the point lie two islets, one
of which is occupied by a small fort, the other by a
church, the tower of which and a campanile hard by are
crowned by green metal domes, which have a very Rus-
sian aspect. The branch which we followed from this
point runs for some little distance due east, and then,
turning at right angles, bends to the south, forming the
Bay of Cattaro. The scenery of this part is of the wildest
description. On both sides are lofty mountains; but those
towards Montenegro rise very steeply to the height of
4000 and 5000 feet, in precipices of a whitish-gray colour,
with bold outlines, though they are but little broken into
sharp peaks. They are utterly bare, except here and
there on the slopes of some of the higher summits, where
patches of dark forest are seen, from which, when they
were more general, the Black Mountain got its name. It
was strange to think that on the other side of these, and
in the heart of the wild mountains, a civilized district was
to be found. At the foot of these precipices, and formed
apparently from their débris, is a narrow strip of vegetation,
238
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
"
and at many points along the shore flourishing villages
appeared. This part belongs to Austria. When I asked
the young Montenegrin where was the boundary-line
between the Austrian and Montenegrin territory, he
pointed significantly enough to the place where vegeta-
tion ceased and the steep rocks began to rise. At the
head of the gulf is a sloping cultivated valley, and on
the left as you approach, jammed in between the sea and
the foot of a buttress of rock, which here projects from
the mountain side, lies Cattaro, surmounted at a height
of 900 feet by a Venetian castle. From this, lines of
walls descend to the sea in innumerable angles, following
the broken edges of the cliff on both sides in the most
curious manner, while, between these, other interior walls
run across in different directions in extremely steep posi-
tions. By the side of this, along the face of the preci-
pices, may be traced the zigzags of the famous Scala of
Cattaro, the ladder of Montenegro.
Over the sea-gate of the city stands the Lion of St.
Mark, giving evidence of the days "when Venice was a
queen with an unequalled dower," for nowhere is her
former influence more clearly traceable than along this
coast, where Ragusa is the only place that maintained
its independence against her. The same thing is testified
by the numerous specimens of Venetian palatial archi-
tecture which attract the eye as you pass through the
streets-white marble balconies, balustrades and win-
dows with twisted pillars, or otherwise richly and deli-
cately ornamented. The city itself, which is larger than
it appears from the sea, is a labyrinth of tiny squares and
excessively narrow streets, the effect of which is that
there is hardly any circulation of air, and the atmosphere
is close and oppressive. Add to this its position at the
foot of a steep cliff facing the west, and it may easily be
CHAP. XI.
Scala of Cattaro.
239
supposed that Cattaro is anything but an agreeable
residence in the month of July. After a terribly hot
night we were thankful to escape at an early hour, and,
after threading the tortuous streets, found the horses
which we had hired to take us to Cetinjé, the capital of
Montenegro, waiting for us outside the land-gate. Here,
as in all the other Dalmatian towns, in consequence of
the narrowness of the streets and their being universally
paved with flags, no beasts of burden are allowed to
come within the walls.
In a few minutes we reached the foot of the Scala, and
began to ascend its zigzags. It is in every respect a
most remarkable pass, from the steepness of the moun-
tain-wall, and the narrowness of the sort of gully in
which it lies, at the side of the buttress of rock on which
stands the castle of Cattaro. It resembles the Gemmi
more than any other of the Swiss passes, but is far better
engineered and more carefully built than that rough
road. On our way we met some of the Montenegrins,
who wore rather a poverty-stricken appearance, on their
way to the town with milk and other saleable articles.
The commercial relations of the Cattarese and Monte-
negrins seem to be regarded from somewhat different
points of view by the two peoples. When we were talk-
ing to the Austrian officers on board the steamer about
Montenegro, one of them observed, "Ah! poor things,
they lead a hard life: it is lucky for them they have
a market at Cattaro to sell their products in; if it were
not for that, they would be starved." At Cetinjé, on the
other hand, we heard the following story. Not long ago,
when some political refugees from Montenegro,-one of
whom murdered the late Prince, Danilo,-had taken up
their quarters at Cattaro, the present prince, Nicolas,
sent to demand their removal. No notice being taken of
240
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
this, recourse was had to another mode of action. The
Prince requested his people—and his request is of equal
force with a law-that they should take no provisions.
into the town for several days. The consequence was
that the place was starved; and when the authorities
sent to expostulate, and were told in return that the
exiles must be removed, they professed themselves ready
to do anything that was wished, provided they might
have food; so the obnoxious persons were sent to Zara,
where they are still.
During the first part of the ascent our views over the
Bocche did not extend beyond Perasto, but these were
extremely pretty. The water was perfectly smooth, ex-
cept where a light breeze passed like a warm breath over
its glassy surface; little promontories, which from below
had hardly been seen, now came out distinctly to view;
and when the sunlight reached the level of the bay, the
villages which fringed the shore, with their tall campa-
niles, formed conspicuous objects in the scene. For the
first thousand feet the steps of the ladder had been so
steep, that when we were above the level of the Venetian
castle, we could look right down into the town itself;
higher up, where the ascent was more gradual, and the
area wider over which the zigzags extended, one could
see them, like a loose rope, flung about the mountain
side below us, and at last we reached a point where
the more distant bays of the Bocche came in view, and the
broad expanse of the Adriatic reaching far away to the
west. After an hour and twenty minutes we found our-
selves at the summit of the Scala, and then entered on a
rugged mountain-path, at the top of which is the frontier.
Just as we entered the territory of the Black Mountain,
we overtook the young Montenegrin, together with his
Parisian friend, whose polished leather boots looked
CHAP. XI.
Approach to Montenegro.
241
rather out of place in this wilderness of rocks. They
were followed by a woman carrying a heavy trunk, which
she did good-humouredly enough: but though female
porterage is the custom of the country, there was some-
thing unpleasant in seeing a box marked with a number
of European luggage-labels on a woman's back. The
Montenegrin was mounted on a handsome pony with
elaborate trappings, which had evidently been sent to
meet him; this, together with his foreign education, led
us to conjecture that he must be of some consequence in
his country, and we afterwards found that he was a
cousin of the Prince, and son of Voyvode Mattanovitch,
one of the chief men in Montenegro. He is not the first
of his countrymen that has been sent abroad for instruc-
tion; and, among others, the Prince himself studied at
Paris: but, on the whole, the experiment has succeeded
but doubtfully, as one or two have since joined the
Austrian service in preference to a retired life within
their own narrow boundaries. It is a difficult question,
for at home they can get no education that is worth the
name. Perhaps the most sensible suggestion was one
which I heard at Cetinjé, viz., that only those should be
educated abroad who were intended for some special
office in the State, but that they should provide them-
selves in this way with at least a good lawyer, a good
tactician, and a good financier.
From the frontier we descended into a stony basin in
the midst of the bare grey mountains, which is well culti-
vated in parts; maize, oats, and barley being grown, and
a great quantity of potatoes, which are largely raised in
Montenegro, though hardly known in the surrounding
countries. But the most remarkable thing (and it is
at the same time a striking proof of the industry of the
natives) was the way in which every available inch of
VOL. I.
K
242
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
ground had been turned to account. Cuplike hollows
had everywhere been scooped out in the mountain sides
and carefully cleared of stones, leaving a beautiful black
soil, in which tiny crops were grown; and their sides were
built round and banked up to prevent stones from falling
in, and probably also because in this way they collect
more moisture. In this valley lies the village of Niégush,
where we stopped an hour at a little wayside inn to rest
our horses. The houses here, and universally in Monte-
negro, are built of stone, thus forming a marked contrast
to the wooden buildings which are so characteristic of
Turkey: there were also two stone churches, unpre-
tending edifices, hardly distinguishable from the secular
buildings except by the cross which surmounts them; and
a new school was in process of erection. At this place:
we saw our first group of Montenegrins; for a great
number had assembled to welcome our young com-
panion, many of them probably being his relations, as
the present royal family came from Niégush, to which
place they had migrated at an earlier period from the
Herzegovina. They were fine, tall, muscular men, with
a grand independent bearing; and though their belts were
full of pistols and yataghans, they had nothing of the
wild and fierce look to which we were accustomed among
the Albanians. One of them had the medal of Grahova,
the last great battle in which they defeated the Turks:
two others were shown to belong to the National Guard
by their wearing on their caps the arms of Montenegro
in silver, the lion and double eagle, the original emblems
of Servia, from which country they have inherited it, as
its rightful representatives. The handsome Montenegrin
dress was well represented among them. It consists of a
long white cloth coat with sleeves, reaching nearly to the
knees and open in front; an ornamented red waistcoat,
CHAP. XI.
Montenegrin Dress.
*243
and jacket of the same colour; a thick red sash, and belt
for arms; full blue trousers down to the knee, and white
gaiters below, while the ankle is covered by a thick
worked sock, and the foot by a shoe of hide, fastened by
innumerable cords, which run across up to the instep.
This is the full dress, but the waistcoat, coat, and jacket,
are seldom worn together. The cap is peculiar, and has
a symbolism attached to it by the people. Its shape is
round, with a flat crown, and it is covered with black,
except the top, which is crimson, with a star and other
ornaments in gold in one corner. The symbolism was
thus explained to me at Cetinjé by the Prince's Secretary,
who took off the cap of one of the senators who was sit-
ting near us, for the purpose.
"This black," he said,
pointing to the band that ran round it, "is worn in
mourning for the kingdom of Servia, and the golden
ornaments in the corner of the crown signify our suc-
cesses over the Turks, and the freedom of Montenegro:
when we have obtained perfect liberty for the Slavonians
of Turkey, the whole of the crown will be ornamented in
the same way." The priests in this country, or popes, as
they are called, wear the same dress as the laity, and are
only distinguishable from them by wearing a beard, while
the others shave all except the moustache. One of them
had joined our company outside the inn.
Leaving Niégush we mounted on the other side of the
valley in a southerly direction, until we found ourselves.
in the midst of dwarf beeches, which here in many places.
cover the mountain sides. After passing several flocks
of small sheep and goats we reached the highest point of
the road, where was a spring of water, a rare treasure in
this thirsty land. In the neighbourhood of this the trees
were being felled by woodcutters; when I afterwards
noticed this to the Prince, and asked him whether the
R 2
244
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
destruction of the forests did not tend still further to
diminish their supply of water, he replied that it was a
cause of considerable anxiety to him, and that he did his
best to stop the practice, but found great difficulty in
doing so. It is a question of the very first importance
in the southern countries of Europe, especially in Greece
and Spain, how to restore the trees which have suffered
from centuries of merciless devastation; but as wood
and water are mutually dependent on one another, the
one requiring moisture, the other shade, their restoration
will be a tedious process, even with care and the use of
artificial appliances. Yet until this is done the progress
of those countries will be materially retarded. As we
descended on the other side of the pass a superb view
opened out before us. In the foreground was a succession
of broken limestone ranges; beyond these, to the south-
east, the wide blue expanse of the Lake of Scodra, and
at its head a level plain, intersected by the stream of the
Moratza, and bounded by the lofty snow-capped moun-
tains of North Albania: to the south and south-west
appeared some very striking peaks, the highest of which
is called Rumia, being a continuation of the chain
which passes through Montenegro, and separates the
lake from the sea. Near to us, on our right, was
the lofty beech-clad mountain of Lövchen, on whose
summit is the chapel, conspicuous from all parts of the
country, where Peter II., the last Vladika or Prince-
Bishop, the predecessor of Danilo, lies buried. The
young Montenegrin described to me how this remark-
able man, at once a poet, a warrior, and an administrator,
and one of the greatest benefactors of his country from
the civilization and order which he introduced, used to
pass days together in a tent on this romantic spot,
writing poetry and communing with nature; and so
CHAP. XI.
Plain of Cetinjé.
245
great was his affection for it that he expressed a wish
that his body should rest there after death.
The path continues to wind steeply down among
the rocks, about which the sage plant grows in such
quantities as to fill the air with aromatic fragrance
all around, until at last the narrow plain of Cetinjé
appears below you-running north and south-about
three miles long, and deeply sunk in the heart of
the mountains, though itself 2472 feet above the
sea. The rocky character of this whole district is
illustrated by a strange legend in one of the popular
songs of Montenegro, that when the Almighty was
passing over the face of the earth to sow it with moun-
tains, he chanced to let fall in this land the bag which
contained the rocks, and the boulders rolling out covered
the surface of the country. The town, which lies on the
western side of it, not far from its southern end, is hardly
seen until you are close to it; we were apprized, how-
ever, of our approach by the appearance of another
relation of the Prince, an elaborately dressed youth
mounted on a caracoling grey pony, who came along the
plain to meet and greet our companion. But, in order
to make what follows more intelligible, it may be well,
before we enter the capital, to give a brief sketch of the
history of the country up to the present time.
2
The history of Montenegro as an independent state
dates from the Battle of Cossova (A.D. 1389), when the
Servian kingdom was overthrown by the Turks under
Sultan Amurath I. Previously to that time it had
formed a part of that empire, and was governed by a
local Ban; but after the subjugation of Servia the Ban
of that period, who was called Balcha, and had married
the daughter of Lazar, the last Servian king, proclaimed
2 Cyprien Robert, 'Slaves de Turquie,' i. p. 116.
246
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
himself independent, and succeeded in maintaining him-
self in freedom in his stronghold of the Black Mountain.
Thenceforward this country became the representative of
Servia among the Slavonic races, and from its defensible
position formed a place of asylum for refugees from that
kingdom and from the neighbouring districts. Its
history may be conveniently divided into three periods :
(1) from the Battle of Cossova to the union of the
secular and ecclesiastical powers in the same person
(A.D. 1516): (2) from that event to the accession to
power of the present reigning family, that of Niégush
(A.D. 1697): (3) the remaining period to the present day.
During the first period the nation was ruled by the
descendants of the first prince, Balcha, who received the
family name of Tsernoivitch. The most distinguished
personage of this race was Ivan, surnamed the Black,
whose memory still lives among the people in a variety
of legends. According to one of these he is not dead,
but only sleeping, and is expected to return at some
future time-like Arthur and other heroes of romance-
for the salvation of his people. In his time the country
was exposed to a series of violent attacks on the part of
the Turks, who had previously been kept at bay by the
successes of Scanderbeg in the neighbouring parts of
Albania. After the death of that hero in 1467, the
invaders began to press the Montenegrins hard; and at
last, after vainly endeavouring to obtain succours from
Venice, Ivan found himself obliged to withdraw from
Jabliak, the original capital, which was situated in the
plain to the north of the Lake of Scodra, and to establish
his head-quarters at Cetinjé in the heart of the moun-
tains. From that time to the present that place has
continued to be the capital, and though it has on several
occasions been captured by the Turks, yet they have
CHAP. XI.
History of Montenegro.
247
almost always been forced speedily to evacuate it, for
a barren and rocky country like Montenegro is almost
impossible to hold, and the invaders have usually suffered
severely in their retreat. Though the Venetians on this
occasion refused to help the Prince of the Black Moun-
tain, having just before concluded a treaty with Sultan
Bajazet, yet they soon perceived the importance of an
alliance with that hardy race, which might prove a
barrier to arrest the westward progress of the Maho-
metan power.
Accordingly, in the course of time,
intimate relations were entered into between them—a
connection which continued, more or less, for a long
period with mutual advantage: but the first fruits of it
were highly injurious to the Montenegrins. George
Tsernoivitch, the son and successor of Ivan, had married
a Venetian lady of high rank; and being discouraged by
the continued advances of the Turks, at length yielded
to the solicitations of his wife, and, after abdicating the
supreme authority in his native country, retired to end
his days in the midst of Venetian civilization and luxury.
At the same time, many of the chief families left the
Black Mountain, and the anarchy which ensued opened
the way to the invader.
It was at this period that the secular and ecclesiastical
power was united in the hands of the same person, an
arrangement which has continued almost to the present
day. When the last prince of the house of Tsernoivitch
left the country, German, the Vladika, or Bishop, re-
fused to follow his example, and remained at his post.
At the request of the people he undertook the adminis-
tration of the civil government; and though the offices
thus combined could not become hereditary, as the
bishops in the Eastern Church are never married, yet
the system was perpetuated, and it was arranged that the
248
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
Vladika should be appointed either by popular election,
or, as was afterwards the case, by the nomination of his
predecessor. The two centuries that succeeded witnessed
a continual struggle with the Turks, and were a time of
great depression for the Montenegrins; for though from
time to time they obtained help from Venice, and were
enabled to reassert their independence, yet their territory
was frequently occupied by Turkish armies, and they
were forced to pay tribute to the Sultan. During this
period many Montenegrin families apostatized to Maho-
metanism, though afterwards, when the Montenegrins
regained their independence, their descendants were
forced to return to Christianity; so that even now there
are names in the country denoting the Mussulman origin
of those that have inherited them, such as Alich, Husseyn-
ovich, that is, the sons of Ali and Husseyn.
It was not until the year 1703 that the Black Moun-
tain was once more completely free: in that year
occurred the Sicilian Vespers of Montenegro. Danilo
Petrovitch of Niégush, who in A.D. 1697 had been
elected Vladika by the people, was shortly afterwards
taken prisoner by the Turks by means of a treacherous
artifice, the Pasha in the neighbouring parts of Albania
having promised him a safe - conduct through that
country when he was on his way to consecrate a church
for a Montenegrin settlement. The engagement was
violated and the Vladika seized, ill-treated, and detained
until a large sum of money was procured for his ransom.
On his return to his country an act of signal vengeance
was determined on in return for this deed of perfidy, and
Christmas, 1703, was signalized by a general massacre of
all the Mahometans who were to be found within the
limits of the Black Mountain. The dreadful deed was
perpetrated during the night, and on Christmas morning
CHAP. XI.
Struggles with the Turks.
249
the people assembled at Cetinjé, exclaiming with shouts
of joy that then, for the first time since the Battle of
Cossova, their country was truly free. From that time
the office of Vladika continued to belong to the house of
Niégush, one of that family, though not necessarily the
nearest of kin, being appointed by the holder of the office
during his lifetime as his successor. After this deed of
blood, as might be expected, the Turks did not leave
them long unmolested. In 1714 they invaded their
territory, but were repulsed with great loss; returning,
however, two years after with overwhelming forces under
Duman Kiuprili, they succeeded in inflicting on them
the severest blow they had hitherto experienced. But it
was rather by craft than by force of arms that the
victory was won. The Turkish general offered them
favourable conditions, and on the strength of a solemn
promise thirty-seven Montenegrin chieftains entered the
Turkish camp in order to negociate the treaty; they
were immediately seized, and their country, being thus
deprived of its bravest leaders, was invaded and overrun.
Cetinjé was taken, the church and convent burnt, the
inhabitants of the country districts butchered without
respect of sex or age, and more than 2000 persons
dragged into captivity. Notwithstanding this we find
them, in 1718, assisting the Venetians, who were block-
aded by the Turks in Antivari and Dulcigno; but for
the next half century they remained comparatively
tranquil.
Russia was the first of the European powers to recog-
nize the existence of this small but warlike state. In the
early part of the 18th century Peter the Great, perceiving
that the Montenegrins might be of use to him as a
thorn in the side of the Ottomans, offered them his
protection on condition that they should co-operate with
250
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
him when at war with the Porte, and should acknowledge
his sovereignty. The results of this agreement were
insignificant for many years, but in the latter half of the
century it gave rise to the following very curious episode.
An adventurer, named Stephen the Little, had settled in
the Venetian territory on the borders of Montenegro,
and after practising for some time as a doctor, succeeded
in persuading the person in whose house he was living
that he was Peter III., Emperor of Russia, who was
believed to have been strangled by order of the Empress
Catherine, in 1762. When the report had spread, he
transferred his residence to Montenegro, and, notwith-
standing the protests of the Vladika, was acknowledged
as chief of the country. So general was the credence
given to his story that the Servian patriarch sent him a
splendid horse as a present; and ultimately the Russian
Court found themselves obliged to take some steps in
the matter, and sent a Prince Dolgorouki to denounce
him as an impostor. On his arrival the Vladika con-
vened the chief men, and when they heard from the
Russian agent that Peter III. was certainly dead, at first
they seemed disposed to believe him; but when Stephen
was afterwards confined in the upper story of the con-
vent at Cetinjé, he contrived to regain their confidence
by a device, which could only have succeeded with a
very simple-minded people. He exclaimed to them that
they might themselves perceive that the Prince acknow-
ledged him to be the Emperor, for otherwise he would
not have placed him above himself, but beneath: and
the effect of this declaration was so great that Dolgorouki
was forced to leave the country without effecting his
object. Stephen the Little ruled Montenegro for four
years, but his reputation was impaired in a war with the
Turks, in which he did not display the prowess that
CHAP. XI.
The two last Vladikas.
251
the mountaineers expected of him; and ultimately,
having lost his sight in the springing of a mine, he
retired into a convent, where he was murdered by his
Greek servant at the instigation of the Pasha of Scodra.
The two last of the Vladikas were at the same time
the two most distinguished, and their names are held in
the greatest reverence by their countrymen. The elder
of these, Peter I.—who, at the end of his long reign of
fifty-three years, was declared a saint by the unanimous
voice of the people, on account of his wisdom and his
virtues was distinguished alike by his administrative
ability in peace and his courage in war. Having been
educated at St. Petersburg, and having travelled much
in Europe and learnt many European languages, he was
in every respect superior to his countrymen, and contri-
buted greatly towards the introduction of civilized arts
among them. At the same time he showed considerable
skill in negotiating with other powers at the time when
Cattaro, and the neighbouring coasts and islands of the
Adriatic, were the scene of a prolonged struggle between
the French and Russians in the early part of the present
century. As a warrior he distinguished himself by a
crushing defeat of the Turks, who had invaded his
territory in 1796, in which the whole Turkish force was
destroyed, and their leader, Mahmoud Pasha of Scodra,
killed, and which has ever since secured the inde-
pendence of Montenegro. At his death, in 1830, he was
succeeded by his nephew, Peter II.-the poet-priest of
whom we have already spoken-by whose influence the
reforms and schemes of improvement that had been
initiated by his great namesake were carried into effect.
With him the union of the spiritual and temporal autho-
rity, which had now continued for more than three
centuries, came to an end. Prince Danilo, his successor,
252
CHAP. XI.
Montenegro.
having fallen in love with a young Servian lady at
Trieste, contrived that the two offices should be sepa-
rated, and allowed the ecclesiastical power to pass into
other hands. He also has been described as a ruler of
great ability and large ideas, but the designs which he
set on foot were cut short by his premature death. His
nephew, Prince Nicolas, the present governor of the
country, succeeded him in 1858, being at that time only
eighteen years of age.³
3
* Cyprien Robert, 'Les Slaves de Turquie,' i. pp. 124, foll.; British and
Foreign Review,' xi. pp. 121, foll.
1
( 253 )
CHAPTER XII.
MONTENEGRO (continued).
Cetinjé - Political Constitution of the Country- Population and Revenue
-Need of a Port-The Monastery-Right of Asylum-The Archi-
mandrite and Bishop-The Montenegrin Church-Ecclesiastical Views
-Feeling of the People towards England-Piesmas or National Songs
-Sitting of the Senate The Crédit Mobilier-Prince Nicolas
Mirkho Descent to Rieka — Estimate of the Montenegrins — Their
Political Importance-Atrocious Murder-Lake of Scodra-Fishery
- Pelicans.
NOTHING could well be less romantic than the capital of
the Black Mountain: except for the absence of water, it
might easily be mistaken for a Dartmoor village. It
consists of one long street of plain stone houses of two
stories, and whitewashed, from the middle of which
another wider street projects at right angles, leading up
to the palace. Owing to its position at an angle of the
plain, which has no outlet for its waters except a small
subterraneous passage, the place is often flooded, espe-
cially on the melting of the snow, which sometimes lies
on the ground for three months together in the winter:
in consequence of this, the ground floors of some of the
houses are uninhabited. This was the case with the
locanda at which we were housed,—a wretched abode in
the middle of the village, consisting of two rooms on the
upper floor, one of which served as a kitchen, the other
as a bedroom for strangers, and a place of general resort
for other persons, who came to take their meals there.
In this narrow apartment there was but one small
window, cold being evidently the principal enemy to be
guarded against; and round the walls were hung small
254
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
prints of the Emperor and Empress of Austria, the late
Prince Danilo, and his wife the Princess Darinka, toge-
ther with a few others. For the sake of future travellers,
we were glad to see that a large inn was in course of
erection at the end of the main street,—a much more
spacious building, in fact, than could ever be required
for visitors; but we were led to understand that it was
intended also to accommodate such of the senators as
came from other parts of the country to reside there
from time to time. The publicity of our room, however,
had its advantages, as it enabled us to see more of the
people, and to get more information about the country,
than we could otherwise have done. First came in a
Servian who could speak a little German; he was
employed as inspector of small arms for Montenegro, as
many muskets were being refitted which had been taken
from the Turks or obtained from other quarters. When
dinner-time arrived (for we had reached Cetinjé before
noon), there appeared the imposing figure of one of the
senators, Pope Elia Plamenatz, a peaceful-looking giant,
as most of these warriors of the Black Mountain are: he
was the head of the Montenegrin representatives in a
commission which was shortly to assemble, to arrange
with the Porte some disputed points about the frontiers
of Turkey and Montenegro. After dinner the Prince's
secretary, M. Vaçlik, arrived, a Bohemian by birth,
though a naturalized subject of this Principality: he
proved to be a very intelligent and well-read man, and
as he could talk French as well as other languages, his
society was an inestimable advantage to us. Those who
know this country best say, that he has more head and
more sense than any one in it; and that his temperate
counsels, as far as they are allowed to have weight, are
of great benefit in counterbalancing the restless and
CHAP. XII.
Political Constitution.
255
warlike spirit of the people. The pleasure of meeting
seemed to be mutual, for he expressed himself greatly
delighted at the opportunity of an interchange of ideas, as
they see very few strangers (we were the first who had
visited the country that year), and amongst themselves
the conversation, month after month, is one everlasting
round of local and national topics. It was from him that
we principally obtained the following information.
The constitution of Montenegro is in form a limited
monarchy, but in reality approaches very closely to the
patriarchal system. There is a senate of sixteen persons,
a body of recent institution, but the whole system
centres in the person of the Prince, or Gospodar, as he is
called ; it is to him the people look, and he holds them
together, and prevents them from falling asunder into a
number of small clans. The senate, of whom ten are
generally in residence, are elected by the people and
confirmed by the Prince; but in these and similar
appointments the Prince consults the wishes of the
people, or, when he has to decide between rival candi-
dates, chooses the man who has won most honours-in
war, of course. It was modelled to some extent on the
Russian senate, and is at once a deliberative and judicial
body. At its head is Mirkho, the father of the present
Prince, who was passed over in the succession on account
of his fire-eating propensities-an arrangement which was
made before Danilo's death, and acquiesced in by
Mirkho-as it was thought that his hasty temper would
embroil them with the neighbouring countries. He has,
however, received the highest offices under his son, as
commander of the army and president of the senate,
only he surrenders the latter office to the Prince when he
is present. There is some talk now of forming a sort of
Ministry, by giving the senators separate offices, so as to
256
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
relieve the Prince of some part of his labours, and leave
him more time for study; for he is a great student, and
a poet withal, being at present occupied in writing a
tragedy. As it is now, all the people come to their
Gospodar on every possible occasion; if a peasant's crop
has failed, he applies to him for advice and assistance;
and similarly every matter, whether small or great, is
referred to him, so that he has no leisure. The change,
if it is made, will be an experiment, for it is doubtful
whether the people, with their strong personal feeling
towards their Gospodar, will be satisfied with applying
to a secondary agency; and the Montenegrins are not
very tolerant of changes, as was shown at the time of the
introduction of the senate. The history of this, which is
at the same time the history of the political exiles—of
whom I have spoken in connexion with Cattaro-is as
follows. Under the old régime, besides the Vladika or
Prince-Bishop, there was another officer of great import-
ance in the administration of the state, the civil governor,
who was the representative of a sort of hereditary
aristocracy, possessing considerable local influence. The
effect of this system was that the power was lodged in
the hands of very ignorant persons, who usually offered
a determined opposition to all schemes of reform. The
office was suppressed by Peter II., who seized the oppor-
tunity of the civil governor being suspected of treachery;
and the aristocracy itself was done away with, as a
power in the state, by him and his successor, and the
elective senate substituted in its place, in order that
distinction should be won by merit alone. But these
measures, as might be expected, called forth strong
opposition, and a reactionary party was formed who
became dangerous to the Government, and at last were
exiled or retired from the country. It was one of them
CHAP. XII.
Population and Revenue.
257
by whom Prince Danilo was murdered at Cattaro.
M. Vaçlik was one of his companions on that occasion,
and had just helped him to land from a boat when he
was shot through the body.
The population of the whole country is estimated at
200,000, of whom 25,000 are reckoned as forming the
army; but, in theory, every Montenegrin is supposed to
be a soldier, and indeed it is necessary enough that all
should be ready to serve, considering the length of the
frontier they have to defend relatively to their numbers.
This, too, agrees with the idea of the Black Mountain
being a camp, the inhabitants of which should always be
ready to act on the defensive. The National Guard is a
picked body of 100 men, whose head-quarters are at
Cetinjé, but they are employed as a rural police to keep
order throughout the country. Besides these the Prince
has a body-guard of ten men, but this is hardly more
than nominal. The whole revenue amounts to about
12,000/., of which not more than one thousand goes into
the Prince's privy purse, and out of this he supports
twenty-five scholars at his own expense at the school at
Cetinjé, and pays also in great measure for the education
of his young cousin in France. Voyvode Mattanovitch,
the father of this young man, is one of the wealthiest
men in the country, having an income of about 100%.
a year. There is also a sum of money which is paid
annually by Russia to the Montenegrins, amounting to
about 3400.; this, however, is not, as has sometimes
been stated, a subsidy from that Power, but an indemnity
for the losses which they sustained in assisting the
Russians to drive out the French from Dalmatia. The
revenue is now raised by taxation, though, as usual in
countries unaccustomed to it, it was a work of no slight
difficulty to introduce the system. Formerly they used
VOL. I.
S
258
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
to support themselves by tchetas, or raids into the
Turkish territory; and when that custom was abo-
lished, and they were expected to pay themselves what
before they had levied from their enemies, the people
murmured, and even rose against it, complaining that
they were being brought into servitude, and no better off
than the rayahs in Turkey. Accordingly the demand
was for a time withdrawn, but afterwards it was re-insti-
tuted, and now the money is paid without opposition.
The principal exports, besides the supplies which they
send to Cattaro, are scodano, a wood used in dyeing;
castradina, or meat smoked and prepared in a peculiar
way; scoranzi, small delicate fish, great quantities of
which are found in the Lake of Scodra; and insecticide
powder, which is collected from a flower that grows
plentifully on the mountains. Wine and oil are not
exported in any large quantities, most of what is pro-
duced being consumed in the country: but they are
rather proud of sending their potatoes to Scodra, as the
only supply of that vegetable which is to be had there,
or, in fact, anywhere in Albania, comes from the Black
Mountain. But their great want, of which they are
continually and with great reason complaining, is that of
a port. At present, it is true, both Austria and Turkey
allow them free export and import; but this has not
long been the case, and they have no guarantee that it
will continue: they feel that they ought not to be thus
dependent on others, and that the regular and peaceful
employments which depend upon trade can never flourish
while they are so. One of the reasons why they look
upon England with affection is, that they remember how
that country gave up Cattaro to them, when they took it
from the French in 1813, only they were forced by
Russia in the following year to cede the place to the
CHAP. XII.
Need of a Port.
259
Austrians. Even now they do not doubt that if England
desired the Turks to give them a port, they would do so;
and that Austria, if she cared to interfere, would not
avail to prevent it. That this would probably be the
case I have been assured by one who is well acquainted
with the views of the Turkish authorities about these
parts, and no partisan of Montenegro. Their fear is, no
doubt, that by this means they would be enabling the
mountaineers to obtain an unlimited supply of arms,
which would be used against themselves; but whatever
danger there might be of this would, even from this point
of view, be fully compensated by a decrease of that
restlessness, arising from want of occupation, which
makes them at any moment ready for war. When I
enquired how the people employed themselves during
the winter months, and when the snow was
on the
ground, thinking that they might turn their hands to
such things as are required to be prepared for the
coming season, the answer I received was, “They do
nothing in the world except try to keep themselves
warm." Yet these same men, when they go abroad in
companies to work, remaining for several years together
at Constantinople, Varna, and other places, where they
are employed in making roads and similar occupations,
are considered excellent workmen.
In the course of the afternoon we went to the monas-
tery to visit the ecclesiastical authorities. This building,
which lies on the hill side, just where the ground begins
to rise behind the palace, was formerly the residence of
the Vladika, but now is made to serve a variety of pur-
poses, as it contains a prison and a school, as well as the
dwelling-places of the Archimandrite, the bishop, and one
secular priest. These buildings rise on three sides of a
court, the fourth being formed by a blank wall, on the
S 2
260
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
outside of which is a stone tablet with the double eagle
of Servia in relief; this was brought from an older
monastery; that stood in the plain, and was destroyed on
the approach of the Turks, when on one occasion they
penetrated to Cetinjé. We were told that some time ago
two Evangelia with metal bindings were found in wells
near its site, and they hope sooner or later to find other
treasures which were secreted on that occasion. Above
the rest of the monastery rises a tower, which contains
the library. The chapel is a plain building with a gilt
iconostase, the ornaments being in the Russian rather
than the Greek style; but it is regarded as a great sanc-
tuary, as it contains the tomb of the sainted Peter I., and
that of Danilo. On the first of these a cross was laid ;
on the latter the sword which he wore at the time of his
death. When we inquired about the prison, we were
told there were but few prisoners, and those mostly for
slight offences; what they are said to feel more than the
confinement is being deprived of their arms, which is a
great disgrace to a Montenegrin. The punishment for
theft is flogging, the offender being stretched over a
cannon taken from the Turks, which is placed for that
purpose, together with a number of others, in front of the
palace. The people in general are said to be very honest;
when we visited the Prince's stables, which lie a little way
out of the village, we found them unguarded and the
doors open, though some of the bridles that hung there
had ornaments of solid silver; and at the meeting of the
two streets there is a tree, where we noticed a musket
suspended, that being the place where missing things are
left to be reclaimed by their owners. One custom which
used to exist in former times, and in theory, I believe,
exists still, is remarkable as illustrating the primitive
idea of the right of asylum. So absolutely was "every
•
CHAP. XII.
Right of Asylum.
7
261
man's house his castle," that if a criminal took refuge in
his home, there was no means of forcing him to surrender
himself to the law; and when Peter II., in the course of
his reforms, had to meet this difficulty, he did so by
setting fire to the building where the offender was con-
cealed. Now, however, it is said that order is so well
maintained throughout the country that the criminal has
no option but to surrender himself when ordered to do
so by the chief of his district, the only alternative being
to fly the country, that is, in other words, to go into
Turkey or Austria, which few Montenegrins would think
of doing.
We were first introduced to the Archimandrite, or
head of the monastery, whom we found in a commodious
and well-furnished room. He was a man of magnificent
appearance and almost colossal proportions, the effect of
which was still further increased by his long dark robes,
open in front and lined with crimson, which reached
nearly to his feet; under this he wore a cassock with
a crimson sash, and from his neck was suspended a
cross richly ornamented with diamonds, turquoises, and
other gems.
His hair was long and flowing, and his
open, intelligent, kindly, and humorous countenance was
extremely prepossessing; he has the name of being
a truly good man, an excellent priest, and a brave
warrior. He came originally from the Herzegovina, and
accordingly, when the Turks attacked Montenegro in
1862, to him was entrusted the office of raising those
of the mountaineers whose territory bordered on that
district. Though the office of Archimandrite is main-
tained, there are now no monks in the convent, their
place having been taken by scholars, of whom there are
sixty at present in the school. This same change has
passed over most of the other monasteries throughout
262
CHAP. XII
Montenegro.
the country, and by this means, and the building of
schoolhouses in the principal villages, education is
spreading, though it is retarded by want of funds. After
some conversation with this dignitary (M. Vaçlik inter-
preting for us, as he spoke no language but Slavonic), we
went with him to the apartments of the bishop, whose
name was Hilarion, a middle-aged man, with a very dark
complexion, and dark hair and eyes; here we remained
some time longer, conversing about their church and their
political views. In the midst of our conversation a
violent thunderstorm came on, accompanied by heavy
rain, which caused great rejoicing, as it had long been
looked for and was much wanted.
The Montenegrin Church, though a part of the ortho-
dox communion, is wholly independent, owing no sub-
mission either to the Patriarch of Constantinople on the
one hand, or the Russian Synod on the other; even with
the Servian Church, notwithstanding the strong feeling
that binds the two together, they have no closer connec-
tion than that of sympathy. When a new bishop is
appointed he is sent for consecration either to Russia, as
has been the case on the last two occasions, or to Austria,
where there is a large body of orthodox Christians,
composed of Servians and others who migrated from the
interior of Turkey, under the Bishop of Ipek, about
the year 1690, at the invitation of the Emperor Leopold,
and were settled partly in Slavonia, between the Save and
Drave, and partly in other parts of the Austrian domi-
nions. There are about 400 churches in Montenegro, and
500 or 600 priests. What is most wanted is an eccle-
siastical seminary, for at present the clergy have no
education; war, they said, had left them no time to turn
their attention to such things. But an increase of intel-
ligence among the priests, M. Vaçlik remarked, would
CHAP. XII.
Ecclesiastical Views.
263
tend more than anything to raise the tone of the people ;
for though they observe the Sunday and the fast days
carefully, and attend regularly at church, and are more-
over a very moral people in their general conduct, yet
their ideas on the subject of Christianity are very vague,
and vital religion has but little hold on their hearts. Re-
ligious toleration is fully established in the country;
there are two or three Mahometans now living amongst
them, and a few Roman Catholics, one of whom is M.
Vaçlik himself; and he assured me that no suspicion or
prejudice had ever existed against him on account of his
creed. At Rieka, the port by which they communicate
with the Lake of Scodra, a weekly market is held on
Saturdays, to which thousands of people resort; and
though numbers of these are Mahometans, not even a
policeman is required to keep them in order. And the
Archimandrite added, that their desire was that all
the inhabitants of Turkey, whether Christian or Ma-
hometan, or of any other creed, should have equal rights,
and full power of exercising their religion freely.
With a view of ascertaining their feelings towards the
Greeks, I turned the conversation towards the monas-
teries of Athos, expecting that at least the Slavonic
convents there would have some interest for them. But
I found that they knew but little about them, and cared
still less; nor did they manifest any regard for the Con-
stantinopolitan Church in general, or for the independent
Church of free Greece. But when I touched on the rela-
tions of the Bulgarians to the Patriarch, and the questions
pending between them, the feeling of nationality was at
once roused; they protested strongly against Fanariote
interference with a Slavonic people, and maintained that
the Bulgarians ought to have their own metropolitan, as
they had in former days. Fanariote influence, they said,
264
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
was only another name for Turkish influence. When the
Bulgarians were independent, they would themselves be
perfectly friendly with the Greek Church; but not till then.
With regard to their political relations, and the possibility
of a community of action between Slaves and Greeks,
they thought it quite possible to unite them under one
common head, provided only that they might be allowed
severally to retain their respective institutions. But it
was easy to discover how strong the antipathy between
them is, and how difficult it would be for the two races
to combine in any matter where rival interests were at
stake, or where vigorous and harmonious action was
required. Both in this conversation, and in others which
we held with some of the senators, we could not fail to
remark the intimate knowledge which they seemed
to possess of what was said in England about them and
the South Slavonic peoples generally, and of the persons
who espoused or opposed their cause. Not only the
names of Lord Palmerston and Mr. Layard, in whom
they recognised the chief supporters of the Turks against
the Christians, and those of Lord Russell and Mr. Glad-
stone, were familiar to them, but they spoke gratefully
also of Mr. Gregory, Mr. Denton, Mr. Cobden, and
others, for having espoused their cause; and reminded us
that when the news of the last-named statesman's death
reached Belgrade, a funeral mass had been said in honour
of his memory. The truth is, that whatever is spoken in
Parliament or published in England about these nation-
alities, is at once reproduced in the Servian newspapers,
which pass as a matter of course into Montenegro; thus
we found that they were acquainted (and pleased) with
Lady Strangford's account of this country, in her 'Eastern
Shores of the Adriatic,' which had appeared not very
long before our visit. They expressed most kindly
CHAP. XII.
National Songs.
265
feeling towards our country and Church, but thought the
English generally, or at least our government, were mis-
informed with regard to the condition and views of the
Christians in Turkey; otherwise they would not dis-
courage them on every occasion, and provide the Turks
with money to subjugate them.
The national instrument of these parts is the guzla, a
parent of dismal sounds, but as dear to a Slavonic ear as
the bagpipe is to a Highlander. In shape it is like an
elongated pear cut in half, and it is something between a
guitar and a violin; the smaller kind, which the Bulgarians.
generally use, being more like the former, while the
larger, which is in use in the Black Mountain, resembles
the latter in having a bridge and being played with a
bow, though it has only one string. As we were
walking after nightfall, with the Secretary, up and down
the main street of the village, we heard the sound of
this instrument issuing from one of the cottages, accom-
panied by a human voice, which was droning out what
seemed a kind of recitation. The movement was slow
at first, but when we returned, after the lapse of a quar-
ter of an hour, it had become rapid and excited. As
it was evidently a popular entertainment, from the
number of people who had gathered together to listen,
we enquired what it meant, and were informed that it
was a piesma, that is, one of the national songs, or ballad
narratives, which form the literature of the country, and in
which their annals and the deeds of their great men are
enshrined. When they are of a martial character, as is
usually the case, all the events which precede the battle
are chanted in measured time, while the fast and furious
conflict is accompanied by corresponding rapidity of
recitation. The number of these pieces is very great, and
they are handed down orally from father to son, the
266
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
blind man being, as of yore, the professional minstrel,
though the art is not confined to any class. They are
continually being added to, for the poetic art, such as it
is, never fails. At the present time Mirkho, the Prince's
father, is the principal composer of them; and it was
described to me by one who had to pass a long winter's
evening at the palace, how enthusiastically the old war-
rior recited his own compositions for hours together, and
how difficult it was for some of his audience to avoid
falling asleep during the proceeding.
In the neighbourhood of Cetinjé there are extensive
meadows, without hedges, and divided from one another
by hardly distinguishable landmarks, so that the level
plain is unbroken. In consequence of its cold climate
the grass was only now being mown, and from the same
cause there are but few trees, only a few poplars, and a
walnut or two, being seen here and there. The moun-
tains rise on both sides, range behind range, those towards
the east being completely bare, while those opposite are
prettily interspersed with bushes and other mountain
vegetation. In a commanding position on one of the
lowest of these heights, just above the monastery and
overlooking the village, stands an old ruined tower, over
the gate of which in more barbarous times used to be
hung the gory heads of Turks killed in battle. We had
mounted to this point the next morning, and were on
our way down, when a cave in the hill-side attracted our
attention, on entering which we found it inhabited by a
family, consisting of a mother and two boys, who had
lost their father in the late war. They were compelled
by poverty to seek refuge in this place, but what sur-
prised us most was that the boys had books in their
hands, and on enquiring we found that they could both
read and write, an evident proof that the schoolmaster is
CHAP. XII.
The Senate.
267
abroad in the country. Descending again to the plain,
we came to the open place in front of the palace, where
the senate holds its sittings. We found them in full
conclave, and it was a sight not easily to be forgotten,
and one which impresses the spectator most forcibly with
the patriarchal and primitive condition of things. Their
parliament house, as they are never tired of saying, is
the largest in the world, being the open air of heaven;
they meet under the shade of a spreading tree, round the
foot of which two rows of seats are built.
On the upper-
most of these Prince Nicolas was seated, and below him
the senators in their grand costumes were ranged in
order. They were engaged in hearing a case of justice;
the plaintiff and defendant were before them, and the
witnesses and others standing round. From the warmth
with which the discussion was carried on, and the demon-
strative gesticulation used, the case appeared to excite
considerable interest, until the Prince rose and gave
judgment, and then walked away, followed by two of his
guards, to the palace, while the senators retired to the
village with their secretary, who afterwards wrote out
the verdict.
We also visited the offices of the press, and of the
Crédit Mobilier. At the former a second edition was
being printed of some poems by the priest, who lives
in the convent, and is said to have great poetic taste.
The type of this was excellent, and we saw also that
which was put up for printing Montenegrin passports.
With regard to the other office, I anticipate that my
readers will exclaim, What can be the Crédit Mobilier
of a country like Montenegro? Well, it is a sort of
public pawnbrokers' establishment, where people can
borrow money from the State, either for domestic pur-
poses, or to improve their lands, or for any other object,
268
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
1
by depositing any valuables which they have in their
possession. In this way it gets an additional interest to
a stranger, for a finer collection of handsome weapons
cannot easily be seen. Most of them are yataghans and
pistols taken from the Turks in battle, which are richly
wrought in silver and ornamented with agates and
precious stones. The workmanship of one set of car-
touche boxes attached to a military belt was superb-
filigree work on solid silver. There were also several of
the wide heavy belts which the women wear, set with
large cornelians; and one very curious deposit-an
elaborate miniature likeness of the Sultan in a case, one
of many similar ones which have been sent from time
to time to the Montenegrins by the Turkish Government,
when it was their purpose to conciliate them. These
objects are sold after a time, if they are not reclaimed;
but in the case of more wealthy persons, in whose hands
the money lent is supposed to be safe, the deposit is
only a nominal guarantee; thus we were shown one
dagger which was a receipt for 120/.
In the afternoon we had an interview with Prince
Nicolas. The palace is built on two sides of a court,
the opposite sides of which are enclosed by high walls,
and, like all the other houses in Cetinjé, it is of two
stories. It is simply, but comfortably arranged, the
rooms on the first floor opening out from a passage
which runs the whole length of the building; in one
part of the passage a swallow had been allowed to build
its nest. M. Vaçlik ushered us into a handsomely fur-
nished room, round which were hung portraits of the late
Prince Danilo, and of the Emperors and Empresses of
Russia, Austria, and France, all presented by themselves:
here the Prince joined us. He is a handsome man, but
old looking for his years; for though he was only
CHAP. XII.
Prince Nicolas.
269
twenty-five years of age, he looked certainly eight years
older. He has a very agreeable countenance and fine
aquiline features; his hair is jet black, and his com-
plexion very dark, in which respects he differs from
his subjects, who have usually light hair and eyes. His
tall, well-built figure was shown off to advantage by his
magnificent dress,—an elaborate specimen of Montenegrin
costume, though differing only from those we had seen
before in its superior richness, and in his wearing Hessian
boots, and carrying no arms. He talks French admirably,
and we conversed with him for some time partly about his
own country, and partly about subjects relating to
England, among which he referred to Speke's discovery
of the source of the Nile. At last he withdrew to pre-
pare for a ride to Niégush, where he was to meet his
aunt, the Princess Darinka, Danilo's widow, who had
been passing the previous winter at Zante, and was now
expected from Cattaro. He is said to be extremely
fond of her, and is now building her a house nearly
opposite the palace. As she is a well-educated and
clever woman, her influence over him is great; and she
is regarded by some as the good genius of the country,
as she sees the danger of war, and is able to counter-
balance the fiery counsels of his father Mirkho: it is
consequently to be regretted that she is so much absent
from the country.
We waited outside the palace gates to see the caval-
cade start. First came the Prince, mounted on a
prancing steed, and after him Mirkho, who was followed
by the rest of the company. Mirkho is a man of about
forty-five years of age, and short for a Montenegrin: like
his son, he is very dark, and has a prominent nose
and strongly marked features; his countenance is very
lively, and looks as if it could on occasions be very
270
• CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
fierce. As we saw him, however, his appearance was
peaceful, not to say comical, for he wore a straw hat,
with a red fez stuck on the top of it to keep off the sun,
and in his hand he held a long chibouque, at which
he puffed away vigorously as he rode along. In a kiosk,
or summer-house, attached to the palace there is a
speaking likeness of him by a Bohemian artist named
Czermak, the first Slavonic portrait painter of the day,
which has been exhibited and much admired in London
and elsewhere in Europe. After their departure we were
taken to see the collection of trophies in the billiard-
room of the palace, where in the winter the senate holds
its sittings. This consists of swords and standards,
which are hung along the walls; and of medals, which
are arranged in a case. Of these latter a considerable
number were English Crimean medals, which had been
presented by the English to the Turks who served in
that campaign, and afterwards lost by them to the
Montenegrins.
About four o'clock in the afternoon we left Cetinjé for
Rieka, on our way to Scodra. One of the persons that
accompanied us to bring back our horses was a Mon-
tenegrin woman, who would willingly have carried our
baggage for a consideration, if we had consented to that
arrangement; but, like most of the women of the country,
she appeared not to have had her spirit at all broken by
hard work, for anything more independent cannot well
be conceived. Almost all the tillage of the ground is
performed by the weaker sex, as manual labour is con-
sidered degrading to men.
When we reached the
southern end of the plain, we mounted the heights that
bound it on that side, from the summit of which, looking
back, the best view of the little town is obtained,
together with the mountains which surround it, and the
CHAP. XII.
Descent to Rieka.
271
mass of Mount Lövchen magnificently towering over all.
On the other side, the Lake of Scodra is finely seen at no
great distance off. Descending from this point in the
midst of grey rocks, interspersed with trees of a singularly
bright green, we came at last to a fertile valley, dotted
with thriving villages, where the eye was refreshed by
the sight of vineyards, maize plantations, and other
vegetation. This side of the country is generally more
productive than that towards Niégush; but the part
towards the northern and north-eastern frontier is said to
be the softest and richest district. During the first part
of the descent the path had been very steep and stony,
but from this upland valley down to that of Rieka it
was still worse, and walking was preferable to riding;
the whole journey, however, only occupied three hours,
and from this, and the short time it took us to reach
Cetinjé from Cattaro, it may be gathered how narrow
the territory of the Black Mountain is in this part. The
village of Rieka lies at the foot of the mountains, in a
bend of the river of the same name,—a stream of con-
siderable size, which is joined by another and larger
tributary a little way below. In front of the houses is
a well-built quay, and the river is spanned by a lofty
bridge: it is altogether a more imposing place than
Cetinjé, though it has hardly yet recovered from having
been burnt by the Turks in the last war. Close to the
bridge is a house belonging to the Prince,
at his request, we took up our abode.
intention was to start the same evening for Scodra, in the
hope of arriving there at an early hour the next morning,
and thus avoiding the heat of the day, which would have
been intolerable in an open boat on the lake; but as the
boats were few, and the men unwilling to leave at once,
we were compelled to wait till the following afternoon.
and in this,
Our original
272
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
The impression produced on us by our visit to the
country was an agreeable one, and notwithstanding some
circumstances which I have yet to mention, and with all
due allowance for our information being derived from
a not wholly unprejudiced quarter, was decidedly favour-
able to the Montenegrins. Their appearance is certainly
prepossessing, from their dignified yet natural bearing,
and the composed and peaceful look which distinguishes
them, notwithstanding that they all carry arms; and
their noble faces, strongly marked features, and tall, well-
built figures, impress you with a sense of character and
power. Throughout the country, also, everything wore
an appearance of quiet and industry, which, as well as
the frank character of the people, especially attracted
our attention from the contrast it presented to the
restless life and wild, cruel look of the tatterdemalion
Albanians whom we had last seen on the eastern shores
of the Adriatic. At the same time, we could not but
feel that their position would be improved, both in the
eyes of strangers and in the opinion of European States,
if they showed a little more modesty, and a somewhat
less exalted opinion of themselves and their position: as
it is, they are for ever striving to keep themselves before
the world, and never contented unless they have some
new project in which to distinguish themselves. That
their political importance is considerable no one will
deny who understands their position, forming, as they
do, a strong keystone to support any movement on the
part of the south Slavonian races towards asserting their
nationality. And such a movement, in all probability,
will not be long in coming. It is not only among the
Servians and Montenegrins, who are closely bound
together both by historical associations and by present
sympathy, that the desire of political union exists, but
CHAP. XII.
Political Importance.
273
throughout the Herzegovina also, and Bosnia, the same
feeling is widely spread, so much so that though the
inhabitants of the latter country are to a great extent
Mahometans, yet, it is said, if they had to choose
between the conflicting interests of religion and race,
they would readily sacrifice the former to the latter, and
assist their brethren in overthrowing the dominion of
the Turk. Again, in all the cities of Dalmatia the
inhabitants are divided into an Austrian and a national
faction, which are usually about equally balanced in
respect of numbers; the Austrian party relying on the
numerous families intermarried with Austrian officers,
or themselves supplying officers to the army; the national
party on the widespread sympathy with the neighbouring
Slavonic races. These parties are very jealous of one
another, and a strong line of demarcation is drawn
between them, so that they have separate clubs and
cafés, and the national party is carefully watched by the
military authorities. The Bulgarians, too, who form so
considerable a part of the population of European
Turkey, though, from their natural inertness and de-
pressed condition, they have few political ideas, are
beginning to be leavened with the same sentiment, and
their leading men, at all events, look in the same direc-
tion. In the case of a general rising, the Black Moun-
tain would be a point d'appui of the very greatest import-
ance. As an asylum for refugees it is still, as it always
has been, serviceable to the neighbouring Christians.
Though M. Vaçlik assured me that there were no refugees
at present in the country, and that Prince Nicolas would
not receive them if he knew it, yet there can be no
doubt that in case of a persecution or insurrection in the
Herzegovina, or other neighbouring districts, fugitives
would be received with open arms; indeed, the right
VOL. I.
T
274
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
of asylum is one of the provisions of their constitu-
tion.¹
With regard to their general policy, I had some doubts
before visiting the country whether Mirkho's warlike
views were not really the wisest, and whether a more
peaceful policy, having for its object the internal develop-
ment of the people, would not tend to undermine that
love of liberty and resolute independence which alone
has made them what they are. But this idea was dis-
pelled by what we saw and heard. So strong is the
national feeling, so instinctive their love of daring deeds,
so traditional the determination to resist all external
force, that there seemed to be no danger of these being
undermined by the introduction of commerce and
civilization. On the contrary, the most useful function
of the Prince seemed to be that, which to the best of his
ability he is endeavouring to carry out,-
by slow prudence to make mild
A rugged people, and, through soft degrees,
Subdue them to the useful and the good."
Before leaving Rieka we heard of an occurrence which
illustrates the wilder side of the Montenegrin character.
While we were at Cetinjé we had seen a procession of
fifteen women accompanied by three of the guards leave
the place, chanting, as they went, a shrill wailing dirge,
and in the course of the evening they returned in the
same fashion. On inquiring the meaning of this we were
told, that they had gone to Rieka to attend the funeral of
a relative; but of the circumstances no further informa-
tion was given us at the time. On arriving at the spot
we learned that an atrocious murder had been com-
mitted, the history of which was as follows. A Monte-
¹ See an article in 'Vacation Tourists for 1861,' p. 406.
CHAP. XII.
Atrocious Murder.
275
negrin of the lower class had, from some unexplained
cause, conceived a violent hatred against one of his
countrymen at Rieka, an officer in the army, and deter-
mined to compass his destruction. Accordingly he re-
paired to the Prince at Cetinjé, and in a private interview
laid information against the officer, saying that he had
formed a plot to take the Prince's life. The Prince dis-
credited the whole story, and refused at first to take any
notice of it but at last, when the man became very
importunate, he consented to send some of the guards
to bring the accused for examination. The informer
insisted on accompanying them, and when they reached
Rieka, seeing his enemy standing on the bridge, went on
in front of the others, pulled out his pistol, and shot him
in cold blood, exclaiming at the same time, "There, now
he is punished!" This had happened a few days before
our visit, and the murderer was to be executed on the
day after we left, that being market day, when a great
concourse of people would be gathered together. His
sentence was, to be shot by the guards on the bridge, the
same spot where he had killed his victim, and that his
body should be exposed in the market-place for three
days.
Other circumstances combined to give us an unfavour-
able impression of the people of Rieka. During our stay
we had obtained our meals from a small inn hard by the
Prince's residence, and when on our departure the next
afternoon a somewhat exorbitant charge was made, we
raised no objection, thinking that the guests of a prince
must be content to pay in princely style. No sooner,
however, had we reached the boat which we had hired to
take us to Scodra,—and which, owing to the shallowness
of the stream, was moored a quarter of a mile below the
village,―than the master of the inn, who had been absent
T 2
276
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
when our bill was presented to us, overtook us and
demanded double of what we had already paid. When
we steadily refused to pay, he flew into a violent passion,
and nothing could be conceived more truly diabolical
than the expression produced on his countenance by real
or pretended rage. It reminded me forcibly of some of
the most malignant faces of criminals in Gustave Doré's
illustrations to Dante's 'Inferno.' The worst of it was,
that the six boatmen who formed our crew,-partly, as it
seemed, from a disposition to take their countryman's
side, and partly from fear that they themselves should
not get their money,-at first refused to move, and then
demanded that they should be paid in full before starting.
We at once flung down in the boat the three Turkish
sovereigns for which we had bargained, and thereby re-
stored confidence; but it was with no little satisfaction
that we found ourselves a few minutes afterwards floating
down the middle of the stream.
Our conveyance was one of the long clumsy boats
regularly used on the lake (Londra is their name), about
forty feet in length by seven wide, flat-bottomed and
without seats, for the rowers, except those in the bows,
stand up and push with the oar. The oars work in a
band which is attached to the gunwale, thus serving
instead of a thole: these bands are made of withies
rudely twisted, as we learnt from having to stop some
time by the side of a willow-bed to replace by fresh ones
the old bands which had become rotten. Shortly after
this our men stopped again by the other bank, to take in
a young fellow, to whom they had promised to give a
passage down to Scodra. He proved serviceable to us,
as he could speak a little Italian; but the crew would
hardly have taken him on board, had they known what a
bad character he gave both to them and to the Monte-
CHAP. XII.
Lake of Scodra.
negrins generally who visit Scodra.
277
He represented
them as great cheats, and as having a bad name in the
bazaars there for carrying off things for which they never
pay. This is likely enough, for the facilities are great,
and the temptation strong; and, to say the truth, we
found them a lazy, rough, independent set of fellows, and
anything but agreeable companions. But no people
ought to be judged of from its boatmen, or from the
inhabitants of a frontier market town like Rieka.
The river for some way pursues a winding course
between wild mountains, and as these recede to a greater
distance, the sides of its wide channel are filled with
extensive beds of rushes, while numerous egrets, divers,
and other water birds, appeared on the surface. After
about three hours we reached the point where it opens
out into the lake; near to this are several islands, Vranina,
Monastir, and Lesendria, the two latter of which have often
changed hands between the Turks and Montenegrins.
They are now in the possession of the former, who are
engaged, as the Pasha of Scodra afterwards told us, in
completing and strengthening the fine old castle which
covers almost the whole island of Lesendria.
As we
looked back from here after sunset, the mountains of the
eastern part of Montenegro appeared extremely grand,
rising range behind range, and deep blue in colour, while
to the west of them the peak of Lövchen, with the chapel
on its flat summit, was visible over all. On the opposite
side of the lake were seen the lofty mountains inhabited
by the Hotti and Clementi, two of the fiercest and most
powerful of the Christian Albanian tribes. After night-
fall a slight head-wind arose, and our boatmen, who were
tired with rowing and singing innumerable piesmas (some
of Mirkho's, probably, for the word Grahova and the
name of the Sultan continually recurred), declared that
278
CHAP. XII.
Montenegro.
the boat could not live in such a sea, and put in at the
little village of Seltza on the mainland, close to the
frontier of Turkey and Montenegro. Here they moored
the boat, and very soon were all asleep.
The mode of catching the scoranzi, of which fish there
are great quantities in this lake, has been described by
Count Karaczay and other authorities, and the truth of
their accounts, strange as they are, was confirmed to us
at Scodra. The Count's description is as follows:-"It
is about the size of a herring, and enters the lake in
autumn from the river Boyana: it is then found in asto-
nishing numbers. There are places in the lake which
have a smooth bottom, and present, besides, the appear-
ance of springs issuing from the earth. These places,
called oko, are visited by the scoranzi when the weather
becomes cold, because the temperature of the springs is
more elevated than that of the waters of the lake: their
number is then so great in these places, that an oar
pushed into the water remains fixed. The oko are the
property of a few individuals, chiefly Turks, and are, at
the beginning of the cold season, surrounded by nets, in
which an incredible quantity of fish is taken: they are
dried, and form a considerable article of commerce." I
have already mentioned that they are exported from
Montenegro.
At one o'clock in the morning we roused our sleeping
crew, and once more got under way. The wind had
fallen, and, as there was no moon, the stars were wonder-
fully bright; Venus in particular, which, hung in the
eastern sky, threw a broad trail of light across the water.
When daylight came, we found the western shore of the
lake, along which we were coasting, extremely bare, but
'Journal of Geographical Society,' vol. xxii. p. 57.
CHAP. XII.
Pelicans.
279
some of the distant mountains of Albania, which rose to
the south-east, showed magnificent forms. At one place,
where a few rocks stood out from the middle of the
water at no great distance from us, we saw a number of
large birds singularly like pelicans; and we were after-
wards told that this bird is found on the lake of Scodra.
One of our boatmen fired his pistol at them, and the
bullet fell in the water just below the rocks on which
they were resting, after which they flew lazily away.
The heat of the day had become intense, when about ten
o'clock we found that we had reached the exit of the
river Boyana, which in a short course of twenty miles
carries the waters of the lake into the Adriatic. We
passed a steamer belonging to the Pasha, which is in-
tended to play a prominent part in carrying troops, in
case of another war breaking out between the Turks and
Montenegrins, and, before reaching the landing-place,
made our way through a number of enclosures for catch-
ing fish, which intersect the stream in all directions at a
variety of angles, with huts erected at intervals above
the water, being supported from below on stakes, in
which the people live who superintend the fishery. They
brought forcibly to our minds the lacustrine habitations
of which such considerable remains have been discovered
in the Swiss lakes.
( 280 )
CHAPTER XIII.
SCODRA AND THE MIRDITA.
Bazaars and City of Scodra-Vendetta - Turkish Toleration -- Turks and
Montenegrins-Ismael Pasha-The Castle-View from it-Sieges
Departure for the Mirdita—The Drin—First Impressions of the Mir-
dita - Night-bivouac - Mirdite Dress - Extensive Oak-forests - The
Priest of St. George-Religious Views of the People-Their Fana-
ticism-Rivers of the Country— Arrival at Orosch.
ON landing from our boat we at once entered the bazaars
of Scodra, which are built at a distance of two miles from
the modern city, in a low and unhealthy position by the
river side, at the foot of the castle hill,—a steep isolated
mass of rock, which rises finely from the plain with a
striking outline. Our first thought was to purchase
saddles and other equipments for our journey into the
interior. And here I may remark, for the information of
future travellers, that it is not advisable to use English
saddles in Turkey, because, whether rightly or not, the
people of the country have the strongest objection to
them, believing that they injure the backs of their horses.
It is far better to purchase a padded Turkish saddle in
the first large town on your route, taking care to select
one with the slightest peak that you can find, together
with a surcingle, as well as girths, and a crupper. It is
well, however, to take stirrups and stirrup leathers from
England, as the Turkish ones are often awkward and
untrustworthy. A number of rough horse-hair saddle-
bags of various sizes will also be found extremely useful,
and can be met with everywhere in Turkey. In the
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra.
281
larger ones you can stow your luggage, by which means
an infinity of trouble is saved in loading your baggage-
horse; and the smaller ones, which can be thrown across
the peak of the saddle, serve to carry provisions and any
other etceteras. After providing ourselves with these
and a few other articles, we proceeded over dilapidated
roads and by the sides of broken bridges, which once
spanned the numerous watercourses, to the city, if that
name can properly be applied to a place where the
houses are built so far apart, and so embowered in trees,
that more than two or three can seldom be seen in one
view. Yet Scodra is said to contain a population of
27,000 souls, and is by far the most important place
of all this part of Turkey. It can even boast a very fair
Locanda.
In the course of the day we visited the British Consul,
Mr. Read, who gave us a good deal of information about
the state of the country, and kindly assisted us in arrang-
ing our plans for the next stage of our journey. He
described the continual vendetta as being the bane of this
whole district. Though the condition of things is not as
outrageous as formerly, yet with an average of one murder
every week in the city and its neighbourhood, arising from
this cause, it can be conceived how little real security
there is to human life. The authorities do what they can
to prevent it, but in all probability no method would be
effectual short of exiling the whole family of the mur-
derer. From time to time, when the confusion becomes
intolerable, it is a custom, handed down from ancient
times, for a general truce to be proclaimed, when the
persons who have the right to exercise the vendetta are
required to appear before the heads of their tribes or the
local governors, and swear that they will abstain from
vengeance. M. Hecquard, who was formerly French
282
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
Consul at Scodra, mentions that in 1857, in consequence
of no truce having been proclaimed for thirteen years, no
less than 500 persons belonging to the city of Scodra.
alone were wandering about in the neighbouring plain
and mountains as being compromised.' But even the
alleviation of the evil which is produced in this way is, as
may be supposed, but partial and of short duration.
Mr. Read expressed his belief that the Turkish autho-
rities here are anxious to carry out a system of religious
toleration, and mentioned, as a proof of this, that whereas
until lately the only place where the Christians of Scodra
were allowed to meet for worship was a field in the
suburbs, a church is now in course of erection in the
plain. My companion enquired whether the evidence of
Christians was received in the courts of justice. He re-
plied in the negative; the Pasha, he thought, was a fair
man, and wished them to be heard, but as soon as he
proposed it, the Cadi would retire, and without his sig-
nature the verdict becomes void. The same is the case
in the medjlis, or council. Within a few years the Pasha
has nominated amongst its members two Christians, one
a representative of the Latin, the other of the Greek com-
munity; but from fear of ill-usage they are absolute
cyphers, and wholly unable to prevent injurious measures.
Whatever political influence is exercised by any foreign
power on the Christians of North Albania is in the hands
of Austria, from which country almost all the Roman
Catholic bishops come: the priests who are introduced
from that country he regarded as being injurious, from
1 Hecquard, 'La Haute Albanie,' p. 380. This book, though frequently
inaccurate, as every one on the spot maintained, and we ourselves disco-
vered, comprises a great deal of valuable information, and is the only
authority on the subject. I have made considerable use of the historical
notices it contains. The large map which accompanies it is almost
worthless.
CHAP. XIII.
Turks and Montenegrins.
283
the political ferments which they occasionally cause, and
the jealousy they arouse among the native priests. As
to the relations of the Turks and Montenegrins, he seemed
to think they were in a very precarious position, and that
war might break out any day. There were faults on both
sides. The Turks were unreasonably hard in pressing
points with regard to the frontier line, and similar ques-
tions, and if the British embassy at Constantinople were
to urge them to a more conciliatory course, it was highly
probable they would consent. On the other hand, the
Montenegrins were ever ready to take up a matter, how-
ever slight, and make it a cause of quarrel. Not long
before this the Austrian Government had made them a
present (not a very judicious one) of 1500 rifles, imme-
diately after which a movement was felt all along the
frontier, and though nothing ultimately came of it, yet it
was enough to cause an uneasy sensation. The Turks
maintain that according to the last convention Mirkho
has no right to live any longer in the country, whereas he
is dignified with the offices of President of the Senate and
Commander-in-chief of the Army.2
In company with Mr. Read, we paid a visit to Ismael
Pasha, the governor of this province, who was one of
Omer Pasha's officers, an able and strong-handed man,
and in good repute even among the Montenegrins. We
found him sitting with the Russian consul in the garden
of his serai, where he welcomed us in a very friendly
manner, and entertained us with coffee, sherbet, and the
never-failing cigarettes. Like most Pashas, he is exces-
2 The rights of the case are as follows. In the original draft of the
Convention of Scutari, in 1862, it was arranged that Mirkho should be
banished from the country; but this article was subsequently modified, and
it was agreed that he should remain, on condition of his holding no office in
the State. See Ubicini, 'Les Serbes de Turquie,' p. 273, where the text
of the Convention is given.
284
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
sively fat, and had the strongly-marked features of the
Osmanli. He is confident, we were told, that in case of
a war he could easily penetrate to Cetinjé, and subdue
the Montenegrins; but when I looked at his portly frame,
and thought of the passes above Rieka, I felt not a little
doubtful whether he would accomplish the task in person.
He was proud, and with reason, considering the time of
year, of the flowers in his garden; they were mostly nas-
turtiums and other gay plants, for the Turks delight in
gaudy colours. The soil of this plain is excellent, both
for flowers and vegetables; the violets and other wild
flowers in spring are described as magnificent; but owing
to the ignorance of the people, very few kinds of vege-
tables are grown, except gourds; and their potatoes, as I
have said, are imported from Montenegro. Ismael's brass
band was in attendance, and played a number of airs,
partly Italian, partly Turkish, very fairly; but as no
Turk has any ear, their style of playing was better suited
to the latter, which has that peculiarly raw, half-discordant
sound which is characteristic of all Oriental music. How
cleverly Beethoven has imitated it in his Turkish March
in the Ruins of Athens !'
"
On our expressing a wish to visit the castle, the Pasha
sent one of his aides-de-camp to accompany us. We
found the fortifications in a ruinous state in many parts ;
they are, in fact, those of the old Servian fortress, dating
from the time when Upper Albania, under the title of the
province of Rascia, formed a part of the Servian king-
dom. But, from the isolated position of the lofty rock on
which it stands, the view is a very remarkable one. To
the north extends the wide expanse of the lake, its
eastern shore bounded by level land or gradual slopes
extending to the foot of the mountains of the Hotti and
CHAP. XIII.
View from the Castle.
285
Clementi, while on the opposite side rises the grand rocky
wall that separates it from the sea, the last spurs of which
sink into the plain at our feet on the right bank of the
Boyana, thus terminating the long limestone chain which
skirts the Adriatic throughout the whole length of Dal-
matia and Montenegro. The river,-which, as it passes
the bazaars, is spanned by a long ricketty wooden bridge,
-winds away through level ground in the direction of the
Adriatic, whose waters may be seen far off through an
opening in the hills; and just after it has skirted the
castle hill, it receives the combined streams of two other
rivers. One of these, the Chiri, flows on the south side.
of the city, and is a source of continual anxiety to the
inhabitants from its winter inundations, which threaten
sooner or later to sweep away the whole place. The
other is a branch of the Drin, which broke away from the
main river two years before our visit, and taking a
northerly course forced its way as far as this point. So
seriously may the face of a country be injured, where
barbarism and neglect prevail! At the foot of the castle
on the south side, and separated from the bazaars by a
rocky hill, are the half-ruined houses of the old town of
Scodra; while the modern city stretches over a consi-
derable part of the plain to the east, having the appear-
ance of a sea of trees, with minarets and other lofty
buildings rising out of it, a most picturesque sight. Far
away to the south-east appeared the snow-capped moun-
tains of the Mirdite Albanians; and directly to the east,
rising over the nearer ranges, a group of striking peaks
in the direction of Ipek, one of them pyramidal in form.
Of these peaks, which were the Bertiscus of ancient times,
we shall hear more as we proceed.
The castle height on which we are standing was the
286
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
site of the original town of Scodra, for this name, which
has been transformed into Scutari³ by the Italians, signi-
fies "on the hill." At different periods of history it has
been a place of considerable importance, and has sus-
tained numerous sieges. The first of these is mentioned
by Livy, who describes the place as difficult of access,
and the best fortified town in the country, and surrounded
by two rivers, the Clausula (Chiri) on the east, and the
Barbana (Boyana) on the west, the latter of which flows
from the Palus Labeatis (lake of Scodra). On this occa-
sion Gentius, the last king of Illyria, having provoked the
hostility of the Romans by his piracies, was attacked and
besieged by the Roman Prætor Anicius, and after an un-
successful sally, compelled to surrender at discretion;
after which Illyria became a Roman province (B.C. 168).
To pass over a number of minor sieges, it was again the
scene of an important conflict in the year 1478, when
the Venetians, to whom it had been ceded by Scanderbeg
4
3 I have all along avoided this form of the name, in order to distinguish
this place from the better-known Scutari on the Bosphorus.
4 Livy, xliv. 31. The remainder of this passage is as obscure and con-
fusing, as the earlier part is clear:-"Duo cingunt eam flumina, Clausula
latere urbis, quod in orientem patet, profluens, Barbanna ab regione occi-
dentis, ex Labeatide palude oriens. Hi duo amnes confluentes incidunt
Oriundi flumini, quod ortum ex monte Scordo, multis et aliis auctum aquis,
mari Hadriatico infertur. Mons Scordus, longè altissimus regionis ejus, ab
oriente Dardaniam subjectam habet, a meridie Macedoniam, ab occasu
Illyricum." As the Drin is the only other river in this neighbourhood, and
rises in the Schar-dagh, or Scardus, the position of which, between Dar-
dania, in the neighbourhood of the Axius, and Illyricum, is so clearly
pointed out, it is reasonable to suppose that Oriundi, a word of suspicious
sound, is an error of the author or transcriber for Drilon, or Drinio, the
ancient name of that river, and that Livy made the mistake of supposing
that the Boyana fell into the Drin. Another authority, Vibius Sequester,
('De Fluminibus,' s.v. Barbana, quoted by Grisebach, 'Reise durch
Rumelien,' ii. 118), distinctly states that the Barbana flowed into the sea.
But it is curious that Livy should have so nearly anticipated the present
state of things when a connexion actually exists between the two rivers.
CHAP. XIII.
Sieges.
287
by a secret convention which came into force after his
death, were blockaded there by Mahomet II. for nine
months, and only yielded it to him in consequence of a
treaty of peace being signed. And to come nearer to
our own times, it was the head-quarters of Mahmoud
Pasha, or Mahmoud the Black, as he is more commonly
called, who in the latter half of the eighteenth century
held a similar position in Northern Albania to that which
Ali of Yanina afterwards held in the south; and who,
after long defying the Ottomans from whom he had re-
volted, and cutting in pieces the detachments which they
sent against him, was ultimately defeated and slain by
the Montenegrins under their Vladika Peter I., into whose
mountains in an evil hour he had penetrated (A.D. 1796).
One of his successors, Mustapha, a man of less ability,
but for a time not less formidable, again declared himself
independent of the central government, and taking advan-
tage of the time when Sultan Mahmoud's power had been
weakened by his war with Russia and the unpopularity of
his internal reforms, induced a large number of the neigh-
bouring chieftains to join his standard, and marched
against the Turkish forces. But the general who was
sent against him, Mehemet Reschid Pasha, though the
forces at his command were considerably inferior, was a
man of far greater capacity. Mustapha was first defeated
in the field, and then forced to shut himself up in this
fortress, where, after sustaining a siege and bombardment,
he was compelled to surrender by the explosion of his
powder magazine (A.D. 1832). Since that time the Otto-
man flag has waved peacefully over its battlements.
The next point that we intended to make for in our
journey was the country of the Mirdites, whose moun-
tains I have mentioned as visible from the castle. They
have the reputation of being the fiercest and most
288
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
warlike of all the Albanians, and have never been
subdued by the Turks, of whom they are absolutely
independent, being governed by a Prince of their own,
who is a descendant of Scanderbeg. They are the
hereditary enemies of the Montenegrins; and it was
strange to think that within so short a distance we
should visit two Christian peoples so strongly contrasted
with one another, differing in race, political organization,
and even religion, for the Mirdites are all Roman Catho-
lics. We were doubtful before arriving at Scodra
whether it would be possible for us to enter their country,
but as the Prince has a residence in that city, Mr. Read
had become acquainted with him, and undertook to pro-
vide us with an introduction. He found on enquiry that
a servant or messenger of Bib Doda (such is the Prince's
name) was about to start on the morrow for Orosch, his
mountain residence, with despatches from Ismael Pasha
and other commissions; and accordingly it was arranged
that this person should accompany us and act as guide.
We hired four horses of an Albanian carrier called Nicola,
a fine-looking middle-aged man, and in every respect a
most capital fellow, far superior to the ordinary run of
carriers and muleteers: in the first instance we agreed to
take him as far as Prisrend, but, as we found his horses
very fair, and himself all that we could desire, we ulti-
mately went through with him all the way to Salonica.
Shortly after midday we left the city. Our path ran
in a south-easterly direction along a plain near the foot
of a range of mountains, and was bordered by agnus-
castus bushes, pomegranates, palluria, and other shrubs,
festooned here and there by the wild vine: the land on
both sides was fairly cultivated, in some places corr
being grown, in others vines and mulberry trees, and in
one spot I saw a patch of tobacco. In two hours and
CHAP. XIII.
The Drin.
289
a half we reached the main stream of the Drin, from
which the branch that has made its way to Scodra
separates lower down: at this point it is from 100 to
150 yards wide, a rushing turbid current, very different
from the pellucid river which, on our former journey, we
had seen issue from the Lake of Ochrida. About half-
way between these two points it receives the waters of
the White Drin, which rises in the mountains of Ipek
and flows from north to south, after which the combined.
streams take a westerly course towards the sea. From
the appearance of its bed it must have a wider stream in
the winter. Here there is a ferry, and considering that
this is the high road between Scodra and Prisrend, the
ferry-boat is of a most primitive description. It is
composed of two boats of no great size fastened together,
each of which is made out of one piece of wood (monoxyla
the Greeks call them), and is paddled for some distance
up the stream with instruments more resembling spades
than oars, and then drifted across to the other side.
When horses are ferried over they are arranged cross-
wise, with their fore-feet in one boat and their hind-feet
in the other. Above the ferry the rocks close in and
form a narrow gorge, which extends for a distance of not
less than sixty miles up the course of the stream, with
such precipitous sides that it is impossible for any road
to follow in that direction. We were informed that it
had been explored in the previous year by Von Hahn,
with the object of discovering whether it could be
rendered navigable, but that he found the rapids so
numerous and so steep as to make the attempt to utilize
it hopeless. In consequence of this, the high road to
5
5 It is even said that in one part there is a waterfall 150 feet high. See
the account given by a Turkish officer in an Appendix to Von Hahn's
'Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik,' p. 207.
VOL. I.
U
290
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
Prisrend has to pass for several days' journey over exces-
sively steep and rugged ground some way to the south
of the river, having on one side the wild tribe of the
Ducadjini, and on the other the Mirdites, part of whose
territory it traverses in the most difficult portion of the
route. This is one great source of the influence of that
people, and a cause of their independence, for no sooner
have they a grievance to complain of, or any difference
with the Turks, than they infest this road and render it
impassable, thereby destroying commerce, cutting off
supplies, and, what is still more important, hindering
reinforcements being sent from the interior in case of a
war with Montenegro. This route has been described
by Dr. Grisebach, who passed this way in 1839.
After crossing the river we stopped by a solitary khan
on the opposite bank to wait for our Albanian guide,
who had left Scodra later than ourselves, and was to
overtake us here. We made our dinner off provisions
which we had brought with us, having being warned
beforehand that we should find nothing, except perhaps
coffee and spirits, at the miserable hovels which are
built at intervals along the main road, and form the only
accommodation for the traveller between Scodra and
Prisrend. Nevertheless, as this is the only line of com-
munication by which the produce of a large inland
district can be brought to the sea, the amount of traffic
is very considerable, as we could see from the number of
well-laden horses bearing merchandize which passed us
on the way. When Bib Doda's messenger arrived we
again started, and followed the track until it began to
ascend into the mountains, near which point was a small
Christian church with some pretensions to architecture
and rough ornamental stone-work. Here we left it, and
skirted the edge of the plain of Zadrima, which stretches
CHAP. XIII.
First Impressions.
291
southwards in the direction of Alessio, forming the
boundary of the Mirdita on this side. We soon found
our native guide indispensable, for the slight traces of a
path vanished when we came to the broad shingly bed of
a river called Djadri, which we followed upwards, fre-
quently crossing and recrossing the shallow stream,
which from the appearance of its channel must at times
be swelled into a furious torrent. On one side the rocks
were of limestone-the last of this formation which we
saw until reaching Orosch-on the other they appeared
igneous, which, according to Grisebach, is the character
of the greater part of this mountain mass south of the
Drin. These last, as well as the débris that had fallen
from them, were of a deep red colour, so that, as evening
approached, the shadows that were thrown along them
by the trees on their sides assumed a rich purple hue.
We were now within the territory of the Mirdites, and
the wildness of the scenery harmonized well with all that
we had heard of the character of the natives. Here and
there, however, gentle nooks appeared, where bright
green poplars, with patches of maize and small vine-
yards, gave an aspect of cultivation; and the cows
coming up from the water, and the sheep following the
shepherd, as in the parable, suggested thoughts of rural
life, though these were somewhat marred by the long
gun which the shepherd carried on his shoulder. At one
point, where the river makes a considerable bend, an
armed party suddenly appeared from behind a mass of
rock which projected above the valley, and, after hailing
us, enquired where we were going. Our guide was not
with us, having made a detour into the mountains to
avoid wading the stream, but Nicola satisfied them by
shouting that we were on our way to visit the Prince.
At last, about nightfall, we left the river and mounted
U 2
292
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
to a small upland plain, in which was a solitary
house, where our Albanian proposed that we should
stop but as it had been arranged that he should take
us to a priest's house in the village of Castagneti, which
was said to be not far distant, and our time was precious,
we resolved to proceed thither. Having mounted him
on one of our horses, we stumbled along behind him by
the light of the stars, over very rough places, while he
extemporized a way so cleverly and with such perfect
nonchalance, that we were deceived into the idea that he
knew where he was going, until suddenly he disappeared,
horse and all, down a bank five feet high. On re-
appearing unhurt he confessed that he was wholly out of
his reckoning, and condescended to go off in the direc-
tion of a light which we saw at no great distance, and
which proved to proceed from a shepherds' encampment.
From them we learnt that Castagneti was in a wholly
different direction, and that we had no chance of reaching
it that night: so we unloaded our horses and turned
them loose into the neighbouring grass, and having
lighted a fire and partaken of a scanty supper, lay down
to rest under a spreading ash-tree, and were soon fast
asleep.
On waking the next morning we found at our heads a
large cross carved on the bark of the tree, a sure sign
that we were among Christians. Around us was a
pretty glade, surrounded by oak brushwood and dwarf
pines, and hard by ran a narrow stream, down the steep
side of which our man had tumbled the night before.
The shepherds were an uncouth-looking set, and, like all
the Mirdites, excessively plainly dressed, in which
respect they are a great contrast to the other gay
Albanians, and especially to those of Scodra, in whose
rich costumes there is a tasteful mixture of white and
CHAP. XIII.
Mirdite Dress.
293
red, while the women wear a large crimson cloak with a
covering for the head, reminding one of the costume
which old women used to wear in England. Amongst
the Mirdites the dress of the men consists of a long
white woollen coat, which serves also for a shirt, fastened
round the waist by a red belt; underneath this are
white pantaloons of the same material, tied with orna-
mented bands about the ankle: their feet are protected
by shoes of hide, and their heads by a close-fitting cap
of white felt. Their women present a more picturesque
appearance, as, in addition to a coat similar to that of
the men, they wear red trousers, an embroidered apron
with a fringe eighteen inches long, and a blue handker-
chief twisted round the head. They are a wiry, active
people, but small in stature; indeed they appeared to us
quite pigmies after seeing the Montenegrins: their faces
are sharp and keen, with a rough expression, but by no
means an unpleasant one, for they are less wild and cruel-
looking than the other Ghegs. They shave all the head
except the back part, where the hair is allowed to grow
to its full length (öπilev кoμówvтes); and from this and
other customs of theirs, which are generally characteristic
of the Mahometan races in Turkey, the stranger finds
it hard at first to persuade himself that they are
Christians.
The undulating country over which we passed after
leaving our night's resting-place was covered with oak-
trees, which are the characteristic vegetation of the north
and west of the Mirdita. It is described by Dr. Grise-
bach as being universally found in the neighbourhood of
his route, and the dense masses of it which we saw ex-
tended as far as the eye could reach; nowhere else in
Europe, in all probability, are such extensive oak forests
to be found. After gradually ascending for three hours,
294
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
we reached San Giorgio, where there is a church and a
priest's residence; in former times, when the inhabitants
of this district had reason to fear hostilities from the
Turks, in fact, until quite lately, this was the seat of
the Bishop of the Mirdites; of late years, however, since
they have been on good terms with their neighbours, he
has removed to a place in the plain of Zadrima, not far
distant from Alessio. The little church is of the rudest
description; the sun shines through the rafters, and not
only is there no church furniture, but there is not even a
regular altar, the place of which is taken by a ledge of
stone in a tiny apse which is scooped out of the eastern
wall; outside the west end there is a similar ledge, where
the service is celebrated on great festivals, such as St.
George's day, when two or three thousand people are
gathered together. This was once the metropolitan
cathedral. We betook ourselves to the priest's house,
which stood on a little eminence hard by, but the doors
were barred, and all our shouting and knocking elicited no
responses except the loud barking of dogs. When we
were on the point of going away in despair, the priest
himself, Don Nicola Bianchi, appeared, having come in
from the fields where he had been working. Don is the
title applied to all the priests throughout this country.
He was a jolly, broad-shouldered, bustling little man,
dressed in a costume anything but ecclesiastical, which
however is the regular dress of the Mirdite priests-a
red fez cap, a cloth jacket, and full blue trousers gathered
in below the knee, like those worn by Greek sailors.
spoke Italian, like all the priests of this country, who
learn it at Scodra, a circumstance which we found ex-
tremely serviceable, as we could in this way hold direct
He
6 The Bishop of Alessio seems also to have some authority in this.
country, but of what character it was we could not discover.
CHAP. XIII.
The Priest of St. George.
295
communication with them. He expressed himself greatly
delighted at seeing us, and in a surprisingly short time
had washed his floor, made coffee, killed a lamb, and
prepared a good dinner, for which the mountain air had
duly qualified our appetites. Of this he did not himself
partake, as it was the vigil of St. James's day, but he
greatly enjoyed the bread, cheese, and tobacco, which we
had brought with us from Scodra, for his own bread was
of maize and roughly baked, and his tobacco of a very
coarse description. He was proud of his wine, which he
said the Prince himself had praised, and of his water,
which he considered the lightest and best in the Mirdita.
The room in which he entertained us had a decidedly
martial aspect, from the number of guns and pistols hung
about the walls; these apparently are not unnecessary,
for when he showed us round his premises, he described
how, a few years ago, he was obliged to cut down all the
trees and bushes in the neighbourhood of the house, on
account of the robbers who concealed themselves there.
Besides this sitting-room he had a kitchen and a bed-
room, in which were several books of devotion; all these
were on the upper storey, for the lower part was occupied
by stables and outhouses. In the garden close by, a large
bell is suspended in a frame, and serves to call the people
to church.
Don Nicola had served as Chaplain-General of the
Mirdite forces under Bib Doda, in the campaign in
Bulgaria, at the commencement of the Russian war, when
he led 1200 men to the assistance of the Sultan,—as
auxiliaries, however, for, unlike the rest of the Albanians,
the Mirdites never serve as mercenaries. He was present
at the battle of Giurgevo and the siege of Silistria, where
he remembered the heroic Captain Butler. For these
services he had received a decoration of the 3rd order of
"
296
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
1
the Medjidie, which he showed us, together with a firman
from the Sultan, written in gilt letters. "Ah! you should
have seen me," he said, "as I charged at the head of my
men, with the cross in my hand!" "And a sword, per-
haps, in the other?" I suggested. He laughed, but
would not plead guilty to the soft impeachment. He
expressed himself anxious to get an English Crimean
medal, for though he had not been in the Crimea, yet he
had taken part in the war, and he knew others who had
received them in different parts of the country. The
Prince was evidently a great object of admiration with
him, and he described him to us as a bravo giovine.
In answer to our enquiries our host informed us that
there is a large quantity of metals in the country,—lead,
iron, and silver; also coal, though it had never been
worked, but some of the surface coal was so good that
they could boast that a steamer had once made a voyage
with it. Besides these, the resin which is extracted from
their pine-trees might be made an article of commerce,
together with the timber, of which they have so inex-
haustible a supply; yet none is exported except the
scodano, which is used in dyeing. As to his own pro-
fession, he told us that there are thirteen priests in the
country, all of whom are native Albanians, except one,
who is an Italian. The number of course is extremely
small for a scattered population of more than 20,000
souls, but the churches are more numerous, and services
are held from time to time in different places. These the
people attend in great numbers, and they are careful in
observing the fasts and festivals, but how superficial their
Christianity is may be gathered from a fact which I
heard at Orosch, that many of them are accustomed to
pray to our Lord to intercede for them with St. Nicolas,
who is the leading saint of the country. Having touched
CHAP. XIII.
Religious Views.
297
on their religion, I may as well take the opportunity of
saying a few more words about that subject. They are
an extremely fanatical people, and will not under any
circumstances allow a Mahometan to settle among them,
nor is any insult offered to their religion suffered to pass
unavenged. M. Hecquard relates, that at the time when
the Pasha of Scodra opposed the building of a Roman
Catholic seminary for priests, which was being con-
structed in that place under Austrian auspices, and
caused the walls that had been partly raised to be thrown
down, the Mirdites prepared to descend into the plain to
destroy a mosque, in requital of the wrong done to their
faith, and that he himself met a body of 300 of them
starting on such an expedition, and with difficulty per-
suaded them to abstain, by pointing out to them the
persecutions they were likely to bring on their fellow
Christians in the plains." At what exact time this
country finally attached itself to the Latin Church it is
hard to say, for having belonged first to the Byzantine
empire, and then to the Servian kingdom, and, on the
other hand, from its proximity to Italy, having at an
early period had sees founded in it from Rome, Upper
Albania was for many centuries the scene of continual
struggles between the eastern and western communions,
and swayed backwards and forwards from one to the
other, according as force or policy required. Roman
Catholic writers fix the date at which the change took
place at A.D. 1250, quoting two letters of Innocent IV.,
in which he states that the whole of the province of
Albania, following the example of their bishop, had
joined the Catholic Church; but there is evidence to
7 Hecquard, 'La Haute Albanie,' p. 225.
3 Baronius, as quoted by Hahn, Albanesische Studien,' vol. i. p. 343,
note 207
298
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
show that the Greek Church exercised a powerful influ-
ence in these parts until a much later period. Even at
the present day a number of Greek observances remain
embodied in the Latin rite, the most remarkable of
which is the communion in both kinds.
San Giorgio is by the barometer 2070 feet above the
sea; and from its commanding situation the view is one
of the finest in the country. Far away to the north-
west the castle of Scodra and its lake were clearly
visible; the rest was a grand mountain panorama, the
chief points in which were the conical Monte Veglia to
the west, on the other side of which lies Alessio, and
to the south-east the lofty peak of Mount Dyia, patched
with snow, the highest summit in the Mirdita. The
whole was harmonized by the soft blue of a midday
haze.
Seeing a chestnut tree close by the house, I enquired
whether any were found at Castagneti, the place where
we were to have passed the previous night. Don Nicola
answered that there were several there, and that, as I had
supposed, the name of the village was almost certainly
derived from the Italian name for the tree. It is one of
many instances of the way in which words and names in
that language have filtrated into the Albanian; thus
prift, the Albanian for "priest," comes undoubtedly from
that source, and our host's surname had distinctly an
Italian sound. Speaking of Castagneti he also told us
that in the neighbourhood of that place is the site
of Castri, the birthplace of Scanderbeg, from which he
derived his name of George Castriote.
Having taken an affectionate farewell of our hospitable
entertainer, who would hardly hear of our not passing
the night with him, we pursued our way through a country
CHAP. XIII.
Rivers.
299
of exquisite beauty, at one time penetrating into the
loveliest dells imaginable, at another crossing the uplands,
from which the eye ranged over a wide extent of moun-
tains, whose sides and slopes seem clothed with velvet
from their unbroken covering of oak foliage. Shortly
after leaving San Giorgio we first caught sight of the
village of Orosch, some twenty miles distant in a direct.
line to the east, and appearing like a white spot in the
midst of a triangular patch of cultivation lying in an
open gully, which seamed the side of the distant moun-
tain chain. From this point we descended first to the
river Sperthoz, and again, after crossing an intervening
range of hills, to the greater Fandi, the main stream of
the country, which receives the waters of all the other
rivers of this part of the Mirdita, except those on its
northern frontier, which fall into the Drin. The Fandi
in turn drains into the Matja, which flows from the
district called the Mat, on the southern confines of
the Mirdites, and enters the sea some way south of Alessio.
By the fords of the Sperthoz and the Fandi we saw
remains of bridges, testifying to the existence of more
frequent communication in former times. After the
passage of the latter of these rivers a very long and steep
ascent succeeds, where a winding-path leads up the face
of a rocky wall; when this is surmounted, as we descend
again towards the deep valley of the lesser Fandi, the
trees become less numerous, and vegetation continually
decreases as we follow its stream upwards in the direc-
tion of Orosch. At last we struck up a side valley
through the bed of a tributary stream, and about nine
o'clock saw a bright light gleaming through the dark-
ness, which we were told proceeded from the palace.
Towards this we made our way, stumbling along over
300
CHAP. XIII.
Scodra and the Mirdita.
a rugged track, in the midst of the flashing light of
numerous fire-flies, until at last we passed through a
gateway, and entering a courtyard found ourselves in
front of the dwelling of Prince Bib. While our letter of
introduction is being read, and preparation made for our
reception, let me endeavour to describe it.
The palace or castle of Orosch is an ideal residence of
a mountain chieftain, and both the building itself and the
life enacted within it carried our thoughts back in many
respects to the wildest times of the Middle Ages. The
walls are massively constructed of stone, with loopholes
at intervals, for purposes of defence, and the whole
structure forms an irregular oblong, one end or wing of
which is occupied by the Prince and his family. This
part we did not enter, for the women were kept in as
complete seclusion as in a Turkish harem; of the rest,
the ground floor is taken up with stables, while a flight
of stone steps leads up to a large hall, open to the air in
front, which occupies the greater part of the upper storey.
From the roof of this was suspended an iron frame, con-
taining pieces of resinous pine-wood, whose bright flame
sent forth the light that we had seen on our approach.
The walls on three sides of it were hung with long guns,
richly set with silver and beautifully polished, for this is
the occupation of the men, while the women perform the
more menial offices. At the back of this are large un-
furnished chambers occupied by the retainers and guards,
who, from their fierce look and the long locks that
streamed from the backs of their heads, appeared some
of the wildest of the human race; and its sides are
flanked by two good-sized rooms, one of which formed
the dining-hall, while the other was appropriated to our
use as a bedroom. Both of these are roofed with the

OROSCH; RESIDENCE OF THE MIRDITE PRINCE.
1
CHAP. XIII.
Palace of Orosch.
301
pinewood of the mountains, which was fragrant as cedar
and beautifully carved. Round the walls, about a third of
the way down, runs a cornice of the same material, below
which stand handsome buffets for containing valuables.
The windows are small, and carefully guarded with iron
bars, and the hearths are open, the chimney not com-
mencing until near the roof, which in consequence is
blackened with smoke.
(302)
CHAPTER XIV.
THE MIRDITA (continued).
"The Mirdite Prince - History of his Family-Political Constitution of the
Mirdita - Administration of Justice - Fraternal Friendships - Ravages
of the Vendetta The Prince's Hospitality - Derivation of the name
Mirdite - Excursion to the Monte Santo - View from it-Topography
of the Country - Capture of Wives McLennan on 'Primitive
Marriage' - Prevalence of the Custom of Exogamy - Bride-racing
-Mirdite Wives Mahometans.
As we were almost the only Europeans who had visited
Orosch within the memory of its inhabitants, we were
received with great distinction. Having been ushered
into the dining-hall we found the Prince waiting to
welcome us, which he did with profuse offers of hospi-
tality, and apologies for the roughness of the entertain-
ment we should meet with. He excused himself from
supping with us, as it was a fast-day, and after a time
retired, leaving us to the care of his aide-de-camp, Ali
Bey, a Hungarian by birth, and an officer in the Turkish
army, and his secretary, Dr. Theodore Finzi, an Italian.
Here again, as in Montenegro, we were fortunate in
falling in with educated people, who could furnish us
with the information we required, for both these gentle-
men spoke Italian, and M. Finzi French also. Of the
latter gentleman in particular I may say, that he was not.
only an agreeable companion, but remarkably well in-
formed about the circumstances and statistics of the
country. The party was completed by Don Giorgio, a
rather sinister-looking man, the priest of a neighbouring
village, who was staying there on a visit.
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdite Prince.
303
Prenk Bib Doda is a powerfully built man of about
forty years of age, with a dark olive complexion, pro-
minent bony features, and an unintelligent expression of
countenance. He is described by those who are ac-
quainted with him as one to whom fear is unknown, and
he has greatly distinguished himself in several campaigns
in which he has assisted the Turkish Government-in
Southern Albania, against the Montenegrins, and finally
in the campaign on the Danube in 1854, where the
prowess of the Mirdites was conspicuous. In recognition
of his services on this last occasion he received from the
Porte the title of Pasha, a dignity, however, which is,
rather lightly esteemed in his own country, though he
wears the dress of an officer of that rank. The title of
Prenk, which is prefixed to his name, though it is in
reality a Christian name, being another form of Peter, has
come to be regarded, even among his own people, as
equivalent to Prince. "Vous le trouverez un peu barbare,"
M. Finzi observed to us, apologetically; and it is true
that he can neither read nor write, and speaks no lan-
guage but his native Albanian, though he understood a
good deal of what we said in Italian; but he is reported
to have a good influence in the country, while a more
civilized man might very possibly have no influence
at all.
Under the same roof where we were quietly passing
the night, a series of domestic tragedies had been enacted
not very long before, hardly unworthy of the palace of
Atreus at Mycena. To give the reader some idea
of these, it is necessary to go back to the early history of
the existing family. The ancestor to whom they prin-
cipally refer as the head of their dynasty was Gion
Marcu (John Mark), a renowned warrior, who lived in
the first half of the eighteenth century, and having gained
304
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
great fame by his success against the Turks, lent his
assistance, for which a high price was paid, to the native
Pashas in their resistance to the central government. It
was he who first established his residence at Orosch.
After his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Prenk
Lech I. (Peter Alexander), who like him made war his
profession and was killed in battle, leaving three sons,
Prenk Lech II., Dod Lech, and Lech Sii (Alexander the
Black); it is with these, as the ancestors of the existing
members of the family, that we are most directly con-
cerned. And here I may notice how often the shortened
form of the name of Alexander occurs in these records,
as it does also in the names of Lesendria, the island in
the Lake of Scodra, in Alessio,' and in other names found
in these parts. In some cases this is probably to be
referred to the national recollection of Scanderbeg.
Prenk Lech II., the eldest of the three, who succeeded
his father as chief of the Mirdites by right of birth, at
first allied himself with Mahmoud the Black of Scodra,
and was with him in Montenegro at the time of his
death. At a later period, he put his arms at the disposal
of Ali Pasha of Yanina, and when Mustapha Pasha of
Scodra became a formidable rival to that potentate, at
Ali's instigation he became a thorn in his side, con-
tinually ravaging the plain of Zadrima, and pillaging the
villages of the Mussulmans, until at last he was bought
off by the payment of a sum of money. Like most of
his race, he died of the wounds he received in fight, leaving
his command to his son, Prenk Doda, the grandfather
of the present Prince. This chieftain is reported to have
shown himself intelligent and humane as well as brave,
1 The name of this town appears to be a corruption of the ancient name
of Lissus; but its Albanian name of Lesch is, at all events, adapted to the
local form of the name Alexander.
CHAP. XIV.
History of the Family.
305
but his tenure of power was of short duration, for after
fighting in the Morea at the time of the Greek revolution,
he was poisoned by a Turkish woman at Scodra, and is
buried at Cattaro, to which place he had gone in hopes
of obtaining medical aid. His legitimate successor was
his brother Nicola, but as he was a minor, the command
was for the time entrusted to his uncle, Lech Sii, the
youngest son of Prenk Lech I., and the fiercest and
darkest character of his race. After some years, how-
ever, this Alexander the Black was exiled to Yanina by
order of the Grand Vizir, Mehemet Reschid Pasha,
against whom he had sided with Mustapha in his war
against the Porte, and was forced to surrender along
with that despot at the siege of Scodra. He thus disap-
pears for the present from the scene, and his nephew
assumed the command.
It was at this time that the furies of the vendetta were
let loose on the devoted house, and, as it is said, not
without the co-operation of the Turkish authorities, who
were only too glad of an opportunity of weakening a
powerful neighbour. The sons of Alexander the Black,
having seen their father in power, were jealous at the
chieftainship having passed into the hands of their cousin,
and at the instigation of their father, whom the Pasha
of Scodra had promised to recall from exile, laid frequent
plots against his life. But Nicola was aware of their
machinations, and when he had several times parried
their attempts, and at last saw no way of escape for
himself except by anticipating the blow, had all three
put to death in one day. Directly after this occurrence,
the sentence of banishment against Lech Sii was an-
nulled, and he reappeared on the scene, thirsting for
vengeance. At first, at the earnest entreaty of the
clergy, he consented to be reconciled to his nephew; but
VOL. I.
X
306
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
a Mirdite never really forgets that blood has been shed,
and accordingly it was not long before he watched an
opportunity of taking Nicola unawares, and killed him
one day when his back was turned, as he washed his
hands before dinner.
The moment had now arrived when the women of the
family should take their share in the bloody work.
Within a year after this treacherous deed, the murderer
himself was slain in the night-time by the wife of his
victim; and on this followed a massacre, set on foot
by the wife of Lech Sii in default of any male avenger,
from which the present Prince only escaped by being
removed from Orosch in the darkness, concealed in a
chest. At last, when the family was on the eve of
extinction, a truce was established, and as the number of
deaths on both sides was found to be equal, they
agreed that the past should be forgotten,-that Bib Doda,
being the representative of the eldest branch, should
be recognised as chieftain,—and that the rest of his rela-
tions should dwell with him in the palace which had
been the scene of the drama. They are but three in
number, two of them being of the second branch,
descendants of Dod Lech, the second son of Prenk
Lech I., while the third is the son of Alexander the
Black, and is said to inherit the ferocity of his father.
Together with them live the two murderesses, the wives
of Nicola and of Lech Sii. Such was the happy family
into which we were now introduced.
2
On leaving my room the next morning, I found M.
Finzi outside, and proceeded with him to a small kiosk
or summer-house, which projects from the front of the
hall, and commands an extensive view, reaching almost
2 This notice is abridged from Hecquard, pp. 235-242.
1
CHAP. XIV.
Political Constitution.
307
to the sea, of the deep valley to the west, while close in
front the sloping green maize fields, interspersed with
walnut and other trees, and a few cottages, form a
refreshing object to the eye. Behind the house the
mountain side rises steeply; and in consequence of its
western aspect and the gully in which it lies, the place
only sees the sun for a few hours in winter, while in
summer the heat is excessive during the afternoon. Both
in the kiosk, and in a tent which had been set up in the
court at the side of the house, I had long conversations
with the Secretary at different times of the day: from
these the information about the country which I have to
communicate to the reader is mainly derived.
The constitution of the Mirdita is a sort of military
aristocracy; for though there is a hereditary chief, and an
assembly, in which the whole people is represented, yet
the power is really vested in the heads of the chief
families. All the relatives of the Prince have the title
of Captain, and command the divisions of the army
under him in time of war; but they have no direct
political influence in the country. Each district has its
bayrakdar, or standard bearer, under whom are the
senators. These are the heads of their respective clans,
so that the office is hereditary, and a child may be a
senator, only in that case his functions are administered
by his guardian until he is of age. No measures can be
taken without the consent of the bayrakdars and senators;
and when matters of the greatest importance have to be
discussed, a council of the whole nation is called-that is
to say, a representative is sent from each family; but
these have practically no influence in the deliberations,
and are only summoned in order to give weight to the
general decision. When called together by the Prince, this
senate meets at Orosch; but they have also the power of
X 2
308
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
meeting on their own account, in which case their rendez-
vous is a church of St. Paul in another part of the
country, which belongs to no parish, but serves for an
independent central point for the whole Mirdita. Only
two days before our visit one of these parliaments had
been held at the palace; on which occasion three oxen
and several sheep and goats had been killed, and great
feasting had taken place at Bib Doda's expense. This
kind of hospitality is always expected of the chief; and
when he is at Scodra, he keeps open house for any
of his tribe who come there, and a sheep is killed every
day for the entertainment of the lower classes.
Justice is administered in the different districts by the
senators according to the original laws of the Ducadjini,
from which tribe, though it has now become Mahometan,
the Mirdites consider themselves to be descended. The
rigour of these is extreme, and in some cases barbarous,
as was shown by an instance that had lately occurred,
where a woman who had murdered her husband was
sentenced, according to the law, to be burned alive.
At the late meeting of the senate the Prince had
endeavoured to persuade them to change the punish-
ment and abolish the savage custom, but he did not
seem as yet to have carried his point. In many
similar ways he appears to be exerting his influence
on the side of humanity; thus the custom of salting and
keeping the heads of enemies killed in battle, though
it existed later here than among the Montenegrins, is
now forbidden. "But you must not think," observed
Mr. Finzi, “that severity, not to say violence, is other-
wise than necessary in dealing with this wild people.
This was forcibly impressed on me by an occurrence
that happened shortly after I entered the Prince's
service. It was at Constantinople, to which place he
CHAP. XIV.
Administration of Justice.
309
had gone to receive from the Sultan the title of Pasha,
taking with him a number of his retainers. One of these,
a groom, stayed out very late several nights, contrary
to order, and was sharply reprimanded by his master for
so doing. One night, however, he repeated the offence,
and on his coming in the Prince was greatly enraged,
and at once ordered him to receive one hundred blows
of the bastinado on his feet. This punishment was
inflicted in a room adjoining that in which I was sleeping,
and I was horrified at being waked by the shrieks of the
miserable creature piercing the stillness of the night.
On learning what was going on I was extremely dis-
gusted at such barbarity, and determined to send in my
resignation to the Prince the next morning. About
daylight, however, two hours after this had happened,
I visited the sufferer, and to my surprise found him
sitting up and drinking a cup of coffee. As soon as he
saw me, he hobbled across the room to me on his
mangled soles, kissed my hand, and entreated me,—not,
as I had expected, to procure him his escape from such
treatment, but-to intercede for him with his master, that
he might not be discharged from his service."
The custom of forming fraternal friendships, and having
adopted brothers (pobratim), is common among the
Mirdites, as it is also among some of the other races
of European Turkey. According to this, two young
men engage to support and aid one another during their
lives in all contingencies, whether of war or peace. This
relationship, which reminds us of some of the passionate
attachments of ancient history, such as those of David
and Jonathan, of Achilles and Patroclus, is regarded as of
the most sacred and inviolable character, insomuch that
in some places, according to M. Hecquard, the children of
those who have contracted the alliance are not allowed
310
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
3
4
to marry one another; and the same writer mentions the
ceremony of initiation observed by some, in which the
two persons, after receiving the Communion together,
have a small quantity of their blood mixed in a bowl of
wine, which is drunk by both when they have sworn an
oath of fidelity,—a primitive form of contract mentioned
by Herodotus as existing among the Lydians and Scy-
thians, and by Tacitus, as practised by the Armenians
and Iberians. It used even to happen that alliances of
this sort were formed between persons of different sexes,
but this is now of rare occurrence, for "messieurs les
prêtres," said the Secretary, appealing for confirmation to
Don Giorgio, who was standing by, "find that it often
leads to concubinage, and use all their influence to put it
down."
The account he gave of the vendetta confirmed all that
we had already heard of its ravages. Rightly, indeed,
has it been called "the web of murderous feuds at which
the barbarian sits all his life weaving, and which he
bequeaths to his children." The following instance
which he mentioned may give an idea of its interminable
character. Fifty years ago two men of this country
quarrelled, and fought so desperately, that both of them
died of the wounds they received. Time rolled on, until
it might have been thought that the event was forgotten.
But it had happened that as they lay wounded on the
ground, one of them had managed to deal the other a
blow over the head, which caused him to die first. The
recollection of this circumstance had been preserved, and
* Herod., i. 74; iv. 70.
4 Tac., 'Ann.,' xii. 47. It would also seem to have been found among
the Romans, from the existence of the word "assiratum" in Latin, signi-
fying a mixture of wine and blood.
5 Ecce Homo,' p. 299.
CHAP. XIV.
Ravages of the Vendetta.
311
only the other day a descendant of the one who died
first presented himself before a descendant of the other,
and reminded him of the fact, threatening at the same
time to burn his whole village unless he gave him one
hundred goats by way of satisfaction. The Prince heard
of the affair, and, sending for the man, persuaded him to
delay his vengeance; but beyond this he could not
proceed, for the laws of blood are superior to every other
law. Thus the matter stood at the time of our visit.
This state of things has given rise to an institution,
the existence of which forcibly realises to us the value of
a similar establishment among the Jews. A number
of the Mirdites who had fled their country as com-
promised persons from fear of assassination, formed
themselves into a colony, and settled in the plain near
Prisrend, where they work as labourers. They have
since been joined by many others who have left their
homes for the same reason, and in this way the place has
become a complete city of refuge.
At ten o'clock we breakfasted with the Prince in the
dining-hall: the party consisted of the Prince, his aide-
de-camp and secretary, Don Giorgio, and ourselves. The
entertainment had decidedly a martial appearance, for
though the guests were not expected to "carve at the
meal with gloves of steel," yet the dishes were handed to
us by fierce-looking warriors (among them was one of the
captains), with their belts full of pistols and daggers. A
German butler, a Prussian by extraction, acted as major
domo, so that the room contained a curious mixture of
nationalities,—Italian, Hungarian, German, English, and
Albanian. Before we took our places it was carefully
inquired which of us was the elder, that he might be
seated on the Prince's right hand: and when breakfast
was half over, a boiled lamb's head was brought in on a
312
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
dish and placed before our host, who immediately trans-
ferred it to my plate, to my no slight astonishment, until
it was explained to me that this is the highest compliment
in Albania, and is given to the man whom the chief
"delighteth to honour." His idea of hospitality con-
sisted in ordering that we should be helped to as much
as possible, and that the silver tankards which were
placed before us should be continually refilled with the
light wine of the country. Though he often apologized.
for the roughness of our reception, the viands were excel-
lent, if not much varied. On one occasion he tumbled
on to my plate with his own hands half a dishful of mul-
berries, a fruit which is scarce in these parts; indeed I
was surprised to find them at all at such an elevation, for
Orosch is 2360 feet above the sea; but there was a fine
mulberry-tree growing in front of the building. The
quantity of meat forced upon us at length became em-
barrassing, until we were told that this profuse hospitality
was the custom of the country, and a compliment, so that
we should give no offence by leaving what we were not
inclined for. All this was truly patriarchal, and our
thoughts naturally reverted to Benjamin's mess, the size
of which seems at first sight rather a questionable token
of fraternal affection when all the party had as much
as they could eat. The Prince's possessions are of an
equally patriarchal character, consisting of 800 oxen and
cows, 1300 sheep, and a number of horses and other
cattle besides. Before the end of the meal, the Prince's
son was introduced,-a tall fat boy of six years' old, with
a round, heavy face, and dressed for the occasion in richly
embroidered clothes. We rose to receive him, but his
father requested us to be seated, and made him kiss our
hands.
Hearing us mention the name of Scanderbeg, he told
CHAP. XIV.
The name Mirdite.
313
us he could show us a likeness of his reputed ancestor.
Accordingly he ordered a book to be brought, which
proved to be a life of that hero in Italian; and, after
turning over a number of the pages, holding the volume
upside down, he had the satisfaction of displaying to us
the grim (though not genuine) portrait. Passing from
the domain of history to that of philology, he proceeded
to explain the derivation of the name Mirdite, according
to the tradition of the country. This relates that, on
the morning of the battle of Kossova, Sultan Amurath
meeting the chief of their tribe, who had brought an
auxiliary force to his assistance, was saluted by him with
the words mire dite ("good day" in Albanian); and that
in consequence of this, when the battle was over, and he
undertook to guarantee the rights of his valiant allies,
he gave them the name of Mirdites, in commemoration
of the words of good omen which he had heard in the
morning. Though this explanation is inadmissible, yet
it has some plausibility in it; for it will be remembered
that in the Russian war the English and French soldiers
who fraternized, used commonly to know one another
only by the names of "I say" and "Dis donc;" and
readers of French history are aware that the regular
name in French for the English at the time of Joan of
Arc, was derived from an expression (not a very pious.
one) which was frequently in their mouths."
6
In the course of the day it was proposed to us to make
an expedition to the highest point of the mountain be-
hind Orosch, which is called the Monte Santo. We were
accompanied by Ali Bey with six attendants, three on
horseback and three on foot, one of whom, an excessively
6 See also Hecquard, p. 233.
7 Michelet gives it as "Godden;" see also Sharon Turner's 'History of
England in the Middle Ages,' ii. p. 567.
314
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
wild-looking fellow, though clad in the ordinary costume
of the country, was a captain; he is said to be a lion in
battle, and one would not, I think, be far wrong in re-
cognising in him the son of the ferocious Lech Sii. As
soon as we were outside the palace, a feu de joie was
fired, the guns being discharged at random, and the
bullets flying in all directions about the valley. Our
cavalcade mounted the hill-side diagonally by a steep
path, until a depression in the mountain-chain was
reached; from this we proceeded upwards over grassy
slopes to a spring by the side of a cavern, in which in
former times was a chapel of St. George, though now it
has been destroyed by a fall of rock. While we were
resting at this place, a little diversion was caused by an
accident happening to my saddle, which nearly resulted
in the loss of that important part of a traveller's equip-
ment. One of the Albanian attendants, wishing to make
fast his horse, had attached his saddle to the stirrup-
leathers of mine. The horse became fidgety, and at last
by continual pulling dragged the saddle over the hind-
quarters of my horse, a process which the bad girths of
the country render comparatively easy; and then, finding
himself encumbered with this unusual appendage, took
fright, and galloped off across country at full speed with
the unhappy saddle trailing behind him. After he had
gone about three-quarters of a mile, he pulled up, and
one of the men was sent to secure him: meanwhile I had
requested to be mounted on another horse, and we pro-
ceeded up the mountain. At last we reached a very
steep part of the path, called the Scala Santa, where the
rock was broken in steps (it was curious to hear the
Italian words mutilated by the Albanians); and on
8
8 Thus in Count Karaczay's map, which was constructed from informa-
tion orally obtained, the Monte Santo is called Monte Scintet, or Shintit.
CHAP. XIV.
The Monte Santo.
315
reaching the top of this we found a rude stone church,
dedicated to St. Benedict, with the ruins of an old Bene-
dictine monastery, close to which rose a clump of finely
grown elms, the only ones which I saw in the country.
Of the history of the place we could learn nothing.
From this point we were taken to a spot about a
quarter of a mile off, where was a deep hole, descending
for some distance into the bowels of the earth, which was
regarded with great wonder by the natives, from the
booming sound it emitted when a large stone was cast
down, and bounded from point to point of the narrow
passage. A story of course was attached to it, and a
very rigmarole one it was-how that a similar cavern
existed in another part of the Mirdita, where the rever-
berations of any sound produced in this place were
heard; and that once a shepherd, who had been robbed
of his flock, by casting a stone down this hole sent tidings
of his misfortune to his brother, who was feeding his
sheep near the mouth of the other. It is an example of
the small amount of consistency that a half-savage people
require in a legend. A shooting match was then pro-
posed, and, as a mark, I pointed out the broken stump
of a fir-tree about five feet high, peeled and white, some
300 yards off, on the other side of a gorge. My com-
panion borrowed an European rifle from one of the party,
and hit it in the middle, sending the splinters flying
all about. Then came an Albanian with his long thin-
stocked gun, and grazed the edge; another followed, and
missed; last of all came the fortunate possessor of the
rifle, and struck it full. Evidently the native weapon is
not constructed for precision. At last we mounted to
the grassy summit, which is 4890 feet above the sea,
and a salvo was fired in honour of our arrival. On
hearing this, the party we had left below returned the
316
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
salute, and as they aimed their pieces in the direction
from which the sound had come, we heard their bullets
whizz over our heads, or spatter against the rocks below
us, in a manner not wholly agreeable. From this eleva-
tion almost the whole of the Mirdita is visible, together
with a great part of the rest of Upper Albania. The
wild Captain was here of the greatest service to us, for he
proved to have a far more accurate knowledge of the
geography and of the positions of the neighbouring tribes
than any one else in the company. By means of his
explanations, and by the aid of Kiepert's map of Euro-
pean Turkey, which gives, on the whole," a remarkably
faithful delineation of this district, we were able to iden-
tify most points in the view. The country of the Mir-
dites forms nearly a square, as it extends about 35 miles
in a direct line from north to south, between the territory
of the Ducadjini and that of the Mat; and 40 miles from
east to west, between the mountains of the Dibra and the
plain of Zadrima. The elevated ridge on which we are
standing forms a well-marked backbone of considerable
breadth, running directly north and south, and rising in
the latter direction first to the striking summit of Mount
Cunora, and then to the lofty peak of Dyia. The moun-
tains to the west, including those which we had traversed,
though extremely irregular, take the same direction on
• Hecquard's map in 'La Haute Albanie' gives the river-valleys of the
north-west portion more accurately; in those of the north he is completely
wrong. He is right in putting Orosch further from the Black Drin than the
other maps, and consequently the chain of the Monte Santo should also be
placed further west. Count Karaczay's map in the 'Journal of the Geo-
graphical Society,' vol. xxii., gives the valleys of the Fandis well, but he
leaves far too little space between the main chain and the Drin, and places
the whole country not sufficiently south relatively to Scodra. The mountain
which I have called Dyia, is probably his Mount Spileon. Kiepert is quite.
wrong in the northern boundary line of the Mirdita, which ought to run.
much further north, and cross the Prisrend road at one point.
CHAP. XIV.
Topography of the Country.
317
the whole as the main chain, but are intersected by the
numerous river-valleys which radiate like a fan from
a point in the neighbourhood of Alessio. The aspect of
the country from this point readily explains the unwil-
lingness which the Turks have always felt to attack it.
To turn to the more distant objects-to the south-west
appeared the mountains of Croia, the scene of Scander-
beg's most brilliant triumphs; a little north of west
the Monte Veglia, beyond which the Adriatic was seen
between Dulcigno and Antivari, about 80 miles off; the
Lake of Scodra was concealed by the nearer mountains,
but on the sea-side of it rose the Mount Rumia on the
confines of Montenegro, and on the other the fine peaks
of the Clementi; to the north-east were seen the serrated
ridges which overlook the plain of Jacova, while the whole
eastern horizon was bounded by the long line of the
Schar-dagh or Scardus, even at this season still patched
with snow, between which and us lay the deep valley
of the Black Drin.
The mountain-side directly behind Orosch is a mass of
granite, abutting against the precipices of the Monte Santo,
which, like the rest of this central chain, and the greater
part of the country eastwards as far as the Drin, is com-
posed of limestone. The igneous rock of which so great
a part of the Mirdita is composed has here disappeared.
The vegetation is also changed, for the oaks are no longer
seen, and from the level of Orosch to the summit there
are numerous pines and firs. At this point, too, we take
leave of the flora of the Adriatic, which, to some extent,
we had found reaching up the interior valleys; many
of these plants and shrubs we shall not see again until
we reach the Ægean. After lingering long over this
most instructive view, we at last began to descend to
Orosch, where Bib Doda was expecting us to dinner. On
318
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
the way we recovered the truant saddle, and, thanks to
its padding, and the grassy slopes over which it had been
trailed, though covered with scratches, it was practically
unhurt, except for a broken girth, which had been re-
paired in the interval. Great was the satisfaction of Ali
Bey, who remarked to me with some naïveté, "È molto
curioso il nostro Principe-and as he had specially en-
trusted you to my care, I might have got into an awkward
scrape, if anything amiss had happened to you or your
property."
There was one object which we regretted being unable
to see at Orosch, and that was the parish church, which
contains an ancient cross of very rich workmanship,
which is said to be Byzantine, and to date from the time
of Scanderbeg. The ministrations of this church have
been from time immemorial performed by an abbot, who
was once a personage of considerable influence in the
country; but the office is now shorn of most of its privi-
leges. The present holder was banished some years ago
for causing political disturbances, but, after a time, re-
turned and gathered his party round him; in conse-
quence of which, when he was again expelled, the Prince
communicated with the Turkish Government, who put
him in arrest at Constantinople, to which place he had
fled for refuge. One result of this is that his church is
placed under a sort of interdict, and no person is allowed
to enter.
One other custom of this people remains yet to be
noticed, viz., their habit of capturing their wives. The
Mirdites never intermarry; but when any of them, from
the highest to the lowest, wants a wife, he carries off a
Mahometan woman from one of the neighbouring tribes,
baptizes her, and marries her. The parents, we were
told, do not usually feel much aggrieved, as it is pretty
CHAP. XIV.
Capture of Wives.
319.
well understood that a sum of money will be paid in
return; and though the Mirdites themselves are very
fanatical in matters of religion, yet their neighbours are
reputed to allow the sentiment of nationality to prevail
over that of creed; so much so that at Easter the Maho-
metan shepherds undertake to guard the flocks of the
Christians, while at the Turkish Bairam the Christians
do the same for the Mahometans. Prince Bib himself
won his present spouse in this way. My reader will
naturally enquire, as I did on hearing this strange state-
ment, what becomes of the Mirdite women? The
answer is, that they are given in marriage to the neigh-
bouring Christian tribes. If any one considers this
incredible in so large a population, he is at liberty to
adopt the more moderate statement of M. Hecquard,
who only speaks of this custom as existing among the
chiefs; 10 but I state the facts as they were stated to me,
and since the ground of the custom was distinctly
affirmed to be the feeling that marriage within the tribe
is incestuous, and wherever in similar cases this belief
has existed the custom of exogamy, as it is called,
together with the capture of wives, has existed also, I
feel very little doubt in my own mind that the stronger
statement is the true one. As the Mirdites are the only
people in Europe, as far as I can learn, among whom
this practice exists (though it is maintained by many
savage tribes), and as great light has been lately thrown
on the subject by Mr. McLennan in his remarkable
book on 'Primitive Marriage,' I propose to say a few
words about its history and origin.
Amongst a large number of barbarous races the
custom exists of killing female children. The cause of
10 Hecquard, p. 229.
320
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
this is that females, being less capable of supporting
themselves and defending the rest, are far less valuable
members of such a community than males. Further on
in this narrative I shall have to mention a remarkable
instance of the aversion felt to the birth of female
children even amongst the Christian population of one of
the most civilized parts of European Turkey; but this
feeling is naturally much more powerful where, from
scarcity of food and the neighbourhood of enemies, the
strength of a tribe depends on its freedom from encum-
brances. Side by side with this is to be placed the fact,
that a state of hostility is the normal condition of savage
tribes, so that every one who is foreign to a group is
regarded as an enemy, and every group is hostile to the
neighbouring groups. The result of this state of things
is as follows. When the number of women in a tribe
has been so reduced as to have no adequate proportion
to that of the men-and in some cases this is known to
have gone so far that a horde has no young women of
its own-it is necessary that they should procure them-
selves wives from somewhere else. Now if they were at
peace with their neighbours, this might be brought about
by contract or by purchase; but as they are usually in a
state of hostility, they are reduced to the same condition
in which the tribe of Benjamin is described to have been
in the Book of Judges, when cut off from intercourse
with the rest of the tribes of Israel, and are forced to
obtain their wives either by spoliation after conquest, or
in some other way by stealth and violence. When this
habit of procuring wives from without, originating first
in the necessity of the case, has existed for some time, it
passes into an actual law of exogamy, i. e., the pro-
hibition of marriage within the tribe, which in its turn
renders the capturing of women more systematic and
CHAP. XIV. McLennan on "Primitive Marriage." 321
universal. After a lapse of time again, when inter-
marriage within the tribe has long ceased to be practised,
the idea grows up that such marriages are incestuous,
because all the members of the tribe are descended from
a common ancestor; and thus the custom of exogamy
is subsequently explained and justified, receiving at the
same time a religious sanction. The instances by which
these statements may be supported are almost innu-
merable. Mr. Latham, in his 'Descriptive Ethnology,'
goes so far as to say that the principle of exogamy is, or
has been, almost universal. It is found both in North
and South America, in Australia, in the islands of the
Pacific, in Africa, in India and Affghanistan, amongst
the Calmucks and the Circassians. In most of the cases
which have been collected it is accompanied by the
practice of capturing wives, and usually marriage with
the tribe is prohibited as incest. That a shrinking from
incestuous connection was not, however, the original
cause of exogamy, is sufficiently clearly shown from the
fact that, in a primitive state of society, the marriage of
near relatives does not seem to have been considered
improper, as we see, for instance, in some of the marriages
within the family of Abraham. And still more amongst
savages the ties of blood appear, at an early stage of their
existence, to have had very little force.
So far we have been speaking of the state of tribes
living in barbarism at the present time. But it must be
remembered that this condition of existence is one
through which almost every part of the human race has
sooner or later passed, and consequently that there is a
probability of exogamy having existed among them.
That this was so is almost conclusively proved by the
traces which are found in nearly all nations in a pro-
gressive state of civilization, of customs and ceremonies.
VOL. I.
Y
!
322
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
connected with marriage which are explicable only on
the supposition of the prevalence among them at some
previous period of the system of capture. From these it
would appear that, when the capture of wives as a reality
began to die out, the form of capture was in each case
retained; that is to say, in order for a marriage to be
considered complete, it was held to be necessary that,
after the contract had been made, the bridegroom, or his
friends, should feign to steal the bride or carry her off
from her relations by force. The process of change by
which this was brought about, and the way in which the
original custom has been broken up and disintegrated
into a variety of ceremonies, may be best learnt from the
enumeration of a few instances.
Olaus Magnus, in the 16th century, describing the
state of Muscovy and Lithuania at that period, says that
the tribes of the north of Europe were continually at war
with one another on account of stolen women, or with
the object of stealing women. When a man had seen a
young woman in a neighbouring village whom he wished
to make his wife, he would call his friends together,
make a descent on the village, and carry off the prize,
after a fight with her kinsmen, if they were on the spot to
come to her aid. According to his account, however, a
change had been already introduced from the original
state of things, for he goes on to say that the marriage
was never consummated until the consent of the parents
had been obtained. Still, in this case, the capture is a
reality let us now take an instance-one out of very
many-in which the contract comes first and the fight
after, and where the capture is consequently a form.
Lord Kames, writing at the beginning of this century,
gives the following description of the marriage ceremony
that, shortly before his time, had been customary among
CHAP. XIV.
Prevalence of the Custom.
323
the Welsh. On the wedding-day the parties of the bride
and bridegroom met on horseback, and when the bride-
groom demanded the bride her friends gave him a
positive refusal, and carried her off, while the other party
pursued them with loud shouts. At last, when both
men and horses were tired out with charging and jostling,
the bridegroom was suffered to overtake the bride and
lead her away in triumph. Similarly at Berry, in
France, at the present day, a regular siege of the bride's
house takes place, and after the bridegroom's party have
gained admittance a scuffle ensues in which heads are
not unfrequently broken.
I must refer the reader to Mr. McLennan's book for
other instances of the form of capture in its integrity,
which he has collected with great learning from a variety
of sources. Suffice it now to add one or two of the more
disintegrated ceremonies in which it appears.
There are traces of its existence among the Jews,
Greeks, and Romans. It is said by good authorities
that the Old Testament expression, "taking a wife," is
to be accepted literally, implying that the ceremony of
carrying off formed part of the marriage rite. Of the
Spartans Plutarch informs us that the bridegroom
always carried off the bride with violence, though
latterly it was considered sufficient for the lady to be
seized and carried from one room to another. At Rome
the form was in different degrees of disintegration among
the patricians and the plebeians. While in the marriage
of the latter the bride's house was invaded, and she
herself torn with feigned violence from her mother's lap;
in those of the former it was only required that she
should be carried by the bridegroom over the threshold
of his house, and her hair parted with a spear, "in
memory," says Plutarch, "of the warlike manner in
Y 2
324
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
which early marriages were brought about." The vio-
lence here offered was supposed to recall the rape of the
Sabines, but there can be little doubt that that legend
also embodied the original practice of capture.
The
idea that the resistance offered in these and similar cases
proceeded from maidenly modesty is singularly impro-
bable, being, in fact, the transference of the ideas of a
later and more delicate age to the rude state of society
where these customs took their rise: besides which it
does not in any degree explain the combined plan of
defence, shared in by a number of persons, which is
found in some instances. Again, the old German ex-
pression brûtloufti, or "bride-racing," points to the
existence among that people of a custom similar to that
which exists among many wild tribes as part of the
marriage ceremonial, of giving the bride a start either on
foot or horseback, and making the bridegroom pursue
her until he catches her. It has even been suggested
that the English ceremony of "throwing the old shoe"
may be a relic of some custom of the kind, as signifying
a sham assault on the person who carries off the lady.
This, of course, is a mere conjecture; but as the cere-
mony, though now absurd, must have had an origin, this
explanation may deserve consideration in default of a
better.
It cannot be considered a valid objection to the view
here put forward, that no trace of the system of capture,
or of the circumstances which accompanied it, is to be
found in the sketch of the condition of the early Aryan
tribes which Comparative Philology has constructed for
us. Those peoples were, even at that early period, in a
far more highly developed condition than that which
produced this practice; nor will any one who has
observed the permanence of customs and legends handed
CHAP. XIV. Mirdite wives Mahometans.
325
down from primitive times, especially those relating to
birth, marriage, and death, be surprised to find that the
form of capture, as a marriage ceremony, may have been
inherited by them from much ruder ages, when the Indo-
European family had not separated from the common
human stock, and may have been passed on by them to
later generations. But it should be remembered also
that the practice of exogamy may arise at any period,
when the same circumstances present themselves which
caused it in the first instance; and this, no doubt, was
the case with several of the European races amongst
whom it has been found, either as a reality or a symbol."¹
From this imperfect survey of Mr. McLennan's con-
clusions it will be seen that the case of the Mirdites,
which seems to be unknown to him, is a peculiarly
interesting one, because while the system of exogamy is
perfect, it presents us with the reality of capture on the
eve of merging in the form-since a sum of money is
paid afterwards, and but little resistance apparently
offered-but permanently checked in doing so by the
fact that the women carried off are Mahometans, who
cannot without violence be married to Christians. What
causes led in this instance to the practice of marrying
persons of another religion, when it is possible to obtain
wives in a peaceful manner from other Christian tribes,
and from what period it dates we have no means of
knowing. In all probability this also was the per-
petuation of some traditional idea that it was nobler to
obtain a wife by force, and after a time it may have
come to be regarded as an obligation that the object of
the predatory excursion should be one of another creed.
11 See on the subject generally McLennan's 'Primitive Marriage,' chaps.
i.-vii., passim; also an Essay by the same writer in 'The Argosy' for
June, 1866.
326
CHAP. XIV.
The Mirdita.
It would also lessen the difficulty arising from the
number of women in this tribe who have to be provided.
with husbands elsewhere, if we could suppose that female
infanticide prevails. There is, however, no authority for
saying that such is the case, and in a Christian com-
munity, however wild, it is improbable, as there is no
other crime which Christianity has more uncompro-
misingly or more successfully opposed.
(327)
CHAPTER XV.
OROSCH TO PRISREND.
Departure from Orosch- A Native Guide The Bertiscus Mountains —
Mirdite Shepherds' Encampment-Mode of Divination-Junction of
Black and White Drin-A Nocturnal Visitor― Prisrend— The Kaima-
kam--Turkish Administration-The Castle -View from it-Churches
Visit of Dr. Barth — The Roman Catholic Archbishop — Popula-
tion — Concealed Christians—Their Origin, History, and Present Con-
dition.
EARLY the following morning we started from Orosch on
our way to Prisrend. The Prince had risen to see us
off, and we took our leave of him and our other friends
at the palace with many expressions of gratitude on our
part and regret on theirs. A guard of three men had
been appointed to accompany us,—two of them on foot,
and the other, one of the captains, who was the Prince's
financier or accountant, on horseback. At first we
followed the same path which we had taken on the
previous day, but when we reached the depression in
the ridge, from which we had mounted to the Monte
Santo, we descended into a thoroughly Swiss-looking
upland valley, with firs and beeches clothing its steep
sides, from which the limestone cliffs cropped out at
intervals. The meadows at the bottom were occupied
by numerous herds of cattle, some of those, no doubt,
belonging to Bib Doda, while in other places hay was
being made. The pastoral look of everything, combined
with the freshness of the air, which was as balmy as that
of a May morning in England, made this part of our ride
extremely pleasant. At last we reached a point where
328
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend
the valley comes suddenly to an end, and a precipitous
descent commences over loose rocks and débris, difficult
for horses, by the side of steep and richly-coloured cliffs.
When we reached the lower country we found a con-
siderable undergrowth of hazels, but the oaks did not
reappear until the following day when we began to
descend to the Drin valley. There were few dwellings
in this part and little cultivation, but both here and
elsewhere in the Mirdita we observed that there was no
appearance of want or misery among the population, nor
any beggars, though we had several times met with
these in Montenegro.
At midday we rested at the village of Sedjin, where
notice had been sent on to the chief man to prepare for
our reception. The clay floor of his best room was
strewn with a luxurious bed of ferns, and a large piece of
beef had been dressed and a lamb roasted. The liver
was served as first course; but the most remarkable
part of the entertainment was the bread, which was
baked in circular flat cakes a couple of feet in diameter;
these were made of maize, which, when rudely ground
and kneaded, is very heavy and heating food. When we
had partaken the rest of the company had their meal;
but we observed that our host himself ate apart from his
guests, and not until after they were served: this, we
were told, is the custom of the country. During this
time, one of the numerous storms which had been
hanging about the mountains descended upon us, with
thunder and lightning and torrents of rain; but after an
hour it cleared up, and we were able to pursue our
journey under the guidance of our host, who replaced
our other guards, as they were to leave us at this point.
This man, a wild Albanian, with shaven head and one
CHAP. XV.
The Bertiscus Mountains.
329
long lock hanging down behind, looked at first sight like
one who might take your scalp at any moment; but,
despite his appearance, we found him not only a first-
rate guide, but also a most agreeable companion-
attentive, considerate, and polite. Our route lay along
the mountain sides, through extensive forests of beech
and fir, the general direction of our course, both on this
and the following day, being towards the north-east.
Before sunset we reached the only shelter that was to be
found in the elevated region to which we had gradually
ascended, a mandra or shepherd's encampment on the
shopes of the mountains facing the north, from which
there was a glorious view of the serrated, and in some
places snowy, peaks of Jacova, which stretch along in
that direction in a magnificent chain. These summits
are described by Grisebach, who saw them from several
points much nearer than this-on the road from Scodra
to Prisrend—as presenting a superb spectacle, not easily
surpassed in the Alps, from the aiguilles and pinnacles of
limestone rock to which they rise. These, he says, form
a striking contrast to the lower and less strongly marked
shapes of the mountains of the Ducadjini, which, like
those of the north and west of the Mirdita, are composed
of greenstone, porphyry, and other igneous rocks. The
long deep gorge of the Drin is caused by the meeting of
these two different formations; and the limestone
masses which tower above its northern side he regards as
the termination of that system of mountains which,
under the name of Carnian, Julian, Dinaric, and Turkish
Alps, runs south-eastward from the end of the main
Alpine chain. Here it is broken off and thrown up into
lofty jagged peaks, exactly in the same way as the
dolomite peaks of the southern Tyrol have been formed,
330
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
and the mountain system terminated in that direction by
volcanic upheaval.' This range, together with the other
mountains which intervene between Montenegro and the
plain of Ipek, and are separated by the latter from
the Schar-dagh, form the Bertiscus of Strabo, and by
¹ Grisebach, 'Reise durch Rumelien,' ii. 341, 342, 351, 352.
2
2 In a passage which has caused great confusion—though rather, perhaps,
from error in its interpretation, than actual mistake on the part of the
author-he says:
Macedonia is bounded on the north by what may be
conceived of as a straight line formed by Mounts Bertiscus, Scardus,
Orbelus, Rhodope, and Hæmus; for these mountains, commencing from
the Adriatic, reach in a straight line as far as the Euxine ['H Makedovía
περιορίζεται—ἐκ βοῤῥᾶ τῇ νοουμένῃ εὐθεία γραμμῇ τῇ διὰ Βερτίσκου ὄρους καὶ
Σκάρδου καὶ ᾿Ορβήλου καὶ Ῥοδόπης καὶ Αἵμου· τὰ γὰρ ὄρη ταῦτα, ἀρχόμενα
ἀπὸ τοῦ ᾿Αδρίου, διήκει κατὰ εὐθεῖαν γραμμὴν ἕως τοῦ Εὐξείνου.”—Strabo,
vii. fragm. 10]. It must always be remembered that this passage, though
valuable as giving us the names of the mountain ranges that form this
chain, is from the epitomizer of Strabo, and not directly from the author
himself; it ought not, therefore, to be interpreted independently of a
passage in the text of Strabo bearing on the same point, in which the
statement about the "straight line” is given in a much more qualified
manner :—“The mountains of Illyricum, Pæonia, and Thrace, are, in a
certain way, parallel to the Ister, forming, as it were, a single line, which
reaches from the Adriatic as far as the Pontus [Τρόπον γάρ τινα τῷ Ιστρῳ
παράλληλά ἐστι τά τε Ιλλυρικὰ καὶ τὰ Παιονικὰ καὶ τὰ Θράκια ὄρη, μίαν πως
γραμμὴν ἀποτελοῦντα, διήκουσαν ἀπὸ τοῦ ᾿Αδρίου μέχρι πρὸς τὸν Πόντον.”.
Strabo, vii. 5, § 1]. From these passages it was long supposed—and until
lately the error was introduced into all modern maps of Turkey—that the
country between the Danube and the Ægean was divided in the middle by
a lofty range of mountains, which formed a continuation of the main chain
of the Alps as far as the Euxine, and that the Scardus in particular formed
part of this transverse range, and ran from west to east. Now, however, it
is known that along one important portion of this supposed line, namely, to
the south-east of Servia, the hills do not rise to any considerable elevation.
To persons ignorant of the interior of the country the mistake was perfectly
natural, for the "straight line" of Strabo is apt to mislead; and it does not at
once approve itself to our minds that a chain running directly north and south
should form part of a series of mountain ranges whose course is from west to
east. Such, however, is in fact the case. The Bertiscus, with which the
line commences towards the Adriatic, can be none other than the chain
which lies before us in this view, reaching to the north of Ipek and the
sources of the White Drin; but here the direction changes, and the next
link is formed by the Schar-dagh, which, as its name would lead us to
CHAP. XV.
Mirdite Shepherds' Encampment.
331
that name, as they have no distinctive modern appella-
tion, we will in future call them.
Our resting-place was a rude hut, whose roof and
sides were constructed of boards roughly put together,
through the interstices of which the smoke from the fire
escaped. This was divided by a partition into two
rooms, one of which served for a dairy and nursery, and
for the women's apartments generally, while the other, a
corner of which was given up to us, was appropriated to
the men.
Outside these was a kind of summer-house,
roofed with branches and dead leaves, as a shelter from
the sun; near this a number of calves were tethered;
and all around extended a large enclosure, within which
at nightfall the goats were driven, and milked and
folded. While we were making our supper off the
remains of the lamb which we had brought with us,
the shepherds crowded round the wood fire which was
lighted in the middle of the room to see us eating, which
gave me the opportunity of observing that most of them
had blue eyes. When we had finished they took up the
transparent shoulder-blade and divined through it. This
is done by observing the light and dark spots, which
respectively denote good and bad fortune: a groove on
the outer edge of one side is said to denote the death of
the owner of the animal. I had often heard of this
suppose, is the ancient Scardus, and stretches first to the south-west as far
as a point some way to the south of Prisrend, and then directly southwards.
to the plain of Monastir. This, again, is connected by the Nidjé and other
mountains north of the lake of Ostrovo, and afterwards by those that form
the Stena, or Iron Gate of the Vardar, with the Perim-dagh, or Orbelus,
between Seres and Philippopoli, from which the irregular line of mountains
which bore the name of Rhodope, leads in a north-easterly direction to the
Balkan. See Grisebach, 'Reise,' vol. ii. pp. 110 foll., where the whole
subject is learnedly discussed, and Colonel Leake's supposition, that the
Scardus or Scordus of the ancients represents the mountains on both sides.
of the united Drin, is completely refuted.
332
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
custom, and by several writers on Albania it has been
brought forward as a proof of the gross superstition of
the people: in the country, however, I was assured by
more than one person that it was merely a fancy or
amusement, and such it appeared to be on this occasion.
When I asked one of the fellows what he divined, he
answered, “that the Christians were stronger than the
Turks "—a tolerably safe piece of augury in the moun-
tains of the Mirdita. Still there can be no doubt that
formerly great faith was placed in omens derived from
this source, and it is probable enough that, in some parts
of the country, it is so now. In Dr. Grisebach's account
of his visit to Afsi Pasha of Uskiub, a native hereditary
governor, in 1839, he relates that he found him in great
dejection because a fortnight before he had discovered a
groove such as I have described, and believed it to
signify his impending death. Shortly after, however,
when intelligence arrived of the death of Sultan Mah-
moud, he cheered up, because he argued that, while the
sheep had belonged to himself, both he and his were
the property of the Sultan, and thus the omen had been
satisfactorily fulfilled! In this view he was confirmed
by the fact that the time of the Sultan's death closely
coincided with the day on which he had observed the
augury.
The number of the inhabitants of this rustic dwelling
amounted in all to thirty-five, but only twelve, including
ourselves, occupied our apartment. The fire was kept
up all through the night; and what with the keen moun-
tain air, the smoke, the noise made both by sleepers and
watchers, and other causes easily intelligible,³ to get to
³ We are apt to suppose that the natives of these countries are not much
annoyed by these troublesome visitors; there is, however, a modern Greek
proverb which seems to imply the contrary. It is intended to ridicule those
CHAP. XV.
Black and White Drin.
333
sleep was no easy matter. At one period of the night
there was a sudden barking of dogs, and two of the
party outside came in to fetch their guns, as if they were
going to reconnoitre; after a quarter of an hour, how-
ever, they brought them back again. The following
morning was damp and chilly, and we pursued our way
in the midst of the clouds over the mountain tops, at a
height of 5000 feet, or through the thick forests of beech
and fir which clothe their sides. The path was rendered
intricate by the tangled roots of trees and fallen trunks,
but our guide showed extraordinary sagacity and know-
ledge of the country. At last, after following a north-
easterly direction for several hours, during which all the
surrounding country was concealed from our view, we
began to descend to the valley of the Drin, at a point
just below the junction of its two branches, where its
waters are spanned by a lofty bridge. As we emerged
from the clouds we saw before us, to the east, the upland
valley of the White Drin which leads to Prisrend, while
at some distance off to the south the Black Drin escapes
from the mountains of the Dibra, as the district is called
through which it flows from the Lake of Ochrida. The
people of this district are the most famous carpenters in
Turkey, and a large number of them make annual
migrations in search of work, Notwithstanding that
we obtained from this point an extensive view over
mountains and valleys, what impressed us most was the
apparent openness of everything as compared with
who inflict on themselves a great evil in order to get rid of a small one, but,
at the same time, it implies that the lesser of the two is a very real evil. It
runs thus:-
« Διὰ τοῦτο ἔκαψα τὴν καλύβα μου,
διὰ νὰ μή με φἂν οἱ ψύλλοι.”
"I burnt down my cottage; my reason was this,
That the fleas might not eat me alive."
334
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
the narrow valleys of the Mirdita. As we descended,
the oaks, which we had not seen since leaving the valley
of the Fandi, began to reappear, and the ground was
covered with low box shrubs. The heat of the low
ground, too, soon made itself felt, in contrast to the cold
which we had experienced in the morning. Close to the
bridge is a khan, called the Kiupri Khan, or "Bridge
Hotel," where we rested in the middle of the day: the
height of this place is about 980 feet above the sea,
which shows how considerable the rapids of the river
must be in its descent through the gorge of which I have
so often spoken. Here we took leave of our friendly
Albanian, whom we with difficulty persuaded to receive
a present of money.
Once more in Turkish territory, and on the main road
between Scodra and Prisrend, we crossed the bridge,
which is supported by two high arches of unequal size,
with other smaller ones between them. It is extremely
steep, like most of the bridges of the country, and as
the stones with which they are paved are slippery, and
the parapet hardly worthy of the name, and the horses
are accustomed to mount them in zigzags, it is more
pleasant to cross on foot, even for persons accustomed to
precipitous places. This appears to be the custom
among the natives, from the mounting stones which are
placed at either end. For some distance the road follows
the water upwards, until the meeting of the two rivers
comes in view, when it cuts off the angle at which the
White Drin flows in, and after reaching that stream,
crosses its rapid torrent by a similar two-arched bridge.
Here the valley becomes narrow, and the scenery Swiss-
like and pretty, especially at a point where a tributary of
some size-the Luma-flows in, and is surmounted by
CHAP. XV.
A Nocturnal Visitor.
335
an arch of single span. The occurrence of so many
bridges within so short a space is very unusual in
Turkey, but they are rendered necessary by the amount
of traffic, for we met a surprising number of carriers
with strings of mules and horses. In most cases these
men, not being themselves the proprietors of the goods
they were carrying, did not know what their bales con-
tained; but we learned that the principal exports are
wine, wool, and resin. From this place we continued to
ascend the bank of the White Drin in the midst of fine
alders, with fertile land in the foreground, and moorland
in the distance, resembling parts of Devonshire, until,
after three hours and a half from the Kiupri Khan we
arrived at our resting-place, which was pointed out by
the unanimous consent of the persons we met as the
best on the way to Prisrend. Bad, indeed, was the best,
for it was nothing but a spacious stable, with no accom-
modation for human beings except the floor-the earth,
I mean-where they were allowed to lie à discretion.
Outside this I noticed a curious granary, in which the
heads of the maize was stored; it was circular, and
about ten feet in diameter, formed of branches plaited in
and out of upright poles, and thatched at the top with
maize stalks. During the night, while I was asleep on
the bed of hay that had been made for me in the middle
of the stable, I became aware of some movement going
on near me, and, on waking up, felt that my bed was
being gradually pulled from under me. At first I was
too sleepy to resist, but when I summoned sufficient
energy to kick out, my leg encountered the head of a
horse, who had broken loose, and having finished his own
allowance of hay, had come to poach on mine. I
believe I suffered most from the concussion, for he con-
336
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
tinued to feed on placidly until I called up Nicola with
loud shouts, and he was at length reconducted to the
manger.
The next day we continued to ascend the Drin until
it makes a bend to the north in the direction of Ipek;
here we left it, and crossed some low hills that descend
from the mountains, near which is the village of Djuri,
the first place surmounted by a minaret which we had
seen since leaving Scodra. So completely had we been
in Christian lands, and so different is the condition of
the Mirdites from that of the other Christians of Turkey!
From the foot of these hills the wide plain slopes
gradually upwards towards Prisrend, backed by the
mighty range of Scardus, which appeared close at hand
in one long line, though its summits were shrouded by
the clouds. At last the city itself became visible-
first, the castle on a buttress of Scardus, with the houses
of the Christian quarter creeping up its side; and after-
wards the wide extent of buildings which cover the lower
ground, from among which the spiry forms of twenty.
minarets rise conspicuous.
On entering we found it quite a city of waters. It is
divided in two parts by the rapid stream of the Maritza,
which, issuing from a deep gorge in the side of the
Schar-dagh, pours down through the place with a steep
descent; and the eye is refreshed by runlets of limpid
water flowing in many of the streets. When first we
reached the river after following the main street, which
runs through the heart of the town, its stream was clear
and bright, but a heavy storm of rain having fallen
shortly after our arrival, in the afternoon it was swollen.
to a violent and turbid torrent. The bridge by which it
is crossed in this part, from its arched roof and the
booths at its sides, reminded us of the Ponte Vecchio at
CHAP. XV.
Prisrend.
337
Florence, though it is entirely of wood, and on a much
smaller scale. The singularly picturesque bazaars, of
which these booths form a part, have a gay appearance,
from the bright-coloured handkerchiefs, waistcoats, and
calicoes, which are hung about them; and the effect of
this is increased by the costume of their occupants, for
the dresses at Prisrend surpass in magnificence all that
I have seen elsewhere, even in Turkey. They are of two
different sorts; the one the richest form of the Albanian
costume, the white fustanella (kilt) and white shirt, with
fez cap, gold-embroidered jacket, and broad belt, all
of crimson; while the other substitutes for the fustanella
full purple trousers reaching to the knee, with leggings
of the same colour below. To our eyes they appeared
truly superb, after having been accustomed to the simple
dress of the Mirdites. Our khan, too, which lay near
the opposite bank of the river, though not superior to
the better style of khans which are found in the large
cities of Turkey, appeared to us a luxurious abode, as it
was provided with private rooms, or dens, opening out
from the wooden gallery which runs round the whole
of the inside of the building, and lighted from it through
a grating of strong iron bars; furnished also with the
usual rush mats, and arranged so that the door may be
fastened with a padlock, which the experienced traveller
carries about with him to ensure the safety of his
property when he goes out. The scene which this place
presented at all times of the day, but especially in the
morning and evening, was one of truly Oriental somno-
lence. All about the gallery were people sitting cross-
legged on carpets, either singly or in groups, smoking
their pipes, and staring at the Frank strangers with large
eyes of languid curiosity, while the plashing fountain at
the further end of the court diffused a sense of repose
VOL. I.
Z
338
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
over the whole place. It was exactly one of those scenes
which Lewis represents so inimitably in his pictures of
Eastern life.
Shortly after our arrival we paid a visit to Nazif
Pasha, the governor of the district, to whom we had a
letter of introduction from Ismael Pasha of Scodra.
Though he bore the title of Pasha, we found that in
respect of his office he is only a Kaimakam, or governor
of the second rank, and is under the Pasha of Monastir,
to whom the authorities at Calcandele and Uskiub are
also subject. His house was on a rising ground in the
outskirts of the city, and we found him in the midst of
bricks and mortar, for he was building himself a new
and commodious Serai. He was a weak-looking young
man, and wore a blue silk overcoat trimmed with swans-
down; but he appeared to be an observer of the good
old customs, for he regaled us with chibouques of
jasmine, instead of the inexpensive and almost universal
cigarette. He spoke a few words of French, and pro-
fessed to have known that language once, but excused
himself for having forgotten it by long disuse since
leaving Constantinople. Like most Turkish officials, he
lamented the present state of things, and professed an
ardent desire for improvement, propounding at the same
time large schemes of his own, such as making the Drin
navigable by a system of locks to counteract the rapids.
When not even a carriage-road exists in the country, it may
easily be understood how little such expressions mean. “A
Turk in action," Mr. Palgrave has truly said, "has rarely
either head or heart save for his own individual rapacity
and sensuality; the same Turk in theory is a Metternich
in statesmanship, and a Wilberforce in benevolence.
Video meliora proboque; Deteriora sequor, should be the
CHAP. XV.
The Castle.
339
device of their banner; it is the sum total of their
history." 4 What traveller in Turkey has not often had
occasion to feel what these words so forcibly express! One
improvement, however, to which Nazif drew our atten-
tion,—namely, that the population under his jurisdiction
were disarmed,-if fully carried out would be a real
reform. This is the first requisite for an established
order of things in Turkey, and a sine quâ non for securing
the Christians from ill treatment; for while they are
forbidden and the Mahometans allowed to carry arms,
the necessary consequence is that the weaker party are
exposed to continual outrages. As to this district, the
Roman Catholic Archbishop afterwards told us that
it is only within the city that the system of disarming
has been carried out, and that in the neighbourhood the
insecurity is so great, as to cause large parts of the
country not to be cultivated. As he said to us, when
speaking of this very point-"The Turkish theory is
good, but nothing can be worse than their administra-
tion."
Under the guidance of one of the Pasha's attendants,
we next proceeded to visit the castle. Though it con-
tains a few Turkish soldiers, yet, like most of these old
castles, it is useless for purposes of defence, being com-
manded by a number of other heights from behind. In
one part we noticed two Venetian guns, stamped with
the lion of St. Mark, though whether they were brought
here as trophies, or whether the Venetians ever occupied
the place, we could not learn. Anyhow, considering the
difficulty of transport from the coast, it must have cost
no little trouble to bring them here. The view from this
+ Palgrave's 'Arabia,' i. 299.
Z 2
340
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
point is extensive, and extremely fine.
•
The whole city
lies extended below you, with the Maritza rushing
through it in a winding course, bordered at the sides
by willows and other trees, and spanned by half-a-dozen
bridges, one of which is of stone. About the lower part,
where the houses are larger and less closely built, the
trees are thickly clustered; and beyond this the open
country extends in a sea of green vegetation, which gives
way after a time to uncultivated land, but reappears
again in places, as the eye sweeps over the undulations.
of the vast plain that reaches as far as Ipek. The smoke
of that place may be seen at the foot of the mountains.
to the north-west, more than forty miles off. The green
appearance of everything, so striking a sight at this time
of year, was accounted for partly by the height of this
place above the sea,-1577 feet by the barometer,-and
partly by the large rainfall there had been throughout
Turkey during the previous spring. Above Ipek, and
stretching for some distance along the far horizon, are
the magnificent peaks of the Bertiscus: directly opposite
to you towards the west, rising from the right bank of
the White Drin, stands the grand conical form of
Mount Bastrik; and to the south-west, on the opposite
side of that river, just where the valley by which we had
approached begins to close in, is Mount Koraphia (called
Coridnik by Grisebach), part of a vast spur which is
thrown out from Scardus at a point south of Prisrend,
and bounds the plain in that direction. Again, as you
look backwards the deep gorge is seen, through which the
Maritza issues from the heart of Scardus, and rising from
the middle of it an isolated rock, on which stands the
castle built by the kings of Servia at the time when this
district, which is now called Old Servia, formed part
of their kingdom. At that period Prisrend was the
CHAP. XV.
Churches.
341
Servian capital. The Archbishop informed us that it is
thought this castle is on the site of the old Roman town
of Ulpiana; but this view is probably erroneous, as that
place seems to have been in the neighbourhood of the
modern Pristina, which lies between thirty and forty miles
to the north-east of Prisrend.5 It is not impossible that
Theranda, which is mentioned as being on the ancient
road running to Lissus (Alessio), from a point to the
north of Scupi (Uskiub), may have been the same as
Prisrend; and the partial similarity of name lends some
probability to the supposition. But here, as elsewhere,
the absence of Roman remains to the west of the Scardus
shows how slight a hold either the dominion or the
civilization of Rome had on these parts, and how com-
plete a barrier the mountains formed against external
influences.
As we descended from the castle, we passed through
the quarter of the Greek Christians, which is situated
on the steep hill-side. So irregularly were the houses
built in the upper part (for streets or lanes there were
none) that even our Turkish attendant had some diffi-
culty in finding a passage between them. In the midst
of this district was a small and very ancient-looking
church, built of brick, in the Byzantine style, which had
attracted our notice from the castle. The original struc-
ture was a tiny place, oblong in form, with one cupola
and no transepts; to one side of this another building of
later construction had been added on. This is called the
Church of the Agoghi, and is the only Christian church in
Prisrend, though permission has lately been given for the
erection of another and larger one in the lower town,
the walls of which are now half built; but the work has
5 For the proof of this see Leake's 'Northern Greece,' iii. 477.
342
CHAP. XV
Orosch to Prisrend.
.been stopped for want of funds. By looking through the
keyhole we could see a lamp burning before the image of
a saint sheathed in silver, but we were disappointed of
seeing the interior, as the people said the key was kept a
long way off, and showed evident disinclination to help
us in the matter, probably in consequence of our being
accompanied by a Mussulman. We then descended, and
made our way to the opposite angle of the city in the
plain, where there is another and still more interesting
church, which has been converted into a mosque. It was
formerly the cathedral. This building is also Byzantine,
having one central cupola, and four others in various
parts, and, what is very unusual in Byzantine churches, a
western tower surmounting the outer porch, or proaulion,
on the top of which again a minaret has now been built.
The architecture of the interior is extremely plain; the
nave is composed of five bays, two of which are west and
two east of the central cupola; there are aisles at the
sides, and between these and the nave are two other ex-
tremely curious narrow aisles, not more than six feet each
in width, the object of which it is difficult to conceive;
but yet they appear to have formed part of the original
structure. There are three apses at the ends of the nave
and outer aisles; and over the proaulion there are cham-
bers under the tower. The whole effect of the building
has, as usual, been spoilt by its re-arrangement as a
mosque. The guardian of the place informed us that
another Frank had visited it not more than a fortnight
before; and on further enquiry we discovered that this
was none other than the distinguished African traveller
Dr. Barth, who had left Scodra earlier than ourselves,
and after passing through the confines of Montenegro,
where he had nearly been killed in a dispute with a
native, had reached this place, and started again with the
CHAP. XV.
Visit of Dr. Barth.
343
view of exploring further south in Albania. How sad to
think that he should have escaped this danger only to be
carried off by an epidemic on his return to Germany in
the autumn! His loss will be greatly felt by those who
take an interest in the interior of Turkey, for he had
made more than one journey through parts little known,
and would probably have continued his investigations in
subsequent years. His name will frequently occur later
on in this narrative, where our route will meet that which
he took in 1862, and of which he has published an ac-
count distinguished for its almost photographic accuracy.
Our day was concluded with a visit to the Roman
Catholic Archbishop. He is a Dalmatian by birth, and
consequently, like most, if not all, the prelates in Upper
Albania, an Austrian subject: it was outside the Austrian
Consulate that we met him (for that Power is represented
even in Prisrend), and from thence he conducted us to his
house, which was hard by. This was an unpretending
structure, with a large courtyard on one side of it, the
greater part of which was used as a Christian burial-
ground. The chapel, which is the only Roman Catholic
place of worship, might be called a very apostolical upper
chamber, if it were not at the bottom of the house, and in
part underground. It is a simple room, with a very low
roof, and has been added to at different times; in conse-
quence of this, the original chapel, which contains the
altar, is in one corner of the present building. The Arch-
bishop, who is a handsome man, and young-looking for
his position, conversed with us for some time in Italian,
with a vivacity and energy truly delightful from its con-
trast with Turkish languor; while his companion, a Fran-
ciscan monk, served us with coffee and cigarettes. He
informed us that notwithstanding the importance of
Scodra and Prisrend, no regular postal communication
344
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
exists between them, and there are only occasional means
of sending letters. Speaking of the general neglect that
prevailed, and the absence of public works, such as roads
and other facilities for communication, he remarked how
little excuse there is for this, when the system of the corvée
or forced labour exists, according to which the governors
have the power of employing the people at their discretion
on government works, without being required to make
them any remuneration. The population he estimated at
fifty thousand, a number the magnitude of which surprised
me, both from the appearance of the city and the accounts
given by other travellers; but his estimate seemed to
have been carefully made, and he divided them according
to their creeds, into 8000 Mahometan families, 3000
Greek, and 150 Latin. The numerical increase cannot
be very rapid, if it is true, as he assured us, that from the
prevalence of infanticide and want of care in rearing the
children, from one-half to two-thirds of them die. Those
who belonged to the Greek Church he described as being
Bulgarians, but said that there were many Latin words
interspersed in their language, from which I should
gather that there must be a Wallach element amongst
them, and this is confirmed by their church being called
the Church of the Agoghi, as that name is applied to the
Wallachs in Albania. It will be seen from the numbers
here given that the Archbishop's own flock in Prisrend is
a small one; and when I enquired whether there were
any Roman Catholics on the other side of the Scardus
range, he answered that there were extremely few—only,
in fact, a few merchants in some of the larger towns. In
former times this would seem not to have been the case,
for originally the Archbishopric was at Uskiub, and it
was afterwards transferred to this place. He spoke
warmly of the persecutions and indignities to which the
CHAP. XV.
The Concealed Christians.
345
Christians in these parts were exposed, and this applied
to the Greeks as well as the Latins. Until a very few
years ago, the Turks from a neighbouring slaughter-house
used to fling all their offal into the burial-ground attached
to the Archbishop's residence; which insulting practice
was not put a stop to until M. Hecquard visited the
place as Consul, and obtained leave from the governor
that a high wall might be built round the enclosure.
Numbers of the Mahometans, he said, both here and in
the neighbouring districts, are in reality Christians, only
from fear of persecution they profess the dominant creed:
they observe the fasts of the Church and the Sunday, but
this is done in secret, while in public they appear as Ma-
hometans, and worship in the mosques. In the country
they are known by the name of Lavamani, and we had
already heard them spoken of both in Montenegro and
at Orosch.
The origin of these people is a remarkable one, and
would form an interesting episode in a history of perse-
cutions. Like the Jews in Spain, they are an instance of
the way in which ill-treatment may produce outward con-
formity, and even to some extent acquiescence in a new
creed, while at the same time the old belief has never
been extinguished, but continues to reassert itself in a
variety of ways. Thus it is, for instance, that the Maho-
metans of Scodra, and in other parts of Albania, observe
the festival of St. Nicolas. In that case, indeed, nothing
more of Christianity seems to remain than traditional
customs, though in all probability there is enough of as-
sociation underlying them to be easily rekindled and
fanned into a flame. But those of whom I am now
speaking have a great deal more than this, and some of
them have gone so far as to throw off the mask, and avow
their real belief in the face of persecution. This will
346
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
appear from the following notice, which I have borrowed
from M. Hecquard's volume :—
6
"The origin of the concealed Christians is believed to date from
the time when Servia was occupied by the Turks, but their numbers
were increased at a later period. When, after a series of victories, the
Imperialists had gained possession of Belgrade, the Albanian Catholics,
encouraged by the promises of General Piccolomini, who held out to
them a prospect of independence, rose in insurrection and joined the
Austrian side. These latter, having shortly after made peace with
Turkey, forgot their allies, and made no stipulations in their favour.
To escape the fearful destiny that awaited them, some families followed
the Imperial troops; while the rest saw their country invaded by the
Tartars, who burned the churches, massacred the priests that minis-
tered in them, and put to death all who dared to avow that they
professed the Christian religion. Flying from this horrible persecution,
part of the Christian families took refuge in the mountains of Monte-
negro; but when, after a short time, they were compelled to descend
to the towns to provide themselves with the necessaries of life, in
order to avoid ill-treatment they assumed Turkish names, and, without
abandoning their religion, pretended, when out of the region of their
mountains, to profess Mahometanism. Nevertheless, it was not the
whole of the compromised Christians that had been able to fly; and so,
to avoid seeing themselves plundered or massacred, or to escape being
forced to embrace Mahometanism, a great number of families, pos-
sessing lands and goods in the territory of Prisrend, in the towns or
villages of Ipek, Prisrend, Jacova, Janievo, Guilan, and Commanova,
followed the example of the new inhabitants of Montenegro. When it
could be done in secret, they used to frequent the churches and receive
the sacraments; and some among them used to have recourse to the
Catholic priests, to obtain publicly from them the last comforts of
religion.
"The Archbishops of Scopia (Uskiub), yielding to necessity, thought
themselves justified in allowing their priests to administer the sacra-
ments to the concealed Christians, and give them whatever spiritual aid
they might need. This state of things lasted till the year 1703, when
it was decided at a national council, convoked by the Archbishop
of Antivari and attended by all the bishops of Albania, that those
Christians who, while in heart they held fast to the faith of Christ,
failed, nevertheless, to confess it openly, by following the practices of
6 Hecquard, 'La Haute Albanie,' pp. 481-488.
CHAP. XV.
Their History.
347
the Turks and assuming Mahometan names, should be expelled from
communion in the sacraments.
"In confirmation of this decision, an encyclical letter of Benedict
XIV., bearing date August 1st, 1754, forbade the Albanian arch-
bishops, bishops, priests, and missionaries, to allow Catholics to take
Turkish names, either with the view of obtaining immunity from taxes,
or for any other reason. 'Let them persuade those,' the letter pro-
ceeded, 'who, after having renounced the profanities of Mahometanism,
have returned to the faith of Christ, to depart from these regions, if
they mistrust their constancy and power of endurance, and to establish
themselves in countries which are not subject to the Turks; for they
ought not to be allowed, after having been regenerated in the name of
Christ, to keep their old Turkish names; and if they have the faith at
heart, they ought not in any particular to fail in the outward pro-
fession of Catholicism.'
"From that time to the present these families, although deprived of
all spiritual help, preserved, nevertheless, the memory of the festivals,
observed the fasts, and handed down from one generation to another
the prayers of the Church, which they never fail to recite daily;
although, in order not to expose themselves to the persecutions of
the Turks, they pretend to practise their religion, and marry their
daughters or give them their own in marriage.
"The Christian priests, who are established as curés in the neigh-
bouring villages, have on several occasions endeavoured to eradicate
this abuse, and sought, as far as was compatible with their spiritual
condition, to bring them to a public confession. The most remarkable
among these was Father Antonio Marcovich. Being gifted with reso-
lution and energy, he succeeded in persuading 120 families, who com-
posed the parish of Guilan, in Montenegro, to make public renunciation
of Mahometanism, promising to endure with them all the persecutions
they would have to suffer from the Turks, and never, under any
circumstances, to desert them.
"So bold a move could not fail to have disastrous consequences for
these unhappy families. As soon as it was known, a cry of indignation rose
on all sides, and, instead of tranquillising men's minds, the Ottoman autho-
rities and Hafiz Pasha, the governor, did their best to inflame them.
"Torn from their homes, these families were brought to Scopia.
There, after having been all the way exposed to the illtreatment of
their conductors, they were thrown into dark cells, where they had to
endure the torments of hunger. But Marcovich, the priest, full of
charity and faithful to his promise, had followed them, and did every-
thing in his power to alleviate their sufferings.
348
CHAP. XV.
Orosch to Prisrend.
"Some days after, the heads of the village were brought before the
Council for examination. Without suffering themselves to be moved
by the terrible threats of the Turks, all declared that they were, and
would die, Christians. Exasperated by this constancy-which he
called obstinacy-Hafiz Pasha gave orders that the unhappy beings
should be put to the torture; but, being unable to overcome their
firmness, he condemned them to be banished to Asia Minor and
their goods confiscated. These were sold for the benefit of the public
treasury, or rather, as some assert, for that of the Pasha's private
purse.
"On this the destitution of these unhappy families, who had become
the objects of fanatical rage, is indescribable. Old men, women, and
children, made their way on foot towards their place of banishment,
joyfully enduring fatigues beyond their strength, and supported by
Marcovich, that worthy apostle of Christ, who led them to fix their
eyes on a better future and an eternal recompense for all their
sufferings.
When, however, these occurrences came to the knowledge of the
embassies of France, Austria, and England, they communicated them
to the Turkish Government, which allotted to these families a village
in the neighbourhood of Brusa, and gave them some land and the
means of cultivating it. Though apparently favoured by these conces-
sions, the sufferers had much more to undergo. In spite of the injunc-
tions of the Government, the Turkish authorities left them utterly in
want, and on one pretext or another daily overwhelmed them with ill-
treatment. An epidemic put the finishing stroke to their miseries,
and more than half of them perished. Father Marcovich, who had
been appointed their curé in their new place of abode, being unable to
remain indifferent to these sufferings, again betook himself to Con-
stantinople, where, thanks to the urgent representations of the French
and English ambassadors, he succeeded in obtaining the restoration of
these unfortunate persons to their country, at the expense of the Porte,
and the restitution of their goods.
"These orders were carried out: a steamer bore the confessors of
the faith to Salonica, from which place, with a special firman, they
were able to reach their homes. Of 120 families, amounting at the
time of their departure to more than 1000 souls, there remained only
80 persons.
“Their return was unfavourably regarded by the Turks of the
country, who were bound, according to the terms of the firman, to
restore them their property. The Christians were on the point of
perishing of hunger when in 1849 an attaché of the English embassy
CHAP. XV.
Present Condition.
349
arrived at Scopia with a new firman, and by means of the energy he
used obtained for them not only the restoration of their land, but also
freedom of religious worship. From that time they were no longer
molested.
"The example of the people of Guilan was not immediately fol-
lowed; the fear of persecution as yet acted as a check on the numerous
families who were in a similar position, and, whilst beseeching their
bishop to bring their case under the notice of the Christian Governments,
these unhappy persons still remained deprived of the means of grace.
"However, on one of the last episcopal visitations of Monseigneur
Bogdanovich (the late Archbishop), they declared to him that they
were tired of waiting; that as the bathumayoun recognised the prin-
ciple of religious liberty, they should no longer be breaking the laws of
the empire by practising their religion openly; and that in every case
they were ready to endure anything rather than remain any longer in
this vexatious situation, and run the risk of dying without the pale of
the Church.
"Monseigneur Bogdanovich, influenced by a feeling of prudence,
induced them to wait patiently till the time should come when the new
laws would be brought into force, and the local government would
have sufficient power to cause their sovereign's order to be respected.
Their archbishop, however, had considerable difficulty in persuading
them, and was reduced to great perplexity when they said to him, 'If
that time does not arrive before we are dead, will you not have to
reproach yourself with having lost our souls?'
"Is it not really time to put an end to this state of things? The
concealed Christians are known; all the Turks are aware that they are
Mahometans only in name. Would it not be better for the Ottoman
Government to take the initiative and permit them to practise their
religion openly, rather than expose itself to an immense scandal from
innumerable persecutions, which will not fail to happen shortly; for
the concealed Christians have made up their minds to declare them-
selves, come what may, and it would only require the zeal of a
missionary to renew the scenes of 1847."
197
7 Professor Ross mentions that in Cyprus there are from 2000 to 3000
concealed Christians who profess Mahometanism, but have their children
baptized. Among their neighbours they go by the nickname of "linen-
cottons" (λoßáµßakoi), or, as we might say, "linsey-woolseys" ('Insel-
reise,' iv. p. 202). Compare Hudibras :-
"A lawless linseywoolsie brother,
Half of one order, half another."
(350)
CHAPTER XVI.
PRISREND TO USKIUB.
The Scardus Pass Its Flora- View from the Summit-Calcandele -
The Khanji and the Mudir Former Condition of the Country - Here-
ditary Pashas The Tettovo Mount Liubatrin The Vardar -
Uskiub — Its History — General Geography of the Country-District
East of Scardus - District West of Scardus - The Kurschumli-khan
Ancient Clock-tower-Justinian's Aqueduct - Circassian Colony.
ON the 29th of July we left Prisrend for the pass which
here crosses the Scardus range. By this route it takes
eight hours to reach the foot of the mountains on the
opposite side at Calcandele. We heard, also, of another
route, two hours longer, and somewhat further to the
north, by which Uskiub may be reached without passing
that place, but this appears to be a difficult and unfre-
quented track, only suited to those who have special
reasons for avoiding the highway. In fact, throughout
the whole length of the Scardus chain,—from its northern
extremity, Mount Liubatrin, which overlooks the famous
plain of Cossova, and whose foot is skirted by the pass
of Katschanik, to the gorge or Klissura of the Devol,
which cuts. through the mountain mass to its very base,
thus enabling that river to flow through it from east to
west, and forming the most marked point of demarcation
between the Scardus and its southern continuation the
Pindus, there are only two passes of any importance,
namely, that which we are now about to traverse, and
that which we have already crossed to the east of
Ochrida. This fact it is most important to keep in mind
CHAP. XVI.
The Scardus Pass.
351
in studying the history of the country on either side of
these mountains, both in ancient and modern times, as it
was only by these that an army could pass from one to
the other.¹ At first the ascent is steep both through and
above the houses of the upper part of the town, until the
summit of the great buttresses is reached, which, closely
massed together and intersected by few lateral valleys,
form the supports of the central chain. Along the ridge
of these we proceeded for some distance, gradually
mounting over grassy slopes interspersed with hazel
bushes, in a direction almost due south, overlooking on
one side the vast plain of Prisrend and Ipek with its
girdle of mountains, and on the other a broad upland
valley, sloping away towards the stream of the Maritza,
which appeared at some distance to the left. Beyond
this rose the highest summits-finely formed peaks, and
generally clothed to the top with grass. Along the
sides of the valley a few villages were visible, and culti-
vation extended in patches for a considerable distance
along our track, but ceased when we began to ascend the
steeper parts of the mountain: these were clothed here
and there with beech forests-the only trees which grow
in these upper regions-reaching upwards as high as
5200 feet above the sea. A small stone-built khan was
the only habitation above this altitude, and with the
exception of the khanji, the only other human beings
that we saw before reaching the summit were some
Wallach shepherds-Black Wallachs, as they are called,
probably from the colour of their tents, to distinguish
them from those who dwell in the towns.2 These
1 See Grote's 'History of Greece,' iv. 2, 3.
2 In a wider sense the name Black Wallach has been used from time
immemorial as a distinctive appellation of the Wallachians of Dacia, or
those living north of the Danube.
352
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
families are completely nomad, having no settled habi-
tation, and remaining in these mountain pastures during
the summer months, until the snows drive them down
towards the plains. As it was we passed several patches
of snow, and saw a considerable quantity on the slopes
of the higher summits. The flowers were magnificent
during the last thousand feet of the ascent; indeed no
alpine or sub-alpine flora that I have ever seen could at
all compare with them, either for variety of species, or
abundance of plants, or luxuriance of growth. Con-
spicuous among these were Saxifraga rotundifolia,
Dianthus deltoides, Viola tricolor, Cerastium latifolium,
Campanula patula, Geum montanum, Potentilla aurea,
Ranunculus Villarsii, Thymus serpyllum, and, above all,
the brilliant Geum coccineum and the deep-pink clusters
of the Erica spiculifolia.
In
When we reached the col, which was 7460 feet³ above
the sea, a fine view disclosed itself towards the east.
front was a long deep valley, narrow and closely hemmed
in by the mountains, at the end of which, where it opens
out into a plain, lies the town of Calcandele, with its
castle rising above it on one of the lower buttresses.
Beyond the plain three mountain chains appeared, the
highest and most distant of which was the Kara-dagh or
Black Mountain; on the near side of this, though not
visible from this point, the city of Uskiub is situated.
Further south than these rises a lofty distant peak,
perhaps the Musdatsch, one of the principal summits of
the Babuna range. On our left, to the north of the
nearer valley, a sharp yet grassy height stood up con-
p.
3 Boué gives the height as 6380 French feet ('Recueil d'Itinéraires,' i.
313). My own measurements were taken by the aneroid, corrected by the
thermometer.
CHAP. XVI.
View from the Summit.
353
spicuous; but what most attracted the eye in the whole
scene was the line of noble peaks which bounded this
valley on the south-called Zaribaschina in Kiepert's
map-the loftiest of which, standing like a keystone at
the point where this offset meets the main chain of the
Scardus, rises far above the others. Though the Liu-
batrin and Kobelitza are generally considered higher,
yet in Kiepert this is given as the highest elevation in
the whole range, and certainly, when seen from the plain
of Calcandele, it has that appearance, and bears far
more snow than any other.
The descent of the pass is considerably more rapid
than the ascent, and before the valley is reached the
path, as it winds over the rocks and broken ground in
rough zigzags, is extremely steep, and would be very
difficult for any except mountain horses. At one point
we caught a view of the peak of Kobelitza between the
nearer summits; and at 5300 feet the beeches re-
appeared, 100 feet higher than we had seen them on the
other side, which may perhaps be accounted for by this
side having a more southerly aspect. Along with the
first of these there stood a solitary stunted fir, the only
one we saw on our whole route, for, as Grisebach has
observed, the class of coniferous trees is almost un-
represented on the Scardus. Shortly after reaching the
valley we crossed to the other side, along the steep
slopes of which the track is carried some distance above
the river all the way to Calcandele. The scattered
villages which appeared here and there are inhabited by
Albanians, and so in part is the plain below: there,
however, they are mixed with Bulgarians, and beyond
4
* 'Reise,' ii. 259, 334. The same writer remarks that on Mount Nidjé
the beeches cease at the height of 5544 feet-ii. 168.
VOL. I.
2 A
354
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
that no regular Albanian population is found, but only a
few scattered villages. Thus in this more northerly
district, also, as we have already seen in the neigh-
bourhood of Ochrida, the Scardus is, roughly speaking,
the line of demarcation between the two races, though
there the Bulgarians extend over it for a little distance
to the west, as here the Albanians to the east. We met
a number of the inhabitants of one of these villages
returning from Calcandele, where it had been market--
day. They were mounted on mules, and most of them,
with the true imperturbability of Mahometans—though
probably they had never seen a Frank before-hardly
lifted their eyes to look at us; but one humorous-looking
old fellow at the tail of the party turned round after we
had passed, and shouted to us in his native Albanian,
which was afterwards translated for our benefit-" What
are you come to Albania for, you Franks? To see our
country, eh? Ah! 'tis a barren country, not worth your
visiting, O Franks—a good-for-nothing country!"
Seen from above, as you descend from the termination
of the pass into its streets, Calcandele is an exquisite
place a mass of trees, principally willows and fruit
trees, from amongst which only the house-roofs and
minarets emerge, together with a picturesque clock-
tower, the upper story of which is of wood. Within, all
is decay, filth and misery, and a large part of the popu-
lation have a most unprepossessing look: it was the
only place in all Turkey where we ever had stones
thrown at us in the streets, or were called by the oppro-
brious name of Giaour. It is a very small place as
compared with Prisrend, though, like that city, it is
rendered important by its position at the exit of the
pass. The information which we received as to the num-
:
CHAP. XVI.
Calcandele.
5
355
ber of inhabitants was quite untrustworthy; but, ac-
cording to Grisebach, it counts 1500 houses. The rapid
stream which we had followed during the latter part of
our day's journey, and which is a tributary of the
Vardar, passes through the town. The khan is the
foulest place of the kind I ever saw. In the middle of
the narrow court is a large cesspool, and the two
sleeping-dens are on the ground floor and close to the
stables, the only window having iron gratings open to
the court. When we had taken up our abode in this
mansion we almost regretted that we had not instead
applied to the governor to quarter us on some family ;
a plan which many travellers in Turkey, especially
Germans, adopt, but which we had always been reluc-
tant to practise. As it was, we passed the night better
than usual.
The governor of Calcandele is a mudir, or official of
the third class, while Uskiub is under a kaimakam : both
these, as well as the kaimakam of Prisrend, are subordi-
nate to the Pasha of Monastir. We were forced to
appeal to him in the morning, for the proprietor of our
lordly residence, a Wallach, demanded double of the fair
amount for our entertainment, and, when we offered him
the usual sum, closed the gates of the khan to prevent
our departure. On our telling him that the matter must
be referred to the mudir, he assented with a readiness
that surprised us; accordingly my companion set off
with him, taking our dragoman as interpreter, while I
remained behind to guard the baggage. I was sitting on
horseback just within the gates, in the same position in
which I had been when they were slammed in our faces
5 Boué says, four or five thousand souls, of whom one-half are Christians
-i. p. 307. The height of Calcandele is 1740 feet above the sea.
2 A 2
356
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
-for, to say the truth, the resting-places within the
khan were not such as to make me wish to dismount-
and was intent on writing my journal, wholly unaware
of the presence of company, when, on my friend's return,
I looked up, and found the gates open, and in front of
me a double semicircle of crimson fez caps, covering the
heads of two rows of boys and men, who were watching
my proceedings with the greatest curiosity. As to our
suit, it had been settled without much difficulty. The
mudir required the khanji to enumerate the articles with
which he had supplied us, together with their prices.
When he had done this, and, notwithstanding a liberal
estimate in his own favour, failed to make up more than
half the sum he had demanded, he was ordered to receive
what we had offered; after which the mudir announced
his intention of putting the knave in prison. My friend,
however, interceded for him, and obtained the remission
of that part of the sentence, knowing what sort of a
place the interior of a Turkish prison is said to be.
The difference between the existing state of this part
of the country in respect of its government, and that
which Grisebach describes when he passed through it in
1839, is strikingly great, and serves to explain much
both of the former condition of many provinces of the
Turkish empire, and of the changes that have lately
taken place. In his time Uskiub and Calcandele, with
all the adjacent districts for a considerable distance,
formed a hereditary Pashalik in the hands of one great
family, the head of which, Afsi Pasha, resided at the
former place, while the dependency of Calcandele was
governed by his brother Abdurraman Pasha. Their
family had held this important position for about 200
years; and so well established was the power in their
possession, that when Afsi's predecessor succeeded to
CHAP. XVI.
Hereditary Pashas.
357
the office as a child of three years old, the administration
was carried on during his minority by his relations, and
he continued to rule from first to last during eighty years.
The nature of their relation to the Sultan was one of
practical independence, though they paid tribute and
acknowledged themselves as his vassals. At any moment,
if it suited their plans, either to promote their private
interests or to counteract what seemed an offensive move
on the part of the Porte, they were ready to rise in
revolt; and though in some similar cases the central
Government succeeded in overthrowing the power of the
local chiefs, and substituting a governor of their own, yet
after the lapse of a few months they found it politic to
reinstate them on account of the authority they exer-
cised over the population, and the powerful opposition
they were able and ready to offer. On the other hand,
if treated with favour and confidence, they were usually
ready, as we have seen in the case of the Mirdite Prince,
to assist the Sultan in his wars, and were especially
serviceable from the number of men whom their private
influence could bring into the field. This state of things,
however, which Grisebach compares to the relation of
the Princes of the Empire to the Emperor in Germany,
was feudal rather than Oriental; in fact, it was wholly
alien to the Ottoman system, in which, as in that of the
ancient Persian empire, which was in almost every point
its prototype, the central authority is in theory supreme
and absolute, and the assertion of independence by a
Satrap or Pasha an unpardonable crime. In consequence,
it is not surprising that the Turks should have taken the
first opportunity of abolishing the rule of these families,
and substituting in their place their own immediate
agents. Sultan Mahmoud, with his usual wily policy,
endeavoured to effect this, in the case of Afsi Pasha, by
358
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
offering him high office in the State with a view to
withdraw him from the scene of his hereditary influence;
but that chieftain was wary enough to refuse the bait,
and succeeded not only in excusing himself, but even in
obtaining an enlargement of his Pashalik. Ultimately,
however, the system of centralization prevailed, and
along with it the Porte has obtained a firmer hold on its
dominions, greater freedom of action, and increased
facilities for carrying out reforms if it will. To travellers
like ourselves the gain is considerable, as the authorities
are always ready to facilitate one's progress as far as
their power extends, while Grisebach seems to have had
to rely in some measure on his skill as a physician for
the favour of the native governors, and during his stay at
Calcandele describes himself as in the position of a
favoured member of the Pasha's household, who was
expected to be at any moment at his beck and call.
But to the people at large, in all probability, the change
has been decidedly for the worse. Under the former
governors, who seem on the whole to have exercised a
beneficent rule, their wants were cared for, and there
were persons on the spot to whom they could make
complaints or apply for redress: besides this, under
their influence the animosities produced by difference of
nationality and creed seem to have been softened or
forgotten. The effect of the present state of things
is the very opposite of all this, since officers appointed at
the most for a few years have no interest in the country
or acquaintance with the inhabitants, and have every
temptation to fill their own pockets by extortion and
oppression. Centralization may be highly valuable,
within certain limits, in a country whose vitality is
strong, and where the administrative power is active
and vigorous; but in an empire like Turkey, where
(CHAP. XVI.
The Tettovo.
35.9
neither of these conditions is present, the necessary
effect of it must be what we see everywhere—neglect,
.stagnation, and decay.
The Tettovo, as the district of Calcandele is called, is
a long elevated plain lying under the eastern side of
Scardus, and contrasted by its perfect level with the
undulating tableland of Ipek. It is drained by the
Vardar, which rises in the mountains at its southern end,
and after flowing through it towards the north-east, on
the opposite side to Calcandele, at last bends round in a
great arc to the city of Uskiub, from which place it
pursues its course in a south-easterly direction to the sea.
The soil is extremely rich, and produces well, notwith-
standing the bad cultivation; it has also a good fall
of water from the foot of Scardus to the river, and is
intersected by numerous streams which descend from
that range, so that it possesses every requisite for drainage
and irrigation, and with proper care would be magnifi-
cently fertile. It was now harvest-time, and we could
at once discover that we were in the midst of a Bulgarian
population, from the industry with which they were
working in the fields, especially as the men were the
principal labourers, an unusual sight to persons coming
from Albania, where such tasks are left almost entirely
to the women. Where the land was not cultivated,
large herds of cows and buffaloes were grazing; some of
these, which we counted, comprised from 150 to 200 head
of cattle. The property mostly belongs to a native Bey,
probably a member of the old ruling family; some of
these Beys, it is said, got the lands into their own pos-
session by the natives of the villages putting themselves
on various occasions under their protection for the sake
of security, on which they stipulated that they should
hand over both their property and themselves unre-
360
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
servedly to them. It took up an hour and a half to cross
the plain to the Vardar, whose waters we had not seen
since we passed its red and turbid current to the west of
Salonica on our former journey; we found it already
a muddy stream, and near the bridge by which we
crossed it, it was about 130 feet in breadth. From this
point the Scardus presents a magnificent aspect, stretching
in a long massive unbroken line until it is abruptly
terminated by the grand pyramid of the Liubatrin;
which slopes at once from its summit to the level country
towards the north-east; its form, as it would seem,
suggesting its name, which signifies in Slavonic Lovely
Thorn. Almost behind Calcandele Mount Kobelitza
was visible, another striking summit; but it is especially
noticeable in this chain, and must be taken into account
in estimating the height both of the passes and of the
summits themselves, that the elevation of the peaks is
not great in proportion to that of the range from which
they spring.
After crossing the river, our route lay eastwards along
stony valleys, which cut successively through the two low
mountain chains which we had seen from the Scardus
pass lying on the hither side of the Karadagh: we thus
cut off the chord of the arc that the Vardar is forced to
describe in order to avoid these mountains, which are
offsets from the great Babuna range which forms the
eastern boundary of the districts of Monastir and Perlepe.
In the second of these valleys lies a watershed, where
the Vläinitza rises, which joins the Vardar a little distance
above Uskiub: this we followed by a gradual descent
throughout the greater part of its course. Near the
point of junction stands a mosque, in the burial-ground
of which are pieces of white marble columns, no doubt
remains of antiquity, for hard by is seen a ruined wall,
CHAP. XVI.
Uskiub.
361
part of a building of mixed stone and brickwork, which
probably belonged to some Roman baths, or similar
structure. On the opposite side of the way some gypsies
were encamped in black tents. We then crossed two
rivers successively; first the Vardar, over which a wooden
bridge is thrown; and then the Lepenatz, which we
forded-a considerable tributary, flowing from the
northern foot of Liubatrin, and the plain of Cossova.
The towers of Uskiub had for some time been visible as
we rode along the plain; but as we approached nearer,
they were hidden by the slopes of a long spur of low
undulating ground which is thrown out by the Karadagh,
and at its extremity, where it descends steeply to the
river, bears the castle, which overlooks the fever-breeding
swamps that extend below. We crossed the level ridge
at a point behind the castle hill, and shortly afterwards
entered the upper part of the city.
The original name of this place was Scupi, but, in
accordance with the practice so common among the
Greeks of adapting an old name to a new meaning, it
was altered by the Byzantines to Scopia, or "the look-
out place," which is the name still in use among the
Christians; this was corrupted by the Turks to Uskiub.
Its later name was happily given, as it explains the
secret of the importance attached to it in all times. It
was the watch-tower that commanded the passes of the
Scardus, through which the barbarian tribes descended
to the more level and fertile lands of Macedonia, while
at the same time it dominated the great artery of com-
munication with the country nearer the sea. In Roman
times it formed a central station on the great road which
led from Thessalonica to the Danube. Under its walls
Samuel, the Bulgarian monarch, was defeated with great
loss by the emperor Basil. At a later period it was
362
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
taken from Michael Palæologus by the king of the
Servians, who made it for a time his place of residence.
Finally, the city was captured by the Turks; and Sultan
Bajazet, seeing the importance of the position, brought
thither a number of Turkish families both from Europe
and Asia, and planted them there as a colony. "This
he did," says Chalcocondylas, "that he might have a
starting-point from which to ravage Illyria." From the
Turks the place received the name of "The Bride of
Rumeli."
As we have now passed out of the mountain system
connected with the Scardus and the highlands of Albania,
and from this point almost until we reach Salonica shall
be descending the valley of the Vardar, it may be well
here to take a retrospective glance over the part of Turkey
we have traversed in this and our former journey, in
order to get a clearer idea of its somewhat intricate
geography. The course which we have followed in our
route from the Adriatic has lain throughout at some
little distance south of the great watershed of European
Turkey, which is formed by the northern heights of the
mountains of Montenegro and the Bertiscus, by the plain
of Cossova, and after that by a succession of low hills,
following a direction generally north-eastwards until they
reach the Balkan. To the northward of these all the
rivers flow towards the Danube; to the southward
they find their way on the one hand into the Adriatic, on
the other into the Ægean. Nearly at right angles to this
line runs the great central chain of Scardus, the back-
bone of the western and more mountainous half of the
country, rising at its northernmost extremity to almost
its greatest elevation in Mount Liubatrin, and stretching
6 'De rebus Turcicis,' p. 31.
CHAP. XVI.
Country East of Scardus.
363
first to the south-west, and afterwards directly south,
until it is terminated by the Clissura of the Devol some
distance beyond Ochrida. Here commences its con-
tinuation, the Pindus, which runs in a lofty and well-
defined range between Albania on the one side, and
western Macedonia and Thessaly on the other, until it
reaches the lofty peak of Veluki (Tymphrestus), near the
head waters of the Spercheius, at the south-west angle
of Thessaly, which forms a central point of divergence for
the mountains of Greece-for Othrys and Eta to the east,
for the mountains of Ætolia to the west, and for those
which may be regarded as the most lineal descendants of
the main chain, the successive heights of Parnassus,
Helicon, and Citharon. The ground on the two sides
of this great barrier is wholly different in its formation.
That to the west is made up of a number of irregular,
deep, and for the most part narrow river-valleys, divided
from one another by rugged mountains: that to the east
of a succession of valley-plains, generally elevated them-
selves, though deeply sunk amid the rocky walls that
surround them. To take the eastern side first: the
characteristics of these valley-plains are the well-defined
basins in which they lie, their rich alluvial soil, and the
river which waters each of them respectively, and in each
case makes its exit through a narrow passage, which
is its only means of escape. Some valleys there are,
indeed, such as those which contain the lakes of Ostrovo
and Presba, which have no outlet for their waters; but
in the four great valley-plains which succeed one another
from north to south, divided by lateral spurs which run
off at intervals from the central chain, all these charac-
teristics are found. The northernmost and smallest of
these is the Tettovo, the features of which we have
already noticed, except the defile through which the
364
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
Vardar passes between the mountains on its eastern side
and the hills that descend from the foot of the Liubatrin.
At the southern extremity of this a branch detaches
itself from the Scardus, which, bending southwards, be-
comes the important chain of the Babuna, and forms the
eastern boundary of the second great valley-plain, that
of Monastir, after which it is continued southward in
other systems, such as that which runs behind Vodena,
and lastly in Mount Bermius, on the western side of the
plain of Salonica, the furthest offshoots of which
approach the landward declivities of Mount Olympus.
This second plain is enclosed on the west by another
branch, which leaves the Scardus not far above Ochrida,
and runs parallel to its parent chain, leaving room for
the valley and lake of Presba between them: its highest
summit is Mount Peristeri, behind Monastir, not far
south of which place an offshoot from it bends round
in a semicircle, bounding the southern side of the plain,
and at last throws up the lofty mass of Nidjé, which
overlooks Ostrovo. Between this mountain and the
termination of the Babuna, the river of the plain, the
Czerna, forces its way to join the Vardar. South of this
again, and close to the side of Pindus, is another ex-
tensive plain, not touched by our route, from which the
Vistritza (Haliacmon) draws its waters, and ultimately
breaks through the Bermian range behind Verria (Berr-
hoa), and flows into the Thermaic gulf. The fourth
and largest valley-plain, that of Thessaly, is divided from
this by the Cambunian chain, which connects Pindus
with Olympus, and, being similarly hemmed in by moun-
tains, emits its waters into the Ægean through the Vale
of Tempe. All these four districts may vie in fertility
with any other part of Turkey.
Turning from this to the western side, we find the
CHAP. XVI. Country West of Scardus.
365
greatest possible contrast. Extensive level plains are
here entirely wanting, for even that of Prisrend and Ipek
is hardly more than an undulating plateau; and instead
of well-defined systems of mountains, we see such con-
fused masses and irregular lines of divergence, that the
plan of the country is better traceable in the rivers.
Between Montenegro and the Bertiscus we have noticed
how the land is drained by the Moratza flowing into the
lake of Scodra, whose waters are carried into the sea by
the Boyana. Further inland, the White Drin, rising near
Ipek, and flowing southward through the plain between
Scardus and Bertiscus-and the Black Drin, which carries
off the waters of the lake of Ochrida, and in its north-
ward course separates Scardus from the mountains of
the Mirdites-combine their waters, and run westward
through the deep gorge so often mentioned to the
Adriatic, near Alessio. South of this the masses of the
Mirdite mountains and the contiguous groups of Tyrana
and Croia fill up the whole country as far as Elbassan,
where the Skumbi intersects it from near the lake of
Ochrida to the sea. Nearly parallel to this, though with
a longer course, rising on the further side of Scardus,
is the Devol, with which in the plain westward of Berat
the Usumi joins its stream, thus forming the Beratino.
Between the upper waters of these two rivers stands the
solitary mass of Mount Tomohr, which hardly shows
any sign of connection with Pindus, or any of the neigh-
bouring ranges. In this part of central Albania some small
inland plains occur, such as those of Elbassan and Berat,
but those that run in from the sea form the richest land
in all Albania, especially that of Avlona, which at an
early period attracted the notice of Greek settlers. The
hills which approach the coast at intervals in this part
are low, but immediately to the south rise suddenly
366
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
to a great height, and form the stupendous precipices of
the Acroceraunia. From this point the conformation.
of the country becomes extremely intricate, and the
most important starting-place from which to examine
its plan is the Zygos pass over Pindus, above Metzovo,
where the head-waters of the Peneius run down into the
innermost angle of the Thessalian plain. From this.
point the rivers of Albania radiate in different directions
to the north-west, the Viosa towards Tepelen and Avlona,
to the south the Arta flowing into the Ambracian Gulf,
and the Aspropotamo (Achelous), which waters Acar-
nania. Westward, in the heart of the mountains, lies the
lake of Yanina, whose waters have no visible outlet; and
from the groups of mountains in its neighbourhood, the
Kalamas descends to the sea opposite Corfu."
The city of Uskiub lies in the slope of a low valley
reaching to the river, having on one side of it the castle
hill, on the other a lower hill covered with gravestones,
of which also a vast number extend round the upper
part of the place, testifying to the large population it
must once have contained. The present inhabitants are
said to amount to about 21,000, of whom 13,000 are Ma-
hometans, 7000 Christians of the Greek Church, and 800
Jews; but there is a look of decay about the city, and
its glories are of the past. As compared with the other
cities of this part of Turkey, it has a great look of anti-
quity, which is especially apparent in the baths and
minarets. The khan in which we lodged was a fine
specimen of these old buildings-a brickwork structure,
8
7 See on this subject Grisebach, chap. xv., passim; and on the distribu-
tion of the tribes of this district in ancient times, see chap. xxv. of Grote's
"History of Greece.'
8 Hahn, 'Reise,' p. 64.
CHAP. XVI.
The Kurschumli-khan.
367
built round a spacious quadrangle, with two rows of
stone arches and pillars, one above another, supporting
its corridors and galleries. It is entered by a gateway
secured with strong iron-bound doors; in the centre
stands a large stone basin, which once contained a
fountain, and at the back of the building are excellent
stables. The whole place is massive, and very pictu-
resque. In former days, when there was an extensive
trade between Ragusa and Uskiub, it was a great resort
for Ragusan merchants, and in one place a Slavonic
name, which is thought to have belonged to one of them,
is inscribed in large red letters on the wall. From the
arched gallery of the upper story, which is reached by two
stone staircases, doors open out into square apartments,
which were occupied by these merchants; most of them
are now left to decay, but a few we found in repair, and
still tenanted. On the outside are seen the grated
windows of the upper story, together with the dome-
shaped attic roofs, covered with lead, from which it gets
its name of Kurschumli-khan, or Lead Hotel. The bridge
by which the Vardar is crossed was originally composed
of nine arches, seven of which still remain, and the piers
of two others, over which woodwork is now thrown; the
stones of which it is built are very large, and the piers
very strong to resist the force of the rushing stream. The
appearance of the workmanship, and the level roadway
which passes over it, so different from the steep ascent of
ordinary Turkish bridges, leaves little doubt that it
dates from Roman times. In the castle walls there
is also work which is evidently Roman.
In the upper part of the city there is a lofty clock-
tower, the lower part of which is of stone,-the upper, in
which the clock is contained, of wood; it is mentioned
368
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
9
by the English traveller Brown, who passed by here in
the seventeenth century, and before his time by the
Mahometan writer Hadji Khalfa, in his description of
Uskiub.10 The last-named writer speaks of the clock as
dating from the time of the "unbelievers," and as being
famed for its size and sound, so that its striking was
heard at the distance of three hours' journey from the
city. As it had not been investigated since that time, we
were anxious to know whether it still remained, and
accordingly laid siege to the tower, using a big stone in
default of a knocker, for the door was fastened, and we
could hear the keeper moving about in the upper story.
At first he pretended not to hear us, and when at last he
descended, a long palaver ensued before we were ad-
mitted; for, as he told our dragoman privately, he could
not understand why we should want to examine the
country, unless it was with the view of coming to conquer
it afterwards. When the door at last was opened, we
ascended the steep wooden staircase, which had been
rendered neither cleaner nor safer by the multitude of
pigeons that tenanted the tower, until we reached the
clock; from this to the bell, and to an opening above it,
the stairs were very rotten and rickety, but we were
rewarded for our trouble by a superb bird's-eye view
over the country, including the city itself, the river and
its plains, the Karadagh, about ten miles off to the north,
and the distant range of Scardus to the west. The bell,
which we examined, had no marks to explain its origin
or date, and the old clock has unhappily been broken
and removed (so the keeper told us), and has been
replaced by a new one.
9 'Travels,' p. 33.
10 Rumeli and Bosna,' p. 95, quoted by Hahn," 'Reise,' p. 63.
CHAP. XVI.
•
Justinian's Aqueduct.
369
Early on the morning after our arrival we visited an
aqueduct, which lies a mile and a half beyond the
northernmost extremity of the city, and is still used for
its original purpose, to bring water into the city from the
lower slopes of the Karadagh. This structure is specially
interesting, because in all probability it was erected by
the Emperor Justinian, when he adorned the city with
buildings, in commemoration of his having been born in
the immediate neighbourhood." It crosses a depression
in the ground over which the watercourse had to be
carried, and is composed-not, as Brown says, of 200
arches, nor, as Hahn computes it, of 120, but of 53
round arches supported by strong piers, over which, in
the intervals of the main arches, the masonry is pierced
by small arches mostly pointed, though some here and
there are round. In the lowest part of the depression its
height is about forty feet, and at one point in its course
it makes an angle; the material is mixed brick and
stone, rather roughly put together, except that of the
arches, which are entirely of brick; the whole structure
supports the watercourse, which is composed of stones
and rubble, and covered in at the top. The architecture
throughout is Byzantine.
As we returned, we noticed at the door of a public
building in the suburbs two armed men, who wore a
peculiar head-dress of a rough brown material, in appear-
ance something between our guards' bearskin and the
chimney-pots of the dervishes, and ornamented with a
knob at the crown. On enquiry we found they belonged
to a Circassian colony which had lately been established
in this place by the Turkish government. In doing so
11 See Appendix E, on The Birthplace of Justinian.
VOL. I.
2 B
370
CHAP. XVI.
Prisrend to Uskiub.
they have followed the example of their forefathers, for,
as I have already mentioned, when the Turks first con-
quered the city, they placed an Asiatic colony. there. By
some persons the planting of these colonies of Circas-
sians, the most fanatical of Mahometans, in the inland
districts is regarded with great suspicion, as being in-
tended as a demonstration against the Christian popu-
lation.
(371)
CHAPTER XVII.
THE VARDAR VALLEY.
'Justinian's Birthplace - Kiuprili - Unexplored Route to Salonica The
Site of Stobi — Negotin — Banja — Demirkapu or Iron Gate of the
Vardar Boats Shooting the Rapids-Traffic to Perlepe Lower
Course of the River - Ardjen Lake - Avret Hissar— Arrival at Salo-
nica - Railway Route across Turkey Lines to India- Migrations of
Labourers - Commercial Treaty with England - The Eastern Ques-
tion-Greek and Slavonic Races - Future Prospects of Turkey.
ON leaving Uskiub we rode for four hours over a long
plain which skirts the Vardar, with fine views of the
majestic Liubatrin behind us, while at one point a lofty
distant peak was seen through the nearer mountains to
the west, perhaps one of those on the hither side of the
Perim-dagh or Orbelus. A great quantity of corn is
grown in the plain; and where the land was left uncul-
tivated, large herds of cows, horses, and buffaloes, were
feeding on the rank grass. These last-named animals.
are also used here for drawing cars; and when left at
liberty may often be seen immersed in muddy pools, to
which they betake themselves as a refuge from the flies;
occasionally I have seen their whole bodies encrusted
with a coating of grey slime, bearing evident traces of
their mud bath. In one part of our route we passed a
large building, which serves as a factory or storehouse
for saltpetre, which is collected in the neighbourhood and
carried to Constantinople to be used in the manufacture
of gunpowder. At the southern end of the plain the
river makes a sudden bend and enters a narrow defile, in
which the rapids must be very considerable, to judge by
2 B 2
372
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
the difference of elevation between the level of Uskiub
and that of Kiuprili in the plain below it;¹ just at its
commencement are the villages of Taor and Bader, which
are believed to correspond to the Tauresium and Bede-
riana of ancient times.2 The former of these villages, as
having been Justinian's birthplace, was visited by Von
Hahn in the winter of 1858. He found it to be situated
on a small spur projecting towards the plain from the
rocks which form the defile, and overhanging the river;
above it rises a small plateau, well suited to be the posi-
tion of the Tetrapyrgion, or square castle, which Pro-
copius describes as having been built by Justinian; and
here, the peasants told him, in ploughing they meet with
traces of old masonry, and in one part there are remains
of a watercourse of brickwork covered in with tiles.
Above the defile the river is joined by a tributary
flowing from the east, the Egri-su, which even at this
time of year had a considerable stream; but throughout
this plain and the Tettovo we had observed, what we
before noticed on the other side of Scardus, the remark-
able freshness of all the vegetation, the explanation of
which was to be found as well in the amount of rain that
had fallen during the spring, as in the upland character
of these districts. Close to this stream we stopped
during the heat of the day at the Kaplan Khan; and on
resuming our journey left the river and made our way by
a pass in the mountains through the spur which forms
one side of the defile; from this we descended into a
lower and smaller plain, at the further end of which lies
the town of Kiuprili, or, as the Christians call it, Velesa.
The scenery of this part was extremely wild and barren ;
a small quantity of corn was grown on the nearer slopes,
¹ Uskiub is by the barometer 855 feet, Kiuprili 565 feet above the sea.
2 See Appendix E., on The Birthplace of Justinian.
CHAP. XVII.
Kiuprili.
373
but all the mountains beyond were wholly uncultivated.
Just before entering the place a single plane-tree greeted
our eyes, the first we had seen throughout the whole of
this journey, giving signs of the approach of more luxu-
riant growths and more varied foliage than those to which
we had lately been accustomed. Mulberry trees also are
grown here in considerable numbers for the sake of
the silkworms which are reared by the inhabitants, and
their produce sold to merchants, principally Italians, who
come hither to fetch it for exportation.
The appearance of Kiuprili surprised us. We had
expected to find it an insignificant place, for it is never
named among the more important cities of Turkey; but
instead of this, it presents a very imposing aspect from
its numerous well-built houses, and has an excellent
khan, which, from the blue and yellow with which its
front is decorated, is known as "the Painted Khan." We
were told that it is the first town, as you emerge from the
central part of European Turkey, where the Christians
have comparative liberty, and enjoy something like pros-
perity. During our stay we often heard Greek spoken in
the streets; and though the population is estimated at
25,000,³ only six or seven minarets were to be seen.
would almost seem as if the former greatness of Uskiub
had migrated here. Its position on sloping hills on both
sides of the Vardar, at the entrance of a narrow defile, is
extremely striking; in places the steep cliffs rise close
above it, and at one point there is a nook far up on the
hill-side to the west, in which stands a newly-built church
in a pretty position, though from being closed in by
bare rock it must have the temperature of a furnace.
The two parts of the town are united by a long wooden
1
i.e., 5000 houses, as given by Grisebach, ii. 223.
It
374
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
bridge supported on stone piers, from which its Turkish
name is derived. The Christian name of Velesa is pro-
bably a corruption of Bylazora, the name of the old
Greek town which occupied the same site; it is one of
those important positions which are naturally occupied
and defended from an early time, as it commands the
entrance of the defile, the key of the lower country, from
the north, the side from which barbarian invaders would
be most likely to come.
From Kiuprili our journey became one of exploration,
for information was wholly wanting about the lower part
of the Vardar valley, as no traveller seemed hitherto to
have taken this route. Strange though it may appear,
since this is the direct way, and presents no difficulties to
the traveller, yet the post road or track from this place
to Salonica, which was followed by Grisebach and Hahn,
makes a long détour westwards into the mountains to
Monastir, and from thence descends by Vodena to the
sea; the line of telegraph wires from Belgrade follows
the same direction. As might be expected, we had not
proceeded far from the beaten path before we found our
maps-even Kiepert's, usually so accurate quite at fault;
so that, though we had no great expectation of finding
many objects of interest, and could look forward to
increasing heat as we got further south and descended
into the plains, we had at least the satisfaction of breaking
new ground. Over this region I hope to carry my
readers somewhat rapidly, but I would advise those who
do not care for topographical details to avoid it alto-
gether.
The market of Kiuprili, which is held in an open space
close to the bridge, presented a busy scene as we passed
through it early in the morning on the 1st of August, in
order to cross to the right bank of the river.. Arrived
CHAP. XVII.
Unexplored Route.
375
there, we turned southwards through the defile, and after
passing the last houses of the city, noticed some old By-
zantine churches, now in ruins, which stand on a pro-
jecting spur beneath the lofty rocks overlooking fine
reaches of the river. Following its stream for some dis-
tance, we reached the point where a good-sized tributary,
the Babuna, flows in, descending from the mountains of
the same name; through the deep valley in which it runs.
lies the regular route to Monastir. This we crossed, and
leaving the Vardar, which here makes a bend, pursued
our course over country undulating in dull, desert-like,
stony plateaux. The only human being we saw in this
part was a shepherd-boy, playing shrilly on a curved
pipe, and followed by his flock feeding on the scant dry
herbs. At length we again descended towards the river
and more cultivated regions, where the barley had only just
been cut, and still lay out in sheaves. The maize grew
to an immense height, so high that our baggage-horse,
unable to resist the temptation, became almost invisible
in the green thicket. The river's course to our left could
be traced by a partial line of poplars and willows, and
between our track and it we passed scattered villages,
miserable hovels of unbaked brick. Throughout our ride
we passed excellent springs; but requiring shade for our
mid-day halt, we struck off a little way from our path,
and stopped at the small village of Gratschan. Both the
houses here and the neighbouring land belong to a Turk, at
whose steward's house we stopped in the middle of the
day: the fields are cultivated by Bulgarian peasants, who
have half the produce, according to the metayer system,
which is common in Turkey. They were a heavy-looking
set of people, like most of their race; but whether from
natural dulness or from oppression, or both, it would be
hard to say. The upper room, where we rested, was
376
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
open on two sides to the air; and in it were two speci-
mens of the guzla-one of the same kind as we had seen
in Montenegro, the other much smaller, and shaped like
a guitar, with several jingling wire strings: this is the
most common form of the instrument among the Bul-
garians. At the foot of the wooden staircase which led
up to this chamber outside the building, was a slice of
the capital of a marble column, which, the proprietor told
us, was brought from the neighbouring village of Czerna
Gratzko. This place is situated about two miles off, on
a hill rising above the river Czerna, the ancient Erigon,
which carries off the waters of the plain of Monastir, and
is the largest tributary of the Vardar: here it is a wide
stream, and we had to search for some time before we
could discover a safe ford. The course of this river,
which passes between Mount Nidjé and the end of the
Babuna chain, has never yet been explored, and well
deserves the attention of future travellers.
The position of Czerna Gratzko is precisely such as the
Greeks were accustomed to choose for their towns-a lower
height at the end of a range of mountains, separated by a
depression from those behind, and projecting into a plain
which it thus commands, while a river makes a bend under
its walls. The site is now occupied by a walled Bulgarian
village, the house of the chief man being placed at the
angle which overlooks the river, and supported on high
stone foundations. There can be little doubt that this
place represents the important town of Stobi, which in
Roman times was the meeting-point of four great roads;
one from the Danube by Scupi (Uskiub); another from
Serdica, near the modern Sophia, to the north-east; a
third from Heracleia (Monastir), to the south-west, thus
forming a line of connection with the Egnatian Way;
and a fourth to Thessalonica. It is mentioned in the
CHAP. XVII.
The Site of Stobi.
5
377
Tabular Itinerary¹ as being 47 Roman miles from Hera-
cleia, and 55 from Tauriana (Doiran), which is 33 from
Thessalonica: these distances, as far as we can at
present judge, agree very fairly with this position; and
still more exact is the distance of 23 Roman miles from
the Stena, or Iron Gate of the Axius, at which we arrived
on the following day. Again, as it was on the road
from Thessalonica to Scupi, we should expect it to be
near the Axius; and it is described by Livy as being a
town of Pæonia, in the district Deuriopus, which was
watered by the Erigon: the importance of this position
also at the junction of two considerable rivers is in its
favour, for the Czerna joins the Vardar less than a mile
below. That it is an ancient site is shown by the piece
of a column which had been brought from thence.
inquired for coins, but could not hear of any. After
crossing the river, we ascended the height behind the
village, which is the highest point of these hills, thinking
that possibly the city might have stood there instead of
being on the lower spur, but we found no traces of ruins ;
and I have little doubt that Czerna Gratzko itself is on
the site of Stobi.
I
The heights just mentioned belong to one of the
numerous spurs which from time to time are thrown out
towards the Vardar, in this part of our route, from the
loftier chains, which run parallel to it at a distance of
about 20 miles to the west, and from 10 to 15 to the
east: the still higher range which at intervals appeared
far away to the west was probably the Babuna. From
Czerna Gratzko we rode over a succession of low hills to
Negotin, or Tikvesh, which was to be our resting-place
for the night--a poor country-town, though far superior
4 See Leake's 'Northern Greece,' iii. 441.
5 Livy, xxxiii. 19, xxxix. 53, xlv. 29.
378
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
to all the other places between Kiuprili and Salonica: it
is divided into a Turkish and a Christian quarter, the
former of which is distinguished by its mosque, the latter
by its clock-tower. This place is situated at some dis-
tance from the river, which here makes a considerable
bend to the east; we were much puzzled in finding it, as
the two names are marked in Kiepert as representing
two separate places. To us, both in the town itself and
in the neighbouring village of Islam-Koi, the natives
declared that they were two names for the same place ;
at a khan near Marvinsta, however, a day's journey fur-
ther south, the khanji said that Tikvesh is the name of
the district, Negotin of the town; and the same account
is given by Dr. Barth, whose route through Turkey, in
1862, here cuts across ours. These conflicting statements
can only be reconciled by supposing that while the town
is called Negotin, of which there is no doubt, the name of
Tikvesh is applied both to it and to the district. Certain
it is that double names are frequently found in these
parts, both for places and features of the country; and
though in many cases this arises from the mixed Turkish
and Bulgarian population, yet apparently it does not
always proceed from this cause.
6
At half-past five the next morning we were on our
way, still keeping on the low hills, from which we occa-
sionally obtained peeps of the river, until we gradually
descended to it near the miserable village of Banja, which
lies about a mile-and-a-half above the Iron Gate. As
the city of Antigoneia, according to the Tabular Itine-
rary, was situated about half-way between Stobi and the
Stena, its remains, if any exist, ought to be found some-
where in this part of the country; however, notwith-
6 Reise durch das Innere der Europäischen Türkei,' p. 120.
CHAP. XVII.
Iron Gate of the Vardar.
379%
standing many inquiries, we could hear nothing of anti-
quities, either at Negotin or Banja, or anywhere else.
along our route, nor did we see any squared stones or
pieces of marble in the villages. Shortly before reaching
Banja there is a hill suitable for the site of a city, in a
position somewhat resembling that of Czerna Gratzko,
and commanding the entrance to the defile: this, how-
ever, is too far south for what is required, and at Banja
we were informed that there were no old walls on its
summit. Throughout this part of the country the soil is
composed of a sandy clay, which is very friable and pow-
dery, and consequently ill-suited for preserving the traces
of ancient cities. Below Banja, and just above the defile,
is a wide river-bed, in which a narrow stream of clear
water was flowing; all about its bed dwarf plane-trees
were growing, and this was the first place where we had
seen any number of them; below the defile they appear
at once to have entered on a different temperature, for
there they form the principal vegetation, and grow most
luxuriantly.
The Demirkapu, or Iron Gate of the Vardar, resembles
in its main features the more famous defile of the same
name on the Danube, being a passage between steep
walls of rock, through which the river forces its way in a
series of rapids. The first of these commences just above
the pass, and makes a sharp turn on entering it; then
succeeds a long reach of calm water, until another rapid
is formed towards its exit. On the two sides, lofty cliffs
of grey limestone patched with red rise almost precipi-
tously over the river, bearing feathery trees and shrubs
in their crevices. The path lies on the right bank; just
at its entrance, at the angle formed by the first rapid, a
Turkish guard-house is built over an archway through
which the road passes, and shortly after this, where a
380
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
large rock on your left hand lies detached from the pre-
cipices, a passage has been cut through, traces of the
work being left in the ribbed lines and grooving with
which its sides are marked. This is probably Roman
work, and we saw exactly similar marks on the rocks in
the pass of Tempe; but it may date from a still earlier
period, for this pass must always have been of import-
ance for the traffic of the country, and we know from
Thucydides that regular lines of communication existed
in this district at least as early as the Peloponnesian
war. In parts the road is supported on masonry, room
being just left for it between the cliffs and the river, over
which it hangs. The height of the precipices may be
600 or 700 feet on the left bank, and somewhat less on
the right; they are steepest in the middle of the defile,
where on the opposite side to the road they descend im-
mediately to the water; just below this, again, they are in-
tersected by a deep cleft, and at the lower end of the gorge
a lofty peak towers finely above the river. The pass is
about a quarter of a mile long, and after you have passed
the guard-house makes a curve, first to the left and then
again to the right: the river is perhaps 500 feet in width;
while we were there a fine eagle soared across and settled
on the rocks on the further side. It was an exciting
sight to see the boats which navigate this part of the
stream shooting the rapids. We had noticed some of
them at Kiuprili, from which place they start to carry
corn to Salonica for exportation, and were anxious to
know how they could make the return journey, for they
are not arranged for rowing, and simply float down the
rapid currents. We were informed that they never come.
back, but on reaching the sea are broken up and sold for
7 Thuc., ii. ro.
CHAP. XVII.
Boats Shooting the Rapids.
381
timber, while their freight is carried in boats to the city.
They resemble huge punts, being simple parallelograms
of boards constructed in the rudest way, two of which are
fastened together side by side; and when they come to
the rapids, a man is stationed at either end of both boats,
four in all, and as they are borne down through the
surging current, they all steer with paddles, which are
something between a rudder and an oar, and direct their
unwieldy vessel very cleverly.
8
Perhaps the finest view of the defile is obtained from
near its exit, where the path ascends over a rocky spur.
Here, as you look back, nothing is seen but the course of
the river, and the grand abrupt precipices which close
it in. Below this point the valley becomes more open,
but the succeeding fifteen miles of its descent are bounded
on either side by high hills; the road follows the stream,
and is shaded in places by well-grown plane-trees.
Above Banja we had met very little traffic, but here we
were passed by numbers of mules, horses, and asses, laden
with a variety of boxes and bales, and, as we advanced
further towards Salonica, the road at intervals was lined
with caravans of merchants and carriers. We found
that they were on their way to the great fair at Perlepe,
which was to take place in a fortnight's time; they turn
off from the main road near Banja by a track that leads
westward from that point through the mountains. At
the time of Dr. Barth's visit in 1862, this part of the
route seems to have been almost deserted; perhaps on
account of the robbers whom he frequently mentions as
then infesting the country. About ten miles below the
Iron Gate we crossed the river by a ferry, a short dis-
tance from which is situated the Gradet Khan, where we
8 The barometer gave 280 feet as the height of the Demirkapu above
the sea.
382
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
made our midday halt. Delightful it was to rest under
the shadow of a spreading mulberry-tree in the midst of
the tall maize, listening half-asleep to the song of the
cicala-for both we and our horses began to feel the
heat; the latter especially had a right to show signs of
fatigue towards the end of their long journey from
Scodra, and we were obliged to ride them more slowly
than heretofore. The khanji at this place, like several
others whom we met with on this road, came from
Zitza, near Yanina; a district of Albania, many of the
inhabitants of which seem to take to this occupation.
Our course on leaving the khan continued along the
river, until a considerable plain opened out to the east,
through which we made a détour to avoid a bend of the
stream. On the opposite side of this the hills again
descend to the water, while another plain opens out from
the opposite bank, and extends for some distance down
the Vardar. As we pass through these hills, we leave on
our left the village of Marvinsta, and descend to a place
called Gradiska, which lies among them, composed of
wretched Bulgarian hovels, containing a very stupid and
boorish, but not uncivil, population. Nothing can be
more striking than the entire absence of towns along this
great artery of internal communication, flowing, as it
does, through a district capable of good cultivation, and
well provided with springs of water; it can only be re-
garded as proceeding from complete neglect of the true
means of developing the resources of the country. The
river itself, which is visible from this place, is a fine sight
when it flows in one stream, but in this part it is broken
up by sand-banks, and consequently shallow: the work
of making it navigable would now be a difficult one. On
the enclosures built round the houses in the village were
CHAP. XVII. Lower Course of the River.
9
383
suspended numerous bleached skulls of horses or oxen,
as is frequently the case on hedges in Turkey: the
Greeks use these as scarecrows, but the Bulgarians are
said to regard them as signs of wealth, and of good
omen. By both these races it is probable that the power
of averting evil is attributed to them, as was the case
also among the ancient Greeks. The khanji with whom
we passed the night informed me that there were remains
of ancient walls on a height near Marvinsta, and that
coins were found there, but the peasants had no use for
them, and threw them away. This site may, perhaps,
represent Idomene, a place situated on the great northern
road between Tauriana and the Stena, which would
naturally pass by here. Colonel Leake, who did not
visit this part of the country, suggests that that place
should be looked for on the other side of the river,
because it is spoken of as being in the province of Ema-
thia, which was bounded to the eastward by the Axius; 10
on the other hand, the statement of Thucydides" that
Sitalces, King of Thrace, when invading Macedonia from
the east, descended upon the Axius at Idomene, might
seem to imply that it was situated on the left bank. It
is true that that place' is said to be only twelve Roman
miles below the Stena, and this site is considerably
further, but the numbers of the Itinerary are not very
trustworthy, and in a land where important towns seem
to have been scarce, the discovery of a city well situated
on the road, not very far from the required position, is a
presumption in its favour. Below Gradiska the rocks
have evidently been cut to make a passage for the road,
which may, perhaps, follow the ancient track. From this
9 See Wachsmuth, 'Das alte Griechenland im neuen,' p. 62.
10 Northern Greece,' iii. p. 442.
11 Thuc., ii. 95.
384
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
point the mountains on both sides of the valley retire
from the river, especially those to the east, which trend
away to a good distance; upon those on the opposite
side somewhat further down is a village which contains
a manufactory of cloth for the Turkish army. West-
ward of these mountains again, and north of Vodena, is
the district called Moglena, which is inhabited by the
Pomaks, a colony of many thousand Bulgarians, who
have turned Mahometans.
After continuing our journey the next morning for
some little way along the bank of the river, we at last
take leave of it for good, and, crossing another plain,
strike into a bare sandy table-land, on reaching the ridge
at the further end of which the scenery entirely changes
from what we have lately seen. Before us lay an alluvial
plain, at the lower-i. e., the western-end of which,
bounded by green marshes, was spread a broad expanse
of water, at least twelve miles long, at first enclosed
between the line of hills on which we were standing and
an opposite ridge of the same elevation, but afterwards
extending into the level country in the direction of the
Vardar. From the bare heights opposite there rose, at a
point directly to the south-east, a rocky hill with a cas-
tellated appearance, on which, we were told, on Easter
morning a great number of Christians assemble for ser-
vice. The summit itself, when seen near at hand, resem-
bles a huge altar, but there is no church upon it. It is
dedicated to St. Lazarus: the Turks call it Kalabak.
Through the centre of the plain a narrow river flows into
the Ardjen lake-as this piece of water is called—from
the smaller lake of Doiran, on which, at a distance of
three hours from the head of the Ardjen lake, stands the
town of Doiran, the ancient Tauriana. Both the town
and lake are hidden by intervening hills, and behind
譬
​CHAP. XVII.
The Ardjen Lake.
385
this again, to the north-east, high mountains bound the
horizon. This view impressed us all the more from being
quite unexpected, as in Kiepert's map only a small lake
is marked in the position of this fine expanse. In winter
it extends still further into the plain at its head, but at
the further extremity we could not trace any connection
between it and the Vardar. At Salonica we were told
that the water of the lake passes off by evaporation only,.
and there is no natural communication between their
waters; but that a gentleman, who possesses a farm in
that part of the country, has lately cut a dike for pur-
poses of drainage to carry some of its surplus water into
the Vardar.
As we were lying that afternoon during the over-
powering heat on the gallery of the Ardjen-khan, în the
midst of motley groups of Turkish, Bulgarian, and Alba-
nian carriers, I fancied I traced above the end of the lake
the grand form of a very dim and distant mountain. At
first I mistrusted my eyes, but when at last I had per-
suaded myself that it was no illusion, I knew that there
was but one mountain which could present such an ap-
pearance in that or in any other direction. Turning to
an old Turk who was smoking his pipe close to me, I
inquired its name; "Elymb-dagh,” he replied, giving the
Turkish form of Olympus. There was refreshment in
the very thought that, within a few days, we should be
ensconced in some cool retreat upon its umbrageous
ides! As we crossed the plain on leaving this place we
passed the stream which runs from the Doiran lake, now
a trickling rivulet, and mounted the heights on the other
side just west of the altar-formed hill, whence we obtained
views over the lower course of the Vardar, which lay
wholly in the plain. At last, after traversing some more
barren undulating ground, we descended in the evening
VOL. I.
2. C
386
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
to Avret Hissar, a Turkish village lying under a steep
height, surmounted by a medieval castle with pictu-
resque walls of defence following the lines of the cliffs.
Beyond this place another extensive plateau of sandy
moor-land intervenes before the plain of Salonica is
reached. In the midst of this lies a lake about a mile
and a half in length, without any visible escape for its
waters, from the neighbourhood of which our eyes were
at length delighted with the sight of the clear blue sea.
We wound our way down to the village of Galliko, on a
river of the same name-the ancient Echidorus an
inconsiderable stream, which might easily have been
drunk up by the army of Xerxes, as Herodotus tells us
it was.12 Not far from this we found ourselves once more
on the carriage-road which had been intended to go to
Monastir as dusty now as it had been muddy when last
we passed it—and rode along this through the parched
plain to Salonica. In the environs of the city we saw
the cypress for the first time since leaving the Adriatic.¹
13
Having thus followed the Vardar throughout the
greater part of its course, it may not be amiss for me to
say a few words about a project that has lately been
12 Herod. vii. 127.
13 The following are the distances in hours and minutes between Uskiub
and Salonica. The hour may be reckoned as from 3 to 3 miles. The
general direction all through was rather S. of S.S.E. :-
Uskiub
Kaplan-khan
Kiuprili
Gratschan
..
Ford of Czerna
Negotin
Banja
Demir Kapu
Ferry
:
:
:
:
:
HRS. MIN.
++
Gradet-khan
4 5
Gradiska..
4 40
Kumlu-koi
4
40
Ardjen-khan
35
45
20
32 |
2
ΙΟ
Avret Hissar
Lake
Khan Galliko..
Salonica ..
.
:
:
:
|~~~~~
HRS.
MIN.
20
3
IO
2 30
2
15
2
45
2
15
IO
O
2 2
:
CHAP. XVII. Railway Route across Turkey.
387
suggested, of connecting the Danube with the Ægean
by a line of railway. It was with the express object
of discovering the practicability of this, with a view to
making the line of communication between England and
India pass through the Austrian dominions, that Von
Hahn undertook his journey across Turkey in the winter
of 1858, starting from Belgrade and following the stream
of the Morava, which flows into the Danube at no great
distance below that city, up to its head-waters, from
whence he descended along the Vardar and its tributaries
as far as Kiuprili. As long as the idea prevailed that a
line of lofty mountains ran across Turkey from west to
east between the head-waters of those rivers, such a pro-
ject presented considerable difficulties; these, however,
have now disappeared, since he has shown from careful
examination of the country, not only that no such barrier
exists, but even that the tributaries of these two rivers
rise together in an elevated plain at the inconsiderable
height (according to his measurement) of 1328 (French)
feet above the sea. The line thus traversed is nearly
direct, and the country itself such as would repay opening
up, as it is one of the most favoured districts in Europe.
With regard to the further circumstances to be con-
sidered, the following remarks may be added in the
writer's own words :—“A railway from Belgrade to Salo-
nica, following the line which we have traversed, would
not have to scale a single height, as it would run along
the bed of rivers free from cataracts, and the only water-
shed which it would have to cross lies in a level depres-
sion. Consequently the only difficulties in the way of
this railway consist in the river gorges that the line has
to pass through, of which the Morava presents two,
namely, those of Stalatsch and Masuritza, the Vardar
2 C 2
!
388
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
three. The total extent of all these gorges, so far as
it was in our power approximately to estimate them,
amounts to 17 hours, consequently one-ninth of the
entire length of the line, which we computed at 156
hours. At the same time we consider ourselves justified
in the supposition that a scientific investigation would
result in showing that at least two of these gorges might
be turned."
The difficulties in the way of such a project being thus
proved to be inconsiderable, it remains to show the points
in which this route to India would be superior to any
other. In the first place, the Bay of Salonica is one of
the finest harbours in the whole of the Mediterranean;
and, in addition to this, it is certainly nearer to Alexan-
dria than any of the ports through which the traffic with
Western Europe is carried on. Thus, while Trieste is
distant 1200 miles, Genoa 1300 miles, and Marseilles
1380 miles from Alexandria, the distance from that place
to Salonica is only 670 miles.14 And if, looking to the
future, it be considered superfluous to take into account
the routes by those places as lines to India, since the
Italian route is certain ultimately to supersede them;
comparing this with our proposed line, it will be found
that the sea-passage from Alexandria to Otranto is more
than 100 miles the longer of the two, being 786 miles;
besides which there is always the possibility of the Salo-
nica line being extended further south to Porto Rafti, at
the extremity of Attica, from whence the distance is
much shorter. The journey from Vienna to Salonica,
supposing this railway to be made, is estimated at 600
miles that from London to Vienna by Cologne is 1133,
14 Hahn, 'Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik,' p. 3.
CHAP. XVII.
Migrations of Labourers.
389
but this number will be considerably reduced when the
line of communication between those places is less cir-
cuitous. This makes a total of 1733 between London
and Salonica. The distance from London to Otranto is
about 1550 miles, and this gives the Italian line a certain
advantage in respect of the land transit: but we must
always take into consideration the superiority of land
conveyance to that by sea, in respect both of speed and
safety, and the consequent advantage of the line which
has the shortest sea-passage. Again, in case of the Eu-
phrates line of railway being opened, together with one
from Belgrade to Constantinople, the latter would follow
the same course with the one now proposed as far as
Nitzch, which is one-third of the way to Salonica, while
the rest of the Salonica line would be amply employed
with the traffic from Smyrna and the Levant generally.
In this way, though we may not share the expectation of
the enthusiastic Austrian, that Vienna is destined, from
its central position in Europe, to become the chief city of
our hemisphere, yet there seems good reason for regard-
ing his suggestion as feasible, and capable of being turned
to good account.15
Let me now put together a few notes on one or two
general points to which my attention was turned during
this journey, and about some of which I obtained addi-
tional information from Mr. Wilkinson, the English
consul at Salonica, a man unusually well-informed about
the geography and ethnography of Turkey. One sub-
ject of considerable interest, about which I had made
inquiries, is the migrations of large numbers of various
races in search of employment. By these I mean not
15 See Hahn, 'Reise von Belgrad nach Salonik,' Introduction, and pp.
53, 54.
390
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
}
persons like the inhabitants of Zitza, who, as has been
mentioned, leave their homes to establish themselves at
a distance as innkeepers, in the same way as Scotch
gardeners come to England; nor yet the thoroughly
nomad tribes, like the Black Wallachs, who change their
quarters according to the season of the year and oppor-
tunities of finding pasturage; nor even bodies of men,
such as some among the Montenegrins, who go abroad
for a period of years to earn a livelihood by employment
on public works, or in any other way that presents
itself: but such as, exercising a regular trade, annually
migrate with a view of obtaining occupation, and return
to their homes at a fixed season. We have already
mentioned the inhabitants of the Dibra, the district
about the valley of the Black Drin, as being the most
famous carpenters and woodcutters in Turkey; a great
number of this tribe of Albanians emigrate for the
greater part of the year, partly to cut wood in the moun-
tains, and partly to exercise their trade as carpenters;
many of them pass by Salonica, and even travel as far as
Asia Minor, but they always return home for the
summer, where they arrive not later than the month
of May. Similarly the Bulgarians, who are the fore-
most among the agricultural races, in the harvest season
wander to distant parts of Turkey, where they are
employed as reapers, as the Irish are in England. The
Wallachians, also, who inhabit the western side of Mount
Olympus, sometimes quite desert their villages, so that
only women and children are to be found there; they
are mostly charcoal and lime burners. Again, Hahn
describes the existence of bands of wandering masons
among the Albanians, and compares them to their
possible ancestors the Pelasgi, who were employed to
CHAP. XVII.
The Commercial Treaty.
391
construct some of the great works at Athens, and to
whose handiwork are to be referred most of the ancient
massive walls of Greece and Italy.16 The employment
of particular tribes in special crafts, and the amount of
movement and communication throughout the country
which these facts imply, afford us a curious insight into
the social state of the interior of Turkey.
Another point of considerable interest was the effect
on the country of the commercial treaty with England.¹
That the system of free trade is hateful to the Turks is
evident enough, for they frustrate it wherever they have
an opportunity; and this can be done consistently with
much outward show of good-will towards it, for it is
known that when the Turkish official receives his general
order, he receives along with it his own private letter of
instructions, the tenor of which is often very different, if
not directly opposed to it. On the other hand there
can be no doubt that English manufactures have found
their way in enormous quantities into the markets of
Turkey with great advantage, of course, to the trade
of this country-while in some parts of Turkey a marked
development has taken place from the increased exports
to England. The country in the neighbourhood of
Seres, in the lower valley of the Strymon, to the north-
east of Salonica, is a striking instance of this. Until
lately the inhabitants of that district were excessively
poor, but since the growth of cotton has been attempted
there and found to succeed admirably, as it has also in
the plain of Salonica, a season of great prosperity has
set in, which has been checked, but not destroyed, by
16 Hahn, 'Reise,' p. 43.
17 The text of this will be found in Appendix IV. to Farley's 'Turkey,'
PP. 325, foll.
392
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
the discouragement arising from the sudden end of the
American war. Under these circumstances it might
seem that the treaty operated beneficially, by encou-
raging the people of Turkey in this and in other
branches of trade to employ themselves in providing us
with the raw material, while in return they receive from
us the manufactured article. But I believe the very
contrary of this to have been the case; and I have
generally found that English consuls, though naturally
disposed to support the view that was most advan-
tageous to England, are free to admit that it has seriously
damaged the country by the blow it has inflicted on
native industry. To take one instance: the Wallachs of
Vlakho-Livadi, in the district west of Olympus, used to
be great manufacturers of skutia, coarse woollen cloths
of which capotes and cloaks are made; but of late
years, owing to the influx of English goods, their occu-
pation has greatly declined. Now if this effect were
confined to a few particular cases or limited branches
of trade, it would not be worth considering, as being a
period of change which the country must sooner or later
pass through. But this is not so; and whatever exagge-
ration may have been made by foreign writers when
speaking of this subject, there can be no doubt that the
ruin has been widely spread throughout the whole of
Turkey. In a matter of this sort it should especially be
remembered, that by destroying these branches of native
industry we are most injuriously retarding the deve-
lopment of the people, independently of all questions of
material prosperity: for in the early stages of a nation's
progress towards civilization, the arts, however simple
they may be, are amongst the most important instru-
ments of its education; and to divert it from these to the
CHAP. XVII.
The Eastern Question.
393
:
production of raw material is to degrade it and check its
natural growth.
One other subject which arrests the traveller's atten-
tion in passing through this part of Turkey, and is of
great importance as bearing on the future destiny of the
country, is the mutual relations of the Christian races
within it, and their capacity for union and common
action. Speculation on the future of Turkey must
necessarily be vague, as the fairest theories may be
overthrown by an aggressive war, or premature insur-
rection, or self-seeking policy on the part of European
nations; but it is not, therefore, useless to consider what
combinations are possible, and what circumstances will
be most favourable to a satisfactory settlement of the
Eastern question. Now the Montenegrins and other
Slavonic races profess themselves willing to accept
permanently the suzerainty of the Porte, provided that
they and the other nationalities should be allowed to be
organized and to have freedom of action in accordance
with their respective institutions. These conditions, or
less than these, would satisfy the Bulgarians, whose
aspirations are as yet too feeble for them to desire more
than freedom from oppression; at present they, or at
least those of them who live near Salonica, from tradi-
tional associations still look to Russia as their protector,
and know nothing of the Serbs, or of any Slavonic
movement in Turkey by which their condition may be
ameliorated. As to the Greeks, it would have been far
better for Turkey if the frontier of the kingdom of
Greece, instead of being drawn along a line south of
Thessaly, had included that country and all the part
of Albania within the same latitude, since by that means
nearly all the Greeks and hellenized Albanians would
394
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
have been excluded from the dominions of the Sultan ;
as it is, from their tendency to insurrection and continual
aspirations after union with their independent brethren,
they are a permanent source of weakness: but anyhow,
in case of an organization of races under the Porte, they
could never effectually oppose what was acquiesced in
by the other Christians. What then is the obstacle
in the way of the realization of some such scheme? It
is clear that the present state of things cannot last for
ever even supposing that the scandals of Turkish
brutality and maladministration were to cease, yet, as it
is certainly known that the Turkish race is rapidly
decreasing, the numerical inequality between the domi-
nant and subject races, which is now sufficiently striking,
will ultimately become so flagrant as to call for inter-
ference. Why, then, cannot some compromise of this
sort be effected? The answer is, the Turks themselves
are the obstacle. Except as a dominant race they never
have existed, and never will exist, in the country. Their
political system, based as it is on the Koran, prevents
them; and the whole spirit of the people, their pride,
their intolerance, their fanatical hatred of change, is
completely alien to such an idea. They may be forced
into a condition of equality by governors from another
race being set over them, but agree to it of their own
accord they never will.
Putting aside then this solution of the difficulty, let us
see what other combinations suggest themselves. And
first, supposing the dominion of the Turks to come to an
end, what prospect is there of its place being taken by
an united Christian empire, containing within it the
present Greek kingdom?
It must be everybody's wish that a strong power
CHAP. XVII.
Greek and Slavonic Races.
395
should be established in the south-east of Europe. Its
strength would be the guarantee of its permanence, and
its security against foreign aggression. But such a
power can be formed only by the union and combined
action of the two great Christian races in Turkey, the
Greek and the Slavonic. The question then resolves
itself into this-how far can these bodies sympathize and
act together? Independently of politics, great advan-
tages would result from their forming one nation. As
M. Cyprien Robert is never tired of pointing out, the
tendency of the Slavonians, but more especially of the Bul-
garians, is naturally towards agriculture, while the Greek
race is essentially commercial, and disposed towards
business and city life; the one seems intended to be the
complement of the other: "if these two rival tendencies,"
he says,
"could combine harmoniously and act inde-
pendently, they would suffice to regenerate the East." 18
I long hoped and believed that this was possible, and
even now I could almost conceive that it might be, if a
great man were to arise for the work at the time of need,
combining in himself extensive political views, unselfish
aims, and a strong hand in administration—a man like
Leopold of Belgium, though somewhat superior in every
way. But such a contingency is too improbable to enter
into our calculation, and without a Deus ex machinâ I
do not think the problem can be solved. The Bulgarians,
indeed, if left to themselves, might for a time submit to
be governed by the Greeks; though destitute of all
sympathy with them, and thoroughly opposed to them
in character and feeling, they are profoundly impressed,
the educated, as well as the uneducated, among them,
18 Les Slaves de Turquie,' ii. 230.
396
CHAP. XVII.
The Vardar Valley.
with their intellectual superiority; but their recent
movement in favour of ecclesiastical independence shows
that they will not suffer themselves ultimately to be
domineered over; and, what is more important still,
they are not the only element to be considered on their
side of the question. Behind them lie the Serbs, the
Bosniacs, the Montenegrins, and other Slavonic races,
endued with an unyielding temperament and strong
national feeling, in common with whom they are certain
to act when the time comes; and between these and the
Greeks the contrast of character seems too great for
community of action to be possible. The one are slow-
moving, doggedly determined, fierce in action, and inde-
pendent to the last degree; the others quick, subtle,
impulsive, over-reaching, and "too clever by half."
When once a conflict of interests arose, or a struggle for
influence, the difference between them would be irre-
concilable. Now when we consider that the territorial
line of demarcation between the two races, as well as the
distinction of character, is very strongly marked-Greek
communities being comparatively rare northward of
Mount Olympus and its parallel, and unmixed Slavonic
blood being uncommon south of that line the most
probable course which things will take in Turkey, if left
to themselves, seems to be the division of the peninsula
south of the Danube between these peoples, the northern
and larger half becoming a Slavonic nation, while
Thessaly and Epirus will be united to the kingdom of
Greece. If this should happen, Constantinople would
almost certainly be made a free port-as the Slaves have
no desire to possess it-and it is too important a position
to be left in the hands of any one people. The ports of
this south Slavonic state would then be Belgrade on the
CHAP. XVII. Future Prospects of Turkey.
397
Danube, Salonica on the Ægean, and Ragusa or Anti-
vari on the Adriatic. As the capital should enjoy a
central situation, and for the sake of safety should be
removed from the frontiers, historical associations as well
as advantageous position would seem to point either to
Sophia, the ancient Sardica, or to Nitzch, the former
capital of Servia.
END OF VOL. I.
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42°
19°
UNPINACO MATHIA
Clementi
Mt
M Lovchig
ONTENEGR
Cattaro
Budua
。Niegush
M.Run
Antivari
Catinje
Ricka
HUPIIMID POL
Podom
Mara
ha
Riv.
Hotti
Zabliak
41°
40°
39:
19°
pulcigo
20°
MT
B
Ipek
White
•Djakova
MS
Bastrik
Jini
Chiri Riv.
Scutari or
Scodra
Drin
j
1 m
Leschor Ale
M. Vegu
Matya R.
Tessio
St George
Gulfandi R
L.Fandi R
Orosch
R
Kavaya
Tyra
M
Pekin
Elbassan
Skum
¿Lasnja
Karabunar
R. Beriting Apsus
R.Viosa
Santo
Black
21°
22°
23°
Κατα
aradagh
Prisrend
Tet
Scardus
I
Plain of Kossovo
belitza
Mt
Liubatrin
Kalkandele
Uskiub
Dibra ທ
Perlipi
Struga
Ochrida
Resna
Monastir
Peuph
TP.
Devol
Tubeli
Florina
Klisuna
Berat Antipatria
Poliora Apollonia
M
36
Tomohr
Fragola
Usumi R.
Klona
lon
Gradist
Selinitaa
Karina
Sarigol
Castoria
4Dradziates
Dukadhes
Pass
4
of Tachika
Emasa
Tepelen
madhes
Bendscha
Dryno R
Stepetzio
36
ArgyroKastro
Gar
Borbri
Deropy
R.Vios
Grevena
Palea
36
80stan
37
Delv
32
Xerovalios
Kalpala
Delvmo
37
32
Phiniki
Falls
132
Titza
Mamitas
psistá
S.Salvador
ME
Livari
Kyng
JOANNINA
32
Baldolga
signies
Ipso
Butrinto
Sayada
Salmaa
S.Decca
Philates
Ramps
Murto
Margarit
35
Parda
Paramythi
Lagura
Arta
R. Arta Aracthus
Ambraci
sno
Kaplan Khan
KIUPRILI
Gratschan
Gratak
24°
SKETCH MAP OF
THE HIGHLANDS IN
TURKEY
To illustrate MT Tozer's Travels.
N
I
A
P
Czerna
Negotin
Banja
Demirkapu
MNidje
R.Vardari
(Axins)
C
E
Gradet khan
Gradiska
Doiran
MOGLENA
Avret Hissar
Vodhena Edessa
Rw.
Bermius
48 Yenidje or
Jannitza
at
Lydias
Verria
R. Indje
Karasu
Vistritza
(Haliacmon)
nova
Leuterochori!
Kidros
Pydna
Katerina
Molyn
Malathria
nipe
Deus
Sparmes
Skamni
Boliana
Elassona
Dere
Serres
R.
25:
Karasu Nestus
Drama
Philippi
Yenidje
Ferry
Pravista
Cavalla
Neapl
Lake
Cercinites
Kamarga
Amphipols
Orphano
I.
5. Base
49
alsali
Tikale
Buyuk
Beshek
SALONICA
L-Bolbe
Galansta
Battes
46
Elerigova
Nigvoro
heodore
Polyghyro
Cardia
46
Hagios
Mama's
Pinakie?
Reveniko Gornat
Mecyberna
40 Ormylia
046
Potide
Gulf of Salonica Sinus Thermæus
Platamo
Tada!
lamyria
E
Meteora
Kalabakar Stagus
Tricala
Salamyria Peneus
Zaria。
Turnavo
Bübu
mpelakia
M
LARISSA
42
S
Ават
Aghia
Velestino
Phere
Karla
AL.
Golo 41
Peli
Pagasa
• Dan
Theba
Gulf of Volo
S.Pagasaus
Fersala
Pharsalus
43
Armyr
Dhomoko
Thaimmacio
43
44
Othr
Karpenisi
Einnea
R. Sperchins
Lutrala
Ambralaa
Bavarasaras
Nea Patra
TABLE ADA
229
21°
20°
Ander
Vonitza Nisi
12
FGeorge
(Zeitun
4
Stylidha
23°
taran
tos a
Puiaz
ene
Xerochari
Oreos
Kokinan
athos
46
(Chiliode
Ecos
G. of Contessa
nus
Strymonicus
aliandarion
Spragmani
atopeedi
Pantokrator
Skopelos
mush
Volgaro
Cassari
• Castro
buntans
Bistonis
4.2°
4.1°
t
MAthos
St George
Mourtee
LEMNOS
STALIMENE.
Alari
Sala
Condia
George
BIScyro)
Scropulos $
HONIUMBUM:
24°
25°
39°
NEW WORKS.
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March, 1869.
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With Maps and Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo.
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By DEAN STANLEY, D.D., Second Edition. 8vo. IS.
A RESIDENCE IN BULGARIA; or, Notes on the RE-
SOURCES and ADMINISTRATION of TURKEY-the CONDITION and
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1

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